JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME III, 1913

BOARD OF EDITORS

George K. Burgess Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield

BUBEAU OP STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER. WHEN MONTHLY,

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BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

office of publication

THE WAVERLY press

H 9fdl (r

A"1^

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. III. JANUARY 4, 1913 No. 1

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— A consistent theory of the

origin of the Earth's magnetic field. '^ L. A. Bauer, Department

of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Various investigations by well-known physicists have estab-

lished the fact that electricity is an essential and possibly the only

constituent of matter. Negative electrons can be obtained from

practically any form of matter, by heating, by the action of ultra-

violet light, by chemical means, and perhaps also by the apphca-

tion of suitable mechanical forces; they are thus proved to be a

universal constituent of matter. Matter electrically neutral is

supposed to contain equal amounts of positive and negative elec-

tricity. We may regard the Earth as a great reservoir of elec-

tricity, the two opposite total charges being apparently very nearly

balanced. If it turns out that owing to some cause the one kind

of elemental charge is, on the average, farther from the center of

the Earth than the opposite kind, then because of this difference

in distance and of the rotation of the charges with the Earth

there will result a magnetic field perhaps of sufficient strength, to

be detected by magnetic observations on the surface of the Earth.

Sutherland (1900-'03)2 probably first advanced the idea that

the Earth's magnetic field may be caused by the rotation with the

Earth of two opposite and equal electric charges distributed thru

the Earth and supposed to be contained within two concentric

spheres whose radii differ by an amount which he found to be of

the order of the radius of an ordinary molecule. Previously,

however, Schuster (1891 and 1892) and Lord Kelvin (1892) had

1 Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, December 7, 1912;

for fuller publication see Terrestrial Magnetism, Vol. 18, 1913.

2 Sutherland, William, Terrestrial Magnetism, first in vol. 5, 1900, p. 73, and

later, in improved form, in vol. 8, 1903, p. 49; see also same journal, vol. 9, p.

167, and 13, p 155.

1

2 BAUER : OEIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD

raised the question as to whether the magnetism of the Earth and

celestial bodies, in general, may not be connected in some manner

with the fact of their rotation.* J. J. Thomson had also pointed

out in 1894* that if atoms possess a specific attraction for the two

electricities— attracting one kind slightly more than the other —

then a large rotating body ought to produce a magnetic field.

Sutherland's hypothesis avoids the difficulties pointed out by

Rowland^ in 1879 as also some of those advanced in connection

with other theories. Unfortunately, however, it thus far admits

of no conclusive proof, chiefly for the reason that it leads to an

expression for the magnetic potential precisely the same, as far as

effects on or above the Earth's surface are concerned, whether

the magnetic field be due to an elemental magnet at the center of

the Earth, or to a uniformly magnetized sphere, or to an appro-

priate system of electric currents imbedded in the Earth, or to a

rotating electrically charged sphere such as Sutherland supposed,

or to a combination of these causes. Mathematically the mag-

netic fields ascribed to these various, distinct causes can not be

differentiated from one another.

If the supposed electrical distribution really exists within the

Earth, then it may be that, because of gravitational force, or of

some other central force, the elemental charges tend to arrange

themselves so that the "center of gravity" of one kind of elec-

trical charge is, on the average, slightly nearer the Earth's center

than that of the other kind, or, still better, so that the mean

volume density of the positive body charge is slightly different

from that of the negative. This being assumed, it seems rational

to inquire whether, during the Earth's rotation there may occur

some alteration in the mean densities of the opposite charges or

in the radial separation, or in both, to be attributed perhaps to

some action of the Earth's centrifugal force. Though the ques-

' The reader desiring to familiarize himself with the difficulties attaching to

the chief hypotheses advanced is advised to read the following suggestive papers:

Schuster, A., A critical examination of the possible causes of terrestrial magnet-

ism, Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 24: pt. Ill, p. 127; and Swann, W. F. G., The Earth's

magnetic field, Phil. Mag., 24: 80. 1912.

* Thomson, J. J., On the electricity of drops, Phil. Mag., [5], 37: 358. 1904.

" Rowland, Physical papers, p. 182, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1902.

BAUER : ORIGIN OF THE EARTh'S MAGNETIC FIELD 3

tion has been raised whether electrons can_ be acted upon by a

mechanical forCe, such as centrifugal force, it has not j^et been

experimentally settled in the laboratory, probably because of lack

of required sensibility of the instrumental appliances used, and

because of the limitations set upon the size and speed of rotation

of the body which can be experimented upon.^ Possibly in the

case of the Earth we have a body of sufficient size and angular

velocity to obtain appreciable effects.

The rotation of the supposed electric charges with the Earth, if

distributed symmetrically about the Earth's center as Sutherland

premised, will result, as already pointed out, simply in producing

the so-called ''uniform magnetic field" whose equivalent intensity

of magnetization per unit of volume is constant thruout the

Earth's interior; this, however, we know not to be the case. The

hope of revealing the cause of the Earth's magnetic field appar-

ently centers in the discovery of the cause which makes the actual

field depart from the uniform or simple type. Hence, the key-

note of our line of investigation is the study of the variations — in this

particular instance the geographical variations of the character-

istic constants defining the Earth's magnetic field.

The most important fact of terrestrial magnetism at this junc-

ture is one which I found in 1901,^ viz., that ''the value of the

magnetic moment is a maximum for the equatorial belt, and de-

creases steadily in both hemispheres with departure from the

belt." This law may be formulated mathematically thus: Let

X be the component of the Earth's total magnetic intensity

directed along a meridian, positive northward, and Z be the ver-

tical component directed positive downwards; if Dbe the magnetic

8 Cf. Nichols, E. F., Die Moglichkeit einer durch zentrifugale Beschleunigung

erzeugten elektromotorischen Kraft. Phys. Zs. 7 Jhrg. No. 18, pp. 640-642.

Lebedew, P., Ueber die magnetische Fernwirkung rotierender Korper, Ann, d.

Phys. 1912, No. 14, 840-848. (This was this brilliant investigator's last work, he

having died before the appearance of his paper. He examined whether the Earth's

total magnetic field could be referred to effects attributable to centrifugal action

and supposed that the negative electron would be the one shoved outwards by

centrifugal action. He tested the question experimentally but reached no definite

results for the reasons already stated above.)

^ Terr. Mag., 6: 22. 1901 and later investigations in same journal, 17: 85. 1912

and pp. 115-118.

BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH S MAGNETIC FIELD

declination, /, the dip, and H, the horizontal intensity, then X =

H cos D, and Z ^H tan I. Obtain X and Z with* the aid of mag-

netic charts at equidistant points along parallels of latitude, say

every 10° apart in longitude; thus there will be 36 values of X and

of Z for each parallel covered by the charts, 60 N to 60 S, from

which the average values Xa and Z^ for each parallel may be

obtained. By operating with the average values we eliminate

the portion of the Earth's magnetic field asymmetrical about the

axis of rotation and if we, furthermore, combine the values for

corresponding parallels N and S, the asymmetrical portion about

the equator is also eliminated. The values of Xa and Z^ finally

obtained apply then only to the portion of the Earth's magnetic

field symmetrical about both the axis of rotation and the equator ;

they will be found given below as derived with the aid of all

the magnetic charts at present available (Sabine's for 1840-45;

Creak's 1880, and Neumayer's 1885).

Values of the Rectangular Magnetic Components .Ya and Za and of the Charac-

teristic Functions, in C.G.S. Units, for Approximately the Year 1869.

* Obtained graphically with the aid of values 5° N and S.

t Weight |.

In whatever manner the magnetic field here considered may

have originated, we may write :

Xa =/x {u) ■ sin u Z^ = 2/^ (m) • cos u (1)

where u is the colatitude of the parallel considered and /x {u) ,

/z {u) are functions of u, termed the ''characteristic functions,"

as they contain the secrets of the origin of the field. Thus for

a simple uniform magnetic field (i.e., one for which the magnetic

BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD 5

force within the sphere is constant in amount and in direction,

parallel to axis of rotation in the present instance), /x (u) =

fz{u) = i Tfx = constant throughout the Earth, ix being the equi-

valent intensity of magnetization per unit of volume. The

observed values of the characteristic functions as derived with the

aid of (1) are given in Ihe third and fourth columns of the table.

It is seen that not only are the two functions not equal to each

other for the same parallel, but, what is more important, in both

instances the values increase systematically towards the equator.

The equivalent value of /x is found to be, in C. G. S. units, about

0.070 for parallel 60° and 0.082 for the equator, showing an

increase of about 17 per cent — certainly an appreciable quantity.

The law of increase in the values of the characteristic functions

furnishes a definite criterion for testing the validity or sufficiency

of theories of the Earth's magnetism; when applied, it is found

that none of the theories thus far advanced account for the equa-

torial increase in intensity of magnetization, some in fact giving

instead a decrease. The hypothesis that the increased magneti-

zation may be due to increased strength of that which produces

the primary field — be it increased actual magnetization or

increased strength of electric current or of rotating charges — at

once occurs to one's mind, and a first examination shows that

it is an effect similar to that probably to be expected if attribut-

able to the Earth's centrifugal force. ^

It is not possible here to give all the mathematical steps involved, •

suffice it to say that the analysis at present has been made for

possible potential systems both below and above the Earth's

surface, which by their combination may be considered to pro-

duce the magnetic field observed on the Earth's surface. Instead

of supposing a spherical distribution of the two opposite body

charges, as did Sutherland, we have taken a spheroidal distribu-

tion owing to the supposed action of the Earth's centrifugal

force. The expansion has been carried thus far to include the

fifth degree zonal harmonic. The differences between the

observed values of the rectangular components and of the

characteristic functions and the computed values, resulting from

the analysis, will be found in the above table.

8 Terr. Mag. 17: 138. 1912.

6 BAUER: ORIGIN OF THE EARTH's MAGNETIC FIELD

It is found that in order to accord with the most obvious fact

^that the north-seeking end of the magnetic needle dips in

the Northern Hemisphere — the negative elemental charges within

the Earth must, on the average, he the farther away from the Earth's

center, i.e., be distributed thru a slightly larger sphere than the

one supposed to contain the positive charges. For the portion

of the Earth's magnetic jfield supposed to arise from the rotation

with the Earth of the electric charges in the atmosphere, the

chief fact of observation is that the north-seeking end of the

magnetic needle points above the horizon in the Northern Hem-

isphere. To comply with this fact, it is found that, on the average,

the negative elemental charges in the atmosphere must also be the

farther away from the Earth's center than are the positive ones.

That the same kind of electric distribution suffices to produce

both the Earth's internal and external magnetic systems is con-

sidered one of the chief gains. Theories, heretofore, have either

stopped with a consideration of the internal system alone or

have involved contrary or independent hypotheses for both sys-

tems. Thus, if the systems are referred to electric currents for

the internal system, then the currents would have to pass around

the Earth from east to west, hence contrary to the Earth's rota-

tion, whereas, for the external system, they would have to go

from west to east, hence in the same direction as that of rotation.

Taking the average atomic weight of the Earth's substance,

in round numbers as 50, it is found that, if the radii of the two

spheres supposed initially to contain the opposite and equal body

charges of the Earth differ by only 0.4 X 10~^ cm., i.e., by about

four-tenths of the radius of an ordinary molecule, a magnetic

field of the required strength results in the manner supposed.^

The corresponding quantity for the effects ascribed in this paper

to the supposed action of the Earth's centrifugal force is on the

order of 0.01 X 10~^ cm. The present adalysis resolves the so-

called Gaussian constants, generally regarded as the elements or

ultimate constants of the Earth's magnetic field, into physically

interpretable constituents.

^ The energy necessary to remove a negative electron from an atom indicates

that the positive and negative charges are about 10~^ cm. apart in the atom and

that the molecules may be regarded as having a definite volume of radius of about

10-8 cm. H. A. Wilson: Structure of Atoms, Science, N. S. 35: 511, 1912.

burgess: a micropyrometer 7

Were there time, some further interesting deductions might

be given, as also some results of a preliminary study of the asym-

metrical portions of the Earth's magnetic field, not considered in

this paper. In conclusion, let it be emphasized that no claim

is made that the only possible mechanical description of the

phenomena has been given. It is quite possible to replace the

fundamental concept by some other; however, there still remains

to be found some adequate explanation for the disturbance

effects studied in this paper and provisionally referred to the

Earth's centrifugal action. The main purpose of the investiga-

tion is to discover a working hypothesis for guidance in the mag-

netic operations at present in progress, and to obtain clues as to

any possible additional data which may be required beyond

those usually obtained in magnetic surveys.

PHYSICS. — A micropyrometer. George K. Burgess, Bureau

of Standards.

Some time ago, a method was described^ suitable for the rapid

estimation of the melting points of minute specimens — as fine

as 0.001 mgm. or less. A microscope and an optical pyrometer

were sighted through a window of mica, or of plate glass in case

of melts in vacuo, simultaneously on an enclosed metallic strip

such as platinum, heated electrically and upon which was placed

the specimen to be melted.

Evidently this apparatus may be simplified by combining

microscope and pyrometer into a single instrument, thus permit-

ting a single observer to watch the melting and measure its tem-

perature. This is effected by mounting within the Huyghens

eye-piece of an ordinary microscope a small incandescent lamp,

which is in series with a rheostat and ammeter. The tip of the

filament of the lamp is set to the same brightness as the platinum

strip viewed from above at the instant of melting of the metallic

or other specimen on which the microscope is focussed. The eye

of the observer therefore sees the specimen, the platinum strip

and the lamp filament all in focus at once and the current thru the

1 Burgess, G. K., Melting points of the iron group elements by a new radiation

method. Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 3: 345. 1907.

8 burgess: a micropyrometer

lamp is taken as a measure of the temperature of the strip as in

the Morse or Holborn-Kurlbaum pyrometer. In practice, the

observer with one hand raises the temperature of the platinum

strip by increasing the electric current thru it by means of a fine-

step rheostat and with the other hand adjusts the rheostat in the

pyrometer circuit so as to continuously match in brightness the

lamp filament and platinum strip. The eye-piece is furnished

with a piece of monochromatic glass such as Jena red filter no.

F 4512. For temperatures above which the lamp should not be

burned, say 1400°C., an absorption glass is placed between the

microscope objective and furnace window. The inside of the

metallic container or furnace should be blackened to prevent

undesirable reflections of light from the walls.

The calibration of the pyrometer as sighted upon the platinum

strip in the furnace may be made in two ways. The first, which

was the only method available when the earlier form of this

apparatus was brought out, due to the dearth of well known

fixed points in the temperature range studied, consists in cali-

brating the pyrometer in the customary manner and then apply-

ing the corrections at the temperatures of melting, for the emis-

sivity of platinum, furnace atmosphere and window, and for the

surface tension of the melting specimens when necessary.

The second method, which appears to be the more accurate and

also more convenient, consists in observing the lamp currents at

the known melting points of two or more pure substances such

as gold, nickel, cobalt and palladium, and from the equation

expressing the relation between temperature and current in lamp,

the temperature of melting of any specimen may be computed.

For not too great teniperature intervals, the equation log c =

a -\- b log t may be used which permits calibration with two fixed

points only.

This second method of calibration has the further advantage

that, for materials of approximately the same general properties,

the error of method is eliminated. Thus in the case of metals

which alloy with platinum, the effects of alloying conductivity

and of surface tension enter into the calibration as well as into the

determination of the unknown melting point, so that any out-

burgess: a micro pyrometer y

standing error will be but a residual one. In the case of substances

of dissimilar properties such as salts and metals, this apparatus

must be used with caution, for, in general, a calibration made in

terms of the metal melting points, for example, will not serve for

the exact determination of the melting points of salts.

The precision of the method is dependent mainly upon the

character of the melting of the substances observed. With metals

such as gold and nickel, which melt very sharply, a precision of

1° or 2° C. is obtainable.

Fig. 1. A Micropyrometer

The apparatus as constructed at the Bureau of Standards,

largely from suggestions due to Messrs. Crowe and Foote of this

Bureau, is shown in figure 1 ; in which L is the pyrometer lamp, R

the monochromatic glass, A the absorption glass, P the platinum

strip carrying the specimen, C the furnace window, B an air

blast for cooling the furnace. The microscope has a Bausch and

Lomb 48 mm. single achromatic lens and 6.4 X eye-piece and gives

/

10 COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION

sufficiently good definition and magnification, and a large enough

field of view for melting point observations. The working dis-

tance of the objective may be increased, if desired, by the device

employed by Robin^ of inserting a biconcave lens at D slightly

back of the focus of the objective. This necessitates lengthening

considerably the draw tube and reduces the area sighted upon.

The micropyrometer may, of course, be used for the estimation

of temperatures of incandescent surfaces simultaneously with

their examination, and thus becomes a useful instrument in metal-

lographic and microchemical and physical investigations at high

temperatures.

The apparatus is being used at the Bureau of Standards for

the determination of melting points and emissivities of the re-

fractory elements and alloys, and the author will be glad' to

receive pure samples (a few hundredths milligram), particularly

of the rarer elements for such determinations.

PHYSICS. — The constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly

heated enclosure or so-called black body. W. W. Coblentz,

To appear in The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

In previous communications (Physical Review, 1910 and 1911)

accounts were given of the progress made in the investigation of

the constants involved in the formulas, ' proposed by Wien and

by Planck, for expressing the partition of energy in the spectrum

of a so-called black body.

In view of the fact that the great mass of theoretical specula-

tions seemed entirely out of proportion to the slender experi-

mental data upon which they were based, it seemed desirable

to obtain an extensive series of observations under all sorts of

conditions, leaving the exact computation of the results until the

very last, and then computing all the data on a uniform basis.

From the beginning of the work, four years ago, attention was

called to the fact that the Wien equation does not fit the

observed spectral energy curves, and in later communications,

the computations were made on the basis of the Planck equa-

* F. Robin, Microscope k longue portee, etc. Bull, de la Soci^te d'Encourage-

ment 118 : 204. 1912.

COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION 11

tion, introducing all the known correction factors which can

effect the observed spectral energy curves. These factors are

(1) corrections for the selective reflection of the silver mirrors,

the fluorite prism, and the fluorite window which covers the

vacuum bolometer; and (2) the corrections for the variation in

reflecting power with angle of incidence upon the silver mirrors

and upon the fluorite prism.

In the isothermal spectral energy curves the position, X^a^,, of

the maximum emission, E^^xj is computed by taking the wave-

lengths, Xi and Xo corresponding to equal emissivities Ei = Ei,

on the assumption that the observed energy curve fits the Planck

equation:

£'x = C,X-«(e-'^^-l)-^ (1)

from which follows

(2)

^ ^ a(logX2-logX:)XiX2 _ XiX2[log(l-e-'-^A^^)-log(l-e---A-^)]

a^ (X2 — Xi) log e a^ (X2 — Xi) log e

The second term in this equation can usually be abbreviated

since terms involving Xi are usually negligible. For values of

Xo which are less than about 4/x the term log (1 -e~''^^''^) may be

expanded into a series and (by dropping all terms but the first)

may be used in the form — e"'''/^'^ log e.

In this equation a = 5, a^ = 4.9651 and Co = a^'KjT. For

computing the second term correction factors to X,„, the value of

C2 = 14,500 was used. However a variation of 100 units in

C2 (e.g., C2 = 14,600) would change the mean value of Xy^ax by

only 0.0005 fx, v/hich is negligible.

For computing the constant Co from an iso hromatic energy

curve, at any wave-length, X, Planck's equation is used in the

following form :

(log^2-log^i)xrir2 _ (e-'-^A^' - e-'A^O X^i ^2 .3.

"^^ log e {T, - TO T, - Ti

where Ex and E^ refer to the emissivities corresponding to the

temperatures Ti and Ti respectively. In this equation the terms

log (1— e~"Ari^ g^g^^ were expanded into a series and only the

12 COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION

/

first term (1 —e~''''^^') log e, etc.) is used. As in equation (2) an

approximate value of Co = 14,500 is used in applying the second

term correction. For wave-lengths up to 1 /z this correction term

is small being only 2.1 and 4.3 for temperatures intervals {T^ - Ti)

of 363° and 623°, respectively, when using Tr = 1450°C. How-

ever these corrections increase very rapidly with wave-length

beyond 1 /x so that at 2 ix, with the same temperature intervals

just mentioned, the second term corrections to the values of Cz

amount to 168 and 227 respectively.

As already stated, it was deemed of greater importance to

obtain experimental data than to spend the time discussing the

bearing of the data at hand upon existing theories. From the

data now at hand, this procedure seems amply justified. More

than 180 isothermal energy curves have been obtained, and by

actual count 75 to 80 per cent of the rehable sets of these curves

are found to fit the Planck equation, within the experimental

errors of observations. The numerical values of the constajtits

are smaller than the older determinations of Paschen, and of

Lummer and Pringsheim (and, for that matter the earlier values

of the present data, obtained by a different system of computa-

tion, and not including all the correction factors for reflection).

However, as will be shown in the complete paper, the data of

previous observers are in agreement with present values, when

computed on the same basis. ^

The data now available were obtained with different fluorite

prisms, water cooled shutters, air and vacuum bolometers, and

thermocouples. The radiators were platinum-wound porcelain

1 For example, Paschen's data, if computed by the present methods would give a

value of XmT = 2912 and C2 = 14,460. The data of Lummer and Pringsheim are

wrong owing to an error in their calibration cujve which amounts to 0.02/x for the

region of the spectrum up to 2.5^. This would decrease many of their values of

Xmoj by almost 1 per cent, and reduces their mean value to \„iT = 2930. Their

energy curves did not fit the Wien equation and since in the present research,

radiators of their design were used under conditions which were similar to theirs,

it is possible to recalculate their data by the present methods of computation.

This gives a mean value of XmT = 2911 and Cs = 14,450. If we exclude their

last value of \m.T= 2814, which is evidently not comparable with the rest, their

mean value of XmT = 2924 and d = 14,500. Considered as a whole, a fair esti-

mate of the older data is C2 = 14,460 to 14,500.

COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTKAL RADIATION 13

tubes of the design used by Lummer and Pringsheim. Energy

curves were obtained from these tubes before and after they

were blackened with chromium and cobalt oxides. It was found

that the percentage of the energy curves fitting the Planck equa-

tion was greatly increased when the radiators were blackened.

There are still a few outstanding discrepancies which need further

investigation. For example, the average value of Co for a given

set of observations may be 0.2 to 0.5 per cent higher than a simi-

lar series made, under slightly different conditions, but using the

same prism, which was flawless. Usually these fluctuations coin-

cide with variations in humiditj'', but this is not sufficient to fully

explain the matter. Again, when using a fluorite prism con-

taining numerous flaws, which caused a conspicuous scattering

of light, the energy curves appear to be distorted so that only

25 to 30 per cent of them fit the Planck equation, and the value

of C2 is extraordinarily high, being of the order of C2 = 14,700.

The data obtained in 1910 and in 1911, using a flawless prism,

give an average value of Ca = 14,540. Using the same prism, in

1912, the value of the constant is slightly lower, being of the

order of C2 = 14,490. Altho this difference of 0.3 to 0.4 per

cent in the values of Ca is systematic it is within the experimental

errors of observation. It therefore appears that the weighted

value of this constant will be found to be close to Co = 14,500;

and \mT = 2920. This value of C2 = 14,500 appears to be about

1 per cent higher than the prehminary results published by

Warburg and his associates at the Reichsanstalt.

The constant, C2, is of great importance in optical pyrometry,

and heretofore owing to the absence of concordant data experi-

menters have used values ranging from C2 = 14,200 to C2 = 14,600.

The value of the melting point of platinum, on the basis of the

optical temperature scale, using C2 = 14,500, was observed by

Waidner and Burgess to be 1753°. The latest work on the gas

temperature scale by Day and Sosman, extrapolating the thermo-

electric scale from palladium, m. p. = 1549?2, gives a value of

1750° to 1755°, with a mean value of 1752°, for the melting point

of platinum. A melting point of 1755° is equivalent to a value

of Co = 14,475 which is close to the predominating values of this

14 WRIGHT: AN IMPROVED VERTICAL-ILLUMINATOR

constant as observed in the 9 sets of observations, aggregating

90 spectral energy curves which were obtained in 1912. While

it is very gratifying to find that the new value of co = 14,500

places the melting point of platinum within 1° or 2° of the ob-

served values (which are uncertain by a similar amount), this

coincidence is to be considered somewhat accidental.

Planck's theory of the mechanism involved in the production

of "black" radiation admits of the computation of the value of

the elementary electrical charge, e, by means of the constant of

spectral radiation, h, (XmT = 2920) and the constant, a, of total

radiation. The recent determinations of the constant of total

radiation, by Gerlach and by Puccianti give a value of a- = 5.9 X

10~^2 watts per cm.^ per deg.^ Combining this with the value of

h = 0.2920 cm. deg. gives a value of e = 5.1 X 10"" E. S. U.

This is considerably higher than the experimental value by Milli-

kan, which is 4.777 X lO-^^E. S. U. While the time is still pre-

mature to attempt to harmonize the experimental value and the

theoretical value as deduced from the radiation laws, it is of

importance to notice that there are wide variations in the various

determinations of the constant, a, of total radiation. In future

communications it is hoped to contribute values of a, which are

determined with some of the apparatus used in determining c?.

Heretofore, the experimental work on the spectral energy

curves was done in the winter time when the humidity was low.

The season of low humidity being close at hand, it is purposed

to observe several more series of energy curves, using other fluor-

ite prisms, before publishing a more complete report. As matters

now stand it seems highly desirable to put the complete optical

path of the spectroradiometric apparatus and of the radiator in

a vacuum in order to obtain the complete spectral energy curves

free from the atmospheric absorption bands of water vapor,

carbon dioxide, and oxygen.

METALLOGRAPHY. — An improved vertical-illuminator. Fred

Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

Of the two types of vertical-illuminators which are in current

use on the metallographic microscope, the reflecting prism type

furnishes the best illumination with low power objectives. With

WRIGHT: AN IMPROVED VERTICAL-ILLUMINATOR

15

high power objectives it is less satisfactory because the reflecting

prism cuts off half of the rays from the objective and thus seri-

ously impairs the resolving power and general efficiency of the

optical system.^ The second type of illumination with the Beck

illuminator does not suffer from this defect as the light which is

reflected from the thin glass plate passes, on its return after

reflection from the metal surface, thru the glass plate itself on its

way to the eye of the observer. The glass plate thus serves both

to reflect and to transmit the light;

the resulting intensity of illumination

is, however, noticeably less than that

obtained by the first method. For

satisfactory work the glass plate

should be plane and thin and the

source of light so arranged that none

of the rays reflected from the objec-

tive lens surfaces reach the eye of the

observer, otherwise they cast a haze

or fog over the entire field, thus re-

ducing the contrasts and flooding the

image with false light.

The device illustrated in figure 1

was constructed in the Geophysical

Laboratory five or six years ago, to

correct this defect and has been found

so satisfactory and useful in practice that it is perhaps worthy

of brief description. It enables the observer to produce an aper-

ture of any desired size in any part of the field ; he has thus con-

trol over the entire field and can eliminate any incident rays

which would otherwise disturb the kind of illumination desired.

He can moreover obtain rays of any desired obliquity of inci-

dence and thus increase or decrease the apparent relief of the

surface under observation.

The adjustable aperture is obtained by fitting to the ordinary

vertical illuminator (Bausch and Lomb type) four cylindrical

Fig. 1.

Improved vertical

illuminator

1 Carl Benedicks, Metallurgie 6: 1-4. 1904.

16 safford: a new genus of annonaceae

segments A, B, C, D (two outer segments, A, B, and two inner

segments, C, D) all of which fit into grooves cut into the support-

ing collars F, G of figure 1 and can be rotated by grasping the small

knobs and sliding each segment in its track, thus increasing or

decreasing the size of the diamond shaped aperture at 0 (fig. 1).

The ring marked E can also be rotated and a triangular aperture

obtained if desired. These segments can be made by a good

mechanic without difficulty and are so simple both in construc-

tion and manipulation that further description is unnecessary.

A movable iris diafram may also be used for the same purpose,

but it is less effective because it does not allow the observer to

change the shape as well as the position of the aperture and thus

to obtain intense illumination without, at the same time, intro-

ducing false light.

BOTANY.— Pseudannona, a new genus of Annonaceae from the

Mascarene Islands; together with notes on Artabotrys uncinatus

and its synonymy. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Among the Annonaceae of the island of Mauritius described

by Lamarck in 1786 were three species referred by him to the

genus Annona: A. grandiflora, A. amplexicaulis, and A. uncinata.^

These were afterwards figured by Dunal in his monograph of

the Annonaceae, the generic name assigned to them by Lamarck

being retained for the first two species but the last being placed

in the genus Unona, under the name U. uncinata. Dunal's

plates show at a glance that the first two plants above named,

which have separate carpels, each containing several seeds, can-

not possibly belong to the genus Annona, the fruit of which is a

syncarpium composed of a number of 1-seeded carpels fused

together in a consolidated mass; and Unona uncinata (Lamarck)

Dunal has been made the type of a new genus, Artabotrys, one

of the distinguishing characteristics of which is the peculiar hook-

like peduncles of the flower, which at length serve as a support

for the fruit.

That Lamarck's Anona grandiflora and A. amplexicaulis do

not belong to the genus to which they were assigned was recog-

1 Laml^. Encycl. Bot. 2: 126, 127. 1786.

safford: a new genus of annonaceae 17

nized by Baillon, who placed them in the genus Xylopia, in a

section by themselves, which he called Pseudanona (see Adan-

sonia 4: 142. 1864); but in studying the genus Xylopia the

present writer has become convinced that these two Mauritian

plants cannot possibly be regarded as congeneric with the West

Indian Xylopia muricata, the type of the genus as established

by Linnaeus,^ and it is therefore proposed to segregate them by

raising Baillon's section to generic rank under the name of Pseu-

dannona. The genus may be described as follows.

Pseudannona (Baillon) gen. nov.

Calyx gamosepalous, subtriangular or 3-lobed. Corolla com-

posed of 6 petals in 2 series, all of which are valvate, the outer

3 longer and broader than the inner and subspatulate in form,

the inner more or less triquetrous especially near the apex. Recep-

tacle (torus) domeshaped, with a crater-like depression at the

center from which issue the styles of the sunken ovaries. Ovaries

distinct, each terminating in a slender style which is recurved near

the extremity where it is provided with numerous stigmatic

papillae. Ovules several, biseriate, not superimposed as in the

genus Xylopia. Stamens numerous borne on the outer slope of

the torus and forming a crowded mass surrounding the central

cluster of carpels; filaments stout, bearing on their back a pair

of linear parallel pollen sacs opening extrorsely by a longitudinal

slit and surmounted by the broadened connective. Fruit a clus-

ter of distinct several-seeded carpels borne on the hardened recep-

tacle, or torus, not a syncarpium composed of many 1-seeded

carpels fused together as in the genus Annona. Climbing or

erect shrubs with solitary 1-fiowered peduncles indigenous to the

islands of Mauritius and Madagascar.

Thus far but two species can with certainty be referred to this

genus, a third species, from the forests of Mauritius is like P.

grandi flora, a climbing shrub and has been described ^s Anona

pyriformis Bojer. Tho the latter cannot possibly belong to the

genus Annona it is doubtful whether it should be assigned to

the present genus, owing to its broad inner petals which resemble

2 Linnaeus. Syst. Nat. 2: 1250, 10 ed. 1759.

18 safford: a new genus of annonaceae

the outer in form. Its generic affinities cannot be established

owing to the absence of fruit. The following are the species thus

far known belonging to the genus Pseudannona.

1. Pseudannona amplexicaulis (Lamk.) comb. nov. Type of the

genus.

Anona amplexicaulis Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 127. 1786;

Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 76, pi. 7. 1817; DC. Syst. 1:

475. 1818; Prodr. 1: 86. 1824; Bojer, Hort. Maurit. 5.

1837; Baker, Fl. Maurit & Seych. 3. 1877.

Xylopia amplexicaulis BailL, Adansonia 4: 142. 1864; Hist.

PL 1:226. 1867.

2. Pseudannona grandiflora (Lamk.) comb. nov.

Anona grandiflora Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 126. 1786; Dunal,

Monogr. Anon. 75, pi. 6 & pi. 6a. 1817; DC. Syst. 1:

475. 1818; Prodr. 1: 86. 1824; Bojer, Hort. Maurit.

5. 1837; Baker, Gl. Maurit. & Seych. 3. 1877.

Xylopia Lamarckii Bail!., Adansonia 4: 142. 1864; Hist.

PI. 1:227. 1867.

notes on artabotrys uncinatus

This plant, which is one of the sources of the perfume called

ylangylang, is of East Indian origin, but is now cultivated in

many tropical countries for the sake of its fragrant flowers. Unlike

the true ylangylang {Canangium odoratum (Lamb.) King) it is

a climbing shrub instead of a tree; the connective of its stamens

is broadly expanded instead of being produced into a long taper-

ing point; and its one-carpelled fruits contain 2 seeds each ar-

ranged side-by-side instead of several superimposed in a series.

The following is a translation of Lamarck's original description,

under the botanical name Anona uncinata, or "corossol with

hooks."

This cdVossol is remarkable for the singular hooks which the- floral

peduncles bear, and which almost resemble the stipulary spines of

Hugonia [a genus of Linaceae occurring in the tropics of the Eastern

Hemisphere, some of the species of which have hooked axillary pedun-

cles]. Its branches are woody, terete, glabrous, and somewhat zigzag

safford: a new genus of annonaceae 19

in form, bearing alternate, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate

leaves, glabrous on both sides, glossy, and short-petioled, with blades

5 to 7 inches long by almost 2 inches broad. The pedicels are one-

flowered, 6 lines long, and each borne on a special incUned hook almost

curved into a spiral, somewhat flattened, and usually opposite a leaf.

The flower is rather large and has a calyx with 3 ovate-acute divisions

much shorter than the corolJa; 6 ovate-lanceolate petals, brownish red

on the upper part, with broad claws at the base, tomentose, concave

within, and constricted between the claw and the blade. The 3 outer

petals are slightly larger than the others. The fruits [ripe carpels] are

ovoid-globose, of the size of a walnut enclosed in its hull, with the sur-

face smooth and slightl}^ punctate, and containing oblong seeds, few in

number, arranged longitudinally as in Anona grandiflora [Pseudannona

grandiflora (Lamk.) Safford].

The following is the synonymy of this species.

Artabotrys uncinata (Lamk.) comb. nov.

Ano7ia uncinatus Lamk., Encycl. Bot. 2: 127. 1786.

Unona uncinata Dunal, Monogr. Anon. 105, pi. 12, & pi.

12a. 1817; DC. syst. 1: 490. 1818; Prodr. 1: 90. 1824.

Uvaria uncata Lom-eiro, Fl. Cochinch. 1: 349. 1790; Roxb.,

Fl. Ind. 2:666. 1832.

Artabotrys odoratissimus R. Br. in Bot. Reg., pi. 423. 1819;

Hooker f. & Thonjs., Fl. Ind. 128.128. 1855; Benth., Fl.

Hongkong, 10. 1861; Hooker' f., Fl., Brit. Ind. 1: 54.

1872; Kurz, For. Fl. Bm^m. 1: 31. 31. 1877; Baker, Fl.

Maurit. & Seychelles 4. 1877; King, Anon. Brit. Ind. 44.

pi. 55. 1893.

Uvaria odoratissima Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 666. 1832.

From the above synonymy it appears that Lamarck's specific

name (uncinata) was recognized by Dunal and De Candolle. Its

original publication preceded that of Loureiro (uncata) by four

years. In establishing the genus Artabotrys the first specific

name of the type was disregarded by Mr. Brown, tho quoted by

him in his synonymy, and the manuscript name of Roxburgh

was adopted instead. According to the accepted rules of priority

the first specific name must be used, and the plant must be

designated as Artabotrys uncinatus.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Researches of the Department of Ter-

restrial Mognetis77i: Land 7nagnetic observations, 1905-1910. L. A.

Bauer, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publication No.

175. Pp. vi + 185, with 10 plates. 1912.

This publication contains the results of all magnetic observations

made on land by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism from the

beginning of its observational work in February, 1905, to the end of

1910. Descriptions of the types of instruments used are given. The

discussion of the general methods of the magnetic and astronomical

field work include, besides the general detail of selection and occupation

of stations, specimens of field records, computations, and determina-

tions of constants and corrections. Ho'^ever carefully constructed,

various instruments give results differing by small more or less constant

amounts and hence arises the necessity of adopting some standard of

reference. The Department has made for this purpose extensive inter-

comparisons of instruments at Washington, in the field, and at many

magnetic observatories thruout the world; with the data thus obtained

it has been possible to reduce the magnetic results for the region covered

in the publication to magnetic standards within an error in general in

the order of the error of observation. The intercomparisons of the pro-

visional magnetic standards adopted with the standards of twelve

observatories in the northern hemisphere and four in the southern hemi-

sphere are given, as also the indirect results of observations by other

organizations at seven additional magnetic observatories in the northern

hemisphere; these show that the provisional standards adopted are very

close to international standards, at least so far as all practical require-

ments of a general magnetic survey of the earth are concerned. The

20

ABSTEACTS: PHYSICS 21

corrections to these standards for the various instruments used are given

in detail. The results are summarized under the main geographical

divisions as follows: Africa, 386 stations; Asia, 308 stations; Australia,

10 stations; Europe, 36 stations; North America, 328 stations; South

America, 111 stations; Islands, Atlantic Ocean, 68 stations. Islands,

Pacific Ocean, 51 stations. The total number of stations is 1298;

with reoccupations the total is 1391. The Table of Results contains

for each station the geographical latitude, longitude, date of observation,

the observed values of magnetic declination, inclination, and horizontal

intensity, the local mean times to the nearest one-tenth hour for each

element, the instruments used, and the observer. Accounts of some of

the expeditions are given with illustrations primarily to show in a general

way, the character of the field work and some of its difficulties. The

last section of the volume is devoted to descriptions of stations arranged

under the same geographical divisions adopted in the Table of Results.

J. A. Fleming.

PHYSICS. — The present status of the temperature scale. George K.

Burgess. Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry.

22:53. 1912.

Attention is called to the desirability of expressing temperatures on

the thermodynamic scale and a table of corrections to the various gas

scales is given. It is shown that the platinum resistance thermometer

may be used to reproduce the temperature scale with the greatest exact-

ness rom —200° to +1100°C. The limitations of thermoelectric and

radiation pyrometry are discussed as well as the status (with tables) of

several of the boiling and melting points of substances suitable for

standard temperatures. International agreement on a temperature

scale is urged. The status of the scale may be illustrated by the accom-

panying tables of standard temperatures.

V

22

abstracts: physics

STANDARD TEMPERATURES. THERMODYNAMIC SCALE

SUBSTANCE

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide. .

Mercury

Water

Na2S04+ IOH2O

Water

Naphthalene

Tin

Benzophenone. . .

Cadmium

Lead

Zinc

Sulphur

Antimony

Ag3— CU2

NaCl

Silver

Gold

Copper

Palladium

Platinum

Alumina

Tungsten

Carbon arc

Sun

PHENOMENON

Boiling

Sublimation in gaso-

lene

Freezing

Transformation to

anhydrous salt

Boiling

Freezing

Boiling

Freezing

Boiling

Freezing

Eutectic freezing

Freezing

Melting

Pos. crater

Surface

TEMPERATURE

UNCERTAINTY

-252.7

—182.9

—78.34

—37.7

0

32.383

100

271.90

231.85

305.90

320.92

327.4

419.4

444.6

630

779

800

960.5

1063

.1083

1549

1755

2000

3000

3600

6000

0.2

0.1

0

0.002

0

0.02

0.1

0.05

0.1

0.5

1

2

1

2

10

15

30

100

150

500

REPRODUCI-

BILITT

0.05

0.03

0.05

0.001

0.01

0.05

0.02

0.03

0.05

0.10

0.03

0.3

1

0.5

1

3

5

20

25

50

100

For the temperatures dependent on atmospheric pressure we have:

0.000042 (p - 760)2

As to the chemical purity of the various substances, Myhus has

shown! that the following metals may easily be had to 0.01 per cent or

better; Au, Ag, Pt, Hg, Cu, Sn, Pb, Cd, Zn. Of the boiling substances,

benzophenone and oxygen are the only ones to the purity of which

special attention need be given. G. K. B.

1 F. Mylius, Zs. Anorg. Ch. 74: 407. 1912.

abstracts: bio-chemistry 23

BIO-CHEMISTRY. — Wild volatile-oil pla72ts ayul their economic impor-

tance. I. Black sage, II. Wild sage, III. Swamp hay. Frank Rabak.

Bulletin 235, Bureau of Plant Industry, pp. 37, with 6 %s. 1912.

In the general part of this bulletin are described the distribution of

wild aromatic plants in the United States. The present production of

volatile oils obtained from wild plants native to the United States is

discussed in detail. A classification of volatile oils based on their odors

and constituents is suggested. Attention is called to the commercial

importance of volatile oils. The plant sources and the commercial use

of the important substances, camphor, borneol and cineol are thoroly

discussed.

The special part of this bulletin consists of the investigation of the

volatile oils of black sage, wild sage, and swamp bay.

The oil of the black sage (Ramona stachyoides (Benth) Briquet.) was

found upon examination to consist essentially of camphor (more than 40

per cent) and cineol (22.5 per cent) wdth smaller quantities of an alcohol,

probably borneol, both free and as an ester, thujone, traces of pinene and

terpinene, and traces of combined acetic and formic acids. The con-

stituents of possible commercial importance in the oil are camphor and

borneol.

Analysis of the oil of wild sage {Artemisia frigida Willd.) showed the

presence (1) of borneol, 43 per cent, of which about 6.8 per cent exists as

bornyl heptoate, leaving 35.8 per cent of free borneol; (2) of cineol

(eucalyptol) 18 to 20 per cent; (3) of fenchone 8 to 10 per cent; (4) of

free acids, chiefly oenanthylic or heptoic acid, 0.58 per cent, with traces

of formic and caprylic acids; (5) of combined acids in the form of esters,

chiefly oenanthylic acid, with smaller quantities of valerianic, undecylic

and formic acids. The chief constituents of commercial importance are

borneol and cineol.

The oil of swamp bay (Persea puhescens, (Pursh.) Sarg.) was found to

consist chiefly of 21 per cent of camphor, 19.8 per cent of cineol, and

borneol, the latter occurring to small extent as esters and as free alcohol.

Small quantities of butyric acid and esters of butyric, valerianic and

heptoic acids were also present. ^

The plants which yield the above oils are found in widely separated

regions of the United States, in California, South Dakota, and Florida,

respectively.

The large quantities of camphor in the oils of black sage and swamp

bay are new sources of this important substance. Likewise the large

percentage of borneol in the oil of wild sage opens new possibilities.

F. R.

24 abstracts: botany

BOTANY. — The cotton of the Hopi Indians: A new species of Gossypium.

Feederick L. Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections

60 : no. 6, with 5 plates. October 23, 1912.

The early Spanish explorers discovered in 1540 the region now occupied

by the pueblo Indians and recorded the cultivation of the cotton plant

by the Indians. That the cliff-dwellers, the ancestors of these pueblo

Indians of our Southwest, cultivated, spun and wove cotton, has been

shown by the work of several eminent ethnologists. Fragments of

cotton fabrics are common in the villages of the cliff-dwellers which were

in ruins when first seen by the white man.

After tracing the history of cotton cultivation by the Indians of this

region and its use by them for ceremonial and household purposes, a

technical description of the cotton now grown by the Hopi Indians is

given and published as a new species under the name Gossypium hopi.

This cotton is conspicuously different from the American upland

cottons in color of foliage, flowers, habit of branching, etc., and it is

believed that it has never been cultivated by the white man or had any

influence in the development of the types of cotton so largely culti-

vated in the East and South.

The Department of Agriculture has experimented with the Hopi cotton

for several years and the experiments show this cotton to be remarkable

for its earliness and its ability to grow under very dry conditions.

Owing to the ease with which machine-made cotton yarn can be pro-

cured by the Indians from the traders, but very little Hopi cotton is

now grown by them, and the smallness of its bolls and poor yield of

fiber have not made its cultivation attractive to the white man.

F. L. L.

BOTANY.^ — Ruhelzul cotton: A new species of Gossypium from Guatemala.

Frederick L. Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections

60: no. 4, with 2 plates. October 21, 1912.

Gossypium irenaeum is described. This is a shrubby species culti-

vated by the Kekchi Indians at Rubelzul, a part of the finca "Trece

Aguas," a few miles from the town of Senahu in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala.

It is planted about the door-yards and yields longer and finer fiber than

the species commonly planted by the Kekchi Indians in regular patches,

oftentimes at some distance from their dwellings. The most prominent

character of this new species is seen in the remarkable development of

the calyx, which reaches proportions not known in any other species of

Gossypium. F. L. L.

abstracts: botany, plant physiology 25

BOTANY. — Kokia: A new genus of Hawaiian trees. Frederick L.

Lewton. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 60 : no. 5, with

5 plates. October 22, 1912.

The new genus includes three species, Kokia drynarioides, K. lanceo-

lata, and K. rockii, the last two species being described as new. The

genus is based upon a study of herbarium material representing Gos-

sypiiim drijnarioides Seemann, from the Island of Molokai, Hillebrand's

variety of Seemann's species, from the Island of Oahu, and specimens of

a hitherto undescribed species collected in 1909 by Mr. J. F. Rock, of

Honolulu, on the slopes of the Volcano Hualalai, Island of Hawaii.

Kokia dry^iarioides and K. lanceolata are beHeved to have entirely dis-

appeared from the Hawaiian Islands, and the third species, K. rockii,

has been reduced to a single group of four trees. These are about 25

feet high, averaging 10 to 12 inches in diameter. F. L. L.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — A 'preliminary study of the forced curing of

lejnons as practiced in California. Arthur F. Sievers and Rod-

ney H. True, Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 232. Feb.,

1912.

The process of forced curing of lemons in vogue in California con-

sists in subjecting the green fruit to heat and humidity in tight rooms

until the desired color is produced. The time required to accomplish

the result ranges from 5 to 14 days.

Experiments are described showing that heat and humidity are of

secondary importance in the process and that the pungent, gaseous

combustion products from the oil-burning stoves used produce the

desired effect. It is suggested that these gases could be used on a com-

mercial scale by generating them in separate structures from which

they could be distributed to the different rooms containing the fruit.

Such conduction of the gases by means of pipes was found by experi-

ment not to impair their effectiveness.

The loss of stems from the fruit has been a common result of the forced

curing process. It has generally been held that the high humidity which

obtains in the curing rooms was the cause of this trouble. The experi-

ments here reported prove that the' same factor which effects the color-

ing, also causes the loss of the stems.

A study of the different materials used in the construction of curing

rooms relative to their effect on the coloring brought out the fact that

material of a porous nature hastens the process. This would indicate

26 abstracts: plant physiology, phytopathology

that better results would be obtained in rooms constructed of earth,

bricks, or concrete than in rooms of wooden or metal construction.

, R. H. T.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — ■Absorption and excretion of salts by roots,

as influenced by concentratiori and composition of culture solutions.

I. Concentration relations of dilute solutions of calcium and mag-

nesium nitrate to pea roots. R. H. True and Hi H. Bartlett.

Bulletin 231, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture. Issued January 30, 1912,

Secondary roots of the pea will not develop in m/5000 Mg (N03)2.

A calcium to magnesium ratio of 1/10 is the lowest ratio at which cal-

cium entirely inhibits the harmful effect of magnesium in solutions of

this concentration. In solutions of such concentration that magnesium

alone would not prevent the formation of secondary roots (e. g., m/20,-

000) the calcium to magnesium ratio which brings about perfect root

development is nearer 1/100. In solutions of whatever concentration

the calcium to magnesium ratio most favorable to absorption of salts

is 1/1.

For calcium nitrate solution used as a culture medium, or for mag-

nesium nitrate solution, or for mixtures of the two in any ratio, there is

a definite concentration above which roots absorb more electrolytes than

they excrete and below which they excrete more thany they absorb.

This equilibrium concentration is 12 m/500,000 for Mg (N03)2 and

7 m/50,000 for Ca (N03)2. For solutions of the two in the lowest ratio

which permits perfect root development (Ca: Mg: : 1 : 10) the equilib-

rium concentration is 8 w/500,000, almost as low as for Ca(N03)2 alone.

For solutions mixed in the most favorable ratio for absorption (i. e.,

5/5) the equihbrium concentration is 5 w/500,000, lower than for Ca-

(N03)2 alone. H. H. B.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— r/?c history and cause of the coconut bud-rot.

John R. Johnston. Bulletin No. 228, Bureau of Plant Industry,

U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 175, pis. 14 and figs. 10.

February, 1912.

Bud-rot is a disease of coconuts which has been known for more than

thirty years in Cuba, causing widespread loss. A similar trouble has

existed for years in Jamaica, British Honduras, Trinidad, and British

Guiana. It is reported also in British India, German East Africa, Por-

tuguese East Africa, the Philippines, and Ceylon.

ABSTRACTS : PHYTOPATHOLOGY 27

The disease was investigated in 1901, at the request of the planters of

Baracoa, Cuba, by Mr. August Busch, entomologist of the U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture. In 1904, Dr. Erwin F. Smith, plant pathologist

of the same Department made further investigations in the districts

around Baracoa, and declared the disease to be a bacterial soft rot of the

terminal bud. Since that time it has been studied by a number of botan-

ists and mycologists. Investigations were begun by the author of this

bulletin in 1907 (in Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Guiana),

and continued until 1911.

Signs of bud-rot in its incipiency are (1) the falling of the immature

nuts; (2) a staining of the opening flower spikes, partly or wholly, to a

rich chocolate brown; and (3) the dying and bending over of the middle

undeveloped leaves.

The cause of bud-rot has been attributed to soil or climatic conditions,

insects, mechanical injuries, etc. Dr. Ramos, of Havana, believed it to

be due to a fungus, Uredo coccivoro. Dr. Davalos, also of Havana,

attributed it to what he claimed to be Bacillus amylohader, which he

isolated in 1886. Dr. Plaxton, of Jamaica, exhibited in 1891, shdes of

a micrococcus which he thought was probably the cause.

Believing the disease to be a bacterial one investigations were con-

tinued along the lines planned by Dr. Smith. Material from many dis-

eased trees was obtained, and bacterial organisms were isolated from

these tissues, which consisted in general of two types: One which pro-

duced, usually, round, wet-shining, white and semiopaque colonies with

raised surfaces, and one (type most abundant) which produced colonies

of very thin growth, spreading rapidly over the plate, often with long

radiating branches, this type being also white, wet-shining, and semi-

transparent.

In the course of the work such a close similarity of the coconut organ-

ism with Bacillus coli was observed that comparison of the two organ-

isms was made which "shows them to be practically identical. Many

special test reactions for the identification of Bacillus coli were used not

only in characterizing the coconut organism, but also in ascertaining any

differences that there might be between it and Bacillus coli from animal

sources, e.g., behavior in fermentation tubes, growth on Dolt's synthetic

medium, reaction to neutral red in various media, D. Rivas' tests, growth

on Endo's fuchsin agar, Stoddard's plate medium. Hiss's tube medium

(both of the latter used to distinguish B. coli from B. typhosus), etc.

Special inoculations for the comparison of the coconut organism with

Bacillus coli (from animals) were made into coconut seedlings, a solution

28 abstracts: phytopathology

of ammonium oxalate being injected into a seedling at the same time as

a check. Eighteen days after the injection the material was collected,

plates were poured, and in five days pink colonies typical of both the

coconut organism and of B. coli were formed on their respective plates.

Along with the other inoculations just described a second injection of

B. coli (derived from animals) was made into a coconut seedling, and also

another solution of ammonium oxalate. After 47 days there was a good

typical soft rot in the seedling inoculated with B. coli, but there was no

characteristic effect from the ammonium oxalate. From this material

B. coli was isolated, both by the author and by Miss McCulloch. Six

experiments in all were conducted in which many inoculations were made

with pure cultures of Bacillus coli from animals, a good soft rot being

produced in the heart tissues of the coconut crown in most cases — a rot

similar to that produced by the inoculations with the coconut organisms

which were made at the same time. A full table is given, summarizing

the characters of the coconut organisms and of B. coli, in which but

slight variations are noted. In summing up the comparative study of

these organisms, Mr. Johnston says:

In the course of such an extended study on a disease as this has been

there naturally occur certain results some of which tend to weaken the

case and others to strengthen it. The many successful inoculations and

the similarity of the cultures injected and isolated, together with the

similarity of many other cultures isolated from diseased coconut mate-

rial by the writer and earlier by Dr. Smith all tend to strengthen the case.

On the other hand, successful inoculations by the writer with cultures

of variable appearance rather tend to weaken the argument. These

results may be explained by the supposition that other organisms than

Bacillus coli also produce the bud-rot, or that what passes for Bacillus

coli includes a group of closely related but not identical organisms.

After the above experiments were conducted it was decided to search

directly in the diseased tissues for B. coli. Material was obtained from

Baracoa, Cuba, transfers being made, under clean conditions, to tubes

of Dolt's synthetic medium. Platings were made in Washington, and

B. coli was present as indicated by the tests. Subsequently more mate-

rial was obtained with a similar result, Bacillus coli being isolated 1 6 days

after the material was collected.

Comparison of the bud-rot caused by Bacillus coli with several diseases

of the coconut palm ascribed in literature to other causes indicates that

several of these diseases are identical with bud-rot. It is not known at

present that this bud-rot occurs on other palms than the coconut, but

it probably does.

ABSTEACTS: PHYTOPATHOLOGY 29

«

The bacteria thrive only in the meristematic tissues which are Httle

or not at all lignified. Stomatal infections are common on the young

tissues.

Birds and insects are believed to be carriers of this disease. It is

recommended that badly diseased trees be cut down and burned. All

fallen leaves, nuts, etc., should be removed.

Erwin F. Smith.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A knot of citrus trees caused by Sphaeropsis

tumefadens. Florence Hedges and L. S. Tenny. Bulletin 247,

Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Pp.

74, pis. 10 and figs. 8. 1912.

This bulletin describes in detail a new fungous disease of citrus trees.

Branches of lime and orange trees affected by the disease were first

received from Jamaica, but recently a knot on a lime twig was received

from Florida, w^hich very much resembles the Jamaican disease, and is

probably the same. From the Jamaican material a fungus, Sphaeropsis

tumefadens Hedges, has been isolated which reproduces the knots when

sound lime and orange trees are inoculated with pure cultures. Many

successful inoculations have been made with reisolations from these

artificially produced knots.

The first indication of infection is a slight swelling of the branch. As

this increases in size the bark, which at this stage covers the young knot,

becomes lighter in color and is noticeably cracked and has a cork-like

appearance. Growth under greenhouse conditions in Washington is

slow, several to many months being necessary for the production of

knots 1 to 3 inches in diameter. As the disease develops, secondary

knots form on the main branches and trunk, often extending to the

ground, and the death of the entire tree is the ultimate result.

The mycelium of the fungus may occur in any or all of the tissues of

the stem, being particularly abundant in the cortex and wood. Large,

rapidly-growing knots as a rule contain less mycelium than the smaller

slow-growing ones. In young, rapidly-growing tissues of buds growing

out of knots the mycelium is confined to the intercellular spaces.

The fungus is easily isolated from the knots, fresh young knots being

preferable for this purpose. It has also been isolated from the stem

between the knots.

The pycnidia as they have been observed upon the host are subglo-

bose, papillate, very dark brown or black, ostiolate, closely crowded

together or solitary, with a cellular peridium, and measure 152 to 224

30 abstracts: phytopathology

by 120 to 192 ix. The spores, both on the nost and in cultures, are large,

colorless or yellowish, oblong or ovoid, rounded at both ends, or subacute,

.measuring 16 to 32 by 6 to 12 /x, being either long and slender (32 by 8 n),

or broad and short (16 by 8 /x), with intergradings. Some time after the

appearance of the pycnidia small, cylindrical, colorless, 1-celled, spore-

like bodies, the so-called spermatia, are found both in cultures and on the

host. Their germination has not been observed. Chlamydospores

have never been observed on the host, but in old cultures on steamed

vegetables or fruit, large, thick-walled, intercalary, brown, spore-like

bodies are sometimes present in abundance.

Pruning is recommended as a remedy for the disease, and care should

be taken to remove the affected limbs well below the lowest knot as the

mycelium has been found in the stem 1^ ft. beyond any external indica-

tion of its presence. Badly diseased trees should be rooted out and

burned to prevent dissemination of the fungous spores.

Erwin F. Smith.

REFERENCES

MET AhhOGRAFRY. —Metallography and metallurgy at the Bureau of Standards.

George K. Burgess. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering 10: 467.

1912.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY.— r/ie work of the U. S. Naval Radiotelegraphic Labo-

ratory. L. W. Austin. Journal American Society Naval Engineers 24: 122.

1912.

PHYSICS.— Melting points of the chemical elements. Bureau of Standards Cir-

cular 35.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington, was

held December 3, 1912, at 4.30 p.m. in the new building of the National

Museum, Mr. Stetson, the President, in the chair.

Mr, Wm. H. Babcock read a paper on The Islands of Antillia illus-

trated by lantern-slide maps, taking the title of his paper from Peter

JMartyr's Decades of the Nev) World where that author in view of "the

cosmographers," states that he believes these islands were what his

contemporary, Columbus, had discovered. Peter Martyr's own sketch

map of 1511 was exhibited, showing Florida as one of them under the

name of Beineni. There were also displayed the maps of Beccaria,

Bianco, Pareto and Benincasa, from 1435 to 1487, who may be among

"the cosmographers" referred to. They show a group of four large

islands roughly corresponding in size, arrangement and other respects

with Cuba, Jamaica, Florida or Beimeni, and Andros or the Bahamas.

On Beccaria's map they bear the names Antillia, Reylla, Salvagio and

Insula in Mar (Opposite Island or Island out Before, King Island,

Savage Island and Island in the Sea). These are nearly as far west of

the Azores as the latter are west of Europe and in such a location must

be either the creatures of mere fancy or appurtenances of America.

But it is not likely that mere guess-work could produce the remarkable

correspondences of these great map islands with the reality, such an

island group being altogether unique in the Atlantic.

Behaim's globe of 1492 contains an inscription to the effect that a

Spanish vessel visited Antillia in 1414. This is more vaguely endorsed

by another on the map of Ruysch (1508), which credits the Spaniards

with finding Antillia long ago. That something of the kind happened

in the first quarter of the fifteenth century may be inferred from the

fact that Beccaria (1535) names the group collectively "The Newly

Reported Islands," most likely borrowing this title legend from his

earlier map of 1426, altho the fourteenth, century maps had contained

no suggestion of Antillia and her consorts.

The other fifteenth century maps named corroborate Beccaria, being

very consistent in outline and arrangment so far as they go, altho two of

them give but three islands and Bianco shows only Antillia and a part

of Salvagio, which he calls La JMan de Satanaxio, but this last seems to

be a case of mutilation. However, the Laon globe of 1493 shows only

these two main (rectangular) islands.

31

32 proceedings: anthropological society

A current map showed how naturally any craft entering and con-

tinuing in the great-sea-current which sweeps from the Azores and the

other eastern islands westward to the Antilles would be carried to Cuba

and her neighbors.

The Catalan map of 1375 and the Pizigani map of 1387 with its pic-

ture of St. Brandan blessing his Fortunate Islands of Porto Santo and

Madeira and the figures of a dragon and a dentapod, each carrying off

a seaman from his ship as a warning against westward exploration,

were also exhibited. They show the circular island of Brazil west of

Ireland and the more southerly crescent-form Man or Brazir, both being

important and persistent legendary islands: and the Catalan map in

particular shows all the Azores approximately in their real grouping:

but neither of them presents anything like the Islands of Antillia.

Dr. Philip Newton read a paper on the Negritos of the Philippifies,

estimating their total number (full bloods) at 5000, tho by counting

mixed blood tribes and individuals the estimate is sometimes carried

up to 25,000. They are distributed thru numerous islands, tho not

reported from Mindoro. The greater number are on Luzon. There

is no difference in them, except as their blood is mingled with that of

neighboring races. They are not fishermen, but hunt and gather natural

products, using in some districts poisoned arrows, the symptoms of

poisoning being like those of strychnine. Their houses are made of

upright poles connected by horizontal poles having cross pieces and

leaf thatching. Those who die are buried under or near these homes.

They rarely bathe and their clothes (which are breech-clouts or aprons) ,

are apparently never washed. Usually these are of cloth obtained in

trade, but in some islands, for example Palawan, bark is used. Negritos

do not regularly practice agriculture, but will sometimes plant rice —

and perhaps move away before it ripens. A skin disease is the most

prevalent among them, but malaria also is common. Three incipient

cases of tuberculosis were noted and some other diseases have been

derived from their neighbors.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill, JANUARY 19, 1913 No. 2

PHYSICS. — A mechanical differential telethermograph and some

of its applications. Lyman J. Briggs, Bureau of Plant

Industry.

This instrument consists essentially of two independent Bour-

don spring systems, each hollow spring communicating with a

copper bulb by means of a copper capillary. Each system is

completely filled under pressure with a Hquid having a high

thermal expansion coefficient. These two systems are mounted

as shown in the illustration in such a manner that the free ends

of the springs move in the same plane and in opposite directions

when the two systems undergo the same change in temperature.

The free ends of the two Bourdon springs are connected in the

plane of movement by a double link, the two members of which

are approximately parallel and normal respectively to the paths

traversed by the ends of the springs. The normal Unk is con-

nected at its approximate center to a second link which communi-

cates with the pen mechanism.

When the two systems undergo a simultaneous change in

temperature, the free ends of the springs, in expanding or con-

tracting, rotate about the center of the connecting Hnk without

producing any translation of this point. No change occurs,

therefore, in the position of the recording pen on the drum.

When, however, a differential change in the temperature of the

two systems occurs, a greater movement is produced in the free

end of one Bourdon spring than in the other, and a corresponding

movement of the pen-arm takes place. The instrument is thus

designed to record differences in the temperature of the two

systems, independent of the absolute temperature.

While the Bourdon springs necessarily expand in response to

an increase in their own temperature independently of that of

33

34

BRIGGS: A DIFFERENTIAL TELETHERMOGRAPH

the bulbs, such changes do not affect the reading of the instru-

ment, providing the springs do not differ substantially in tem-

perature at any time during this change. To secure this equality

in temperature of the two springs as nearly as possible, the

instrument is provided with a metal cover blackened inside, and

the interior is given an open construction. The two copper

capillaries can also be kept at the same temperature for the

greater part of their length. The differential temperature

Fig. 1. A mechanical differential telethermograph. Capillary tubes much

longer than those shown in the illustration may be used.

recorded is, therefore, substantially that represented by the

difference in temperature of the two bulbs.

APPLICATIONS

Two applications of this instrument have been made during

the past year in connection with investigations in bio-physics.

Recording the depression in temperature of the ivet-bulb thermome-

ter. One use of the instrument consists in recording changes in

the depression in temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer.

For this purpose the apparatus is placed in a ventilated instru-

ment shelter. One bulb is covered with muslin and kept con-

merwin: media of high kefractton 35

tinually moistened by allowing water to drop upon it very slowly

from a reservoir, while the other bulb assumes the temperature

of the shelter. In this way a continuous graph is obtained of

the depression in temperature produced by the wet covering,

independently of changes in the air temperature. By using this

record in connection with a simultaneous record obtained with

an air thermograph, the humidity at any time can be calculated

from standard psychrometric tables.

Recording changes in intensity of solar and sky radiation. If

one bulb of the instrument is blackened and exposed in a glass

jacket to radiation from the sun and sky, while the other bulb

is kept at air temperature, the differential temperature of the

two bulbs due to the radiation received is recorded. The instru-

ment in this form gives a continuous record of changes in the

intensity of the radiant energy received, altho the interpretation

of this record in absolute units is of course dependent upon cali-

bration with an absolute instrument. The types of sunshine

recorders ordinarily employed give no indication of. the magni-

tude of the changes in the radiant energy, but indicate simply

whether the radiation exceeds a certain intensity.

The development of the instrument with a view to providing

a continuous quantitative record of the intensity of the radiation

received at the earth's surface is now in progress.

PHYSICS. — Media of high refraction for refractive index determi-

nations with the microscope; also a set of permanent standard

media of lower refraction. H. E. Merwin, Geophysical

Laboratory. Communicated by Arthur L. Day.

A number of experimental studies have been carried on for the

purpose of extending the conditions under which determinations

of refractive index by means of the microscope can be made. Such

determinations require immersion media of standard refractive

index. Various immersion liquids have been in use for the deter-

mination of refractive indices over the interval 1.33 to 1.80;

mixtures of amorphous sulfur and selenium have been found

useful over the range (for sodium light) 2.1 to 2.4. The immer-

sion media to be described have been devised to fill the gap 1.80

36

merwin: media of high refraction

to 2.10, and to extend the series beyond 2.4Na, or in special cases,

particularly when a refractometer is not at hand for standard-

izing the liquids, take the place of media hitherto used. For the

latter purpose solids have been found which may be mixed in

given proportions by weight to produce permanent standard

media. These are either vitreous (more or less rigid) or liquid

(fluid).

Altho differences in refractive index as small as 0.001 can be

detected under the microscope by either the method of oblique,

or of central illumination, it is seldom that in determinative

mineralogical work results closer than 0.01 are of practical use

owing to the complex character of most minerals. For this

reason many details concerning the preparation and use of these

TABLE 1

media are not included here but may be found in the complete

record of the work when published.

Liquids, n = 1.74 io 1.87. In 100 parts of methylene iodide

at 20° the number of parts of the various substances indicated

in the table (1) can be dissolved, forming saturated solutions

having the permanent standard refractive indices specified.

When ready for use, the liquids can be mixed by means of a

dropper to give intermediate refractions. Commercial iodoform

(CHI3) powder is not suitable, but crystals from a solution of

the powder in ether may be used, or the crystallized product

may be bought. A fragment of tin in the liquids containing

Snl4 will prevent discoloration.

Liquids, n = 1.74 io 2.28. Near its boiling point methylene

merwin: media of high refraction 37

iodide slowly dissolves precipitated arsenic trisulphide, forming

an orange-colored liquid. After some days crystals separate, but

while fresh — or after the heating of an old preparation which is

not discolored — the solution can be used for accurately matching

the refractive index of a substance, and then standardized by

means of a goniometer^ or a spectrometer and prism.

Resin-like substances, n =1.68 to 2.10. Piperine, one of the

least expensive of the alkaloids, can be obtained in very pure,

straw-colored crystals. When melted it dissolves the tri-iodides

of arsenie and antimony very freely. The solutions are fluid at

slightly above 100°, and when cold are resin-like. The red color

of the iodides is present in the solution. The color, however, is

of such a character that determinations of refractive index made

in the solutions in white light are almost as accurate as those

made in sodium light. If less than 7 per cent of the iodides is

present this solution should be examined thru a film of a 7 per

cent solution. A solution containing 3 parts of antimony iodide

to 1 part of arsenic iodide with varying proportions of piperine

is easier to manipulate than one containing either iodide alone.

The diagram, figure 1, gives the necessary data concerning com-

position and refractive index for sodium light. In preparing, the

constituents, in powder of about 1 mm. grain, should be weighed

out, and then fused over — not in — a low flame. Three-inch test

tubes are suitable. Stirring with a glass rod is essential. A

little of this material is placed on a glass slip with some of the

powder to be examined, it is then warmed and pressed thin under

a cover-glass. For use with the more highly refracting mate-

rials the powder must be very fine to permit a very thin film to

be made. An artificial light is advantageous for observing the

deeply colored films. The iodides should be examined under the

microscope for mechanical impurities.

Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and arsenic trisulflde, n =2.1 to

2.6. These mixtures are much lighter colored than corresponding

ones of sulfur and selenium, but they are less easily standardized

and manipulated. They should be used only in cases requiring

greater transparency than the sulfur-selenium mixtures. They

1 See Am. Jl. Sci. 34: 46. 1912.

38

merwin: media of high refraction

must be standardized by means of a prism which is ground or

moulded. About equal parts of dried precipitated AsaSs and

2.1

2.0

1.9

X

111

o

z

u

>

P

o

<

ir

u.

ui

a.

1.8

1.7

1,6

1.5

20

PERCENTAGES

40 60

80

JOO

80

lOO

40 60

ROSIN

Fig. 1. Composition and refractive index

flowers of sulfur are intimately mixed by grinding moist with

alcohol. The mixture when dry is strongly heated in a test tube

which is not more than one-third full. A part of the sulfur will

merwin: media of high refraction

39

boil away. The mixture remaining can be powdered and heated

with either sulfur or AsoSs to produce a mixture having the desired

refractive index.

Permanent standard resinous media, n = 1.51^6 to 1.682. Any

proportions of piperine and rosin form a homogeneous fusion

which cools to a transparent, resinous mass. Figure 1 shows the

refractive indices of various mixtures. On account of the strong

dispersion of piperine the refractive indices of minerals appar-

ently matched with those of mixtures rich in this constituent

are 0.005 to 0.01 too low. To correct the error a screen made

of a thin film of 7 per cent antimony iodide and 93 per cent

piperine should be used over the eye-piece. Any amber-colored

rosin in lumps is suitable.

TABLE 2

Permanent standard resi7ious media, n = 1.510 to 1.546. This

series is prepared from rosin and camphor. Each per cent of

camphor present lowers the refractive index 0.0007. Not more

than 40 per cent of camphor may be present without causing

crystallization. The rosin is weighed out and melted slowly,

when it is partly cooled but not yet hard, the camphor (well

crushed) is stirred in. Heat is then apphed gently and stirring

is continued till the camphor is dissolved. Camphor does not

volatilize appreciably from the cold mixtures if they are kept in

stoppered containers.

Permanent standard fluids, n = 1 .487 to 1 .683. Several organic

solids have been found which form eutectic mixtures melting

much below ordinary temperatures. By plotting on cross-section

40 ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER

paper and connecting by straight lines each pair of points in

table 2 the composition and refractive index of a complete series

of fluids will be represented. Errors in n will not exceed ± 0.003

if fairly pure crystalline substances are used. Some of the fluids

having n between 1.61 and 1.683 may crystallize after standing,

but slight warming will restore their fluidity. Other materials

under investigation give permanent fluids over much of this range.

Where three constituents are specified in the table two of them

in fixed proportions are used to form one variable constituent.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— r/ie silver voltameter. III. E. B.

Rosa, G. W. Vinal and A. S. McDaniel. To appear in

the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

The second series of quantitative experiments began in Decem-

ber, 1909, after several months spent in the qualitative work de-

scribed in Part II. As a result of the preceding work the authors

-had discarded the filter paper voltameter as an instrument of

precision and turned their attention to the problems related

to the porous cup form and the purification and testing of the

electrolyte. The apparatus and methods employed were similar

to those previously described.

During this period of the work the small porous cup voltame-

ter was found to be the most convenient and reliable form to use

as a standard. With the purest salt available the deposits were

adherent and white, always non-striated, and crystalline as seen

under the microscope. As a test of the reproducibility of this

small porous cup form, fifty-four deposits made in pairs (except

two sets of three each) in which the electrolyte and other condi-

tions were as nearly identical as possible in the two cups of each

pair were tabulated. The average deviation of each value from

the mean of each group (of 2 or 3 cups) was found to be 1 part

in 100,000. That is, when the variations in the electrolyte and

the measurement of current and time are eliminated so that it

is simply a question of how nearly two similar voltameters agree

with one another and the variations are produced by loss of

silver in washing the deposit, fluctuation in moisture or impurity

in the deposit and the errors in weighing the cups the average

ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIELI THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 41

deviation of individual values from the mean of 2 or 3 cups is

only 0.001 per cent.

Comparison of the large porous cup voltameter with the smaller

size sho\yed consistently a heavier deposit in the former by about

5 parts in 100,000 and the siphon form which required a very

large volume of electrolyte gave a still greater excess. It was

at length discovered that this excess of deposit in the larger sizes

was roughly proportional to the volume of the electrolj^te and the

authors have called this the ^'volume effect." It seemed prob-

able that this was due to traces of impurity w^hich had not been

eliininated from the electrolyte and led to an extended investi-

gation of the purifying and testing of silver nitrate. As a result

of this work, electrolyte was prepared which satisfied all the

criteria for purity and brought the large sizes of voltameters into

agreement with the small porous cup voltameter, thus justifying

its previous use as a standard form. The effect of slight con-

tamination of the electrolyte in this small size must have been

almost negligible as the results obtained with it have been amply

justified by the subsequent work. As the experiments progressed

the ''volume effect" was found to be a very useful indication of

the purity of the electrolyte, revealing the presence of impurities

too small in amount to visibly affect the crystalline structure of

the silver deposit. It is not claimed that this phenomenon of

heavier deposits in large voltameters is a new discovery, for it

was observed in the work of Lord Rayleigh nearly thirty years

ago and has been ascribed to various causes, but the authors do

believe that its significance has not been appreciated before, nor

the correct explanation for it given.

Using the mean of 44 of the most reliable determinations made

in the small porous cup form of voltameter during the period

December, 1909, to April, 1910, the authors have obtained as the

value for the Weston Normal Cell at 20°C. on the present basis:

1.018275 volts.

This is very close to the value recorded in the first series of

measurements and is probably more reliable.

Several determinations were made in which two voltameters

were maintained at 50°C. by external heating coils during the

42 EOSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER

passage of the current, for comparison with two similar voltame-

ters at room temperature (about 20°C.). The results indicate

that there is no temperature coefficient as Kohlrausch and Weber

also have shown in a different way. It is believed that the

reasons other observers have found increased deposits in voltame-

ters at higher temperatures is because the chemical activity of

impurities in their electrolyte would naturally increase with the

rise in temperature.

Two gold dishes similar in design to the smaller platinum

dishes previously used were purchased for comparison. By tabu-

lating the differences in deposit between the gold and platinum

cathodes in each case where no other differences in the voltameter

existed it was found as a result of twenty-nine comparisons that

the deposits in the gold dishes were lighter by 1.4 parts in 100,000

which may be regarded as indicating the substantial agreement

of the two materials.

Some further work was done with the Poggendorff form but

the results were not encouraging and hence attention was directed

chiefly to the forms that had proved more reliable and the purifi-

cation and testing of the electrolyte in anticipation of the cooper-

ative work with the English, French and German National Lab-

oratories which began in Washington April 1, 1910.

The most difficult problems connected with the preparation of

silver nitrate for use in the voltameter are concerned with the

exclusion or removal of reducing impurities and colloidal silver

on the one hand and of uncombined acid and base on the other.

The tests that have been developed for determining the acidity

of the solution are for the purpose of determining the uncombined

acid or base rather than the absolute hydrogen ion concentration.

The usual methods of testing the neutrality of salts do not

apply to silver nitrate. Thus, toward litmus a silver nitrate solu-

tion will react alkaline even after the addition of 1 part in 100,000

of nitric acid and a similar solution will react acid toward methyl

orange after the addition of alkali provided the silver is not

completely precipitated. Other indicators also were tried. If

the silver be precipitated from the silver nitrate solution by neu-

tral KCl solution and the AgCl precipitate filtered off on asbestos

EOSA, VINAL AND McDANIELI THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 43

the filtrate will show a neutral reaction toward the various indi-

cators if the original AgNOs contained no uncombined acid or

base. By using iod-eosine as an indicator so little as 1 part in

1,000,000 of nitric acid (or alkah) added to the original AgNOs

can be detected in the filtrate by titration with y/oo- HNO3 or

NaOH. The results have been expressed in terms of parts per

million of the nitric acid.

For the detection of the more resistant forms of reducing

impurities (principally cellulose hydrates from filter paper) and

colloidal silver a titration test with y^o 0 KMn04 solution has

proved very valuable. The slightly acidified crystals of silver

nitrate are fused as will be described for purifying the salt and

dissolved in water to form a 66 per cent solution. Ten cubic

centimeters of this solution is acidified by adding 1 cc. of con-

centrated nitric acid (free from nitrous acid) and the -fwoi) potas-

sium permanganate solution added in 0.5 cc. portions until the

pink color persists for five minutes or more. The number of

cubic centimeters thus required the authors have called the ' ' per-

manganate number" of the silver nitrate. In test cases this has

been found to be proportional to the amounts of oxycelluloses

previously added to the silver nitrate and very minute traces

can thus readily be detected. It is not claimed that the organic

material is necessaril}^ oxidized completely but nevertheless the

method is much more sensitive than any method of direct com-

bustion would prove under the circumstances as well as being

more expeditious. By titrating these concentrated solutions of

silver nitrate less than 0.001 per cent of colloidal silver may be

detected, a result that is of particular value in showing when

over fusion of the salt has occurred in its preparation.

The water used was twice distilled in block tin and kept in

bottles of especially prepared resistant glass. Samples of it were

frequently tested for its conductivity and alkalinity. These were,

on the average, about 1.3 X 10~'' reciprocal ohms and 0.6 parts

in 1,000,000 respectively. The water in the stills was boiled by

steam under pressure thereby avoiding the possibility of con-

tamination by COo which may greatly increase the deposit in the

voltameter.

44 ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL: THE SILVER VOLTAMETER

For purifying the silver nitrate for use in the voltameter it is

convenient to start with the best c. p. salt obtainable from the

manufacturing chemists. If this salt is repeatedly recrystallized

from neutral solution the resulting product shows a tendency to

become basic which under certain conditions gives rise to the

volume effect in the voltameter. To avoid this condition it is

necessary that the last mother liquor should be acid to the extent

of from 0.1 to 1 per cent of the water present depending on the

efficiency of the draining. In the present work a centrifuge has

been employed and the crystallization carried out in porcelain,

quartz and platinum vessels without any significant differences

in the final product. It is best that the preliminary recrystalli-

zations should be made from strongly acid solutions as this

increases the yield of crystals owing to .the less solubility of the

AgNOs and decreases the number of crystallizations required to

satisfy the permanganate test.

Salt yielding the same result in the voltameter has also been

prepared by recrystallization from strongly acid solution and

subsequent fusion. The fusion appears to break up the more

resistant impurities contained and in some cases these come to

the surface and may be readily removed by washing the surface

of the fused cake as suggested by Mr. F. E. Smith. The fusion

also furnishes a ready means of controlling the amount of acid

in the final product, but especial precautions must be taken.

Whether the silver nitrate is decomposed by heat when fused

seems to depend less on the temperature than upon the amount

of acid retained by the melted salt. As soon as the last trace of

acid is expelled the salt begins to decompose into silver oxide and

colloidal metallic silver as shown by the tests with iod-eosine and

potassium permanganate respectively. By removing the salt

from the furnace as soon as the last trace of solid material has

melted it is found that a small amount of acid (1 or 2 parts in

100,000 of the solid salt) is retained and that this is sufficient

to prevent decomposition, and in a 10 per cent solution is negli-

gible in the voltameter.

Salt prepared in this way which is satisfactory for the voltame-

ter is invariably a beautiful pearl white and never darkened as

ROSA, VINAL AND McDANIEL I THE SILVER VOLTAMETER 45

noted by some earlier observers. The reasons why the salt recrys-

tallized and fused according to the well known researches of

Richards and Forbes (although well suited for their purposes of

atomic weight determinations) is not suitable for use in the

voltameter can only be given adequately in the complete paper

to be published in Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. It must

suffice here to say that the authors have carefully followed their

procedure and found the product unsuited for the voltameter,

first because of the slight decomposition resulting from the pro-

longed fusion, and second because of the basicity formed from

the repeated recrystallizations from neutral solutions.

In the fourth and last paper of this series the results subse-

quent to the work of the International Technical Committee will

be given. These include experiments to determine the value of

the Weston Normal Cell made with the highest precision and a

discussion of the action of acid and base in the voltameter.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 712th meeting was held on October 12, 1912. In opening the

meeting President Rosa remarked upon the present limitations of the

field of the Society's activities, but stated that it had had a long and

honorable career.

Mr. L. A. Fischer of the Bureau of Standards addressed the Society

on Some types of false weights and measures found in the United States,

in which it was pointed out that Congress has never adopted any of

the standards now in customary use, altho it is the common impression

that the yard, pound, gallon, and bushel are fixed by legislation instead

of being fixed by custom, which is true. Due to the fact that we have

no national legislation, the states have been compelled to enact legisla-

tion entirely independent of one another, and often laws of neighboring

states have conflicted. As little or no attempt, however, was made to

enforce them until recently, their diversity was of no importance.

A few years after the establishment of the Bureau of Standards or

in 1904, invitations were sent to the governors of the states to send

delegates to a conference to be held in Washington the following year

for the purpose of securing uniform laws and regulations for' weights

and measures. Only eight states and the District of Columbia sent

delegates, but so much interest was manifested by the delegates who

attended, as well as by the authorities in those states which, for one

reason or another, were unable to send representatives, that it was

decided to hold subsequent conferences each year. Altogether seven

conferences have been held, and much work of a constructive nature

has been accomplished. A model law was drafted, and this law has

been adopted with modifications to suit particular states, by thirteen

states. In order to bring home to the authorities in the states that

failed to become interested in the movement for better conditions, and

also for the purpose of assisting the weights and measures officials in

the states that were active, the Bureau made an investigation of the

conditions of the weights and measures in general use thruout the

country, as well as to investigate the manner of their use. Every state

in the Union was visited, and inspections were made in 184 cities or

towns ranging in size from New York City, with a population of 4,500,-

000, to Carson City, Nevada, with a population of 2200. A number

of stores using weights and measures were visited in each town or city

and the condition of the scales, weights and measures was noted.

46

PEOCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 47

Something over 30,000 scales, weights and measures were tested, and

about 45 per cent of the scales were found to be 3 per cent or more in

error, mostly favoring the dealer.

A little less than 4000 prints of butter were also weighed, and an

average shortage of 0.05 ounce per pound or 3.25 per cent was found,

taking the estimates of the Bureau of Standards as to the consumption

of butter per capita, and assuming that 30 per cent of the butter is sold

in the form of prints, and is retailed at 33 cents per pound, it is found

that there is a loss to the consumers of the country of $8,228,000 from

this one item, and that this shortage is not accidental is shown by the

fact that prints of the same brand of butter sold in two cities, one of

which had an ordinance requiring the net weight to be marked on the

outside of the print, while the other had no such requirement, were full

one-pound in the first case while consistently short in the second.

The results of the investigations were communicated to the state

officials and to individuals interested in weights and measures reform

in the states, and contributed very largely to the passage of the excel-

lent laws recently adopted by the states.

The activity of the states has brought out the fact that some national

legislation is necessary, in order to unify the standards and methods, and

bills to effect this are now before Congress.

The 713th meeting of the Society was held on October 26, 1912,

Vice-President Fischer presiding. Two papers were read.

The 1912 excursion of the American Geographical Society: Mr. W. J.

Humphreys, of the U. S. Weather Bureau.

This excursion, trans-continental in scope, was eminently successful,

and was, in celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of the founding of

the American Geographical Society and of the completion of its new

home. Prof. W. M. Davis had charge of the arrangements of the trip,

and of the personnel which consisted principally of distinguished per-

sons from thirteen different European countries, more than half of

whom were men the most eminent in their branches of work.

The special train on which the party traveled and its equipment were

mentioned, and the route of travel and points of interest visited were

briefly outlined and illustrated by a number of interesting lantern

shdes. The results of the trip were briefly summarized, among which

may be mentioned the very favorable impression that the visitors re-

ceived of America.

At the conclusion of Dr. Humphrey's paper the Secretary was for-

mally directed to communicate to the American Geographical Society

this Society's deep appreciation and thanks for the inception and suc-

cessful execution of this memorable excursion, which must be productive

of great and lasting good, not only thru its benefit to geography but

also and especially by reason of the kindly personal relations thus estab-

lished between learned and influential Europeans and Americans.

Some results of the new 7nethod of gravity reduction: William Bowie,

of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. This Journal 2: 499. 1912.

48 PEOCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

The 714th meeting was held on November 9, 1912. The following

papers were read:

Media of high refraction for use with the microscope: H. E. Merwin,

of the Geophysical Laboratory. The chief purpose of the results de-

scribed was to make possible the identification of minerals. The micro-

scope can be used for determination of refractive index of all solutions

that are not opaque. A refractive index chart was exhibited covering

a range of 1.5 to 3.0, and the physical properties of the mixture used to

get this range were described. This range of media can be made

standard by weighing out the materials. The absorption and heat

effects were spoken of, and the variations of some of the media were

described.

The last meeting of the International Geodetic Conference at Hamburg:

0. H. TiTTMANN, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. A brief account

was given of the origin and growth of what is now the International

Geodetic Association, and of its present organization and its work, this

being followed by a brief outline of what the Hamburg meeting dealt

with. The mode of government of the State of Hamburg was men-

tioned. About 50 delegates attended the conference from the 20 dif-

ferent countries represented. Much interest was taken in the reports

on the variation of latitude work, and the next most important question

was triangulation, of which the United States has generally reported

the most work done. Isostasy was not much discussed. The social

functions and points of interest visited were spoken of.

Under Informal communications Mr. Tittmann spoke of an automo-

bile without springs, invented by Josef Hofmann, the pianist, and Mr.

Bowie called attention to the completion of the marking of the boundary

between Alaska and Canada north of the Yukon River, under the direc-

tion of Mr. Tittmann as commissioner on the part of the United States.

Before closing the meeting the chair announced the. death of Dr.

Robert Fletcher a past president of the Society.

The 715th meeting, held on November 23, 1912, was devoted to a

general discussion of The application of the microscope to physical prob-

lems, the opening paper being given by Mr. F. E. Wright.

In introducing the subject the speaker grouped the uses of the micro-

scope under three principal heads, (1) Qualitative, as a magnifying

glass, a seeing instrument; (2) as a measuring device, and (3) as an

optical instrument, such as for measuring the optical properties of min-

erals. Types of microscopes were exhibited and their construction and

manipulation described, illustrating the above mentioned uses of micro-

scopes. A number of accessories were also spoken of which are designed

to facilitate and extend the use of the microscope, especially as a meas-

uring and optical instrument. In the discussion which followed:

Mr. Briggs spoke of his experience with the ultra-violet microscope,

pointing out its advantages and disadvantages, and the methods em-

ployed to overcome the disadvantages, such as finding the object to be

seen after it is on the stage, in which resort was had to the use of a

proceedings: philosophical society 49

fluorescent screen, against which it was difficult to focus the microscope.

The focusing is assisted by the use of monochromatic blue light.

Messrs. Rosa and Vinal mentioned the use of the microscope in

connection with the determination of the ampere with the silver voltam-

eter, particularly with reference to the method of growth of silver

crystals and the effect on their appearance when impurities are present.

Mr. Burgess described a micropyrometer which is convenient for

measuring melting points of microscopic samples.

Historical aspects and the present status of the microscope were

discussed by Messrs. Wead, Fenner, Merwin, Nutting, Humphreys

and TiLLYER. The last emphasizing the use of the blue line of the

mercurj^ lamp as illuminator and suggesting an improved form of

projection eye-piece.

The 716th meeting was held on December 7, 1912. Two papers were

read.

A consistent theory of the origin of the earth's magnetic field: L. A.

Bauer, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. See this Journal 3:

1. 1913.

The earth inductor as an inclinometer: N. E. Dorsey, of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington. The speaker gave an outline of the theory

of the earth inductor with a continuously rotating coil and commutator.

When thermal electromotive forces exist in the circuit the setting of

the coil for a zero glavanometer deflection depends upon the speed; if

however, the axis of rotation lies in the magnetic meridian this effect

of variations in the speed is usually very small. A method for adjust-

ing the brushes so that commutation shall take place when the plane

of the coil is parallel to the inclination axis was described. When the

brushes are thus set, and the inclination of the coil is so adjusted that

the deflection of the galvanometer is independent, in both magnitude

and direction, of the direction of rotation of the coil, provided the speed

is the same in both cases, then the direction of the axis of the coil is

exactly the direction that would be taken by a perfect dip needle placed

with its pivots parallel to the inclination axis of the inductor. This is

true for all azimuths, and is independent of the presence of thermal

electromotive forces, provided that they are independent of the direc-

tion of rotation of the coil. For use at sea it is the mean value of the

galvanometer deflection that must be independent of the direction of

rotation.

The 42d annual (717 regular) meeting was held on December 21,

1912, Vice-President Burgess in the chair. The meeting was devoted

to hearing the annual reports of the officers and to the election of officers

for 1913, the following being chosen: President, C. G. Abbot; Vice-

presidents, L. A. Fischer, W. S. Eichelberger, G. K. Burgess,

William Bowie; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman; Secretaries, W. J. Hum-

phreys and J. A. Fleming. General Committee: N. E. Dorsey, L. J.

Briggs, E. Buckingham, B. R. Green, E. G. Fischer, R. A. Harris,

F. A. Wolff, D. L. Hazard, R. L. Paris.

R. L. Paris, Secretary.

50 proceedings: geological society

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 260th meeting, the first meeting for the fall, was held in the

Cosmos Club, November 13, President Stanton in the chair. As an

informal communication F. C. Schrader gave a brief account of an

occurrence of bauxite in vertical fissure vein deposits thru limestone

in the Bovard district of southern Nevada.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The work of the Conservation Congress: David White. Mr. White.

was introduced as the new Chief Geologist of the Geological Survey,

this being the first public announcement of his appointment to succeed

Mr. Lindgren. He was received with hearty applause. ,

Reconnaissance in the Southern Wasatch Mountains: G. F. Loughlin.

The speaker presented certain structural and stratigraphic data col-

lected during a reconnaissance survey of the ore deposits in the Wasatch

Mountains from the Cottonwood district southward to the northern

' part of the Mt. Nebo ridge. The only Pre-Cambrian exposure south

of the Cottonwood canyons is a band of Pre-Cambrian granite and

schists extending for a mile along the base of the Santaquin ridge. This

band is overlain unconformably by Cambrian quartzite about 800 feet

thick. The Cambrian quartzite was found to include the occurrences

mapped by the Fortieth Parallel Survey as the Ogden (Devonian)

quartzite. The "Ogden" quartzite in the Cottonwood district proved

to be a portion of the Cambrian, overthrust upon Madison (lower

Mississippian) and older limestone, ■ shale members in the overthrust

quartzite carrying Cambrian fossils. Blackwelder's elimination of the

Ogden quartzite in the northern Wasatch country is thus confirmed.

The "Ogden" quartzite in the Cottonwood, as well as in the American

Fork and Provo districts is overlain by the regular succession of Cam-

brian to Mississippian limestones — the same succession as is found above

the Cambrian quartzite on the Santaquin ridge; but the thickness of

the pre-Mississippian limestones is much less than in the Bear River

ridge to the north or in the Tintic range to the southwest.

The stratigraphic section in the Cottonwood district is continuous

from the Pre-Cambrian thru the Triassic; but southward the Weber

(Pennsylvanian) have been bevelled off by an unconformity, since

Eocene (Wasatch?) conglomerate, east of the Santaquin ridge, rests

unconformably upon the upper Mississippian. West of Santaquin a

veneer of the Eocene conglomerate rests upon pre-Mississippian lime-

stone, and in the Sevier River Canj^on, the same conglomerate rests

upon Cambrian quartzite, thus showing that the whole Paleozoic section

was bevelled by the unconformity. At all these localities the Eocene

conglomerate is covered by patches of volcanic rocks, chiefly by a

coarse andesitic breccia.

The principal structures noted are (1) westward overthrusts, including

that alreadv mentioned in the Cottonwood district and others at Santa-

proceedings: geological society 51

quin and 7 miles still further south, Cambrian quartzite in every case

overriding Mississippian limestone; (3) local doming and eastward

reverse faulting around the intrusive Cottonwood granite stock; (3)

fissuring and mineralization following the Cottonwood intrusion; (4)

late normal (block) faulting which developed the Basin range. The

latter is especially well exposed in the low western flanking ridges between

Mt. Nebo and Santaquin, where the faults which lie along depressions

can be proved by the discordant relations of the bed rock. The block

faulting took place after the post-Eocene volcanic eruptions.

New data on the ^^Knox dolomite" in Tennessee and the "Ozarkian"

in Missouri: E. O. Ulrich. Robert Anderson, Secretary.

At the 261st meeting, held at the Cosmos Club on November 27,

1912, under informal communications, the follomng paper was pre-

sented :

An occurrence of yetroleum near Cody, Wyoming: D, F. Hewett. A

petroleum spring was observed under unique conditions in the Akaroka

Mountains, in northwestern Wyoming, during the summer of 1912. It

is located on the west bank of Sweetwater Creek, 2| miles north of its

junction with the North Fork of Shoshone River, and is therefore about

26 miles due west of the town of Cody. The geology of the region is

described by Hague in Folio No. 52, and the spring is situated in the

basic andesite flows of Miocene age on the line (Lat. 40° 30') between

the Ishawooa and Crandall sheets.

The spring is unique in that it lies within 100 yards of several small

sulfur deposits, situated on the east side of Sweetwater Creek. The

sulfur deposits are identical in nature to those 12 miles north on Sun-

light Creek, which were examined in 1911, and a report upon which

appears in U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 530, part 0, 1911.

The deposits embrace two classes of material: (1) sulfur which lies along

the walls of open fractures in the lavas, ancl from which gases con-

taining CO2, CH4 and HoS are issuing, and (2) sulfur filling the inter-

stices of gravels and s\irface debris along stream channels. The second

class of material probably covers fracture zones. The oil spring is

opposite an area 100 feet square into which prospect pits have been

sunk showing sulfur cementing angular rock debris to a depth of 9 feet.

Other smaller deposits of sulfur lie 700 feet farther up the creek.

Oil was first recognized issuing from the sands adjoining the creek.

In the hole which was dug along the bank, water and oil slowly

accumulated and several quarts of clear light oil were thus collected

during the summer of 1911. During the writer's visit a pit was dug

near the location of the old one which had been destroyed by freshets.

The sand at this point is dark brown and has an asphaltic odor, but

otherwise is such as would form bars along rapid mountain streams.

In the short time at the writer's disposal only enough oil was collected

to give assurance of its identification, but not enough for analysis.

Tho the superficial rocks of this region are igneous flows and breccias,

these rocks overlie a great thickness of sedimentary rocks ranging in

52 PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

age from Cambrian to Eocene, the Mesozoic section alone being approxi-

mately 14,000 feet thick 25 miles east. The sandstones of the Lower

Cretaceous are oil-bearing near Cody, and the oils are hght, relatively

clear, and have a paraffin base. Evidence in nearby regions shows that

the sedimentary rocks are much folded and that the lavas are cut by

many intricate fractures, some of which, at least, are of recent origin.

Sandstones outcrop on Shoshone River, 2| miles south of the oil spring

and about 400 feet lower, so that the lavas at the sulphur deposit are

probably not over 500 feet thick.

The oil is probably to be traced to the sedimentary rocks, but its

close relation to the sulfur deposits is unusual.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The Joplin lead and zinc deposits: C. E. Siebenthal. •

Secondary enrichment in silver: E. S. Bastin. Microscopic studies of

specimens of silver ore collected by E. S. Bastin and J. M. Hill from

the mines near Lawson, Clear Creek County, Colorado, and near Cari-

bou, in Boulder County, show that the ores owe their value largely to

downward sulfide enrichment. The rich secondary sulfides are devel-

oped not only in cracks in the original ore, but as metasomatic replace-

ments of galena and quartz. Sketches were exhibited illustrating such

replacement. In the belief that such phenomena were of rather wide-

spread occurrence, a specimen collected by W. H. Weed from the Big

Seven mine, Neihart district, Montana, was polished and examined

under the microscope. Replacements similar to those in the Colorado

ores were well shown by the Montana specimen.

Certain mineralogical differences between the ores which exhibited

enrichment in silver and other ores in the district which did not exhibit

such replacement were pointed out. R. W. Richards, Secretary.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

January 30 at 8.15 p.m.. Cosmos Club Assembly Hall. Illustrated

lecture by Dr. Arthur L. Day, Some observations on the volcano Kilauea

in action.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 86th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington will

be held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday,

February 4, 1913.

SCIENTIFIC PROGRAM

Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature.

T. H. Kearney, Indicator value of natural vegetation in the Tooele

Valley.

H. B. Shaw, The control of seed production in beets.

The program will be followed by a social hour, with refreshments.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill, FEBRUARY 4, 1913 No. 3

PHYSICS. — Suggestions for frost protection. Kakl F. Keller-

man, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The high thermal capacity of water has made possible the

development of more or less elaborate enclosed systems for warm-

ing air spaces, such as living rooms, but very little attention has

been paid to the utilization of water in efforts to protect orchards

from frost. It would seem, however, that the rapid and efficient

distribution of heat occasionally necessary in orchards, where

modern systems of frost prevention are employed, could be con-

trolled more satisfactorily and with less expense thru a develop-

ment of water-heating systems.

The rapid evaporation when fine sprays of water are driven

into the open air in summer weather has a cooling effect, due to

the absorption from the air of a quantity of heat equal to the

latent heat of vaporization of the water evaporated, which is so

far in excess of the quantity of heat delivered to the system by

the water introduced, that a short experiment under these con-

ditions is misleading. The rapid decrease, with decreasing tem-

perature, of the tension of aqueous vapor would make easily

possible the artificial saturation of air at or below 0°. As soon

as this artificial dew-point has been established the high calorific

value of water vapor, or finely divided particles of water, would

become operative.

Three methods of thus utilizing water appear possible: (1) the

atomizing, or spraying by the use of power sprays, of fine mists

53

54 kellerman: suggestions for frost protection

of water which might be warmed at a central station; (2) the

suspension of pans holding small quantities of water above each

of the fire pots now in use; and (3) the pumping, thru a permanent

system of pipes, of steam generated at a central station and mixed

wdth large quantities of air to prevent condensation in the pipes.

While there would be a considerable water economy in the

use of steam by either the second or third methods, the feasi-

bility of water heating will be sufficiently well illustrated by

describing with approximate figures the theoretical possibilities

of only the first method.

If we neglect for the moment the effect of evaporation and the

presence of water vapor in the air, the heat liberated by 1 liter

of water in cooling from 90° to 0° C. is, in round numbers, cap-

able of raising the temperature of 296,100 liters of air from

— 1° to 0°C. To raise the temperature of a column of air 3.29

meters high and covering 1 hectare from —1° to 0° should there-

fore take approximately 111 liters of water at 90°. Assuming

that the humidity of such a column of air was 80 per cent, and

that at a temperature of —1° it would be saturated by 155 liters

of water, the evaporation of the 31 liters of water required for

saturation would absorb heat equivalent to that given off in

cooling 184 liters from 90° to 0. The very small quantity of

hot water, about 1 liter, required to raise the temperature of

this aqueous vapor from —1° to 0° is almost negligible. For the

rise of each degree, however, approximately 1.1 liters must go to

saturate the column of air under discussion, and in evaporating

this quantity of water heat is absorbed equivalent to that given

off in lowering 7.4 liters of water from 90° to 0°. The total

quantity of water at 90° which must be thoroly distributed to

cause the initial rise from —1° to 0° of the air column 3.29 meters

high, covering 1 hectare, is therefore 111 + 1 + 208.9 + 7.4 =

328.3 liters; the subsequent rise from 0° to 1° would require

111 +1 +1.1 +7.4 = 120.5 liters of water at 90°; the increase

from 1° to 2° would require 111 + 1 + 2.5 + 7.4 = 121.9 liters of

water at 90°; and the increase from 2° to 3° would require 111 +

1 + 3.9 + 7.4 = 123.3 liters at 90°.

For a body of air 26 feet deep, covering 1 acre, 86.7 gallons of

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 55

water at 194°F. would be necessary to raise the temperature

from 30.2°F. to 32°F., if the humidity was 80 per cent; 31.8 gal-

lons more would be required to raise the temperature to 33.8°F. ;

32.2 gallons additional for 35.6°F.; and 32.6 gallons additional

for 37.4°F. Probably much larger quantities would be necessary

in actual practice, due to loss of heat by convection currents,

by imperfect distribution of the water and by the radiation con-

tinually taking place into the air outside of the heated zone.

In still air this proposed vapor system has the advantage of

the protective quality of the fog thus artificially produced, due

both to lessening the radiation from the earth and to the heat

given off if the water particles actually began to freeze.

GEOLOGY. — Some variations in Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy .^

Timothy W. Stanton.

That the stratigraphic development of the Cretaceous has

been different in distinct basins of sedimentation is well under-

stood. No one would think of applying the same set of form-

ation names to the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Rocky Moun-

tain region and to those of the Atlantic coastal plain or to those

of the Pacific border. The physical conditions of sedimentation

were very different and they have resulted in different lithologic

successions and in more or less distinct faunal facies. The fact

that there is great local variation, often within short distances,

in a single area like that of the Rocky Mountains. and adjoining

Great Plains has been slower of recognition. It is true that the

extension of more detailed work, especially when accompanied

by area! mapping, has brought such local variations into prom-

inence in many places but their importance has apparently often

been overlooked by geologists, whose natural tendency is to

apply the old established stratigraphic standards when they

enter neighboring new fields, even when they realize that the

standards must be warped and th^ new facts distorted in order

to make the adjustment.

It may be of interest to cite a few cases of local variation, taking

^ Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Sur-

vey. Presidential address delivered before the Geological Society of Washing-

ton, December 11, 1912.

56 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

the examples entirely from the region of the Rocky Mountains

and adjacent plains, from central New Mexico northward to the

Canadian boundary and confining them to that part of the Upper

Cretaceous column which is within the limits of marine sedimen-

tation for the region and does not involve any possible uncon-

formities.

The classic upper Missouri section of Meek and Hayden-

recognized only five formations, viz. :

feet

Fox Hills sandstone 500

Fort Pierre shale 700

Niobrara limestone 200

Fort Benton shale 800

Dakota sandstone ■ • 400

(See Section No. 1, p. 58)

The thicknesses given were of (bourse mere estimates based

on rapid reconnaissance over great distances, the type localities

being scattered from eastern Nebraska to central Montana.

The section actually passed far to the west of the area in which

the Niobrara limestone is developed and crossed a region where

a large part of the Pierre shale is represented by littoral, estuarine,

and terrestrial deposits. With his standard Cretaceous section

recognizing only two sandstones, one at the top and the other at

the bottom, it is no wonder that Hayden wavered in his assign-

ment of the sandstones beneath the Judith River formation,

sometimes referring them doubtfully to the Dakota and later

correlating them with the Fox Hills.

The geologists of the Fortieth Parallel Survey found that the

Niobrara did not retain its lithologic character so as to be recog-

nizable over a large part of the area surveyed by them and they

therefore attempted to map as one great shale group all the rocks

lying between the Dakota and the Fox Hills. They also apprec-

iated the fact that the Cretaceous sediments in the neighbor-

hood of the Wasatch Mountains, at Coalville, Utah, for example,

include an unusual development of sandstones thruout the

section, which they attributed to near shore conditions, but if

they did not succeed in making a consistent map and section of

the Upper Cretaceous it was largely because they adopted the

2 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1861, p. 419.

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 57

idea that there are no important or persistent sandstones between

the Dakota and the Fox Hills, while the fact is that in the area

of their map this interval includes two thick coal-bearing form-

ations in which sandstones are the dominant feature.

Evidently at least one new standard section, with modified

nomenclature, was needed and this was furnished in southwestern

Colorado. Holmes and others on the Hayden Survey nearly

forty years ago had shown that the stratigraphic development

differed considerably from that of the sections in the upper Mis-

souri region and in Colorado east of the mountains. In the

course of the areal work under the direction of Cross, the grouping

and nomenclature of Holmes' section were modified and pub-

lished in the La Plata and Telluride folios^ from which the fol-

lowing descriptions are condensed (Section No. 2, p. 58) :

Lewis shale. More or less sandy gray or drab shale with thin lenses

or concretions of impure limestone. Thickness in Durango quadrangle,

2000 feet.

Mesaverde formation. Alternating sandstones and shales with occa-

sional marls or thin limestones and a number of coal beds. Lower 250

feet form a transition from Mancos shale followed by heavy sandstone

125 feet thick. At top a massive sandstone 25 feet thick. Total thick-

ness, 1000 feet.

Mancos shale. Soft, dark-gray or almost black carbonaceous clay

shale containing thin lenses or concretions of impure limestone. Thick-

ness, 1200 feet.

Dakota sandstone. Gray or rusty brown quartzose sandstone with

variable conglomerate. 100 to 300 feet.

The names Lewis, Mesaverde and Mancos have since been

applied with varying success and acceptability thruout western

Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, eastern Utah, and south-

ern Wyoming. As described in the different areas each of these

formations varies greatly in thickness and considerably in lith-

ologic character. For the purpose of showing the nature of this

variation let us take the Mancos shale which over a large area is

limited above and below by the easily recognized Mesaverde

formation and the Dakota sandstone, respectively. In the type

section just west of the La Plata quadrangle the Mancos con-

sists of 1200 feet of dark gray shale containing some lenses or

concretions of impure limestone, but in the Telluride quadrangle

^ Geologic atlas of the United States, Folio 60 and 57.

58

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

UPPER CRETACEOUS SECTIONS

ScccJe //'nc/? = 6oo ihef

Sec. ^

Southwest

Colorado

/

I

Sec. I /

Upper Missouri

[Meek and Hayden)

I

■.■.■.. ■••./

/

Rbx Hills

/

I

TT

Pierre

Niobrara

Ben+on

Dakota

Lewis

Seo-3

Casa Salaz.ar

New Mexico

MesHverde

Man cos

Dakafe

caoOO

Mancos

Sec.4

Lacuna

New Mexico

Dakotaf?)

Mancos

D3ko+a(?>

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

59

UPPER CRETACEOUS SECTIONS

ScaJe / /'nch =80oy^eef'

Sec. 6

Blackfeet Indian

Reservation

ScaJe /inch = 9oo -feet

Sec. S

Judith, Mont.

/-rr

^^Cla^^ett

(marine)

^

/

Bearp^w

Judith River

(non -marine)

St. Mary River

(non-marine)

Sandstone with

recurrent Cla^^ett

fauna (marine)

Bear Paw

i'-ji^ Sandstone, clays

' and shales

Eagle

Colorado

(upper part J

(non-marine)

"(SS.,;^

\:

Sandstone with

Claggett fauna

(marine)

Ea^U

Colorado

(upper part)

60 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

a short distance to the north it is said to be 2000 feet thick and

is described as ' ' gray sandy shale with calcareous bands and sand-

stones." Eastward, however, for nearly 100 miles thru the La

Plata and Durango quadrangles and on to Monero, New Mexico,

the work of Schrader* and Gardner^ has shown that the Mancos

shale maintains about the same thickness and character as at

the type locality. From Monero southward along the eastern

border of the great San Juan area, past El Vado to Gallina and

beyond, a distance of about 50 miles, it continues to be essentially

a shale with no conspicuous sandstone intercalations. On this

point the observations of Lee and Stanton on a recent recon-

naissance from Albuquerque to Monero confirm the descriptions

of Gardner who mentions a sandstone 30 feet thick, 275 feet

below the top of the Mancos, 10 miles north of Gallina and states

that farther south the upper part of the formation consists of

300 feet of argillaceous sandstone and sandy shale grading up into

the Mesaverde formation. The important point to be remem-

bered is that so far the lower three-fourths of the Mancos con-

tains no sandstones except a band usually about 50 feet thick,

of yellowish thin-bedded, shaly, somewhat calcareous sandstone

and sandy shale, characterized by Ostrea lugubris, Scaphites

warreni, and Prionocyclus wyomingensis, representing one of the

most useful, widespread and persistent faunal zones in the Upper

Cretaceous of the Rocky Mountain region. At Mancos this

horizon is about 400 feet above the Dakota but the distance from

the Dakota varies considerably, doubtless on account of varia-

tion in the rate of sedimentation.

South of GalHna along the west base of Naciemento Moun-

tains structural complications and an overlap of the Tertiary

prevent continuous observation of the Mancos for about 20 miles

but the overlying Mesaverde is readily recognized when it

reappears and is continuously exposed to the neighborhood of

Cabezon where it swings west with a low northerly dip. From

that point southward the underlying rocks, including the Man-

cos, are splendidly exposed along the Rio Puerco for 35 miles to

^U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 285, pp. 241-258.

5 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 335-351. Jour, of Geology, 18: 702-741.

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 61

San Ygnacio where they have been described in general terms

by Herrick*' and Johnson and in greater detail by W. T. Lee.^

The Mancos is here expanded to a thickness of fully 2000 feet

and it includes several cliff-making sandstones so that its general

aspect is greatly altered (Section No. 3, p. 58.)

The upper 800 feet or more consist of more or less sandy shale,

generally weathering yellowish, with many bands and lenses of

soft sandstone. Beneath this is a massive, yellowish, cliff-making

sandstone approximately 100 feet thick separated by 350 feet

of dark shale from the brownish, shaly, calcareous sandstone

which forms the zone of Ostrea lugubris and Scaphites warreni

already mentioned. Beneath this zone is another dark shale,

about 500 feet thick, followed by Herrick and Johnson's ''Tres

Hermanos" sandstone which consists of two distinct massive

beds 66 feet and 37 feet thick, respectively, separated by about

50 feet of dark shale. Another dark shale, 55 to 60 feet thick,

intervenes between the basal bed of the "Tres Hermanos" sand-

stone and another somewhat variable sandstone which seems to

represent the Dakota, although it is here only from 25 to 40 feet

thick.

The section of the Mancos just described is all well exposed in

the west side of Prieta Mesa on the Rio Puerco near the village of

Casa Salazar and the sandstones, especially the ''Tres Hermanos,"

make conspicuous cliffs on frequent exposures for 25 miles

along the Rio Puerco. There are minor variations in the thick-

ness of individual members but the general character is consistent

thruout this distance. According to the faunal evidence the

1200 feet of rocks immediately above the Dakota (?) should all

be correlated with the Colorado group, and this part of the sec-

tion instead of being all shale, as in the typical Mancos, includes

at least 200 feet of sandstone in three massive beds. A still

further increase in the sandstones of the part of the section cor-

responding to the "Tres Hermanos" sandstone and associated

" Geology of the Albuquerque sheet (New Mexico). Denison Univ. Sci. Lab.

Bull. vol. xi, art. ix, pp. 175-239.

^ Stratigraphy of the coal fields of northern central New Mexico. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am. 23: 571-685.

62 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

shales may be seen at Laguna, New Mexico, about 30 miles

southwest of the exposures just described. Here within the 350

feet immediately above the Dakota (?),^ which is 85 feet thick,

there are three massive cliff-making sandstones instead of two,

and the overlying 75 feet beneath the lava cap is a sandy shale

with soft sandstone bands. Marine fossils are abundant and

characteristic so that there is ample evidence for detailed correla-

tion. (Section No. 4, p. 58.)

These New Mexican exposures may perhaps all be legitimately

called Mancos though it may be questionable practice in the

localities most remote from well recognized Mesaverde. In south-

ern Utah where the name is not appropriate the equivalent of

the lower, or Colorado portion of the Mancos may still be very

definitely determined by means of two or more paleontologic

zones which are common to southern Utah and the part of New

Mexico which has just been discussed. Sections recently studied

by Richardson^ in Kanab Valley and further west in the Colob

plateau show a thickening of this part of the section and a greater

development of sand stone as compared with the New Mexican

section, together with the intercalation of coal beds and brackish

and fresh-water sediments in the basal portion. They also show

according to unpublished data great local increase in the relative

proportion of sandstone and in the total thickness of the sedi-

ments in passing a short distance west from Kanab Valley.

Some of these southern Utah sections show close resemblance

to the Coalville section in northern Utah and it in turn has many

points in common with the immensely thick section described

by Veatch^o ^nd Schultz^i in Uinta County, Wyoming, the south-

west corner of the state. In the Uinta county section beneath

the ''Laramie" formation in descending order come the Hilliard

shale, consisting of gray to black sandy shale and shaly sandstones

* Darton has published a section of the Cretaceous rocks exposed 2 miles north-

east of Laguna (U. S. Geol. Survey Bull 485, p. 60) in which numbers 8 and 9 cor-

respond to the Dakota(?) of my section. The underlying rocks, over 300 feet in

thickness are suggestive of Morrison.

9 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull, 341, pp. 379-400.

10 U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper No. 56.

11 Ibid., Bull 316, pp. 212-241.

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 63

5300 to 6800 feet thick; the coal-bearing Frontier formation with

yellow and gray sandstone, yellow, gray and black carbonaceous

shales and numerous coal beds, 2200 to 2600 feet thick; the Aspen

shale, 1500 to 2000 feet thick; and the fresh- and brackish-water

Bear River formation which attains a thickness of 5000 feet.

For the present purpose the chief interest in this great section

lies in the fact that it is so unlike the sections in areas a short

distance to the east, as at Rock Springs, 70 miles east, described

by Schultz,^- and in the Rawlins district, 80 miles farther east,

described by Veatch,!^ Ball,^^ and E. E. Smith. ^^ In these more

eastern sections the Bear River is absent as might be expected.

Its place in the section is occupied by a thin representative of

the Dakota sandstone. The Frontier is faintly recognizable in

a comparatively thin sandstone-bearing formation without coal.

It is overlain by a great mass of dark clay shale, sandy shale

and shaly sandstone 4000 to 5000 feet thick followed by a thick

and very important coal-bearing formation and a marine shale

for which the names Mesaverde and Lewis, respectively, have

been brought in from Colorado. Assuming that Mesaverde is

here correctly identified the logical treatment would be to apply

the name Mancos to all the rocks between the Mesaverde and

the Dakota but on account of the great thickness of those beds

and their partial differentiation into members that have come

in from other areas on the east and west this has not yet been

done. The Mesaverde and Lewis together apparently represent,

in part at least, the Hilliard shale of the Uinta County section.

Both these sections show very great thickening so that the total

sediments from the base of the Mancos or Colorado up, amount

to more than 10,000 feet. The chief difference lies in the fact

that the Uinta County section develops a great coal-bearing

formation of sandstone and shale in the lower part witliin the

equivalent of the Colorado group, while the Rock Springs and

more eastern sections have no coal in that part of the column but

12 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 256-282.

13' Ibid., Bull. 316, pp. 244-260.

" Ibid., Bull. 341, pp. 243-255.

15 Ibid., Bull. 341, pp. 220-242.

64 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

develop a similar great coal-bearing formation in the upper or

Montana portion. These widely different neighboring sections

seem to me to represent the varied and shifting sediments laid

down in and on the borders of a single body of water. Slight

warping of the surface, or local changes in the rate of sedimenta-

tion from whatever cause, would serve to shift the area of sea

and coastal swamp from time to time.

One more standard section, with the changes and variations

in its formations as they are followed away from their typical

area, remains to be examined. In connection with their strat-

igraphic study of the Judith River formation Stanton and

Hatcher'*' established the following succession in northern central

Montana:

Bear-paw shale. Dark clay shale with marine fauna, 750 feet?

Judith River Jormation. Variable shales and soft sandstones with

dinosaurs and other reptiles and fresh- and brackish-water invertebrates,

500 feet.

Claggett formation. Dark clay shale with several beds of sandstone

especially in the upper portion. Marine fossils throughout — those of

the sandstones containing many Fox Hills species, =^ 400 feet.

Eagle sandstone. White, gray and yellowish sandstone with shale

and coal in upper part. Marine shells, land plants and dinosaurs.

200 to 300 feet.

Colorado shale. Dark marine shale, 800 feet or more.

(See Section No. 5, p. 59.)

Compared with the southwestern Colorado section the top of

the Colorado shale in this section is believed to be somewhat

lower in the general column than the top of the Mancos but with

this exception the Eagle, Claggett, and Judith River, taken to-

gether, are comparable in a general way with the Mesaverde,

and the Bearpaw is approximately in the position of the Lewis.

The formations above the Colorado shale described in the

neighborhood of Judith, Montana, were found to be easily rec-

ognizable along the Missouri River in the type area above and

below the mouth of Judith River ; on Milk River from the neigh-

borhood of Havre to the Canadian boundary and beyond; and

southward in the valley of the Musselshell. These formations

have since been mapped by the geologists of the Fuel Section

16 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 257, pp. 11-14.

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 65

of the Survey over large areas in Montana and the hniits of

their areal distribution are now fairly well known. The most

persistent is the Eagle sandstone which has been recognized as

far south as the Bighorn Basin and northwest to the western

limit of the Great Plains in northern Montana, The overlying

Claggett, Judith River and Bearpaw formations in many local-

ities lose their distinguishing features within shorter distances.

None of them has been recognized as such east of the typical

area. In that direction the fresh- and brackish-water beds of

the Judith River doubtless soon grade laterally into marine shale

so that there is no basis for distinguishing Claggett and Bearpaw

from Pierre. Toward the south and west, on the other hand,

the marine sediments of the Claggett and Bearpaw tend to be

replaced and represented by estuarine and continental deposits.

A striking example of rapid variation of this kind has been

described by Stone and Calvert^ ^ in the area surrounding the

Crazy Mountains where within a short distance the Claggett,

Judith River and Bearpaw finger out, and at last completely

lose their identity in andesitic tuffaceous deposits which have

been included in the Livingston formation.

Conditions somewhat similar, except for the absence of vol-

canic material, are found in the Bighorn Basin where the Eagle

sandstone is recognized but the attempts to apply Claggett,

Judith River and Bearpaw to the overlying formations have

not been much more successful than the earlier attempts to

apply the Meek and Hayden nomenclature in the same area.

The marine Bearpaw shale just enters the northern end of the

basin as a thin bed which soon wedges out completely. The

reports of Woodruffs ^ and Washburne'^^ and the unpublished,

more detailed work of Hewett show that over a large part of

the Bighorn Basin especially on the west side there are no marine

sediments above the Eagle sandstone, which is itself there only

in small part marine, and that the thick interval between the

Eagle and the well-identified Fort Union is occupied by fresh-

ly Economic Geology, 5: 551-557, 652-669, 741-764, 1910. ^r

18 U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 341, pp. 200-219.

" Ibid., Bull. 341, 165-199.

66 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

water or continental deposits which, while very irregular and

varied, are yet uniform throughout in the character of their

variation. That the time equivalents of Claggett, Judith River

and Bearpaw, as well as the overlying Lance, are all included in

these non-marine deposits seems to me the most reasonable

assumption, tho it is perhaps not yet capable of complete proof.

Another area in which there is a different development of the

rocks between the Eagle sandstone and the Bearpaw shale is the

Blackfeet Indian Reservation in Montana just south of the

Canadian boundary and east of the Rocky Mountain front some-

what more than 100 miles northwest of Judith. (Section No.

6, p. 59.) During the past two seasons the areal mapping and

detailed stratigraphy have been done by Mr. Eugene Stebinger

thru whose courtesy I am permitted to make these general state-

ments based on his detailed work and on data obtained during

two visits which I have made to the field. The Eagle sandstone

resting on Colorado shale with a low dip to the west is normally

developed and forms a conspicuous escarpment extending from

near Cutbank in a northerly or northeasterly direction to the

Canadian line. The Bearpaw shale of typical character and with

a marine fauna, here somewhat meagerly developed, is nearly

500 feet thick. Between these two formations there are almost

2000 feet of sediments in which no practicable formation bound-

aries can be drawn and which Stebinger has therefore mapped

as a unit altho it must include the time equivalents of both Clag-

gett and Judith River. Lithologically it has a closer resemblance

to Judith River and like that formation it is essentially non-

marine. It contains Unio, Viviparus, and other fresh-water shells

at various horizons from the top to within 200 feet of the base.

There are also dinosaurs and land plants, and locally thin brack-

ish-water beds are found with Ostrea, Corbula and Corbicula,

especially at the top and in the lower portions. No evidence

of marine fossils or sediments had been found in the formation

until September of this year when at the town of Cutbank I

found marine fossils locally abundant in a sandstone 50 feet

thick which forms the top of the east wall of the gorge of Cutbank

Creek about half a mile south of the town. The horizon is not

STANTON, UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 67

more than 300 feet above the Eagle sandstone and hence should

be in the equivalent of the Claggett formation. Or, to locate

it more accurately, according to Mr. Stebinger it is immediately-

above the horizon of a thin coal which he has traced down the

creek from the ''Alhson mine" a few miles northwest.

Now the marine fossils found at this place belong to the fauna

which occurs in the sandstones of the Claggett formation at

its type locality and include among the more abundant and con-

spicuous forms Tancredia americana, Cardium speciosum, Mactra

formosa, etc. This is the fauna which in the past Meek, White,

Stanton, and others have called a typical Fox Hills fauna because

these conspicuous and abundant forms — the dominant species as

Prof. H. S. Williams calls them — ^do recur in the Fox Hills sand-

stone at the top of the Cretaceous colunni.

This recurrent fauna when it reaches the Fox Hills is, of course,

not absolutely identical with the sandstone fauna of the Claggett,

but there are enough conspicuous, identical species to make iden-

tification of the horizon uncertain unless the collections are com-

plete or the stratigraphic details fully known. Recurrent faunas

are often troublesome and embarrassing to the stratigraphic

paleontologist and still more so to the stratigrapher who is not

a paleontologist. It is even difficult to prove that the fauna is

recurrent at a higher horizon when the two localities are as far

separated as central Montana and the middle of South Dakota,

as they are in the case of the type localities of the Claggett and

the Fox Hills, although the stratigraphic position of the Claggett

was determined in 1903 independently of the evidence of that

particular fauna and in contradiction of the interpretation that

had been placed on it. There are also many localities now known

where the stratigraphic position of the fauna in question, at one

or the other of the two horizons, is well determined. For these

reasons the argument set forth in a recent article by A. C. Peale^"

that the upper sandstones of the Claggett are identical with the

Fox Hills is altogether fallacious in so far as it is based on litho-

logic and faunal resemblances. Nevertheless it was gratifying

to find this Claggett-Fox Hills fauna in the normal position of

2» Jour, of Geology, 20: 530-549, 640-652, 738-757, 1912.

68 STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY

the Claggett formation and again recurring about 2000 feet

higher in the same section where there is no reason to question

the structure or stratigraphic position. At Cutbank the fossils

are about 300 feet above the Eagle or more than 1500 feet below

the Bearpaw. From this locality there are practically contin-

uous exposures down Cutbank Creek to its mouth where the base

of the Eagle is exposed. Thence westward up Two Medicine

Creek there are continuous exposures and simple structure up to

and thru the Bearpaw with its 500 feet of dark shale. Above

the Bearpaw is a sandstone which makes conspicuous cliffs

near the Holy Family Mission (Family P. O.) on Two Medicine

Creek. Here and at other exposures farther west on the creek

it yielded Tancredia americana, Cardium speciosum, Mactra, etc.,

identical with those fo^nd at the much lower horizon, together

with a number of other forms not found there. This sandstone

is approximately in the position of the Fox Hills and is doubtless

the same sandstone which Dawson identified as Fox Hills in the

adjacent area on the north, tho from the evidence at hand it

would be rash to say that it is strictly identical with the Fox Hills

of South Dakota. At most localities where it has been examined

in the Blackfeet reservation it has proved unfossiliferous or

yielded only Ostrea suhtrigonalis and other brackish-water forms

which are found both in Dawson's St. Mary River formation

above it and in the beds beneath the Bearpaw, but here, on Two

Medicine Creek, there was an incursion of strictly marine water

with an abundant fauna of Fox Hills type.

After this brief digression in pursuit of a recurrent fauna let

us return, for a few moments, to the main topic, which is contem-

porary variation in sedimentation and its bearing on strati-

graphy and geological history. The sedimentary records of the

Blackfeet country, aided by the paleontologic evidence, show

that during the long quiet deposition of the Colorado shale and

while the Eagle sandstone was being laid down by the stronger

currents of the shallowing sea the physical conditions there were

about the same as in a large area on the east and southeast.

Later, during Claggett time, while purely marine conditions still

prevailed a short distance to the east, near Judith, for example.

STANTON: UPPER CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY 69

the Blackfeet country was slightly elevated so that it was occupied

by coastal swamps and lagoons only a few feet above tide into

which slight depressive movements occasionally brought local

and temporary brackish waters and still more rarely a brief incur-

sion of the sea, as is proved in one case by the fossils found at

Cutbank. The Bearpaw shale marks a more important marine

incursion which probably covered the whole area and continued

for some time though it is questionable whether it lasted as long

here as it did in central Montana. At the close of Bearpaw sed-

imentation there was clearly another considerable period of trans-

ition when the area wavered near tide level and received first

marine and then brackish-water sediments before land conditions

were at last permanently established.

We are now in position to understand the difficulties which

Dawson^i encountered in describing and interpreting his section

of the ''Belly River series" along Milk River north of the inter-

national boundary. It was another case of applying the ter-

minology of a single section thru a long stretch of country in which

the stratigraphic development varied. In the eastern portion

where Dawson got the best evidence that the ''Belly River" is

intercalated between two marine formations the section is like

that at the mouth of Judith River while in the western portion

it is the same as in the Blackfeet Indian reservation. In 1903

Hatcher and Stanton visited the localities near Pakowki Lake

and correctly identified as Claggett the ''lower dark shale" there

exposed beneath the "Belly River," thus estabhshing the iden-

tity of the "Belly River" of that section with the Judith River

formation. The mapping of Stebinger has now shown that the

"lower dark shale" on the escarpment of Rocky Spring Plateau

about 40 miles west of Pakowki Lake is Colorado shale and Daw-

son's "Belly River" from that point west includes the Eagle

sandstone and all the overlying rocks to the base of the Bearpaw.

Between these two localities the marine Claggett shale has merged

into non-marine sandstones and shales.

In conclusion the general statement is justified that the Upper

Cretaceous sediments of the Rocky Mountain region show as

21 Geol. Survey of Canada, Kept, for 1882-83-84, pp. Ill C-126 C.

70 spencer: chalcocite deposition

great contemporary local variation in a single basin as may be

found in the deposits now forming along any modern coast. The

local character of many of the beds, the rapidity with which they

merge laterally into others of unlike lithologic character make

it necessary to use many local formation names. They should

also make the geologist cautious in his interpretations of the

absence of any particular bed or formation. When, for example,

a sandstone which forms the top of the marine Cretaceous sec-

tion in one area is absent in another area its absence may be

due to erosion, but its apparent absence may also be due to the

fact that the sandstone is there represented by a shale or by

non-marine deposits of a totally different character.

GEOCHEMISTRY.— Chalcocite deposition. Arthur C. Spen-

cer, Geological Survey. ^

The most common secondary sulfide in many copper mining

districts is chalcocite, occurring under conditions which indicate

that deposition has taken place from solutions containing copper

sulfate. It is not' difficult to show that the direct or indirect

source of this dissolved copper compound is chalcopyrite which

may be termed primary, and it is a matter of observation that

the same double sulfide of iron and copper is a very effective

precipitant or localizer of chalcocite. Pyrite has been usually

regarded as the most common nucleus for secondary chalcocite,

but in certain districts chalcopyrite must be recognized as occu-

pying this role instead of pyrite. The presence and proportion

of chalcocite in ores now being mined on a large scale in several

districts determines their commercial value. This is notably true

of the so-called porphyry ores in which the metallic sulfides are

thoroly disseminated thru great masses of rock.

In 1903 H. V. Winchell^ published the results of experiments

devised to indicate the probable conditions under which chalco-

cite has been deposited in the veins of the Butte district from

waters carrying cupric sulfate. The determining agent in the

deposition was thought to be SO2, and later^ A. N. Winchell

^ Published by permission of the Director.

' Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 14: 269-276. 1903.

3 Economic Geology 2: 290-294. 1907.

spencer: chalcocite deposition 71

showed that SO2 is actually one of the products when pyrite

undergoes oxidation. In a recent discussion of this subject Tol-

man/ who was associated with H. V. Winchell, has used the results

of these two investigations as the basis for an understanding of

the chemistry of secondary chalcocite. Previously, however, it

had been argued by Lindgren,^ that the scheme suggested by

Winchell is open to criticism because no indication is given

as to how SO2 generated in the upper oxidizing zone could reach

the situs of chalcocite deposition, since it would be destroyed in

transit by contact with products of pyrite decomposition.

On its face this reasoning against the Winchell hypothesis

appears to be adequate, but the fuller analysis here presented

tends to show that SO2 may still be an actual factor in the reac-

tion. Since the writer does not have that unwavering faith

which would find in every balanced chemical equation a truth

of fundamental value, it is recognized that the equations of the

series here given afford no demonstration. They do however,

furnish a convenient shorthand to assist in analytical discussion,

and some of them are allowable expressions of known actions.

Chalcocite, deposited in molecular replacement of primary sul-

fides, is a sid^ product of the culminating reaction in a series of

oxidizing effects which occur in situations where water and air

penetrate from the surface to cupriferous sulfide-bearing rock or

vein stuff. The full series of reactions may be divided conven-

iently and logically into three groups, assignable to a higher, an

intermediate, and a lower position in the body of sulfide-contain-

ing material. If considered with respect to the minerals which

suffer decomposition these reactions present a succession of oxi-

dations, while with respect to the active solution the changes are

of course as consistently in the direction of reduction. Group

I comprises the reactions of complete oxidation on the upper

edge of an ore body where free oxygen is present. Group II

comprises reactions ensuing at slightly greater depth and involv-

ing oxidation of sulfides (both primary and secondary) by con-

tact with ferric sulfate. Group III, occurring at still greater

* Min. Sci. Press 106: 42. 1913.

* Copper deposits of Clifton-Morenci. Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 43,

p. 184. 1905.

72 spencer: chalcocite deposition

depth, includes oxidation of sulfides (^primary only) by contact

with cupric sulfate. Or, if the solution is considered rather than

the minerals with which it comes into contact, the three groups

of reactions involve successively depletion of free oxygen; reduc-

tion of ferric to ferrous sulfate; and finally the decomposition

of cupric sulfate derived from previous reactions. This last

reaction is, as a whole, one of double decomposition in which

soluble ferrous sulfate and insoluble cuprous sulfide are formed

at the expense of cupric sulfate and pyrite or chalcopyrite.

Several of the equations which may be written to represent

tentatively the three sets of reactions outlined above are current

in the hterature treating of sulfide oxidation and enrichment.

Others have been supplied by the writer to complete what may

be called natural or obvious sequences. It is believed that no

one of the equations presented contemplates the concomitance of

bodies that are chemically incompatible.

Group I. Intermediate equations and final equation repre-

senting reactions in the upper zone of complete oxidation :

FeSo + 60 = FeS04 + SOo (1)

FeS. + HoO + 70 = FeS04 + H2SO4 (2)

2FeS04 + H0SO4 + O = Fe2(S04)3 + HoO . (3)

2FeS2 + H2O + 150 = Fe2rS04)3 + H0SO4 (4)6

Group II. Intermediate equations and final equation indi-

cating oxidation of pyrite by ferric sulfate. This salt is one of

the soluble products indicated by equation(4) :

FeS2 + Fe2 (804)3 = 3FeS04 + 2S (5)

S + Fe2(S04)3 = 2FeS04 + 2SO2 (6)

SO2 + 2H2O + Fe2(S04)3 = 2FeS04 + 2H2SO4 (7)

FeS2 + 8H2O + 7Fe2(S04)3 = 15FeS04 + 8H2SO4 (8)^

To this group of equations may be added one representing the

decomposition of chalcocite and the simultaneous reduction of

ferric sulfate:

« Derived from equations (2) and (3) by substitution. Where chalcopyrite

is present a corresponding equation will indicate the formation of CUSO4 instead

of H2SO4.

7 Derived from the foregoing equations. Note that (8) is strictly comparable

with (4).

spencer: chalcocite deposition 73

CU2S + 2Fe(S04)3 = 4FeS04 +S+ 2CUSO4

Group in. Intermediate equations and final equation indi-

cating the last stage of pyrite oxidation where cupric sulfate is

the reagent, and chalcocite a side product :

2FeS.2 + 2CUSO4 = CU2S + 2FeS04 + 3S (9)

3S + 2CUSO4 = Cu^S + 4SOo (10)

5SOo + 6H0O + 2CUSO4 = CU2S + 6H0SO4 (11)

5FeSo + I4CUSO4 + I2H0O = TCu.S + 5FeS04 + I2H2SO4 (12)^

Equations analogous to (12) but involving chalcopyrite and

sphalerite in place of pyrite are the following:

SCuFeS. + IICUSO4 + 8H2O =8Cu2S + 5FeS04 + 8H2SO4 (13)

5ZnS + 8CUSO4 + 4H2O = 4CU2S + 5ZnS04 + 4H2SO4 (14)

Here, in the interest of completeness, may be introduced the

Stokes equation representing the change pyrite to covellite, and

the analogous equation involving chalcopyrite:

4FeS2 + 7CUSO4 + 4H2O = 7CuS + 4FeS04 + 4H2SO4 (15) «

CuFeS2 + CUSO4 = 2CuS + FeS04 (16)

It is to be noted that equation (5) which is given by Stokes^"

is stated by him to conform with the observation that on expo-

sure to the air, pyrite yields free sulfur which may be detected

by extraction with ether. Also equation (6) conforms with the

results of experimental oxidation of pyrite by H, N. WinchelP^

and is in accord with observation as recorded by Gottschalk and

Buehler.i2

Of the expressions under Group III, equations (9) and (10) are

seen to be analogous to equations (5) and (6), and if the latter

are real it may be thought likely that the former are. In any

event it is almost obvious that equations (9) to (11) were used

* Derived from the foregoing equations. This expression, which is to be cred-

ited to Stokes, was first printed in the work of Lindgren already cited (p. 183.)

where the reader is led to infer that the equation was tested by quantitative de-

termination of the H2SO4 formed. See also Stokes, Economic Geology, 2: 22,

1907.

9 Stokes, H. N., loc. cit.

10 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 186, pp. 15 and 19, 1901.

11 Loc. cit.

12 Economic Geology 7: 16, 1912.

74 spencer: chalcocite deposition

by Stokes in deducing equation (12), and it is perhaps sufficiently

accurate to regard this chemist as their sponsor. As equation

(10) is to this extent plausible it may be suggested, not inappro-

priately, as offering a link between the two lines of investigation

due to Winchell and Tolman on the one hand and to Stokes on

the other. Equation (10) shows at least the possibility that SO2

may be a product of chemical reaction during the final stage of

oxidation as well as during earlier stages; or, in other words, it

indicates that SO2 may be evolved in the situs of chalcocite depo-

sition as well as in those situations where ferric sulfate undergoes

reduction, as suggested by equation (6), or where free oxygen is

being used as in equation (1). In this manner it may be possible

to avoid the objection raised by Lindgren.

Although the principal object of the present communication

is attained in a tentative reconciliation of the suggestion due to

Winchell with the points urged against it by Lindgren, occasion

may be taken to present certain additional considerations per-

taining to the Stokes equation and analogous expressions.

If the equations given are accepted as affording a working

hypothesis, it might be found that under experimental conditions

the attack of cupric sulfate on pyrite, or preferably on chalcopy-

rite, could be initiated in the presence of a moderate amount of

SO2 and that when thus started the conversion might continue

without further aid, proper environment being maintained by

the presence of SO2 currently evolved. There are good reasons

for the statement that chalcopyrite is less stable than pyrite in

solutions containing salts of copper. For the deposition of

chalcocite, the chemical mechanism involved must be essentially

identical in either case.

When the pyrite and chalcopyrite equations are compared with

respect to volume relations, in the conversion to chalcocite by

molecular replacement the former is found to demand expansion

in the ratio 2:3, while the latter requires little if any volume in-

crease. Accepting both equations, we might anticipate that pyr-

ite would prove to be a less efficient agent than chalcopyrite in

chalcocite deposition. In the porphyry ore at Ely, Ne^^ada,

where grains of primary chalcopyrite and pyrite occur side by

side the former are always more deeply coated with chalcocite

schaller: immense bloedite crystals 75

than the latter and usually the ratio of film thicknesses is greater

than 3:1. The suggested explanation is that replacement con-

tinues only so long as space can be found for the necessary expan-

sion, so that where pyrite is the core mineral for chalcocite

deposition reaction would be inhibited much sooner than where

chalcopyrite is the nucleus.

Essentially the same volume relations appear in using the

simplest possible expressions for complete reaction between cupric

sulfate and pyrite or chalcopyrite when the product is covellite —

equations (15) and (16). It seems safe to predict, therefore,

that chalcopyrite will be shown to be a more favorable nucleus

than pyrite for receiving secondary covellite.

The volume relations required by equation (14) show no essen-

tial change, if sphalerite is transformed into chalcocite — ^that is

the ratio is nearly 1 : 1, a slight expansion being found by calcu-

lation. On the other hand, when sphalerite is converted to

covellite, if the reaction goes on molecularly according to the

simplest equation which may be written, there is a diminution

of volume in the ratio 12 : 11. Other things being equal, it would

seem that volume relations favor the deposition of covellite rather

than chalcocite where sphalerite comes into contact with copper

sulfate solution.

Altho the equations which have been given as a basis for the

foregoing discussions are speculative, it is hoped that the sys-

tematic arrangement here presented may hasten experimental

work which is needed before the chalcocite problem can be

solved.

MINERALOGY. — Immense bloedite crystals. Preliminary note.

Waldemar T. Schaller, Geological Survey.

A recent find of bloedite by Mr. Hoyt S. Gale of the Geological

Survey, is remarkable for the immense size of the crystals. An

extensive deposit of soda forms a crust on Soda Lake, in Carriso

Plain, San Luis Obispo County, California. This deposit has

been described by Arnold and Johnson^ who give a detailed anal-

ysis of the saline crust which shows it to be a nearly pure sodium

1 Bull. 380, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 369. 1908.

76

schaller: immense bloedite crystals

sulfate with 1.66 per cent MgO. In the black mud below this

crust were found the isolated crystals of bloedite — a hydrous

magnesium-sodium sulfate with 12 per cent MgO.

The larger crystals have a dark almost black appearance

when the superficial covering of grey mud is removed tho the

smaller crystals are nearly colorless, the black appearance being

due to impurities. In places the larger crystals are likewise

nearly colorless and translucent and in small pieces transparent.

In fact, selected fragments are clear and glassy and together

with the lack of cleavage, greatly resemble quartz fragments.

The largest crystal at present on hand measures 16^ cm. (6^

inches) by 10| cm. by 3| cm. and weighs 652 grams. The crys-

tals are flattened somewhat parallel to the base and show the

following forms:

Large c(OOl), d(Oll), m(llO)

Medium ._ ._.... .n(210), p(lll)

Small 5(201), s(211), u(lll), a:(121)

The measurements were made with a contact goniometer and

gave the following results:

FORM

m(llO)

c(OOl)

n(210)

TO (110)

d(Oll)

c(OOl)

:p(_lll)...

:g(201)...

:p{in)...

: n"'{210).

: m"'(110).

:d'(0il)..

:s(211)...

: M(lll)...

The form x(121) was determined by zonal relations.

An analysis of selected pure material gave the following:

Analysis of bloedite from California

H2O 21 .37 ■

MgO 11 .93

Na^O 18.26

SO3 ■ 48.11

99.67

These proportions are close to those required by the formula

Na2Mg(S04)2.4H20.

coville: formation of leafmold 77

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.— T/ie formation of leafmold.'

Frederick V. Coville, Department of Agriculture.

When the leaves of a tree fall to the ground they begin to decay

and ultimately they are disintegrated and their substance becomes

incorporated with the other elements of the soil. The same

thing happens with the leaves, stems, and roots of herbaceous

plants. Such organic matter is one of the chief sources of food

for plants, and its presence in the soil is therefore of fundamental

importance in the maintenance of the vegetative mantle of the

earth.

In a series of experiments from 1906 to 1910 the speaker showed

that a condition of acidity is a primary requirement of the blue-

berry, laurel, trailing arbutus, and other plants associated with

them in natural distribution. Other kinds of plants and plant

associations require on the contrary a neutral or alkaline soil.

It is the purpose of the present address to show how the leaves

of trees in the process of the formation of leafmold produce at

one time or under one set of circumstances a condition of soil

acidity, at another time or under other circumstances a condi-

tion of alkalinity, and since the acidity of the soil is a fundamental

factor in plant ecology, to point out that a knowledge of certain

phenomena in the decay of leaves is essential to a correct under-

standing of the distribution of vegetation over the surface of

the earth and its adaptation to the uses of man.

In the early experiments with blueberries it had been found

that these plants grew successfully in certain acid soils com-

posed chiefly of partially rotted oak leaves. On the rather nat-

ural assumption that the more thoro the decomposition of this

material the more luxuriant would be the growth of the blue-

berry plants, some old oak leafmold was secured for further

experiments. It had been rotting for about five years and all

evidences of leaf structure had disappeared. It had become a

black mellow vegetal mold.

When blueberry plants were placed in inixtures containing

this mold they did not respond with luxuriant growth. On the

1 Address of the retiring President, Washington Academy of Sciences, presented

at the annual meeting of the Academy, January 16, 1913.

78 coville: formation of leafmold

contrary their leaves turned purple and afterward yellowish, their

growth dwindled to almost nothing, and- at the end of the season

when compared with other blueberry plants grown in a soil mix-

ture in which the oak leafmold was replaced by only partially

decomposed oak leaves the plants in the oak leafmold were found

to weigh only one-fifth as much as the others. This astonish-

ing result is exactly contrary to the ordinary conception. We

have been accustomed to believe that the more thoroly decom-

posed the organic matter of a soil the more luxuriant its vege-

tation. In this case, however, thoro decomposition of the soil

was exceedingly injurious to the plants.

This remarkable difference in effect between partially decom-

posed and thoroly decomposed oak leaves was found to be cor-

related with a difference in the chemical reaction of the two mater-

ials, the partially decomposed oak leaves being acid, when tested

with phenolphthalein, and the oak leafmold alkaline.

With rose cuttings and alfalfa seedlings in the same two soils

exactly opposite results followed, those in the oak leafmold

making a luxuriant growth, those in the partially decomposed

oak leaves showing every sign of starvation.

Every botanist is familiar with the rich woods where trillium,

spring beauty, mertensia, and bloodroot delight to grow, in a

black mellow mold made up chiefly of rotted leaves. He is

familiar too with the sandy pine and oak woods where grow

huckleberries, laurel, princess pine, the pink lady's slipper, and

trailing arbutus. The soil here also is made up chiefly of rotting

leaves and roots. Yet one does not look for trilliums in laurel

thickets, or for arbutus among the bloodroots. Either habitat

is utterly repugnant to the plants of the other.

Tests of the two habitats show that the trillium soil is alkaline,

the other acid, reactions corresponding exactly to those observed

in the cultural experiments already described, rose cuttings and

alfalfa requiring an alkaline soil, blueberries an acid soil. The

difference is as conspicuous in nature as in the laboratory and

the greenhouse. What are the conditions under which rotting

leaves develop these opposite chemical reactions?

In a ravine in the Arlington National Cemetery, near Washing-

coville: formation of leafmold 79

ton, where the autumn leaf fall from an oak grove has been

dumped year after year for many years, every stage in the decom-

position of oak leaves may be observed, from the first softening

of the dry brown leaf by rain to the black mellow leafmold in

which all traces of leaf structure have disappeared. When

freshly fallen the leaves show 0.4 normal acidity.- Those not

familiar with the chemical expression "normal acidity" may per-

haps most readily understand the term by reference to ordinary

lemon juice, which has very nearly normal acidity in the chem-

ical sense. Fresh oak leaves may be conceived therefore as hav-

ing about one-third the acidity of lemon juice, gram to cubic

centimeter. From a soil standpoint such a degree of acidity is

exceedingly high. Probably no tree or flowering plant could

live if its roots were imbedded in a soil as acid as this. A correct

appreciation of the excessive acidity of freshly fallen leaves ena-

bles one to understand why it is that the leaves of our lawn trees,

if allowed to lie and leach upon the grass, either injure or destroy

it. On such neglected lawns the turf grows thin, mossy, and

starved.

From the height of their initial acidity it is a long descending

course thru the various stages of leaf decomposition to the point

of chemical neutrality, and then upward a lesser distance on

the hill of alkalinity, in the black leafmold stage.

In order to ascertain the rate of decomposition in leaves of

various kinds, observations were begun in the autumn of 1909

on leaves of silver maple, sugar maple, red oak, and Virginia

pine, exposed to the weather in barrels and in concrete pits. In

one experiment a mass of trodden silver maple leaves 2 feet in

depth, with an initial acidity of 0.92 normal, was reduced in a

single year to a 3-inch layer of black mold containing only a few

fragments of leaf skeletons and giving an alkaline reaction. In

these experiments sugar maple leaves have shown a slower rate

of decomposition than those of silver maple, while red oak leaves

still show an acidity of 0.010 normal after three years of exposure,

^ For a description of the method followed in determining the acidity see

Coville, 1910, p. 27. Experiments in blueberrj^ culture. Bulletin 193, Bureau

of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri.

80 coville: formation of leafmold

and leaves of Virginia pine an acidity of 0.055 normal under the

same conditions.

The alkalinity of leafmold is due chiefly to the lime it contains,

the lime content expressed in terms of calcium oxid often reach-

ing 2 to 3 per cent of the dry weight. One sample had a lime

content of 3.55 per cent. Many of the soils that result directly

and exclusively from the decomposition of limestone have a

lower percentage of lime than this. An alkaline leafmold con-

taining 2 to 3 per cent of lime is properly regarded as a highly

calcareous soil. Yet such a deposit may be formed in a region

where the underlying soil is distinctly noncalcareous, the lime

content of the soil being only a small fraction of 1 per cent and

the soil reaction being acid. Whence comes the abundance of

lime in an alkaline, richly calcareous leafmold formed over a soil

distinguished by an actual poverty of calcareous matter?

If the leafmold is rich in lime the leaves from which it is de-

rived should also be rich in lime. A determination of the amount

of calcium oxid in the dried freshly fallen leaves of some of our

well known trees shows this to be true, as illustrated by the fol-

lowing selections:

Per cent of

Kind of leaves calcium oxid

Red oak {Quercus rubra) 1 . 73

Silver maple {Acer saccharinum) 1 . 88

Pin oak {Quercus palustris) 1 . 91

Sweet gum {Liquidamhar styraciflua) 1 .92

Bur oak {Quercus macrocarpa) 2 . 39

Sugar maple {Acer saccharum) 2.56

Tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) 2 . 84

Hickory {Hicoria myristicaeformis) 3 . 66

Gingko {Ginkgo biloba) 4 . 38

It should be understood that the lime thus shown does not

exist in the leaf in the form of actual calcium oxid. It is largely

combined with the acids of the leaf and serves in part to neutralize

them, but is insufficient in amount to effect a complete neutral-

ization. In all the kinds of leaves and herbage thus far examined,

the net result is an acid condition altho lime may be present in

large amount. Thus in the leaves of silver maple a condition

of excessive acidity exists, about 0.9 normal, notwithstanding

the presence of nearly 2 per cent of lime.

coville: formation of leafmold 81

As the decomposition of such leaves progresses the acid sub-

stances are disorganized and largely dissipated in the form of

gases and liquids, while the lime being only slightly soluble

remains with the residue of decomposition, the black leafmold,

and renders it alkaline.

In soils poor in lime, trees and other plants constituting the

vegetative mantle of the earth may be regarded as machines for

concentrating lime at the surface of the ground. This lime is

drawn up by the roots in dilute solution from lower depths, is

concentrated in the foliage, and the concentrate is transferred to

the ground by the fall and decomposition of the leaves. The

proverbial agricultural fertility of the virgin timberlands of our

country was undoubtedly due in large part to the lime accum-

ulated on the forest floor by the trees in preceding centuries, and

to the consequent alkalinity of such surface soils when the tim-

ber had been removed and the leaf litter was thoroly decomposed.

After a generation or two of reckless removal of crops the surface

accumulation of lime was depleted and unless. the underlying soil

was naturally calcareous a condition of infertility ensued which

for the purposes of ordinary agriculture could be remedied only

by the artificial application of lime.

The chief agents in the decay of leaves are undoubtedly fungi

and bacteria. There are other agencies, however, that contribute

greatly to the rapidity of decay. Important among these are

earthworms, larvae of flies and beetles, and myriapods or thou-

sand-legged worms. Animals of all these groups exist in myriads

in the leaf litter. They eat the leaves, grind them, partially

decompose them in the process of digestion, and restore them

again to the soil, well prepared for the further decomposing

action of the microscopic organisms of decay.

The importance of earthworms in hastening the decay of veg-

etal matter was pointed out long ago by Darwin in his classical

studies on that subject. The importance of myriapods, however,

as contributing to the formation of leafmold has not been ade-

quately recognized. In the canyon of the Potomac River, above

Washington, on the steeper forested talus slopes, especially those

facing northward, the formation of alkaline leafmold is in active

82 coville: formation of leafmold

progress. The purer deposits are found in pockets among the

rocks, where the leafmold is not in contact with the mineral

soil and does not become mixed with it. The slope directly oppo-

site Plummer's Island is a good example of such localities. Here

during all the warm months the fallen leaves of the mixed hard-

wood forest are occupied by an army of myriapods, the largest

and most abundant being a species known as Spirobolus margin-

aius. The adults are about 3 inches in length and a quarter of

an inch in diameter. They remain underneath the leaves in the

day time and emerge in great numbers at night. On one occa-

sion a thousand were picked up, by Mr. H. S. Barber, on an area

10 by 100 feet, without disturbing the leaves. On another occa-

sion an area 4 by 20 feet yielded 320 of these myriapods, the leaf

litter in this case being carefully searched. Everywhere are evi-

dences of the activity of these animals in the deposits of ground

up leaves and rotten wood. Careful measurements of the work

of the animals in captivity show that the excrement of the adults

amounts to about half a cubic centimeter each per day. It is

estimated on the basis of the moist weight of the material that

these animals are contributing each year to the formation of

leafmold at the rate of more than two tons per acre.

The decay of leaves is greatly accelerated also when the under-

lying soil is calcareous and alkaline, it being immaterial whether

the lime is derived from a limestone formation or is a concentrate

of the vegetation. On the rich bottomland islands of the upper

Potomac the autumn leaf fall barely lasts thru the following

summer, so rapid is its decay. These bottomlands have an alka-

line flora, and they are found to have an alkaline reaction, caused

by the lime brought to them in the flood waters.

The acceleration of leaf decay by an alkaline substratum is

due to the prompt neutralization of the acid leachings of the leaves

and also to the fact that such a substratum harbors with great

efficiency many of the most active organisms of decay, from bac-

teria to earthworms.

It must not be understood that in a state of nature the decom-

position of leaves is always so simple and uniform a process as

has been described, or that it always results in the formation of

coville: formation of leafmold 83

an alkaline leafmold. The chief factors that contribute to the

acceleration of leaf decay have already been enumerated, but

there are other conditions of nature that obstruct and retard this

process. Under certain conditions the progress of decomposi-

tion may be permanently suspended long before the alkaline

stage is reached. The soils thus formed, altho high in humus like

a true leafmold, have an acid reaction and a wholly different

flora.

Examples of such suspensions of leaf decay are found in bogs,

where the deposited vegetation is protected from the organisms

of decay by submergence in non-alkaline water, and on uplands

where the soil is derived from sand, sandstone, granite, or schist,

in which there is not enough lime or other basic material to

neutralize the acidity of the decaying leaves.

There is of course a supply of lime in the leaves themselves,

and as a new layer of leaves is added to the soil each year it

might be expected that there would result an unlimited concen-

tration of lime in the surface soil and that all surface soils that

supported a growth of vegetation would ultimately become alka-

line. Such an indefinite accumulation of lime is prevented, how-

ever, by another factor which requires consideration. As soon

as each successive layer of leaf litter is sufficiently decayed to

permit the roots of plants to enter it and feed upon it, the lime

it contains, together with other mineral constituents, begins to

be absorbed. This loss of lime from the decaying leaves is suffic-

ient, under many situations in nature, to prevent the decaying

mass from reaching the alkaline stage. Decomposition is sus-

pended while the leaf litter is still acid. True leafmold, with an

alkaline reaction, is never formed under such conditions. The

leaf deposit remains permanently acid and such areas bear an

acid flora. In the vicinity of Washington one often sees hills

of quartz gravel, wind-swept and rain-washed, where the soil

contained little lime in the beginning, and none could be brought

by flood waters or by the dust of the atmosphere. Character-

istic plants of such hills are black jack oak, trailing arbutus, wild

pansy, azalea, and huckleberry, all plants adapted to acute con-

ditions of acidity. If one's front yard happens to coincide with

84 coville: formation of leafmold

what was once such a spot, let him not undertake the herculean

task of growing roses and a bluegrass turf. Let his lawn be of

redtop and his shrubs be azaleas, laurel, and rhododendrons.

Another factor that contributes to the suspension of leaf decom-

position is the acid leachings from each new deposit of autumn

leaves. Various acidity determinations show that after lying

exposed to the weather over winter, leaves ordinarily have only

one-fifth to one-tenth the aciditj^ they possessed when they fell

to the ground. It has been found experimentally that the leach-

ings from fresh leaves will serve to acidulate an underlying soil

of moderate alkalinity. Unless therefore the conditions of a

locality are such as to effect the decomposition of one year's

leaf fall before the next year's deposit takes place, a permanent

acid leaf cover is established. In many of the oak forests on the

sandy coastal plain eastward from Washington there is a perman-

ent accumulation of such material. The roots of the trees and

undershrubs bind the half-rotted leaves into a dense mat. The

principal trees are oaks. The principal shrubs that make up

the dense underbrush belong to the Ericaceae and related fam-

ilies. There is no mellow leafmold nor any of the leafmold plants.

This kind of mat or turf is of such widespread occurrence, is

so distinct in its appearance, and so characteristic in the type of

vegetation it supports that it should have a name of its own, in

order that it may come to be recognized as one of the important

phenomena of nature.

Because if its resemblance to bog peat in appearance, structure,

and chemical composition, and because it supports a type of

vegetation similar to that of bog peat, it has been proposed to

adopt for it the name upland peat. As defined in an earlier

publication-^ upland peat is ''a nonpaludose deposit of organic

matter, chiefly leaves, in a condition of suspended and imperfect

decomposition and still showing its original leaf structure, the

suspension of decomposition being due to the development and

maintenance of an acid condition which is inimical to the growth

of the micro-organisms of decay."

^ Coville, 1910, p. 34. Experiments in blueberry culture. Bulletin 193, Bureau

of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri.

coville: formation of leafmold 85

Upland peat would have become leafmold had not the orderly

normal course of leaf decomposition been suspended and con-

ditions of acidity established which rendered the further progress

of that decomposition impossible.

The rate at which leaves decay is greatly influenced by tem-

perature. In the cooler northern latitudes and at high eleva-

tions in lower latitudes the rate of decay is slower and the form-

ation of upland peat is more general than in warmer climates.

Except on calcareous soils the higher . Apalachian peaks, from

4000 to 6000* feet, bear an almost continuous layer of upland

peat, from a few inches to a foot or more in depth. Their great

rhododendron thickets are rooted in deep beds of upland peat.

The spruce forests of the higher New England mountains lay

down a similar formation.

In the treeless west the decay of leaves where it is not actuallj'

suspended by dryness is rapid and complete. At the higher

elevations, however, where the land begins to be timbered the

organic matter does not fully decay, and in the heavily timbered

areas the deposit of upland peat often becomes characteristic-

ally deep and continuous. In fighting creeping fires in the yellow

pine forests at the lower elevations the favorite and most effective

tool is the rake, which parts the light leaf litter and puts a stop

to the progress of the flames. But in the dense fir and spruce

timber the forest ranger's chief tools are the spade and the mat-

tock, with which he must cut through the thick layer of dry

peat to the mineral soil beneath if he is to effectually combat a

slowly creeping fire.

So strong is the tendency to the formation of peat under the

low temperatures and heavy precipitation of the high mountains

that even on limestone soils a superficial layer of upland peat is

sometimes accumulated. Such a condition exists on innumer-

able areas at an elevation of about 10,000 feet in the Manti

National Forest of Utah. On the basaltic plateau of extreme

northeastern Oregon, where the soil is naturally alkaline in reac-

tion the lodgepole pine and Douglas fir forests at elevations of

5000 feet and over lay down a continuous bed of peat which sup-

ports a characteristic acid flora. A quantitative test of one of

86 coville: formation of leafmold

the acid flora soils of this region, at an elevation of 8000 feet,

showed the customary high acidity at the surface, and succes-

sively lower degrees of acidity underneath, until at the depth of

5 feet, at the surface of the basaltic rock, the reaction was neutral.

The group of plants that forms the best index to the acid char-

acter of a soil is the family Ericaceae, and the related families

Vacciniaceae and Pyrolaceae. When these occur in vigorous

growth on a calcareous soil or among calcareous rocks, as is some-

times reported, one may expect to find, as the speaker in his own

^experience has always found, that a layer of upland peat has

been formed above the calcareous substratum and that in this

superficial layer the roots of the plants find their nourishment,

really in an acid medium, notwithstanding the alkalinity beneath.

Continued observations on the association of certain types of

wild plants with acid and non-acid soils, supported by cultural

experiments, are in all respects confirmatory of the theory that

soil acidity is one of the most influential factors in plant distribu-

tion and plant ecology.

The relation of leafmold to the existence of acid or non-acid

soil conditions may now be viewed with appreciative recognition.

If the conditions in any area are such that the decay of leaves

follows the uninterrupted course that leads to the formation of

leafmold a state of soil alkalinity is reached, with all the resultant

effects on the growth and distribution of the native vegetation.

If on the other hand the conditions are such that the course of

decay is diverted into the channel that ends in the formation

of peat, a condition of permanent acidity is indicated, with the

accompaniment of all those peculiar plant phenomena which are

characteristic of such a state.

It is perhaps desirable to call attention here to the fact that while

partially decomposed vegetation appears to be the chief source of

soil acidity there are mineral constituents of the soil, of wide

distribution and great abundance, which are also acid in reaction.

The acidity of which we hear so much in agricultural writings

as characteristic of soils worn out by long years of careless farm-

ing is doubtless due in large part to a natural mineral acidity

unsheathed by the removal of the lime that once neutralized

coville: formation of leafmold 87

it for like the leaves of trees many of the crops of agriculture

are heavy with lime and their uncompensated removal year after

year has its inevitable cumulative result.

The speaker hopes that he does not overstep the proper bounds

of this address if he calls attention to conditions in bog deposits

which almost exactly parallel the two types of terrestrial organic

formation, leafmold and upland peat. In bogs with alkaline

waters, as for example those underlain by marl, a condition of

permanent acidity is not maintained in the lower strata of the

deposit. As far upward as the alkaline waters penetrate, the

antiseptic acids are not present, decay continues, and the result-

ing formation is not peat, but a plastic fine-grained black material

that may best, perhaps, be designated by that much misused

term muck. Muck corresponds in bog deposits to leafmold in

upland deposits, contrasting with bog peat as leafmold contrasts

with upland peat.

We may follow this idea one step further. Coal is petrified

peat. As the purest peats are not formed in alkaline waters,

it can not be expected that the best coal will be found in situa-

tions indicative of alkaline conditions. If coal is found imme-

diately overlying beds of marl or limestone it is to be expected

that such coal will be of an impure type corresponding in origin

to muck. The speaker takes the liberty of suggesting to his

geological friends that in reconstructing in theory the climatic

and other conditions under which the various kinds of coal were

deposited they may safely hypothesize that the purer coals were

laid down in waters that were acid.

Allusion has been made to the peculiar characteristics of plants

that inhabit peat. Among these peculiarities perhaps none is

more remarkable than the presence of mycorhizal fungi on the

roots of many, perhaps most, peat-loving plants. It is known

that peat is very poorly supplied with nitrogen in the form of

nitrates, which most plants of alkaline soils appear to require.

Organic nitrogen, however, is abundant in peat and there is

very strong evidence that these mycorhizal fungi take up this

organic nitrogen, and possibly atmospheric nitrogen also, and

transfer it in some acceptable form to the plants in whose roots

88 coville: formation of leafmold

they live. Unfortunately the work of botanists on these fungi

has been confined largely to the determination of the mere ana-

tomical fact of their occurrence on the roots or in certain of the

root cells, with descriptions of their size and configuration. Little

attention has been paid to the isolation of the fungi, their culture

and identification, or to the demonstration of their physiological

action. The only hypothesis, however, that satisfactorily ex-

plains what we already know about the mycorhizal fungi is that

they prevent the nitrogen starvation of peat-inhabiting plants.

It is well known that certain peat-bog plants, as for example

sundew, trap insects, digest them, and assimilate their nitrogen.

It is to be hoped that within a few years we shall be equally well

informed about the function of the mycorhizal fungi. But even

now we may speak of their probable function with confidence.

The mycorhizal fungi are known to occur on most of the trees

that inhabit acid situations, for example chestnut, beech, oaks,

and conifers. The ordinary hillside pasture in New England is

a mycorhizal cosmos. The clubmosses have them, the sweet

fern, the blueberries, the ferns, the orchids. In our sandy pine

and oak woods about Washington almost all the vegetation

possesses mycorhizal fungi. One comes to think of the giant

oaks as dependent on these minute organisms.

Were Solomon to write a new edition of the Proverbs today I

am sure that he would tell us ' ' There be four things which are

little upon the earth, but they are exceeding strong," and that

among the four he would include ''The little brothers of the forest,

they seek not the light but the leafy earth; they prepare for the

oak the strength that is his."

Our American agriculture, derived in the main from the agri-

culture of the Mediterranean region, and that in turn from the

older agriculture of Persia, is chiefly made up of plants that

thrive best in alkaline or neutral soils. Altho many of our soils

in the eastern United States are naturally acid we try with only

indifferent success to grow in them these alkaline plants of south-

ern Europe and the East. Altho some of our agricultural plants

are tolerant of acidity, our agriculturists have not yet recognized

the possibility of building up for acid soils a special agriculture

coville: formation of leafmold 89

in which all the crops are acid- tolerant. We may yet, perhaps,

utilize for agricultural purposes even the sandy acid lands of

the coastal plain instead of turning them over as we now do to

the lank huckleberry picker, whose lonesome garden is all that

he is able to reclaim by present methods from the imaginary

wilderness that surrounds him. Yet these lands contain all sorts

of delicious native fruits, and a natural vegetation rich and lux-

uriant after its own manner.

Had our agriculture originated not in the alkaline soils of the

Orient but among the aboriginal peoples of the bogs of Scotland

or of the sandy pine barrens of our Atlantic Coastal Plain we

should have entirely different ideas of soil fertility from those

we now possess. If our cultivated fruits were large and otherwise

improved forms of the blueberry, the service berry, the thorn-

apple, and the beach plum, if our only grains were rye and buck-

wheat and our only hay redtop and vetch, and if our root crops

consisted of potatoes, carrots, and onions, our high-priced agri-

cultural lands would be the light sandy acid soils and the drained

bogs, while our deep limestone soils would be condemned to use

for the pasturage of cattle and of sheep.

Thus far man has devoted himself largely to the utilization

of the plants of the leafmold, which have gathered up for him the

wealth of the earth. Let him now, I say, turn his attention also

to the plants of the peat and try whether they will not yield to

him in increased measure the luxuriance of foliage and of fruit

that they have always yielded without assistance to nature

herself.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— n,e binary system: NasAlsSisOg {nephel-

ite, carnegieite) — CaAl2Si208 (anorthite). N. L. Bowen. American

Journal of Science, 33 : 551-573. 1912.

The study of the system Na2Al2Si208 — CaAl2Si208 was undertaken

because of the importance of these compounds as rock-forming con-

stituents. It was found that the soda compound exhibits enantiotropism

with the inversion point at 1248°. The low temperature form (nephel-

ite) crystallizes in the hexagonal system with a habit similar to that of

natural nephelite. The high-temperature form is triclinic. It has no

natural analogue and has been given the name carnegieite. Carnegieite

melts at 1526°.

The lime compound occurs only in the triclinic form, anorthite, and

melts at 1550°.

Both carnegieite and nephelite are capable of holding the lime com-

pound in solid solution, the former 5 per cent and the latter as much as

35 per cent.

The effect of solid solution on the inversion-point was well shown by

the system. The temperature of inversion rises considerably as the

amount of the lime compound in solid solution increases.

The optical constants of the components were carefully determined.

Crystals of the artificial nephelite were measured on the goniometer

and their hexagonal nature confirmed. It was especially gratifying to

be able to determine definitely the variation, with composition, of the

optical properties of the hexagonal mix-crystals (nephelite). With

increasing proportion of the lime molecule the birefringence of 0.004

(negative) becomes less, passes through zero, and finally becomes 0.002

(positive) .

The problem as a whole, although in some measure complicated, was

found capable of very definite laboratory solution. The extension of the

study to include the potassium-bearing nephelites has already been

be^un. N. L. B.

90

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held January 7, 1913, in the National Museum, wdth the President, Mr.

George R. Stetson in the chair.

Mr. E. Dana Durand, Director of the Census read a paper on Race

statistics of the last census. During the decade 1900-1910 the white pop-

ulation of the United States increased about 22 per cent and the negro

about 11 per cent. This difference is partly due, however, to the direct

or indirect effect of immigration of whites, in the absence of which the

whites would have increased about 14 per cent. The Indians increased

about 12 per cent, the Chinese decreased in number, while the Japanese

nearly trebled. The whites have at practically every census shown a

more rapid rate of increase than the negroes, and there is reason to

beheve that the difference between the two races in rate of increase

from 1890 to 1900 was greater than appeared from the census returns, on

account of a probable underenumeration of the negroes in 1890. The

census of 1910 showed that about 21 per cent of the negroes are mulat-

toes, as compared with about 12 per cent in 1870, the last preceding

census at which the question regarding blood mixture was asked in

comparable form.

There has been no very great migration of negroes out of the South,

nearly nine-tenths of the total number being still found in that section.

The number living outside the South increased 167,000 between 1900

and 1910, while the number residing in the South increased over 800,000.

The rate of natural increase — that is, by excess of births over deaths —

of the white population of the South, however, is much higher than that

of the negroes, being higher also than that of the whites in the North.

Among- the native white population whose parents were born in this

country, there were, in 1910, 104 males to each 100 females, as compared

with only 98.9 in the case of the negroes. Among all classes of the pop-

ulation more boy babies than girl babies are born, but equality tends

to be brought about by a higher death rate among the males. The dif-

ference in sex distribution between the whites and the negroes is probably

attributable, in part at least, to more favorable health conditions among

the whites.

The age distribution of the native white population is somewhat

different from that of the negroes, probably chiefly on account of a lower

death rate among whites, tending to greater longevity. There has appar-

ently been a very marked decline in the birth rate among negroes in

recent years, while there had been a gradual but less marked decline

in the birth rate of the whites during each decade for a long period of

time.

91

92 proceedings: botanical society

Negroes tend to marry earlier than the native white classes; and, in

fact, at all age periods, the proportion of married, widowed, and divorced

persons, taken together, is higher in the case of the negroes of both

sexes than in the case of the native whites of native parentage.

There has been a marked change in the composition of the foreign-

born population of the United States during recent years. Natives of

northwestern Europe constituted more than two-thirds of the total for-

eign-born population of the United States in 1900, but less than half in

1910, while southern and eastern Europeans formed only a little over

one-sixth of the total at the earlier census, as compared with three-

eights in 1910. The Germans and the Irish particularly have fallen

off conspicuously in numbers, while the natives of Russia — largely Rus-

sian Jews and Poles — Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and other coun-

tries of southern and eastern Europe have increased by very high per-

centages, no lesss than 1090 per cent in the case of natives of Greece.

The natives of Russia now rank second among the foreign-born classes,

and those of Italy fourth.

Various inquiries, accompanied by additional statements of facts and

explanations, were answered by Mr. Durand, but there was no discus-

sion beyond these. Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 12th annual business meeting was held on Wednesday, October

30, 1912. Officers were elected as follows: President, W. W. Stock-

berger; Vice-President, C. R. Ball; Recording Secretary, H. L.

Shantz; Corresponding Secretary, C. L. Shear; Treasurer, F. L. Lew-

ton.

The executive committee reported an active membership of 108.

The 83rd regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 12,

1912. The following papers were read:

A 'portrait of Linnaeus: Dr. J. N. Rose. Doctor Rose exhibited an

engraved portrait of Linnaeus which had recently been presented to the

Smithsonian Institution by Captain John Donnel Smith, of Baltimore

who had previously given to that Institution his magnificent herbarium

and library. This portrait is one rarely seen in this country, being

a mezzotint of one of the earliest portraits of Linnaeus, the original

being a replica of Hoffman's famous picture showing Linnaeus in Lap-

land dress, of which the original is now the property of the Clifford fam-

ily. This replica was known to have been in the possession of one

Thornton as late as 1811; but its whereabouts now is not known.

Doctor Rose also called attention to the large collection of portraits

of Linnaeus in the possession of the Linnean Society; and also to the

work of Tycho Tullberg, "Linne-portratt," a quarto volume of 185

pages with 25 portrait plates.

Rough-hark disease of the yellow newtown pippin: Mr. John W. Rob-

erts.

Botanizing in the region of the natural bridges of southern Utah: Dr.

P. A. Rydberg (by invitation).

C. L. Shear, Corresporiding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill, FEBRUARY 19, 1913 No. 4

METEOROLOGY. — Violent uprushes in cumulus clouds. W. J.

Humphreys, Weather Bureau.

Every observer of clouds is familiar with the peculiar boihng

and tumbling of large cumuli, their formation of new heads, and

the other evidences they give of rapid motions and confused turbu-

lence. And indeed the violence is much worse than appearances

would indicate, if we are to believe the emphatic statements of

the few balloonists who have survived the experience of such an

aerial maelstrom.

As no such violent uprush is ever found in any other part of the

atmosphere, one naturally asks what is there peculiar to the large

cumulus cloud that produces this localized or exceptional result.

And the answer, tho not obvious, should be indicated by a dis-

cussion of the processes involved in the formation of the cloud

itself.

Let us assume the temperature of the atmosphere near the sur-

face of the earth to be 30°C. and the relative humidity 42 per

cent, and let ordinary vertical convection, resulting from this

temperature, obtain up to the base of existing cumulus clouds — -

substantially the conditions that frequently obtain of summer

afternoons.

Under the assumed conditions the temperature in the rising

column decreases approximately at the dry-air adiabatic rate of

10°C. per kilometer from the surface of the earth up to the satura-

tion level, 1.5 kilometers in the present case. At this level, how-

ever, because of the latent heat set free by condensation, there

93

94 AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCES

is an abrupt change in the temperature gradient. At first it is

rather under 5°C. per kilometer, and then as the elevation still

further increases and the temperature steadily grows colder, so

that less and less moisture condenses out per degree change, it

grows greater, with, of course, the adiabatic gradient for dry air,

or 10°C. per kilometer, as the limit towards which it approaches.

Now the ordinary summer temperature gradient in the free

atmosphere, between the elevations of 1.5 and 8 kilometers, is

approximately G'^C. Hence, in the assumed case, the tempera-

ture within the rising column will begin to increase above that of

the surrounding atmosphere at the same level, as soon as conden-

sation begins, and the temperature difference, together with the

resulting buoyancy, will go on increasing with the elevation to a

certain maximum and then decrease to a zero difference. In

fact the inertia of the rising' mass will carry it beyond the equilib-

rium level to heights where it will be colder and denser than the

adjacent air, and from which it therefore must correspondingly

fall back until final equilibrium of temperature and density are

established.

Seemingly then the real cause of the violent uprush within

large cumulus clouds is the difference in temperature between the

interior of the clouds themselves and the surrounding atmosphere

at the same level, due, as explained, to the change in the tempera-

ture gradient caused by the latent heat of condensation.

PHYSICS. — The high frequency resistances of inductances.

L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio-telegraphic Laboratory.

To appear in full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

TVTiile the high frequency resistance of non-inductive resist-

ances can be easily determined by substitution methods, the

determination of high frequency resistance of inductances offers

great difficulties. The decrement and half deflection methods, ^

in addition to being difficult to apply when very accurate results

are desired, have also the disadvantage of including in the ob-

served resistance all the sources of energy loss in the circuit.

The present method, while laborious, seems capable of giving

much more exact results than the others mentioned.

1 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 9: 66. 1912.

AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCES

95

The principle of the method is briefly the following: Two

equal inductance coils are placed in identical oil calorimeters,

one coil is heated by a high frequency current and the other by

du-ect. Vfhen the calorimeters are both brought to the same tem-

perature in equilibrium with their surroundings, the heat im-

parted to each per second must be the same. This heat is pro-

portional to I^ R and the ratios of the resistances of the two coils

at the given frequency and for constant current are inversely

proportional to the squares of the currents.^ To compensate for

the slight inequalities in the coils and calorimeters, the direct and

TABLE I

Diameter of double silk covered copper wire

Diameter of coils = 8.6 cm.

Turns of wire per centimeter = 18.9

0.04 cm.

high frequency currents are interchanged and the mean values of

the ratios of the current squares taken. The high frequency

current is produced by a rotary spark gap in an oscillatory circuit

coupled loosely to the circuit containing the inductance coil to

be measured. The two circuits are brought to resonance at the

frequency desired, and the high frequency current thru the induc-

tance, regulated by varying the coupling. The current is read

on a non-shunted hot wire ammeter which has been accurately

calibrated for high frequencies. The direct current for the other

coil is supplied by a storage battery and the final regulation for

equilibrium is made in this circuit. Equality of temperature

between the two calorimeters is determined by a differential con-

stantan copper thermoelement. The calorimeters are heated to

2 See J. Zenneck, Elektromag. Schwingungen, p. 415, 1905, and J. A. Fleming,

Principles of electric wave telegraphy, p. 124, 1912.

96

AUSTIN: HIGH FEEQUENCY RESISTANCES

from 20° to 30° above the temperature of the room. The uncer-

tainty of the individual high frequency current readings is approx-

imately one part in fifty. The mean of thirty or more readings

is taken as a basis for each calculation. The calorimeters pro-

vided with motor driven stirrers are of glass 15 cm. high and 10.8

cm. in diameter and contain sufficient petroleum to cover the

coils under experiment. The coils of 0.40 mm. double silk-covered

copper wire are wound on glass, and the principal constants are

given in Table I and their resistances in Table II.

After the determination of the resistance of the six pairs of

standard coils a roller inductance of the Fessenden type was cali-

brated by comparison with the standard coils. The method

used is as follows: A buzzer-driven wave meter is used to excite

an oscillatory circuit containing a sensitive thermoelement and

variable air condenser. By means of switches either one of the

standard coils or the variable inductance can be inserted in this

circuit, the deflections in each case being observed on the galva-

nometer of the thermoelement. Sufficient fine wire resistance is

schaller: calculation of mineral formulas

97

then placed in series with the inductance giving the larger deflec-

tion and adjusted until its deflection is reduced to that of the other

inductance. The resistance of the standard coil for the given

frequency being known, the corresponding resistance of the vari-

able inductance at this point is at once deterixiined. When the

variable inductance has been calibrated in this way for several

points and at various wave lengths, it at once becomes a standard

of comparison of resistance for any other inductances within its

limits, by a method similar to the above. If the values of the

resistances in Table II for any given wave length be plotted, it

will be found that the results do not fall on a straight line, that is,

the high frequency resistance increases more rapidly than in pro-

portion to the number of turns of the coil. This result is not in

accordance, I believe, with any of the various formulae which

have been given for the high frequency resistance of inductances.

The curvature appeals, however, only in the first part of the

curve. This is probably due to the distribution of the magnetic

field.

IVIINERALOGY. — The calculation of mineral formulas. Walde-

MAR T, Schaller, Geological Survey.

In the calculation of the ratios of a mineral analysis, it is cus-

tomary to select arbitrarily one of the constituents as unity, or

as some rational multiple of unity, and on this basis to calculate

the ratios of the other constituents. As an example I will give

the analysis of pearceite from the Veta Rica Mine, Sierra IMojada,

Coahuila, Mexico, as recently published^ by Frank R. Van Horn

and C. W. Cook.

* Considered as (Ago) and (Cuo) respectively.

1 Amer. Journ. Sci. (4), vol. 31, p. 518, 1911.

98 schaller: calculation of mineral formulas

The ratios are sufficiently close to 11 : 2 : 8 to show that these

are the correct numbers. In reality the ratios are very much

closer to 11 : 2 : 8 than the figures given by Van Horn and Cook

suggest, as will be shown below.

The first column from the ratios given above is reproduced

below (1) with the molecular proportions for silver and copper

combined, and all the quantities multiplied by 100 for conveni-

ence of calculation. When the lowest number is taken as unity

it is readily seen that the ratios are approximatly 5^ : 1 : 4.

If the first figure be divided by 2 times 5| (these numbers are

doubled to avoid fractions), the second by 2 X 1, and the third

by 2 X 4, the figures under (2) are obtained. These numbers

should be nearly the same. Their average is 4.986. If now the

ratios obtained from the analysis be divided by this average value,

namely 4.986, the figures given under (3) are obtained which are

considerably closer to 11, 2, and 8 respectively, than the ones

given by Van Horn and Cook.

(1) (2) (3)

S 54.44 4- (2 X 5i) = 4.949 10.92

As 10,08^(2X1) = 5.040 2.02

Ag2,Cu2 39.75^(2X4) = 4.969 7.97

Av. = 4.986

Ratios such as those given above under (3) are still too far

from the whole numbers they approximate for comparison as

they stand. The figures should be reduced to multiples of approx-

imate unity which can then be directly compared, as follows :

S 10.92 = 11X0.99(3) =11X0.99

As 2.02 = 2X1.01 =2X1.01

Ag2,Cu2 7.97 = 8X0.99(6) = 8X1.00

These figures show that the ratios deducible from the pearceite

analysis are in fact far closer to the whole numbers 11 : 2 : 8 than

the ratios 10.80 : 2.00 : 7.886 given by Van Horn and Cook,

which were obtained by arbitrarily selecting one of the numbers

as unity. The form in* which the last set of ratios is given above

appears to express most accurately the relations derivable from

the analysis.

swingle: chaetospermum 99

BOTANY. — Chaetospermuvi, a new genus of hard-shelled citrous

fruits. Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The wild relatives of the common orange may be divided into

several rather distinct groups. One of these consists of the hard-

shelled citrous fruits of which the best known representatives

are the bael fruit, Belou marmelos (L.) W. F. Wight {Aegle mar-

melos (L.) Correa), and the wood apple of India {Feronia ele-

phantum, Correa). These two were known to Rheede, Rumphius,

Hermann and other pre-Linnean botanists as well as to Linnaeus

himself.

A number of other plants belonging to this group are known

to botanists. Four of them are natives of Africa and have come

to light only recently. In the East Indies two species have

long been known, but are little understood as yet. One of these,

Feronia lucida Scheffer, grows in Java and is closely related to

the wood apple of India. The other, the subject of the present

note, was described in 1837 by Blanco, in the first edition of his

Flora de Filipinas, under the name Limonia glutinosa. He saw

it growing on Mt. Arayat, Province of Manila, Luzon Island,

and noted that it was called malacabuyao or tabog by the Tagals.

In the second edition of his Flora de Filipinas, published in

1845, Blanco recognized that this plant was related to the wood

apple and renamed it Feronia ternata.

About 1878, Andres Naves, in editing a new illustrated edition

de luxe of Blanco's Flora de Filipinas, recognized that the tabog

was more nearly allied to the bael fruit than to the wood apple

and accordingly transferred it to the genus Aegle making a new

specific name A. decandra. In 1904 Merrill restored Blanco's

original specific name, Aegle glutinosa (Bl.) Merrill.

An examination of the typical material in the Botanical Mu-

seum at Dahlem bei Berlin, made by the writer in June, 1911,

showed Limonia Engleriana, Perkins, to be the tabog, as had

been noted by E. D. Merrill on one of the paratypes.

In establishing a new genus, Aeglopsis,^ from tropical West

1 Swingle, Walter T., 1912, Le genre Balsamociirus et un nouveau genre voisin,

Mglovsis, in Bull. Soc. hot. de France (1911), 58 (mem. 8d) : 225-245, figs. A, B,

pis. 1-5 (March 2) also in Chevalier, Aug., Novitates florae africanae, fasc. 4, p.

225-245.

^'/5t>s ^

i^ -<s>0"5a»

100

swingle: chaetospermum

Africa, belonging to the hard-shelled citrous fruits, it became

necessary to look up all the known plants of this group. This

resulted in bringing to light a new species of wood apple from

Indo-China, the type of a new genus^ closely related to Feronia.

A reexamination of the tabog, undertaken at the same time

was facilitated by a fruiting specimen in the National Herbarium

collected by E. D. Merrill (No. 3641, Concepci6n, Prov. Tarlac,

Luzon, November, 1903), and

showed that this species differs

from Belou marmelos in flower,

fruit, leaf and germination char-

acters so profoundly that it must

be put in another genus. The

stamens of the tabog are ten in

number, being twice as many

as the petals instead of very

numerous (more than four times

as many as the petals) as in the

bael fruit. The ovary of the

tabog has 8 to 10 cells instead

of 10 to 15 commonly found in

the bael fruit. The fruit is ob-

long or long oval with low longi-

tudinal ridges corresponding in

number and position to the seg-

ments, and has a thick leathery

rind. The bael fruit is spherical or pyriform, never ridged, and

has a very hard, woody rind.

The cells of the tabog fruit are lined with a spongy tissue

showing very large cavities or vacuoles. Nothing of the sort is

found in any other of the hard-shelled citrous fruits (see fig. 1).

The leaves of the tabog are persistent instead of deciduous

as in the bael fruit and have smaller, more rounded lateral leaf-

lets. On germination the cotyledons become aerial in the tabog

but remain hypogeous in the bael fruit.

Already in 1846 Roemer in his Synopses monographicae made

a subgenus, Chaetospermum, under the genus Limonia, for this

2 This will appear shortly in the Bulletin de la Society botanique de France

Fig. 1. Cross section of a fruit of

Chaetospermum glutinosa (Concep-

ci6n, Luzon, November, 1903, E. D.

Merrill, No. 3641). Natural size.

Shows the thick rind with long slender

pointed oil glands; a thin intermedi-

ate layer; and an endocarp composed

of spongy vesicular tissue (thickened

ovary walls) surrounding the cells.

The pith is not vesicular.

swingle: chaetospermum 101

species, stating that he beUeved this to be the type of a new

genus ''-Typum novi generis certe format, ex ordine forsan

excludendi."^

In view of Roemer's conviction that the plant constitutes a

new genus it seems fitting to raise his subgenus to generic rank.

Chaetospermum (Roem.) n. gen.

Chaetospermum Roemer, M. J., 1846, Synop. Monogr. 1: 39, as

subgenus of Linionia.

Type species Limonia glutinosa, Blanco, M., 1837, Flora de Filipinas,

p. 358.

A genus related to Belou, from which it differs in having persistent

leaves with small rounded sessile lateral leaflets, fewer stamens (twice

as many as the petals), fewer ovarial cells (8 to 10), an oblong ribbed

fruit with a thick leathery rind and cells lined with a spongy tissue

containing many large cavities or vacuoles (see fig. 1).

Leaves persistent, trifoliate, lateral leaflets small, sessile, usually less

than one-third as long as the median, more or less blunt at the base

or even rounded. Terminal leaflet gradually narrowed at the base.

Petioles narrowly winged with a joint at the point of attachment of

the leaflets. Spines slender, straight, sharp, in pairs at the axils or

else one of the spines is replaced by a branch. Inflorescences axillary,

composed of from one to several flowers on rather long, slender pedicels.

Flowers perfect, 5-merous; calyx 5-lobed, petals 5, stamens 10, free.

Pistil with a well developed style and a thick rounded stigma. Ovary

with 8 to 10 cells, each containing numerous ovules. Fruit, oblong,

longitudinally ribbed, with a very thick leathery rind, and with cells

(filled with gum?) surrounded with watery tissue containing large

cavities or vacuoles. Seeds numerous in the long narrow cells, flattened

ovate, hairy. Germination — Cotyledons aerial, not increasing in size;

first foliage leaves opposite, broadly ovate, subseriate, sessile, abruptly

narrowed at base.

A small tree native to the Island of Luzon, Philippine Ai-chipelago.

Chaetospermum resembles Belou in having trifoliate leaves, a

many-celled ovary, and hairy seeds, but differs in many essential

characters as noted above.

It agrees with Feronia in having aerial cotyledons which do

not, however, show any increase in size during germination as

in this latter genus. It agrees with Aeglopsis in having fruits

with a leathery rather than a woody cortex, altho there are

woody elements in the rind of an Aeglopsis fruit which seem to

be lacking in Chaetospermum.

'Roemer, M. J., 1846, Syn. monogr. Fasc. 1: 39.

102 swingle: chaetospermum

Chaetospermum differs widely from all the other hard-shelled

citrous fruits and constitutes a striking new genus. It undoubt-

edly belongs to the hard-shelled group of citrous fruits tho it

alone does not (so far as known) have woody elements in the

cortex.

Only one species is known; its synonomy is as follows:

Chaetospermum glutinosa (Blanco) n. comb.

Limonia Glutmosa Blanco, 1837, Fl. Filip. Ed. I, p. 358.

Feronia ternata Blanco, 1845, Fl. Filip. Ed. II, p. 252.

u^gle decandra, Naves, 1878 (?), in Blanco, Fl. Filip. Ed.

Ill, pi. 124.

Aegle glutinosa (Blanco), Merrill, 1904, in Phillip. Gov.

Lab. Bur. Bull. n. 6, p. 12.

Limonia Engleriana, Perkins, 1905, Frag. Fl. Phillipp. Fasc.

Ill, p. 163.

Belou glutinosa (Blanco) Skeels, 1909, Bull. 162 Bur. PL

Ind. Dept. Agr. p. 26.

Illustrations :

Naves 1878 (?) in Blanco, M., Flora de Filipinas, Ed. 3.

vol. 2, pi. 124 (Lvs. fls. and fts.)

Vidal y Soler, S., 1883, Sinopsis de familias y generos de

plantas lefiosas de Filipinas, pi. 25, fig. J, 1-5 (Fls. fts.

and seed).

Swingle, Walter T., 1912, Le genre Balsamocitrus, etc., 1. c,

pi. 5 (Young plant).

The tabog is a small tree native to the central part of Luzon,

Philippine Islands. This species has been reported from the

provinces of Tarlac, Pampanga (the type locality is Monte

Arayat in this province), Bataan, Manila, and M6rong. I have

seen specimens from all of these provinces except Pampanga

and M6rong, and have also seen a specimen in Herb. Kew col-

lected by Vidal y Soler in 1886 at Angat, Prov. Bulacan.

Young plants from 'one to three years old are now growing in

the greenhouses of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

It has been found that oranges, lemons, grape-fruits, kumquats

and other citrous fruits grow well when budded or grafted on

such young tabog plants.

safford: chelonocarpus 108

BOTANY. — Chelo7iocarpus, a new section of the genus Annona,

with descriptions of Annona scleroderma and Annona tes-

tudinea. W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.

While on a mission for the United States Department of Agri-

culture, in April, 1902, Mr. Guy N. Collins of the Bureau of

Plant Industry found at the railway station of Morales, not far

from Puerto Barrios, Guatemala, a hard-shelled, globose custard-

apple quite distinct from all iVnnona fruits hitherto known. He

photographed two of the fruits, but was not able to secure flowers

or leaves of the trees producing them. In February of the fol-

lowing year specimens of the same fruit together with herbar-

ium specimens of the leaves were collected by Mr. Percy Wilson

of the New York Botanical Garden near Puerto Sierra, Honduras,

where the species occurred as a forest tree locally known as

''Anona del monte," or wild Annona. One year later, in April,

1904, Mr. O. F. Cook collected fruits of a hard-shelled Annona

very similar to the above species but oblate in form, broadly

umbilicated and with the shell less regularly divided into poly-

gonal areoles. At the same time Mr. Cook secured herbarium

specimens including both leaves and flowers, the former differ-

ing somewhat in size and shape from those of the Honduras

tree, tho of the same character, and the latter resembling the

flowers of the section Atta, in shape, but with the receptacle

and consolidated gynoecium so distinct as to further set apart

the Guatemala species and its allies as a distinct group or section

of the genus Annona. For this section I propose the name Chel-

onocarpus, suggested by the hard tortoiseshell-like surface of the

fruit. On account of the complete nature of the material col-

lected by Mr. Cook the species collected by him is made the type

of the section.

Section Chelonocarpus

Hard-shell Custard-apple Group

Flowers in shape resembling those of the section Atta; pedun-

cles clustered, usually issuing from the bark of old branches or

stems (caulifloral) ; calyx gamosepalous, 3-lobed; receptacle (tor-

104 safford: chelonocarpus

us) hemispherical or conoid, not clothed with hairs or bristles

but with minute scale-like processes subtending the bases of the

filaments in more or less vertical rows; corolla 3-petaled, the

petals valvate, oblong or linear-oblong, the upper part trique-

trous or keeled within, the lower part concave and swollen so

as to include the essential parts; stamens with stout iilaments

bearing upon their back a pair of linear pollen sacs and termin-

ating in an expanded minutely verrucose connective above them;

carpels cohering firmly to form a solid gynoecium, with the outer

ovaries minutely hirsute and the styles sharply articulated at

the base and falling off soon after pollination has been effected;

fruit (syncarpium) spheroid or conoid, composed of firmly con-

solidated one-seeded carpels inclosed in a thick rigid shell with

the surface divided into rhomoboid or polygonal areoles by raised

ridges; seeds smooth and glossy, oblong, somewhat compressed

but not marginate, brown, or grayish brown to mouse-colored,

surrounded by juicy pulp; leaves coriaceous, oblong, acuminate,

with the midrib impressed above and raised beneath and the

lateral nerves anastomosing before reaching the margin and con-

nected by inconspicuous reticulating veins.

• The species belonging to this section have been confused with

the common custard-apple or bullock's heart {A. reticulata L.)

and the chirimoya (A. cherimola Miller) from both of which they

are easily distinguished by the large glossy seeds and the smooth,

flat, coriaceous oblong leaves, as well as by the coherent nature

of the gynoecium and the thickness of the rigid shell of the

fruit. The two species here described may be broadly distin-

guished as follows:

Fruit ■ oblate-spheroid in form, umbilicate; leaves not

exceeding 9 inches (23 cm.) in length, abruptly acu-

minate Anno7ia scleroderma

Fruit globose in form, not umbilicate; leaves some-

times 1 foot (30 cm.) long, gradually acuminate

Annona testudinea

In addition to these species it is probable that A. Pittieri

Donnell Smith, from southern Costa Rica, should be assigned to

this section, as the character of its leaves and flowers would in-

safford: chelonocarptis 11)5

dicate. Its fruit is described as conoid and its leaves do not

exceed 18 cm. in length. ^

Annona scleroderma sp. nov. Hard-shell Custard-apple. Box-te of

Guatemala.

A vigorous tree. Young growth minutely ferrugineous-pubescent.

Leaf-blades oblong, abruptly acuminate, rounded at the base, 14 to 20

cm. long, 5.5 to 6 cm. broad, coriaceous, glabrous when mature, when

young minutely ferrugineous-pubescent beneath, dark-green above,

becoming olive-green when dry, midrib impressed above and raised

beneath, lateral nerves not conspicuous, the parenchyma between them

finely reticulate and punctate; petiole 14 to 18 mm. long grooved above

in continuation of the median channel, when young minutely ferru-

gineous-pubescent, at length glabrate. Peduncles extra-axillary, usuall}'

in clusters of 3 or more issuing from the bark of old branches (cauli-

floral) with a small ovate bracteole below the middle and one at the

base, appressed ferrugineous-pubescent like the young growth, about

equal to the petioles in length. Flowers cinnamon-brown, appressed

puberulent, caljrx gamosepalous, 3-lobed, 6 to 6.5 mm. in diameter,

minutely ferrugineous-pubescent on the outer surface; petals 3, val-

vate, closely cohering in the bud, the upper part linear or linear-oblong

and triquetrous, the base swollen and concave closely covering the

essential parts of the flower; inner petals wanting (in all specimens

examined) ; receptacle conoid or hemispherical, not clothed with hairs

or bristles between stamens as in many other species but with minute

scale-like protuberences subtending the bases of the filaments, disposed

in distinct almost vertical rows; gynoecium about 4 mm. in diameter,

composed of firmty cohering carpels 2.3 mm. long with the outer ovaries

clothed with appressed glossy rufous or chestnut-colored hairs; styles

ovate to oblong, sharply articulated at the base, turning black and soon

falling off after polhnation has been effected; stamens 1.7 to 1.8 mm.

long, with the stout filament light-yellow mottled with orange-red, and

the swollen connective above the pollen sacs minutely verrucose, as

seen under the microscope. Fruit depressed-globose, or oblate, broadly

umbilicate, the surface of the thick rigid shell divided into angular

areoles corresponding to the individual closely-cohering carpels by raised

obtuse ridges; seeds oblong to oblong-obovate, somewhat compressed

but not marginate, about 2 cm. long and 1 cm. broad, with the testa

smooth and glossy, at length chocolate brown, endosperm ruminate,

with the minute embryo embedded in its base; pulp juicy, not adhering

to the seeds, pleasantly aromatic, with mango-like flavor, edible.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 850041, collected at

Cahabon, state of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,, April 20, 1904, byO.F.

Cook (No. 89). Distribution: Mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala,

across the boundary into Mexico and as far north as Oaxaca.

X'-

1 A. PiUieri, Donn. Sm., Bot. Gaz. 24: 389. 1897.

^'

106

safford: chelonocarpus

Explanation of Figure 1. A cluster of unopened flowers, leaves,

fruit, and seeds of Annona scleroderma natural size; and the torus

marked with vertical rows of stamen-scars and bearing the cohering

mass of carpels (gynoecium), enlarged 3 diameters. Drawn by Mr. J.

M. Shull.

In addition to the type material, seeds sent in 1910 by Prof. Felix

Foex to the U. S. Department of Agriculture from the state of Oaxaca

belong very probably to this species (Seed collection No. 29316). In a

note accompanying them Prof. Foex writes as follows: "These

seeds came from a very interesting fruit of good size, good shape, pretty

appearance, and having large seeds: the skin is thick as the shell of a

coconut but not so hard; it resists well a pretty hard shock and pressure,

and would be very good for packing and shipping."

Mr. O. F, Cook in his field-notes made the following entry: "The

fruit called by the Kekchi Indians of Alta Verapaz box-te, or bosh-te,

is curious rather than beautiful. The

shell is divided into angular depressed

areoles by raised ridges. When mature

the ridges are dark brown and the areoles

between them green. The pulp is readily

separable into slender pyramids. These

are normally 1-seeded, but in many cases

they are seedless. The texture of the pulp

is perfect, the flavor aromatic and deli-

cious with no unpleasant aftertaste. It

is much richer than the soursop, with a

suggestion of the flavor of the zapote

bianco, or matasano (Casimiroa edulis),

but not in the least objectionable. It can

be eaten most conveniently with a spoon. The most fragrant pulp is

close to the rind. The seeds separate from the surrounding pulp more

readily than in most annona fruits."

Annona testudinea -sp. nov. Tortoiseshell Custard-apple. Anona del

Monte of Honduras.

A forest tree 12 to 15 meters high. Leaf-blades oblong or oblong-

elliptical, acuminate at the apex, abruptly cuneate or rounded at the

base and usually decurrent on the petiole, those near the base of branch

sometimes retuse or rounded at the apex, as in the case of many other

species of Annonaceae, 25 to 35 cm. long and 7.5 to 9 cm. broad,

coriaceous, smooth and fiat with the midrib impressed above and very

prominent beneath; lateral nerves not prominent, connected by incon-

spicuous anastomosing veins; petiole rather long (22 to 25 mm.), at length

glabrous, grooved above. Flowers not observed. Fruit globose, hard-

shelled, 8 to 9 cm, in diameter, its surface divided into polygonal areoles

by raised ridges, suggesting tortoiseshell in its general appearance.

Seeds 20 to 22 mm. long and 10 to 12 mm. broad, sometimes elliptical

in cross-section or slightly compressed with one or both edges sharj:)-

cornered but not marginate, testa smooth and glossy, light-brown or

Fig. 3. Seeds of Annona tes-

tudinea, a, compared with seeds

of A. reticulata, b, with which

the present species has hitherto

been confused.

Fig. 1. Annona scleroderma Safford.

107

108 safford: chelonocarpus

mouse-colored, faintly revealing the transverse wrinkels of the ruminate

endosperm; pulp very juicy, aromatic, edible.

Type in the Herbarium of John Donnell Smith, collected in the

forest near Puerto Sierra, Honduras, February 7, 1903, by Percy

Wilson (No. 351). Specimens examined: Material from the type col-

lection in the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and the

Donnell Smith Herbarium, Baltimore, Maryland; also photographs of

fruits purchased at Morales, Guatemala, not far from Puerto Barrios,

April 6, 1902, by Mr. Guy N. Collins (No. 3833).

Explanation of Figure 2. Annona testudinea, from type material,

natural size, showing a typical acuminate leaf and a basal leaf with

retuse apex. Drawn by Mr. Ivan M. Fitzwater.

The fruit, as described by Mr. Collins in his field notes, "has a shell

about one-eighth of an inch thick, which breaks with almost a fracture,

with a fleshy core [receptacle] reaching from the base nearly to the center

of the fruit. The pulp of the ripe fruit is rich, soft, and watery, with

only a faint suggestion of the sandiness noted in the Annona observed

at Sepacuite [A. reticulata L.], very aromatic and with a slight pine-like

flavor, turning brown when perfectly ripe and not adhering to the seeds.

The color of the outer surface is grayish or bluish green, somewhat

pruinose, becoming purplish at maturity." According to Mr. Percy

Wilson, the fresh leaves are dark green above and paler beneath. The

tree, known locally as "anona del monte," or wild custard-apple, is

highly esteemed by the natives for its fruit. The latter is green-

ridged with brown seeds having the odor of turpentine when cut, and

with good edible pulp, which is easily separable.

Fig. 2. Annona testudinea Safford.

109

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ASTROPHYSICS. — Report on the astrophy steal Observatory, Smith-

sonian Institution, for year ending June 30, 1912. C. G. Abbot.

The year has been notable for expeditions to Algeria and California

to test the supposed variability of the sun by making simultaneously at

these two widely separated stations spectrobolometric determinations

of the solar constant of radiation. The measurements in Algeria agree

with earlier ones at Washington and Mount Whitney and indicate that

Mount Wilson values are systematically a little low. Apart from this

systematic error the average accidental differences between Algerian

and Mount Wilson determinations were only 1.2 per cent, indicating an

average accidental error of a single solar constant determination at one

station of only 0.9 per cent. So far as yet reduced, high solar constant

values obtained in Algeria coincide with high values at Mount Wilson and

vice versa. A solar variation of 4 per cent was indicated at both stations

in the first half of September, 1911. Many values remain to be com-

puted, but it can now hardly be doubted that the outcome will prove

conclusively the irregular short-period variability of the sun.

Numerous copies of the silver disk pyrheliometer have been stand-

ardized and sent out, mainly to foreign governmental meteorological

services.

Valuable results have been secured in the research on the transmission

of radiation through atmospheric water vapor. An accurate method

of estimating the total water vapor contents of the atmosphere between

the observer and the sun has been devised by Mr. Fowle. C. G. A.

METEOROLOGY.— ^^?/2osp/ienc studies. J. W. Sanstrom. Bulle-

tin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 5: 3-51. 1912.

The first part of this paper is devoted to a number of fundamental or

general principles in meteorology, all of which are minutely and clearly

110

abstracts: meteorology 111

explained. The second part treats of the vortex movements of the atmos-

phere, and is by no means such easy reading as the first part.

The author made the observations upon which his article is based

during the winter and in the mountains of Sweden, and hence under ex-

ceptionally favorable opportunities for the study of air movements. A

comparatively warm ocean was on one side of him and a cold continental

area on the other, so that he himself was on the inside, as it were, of a

gigantic heat engine where he could see and experience all that was

taking place.

Among other things, an account is given of the movements of the wind

as it blows across regions covered by fine loose snow. In this case the

lower air, to the depth of 20 to 50 meters, becomes filled with the snow

in the same manner that it becomes filled with dust when blowing over

a desert. Now the snow obviously increases the density of the stratum

of air it is in, and hence this particular stratum moves up the windward

side of a mountain or other slope comparatively slowly and then, as

soon as it has passed the crest, flows down the leeward side with great

violence. In one observed case, this rapidly falling loaded air set up

great surging billows in the atmosphere at the foot of the mountain that

lasted. for hours, with only 10 to 15 minute intervals between perfect

calm and hurricane violence, and that were felt to a distance of 140 kilo-

meters from their place of origin.

The second part of the paper begins with a general account of vortex

motion which the author makes clear by the aid of drawings and numeri-

cal calculations applicable to simple cases. The principles thus estab-

lished are then applied to the vortices of the atmosphere of which there

are two distinct tyiDes : Those which are roughly circular and symmetri-

cal, with their vortex filaments nearly vertical, and those which are very

unsj^mmetrical with horizontal filaments. The first obviously applies

to whirl-winds, tornadoes and the like, and is relatively simple, while

the second concerns approximately^ horizontal circulation with an upper

and a lower current flowing in opposite directions. This is called a

"gliding" vortex and the plane separating the oppositely directed cur-

rents a ''glide" plane. It is further explained that in general the "glide"

plane is more or less inclined, and suitable equations are developed for

the computation of the rate at which energy is being transformed in

such a vortex.

A remarkable example of the "gliding" vortex commonly occurs

during the winter along the coast of Norway. Here a cold east wind

flows down the mountains and onto the ocean with great violence, while

112 abstracts: terrestrial magnetism

at an elevation of about 1 kilomete* a relatively light and warm counter

current flows to the east. In reality this is a "land breeze" on a very

large scale, so large indeed that per kilometer of coast-line heat energy

is converted into wind energy frequently at the rate of 45 million horse

power! W. J. Humphreys.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— A new; type of compass declinometer.

R. L. Faris. Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric

Electricity 17: 109-114. 1912.

This paper describes a new form of instrument for ascertaining the

magnetic declination at stations where the true bearing to some other

point is already known, and is especially adapted for use of general sur-

vey parties when working in remote regions, such as Alaska or the Philip-

pines, where it is possible at nominal cost to ascertain the magnetic

declination much in advance of the possibility of a general magnetic

survey.

E5fperience in the Coast and Geodetic Survey and elsewhere has

shown that acceptable magnetic declination results can be obtained with

pivot suspension needles. The instrument is described as follows :

It is essentially a compass needle enclosed in a rectangular needle box

with peep sights, which is rigidly mounted on a graduated horizontal

circle. The needle lifter and some of the other details are novel and

have been worked out with great care. The base rests on three leveling

screws and has double centers of brass. The horizontal circle, which is

152.4 mm. in diameter, is read by two verniers to single minutes of

arc. The needle is mounted in a rectangular box the inside dimensions

of which are 164 mm. long, 31.5 mm. wide, and 17 mm. deep. This

box is secured to the cover plate of the horizontal circle. At each end of

the box is a graduated arc (arc graduated to 10 minutes), about 10° in

extent on each side of the zero in the middle. Vertical peep sights, 40

mm. high, are attached to the ends of the box so that the zeros of the

graduations, the needle pivot and the peep slits are in the same vertical

plane. The top edge of the needle is straight, its ends and the apex of

the agate cup suspension being in a straight line. The needle lifter is

of special design and direct acting, and so arranged that the instrument

cannot be packed in its packing case without first lifting the needle off

its suspension pivot. When the needle is raised off the pivot it is held

firmly in place between the lifter and a flat brass spring in the top of the

needle box. The needle and horizontal circle readings are made with

the aid of three reading microscopes. The instrument is leveled by

means of an adjustable circular level mounted on the cover plate of the

horizontal circle. The needle is 148.5 mm. long and is made of "magnet

steel;" the dimensions of its cross-section are 0.6 mm. b}^ 3.5 mm. The

width of the peep-sight slits is 0.5 mm.

abstracts: physics 113

Upon testing this •instrument under actual field conditions it was

found that the needle, on account of its rather unusual length, required

too frequent readjustment of balance. As a remedy for this inconven-

ience the point of suspension (agate cup) has now been raised, likewise the

ends of the needle have been bent upward to bring them again in line

with the suspension point. ' R. L. F.

PHYSICS. — On the density of solid substances, with especial reference

to permanent changes produced by high pressures. John Johnston

and L. H. Adams. Journal of American Chemical Society, 34:

563-584. 1912.

With a new and improved form of pyknometer the density of salts

and other substances has been determined with an accuracy of 3 or 4

units in the fourth decimal place, that is, within 0.02 per cent. In

many cases, however, such accuracy is unnecessary, since the variations

of density due to inhomogeneities of the material may be much greater

than this.

Powdering a crystalline substance does not change its density by an

amount which we can detect with certainty, provided that the material

is homogeneous and free from cracks and holes ; but if the substance is

not homogeneous, then, as might be expected, the fine powder is denser

than the coarse particles.

Neither does very high hydrostatic pressure produce any after-effect

on the density of strictly homogeneous crystalline compounds.

But if the pressure be not uniform, then the density of a metal which

has been subjected to such compression — or has been deformed in any

other way — ^usually increases first (owing presumably to the filling up

of pores and cracks) and then decreases, sometimes even so as to reach

a final density less than the original value. Subsequent annealing of

the specimen causes a renewed increase of density. The direction of

the change of density on compressing bismuth is, contrary to Spring's

conclusion, the same as that for other metals, namely a decrease of

density, following upon deformation. The bearing of these results upon

the question of the "flow" of metals is discussed: they are shown to

be in harmonj^ with the idea that the "flow" — ^or indeed any deforma-

tion— of a metal is a manifestation of a real melting produced by the

unequal strains set up during the process.

Finally, it is important to emphasize the fact the density of most

substances is somewhat variable, owing to a lack of complete homogen-

eity of the material. In consequence of this, slight changes of density

114 abstracts: geochemistry

can not be regarded as good evidence for the occurrence of any trans-

formation or chemical reaction, whether produced by subjecting the

system to compression or by other means. J. J. and L. H. A.

PHYSICS. — Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and selenium as immersion

media for the determination of high refractive indices with the micro-

scope. H, E. Merwin and E. S. Larsen. American Journal of

Science, 34: 42^7. 1912.

Fused mixtures of sulfur and selenium are glassy when cold. By

standardizing the mixtures with respect to their refractive indices by

measurements on prisms molded into the angle between glass plates,

they can be used to match the refractive indices of suitable substances

immersed in them and studied under the microscope. A chart showing

the refractive indices of various mixtures for several wave-lengths has

been prepared, and a method of interpolating values of refractive

indiqps, obtained by using a monochromatic illuminator, explained

H.E. M.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — The sulfides of zinc, cadmium, and mercury; their

crystalline forms and genetic conditions. E. T. Allen and J. L.

Crenshaw. Microscopic study by H. E. Merwin. American

Journal of Science, 34: 341-396. 1912.

The sulfides of zinc are enantiotropic, with an inversion point at

1020°. Sphalerite is the stable form below this temperature, wurt-

zite above. Their indices of refraction, dispersion, and specific gravities

were determined. Iron in the form of ferrous sulfide is present in solid

solution in the ferruginous sphalerites, since the specific volume, index

of refraction, and inversion-point change continuously with increasing

percentage of iron. Sphalerite was formed synthetically by action of

alkali sulfides on zinc salts at 200° and above. Wurtzite was obtained

by action of hydrogen sulfide on solutions of zinc salts containing free

acid at temperatures between 250° and 350°.

Only one crystalline form of cadmium sulfide was obtained. It is

identical with the mineral greenockite. Crystallographic and optical

measurements and determinations of specific gravity were made on a

very pure synthetic preparation.

Besides cinnabar, a black sulfide of mercury, probably identical with

metacinnabar, and a new form, hexagonal, but with properties distinct

from cinnabar, were obtained. Cinnabar is the stable form; the other

two are monotropic forms.

abstracts: petrography 115

The most interesting result for geochemistry which was obtained in

these synthetic studies was the following: The unstable crystalline

forms, metacinnabar, wurtzite, and marcasite, are obtained only from

acid solutions, while the corresponding stable forms, cinnabar, sphaler-

ite, and pyrite, are the only product of alkaline solutions, tho they

may be obtained from acid solutions also. E. T. A and J. L. C.

PETROGRAPHY. — Microscopical petrography from the quantitative view-

point. Fred. Eugene Wright. Journal of Geology, 20: 481-

501. 1912.

In this paper attention is directed to the importance of good quantita-

tive work in microscopical petrography which has now passed the quali-

tative, reconnaissance stage of its development and is entering upon

large problems, essentially quantitative in nature, which require pre-

cise data of observation for their solution. The different optical prop-

erties used in the determination of minerals are classified in detail and

simple effective methods are briefly described which experience has

shown to be well adapted for the determination of the different optical

constants of mineral plates and grains. F. E. W.

PETROGRAPHY.- — Petrographic study of the specimens of loess, tierra

cocida, and scoria collected by the Hrdlicka-Willis Expedition. Fred.

Eugene Wright and Clarence N. Fenner. Included in the vol-

ume, Early man in South America, by Ales Hrdlicka in collaboration

with W. H. Holmes, Bailey Willis, Fred. Eugene Wright, and Clar-

ence N. Fenner. Bulletin, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith-

sonian Institution, 52: 55-98. 1912.

This collection was found to contain several extraordinary rock types,

and for the solution of the problems which they present, three distinct

lines of attack were followed: (1) the usual detailed petrographic-micro-

scopic examination of the rocks; (2) chemical study of the different

rock types ; (3) thermal study of the specimens at different temperatures

and comparisons of the products thus obtained with the natural pro-

ducts.

The loess consists in large measure of volcanic and eruptive mate-

rial. Salic volcanic glass is present in practically every specimen and

may become so abundant that it constitutes 90 per cent of the whole.

The minerals are remarkably fresh and unaltered, while the amount

of argillaceous material present is relatively small in most of the spec-

imens. These facts may be. considered indicative of tremendous and

116 abstracts: petrology

widespread volcanic activity of the explosive type during or just pre-

ceding the formation of the loess.

The specimens of tierra cocida are composed, for the most part,

simply of loess fragments which have been indurated and reddened by

heat action, between 850° and 1050°. The loess and tierra cocida are

similar in general character and composition.

The scoriae are not normal volcanic scoriae. They have been

produced by the melting down of an original clastic material (loess)

under conditions which protected the molten mass from oxidation. The

hypothesis is advanced that the loess formation was intruded by igneous

masses which melted down the adjacent loess and formed the present

black scoriae. The lack of oxidation of the scoriae and their abundance

in the field precludes the possibility that they were formed by the melt-

ing down of loess by bonfires or any type of fire in the open air. Pre-

historic man is not, therefore, responsible for their occurrence.

F. E. W and C. N. F.

PETROLOGY. — Study of a contact metamorphic ore-deposit. The

Dolores mine, at Matehuala, S. L. P. Mexico. J. E. Spurr, G. H.

Garrey, and Clarence N. Fenner. Economic Geology, 7:

444-484. 1912.

This is a study of an interesting jjroblem in applied geology, toward

which the laboratory contributed an exhaustive petrographic investi-

gation of the various types of rock which had been collected in the field.

The problem comprised the study and elucidation of the phenomena of

an unusual type of metamorphism and ore-deposition, associated with

and consequent upon the intrusion of a great mass of eruptive rock into

a series of sedimentary beds. In conjunction with the field-work a

collection of typical rock-specimens was sent to the laboratory. From

these the field relations which had been observed were confirmed and

supplementary information obtained. From the different sources of in-

formation thus made available it was possible to arrive at well-grounded

conclusions regarding the geological history of events, including the

sequence of mineral deposition, the nature of the circulating solutions,

and the relations existing between the metallic sulfides and the gangue

minerals. C. N. F.

abstracts: geology 117

GEOLOGY. —Apishapa, Colo., Folio. George W. Stose. Folio No.

186, Geologic Atlas of the United States, U. S. Geological Survey.

January, 1913. Topographic, geologic, and structure maps, and

sheet of illustrations.

The Apishapa quadrangle is one-quarter of a square degree situated

20 miles southeast of Pueblo, Colorado. It was geologically surveyed

by G. K. Gilbert and his assistants some years ago and was recently

completed and revised by G. W. Stose. The topography of the quad-

rangle is tjTDical of the semiarid Great Plains region, comprising rolling

treeless plains, low mesas, and deep rocky canyons. An old dissected

peneplain, drainage modifications, and other physiographic features are

discussed and figured. The rocks exposed are all of Cretaceous age

except the oldest rocks observed in some of the deeper canyons — the

Morrison formation of possibly Jurassic age — and the surficial gravels

of Tertiary and Quaternary age. Lower Cretaceous rocks are recog-

nized and mapped for the first time in this vicinity as the Purgatoire

formation. The structure of the quadrangle is a sharp dome-like up-

lift centering in the Rattlesnake Buttes, with a total vertical displace-

ment of 2500 feet in the quadrangle. The hard Dakota sandstone

forms the land surface over a large portion of the higher part of the

dome. Numerous normal faults occur on the flanks of the uplift, and

the resulting intricate displacements are brought out on the geologic

structure map by deformation contours. A sharp local dome structure

is regarded as probably the result of the intrusion of a laccolithic body

of igneous rock emanating from the source of the Spanish Peak intru-

sion 25 miles to the southwest. These igneous rock are represented

in the quadrangle by scattered dikes of rather unusual composition.

The petrographic description of these is contributed by Whitman Cross.

G. \V. S.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern

Virginia. George W. Stose. Bulletin 530 (separate N), U. S.

Geological Survey. Pp. 14^37. 1912.

The salt and gj^psum deposits are in the vicinity of Saltville, Va.,

and occur in red and gray clays of Mississippian ("Lower Carbonifer-

ous") age adjacent to the Rome fault, a great fault thrusting Cambrian

dolomite and limestone upon the Carboniferous strata. A section is

given of the lower Carboniferous rocks in the syncline adjacent to the

fault, comprising the Price sandstone, at the base, Maccrady ("Pulaski")

formation, and the Newman limestone, and the equivalence of the

118 ABSTKACTS: GEOLOGY

gypsiferous and saline clays to part of the Maccrady formation is

discussed. The various theories that have been offered to account for

the accumulation of these deposits are described. The fact that the

deposits are found only close to the fault and are not known to occur

in quantity in the same strata any distance away from the fault, leads

the author to the conclusion that disseminated salt and gypsum in the

original sediments of earthy limestone, shale, and sandstone, have been

concentrated in the same strata adjacent to the fault by circulating

waters thru chemical affinity. The ammonia-soda process, which is

used in converting the brine of these wells into soda products is

described. G. W. S.

GEOLOGY. — Index to the stratigraphy of North America. Bailey

Willis. Accompanied by a geologic map of North America, com-

piled by Bailey Willis and G. W. Stose. Professorial Paper 71,

U. S. Geological Survey. 1912.

This, report summarizes what are regarded as the most authoritative

statements concerning the geology of the North American continent.

The map, 60 by 77 inches, to which the text is an extended key, is

printed in 4 sheets which are folded and encased in a separate box.

Its scale is 1 : 500,000 or approximately 1 inch to 80 miles. The 42

color distinctions represent as many divisions of strata. There are

distinguished 6 main divisions of the pre-Cambrian, 7 of the Paleozoic,

6 of the Mesozoic, and 7 of the Tertiary. Besides these main divisions

larger equivalents in parts of the continent, where details are not known

or are too minute to be mapped, are represented by distinct color effect.

The color scheme is planned so that the map fulfills two purposes —

that of a wall map and of a pocket map. Viewed on a wall only the

larger units and the different geologic provinces stand out. The Cana-

dian shield of pre-Cambrian rocks for example is set off sharply from

the parallel bands of Paleozoic rocks of the Appalachians, and the lava

fields of the western states from the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of

the Great Plains and the older rocks of the Rocky Mountains. At

close range, on the other hand, the more minute subdivisions can readily

be distinguished.

To facilitate references in the text, the map is divided into rectangu-

lar spaces, each embracing 4 degrees of latitude and 6 degrees of longi-

tude, which are designated by letters and numbers. The text is closely

linked to the map by these coordinates, which form the basis of the

arrangement of the quotations. Except the explanatory matter in the

chapters on introduction and bibliography the descriptions are arranged

abstracts: plant physiology 119

in 16 chapters, each treating of one of the major geologic divisions shown

on the map. Under each chapter the statements are arranged geo-

graphically according to the coordinates, in alphabetic and numerical

sequence. Accordingly the geology of any locality where more than

one geologic system is represented is distributed thru the various chap-

ters in which those systems are discussed.

The compiler has depended in most cases on the papers quoted to

furnish other references to earlier literature. Nevertheless, there are

references in the text to 953 separate papers. Each chapter is accom-

panied by a small sketch map showing the areal distribution of the

rocks described in that chapter as represented on the geologic map.

G. W. S.

BOTANY. — The phylogeriy of grasses. William H. Lamb, Forest

Service. The Plant World, 15: No. 11. November, 1912.

This is a discussion of the origin of grasses, the essential differences

between the tribes of grasses, and their probable derivation from a

common ancestral type.

The grasses have come from lily-like plants by a reduction in the

number of the parts of the flower. Among grasses the direction of

evolution has been toward a reduction in the number of flowers in the

spikelet. Forms with relatively more flowers in the spikelet are to be

regarded as primitive, and forms that have but one flower in the spikelet

have developed furtherest from the ancestral type.

The first grasses were a primitive group, probably very similar to the

bamboos as we know them today, and these are the progenitors, directly

and indirectly, of all the other tribes. The Bambuseae have given rise

to the other tribes by three great lines of development; the Festucean

Line, the Phalaridean Line, and the Andropogonean Line.

A diagrammatic drawing has been made of the spikelet, the inflores-

cence, and the flower of one genus to typify each tribe, and a chart has

been arranged which shows the relationship of the tribes of grasses, and

the structural modifications which have segregated each distinct group.

W. H. L.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— r/ie wilting coefficient for plants in alkali

soils. Thomas H. Kearney. Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular

109, pp. 17-25. 1913.

The object of this investigation was to ascertain whether the presence

of an excess of soluble salts in the soil affects the ability of plants to

reduce the moisture content to the limit at which plants wilt and are un-

120 abstracts: plant physiology

able to regain their turgor unless additional water is supplied (See Bulle-

tin 230, Bureau of Plant Industry, 1912, "The Wilting Coefficient for

Different Plants and Its Indirect Determination," by L. J. Briggs and H.

L. Shantz) . For this purpose wheat seedlings were grown in a series of

soils having a graduated salt content, with sodium sulphate as the

principal component.

It was demonstrated that the utilization of all "available" moisture

in the soil is not prevented by the presence of "alkali" salts unless in

quantity sufficient virtually to inhibit the growth of the plants. While

the amount of growth made by the plants decreased regularly with the

salt content of the soil, their roots, even in the mixture having the high-

est salt content (0.74 per cent of the dry weight of the soil) in which any

growth was made, were finally able to reduce the soil moisture to the

calculated wilting coefficient. Absorption was much retarded, however,

in the more saline soils, the length of time required for the plants to reach

the wilting point having ranged from 18 in the soil having the lowest

salt content to 43 in the soil having the highest. T. H. K.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. Some effects of refrigeration on sulfured and

unsulfured hops. W. W. Stockberger and Frank Rabak. Bul-

letin No. 271, Bureau of plant Industry, Department of Agricul-

ture, pp. 21. 1912.

This bulletin summarizes the results of a comparative study of the

effects of cold and ordinary storage on sulfured and unsulfured hops.

Trade experts agreed that the samples of sulfured hops in cold storage

were best in quality, but differed widely as to the undesirable effect of

the treatment upon the other samples.

Determinations were made of the acidity and ester content of the

volatile oils extracted from samples of the hops under each condition

of storage. The conclusions drawn from these analyses are that both

sulfuring and cold storage retard changes in the hops leading to an

increase in acidity and ester content of the oils. Cold storage is appar-

ently more effective than sulfuring in retarding the increase in acidity,

but is less efficient than sulfuring in retarding increase in ester content.

Cold storage and sulfuring combined are much more effective in retard-

ing changes in acidity and ester content than either alone. The per-

centage of decrease in the content of soft resins was found to be less in

the cold-stored hops than in those in ordinary storage. The evidence

from the analyses goes to show that the sulfuring tends to retard changes

in the content of soft resins only when combined with cold storage.

W. W. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 80th Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held

at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening, December 18, 1912.

Dr. L. 0. Howard gave an illustrated lecture on The danger from

imported plants and fruits, and government efforts to avoid it. The life

history of many accidentally imported injurious insects and the ravages

they work were illustrated and explained. The best methods of keep-

ing these pests in at least partial control were described. The last Con-

gress passed a law that enables an effective quarantine to be established

against insect pests of all kinds.

Dr. Howard also gave an account, which follows in full, of the cele-

bration of the 250th anniversary of the Royal Society of London, to

which he was the official delegate of the Academy.

W. J. Humphreys, Secretary.

The 250th anniversary celebration of the Royal Society, Loyidon, Jidy

15-19, 1912: L. 0. Howard, Delegate of the Washington Academy of

Sciences.

To the President and Members of the Washington Academy of

Sciences : I beg to submit a report on the two hundred and fiftieth anni-

versary celebration of the Royal Society, and in submitting this report

beg to express my deep gratitude to the President and to the Board of

Managers of the Academy for the appointment as delegate to this

extraordinary function, which has given me one of the pleasantest

experiences of a lifetime.

In talking recently with one or two members of the Academy, I have

been rather surprised to find that they know little of the history of the

Royal Society. One of them has even assured me that some time ago

he attempted to read up on the subject, but was unable to find a com-

petent historical sketch. Now I have no doubt that if one were to

consult that much advertised but none the less reasonably competent

Encyclopaedia Britannica full information on this important subject

would be found. Since, however, there is undoubtedly a lack of infor-

mation, it may be well to state briefly, by way of preliminary, certain

facts which were brought to the writer's attention in the course of the

memorable week follo^\dng July 15, 1912.

The Royal Society is the oldest scientific society in Great Britain,

and one of the oldest in Europe. It is usually considered as having

121

122 proceedings: academy of sciences

been founded in 1660, and King Charles II, in fact, approved of its

organization in December of that year. A Charter of Incorporation,

however, passed the Great Seal July 15, 1662, and it appears that King

Charles gave the newly founded society a small grant at that time,

which, however, and sad to relate, he was forced to withdraw before the

conclusion of his reign. The first Transactions appeared March 6,

1664-65. The headquarters of the Society at the start were in Gresham

College, but after the great fire of 1666 meetings were held in Arundel

House, at the invitation of Henry Howard of Norfolk.

Isaac Newton was elected a fellow in 1671, and in 1703 was made

President, retaining the office until his death in 1727. During his

term the Society moved to Crane Court, and in 1780, under the presi-

dency of Sir Joseph Banks, it again removed to apartments set aside

in Somerset House, where it stayed until 1857, when it removed to

Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it has remained ever since.

In the entire course of its history the Royal Society has been constantly

consulted by the government for advice on scientific matters of national

importance. Thus the Royal Observatory at Greenwich was in 1810

placed under the sole charge of the Society, and this policy has been

continued down to the recent investigations of sleeping sickness and

other diseases, conducted under the auspices of this organization.

The Society administers large sums for the promotion of scientific

research, possessing an annual grant exceeding twenty thousand dol-

lars for this purpose. Five medals (the Copley, two Royals, the Davey

and the Hughes) are awarded every year. The Rumford and Darwin

medals are awarded every two years, the latter having been awarded

the present j^ear to Dr. Francis Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin, in

whose honor the medal was struck. The Silvester medal is awarded

triennially, and the Buchanan medal every four years. It is worthy of

note that the Buchanan medal this year was awarded to Col. William

C. Gorgas, sanitary officer in charge of sanitation of the Panama Canal.

Fellows are elected strictly in accordance with their scientific attain-

ments, except of course in the case of royalty. The admission fee is

fifty dollars, and the annual dues twenty dollars, but, by the operation

of a fund established in 1878, the admission fee and five dollars of the

annual dues have been remitted since that time.

In making preparations for the celebration of this two hundred and

fiftieth anniversary, judging by results only, since I am not informed as

to the steps which were taken, considerable care was exercised in the

selection of the organizations which were invited to send delegates.

Apparently only the principal academies of science and the principal

universities of the world were invited. At all events, less than three

hundred delegates, including those from Great Britain, were in attend-

ance, and among these the United States of America had the largest

number. It may be interesting to mention the American delegates

proceedings: academy of sciences 123

in the order in which they appeared upon the printed diary, programme

of proceedings, and hst of delegates :

University of California Prof. H. C. Plummer

University of Chicago Prof. E. B. Frost

Clark University, Worcester Prof. Arthur G. Webster

Columbia University, New York Dr. N. Murray Butler, President

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y Prof. J. H. Comstock

Harvard University Prof. B. O. Peirce

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Prof. W. Bullock Clark

Leland Stanford Junior University, California.. Prof. Vernon L. Kellogg

University of Michigan Prof. William H. Hobbs

University of Minnesota Dr. Arthur Hamilton

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dr. Edgar F. Smith, Provost

University of Princeton, New Jersey. . . Prof. John G. Hibben, President

University of Wisconsin Prof. Charles K. Leith

Yale University Dr. Arthur Twining Hadley , President

American Academy of Sciences, Boston Prof. Edwin H. Hall

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.. Prof. W. E. Brown, F.R.S.

American Mathematical Society, New York. .Prof. H. B. Fine, President

American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia

Prof. W. B. Scott, Vice-President.

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia Major G. O. Squier

California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. . . .Mr. Joseph D. Grant

Carnegie Institution, Washington Dr. R. S. Woodward, President

National Academy of Sciences, Washington

Dr. Arnold Hague, Secretary

Smithsonian Institution, Washington Dr. Arnold Hague

Washington Academy of Sciences Dr. L. O. Howard

On Monday night, July 15, 1912, exactly 250 years from the date

of the passage of the Charter by the Great Seal, Burlington House,

become famous during the last 65 years from the notable social and

scientific functions of the Society, was brilliantly illuminated, and the

delegates assembled, many of them just from their steamers and trains,

for the purpose of registration and for informal meeting and the making

and renewal of acquaintance.

The first formal function took place the next morning, Tuesday, the

16th, at Westminster Abbey. The heat of the day was excessive. It

would have been excessive even in Washington, and in London it was

almost overpowering. The majority of the delegates wore academic

dress, and the service was attended by many distinguished Englishmen

high in rank or in political service, one of the naves of the cathedral

being reserved for delegates, the remainder of the space being filled by

London society. Addison's superb hymn, "The Spacious Firmament

on High," was sung by the choir, and, while appropriate to the occasion

124 proceedings: academy of sciences

in other respects, brought a smile to the lips of the American delegates

when the words were chanted.

The unwearied sun, from day to day.

Does his Creator's power display.

And publishes to every land

The work of an almighty hand.

The service was impressive in the extreme, and most significant was

the short address of the Dean of Westminster based on the passage

''But truth abideth and is strong forever." He recalled the perturba-

tion which was wont to take possession of men's minds during the last

century with regard to discoveries in natural science — perturbation

which sometimes betrayed itself in fear, impatience and indignation;

but times were now changed; he thought that he might claim to speak

in the name of the whole world of contemporary Christian thought

when he gave expression to the gratitude, which as a rule the clergy has

little or no opportunity for offering, for the amazing enrichment of

human thought which had resulted from patient researches into natural

science during the past 250 years, and in particular during the past 80

years. They thanked God for the great and glorious work that had

been done by the men of science for the widening of human thought;

with all humility they expressed their grateful obligation for the benefits

which had been rendered in Great Britain by the Royal Society.

In the afternoon of Tuesday, delegates were received in the great

library of the Royal Society, Burlington House. Sir Archibald Geikie,

the President, was accompanied by Lord Rayleigh, Past President; Sir

A. B. Kempe, Treasurer; Sir Joseph Larmor, and Sir J. R. Radford,

Secretaries; and Mr. Robert Harrison, Assistant Secretary. The major-

ity of delegates wore official robes or academic dress. Among the

scarlet doctors' gowns were prominent the crimson and gold cloaks of

some of the German professors, the claret and gold uniform with brown

fur cloak of a Hungarian delegate, the inconspicuous but rather bizarre

olive-green uniform of members of the French Academy, and the silk

robes and turbans of the Indian representatives. The heat again was

almost overpowering, and, although the hbrary is called "the Great

Library" the 300 delegates were so closely crowded that it required the

intense interest of the function to overcome the feeling of personal

discomfort.

Sir Archibald Geikie, the President, in welcoming the delegates, was

necessarily obliged to make the rather trite but none the less true obser-

vation that no more striking proof than was presented by this assembly

could be given of the reality and cordiality of that spirit of frank and

loyal cooperation which united into one great brotherhood the students

of science in every land and in every language. He reviewed the events

which led to the grant of the Charter of Incorporation by Charles II,

and mentioned some of the famous names of men associated with the

Royal Society and with the progress of science. Starting its career

with a notable group of physicists and mathematicians, among whom

proceedings: academy of sciences 125

were Robert Boyle and John Wilkins, it before long welcomed Isaac

Newton into its ranks, published his immortal " Principia," and annually

elected him as its President for nearly a quarter of a century. He called

attention to the fact that the physical sciences had all along been

strongly represented in the Society. It seemed but yesterday, he said,

that James Clerk Maxwell's voice was heard in those rooms and that

Stokes and Kelvin sat in the presidential chair; that the succession of

leaders was still well maintained, he called attention to the presence that

day of Lord Rayleigh, Sir William Crooks, Sir Joseph Thomson, Sir

Joseph Larmor, and any others. Nor had the biological sciences

been less prominent in the work of the Society. From the early days

of John Ray down to those of Charles Darwin, Hooker, Huxley and

Lister, every branch of biology has been illustrated and advanced by

the fellows of the Society.

The ceremony of presenting addresses of congratulation followed.

Aside from the formal addresses there were speeches of complimentary

character from a representative of each country. For America, Prof.

W. B. Scott, of Princeton, as Vice-President of the American Philo-

sophical Society, was selected. A notable incident of this function was

the presentation to the Society by the German academies and societies

of a large bronze tablet commemorative of the work of the Royal Society

and of the admiration held for it in Germany. This tablet is to be set

into the walls of the Library at Burlington House.

At night on Tuesday a banquet took place at the Guildhall. The

delegates were all present, and hundreds of men prominent in most walks

of life in England graced the function by their presence. A glance over

the table list shows many familiar names, from which are culled here

and there a few which may be of especial interest to members of the

Washington Academy: Lord AUerton, Lord Alverstone, the Arch-

bishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, Mr. Asquith the Premier

of England, Mr. Balfour, Cardinal Bourne, Mr. Francis Darwin, Sir

George H. Darwin, the Dean of Saint Pauls, the Dean of Westminster,

Prince Ahmed Fouad Pacha, Prince Boris Galitzin, Sir Archibald

Geikie, Lord George Hamilton, Mr. Rudyard Kipling, Lord Morley,

the Duke of Northumberland, Sir William Osier, Sir William Ramsay,

Lord Rayleigh, Lord Reay, Hon. Walter Rothschild, Professor Schaefer

President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,

Lord Strathcona, Lord Sudeley, Lord Tennyson, Sir William Thisleton-

Dyer, Sir J. J. Thomson, and Sir. J. I. Thornycroft.

Wherever one glanced around the assemblage his eye fell upon some

man of world-wide fame.

At the conclusion of the dinner there was an extraordinary list of

toasts and responses. The word "toast-master" in England at a func-

tion of this kind has a different significance from the term as applied

in this country. There the toast-master is literally an announcer of

toasts. On this occasion he was a very large man "with a very large

voice, who announced in stentorian tones at the request of the presiding

officer the toasts which were to be drunk, invariably beginning "My lords

and gentlemen."

126 proceedings: academy of sciences

A notable speech was that of Mr. Asquith, Prime Minister of England.

It was historical in large part. One sentence which aroused laughter

was as follows: "When the universities were ingrossed in the din of

civil war, 'to the neglect/ as a contemporary writer says, 'of academical

studies,' science and philosophy took refuge in the comparative peace

and tranquility which the streets of the City of London could then afford."

Another pleasantry of the Prime Minister's was given in the following

words : "In the same roll with John Dryden is one of the chief victims of

his satire, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, who, amid his various

qualifications for the chief office of state, was as we know 'chemist,

fiddler, statesman, and buffoon,' and I see from your records that his-

tory tells us that when this, perhaps the most original of the original

fellows of the Royal Society was committed to the tower, a special

laboratory was fitted up for him in order that he might practice chem-

istry; and, according to Bishop Burnet, he was 'nearly' successful in

discovering the philosopher's stone — an illustration which suggests that

some people might be more profitably employed at present than at

either Westminster or Whitehall."

Characteristic of the address of the Prime Minister was the frank

acknowledgment of the benefits derived by government from the work

of men of science. The administration of the grants of the Royal Soci-

ety is not, he said, a benefit conferred on the Society by the State, but

a service conferred on the State by the Society.

That distinguished scholar and late eminent politician. Lord Morley,

proposed the toast of universities at home and abroad, and his address

was a most scholarly and able production.

The Archbishop of Canterbury proposed the toast of the learned

societies in the old and new world, and called attention to the signifi-

cance of the fact that this toast had been entrusted to an ecclesiastic.

He called attention to the fact that Smithfield and St. Paul's Cross were

very near to the Guild Hall, and he believed that the time might be

found when, if under that roof or under the roof which preceded it, they

had seen a great gathering of orthodox ecclesiastics together with a

gathering of adventurous students of science, they might have agreed

that they were on the way to Smithfield, that the one might see the

other suffer.

One of the speakers at this historic dinner was a member of this Acad-

emy, Dr. R. S. Woodward, President of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington.

The morning of Wednesday, July 17, was devoted to visits to places

of interest in London, including the Zoological Gardens, the British

Museum, the Natural History Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum,

Lambeth Palace, and Westminster Abbey. The most perfect arrange-

ments were made for the entertainment of the ladies accompanying

visiting delegates, and during this and the following mornings arrange-

ments had been made for small parties to see many of the famous private

houses of London, and a special reception was held in their honor.

PEOCEEDINGS: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 127

In the afternoon of this day the Duke "and Duchess of Northumber-

land gave a garden party at Syon House on the .Thames, about eight

miles from Hyde Park Corner — Syon House, one of the famous houses

of England, with beautiful grounds, containing a wealth of art. Hun-

dreds of London society people also attended the garden party.

In the evening one of the famous conversaziones of the Royal Society

was held at Burlington House. The contrast between a conversazione

of the Royal Society, from the social point of view, and one of the social

functions of the Washington Academy of Sciences is striking to say

the least. Wealth, beauty, and nobility abound at the one, while at

the other the list is restricted to scientific attainments and personal

beauty.

At Burlington House on Wednesday night, among other interesting

exhibits, there were shown the chronometer by Arnold, used by Captain

Cook on his second and third voyages; an electrical machine constructed

by Doctor Joseph Priestley, the original model of Sir Humphrey

Davey's miner's safety lamp, a pair of compasses which belonged to Sir

Christopher Wren, and Newton's original account of his reflecting tele-

scope.

Thursday morning also was devoted to specially conducted visits

to points of interest, and in the afternoon His Majesty the King, Patron

of the Royal Society, and Her Majesty the Queen received the President

and Council of the Royal Society and the delegates at Windsor Castle.

This was a function that commanded especial interest from the foreign

delegates, and, curiously enough, especially from those coming from

countries whose governments are of the republican form. The invi-

tations alone, issued by the Lord Chamberlain at the command of their

Majesties, and the cards of entrance signed by Chesterfield, Lord Stew-

ard, were sufficiently novel to the republicans to demand their vivid

interest. Special trains from Paddington Station took the delegates

to Windsor, and on their arrival at the famous castle they were con-

ducted through the rooms by Lord Chesterfield, and eventually formed

in line upon the Rose Terrace. Finally the King and Queen appeared

descending the staircase, and stood alone at its foot. Several person-

alities, including King George of Greece, stood carelessly upon the stair-

case above watching the proceedings. The delegates, 300 in all, were

grouped according to countries, and passed in single file, each receiving

a warm grasp of the hand and some of them a pleasant word or so from

both the King and Queen. One of the members of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, namely Major Squier, now military attache to

the United States Embassy at London, and on this occasion represent-

ing the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, received an especial word of

greeting from the King, with whom he had hs^d a long personal inter-

view a few days before on his arrival in London to assume his diplomatic

position.

Following this reception by the King and Queen, the delegates de-

scended to the gardens below, where a gigantic garden party, attended

128 proceedings: anthropological society

by nine thousand of England's best, was assembling. It was a beau-

tiful day; the weather had grown milder although still bright and sunny.

The wonderful of green the English trees and turf — the brilliant colors

of the summer costumes of the women — the variegated refreshment

marquees — the beautiful strains from several mihtary bands — the sound

of the charming English voices as one passed from group to group —

the feeling that one had that he was mingling with the best that England

could produce in culture, in scientific attainment and social position —

altogether produced an exalted condition of mind not to be forgotten.

This royal reception at Windsor brought the celebration to a close

so far as the official arrangements of the Royal Society itself were con-

cerned, but, realizing that among the fellows there was a strong desire

to offer to their guests from foreign lands and from the British domin-

ions over the seas some less formal and more intimate hospitality, a

numbers of the fellows gave private dinners, more or less especially to

include those guests who brought their wives and daughters with them,

while the Royal Society Club invited the rest of the foreign and colonial

delegates to dine at the famous Trocadero Restaurant. At this last

dinner no speeches were made.

On Friday visits were made to Oxford or Cambridge, as the dele-

gates preferred. Convocations were held at each of the universities,

and luncheons were given to the guests. At both universities honorary

degrees were conferred, and at Oxford, among others. Dr. W. B. Scott,

Blair Professor of Zoology and Paleontology in Princeton University,

was given the honorary degree of Doctor of Science. At Cambridge

Dr. E. B. Frost, Director of the Yerkes Observatory, among others,

was given the same honorary degree.

The writer had on previous occasions met with the charming hospi-

tality of the English, and he had had opportunity to witness their

genius in the organization of scientific meetings and international con-

gresses and celebrations; but never had he met with such perfection of

arrangement, such wealth of hospitality, and never had he been given

such an insight into many of the qualities which place the England of

today in the high position which she occupies among nations as on

this occasion, and he dare not hope for another similar opportunity in

one lifetime.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 464th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wash-

ington, D. C, was held December 17, 1912, at the National Museum,

the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair.

Prof. C. V. Piper read a paper on The 'Filipinos and the problem of

their government. He began with a general resum^ of the insular condi-

tions and various peoples dwelling there, of whom he said the Negritoes,

now found mainly in four islands but once in nearly all, are generally

regarded as the original inhabitants, the Igorrotes and other wild tribes

proceedings: chemical society 129

being the next to arrive, the Fihpinos next, perhaps about 500 A.D. and

the Moros last, about the time of the Spanish occupation. At some

length he described the Filipino characteristics, distinguishing between

the small educated minority and the majority of ignorant laborers.

The most remarkable thing we are doing there, he said, is the attempt,

for the first time in history, to educate an inferior people en masse.

The Asiatic European colonies have little faith in its success.

Dr. Riley B. Moore read a paper on Observations in St. Lawrence

Island. This island in the Bering Sea includes one hundred by thirty

miles of treeless swamp and tundra inhabited by some two hundred

and fifty people, the debris of five different tribes. Some of these

resemble Sioux Indians; others are typical Mongolians, with all inter-

vening kinds. In summer they have a profusion of birds and fish to

feed on; but in other seasons their food is whale-meat, seal-meat and

walrus-meat. They live with little ventilation and suffer from many skin

diseases. Tuberculosis also is very common. The death rate has long

exceeded the birth rate.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 217th regular meeting was held on October 10, 1912, at the

Cosmos Club. The general subject for the evening comprised reports

on the meetings of the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chem-

istry. President Le Clerc reported on the international meetings,

addressed by Bertrand, Duisberg, Eyde, Perkin, and Ciamician. Ex-

periments were shown by the speaker illustrating Perkin's success in

fire-proofing cotton fabrics.

F. K. Cameron reported on agriculture and silicate industries. The

most important papers of the Congress, in his opinion, were concerned

with the fixation of nitrogen. F. W. Clarke reported on atomic

weights and sketched the history of the International Commission. W.

D. BiGELOw summarized the papers on bromatology and hygiene, pay-

ing especial attention to those on analytical methods, metabolism, and

preparation of foods. H. E. Patten reviewed the electrochemical papers

in all the sections. The papers on dust collection, sulfuric acid, and

new alloys of tungsten and the iron group were given especial attention

by A. L. Day in reviewing the sections on inorganic and physical chem-

istry. Finally, C. E. Munroe spoke yqvj interestingly of new develop-

ments in explosives brought out in the section on that subject.

A special meeting was held on October 24, 1912, at the Cosmos Club.

The f ollomng papers were read :

Moisture determination by means of calcium carbide: H. C. McNeil.

The apparatus used was briefly described and examples of determina-

tions in a wide variety of substances were given. The method gives

results concordant within 0.2 per cent on quantities of the order of

15 per cent. Discussion by Tolman.

130 PEOCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY

Study of changes taking place in the conversion of cider into vinegar:

L. M. ToLMAN The conversion of a large quantity of cider into vinegar

was followed in a large factory in Michigan. The only important

change that occurs is the conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid, the

other substances present remaining nearly the same. The raw mate-

rial, altho varying from year to year, is remarkably uniform in com-

position in a given year. No general conclusions can be drawn from

analyses of home-made vinegars, which vary quite widely.

In the discussion by Gore the fact was brought out that the yield is

about 73 per cent of the theoretical. Alsberg and Seidell also dis-

cussed the paper.

Potassium ammonomagnesate and •potassium a?nmonoharate: E. C.

Franklin. The ammonia system of acids, bases, and salts was out-

lined, and the analogy carried on into the amphoteric compounds of

zinc, lead, etc. But cuprous copper, thallium, barium, and magnesium

also act as amphoteric elements in the ammonia system, and the salts

named in the title are among those recently prepared. The speaker

showed the apparatus and described the methods of manipulating these

compounds. £)iscussion by Foster, Johnston and Cameron.

The 218th regular meeting was held on November 14, 1912, and

was devoted to the election of officers for 1913 as follows: President,

C. E. Waters, Bureau of Standards; First vice-president, M. X. Sulli-

van, Bureau of Soils; Second vice-president, C. L. Alsberg, Bureau

of Plant Industry; Secretary, R. B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory;

Treasurer, F. P. Dewey, Bureau of the Mint; Councilors, C. L. Als-

berg, Bureau of Plant Industry; S. F. Agree, Johns Hopldns Univer-

sity; P. H. Walker, Bureau of Chemistry; J. A. Le Clerc, Bureau of

Chemistry; Executive Committee, J. Johnston, Geophysical Labora-

tory; E. W. BouGHTON, Bureau of Chemistry; R. C. Wells, Geological

Survey; E. C. McKelvy, Bureau of Standards.

Robert B. Sosman, Acting Secretary.

The 219th meeting was held jointly with the Baltimore Branch of

the American Chemical Society in Hokpins Hall, Baltimore, on No-

vember 30, 1912. The following papers were read:

The inflammability of coal dust: J. C. W. Frazer. Discussion by C.

Caspari, Jr., W. A. Randall, B. F. Lovelace, Marshall, Roundtree, and

J. A. LeClerc.

The United States Pharmacopoeia, its origin, history and requireme7its:

Charles Caspari, Jr. Discussion by Englehardt and Le Clerc.

C. P. Van Gundy, Secretary pro tem.

The 220th meeting of the Chemical Society was held 12 December,

1912, at the Cosmos Club. President-elect C. E. Waters was elected

vice-president of the Washington Academy to represent the Society.

The following papers were read:

R. B. Dole of the Geological Survey: The concentration of mineral

loaters in relation to their therapeutic activity. The efficacy of the waters

proceedings: chemical society 131

of health resorts usually arises from other causes than the composition

of the water. The reactions of substances usuall}'" present in the min-

eral waters are those of the positive or negative salt radicals. Their

effect can therefore be predicted by the experimental use of single pure

salts in solution at known concentrations. The following phenomena

interfere with simple deduction from such experiments: (1) cumulative

effects of certain radicals; (2) "toleration" acquired against certain

radicals; (3) "interference" of different radicals in the same water.

Examples of very concentrated waters in common use in the West were

cited, to show that waters having concentrations well above the nor-

mally active physiological dose could be used for years with no appre-

ciable effect.

F. C. Cook, of the Bureau of Chemistry: A comparison of plant, meat,

and yeast extracts. The paper was concerned largely with methods, and

can not be briefly abstracted.

Discussion: Alsberg suggested that removal of ammonia or presence

of some unrecognized compound would result in better agreement be-

tween the Van Slyke and Soerensen methods for hydrolyzecl proteins.

M. X. Sullivan discussed the presence of small amounts of creatinin in

plants, probably too small to affect the test for distinguishing plant from

meat extracts. E. C. Franklin also discussed the paper.

A. S. CusHMAN and E. B. Wettengel of the Institute of Industrial

Research: The electrolytic determination of tin in canned food products.

Read by Mr. Wettengel. The usual gravimetric method for tin is

tedious and expensive. The electrolytic method is much simpler and

shorter and was shown by thoro tests to give reliable results. The

pulped material is digested with acid, neutralized with ammonia and

ammonium sulfide, freed from insoluble matter, and electrolyzed hot,

using a rotating cathode. Discussion by Taber and Smith.

A. Seidell of the Hygienic Laboratory and F. Fenger of Armour and

Company: Seasonal variation in the iodine content of the thyroid gland.

Reacl by Seidell. A parallelism exists between the iodine content and

the physiological activity of commercial thyroid as used in medicine.

A standard commercial concentration of 0.2 per cent has been recom-

mended. In order to obtain data upon the raw material used in manu-

facturing commercial desiccated thyroids, and to study the possibility

of meeting such a standard, Mr. Fenger collected samples at Chicago

from sheep, hogs, and cattle at two-week periods, each representing

about 300 animals. Maxima of iodine were. found in all three between

September and November, and minima in summer. A rather variable

ash content was found due to the wear of the ball mills.

Discussion: Waters suggested that the iodine content varied with

the amount of green food. Seidell believed tliis was not the only cause

of variation. Dole suggested a geographical variation, which was ad-

mitted as a possible explanation in spite of the large number of samples.

Alsberg added further evidence of a geographical variation. Bunzel

quoted the determinations of Koch to show a seasonal variation. Dole

132 proceedings: botanical society

stated that no potable waters in this country have enough iodine to have

any effect in preventing goitre, if a lack of iodine is the cause of that dis-

ease. Cook quoted his analyses of corals, showing a selective absorp-

tion of iodine by these organisms,

Robert B. Sosman, Acting Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 85th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was

held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday evening, Januar}?- 7, 1913. The

following scientific program was presented:

Dr. David Griffiths : Performances in species of opuntia (illustrated

with lantern slides) . This paper will be published in the near future as

a bulletin of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

Mr. J. B. Norton : So7ne interesting facts concerning the genus Asparagus

(illustrated with lantern slides). This paper gave a review of features

connected with the work of breeding a rust resistant variety of asparagus.

Asparagus officinalis has never been found to be completel}^ immune

to the attacks of its rust, Puccinia asparagi. Plants nearly immune

to the destructive summer stages show no resistance to the aecidial stage

of the fungus. Resistance seems to be due to morphological causes.

Related species are attacked by the rust but the members of other sec-

tions of the genus seem immune. The genus Asparagus and its relatives

are entirely limited to the old world, the majority being African. A

study is being made of the relationships of this group and many new

characters based on the manner of growth, roots, stems, leaf scales,

cladodes, etc., have been found. The arrangement of the stomata on

the cladodes is very characteristic in the various groups. The old

genus Asparagus contains several very distinct groups of species entitled

to generic rank.

Only one hybrid form of known parentage has been secured, a cross

between A . officinalis and A . davuricus. Many other combinations have

failed to produce seed. Asparagus grows rapidly, — some species average

nine inches per day. The seed germination takes from twelve days with

officinalis to sixty or more days with some African species. Several new

ornamental forms were described. •

C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill, MARCH 4, 1913 No. 5

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — The measurement of received radio-

telegraphic signals. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radiotele-

graphic Laboratory.

(A) A tester for rectifying contact detectors. The measure-

ment of radiotelegraphic signals at a great distance from the send-

ing station is complicated by the fact that the most common type

of detectors, the contact rectifiers, can not in general be depended

upon to give the same sensitiveness at all times. This type of

detector has a great advantage over others for quantitative work,

inasmuch as it can be used with a galvanometer as well as with the

telephone. Experience shows that the loudness of signal in the

telephone as measured by the shunt method is exactly propor-

tional to the deflection of a galvanometer placed in the same cir-

cuit, and in the case of nearly all tj^pes of rectifiers proportional

to the square of the oscillatory current. In a former article^

I have described a method of calibrating the detector in terms of

received current in the antenna. This method, while highly satis-

factory in a laboratory or large station with more or less labora-

tory equipment, is not suited to the use of the ordinary operator

and quite impossible for use on shipboard since it involves neces-

sarily two highly sensitive galvanometers and somewhat fragile

thermoelements .

In order to overcome these difficulties I have arranged a form

of detector tester which serves to establish the sensitiveness of

any rectifying detector at any given time. The principle of the

1 Bulletin, Bureau of Standards, 7: 295. 1911.

133

134

AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS

apparatus is as follows: A buzzer-driven circuit of fixed induc-

tance and capacity has its high frequency current square measured

by a sensitive H. & B. hot wire watt meter giving full scale for

0.03 watt. To the buzzer-driven circuit is coupled a second cir-

cuit with fixed condenser and two fixed inductances tuned to the

buzzer circuit. This intermediate circuit is introduced to prevent

any direct effect of the buzzer on the detector. To this second

circuit is coupled with a fixed coupling a third circuit consisting of

a fixed inductance, stopping condenser and the detector to be

tested. A Paul microammeter of about 250 ohms resistance,

giving two divisions per microampere, is placed around the stop-

ping condenser in series with the telephones regularly used with the

detector. 2 The plan of the apparatus is shown in the figure,

and the value of the inductance and capacities are shown in the

table.

,07

Hd&^

S-Jr

t

FsnCiT

!l-2

1-3

J

:.D

Fig. 1. Radio-Detector Tester

B, Ericsson buzzer, 3 ohms.

>S, 1 or 2 dry cells.

R, Variable resistance.

A = 2000 m.3

Li = L2 = L3 = Li Inductance = 0.4 m.h.

Ci, Fixed air condenser = 0.0028 m.f.

C2, Fixed air condenser = 0.0014 m.f.

W, H. & B. hot wire wattmeter, 6.5 ohms.

M, Paul Microammeter, 250 ohms.

T, Telephones 2500 ohms.

D, Detector under test.

2 The object of placing the telephones in the circuit is to ensure an approximately

normal amount of resistance in series with the detector.

* Shorter wave lengths do not give enough energy to be measured on the watt-

meter without using too much current thru the buzzer contact.

AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS 135

It will be seen that this detector tester differs from others in

that the wave lengths, inductances, couphng, etc., are fixed

and the test becomes simply the measm-ement of the response of

the detector to a definite amount of high frequency excitation.

The sensitiveness of the detector is determined by observing

the deflection on the microammeter corresponding to a reading

of 0.005 watt on the wattmeter in the buzzer circuit. The ratio

of wattmeter to microammeter reading may be expressed in terms

of energy requii-ed to produce a response, arbitrarily taken as the

least audible signal under average conditions. This energy cali-

bration of the detector tester is made once for all by means of a

detector calibrated immediately before by the thermoelement

and galvanometer method.

For example, a certain detector, which by the method already

mentioned^ has been shown to require 3.1 X 10"^ watts to pro-

duce an audible sound in our standard laboratory telephones,

produces when placed in the tester a deflection of ten divisions on

the microammeter for a reading of 0.005 watt on the buzzer cir-

cuit wattmeter. Now, if some other detector be placed in the

tester and gives five divisions for the same wattmeter reading,

it is half as sensitive as the first and requires 6.2 X 10"^ watts

for audibility in the standard telephones.

Experience has shown that the amount of energy required to

produce a certain strength of signal from the detector is indepen-

dent of the wave length and approximately independent of the

spark frequency.^ It has also been found that, when the detector

circuit is coupled to the antenna just closely enough to produce

maximum strength of signal, the energy is equally divided between

the antenna and the detector circuit.^ From this it follows that,

if we know the energ}^ in the detector, we have a measure of the

received energy and, if the total resistance of the antenna, includ-

ing that introduced by the coupled detector circuit be known, and

the effective height of the antenna be also known, ^ from the

^ Bulletin, Bureau of Standards, 7: 295. 1911.

5 Entirely so for galvanometer deflection.

6 Bulletin, Bureau of Standards 7: 301, 1911.

^T. Ruedenberg, Ann. d. Phys. 25: 446. 1908. Journal of the Washington

Academy, 1: 275. 1911.

136 AUSTIN: RADIOTELEGRAPHIC SIGNALS

strength of signal or galvanometer deflection we can determine at

once the intensity of the electric field at the receiving point.

Some detectors, for example the perikon, ^ can not be calibrated

with the microammeter as their adjustment is disturbed by the

amount of high frequency energy required to make a suitable

deflection. For such detectors the following method of calibra-

tion may be used. The middle circuit may be opened and leads

of about 50 cm. in length brought out to a coil of two or three

turns of wire wound on a hard rubber core. On this same core,

at a sufficient distance from the first coil to give proper coupling,

a second coil of say 0.1 m.h. is wound, and to this coil is connected

the detector to be tested with suitable stopping condenser and

telephones with an audibility meter of the type described in this

paper shunted across them. In this case the audibility meter

takes the place of the microammeter of the first method and the

coupling should be adjusted and made permanent for an audibility

of about 100 times with an average detector for a wattmeter

reading of 0.005 watt.

(B) An audibility meter. For the determination of the loud-

ness of the signals in the telephone by the shunted telephone

method, the most convenient form of shunt resistance box is

one in which all the resistances are controlled by a single dial

arm. In general, thirty to forty studs are sufficient, giving differ-

ent degrees of audibility varying by approximately 20 per cent.

The exact inductive resistance of the telephone, of course, varies

with the spark frequency, and to a lesser extent with the capacity

used in the stopping condenser which seems to affect the wave

form of the rectified pulses. The inductive resistance of modern

2500 ohm telephones used with a stopping condenser of not more

than 0.02 microfarad at a thousand sparks per second, is approxi-

mately 5000 ohms. With the old fashioned low frequency spark,

the inductive resistance difl"ers very little from the direct current

resistance. If the resistance box is made for use with a definite

telephone and a definite spark frequency it may be very conven-

iently marked in audibility instead of in resistance.

8 The silicon on the contrary is very stable.

hillebrand: mineral separations

137

The following are the values of the resistance units and corre-

sponding audibility for 2500 ohm telephones at 1000 sparks per

second in an audibility meter designed at my suggestion by G. W.

Pickard :

MTNERALOGY.^ — A danger to be guarded against in making

mineral separations by means of heavy solutions. W. F. Hille-

brand, Bureau of Standards. To appear in the American

Journal of Science and the Zeitschr. Kryst. Mineral.

The occasional action of heavy solutions on minerals is usually

evident to the eye. When using Thoulet's solution of mercury

and potassium iodides to separate from its gangue a carnotite

from Paradox Valley, Montrose County, Colorado, carrying cal-

cium instead of potassium (probably identical with the tuy-

amunite of Nenadkevich,i the author found that the calcium of the

mineral was largely, if not wholly, displaced by potassium, without

visible alteration, altho Mr. H. E. Merwin observed a large de-

crease in the optic axial angle to have resulted. The observation

shows how important it is to assure oneself, when using heavy

solutions, that such chemical changes are not incurred. Question

1 Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 945.

138 cook: ivory palms in panama

arises as to the validity of some formulas that have been assigned

to minerals which have been separated by heavy solutions.

The calcium carnotite will be described in detail by Mr. Mer-

win and the author in a later paper.

MINERALOGY. — Two varieties of calciovolborthite (?) from

eastern Utah. W. F. Hillebrand, Bureau of Standards,

and H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory. To appear

in the American Journal of Science and the Zeitschr. Kryst.

Mineral.

Descriptions in some detail will appear in the above named

journals of two hydrous minerals, one essentially a vanadate of

copper, the other an arsenovanadate of copper and calcium. The

minerals were briefly mentioned by J. M. Boutwell in Bulletin

260 of the U. S. Geological Survey a number of years ago, but

analyses were not pubhshed. Better material not being forth-

coming the analyses are now put on record, together with results

of recent optical study. For the present both minerals are referred

referred to calciovolborthite, since the molecular ratios show closer

relationship to that imperfectly described species than to any

other. One variety is yellow green, with little arsenic, the other,

highly arsenical, is greenish yellow. The latter is pseudomorphic

after the former. The locaUty of occurrence is Richardson, in

the canyon of the Grand River, Utah.

BOTANY. — Ivory palms in Panama. 0. F. Cook, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

New materials for the study of the ivory palms (Phytelephan-

taceae) have become available in the collections of economic

plants secured in Panama in 1911-12 by Prof. H. Pittier of the

United States Department of Agriculture. The series is more

extensive than any obtained by previous explorers and throws

light on the geographical distribution, morphology and classifica-

tion of this long-neglected family. It may be that special stu-

dents and collectors of palms have felt at liberty to neglect the

ivory plants because some botanists have denied that Phytele-

cook: ivory palms in Panama 139

phas is really a palm, tho there is no adequate reason for such a

separation. The nearest relatives of Phytelephas are to be found

in other American families, such as the Cocaceae and Manicaria-

ceae, whose status as true palms has never been questioned.^

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IVORY PALMS

The new specimens from Panama were obtained in four differ-

ent localities; two near the Caribbean Coast, one near the middle

of the Isthmus and one near the Pacific Coast. In each case a

different species was secured, and all four of the species appear to

be different from two others previously represented in the Eco-

nomic Herbarium of the Department of Agriculture. In addition

to the places where specimens were collected Professor Pittier

heard reports of the existence of ivory palms to the north of the

Isthmus, and this information is substantiated by Dr. A. E.

Heighway of Bocas Del Toro, Panama, who states that ivory

palms exist in small numbers in several places, most of them back

a few miles from the coast, along the foothills. Thus it appears

that the geographical distribution of the ivory palms extends

beyond the Isthmus, so that the family Phytelephantaceae

must be included in the flora of North America.

The genus Phytelephas was based originally on two Peruvian

species, from the eastern slopes of the Andes. One species has

been described from the Pacific coast of Ecuador and another

from the Magdalena Valley of Columbia. Thus only four defi-

nitely localized species are known from South America to six in

the region of Panama. The existence of so many local species

in the narrow limits of the Isthmus makes it seem probable that

more careful study of the South American members of the group

will result in the discovery of a much larger number of specific

forms. Even on general biological grounds it would not be

expected that species with such large heavy seeds would retain

their continuity over wide areas of distribution. The first require-

ment for an adequate taxonomic treatment of the group is to

'■ O. F. Cook, Relationships of the ivory pahns. Contributions U. S. National

Herbarium 13: 133. 1910.

140 cook: ivory palms in Panama

learn the characters which enable the species to be distinguished.

In this respect the materials from Panama are of special value

for they show several new lines of specialization not previously

employed in the diagnosis of species.

NEW CHARACTERS IN IVORY PALMS

External sculpture of fruits. The species are all alike in having

the external shell of the fruit divided into raised polygonal areas,

each bearing a pyramidal tubercle or spine, but the areas are

larger in some species than in others and have larger or more

robust spines. In coarsely sculptured species the spines attain

a length of about 2 cm. ; in other species they are only half as long.

Cortical fibers. These form a lining of close-set bristles on the

inner wall of the external shell of the fruit, to which they are

firmly attached. Indeed, the shell seems to be formed by a pro-

gressive hardening of the corky tissue in which the bases of the

fibers are embedded. The species differ notably in the develop-

ment of the cortical fibers, some having only short weak fibers and

others long stiff fibers. In most cases the fibers are about as

long as the external spines, but they may be longer or shorter.

Pulj) fibers. The space between the cortical fibers and the true

mesocarp fibers that form a coating around the nuts is occupied

at first by a fleshy pulp. In some species the pulp seems to be

entirely fleshy, so that only an empty space is left'inside the cor-

tical lining after the pulp has disappeared. In other species there

is an open framework of loosely connected fibers, especially near

the base of the fruit.

Mesocarp fibers. In addition to the pulp fibers there is a com-

plete fibrous sheath around each of the nuts, not unlike the meso-

carp of some of the cocoid palms, except that the fibers are not

attached to the shell of the nut. Some species of ivory palms

have the mesocarp fibers rather coarse and stiff, while in others

they are very fine and thin and are compacted into a fabric,

tough in some cases and brittle in others. Finally there are

cases where the mesocarp fibers are so slightly developed that no

coherent layer is formed and the dried pulp breaks away from the

surface of the nuts in angular scales. The mesocarp sheath may

cook: ivory palms in Panama 141

be closely adherent to the endocarp or shell of the nut, or free and

readily separable from the nut. One species has the sheath much

larger than the nut as though separated in the fresh state by a

layer of pulp.

Style. In most of the species the style disappears in advance of

the maturity of the fruit, but one of the new species from Panama

has a persistent woody style.

Columella. Most of the species have a short column or bundle

of compacted fibers suspended from the center of the cortex of

the fruit in the position of a placenta. The species with the per-

sistent style also has a more specialized, persistent columella

extending down between the nuts nearly to the position of the

-. hilum.

Hilum. The hilum is very prominent in some species and

nearly flat in others. The shape differs from long oval or ellip-

tical to nearly round. The fibrovascular pits are irregular and

scattered over the surface of the hilum in some species while in

others the pits are nearly round and confined to a relatively small

area in the middle of the hilum.

Adhilum. This name is applied to a peculiar specialization of

the shell of the nut to form a distinct process or spine at the upper

angle of the margin of the aperture, close to the hilum. In some

species the adhilum is a small rounded -prominence or angular

tooth, but in^other cases it is developed into a slender acicular

spine. The adhilum is formed of the same hard material as the

shell of the nut, but is so brittle that it is usually broken off in

removing the mesocarp, which may explain why it has not been

noticed before.

Seed coats. The shell of the nut has a lining of fine fibrous

material through which the branches of the raphe are distributed.

In some species this lining is free from the true seed coat and in

others completely united with it. In the former case the branches

of the raphe are not exposed, but appear as raised veins on the

lining of the shell. In the latter case the branches of the raphe

are exposed on the kernel as it comes from the shell, because the

fibrous lining is torn apart into two irregularly separated layers,

one adherent to the inner surface of the shell, the other to the

true seed coat.

142 cook: ivoey palms in Panama

diagnoses of new species from panama

Phytelephas pittieri. Trunk erect, attaining a height of about 8 meters,

with a diameter of about 25 cm. ; leaves about 12 with short petioles and

about 70 pairs of pinnae equally spaced along the rachis; male inflores-

cence cylindrical, about 1.20 meters long; male flowers with 300-400

stamens, fruits 8-9 in a head, with large external spines. Collected at

Puerto ObaMia, Panama, August, 1911, by H. Pittier (No. 4323); type

in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 716082.

Phytelephas cornutus. Trunk decumbent, creeping by numerous roots ;

leaves about 20, with about 90 pairs of equally spaced pinnae; fruits

5-6 in a head, with 6-7 nuts in each fruit; cortex with rather long and

slender spines, and a persistent woody style; cortical fibers long and

slender, not densely crowded, compacted under the style into a persistent

hardened columella about 2 cm. long; pulp and mesocarp fibers only

slightly developed, the latter forming a very thin fragile layer adherent

to the surface of the nut; hilum surrounded by a prominent margin

bearing the adhilum as a long slender spine. Collected in the Rio Fato

Valley, near Nombre de Dios, Panama, August 16, 1911, by H. Pittier

(No. 4230); type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 691786.

Phytelephas brevipes. Trunk very short; male inflorescence about 15

cm. long; fruits broad and flat, or slightly depressed in the middle, 9

in a head,. with 6 nuts in a fruit; cortex with rather coarse robust spines

and rather short cortical fibers; pulp fibers distinct, but few; mesocarp

fibers abundant, formed into a tough cloth-like sac entirely free from

the nut and with an open space between; nuts rather large, usually

strongly compressed; adhilum submarginal, transverse, triangular, cari-

nate on the upper face. Collected at Gasapasabana, Upper Mamoni

River, Panama, October, 1911, by H. Pittier (No. 4473); type in U. S.

National Herbarium, No. 679633.

Phytelephas hrachinus. Trunk robust, decumbent, attaining a length

of about 3 meters and a diameter of about 40 cm.; fruits somewhat

rounded or lenticular, scarcely depressed in the middle, but sloping to

the sides, 5-6 in a head, with 5-6 nuts in each fruit; cortex with rather

small slender spines, cortical fibers very short and weak; pulp fibers

slender and sparse ; mesocarp fibers very delicate and weak, but forming

a rather tough, parchment-like membrane adherent to the bony endo-

carp; nuts short and with the upper surface sloping outward; hilum

small, oval or elliptic, not prominent, with a cluster of small rounded

pits near the middle; adhilum represented by a small rounded triangular

prominence. Collected at Garachine, San Miguel Bay, near the south

coast of Panama, by H. Pittier; type in U. S. National Herbarium, No.

691785.

Phytelephas hi-achelus. Fruits obconic or obpyramidal, with a strong

central depression, 9 in a head, with 6-7 nuts in each fruit; cortex with

very short spines, about 0.5 cm.; cortical fibers well developed, attain-

ing a length of about 1 cm.; pulp and mesocarp fibers thin, the latter

maxon: new genus of davallioid ferns 143

rather abundant and forming a rather thick, partly adherent covering

of the endocarp; nuts rather long; hilum basal, somewhat prominent,

nearly circular, with scattered coarse pits; adhilum represented by a

slight swelling above the margin. Supposed to come from Panama, but

the locality unknown. Fruit head received from J. R. Smith, Waterbury,

Conn., in Economic Herbarium of U. S. Department of Agriculture,

bearing U. S. National Herbarium No. 691784.

More extended descriptions with numerous photographic illus-

trations have been prepared for publication, in connection with

a general review of the South American species.

BOTANY. — A new genus of davallioid ferns.^ William R.

Maxon.

In revising the treatment of the pteridophyta for the second

edition of the Flora of the Southeastern United States the writer

has found it necessary to remove from the genus Odontosoria

the species known latterly as Odontosoria clavata (L.) J. Smith

and to refer it to a new genus, Sphenomeris. The publication

of this volume having been delayed, it seems desirable to pub-

lish this name elsewhere, since a»paper- dealing with the species

of true Odontosoria (with references to Sphenomeris) is already

in proof and may conflict in date of publication with that of the

Flora.

In the unpublished treatment of Odontosoria just mentioned

it is pointed out: (1) That the genus Odontosoria, as recognized

by Diels in the Pflanzenfaixiilien of Engler and Prantl, comprises

two sections or subgenera, the first (Eu-Odontosoria) containing

rather small species of erect or ascending habit and determinate

growth, the second (Stenoloma) containing three nominal species

of indefinite scandent growth; (2) that these two groups are

entitled to recognition as distinct genera; and (3) that, adopting

this view, it is necessary to apply the name Odontosoria to the

second group, the large climbing species, rather than to the first,

as has been done erroneously by Diels. The grounds for this

disposition are then presented, together with a review of the

^ Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17, part 2 (unpublished).

144 maxon: new genus of davallioid ferns

taxononiic history of Odontosoria in its broad sense and a revi-

sion of the American species now properly to be referred to that

genus.

The group of species of upright or ascending habit and deter-

minate growth; of which the Odontosoria clavata of authors is a

familiar example, has no vahd name. It may be characterized

briefly as follows:

Sphenomeris Maxon, gen. nov.

Mainly tropical ferns, with slender creeping hairy rhizomes. Fronds

subfasciculate, erect or ascending, of small or medium size; stipes not

jointed to the rhizome; lamina 3 or 4 times obliquely pinnate or pinnati-

fid, the divisions alternate, the ultimate segments strongly cuneate;

veins free. Sori terminal at or near the truncate apex of the segments,

single or 2 to 4 joined; indusia similar in texture to the opposed leaf-

margin, flattish, pocket-like, attached at the base and sides, single at

the clavate apices of the veins or, if joined, borne upon a translucent

receptacle connecting these.

The type species and apparently the sole American representa-

tive of this genus is:

Sphenomeris clavata (L.) Maxon

Adiantu?n clavatum L. Sp. PI. 1096. 1753.

Davallia clavata J. E. Smith, Mem, Acad. Turin 5: 415. 1793.

Stenoloma clavatum Fee, Gen. Fil. 330. 1852.

Lindsay a clavata Mett. Ann. Sci. Nat. IV, 15: 64. 1861.

Schizoloma clavatum Kuhn, Chaetop. 346. 1882.

A large series of specimens of S. clavata is at hand from south-

ern peninsular Florida, the Bahamas, Cuba, Porto Rico and

Jamaica.

Two common Old World species may also be mentioned:

Sphenomeris retusa {Davallia retusa Cav.) and Sphenomeris

chinensis {Adiantum chinense L.), both agreeing closely with

S. clavata in habit.

cobb: draconema 145

HELMINTHOLOGY. — Draconema: A remarkable genus of ma-

rine free-living nematodes. N. A. Cobb, Bureau of Plant

Industry, Communicated by Frederick V. Coville.

Few nematodes, if any, are more remarkable than Draconema.

From a comparative anatomical point of view it takes rank with

the bifurcated Lepidonema. The main features of Draconema

are illustrated in the adjacent cut. Though the head end is very

peculiar, all its peculiarities are more or less comprehensible.

While the cephalic setae, amphids, mouth, oesophagus, and car-

dia, all present singular features, yet these features are referable

to known types of nematode anatomy. Even the sudden loss in

diameter behind the oesophagus, tho unique, is understandable

on the supposition that unusual flexibility is required in this

region owing to some odd habit of life.

In contemplation of the remainder of the anatomy, however,

one becomes lost in amazement, and can only speculate on the

nature and function of the complicated longitudinal series of

lateral and sub ventral appendages. These appendages are found

fully developed on both sexes, young or adult, and must, therefore,

have to do with functions exercised at various stages of growth,

and without regard to sex.

As we know little of the habits of Draconema beyond the fact

that it occurs on or near red marine algae of strands in various

parts of the world, speculation concerning the functions of its pecu-

liar organs may be idle. One might suggest that the form of the

body indicates possibly that the species inhabit tubes, which they

may be imagined to construct, or which they may find already

constructed and adapt to their uses. The existence of such a '

dwelling would harmonize with the expanded head and with the

slimness of body behind the neck. Supposing the head end to

be thrust out of the tubular home, the advantages of a limber

body in seeking food can be readily understood. So too, the

series of tubular organs might fit in with such a confined habit

of life, and have to do with the construction and repair of the

supposed tube; or with locomotion; or with aeration, by producing

currents of fresher water inside the tube.

146 cobb: dkaconema

Of great interest also are the adjacent associated internal ven-

tral organs, the details of which suggest the discharge of important

functions. These internal structures are rich in chromatin. Their

number and distribution indicate that in some way they are

definitely connected with the tubular organs.

From a scientific standpoint it is especially desirable that fur-

ther observations be made on this remarkable nematode.

The following notes relate to the suggested type species of this

new genus.

77

Draconema cephalata, n. sp. 3^9-0 — 2'.2 7.8 — U i-smm. The trans-

parent, colorless layers of the cuticle are traversed by 800 to

900 plain transverse striae. The striae are rather uniformly

fine on the body, but are much coarser on the anterior half of

the neck, tho they suddenly cease on the head just behind the

amphids.^

The fusiform neck ends in a rounded head, set off by the absence

of striations. The mouth opening, it would appear, is surrounded

by six forward-pointing lips, somewhat longer than they are wide,

each rounded in front and supported by a forward-projecting

pair of slender chitinous ribs. It is possible that the lips are

three in number, and each two-parted. In any case they are so

grouped as to form an elevated area on the middle of the head, and

are surrounded by six short, forward-pointing setae, having a

length about equal to the width of one of the wide cervical annules.

The non-striated portion of the head bears numerous arcuate

forward-pointing setae of variable size, the largest being half as

long as the neck is wide, while the shortest are not very much

longer than the minute labial setae already described. The

amphids are shaped like the end of a shepherd's crook. Their

anterior margins lie close to the lips, their posterior portions near

the beginning of the striations. Measured crosswise at the widest

part they have a width nearly as great as that of the group of lips

when these latter are closed. All the more prominent cephalic

setae are on the dorsal side of the head. On the dorsal side of

the left amphid, near the striations, there is a pair of stout setae

1 Proposed new term for the organs hitherto called "lateral organs."

cobb: draconema

147

Xiao

cephalic setae

amphid

cervical striae

d, posterior ditto

e, nerve-ring

/, oesophagus

<7, cardia

\, renette^ (?)

i, intestine wall

J, cuticle

k, stump of seta

I, intestine lumen

m, end of testicle

n, spermatocyte

o, spermatozoon

p, somatic seta

q, vas deferens

r, body cavity

s, tubiform append'

age

s', tubiform append-

age shown larger

I, ejaculatory duct

u, ventral organ

V, a male seta

w, 3 caudal glands

.r, anus

y, right spiculum

z, accessory piece

Fig. 1. Draconema

cephalata

placed close together

one in front of the

other; there is a similar

pair on either side of the

dorsal line, and another

pair on the dorsal J side

of the right amphid;

there are also similar

pairs between these sub-

lateral and subdorsal

pairs; — six pairs in all.

These twelve setae on

the dorsal face are the largest on the head,

but others occur to the number of a

dozen or more, both on the dorsal and

ventral faces.

On the neck and thruout the body there

are numerous, very slender, spreading se-

tae, having a length about equal to half

the width of the neck, so that on the

slender portion of the body immediately

behind the oesophagus their length is

greater than that of the corresponding

body diameter. The nature and distri-

bution of these hairs indicate unusual sen-

sitiveness to external influences.

1 Proposed new term for organ previously known as the "ventral gland."

148 cobb: draconema

There are no eyes.

When the Ups are closed the pharynx appears as an elongated,

narrow, irregularly fusiform cavity, reaching well into the anterior

oesophageal bulb, and ending opposite the anterior cervical stria-

tions. The greatest width of the pharynx is about equal to the

distance between two successive striations of the adjacent cuticle.

Near its hind end it suddenly widens out a little and then con-

tracts again. There are no traces of pharyngeal teeth. The

oesophagus is somewhat dumbbell-shaped, and consists of two

bulbs connected by a short tube one-third as wide as the neck.

The structure of the oesophagus and head suggests that the mouth

can be opened widely. The intestine is built of cells of such a size

that few are required to complete the circumference — probably

two to four.

There are no male ventral supplementary organs of the usual

character.

It remains to describe the peculiar series of arcuate tubular

organs, found on both sexes on the posterior portion of the body

in front of the anus. There are four series of these organs; two

lateral and two ventrally submedian. The lateral sets comprise

nine pairs. Each organ consists of a colorless, transparent, non-

staining, arcuate, hollow tube, curving slightly backwards, but

on the whole arranged nearlj^ at right angles to the ventral sur-

face. The outer extremity of each tubg is enlarged a little and is

distinguished from the remainder of the tube, not only by its

width, but by difference in structure, for it is somewhat bell-

shaped, and has an axial portion corresponding to the tongue of

the bell. The tubes have a diameter about equal to the width

of one of the adjacent annules, but are not perfectly uniform in

diameter thruout their length, in fact taper gently from base to

tip. That portion of the body occupied by the tubular organs

is supphed with peculiar internal ventral bodies, the number and

position of which correspond, approximately at least, with the

number and position of the tubes. It is not that there is one of

these bodies to each tube, but rather that all the tubes in the same

zone are associated with one of the internal bodies. These cel-

lular bodies are ventral in position and their number is about

nine.

cobb: deaconema 149

The adult female of Draconema cephalata is unknown. Females

of other undescribed species show the vulva as central and the

internal female organs double, symmetrical and refiexed, the

rather short ovaries reaching well back towards the vulva. The

eggs in these other species are usually prolate and thin-shelled,

and few in number, generally only one in each uterus, and appear

to be deposited before segmentation begins.

Habitat. Marine algae, or sand at their base, shoal in King-

ston Harbor, Jamaica; also the strand of a small island off Port

Royal, Jamaica.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — A simplified formula for the change in order of interference

due to changes in temperature and pressure of air? Irwin G. Priest,

Bulletin Bureau of Standards, vol. 9, in Press.

The author developed independently for use at the Bureau of Stand-

ards the following correction formula :

\ 1+fi l+at2 J \380X

where ti = lower temperature Centigrade, tz = higher temperature

Centigrade, 61 = pressure in mm. of mercury at temperature ti, 62 =

pressure in mm. of mercury at temperature t^, I = distance between

mirrors, n = refractive index at 0°, 760 mm., a = coefficient of expan-

sion of air, X = wave length.

He noticed later that the formula published by Pulf rich,^ viz :

K = l(t,-t,) ^' ^ ^

760 !+«<! l+at2

2(M-l)a

•^(62- 61)

l+a^2

"2(m-1)

760X

could be reduced to this simpler and more convenient form. The

derivation of the new formula is given and the two formulas are compared

as to convenience in practice. I. G. P.

^ To understand this abstract the reader must see first Pulfrich. Zeit. fur Inst.

K. 13: 456.

^ The sign in Pulfrich's paper is in error if the expression is to give the correction

not the error.

150

abstracts: mineralogy 151

PHYSICS. — Note on the calibration of optical pyrometers. Paul D.

FooTE. Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, 11: 97. 1913.

This note is a suggestion of a method for the calibration or checking

of optical p3Tometers. The only new feature is the construction of the

"black body" uj^on which the pyrometers are sighted. A small enclo-

sure, turned on the end of a graphite conical tube, dips into a graphite

crucible containing 1000 to 1500 grams of molten metal, the pot being

heated within an electric resistance furnace. Melting and freezing

curves show the proper value to assign to the pyrometer reading, the

flat part of the curves corresponding to the temperature of melting

or of freezing. P. D. F.

MINERALOGY.^ — A study of the tourmaline group. Waldemar T.

ScHALLER. Zeits. f. Krystallographie und Mineralogie, 51: 321-

343. 1912.

Analyses of tourmalines from Elba and California are given as well

as their crystallographic constants, densities and refractive indices.

The correlation of the physical and chemical properties is imdertaken

and by using also the available published data, the following conclusions

are reached: (1) The general formula proposed by Penfield and Foote,

namely H2oB2Si402i, is confirmed. (2) Some analyses do not give

enough water to yield the ratio 12 Si02.4H20 but only 12 Si02.3H20.

(3) The phenomenon of solid solution (as distinct from isomorphous

mixture) does not play any role in tourmahne. (4) The percentages of

AI2O3 and RO vary reciprocally in direct proportion. (.5) The mineral

tourmaline can not be represented by two, three or four definite formu-

las. General formulas can be deduced but at least four are required.

The number of definite formulas or components, as they may be called,

is large, not less than eight and probably more. (6) The crystallographic

and physical properties vary in relation to the changes in chemical com-

position but the trustworthy data available are too meager for an exact

correlation. Nevertheless all the determined changes are always in

the same direction and approximately of the same order of magnitude,

as shown by the diagrams in the original paper. Those tourmalines

containing about 35 to 36 per cent xlloOs show the maximum specific

gravity, refractive indices and double refraction and the longest c-axis.

W. T. S.

152 abstracts: heredity

MINERALOGY. — The crystallography of natramblygonite. Walde-

MAR T. ScHALLER. Zeits. f. Krystallographie und Mineralogie,

51: 246-247. 1912.

Crystals of natramblygonite (Na[Al(0H,F)]P04) from Canon City,

Colorado, are described. They are very close to those of amblygonite

in their interfacial angles and show similar crystal forms. W. T. S.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. — The commercial marbles of western Vermont.

T. N. Dale. Bulletin 521, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 164 and

index, 2 colored geological maps, with sections, views, diagrams and

micro-drawings, 1912.

Altho this bulletin has to do mainly with the calcite and dolomite

marbles it includes brief accounts of the Roxbury serpentine and the

newly discovered chrome-mica schist marble of Shrewsbury. It com-

prises a brief manual on marble in general, an account of the local areal,

structural and historical geology, and the economic application of

stratigraphy and petrography to the marble industry. In the scientific

part the origin of dolomite is discussed and new facts are adduced to

show that altho dolomitization of CaCOs does occur some dolomite is

probably of direct sedimentary origin. In the economic part the Ver-

mont marbles are standardized as to texture by their average grain

diameter by the Rosiwal method and are compared with various Euro-

pean marbles. All the marbles described are classified commercially

and scientifically. There are also chapters on values, adaptations,

marble machinery, the probable amount of unexplored marble in western

Vermont, scientific prospecting for and the testing of marble. Three

bibliographies of marble are given, scientific, economic, and local, also

a glossary of technical terms. T. N. D.

HEREDITY. — Heredity and cotton breeding. 0. F. Cook. Bulle-

tin 256, Bureau of Plant Industry, pp. 113, 6 plates, 19 text figures.

1913. •

This bulletin attempts to present a more concrete conception of the

nature of heredity, and to utilize this conception in the elucidation of

practical breeding problems. Many current ideas of heredity derived

from the study of self-fertiHzed plants are not applicable to normally

open-fertilized types like cotton and corn. In dealing with such plants

the "pure line" conception of heredity as represented by a conchtion of

uniformity and stability of characters should give place to a recognition

of diversity and free interbreeding as the normal antecedent condition

of heredity and of evolutionary progress.

abstracts: heredity 153

The uniformity of pure bred groups is an artificial result of restriction

of descent to single or narrow lines, not a return to an original stage of

purity and uniformity. Selection should be considered as a means of

regulating the expression of characters, not of eliminating characters

from transmission. Continued selection is necessary to maintain uni-

formity of expression in improved stocks.

A fundamental distinction between transmission and expression is

recognized. ' The study of heredity, as far as it is concerned with the

actual variation of plants and animals, is the study of expression rela-

tions. Investigations of heredity instead of being directed so largely to

the discovery of the mechanism of transmission should seek first to

understand the relations that govern expression. As a step in this direc-

tion names are proposed for some of the more important expression rela-

tions. When the expression of one character depends upon or conduces

to the expression of another character the relation is called "symphanic."

When the expression of one character inhibits or interferes with the

expression of another the relation is called "antiphanic." When the

expression of one character neither favors nor interferes with the expres-

sion of another the relation is called "paraphanic."

Other relations of expression are shown by the different results secured

in first generation hybrids. In some hybrids there is a blended or com-

bined (mixophanic) expression of the contrasted characters. In other

cases one of the parental characters is suppressed (hypophanic) , allow-

ing the opposed character to appear as dominant (epiphanic). When

both of the parental characters are suppressed, so that a more primitive

character appears, the result may be described as reversive or atavistic

expression (palimphanic) .

Attention is given to the influence of external conditions upon expres-

sion, and to the relation of expression to vigor and fertility, including

intensification of characters in conjugate hybrids and degeneration in

perjugate hybrids. Coherence in the expression of characters derived

from the same parental stock is recognized as an obstacle to the formation

of Mendelian combinations of characters of different species. Inter-

mediate (metaphanic) expression of characters often involves sterility,

not only in hybrids between species, but also in case of incomplete differ-

entiation of specialized organs of the same plant. Thus in cotton

bract-like leaves and leaf-like involucral bracts are often accompanied

by sterility. The bulletin concludes with two summaries, one of general

conclusions regarding the nature of heredity, the other of applications

to methods of breeding. 0. F. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND. AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 81st meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the fif-

teenth annual meeting, was held at the Cosmos Club, 8 p.m., January

16, 1913, with President F. V. Coville in the chair and 40 members

present. The minutes of the previous annual meeting and of all sub-

sequent meetings were read and approved. The reports of the officers,

of the Auditing Committee and of the Editors of the Journal were also

read and approved. ,

The report on the ballot by mail for officers for 1913 showed the

following elections: President: O. H. Tittman; non-resident vice-pres-

idents, John Muir, F. W. Putnam; Corresponding secretary, Arthur

L. Day;^ recording secretary, W. J. Humphreys; treasurer, Alfred H.

Brooks; managers, class of 1916, Vernon Bailey, Fred. Eugene

Wright.

The newly elected president, Mr. O. H. Tittman, then took the chair.

The following were elected resident vice-presidents as nominated by

the affihated Societies: Anthropological Society, F. W. Hodge; Archae-

ological, Mitchell Carroll; Biological, E. W. Nelson; Botanical, Edgar

Brown; Chemical, C. E. Waters; Engineers, G. W. Littlehales; Entomo-

logical, A. L. Quaintance; Foresters, W. B. Greeley;^ Geological, T. W.

Stanton; Historical, James Dudley Morgan; Philosophical, C. G. Abbot.^

On motion by Mr. F. V. Coville, Dr. F. W. Clarke was asked to

address the Academy. In reply Dr. Clarke congratulated the Academy

on its several activities, and especially on the excellence of its Journal

and on its Exhibit of Apparatus, Methods and Results in the New

National Museum, March 28, 1912. He also expressed the desire that

a similar exhibit be held again this year.

On motion by Dr. L. A. Bauer a vote of thanks was extended to the

Business Manager and to the Editors of the Journal for their splendid

work of the past year.

The retiring president, Mr. F. V. Coville, then presented his address,

The formation of leaf-mold, which appears in full in this Journal 3: 77.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

1 Resigned. G. K. Burgess elected by Board of Managers, January 20, 1913.

2 Elected by Board of Managers, January 20, 1913.

' Elected by Board of Managers, January 20, 1913.

154

proceedings: anthropological society 155

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 465th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wash-

ington, was held in the National Museum at 4.30 p.m., January 21,

1913, the president, Mr. George R, Stetson, in the chair.

Dr. Tom A. Williams read a paper on The dream in the life of the mind.

Dr. Williams said trance, vision, ecstasj^ and disease delirium are closely

allied to the dream state. The psychopathology of them all illuminates

formerly uncomprehended diseases. In a dream (illustrated by a case)

mental perturbation may crystallize, as it were, and lead to rampageous

behavior. On the contrary dreams may be teleologically beneficial; as

where a vision saved a young woman from suicide, as was the case also

with Benvenuto Cellini.

They are more often a mere reproduction of former experiences more

or less significant and more so in psychopathic individuals, such as in a

young hysteric who dreamed of falling down wells, assassinations and

death, all painful experiences of her childhood.

Dream-thought, apparently confused, is really significant of the mental

trend of the individual, when properly analysed and interpreted. One

dreams all the time, but recollects only that dreamed within seven

minutes of waking. The form of dream can be determined by external

stimuli. This is demonstrated in spite of its contradiction by some psy-

chopathologists.

There was no discussion. The meeting then adjourned.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held on February 4, 1913 at 4.30 p.m. in the National Museum, the

president, Mr. George R. Stetson, in the chair.

Dr. Clark Wissler, Curator of the Department of Anthropology

in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, read a paper on

The doctrine of evolution and anthropology. An attempt was made to

distinguish between cultural phenomena on one hand and biological

on the other. Especially to make clear that cultural phenomena are

not inherited, tho the instinct to develop culture, or to invent, is most

certainly inborn. It was suggested that the historical attitude of pres-

ent-day anthropology should be taken as expressing the cultural point

of view. Culture itself seems to be associated with habit complexes or

constructs of 'the mind and not to be in any way innate or inborn, but

to be an external affair, preserved and carried on entirely by learning.

Cultures develop and have an evolution of their own, but since they are

not inherited they cannot be considered parts of a biological develop-

ment.

The psycho-physical mechanism of man is biological and innate and

constitutes man's equipment for the production of cultures. Anthro-

pology holds that the mechanism is general in so far as it is not limited to

any particular culture, and that it enables the individual to practise

any culture he may meet, tho not necessarily to equal degrees.

X

156 PEOCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

When we come to consider the biological theory of evolution we find

that it applies to the psycho-physical mechanism but not to culture.

For cultures we must have another point of view or theory and this in

America, at least, is the historical or cultural conception. This concep-

tion is in general that cultural traits are the results of invention, a mental

process, and their development or evolution is to be taken as a historical

and psychological problem.

The paper was briefly discussed by Dr. Folkmar, Dr. Swanton and

Dr. Hough.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 262d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, December 11, 1912.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Presidential address — Soyne variations in Upper Cretaceous stratig-

7'aphy: T. W. Stanton. This address appears in full in this Journal 3:

55. 1913.

The twentieth annual meeting was then held.

The reports of the Secretaries and Treasurer were read and accepted.

The following officers were elected for the year 1913: President, F.

L. Ransome; first vice-president, David White, second vice-president,

Arthur Keith; treasurer, Sidney Paige; secretaries, R. W. Richards,

Frank L. Hess; Members-at-large-of-the-council, Wm. C. Alden,

Adolph Knopf, C. E. Siebenthal, P. S. SxMITh, E. W. Shaw.

Dr. T. W. Stanton was nominated as candidate for the vice-presi-

dency of the Washington Academy of Sciences to represent the Geo-

logical Society.

R. W. Richards, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill, MARCH 19, 1913 No. 6

MINERALOGY. — Calcium vanadates fro7n Peru, Colorado and

Utah. W. F. HiLLEBRAND, Bureau of Standards, Fred, E.

Wright and H. E. Merwin, Geophysical Laboratory.

Among the vanadium minerals brought to this country from

Minasragra, Peru, a number of years ago by Mr. Foster Hewett

and briefly described by him were two, the one red the other

orange, which analyses made by one of us (H) at the time showed

to be hydrous calcium vanadates, probably hexavanadates.

Later, the senior author (H) received at different times from

Messrs. T. F. V. Curran, A. G. McNaughton and R. H. McMillen,

a red vanadium mineral from western Colorado, found in the Joe

Dandy claim of the General Vanadium Company of America,

Paradox Valley, Montrose County, about 12 miles from Naturita.

This mineral, impregnating and filling cavities in a friable sand-

stone, closely resembles one of those from Peru.

Still more recently, samples of similar minerals from an unknown

location in Paradox Valley and from Thompsons, in eastern

Utah, were shown us by Mr. Frank L. Hess of the U. S. Geo-

logical Survey. Optical evidence proves that the one from Para-

dox Valley is the same as the red vanadate from Peru. The

other, from Thompsons, Utah, as also the mineral from the Joe

Dandy claim, differs in habit and also optically in some respects

from the Peruvian mineral, tho chemically there is qualitative

if not quantitative similarity.

The object of this note is to secure our right to study further

and to name these minerals. An important feature of work still

157

158 cook: name for the sapote

to be done is the determination, of the condition of the water — a

tedious task — and the quantitative analysis of the mineral from

Utah, hence it may be some time before we shall feel warranted

in presenting our completed work. It .will be better to describe

all the minerals in one comprehensive paper, than to publish

now incomplete details to be supplemented later.

Besides the red calcium vanadates we received from Messrs.

McNaughton and McMillen a black friable sandstone, also from

the Joe Dandy claim. It is not carbonaceous as one might sus-

pect, but the black color is due to a vanadium mineral occurring

in indistinct prisms (whether this is a calcium compound or not is

as yet undetermined). It is somewhat doubtful if chemical

study will reveal its exact composition, for other vanadium com-

pounds are present with the black one, as is indicated by the

existence of vanadium in three states of oxidation, corresponding

to V2O5, V2O4 and V2O3. The greater part of the vanadium is in

the V2O4 state, and to this the color of the rock seems to be due.

In the course of time the specimens have taken on a greenish cast,

but on freshly broken surfaces the color is still black.

It is much to be desired, both from scientific and commercial

standpoints, that a careful geological exploration of the uranium-

vanadium bearing areas of western Colorado and Eastern Utah

be undertaken at an early date. These areas are being contin-

ually extended as new discoveries are made.

BOTANY. — A new generic name for the sapote. 0. F. Cook,

Bureau of Plant Industry. •

Much confusion has attended the application of generic names

to two important tropical fruit trees, the sapote and the sapodilla,

the latter being the source of the chicle gum of commerce. Addi-

tional facts that tend to simplify these nomenclatorial complica-

tions have come to light during a recent review of the subject.

The final result is to show that the generic name Achras belongs

definitely to the sapodilla tree, and that a new generic name is

required for the sapote. The reasons of these conclusions may be

summarized as follows:

cook: name for the sapote 159

The Linnaean name Achras is a direct substitute for Plumier's

genus Sapota. It was based by Linnaeus in his Genera Plan-

tarum on Phuiiier's figures of an oval-fruited form of the sapodilla.

The first binomial use of Achras in the first edition of the Species

Plantarum is also typified by a reference to Pluixiier, so that there

is no alternative to Achras zapota Linnaeus as the name of the

sapodilla. In the second edition of the Species Plantarum Lin-

naeus made the mistake of supposing that Plumier's oval fruit

was a sapote, and the erroneous synonomy of this work has misled

many later authors.

The retention of Plumier's name Sapota in Miller's Gardener's

Dictionary (7 Ed., 1759) does not justify a revival of this name,

since Miller followed Plumier in basing the genus on the sapodilla,

tho the sapote was included as a second species. Some writers

might consider this a reason "for transferring the name to the

sapote, but if such changes in the appUcations of pre-Linnaean

names are to be permitted no advantage of stability is gained by

accepting the substitutions made by Linnaeus. Tho such cases

have not been the subject of direct nomenclatorial legislation,

they are covered by imphcation under the rule that the substitu-

tion of a new generic name does not change the type of a genus.

This seems to preclude the idea that the type can be changed in-

formally, merely by referring other species to the genus. In

other words, the use of a generic name for species that are not

congeneric with the original type should not be allowed to change

the application of the name. This is also partially recognized

under another rule that provides for the selection of types of

genera adopted from nonbinomial literature from those of the origi-

nal species that receive names in the first binomial publication.

The effect of this provision is to allow Linnaeus to change the

applications of names as well as to substitute new names, so that

all of the genera of Linnaeus' Genera Plantarum can be typified

from the species placed under them in the Species Plantarum.

But to extend this freedom to other authors who reverted, often

quite casually, to the pre-Linnaean generic names, is to lose the

practical advantages of the method of types. The recognition

of a pre-Linnaean genus by a post- Linnaean author, tho it may

160 AYEES AND JOHNSON: DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA

be supposed to revive the name under the binomial system,

should not affect the application of the name.

The earliest binomial name applied to the sapote seems to have

been Jacquin's Sideroxylum sapota.^ The descriptive phrase

accompanying this name refers to the 'compound calyx or involu-

cre which is a peculiarity of the sapote, and there is also a citation

of Sloane's plate of "The Mammee Sapota tree" of Jamaica.

Jacquin's species was adopted by Linnaeus in the second edition

of the Species Plantarum, but Jacquin's specific name would have

become a homonym if transferred to the genus Achras and was

replaced by Achras mammosa Linnaeus.^

Neither Sideroxylum nor Lucuma is available as a generic

name for the sapote, both being based on species that are no longer

treated as congeneric with this tree. The name Vitellaria, bor-

rowed from Gaertner and applied to the sapote by Radlkofer,

has been rejected by later writers and remains a hyponym, not

having been associated with an identifiable generic type. Two

other generic names, Calospermum and Calocarpum, proposed

for the sapote by Pierre, prove to be homonyms.

A new generic name Achradelpha is accordingly proposed, with

Achradelpha mammosa (Linnaeus) as the type species.

A more extended statement of the case, with discussions of

some of the nomenclatorial principles involved, has been offered

for publication in Contributions from the U. S. National Herbar-

ium.

BACTERIOLOGY. — The destruction of bacteria in milk by ultra-

violet rays.^ S. Henry Ayers, and W. T. Johnson, Jr.

Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. Communi-

cated by Karl F. Kellerman.

During the past few years much attention has been given to

the bactericidal action of ultraviolet rays. Numerous investi-

gators have found that the ultraviolet rays of short wave length,

^ Enumeratio pi. Ins. Carib. 1760.

2 Species Plantarum, 2 ed. 1: 469. 1762.

^ The complete data obtained in this work will be published as a bulletin of the

Bureau of Animal Industry.

AYERS AND JOHNSON: DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA

161

from 3000 to 2000 Angstrom units possessed a powerful bacteri-

cidal power and have endeavored to make a practical use of this

fact. Water when clear has been successfully treated by the ultra-

violet rays but when appUed to milk the attempts to obtain a

sterile product have not been so successful.

The object of the present work has been to determine if it is

possible to steriUze milk by the ultraviolet rays and also how

practicable the process would be.

In these experiments milk was exposed over two drums revolv-

ing in troughs in such a manner that milk was picked up from a

trough in a thin layer by one drum, then taken off by a scraper

and conveyed to a second tank where it was picked up by the

second drum. After going over the second drum, the milk was

collected by a second scraper which conveyed it to a sterile flask.

This apparatus enabled us to obtain layers of milk of different

thicknesses by rotating the drums at various rates of speed which

also, of course, varied the length of exposure.

The ultraviolet rays were generated by a quartz mercury

vapor lamp operating on a 220 volt direct current circuit taking

3.5 amperes. The light tube of the lamp was at a distance of

four inches above the surface of the drums. In general, it may

be said, that the thickness of the layer of milk exposed averaged

about 0.1 mm. The length of exposure over the two drums

was about two seconds, when the drums were making 20 to 24

R.P.M. and about one second at 50 to 56 R.P.M.

162 AYERS AND JOHNSON: DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA

When milk was exposed in this apparatus, very satisfactory

bacterial reductions were obtained as shown in the above table.

Thruout the experiments the temperature of the milk during

exposure never was over 30°C. (86°F). Consequently high tem-

perature played no part in the destruction of the bacteria.

Numerous experiments were performed to determine the action

of the rays on vegetative cells and spores and to study numerous

conditions which affect the power of the rays. A few experi-

ments were also made to determine the possibiUty of sterilizing

milk bottles by the rays. The results can be best presented in

the form of a summary as follows:

1. When milk was exposed in thin layers to ultraviolet rays

there was a marked reduction in the bacterial content.

2. The action of the rays was entirely independent of the action

of heat since the temperature of the exposed milk was never over

30°C. (86°F.)

3. The most satisfactory method of exposure was over two

revolving drums the tops of which were at a distance of 4 inches

below the light tube of the lamp.

4. The two factors of greatest importance in the successful

application of the rays were the thickness of the layer and the

length of exposure. A thin layer allows a more complete pene-

tration of the rays and the longer the exposure the more chance

they have to act.

5. Ultraviolet rays exerted a greater bactericidal action on

vegetative cells in milk than on spores when exposed under the

same conditions.

6. No greater action of the rays on bacteria was observed when

the bacteria were weakened by pasteurization immediately pre-

ceding the exposure.

7. From the study of two samples of milk exposed to ultra-

violet rays it was apparent that the rays did not exert any specific

bactericidal power on any particular group of bacteria in the milk.

As stated before, however, there was a difference in the action of

the rays on bacteria in the vegetative and spore state.

8. Under similar conditions of exposure there seemed to be

somewhat less bacterial reduction in a 15 per cent cream than in

AYERS AND JOHNSON: DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA 163

milk. This was probably due to the fact that the cream when

picked up by the revolving drums was in a thicker layer than

was the milk.

9. When milk was exposed under conditions suitable for a

satisfactory reduction of the bacteria by the ultraviolet rays

there was also produced an abnormal, disagreeable flavor. This

flavor would render the milk unsaleable.

10. A large percentage of the bacteria in normally dirty and

artificially infected milk bottles were destroyed by exposure to

the rays. The best results were obtained when the bottles were

exposed directly under the lamp, the top of the bottle being about

4 inches from the lamp tube. When bottles were exposed on one

side of the lamp and not directly under it, poor results were

obtained. It was not possible to completely sterilize the bottles

even after a ten minutes' exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

The experiments indicate that with quartz mercury vapor

lamps of the present power and construction it would not be pos-

sible to completely sterilize milk by the ultraviolet rays.

It might be possible to obtain bacterial reductions as great as

by pasteurization, even on a commercial scale, by the use of large,

revolving drums and a number of lamps. However, in milk so

treated there would be no assurance of the complete destruction

of pathogenic organisms since the rays do not seem to exert any

selective destructive action on vegetative cells. Of course, since

pathogenic organisms might be assumed to be present in a small

number in proportion to the total bacteria in milk, if 99.9 per cent

of the organisms present were destroyed, it might be assumed that

that the pathogenic bacteria would be destroyed. This process,

however, would not afford the same security as does proper

pasteurization. Then, again, it would be difficult on a commercial

scale to control constantly the factors which influence the bacteri-

cidal action of the rays. Aside from these points the disagree-

able flavor imparted to the milk by exposure to the rays renders

the process impracticable on a commercial scale.

164 AYERS AND JOHNSON: DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA

It is also doubtful if the lamps could be made to compete suc-

cessfully with the present method of steaming milk bottles in order

to partially sterilize them.

In conclusion, it must be stated that we have not intended to

make this work an exhaustive study of the application of the bac-

tericidal power of the ultraviolet rays. It is therefore possible

that better results may be obtained in the future by use of more

powerful lamps and different methods of exposing the milk.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

OCEANOGRAPHY. — A study of the salinity of the surface water in the

North Pacific Ocean and in the adjacent enclosed Seas. Austin

Hob ART Clark. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 60: No.

13. 1-13. 1912.

The complete salinity records of the Albatross cruise of 1906, corrected,

are here given. The original observations were made by the author.

A short preliminary account of the seasonal variation in salinity on the

California coast, and of the conditions in the Bering Sea, as worked out

from the Albatross records, is included.

In addition there is a short sketch of the surface variations in salinity

and of the surface currents, mostly taken from the works of Vice-Admiral

Makaroff. A. H. C.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— On the effect of high pressures on the physi-

cal and chemical behavior of solid substances. John Johnston and

L. H. Adams, of the Geophysical Laboratory. American Journal

of Science (4), 35: 205-254. 1913.

This paper is an endeavor to review and to define the present status of

our knowledge of the effect of high pressures on the behavior of solids,

to reconcile some of the conflicting statements on the subject to be found

in the literature, and to indicate the conclusions which may justifiably

be drawn from the available evidence, especially with regard to their

application to the discussion of geological phenomena. Some of this

confusion results from the employment of indefensible criteria in ascer-

taining the character and magnitude of the change produced by pressure,

as, for example, in determining the effect of pressure in promoting chem-

ical reaction between soJids, but in the main it is due to failure to take

into account the fact that the effects produced depend upon the charac-

ter, or mode of action, of the compression. The effects are different,

165

166 abstracts: engineering

according as we are dealing'with pressure uniform in all directions (true

hydrostatic pressure) or with a mode of compression which does not

satisfy this condition, in other words, the effects vary — as indeed is

almost obvious — according as the solid retains its original form or under-

goes deformation.

Uniform pressure has a comparatively slight effect on the melting

point , it usually raises it, and by an amount, which in the systems hither-

to investigated, is seldom greater than 10°, and never greater than 30°,

per 1000 atmospheres. Its effect on solubihty is slight, and for practical

purposes negligible as compared with the influence of temperature upon

solubility. Uniform pressure tends to further those reactions which are

accompanied by a decrease of volume; but it by no means follows that

it will cause these (or other) reactions to occur, for whether a reaction

takes place or not is determined by its velocity under the particular

conditions, and such evidence as there is tends to show that reaction

velocity is not much affected by uniform pressure.

The effects of non-uniform pressure greatly outweigh those of uniform

pressure. It ahvays lowers the melting-point and raises the solubility,

and by amounts which are many times greater than the corresponding

changes with uniform pressure. If we make the plausible assumption

that permanent deformation of a crystalline aggregate is conditioned by

a real local melting (of those parts, which at any moment bear the brunt

of the load) , we find the amount of pressure required to cause melting

at ordinary temperature to be within the bounds of probability. Such

we believe to be the efficient cause in producing most of the phenomena

recorded as occurring when solid systems were submitted to compression.

This view, while it coordinates satisfactorily the whole of the experimen-

tal work hitherto done, conflicts with none of the available direct evi-

dence.

It follows therefore that we can determine the effect of pressure on a

solid system only if we can define the character of the compression (with

reference to its approach to uniformity or otherwise) as well as its magni-

tude, and even then, only when the requisite thermal and other data,

characteristic of the system, are available. J. J. and L. H. A.

ENGINEERING. — The testing and properties of textile materials.

Bueau of Standards Circular 41, 1913.

The scope of textile testing which the Bureau of Standards is now

prepared to undertake is summarized below.

1. Determinations upon raw and unspun fibers: (a) identity of fiber,

abstracts: botany 167

(b) approximate length; (c) moisture content and ''regain"; (d) quan-

tity of oil, grease and foreign substances contained; (e) percentage loss

in scouring raw wool.

2. Determinations upon yarn, thread and twine: (a) length; (b)

tensile strength and elasticity; (c) count or number; (d) twist; (e) per-

centage of loading, sizing and coloring material; (f) percentage fiber

composition.

3. Determinations upon fabric: (a) weight; (b) tensile strength and

elongation; (c) percentage fiber composition; (d) thread count; (e) yarn

number of size; (f) folding endurance, (g) action of light on colors.

W. S. Lewis.

ENGINEERING. — Physical testing of cotton yarns. W. S. Lewis.

Technological paper No.. 19, Bureau of Standards. (In press.)

The investigation consisted in a study of single and two ply yarns as

to variations in size, twist and tensile strength of yarns within cops,

bobbins, skeins, etc., and also their behavior under various relative

atmospheric humidities. W.S.L.

GEOGRAPHY. — A study of biological paleogeography in its bearing on

the origin of man in America. Austin H. Clark. Science (N.S.),

35: 669-670. 1912.

A short sketch of the ancient land connections between the Americas

and other land masses, with the conclusion that man probably entered

America over a broad land area connecting Alaska with northeastern

Asia. A. H. C.

PALiEONTOLOGY. — Restoration of the genus Eldonia, a genus of free

swimming Holothurians from the Middle Cambrian. Austin H.

Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 39: Nr 25/26: S. 723-725. 1912.

A figure of a restoration of the curious holothurian described by Wal-

cott as Eldonia ludwigi is given, together with a description of the animal.

The figure is a composite from all the figures published in the original

paper. A. H. C.

BOTANY. — A synopsis of the red firs. William H. Lamb. Proceed-

ings of the Society of American Foresters, 7: No. 2. 1912.

This is a discussion of the distinguishing characteristics of noble fir

(Abies 7iobilis Lindl.), red fir (Abies tnagnifica Murr.), and Shasta fir

(Abies shastensis Lem.). Much confusion exists as to the distribution

168 abstracts: zoology

of these species in California and Oregon and especially in the region of

the Klamath National Forest, where noble fir of the north is associated

wdth red fir and Shasta fir of the south. To facilitate correct reports of

the occurrence of the red firs, the conspicuous characters by which they

may be most conveniently recognized are set forth with keys, photo-

graphs of typical cones, and drawings of leaf sections and of cone scales

with bracts. W. H. L.

ZOOLOGY. — Descriptions of eleven new crinoids helonging to the families

Calometridae and Thalassometridae discovered by the Siboga in the,

Dutch East Indies. Austin H. Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger,

39: Nr. 11/12: S. 420-428. 1912.

Short preliminary diagnoses are here given of new species in these two

families found by the Siboga . A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Seventeen new East Indian crinoids belonging to the families

Comasteridae and Zygonietridae. Austin H. Clark. Proceedings

of the Biological Society of Washington, 25: 17-28. 1912.

Short preliminary diagnoses are herein given of seventeen new species

of Comasteridae and Zygometridae discovered by the Soboga in the

Dutch East Indies. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Naumachocrinus, a new genus belonging to the crinoid

family Phrynocrinidae. Austin H. Clark. Proceedings of the

U. S. National Museum, 42: 195-197. 1912.

The genus Naumachocrinus, herein described, is closely related to the

genus Phrynocrinus, heretofore the only known genus of the family

Phrynocrinidae.

Naumachocrinus is from the Hawaiian Islands, and is the first stalked

crinoid to be reported from that region, Phrynocrinus is from southern

Japan, where it was discovered by the author in 1906. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Six new East hidian crinoids belonging to thefa7nily Chari-

tometridae. Austin H. Clark. Proceedings of the Biological

Society of Washington, 25: 77-84. 1912.

Short preliminary diagnoses are herein given of six new species of

Charitometridae discovered by the Siboga in the Dutch East Indies.

A. H. C.

abstracts: zoology 169

ZOOLOGY. — Notes sur les crino'ides actuels du museum d'histoire natur-

elle de Paris. Austin H. Clark. Bulletin du Museum d'Histoire

Naturelle de Paris, No. 4, 1911 : 243-260. 1911.

A complete list of the crinoids in the collection of the Paris museum,

with redescriptions of the types of Lamarck and of Miiller, detailed

descriptions of the more interesting specimens other than types, and a

detailed historical introduction.

The work upon these specimens was done in Paris. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Die Fauna Sildwest-Austr aliens: Crinoidea. Austin

HoBART Clark. Ergebnisse der Hamburger slidwest-australischen

Forschungsreise 1905, Bd. 3, Lief. 13, S. 435-467. 1911.

This paper is based upon the collection of Western Australian crin-

oids, principally from Shark Bay, made by Drs. Michaelsen and Hart-

meyer while on the Hamburg West Australian Expedition. It is a

monographic account of the crinoids of the western portion of Australia,

including an historical introduction and a detailed discussion of the dis-

tribution. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — The recent crinoids of Australia. Austin Hobart Clark.

Memoir IV, Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales.

Scientific results of the trawling expedition of H.M.C.S. Thetis

off the coast of New South Wales, in February and March, 1898.

Part 15, pp. 705-804. 1911.

This is a monographic account of the recent crinoids of Australia,

based primarily upon the collections in the Australian museum at Syd-

ney. It is prefaced by an historical introduction, and concluded by a

complete bibliography. In its preparation the author visited all of the

museums of Europe in which Australian crinoids are known to be pre-

served, and examined all the types of Australian species.

A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — The crinoids of the Indian Ocean. Austin Hobart

Clark, B.A., F.R.G.S. Echinoderma of the Indian Museum,

Part VII, Crinoidea, pp. i-iii, 1-325, 61 figures in the text, 4to.

1912.

A monographic account of the crinoids of India and the East Indies.

In the introduction is given an historical sketch of the development of

the study of the Indian crinoids, ^dth a discussion of their distribution,

ecology, etc. , a complete bibliography is appended.

The synonymy and habitat of over 400 species are included, many of

which are new. A. H. C.

170 abstracts: zoology

ZOOLOGY. — A revision of the American species of Peripatus. Austin

HoBART Clark. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash-

ington, 26: 15-20. 1913.

The American species belonging to the family Peripatidae are distri-

buted in the following genera: Oroperipatus Cockerell, Peripatus Guild-

ing (with the subgenera Plicatoperipatus, nov., Macroperipatus, nov.,

Peripatus, sensu stricto, and Epiperipatus, nov.).

The American species belonging to the Peripatopsidae is considered

as representing a distinct genus, which is recognized under the name of

Metaperipatus, nov!

The family Peripatidae is divided into two subfamihes, Peripatinae,

including Mesoperipatus (a central African type), Oroperipatus and

Peripatus (with the included subgenera), and Eoperipatinae, nov., in-

cluding the East Indian genus Eoperipatus. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Notes on American species of Peripatus, with a list of known

forms. Austin Hobart Clark. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-

lections, 60: No. 17, 1-5. 1913.

Peripatus (Peripatus) juanensis Bouvier is recorded from the island

of Vieques near Porto Rico, and Peripatus (Macroperipatus) geayi

Bouvier is recorded from La Chorrera, Panama. In an appendix is given

a list of all the American species of the group, with the ascertained

range of each, A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — On a small collection of recent crinoids- from the Indian

Ocean. Austin H. Clark. Records of the Indian Museum,

7: Part 3, No. 26, 267-271. 1912.

The collection herein described was received too late to be included in

the monograph of the crinoids of India by the same author, and so an

account of it was published as a supplementary paper. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — Preliminary descriptions of eleve7i new crinoids belonging

to the families Himerometridae, Mariametridae and Colohometridae,

discovered by the Siboga in the Dutch East Indies. Austin H.

Clark. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, (8) 10: 31-41.

1912.

Short preliminary diagnoses are here given of new species in these

three families found by the Siboga. A. H. C.

abstracts: zoology 171

ZOOLOGY. — Das relative Alter der rezenter Seelilienfaunen. A. H.

Clark. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, J. G. 27, Nr. 15,

S. 191-192. 1912.

An attempt is herein made to ascertain the comparative age of tM^o

faunas by internal characters. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY.— r/ie crinoids of the Solomon Islands. A. H. Clark.

Records of the Austrahan Museum, 9: 81-86. 1912.

A monographic account, with a bibhography, of the crinoids known

from the Solomon Islands, based upon a collection from LTgi belonging

to the Australian Museum of Sydney, New South Wales. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — The crinoids of the Natural History Museum at Hamburg.

Austin H. Clark. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, 60:

No. 10, 1-33. 1912.

A complete list of the crinoids in the collection of the Naturhistorisches

Museum at Hamburg, with redescriptions of types, detailed descriptions

of the more interesting specimens other than types, an historical account

of the collection, and a bibliography of the works based wholly or in part

upon it.

Part of the collection was sent to Washington for study and compari-

son with material in the U. S. National Museum, but the greater portion

was examined in Hamburg. A. H. C.

ZOOLOGY. — The crinoids of the museum fiir Naturkunde, Berlin.

Austin Hobart Clark. Proceedings of the U. S. National Mus-

eum, 43: 381-410. 1912.

A complete list of the crinoids in the collection of the Museum fiir

Naturkunde, with detailed descriptions of the more interesting specimens

with an historical account of the collection and a bibliography of the

works based wholly or in part upon it.

There are also given lists of the type specimens, with the references to

the original descriptions, of the species other than types mentioned in

the literature, with the references, and of the specimens donated by this

museum to the U. S. National Museum.

Most of the collection was sent to Washington for study, but the

author examined the small remaining portion in Berlin. A. H. C.

172 abstracts: ichthyology

ICHTHYOLOGY. — Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1911. Barton

W. EvERMANN, Bureau of Fisherie.s Document No. 766, pp. 100.

Issued December 16, 1912.

The Alaska Fisheries Service, which for the past two years has included

administration of the Alaska fur resources also, is reported upon for

the calendar year 1911 under the four departments of general adminis-

tration, statistics, fish culture, and fur-seal service. The salmon fish-

ery grounds, packing establishments and hatcheries were inspected as

usual, and violations of law were duly reported and dealt with. The

fisheries as a whole were found to have yielded 177,572,873 pounds of

products, worth $16,863,728. The furs of all kinds shipped out of the

territory had a value of $802,750, of which $432,231 was the value of

sealskins.

From the standpoint of science the most important work was the con-

tinuation of observations in Nushagak Bay and Wood River, where the

salmon runs are being counted yearly for the purpose of developing, thru

the knowledge thus obtained, a satisfactory code of fishery regulations.

The red salmon run was found to have decreased 30 per cent in the three

years since 1908, but interpretation of this decrease depends, of course,

upon the solution of now undetermined questions in the life history of the

salmon. Among the most practical questions still unanswered are:

1. Do all species of salmon regularly return to the home stream, i.e.,

the waters where hatched, or are they diverted at any time by adverse

winds, food conditions, etc.?

2. May the run in a stream be built up by closing the stream to fish-

ing, and if so to what extent?

3. What is the normal age of each species and what period is spent

in fresh water?

4. What percentage of fry under normal conditions is produced from

eggs deposited naturally?

5. Are any disadvantages suffered by fish artificially hatched?

Somewhat inconclusive evidence confirming the parent-stream theory

has resulted from experiments in marking young salmon, and indications

are negative as to the utility of closing streams to fishing. The third of

the above questions alone seems to be approaching solution, by means of

examination of scales of the fish. A rather hasty examination of scales

of a small number of Nushagak salmon in 1911 leads to the conclusion

that the greater number of adults return at five years of age instead of

four as has been befieved on the basis of the Fraser River runs.

Ethel M. Smith.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 263rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, January 8, 1913,

and the formal communications were presented:

The hearing of Pre-Cambrian structure on the origin of the Homestake

ore body: Sidney Paige. It is suggested that the main Homestake ore

body owes its origin to the presence of a strong fault and the subsequent

mineralization of a calcareous series. Geologic work has proved the

existence of the calcareous series on the surface and in the mine and struc-

tural considerations demand the fault. The form of the ore body is

that which would be taken if a folded sedimentary series were cut by

a fault and replaced by solutions rising along the fault. The particular

form which observed facts would require of such a calcareous series as

is present agrees with the form of the ore body as determined by mining.

Microscopic examination of ores and wall rocks, as far as carried on,

support this hypothesis.

A recent discovery of dinosaurs in the Tertiary: W. T. Lee. Ceratop-

sian bones were found during the summer of 1912, nine miles east of

Colorado Springs, Colorado, in sec. 3, T. 14 S., R. 65 W., about 500

feet above the base of the Dawson arkose (the lower part of the Monu-

ment Creek formation of former ^\'Titers). Dinosaurs were found at a

locality that had previously yielded a bone of a Tertiary mammal and a

number of Eocene plants which, according to Knowlton, belong in the

Denver flora. On the evidence of the plant remains the beds containing

the dinosaur bones are correlated mth the oldest Tertiary (Raton for-

mation) of the Raton Mesa region in southern Colorado and northern

New Mexico, and with the Wilcox-Eocene formation of the Gulf region.

It has long been known that the beds now called Dawson arkose lie

with conspicuous unconformity on older rocks that range in age from

Laramie to pre-Cambrian, and this unconformity, together with the

presence in the beds above it of a Tertiary mammal and of Eocene plants,

is thought sufficient to establish the Tertiary age of the Dawson arkose ;

and inasmuch as the Ceratopsian bones were found in the same beds it is

concluded that some of the dinosaurs existed in early Tertiary time.

A paleobotanical study of the coal-bearing rocks of the Raton Mesa region

of Colorado and New Mexico: F. H. Knowlton. The coal-bearing

section in the Raton Mesa region was first (1867-1878) considered by

Lesquereux, on paleobotanical evidence, as deferable to the Tertiary and

similar in position to the Lignitic, or Eolignitic, of Mississippi, but later

17.3

174 proceedings: biological society

(about 1883 to 1907) it came, "without additional study of the plants,

to be regarded as Laramie on the basis of its supposed similarity to the

Laramie of the Denver Basin. The renewal of interest in the region began

in 1907, at which time W, T. Lee detected the presence of a Avide-spread

unconformity in the midst of this supposedly continuous Cretaceous

section. To the coal-bearing beds below the unconformity the name

Vermejo formation has been given, while those above are loiown as the

Raton formation. The present paleobotanical study was undertaken

to give such answers as it might as to (1) the distinctness of these forma-

tions and (2) as to their age. The results of this study are satisfactory

and seemingly conclusive.

The fossil flora of the Raton Mesa region comprises 257 forms of which

number 106 are found in the Vermejo formation and 151 in the Raton

formation. As only 4 species have been found to cross the line of the

unconformity we have the answer to the first question, namely as to the

distinctness of the two formations.

The Vermejo flora is shown to have no appreciable relation with the

Laramie of the Denver Basin, since there is but one species in common.

Its close affinity (identity of over 90 per cent of the species having an

outside distribution) is with the Mesaverde, and the conclusion is reached

that Vermejo formation is Montana in age and in the approximate posi-

tion of the Mesaverde.

The Raton flora has 5 species in common with the Laramie of the

Denver Basin, 4 with the Arapahoe formation, between 30 and 40 with

the Denver, and over 30 with the Wilcox formation. As the Wilcox

has intercalated layers of marine Eocene invertebrates, and itself rests

on the marine Eocene Midway formation, the conclusion is reached that

the Raton formation is in approximately the same stratigraphic position,

and is also Eocene in age. As the Denver formation occupies approxi-

mately the same position as the Raton formation, it may be taken as

additional proof that the Denver is likewise of Eocene age. This latter

result, however, is merely a confirmation of the original contention of

Cross, who named and described the Denver formation.

The broader application of these results to the stratigraphic position

of the ceratopsian dinosaurs elsewhere is obvious.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 38rd annual meeting was held in the hall of the Cosmos Club,

December 14, 1912, with Vice-President W. P. Hay in the chair. Re-

ports of officers for the year 1912 were received and the annual election

of officers took place. The election resulted as follows: President,

E. W. Nelson; Vice-Presidents, J. N. Rose, Paul Bartsch, W. P. Hay,

A. D. Hopkins; Recording Secretary, D. E. Lantz; Corresponding Secre-

tary, N. Hollister; Members of Council, Hugh M. Smith, Vernon

Bailey, Wm. Palmer, A. B. Baker, and A. K. Fisher.

proceedings: biological society 175

The 505th regular meeting was held January 11, 1913, with President

E. W. Nelson in the chair and 54 persons present. The chairman

appointed standing committees on Publications and Communications

for the year.

C. V. Piper exhibited a vase made of wood and covered with a thin

veneer of "silk-wood." This veneer is cut from one of the large Poly-

porus fungi and takes a beautiful polish.

A. S. Hitchcock and E. W. Nelson each reported his recent return

from a successful collecting trip, the former having collected grasses in

Jamaica, Trinidad, and Tobago, while the latter had secured birds and

mammals in Arizona.

The regular program consisted of the communications :

The rediscovery of (Enothera grandiflora: S. M. Tracy. The speaker

gave an account of two trips made by him to the locality of Bartram's

original discovery of this species. (1776). The locality is near Dixie

Landing, Alabama, and the flower described by Bartram was found

abundant over a limited area. A second visit was made last year in

company with Dr. Hugo de Vries.

The yrohlem of the identity' of Oenothera Lamarckiana: H. H. Bartlett.

The speaker gave a history of various cultivated strains of plants of this

species and its hj^brids. He predicted that its original habitat and iden-

tity— as yet unknown — would eventual^ be discovered, probably in

America south of the United States and on the Pacific Slope.

Saivflies and their relation to forestry: S. A. Rohwer. These very

destructive insects were classed as defoliators and wood borers, and

many instances of serious damage by them to growing timber were given.

The paper was [illustrated by numerous lantern slides showing various

species of sawflies — adults, pupae, and larvae — and also illustrations of

damaged timber.

The 506th regular meeting was held January 25, 1913, with the Presi-

dent in the chair and 47 persons present.

The follo^ving resolution relating to Zoological Nomenclature was

presented to the Society with the endorsement of the Council and adop-

ted unanimously:

Whereas certain zoologists have gone on record as favoring (1) A

permanent and increasing list of exceptions to the law of priority;

(2) A return to the principle of elimination regardless of the generic

types that have been designated under the rules, and (3) A rejection of

the present unanimous vote rule that has obtained for so many years in

the International Congress on Zoological Nomenclature,

Therefore, be it resolved by the Biological Society of Washington that

we favor (1) The consistent application of the Law of Priority in all

cases; (2) The acceptance of the first designation of a genotype, regard-

less of the method followed in designating it, and (3) The present unani-

mous vote rule as making for conservation and stability in nomenclature.

Under the heading Brief Notes, etc., Paul Bartsch exhibited a small

Ographic camera, ^\'ith a number of small pictures made with it and

enlargements of the same. He spoke briefly of its convenience and adap-

tability to field uses.

176 proceedings: biological society

Barton W. Evermann reported that a wireless message had just been

received from Agent Lembkey at the Pribilof Islands in which it was

stated that the reindeer herds on St. Paul and St. George had increased

during the past year from 37 to 65 animals and that all are in excellent

condition.

The regular program consisted of two communications:

Notes on the biology of the common termites of the eastern United States:

Thomas E. Snyder. This paper was illustrated by many lantern slides

and was discussed by E. A. Schwarz.

The biting powers of ants: W. L. McAtee. The speaker's personal

observations as well as instances gathered from many sources

were cited to show the powers of these small animals. Messrs. E. A.

Schwarz, A. C. Weed, A. D. Hopkins and the author of the paper took

part in the discussion which followed.

The 507th regular meeting was held February 8, \Aath President Nel-

son in the chair and 57 persons present.

Prof. Burt G. Wilder gave an illustrated lecture on The brain as a

guide to the affinities of vertebrates, basing his remarks primarily on the

brain of the shark Pentanchus recently described by Smith andRad-

cliffe as the type of a new family. The speaker showed by means of

diagrams the evolution of the selachian brain from the most primitive

form found in Chlamydoselachus thru the other Notidani to the typical

sharks; and announced his conclusion, from the evidence afforded by

the brain, that Pentanchus is not a Notidanid. He did not venture, how-

ever, to say just what the systematic position of this shark may be until

the vertebrae and intestines have been studied, although it is certainly

not related to the Scylliorhinidse, to which Regan {Science, July 19,

1912) assigns it on the theory that the single dorsal fin is an abnormality.

In the discussion which followed, H. M. Smith said that in assigning

Pentanchus to the order of ancient sharks, partly on account of the single

dorsal fin, he and Mr. Radcliffe had been aware of characters in which

this shark differs from typical Diplospondyli, but that no other course

seemed expedient at the time the preliminary description was published.

The vertebrae, while not diplospondylous but modified cyclospondy-

lous, are of a very primitive type, being only half the size of those in a

scylliorhinid shark of the same length, with an extremely small centrum

and a very large neural canal.

Theodore Gill discussed the subject at length, and agreed with Prof.

Wilder in attaching great taxonomic importance to the brains in sharks

and rays. He had concurred in the assignment of Pentanchus to the

Notadini, and now regarded it as the type of a peculiar family whose

affinities remain to be determined.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. III. APRIL 4, 1913 No. 7

PHYSICS. — The constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly

heated enclosure. W. W. Coblentz, Bureau of Standards.

In a previous communication to this Journal a general descrip-

tion was given of the work^ which was completed prior to Decem-

ber, 1912. It was then proposed to observe several more sets of

energy curves, at the highest operable temperatures with a

vacuum furnace before publishing the exact numerical results.

Owing to unavoidable delays in assembling all the apparatus, the

intention of witholding all the data until the completion of this

investigation has now been abandoned and in the present paper is

given a brief summary of the most reliable data now at hand.

The temperature scale used in this investigation, for tempera-

ture above 1400°C is the optical scale, which is obtained by adding

to the thermoelectric temperatures certain values,^ which are the

mean of several groups of thermocouples. In assembling the

present data for publication it was observed that for tempera-

tures above 1400°C there was an abrupt rise in the value of the

constant c which increased systematically to abnormally high

values for temperatures taken above 1500°. It was therefore

necessary to choose between the possibility that (1) this variation

in c at high temperature is owing to the failure of Planck's law at

high temperatures or (2) that, for the particular thermocouples

1 Coblentz, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 10, 1913. '

2 Waidner and Burgess, Bull. Bur. Standards 3: 205, 1907.

177

178 COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION

used in this research the aforementioned correct factors for reduc-

tion to the optical scale are too large. ^ The writer chose the

latter conclusion and the results obtained at high and at low tem-

peratures are now in agreement.

The systematic errors, which formerly caused the mean values

of the various sets of observations to differ by 0.2 to 0,5 per cent,

are now reduced to less than 0.2 per cent. They were caused by

the presence of a disproportionate number of high temperature

energy curves, in some sets of data, which contained the afore-

mentioned corrections for reduction to the optical temperature

scale. This modification of the correction for reduction of the ther-

moelectric temperatures to the optical scale has no effect upon the

data obtained in 1912 owing to the fact that intentionally, (to save

the thermocouple calibration ; the difficulty with the scale correction

was not forseen) no energy curves were observed at these high

temperatures. The former unexplained disagreement between

the sets of observations made in 1911 and those of 1912 is now

reduced to an excellent agreement. This was to be expected

for there was no apparent difference in the methods of operation

other than the addition of a number of high-temperature, energy

curves to the series of 1911, which required the optical scale

corrections.

The series of 1911 is the most accurate as regards low humidity

while the series of 1912 excel in having the most improved methods

and the longest experience in the work. The results of the two

years work are given in Table I. Each value of c is the mean of

the number of isothermal energy curves (94 in all) given in

column 2, computed by equation (2) published in the previous

communication to this Journal. The mean value is

c - 14456 ± 4

A = 2911 ± 1

In the complete paper it will be shown that the values obtained by

Lummer and Pringsheim, if computed by the present methods

^ In the complete paper it will be shown that, for these particular thermocouples,

the mean value correction factors for reducing the thermocouple temperatures to

the optical scale are too large by 5 to 7, depending, of course, upon the tempera-

ture above 1100°C.

COBLENTZ: CONSTANTS OF SPECTRAL RADIATION

179

would give a mean value of c = 14465 ± 40 and that the values

published by Paschen, if similarly corrected would give a mean

value of c = 14458 ± 25.

The most recent communication from Warburg"* and his associ-

ates gives a mean value of c = 14374 ± 4. The mean value of

the four sets of investigations weighted as follows {L and P = I

P =3, W = 10 and C = 10) gives a mean value of;

c = 14420 mikron deg.

a = 2905 mikron deg.

The mean value of the most recent work by Warburg and by the

writer is c = 14415.

TABLE I

Mean value c = 14,456 ± 4 (94 energy curves)

A = 2911 ± 1

The value c = 14420 is a convenient one to use. The differ-

ence in the values obtained by Warburg and by the writer indi-

cates an uncertainty of about 5° at 1750°C. It is rather remarkable

^ Warburg — Leithaiiser, Hupka, Miiller, Sitzbei', Akad, Wiss. Berlin I, p. 35.

1913.

180 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

that the older data (which were reduced by the present system of

computation long before the inconsistencies among the various

sets of the present observations were eliminated) are in close

agreement with the present results.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — Environmental influences in the pathol-

ogy of Solanum tuberosum.^ W. A. Orton, Bureau of Plant

Industry.

The health and vigor of plants is largely dependent on their

adaptation to their environment. Each species has its optimum

requirements as to temperature, moisture, light and substratum,

variations from which result in failure of the plant to reach a

normal or maximum development and predispose it to disease.

Under certain environmental conditions, for example, the

plant becomes more susceptible to the attacks of parasites, either

because the germination and development of the parasite is fav-

ored or because the weakened host has lost its natural resistance.

Another type of disease is not associated with any parasites, but

comes from some perversion or loss of physiological functions,

which seems also, in the last analysis, to be attributable to defects

in the environment.

It is to be expected that the most favorable climate for any

plant will be that of its nativity, to which it has become adapted

in the course of its evolution. Certainly the students of crop

plants should consider first the natural adaptations of their

plant in the land of its origin, and next any modification that

may have resulted from subsequent culture in other countries.

The native habitat of Solanum tuberosum, the progenitor of

our potato, is believed to be in southern Chile, where it was found

growing wild by the early explorers and where it still occurs.

Darwin, in the Voyage of the Beagle describes his experiences on

the Island of Chiloe, where ' ' the wild potato grows ....

in great abundance, on the sandy, shelly soil near the sea beach."

' Address of retiring President, Botanical Society of Washington, February 25,

1913.

orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 181

De Condolle, after a critical study of the evidence, concludes that

the potato is native in southern Chih and expresses doubt as to

Peru and the other northern Andean countries, where it was in

general cultivation by the natives at the time of the discovery

and conquest by the Spaniards and where its present occurrence

in a wild or semi-wild condition may be thru escape from the

primitive Indian cultures.

That our potato may have come from a region where high

altitudes give a temperate climate within the tropics is, however,

not impossible, since other species of Solanum do occur thruout

the Andean region and northward as far as Colorado, and may

have given origin or contributed thru crossing to the potato which

we cultivate today. There is great need for further taxonomic

studies to throw light on this point. From the physiological

standpoint, however, there can be no doubt that the potato

originated in a region of low and uniform summer temperature,

a fact of the greatest significance to agriculture in the United

States, where different climatic conditions prevail.

It will be shown that in the Northern Hemisphere those regions

are most successful in the cultivation of the potato where the

temperatures during the growing period most nearly approach

those of southern Chili, and that the climatic environment is the

most important factor influencing the diseases of this crop.

The climate in the district where we believe the potato to be

indigenous is marked by very uniformly cool summers and heavy

winter rainfall. Valdivia has a meaii annual temperature of

52 . 8°F. the maximum is 90°; and the minimum 30° (figs. 1 and 2) ;

Puerto Montt and Ancud are similar. To the northward, as the

climate becomes hotter and drier, the potato is more and more

resstricted to the higher elevations, where the climate is temperate

and the summers cool and equable. The relative atmospheric

humidity will be high in these cool regions. This is doubtless a

more important point for the normal development of the potato

than the absolute rainfall.

Of all countries where it has been introduced the potato per-

haps yields best in Scotland, and here we find the summer nearly

182

oeton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

as cool as in Chili, though the rainfall is less (figs. 1 and 2). Nor-

thern Germany is justly renowned for its potato harvests, which,

in bushels per acre, are more than double those of the United

States, and there also the growing period is long, cool and equable.

The limiting factor is the rainfall, which is low, tho well distri-

buted (Cf. Edinburg and Posen in figs. 1 and 2).

The July isotherm of 65°F. crosses North America not far from

the northern border of the United States. Only in Aroostook

County, Maine, and parts of northern New York have we develo-

oped extensive potato culture north of this isotherm, which in

Fig. 1. Curves of mean monthly temperatures for Valdivia and Puerto Montt,

in southern Chile, compared with Edinburgh, Scotland; Posen, Germany; Hand,

cock, Wisconsin; Aroostock County, Maine; Federal Point, Florida, and Washing-

ton, D. C. Data from the firgt four were compiled from Hann's "Klimato-

graphie;" the latter four from reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau.

Europe runs south of the principal potato districts of Great Britain

and northern Germany. The isotherm of 70°F. (21°C.) for June,

July and August nearly marks the southern boundary of successful

main crop potato production in the United States. The climate

of the greater part of the United States is therefore too hot for

best results with this crop. As shown in figures 1 and 3, the pro-

duction of potatoes in the South is a matter of early spring plant-

ing and summer harvesting, or of planting in late summer for

autumn harvests. For the latter procedure a type of potato illus-

trated by the variety McCormick is well adapted in the region of

Washington, D. C, a fact worthy of mention here for its signifi-

cance in the problem of securing a heat resistant potato for south-

ern districts. The summer heat of the United States is the limit-

orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

183

ing factor in potato production. Only young plants can survive

exposure to 90°F. for any extended priod, hence we find a tendericy

to plant late in the north in order that the time of tuber formation

may come during the cooler weather of autumn.

It appears that most or all of our present varieties originated

in northern districts, from parent stocks having low temperature

requirements. To secure varieties capable of extending potato

culture southward local breeding should be practised if stocks

possessing the necessary physiological qualities can be found.

Our great need is to discover a variety of Solanum tuberosum,

Fig. 2. Chart showing average monthly rainfall for points in southern Chile

as compared with Europe.

or a species sufficiently related to hybridize with it, that is indi-

genous to a region of high temperature, and capable of transmitting

to crosses with existing cultivated races a heat enduring quality

derived thru better control of transpiration, or in other ways.

It will be evident from a consideration of the south Chilean ch-

mate that the heat resistant factor cannot be found there. We

must turn to more northern and warmer sections of South or

Central America, a region that has been very inadequately ex-

plored to date, but where Mr. Wight of this Society is now engaged

on this mission.

Turning now to the consideration of potato diseases, we shall

find in the late blight, caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans,

an excellent illustration of the extent to* which climatic environ-

184 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

ment influences disease. Late blight is limited by its require-

ments of abundant moisture and moderate temperature, hence it

is most common in the Northeastern States, occasionally extend-

ing southward in early summer or autumn, never in midsummer.

Hot or dry weather checks its spread. These well established

facts strongly support the hypothesis that Phytophthora infestans

is endemic in the native habitat of the potato. Our knowledge

of the general principles of immunity in plants further suggests

that there would be the place to seek strains of the host plant

possessing a high resistance to this parasite.

In early blight, due to the fungus Alternaria solani, we find that

higher temperatures than those best for the potato appear to

promote infection. The range of greatest prevalence is well to

the south of that for late blight.

Another instance of apparent geographical limitation of potato

diseases is afforded by the wilts due to Fusarium oxysporum and

Verticillium albo-atrum respectively. The Fusarium wilt is

southern in its general range, being most prevalent in California,

in the warmer irrigated valleys of the West and in the East Cen-

tral States. Verticillium, on the other hand, occurs in the most

northern districts from the Puget Sound to Maine. The two over-

lap in their distribution but have the general tendency stated.

Pathological conditions not due to parasites are even more

conspicuously associated with attempts to grow the potato out-

side of its natural range. A heat and drought reaction common

in the United States is that known as tipburn, where the leaves

exposed to the hot sun and low relative humidity of midday

curl and burn at the margins, indicating an excessive transpira-

tion. This is seldom met with in Europe.

Premature ripening follows when potatoes bearing half-grown

tubers are exposed to the midday heat of our Southern States.

There is ip. addition to the tipburn a yellowing and early death

of the foliage. Potatoes produced in these southern conditions

lose their constitutional vigor and germinate later, with small

weak sprouts and give a smaller yield than seed from northern

sources. This constitutional defect is not cured by restoration

to a northern environment.

orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

185

There is another group of apparently physiological or inheri-

table potato diseases, of which ''leaf roll" and "curly dwarf" are

most important, which I bring into this discussion because they

are probably deterioration phenomena connected in some way not

yet fully understood with the effect of unfavorable environmental

conditions.

The great losses that have been caused by these diseases both

in Europe and America have caused much alarm and led to much

investigation and discussion. The suggestion that our potato

■ No of Years CountBd

Fig. 3. Average monthly rainfall for four potato centers in the United States.

Data from U. S. Weather Bureau. The heavy upper border of the shaded area

shows the mean rainfall for the number of years indicated at the base of the

column. The figures within the squares in the shaded area show the number of

years within the period of record when the rainfall has been below the amount

indicated. The corresponding figures in the white squares show the number of

years during the period of record when the rainfall has exceeded the amount

indicated.

varieties may suffer rapid deterioration thruout extensive dis-

tricts and without discoverable cause is naturally provocative of

uneasiness. While the nature and cause of ''leaf roll" and related

troubles is still largely a matter of speculation, the haze is parti-

ally cleared by the separation of this complex into at least five

different troubles, three of which are attributable to known para-

sites.

As pointed out by the writer in December, 1911, in a paper

before the American Phytopathological Society, the following dis-

eases have been more or less confused by various observers:

186 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

1. Potato wilt due to Fusarium oxysporum (Schlecht.) Sm. &

Sw., a disease widespread in the central and southern United

States but not yet proved to exist in Europe.

2. Potato wilt due to Verticillium albo-atrum, a disease occur-

ring in the northern United States, in Great Britain and northern

Europe.

3. Potato rosette and other troubles caused by Rhizoctonia,

especially prevalent in the western United States.

4. Leaf roll, an inheritable, probably non-parasitic disease pre-

valent in Europe and parts of America.

5. Curly dwarf, an inheritable, non-parasitic disease found both

in Europe and America.

Leaf roll (Blattrollkrankheit) is a disease characterized by

an upward rolling of the leaves, by a decreased yield of tubers and

by transmission of the diseased condition thru tubers planted.

The rolling of the leaves is the most constant and conspicuous

symptom of this disease. The leaflets curl or roll upward on their

midrib, often assuming a nearly tubular shape, and giving the

plant a staring appearance. This rolling is sometimes restricted

to the upper leaves, while in other cases all or nearly all of the

leaves on the plant exhibit it. This type of roll is distinct from

the curly leaf condition but a very similar roll may be induced

by other causes, such as wet soil, "black leg" and other diseases.

The color of the foliage changes with the advent of leaf roll,

but these color symptoms vary greatly, from cases where the

leaves assume an unhealthy, light green color to those marked by

pronounced yellowish, reddish or purplish colors.

The time of onset is early as compared with Fusarium wilt.

The effect on the plant is to check development. There is a

lessening or cessation of growth. The duration of life of the

plant, in some cases appears to be shortened by leaf roll, but

in comparison with the rapid death of American potatoes attacked

by Fusarium wilt the leaf roll is very slow in the action.

The endurance of the seed piece as a character of leaf roll is

an interesting point frequently mentioned in the German litera-

ture, and is considered by Appel to be one of the symptoms of

leaf roll. The effect of leaf roll on the tubers is strongly marked.

orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 187

In general the yield is very much reduced. The diseased hills

have numerous tubers very much smaller than normal so that

the yield is only about half that of a healthy field. If one uses

these potatoes again for seed, the greater part fail to develop,

and an uneven stand is the result. The stronger tubers succeed

in growing, but the stem remains weak, the leaves are from the

beginning considerably rolled and more or less colored. Few or

no tubers are found in such hills, so that a complete crop failure

results. Stem end browning of tubers is no longer considered a

reliable evidence of leaf roll.

The true leaf roll is inheritable. The tubers from diseased

plants produce diseased progeny as a general rule. This affords

a means of distinguishing from genuine leaf roll those temporary

conditions which give rise to a similar appearance of the plants.

It is now quite generally admitted that the presence of fungous

mycelium is not a character of the leaf roll. The leaf roll diseased

plants in America have been free from fungous infection.

The leaf roll disease of potatoes first came into the public eye

in Europe in 1905 in Westphalia. In 1907 a more general out-

break occurred in Germany and much alarm was expressed. Its

occurrence is certain in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland,

the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, as well as in the

United States.

Two developments of leaf roll in this country have been studied.

One in a collection of seedlings grown by the Bureau of Plant

Industry, the other a destructive outbreak in eastern Colorado

and western Nebraska during 1911 and 1912, which was the cause

of immense losses, the shipments from one district falling from an

expected 7000 cars to 200 cars.

The seedling potatoes showed every degree pf variation in

plant characters, and in addition many showed distinct evidence

of the diseased condition herein described as leaf roll. It is note-

worthy that in neither field was there any trace of Fusarium wilt,

nor of Verticillium wilt, ''black leg" or "mosaic," altho the latter

three were common in adjoining fields. The evidence indicates

that leaf roll and curly leaf are manifestations of physiological

weakness and associated with decline or loss of vigor of the strain.

188 orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum

The hypotheses as to the cause of leaf roll are numerous and

varied. It has been argued by one that leaf roll results from the

use of unripe tubers for seed ; by another, that it is due to the em-

ployment of matured tubers ; while a third believes that seed from

prematurely ripened plants is a cause of leaf roll. .

Hiltner is the leading advocate of the theory that the immature

seedstock gives an abnormal growth. He limits this to those

potatoes which are prematurely ripened by drouth or other unto-

ward circumstances. Hiltner further holds that leaf roll may be

the result of an overconcentration of salts as thru excessive

applications of fertilizer, of unbalanced composition and applied

at the wrong time.

The first appearance of leaf roll in Germany was on the variety

Magnum Bonum and was considered as an evidence of varietal

deterioration. It seems certain, however, that leaf roll is not

a result of "running out" of varieties thru old age, for many strains

originated recently are affected. Its occurrence in seedlings has

been observed by several workers. An interesting suggestion

is put forward by Hedlung that leaf roll is a pathological adapta-

tive mutation, and further, that since acquired characters are not '

inherited the leaf roll character must be latent in normal potatoes.

The introduction of new and more vigorous varieties affords

a hopeful means of ultimately controlling the situation.

Under the name "curly-dwarf" there is to be differentiated

from the leaf roll a peculiar disorder known in Germany as

" Krauselkrankheit." This is characterized by a dwarfed develop-

ment of the potato plant, accompanied by a pronounced curling

and wrinkling of the foliage, which has been compared with Scotch

Kale and with Savoy cabbage. The stem and its branches,

the leaf petioles and even the midribs and veins of the leaves all

tend to be shortened in many cases to a very marked extent, par-

ticularly in the upper nodes of the plant, so that the foliage is

thickly clustered. The diminished growth of the leaf veins, in

proportion to the parenchyma, results in a bullate, wrinkled leaf,

often strongly curled downward. There seems also to be a tend-

ency to form more secondary branches than normal, and as these

orton: pathology of solanum tuberosum 189

remain short and with curly leaves, the compactness of the plants

is more striking.

The color of the fohage in curly-dwarf is typically normal

green. The tuber yield is greatly curtailed. Severe cases have

no tubers. In others, a few small potatoes are formed. The

hereditary nature of the trouble is attested by the German authori-

ties and has been observed by the writer.

In the United States curly-dwarf plays a larger role in the

deterioration of our potatoes than in Europe. It must be re-

garded as a physiological disorder, which crops out in previously

healthy stocks, under conditions not yet known to us. Once

developed, it is apparently not possible to restore the vigor of the

affected hills.

Examination of a variety or seedling collection shows that

there are all grades of the condition above described from pro-

nounced types of curlj-dwarf to those approaching normal vigor.

It will furthermore be apparent that this is a difference inherent

in the varieties or strain under observation.

Both leaf roll and Qurly dwarf develop suddenly from hitherto

health}^ stocks and both are transmitted by planting tubers from

diseased plants. That whole districts should be affected as in

Westphalia in 1907 and in Colorado in 1911 indicates a physiologi-

cal deterioration due to environmental relations, unless a parasite

should be demonstrated, which has not yet been done.

The climatic charts presented show that there is a great defi-

ciency of moisture in Germany and Colorado in comparison with

Chili. Is it possible that under these conditions varieties of

potatoes may lose their vigor and undergo physiological changes

comparable with those already noted for southern grown seed?

That the leaf roll disease is being brought under control in

Germany by the use of healthy seed potatoes from outside the

affected districts supports these hypotheses and lends still more

strength to the argument for potato breeding for a higher degree

of climatic adaptation.

Altho nothing like the present outbreak of leaf roll has occurred

during the last forty years, an examination of old literature

shows that about 1770 and in subsequent years there were epi-

190 cook: web-spinntng fly larvae

demies of "leaf curl" and " Krauselkrankheit" in England and

Germany respectively, the description of which are much like

the troubles of today.^ Are our potato varieties passing thru an-

other period of decline in vigor?

ZOOLOGY. — Web-spinning fly larvae in Guatemalan caves.

0. F. Cook, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The limestone mountains of the Department of Alta Verapaz'

in eastern Guatemala, abound in caves, most of them as yet quite

unexplored. Ancient remains show that some of the caves were

used for burial places in prehistoric times, which may account

for the aversion of the present Indian population to entering this

underground world. Two caves on the Trece Aguas coffee estate

near Senahu were visited by the writer on March 30, 1906, to see

whether they contained millipeds or other cave-dwelling arthro-

pods.

In one of the caves, which was very dry, a few human teeth

were found with small circular mounds of earth where ancient

pottery vessels had crumbled, tho in some cases the rims remained.

The other cave, which was entered by crawling thru a low narrow

passage, partly filled with water, had also been used for burial

purposes and one of the chambers showed a few rude designs

traced in black, something after the manner of Mayan hiero-

glyphics. There were several large chambers, some of them with

lofty roofs and extensive deposits of stalactites and stalagmites.

The air was very damp owing to wet walls and dripping water.

It was in one of the inner chambers of this cave, probably at least

100 yards from the entrance, that curious fringelike webs were

noticed hanging from the roof. A sloping floor brought us up

close to the webs, and the light of an acetylene lamp rendered the

glistening threads very conspicuous against a background of

complete darkness.

The general plan of these webs is entirely unlike that of any

spider or other web-building arthropod of the. upper world, and

could be used only in caves or in very sheltered recesses of forests.

2 Cf. Thos. Dickson, Memoirs Caledonian Hort. Soc, March 6, 1810.

cook: web-spinning fly larvae

191

The only familiar objects to which the webs can be compared are

the rope signals that are hung near bridges and railroad tunnels

to avoid accidents to train crews. The

construction is simple but rather exten-

sive, the webs being usually over a foot

long and sometimes nearly 2 feet. Usu-

ally the same general direction is kept,

along the roof of the cave, but some-

times there is a simple curve and return.

The whole structure is supported from

the roof of the cave by a few perpendicu-

lar strands, rather irregularly spaced,

usually about 2 inches long, and often 2

or 3 inches apart. The ends of these

supports are connected by a horizontal

cable. Where the roof of the cave is un-

even the lengths of the supports are

varied, so as to maintain the horizontal

direction of the cable. The ends of the

cable are drawn up and attached to the

roof, and there is only a little sagging

between the supports. The remainder

of the web consists of a fringe of perpen-

dicular threads attached to the cable

above and with the lower ends hanging

free. The threads of this fringe are 2 or

3 inches long, and from about 1 mm. to

3 mm. apart. A diagram, kindly pre-

pared by Mr. W. E. Chambers of the

Bureau of Plant Industry, is shown in

figure 1, to illustrate the plan and ap-

pearance of the web. The drawing

shows a small section of the fringe with

a part of the horizontal cable and one

of the vertical supports.

The cable and its supports were very

slender and had the appearance of or-

Fig. 1. Diagram of web

of cave dwelling fly larva.

192 cook: web-spinning fly larvae

diiiary spider-webs, but the threads that formed the pendant

fringe were much thicker, perhaps 0.5 mm. in diameter, and ap-

peared as though filled or heavily coated with water. The thicken-

ing of the threads did not reach the junction with the cable, but

began about 5 mm. below, with great regularity.

The constiuction of such a web implies, of course, the possession

of a highly specialized spinning instinct. Indeed, without observ-

ing the operation it is not easy to understand how the webs are

built unless we suppose that at least the supporting framework

of the structure is first laid out on the ceiling of the cave, to be

dropped into the pendent position afterward, perhaps when the

heavy fringe is added. But even on this assumption the provi-

sion for keeping the cable horizontal by varying the lengths of the

supports would involve a high order of instinctive skill. The

stretching of the cable by carrying a thread along the wall would

not seem so difficult, but more talent would be required to carry

the supporting threads up to the ceiling from the cable or to let

them down from above to meet the cable.

\^Tien the pendent threads were gathered upon the finger they

formed a mass of slime, which shows that the material is very

unlike the silk of spiders. Yet the webs evidently serve the same

purpose of trapping insects. Several small insects were found em-

bedded in the shme, from which they could be squeezed out by

slight pressure. Mosquitoes and other soft-bodied forms, which

have the habit of seeking dark roosting-places, probably furnish

most of the victims, but one of the webs had caught a small beetle.

If an investigation of the insect life of the caves were to be under-

taken, these webs might afford considerable assistance in trapping

the small insects that flit along the roofs of the caverns.

The larvae which were evidently the builders of these curious

structures, were slender, transparent, vermiform creatures about

20 mm. long. They were found in all cases lying along the main

cable of the nest, on which they seemed to slide back and forth,

with considerable speed.

The attention of Mr. H. S. Barber, of the Bureau of Entomology

who visited Guatemala in the same season, was called to these

webs and he saw some of them in another cave near Trece Aguas.

cook: web-spinning fly larvae 193

At first he was inclined to believe that the spinning larvae might

belong to the family Tipulidae, but he now considers it more prob-

able that they are Mycetophilidae, as several other members

of this famih^ are known to spin webs or to live in web-like tubes

of slime. The larval characters of this group of flies are so little

known that a definite identification of the animals found in the

webs is at present out of the question. But as no webs of similar

construction seem to have been described, Mr. Barber has urged

me to publish my notes on the subject.

The specimen secured from a web by Mr. Barber was somewhat

larger and somewhat tinged with brown or black, instead of being

entirely transparent hke mine. Whether it represented a more

advanced stage or a different species could only be conjectured.

Mr. Barber also remembered that there were beads of moisture or

slime on the fringing threads of the web, whereas my impression

was that the threads or rods of slime were cylindrical and of con-

stant diameter up to near the cable, where they were suddenly

narrowed. Such differences might depend on the humidity of

the atmosphere to which the webs were exposed.

Nothing in the way of a specialized subterranean fauna was

found in the caves, unless it be the larvae that spin these webs,

and even these may not be confined to the caves. Other webs that

may have been made by the same kind of larvae were seen after-

ward in open recesses in the side of cliffs along the road between

Senahii and Sepacuite, tho not in condition to compare with

the much more perfect structures seen in the eaves.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the

genus Glomerella. C. L. Shear and Anna K. Wood. U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 252,

pp. 1-110, pis. 1-18, text figs. 4. Issued January 25, 1913.

This bulletin contains an account of investigations of fungous parasites

which produce the diseases commonly called "anthracnoses." Most

cultivated fruits and many other economic plants are frequently attacked

and seriously injured by fungi belonging to the genus Glomerella.

These fungi produce three distinct spore forms in the course of their

complete development — conidia, ascospores, and chlamydospores, or

appressoria. Until recently the two principal forms of fructification,

conidial and ascogenous, have been described and treated as separate

organisms, the genetic relationships not being known.

The conidial stage is most frequently found and has usually been

referred to one or the other of the form genera Gloeosporium and Colle-

totrichum. About 500 so-called species probably belonging to the coni-

dial stage of Glomerella have been described.

The genetic connection of the conidial and ascogenous stage of these

organisms was first definitely proven in cultures in 1898 by Atkinson in

the case of Glomerella (Gloeosporium) cingulata (Stonem.) S. & v. S. found

on privet (Ligustrum vulgare) , Since that date the life history of races,

strains, or species of the organism from several other host plants has been

recorded by various investigators as well as the present writers.

The life histories of forms from 36 different host plants are recorded

in this paper. In 17 cases they were developed in pure culture and in

the other 19 cases on the host plant, either in moist chamber or under

natural conditions. In 31 cases the connection between the conidial

and ascogenous stages was first reported by the writers.

194

abstracts: phytopathology 195

In most of the forms studied neither morphological nor physiological

conditions sufficient for the segregation of species have been found, but

three species are recognized from the 36 hosts. Glomerella cingulata

(Stonem.) S. & v.S. found on 34 hosts, the type on Ligustrum vulgare.

G. gossypii Edge, on one host, Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) and G.

lindemuthianum Shear on Phaseolus vulgaris (wax bean).

Glomerella cingulata is exceedingly variable in all its morphological

characters. The cause of this variability is not clear. No constant or

definite relation has been established between the environmental con-

ditions and the most important variations observed. The fungus is

found to be present in many cases on apparently normal healthy fohage

fruits, and sometimes stems, as shown by its development and fructifica-

tion on these plant parts after their surfaces have been thoroughly steri-

lized by washing with an antiseptic solution which has been shown to

kill not only ascospores and conidia, but also chlamydospores or appres-

soria of the fungus. Germ tubes appear to penetrate the epidermis and

then remain in a quiescent condition until circumstances favorable for

further development occur.

Inoculation experiments with fruits show that most of the forms from

different hosts will produce the characteristic bitter-rot or anthracnose

of fruits of other hosts. Practically the same degree of variability is

found in the virility of races or strains of the fungus from the same host

as from different hosts.

The production or non-production of the perithecial stage of Glo-

merella appears to be a fairly well-fixed hereditary race character.

The organisms of this genus have developed special features, the most

important of which are its method of infection by means of appressoria,

and its ability to live in a dormant or inactive condition in the tissues of

the host until some specially favorable conditions for its further develop-

ment occur. In many cases the fungus never develops further until the

infected part of the host dies. The fungus also develops in seeds of cotton

and bean especially and thus insures its passing the winter and reaching

the new crop.

It has been shown by experimenters that diseases af apples and citrus

fruits caused by this fungus can be satisfactorily controlled by spraying

with Bordeaux mixture, and it is probable that this method can be suc-

cessfully used in prevention of diseases of other plants caused by the same

fungus. The selection and breeding of resistant varieties may also prove

practical in some cases. ' C. L. S.

196 abstracts: medicine

ANTHROPOLOGY.— T'Ae distribution of animals and its bearing on

the peopling of America. Austin Hobart Clark. American

Anthropologist, 14: 23-30. 1912.

The land connections between North and South America, and Asia,

Africa and Australia, as deduced from a study of zoogeography, are indi-

cated, and the conclusion is stated that the connection between Alaska

and northeastern Asia persisted until after man inhabited that region

and therefore indicates the path by which the first men reached America.

The connection between Africa and the mid-American region was dis-

rupted so far as the zoological evidence shows, in the Cretaceous,

the connection between the Australian region and southern South Amer-

ica was broken at a later epoch, but still too early to have formed path

for human migration. A. H. C.

MEDICINE. — An ingenious method of causing death employed by the

Obeah men of the West Indies. Austin H. Clark. American An-

thropologist, 14: 572-574. 1912.

The West Indian Obeah man of the more advanced type has learned

that, on account of the high class of local medical practice, it is no longer

safe to employ the common mineral and vegetable poisons which in

former days served him so well. He has therefore devised a scheme of

infecting flies with streptococci and then liberating them in the houses

of his victims. Owing to the habits of the people, especially to their

sleeping naked but with the bed clothes (if they possess them) over their

heads, to guard against "jumbies" (the local species of ghost), infec-

tion is very easily brought about. A . H. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 82d meeting of the Washmgton Academy of Sciences was held at

the Cosmos Chib, Thursday evening, Januarj^ 30, 1913. Dr. Arthur

L. Day gave an account of Some observations on the volcano Kilauea in

action. The observations in question were made during the past sum-

mer in connection with a successful effort to collect, in the crater of an

active volcano, lava gases uncontaminatecl by the atmosphere.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 221st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on January 9, 1913.

The president . appointed committees as follows: Entertaijiment —

McKelvy (chairman), Crenshaw, Lathrop, Smither, and Bunzel, Com-

munications— Seidell (chairman), Emery (of Bureau of Chemistry),

Gore, Turrentine, and Schaller.

The following papers were read: L. A. Rogers, of the Bureau of

Animal Industry: Drying by the freezing method. This method, used

for drying organic materials of all kinds, consists essentially in drying

the frozen material over sulfuric acid in a vacuum dessicator. The

ice crystals evaporate directly leaving a very porous and dry powder.

Numerous samples were shown and the apparatus was described. The

author has used the method for preserving bacterial cultures in a very

concentrated and active form.

W. Salant and Clayton Smith, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Con-

cerning the pharmacological action of the tartrates. Read by Dr. Salant.

The wide differences in physiological action between optical isomers

has been observed for a number of compounds. Contrary to the results

of previous observers, the authors tlnd that laevo- and dextro-tartartic

acid are about equally active. The manner of introduction of the acid

makes a great difference in the effect. A carnivorous animal, such as

the cat, is much more resistant to the acid than the rabbit; the difference

is not explainable by oxidation alone.

J. A. LeClerc and J. F. Brezeale, of the Bureau of Chemistry:

The effect of lime upo7i the alkali tolerance of wheat seedlings. Wheat

seedlings were grown in sand, clay and solution cultures containing the

alkali salts sodium chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. Salts of cal-

cium, barium, sodium, potassium, etc. were added in small amounts to

197

198 proceedings: chemical society

these cultures. It was iound that the character of the medium did not

affect the results. The presence of a few parts per million of calcium

enabled the plants to overcome to a large extent the injurious effect of

the alkali, altho the plants absorbed as much alkali in the presence of

lime as they did in the control cultures. (Author's abstract.)

Discussion: Cameron questioned first whether the beneficial action

of clay might not have been due to absorption, second whether sodium

chloride found in the ash might not have been present in sap streams.

In reply to an inquiry by Sosman, LeClerc stated that petroleum coke

was the form of carbon used in the absorption experiments. C. C. Moore

inquired as to the bearing of these experiments on the toxic excreta

theory. Johnston suggested that the absorption of sodium chloride was

a chemical reaction in the case of clay, and a surface effect in the case of

carbon. Salant inquired concerning the effect of calcium salts alone,

and Cameron stated that calcium chloride was toxic in high concen-

tration.

H. C. Gore, of the Bureau of Chemistry: The estimation of tartaric

and malic acids by the use of uranium acetate and ammonium molyhdate.

The effect was shown of increasing amounts of uranyl acetate added to

solutions of free and neutralized malic and tartaric acids respectively.

Excessive amount of uranyl salt were found to cause depressions in the

very high optical rotations observed. In case of malic acid the depres-

sions were slight and the maximum activity could be restored by adding

optimum amounts of acetic acid; in case of tartaric acid the depres-

sions due to excess of uranyl salt were much larger and the readings were

only slightly increased by addition of acetic acid. Ammonium molyb-

date caused very large increases in specific rotatory power of the two

acids. In the case of malic acid the maximum polarizations were much

less for the neutralized than for the free acid; small additions of acetic

acid stimulated the polarizations very greatly, and in presence of suitable

amounts of acetic acid and ammonium molybdate the relation between

the malic acid present and the polarizations was found to be linear.

With tartaric acid the rotations shown when the free acid was treated

with ammonium molybdate were higher than when the neutralized

acid was used. The stimulating effect of acetic acid, while large, was

smaller than with malic acid. Conditions were not found under which

the relation between the polarizations and amounts of tartaric acid

present were linear, but the specific rotatory power increased with

increasing concentration. (Author's abstract.)

Discussion: Hillebrand suggested the use of the method inversely

for the rough estimation of uranium and molybdenum in ores.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

proceedings: geological society 199

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 264th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, January 22, 1913,

at which the following communications were presented:

A fall of volcanic ash at Juneau, Alaska in July, 1912: R. H. Chapman.

Parts of a letter from Benj. D. Stewart, dated July 28, 1912, were read,

giving a description of a fall of volcanic ash due to the eruption of Mount

Katmai.

A sectarian fro7n New Mexico: W. T. Lee.

The habitat of the Cambrian brachiopoda: Lancaster D. Burling.

A study of the Cambrian and Lower Ordovician, nearly 1200 localities,

represented in the United States National Museum shows: (1) that from

about 72 per cent of the localities brachiopods have been identified; (2)

that, dividing the sediments into three groups, shale, sandstone, and

limestone, 60 per cent of the genera and 85 per cent of the species have

been identified from but one type of sediment; and (3) that, after divid-

ing the localities into three groups, figures are obtained for each of the

groups, indicating that the number of species per locality is smaller in

shale than in sandstone and greatest in limestone. The accordance of

the results seems to justify the conclusion that habitat influenced not

only the nature but the number of species which are to be found in any

particular locality.

The relations of ilmenite to magnetite in titaniferous magnetite. (Illus-

trated): Joseph T. Singewald, Jr. Experiments that have been con-

ducted in the magnetic separation of merchantable iron ore from titani-

ferous magnetite have yielded varying result, but in all cases only a

partial elimination of titanium, and a study of the ores to show their

mode of combination was undertaken. The problem was easily 'solved

by the study of etched polished sections of the ores in reflected light.

Ilmenite is unaffected by hydrochloric acid; whereas, magnetite is

readily acted on, and etches to a dull black surface. On examining the

etched specimens it is at once apparent that they consist of granular

aggregates of ilmenite and magnetite. The magnetite grains are not

homogeneous but contain minute intergrowths of ilmenite. These inter-

growl^hs are in part irregularly disseminated through the magnetite and

in part regularly intergrown with definite crystallographic orientation.

Construction of a structure map of the northern anthracite field: N. H.

Darton. The map showing the structure of the northern anthracite

coal basin has been under construction for several years and is now nearly

ready for publication. It was prepared incidentally in connection with

a study of the origin of methane in coal, for the Bureau of Mines. The

northern anthracite basin was one of the areas selected and as one

branch of the inquiry was to ascertain the relation and the occurrence

of methane to the deformation of the beds the structure had to be plotted

in detail in various parts of the area. The data given on the large scale

mine maps, were utilized as far as practicable but in areas not reached by

mining the structure was determined from surface dips aided by num-

erous bore hole records. The horizon selected for contouring was the

lowest notable coal bed (Dunmore — Red Ash) and its configuration is

200 proceedings: anthropological society

represented by 100-foot contour lines with sea level datum. The con-

tours based on mine surveys in these lower beds are sho\^ai as full lines;

those constructed from workings in overlying beds are shown by broken

lines, while in areas not j^et worked, dotted lines are used. The struc-

ture is still further represented by 15 vertical sections which cross the

basin at frequent intervals.

Much attention was given to the extension of the different coal beds

and it is now practicable to correlate all the beds thruout the basin.

The investigation has incidentally disclosed structural details, showing

notable discordance in the forms of the flexed beds at different depths

and in harder and softer layers. It was necessary to make a very careful

study of the conditions under which variations of this character occur

in order to represent the probable position of important coal beds in

areas not yet worked. As such a representation becomes a prediction

and may affect plans for the future exploitation of coal, its occurance is a

matter of great economic importance especially in the deeper basins

where some of the coal lies nearly half a mile below the surface.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held March 6, 1913 in the National Museum, the President Mr. George

R. Stetson in the chair. Dr. Walter Hough read a paper on: Savage

mutilations for decoration. The paper was a short excursion into the

enormous field of custom with regard to ethnic mutilations, and sufficient

examples were given to lay the subject rather completely before the

society. In it were described the most striking forms of head shaping

by pressure in infancy; the various forms of teeth mutilations; ear, nose,

cheek and lip modifications and ornaments; pressure and mutilations

in the arms, waist and limbs, and modifications of the bones of the feet.

With mutilations also should be considered, perhaps, extraordinary hair

dressing and treatment of the finger nails.

Many slides were shown of tatooing, scarification and decoration of

the skin by means of dyes and pigments, and some of their multifarious

meanings given. On the whole, it was concluded that ethnic mutila-

tions originated from many concepts, the more important being a desire

for identification, in some cases individual, but in most cases tribal; a

desire for ornamentation, mainly individual in its treatment, but follow-

ing environmental and tribal fashions; and also very important mutila-

tions growing out of superstitions and religious ideas.

Many ethnic mutilations also relate to sex, puberty, social rank, honor

for warlike feats, and the like. All these ideas, which at times have

been advanced as the explanation of the causes, show that the matter is

extremely complex. The bearing of ethnic mutilations on primitive

surgery was also hinted at, as well as its effects on the development of

costume.

Dr. Williams and Dr. Swanton made certain inquiries and brief

remarks. The meeting then adjourned.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill APRIL 19, 1913 No. 8

ECONOMICS. — The function of research in the regulation of

natural monopolies.^ E. B. Rosa, Bureau of Standards.

The social and political unrest of the present day, which mani-

fested itself strikingly in the recent presidential campaign, is of

course due to more than one cause. Senator Root in a notable

speech recently delivered before the New York Chamber of Com-

merce, attributed this unrest in large measure to the mutual

distrust and mutual misunderstanding existing between the

leaders of the financial and industrial world on the one hand and

the great body of the American people on the other. To a large

audience of bankers, merchants, and captains of industry he said :

There are hundreds of thousands of people outside our great indus-

trial communities who think you are a den of thieves. There are hun-

dreds of thousands of people who think the bankers and manufacturers

are no better than a set of confidence men.

We have before us now great and serious questions regarding the

financial problems of the country, and this is what stands in the way of

their solution: It is that the men who understand the finances of the

country and the merchants engaged in great operations are under sus-

picion; great bodies of people will not accept what thej^ say about finance.

They will not accept what the experts say because they do not believe

their motives are honest On the other hand, what is

your attitude toward the people? There are many in this room tonight

who down deep in their hearts believe that great bodies of the American

people really want to destroy their business and confiscate their property.

Now, neither of these things is true; but one misunderstanding leads to

conduct which seems to justify another. ,

^ Address of the retiring president of the Philosophical Society of Washingtonf

delivered February 15, 1913.

201

202 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

Senator Root then went on to say that there is nothing more

important today than that by education and the spread of ideas

such misunderstanding shall be done awaj' with; that Americans

shall interpret the spirit of popular government so that each shall

be ready to do justice to the other, and every American shall

desire the prosperity and happiness of every other American.

But while there is great force in what Senator Root says, it

remains true that this social unrest springs in a measure from

causes which the government can remedy.- The part which the

govermnent must play in our complex ci^*ilization is constantly

increasing, and is immensely more important than in the simpler

ci^dhzation of a century ago. In the early days the individual

was much more independent, and each communit}^ was much less

dependent on other communities than now. Society was simple,

communication and commerce were Umited, and relatively few

laws sufficed. The twentieth century differs from the eighteenth

in many respects, but in none more strikingly than with regard to

the increasing complexity of business deahngs.

The regmlation and control of large corporations which have

virtually secured the monopoly of particular industries is now

recei\'ing the attention of many of our leading scholars and states-

men, and the solution of the problem will be a triumph for popular

government. The means that may be employed for this purpose

are not so restricted as the}' formerh' were. The public is becom-

ing educated rapidly, and the constitution has greater capacities

now than formerly.

State regulation of natural monopolies. '\Miile the federal gov-

ernment in the last few years has been striding to break up giant

aggregations of corporations into their constituent parts, with

the hope of getting these parts to compete with one another and

so put an end to an undesirable monopoly, some of the states

have been dealing in constructive fashion with another class of

monopolies, and .sho-^dng how they can be regulated and controlled

to the end of conser^dng the best interests both of the public

and of the stockliolders. I refer to that very large and important

- In other words, the people acting co-operatively thru their chosen representa-

tives can remedv.

rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 203

class of corporations known as public utility companies, chief

among which are the steam railways of the countn\ city and inter-

urban electric railwaj-s. gas and water companies, electric hght

and power companies, and the telephone and telegraph companies.

The federal government through the Interstate Commerce Com-

mission has of course taken a leading part in this development,

particularly -u-ith respect to the railways of the country, but the

work done by some of the state pubhc ser^^ice coromissions, promi-

nent among which are the commissions of ^Massachusetts, Wiscon-

sin, and Xew York, is of far-reaching influence and importance.

The attitude of the pubhc regarding public utihties has been

undergoing a profound change in recent years. Formerly a

franchise for a street railway or gas companj'. for example, was

usually granted \^-ithout compensation to the citj', with few, if

any obhgations on the company, with no control by the city over

prices or service, and with extensions of the ser\'ice into new terri-

tory optional viith. the Company. Competition was sometimes

sought by granting a francliise to more than one company, but

generally such competition, if any, made the ser^dce poorer to the

pubhc as well as the profits less to the stock holders. If the busi-

ness \\as profitable and the franchises valuable, city councils

would be corrupted, if necessary, to get what was wanted. And

if the dividends were large, as thej' often were when no standards

were set as to the quality of serAdee and no limit set as to price,

the capital would be sufficiently watered to keep down the diAi-

dends (capitahzing the value of the francliise. it was called).

Occasionally a city became so dissatisfied with its gas or water

or electric light company (either as to prices or ser\dce, or both)

that in despair it built a new works, and two plants were oper-

ated where one. if rightly managed, would have ser\-ed the pubhc

better.

Advantages of a monopoly. The change from this condition to

the present (at least in certain states) is nothing short of revolu-

tionark\ It is now coming to be recognized that competition

cannot regulate rates in pubhc utilities, and that one company

can generally give better and cheaper service than two. It is a

waste of capital and a disadvantage to a city to have two sets of

204 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

gas or water pipes in the ground, or two sets of telephone or ele-

tric hght wires and poles encumbering the streets. Having two

telephone companies in a city forces a large proportion of their

patrons to pay for both services; two street railway systems gen-

erally give less satisfactory service and fewer transfers than one

would do. In short, these utilities are natural monopolies, and

the highest efficiency and lowest rates are only possible when

each one has the entire business of a given city or territory. So

long as the right to regulate public service companies was denied,

the idea of granting monopoly privileges was repugnant, and hence

competition was encouraged with the hope of escaping the ill

effects of unregulated monopoly. But now that the right and

duty of regulating all public service corporations is admitted by

the companies themselves as well as by the courts, the ill effects

of monopoly maj^ be escaped and at the same time the beneficial

results of economy and efficiency may be realized. To understand

what effective regulation involves, we must consider the obliga-

tions imposed upon public utility companies, and the character

of the service rendered by each.

When a community grants an exclusive franchise for a term of

years or for an indefinite period to a corporation, with the right

to regulate the quality of the service it shall render and the prices

it may charge for such service, it undertakes a serious responsi-

bility. The interests of the public must be safeguarded, but at

the same time the interests of the company and its stockholder

must be respected. A public service commission, equipped with

a full knowledge of the technical, commercial and legal aspects

of the business, and endowed with a judicial spirit, will see that

the following duties are fulfilled by each public utility company

in its jurisdiction.

1. To perform any duties especially prescribed by law.

2. To serve all who request service and make nondiscrimina-

tions.

3. To provide safe and adequate service.

4. To charge just and reasonable rates.

ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 205

5. To fulfill its duties to its stockholders honestly and effi-

ciently.^

Regulation of a gas company. For example, a gas company

receives a franchise to manufacture and sell gas for light, heat

and power in a given city, for a term of years, the city perhaps

to have the right of purchasing the plant at the end of the fran-

chise period. The quality of gas and the character of the ser-

vice furnished, and the prices charged, are to be fixed by the pub-

lic service commission.

The commission must see that the company runs its mains into

all the streets of the city ; so as to give service to all, that uniform

rates are charged and no rebates are allowed to favored custom-

ers ; that service charges if made are reasonable ; that the gas is

of good quality, and as free from impurities as possible; that its

heating value and candle power are kept up to the standard

specified; that the methods of testing and the instruments em-

ployed are up to date and satisfactory, and the persons doing

the testing are competent; that the pressure of the gas is sufficient

and not too great and does not vary enough to be dangerous;

that gas appliances used are as safe as can be obtained, and con-

nected in an approved manner; that the mains are properly

located and properly protected from extremes of heat and cold ;

that the meters are kept in good order and tested from time to

time as to their accuracy; that the prices charged are as low as

possible, consistent with a reasonable dividend to the stockholders;

that the books are kept in an approved form, so that the state of

the business can readily be determined by the commission ; that

proper allowances are made for plant depreciation, or proper

sums expended for upkeep; that no new stock is sold without

approval by the commission, and that all dividends shall be from

actual earnings, but that if actual net earnings are more than

necessary to pay a reasonable dividend, the price of gas shall be

^ This of course supposes that the commission has been given the necessary au-

thority by the state legislature. Many of the public service commissions were

created as railroad commissions; and of these, s^me have had their functions

extended to cover only a part of the duties mentioned above.

206 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

reduced. This usually in^'olves an appraisal of the company's

property' to determine whether the capitaHzation is fair. From

time to time the specifications for the quality of the gas and the

methods of testing must be revised; the question may arise as to

what candlepower or heating value will give the best service under

prevailing conditions; new methods of manufacture, new apph-

ances and new uses for the gas will all bring up new questions;

and the commission must be prepared to consider and decide upon

all kinds of scientific, engineering and commercial problems as

thej^ arise in connection with the regulation of gas companies.

These duties are so many and so varied that one might suppose

that it would be impossible for a commission to accomplish them

all even for a single company, much less for all the gas companies

in a state. If it had never been done, it would indeed appear

doubtful. But these functions are being performed (at least in

large part) so successfully in a few states that many of the other

states are looking forward to doing it as soon as their commissions

are prepared for the work. The gain from such regulation is not

alone to the public, which pays for and uses the gas. The com-

pany is saved from unfair and hostile local legislation, which often

forces resort to the courts, always an expensive and often unsatis-

factory experience. The business is more stable, customers are

better served and better satisfied, the credit of the company is

often improved, new stock sells more readily and at higher prices,

as the public knows the condition of the business and there is

less risk to the investor. Stock manipulation is prevented, and

those who profit by that process are the only ones to suffer.

Regulation of an electric light company. Similar duties devolve

upon a public service commission with regard to other utilities.

Electric light companies are regulated with respect to their sche-

dule of rates ; discriminations which are so frequent under ordi-

nary circumstances must be prevented; wires, whether overhead

or underground, must be run in such manner as to reduce the

danger to the public; high potential wires must be especially

guarded to keep them from telephone and other low potential

wires; alternating current transformers must be grounded on the

secondary side, and the grounds must be made according to

ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 207

approved specifications; the steadiness of electric potential and

uniformity thruout a given city must be satisfactory; proper

precautions must be taken to safeguard the hves of the hnemen

and other employees of the company; the meters must be fre-

quently tested and provision made for extra tests on complaint;

portable and station instruments must be tested; lamp renewals

must be regulated and prices approved for other than free renewals,

and rules and regulations made (in the absence of local rules)

with respect to streets lights.

Regulation of other utilities. Street railways and intwurban

electric railwaj^s must be regulated wdth respect to kind and qual-

ity of cars ; the speed of cars and car schedules ; kind of brakes,

headlights, doors, and other safety appliances; the method of car

heating and amount of heating required ; the method of car light- '

ing and the quality and amount of light that must be supplied;

how the current is distributed from the sub-stations to the cars

and the variations in voltage permitted between sub-station and

cars ; how the railway current is returned from the cars to the sub-

stations, in order that the resulting electrolysis may do the

minimum of injury to gas and water pipes, lead sheathed cables

and other underground structures ; the repairs and upkeep of road-

way and rolling stock; the fares to be charged and the conditions

under which free transfers are issued ; the wages paid employees

and hours of labor; . the conditions under which new stock

may be issued ; approval of plans for extensions or alterations of

system; etc.

Telephone companies must be regulated with respect to

method of running their wires, so as to give the best and most

reliable service possible under given circumstances; when and

where wires must be put underground; the precautions to guard

overhead wires against coming into contact with high potential

electric light or power wires ; when and under what circumstances

telephone and high potential electric wares may be put on the

same poles ; the rates to be charged for different classes of service,

both local and long distance; the service arrangements between

different companies, the restrictions imposed by telephone com-

panies respecting private exchanges and extensions; discrimina-

208 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

tions by a powerful company against smaller independent com-

panies, etc.

Both the Interstate Commerce Commission and the state com-

missions deal with problems arising in connection with the regula-

tion of the railroads, and these problems are numerous and of

great importance. The first class of problems is connected with

the fixing of freight and passenger tariffs, and discriminations in

rates as between one locality and another or between one shipper

and another. The second class of problems has to do with the

operation of the road, with the safety and the adequacy of the

service. This includes the question of the character of the road-

bed and rails, the kind and quality of the engines and cars, the

brakes and signalling apparatus, the kind of headlights and the

" candlepower and distribution of the light from the same ; the heat-

ing, lighting, and ventilation of cars; the investigation of accidents,

the weighing of freight and the testing of the scales, includ-

ing the scales on which empty and loaded cars are weighed.

These and many other questions may come before both state and

federal commissions, but not all of them have been fully considered

as yet bj^ either. Similar duties pertain also to other utilities

that are essentially monopolies, as telegraph companies, express

comjianies, sleeping car companies, water supply companies,

local express, transfer, and cab companies. Insofar as these utili-

ties carry on an interstate business, they .are also dealt with by

the federal interstate commerce commission.

Co-operation necessary in regulation. It appears from the above

formidable, altho incomplete, list of duties devolving upon a state

public utility commission that to fully measure up to its respon-

sibilities would require a considerable staff of engineers, account-

ants, and scientific assistants, besides its- traveling inspectors

and administrative officers. To decide many of the questions

arising requires more technical knowledge than the experts either

of the commission or the utility companies possess. Indeed,

many of the questions can only be answered by extended re-

searches carried out by scientists, engineers or statisticians, work-

ing with the best of facilities. The interests at stake are in the

aggregate so great that such researches ought to be made, and yet

kosa: regulation of natural monopolies 209

the cost would be too great for every state to do the work inde-

pendently, or even for the richest of the states to undertake it

alone. ^ The best way in which the work can be well done and kept

up to date is for all the states to co-operate, and for the federal

government to assist and coordinate the work. This is being

done to some extent already, altho comparatively few of the states

as yet have commissions that are handling public utilities gen-

erally, and hence the work is only fairly begun. On the part of

the federal government, the Interstate Commerce Commission

and the Bureau of Standards are co-operating with the state com-.

missions, the latter with regard to standards and engineering

questions which fall within its province. Some of these questions

may be mentioned briefly.

Instruments and standards. The instruments and standards

employed in the measurement of heat, light, and electrical power,

have been the subject of much study and investigation at the

Bureau of Standards. The thermometers and pyrometers of

various kinds employed in temperature measurements, and calorim-

eters of different types for use in measuring the heat of combus-

tion of gases and solids, are calibrated and certified by the Bureau

and standard' samples of certified calorific value are furnished, so

that the testing apparatus of public service commissions, public

utility companies, and consulting engineers will agree (or special

tests be made if they disagree) and causes for dispute are thereby

removed. The methods of testing with such apparatus have been

studied by the Bureau, and sources of error in apparatus and

methods determined. As manufacturing methods are developed

and refinements in works control are introduced, greater accuracy

■* Extract from Prof. R. T. Ely, in his Outlines of Economics, 1908: "The tasks

which ^confront such commissions are stupendous, and the expense of conducting

their work, when it is properly conducted, is enormous On the whole

however, it is fortunate that the public have resolved to give this method of

reform a thoro trial. It seems to be the next logical step in the evolution of natural

monopoly, and does not appear to be attended with any grave danger. If it

fails it will at least have trained up a corps of public servants thoroly familiar with

the operation of public utility enterprises, and will at the same time have thoroly

convinced the people that there is no other alternative but public ownership and

operation." This was written five years ago, and much progress has been made

since then.

210 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

in testing is required, and it is a great advantage to the industries

to have uniform and rehable instruments, standards and methods.

The same may be said respecting the measurement of hght and

illumination. The candlepower of a gas flame depends upon

the quality of the gas, the kind of burner used, the height of the

barometer, the amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and the

degree of purity of the air in which it burns; hence, if the quality

of the gas is to be determined (in part) by the candlepower given,

it is necessary that the test be made under very definite condi-

tions. The Bureau has done considerable work on flame stand-

ards employed in gas testing, but much remains to be done in this

respect. Photometric standards are supplied by the Bureau for

use in testing electric lamps of various kinds and colors, and gas

standards are calibrated and certified. Thus, uniformity of

value in light measurement is secured for the whole country, and

indeed by means of international comparisons made by the Bureau

for the whole world, the international candle being the name of

the unit of light universally employed in this country. Calibra-

tions are also made of photometers and auxiliary apparatus.

Similar uniformity, together with a much higher degree of pre-

cision, have been attained in electrical measurements. Electrical

energy is sold by the kilowatt hour or the kilowatt year (or a com-

bination of the two) and a large amount of testing is done by the

companies and commissions to insure accurate measurement of

the energy delivered. Here again uniformity and accuracy are

promoted by having a national laboratory for calibrating and

certifying standards and instruments, and settling such disputes

as may arise from disagreeing measurements. A large amount of

work has been done by the Bureau to secure and maintain accur-

ate standards and instruments, but much remains to be done,

particularly with reference to the specifications of instruments and

apparatus and the improvement of methods of measurement and

testing.

In addition to its work on instruments and standards, the

Bureau has carried out other investigations which have a bearing

on the work of the public service commissions. One of these is

concerned with the specifications of illuminating gas, and the

methods of testing to be employed in controlling its quality.

rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 211

Technical specifications for gas companies. Among public

service utilities, none has been for so long a time and in so great

detail subject to legal requirements and restrictions as the gas

business. Such regulation is of course intended to insure good

service. Many elements go to determine good or poor service,

the principal of which (chemical purity, heating value, candle-

power, and condition as to pressure of the gas) are enumerated

and defined more or less completely in many of the gas ordinances

now in force, together with the tests that shall be made and the

penalties for failure to meet the requirements. These ordinances

are sometimes, therefore, very technical and contain detailed

specifications. In other cases the specifications are very meager.

In some cases old ordinances long since out of date, so far as their

technical specifications are concerned, are still in use; in other

cases, old ordinances have been extensively amended; in still

other cases entirely new ordinances have superseded old ones;

in many cases no regulatory ordinances have ever been adopted.

In some states possessing state commissions, the requirements

have been fixed by the commissions. But in most states (and in

all until recently) regulatory ordinances have been prepared and

passed by state legislatures or city councils. The process of

adopting such an ordinance is often long and painful. Suspicion,

antagonism, and often political considerations combine to make

the negotiations difficult, and sometimes it amounts to a long

drawn battle. The representatives of the city endeavor to get

all they can for the public, the company yields as little as possible.

The result is generally unsatisfactory to both. Because the stand-

ard of performance demanded of gas companies in different cities

and states was so different, and because so much difference of

opinion existed among experts as to what could fairly be required

of a gas company under given conditions, the Bureau of Standards

took up about three years ago a careful study of the subject of

state and municipal regulations of the quality, purity, and pres-

sure of illuminating gas supplied by gas companies.

Investigation concerning regulation of gas companies. A com-

pilation of all the state laws and city ordinances in force in the

country was first made, and their technical requirements tabu-

212 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

lated. A detailed study was then undertaken of the various

features of such laws, and an attempt made to formulate a model

law that should contain reasonable standards of quality, purity,

and pressure, and a reasonable set of operating requirements.

In this study, a large number of the best informed gas experts in

the country were consulted, and many gas plants visited. In this

work the Bureau has been assisted by the responsible officers and

members of the technical staffs of gas companies, and by members

of public service commissions, gas inspectors, and consulting

engineers. The Bureau has endeavored to consider all sides of

the various questions involved, and has of course received very

conflicting opinions on some questions. It has been a source of

great gratification to those conducting this investigation to see

the fairness and broad minded spirit shown generally by represen-

tatives of the gas companies in discussing questions that affected

them so vitally. They have met a spirit of fair play by a corres-

ponding willingness to reach just conclusions.

The results of this investigation were published by the Bureau

of Standards, and the paper has had a wide circulation and careful

study by those most interested in the subjects treated. Since

its publication, the Bureau has continued to study the subject,

and is now preparing a revision of the first edition. The com-

pilation of laws and ordinances will be revised and some impor-

tant changes will be made in the model ordinance proposed.

These changes are, however, being discussed very fully before

publication, both with representatives of the public service com-

missions and of the gas companies, the latter including a special

committee of the American Gas Institute.

The position of the Bureau in this matter, as in so many others,

is advisory. It has no authority to enforce its conclusions and

no disposition to suggest federal legislation or regulation. It

acts as an unbiased co-ordinating agency, to formulate the results

of its own and other's investigations and to give expression to the

concensus of opinion of those best qualified to express opinions on

technical questions of great practical importance.

A second investigation (already alluded to) is in progress on

the methods and instruments employed in testing gas for its

ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 213

heating value, its candlepower, and its chemical purity, as well as

in testing meters and measuring gas pressures. This will be

embodied in a separate publication which will be frequently-

revised and kept up to date, in order to be as useful as possible

to gas inspectors and engineers in determining whether gas

meets the specifications under which it is sold.

A third investigation scarcely begun, but which is much needed

and deserves extensive study, is on the safety and efficiency

of gas appliances. Too many fatal accidents result from defec-

tive gas appliances, and the contamination of the atmosphere

thru imperfect combustion due to defective appliances is a serious

matter, even when no fatalities result. This is a question in

which co-operation of all the interests concerned cannot fail to

yield important results.

Investigations of electrolysis. Another important investiga-

tion carried out by the Bureau of Standards which also concerns

public utility companies is the damage by electrolysis produced by

street railway currents flowing thru the earth, upon gas and water

pipes, lead covered cables belonging to telephone, telegraph, and

electric light companies, and the reinforced concrete foundations

of buildings and bridges. Such insulated double conductor

systems as those of New York, Washington, and Cincinnati

provide for the return of the current to the power houses without

flowing thru the earth, but most cities use the single overhead

trolley, and permit the current to return in part thru gas and

water pipes and other underground conductors. Where the

current leaves such metal conductors, the latter are corroded

electrolytically, and in some cases holes eaten thru, thereby

interfering with the service and involving expensive repairs.

Many remedies have been proposed, but as yet comparatively

little has been done to cure the evil. The Bureau undertook a

thoro study of the question for the purpose of testing some of the

proposed remedies and arriving at a solution of the difficulty,

if possible, that could be applied generally. This investigation

is not yet completed, but already vd,luable results have been

reached and it is hoped that shortly information will be made

available for the use of the street railways that will permit them

214 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

greatly to reduce the volume of the currents flowing thru the earth

without unreasonable expense, and that will enable the public

service commissions to deal more intelligently with the question.

The problem is becoming each year more acute since the volume

of electric current used is each year increasing as the traffic

increases, and the damage produced is therefore increasing at an

increasing rate. Many law suits have arisen because of this

damage, and such litigation is expensive because of the large

amount of conflicting expert testimony adduced and the long time

consumed in the trials. Money expended intelligently in solv-

ing the problem generally yields better returns than money spent

in litigation.

In England and some continental countries, there have been

rules on this subject which have served as a guide to the electric

railways in building their roadways, and hence, they have been

saved very largely from the evil effects of electrolysis, altho at

a somewhat increased first cost. In this country, the subject

was neglected for years. In the absence of public service com-

missions or similar bodies to establish regulations, and no govern-

ment agency to take the lead in the investigation, the matter has

been entirely neglected in many cases until the serious damage

resulting has made the question a very acute one.

Life hazard in electrical work. Another question affecting pub-

lic utility companies is the life hazard in electrical work. There

are altogether too many preventable fatalities due to high poten-

tial electrical circuits not only to employees of the electrical com-

panies but also to the public. In many cases such accidents could

have been avoided if the companies had taken greater precau-

tions, either by instructing their employees more carefully, or

providing them with rubber gloves and other protective devices,

or having repairs made only on dead lines, or using more substan-

tial and more expensive construction, or running the high poten-

tial transmission lines on private rights of way instead of on the

highway, or keeping the dangerous wires away from telephone

wires and on separate pole lines, or taking still other precautions

which experience shows are necessary. The long distance trans-

mission of power is being resorted to more and more, and higher

rosa: regulation op natural monopolies 215

voltages are being used than a few years ago would have been

thought possible. One thousand volts is a dangerous voltage,

but transmission at fifty to a hundred thousand volts is becoming

common. As water power is utilized more and more, the country

will finally be covered with a net work of high potential transmis-

sion and distribution lines, and it is a matter of vital concern that

all reasonable precautions be taken in the construction and opera-

tion of such lines. So long as public utilities were regarded as

private business and a company was free to make as much money

as possible and invest as little as possible in its plant, the tendency

was to economize unduly with respect to protective devices, and

any construction that was more expensive than the mechanical

or electrical requirements demanded, was avoided. But when we

regard railroads, electric light and power companies, and tele-

phone and telegraph companies not only as public utilities, but

as quasi-public institutions, and permit them to charge enough to

make a good profit, but to make the rates as low as good service

permits, then it is seen that the pubhc pays for the cost of pro-

tection, and it is entitled to require that every reasonable pre-

caution be taken to safeguard human life. This latter is the

view which is now becoming general, and the public service com-

missions are therefore greatly interested in making rules and

regulations worked out in such a way as to be capable of enforce-

ment upon the electrical companies. On the other hand, the

electrical companies themselves are anxious for such information.

It is not necessary to make original investigations in every case;

it is often a question of collecting and digesting the information

already in existence, and with the co-operation of numerous

agencies which stand ready to assist, work out a body of rules and

regulations that will be as useful as possible. Congress has re-

cently made a special appropriation to permit the Bureau to

undertake such a study of the life hazard in electrical work, and

it is hoped that valuable results may be accompUshed.

Railroad scales. Another investigation of great practical

importance, in which the Interstate Commerce Commission and

the Bureau of Standards are co-operating, is the investigation of

the accuracy of railroad scales, especially car scales, for weighing

216 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

freight. Freights to the amount of two thousand milhons of

dollars are annually collected by the railroads on weighings made

with scales, most of which are seldom tested and, except in three

western states, never officially inspected. Numerous disputes

and complaints could be avoided if the scales were officially tested

and certified, and if provision were made for retesting on com-

plaint. Certainly, it is as important to test large scales as small

ones, and the cost of doing so is trifling in comparison with the

enormous interests at stake.

Locomotive headlights. Another subject with which some of

the state commissions have dealt is the kind of headlights used on

locomotives, their candlepower and reliability. In some states

legislation has been enacted requiring a particular kind of head-

light. It has been charged that such legislation in some cases

has been inspired by commercial interests. In one state the com-

mission issued a rule requiring a certain candlepower but not

specifying how it was to be measured or exactly what was meant.

The railroads, contending that the order was ambiguous, impos-

sible to comply with by one interpretation and undesirable by

another interpretation, appealed to the courts. After a lengthy

and expensive litigation, the order of the commission was set aside.

This case is cited to illustrate the need of full technical informa-

tion by state commissions before issuing mandatory orders,

and also the hardship to railroads or other public utility compan-

ies to be obliged to contest in the courts orders that work a hard-

ship and which would not have been issued if full information

had been at hand. There is great need of further investigation

of the subject of headlights for use on steam and electric railways,

to determine the best service that different types are capable

of giving, and to formulate rules that could be enforced by the

commissions. Some railroads economize unduly on the mainte-

nance of headlights; in the interest of safety to the public, wise

regulations should be in effect.

Car lighting. The lighting of cars (both steam and electric)

is another practical matter that has not received the attention

that it deserves. Most people read more or less on trains and

street cars, and with many who ride a long distance to and from

ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 217

business, this is their best time for reading. As a rule, however,

the Hghting of cars is insufficient and the arrangement of fights is

often atrocious from the point of view both of the passengers who

are not reading and those who are. Eye sight is too precious a

possession and too easily injured to justify the continuance of

poor lighting of cars. Better light is required than would be

necessary if the cars were not moving. The problem is different

on electric cars from what it is on steam cars, because in the former

the current for lights comes from the same circuit that supplies

the motors, and hence great variations occur due to the fluctuat-

ing voltage on the trolley wire. To secure better lighting (1) a

steadier voltage should be available, (2) better lamps should be

used than are generally seen in electric cars, (3) a greater quantity

of light should be available, and (4) the lamps should be so shaded

and so located as to keep the glare out of the eyes of the passenger,

and yet give good illumination for reading. The immense im-

portance of this subject can only be realized when one considers

the millions of people who daily spend a considerable time in

steam or electric cars, and how much better the service would be

if the cars were pleasantly and sufficiently lighted. The public

service commissions have it in their power to effect an immense

improvement in this respect, but first a thoro investigation should

be made, with the co-operation of the railroads, to show what

are the best methods to follow, and what it is practicable to ac-

complish with present resources.

Heating and ventilation of cars. Another question of great

practical importance is the heating and ventilation of cars, includ-

ing Pullman sleeping cars. Any person who has sweltered in an

overheated, unventilated lower berth of a sleeping car (and who

has not), will allow that there is great room for improvement.

Surely the resources of American invention have not been exhaus-

ted in this direction, nor, indeed, with respect to heating and

ventilation of day coaches. It is one of the functions of public

service commissions to see that the health and comfort of the

public are kept in view by the utifity companies, and if it can be

made clear what should be done in this respect, the way to reform

is open.

218 kosa: regulation of natural monopolies

Railway accidents. Another line of work which deserves an

immense amount of investigation and study, and co-operation

between the states and the federal government, is the prevention

of railway accidents. Much has been done and is now being

done, both by federal and state agencies, and by the railway

companies; but far greater sums of money might well be expended

by the states and the federal government in a systematic investi-

gation of all phases of this question. It is nothing short of a

national disgrace that American railways should kill and injure

so many more people than do the railways of European countries,

even where the speeds are as high and the passenger traffic as

heavy. Life is too cheap with us, and the penalty for disasters

too shght. The causes of these accidents are partly physical

and partly psychological; no doubt greater attention given to the

subject of how to prevent both kinds of accidents would be abun-

dantly rewarded.^.

Other subjects deserving research could be named that fall

within the province of the public service commission, but enough

has been said to show how important are their functions apart

from the duty of fixing rates and preventing discrimination.

These illustrations show how much better it is for the public as

well as the companies that the commissions regulate by co-operat-

ing with and assisting the companies instead merely of dictating

to them what they shall do or shall not do; that the scientist, the

engineer, and the statistician are more useful to them in their

work than the lawyer;, that the bar of public opinion is more

effective than the courts in enforcing their decrees. Many of

these utilities are operated by big corporations, owning scores of

plants in many states; in the case of the telephone and telegraph,

* A recent writer states that 19,377 more persons were injured on railroads in

the United States in 1912 than in 1911, and commenting on the slight amount of

scientific information that has been collected regarding the causes of accidents,

he adds:

"The railroads of this country carry so many passengers and so much freight

that in one year they are able to charge three billion dollars for the service. And

yet it is admitted that no accurate engineering data showing the actual stresses

which are set up in railway structures by locomotives and cars of different weights

and moving at different speeds has ever been gathered."

ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES 219

they are gigantic systems operating over the whole country.

It is therefore important that the rules and regulations in the differ-

ent states shall be as nearly uniform as possible. Hence, in order

to reach wise and just conclusions, and to secure uniformity, it is

important that the states co-operate with one another, and the

federal government can serve as a valuable aid and co-ordinating

force in this co-operation.

The results that are being attained in this way are only begin-

ning to be realized. They will be of invaluable benefit, not only

to the public served, but to the companies themselves, and to the

cause of good government. With the utihty companies under

the control of business-like state commissions, the business is

better managed,^ discriminations in rates are eliminated,' the

utilities are taken out of local politics, and the possibility of pure

municipal government in America is enormously enhanced.^

* B. H. Meyer, speaking on the Wisconsin Public Utilities Commission, at the

Pittsburgh Meeting (1908) of the National Municipal League, said:

"The utility law is working a revolution in business management

Many of the utility companies have not been operated on a business basis; in fact,

it is probable that a good many of the managements did not have the remotest idea

as to the exact standing, from a business point of view, of the plant, they were

operating. Uniform accounting and rules governing the service and the regula-

tion of ratio, compel the adoption of business and scientific methods. This is

resulting in nothing short of a revolution in management."

^ The whole state of Wisconsin was literally streaked and plastered with dis-

crimination in the rates of utilities, and in all the rest of the country, where the

extent of the discriminations have not yet been determined, as they have been in

Wisconsin, it is quite probable that discriminations similar in character and extent

likewise exist."

* Governor McGovern has this to say regarding the utilities and politics in Wis-

consin:

"Times were in Wisconsin when the railroads ran or tried to run the government

of the state, and the minor utilities sought to boss the cities, towns and even vil-

lages. They contributed liberally to campaign funds, urged their supporters and

lobbyists to become candidates for public office, and in close election districts colon-

ized voters in the old conventional way. Now, one and all, they are in this sense

absolutely out of politics. There is, indeed, no reason now why public service

corporations in Wisconsin should wish to dabble in public affairs. Their relations

to the people of the state have been definitely and finally determined. They no

longer have ansrthing to gain or lose by intermeddling in politics, and apparently

they have decided to retire for good. What the elimination of public service cor-

porations from participation in political campaigns signified in the purification of

public life, no one here needs to be reminded."

220 ROSA: REGULATION OF NATURAL MONOPOLIES

One of the best results of the method of regulation by public

service commissions is the publicity it secures of the affairs of the

company and the confidence it establishes in the public mind in

the various utility companies. The suspicion and distrust which

Senator Root emphasized so strongly in his New York address is

everywhere felt toward these companies when their affairs are

kept secret, and especially when the service is poor and the divi-

dends good. Controversies arise which sometimes degenerate

into bitter and partisan feuds. Who can feel kindly toward the

maDagement of a street railway company if he is usually com-

pelled to ride as a strap hanger, or toward a gas company if the

rates are excessive or he believes that his meter races, or toward

any company that appears to regard its franchise as the deed to a

private monopoly. If the service is improved or the rates re-

duced as the business grows more prosperous, the people as well

as the stockliolders derive benefits from success. The pubhc

soon realizes that utilities so conducted are in effect partnerships

between the public and the stockholders, and are willing that the

latter receive increased dividends with increased prosperity if

the public is permitted to share the fruits of success. The slid-

ing scale of prices for gas is a successful example of this system,

but it is also realized in many cases where a sliding scale of prices

has not been fixed in advance. The regulation of prices by a

commission gives in effect a sliding scale, by which either the price

goes down or the quality of the service goes up, as the success of

the business justifies it. For want of a Public Service Com-

mission in the District of Columbia, the Interstate Commerce

Commission has recently been exercising the functions of such a

commission with respect to the street railways, and with good

effect. There is great need of a full fledged Public Service Com-

mission in the District, and it is hoped that Congress in its wisdom

will respond to public sentiment and establish such a commission.

How infinately better is this method of regulation than the

building of publicly owned utilities to compete with private plants

already in existence. For a state or city to say that it is impotent

to regulate a public utility is a confession of weakness; but there

is far greater difficulty in city control than in regulation by state

commissions. Except, perhaps, in the largest cities, it seems

rosa: regulation of natural monopolies 221

much better to have strong state commissions, well equipped with

technical assistants, than to have separate commissions for each

city. And with the co-operation of other states and the federal

government, any state commission can establish its work with

only a fraction of the effort and expense required by those states

that have pioneered the movement.^

Turning now to the great industrial and financial corporations

popularly called trusts, the question suggests itself whether it is

possible for the government to regulate them in a manner similar

to the regulation of the natural monopolies we have been discuss-

ing, so that full publicity may be secured, the rights of the public

may be conserved, and at the same time the rank and file of the

stockholders will be protected from the vultures that often hover

over the executive offices of such concerns. One cannot say that

it will be done as easily, but it is coming to be believed that the

general method adopted in the regulation of public utilities is the

right one, namely, less dependence on law and the courts, and more

dependence on engineers, statisticians and business experts; that

the government should prescribe affirmative duties for the giant

corporations, and not merely negative ones; that a constructive

policy that would benefit both the business concerns and the pub-

lic they serve should be sought, rather than a retrograde policy

that is no benefit to the business and does no good to the public.

If such regulation could be realized, and consolidations and

promotions in business could be limited to such as would benefit

both the public and the stockholders, and not merely big finan-

ciers and promoters, it would be a notable achievement in our

political as well as economic history. It would assist mightily

in the peaceful settlement of industrial disputes and in the bring-

ing of a better understanding between capital and labor.

It is just as reasonable to expect the government to perform

this function of regulation of monopolies as to expect it to adjust

international disputes by arbitration rather than by war. It

is not socialistic, but rather the reverse, for it is the alternative of

state ownership. In Germany the cities are great Imsiness

3 Writing in 1908, Professor Ely said: "States having commissions empowered to

enforce uniform accounting will constitute great economic laboratories in this

connection during the next quarter of a century."

222 rosa: regulation of natural monopolies

concerns operated by business men for the benefit of the people,

and as such they are models for the whole world. They own and

operate most of the public utilities themselves, and do it well,

and hence the necessity of public regulation is there less felt

altho it has been practiced for many years. But in this country,

municipal ownership has been less successful, except in the case

of municipal water supplies.

There have been three stages in the modern history of natural

monopolies. In the first they went unregulated, being operated

for the profit of the owners and exploited for the benefit of finan-

ciers. In the second stage, regulation was by legislation and law

suit. In the third, regulation is by commission; the regulation

is more complete, as well as more intelligent, and co-operation

and publicity are the keynotes of the method.

The large industrial corporations which have virtual monopo-

lies, are mainly in the first stage, altho some are in the second.

Whether they will finally come to the third stage, and be regu-

lated by the methods now apphed so successfully to natural

monopolies, remains for the future to determine.

If state regulation of natural monopolies becomes as general

within a few years as it promises to be, and if it is as successful

generally as it has been in the few states which took it up first,

it will solve the problem of public utilities and largely solve the

problem also of good municipal government.

The signal success of the Wisconsin Commission was largely

due to the influence of the University of Wisconsin. In its per-

sonnel and methods it was a scientific commission, and entered

into its work with the spirit of the investigator. Its spirit and

its methods have been adopted by some of the other state com-

missions, of which a larger number have been created recently and

are now taking up their work.

If the administrative officers of the commissions are assisted

by scientists, engineers, and economists, and the work is

done in a judicial spirit, as new problems being taken up as a

scientific research would be, the states and federal government

"acting in full co-operation, with the experience of each available

to all; if the work is done in that way we may be certain that

success will be sure and permanent.

WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 223

MINERALOGY. The determination of the order of agreement

between observation and theory in mineral analyses.^ Fred. E.

Wright, Geophysical Laboratory, and C. E. Van Orstrand,

Geological Survey.

In a recent number of this Journal, ^ Dr. W. T. Schaller

published an interesting note on ''The Calculation of Mineral

Formulas" in which he showed that the ordinary method of cal-

culation— by first reducing the weight percentages of an analysis

to mol numbers* and then dividing these by one of the mol num-

bers thus obtained — furnishes results whose degree of approxima-

tion to whole numbers is less than that of the values derived by a

new method of calculation which he described. In view of the

fact, however, that certain details of his method are open to criti-

cism, it has seemed appropriate to the present writers to consider

the principles underlying the subject, and to determine if possible

the most logical basis and method for comparison. From

Schaller's paper, the mineralogist or chemist may perhaps be led

to infer (1) that the ordinary methods of calculation furnish

only a rough measure of the degree of approximation of a chemical

analysis of a mineral or chemical compound to the values derived

from its chemical formula; and (2) that by a somewhat involved

calculation the analysis can be expressed in more accurate form.

1 Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 97-98. 1913.

* The term mol number is here suggested as an appropriate name for the number

obtained by dividing the weight percentage of a chemical substance in any given

chemical analysis by its proper molecular (respectively atomic) weight. Such

numbers have usually been called molecular ratios, but they are, rather, numbers

indicating the number of mols (gram-molecules) of each substance present in n

grams of the material analyzed where n is the sum of the analysis. The terms

molecular ratios or molecular proportions apply logically only to the numbers of the

chemical formula. Thus in the analysis cited below, the chemical formula num-

bers or molecular ratios are

S : As : (Ag + Cu) = 11 : 2 : 8, while the mol numbers from the analysis are

S = 0.5444; As = 0.1008; (Ag + Cu) = 0.3975. To use the term molecular ratios

indiscriminately for both sets of numbers is not conducive to precise statement and

is not to be recommended. The term mol number seems preferable to molecular

nujnber or molecular quotient (Molekularzahl Molekularquotient) which are in

current use in German. The writers are indebted to Drs. Washington and

Niggli for detailed discussion of the proposed term.

224 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES

The underlying purpose of such calculations is not, however, to

improve a chemical analysis by mathematical manipulation, which

is obviously impossible, but to obtain a logical basis of comparison

for the given analysis with the analysis calculated from the chemi-

cal formula. In the following paragraphs the different methods

which are available for such comparisons will be discussed with

reference to their accuracy and general applicability. It will be

shown that the best general method is to compare the actual

analysis of the mineral with the weight percentage analysis de-

rived from its chemical formula. This method is, moreover, in

conmion use. The method suggested by Schaller is not only in-

ferior to this and to the other methods considered below, but it is

incorrect in principle in certain details.

The problem is based on Dalton's fundamental law of simple

atomic or molecular ratios, namely, that in a homogeneous chemi-

cal substance in which the relations are not veiled by solid solu-

tion, the atomic and molecular proportions can be expressed by

small whole numbers. In practice, however, we find that because

of various sources of error (lack of purity of material analyzed,

inaccuracy in chemical methods and impurities in reagents

employed, errors in atomijc weights, personal equation of analyst),

the actual data of a mineral analysis, after reduction to mol

numbers, only approximate whole numbers in their ratios, the

deviations being usually small and to be treated as errors of obser-

vation. In the present problem, only the final results of an

analysis are given and the above sources of error can not therefore

be differentiated and properly weighted, but have to be considered

together and all analytical data equally weighted. It should be

noted that in chemical data of this character, the systematic

errors are relatively large, and that, furthermore, they can not

be distinguished in the analytical data, as given, from the acci-

dental errors. Too refined mathematical treatment is, therefore,

unnecessary and misleading. For the sake of completeness,

however, the various available methods will be considered below,

even tho several of them are hardly to be recommended for the

reasons cited above.

From the mol numbers of an analysis we infer by inspection the

WEIGHT AND VAN ORSTRANDI MINERAL ANALYSES 225

molecular ratios or simple chemical formula numbers, and then pro-

ceed to determine how close the agreement is between the observed

values and those deduced from the inferred chemical formula.

This can be done by several different methods, which, however, are

not all equally rigorous. The best and most logical methods are

based on a comparison between the given analysis (weight per-

centages) and the weight percentage analysis computed from the

inferred chemical formula. Comparisons can also be made

between the mol numbers and the inferred molecular ratios, but

these are not strictly correct in principle. They have, however,

often been adopted, by chemists and mineralogists, and merit,

therefore, a brief word of description after the more rigorous

methods have been presented in detail. In all the methods the

assumption is made that after proper reduction of the weight

percentages of the given mineral analysis, the chemical formula

numbers (molecular ratios) can be inferred by simple inspection;

this signifies that in the case of solid solution we know, or are able

to determine, the particular molecules which should be consid-

ered together.

First jnethod. In this method the chemical formula numbers

are first multiplied by the proper molecular (respectively atomic)

weights and the corresponding weight numbers {x) obtained.

These in turn are multiplied by a factor m which is determined by

the least square method and furnishes the most accurate values

{y') for the weight percentages. To find m we assume in accord

with usual practice that the theoretical weight numbers {x)

derived from the molecular ratios are free from error and that the

observed quantities {y, the weight percentages of the analysis)

contain errors of observation. Since the two series of numbers

stand in a constant ratio m to each other we have the observation

equations

yi = mxi, y2 = mx-i, . . . yn = mx^. (1)

The general equation, y = mx, is the equation of a straight

line passing thru the origin. The rigorous solution consists,

therefore, in adjusting the straight line thru the n given points.

A higher degree of precision would be obtained by considering the

226

WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES

origin as an observed point but this assumption seems in the

present instance unnecessary and incorrect in principle.

To obtain the required solution let the equations be put in the

form

Piyi-fnpiXl=PiVi, P2y2-'mp2X2=P2V2, . . Pnyn-mPnXn=PnVn(2)

in which yi,?;2 . • . ^n are the respective residuals or the dif-

ferences between the observed values (2/1,2/2, . . . y^) and the

computed values {y\, y'2, . . ?/'„); pi,p2, . . Pn are arbitrary

weights assigned to the corresponding observation equations.

By making now the sum of the weighted squares of the residuals

(PiVi^ + P2%^ + . . . + PnVj) a minimum we obtain the best

possible solution of the equation for m, namely,

m =

PlX^yl + p2X2y2 +

r PnXnyn

PlXl^ + P2X2^ +

an expression which reduces to

m =

xiyi + X2y2 +

+ PnXj

+ Xnyn

Xi" ~p Xo I

r Xn

(3)

Pn) to be as-

when we assume that the weights (pi, p2, . . .

signed to the observation equations are all unity.

To apply this method to the analysis cited by Schaller we ascer-

tain first the mol numbers (Column 2) by dividing the weight

* Considered as (Agj) and (Cuj) respectively. Sum = 0.3975

WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 227

percentages of column 1 by the proper atomic (respectively

molecular) weights;* from these mol numbers, we have

S : As : (Ag2 + Cus) = 0.5444: 0.1008: 0.3975

and infer that the correct chemical formula numbers are

S : As : (Ag2 + Cu,) = 55 : 10 : 40 = 11 : 2 : 8.

These numbers (column 3) are th«n multiplied by the proper

atomic (respectively molecular) weights and the (x) values of

the equations (1) obtained (column 4). The value of m is now

found from equation (3) by dividing the sum of the products of

the observed values (y) (column 1) and the theoretically correct

values (x) (column 4) by the sum of the squares of (x). On

multiplying the (x) values by the value oi 7n ( = 0.049682) thus

computed we find the values in column (5); the differences be-

tween the observed (y) and computed (y') values (o — c, column

1 — column 5) are a proper measure of the degree of approxima-

tion of the actual analysis to that computed from the inferred

chemical formula. The rigorous test would consist in computing

the probable error of a single observation but this procedure is

perhaps unnecessary for data of the character here considered.

Second 7iiethod. This method is a mathematical refinement

of the first method but it does not give values which are of suffi-

ciently greater precision to warrant the extra labor involved in

computation nor does the assumption that {x) contains errors of

observation seem to be rigorously justified unless errors in the

atomic weights are of sufficient magnitude to be taken into account.

In this method it is assumed that both the {x) and the {y) values of

equations (1) contain errors of observation. The proper value of

m to meet the conditions is then obtained from the equation

(4)

\ rrix/

wherein

* In his paper Schaller did not state the atomio (respectively molecular) weights

which he used in his computations. They are readily found, however, by dividing

the numbers of the first column by the corresponding ones of the second. They are

S = 32.07; As = 75.00; (Ag,) = 215.82; (Cua) = 127.13.

228 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES

^ _ x^yl-\^x^y2+ . . . + a^n^n

7/2] — ■

0^1' + 0:22+ . . . +Xn^

yi' + y^'^ . . . +yr?

7TI2 — ""' •

Xiyi + X2y2 + . . . + XnVn

In these equations the weights of (x) and (y) and of all obser-

vation equations are assumed to be unity; mi is the value of m

in equations (1) when (x) is assumed to be correct and (y) to

contain the errors of observation; m^ is the value of m in equations

(1) when (y) is assumed to be correct and (x) to contain slight

errors. On applying this method to the above analysis we find

that the values obtained are identical with those in column 5 to

the second decimal place.

Third method. The results obtained by this method are only

approximately correct but they are of sufficient accuracy to

be satisfactory for most analyses and are, moreover, readily com-

puted, the computation consisting simply in reducing the weight

numbers (x) (Column 4) proportionately, so that their sum (col-

umn 6) is equal to that of the given analysis (column 1), the as-

sumption being that when the two analyses have the same sum

(either the actual sum of the given analysis or 100.00), we have a

common basis for comparison. The differences (column 6a)

between the observed weight percentages (column 1) and those

computed by this method (column 6) are then an approximate,

but satisfactory measure of the agreement of observation with

theory. This method is, for general purposes, the simplest and

best. Mathematically it can be stated from a somewhat differ-

ent viewpoint, altho the computations are the same. If we

assume that the sum of the weighted residuals (piVi -\- P2V2 -{- . .

• + PnVn) in equations (2) is zero, the resulting equation gives

PiXi + P2X2 -h . . . + PnXn

an equation which reduces to

m' = ^■ + ^^^+ • • • +y.^ (6)

Xi -f- X-2 -|- . . . -f- Xn

WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 229

when we assign equal weight to all the observation equations.

In Schaller's analysis, the factor

\fy.r>j 049706

^ 2009.61 ^-^^^^^^

which is only slightly different from the factor m obtained by the

least square method. To find the required value for S in the

above analysis by this method, we multiply the weight number

352.79 (column 4) by the factor m' = 0.049706 and obtain the

value 17.54 listed in column 6; the remaining values of column

6 are obtained from column 4 by multiplying by the same factor.

To impose the conditions (1) that the sum of the residuals

shall vanish and (2) that the sum of their squares shall be a

minimum, we write the observation equations in the general form

y ^ a -\- mx,

and adjust them by the usual least square method. There seems,

however, to be no justification for adopting such a procedure here.

Fourth, fifth and sixth ynethods. These methods are identical

with the three preceeding methods except that the adjustments

are made between the mol numbers and the molecular ratios.

Thus the mol numbers may be taken as the observed values {y)

and the molecular ratios as the theoretically correct values (x)

to be used in the observation equations (1). Adjustment can

then be made by any one of the methods described above. Thus

in method (4), the factor m of observation equations (1) is found

from equation (3) by considering the mol numbers (column 2)

the {y) values and the molecular ratios (column 3) the {x) values.

The final values are then obtained by multiplying the {x) values

(column 3) by the factor m thus computed. In method (5) the

same values of {x) and {y) are used and the proper value for m

computed from, equation (4) above. Similarly in method (6)

the proper value for m' is computed from equation (6). The

results obtained by these three methods are, however, theoreti-

cally inferior to those of the first three methods, for the reason that

the mol numbers are obtained from the weight percentages by

dividing them by the proper molecular (respectively atomic)

230 WRIGHT AND VAN ORSTRAND I MINERAL ANALYSES

weights, and are therefore differently weighted because the mole-

cular (respectively atomic) weights are different. In the present

case these objections do not seriously affect the results obtained,

but the objection is nevertheless valid and the methods are in

error to that extent.

Seventh, eighth and nmth methods. In these methods the adjust-

ments are made on the assumption that the mol numbers are

theoretically correct {x values), while the molecular ratios (y)

contain the errors of observation. This is a still further depart-

ture from correct theory, and neither these methods nor those

noted in the last paragraph are to be recommended. The values

obtained by the seventh method involving adjustment by least

squares are listed in column 7, while the differences (o — c)

between columns 3 and 7 are given in column 7a. Similarly, the

results obtained by use of the ninth method, which corresponds

to method 3, are given in column 8 and the differences (o — c)

in column 8a. It may be noted here that insofar as the numerical

computations are concerned, it is immaterial which set of quantities

(x or y) are assumed to contain errors of observation when equa-

tion (6) is used, but different results are obtained when the quan-

tities are adjusted by means of equations (3) and (4).

Schaller's method is in error in the following details of principle :

1. Comparisons are made between mol numbers and molecular

ratios on the assumption that the mol numbers are theoretically

correct while the molecular ratios contain the errors of observa-

tion. The objections cited under methods 7 to 9 apply, therefore,

to his method.

2. The numbers given in his column (2), page 98, are of unequal

weight and the arithmetic mean is not, therefore, a correct aver-

age.

3. The final values in his last column near the bottom of page

98 are obtained by dividing the computed numbers in his column

(3), page 98, by the molecular ratios. These values are accord-

ingly of different degrees of approximation because differently

weighted.

4. His method may be stated in the form of an equation by

putting

WRIGHT AND VAN OSTRAND : MINERAL ANALYSES 231

in equation (5). Since the weights are here inversely propor-

tional to the {x) values, it follows that small molecular ratios

are adjusted more accurately than the larger numbers.

Summary. Of the methods available for comparing the ob-

served results of a mineral analysis with those obtained from the

chemical formula to which the analysis corresponds approxi-

mately, the best method is to ascertain first the weight numbers

(derived from the chemical formula by multiplying these ratios

by the proper molecular weights), and then to adjust these values

to the given analysis by the least square method. Since the com-

putations involved are, however, somewhat laborious, and further-

more, since there are a limited number of observations and the

systematic errors of observation are, in general, large as compared

with the accidental errors, the simple method (3) (equation 6) is

preferable for general use. It furnishes results which are very

nearly correct and consists simply in reducing the weight num-

bers proportionately so that their sum is equal to that of the given

analysis. In other words, we compare the actual analysis directly

with the weight percentage analysis computed from the inferred

chemical formula, both analyses having a common sum. The

differences between the observed and computed values are then

a sufficient measure of the degree of agreement of observation

with theory. The two general formulas (3) and (6) furnish the

best solutions of the present problem. In these formulas y may

be taken to represent weight percentages, mol numbers or molecu-

lar ratios, while x represents respectively the weight numbers, the

molecular ratios or the mol numbers. Equation (3) always gives

a more precise adjustment, but equation (6) is in general suffi-

ciently accurate for the computations here considered. The

relation between weight percentages and weight numbers is

rigorous. The relations between mol numbers and molecular

ratios are lacking in rigor, but are usually sufficiently accurate

for the purpose. '

232

WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE

PHYSICS. — A new thermal microscope for the measurement

of the optical constants of minerals at high teinperatures.

Fred. Eugene Wright, Geophysical Laboratory.

With this microscope (fig. 1) three optical constants — bire-

fringence, extinction angle, optic axial angle — of a properly ori-

Fig. 1

ented crystal plate can be measured accurately at any tempera-

ture between 10°C and 1200°C. Above 1200° the intensity of

illumination from the furnace itself is so great that it tends to

veil the optical phenomena produced by the polarized light waves

transmitted thru the plate. The thermal microscope consists

WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE

233

of two distinct parts: (1) a petrographic microscope equipped

with a suitable device for simultaneous rotation of the nicols,

either by means of gear wheels connected by a bar (fig. la) or by

means of a direct connecting bar (fig. lb), the second method be-

ing the more accurate and satisfactory; (2) an electric resistance

furnace A (fig. 2) which is enclosed within the water jacket W

(fig. 2). The details of construction of this furnace are shown in

vertical section in figure 2. The furnace consists of two alundum

Fig. 2

tubes made especiall}^ for the purpose and wound on the outside,

in helical grooves of 1 mm. pitch, with platinum wire 0.35 mm.

in diameter. It is then coated with alundum cement and finally

baked at 1200° to 1400° for several hours. In this furnace the

relatively small openings at the ends and the side, the enlarge-

ment at the center and the close winding of the heating coil are

arranged to insure uniformity of heating in the central space

where the crystal plate is heated and its temperature measured.

The water jacket consists of a hollow brass cylinder and sep-

arate hollow end plates each of which is provided with an intake

and outlet E for the circulating water. Into each end plate a

plunger P is fitted for wiping away the air bubbles which happen

234 WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE

to collect between the two glass windows B and thus to disturb

the field of view. To the cylinder part of the jacket a support

G is attached with conical center bearing for the crystal holder.

The crystal plate whose optical constants are to be determined

is held in position by platinum jaws (L fig. 2) which fit into and

project beyond the porcelain tube A^, which in turn is held in

position by the rotating holder H. The thermoelement wires D

are passed thru the larger tube A^ in small porcelain tubes T and

extend beyond these so that the thermoelement junction is di-

rectly beneath or above and in contact with the mineral plate,

thus insuring good temperature readings. The temperatures are

read either on a direct reading millivoltmeter (Siemens and Hal-

ske type) or in more accurate work by means of a mirror galvano-

meter and potentiometer system as commonly used in this lab-

oratory. ^ The holder H is equipped with a circle C, graduated

to degrees, and with a clamp screw K for keeping the tube N in

place. This part of the apparatus is complete. in itself and can

be withdrawn from the furnace at any temperature without dis-

turbing the other parts. To insure proper adjustment of the

crystal plate a second holder (fig. lb) is clamped to the stage of

a second microscope and the plate so mounted that the plane of

its optic axes is normal to the axis of rotation of the holder.

Fig. 3

For this adjustment a device for autocollimation has been

used which has proved serviceable and promises to be of value

in other autocollimating instruments. A thin cover slip of the

shape indicated in figure 3a with one edge vertical and the oppo-

site edge inclined 45° to the vertical, is placed in the rear focal

plane of the low power objective. Light from a Nernst filament,

sent thru the plate to the inchned edge, is totally reflected

' Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 31, 1905; 157, GS. 1911.

WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE 235

and passes thence through the objective to the mineral plate,

where it is again reflected and appears, after its return through

the objective, as a sharp bright line in the dark field. When the

mineral plate is normal to the axis of the lens system, the bright

line is practically covered, thus enabling the observer to make

very accurate adjustments.-

This method has been improved by using two cover glasses as

indicated by figure 3b, the space between the glasses serving to

mark the center. The complete cross has also been obtained

by means of cover glasses ground as illustrated in figure 3c. The

grinding and mounting of four such cover glasses is, however,

difficult and requires considerable skill to be accomplished satis-

factorily.^

After the crystal plate has been mounted and adjusted and

the thermoelement wires correctly placed, the holder H is in-

serted into its support G on the water jacket (fig. 2) and the min-

eral plate thus introduced into the furnace in a position ready

for the measurement both of its optical constants and of its tem-

perature.

The birefringence of a mineral plate is measured on this micro-

scope by the method used on the thermal microscope described

several years ago.^ The thickness of the plate is determined be-

fore insertion into the furnace. The change in thickness due to

expansion on heating is so slight that it is negligible for most

measurements of birefringence. The path-difference of the emer-

gent waves from the crystal plate in the furnace is measured by

means of a graduated compensating wedge. ^

Extinction angles are measured by means of a biquartz wedge

^ This scheme for autocoUimation is somewhat similar to that suggested by

Nutting in this Journal 2, 404, 1912. In his arrangement a reflecting cover glass

is used on end with the result that only a small part of it is in focus at any setting

of the eyepiece while in the scheme outlined above the entire cover glass is in

sharp focus and the field is less disturbed.

' These different types of cover glasses were satisfactorily ground for the

writer by the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company.

' Am. J. Sci. (4) 27, 43. 1909. '

5 Am. J. Sci. (4) 29, 417. 1910; Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 158,

102. 1911.

236 WRIGHT: A NEW THERMAL MICROSCOPE

plate^ combined with rotating nicols. This plate is useful for

determining positions of total extinction of a mineral even at

high temperatures where the strong illumination of the furnace

field tends to cover up the interference colors from the mineral

plate.

The optic axial angle is measured directly on the graduated

circle C (fig. 2), the crystal plate being rotated until each of its

two optic axes coincides with the axis of the microscope (tested by

rotation of the nicols, as in the universal stage methods); the

angular distance between the two positions of coincidence is

read directly on the graduated circle. These positions are sharply

marked and the error of the measurement of the optic axial angle

on a favorable section is not over ±1° even at relatively high

temperatures.

This thermal microscope has proved so satisfactory in practice

that an extended series of measurements on selected natural min-

erals of known composition has been commenced with a view to

determine not only the changes in their optical constants but

also their inversion and melting temperatures, these last temper-

atures to be checked by means of the accurate temperature meas-

uring methods now in use in the Geophysical Laboratory. At

the same time the refractive indices and in some instances changes

in crystal angles will be ascertained by the use of another fur-

nace attached to the two circle goniometer and to be described

in a later communication.

6 Am. J. -Sci. (4) 26, 377, 1908; Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 158,

139. 1911.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 265th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club,

February 12, 1913.

An informal communication was presented:

Cone in cone structure in coal from St. Anthony, Idaho: E. G. Wood-

ruff. Cone in cone structure is not uncommon in clay and shale, but

unusual in coal. The specimens exhibited from the St. Anthony coal-

field, Idaho, show this structure well developed on the surface but not

developed within the specimens, tho shearing is shown. Bed from

which the sample is taken is crushed and faulted. Slickensiding is

common. The cone in cone genetically in this case seems to be closely

related to slickensiding. The complete explanation is not offered.

The formal communications were:

Certain metallic minerals as precipitants of silver and gold. Chase

Palmer and Edson S. Bastin. The paper will be pubUshed in no. 2,

vol. 8, of Economic Geology, and in shorter form in the Transactions

(New York meeting) of the American Institute of Mining Engineers.

Time relations of glacial lakes in the Great Lakes region: Frank Lev-

ERETT. The following tabulated statement of the order of development

of lakes in the several basins sets forth the tentative correlation based

upon a study of the moraines, lake outlets, and other features which bear

upon correlations. The writer is responsible for the present tabulation

but is indebted to various other geologists for data bearing upon the

direction of outlet of the several lakes at different lake stages.

Order of development of glacial lakes

1. General recession of ice border but with some oscillation.

Lake Maumee, discharge (a) By Fort Wayne to Wabash River.

(b) By Imlay outlet to Lake Chicago.

Lake Saginaw, discharge in later stage by Grand River outlet to

Lake Chicago.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River.

2. General recession of ice border.

Lake Arkona, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River,

237

238 proceedings: geological society

3. Readvance of ice border.

Lake Whittlesey, discharge by Ubly outlet to Lake Saginaw.

Lake Saginaw, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River.

4. General recession of ice border.

Lake Waj^ne, discharge by Syracuse outlet to Mohawk River.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River.

Lake Duluth, discharge bj^ St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River.

5. Readvance of ice border.

Lake Warren, discharge by Grand River outlet to Lake Chicago.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River.

Lake Duluth, discharge by St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River.

6. General recession of ice border.

Lake Lundy, Elkton, Dana discharge bj' Syracuse outlet to

Mohawk Valley.

Lake Chicago, discharge by Chicago outlet to Illinois River.

Lake Duluth, discharge by St. Croix outlet to Mississippi River.

7. General recession of ice border.

Lake Iroquois, discharge by Mohawk outlet.

Lake Erie, discharge by Niagara outlet to Lake Iroquois.

Lake Algonquin, discharge by (a) Trent outlet to Lake Iroquois.

(b) By St. Clair outlet to Lake

Erie.

Lake Agassiz, discharge by River Warren to Mississippi River.

8. Ice border north of Great Lakes watershed.

Lake Nipissing, discharge by (a) Ottawa outlet to Champlain Sea.

(b) Part discharge by St. Clair outlet

to Lake Erie.

(c) Full discharge by St. Clair outlet

Lake Erie, discharge by Niagara outlet to Lake Ontario or Cham-

plain Sea.

Champlain Sea in St. Lawrence valley.

Close of Lake Agassiz, probably eastward discharge to Lake

Algonquin followed by northeastward drainage to Hudson Bay.

9. Modern lakes discharging by St. Lawrence River.

R. W. Richards, Secretary.

The 266th meeting was held in the lecture room of the Cosmos Club,

February 26, 1913, and the following informal communication was pre-

sented :

Asphalt in a basaltic amygdaloid from British Columbia: Norman L.

BOWEN.

The formal communications were:

The zinc-lead deposits of the Yellow Pine district, Nevada: J. M. Hill.

The Yellow Pine district is in the southwestern part of Clark County,

Nevada, near the California hne. The mines are located on both sides

of the southern Spring Mountains over an area of nearly 400 square

proceedings: geological society 239

miles. Jean, on the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake railroad is the

principal shipping point. Goodsprings, 8 miles northwest of Jean with

a population of 200 is the largest town.

The ore deposits are of zinc and lead and form ver.y irregular replace-

ments which usually occur in more or less crystalline upper Mississippian

limestone. They are found thru a vertical range of 3000 feet and do not

seem to be restricted to any particular member of the sedimentaries.

The principal factors in the localization of the ore bodies appear to be

the presence of joints and crushed zones which in general strike east and

west or nearly north and south, and are in most places nearly vertical.

The zinc and lead ores are usually closeh^ associated. The ratio of

zinc to lead, however, is extremely variable even in the same ore body.

In general, the lead content is higher in the upper part of the ore bodies.

The only sulphide mineral common to these ores is galena. Part is

probably original but some is undoubtedly secondary. At one place in

the Potosi mine a small bod}^ of sphalerite ore was found entirely sur-

rounded by oxidized zinc ores. This ore is considered to represent the

primary ore, but it may be enriched. The sphalerite is intergrown with

calcite and a little galena, and is iron-bearing.

The ores now being mined in the district consist of white or red iron-

stained smithsonite, with some cerussite, anglesite, and galena. Cala-

mine is not abundant and where seen is usually developed in the latest

open water-courses in the other ore. Hydrozincite is sometimes present

in fairly large masses in the ore bodies near the surface and often shows

as a white coating on the croppings.

It is thought that the present bodies of carbonate ores have resulted

in part from alteration of sulphide ores in place and in part from a down-

ward concentration of the metals by surface waters which followed the

fractures in their movement towards ground- water level.

Pre-Wisconsin drift in the region of the Glacier National Park, Montana:

W. C. Alden and Eugene Stebinger. An abstract of this paper was

published in the preliminary list of papers for the New Haven meeting

of the Geological Society of America. The full paper is to be published

in vol. 24 of the Bulletin of the Society.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

THE SEMI-CENTENARY ANNIVERSARY OF THE

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The National Academy of Sciences will celebrate the 50th anniver-

sary of its foundation at the National Museum in Washington April

22-24 inclusive. The program will include the following addresses, to

which the members of the Washington Academy of Sciences and of its

affiliated societies are cordially invited.

Tuesday, April 22, — Opening session, 11 a.m. Welcome by Presi-

dent Ira Remsen.

The relation of science to higher edncatio7i in America: President

Arthur T. Hadley, of Yale.

International cooperation in research: Prof. Arthur Schuster, Sec-

retary of the Royal Society.

Afternoon session, 3 p.m. — 'The earth and sun as magnets: Dr. George

*E. Hale, Director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory.

Wednesday, April 23, 10.30 a.m. — On the material basis of heredity:

Prof. Theodor Boveri of the University of Wurzburg.

The structure of the universe: Prof. J. C. Kapteyn of the University

of Groningen.

All addresses will be in English.

240

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill MAY 4, 1913 No. 9

VITAL STATISTICS.^ — A natural population norm^ I. Alfked

J. LoTKA. Communicated by G. K. Burgess.

Birthrate and deathrate are in general functions of the age-

distribution in a given population. Hence, for purposes of com-

parison, it is customary to "correct," the "crude" death rates

to correspond to some arbitrarily chosen "standard population."

The age distribution itself is not, however, purely fortuitous,

but tends to approach a certain "stable" type, as has been shown

by the writer elsewhere. ^

Instead, therefore, of studying conditions in an arbitrary stand-

ard population, it seems worth while to study the characteristics

of a "natural population norm," in which the stable age-distri-

bution is actually established. This is the purpose of the present

paper. At the same time we shall compare the results obtained

for such an "ideal" population norm, with figures actually

observed in a case which approaches very nearly the calculated

"normal" conditions.

I. Birthrate, deathrate and age-distribution in life. As the

basis of our present discussion we shall use the formulae developed

on a previous occasion, which are as follows.

1 Paper read before the Philosophical Society of Washington on February 1,

1913.

2 Am. Jl. Sc. 24: 199, 375. 1907. Science 26: 21. 1907. Phil. Mag., p. 435.

April 1911. Compare also Bristowe, St. Thomas's Hospital Report, 1876, as

quoted in A. Newsholme, Vital Statistics, p. 295. 1899.

241

242

lotka: a natural population norm

c{a) =

h =

d

1

i

e~" p (a) da

— h I e~" p (a) da

(1)

(2)

(3)

TABLE I

Males

Females

lotka: a natural population norm

243

In these formulae b is the birthrate per head per annum, d

the corresponding deathrate, r is the ''natural rate of increase"

of the population, i.e., r = b — d; p{a) is the probability at birth

that a given individual picked at random (at birth) shall reach age

a, and is the function tabulated in the so-called life tables, where it

is commonly denoted ?x; p(«) is the derivative of p(a) with regard

to a. Lastly, c{a) is the coefficient of age-distribution, which is

Fig. 1 . Age-distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871-1880.

Areas represent numbers of persons. Males.

so defined, that, out of the total number iV of the population,

the number comprised between the age-limits a and' (a + da)

is given by Nc{a)da.

Now the formulae, as given above, are not in the form best

adapted for certain numerical computations. They were there-

fore developed in series by expanding the exponential function

244

lotka: a natural population norm

under the integral sign, and integrating term by term. We thus

obtain expressions of the form

i = Ao - A,r + A^r^ - A^r^ + • • • (4)

0

TABLE II'

Age — Distribution

TABLE III

Birthrate per head : 6..

Deathrate per head : d .

Excess : (6-<i) = r

MALES

Calculated Observed

0.03647

0.02216

(0.01431)

Proportion of females

to males • j 1 .045

0.03692

0.02261

0.01431

1.055

FEMALES

PERSONS

Calculated Observed

0.03374

0.02001

(0.01373)

0.03372

0.01999

0.01373

Calculated Observed

0.03508

0.02107

(0.01401)

0,03528

0.02127

0.01401

' The figures given in this table differ somewhat from those published in Phil.

Mag., loc. cit.; the latter were computed directly from formula (1), using for r

the mean value 0.01401 for the mixed sexes; in computing the results given in the

present paper the different values of r for males and females were taken into

account, as indicated in Table III.

lotka: a natural population norm

245

TABLE IV

Fig. 2. Age-Distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871-

1880. Areas represent numbers of persons. Females.

246

lotka: a natural population norm

and, for the fraction of the population comprised between the

ages fli and a^.

I

c (a) da = h {A\ - A\r + A'.r^ - A'^r^ + • • • )

(5)

^e

co/c.

0 10 7.0 Jo ^0 5** ^° 7" *" ^^ '*'*'

Fig. 3. Age-Distribution in the living population, England and Wales 1871-

1880. Areas represent numbers of persons. Both Sexes.

In these series the constant coefficients are given by

1 r°°

An = — 1 a^p{a) da

n ! Jo

A'„

1 f^' ,

— a° ?? (a

n I J&x

) da

(6)

(7)

lotka: a natural population norm

247

The value of the constants A, A' can be determined in a given

numerical example by graphic integration. Using the data given

in the Supplement to the Forty-Fifth Annual Report of the

Registrar-General of Births, etc., in England, covering the decen-

Fig. 4. Relation between birthrate per head b, deathrate per head d and natural

rate of increase r in a population with stable age-distribution (on the basis of statis-

tics for England and Wales 1871-1880).

nium 1871-1880, the numerical values shown in Table I were

obtained, partly by the aid of the planimeter and partly by appli-

cation of Simpson's Rule.

Using the values of the constants thus obtained, and substitu-

ting for r the observed values, as given in the source cited above,

248 lotka: a natueal population noem

the results shown in Tables II and III were found. These results

are also shown in graphic representation in figures 1, 2 and 3.

It will be seen that there is a remarkably clpee agreement between

observed and calculated values.

In order to obtain an idea of the general character of the func-

tion defined by equations (2), (4) and Table I, the values of b

corresponding to a number of values of r were computed* and a

curve was plotted. The numbers so obtained are shown in Table

IV, and the curve in figure 4, It should be remarked that the

portion of the curve corresponding to high negative values of r

is of course only of geometrical interest — in nature such a value

could only occur under exceptional circumstances, and then only

for a limited time, as it would lead, in practise, to the extinction of

the species.

* To be more precise, the computation was performed by the aid of another series

derived from (4). By (4) and Table I we have

— = 41.35 - 1312r- + 29960r2 - SSOSOOr^ + 7.9 X 10 V - 9.99 X 10 V + 1.08 X

lO^r^ - . .

This gives

6m = 0.02418 + 0.7673r + 6.823r2 - 29.32r3 - 651.3r^ - . . .

When r = 0, 6 = 6o = rfo = 0.02418. Putting /i = 6 — 6o and reverting the

series by the method given by Prof. J. McMahon (Bull. Am. Math. Soc, April

1894, p. 170; see also C.'E. Van Orstrand, Phil. Mag., March, 1910, p. 366) we have:

r = 1.3033/1 - 15. 10/^2 + ASiM^ - 12590/i* + 26500/i5 - . . .

and finally, since r = {b — d),

d = 0.02418 - 0.3033/i + IS.lO/i^ - AMM^ + 12590/1^ - 265000/15 _|_ . . .

The actual computation was carried out by means of this last series. The rapidity

of the convergence of the series above is indicated by the number of terms given,

which is each case represents an accuracy of four significant figures in the result,

when r has a value of about 0.01400.

CAIN AND TUTTLE: DETERMINATION OF PHOSPHORUS 249

CHEJVIISTRY. — The determination of phosphorus in steels con-

taining vanadium. J. R, Cain and F. H. Tuttle. To

appear as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of Standards.

Communicated by W. F. Hillebrand.

In order to precipitate phosphorus quantitatively as phospho-

molybdate from steels containing vanadium, it is necessary to

reduce the latter to the quadrivalent state, otherwise precipitation

is incomplete and there is contamination of the phosphomolybdate

by vanadium. In the present method ferrous sulphate in slight

excess is used as the reducing agent and the following conditions

should be observed : (1) The temperature of precipitation should

be held at a point (15° to 20°) where the nitric acid does not

oxidize the excess of ferrous salt or the reduced vanadium before

complete precipitation of phosphorus takes place; (2) the partial

neutralization with ammonia, frequently used when phosphorus

is precipitated as phosphomolybdate, must be made before reduc-

tion of the vanadic acid, otherwise the heat of neutralization

causes the oxidation of most of the ferrous iron and reduced

vanadium by the nitric acid: (3) care must be taken to prevent

the action of oxides of nitrogen, formed by interaction of ferrous

salt and nitric acid, on the reduced vanadium since these sub-

stances seem to catalyze the oxidation of the vanadyl salt and

may in some cases completely prevent precipitation of phosphorus,

owing to the large amount of vanadic acid produced ; (4) efficient

means for shaking or agitation of the solutions in which precipi-

tation is to take place must be provided.

MINERALOGY. — The refractive indices of strengite. Waldb-

MAR T. ScHALLER, Geological Survey.

The only published values for the refractive indices of strengite,

Fe2O3.P2O5.4H2O, which I have been able to find are those given

by Schroeder van der Kolk,^ namely 1.81 + 0.03; Lacroix- has

stated them in the form: a = 1.81, 7 = 1.84. Determination

of these values for a manganese strengite from California^ gave

^Tabellen Mikrosk. Bestimmung d. Mineralien, p. 54, 1906.

^Mineralogie de la France 4: 475, 1910.

»This Journal 2: 145, 1912.

250 schaller: refractive indices of strengite

the values: a = 1.70-1.71, 7 = 1.72-1.73. Lacroix^ deter-

mined the mean- index of similar material (called angelardite by

him), as approximately 1.70. It therefore seemed necessary to

redetermine the refractive indices of typical strengite in order to

bring the conflicting determinations in accord.

Professor Ledroit of Mainz very kindly presented me with

several specimens of the mineral from the Eleonore mine on the

Diinsberg, near Giessen. The strengite forms small spherulites

associated with beraunite (eleonorite), cacoxenite, etc. Crushed

fragments of these spherulites were used for determining the

minimum and maximum refractive indices. The oil immersion

method was"used and the values obtained are:

a (normal elongation of fibers) =1.71

7 (parallel elongation of fibers) = 1.735

(7 - a) = 0.025

The values given by Schroeder van der Kolk are therefore wrong

and it seems probable that his figure 1.81 was miscopied for 1.71.

* Mineral ogie de la France 4: 523, 1910.

ABSTRACTS .

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METALLOGRAPHY. — Metallographic testing. Bureau of Standards

Circular No. 42, 1913 (in press).

The circular considers metallography in its wider sense and does not

restrict it to the microscopical analysis alone. Thermal analysis,

together with the correlation of physical properties with microscopical

structure, thus find their place here.

The different methods of thermal analysis are briefly reviewed and

compared. The importance that is attached to the metallographic

method in the iron and steel industry is illustrated by a partial list of

the more common applications in that field.

The tests that the Bureau of Standards is equipped at present for

carrying out are:

1. Thermal. Cooling and heating curves, melting points, heat treat-

ment of alloys as specified.

2. Microscopical. Preparation of specimens and photomicrographs

of specified magnification up to 1000 diameters (higher magnification

by special arrangement), microscopical examination after special heat

treatment.

3. Miscellaneous. Examination of metals after failure for evidence of

the cause of failure, determination of various physical constants of

metals and their temperature coefficients. H. S. Rawdon.

BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY.— A biochemical study of the curly-top of

sugar beet. H. H. Bunzel, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 277. 1913.

Oxidase determinations were made on healthy and diseased sugar

beets growing under different conditions at Utah in the summer of 1911.

The experiments were carried out on the roots, leaves, and other parts

of the plants separately, according to the method described in Bulletin

251

252 abstracts: biological chemistry

238 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The determinations show that

the oxidase content of the leaves is abnormally high wherever the growth

of the plants has been retarded, whether such retardation of growth is

due to the curly-top disease, to excessive watering, to drought, or to

unknown abnormal conditions of plant growth. Studies made on the

distribution of the oxidases of different parts of the plant show that the

seeds are highest in oxidase content, the leaves follow, the roots are almost

as active as the leaves, while the stems show a lesser activity.

Determinations of moisture, total nitrogen, ash, and sugar in the alco-

hol-soluble and alcohol-insoluble fractions of the roots and leaves show

no differences between the healthy and diseased material. It is sugges-

ted that indications point toward the diseased plants being in a state

analagous to "fever." H. H. B.

BIOLOGICAL CREMl^TRY.— Biochemical factors in soils. M. X.

Sullivan. Bureau of Soils. Eighth International Congress of

Applied Chemistry, 15: 305. 1912.

The soil possesses oxidizing and catalyzing powers which are stronger

in the more productive soils and are more manifest in soils than in

subsoils. There are evidences of enzyme action in soils but as yet no

good method has been obtained for extracting enzymes from soil.

Many of the substances found in soil undoubtedly arise to a consider-

able degree as a result of the metabolism of microorganisms. In mold

cultures have been found fatty acids, especially oleic and palmitic,

purine bases, such as guanine, adenine and hypoxathine, histidine and

probably thymine. In the solution in which molds have grown were

found fatty bodies, guanine, adenine, hypoxathine, histidine, and prob-

ably thymine. M. X. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— A^omaZ and abnormal constitu-

ents of soil organic matter. E. C. Lathrop. Eighth International

Congress of Applied Chemistry, 15; 147-151. 1912.

Pentosans, pentose sugars, histidine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, cyto-

sine and possibly creatinine may be considered, to be normal soil con-

stituents. Arginine and adenine on account of their infrequent occur-

rence and their rapid disappearance, and dihydroxystearic acid and

picoline carboxylic acid on account of their detrimental action on plant

growth, and the striking relation of the former to infertility, must be

classed as abnormal soil constituents. Regarding agroceric acid, lig-

noceric acid, paraffinic acid, and amono-hydroxystearic acid, agrosterol

and hentriacontane no statement is warranted. E. C. L.

abstracts: agricultural chemistry 253

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— ^#ec^ oj histidine and arginine as

soil constituents. J.J. Skinner. Eighth International Congress of

Apphed Chemistry, 15: 253. 1912.

In this article attention is directed to the occurrence and distribution

of histidine and arginine in soils. The effect of each on plant growth

was tested in nutrient culture solution and both were found to be bene-

ficial. Plants growing in culture solutions containing only potash and

phosphate showed greatly increased growth when histidine or arginine

is added. When large amounts of nitrate are present in the culture

solution, histidine and arginine produce no appreciable effect on the

growth. Plants growing in cultures, whether high or low in nitrate,

showed a greatly diminished absorption of nitrate when histidine or

arginine was present, whereas the removal of potash and phosphate

was practically normal. It appears, therefore, that histidine and argi-

nine, like creatinine, creatine, asparagine, and a number of other nitro-

genous compounds can replace the effect of nitrate in producing plant

growth. J. J. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— (?wanme from a heated soil. E. C.

Lathrop. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 34: 1260.

1912.

In the course of an investigation on the chemical changes in soil

organic matter brought about by heating soil in an autoclave for three

hours at 30 pounds pressure, guanine was isolated and identified. The

guanine was not found in the unheated soil and arises from the breaking

down by heat of higher forms of nitrogenous material, probably nucleic

acid. E. C. L.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— iw/Ztfence of phosphate on the toxic

action of cumarin. J. J. Skinner. Botanical Gazette, 54: 245.

1912.

The toxic action of cumarin to wheat seedlings, and the action of

phosphates in ameliorating the toxicity, was studied by growing the

plants in nutrient culture solutions. It was found that calcium acid

phosphate, mono-sodium phosphate, di-sodium phosphate and tri-sodium

phosphate, had a similar effect in overcoming the harmful effect of

the cumarin. Calcium and sodium phosphate, the latter under dif-

ferent conditions, acid, neutral and alkaline, had the same effect. The

effect of the phosphate salts in ameliorating the harmful action of cu-

marin is due, therefore, to the phosphate radical, and not to the calcium

or sodium or to an acid or alkaline condition. J. J. S.

254 abstracts: agricultural chemistry

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY —City street sweepings as a fertilizer.

J. J. Skinner and J. H. Beattie. Circular of the Bureau of soils,

No. 66. 1912.

Several samples of street sweepings from one of the large cities were

analyzed and found to contain sHghtly less phosphate, nitrate and potash

than the average stable manure. The effect of the sweepings on growth

was tested, by growing corn, wheat and cabbage in paraffined wire pats.

The street sweepings produced increased growth, but were not as effec-

tive as stable manure. The sweepings were analyzed for mineral oil

and some of the samples contained as much as 2 per cent. The oil

isolated from the sweepings was tested and found to be harmful to

growth. After the oil had been extracted, the street sweepings were"

as efficient in producing growth as stable manure. J. J. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— LaM;w soils and lawns. Oswald

ScHREiNER, J. J. Skinner, L. C. Corbett and F. L. Mulford.

Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Department of Agriculture, No. 494. 1912.

In this bulletin is presented the character of soils in respect to their

suitability for lawn making. The texture of soils as related to lawns

is emphasized. The soils suitable for the building of lawns, parks,

parked embankments, terraces, etc., receive special consideration; also

the best methods for building up artificial grounds by the hauling in

of such suitable soil material, both for subsoil fillings and for surface

layering. A list of soil types well adapted to grass growing is included.

The establishment, fertifization and maintenance of lawns are con-

sidered and suggestions given as to the selection of seeds adapted to

lawn making. A chapter on the relation of walks, drives, trees and

shrubs to the lawn is included. • J. J. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— 5ene/iaa^ effect of creatinine and

creatine on growth. J. J. Skinner. Botanical Gazette, 54: 152.

1912.

Creatinine and creatine are both beneficial to plant growth. Plants

growing in culture solutions containing only potash and phosphate

show increased growth when creatinine or creatine is added. When

large amounts of nitrates are present in the solution, creatinine and

creatine produce no appreciable effect on the growth. In the presence

of these compounds the plants absorb less nitrate, while the absorption

of potash and phosphate is normal. It appears that creatinine and

creatine can replace nitrate in solution cultures. J. J. S.

abstracts: agricultural chemistry 255

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— ^^eci of asparagin on absorption

and growth in wheat. J. J. Skinner and J. H. Beattie. Bulletin

Torrey Botanical Club, 39: 429. 1912.

Wheat seedlings were grown in nutrient solutions of phosphate, pot-

ash, and nitrate in varying proportions and to these were added 50 p.p.m.

of asparagin. Asparagine had a beneficial effect on plant growth.

When large amounts of nitrate were present in the culture solutions

asparagin produced no appreciable effect on growth. The plants ab-

sorbed less nitrate from the culture solution while the phosphate and

potash absorption was normal. While the effect of the asparagin on

plant growth decreased with increasing nitrate, it had nevertheless a

conserving effect upon the amount of nitrate left in the solution. It

appears therefore that the plant can utilize this nitrogenous compound

for plant synthesis. J. J. S.

AGRICULTURAL CWEMISTRY— Manganese as a fertilizer. M. X.

Sullivan and W. O. Robinson. Circular of the Bureau of Soils,

No. 75. 1912.

In this circular it is pointed out that fertilizing with manganese has

led to varying results. The general conclusion is drawn that in view

of the complexity of the soil and the discrepancy that has been found in

the use of manganese fertilizers, manganese cannot be recommended

in any way other than in experimentation and as a fertilizer comple-

mentary to the usual chemical fertilizers, nitrate, phosphoric acid, potash

and lime. M. X. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.- ,S^i/rfzes in soil catalysis. M. X.

Sullivan and F. R. Reid. Bulletin of the Bureau of Soils, No.

86. 1912. • .

Soils possess the power to decompose hydrogen peroxide. This power

is greater in soil than in subsoils, m strong vital soils than in weak soils.

It persists for years in air-dried soils.

Tho good production is not dependent on the catalytic power,

the presence of a strong catalytic power in a soil can be taken as a

priori evidence that the many factors making for soil fertility would

be prominent and that the soil would be a productive soil. The cataly -

tic power is checked to some degree by carbon bisulphide, mercuric

chloride and especially by hydrocyanic acid, which in some cases prac-

tically destroys it. Heatmg in an autoclave under pressure of 10 at-

mospheres retards the catalytic power, tho dry heat for one hour at

256 abstracts: agricultural chemistry

105° has little depressing action. Various inorganic substances and

several organic compounds, especially those in a state of partial oxida-

tion, have the power of decomposing hydrogen peroxide, while several

organic compounds increase the catalytic power of manganese cUoxide.

In general the catalytic power of soils seems to be due not to an en-

zyme, such as catalase, but rather to the inorganic and organic matter

working separately, conjointly, or in activating combination.

M. X. S.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— Some organic soil constituents. E.

C. Shorey. Bulletin of the Bureau of Soils, No. 88. 1912.

The isolation of 15 organic compounds is described, 14 of which have

been identified. These together with those previously isolated and

described make 35 organic compounds isolated from soils. The sub-

stances here described belong to six classes of organic compounds,

three of which, 'aldehydes, organic sulfur, and organic phosphorus com-

pounds are classes not represented among those isolated and described

before.

The compounds isolated have been classified as follows: 13 organic

acids, 9 organic bases, 3 sugars, 2 aldehydes, 2 alcohols, and 1 each,

hydrocarbon, glyceride, resin ester, sulfur compound, phosphorus com-

pound and an acid anhydride. The relationship between these groups

as well as that between the isolated compounds and the organic matter

in general is discussed. The compounds isolated and described here

are oxalic acid, succinic acid, saccharic acid, acrylic acid, lysine, aden-

ine, choline, trimethylamine, salicylic aldehyde, mannite, rhamnose,

trithiobenzaldehyde, nucleic acid, of unloiown constitution, and an

unidentified aldehyde.

The conclusion is reached that the work, like that previously reported,

while it emphasizes the complex character of the organic matter of soils,

bears out the contention that this complexity is not so great but that

the chemical nature of all of the organic matter of soils can be deter-

mined by modern methods of research. M. X. Sullivan.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.— T/ie chemistry of steam-heated soils.

Oswald Schreiner and Elbert C. Lathrop. Bulletin of the

Bureau of Soils, No. 89. 1912.

This bulletin deals with the chemical changes involved when soils

are steam heated, as in the process of sterilization. The results may

be summarized as follows: (1) In accord with the work of other inves-

abstracts: industrial chemistry 257

tigators it was found that there was an increase in water-soluble con-

stituents and an increase in acidity. At the same time ammonia and

amines were formed. (2) By the process of heating there were formed

xanthine, hypoxanthine, guanine, cytosine, and arginine, when not

previously existing. These compounds are decomposition products of

nucleic acid and protein material and are all beneficial to plant growth.

(3) Guanine is reported for the first time as a constituent of soil organic

matter. (4) Dihydroxystearic acid was increased when present, and

produced, when not previously present, by the heating process. This

compound is harmful to plant growth. (5) Both beneficial and harm-

ful compounds were produced by heating the soils and were isolated.

This bears out the experience of previous investigators with cultural

tests. (6) Cultural tests in these soils and their extracts showed that

the heated soils gave a poorer plant growth. (7) Although the majority

of compounds formed must be classed as beneficial, the harmful com-

pound formed at the same time more than overbalances their effects.

Not until this harmful compound is eliminated or diminished can the

full beneficial effects of heating be demonstrated. (8) In soils there

is a balance of beneficial and harmful factors, soil fertility or infertility

being the resultant of the two groups. As one or the other group of

factors gains the ascendency, the fertility is raised or lowered, as the

case may be. This balance is influenced by cultural treatment, fer-

tilizers, liming, crop growth, or crop rotation, etc., as well as by steam-

ing. (9) The results show that altho the soils studied have received

the same kind of organic matter and have received the same form treat-

ment, they have been subject to different biochemical factors, result-

ing in differences in their organic matter and in differences in their

fertility. E. C. L.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY.— TAe effect of certain pigments on Un-

seed oil with a note on manganese content of raw linseed oil. E. W.

BouGHTON. Circular of the Bureau of Chemistry No. 111. 1913.

Raw linseed oil was mixed with different pigments so that the paint

thus prepared had a consistency similar to that of ordinary mixed paint,

ready for use. The containers were air tight and the paints were kept

for two years. Samples of the oil from each paint were withdrawn at

the end of one and of two years, and the constants thereof determined.

The raw oil had a specific gravity of 0.934 (15.6/15/6°C.). The great-

est increase (to 0.940) was caused by white lead (basic carbonate).

Flake graphite, zinc oxide and zinc chromate had no appreciable effect.

258 abstracts: geology

«

The iodine number of the raw oil was 179.6. The greatest decrease

(to 171.6) was caused by kaolin. Flake graphite, artificial graphite,

zinc chromate, zinc oxide, and chromium oxide had practically no

effect, and basic carbonate of lead, Indian red, magnetic black, and

lead chromate had but a very sHght effect. The percentage of ash in

the raw oil (0.13 per cent) was raised to 0.40 per cent by the basic car-

bonate of lead. The increases due to the other pigments were but

slight. Basic carbonate of lead, kaolin, and lead chromate bleached the

oil. The results as a whole show surprisingly small changes due to the

pigments. At the end of two years the results obtained were prac-

tically the same as those obtained at the end of one year. In no case

was the iodine number lowered to a figure below that given by pure

raw oil from South American seed (171). The percentage of manganese

in sixteen samples of raw linseed oil of known purity and source varied

from a faint trace (less than 0.0002 per cent) to 0.0008 per cent.

E. W. B.

GEOLOGY. — The Eagle River region, southeastern Alaska. Adolf

Knopf. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 502. Pp. 61, with

maps, sections, and illustrations. 1912.

The Eagle River region. Id eludes the northern portion of the Juneau

gold belt, extending northwestward from Salmon Creek, near Juneau,

to Berners Bay. This strip of territory is 32 miles long and embraces

approximately a third of the entire length of the gold belt.

The rocks are arranged in belts that strike parallel to the general

trend of the gold belt and dip steeply northeast. The general parallelism

of stratification, cleavage, schistosity, gneissic foliation, dikes, and ore

bodies is the salient geologic feature of the region.

The larger part of the gold belt is underlain by an interstratified series

of slates and graywackes, with some conglomerates. This assemblage of

sedimentary rocks, together with intercalated masses of volcanic rocks,

has been named the Berners formation. Fossil plants, consisting chiefly

of ferns, indicate that it is of Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age.

The volcanic rocks, associated with the slates and graywackes consist

of lavas, flow breccias, tuffs and coarse breccias, conglomerates, and

various kinds of mixed rocks. The clastic material far exceeds the mas-

sive rock in bulk. The lavas are in many places extremely amygdaloidal

and locally display a striking ellipsoidal structure. They are character-

ized by the widespread prevalence of numerous well-formed and well-

preserved phenocrysts of augite embedded in a dense-grained matrix of

abstracts: geology 259

dark blue-green color, and to signalize this feature they are termed augite

melaphyres.

Toward the northeast the slates and graywackes pass gradually into

phyllites and schists, which become progressively more and more crystal-

hne toward the diorite gneiss that forms the northeast boundary of the

gold belt. The schists where they adjoin the gneiss are garnetiferous,

staurolitic, cyanitic, and coarsely biotitic.

The gneiss on the northeast, which in local usage is known as the

granite hanging wall of the Juneau gold belt, is the crushed and foliated

margin of the great intrusive quartz diorite core of the Coast Range.

The gneissic structure is best developed near the contact with the schist

and fades out northeastward into the ordinary structure of normal

granitic rocks. It is essentially a cataclastic effect which was produced

by the crushing of the component minerals of the quartz diorite, and

which was impressed on the diorite soon after the diorite had consoli-

dated from fusion. In fact, a period of dynamic deformation set in dur-

ing the pegmatitic stage, for some of the pegmatite and aplite dikes are

sheared like the gneiss, but others have escaped the general dynamic

metamorphism. The sedimentary rocks adjoining the gneiss have re-

crystallized into schists, whose crystaUinity, as already stated, diminishes

gradually from the contact. The region thus affords a remarkably

fine illustration of a belt of highly crystalline schists formed as an effect

of the heat and pressure accompanying a great batholithic intrusion of

late Mesozoic age.

The ore bodies are exclusively gold deposits. The great majority

are stringer lodes, but include some mineralized dikes and a few fissure

veins. Except for sporadic sheets of rich ore, the stringer lodes are of

low grade. They range in width from a few feet to 100 feet, and appar-

ently at a few prospects, to 300 to 400 feet. The greatest depth attained

by mining anywhere in the district does not exceed 200 feet.

Some of the mineralized dikes are of economic importance; all are of

considerable interest because the profound alteration which they have

undergone throws light on the character of the solutions that brought in

the gold. A common change consisted in a large introduction of soda

and the formation of albite, and this albitization is here shown to be a

regional feature of the Juneau gold belt. Other changes consisted in the

introduction of apatite into the altered wall rocks and the conversion of

amphibole into biotite. From these and other features the vein-forming

waters are believed to have been hot, ascending solutions of deep-seated

origin, probably connected with the intrusion of the diorite magma.

A. K.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

(Local Section of the American Chemical Society)

'The 222d meeting was held on January 31, 1913, at the Chamber of

Commerce. Resolutions upon the death of Prof. J. W. Mallet, prepared

by Professor Dunnington of the University of Virginia, were adopted by

a rising vote. The following papers were read, all contributed by mem-

bers of the Bureau of Soils:

Problems in soil fertility: Oswald Schreiner. The essential prob-

lem in soil study is that of infertility. Liebig's theory of impoverishment

in chemical constituents as a cause of infertility was only temporarily

useful, and chemical analysis proved inadequate in predicting fertilit3^

Soil extracts were then found to reflect very closely the degree of fertility

of soils, but this fertility did not depend upon the inorganic substances

in solution. Finally the cause of infertility was traced to organic poisons

in soils. Along with this change in the point of attack have come great

changes in the laboratory equipment necessary for soil investigations.

Recent work on the chemical composition of humus: E. C. Shorey.

The organic matter extracted from a soil, is separable into two fractions.

From the portion of the organic matter soluble in 2 per cent sodium

hydroxide about 35 pure organic compounds have been isolated, of

which 11 are nitrogenous; 14 of these compounds are acids, and 10 bases.

The portion precipitated by acids contains complex resins and other

substances not yet separated. The author described 3 new compounds

recently separated: (1) meta-oxytoluic acid, of which 5 grams were

obtained from 50 pounds of soil; (2) vanillin, in very small quantity; (3)

tetra-carbonimide, perhaps an intermediate compound in the oxidation

of uric acid to urea.

The origin of certain organic soil constituents: M. X. Sullivan. Cer-

tain molds found in soils were separated in cultures, grown in consider-

able quantities on Rankine's solution, and studied chemically. Fatty

acids (such as oleic, stearic, and palmitic), xanthin, hypoxanthine, man-

nite, thyurine, pentose sugar, and various other compounds were ob-

tained from these molds. Purin bases and fatty acids were also found

in the solution in which the molds were grown. The metabohsm of molds

and bacteria is an important source of the compounds found in humus.

Certain compounds come from the disintegration of plant debris.

Discussion: In reply to inquiries, Dr. Sullivan stated that the rela-

tion between the quantity of the compounds described and the quantity

260

proceedings: chemical society 261

of food in the culture solution was not determinable; he considered that

the abundance and variety of organic food in a soil rendered the results

entirely independent of any consideration of the composition of the cul-

ture solution. The molds were grown in the absence of light.

The physiological action of certain organic soil constituents: J. J.

Skinner. Experiments were made on the effect of salicylic aldehyde,

an organic soil constituent, upon the growth of wheat seedlings. Very

dilute solutions reduced the growth markedly, or killed the plants. The

effect is not neutralized by phosphates, nitrates, or potassium com-

pounds. The metabolism of the plants is greatly retarded. Nucleic

acid was found beneficial, the more so, the less nitrate was present. The

compounds identified in soils have been classified into harmful and bene-

ficial. GuanicUn, picoline-carboxylic acid, vanillin, and dihydroxy-

stearic acid are harmful, while nucleic acid, histidine, arginine, creatine,

creatinine, etc. are beneficial.

Discussion by Schreiner, Cook, Hunt, Wells, Seidell, Waters, Cameron,

Sullivan, and others. The principal points brought out were: The bene-

ficial compounds seem to be absorbed unoxidized. Salicylic aldehyde

was first found in soil from a rose garden at Mt. Vernon, where the soil

was becoming unsatisfactory. The harmfulness of a compound can not

be predicted from its composition or constitution. The experimental

solutions all contain oxygen in solution. Lime and means for promoting

oxidation act as a remedy for dihydroxystearic acid. Remedies for

other poisons have not been worked out. The active poison in a given

soil cannot be told from the appearance of plants grown in it. Floccu-

lation of the soil, better drainage and promotion of oxidizing bacteria

all aid in the oxidation of dihydroxystearic acid.

Chemical changes in heated soils: E. C. Lathrop. A fertile and infer-

tile soil from the same locality were compared as to the effects produced

by heating under 30 pounds steam pressure (135°). The water soluble

constituents were increased. Beneficial compounds were formed, but

the production of harmful constituents and the destruction of useful bac-

teria more than offset their effect. The net result was a decrease of

fertility in the fertile soil. Dihydroxystearic acid was found before

heating in the infertile soil, and after heating in both soils.

Discussion by Schreiner, Sullivan, Sosman, and Cameron.

The 223d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 13, 1913.

The following papers were read:

Tests for absinthe: E. K. Nelson, of the Division of Drugs, Bureau

of Chemistry. The various modifications of Legal's test for the detec-

tion of absinthe were found to give uncertain results in cases where the

oil of wormwood was proportionately small in amount. By conversion

of the ketones, including thujone from wormwood, into semi-carbazones,

they can be freed by steam distillation from essential oils, such as anise,

cloves, etc. The semi-carbazones are then decomposed with dilute acid,

the ketones recovered, and Legal's test applied to the material thus puri-

fied. In presence of thujone the test is not only more delicate but the

characteristic thujone odor can be detected. (Author's abstract.)

262

proceedings: chemical society

Discussion: Parsons inquired concerning the sharpness of legal defi-

nition necessary under the present law against absinthe. The author

did not have exact data to furnish on this point.

The analysis of certain Pacific coast kelps: E. H. Parker and J. R.

LiNDEMUTH, of the Burcau of Soils. Read by Mr. Parker. Specimens

of the two most important kelps of the. Pacific coast from an economic

standpoint, as found by previous investigators, were collected from differ-

ent points along the coast and analyzed for potash, soluble salts, nitrogen

and iodine. The conclusions are: (1) the average KCl content is high;

(2) Apparently no definite relation exists between the different constitu-

ents of kelp; (3) The average KCl content of the Nereocystis hi.etkeana

is greater than that of the Macrocystis pyrifera this is true for kelp

from different localities. In each single case, also, the KCl content of

the Nereocystis is greater than the average of the Macrocystis; (4)

Apparently the northern kelps are richer in KCl than the southern;

(5) the iodine content of northern and southern kelps show no conclusive

differences.

Table of Aveeaqes.

SOURCE

Freshwater Bay, Washington

(Macrocystis)

(Nereocystis)

Coast between Los Angeles and San Francisco..

(Macrocystis)

(Nereocystis)

Coast near San Diego

Total average

(Macrocystis)

(Nereocystis)

Average of all analyses of Pacific Coast kelps

N.

%

2.14

2.21

1.11

1.93

(Author's abstract.)

Discussion: In reply to inquiry, the author stated that the soluble ash

formed about 3 per cent of the dry plant.

The influence of environment upon the composition of wheat: J. A.

LeClerc and P. A. Yoder of the Laboratory of Plant Chemistry, Bureau

of Chemistry. Read by Dr. Yoder. The composition and physical

properties of wheats have been shown by the Bureau of Chemistry to be

dependent upon climate rather than upon heredity. The present inves-

tigation studied the effect of soils in comparison with climate, by inter-

change of blocks of soil, 5 feet square and 3 feet deep, between Mary-

land, Kansas, and California. The experiments have continued thru

four years. The size of grain as well as other physical properties seem

to depend chiefly upon the locality and very little on the soil. Results

proceedings: chemical society 263

on protein content are similar but there is a possible first-year effect of

the soil. Gliadin number was very nearly the same in all. Other organic

constituents varied irregularly. A more marked effect of soil is to be

expected in the inorganic constituents, but the reverse seems to be

true even in this case ; for some constituents the effect of locality predomi-

nates, for others the data are uniform for all the samples. The effect on

yield was not considered.

Discussion. M. X. Sullivan pointed out that varied treatment of

the same soil in neighboring fields may cause wide variations in results.

He further emphasized that a soil is like a living organism, and when

transferred from one locality to another will itself change radically.

Soil cannot therefore be considered a constant factor in comparative

experiments such as these. Berger suggested that transfusion from the

surrounding soil might rapidly affect the small blocks which were trans-

ferred, since they were not cut off entirely from surrounding soil. Cam-

eron suggested that it is really the subsoil below 3 feet that contributes

the soil solutions that feed the plant, and that this is the true explana-

tion of the results obtained. LeClerc stated that the variations found in

composition are much larger between localities than are ever found

between differently treated samples of soil in a given locality. Franklin

and Waters adduced other examples of the effect of environment as pre-

vailing markedly over heredity. Yoder and Sullivan came to essential

agreement that these experiments do not show how climate exerts its

influence, and that the possibility is not excluded that the climate may

react upon the soil in a way to influence the characteristics of the crop,

thus exerting its effect in a measure thru the soil. Sosman, Cook, Tas-

sin, and others also discussed the paper.

Hydrogenation with colloidal palladiimi as catalyzer: A. R. Albright,

of the Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemistry. The great advantage of

the palladium hydrogenation method lies in the low temperature and

simple apparatus necessary. It has been found possible to attach hydro-

gen to doul)le bonds which have usually been rather inaccessible to reduc-

tion. Many detailed examples were quoted of these reductions, which

it is not possible to discuss in abstract.

The rate of cooling in the green and its influence on the physical properties

of annealed metals: Wirt Tassin. It has been assumed widely that the

properties of metal depend upon heat treatment (annealing) and its

consequent changes in structure, rather than upon the conditions of

casting. Hence the present widespread use of microscopic examination

of specimens as a check upon properties. The author showed illustra-

tions of a photomicrographic apparatus which he has developed for the

examination of the casting itself. As a concrete example of its use, he

showed numerous photomicrographs illustrating the effect of different

rates of cooling "in the green," (i.e., in the casting fresh from the mold)

both upon the initial properties of iron and steel castings, and upon their

properties after the usual processes of annealing. The rate of cooling

of the casting was shown to be a very important factor in the ultimate

properties of the metal.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

264 proceedings: botanical society

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 86th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February

4, 1913.

The following were elected to membership: Prof. R. Kent Beattie,

Dr. Charles Brooks^ Mr. J. G. Grossenbacher and Dr. Neil E. Stevens.

The following program was presented: Mr. T. H. Kearney: Indicator

value of natural vegetation in the Tooele Valley, Utah. The Tooele Valley

lies between the Oquirrh and Stansbury ranges and extends to the

south shore of Great Salt Lake. It was found that the valley is occupied

by some half dozen principal plant associations, each of which is charac-

terized by the presence of one, or, at most, two dominant species of

shrubs or perennial herbs. The presence of one or another association

was found to be closely indicative of the moisture relations and salt

content of the soil. The areas occupied by the different associations are

often so sharply defined as to be recognizable at a distance of several miles

The presence of a good stand and growth of sage brush {Artemisia,

tridentata) is always associated with a soil of rather light texture, very

dry during the summer months, free from alkali salts, and with a low

water table. This Artemisia association occupies mainl}^ the higher

lands of the valley. Descending the valley toward the shore of Great

Salt Lake, successive zones are traversed which are occupied by the

following associations: (2) Kochia vestita, (3) Atriplex confertifolia

(Shadscale), (4) Atriplex confertifolia and Sarcohatiis vermicidatus

(Greasewood), (5) Allenrolfea occidentalis, (6) Distichlis spicata (Salt

Grass) and two species of Salicomia.

Where associations 2 and 3 occur the soil is very dry during the sum-

mer, but has a higher moisture capacity than in the Artemisia association

and the sub-soil is strongly saline. Under association 4 the soil becomes

saline to the surface and the ground water table is relatively high.

Associations 5 and 6 occupy the wet and highly saline soils near the

level of the water surface of the lake and are interrupted by bare ex-

panses covered with a crust of salts (chiefly sodium chloride).

The suitability for crop production of the different types of land in

this valley can be predicted with much confidence from the character

of the native growth.

Mr. Harry B. Shaw: The control of seed production in beets. Prac-

tically all sugar-beets seed used in the United States is imported. Suc-

cessful attempts have been made in Utah, Idaho and Washington States

to produce sugar beet seed, but in other regions such attempts have not

been very successful, inasmuch as many of the plants have failed to

mature seed. Observations were made to ascertain the cause of this.

In order to make the subject readily comprehensible attention was

invited to the surprising responsiveness of the beet to environment

In these varied manifestations was sought a common factor, or group

of factors, which acting at a critical period in the life of the plant,

might be found to control the manner of its development. Experi-

ments were carried on in Utah during 1912 to determine, if possible, the

nature of the conditions responsible for the variations mentioned.

proceedings: botanical society 265

It was discovered that the condition absolutely necessary for the

perfect development of the reproductive parts is a period of restrained

growth in the bud rediments of seedlings, or the buds in the crown of

so-called mother beets. While in general this condition is brought

about by low temperatures (a mean temperature of 38 to 45°F. appar-

ently being required for the sugar beet) when prevailing for several

weeks, the necessary degree of growth inhibition may be brought about

by other factors, such as pathological conditions, drouth, starvation.

The withdrawal of such a period of inhibited metabolism, according to

degree, will result in the greater or less degree of approach to foliage

conditions, as opposed to the development of reproductive parts.

Thus, by a study of climatic conditions, suitable locations where the

production of seed may be assured, can be selected with a considerable

degree of certainty. The proper time to plant the mother-beets can

also be indicated, so that we may be reasonably certain that the beets

will produce seed.

This necessity for a period of inhibited metabolism, and the fact that

it may be brought about by the conditions mentioned, may explain

the remarkable inflorescence of moribund fruit trees, or of trees that

have been girdled, also the abnormal behavior of plants carried from a

cool to a warm climate.

The 87th regular meeting was held on February 25, 1913, at the

Hotel Cochran. This was the regular annual opening meeting of the

Society. Fifty members and forty-two guests were present.

The retiring president, Mr. W. A. Orton, delivered an address entitled

Environmental influences in the pathology of Solanum tuberosum. This

paper was published in this journal 3: 180. 1913.

The 88th regular meeting was held on April 1, 1913, at the Cosmos

Club.

Mr. James T. Jardine was elected to membership.

The following papers were presented.

Dr. G. G. Hedgcock: N'otes on Diseases of Trees Causedby Mistletoes.

Mistletoes are found only on conifers in northern and northeastern

United States; only on angiosperms in southeastern and southern por-

tions ; and on both in western and southwestern regions, where they are

the most widel}^ disseminated. The rate of spread of mistletoes is with-

out doubt very slow. Near Frazer, Colorado, on an old burn in the forest,

the rate of spread of Razoumofskya americana (Nutt.) Kuntze on the

lodge pole pines (Pinus contorta Loud.), is estimated to be from 6 to

12 feet per annum, where mechanical expulsion of the seeds aided by

winds are the controlling factors. Sporadic infections at much greater

distances are caused possibly bj^ birds or animals.

Light is the most important factor in determining the spread of mis-

tletoes of species of both Razoumofskya and Phoradendron. Trees in

the open, and in more exposed conditions, whether on ridges or edges

of can3'ons or on level areas are most subject to attack by mistletoes on

account of the abundance of light. Mistletoes are stunted bv dense

266 proceedings: botanical society

shade, and bear but few, if any seeds, and can not well maintain them-

selves under such conditions.

One of the immediate effects of the presence of the sinkers of these

parasites in the tissues of trees and shrubs, is a tendency to hypertrophy

in the immedate region of penetration. In case of species of Phoraden-

dron, unless the mistletoe plant is broken off there is little or no ten-

dency for its lateral sinkers to spread in the tissues of the host, and

when broken off, the rate of spread is slow, and no witches brooms are

formed. In case of species of Razoumofskya, witches brooms are com-

monly produced; the lateral sinkers spread in the soft tissues of the

host, keeping pace with each year's growth, and sending forth new aerial

shoots. The stimulus of the presence of this ramifying network of sinkers

of the parasite causes an increase in the number of buds and twigs pro-

duced by the limb of the host attached and results in the formation of

a more or less dense witches broom. The ability of the mistletoe to

grow out to the extremities of the limbs, enables it to send out shoots in

the best illuminated portion of the broom, and to bear seeds under the

most favorable conditions of light.

All species of mistletoe are considered injurious in their final effect

upon trees and shrubs. The leafy Phorandendrons are no doubt less

injurious, because of their increased chlorophyll bearing surface and

consequent greater ability to manufacture hydrocarbons. The leaf-

less species of Phoradendron are more injurious than the leafy ones.

Species of Razoumofskya are most injurious and stunt the growth of

the hosts. In view of the slow spread of species of mistletoe in the

forest, it will be possible to lessen, if not entirely to shut out these par-

asites from our future forests, by cutting down all diseased trees on

areas where timber sales are conducted.

Prof. A. S. Hitchcock: Notes on the botany of Trinidad. Mr. Hitch-

cock remained on the island of Trinidad from November 25 until De-

cember 31 except a few days spent on Tobago. On Trinidad there

were collected 350 numbers of grasses representing about 175 species.

Grisebach (Fl. Brit. W. Ind.) describes 87 species from the island and

Hart (Herb. List, Bot. Dept. Trinidad) lists 112 species. Several species

known to grow in Trinidad were not obtained by Mr. Hitchcock but

many species were added to the known flora. Among the more inter-

esting regions of the island were: Pitch Lake, where several unique

species of grasses were found including Panicum chloroticum, growing only

in the water-holding depression of the pitch ; Aripo and Piarco savannas,

isolated low flat grassy openings in the valley of the Caroni river, where

were found a probably new species of Raddia and Paspalum serpentinum

Hochst. not found since the original collection by Keppler in Sur-

inam nearly a century ago, and two new species of Panicum; and St.

Joseph savanna on the mountain side near the ancient capital of the

island, St. Joseph. This savanna is of especial interest because the

mountain sides are generally covered with forest except where cleared

for cultivation; it has occupied its present position since an indefinitely

early period as shown by the flora. The dominant grass is Trachijpogon

proceedings: biological society 267

plumosus, a species which has not been reported from Trinidad. This

species together with others of the association are the common con-

stituents of the savannas fomid on the Pacific slope of Panama and

Central America. In this savanna was found an undescribed species of

Axonopus, a beautiful golden annual, allied to A. aureus. At Taba-

quite in the center of the island in the original forest or "High woods"

was found another undescribed species of Raddia and the rare Pharus

parvifolius Nash. Several other apparently undescribed species were

found on various parts of the island. Most of the species, whose types

were from Trinidad were re-collected at their type localities. The re-

sults of the expedition to Trinidad and to Jamaica visited earlier on the

same trip, were very satisfactory and will supplement the large West

Indian collections previously incorporated in the National Herbarium.

C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 508th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cos-

mos Club February 22, 1913, with President Nelson in the chair and

76 persons present.

The program consisted of a lecture by Edmund Heller on Hunting

with Rainey in Africa. The communication was chiefly descriptive of

the maps and numerous lantern slides exhibited and also of the physical

features and vegetation of the country, as well as the animals secured

during the expedition.

The 509th meeting was held March 8, 1913, with Vice-President Paul

Bartsch in the chair and 37 ]:!ersons present.

Under the head of Brief notes and exhibition of specimens, Wm. Pal-

mer exhibited the head of the small devil ray, Mobtda olfersi, and a

plaster cast made from the same, and explained the feeding habits of

this fish. A. C. Weed gave some further account of its habits, and

Theodore Gill added some historical notes about devil fishes.

Barton W. Evermann reported results of the sale of blue fox skins

from the Pribilof Islands at Lampson's (London) auction on March 7.

The 384 skins offered sold at an average price of $56, the highest price

being $85.

The regular program consisted of two communications: J. W. Gid-

LEY gave an account of a fossil camel recently found in America north

of the Arctic circle. The only bone found was a phalanx. The species

was an extinct one and its occurrence so far north was regarded as

further proof that there once existed land coimection between the

continents by way of Alaska. The paper was discussed by Messrs.

Wilcox, 0. P. Hay, Weed, Gill, Evermann, Lyon and others.

The second communication was by Paul Bartsch on some Remark-

able Philippine molluska obtained by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries expe-

dition. Specimens of the mollusks described were exhibited by the

speaker.

268 proceedings: biological society

The 510th meeting was held March 22, 1913, with Vice-President

Bartsch in the chair and 52 persons present. .

Barton W. Evermann reported the executive order of President Taft

made March 3, 1913, setting aside the entire chain of the Aleutian

Islands as a wild mammal and bird reservation. The reservation is to

be under joint charge of the Departments of Agriculture and of Com-

merce. A. D. Hopkins announced the recent organization of a new

scientific society, The Society for the Advancement of Forest Entomology

in America. ^

The regular program consisted of two communications:

1. Recent progress in the study and culture of the common eel: Hugh

M. Smith. This was a comprehensive outline of the recent discoveries

concerning the life history of the common eel. Statistics of the com-

mercial uses of the eel and the methods employed abroad for its propaga-

tion and distribution were given. Numerous lantern slides were shown.

2. Tree-shrews: Marcus Lyon, Jr. This paper was based upon a

study of many specimens of these squirrel-like, insect-eating animals.

Of less than 800 known specimens in museums, the British Museum

possesses 355, the U. S. National Museum 324, and about 100 are in other

collections. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Messrs.

Bartsch and Wm. Palmer took part in the discussion.

The 511th meeting was held April 5, 1913, with President Nelson

in the chair and 43 persons present.

Under the heading Brief notes, Paul Bartsch reported observations

on the habits of the two common toads of the District of Columbia,

Bufo americanus and Bufo fowleri. Henry Talbott commented on

the possible agency of man in the dispersion of animals during the

relatively recent geological ages.

The regular program consisted of two communications:

1. A commercial aspect of paleontology by a layrnan: Henry Tal-

bott.

2. The zoological results of the Denmark expedition to northeast Green-

land: Fritz Johansen. The speaker, who accompanied the expedi-

tion, gave an account of climatic conditions and the fauna and flora

encountered. Mammals and birds received the principal attention.

Maps and numerous lantern slides were used.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill MAY 19, 1913 No. 10

METEOROLOGY. — The unusual atmospheric haziness during the

latter part of 1912. H. H. Kimball, Weather Bureau.

In a previous paper^ it has been shown that when first observed

at Mount Weather on June 10, 1912, the haziness did not differ

materially from that usually observed on the rear of anti-cyclonic

areas, except in its unusual density. Subsequently,^ after the

haze had continued almost uninterruptedly for over two months,

it was thought that dust from Katmai Volcano, in Alaska, had

added its hazing effect to that of purely meteorological origin.

A careful compilation of all available observational data relative

to unusual haziness or smokiness or decreased atmospheric trans-

parency, during the latter part of 1912, was at once undertaken.

The results, of which the following is a summary, will be found

in greater detail elsewhere.^

Observational data. The observations have been derived from

the following sources:

1. Descriptive papers and notes in various scientific journals.

2. Extracts from the meteorological reports for June, 1912, of the

cooperative observers of the U. S. Weather Bureau.

3. Rephes to a circular letter dated December 7, 1912, addressed to

officials in charge of Weather Bureau Stations, and requesting copies of

all notes made in the Daily Local Record since June 1, 1912, relative to

1 This Journal, 2, 402, 1912.

2 Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory, 5, 161.

' The effect upon atmospheric transparency of the eruption of Katmai Volcano.

Monthly Weather Review. January, 1913. The effect of the atmospheric tur-

bidity of 1912 upon solar radiation intensities and skylight polarization. Bull.

Mt. Weather Observatory 5, pt. 5.

269

270 KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912

the occurrence of any unusually hazy or smoky conditions of the atmos-

phere, or of unusually brilliant colors at sunrise or sunset.

4. Extracts from the meteorological reports of observers in British

Columbia, which were kindly forwarded to the Chief of the U. S. Weather

Bureau by the Director of the Meteorological Service of Canada.

5. Extracts from the logs of ships sailing on the North Pacific Ocean

in June, 1912.

6. Replies to a circular letter dated December 28, 1912, addressed to

members of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, and

requesting copies of any observational data they might have relative to

a possible diminution in atmospheric transparency after June 1, 1912.

7. Observations of skyhght polarization made by me at Mount

Weather, Virginia, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, and pyrheliometric

measurements made under my supervision at Mount Weather, Virginia,

Madison, Wisconsin, and Lincoln, Nebraska.

Fall of volcanic ash. Katmai Volcano which is in the Aleutian

Range, Alaska, latitude 58°N., longitude 155°W., approximately,

became violently eruptive on the afternoon of June 6, 1912, and

continued in a state of great activity for about three days; it was

more or less active until the end of October and perhaps until

the end of the year. As a result of these eruptions volcanic ash

fell between June 6 and June 10 over an area extending in latitude

from Rampart, Alaska, latitude 65^°N to Loring, Alaska, latitude

55|°N and in the state of Washington to latitude 48^°N. In

longitude the fall extended from Nushagak, Alaska, longitude

158|°W., to Chicken, Alaska, longitude 142°W., to Loring, Alaska,

longitude 131° W., and in the state of Washington to longitude

122^° W. There also appears to have been a fall of very fine

dust at Mount Wilson, California, on August 3-4, which dis-

colored the silver film on the coelostat mirrors.

Haze and smoke. The observations show that a hazy or smoky

period set in over British Columbia on June 6-8, and over the

northwestern part of the United States on June 8-10. This

continued until June 11-12, and in the meantime gradually ex-

tended eastward. A second hazy or smoky period set in over

British Columbia on June 18-20, and over the northwestern part

of the United States at about the same time. It extended gradu-

ally eastward and southward, and diminished in intensity before

the end of the month, especially in the states west of the Rocky

Mountains.

KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912 271

It appears that the haziness of these two periods is to be attri-

buted to three different causes, namely:

1. The meteorological conditions, which are especially favor-

able for the formation of haze on the rear of anti-cyclonic areas.

A well defined anti-cylonic area crossed the region east of the

Rocky Mountains between June 6 and June 11. Another was

central over the Rocky Mountain region between June 17 and

June 21, and had passed eastward to the Atlantic ocean by June

24.

2. Smoke from forest fires. There were extensive forest fires

in Yukon Territory, Canada, south of Dawson, during the latter

part of May, 1912, and in British Columbia about June 6, and

between June 11 and June 26. There were no important forest

fires in the United States during the month of June.

3. Smoke or dust from Katmai Volcano.

While it is impossible completely to separate the effects of these

three causes, it seems evident that the haze and smoke in British

Columbia on June 9-10, which was generally accompanied by

sulfur fumes, was at least in part of volcanic origin. The same

may also be said of the smoke and haze that was particularly

noticeable in the states of Washington, Montana, and Wyoming

on the same dates, coming, as it did, at about the time of the fall

of volcanic ash in the state of Washington. Several observers

state that the haze of the latter part of June, as well as that of

June 8-12, was a high haze, having some of the characteristics

of cirrus clouds, but lacking their fibrous appearance. At Madi-

son, Wisconsin, these cloud-like forms were first observed at 11

a.m. of June 8. If, as seems probable, they consisted of dust from

Katmai Volcano, their rate of transportation had been about 73

miles per hour.

The haze appears to have been first observed in Europe between

June 20 and 27, altho there is evidence that it was present previous

to June 12. It was first observed in Algeria, Africa, on June 19,

altho it is probable that it affected the bolometric determinations

of solar radiation intensity as early as June 17. The characteris-

tics of the haze, and its effects, appear to have been practically the

same in Europe and in northern Africa as in North America.

272 KIMBALL: ATMOSPHERIC HAZINESS DURING 1912

Astronomical observations. While most of the repHes to the

circular letter addressed to members of the Astronomical and As-

trophysica Society of America were to the effect that no data

had been obtained bearing upon the question of a diminution in

atmospheric transparency during the latter part of 1912, a consid-

erable number furnished data that were confirmatory of such a

diminution. For convenience of discussion these data were

divided into four classes, as follows:

a. Visual observations of a general whiteness of the sky and a

lack of transparency of the atmosphere.

b. Instrumental determinations of atmospheric transparency,

which generally showed a decrease commencing with June or July.

c. Unsatisfactory results in astronomical photography, and a

general increase in the exposure time required.

d. An observed increase in the brilliancy and duration of twi-

light colors.

These last were confirmatory of observations made by Weather

Bureau observers, which indicated that twilight colors were unusu-

ally brilliant in October and November, altho at a few stations the

colors were the subject of remark as early as June.

The decrease in atmospheric transparency as determined by

observations classified under b and c was generally estimated at

from 10 to 20 per cent.

A few observers detected a change in the color of sunlight

as well as in that of sky light, apparently due to the excessive

absorption or scattering of the shorter wave lengths.

Pyrheliometric observations. At Mount Weather, during the

last half of 1912, the solar radiation intensities measured with the

sun at zenith distance 60° averaged only 83 per cent of the corre-

sponding intensities measured under normal conditions. At

Madison, Wisconsin, they were 86 per cent of the average; while

at Lincoln, Nebraska, in November, 1912, they averaged only 82

per cent of the intensities measured in November, 1911.

Sky light polarization. At the point of maximum polarization

the percentage of polarized light averaged about 20 per cent less

during the last half of 1912 than the average under normal con-

ditions. Also, the solar and anti-solar distances of the neutral

wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 273

points of Babinet and Arago, respectively, were materially in-

creased when the sun was above the horizon. With the sun below

the horizon the increase was slight, and in some cases there was

even a decrease.

These effects upon sky light polarization are in every way simi-

lar to the effects observed in 1903 after the eruption of Mount

Pelee n 1902.

The effect of decreased solar radiation intensities upon air tem-

peratures. In the Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory

3 : 1 1 1 , a diagram is given which shows that diminished solar radia-

tion intensities comparable with those of 1912 occurred in 1884-86,

1891, and 1903. Each of these periods was accompanied and fol-

lowed by temperatures below the norma] in the United States.

While the minus temperature departures were not greater than

have occurred in other years, they persisted for a greater length

of time.

It will be of interest to observe if the present depression in the

solar radiation intensity curve is also followed by a long continued

cold period in the United States.

PHYSICS. — Recent theories of heat and radiation.^ W. Wien,

Professor of Physics, University of Wiirzburg.

In a series of lectures at Columbia University, I am treating

several problems which are of peculiar interest to modern physics

but which already present grave theoretical difficulties. The

hypothesis of elements of energy or quanta, as given by Planck

and expressed in the well known formula, is indispensable in the

statistical treatment of molecular physics. It contains something,

however, which lies beyond the commonly accepted system of

ph.ysical theory. The difficulty in all these problems lies in the

fact that one must constantly make use of relations, which are

difficult to determine, between the theory of quanta and the older

classical theory.

It is impossible as yet to say to what extent the theory of quanta

may be applied. Thus far, its application has been confined to

^ An address delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences on April 23,

1913.

274 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation

statistical considerations, and has been successful, but the assump-

tion that the emission of radiation can only take place by quanta

has not yet been necessary in any direct physical experiment.

The success of the statistical treatment of the phenomena of heat,

which has led to the theory of quanta, must- be due to some peculi-

arity of the atom which has found its simplest expression in

Planck's hypothesis of quanta, but it remains to be proved

whether this assumption represents the true theory of the actual

phenomena.

We can not say that the atom radiates energy only thru quanta,

for if we accelerate an atom of canal radiation, it must send out

energy according to the laws of the electromagnetic field. This

energy can be calculated and may reach any arbitrary value.

Nor is it possible to overcome this difficulty by assuming that

the theory of quanta holds only for periodic variations, and an

acceleration is not periodic — ^for in an alternating field we can

impress such vibrations upon a charged atom that it will emit a

radiation which is periodic but has nothing to do with the quan-

tum. Again, if we regard heat as the elastic vibration of the

atoms, it leads to the conclusion that the theory of quanta must

apply there. On the other hand, acoustical vibrations of the

same character have nothing to do with the quantum. To apply

the theory of quanta to every possible kind of vibration seems,

therefore, to lead to impossible consequences.

Once it seemed necessary to limit the application of the

theory to the phenomena of irregular molecular motion, and,

indeed, we may call Planck's formula the general expression of this

irregular motion. From this point of view the theory of quanta

tells us that such irregular molecular motion diminishes with

temperature and disappears at absolute zero — ^which is synony-

mous with the assertion that entropy vanishes at zero as required

by the Nernst theorem.

Since the theory of quanta gives us only a formula for the statis-

tical treatment of the partition of energy, it is extremely difficult

to find its true physical meaning. We might, of course, content

ourselves with applying this statistical treatment to observed

phenomena only, merely exchanging the theorem of equipartition

wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 275

of energy for the general formula of the theory of quanta, but then

our need for adequate causes remains unsatisfied, and, besides, we

can not in this way avoid being forced to use the theory of quanta

in connection with the classical theory of mechanics and electro-

dynamics. So long as these relations remain unknown, the

theory will stand on uncertain ground. At the moment, the best

way appears to be to apply the theory of quanta to as large a

number as possible of the problems related to the theory of heat.

We may begin with the theory of radiation in the form given

by Debye in connection with the theory of Rayleigh and Jeans.

And this has the additional advantage of bringing out more clearly

the true meaning of the theory of quanta, namely, that another

partition of energy takes place, for the energy can only be divided

in parts of magnitude hv.- This theory of quanta also lies at

the foundation of the theory of specific heat, for the heat of solids

is identified with the vibrations of the atom.

The assumption that energy can only be distributed in mul-

tiples of hv corresponds with the first hypothesis of Planck, that

emission and absorption can only take place in aliquot parts of

magnitude hv. But it is well known that this theory is open to

serious objections, for a discontinuous absorption of continuous

radiation is hardly imaginable. Therefore Planck has now given

up the assumption of quanta for the absorption and applies the

hypothesis only to the phenomenon of emission, leaving the ab-

sorbed energy to reach any arbitrary value. The question then

arises, How is it possible to bring this into harmony with the

theory of specific heat?

According to Planck's new theory, each atom conceals a quan-

tity of energy the mean value of which is ^ for each free vibration.

This energy exceeds the heat energy, even at temperatures which

are not very low. Is it therefore possible to assume two kinds of

energy of vibrations, one that can not be transferred and another

that we call the energy of heat? If elastic vibrations remain in

the solid in such an amount that the he^t energy is only a small

- Where v is the number of vibrations, and /( a universal constant.

276 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation

fraction of the total energy, how is it possible for the electric con-

ductivity to depend in anj^ considerable degree upon temperature?

The assumption that the energy can be distributed only in

multiples of hv can, it seems to me, be combined with Planck's

new theor}^ only on the hypothesis that the absorption of energy

is continuous, but that the absorbed energy exists at first only in

the form of energy of electrons. The vibrations of the atoms are

identical with the heat energy, and disappear completely at abso-

lute zero, but the energy of the electrons remains arid amounts

hv

in the mean to ^. On this assumption, the theory of specific

heat remains unchanged.

There is one further difficulty with vibrations of the infra-red

rays which are assumed in the theory of dispersion to excite elastic

vibrations of the molecules. These vibrations would also be

hv

heat vibrations, but there would remain an amount ^ not depend-

ing on temperature. Perhaps in this case also the motion of the

h

electrons is primary. Then ^ would again represent the energy

of the electrons.

The assumption that the electrons have a motion independent

of temperature seems not to be a new hypothesis. It is founded

on the theory of quanta, because the emission can only take place

if the energy reaches hv. Now we know from Zeemann's phe-

nomenon that the radiating particles are moving electrons, and

therefore that the electrons must move before the radiation can

begin. The theory of diamagnetism also requires the hypothesis

of moving electrons independent of temperature. Debye's theory

of specific heat is founded directlj^ on the formula of partition of

energy. It requires only the assumption that the heat energy is

identical with the vibrations of the atoms, and that the forces

are those which are assumed in the common theory of elasticity.

A serious difficulty arises in connection with the heat conduc-

tivity which should be determined by the elastic waves in the

solid. The theory of elasticity is used for the determination of

the number of free vibrations, and is thus connected with the

wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 277

theory of quanta, but we do not yet know how to use this theory

to calculate the velocity of molecular vibrations thru the solid.

In considering Planck's new theory, we assume an amount of

energy >, independent of temperature. To find the true law of

radiation,, one must adopt a definite law of emission, and so obtain

a relation between the probability of emission and the rate of

increase of energy to the critical value hv. It would be freer from

objection to consider the law of radiation as determined by the

considerations offered by Debye, and then to derive inversely the

law of emission.

The now well-known theory of electrons was founded on the

hypothesis that electric conductivity in metals is determined by

free electrons moving in the metal with complete irregularity. In

this form the theory can not hold, for H. A. Lorentz has shown

that such free electrons must yield a radiation following the law

of Rayleigh and Jeans. This radiation, especially for short waves,

would be many times greater than is found by observation. The

theory of specific heat also shows that only the molecules, not the

electrons, possess heat energy.

One might perhaps hope to find a way out of the difficulty by

assuming that the number of electrons is small in comparison with

the number of atoms, but for low temperatures one would be

forced to apply Planck's formula, not only to the atoms but to the

electrons as well, and a new difficulty would at once result, since the

free electrons can not have a vibration frequency equal to v. If it

were possible to identify the v for an electron with the value for

an atom, the electrons could no longer be regarded as free and

there would be no difference between the free electrons and the

electrons fixed in the atom. All the electrons would take part

of the heat energy, and, their number being greater than the

number of atoms, the value of the specific heat for high tempera-

tures would be too high. There are many circumstances which

make it probable that the energy of the electrons is independent

of temperature. All emissions of electrons by radiation are inde-

pendent of temperature, and the electrons coming from hot bodies

can be emitted bv radiation.

278 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation

It is possible to develop a theory of electric conductivity if

one considers the motion of electrons in metals to be independent

of temperature. In this case the conductivity of metals could

change only thru variation of the free path of the electrons. The

free path of electrons will depend only upon the vibrati ons of the

atoms, and must be inversely proportional to the numberof vibrat-

ing atoms. It would be more difficult to find the relation between

the free path and the amplitude of the vibrations. A statistical

consideration shows that the free path must be independent of the

partition of the quanta only in case the free path be inversely pro-

portional to the square of the amplitude. The vibrations are sup-

posed to be identical with the elastic vibrations of the solid. In

this way, one arrives at a formula for the conductivity, using the

values obtained by the theory of elasticity, which agrees with the

observations of Kammerlingh-Onnes except at very low tempera-

tures. It also yields the high value for the temperature coeffi-

cient for iron and nickel. The derivation of the formula for elec-

tric conductivity suggests that the electrons are in irregular motion

but the energy of this motion will not depend, as assumed in

Drude's theory, on the temperature, for the motion considered

remains unchanged even at the lowest temperatures. It is

possible to identify this energy of the electrons with the energy

^ of the theory of radiation.

Some considerations have been offered by Einstein, which

have considerable importance for the theory of quanta. They

relate to fluctuations in the radiant energy caused by the irregu-

larity of the emission. The theory of the Brownian movements

founded on the theory of errors has shown such a surprising agree-

ment with observation that it is necessarj^ to take account of

this theory in its application to radiation. Using Boltzmann's

theorem of the relation between entropy and probability, this

can be calculated from the known formula of the entropy of radia-

tion. Applying the law of errors we can calculate the fluctuations

of the radiant energy about its mean value. The calculation gives

an expression which cannot be interpreted from the mean values

for interfering rays, meeting in a point distant from the radiating

wien: eecent theories of heat and radiation 279

surface. The expression which represents the fluctuations con-

tains two terms, one having the form which would result if the

elements of energy were concentrated in points of space, the other

expressing the fluctuations caused by interference alone. ^ But

the second term of the formula also contains the constant h and

one can combine the two terms into one, in consequence of which

it is not quite certain whether the separation into two terms is

due to the phj^sical phenomena. Certain it is that at low tem-

peratures the calculated fluctuations are larger than those caused

by interference alone. Inasmuch as this case applies only to

radiation which exists free in space it has no relation to observa-

tion.

Another case, which was also treated by Einstein, is therefore

of great interest here. It concerns the irregular motion of a mirror

accelerated by pressure of radiation in free space. In the calcula-

tion of this pressure the effect of small velocities vanishes because

the pressure is the same on the front and on the back of the mirror.

It is therefore necessary to calculate the second term which is

proportional to the velocity. The expression for the mean energy

of the irregular motion of the mirror is also made up of two terms

and is quite analogous to the expression for radiant energy.

If the mirror be suspended in a space filled with radiation

from a black body an energy equilibrium is established and it

may be expected that the irregularities in the pressure of radiation

will reach the magnitude given by the law of equipartition of

energy. Therefore the mean energy of the mirror moving in one

direction would be ^ kTJ But if we calculate the irregular motions

caused by interference alone w^e shall find them smaller, the mean

energy being proportional to kT and independent of h. It is

unlikely that the mean energy of the real motions would be differ-"

kT

ent from the value -^, for the irregularities caused by the pres-

sure of radiation must be in equilibrium with the irregularities

caused by other thermal phenomena. It seems therefore neces-

' From this expression Einstein was led to suggest the assumption that quanta

also exist in space.

^ Where k is the constant of the theory of gases and T the absolute temperature.

This quantity of energy is equal to the mean energy of a gas-molecule.

280 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation

sary to suggest a proper cause for increasing the irregular motions

by the amount of the pressure. For the calculation of these

irregularities it is altogether probable that the mirror cannot be

considered to be a continuous body and the molecular structure

of the mirror must be taken into consideration.

The theory of the Rontgen rays, is also connected in some way

with the theory of quanta but is founded on purely electromag-

netic considerations. Sometime ago I tried to calculate the wave

length of the Rontgen rays from the theory of Stokes and Wiech-

ert using only the measurements of energy. The electromagnetic

theory gives the energy radiated by the retardation of an electron

in a path of definite length. The radiated energy increases with

the velocity of the electron and diminishes with the length of the

path of retardation. The electron on the other hand radiates

only in this path and the wave of electromagnetic disturbance is

therefore enclosed between two spheres the centers of which lie

at the extremities of the path. Hence the wave length can be

calculated from the length of the path, that is, from the velocity

and the radiated energy. The energy of the electrons can be

calculated from the energy of the excited Rontgenrays. One

can therefore calculate the wave length of Rontgen rays from the

ratio of the energies of electrons and Rontgen rays. The value

found in this way is considerably smaller than that found by obser-

vations of diffraction. Another way of calculating the wave

length of Rontgen rays is given by the theory of quanta. If

secondary electrons are excited by Rontgen rays the velocity

acquired is much greater than can be explained by the electro-

magnetic theory. Only a few atoms, however, radiate secondary

electrons.

For the simplest explanation of this observation the hypothesis

is made that the energy of secondary electrons is derived from the

energy accumulated in the atom and having the mean value ^ .

At first those atoms will radiate which possess a quantity of energy

not very different from hv, and which need only to absorb a small

amount of the incident radiation to reach the critical value hv.

These atoms will then radiate and the energy of the emerging

wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 281

electron is ^ i'^ = hv. The energy of the secondary electrons

being known one can calculate the value of v and obtain a wave

length for the Rontgen rays of the same order of magnitude as

that which results from experiments in diffraction. It also

seems probable that the Rontgen rays affect only the electrons

and that the whole absorption is therefore caused by collisions of

the secondary electrons with the atoms. In the production of

Rontgen rays almost the whole energy of the -cathode rays is

transformed into heat. Sommerfeld has given a formula unit-

ing the theory of Rontgen rays with the theory of quanta. He

puts the action integral (principle of least action) equal to the

constant ^ , the integration being taken over the time of the

molecular action. It is then possible to calculate from the values

of the kinetic and potential energies and the constant h, the time

of molecular action which corresponds to the time of radiation.

According to this reasoning the value of the wave lengths resulting

from the electromagnetic theory should agree with the value

derived from the theory of quanta. In fact much smaller values

for the wave lengths result from the electromagnetic theory. Som-

merfeld explains this by assuming that the Rontgen rays are not

monochromatic but consist of two kinds of radiation, one depend-

ing on the nature of the anticathode while the other is the radia-

tion of the retarded electrons. The latter must be polarized in

a plane such that the electric vibrations are parallel to the direc-

tion of retardation. One can then calculate the radiation of the

retarded electrons from the polarized portion of the Rontgen

rays. Using the observations upon the polarization of Rontgen

rays one now finds an agreement.

Sommerfeld applies his theorem also to the electrons expelled

by ultraviolet light by supposing that the energy acquired by the

electrons is accumulated by resonance, but with this supposition

I cannot agree. In this case a very long time must elapse before

emission begins. For the explanation of the emission of electrons

by light it seems to me rather that M^e must take account of the

energy concealed in the atom.

282 wien: recent theories of heat and radiation

One of the phenomena, in which the emission of Ught undoubt-

edly takes place thru the collision of molecules and atoms, is

the positive rays. There we have atoms and molecules moving

with high velocities which can be measured by means of magnetic

and electric deflection or by direct methods. One can calculate

the mean energy emitted by one atom in one spectral line from the

ratio of the emitted intensity in the Doppler line to the number of

atoms, which number can be found by observation of the current

of positive electricity. On the other hand we find that the par-

ticles which are active in the positive rays do not retain their

charge but lose it thru collisions with atoms at rest, and after

being without charge for a time, they get a new one thru a second

collision with a particle at rest. We have therefore always two

kinds of particles, one charged and the other uncharged, — neglect-

ing the negatively charged particles, whose number is compara-

tively small. In the state of equilibrium the number of particles

in unit volume losing their charge, is equal to the number receiv-

ing a new charge, so that the number of charged as well as of

uncharged particles remains constant. But the ratio of the

number of charged particles to the number of those uncharged

depends upon the number of collisions of both kinds of particles,

and is equal to the ratio of the free path of charged particles to

the free path of those uncharged. This ratio may be determined

by taking away the charged particles in an electric field.

The free path itself can be found if the charged partic'es are

deflected and the distance measured, thru which the uncharged

particles must pass before a definite number receive their positive

charges. It is found that the free path of the uncharged particles

is greater than that of the charged particles but that the ratio of

the one to the other depends on the pressure of the gas at rest.

This is not in accord with the fundamental concept of the kinetic

theory of gases, which demands that the free path be inversely

proportional to the pressure. Also the absolute value of the free

paths is not inversely proportional to the pressure but at low pres-

sures diminishes more slowly than the pressure increases. These

results show that the atoms cannot be regarded as entirely inde-

pendent of each other. One may also observe that the absorption

wien: recent theories of heat and radiation 283

of positive rays is not proportional to the pressure but is very much

slower. Thus we see that even under these simple conditions

the behavior of the atoms is very complicated.

Now it is certain that the emission of light takes place thru

collisions of the moving atoms with atoms or molecules at rest

and the question is whether or not the collisions effecting the emis-

sion of light are the same as the collisions which cause the atoms

to lose or receive their charges. If we assume that the two kinds

of collisions are the same, we must perforce apply the theory

of quanta, because one atom cannot send out less radiation than

one quantum. From the free path we know the number of col-

lisions per cm of path, and, having found the mean energy emitted

by one atom, we may calculate how many collisions are neces-

sary to effect the emission of one quantum of a spectral line, that

is, how many collisions must occur for each one which excites one

quantum emission. But the emission of light by the positive

rays depends very greatly on the velocity of the particles. If

the velocity is very small no emission at all can come from the

particles. The emission increases rapidly with the velocity but

after reaching a maximum value it decreases so that for great velo-

cities it again disappears. The emission of light is therefore associ-

ated with a small range of velocities.

In the light emitted by the positive rays we always have two

spectral lines, one coming from the molecules at rest and the

other from the moving molecules. One might think it possible

to find a relation between those two by applying the principle of

relativity. If we make the whole system move with the velocity

of the moving atoms and in the opposite direction, then the atoms

at rest become moving atoms, the moving atoms are now at rest

and nothing is changed. One might therefore conclude that the

light emitted by the moving atoms differs from the light coming

from the atoms at rest only by the amount of the change de-

manded by Doppler's principle. But we have here a complica-

tion in that not- only atoms or molecules but also electrons are

emitted by atoms in collision and these secondary electrons like-

wise cause an emission of light if they are absorbed.

All these considerations show that the emission of light by the

284 AUSTIN: APPARATUS FOR RADIOTELEGRAPHY

positive rays is also a complex phenomenon, in which the emission

of a spectral line depends not only on the radiating atom but

also on the velocity of the atom or electron which excites the radia-

tion. One must therefore try to make the conditions of experi-

ment still simpler.

Another phenomenon to which it may be possible to apply the

theory of quanta is the scintillation caused by the impact of a-rays

against a phosphorescent body. In a sense we have here an ele-

mentary operation because the light, which is emitted in one

scintillation is caused by a single a-particle. But the amount of

energy radiated in the scintillation is much larger than one quan-

tum and it seems that this energy does not come from a single

atom of the phosphorescent substance but from a great number of

atoms, all excited by the same a-particle.

After this survey of the field we are thus compelled to admit

that for the moment we have no experiment which permits the

observation of a single quantum of energy. With light We can-

not hope to make such observations directly because more than

thirty quanta are necessary to be perceptible to the eye. In

Rontgen rays the element of energy is more than 1000 times larger

but here we have no instrument of observation as sensitive as

the tmman eye.

It is therefore unavoidable that in the study of the quanta

theory we are confined to statistical methods, and these do not

give us a convincing interpretation in terms of physical fact. It

is only by applying the theory of quanta to many and widely

different phenomena that we can hope to find out the true physi-

cal explanation of this novel theory. On the other hand it is

evident that hardly more than the first steps have yet been taken

and that by far the greater part of the work still remains to be

done.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A Comparison of arc and spark send-

ing apparatus for radiotelegraphy . L, W. Austin, U. S. Naval

Radiotelegraphic Laboratory.

It has been claimed by the users of continuous oscillations in

radiotelegraphy that these waves are less absorbed in passing

AUSTIN: APPARATUS FOR RADIOTELEGRAPHY 285

over the surface of the earth than the damped wave trains pro-

duced by spark sending. Several attempts have been made to

settle this question by experiment, but over the moderate dis-

tances employed no difference in absorption has been observed.

In order to extend these experiments to greater distances, a 30-

kw. arc operated with 500-volt direct current was installed at

the high power station at Arlington, Virginia. At a wave length

of 4100 meters, the arc gave an antenna current of from 47 to 53

amperes. Comparisons were made of the received current from

this arc and from the 500 cycle spark set giving from 100 to 120

amperes in the antenna. A very careful set of observations of

the received currents from the two types of apparatus was made

at St. Augustine, Florida, the measurements being taken by the

calibrated detector and galvanometer method. The distance

between the two stations was 530 nautical miles. The received

currents were found to be simply proportional to the radiation

currents at Arlington with an error not greater than 10 per cent;

that is, at this distance there was no evidence of a difference

in the absorption. These results were verified by the shunted

telephone method using the slipping contact detector, ^ at New

Orleans and also at Key West, both places being approximately

900 miles from Washington.

The receiving apparatus was then placed on the U.S.S. Ar-

kansas and taken to Colon, 1800 nautical miles from Arlington.

During the two days available for observation at Colon the

receiving apparatus was taken to the Naval Radiotelegraphic

Station. During these two days, the arc signals were heard at

each schedule both day and night, while the spark signals were

heard only at night. These observations indicated that at 1800

miles the continuous waves show a smaller degree of absorption

than the damped waves. It was not possible, however, to draw

this conclusion with certainty, since at the season of the year in

which the observations were taken, late December, exceptional

days occur which might perhaps affect the continuous oscillations

in a different manner from those of the spark.

/

» Journ. Wash. Acad. 1: 8. 1911.

286 HESS AND hunt: TRIPLITE from NEVADA

An additional series of observations has been made during the

recent voyage of the Salem to Gibraltar and return. Here it was

found, in verification of the Colon experiments, that for distances

over 1400 miles the arc as received in the day time was equal to

or somewhat better than the spark, notwithstanding the fact that

the spark radiation current at Arlington was considerably more

than twdce as great as the corresponding arc current. Messages

were continuously received with both arc and spark in the day

time up to 2100 miles. Several times day signals were heard at

greater distances, the arc being uniformly louder. The night

signals were heard all the way to Gibraltar.

MINERALOGY. — Triplite from eastern Nevada. Frank L. Hess

and W. F. Hunt.^ Communicated by F. L. Ransome.

Triplite, a manganese fluophosphate of pale salmon color, was

found in specimens of tungsten ore sent by G. G. Sims from the

Reagan district in the Kern Range, White Pine County, Nevada,

to the United States Geological Survey. It occurs with wolfram-

ite (hiibnerite?), scheelite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, an argentiferous

sulfide of bismuth and lead, which is possibly cosalite, native

bismuth, and a little sericite. The triplite is in irregular masses,

the largest of which is less than an inch in diameter.

The mineral association strongly suggests pegmatitic origin and

from its occurrence in other places the presence of triplite in a

vein wouM appear to indicate that the vein is either an end

product of differentiation in a pegmatite magma or was deposited

by magmatic waters.

An analysis (by W. F. H.) gave only 1.68 per cent of FeO.

Previously published analyses of triplite from other localities have

shown from 7.69 to 41.42 per cent FeO, and the minerals have

been of much darker color. The formula for the Reagan mineral

approximates MnO.P2O5.MnF2.

A more extended description will be later submitted for pub-

lication in the American Journal of Science.

^Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological

Survey.

cobb: notes on mononchus and tylenchulus

287

HELMINTHOLOGY. — Notes on Mononchus and Tylenchulus.

N. A. Cobb. Bureau of Plant Industry.

Mononchus. Various observers have suggested that species of

the genus Mononchus may be injurious to vegetation. For some

years the writer has accumulated observations showing the species

of this genus to be carnivorous. On various occasions the intes-

tine has been seen to contain other nematodes that have been

swallowed whole. On one occasion a Mononchus was captured

in the act of swallowing another nematode. When Mononchi are

placed in water with other species of nematodes the latter are

sometimes seen suddenly to exhibit active motion, apparently

Fig. 1. Seven females of Tylenchulus semi-penetrans in various stages, as

found on a feeding root of orange tree. The two outside specimens are younger

than the others, which are adult or nearly so. A considerable portion of the

head end of the worm is inside the root. The roots are injured, a, tail end;

b, vulva; c, excretory pore; d, immature egg; e, ripe egg.

expressive of fear, when touched by the head of one of the Mon-

onchi— acting, in fact, as if suddenly nipped or bitten. It

would appear that Mononchi are beneficial to vegetation, rather

than injurious, as the nematodes they feed upon are often

injurious species.

Tylenchulus (New genus). Mr. E. E. Thomas has recently

announced in Circular No. 85 of the California College of Agri-

culture a very interesting discovery in connection with the roots

of citrus trees. Mr. J. R. Hodges, California State Horticultural

Inspector, observed nematodes from the roots of orange trees, and

concluded they were injurious. Thomas' investigations showed the

nematodes to be of common occurrence, but he nevertheless con-

cluded that the species was one not hitherto found on citrus

288

cobb: notes on mononchus and tylenchulus

Fig. 2. Nearly adult male

of Tylenchulus semi-pene-

trans, a, mouth pore; b, an-

terior part of spear; c, pro-

truding-muscle of spear;

d, beginning of oesophagus;

€, deteriorated median bulb;

/, nerve-ring; g, deteriorated

posterior bulb; /t, beginning

of intestine; i, terminus;

j, larger intestinal granule;

k, smaller intestinal granule;

I, anus; m, left spiculum;

n, excretory pore; o, sper-

matocyte; p, vas deferens;

q, spermatozoon.

roots, and Circular No. 85 was issued to

call the attention of other investigators

to the subject.

The writer has recently examined the

nematode mentioned, and finds it a

new generic form, for which the name

Tylenchulus is most appropriate.

Tylenchulus has the characters of

Tylenchus, except that, (1) there is no

functional anus; (2) the excretory pore

is near the middle of the body, or even

farther back in the adult female; (3)

there is no male bursa; (4) the male prac-

tically loses the spear at the final moult ;

(5) the cuticle of the female is much

thickened when the posterior portion of

the body becomes saccate at maturity;

(6) the vulva is located in a deep suture.

The type species is :

Tylenchulus semi-penetrans, nov. gen.,

n. sp.

U. _^l^ 67.' '90. 94.'

7.1 2:7

-M 88.

2.2 7.1 8.7 20.

3.3 16. 29.

2.7

.5 mm.

4 mm.

2.2 2.7 2.7 3.

Cuticle naked, traversed by 400-500 plain

transverse striae. Neck cylindroid, becom-

ing convex-conoid near the continuous head,

which is rounded in front. No lips, amphids

or eye-spots. Spear and oesophagus typi-

cally tylenchoid. Median bulb ellipsoidal,

with valve; posterior swelling pyriform to

elongated, without valve. Male tail conoid

to the somewhat blunt terminus. Posterior

part of the adult female saccate, with wide

blunt tail bent toward the ventral side.

Vulva in the midst of a prominent ventral

suture.

Habitat: Parasitic on citrus roots in Cali-

fornia and Florida.

Fuller publication with illustrations will

follow.

1 Measurement near the middle of the saccate part.

* Arbitrary, as there is no anus.

lotka: a natural population norm

289

VITAL STATISTICS.— A natural population norm.' II.

Alfred J. Lotka. Communicated by G. K. Burgess.

II. Proportion of sexes. In addition to the features discussed

in part I of this paper, Table III also shows the calculated and

observed ratio of the total number of females to that of males

in the population. The calculated figure is obtained as follows:

Let Bra be the total number of male birth per annum, and Nm

the total number of males in the population. Let B{, N{ similarly

refer to females. Then b^, hi, the male and female birthrates

per head per annum, are defined respectively by

&m =

Hence

N^

B^ h

(8)

(9)

Bi

Now — , the proportion of female births to male births, is

Bra

a characteristic constant of the population, and in the case under

1

consideration its value was

1 . \joo2i

bjn, b{ we have by (4) and Table I

Hence (9) becomes

Ni

= 0.9632. For the values of

= 41.35 - 1312r^ +

44.62 - 1467rf +

(10)^

A.

= 0.9632

= 1.0395

44.62 - 1467rf

41.35 - 13"l2r„,

1 -32.878rf )

r^31.729r„i

(11)

ri2)

1 See this Journal 3: 241-248. 1913.

- The convergence of the series (10) is such that in the computation of 6 and of

c (a) seven terms had to be retained; but the quotient (12) is much more rapidly-

convergent, so that only two terms are here required.

290 lotka: a natural population norm

In the numerical case here considered Tj^ = 0.01431,

n = 0.01373.

This gives, for the ratio ~zrr- the computed value 1.045, as against

the observed value 1.054.

III. Age-distribution at death. (3) we have for the total num-

ber of deaths between the age-limits 0 and oo

D = -Nb ^e-'^i){a)da (13)

Similarly, between the age-limits a and (a + da)

--^ da = — -- e-^"" p (a) da (14)

da d

Introducing a coefficient of age-distribution at death, defined in a

manner analogous to that applied to the living population, but

denoted by c'{a), this gives

c'{a) = --e-"p(a) (15)

d

To find the proportion of deaths between the ages ai and az

we integrate

\ c'{a) da = I e-^^ p (a) da (16)

= -^[e-p(a)l"-f^ \^c{a)da (17)

0 L J ai b iJ 0.1

The last integral has already been computed in determining the

age-distribution in life, so that we can now readily calculate the

age-distribution at death. As a matter of fact, in the process of

computing the age-distribution in life many of the data required

for computing e~'* p (a)

aj

by series are obtained, so that the work

is largely disposed of. The computation was carried out for males

only. The results obtained are shown in Table V and figure 5.

Here again the agreement between the observed and calculated

values is very close.

lotka: a natural population norm

291

TABLE V

Age-Distribution at Death (Males)

IV. Average age at death. The average age at death is given by

A^ = ac'{a)da (18)

Jo

In the case of the stable age distribution this becomes (see 15)

A^= — -\ a e-^^p(a) da (19)

dJo

I, r • "1 "" ?i r* °°

= — - ae-^^ p (a) + - (1 — ra) e-"'' p (a) da

dl Jo d Jo

= 0 + - \ c{a) da — - \ a c{a) da

d Jo d Jo

^-^^■'

(20)

(21)

(22)

if we denote by A^ the mean age of the living population.

In a stationary population we have r == 0, d ^ do and hence

1 f"

A^ = -r = h where I is the mean length of life, viz., I = \ p{a) da.

do J"

V. Third equation between b, d and r. We have so far considered

b, d and r as connected by two relations, namely equation (2) (or

292

lotka: a natural population norm

its equivalent 3), and the defining equation r = (b - d). In

actual fact of course 6, d and r are in every instance completely

determined. There must therefore be a third relation between

Fig. 5. Age-distribution at death, England and Wales 1871-1880.

them. In fact if one male, at age a, gives rise, on an average, to

/3m(«) male births per unit of time, we must have

6m =

1 I c„, (a) /?„, (a) da

Cm (a) I3,„ (a) da

Jo

(25)

(26)

lotka: a natural population norm 293

For the stable age-distribution this becomes by (1)

b,n = 6m e-" pm (a) /3,n (>) da (27)

e-" Pn. (a) I3m (a) da (28)

an equation which determines r.

Equation (28) gives rise to two reflections.

In the first place it can be seen by inspection, that r ^ 0 accord-

f" >

ing as I Pm{a) I3m{a) da^=l. This is due to the fact that this last

integral represents the ratio of the total male births in two suc-

cessive generations.

The second conclusion which we may draw from equation (28)

is at first sight somewhat surprising. In that equation we may,

without altering its meaning in any way, write the limits of the

integral Gi and ^2, instead of 0 and oo , if we denote by ai and a->

the lower and upper limits of the reproductive period. For

outside these age limits the function /3(a) has everywhere the value

0, so that the terms of the original integral outside these limits

contribute nothing to the numerical value of the integral. This

being so, the per cent rate of increase of a population in which the

stable age-distribution has become established is quite indepen-

dent of any factors which may afTect the life of individuals out-

side the reproductive age limits — so long as conditions within

these limits remain unchanged. Thus, if we were dealing with

a herd of cattle, for instance, it is quite immaterial, so far as the

effect upon r is concerned, how we slaughter the cattle of the herd,

so long as we spare the individuals of breeding age. This is a

somewhat surprising result, especially as it applies not only to

the superannuated, but also to the young, immature cattle.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific .bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BOTANY. — The catalpa septum: a factor in distinguishing hardy catalpa.

William H. Lamb, Forest Service. Proceedings of the Society of

American Foresters, 7: No. 1. 1912.

This is a discussion of the distinguishing characteristics of hardy

catalpa (Catalpa speciosa), and common catalpa {Catalpa catalpa), with

emphasis upon the septum as a distinguishing feature. The septum is

the long wrinkled partition within the pod, along which the seeds are

arranged. The septum of hardy catalpa is greatly thickened along the

middle, giving it a rounded appearance in general outline. The septum

of common catalpa, on the other hand, is only shghtly thickened along

the middle and appears relatively flat. This variation in shape fur-

nishes us with a valuable means for recognizing hardy catalpa. Dia-

gramatic drawings of enlarged sections of tj^pical septa have been made

to illustrate this important distinction. W. H. L.

ZOOLOGY. — Crinoidea (supplement). Austin Hobart Clark.

Ergebnisse der Hamburger siidwest-australischen Forschungsreise

1905, Bd. 4: Lief. 6: S. 307-315, Taf. 4. 1913.

Since the publication of the author's memoir on the crinoids of west

Australia (this series, 3, part 13, pp. 435-467) additional specimens col-

lected by the Hamburg Southwest Australian Expedition have come to

light. An account of these, including the description of a new genus

(Petasometra) and species (P. helianthoides) , is here given. Li an ap-

pendix is a list of annotations by which the information included in the

original memoir, written three years ago, is brought up to date.

A. H. C.

294

abstracts: ichthyology 295

ICHTHYOLOGY. — The sense of smell in fishes. G. H. Parker and

R. E. Sheldon. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 32:33-^6.

1912. Issued May 3, 1913.

The common beUef that fishes have a sense of smell has been hitherto

without the support of physiological evidence. In this paper are

recorded the results of experiments with three common species of fishes

which show reactions undoubtedly dependent upon the olfactory appa-

ratus.

1 . A current of water passes thru the nasal chambers of many fishes in

a direction from anterior to posterior. It may be produced by ciliary

action (Ameiurus), by pressure due to the action of the respiratory mus-

cles (Fundulus) , or it may be a part of the true respiratory current

(Mustelus) .

2. By means of this current dissolved substances in the water are

brought into contact with the olfactory surfaces.

3. Fishes distinguish packets containing hidden food from similar

packets without food.

4. This power of distinguishing the two classes of packets is lost when

the olfactory tracts are cut, when the anterior olfactory apertures are

stitched up or when the apertures are plugged with cotton wool. It is

revived on reopening the apertures by taking out the stiches or removing

the cotton wool.

5. Mustelus and Ameiurus discover their food chiefly thru the ol-

factory sense ; Fundulus uses the eyes in addition to the olfactory organs

for this purpose.

6. Mustelus, Fundulus, and Ameiurus use the olfactory organs to scent

food much as land animals do; these organs are true organs of smell,

i.e., distance receptors for the chemical sense. G. H. P. and R. E. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF AVASHINGTON

The 718th meeting was held on January 18, 1913, at the Cosmos

Club, President Abbot in the chair; about 35 persons present. The

minutes of the 716th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. M. D. Hersey presented a paper on A mechanical model of the

least square adjustment. The apparatus exhibited consisted of a sheet

of coordinate paper mounted on a board for the plotting of points, a

light aluminum rod, and a supply of rubber elastics and push pins. The

values under discussion were plotted by the push pins, allowance being

made for the unstretched lengths of the elastics by which the bar was

suspended. The model was used to show the mechanical adjustment

of the tests of a mercury barometer ; the results were compared with those

by the usual solution of normal equations. The speaker discussed

methods for weighting different observations, the determination of the

probable error by the model, and the application of the principle for

solution of case involving several unknowns. The paper was discussed

by Messrs. White, Rines, and Abbot.

Mr. H. C. Dickinson presented a paper by himself and Mr. E. F.

Mueller on New calorimetric resistance thermometers, describing and

exhibiting the improved type of sensitive resistance thermometer devel-

oped at the Bureau of Standards. A coil of 0.1 mm. platinum wire is

wound on a thin mica strip and enclosed with mica insulation in a plati-

num (or silver) sheath pressing firmly on the fiat coil. The upper end

of the sheath is fused or soldered to a glass tube carrying the leads.

The instrument may be used from — 180° to 500°. The constancy of

this type is shown by the fact that for the best of them the resistance

at 0° has not changed more than 3 or 4 parts per million in three years,

an amount that may be due to impurities in ice used, errors in resist-

ance standards, or changes in the leads. Thermometers of this type are

now^ being manufactured commercially. Mr. Marvin discussed certain

details of their construction.

Mr. H. L. Curtis spoke on Some properties of electric condensers.

A perfect condenser should maintain a constant capacity independent

of outside conditions, should have an infinite insulation resistance and

no absorption. The problems of construction are mechanical and elec-

trical ; the first being to keep the plates so they will have the same area

and be the same distance apart, and the second being the insulation

resistance and the anomalies of the dielectric. The speaker discussed

these problems for the air or gas, mica, paper, and glass condensers.

296

proceedings: philosophical society 297

For the gas dielectric the greater problem is the mechanical one, while

for the solid dielectric the question of anomalies is the more serious.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Gray with reference to values of

capacity at different voltages.

The Secretary read communications inviting members of the Society

to attend the meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences on

January 30 at the Cosmos Club to hear an illustrated address, Some

observations of the volcano Kilauea in action, by Dr. A. L. Day; and also

to attend a meeting on January 27, at the Bureau of Standards to hear

Professor Magie of Princeton on Our conception of energy.

The 719th meeting was held on February 1, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,

with President Abbot in the chair and 16 persons present. The minutes

of the 718th meeting were read and approved.

By invitation Mr. Alfred Lotka presented an illustrated paper on

A natural population norm. Pubhshed in full in this Journal, 3: 241,

289. 1913. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Burgess, Wolff,

Burrows, and Abbot.

Under informal communications Mr. Abbot spoke of the recent work

conducted and the results obtained with the pyrheliometer showing

that a standard scale of pyrheliometry is now well established. Mr.

Humphreys offered an explanation of the present mild winter in the

District of Columbia and neighboring region in that the high pressure

center usually located in the East Atlantic off Gibraltar has shifted of

late to the neighborhood of the Bermudas and in consequence we

receive with southerly winds the mild marine climate. No cause for the

shift could be assigned. Mr. Kimball spoke of the remarkable dimi-

nution since June 10, 1912, of the Solar radiation as measured at the

surface of the Earth; during the six months to December the radiation

was but 83 per cent of what it had been in previous years at Mt. Weather.

There appears to be some relation with the eruption of the Volcano

Katmai in Alaska of June 6, 1912. A study of the results promises

to give interesting light on the circulation of the atmosphere.

The 720th meeting was held on February 15, 1913, at the Cosmos

Club. President Abbot in the chair; 50 persons present.

The evening was devoted to the address of the retiring President, Mr.

E. B. Rosa, on The function of research in the regulation of natural jnonop-

olies. Published in full in this Journal, 3 : 201. 1913.

The 721st meeting was held on March 1, 1913 at the Cosmos Club.

This meeting was held conjointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences. President Tittmann, of the Academy, presided. There were

about 200 persons present.

The Right Honorable James Bryce, 0.!M., British Ambassador to

the United States, gave an address on The physical aspects of Australia

and New Zealand. The islands of New Zealand are very mountainous

and the scenery of great beauty. The climate is generally moist. A

298 proceedings: philosophical society

large part of the country is suitable for cultivation but because of the

distance from market the raising of cattle and sheep is the industry

most developed. The vegetation is remarkable, particularly the tree

ferns, which grow to great size. The native Maori people are much

like the Hawaiians in character and language and are of a very high

order of intelligence. Australia is quite unlike New Zealand in its physi-

cal features. The interior is a great plain and is generally quite arid

as the outside fringe of mountains on all sides prevents the rains from

reaching it. The presence of copious deep level water makes possible

the use of artesian wells and much of the interior may be developed

by irrigation. The interesting question as to the source of this deep

level water was discussed briefly. The flora and fauna are peculiar.

The aborigines are entirely unlike those of New Zealand, being of negroid

type and of a very low state of culture. The address was illustrated

by wall maps and lantern slides.

To express the appreciation of the meeting for the delightful and

instructive address, the President called for a rising vote, which was

unanimous.

The 722cl meeting was held on March 15, 1913, at the Cosmos Club.

Vice-President Fischer in the chair; 27 persons present. The minutes

of the 719, 720, and 721st meetings were read and approved.

Because of illness, Mr. G. W. Spencer, who was to have presented a

paper Relationship between terrestrial gravity and observed Earth move-

ments of eastern America, was unable to address the meeting.

Mr, I. G. Priest read a paper on A photometric error sometimes accom-

panyifig the use of a pair of nicols, and a proposal for its elimination,

illustrated with lantern slides. In extensive optical trains such as occur

in spectrophotometers and colorimeters the use of a pair of nicols fol-

lowing the simple theory may be impaired by oblique reflection^ of the

plane polarized beam whose plane of polarization is rotated with the

rotating nicol. An example was cited and illustrated by lantern slides

and formula given showing variation of intensity of beam from propor-

tionality to the square of the sine of the angle 6 thru Avhich analyzing

nicol is rotated from the position of " crossed nicols." A triplet of nicols

in train instead of a pair is proposed with end nicols fixed and middle

one rotating, in which case, with principal planes of end nicols parallel,

the intensity is proportional to sin^ d, and if perpendicular, to sin^ d cos^ 0.

Trouble may be more simply eliminated by using only a pair of nicols

but rotating the polarizer instead of the analyzer, provided the beam

incident on polarizer is entirely unpolarized. The paper was discussed

by Messrs. Coblentz and Tillyer.

Under informal communications Mr. W. Bowie presented a paper on

The precise level net of the United States, giving the results of the recent

adjustment by the Coast and Geodetic Survey of the different circuits

of the precise leveling net of the United States. 44,720 kilometers of

leveling have been run in two directions and about 10,700 permanent

bench marks have been placed in all but seven states. The values

proceedings: philosophical society' 299

resulting from the adjustment will probably be held as standard eleva-

tions for an indefinite time and be of great benefit to surveyors and

engineers. New circuits will be fitted to the old levelings as, while they

would theoretically give new and better values, the changes would be

small as regards practical use. The paper was discussed by Messrs. C.

A. Briggs, Rines, Wright, Humphreys, and Sosman.

Mr. W. J. Humphreys presented an illustrated paper on Factors in

climatic changes in the past. The suggestion that the important factor

has been the presence of veils of volcanic dust in the atmosphere was

made in a revised form. Considerations of the material, density, and

size of particles of volcanic dust show that interference with ingoing

radiation would be five or more times that on outgoing radiation, which

would mean lower temperature. Calculations show that one-tenth

cubic mile of dust would account for a glacial period.

The 723d meeting was held on March 29, 1913, at the Cosmos Club.

President Abbot in the chair; about 40 persons present. The minutes

of the 722d meeting were read and approved.

Mr. L. W. Austin presented a paper on Recent experiments in radio-

telegraphy. Owing to non-receipt of data from S.S. Salem giving results

of tests between the Arlington station and the Salem while en route to

and from Gibraltar the speaker could not report on this work as he had

expected. The results of the United States Navy experiments of 19D9-

10 were reviewed and formulae discussed. The high power station at

Arlington was brieflj^ described. In it are incorporated the suggestions

and ideas developed in the 1909-10 work. It differs from most high

power stations in that it has a three tower arrangement for antennae

instead of the more usual umbrella type; one tower is 600 feet and the

other two each 450 feet high. Ground resistance has been practically

eliminated by grounding with copper net — this was found to be essential

and makes no difference in the radiant energy. The seasonal variation

of received signals was discussed — the energy received dropping during

the summer. Difference in ease of transmission during day and night

was pointed out; day conditions are generally more constant while at

night there are great fluctuations. Discussed by Mr. Bauer as to greater

ease of transmission along magnetic meridians; by Mr. Abbot as to

magnitude of difference between day and night conditions; by Messrs.

White, Humphreys, and Wolff as to the calculations at Arlington.

Mr. F. A. Kolster spoke on National and international regulation of

radiocommunication. The uses and chief purposes of radiocommunication

are protection to life at sea, aid to navigation, communication between

ship and ship and shore, and naval and military operations. The first

regulation conference held in 1906 in Berlin was due largely to attempts

made to monopolize the business and the great amount of interference

due to amateurs. .At the second conference held in 1912, in London the

discussion w^as practically confined to matters relating to operation of

apparatus. Interference can l^e best avoided by restricting use of waves of

definite lengths for definite purposes, e.g.. wave lengths between 600 and

300 proceedings: geological society

1600 meters are used only for naval and military purposes. In most

foreign countries amateurs are not allowed to operate; in the United

States they may do so but are restricted to the use of wave less than

200 meters in length. The speaker read and discussed at length some

of the regulations. The next International Conference will be held in

Washington in 1917. Paper was discussed by Mr. Bowie as to impor-

tance of radiotelegraphy in the determination of longitude on islands

and in unexplored regions; also by Messrs. Bauer, Rines and Abbot.

Mr. Bauer told of the receipt at Salah, through the courtesy of a French

officer, of time signals by the magnetic party crossing the Sahara, the

signals being received directly from Paris, 1600 miles distant.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 267th meeting was held on March 12, 1913, at the Cosmos Club.

The following informal communications were presented: An over-

thrust fault in miniature from Montana: G. S. Rogers; Some new occur-

rences of alunite: F. C. Schrader.

regular program

Geology of a portion of Northwest Alaska (Illustrated) : Philip S.

Smith; A Pleistocene cave in Devonian limestone near Cumberland, Mary-

land: J. W. GiDLEY.

The work of the Alaska Railroad Commission: Alfred H. Brooks.

In accordance with an act of Congress, approved August 24, 1912,

President Taft appointed on August 31 the Alaska Railroad Commission

as follows: Major J. J. Morrow, U. S. Army, Chairman; Alfred H.

Brooks, U. S. Geological Survey, Vice-Chairman ; Lieut.-Commander

Leonard M. Cox, U. S. Navy; ColUn M. Ingersoll, Consulting railway

engineer, New York City.

The Commission sailed from Seattle, September 10, and spent some

two and a half months in field investigations. The work included an

examination of all the harbors on the Pacific seaboard of Alaska which

have been suggested as coastal terminals, also all the existing railways

of central Alaska. The journey was extended to the lower Susitna

Valley, and later to Fairbanks by the winter trail which follows closely

one of the proposed railway routes into the Yukon basin.

The Commission began its office work on December 2. This included

a careful analysis of all the engineering data available regarding Alaska

railway routes, aggregating some 3000 miles in length. On the basis

of this information estimates of construction and operating costs were

made for some sixteen different lines. A fairly comprehensive study was

also made of the data relating to the resources of central Alaska, includ-

ing minerals, agriculture, forests, and water power. The work of the

Commission included a consideration of the existing transportation

conditions in Alaska, together with statistics on commerce. Climate

proceedings: geological society 301

and distribution of population were also among the subjects investigated.

The report was submitted to the President on January' 20, 1913, and has

since been published under the title, Railway Routes in Alaska: Docu-

ment No. 1346 H. R. 62d Cong., 2d Session, 172 pp., 1913. The maps

and profiles were submitted on March 1, 1913. These are now in print

as Part II of the report.

Ralph W. Richards, Secretary.

The 268th meeting was held on March 26, 1913, at tlie Cosmos Club.

At the session of the council preceding the open meeting the following

members were elected delegates to represent the Societj^ at the meeting

of the International Geological Congress at Toronto, August 7 to 12,

1913: — F. L. Ransome, David White, J. S. Diller, E. 0. Ulrich.

The following informal communications were presented: A discovery

of gypsum and anhydrite in a drill hole at Centerville, Iowa: F. C. Greene.

Niter near Melrose, Montana: Ralph W. Richards. Niter is found

as thin crusts on the surface of black limestone presumably of Devonian

age on Camp Creek about 3| miles northeast of ]\Ielrose; it is also dis-

seminated in veinlets to a less extent thru the rock. The purest salt

occurs as a snowy white to slightly yellow mass of needle-like crystals,

in the loose rock talus at the base of ledges. About 86 per cent of the

mass is soluble in water; the soluble portion has been analyzed by R. H.

Bailey and the following results obtained.

Calcium sulfate 13.94

Sodium sulfate 3.30

Sodium chloride 20.42

Sodium nitrate 21.77

Potassium nitrate 39.48

The nitrates make up about 61.25 per cent of the total water soluble

portion. An attempt was also made to determine the niter present in

the limestones; the water soluble portion was found to range from 1 to

5 per cent.

regular program

Quaternary problems of central Alaska: Henry M. Eakin. The pres-

ent drainage of Alaska is evident^ superimposed upon an older topog-

raphy whose drainage had little resemblance in arrangement to that of

today. This is shown by the topographic irregularities of the valleys

of the present master streams that were developed, in part at least, in

Quaternary time; in the irregular distribution of alluvial plains that

represent old erosional depressions; and in old valleys that are now

traversed by inadequate streams or are entirely abandoned. The

assumption of crustal movements to account for these features is pre-

cluded by the irregularities of the lowland basins; by the flood plains of

tributaries in reaches where the trunk stream has no flood plain, and in

the wide accordance in elevation of high terraces and silt deposits.

The hypothesis advanced involves the ponding of water in the old

302 proceedings: geological society

drainage basins l)y glacial obstruction: the establishment of drainage

lines across the lowest available divides; and the topographic adjustment

of the present river systems. The maximum known extent of ice in

late geologic time is inadequate to the requirements of this hypothesis,

but data bearing on this point are incomplete.

Igneous rocks of the Raton Mesa Region: J. B. Mertie, Jr. The

mesas near Raton, New Mexico, have resulted from the differential

effect of erosion upon a series of lava flows and the surrounding sedi-

mentary rocks. The vulcanism began in post-Eocene time and con-

tinued intermittently to recent time. The oldest flows cap the highest

mesas, thus preserving the original land surface over which they spread;

while the latest flows lie in the present lowlands. Four series of flows

have been recognized on the basis of erosional unconformities which

separate them. The first or oldest series is composed of numerous

fissure flows of great thickness and originally of great extent. They

are uniformlj^ olivine basalts. The second series is not materially dif-

ferent from the first. The third series contains a variety of rock types,

among which hornblende hyalorhyolite, cegerite trach}^e, augite ande-

site, hauyne basalt, basanite, quartz basalt, and normal olivine basalt

have been recognized. Many of these flows came from central vents,

and most of the resulting rock types show greater or less amounts of

glass. The flows of the fourth series have come in every instance from

volcanic cones of the central type and are uniformly glassy in character.

They are, so far as observed, normal olivine basalts. The dyke rocks

of the area include kersaijtites, vogesites, camptonites, limburgites, and

nephelinites.

The results of the investigation show a gradual change from the

fissure to the central type of eruption, an increasing viscosity in the

lavas accompanied by explosive volcanic action, and the development

of numerous extreme rock types, or magmatic end products. All these

phenomena are interpreted as the results of dying volcanic activity.

Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands, and on the formation of

the Floridian and Bahaman oolites: Thomas Wayland Vaughan. The

author gave a brief resume of some studies he has conducted during the

past seven years under the joint auspices of the United States Geological

Survey and the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington. The remarks on the geology of the Bahamas

were based on observations made and material collected by him as a

member of an expedition conducted by Dr. A. G. Mayer of the latter

organization, during last April and May.

The submarine and subaerial topographic features of the Bahamas

were described briefly. The general country rock, across the Great

Bahama Bank from Gun Cay to Northwest Passage and that of New

Province and Andros islands, is oolite similar to the oolite of Florida.

Along the windward faces of the islands ridges of wind-blown material

rising above the lower platforms are usual.

The studies of Dall, Sanford, and the author, in association with

Geo. C. Matson, led to the opinion that the finely divided calcium car-

proceedings: geological society 303

bonate oozes so abundant in Florida waters are chemical precipitates.

Drew showed in 1911 that denitrifying bacteria are an important agent

in effecting this precipitation in Florida waters; and in 1912 h6 extended

his researches to the Bahamas, where he found them enormously abun-

dant and active, as many as 160,000,000 being found in 1 cc. of surface

mud on the west side of Andros Island. Rainey in 1858, Harting in

1871, and Linck in 1903 (and perhaps others), showed that calcium

carbonate precipitated by an alkali forms spherulites; and Drew noted

a similar tendency of the calcium carbonate precipitated on his cul-

tures. Murray and Irvine showed that at higher temperature chemi-

cally precipitated calcium carbonate is of the aragonite form.

Bahaman shoal water bottom muds were collected at many stations,

especially through South Bight and off its west end. The muds when

collected were not observed to contain oolite grains, altho these may

have ])een present and may have escaped notice, but all the muds when

examined at the end of November did contain such grains, which ranged

from spherulites 0.004 or 0.006 mm. in diameter, to grains of ordinary

size, 0.10 to 0.80 mm. in diameter. The muds are composed of a

mixture of aragonite and calcite. In order to test the growth of the

grains, samples of a number of muds were strained through No. 10

bolting cloth, which has a mesh of about 0.13 mm. in size, and the fine

material was put into bottles containing sea-water. During the first

half of March a portion of each sample was studied. The formation

of oolite grains was found to be in progress in every sample, and numer-

ous grains were so large as manifestly to preclude their having passed

thru the mesh of the bolting cloth. The experiments demonstrated

both the increase in the number of spherulites and the increase in the

size of the grains. The precipitated calcium carbonate may segregate

around a variety of nuclei, for instance, spherulites formed of precipi-

tated calcium carbonate, small grains of sand, shells of foraminifera,

and gas-bubbles.

Altho there is need for additional study of the factors that accelerate,

retard, or inhibit the formation of spherulites and the growth of the

grains, the empirical facts in the process of the formation of the Floridian

and Bahaman oolites are demonstrated. They are as follows: (1) De-

nitrifying bacteria are very active in the shoal waters of both regions

and are precipitating enormous quantities of calcium carbonate which

is largely aragonite; (2) this chemically precipitated calcium carbonate

may form spherulites which by accretion may become oolite grains of

the usual size, or it may accumulate around a variety of nuclei to build

such grains.

Two important deductions may be made from the knowledge of this

process, viz.: (1) Neither the Bahamas nor the oolitic keys of southern

Florida are coral islands, but they have been formed by this other

process. Elevated coral rock is exceedingly scarce in the Bahamas and

the recent reef of Andros is comparatively insignificant as a construc-

tional geologic agent. The material composing the land masses and

much of the submarine platforms of the Bahamas are thus removed

304 proceedings: anthropological society

from the category of "coral rock" and the hving reef reduced to a sub-

ordinate ratio as a builder of limestone. (2) Drew's unfortunately

incompleted studies of the distribution of denitrifying bacteria have

shown them to be most prevalent in the shoal-waters of the tropics.

They therefore conform to the principles enunciated by Murray for the

distribution of lime secreting organisms. By combining the results of

Drew and Murray, the deduction seems warranted that great limestone

formations, whether they be composed of organic or of chemically pre-

cipitated calcium carbonate, were laid down in waters of which at least

the surface temperatures were warm, if not actually tropical.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 466th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washing-

ton was held in the National Museum February 18, 1913, the President,

George R. Stetson in the chair.

Professor W. H. Holmes read a paper on: Agricultural implements of

the mound-builders. The rich alluvial prairie of the middle Mississippi

valley is especially suited to the practice of agriculture, and here are

found large numbers of skillfully made flint blades of large size adapted

to hafting as hoes and showing unmistakable evidence of long usage

in operations that gave the edge a high degree of polish. They are made

of grayish flint or chert, which occurs in the form of flattish nodules

especially in southern Illinois. These nodules were readily shaped by

fracture with stone hammers, and vast numbers were worked up by

the mound-building tribes. The processes of manufacture were demon-

strated by the speaker and it was shown with what ease and rapidity the

blades could be made.

It was also shown by examples obtained from the Missouri river tribes

that hoes made of scapulae of the buffalo were in use in very recent

times and that the hoes found by excavation in ancient sites near Omaha

correspond to these recent Indian forms in shape, manner of hafting,

and surface polish, and that both display, altho in bone, precisely the

same kind of polish and markings as the similarly shaped hoes of flint.

It was suggested that these flint hoes were modeled after scapular hoes,

since these were in general used by the tribes and have doubtless been

in use from very early times among all the tribes advanced to the seden-

tary agricultural stage of culture.

With regard to questions of the antiquity of the stone and bone hoes

which have recently been raised, it was suggested that since the buffalo

was a comparatively recent arrival in the Mississippi valley, a culture

in which the bones of buffalo are represented must be younger, not older,

than that of the mound-builders, since no traces or representations of

the buffalo are found within the older Indian mounds.

This paper was briefly discussed, Mr. Stetson read some notes con-

cerning stone articles recently found in Britain, and Professor Holmes

commented thereon and then read a paper on the Scope and relationship

proceedings: anthropological society 305

0/ history and archaeology, in abstract as follows: The term history as

applied to the human race is a comprehensive designation corresponding

to Anthropology which is defined as the science of man. According

to Powell's classification Anthropology may be considered under seven

heads giving rise to as many branches of research, as follows : Somatology

psychology, philology, sociology, sophiology, technology, and esthet-

ology.

The records or sources of information to be drawn upon in these

researches are comprised under two principal heads: Intentional or

purposeful records, and non-intentional or fortuitous records.

The intentional records are of five forms (1) The pictorial — picto-

graphs; (2) the commemorative — -monumental structures; (3) oral —

tradition and lore; (4) objective-mnemonic — -quipu, wampum; (5)

inscribed, written — ^glyphic, alphabetic. Fortuitous records take numer-

ous forms: (1) The diversified material results of human activities in

which the commemorative-mnemonic motives are absent but which

comprise the great body of the products of handicraft; (2) the immaterial

results of human activity as embodied in language, beliefs, customs,

music, philosophy, etc.; (3) the ever existing unpremeditated body of

memories which accrue to each generation and are in part transmitted

adventitiously; (4) the record embodied in the physical constitution of

man which when properly read, tells the story of his development from

lower forms; (5) the records of intellectual growth and powers to be

sought and studied in the constitution of the mind; (6) the environments

which may be made to reveal the story of the nurture and upbuilding of

the race throughout the past.

It is from these diversified records that the story of the seven grand

divisions of the history of man must be drawn. Archeology stands

apart from this classification of the science, traversing in its own way the

entire field of research. It claims for its own more especially that which

is old or ancient in this vast body of data. It is even called upon to pick

up the lost lines of the earlier written records as with the shadowy begin-

nings of glyphic and phonetic writing and restore them to the historian.

It must follow back the obscure trails of tradition and substantiate or

discredit the lore of the fathers. It must interpret the pictorial records

inscribed by the ancients on rock faces and cavern walls. Archeology

is thus the great retriever of history.

The services of archeologic science are equally potent in the field of the

fortuitous records for it reads that which was never intended to be read.

The products of human handicraft, present and past, which have auto-

matically recorded the doings of the ages are made to tell the story of the

struggles, the defeats, and the triumph of humanity. The fortuitous

records embodied in the non-material products of man's activities of

today, are made to cast a strong light on the history and significance of

the material things of the past. Even the body of knowledge gathered

from many sources, stored in the memory of the living, may be made to

illumine the past ; and the physical and psychical man are in themselves

records and may be made to tell the story of their own becoming and to

306 proceedings: anthropological society

explain the activities and the products of activity thruout the ages.

All that archeology gathers from this wide field of research is contributed

to the volume of written history. It is thus not only the retriever of

that which was treasured and lost, but also the savior and conservator of

vast resources of history of which no man had previously taken heed.

In the great work of assembling the scattered pages and completing

the volume of the history of man, archeology may well claim first place

among the contributing sciences.

This paper was discussed by Messrs Casonowicz, Carroll, Swanton,

Stetson, Hewitt, and others.

The 467th regular meeting was held on March 18, 1913, at the

National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair,

Dr, John R, Swanton read a paper on The Creek confederacy. After

explaining the geographical and linguistic positions of the tribes of the

Creek confederacy with the assistance of a map, Dr, Swanton traced the

evolution of the confederation from a small nucleus of tribes speaking

the Muskogee language to a large association, comprising a number of

Hitchiti speaking people, the Alabama, Koasati, some of the Apalachee

and Yamasi part of the Natchez, the Yuchi, and, for a time, some of the

Shawnee. He showed that this association was facilitated thru the insti-

tution of a dual division of towns into white or peace towns and red or

war towns, the towns of each division, or "fire," considering each other

friends or allies and having opposing but not warlike relations with the

towns of the other "fire," It thus happened that when an outside town

or tribe came to be accepted as a "friend" of one of the white or red

towns in the confederacy its position with reference to all of the other

white and red towns was thus established and it entered into the confed-

erate scheme. The communication of other common features to the

new towns also took place, altho more slowly. Such features were the

"green corn dance" or busk, or perhaps rather the Muskogee form of it,

participation in common altho irregular councils, and the adoption of

Muskogee as the standard language of intercommunication. The actual

discontinuance of the proper languages of the various members of the

confederacy was, fortunately for the ethnologist, much slower, several

of them having persisted down to the present day. Thru the progressive

adoption of smaller tribes and the practical destruction of some in war-

fare, a process accelerated by white contact, the Creek confederacy

came to be almost the sole representative of eastern Muskhogean culture,

andjeven influenced the culture of the Chickasaw to a marked degree.

The great Choctaw body, on the other hand, maintained its cultural

independence and was never dominated by the Creeks, In sharp con-

trast to the Creeks, whose national structure was built up by fitting

numerous distantly related tribes into an artificial fraternal scheme, the

Choctaw seem to have owed their sense of unity to an actual homo-

geneity in the Choctaw population, the occupancy of a common area,

and the necessity to resist common enemies. They preserved perhaps

the simplicity of culture existing among all Muskhogean Indians in

proceedings: anthropological society 307

times long anterior to the formation of more complicated associations

or confederacies.

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held March 25, 1913 in the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson

in the chair. Professor George Graves MacCurdy read a paper on

Ancient man, his environment and his art. This paper dealt with the

environmental factor in human development. The newly discovered

human remains from Piltdown, Sussex, and their significance. Recent

finds in the terraces of the Somme Valley. The San Isidro Valley de-

posits near Madrid. Torralba, a large camp site in the Province of

Soria, Spain, where a rude stone industry associated with an ancient

fauna has been found. Caves of the Island of Jersey occupied by Mous-

terian man. Typical caves and rock shelters of southern France: La

Quina, La Ferrassia, Placard. The art of the cave man in Spain and

France: Altamira, Castillo, La Pasiega, Covalanas, Pindal, Font-de-

Gaume, Cap Blanc, Niaux, Gargas, Laussel, Alpera, Cogul. Represen-

tations of the human form. La Combe, a cave in the Dordogne excava-

ted last summer by Professor MacCurdy. Tuc d'Audoubert, a Pyre-

nean paleolithic cavern of great beauty discovered last July; its parietal

art and unique figures of the Bison modeled in clay. Paleolithic art

in its relation to magic ; some of the causes which led to its development

and eventually to its decay.

The paper is based largely on first hand observations made during

the past summer. The lantern slides reproduce faithfully in color the

remarkable paleolithic cavern frescoes. The epochs covered by the

paper, beginning with the oldest, are: Eolithic or pre-Chellean, Chel-

lean, Acheulian, Mousterian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, and

Azilian. These are all pre-Neolithic.

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held April 1, 1913, at the National Museum, the President, Mr. Stet-

son, in the chair.

Dr. J. H. Gore, who returned recently from a visit to the King of

Siam, read a paper on Siamese life and industries illustrated by lantern

slides. He described the Siamese basketry, matting, textile fabrics of

silk and other material, also the bronze vessels, silver vessels, and ex-

cellent hammered silverware, the method of producing the latter being

to fill a silver vessel with sand and hammer in the surface from the

outside to form the ground, leaving the decorative human figures in

series (beside other ornaments) in high relief. Usually the figures rep-

resent some mythological story. Dr. Gore's lantern pictures included

farm-scenes, illustrations of games, festivities and elephant-capturing

and views of the city of Bangkok, the aquatic human life of its rivers

and canals, the palacC; imperial crematories, and temples, including

a beautiful rock cavern temple.

The chief resources of the country are the teak-wood forests and

rice culture, most of the ships-decks of the world being supplied from the

308 proceedings: anthropological society

former now managed by an expert forester, while the export of rice is

great, about seventy rice mills of modern equipment being operated

in Bangkok, besides a large amount of similar work which is done by

more primitive methods and apphances throughout the country. The

soil is exceedingly fertile in the main valley of the kingdom. There

are about eighty miles of good roads around Bangkok and the streets

of the city are well made, modern street-car lines running on some of

them: but the remainder of the country is practically without roads.

The late king was notable for many enlightened reforms, such as

freeing slaves, relinquishing the royal ownership in the land in the favor

of those who had been long in occupancy and use of it, waiving the

exemption of the royal lands from taxation and compiling and publish-

ing an edition of the Buddhist scriptures, which he supplied to the

libraries of the world.

The inhabitants of Cambodia are of stock similar to the Siamese,

but are regarded by them as inferior. Their language is akin to the

Sanscrit. The human images before their temples are not idols, but

for ornament. There is a fiame-like upward aspiring tendency in their

decorative work. No magical or religious importance is attached to

white elephants, so called, which are albinoes, white only in patches;

they are regarded as curiosities and as such are given to the king.

The 468th regular and 34th annual meeting of the Anthropological

Society of Washington was held on April 15th, 1913, at the National

Museum, the President, Mr. Stetson, in the chair.

The minutes of the last preceding annual meeting were read and

approved.

Obituary notices were presented as follows: Miss Alice Fletcher for

Miss Sarah A. Scull; Mr. F. W. Hodge for Mr. W J McGee; Dr. Lamb

for Dr. Robert Fletcher.

The following officers were elected and installed for the ensuing year :

President, Mr. George R. Stetson; Vice-President, Dr. John E.

Swanton; Secretary, Dr. Daniel Folkmar; Treasurer, Mr. J. N. B.

Hewitt; Councillors: Mr. George C. Maynard, Mr. Felix Neumann,

Dr. I. M. Casanowicz, Dr. E. L. Morgan and Mr. Francis La Flesche.

Invitations to meetings of the National Academy of Sciences and of

the German Anthropological Association were presented and accepted

with thanks.

Wm. H. Babcock, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill JUNE 4, 1913 No. 11

ASTROPHYSICS.— r/ie variation of the sun. C. G. Abbot, F.

E. FowLE, and L. B. Aldrich.^

In the year 1902 preliminary experiments were begun at Wash

ington to detennine the solar constant of radiation. About 700

determinations of it have now been obtained, depending on obser-

vations at altitudes ranging from sea-level to 4420 meters. As

originally devised by Langley we determine spectral energy inten-

sities and atmospheric transmission coefficients for numerous

wave-lengths between about 0.30/x in the ultra-violet and 2.5fx

in the infra-red, by spectrobolometric observations at high and

low sun. The indications of the spectrobolometer are reduced to

the standard scale of calories per square centimeter per minute

by means of the readings of the pyrheliometer.

At the time when the observations were begun in 1902 there

was no satisfactory establishment of the standard scale of pyr-

heliometry, nor indeed any pyrheliometer which was invariable

relatively to itself from year to year. We at first made use of

a modification of TyndalFs mercury pyrheliometer. This was

improved in 1906 as the copper disk pyrheliometer, which has

been in use on Mount Wilson ever since, and which is described

in volume 2 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. A

still later improvement took place in 1910 with the introduction

of the so-called "Silver-Disk Pyrheliometer" which has attained

considerable favor, and which is now in use in numerous countries.

Neither of these instruments is capable of yielding independently

' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

309 .

310 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH! VARIATION OF THE SUN

the standard scale of radiation, but they possess the vahiable

quahties of simpUcity and of being constant from year to year.

Beginning with the year 1903 and extending until the end of the

year 1912 we have repeatedly devised and exper'mented with

instruments to fix the standard scale of radiation. Three of these

instruments (called Water-flow Pyrheliometers Nos. 2 and 3, and

Water-stir Pyrheliometer No. 4) have been tested with satis-

factory results which are stated in a publication by two of us.^

We are now satisfied that the measurements made since 1903

can be reduced to the standard scale of radiation to within 1

per cent.

Measurements of the solar constant of radiation were begun

at Washington, practically at sea-level, and were continued when

favorable opportunities presented themselves from October, 1902,

until May, 1907. Measurements were begun on Mount Wilson

in California (elevation 1730 meters) in 1905, and have been con-

tinued with the exception of 1907 during about six months in

the year in each of the succeeding years. Expeditions to Mount

Whitney in California, altitude 4420 meters, were made in 1908,

1909, and 1910. Expeditions to Bassour, Algeria, altitude 1160

meters, were conducted in the autumn of 1911 and the summer

of 1912. In all 696 complete determinations of the solar constant

of radiation have been made, and still others are unreduced.

The differences found between the results at different elevations

are very small, and seem attributable rather to experimental error

or slight atmospheric irregularities than to any difference of ele-

vation. The mean of all these 696 determinations made princi-

pally between the years 1905 and 1912 is

1.932 calories per square centimeter per minute.

Subject to the possibility that there may exist ultra-violet rays

of appreciable intensity beyond the wave-length 0.29^, which are

cut off by the absorption of ozone from reaching the earth's

surface, we believe that this value represents the intensity of the

radiation of the sun as it would be found in space at the earth's

mean solar distance for the epoch 1905 to 1912.

2 See "Smithsonian Pyrheliometry Revised;" Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col-

lections 60: no. 18. 1913.

ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICHI VARIATION OF THE SUN 311

In the year 1903 we found indications that the radiation of

the sun is not constant from day to day.^ It has been a main

object of the work to ascertain if these apparent variations of

the sun are really solar, or are due to some accidental or atmos-

pheric influences not fully eliminated. As early as the year 1910

it had been shown that practically equal solar-constant values

were obtained on good days at sea-level, at 1730 and at 4420

meters elevation, and it had been shown that the apparent fluc-

tuations of the solar radiation found on Mount Wilson from day

to day marched by regular steps from high to low values and

return, not fluctuating wildly as they would have done had they

been due to experimental error. Accordingly it seemed from the

first consideration (namely that altitude did not appear to affect

the results) that the atmosphere was not the cause of the fluctu-

ation; and from the second consideration (namely, that the values

marched step by step from high to low or vice versa) that it was

not an accidental fluctuation. Hence, the most probable con-

clusion was either that the radiation of the sun is actually vari-

able, or that some meteoric or other matter, by interposition

between the earth and the sun, alters the quantity of the radiation

received at the earth from day to day. The fluctuations appeared

to be of irregular magnitude and period, often ranging through

5 per cent or more, in an interval of seven or ten days.

However probable the result just stated might appear, it could

not be fully verified without carrying out the observation simul-

taneously at two stations widely separated on the earth's surface,

so that no local atmospheric influence could be supposed to affect

both stations at once. This extension of the work was made

possible by the Algerian expeditions of 1911 and 1912. Solar-

constant determinations were made nearly simultaneously at

Mount Wilson, California, and Bassour, Algeria, separated by

about one-third of the circumference of the earth. A difference

of time of about eight hours generally occurred between the

observations, but inasmuch as the apparent fluctuations of the

sun seldom reach 1 per cent in a day, this difference of eight

hours seems not much prejudicial to the comparison,

3 See Astrophysical Journal 19: 305. 1903.

312 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN

We were somewhat unlucky in oui' expeditions. In 1911 a box

containing the bolometer and other necessary parts was delayed

one month in reaching Algeria, so that a long period of good

weather in August was lost. Also the months of September,

October, and November, 1911, proved less favorable than usual

at Mount Wilson and less favorable than had been hoped at

Bassour. Thus the number of days in 1911 in which good obser-

vations were secured in both places was rather small. In the

year 1912, although the sky was generally cloudless, the eruption

of the volcano of Mount Katmai in Alaska of June 6 and 7 so

filled the sky with haze, both at Mount Wilson and at Bassour,

that a great many days of July and August were rendered unsuit-

able for comparison between the two stations. Thus it occurred

that of 75 days in which observations were secured at both sta-

tions in the years 1911 and 1912, only 48 were found good enough

for satisfactory comparisons of the solar constant values obtained.

For the purpose in view namely, to show whether the apparent

fluctuation of solar radiation is due to something outside the

earth, it is immaterial whether the days of observat'on are con-

secutive or not. It is only required to know whether, if high

values are found at Bassour, high values will occur on the same

day at Mount Wilson, and, if low values are found at Bassour,

low values will be found on Mount Wilson. It matters not whether

the days in question be found in one year or another, provided

that they be numerous enough to exclude the probability that

an agreement, if obtained, is owing wholly to chance.

The accompanying illustration gives the results of all the days

found suitable for comparison between Bassour and Mount Wil-

son. Ordinates are solar constant values as obtained at Mount

Wilson, abscissae are solar constant values as obtained at Bassour.

Circles represent the results of days of the year 1912, and crosses

represent the results of days of the year 1911. If the solar radia-

tion had varied, and all determinations of it had been free from

error, the points must all have lain upon the straight line inclined

at 45 degrees to the axis. As it is impossible that results shall

be entirely free from error, we must expect that the points repre-

senting individual days will be well represented by the 45 degree

ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN 313

line if the sun is variable, but will fall uniformily distributed about

one point on that line if the sun's radiation is constant. There

is no difficulty in deciding that the line and not some single point

of the line best represents the results here given.

The variation of the sun shown between the extreme obser-

vations amounts to 11 per cent, and many observations unite in

<n

u

5'

o

_i

<,

o

/i

D

_l

z

o

z

D

O

z

6AS50UR VALUES CALORIES

showing a variation of 7 per cent. The average deviation of the

separate determinations at Bassour from those of the same days

at Mount Wilson is 1.6 per cent.

Hence the average deviation of a single day of solar-constant

(-1 /^ \

--=-=) 1.1 per cent, and the

probable error of a single solar-constant measurement at one

314 ABBOT, FOWLE, ALDRICH : VARIATION OF THE SUN

station will be 0.9 per cent. Had the condition of the sky in

1912 been free from the haze which prevailed owing to the vol-

canic eruption of Mount Katmai, we believe the probable error of

the separate determinations of 1912 would have scarcely reached

0.5 per cent.

It will be seen that the measurements of 1912 are on the aver-

age above those of 1911, at both stations. The difference 1912-

1911 is 0.03 calories per square centimeter per minute. This in

itself may be regarded as an indication of the variation of the

sun depending upon nearly twenty days of observation in 1911

and about thirty days of observation of 1912.

In further study of the variation of the sun we have compared

the mean solar-constant values obtained on Mount Wilson for the

different months of the years 1905 to 1912 with the monthly

values of the sun-spot numbers as published by Wolfer. We find

a fluctuation of solar radiation in the sense that when the sun-

spot numbers are high the solar radiation is high and vice versa.

It is also indicated that when the solar radiation is increased

the intensity of the violet and ultra-violet rays of the solar spec-

trum (as it would be found outside the atmosphere) is increased

with respect to the intensity of the red and infra-red.

Again it seems to be indicated that when the solar radiation

is high the contrast between the brightness of the centers and

edge of the solar disk is greater than normal.

These and other results of this long investigation are published

with details in volume 3 of the Annals of the Astrophysical Obser-

vatory of the Smithsonian Institution, now in press and expected

to appear about July 1, 1913. The most important conclusions

are as follows:

1. The mean value of the solar constant of radiation for the

epoch 1905-1912 is 1.932 calories per square centimeter per min-

ute.

2. An increase of 0.07 calories per square centimeter per minute

in the ''solar constant" accompanies an increase of 100 sun-spot

numbers.

3. An irregular variation frequently ranging over 0.07 calories

per square centimeter per minute within an interval of ten days

kanolt: melting points of refractory oxides 315

is established by numerous nearly simultaneous measurements at

Mount Wilson, California, and Bassour, Algeria.

4. Indications of two wholly independent kinds incline us to

think that these variations of solar radiation are caused within

the sun, and not by interposing meteoric or other matter.

PHYSICS. — The melting -points of some refractory oxides. C. W.

Kanolt, Bureau of Standards. To appear in the Bulletin

of the Bureau of Standards.

Altho a considerable number of oxides are used as refractory

materials, the melting points of but few of them have been deter-

mined, and many of the determinations that have been made are

quite uncertain. For example, some of the determinations would

indicate that lime and magnesia are more fusible than alumina,

which can easily be demonstrated to be untrue, for alumina is

readily fused in the oxyhydrogen flame, while pure lime and pure

magnesia are infusible in it, at least under ordinary conditions.

The principal difficulties encountered in the accurate determi-

nation of the melting points are the production of very high

temperatures uniform thru a sufficient space and controllable;

the supporting of the oxide in the furnace without its contamina-

tion by the material used as a support; the avoidance of smoke,

which would interfere with the measurement of temperature by

an optical pyrometer; and, finally, the accurate measurement of

temperature.

The furnace used was an Arsem graphite resistance furnace,

with some minor modifications. This furnace was designed to be

used with a vacuum, which prevents the oxidation of the graphite

and diminishes the heat losses. It was found impossible, however,

to melt lime or magnesia in a vacuum, for they are completely

vaporized before the melting point is reached. When these oxides

were melted, and also in some other cases, the furnace was filled

with a non-oxidizing gas, such as hydrogen, under atmospheric

pressure.

The temperatures were determined by means of a Morse optical

pyrometer of the Holborn-Kurlbaum type, which was sighted ver-

316 kanolt: melting points of refractoey oxides

tically downward thru a glass window in the top of the furnace.

The carbon-filament pyrometer lamps were calibrated against the

following melting points :

Material Melting point

degrees

Antimony 630

Copper-silver eutetic 779

Silver 960.5

Copper 1083

Diopside 1391

These materials were melted in graphite crucibles, the pyrome-

ter being sighted into a thin-walled graphite tube inserted in the

metal. Heating curves or cooling curves were plotted.

As the temperatures to be measured were far above the working

limit of the pyrometer lamps, absorption glasses were interposed

between the pyrometer and the furnace. The true temperatures

were then found from the apparent temperatures measured thru

the glasses, by means of the equation:

where T^ is the absolute temperature of the furnace, T^ is the

apparent temperature observed thru the glasses, and A is a con-

stant. The value of A for each glass or combination of glasses

used was determined by sighting the pyrometer at a black body

held at a constant temperature within the working limit of the

pyrometer lamps, and taking readings alternately with and with-

out the interposition of the glass. It was found that a small

error might be introduced by the lag of the pyrometer lamp when

its temperature was thus changed at short intervals. This was

avoided by using two pyrometer lamps, each maintained approxi-

mately at one of the temperatures to be measured. A correction

was applied for the absorption and reflection of the glass window

of the furnace.

It was found that measurements of the same high temperature

made with different pyrometer lamps or different absorption

glasses were always in satisfactory agreement. As a check upon

the work five determinations of the melting point of platinum

kanolt: melting points of kefractory oxides 317

were made. The value of this fixed point accepted by the Bureau

of Standards is 1755°. The platinum was melted in magnesium

aluminate tubes in an iridium furnace, and both heating and

cooling curves were plotted. The weighted mean of the five

determinations was 1755°, with an average deviation of 5°.

The problem of avoiding smoke when the oxides are not heated

in a vacuum has received very little attention in previous work,

and is probably responsible for many low results It was found

that errors from the presence of smoke could be avoided by

introducing into the oxide to be melted a tube of suitable material

into which the pyrometer was s'ghted, and keeping this tube clear

by a gentle current of gas. The cooling effect of the gas was

found to be quite negligible. With this apparatus it is impossi-

ble to see the oxide while it is melting, but as all melting points

were determined by heating curves, this is not necessary. All

determinations were checked by the examination of samples that

had been heated to temperatures slightly below that obtained for

the melting point, and also of samples heated slightly above the

melting point.

Magnesia was melted in graphite crucibles, for it forms no

carbide at high temperatures. It does react with carbon with the

formation of carbon monoxide and magnesium vapor, as shown

by Watts; but this introduces no contamination into the mag-

nesia. The determinations were made at atmospheric pressure

to avoid too rapid vaporization of the magnesia and smoke was

avoided by the introduction of a graphite tube thru which gas

was blown.

Lime forms carbide rapidly in contact with graphite at high

temperatures; graphite is therefore out of the question as a cruci-

ble material. Lime was successfully melted in tungsten crucibles

with an inner tube of tungsten, thru which hydrogen was blown.

Three results in excellent agreement were obtained in this way,

but the tungsten usually melted as soon as the lime had melted.

This was probably the result in part of contamination of the

tungsten by carbon, but the tungsten a' so appeared to be con-

taminated by contact with the fused lime, perhaps with the for-

mation of metallic calcium. This led to the suspicion that the

318

kanolt: melting points of eefractory oxides

melting point of the lime might be changed by the presence of

the tungsten. To confirm the results another method was used.

A tube made of lime was inserted into the furnace, being supported

by the upper end, which was at a low temperature, while the

lower end extended into the hot part of the furnace. The tube

was kept free from smoke by a gentle cm-rent of hydrogen, which

passed out thru a small oblique opening at the bottom. The

pyrometer was sighted down the tube and a heating curve was

plotted. Determinations made in this way were in close agree-

ment with those made in tungsten crucibles. It is believed that

this method will be very useful with other substances for which

it is difficult to find crucible materials.

Alumina can be melted in a vacumn high enough to avoid all

smoke without vaporizing so rapidly as to cause serious trouble.

Determinations were made in this way with both tungsten and

graphite crucibles. TVlien the alumina was melted in graphite

it did not form appreciable carbide until after it had completely

melted and the melting point had been determined; and then

the contamination was not rapid. The results with graphite cru-

cibles and tungsten crucibles were in agreement. Determinations

were also made at atmospheric pressure with the apparatus con-

structed for magnesia, the smoke being removed by a current of

gas. These results agree with the others.

Chromium oxide was melted in tungsten crucibles in a vacuum.

When melted in graphite it is rapidly reduced.

The results are summarized in the following table:

white: thermoelectric methods 319

PHYSICS. — New modified thermoelectric methods in calorimetry.

Walter P. White. Geophysical Laboratory. Communi-

cated by A. L. Day.

In the common calorimetric method, the " ^lethod of IMixtiires,"

the work of the last five years has shown that the error due to

heat loss from the caloruneter into the air, once thought to be

an unconquerable foe to accuracj', is, in fact, ordinarily quite

negligible. With a proper installation, the attainment of very

high precision, to 0.1 per mille or better, requires merely sufficient

precision in the temperature measurement. Such precision has

been attained for ordinary' systems by using electric thermome-

ters. It remains to make the operation of these thermometers

as simple and as free as possible from experimental precautions

and corrections, to facilitate the attainment of unusual precision

where this is desirable, and to take advantage of the facilities

which the electrical system offers for making various measure-

ments such as could not be attempted with the older mercurj-

thermometers.

For a variety of measurements the thermoelectric thermometer

system is especially well adapted, as has already been shown

elsewhere. The present paper deals with the securing of certainty

and high precision by means of the thermoelement. The essential

feature of the methods is to use, around the "cold junction" of

the thennoelement, in place of an ice bath, a body at nearly the

same temperature as the calorimeter. The smallness of the

electrical quantity to be measm-ed then gives to the temperature

measurement extraordinary^ precision combined with extraordi-

nary ease. These methods, accordingly, while specially advan-

tageous for precision in determining very small heat quantities,

are in nearly all cases among the best in convenience and cer-

tainty.

Determinations of great delicacy have already been made on

this principle, especially in Nernst's laboratory. In these the

other body was a twin calorimeter. If the two calorimeters are

ahke, the external temperature and its changes affect both alike,

and hence have but a slight effect upon the thermoelement read-

320 white: thermoelectric methods

ing which measures the difference in the temperatures of the two.

It is thus possible to proceed almost as if the external tempera-

ture had no effect at all. This has been claimed as a second

great advantage of the twin method. A complete jacket, how-

ever, is much more effective in this direction, and, on the other

hand, there is a cooling correction error peculiar to the twin

naethod. It arises whenever the two calorimeters are not exactly

alike, and can easily be shown to be (Ka — Kb) * (^b — ^j) where

Ka and Kb are the cooling rates of the two calorimeters, 6^ and

dj the temperatures of the comparison calorimeter and of the

jacket, respectively. This error is nearly eliminated if three

observation periods are run (as in the usual Pfaundler Method

with one calorimeter) , but it can be more easily avoided by mak-

ing the temperature difference, 0b — Gj, small, say below 0.2?

Only two observation periods are then needed.

The trouble of the temperature adjustment is largely or wholly

avoided by either of two schemes, both of which utilize the low

cooling rate of a vacuum-jacketed flask, which is used for the

comparison calorimeter. In one scheme, a regulator keeps the

jacket temperature constant. The flask is then constant to a

very high degree of precision (easily to 0.0001°) without any

further attention whatever. This has been called the constant

comparison body method.

The other scheme avoids the regulator. A specially adjusted

(shunted) thermoelement is used in determining the cooling cor-

rection. The two unlike calorimeters can then be operated as

easily and conveniently as if they were twins, but the tempera-

ture adjustment is so much less exacting as to be almost negligi-

ble. This has been called the compensated calorimeter method. A

combination of the two methods can be made at will, either

temporarily or permanently, involves no difficulties, and reduces

precautions and corrections to a very low minimum.

The gain in simplicity and ease of construction by using vacu-

um-jacketed bottles is evident. An effective and particularly

simple way of us'ng the bottle is to immerse it wholly in the

jacket water, with an inverted cap over it containing air, A

tube running down thru the cap allows the thermoelernent to be

white: thermoelectric methods 321

inserted or withdrawn at will without escape of air. The jacket

water surrounding the thermoelement above the cap insures defi-

nite conditions as to temperature.

The best of these methods call for a complete inclosure by the

jacket, but this is almost indispensable in any calorimetry of

precision, and can be easily obtained. For instance, the calo-

rimeter chamber may be a cylindrical pot, suspended in a com-

mercial paper tub. The cover is a square box, filled with water,

and closed, save for two pipes which project downward thru the

surface of the water below and so provide for a complete circu-

lation. The protection against evaporation of the jacket water

which is usually necessary for precision work is very easily secured

by a layer of paraffin cast on the surface of the water. This

layer can of course be easily sawed or recast. By a suitable and

rather evident arrangement of thermoelements, any of these

schemes can be operated with the two calorimeters in two sepa-

rate jackets. This procedure is necessary in the case of adiabatic

methods. A precision of 0.0001° is very easily reached, under

fair conditions, with a thermoelement of 24 couples. Elements

of 8 couples, ordinarily precise to 0.0003°, are so very compact

that the use of anything smaller will rarely be advisable.

Work with these methods has emphasized the desirability of

providing, not only abundant thennometric sensitiveness, but,

especially, a thoro and uniform jacket inclosure, with vigorous

stirring thru wide openings. The trouble required for these pre-

cautions is slight in itself, and is insignificant compared to that

likely to be entailed by trying to dispense with them.

The requirements of these methods in the way of auxiliary

electrical apparatus (potentiometer, etc.) are unusually simple and

inexpensive, but are nevertheless exacting in certain directions.

Elaborate apparatus and methods, admirable for other kinds of

work, may fail here, tho success is easy by appropriate arrange-

ments. A revised account of the essential requirements is in

preparation. The great advantage of these methods is in the

ease and precision of the temperature measurement. Otherwise,

they present disadvantages, which, however, are evidently slight,

and far outweighed by the advantages.

322 nutting: absorption of light

PHYSICS. — On the absorption of light in heterogeneous media.

P. G. Nutting. Eastman Kodak Company. Rochester,

N. Y.

Photographic density depends upon the size and number of the

imbedded silver grains and to a shght extent upon their form

and distribution as well. The mathematical problem of relating

density to grain is obviously to be treated by probability theory

rather than by infinitesimal analysis. The solution here presented

will be of interest to students of the theories of radiation and of

entropy in discontinuous systems, in that it is a much simpler

problem treated by similar probability methods.

Suppose snowflakes of a given size to be falling with perfect

irregularity upon a surface. When a given number per unit area

have fallen, what will be the mean relative areas covered and

uncovered? In the plate grain problem as in the snowflake prob-

lem, the distribution is completely irregular, but in a volume

instead of a plane. The grains are contained in a layer of the

order of 10 to 20^ thick and are themselves 0.5 to 3m in diameter,

irregular in outline and fairly uniform in area in any one plate.

The grains are not crystals, but aggregates of finely divided silver

resembling platinum black or soot, of very high absorbing and

low reflecting power. This reflecting power has not yet been

directly determined, but estimates based on scattering make it

well under 2 per cent. In the following discussion both reflec-

tion and diffusion are neglected, tho both may be readily entered

in the equations.

Consider the absorbing body divided into layers about 1 grain

thick, parallel with the surface, so that there will be but a negli-

gible amount of overlapping of grains in any one layer. That

certain grains lie partly in two successive layers is of no conse-

quence, since in the equations they are counted but once in the

layer in which their greater bulk lies. In the first layer let there

be ni, grains per unit area and let ai be their average projected

area. Then the probability of a ray of light being stopped by

this layer is the ratio of the covered to the total area, or as ni Oi

to 1. Similarly the probability of a ray passing the first layer is

nutting: absorption of light 323

1 — 7ii Gi. In other words the absorption and transmission coeffi-

cients are respectively the probabilities of being stopped and of

being passed.

In the second layer let the corresponding quantities be nz and

a2, in the third n^ and as and so on. For brevity call the product

rii «: = Ai, etc. Now the only manner in which a ray may pass

thru all layers is to pass each layer separately hence the probabil-

ity of passing all layers is the continued product

(1 - Ar) {I -A,) .... (1 _ A J ^ T^ (1)

of the probabiUties of passing each separate layer. This is the

transparency of the whole sheet. The corresponding absorption

Bm is the complementary quantity

Bra = l -T^ (2)

It may be noted that the absorption of the whole is not the

product {Ai Ao . . . A^) oi the probabilities of absorp-

tion in the various layers since the action is not alike in all layers,

a ray may be passed by several layers to be stopped in another.

The above product {A1A2. . . A2) is the probability of pos-

sible stoppage in all layers, i.e., the probability per unit area of

a continuous train of grains lying one behind the other, thru all

the successive 7n layers. In fact, if the value of Tn, in (1) be

written in (2), multiplied out and grouped according to the num-

ber of ^'s multiplied together, then each group gives the proba-

bility of 2, 3 . . . m grains overlapping.

In the special case of all layers alike in number and size of

grain, the transparency of all m layers will be

Tn. = (1 - A)- (3)

since in (1) Ai = A2, = . . . = Am- This corresponds to

Beer^s Law in ordinary optics.

Photographic density D has of late years been precisely defined

by the relation

D ^ - logio T (4)

T being the transparency in the sense used above. The value of

Tin in either (1) or (3) may be substituted in (4) according to

324 nutting: absorption of light

conditions. Equations (1) and (4) give the general relation

sought between density and the number, size and distribution of

grain.

In all ordinary practice the size and distribution of grain thru-

out the film is so uniform that (3) gives a very close approxima-

tion indeed. In this case.

D = - mlog(l - A). (5)

If further A is so small that the overlapping of grains is negligi-

ble, as is the case with low and medium densities,

D=mA=mna (6)

The ratio of the mass of reduced silver per unit area to the

density (4) is an important quantity, the so-called photographic

constant.

Now the film is m layers deep, hence m n = N is the whole

number of grains per unit area. Mass of silver (M), per unit

area is then proportional to N and to the average volume of the

grains,

M = cNa '/', (7)

the constant c involving the specific gravity of the silver and

certain numerical factors.

The photographic constant (P), defined as mass of silver per

unit area per unit density, is then

p M cNa'/' ,- .^.

P = — = = c\a (8)

D Na ^ ^

if the overlapping of grains is negligible, or is

p=- , , :^ , (9)

Slog(l — na)

without assumptions as to overlapping or uniformity of grain

thru the film.

From these equations it appears thatP, to a first approximation,

is independent of N and hence of exposure and development,

but that it will vary among different brands of plates in propor-

tion to the mean diameter of grain. The first of these conclu-

nutting: absorption of light

325

sions is a well known experimental fact. P is of the order of

10 mg. of silver per square decimeter of film, per unit density.

The relation between P and size of grain has not yet received

experimental confirmation, tho P is known to vary in different

kinds of plate.

In the following table are numerical values calculated for dif-

ferent photographic densities.

TABLE r

T is the fraction of the Ight transmitted by the entire thickness

of film, 1 — J. is the corresponding transmission of any single

layer 1 grain deep while A is the fraction absorbed, on an aver-

age, in any single layer. The final column, 10 A, is what the

absorption of a film 10 grains deep (an ordinary film) would be

if each grain were fully effective. Thus, for unit density, the

transparency is 10 per cent, the absorption of a single layer 20

per cent and there are present 2.1 times as many grains as would

completely cover a surface.

Taking the particular case of unit density and Ai =20 per

cent (0.20) and computing the absorption of the first n layers

by the formula

5i....n = 1 - n = 1 - (1-^)",

B^ = A = 0.20, 5:,2 = 2A - A.2 = 0.4 - 0.04 = 0.36

that is, in the first two layers 36 per cent is covered and 4 per

cent of this covered twice. In the first three layers

Bx..z = 3A - 3^2 + ^3 = 0.60 - 0.12 + 0.008 = 0.488

326

AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY

the probability of overlapping is 0.12, of triple overlapping of

grains is 0.008. Tabulating for ten layers,

TABLE II

The second and third columns give respectively the transparency

and absorption of the first n layers. The fourth column gives the

increment of absorption due to the nth layer. The fifth column

gives the probability of n grains overlapping in n layers. The

last column gives the probability of n grains being in line in all

ten layers, it is A- 10! / N! (10-?i)!

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Difference in strength of day and night

signals in radiotelegraphy . L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio-

telegraphic Laboratory.

The first explanation, given of the difference in strength of day

and night signals after the discovery of the phenomenon by Mar-

coni, was that sunlight, by ionizing the air around the sending

antenna, produced energy losses which resulted in a decrease in

the strength of the received signals. This idea has long been

abandoned as affording a full explanation of the phenomenon.

Recent observations between the Arlington station and the sta-

tion at the Bureau of Standards, 8 kilometers apart, show that

if the effect exists at all it is a matter of not more than 1 or 2

per cent.

At a later period it was supposed by many workers in radio-

AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN KADIOTELEGRAPHY 327

telegraphy that the increase in strength of signals at night was

caused by the decrease in an absorption in the upper conducting

layers of the atmosphere after the ionization due to the sunlight

and possible cathode rays from the sun had ceased.

The data accumulated by the U. S. Navy Department during

the last three years appear to make this explanation improbable

for the two following reasons: (1) It is known that in certain

regions and at certain wave lengths the ground absorption is more

than twenty times as great as would be the case if the signals

were sent over salt water. The sun's rays can hardly be thought

to affect the losses in the earth to any extent, yet on some nights

these waves travel across the same region, reaching the receiving

station with as great strength as would have been the case if

there had been no absorption at all.^ (2) Observations on un-

damped oscillations from the arc have shown that at night there

is a selective strengthening and weakening of the signals with

changing wave length. For example, during the recent tests of

the arc at Arlington, it was found that when the night signals at

the receiving station were faint at the regular wave length of

4100 meters, changing to 3950 meters would almost invariably

bring them in with greatly increased strength and vice versa. This

suggests the light and dark interference bands of optics and, as

Dr. De Forest has suggested, ^ the phenomenon may be explained

by the interference of a set of waves traveling along the earth's

surface with another set which has been reflected from the con-

ducting layers of the upper atmosphere. Calculations show that

the height of the reflecting surface would be from 40 to 60 miles,

which are very probable values for the point at which conduc-

tivity would begin. This phenomenon has been observed so con-

stantly in the work with the arc that there can be absolutely no

doubt of its existence. The fact that it has not been observed

in the case of spark waves is due partly to the fact that spark

apparatus is generally not changed in wave length by such small

1 In many well authenticated cases signals have been received with more than

twice the strength which the simple Duddell and Taylor law would have indi-

cated. /

* Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers 1 : 37. 1913.

328 AUSTIN: SIGNALS IN RADIOTELEGRAPHY

percentage steps, and partly to the shortness of the wave trains

which would not permit the direct and deflected trains to overlap

for any considerable difference of path.

These facts indicate that the greater strength of night signals

is probably due not to a decrease in absorption, but rather to

additional energy which reaches the receiving station by reflec-

tion. This explanation would involve the idea that at night the

vipper atmosphere becomes stratified in such a way that at some

given height differing at different times, there is a sufficiently

sudden change in conductivity to permit reflection. It is con-

ceivable that this stratification is broken up in the day time

either by vertical convection currents, or by the more or less

irregular ionization produced by the ultra violet rays or cathode

particles from the sun.'^

It is certain that the difference between night and day signals

is much less at long waves than at short, but the observations on

the Clifden signals (X about 7000 meters) at Brant Rock (2460

miles) and at Arlington (2840 miles) do not agree with the obser-

vations of Marconi at Glace Bay that the day signals are equal

to or better than those at night.* At Brant Rock during the

autumn and winter the received current from Clifden thru 25

ohms resistance was in general about 35.10"'' amp. in the day

time, rising at times to 55.10"" amp., while at night the current

frequently amounted to more than 100. lO"*' amp. In summer

the signals were always faint and much of the time inaudible in

the day time, varying probably between 7.10"" and 12. 10"'^ amp.

Night signals were much louder, no exact measurements being

made on them. The observations on Clifden at Arlington agree

qualitatively with the Brant Rock results.

^ The difference in summer and winter day signals at great distances perhaps

indicates that reflection plays some part even in the day time.

* It is conceivable that the directive receiving antenna at Glace Bay may have

an influence on the phenomenon.

BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON 329

METALLOGRAPHY. — Preliminary note on the critical ranges,

A3 and A2, of pure iron. G. K. Burgess and J. J. Crowe,

Bureau of Standards.

In view of the recent publication by Professor Carpenter of

his very interesting results^ on this subject and considering its

theoretical importance, we deem it advisable at this time to give

a brief account of some preliminary observations taken in 1911

and 1912 on the location of the critical ranges in pure iron both

on heating and cooling. We had intended deferring publication

until results were ready on a specially pure sample of iron pre-

pared here by Mr. J. R. Cain. Since, however, with five samples

of iron of the same order of purity as the single one used by

Professor Carpenter (99.97 per cent Fe) we are not able to reach

the same conclusion he does, namely, ''that were it possible to

remove the last traces of impurity, iron would cease to show even

these faint indications of Ar2," it may be of interest to put on

record now some of the results so far obtained. Cooling and

heating curves of five samples of electrolytic iron have been taken

in vacuo, three samples being separate preparations in the form

of cathode plates from Prof. C. F. Burgess of Wisconsin; and

two samples remelted by us in vacuo to remove gases, one pre-

pared by the Langheim-Pfanhauser A. G. furnished by Dr. H.

Goldschmidt and one a sample of the C. F. Burgess iron. The

samples weighed from 21 to 31 grams.

Two methods of locating the critical ranges were used simul-

taneously, requiring two observers. The first was the Osmond

inverse-rate method, times being recorded to 0.1 second on a

cylindrical chronograph and temperatures taken in steps of 2°C.

by means of a Diesselhorst potentiometer.

The second was the Roberts-Austen differential method with a

platinum neutral and reduced by Rosenhain's derived differential

method. The plotted curves should be strictly similar in shape,

and in practice, unless something is the matter, they are similar.

Using a specially designed liquid rheostat, it was possible to

^ H. C. H. Carpenter, The critical ranges of pi^re iron. Iron and Steel Insti-

tute, May, 1913.

330 BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON

!z;

o

I— I

o

O

o

«

O

!z;

o

m

O

>

n

O

p;

<!

PS

BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON 331

T3

a

0

O

o

«

o

iz;

o

Ph

o

U

o

DQ

o

h-l

EH

-<!

>

»

OQ

O

I— I

iJ

«

Ah

01

p

■<!

H

<!

P4

s8

1^

o o

00

O O O O O O

332 BURGESS AND CROWE: NOTE ON RANGES OF PURE IRON

adjust for a practically constant rate of heating and cooling over

the whole temperature range, 500° to 1100°C. Measurements

were taken at rates ranging from three seconds per degree to

thirty-six seconds per degree with no considerable effect upon the

location or magnitude of the critical ranges. The heating of the

furnace was by alternating current from a motor generator run

from a storage battery. The results are shown in the accom-

panying table; the analyses were furnished by Prof. C. F. Burgess

and Dr. H. Goldschmidt. It will be noted that for the remelted

samples the maxima for Ac2 and Ar2 are identical in position.

The plotted curves show Ac2 as pronounced as Ar2 for all the

samples. A2 and A3 appear to be different in kind, but the

discussion of this subject we prefer to defer until more complete

data and check analyses are obtained.

It should also be noted that in 1909, A. Miiller^ published a

careful study of the critical ranges of electrolytic iron finding

Ac2 = 770°, Ar2 = 763°, Ac3 = 917° and Ar3 = 894°.

' A. Muller, tJber die Darstellung des Elektrolyteisens, dessen Zuzammenset-

zung und thermische Eizenschaften. Metallurgie 6: 145. 1909.

ABSTRACTS

•Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY.— /fwmmnes of the West Indies. Oliver L. Fassig-

Weather Bureau Bulletin 10: pp. 28, pis. 25. 1913.

The early completion of the Panama Canal makes the present appear-

ance of a good bulletin on the hurricanes of the West Indies peculiarlj^

timely, and the one under consideration fully meets the needs of all who

are likely to be interested in this subject. The text is divided as follows :

(1) Hurricane areas and hurricane tracks; (2) Frequency of hurricanes;

(3) Progressive movement of hurricanes; (4) Duration and intensity of

hurricanes; (5) Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons; (6) Signs of an

approaching tropical cyclone; (7) The hurricane of August 7-20, 1899;

(8) Origin of tropical cyclones. The chief feature of the bulletin is its

excellent colored charts, which tell at a glance practically the whole

hurricane story. W. J. Humphreys.

METEOROLOGY.— O/i the physics of the atmosphere. W. J. Hum-

phreys. Journal of the Franklin Institute. 175: 207-244. 1913.

In this article a number of physical phenomena of the atmosphere are

described and their explanations given. Such as: (1) Vertical tempera-

ture gradients as determined by sounding balloons; (2) Composition of

the atmosphere at various elevations; (3) Density of the atmosphere at

different levels; (4) The nature and cause of the isothermal region; (5)

The origin and the climatic effects of the permanent centers of high

pressure on the oceans; (6) The structure of the wind, including wind

layers, gusts, and cases of violent vertical convection; (7) The origin of

thunder-storm electricity. There are also thirteen illustrations that

make it easier for the reader to follow the text. W. J. H.

333

334 abstracts: chemistry

CLIMATOLOGY. — -Two climatic cross-sections of the United States.

Robert De C. Ward. Monthly Weather Review 40, 1909-1917.

1913.

Professor Ward had the good fortune to take the whole of the 13,000

mile "Transcontinental Excursion of the American Geographical Soci-

ety," August 22 to October 18, 1912, and had therefore an unusual

opportunity of studying at first hand the effects of the numerous climates

of this country on topography, plant growth, and human industry. All

these he describes in an article that follows the excursion up the Hudson,

along the Great Lakes, thru the Bad Lands, among the Geysers, down

the Grand Coulee, over the wheat fields, orchards and vineyards of

Washington, Oregon and California, across the Sierras, along the old

beaches of Lake Bonneville, among the mountains and down the canyons

of Colorado, thru the wonderful scenery of Arizona and New Mexico,

down the Mississippi, across the southern Appalachians, and along the

Piedmont Region by way of Washington, D. C, back to New York.

Every climatic section of the United States was visited on this trip, and

to each Professor Ward has given its due share of attention.

W. J. Humphreys.

CHEMISTRY. — The action of potassium amide on cupric yiitrate in liquid

ammonia solution. Edward C. Franklin. Hygienic Laboratory.

Journal American Chemical Society, 34: 1501. 1912.

Instead of giving a precipitate of cuprous amide as might be expected,

cupric nitrate in solution in liquid ammonia reacts with potassium amide

to form ammonated cuprous nitride in accordance with the equation

3Cu(N03)2 + 6KNH2 = CugN.nNHs + 6KNO3 + (4-n)NH3 + N.

When heated in vacuo to laboratory temperature the precipitate loses

ammonia and is converted into cuprous imide, CugNH. At higher tem-

peratures cuprous imide is converted into cuprous nitride, CusN.

The product of the general formula CusN.nNHs, dissolves in Hquid

ammonia solution of potassium amide to form a solution from which

well crystallized specimens of a colorless salt of the compound repre-

sented by the formula, CUNK2.3NH3, have been obtained. This com-

pound has been named potassium ammonocuprite for the reason that

it obviously occupies a position in the ammonia system of acids, bases

and salts entirely similar to that which the more familiar zincates, alumin-

ates, plumbites, etc., occupy in the water system.

Potassium ammonocuprite with three molecules of ammonia of crys-

tallization, or triammonated potassium ammonocuprite, readily loses

abstracts: chemistry 335

successively two molecules of ammonia to form the diammonated and

monoammonated salts of the respective formulas CUNK2.2NH3 and

CUNK2.NH3. E. C. F.

CHEMISTRY. — Potassium ammonotitanate. Edward C. Franklin

and Thomas B. Hine. Journal of the American Chemical Society

36: 1497. 1912.

Treated with liquid ammonia titanium tetrabromide undergoes am-

monolysis and is converted into an ammonobasic titanium bromide of

the formula N = Ti - Br. When this basic salt, or nitride bromide, is

brought into contact with liquid ammonia solution of potassium amide

a reaction takes place which results in the formation of a compound

of the formula N = Ti-NHK which receives the name potassium ammono-

titanate. The two reactions are represented by the equations

TiBr4 + 4NH3 = N = Ti - Br + 3NH4Br and

N = Ti - Br + 2KNH2 = N = Ti - NHK + KBr.

The results of this investigation show that just as titanium bromide

undergoes hydrolysis in contact with water and just as the product of

hydrolysis may be made to react with potassium hydroxide to form

potassium aquotitanate so similarly the bromide undergoes ammono-

lysis in contact with liquid ammonia and in presence of an excess of the

ammonobase, potassium amide, it is converted into a potassium ammo-

notitanate. E. C. F.

CHEMISTRY. — The action of potassium amide on thallium nitrate in

liquid ammonia solutions. Edward C. Franklin. Hygienic Labo-

ratory. Journal of Physical Chemistry 16: 683. 1912.

The black precipitate of thallous nitride, formed by the interaction of

liquid ammonia solutions of potassium amide and thallium nitrate in ac-

cordance with the equation, TINO3 + 3KNH2 = TI3N + 3KNO3 + 2NH3,

dissolves in potassium amide solution to form potassium ammonothallite.

The salt thus formed separates from sufficiently concentrated solutions

in the form of beautiful yellow crystals of the composition represented

by the formula TINK2.4NH3. The reaction between thallium nitride

and potassium amide is strictly analogous to that which takes place

when zinc oxide, for example, dissolves in aqueous solution of potassium

hydroxide. Potassium aquozincate is formed in the latter case, potas-

sium ammonothallite in the former. The salt readily loses ammonia

to form successively the products represented respectively by the for-

mulas TINK2.2NH3 and TINK2.IJNH3.

336 abstracts: zoology

Mixed crystals or isomorphous mixtures varying in composition from

that of pure potassium ammonothallite to that of a product represented

by the formula TINK2 . 4NH3 . 3 . 6KNH2 have been obtained from

liquid ammonia solutions of potassium ammonothallite containing an

excess of potassium amide. E. C. F.

PALEONTOLOGY.— Ca?n6nan Brachiopoda. Charles D. Walcott.

Monographs of the U. S. Geological Survey 51. Part I, text, pp.

872; Part II, pis. 104, pp. 363. 1912.

This monograph describes 44 genera, 15 subgenera, 477 species, and

59 varieties of Cambrian Brachiopoda, and 3 genera, 1 subgenus, 42

species, and 1 variety of Ordovician Brachiopoda. Of the Cambrian

forms, 10 genera, 2 subgenera, 21 species, and 1 variety persist into the

Ordovician.

In this paper the Brachiopoda are treated in three ways — ^historically,

geologically, and zoologically. Historically the treatment comprises (1)

a bibliography and (2) a table of synonymic reference, giving a com-

pletely cross-referenced list of described species with the present generic

and specific reference of each. Geologically the distribution of the

Brachiopoda is considered under the following headings: (1) General

geographic and stratigraphic distribution; (2) detailed geographic dis-

tribution; (3) detailed stratigraphic distribution; (4) habitat; and (5)

fossil localities. Zoologically the discussion covers (1) the physical char-

acters of the Brachiopoda; (2) their distribution; (3) their evolution;

and (4) their classification. Lastly come the detailed descriptions of

genera and species and the illustrative plates. P. V. Roundy.

ZOOLOGY. — On a collection of recent Crinoids from the waters about

Ireland. Austin H. Clark. Department of Agriculture and Tech-

nical Instruction for Ireland, Fisheries Branch; Scientific Investiga-

tions, 1912, no. IV, pp. 1-5. 1913.

The collection upon which this report is based was brought together

by the Irish fishery cruiser Helga while working in the seas to the west

and north of Ireland; the description of a single specimen taken in the

Faeroe Channel by Dr. Wolfenden's yacht Silver Belle is also included.

Though small, the collection is of very considerable interest because

four of the eight species represented are new to the coasts of the British

Islands, one of these representing a genus heretofore known, in the

Atlantic basin, only from the Caribbean Sea.

The eight species are: Antedon petasus (Dtiben and Koren) (not

abstracts: bacteriology 337

previously reported from Ireland) ; Leptometra celtica (Barrett and Mc-

Andrew); Hathrometra prolixa (Sladen) (Faeroe Channel); Trichometra

hibernica, sp. nov. (related to a species occurring off Newfoundland);

Trichometra delicata (a species described in 1911 from the Bay of Bis-

cay); Pentametrocrinus atlanticus (not hitherto known north of the

Bay of Biscay) Atelecrinus helgae, sp. nov. (related to the Caribbean

A. balanoides, and the first species of the genus to be discovered in

the east Atlantic) ; and Rhizocrinus lofotensis. A. H. C.

BACTERIOLOGY. — -Further attempts to transmit poliomyelitis thru the

agency of the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) . John F. Anderson,

Surgeon, U. S. Public Health Service, Director Hygienic Laboratory,

and Wade H. Frost, Passed Assistant Surgeon, U. S. Public Health

Service. Public Health Reports, 1913.

In an experiment conducted in October, 1912, we were able to infect

monkeys with poliomyelitis by exposing them to the bites of several

hundred Stomoxys, which were allowed, at the same time, to feed on

monkeys inoculated intracerebrally with poliomyelitis virus. From the

date of that experiment up to February, 1913, we have carried out a

number of additional experiments designed to throw light upon the

conditions necessary for the experimental transmission of poliomyelitis

thru Stomoxys calcitrans. The flies used in our later experiments have

been, in part, captured in the vicinity of the Hygienic Laboratory and,

in part, bred in the laboratory. In a considerable number of our experi-

ments we have undertaken to simulate summer conditions by maintain-

ing a temperature of 75° to 85° F.

In these experiments monkeys inoculated with poliomyelitis have been

exposed to large number of Stomoxys at various stages of their incubation

period and during the period of developed sjanptoms. Fresh monkeys

have been exposed to these same flies simultaneously with the inoculated

monkeys and at various intervals thereafter. Stomoxys fed on defibri-

nated blood drawn from inoculated monkeys in all stages of the incu-

bation period of the disease and others fed on mixtures of normal mon-

key blood with poliomyelitis virus, have been allowed to feed on fresh

monkeys. In one experiment we inoculated a yearling colt intrave-

nously and intracerebrally with a large amount of poliomyelitis virus

and exposed this animal at once to some 2000 Stomoxys, which were

then allowed to bite fresh monkeys. Neither the colt nor the monkeys

showed symptoms in any way suggestive of poliomyelitis.

Two experiments were carried out with flies caught in the immedi-

338 abstracts: bacteriology

ate vicinity of the residences of poliomyelitis patients in Buffalo, N. Y.

These flies were then shipped to the Hygienic Laboratory and there

allowed to feed upon fresh monkeys.

Contrary to what might have been expected from the results of our

first experiment, we have been unable to transmit the infection thru

Stomoxys in a single one of our later experiments. Up to this time we

have found no satisfactory explanation for this discrepancy in results.

The flies used in our later experiments have been generally as numerous

and as active and have fed as freely as those used in our first experiment.

In some of our later experiments the inoculated monkeys have been

exposed as promptly after inoculation, that is, after only two hours;

and, so far as we are able to see, all the conditions of our first experiment

have been duplicated.

The question has occurred to us whether the season of the year has

any peculiar influence upon the transmission of poliomyelitis thru the

Stomoxys. Our own first experiment, as well as those of Rosenau and

Brues, was carried out in the early autumn, during the season when

poliomyelitis is commonly quite prevalent in nature. Our later experi-

ments, in the late autumn and winter months, were carried out during

a season when this disease is quite rare in nature; but in order to simu-

late summer conditions a temperature of 75° to 85° F. was maintained

in the room where these experiments were carried out. Altho there is

no apparent reason why the season alone, regardless of the temperature

maintained, should have exerted any special influence upon the outcome

of our experiments, it appears to us worth while to repeat the experi-

ments during the summer and autumn months.

In the meantime, it is impossible to estimate accurately the impor-

tance which Stomoxys may play in the transmission of poliomyelitis.

That it is an important natural factor appears to us doubtful, not only

because of our own negative results but also because recent experiments

have afforded additional evidence of the direct transmissibility of polio-

myelitis and because epidemiological studies appear to us to indicate that

the disease is probably transmitted largely through passive human virus

carriers.

Nevertheless, our negative results need not be taken as conclusive.

The demonstration of the infectiousness of the nasal and buccal secre-

tions of poliomyelitis patients was made only after a considerable number

of experiments had been performed with entirely negative results. The

same is true of several other recently established facts in experimental

poliomyelitis. J. F. A. and W. H. F.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 83d meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held

at the Cosmos Club, Saturday evening, March 1, 1913. The following

were elected resident members of the Academy: Bert S. Butler, F. C.

Calkins, William Mansfield Clark, Richard B. Dole, Clarence

N. Fenner, H. L. Ferguson, Arthur W. Gray, Henry Hinds, C. W.

Kanolt, Frank Leverett, F. L. Lewton, Gerald L. Loughlin,

Curtis F. Marbut, Herbert E. Merwin, M. J. Munn, J. B. Norton

W. A. Orton, N. S. Osborne, L. A. Rogers, William H. Ross, Robert

B. SosMAN, J. W. Spencer, L. W. Stephenson, Rodney H. True,

Joseph B, Umpleby, Roger Clark Wells, Frank Wenner.

After the election of new members, the Academy, in joint session with

the Philosophical Society, listened to an address by the Right Honor-

able James Bryce, 0. M., Ambassador to the United States, on The

physical aspects of Australia and New Zealand.

The speaker's theme was a recent trip he had taken thru both

these countries, and he made it broad enough to cover the most diverse

subjects — the geography, the geology, the ethnology, the fauna, the

flora, the history and the political economy of these great countries,

all of which he made delightfully interesting by the aid of maps, charts,

pictures, and by his own clearness and accuracy of description.

The 84th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held

at the Cosmos Club, Monday evening, March 31, 1913. Dr. Edward

C. Franklin of the Hygienic Laboratory spoke on Ammonia, with

experiments.

It was explained that many of the properties, both physical and

chemical, of liquid ammonia are similar to those of water; and in par-

ticular that just as we have water derived acids, bases, and salts, or a

water chemistry, so too there is an ammonia chemistry consisting of

an extensive series of ammonia derived acids, bases, and salts. The

parallel between the two chemistries, as Dr. Franklin's explanations

made clear and his many ingenious experiments demonstrated is com-

plete in every particular.

The 85th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was held

on April 23, 1913, at the Cosmos Club. Professor Dr. W. Wien of the

University of Wiirtzburg spoke on Recent theories on heat and radiation.

Published in full in this Journal 3: 273. 1913.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

339

340 proceedings: chemical society

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

(Local Section of the American Chemical Society)

The 224th meeting was held on March 13, 1913 at the George Wash-

ington University Medical School. President Waters in the chair.

Mr. SvERRE GuLBRANDSEN, of the Welsbach Light Company, spoke

on Incandescent gas lighting. After reviewing the early history of gas

Hghting by incandescent mantles, the speaker described the discoveries

of Auer, and the present process of manufacture of mantles. One of

the recent improvements in mantle manufacture consists in the use of

squirted fibers of soluble cellulose. The properties of the mantle depend

primarily upon those of the original supporting fiber. Mantles from arti-

ficial fiber show less shrinkage and hence less loss of luminosity, and also

less weakening with age, than those from natural fibers. They are also

about three times as strong initially, as the lecturer showed experimen-

tally.

The 225th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on April 11, 1913*

Prof. Ralph S. Lillie of the University of Pennsylvania spoke on

the. subject. Physico-chemical conditions of anesthetic action. Some con-

ditions that produce effects akin to anesthesia are : lowering of tempera-

ture, lack of oxygen, mechanical shock, and exposure to electric current.

The effect of a steady small current may be to increase or decrease the

irritability of nerve or muscle, depending on the effect of the current

upon the potential differences at the cell membranes. The plasmal

membrane of cells is a very important factor in their reaction toward

substances in solution. These membranes are semipermeable with

respect to some solutes, and are freely permeable to others, the latter

being usually lipoid-soluble substances. Experiments with electric cur-

rents of different frequencies give evidence that the seat of the most

constant and characteristic phenomenon of irritability, namely, the elec-

tric potential difference, lies in the semipermeable membrane of the

cell. Change in irritability is also accompanied by a change in the

permeability of the membrane. Anesthetic substances change the sus-

ceptibility of a membrane to those changes of permeability which are

necessary to stimulation. Experiments by the author on marine organ-

isms whose cells contain a rapidly diffusing pigment show clearly that

the anesthetic effect of certain salts is due to their effect on the sus-

ceptibility of the cell membrane to permeability increase and not to

their effect on the cell contents. The lipoid-soluble anesthetics, such

as ethyl ether, all act in the same way as the salts. It appears that

the primary process in stimulation is a membrane process, and the

effect of anesthesia is upon this primary process. The chemical expla-

nation of this effect is unknown, but may be due to a disturbance of the

mutual relations of the colloids of the membrane.

Discussion. Wells spoke of the many different causes of electric

potentials in liquids, and inquired whether oxidation and reduction

potentials might not be operative. Professor Lillie replied that a

proceedings: chemical society 341

number of theories in addition to those he had given had been suggested

for these potentials, and the subject is still unsettled. The fact remains

that if the semipermeability of the membrane is destroyed, the potential

difference is lowered or disappears. To an inquiry by Berg, as to the

bearing of certain experiments on the injection of lecithin-saturated

ether upon the theory, it was replied that these experiments do not

settle the point. Gore inquired as to the effect of calcium salts.

The 226th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Friday, May 2,

1913.

Prof. Eugene C. Bingham, of Richmond College, Richmond, Va.,

spoke on the subject, Fluidity and its relation to other physical and

chemical properties. Viscosity and fluidity were first defined, and their

analogy to electric resistance and conductance brought out. The evi-

dence shows that fluidities and not viscosities are additive. For this

reason the relation of fluidity to temperature approaches a straight

line. Liquid emulsions and solid suspensions, as well as mixtures of

liquids, have been studied by the author. In the case of emulsions,

viscosity tends to be additive, as expected. In suspensions, zero fluidity

appears at a percentage composition far below that at which the mix-

ture ceases to flow visibly. This composition is believed to represent the

dividing line between viscous and plastic flow. In accordance with

theory, the zero of fluidity is independent of the liquid and of the tem-

perature. The lecturer then showed many examples of the use of fluid-

ity curves in interpreting the constitution and relations of mixtures of

organic liquids, for instance, the indication of a compound between

ether and chloroform. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides

and experiments.

Discussion. Sosman inquired whether a crystalline compound of

ether and chloroform is known, corresponding to that shown bj' the

fluidity curve. Professor Bingham knew of none. In reply to inquiry

by Ford, as to why the curves of zero fluidity were not carried nearer

zero. Professor Bingham stated that the solid settles out and closes the

capillary. Bunzel mentioned the application of these facts to milk

and casein suspensions. The discussion led into the question of the

cause of emulsification by dilute alkaline solutions; Professor Bingham

beheved this due in part to the formation of films from the fatty acid

or saponifiable oil which might be present. Ford quoted experiments

of Spring in opposition to this view. In reply to a question by Berg,

it was stated that the condition of the surface of the soHd does not

affect the value of fluidity obtained. In support of Professor Bingham's

view Berg quoted the fact that olive oil, when entirely free from acid,

is not emulsified by soda, altho it becomes emulsifiable on standing in

air. Sosman mentioned the reciprocal relation of density and volume

as similar to that of viscosity and fluidity, and spoke of some miscon-

ceptions that have arisen because density, instead of volume, was

assumed to be the additive property.

C. L. Parsons gave a brief report on the Milwaukee meeting of the

American Chemical Societj-.

342 proceedings: chemical society

The 227th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Thursday, May 8.

The following papers were read :

H. C. Fuller, of the Institute of Industrial Research: The determi-

nation of caffein in tea and coffee. (Read by Mr. Wettengel.) The

method recommended by the author depends upon the separation of

the caffein from the body of the vegetable matter by means of acidu-

lated water, and its extraction from the decoction with chloroform. The

caffein is then purified by precipitation with iodin, the iodide is decom-

posed and the pure alkaloid finally extracted with chloroform.

W. B. Hicks, of the Geological Survey: A short practical method for

the estimation of potassium. The method consists in the precipitation

of potassium by platinum chloride from the acidified solution, washing

with alcohol, solution in hot water, and reduction of the chlorplatinate

by metallic magnesium to obtain the platinum in a weighable form.

The method is applicable in presence of a variety of other salts, and

has been used by the author in the analysis of salines.

Discussion. In reply to questions by Yoder and Grant, the speaker

pointed out that the presence of non-volatile salts would interfere with

the determination of the platinum by simple ignition. In reply to a

question by Seidell, it was shown that sodium chlorplatinate is dis-

solved out by alcohol, and does not interfere.

R. C. Wells, of the Geological Survey: Quantitative relations between

oxidizing and reducing solutions. The use of oxygen and hydrogen elec-

trodes for measuring oxidation and reduction potentials in solutions,

such as ferrous and ferric solutions, is rendered possible by the use of

platinum. Acidity increases the oxidation potential, while alkalinity

increases the reduction potential. The degree of reproducibility of these

potentials was discussed. The oxygen and hydrogen potentials in pure

water can be calculated, as well as their change with the gas pressure,

and the two are found to become equal at 0.68 volt and at 10"^^ atmos-

phere. This potential marks the true boundary between oxidizing and

reducing solutions. Very nearly the same value is obtained by calcu-

lation from the known dissociation constant of water at high temper-

atures.

Discussion. Blum inquired as to contact potentials in the liquid

circuit; these are small in comparison with the potentials measured.

Yoder inquired whether potential measurements could be used to deter-

mine acidity in soil solutions; this would be difficult in the presence of

oxidizing substances. Sullivan suggested an application to biochemi-

cal studies. Franklin inquired further as to the ferrous-ferric equilib-

rium. Blum stated that the hydrogen electrode has been successfully

used for determining acidity in materials such as vinegar and wines.

H. C. Gore, of the Bureau of Chemistry: The hiocheinistry of the

banana. Experiments have been made on the ripening of bananas in

a respiration calorimeter and in humidors. During ripening the starch

decreases, reducing sugars and sucrose increase, and total solids decrease,

both in the pulp and peel. There is a considerable increase in the

amount of water in the pulp. The respiration rate reaches a maximum

proceedings: geological society 3t3

at the time when the starch is decreasing most rapidly. A considerable

amount of water is absorljed in the hydrolysis of starch, and water is

produced by oxidation; the net result m.ay be either a loss or gain in free

water. About 2 per cent of the sugar is oxidized.

Discussion. The change in flavor at the end of ripening was discussed

by Franklin, Gore and Chesnut. The point was brought out by

Sullivan, Franklin and Sosman that manganese dioxide, which is

present in banana peel, acts like a reducing agent or a catalyzer for

reduction. It was stated in reply to questions that bananas are usually

ripened off the trees. Means for accelerating or retarding ripening were

discussed by McBride, Franklin, Hillebrand and Gore. The latter

stated that experiments are planned on the effect of carbon dioxide

(asphyxiation) .

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 269th meeting was held on April 9, 1913, at the Cosmos Club.

In the open meeting E. 0. Ulrich spoke concerning the age of the Bays

sandstone of the Appalachian Valley. New fossils from the type local-

ity prove this exposure at least to be of Black River age.

REGULAR program

The mud lumps at the mouth of the Mississippi (illustrated) : E. W.

Shaw. The "Mud Lumps" are remarkable swellings of dark blue clay

in the shallow water at the mouths of the Mississippi. They commonly

form islands with a surface extent of an acre or more and a height of

5 or 6 feet. They have always been a serious obstacle to navigation

but with the exception of several papers written by Hilgard the pub-

lished literature concerning them seems meagre when we consider the

unusual and important character of the phenomenon. The present

paper is only a preliminary notice and a statement of working hypothe-

ses. The principal new hypothesis is that the delta is affected by a

bodily seaward fiowage and that the mud lumps are incidental to this

flowage. This involves the assumption that the outer beds are sandy

and comparatively rigid whereas Hilgard believes that just off shore

the deposit consists of very watery clay. He sets forth that a crust of

sand and silt are built out over this watery clay giving an unstable

condition and that wherever the crust is weak the sludge breaks up

thru, forming mud lumps. He also thinks that the mud springs which

are found on many lumps are vents for the fluid mud underneath. To

the present writer these seemed to be incidental to fissuring produced

by mud lump upheaval.

A reconnaissance of the Arctic Slope of Alaska: E. de K. Leffingwell.

This area is bounded by the Canning River on the west and by the

Okpelak River on the east, and extends inland for about 80 miles.

Two provinces are recognized, the Arctic Mountains and the Arctic

344 proceedings: geological society

Slope. The former, composed chiefly of pre-Mesozoic rocks, extend

east and west across Arctic Alaska, and are regarded as a continuation

of the Rocky Mountain System of the United States and Canada. The

Arctic Slope is divided into the Anaktovuk Plateau and the Coastal

Plain. The former is a rolling upland forming the northern front of

the mountains and is composed chiefly of Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks.

The latter is a nearly featureless plain of Pleistocene rocks. The drain-

age is characterized by a series of closely spaced rivers flowing nearly

north from the mountains to the Arctic Ocean.

Schists of probable pre-Cambrian age were deposited and metamor-

phosed early in the history of the region. The earliest sedimentation

of definite age took place in Carboniferous time, when the European

section was closely followed. Only 300 feet intervene between the

Geschellian and upper Triassic. A series of marine post-Triassic rocks,

whose faunas have not yet been studied, probably represent the Jurassic

and perhaps extend into the Cretaceous. Evidence from neighboring

areas indicates that the Arctic Mountains were deformed in early Ter-

tiary times. Their general accord of summits may indicate base-level-

ing, but the lack of definite evidence leaves it an open question. The

tilted and leveled Pliocene rocks in the Anaktovuk Plateau indicate

that this area was uplifted and base-leveled in late Pliocene or early

Pleistocene times. The Coastal Plain was uplifted in the Pleistocene,

probably before the Wisconsin stage of glaciation. Since then there

have been minor oscillations probably less than 25 feet in amount.

Ores of the Mount Lyell copper district of Tasmania (illustrated) :

C. C. Gilbert and J. E. Pogue. Two types of deposits are repre-

sented, typified in the two largest mines of the district. The Mount

Lyell mine opens up a pyritic mass of immense size, low in copper con-

tent but with values in gold and silver. The ore is densely granular

pyrite, bearing thruout chalcopyrite in minute stringers and filaments

and including localized areas of tetrahedrite and of enargite. Bornite,

chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena are also present but in subordinate

amounts. At the North Mount Lyell mine the ore minerals, in order

of importance, are bornite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, tetrahedrite, and

pyrite; these form mineralized zones in the schists and not a great

pyrite body as at Mount Lyell. Metallographic study of polished

sections indicates that both types of deposits were dominantly formed

thru replacement of the minerals of the schists, and that the deposition

took place during a distinct mineralizing epoch marked by solutions

progressively changing in composition and depositing a series of sulfide

minerals in sequential and transitional stages. The order of deposition

among the principal minerals is pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalco-

cite, corresponding to a decreasing iron and increasing copper content.

Enargite and tetrahedrite probably mark a late stage in the mineralizing

epoch; with these chalcopyrite of a second generation is associated.

The sections give no conclusive evidence of secondary sulfide enrich-

ment. The ores studied are the property of the U. S. National Museum.

Ralph W. Richards, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill JUNE 19, 1913 No. 12

MATHEMATICS.— Ta6?es of the exponential function.' C. E.

Van Orstrand. U. S. Geological Survey.

The most important tables of extended values of the expo-

nential function have been constructed by Schulze, Newman,

Glaisher and Burgess.-

Schulze gives values of the ascending exponential at intervals

of unity between the limits 1 and 24 inclusive to 28 or 29 signi-

ficant figures, and for the special arguments 25, 30 and 60 his

values include 32 or 33 figures. In so far ias I have been able

to ascertain, Schulze gives no information regarding methods of

computation or accuracy of results. Glaisher verified the first

15 figures of Schulze's value of e'^ by direct substitution in the

series; the first 23 decimals of e'° with his table of factorials;^

also the first 13 powers of e were verified to 22 places of deci-

mals, and the values of e'\ e'^, . . . e-^ to 15 places of decimals

by means of the relation

e— 1

' Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 Schulze, Sammlung logarithmischer trigonometrischer .... Tafeln

(Berlin 1778). F. W. Newman, table of the descending exponential function

to twelve or fourteen places of decimals. Camb. Phil. Soc. Trans. 13. 1883.

J. W. L. Glaisher, Tables of the exponential function. Camb. Phil. Soc, Trans.

2 f _,,

13. 1883. James Burgess, On the definite integral —j= \ e dt, with extended

V^Jo

tables of values. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 39. 1900.

' Glaisher, 1. c.

345

346 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

The first table by Newman contains 370 18-place values of

the descending exponential between the limits 0.1 and 37.0. This

is hardly the equivalent of a 16-place table as the original com-

putation included only 18 decimals. His second table contains

12-place values of e-' at intervals of 0.001 from x = 0.001 to

X = 15.349, and 14-place values of the same function from x =

15.350 to a; = 27.635, the interval being 0.002 from x = 15.350

to a: = 17.298, and 0.005 from x = 17.300 to x = 27.635. The

formula used was

M±A^ = e-^"' = e-^[l±/i4-^=^^+- • •],

2: 3:

wherein h assumes the constant values 1, 0.1, 0.01, ....

dependent upon the interval of interpolation. Having given

e-^ and e^^ + "> the value of e-' - ^ is computed from the formula

by putting

— e-' and iV = > - -'

m: ^^ n:

ikf = y — e-^ and iV = > - e~\

m being an even and n an odd integer. The values of the

separate terms in these expressions may be computed by suc-

cessive divisions. Then the appropriate summations give

M ^N = e-' + \

a known quantity, and

M - N = e~'- ^

the quantity to be determined. The equation for M + N, pro-

vides a check on the values of M and A^, but the difference which

is the quantity sought is not verified by this method until an-

other interpolation is made.

Glaisher gives 10-place logarithmic values and 9 significant

figures of the natural values of both the ascending and descend-

ing function for the following ranges of argument:

From X = 0.001 to a; = 0.100 at intervals of 0.001

'' X = 0.01 " X = 2.00 " " " 0.01

" X = 0.1 " X = 10.0 " " " 0.1

X

= 1 '' a: = 500 " " " unity.

Since the natural values were computed from the logarithmic

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 347

values, the maximum tabular error is one unit in the ninth sig-

nificant figure with the exception of values of e'"" contained in

Newman's tables. The remaining values of Glaisher's tables

were checked either by differences or by duplicate computation.

Mr. Shanks^ had previously obtained the value of e to 137 places

by direct substitution in the series. Glaisher verified this result

by means of the continued fraction^

e - 1 11 1 1

2 l+6+10+---4n + 2H

He also evaluated e-^" to 32 places of decimals, using the for-

mula

e-=^+^ (1).

The quantity y X 10"" is here an approximate value of e^"".

Burgess gives 30-place values of e-* for x = 0.5, 1,2, . . .

10; and 14 values of e"""" at irregular intervals betwe'en the limits

1.0 and 3.0, ranging in extent from 23 to 27 decimals. These

values were used in his evaluation of the probability integral,

but no information seems to have been given with regard to

either method or accuracy of computation.

The present table has been computed roughly to 35 decimals

or significant figures by means of the derivative formula

A ten-groove computing machine of the millionaire type was

used in making the computations. In a few instances the eval-

uation was carried to 40 or more decimals for the purpose of

obtaining a complete check on my own values and the more

extended values given by Schulze and Glaisher.

In order to obtain a check on the successive computations,

the value of the constant factors 6=*="-^ were evaluated from the

series with the aid of Glaisher's table of factorials. The value

of e is well known and its reciprocal to 44 places of decimals

* One year later the value of e was given to 205 places. See Proc. Roy. Soc. 6:

397. 1854.

6 Chrystals Algebra 2 : 495; A. Hall, Math. Monthly. 1861.

348 VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

was given by Schulze and repeated by Glaisher. This value I

also computed by reciprocation and found the error to be 1 unit

in the 44th decimal. Ten interpolations between the limits x =

± 0.1 and X = ±1.0 thus suffice to check the constant factors

e'^^-^ and the successive powers e^'^-^, e^^-^, . . . 6=^° -^ Proceed-

ing in this way, the functions were first evaluated at intervals

of unity by repeated multiplications by the factors e^^ " and with

these values as a basis, the values at intervals of 0.1 and 0.5

were obtained by successive multiplications by the factors e^^-^

and e^°^ a check being obtained on the fifth and tenth interpo-

lations. Further independent checks were obtained by use of

the factors, e^^^.o, g^j-^^j e=^io.o q^}^g maximum difference between

any value obtained by use of the factors e^^-^ as compared with

the value obtained by use of the factors e^^-^ and e*^° was about

15 units in the 35th decimal or significant figure. Comparisons

based on the other factors just mentioned showed differences of

the same order of magnitude. Another check consisted in com-

puting a few isolated values by means of equation (1).

The applications of the exponential function in pure and applied

mathematics are so numerous and many of them so well known

that it would be useless to attempt a discussion of them in this

paper. It appears desirable, however, to call attention to a

simple check which this function provides for the evaluation of

sin X and cos x. We may evidently write

e"" = sin X + cos x -\- 2

Since all of the quantities in the right-hand member of the above

equation are known, the value of 6^ is readily obtained by a

simple summation. I have applied this check to my values" of

sin X and cos x for x = 0.1, 0.2, . . .1.6. No errors were

discovered.

In the following table the values from x = 0.0 to x = 32.0

have been tabulated to either 20 decimals or 20 (sometimes more)

significant figures. The tabular error is always <5 units in the

next succeeding tabular value. The more extended values are to

6 This Journal 2 : 299. 1912.

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

349

Table of the Exponential Function

.9 6.68589 44422 79269 41607

2.0 7.38905 60989 30650 22723

.1 8.16616 99125 67650 07345

.2 9.02501 34994 34120 92647

.3 9.97418 24548 14720 73996

.4 11.02317 63806 41601 65224

•2.5 12.18249 39607 03473 43807

.6 13.46373 80350 01690 39775

.7 14.87973 17248 72834 11187

.8 16.44464 67710 97049 87150

.9 18.17414 53694 43060 94268

3.0 20.08553 69231 87667 74093

.1 22.19795 12814 41633 40483

.2 24.53253 01971 09348 64356

.3 27.11263 89206 57887 42682

.4 29.96410 00473 97013 34816

3.5 33.11545 19586 92313 75065

.6 36.59823 44436 77987 75259

.7 40.44730 43600 67390 52889

.8 44.70118 44933 00823 03756

.9 i 49.40244 91055 30173 87976

1

4.0 I 54.59815 00331 44239 07811

• .14956 86192 22635 05264

0.13533 52832 36612 69189

. 12245 64282 52981 91022

.11080 31583 62333 88333

.10025 88437 22803 73373

.09071 79532 89412 50338

0.08208 49986 23898 79517

.07427 35782 14333 88043

.06720 55127 39749 76513

.06081 00626 25217 96500

.05502 32200 56407 22903

0.04978 70683 67863 94298

.04504 92023 93557 80607

.04076 22039 78366 21517

.03688 31674 01240 00545

.03337 32699 60326 07948

0.03019 73834 22318 50074

.02732 37224 47292 56080

.02472 35264 70339 39120

.02237 07718 56165 59578

.02024 19114 45804 38847

0.01831 56388 88734 1S029

350

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

.6

.7

.8

.9

8.0

1808.04241

1998.19589

2208.34799

2440.60197

2697.28232

44560 63206 904

51041 17959 252

18872.08523 980

76244 99077 249

82685 08M7 211

2980.95798 70417 28274 744

0.00055 30843 70147 83358

.00050 04514 33440 61070

.00045 28271 82886 79706

.00040 97349 78979 78671

.00037 07435 40459 08837

0.00033 54626 27902 51184

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables 351

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

352

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

353

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

354

VAN orstrand: exponential function tables

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

VAN or.strand: exponential function tables

355

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

356

VAN orsteand: exponential function tables

Table of the Exponential Function — Continued

COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES 357

be published elsewhere. Further interpolations are being made

for the purpose of obtaining a complete table of this important

function.

Credit is due Messrs. R. Weinstein and A. G. Seller for the

thoro and careful manner in which the computations have been

made.

PHYSICS. — Summary of tests made on bismuth thermopiles. Wm.

W. CoBLENTZ, Bureau of Standards.

During the past year various tests have been made in con-

nection with the improvement of the radiation sensitivity of

thermopiles made of bismuth and some other metal, e.g., silver,

iron, etc. The results of these tests are now published with the

hope that they may be useful to others.

The term radiation sensitivity is to be emphasized for the

thermo junction giving the highest thermal sensitivity (emf.) ; it

is not necessarily the one having the highest radiation sensitivity.

With reference to the radiation sensitivity, Johansen^ has

shown theoretically: (1) that the radii of the two wires of the

element should be so chosen that the ratio between the heat

conductivity and the electrical resistance is the same in both;

(2) that the heat loss by conduction thru the wires should equal

the heat loss by radiation from the junction; and (3) that the

radiation sensitivity is proportional to the square root of the

exposed surface. Johansen's practice, however, was poor, in that

he joined the ''cold," unexposed, junctions directly to the metal

posts supporting the instrument and unfortunately some manufac-

turers of thermopiles are now following his example.

In the construction of thermopiles the most important desid-

eratum is symmetry of the "hot" and the "cold" junctions, just

as is true of bolometers. The unexposed junctions must be cov-

ered with receivers having the same size and emissivity as the

exposed junctions. Furthermore all the junctions must be free

from the supports so that they may quickly take the temperature

of the surrounding air which becomes heated by the incident

ijohansen Ann. der Phys. (4) 33: 517. 1910.

358 COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES

radiations. If the unexposed junctions are joined directly to the

metal pins used in supporting the elements, the galvanometer

mirror will ''drift/' so that it is practically impossible to use such

an " unsymmetrical" thermopile with a sensitive galvanometer.

The novelty in the thermopiles as constructed at the Bureau

of Standards is the receiver, which, like a bolometer, can be made

entirely opaque and can be built up so as to present a large sur-

face.^ The square root law, cannot of course hold for a very

large receiver attached to a thermo junction. With bismuth

wire 0.1 mm. diameter it was found that the optimum length

of receiver was 2.5 to 3 mm. which, however, is sufficiently long

(loc. cit) to enable the construction of a large receiver by using

many junctions. The importance of submitting the theoretical

conclusions to experiment is further illustrated in connection

with the square root law. For example: Four receivers each

having exposed areas of 1 X 1 mm! are twice as sensitive as a

single receiver 1x4 i^j^\ Experimentally however, with bis-

muth wire, 0.1 mm. diameter, there is but little gain in sensi-

tivity by placing more than two junctions per millimeter length

of the composite receiver.

In order to keep the resistance low, it was shown (loc. cit.) that

the best diameter of bismuth wire is 0.1 mm. The proper diam-

eter of silver or copper wire is 0.036 to 0.038 mm. In spite of

theory which would have required a wire having a larger diameter,

it was found that an iron wire, 0.036 mm. in diameter, joined

to bismuth (in these tests the receivers are the same size, loc. cit.

figure 2, and they are exposed alternately, or simultaneously for

the differential deflection) was about 9 per cent more sensitive

radiometrically than a similar sample 0.0418 mm. in diameter.

In order to still further reduce the resistance, two junctions are

joined in parallel, by joining them to a single receiver. These

pairs of junctions are then joined in series.

It is found that the thermal emf . of various samples of bismuth

varies from 75 to 82 mv. per degree with but little variation in

2 Bull. Bur. Standards 9: 7. 1912. In further references this' will be cited

"loc. cit."

COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES 359

V

resistance. It is therefore necessary to test the material to be

used.

In the following tests one end of the bismuth wire was joined

to silver (0.36 mm.) and the other to iron, and both were covered

with receivers of the same area.

A sample of steel wire (0.036 mm. diameter) having an emf.

of 9 mv. when joined with bismuth has a radiation sensitivity

about 23 per cent higher than the other junction of bismuth sil-

ver. A sample of iron wire (0.36 mm. joined to bismuth) hav-

ing an emf. of 13.5 mv. was 28 per cent more sensitive than the

junction of bismuth and silver. The increase in sensitivity

of iron over steel was not so marked as was anticipated.

Since, however, it is difficult to place more than two junctions

per millimeter length of receiver, it will be a decided advantage

to use junctions of bismuth iron, when the instrument is in a

vacuum to avoid rusting. The resistance is kept low by joining

two junctions in parallel to the same receiver.

For work in air exposed to sulphur fumes, a thermopile of bis-

muth-copper (or pure gold) will probably outlast iron or silver.

In all cases, however, the wires are given a thin coat of shellac.

The bismuth wire cannot be rolled, but it can be easily flat-

tened by pressing the wire (cut to the proper length for the

thermopile) between plate glass. The samples tested were of

0.1 mm. diameter and were pressed to a width of 0.25 to 0.3 mm.

and a thickness of 0.04 mm. If pressed thinner the breakage is

increased.

To test the radiation sensitivity a flat bismuth wire 3 mm. long

was welded to a similar piece of the round wire. The free ends

were joined to silver wires (0.036 mm.) and to these junctions

were attached receivers 1.5 x 1 mm. which were painted with

lamp black and smoked. When exposed to radiation (either

alternately or simultaneously) it was found that the flat wire had

a radiation sensitivity about 9 per cent higher than the round

wire. It is convenient to handle the flattened wire and therefore

desirable to construct the thermopile of flattened wire which

reduces the heat conduction.

360 COBLENTZ: BISMUTH THERMOPILES

Reduction of the gas pressure to 0.1 mm. pressure eliminates

air currents and doubles the sensitivity.

Owing to the high sensitivity of this device, it would seem de-

sirable to attach it to a recording device and test its usefulness

for measuring solar radiation at the earth's surface and at the

highest altitudes attainable with a balloon. Its application to

the radiomicrometer (loc. cit) is also important. In this connec-

tion it would seem desirable to construct the device in accordance

with the resistance requirements for critical damping in moving

coil galvanometers rather than adhering to the older theory worked

out by Boys which requires but a single turn of wire and a single

thermoelement.

The application of such instruments to the measurement of

radiation from stars, fireflies, etc., seems futile, unless absorption

screens are used to determine the quantit^y of radiation in differ-

ent parts of the spectrum. Otherwise the measurement is but

little more than a test of the sensitivity of radiometer.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — Atmospheric humidity as related to haze, fog, and

visibility at Blue Hill. A. H. Palmer. Bulletin of the Mount

Weather Observatory 5: 231-246. 1913.

This is a detailed account of the conditions under which haze, fog,

and different degrees of visibility occurred during a period of ten years

at Blue Hill, Mass., and is of special value to any one who wishes to

know the minutia of the local climate. W. J. Humphreys.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— £'fedro^//s?:.s in plain and reinforced con-

crete. E. B. Rosa, Burton McCollum and O. S. Peters. Tech-

nologic Paper No. 18, Bureau of Standards.

This paper treats of the problems arising out of the passage of stray

electric currents thru reinforced and non-reinforced concrete. The first

part of the paper describes and gives the results of a large number of

laboratory experiments. These experiments show that if iron is made

anode in moist concrete at a temperature of 45°C., or more, rapid cor-

rosion of the iron occurs. This is followed by cracking of the concrete

which is due to the pressure developed by the formation of the rust

on the surface of the iron. Below 45''C. there is almost no corrosion

of the anode. With continued application of the current there is an

enormous rise in the resistance of the specimen which greatly reduces

the flow of current and thus tends to protect the iron. The addition

of salt to the concrete completely destroys the passivity of the iron

at all temperatures. When the iron is made cathode the sodium and

potassium in the cement are concentrated ^bout the iron by the cur-

rent, resulting in disintegration of the concrete in the immediate vicinity

of the iron and destruction of the bond. The strength of non-reinforced

361

362 abstracts: geology

concrete is not affected by the passage of the current. Parts two and

three of the paper consist of a discussion of the possibilities of trouble

from stray currents occurring in practice, and precautions which should

be taken to prevent damage where it is Hkely to occur. B. McC.

GEOLOGY. — Coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk Mountains,

Colorado. Willis T. Lee. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No.

510. Pp. 237 with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1912.

The coal fields of Grand Mesa and the West Elk Mountains lie in

central western Colorado. Grand Mesa is a large lava-covered table-

land rising about 10,000 feet above sea-level and 5000 feet above the

surrounding country. The coal beds underlie the mesa and outcrop in

its sides. The West Elk Mountains consist principally of igneous rock

both intrusive and extrusive. The most conspicuous peaks are formed

by the laccoliths exposed by erosion of the sedimentary rocks that once

covered them.

The sedimentary rocks described are principally of Cretaceous and

Tertiary age. The Dakota sandstone rests unconformably on the Gun-

nison formation which contains fossils that correlate it with the Mor-

rison, and is overlain by the Mancos shale which is about 3000 feet

thick and which is of Colorado age below and Montana above. This is

followed by the Mesaverde formation nearly 3000 feet thick which is

divisible into a basal sandstone (Rollins); a coal-bearing member of

marine and brackish water origin (Bowie) ; a coal-bearing member of

fresh-water origin (Paonia) ; and a thick series of undifferentiated rocks.

The non-marine beds contain fossil plants that seem to show that they

are younger than Mesaverde. The Paonia shale is separated from the

Bowie by an unconformity. (In the official publication these shales

are given the rank of members of a formation. The writer personally

dissents from a decision whereby rocks both above and below an

unconformity are placed in a single formation and believes that the

Rollins, the Bowie, and the Paonia, which ought properly to include the

undifferentiated beds overlying it, should be raised to the rank of

formations.)

The Tertiary beds lie unconformably upon the Mesaverde and con-

sist of the Ohio Creek conglomerate, the Wasatch, and the Green River

formations. The Wasatch of the eastern part of the area described was

formerly known as the Ruby formation, but this name has been aban-

doned inasmuch as the Ruby seems to be a part of the Wasatch.

Coal beds of little economic value occur at the base of the Mancos

shale. High grade, bituminous coal is found in the Bowie shale, and a

abstracts: geology 363

lower grade, varying from subbituminous to bituminous coal, in the

Paonia shale. In the West Elk Mountains the coals of both members

have been changed to anthracite, presumably by the rock movements

and the heat attending the intrusion of great masses of igneous rock.

Some of the laccoliths were intruded below the coal beds, others within

the coal-bearing rocks, and still others above them However, it is a

fact worthy of careful consideration in connection with the metamor-

phism of coal, that some of the unmetamorphosed coals lie close to the

igneous rock and that much of the anthracite lies at considerable dis-

tances from any of the known intrusive masses. W. T. Lee.

GEOLOGY.^ — Geology and ore deposits of the Butte district, Montana.

Walter Harvey Weed. U. S. Geological Survey Professional

Paper 74. Pp. 262, maps, and sections. 1912.

A central mass of granitic rock is exposed in the Butte region for

about 64 miles in length and 12 to 16 miles in width and is surrounded

by upturned and folded sedimentary rocks whose edges are abruptly cut

off by the granite. Remnants of a former capping of dark-colored, baked

andesites occur as patches over the northern part of the granite region,

and extensive areas of these same rocks form mountain masses flanking

the granite on the east, north, and west, concealing the sedimentary

contact in these areas. These andesitic rocks are partly intrusive but

are mainly extrusive lavas or volcanic debris. The granite itself con-

tains numerous patches and dikes of white aplite, in places tourmaline-

bearing, that are regarded as a later siliceous phase of the granite itself.

All these earher rocks, including the sedimentary limestones, etc., are

cut by rhyolitic dikes and capped by extensive accumulations of frag-

mental rhyolitic rocks and lava flows. Mineral vein formation preceded

this later volcanic period and is still in progress in some parts of the

district. Over the northeastern part of the granite region quartz veins,

usually barren, are extremely common and of unusual size, forming the

crests of long, high ridges and dominating the local topography. The

deeper older valleys of the district are filled by alluvial and lake beds

largely composed of rhyolitic volcano dust and material washed down

the slopes when the rhyolitic eruptions occurred.

The metalliferous ores of the Butte district are of two distinct classes,

copper and siliceous silver. The copper ores contain a little silver; the

silver ores rarely contain copper; both copper and silver ores contain

little gold and the high-grade silver ores contain it in important amounts.

The typical ores of the two classes are distinctive and are characterized

364 abstracts: geology

b}'^ well-marked mineral association, but other ores occur which are not

typical but are a mixture of both kinds.

The wall rocks of the veins contain copper. Chemical analyses of

fresh unaltered material show that the Butte quartz monzonite holds

copper, though in less amount than the altered rock.

The question as to the source of the copper in the lodes is complex,

as the amount of copper present in the altered rocks is in excess of that

in the fresh rock and there is no body of leached rock from which this

excess of copper could have come. The evidence seems to indicate that

the alteration of the rock and its impregnation with copper are due to

a common cause, and that copper has been added to the rock, together

with silica and iron, the two other constituents which are so abundant

in the altered granite.

Tho the evidence is not conclusive, it is believed to indicate that

the copper and other metals of the quartz-pyrite veins are derived

from magmatic emanations coming from a deep-seated mass of igneous

magma. The rhyolite porphyry intrusion appears the most probable.

A second and later mineralization occurred at the time of the rhyolitic

eruption, forming the silver veins and the ores of the Blue vein and

other fault vein series.

The sequence of the vein systems is considered to be as follows: (1)

East-west or Anaconda system (oldest); (2) Silverbow system; (3) Blue

Vein system; (4) silver veins; (5) Steward system; (6) Mountain View

fractures; (7) Rarus fault zone. The enargite veins are of different ages,

but are all younger than the Anaconda system.

The veins of the Anaconda and Silverbow systems are quartz-pyrite

veins; those of the Blue and Steward systems are mineralized fault veins.

Many of the most productive lodes of the district are compound or

composite veins, due to a combination or superposition of the two types

in one vein — that is, a reopening of an old vein with deposition of new

material. As many of the older veins have been reopened in this way

they have the characters of both the quartz-pyrite and fault veins. The

four systems embrace practically all the productive veins of the dis-

trict. It is not certain, however, that all the veins having a similar

direction are of the same age. It is known that the district has been

an area of movement and fracture ever since the time of the granite

intrusion, and has continued so to the present day. The early fractures,

tho cemented by mineral matter, have been lines of weakness and

have been reopened either by direct fracture or during the straining of

the rock mass by the faulting of blocks by other crossing fractures.

W. H. W.

I.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill JULY 19, 1913 No. 13

GEOPHYSICS. — Volcanic dust as a factor in the production of

climatic changes.^ W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau. To

be published as a Bulletin of the Weather Bureau.

Geological investigations have given us a great deal of informa-

tion in regard to the cUmates of the past, and the following

tentative conclusions appear to be well established: (a) The cli-

matic changes were several, probably many. (6) They were

simultaneous over the entire earth, and in the same sense. That

is, colder everywhere at the same time (climatically speaking)

or warmer everywhere, (c) They were of unequal intensity.

(d) They probably were of irregular occurrence, and of unequal

duration, (e) They, at least one or more, progressed with sec-

ondary variations of intensity, or with advances and retreats of

the glacial edge. (/) They have occurred from very early, prob-

ably from the earliest, geological ages down to the present, and

presumably will continue irregularly to recur for many ages yet

to come.

Many efforts have been made to find a probable and at the

same time an adequate physical basis for, or cause of the climatic

changes that are known to have occurred; but, one after another,

nearly all have been definitely and finally abandoned, either

because of inconsistency with known physical laws or because

they proved inadequate to meet the conditions imposed by geo-

logical investigations.

1 Presented in substance before the Astronom'cal and Astrophysical Society

of America, at Cleveland, O., January 1, 1913.

365

366 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

Doubtless there have been several contributing causes of cli-

matic change, but it is the specific purpose of this paper to dis-

cuss only one of these, — a cause that during historic times has

often been fitfully operative, and concerning which we have

much definite information.

The cause or factor in question is the presence of volcanic dust

in the upper atmosphere.

Volcanic dust has often been mentioned as a possible cause

of cold seasons. Thus in May, 1784, Benjamin Franklin (and

he may not have been the first) wrote as follows:

During several of the summer months of the year 1783, when the

effects of the sun's rays to heat the earth in these northern regions

should have been the greatest, there existed a constant fog over all

Europe, and great part of North America. This fog was of a perma-

nent nature; it was dry, and the rays of the sun seemed to have little

effect towards dissipating it, as they easily do a moist fog, arising from

water. They were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it, that,

when collected in the focus of a burnhig-glass, they would scarcely

kindle brown paper. Of course their summer effect in heating the earth

was exceedingly diminished.

Hence the surface was early frozen.

Hence the first snows remained on it unmelted, and received con-

tinual additions.

Hence perhaps the winter of 1783^ was more severe than any that

happened for many years.

The cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained. Whether it

was adventitious to this earth, and merely a smoke proceeding from

the consumption by fire of some of those great burning balls or globes

which we happen to meet with in our course round the sun, and which

are sometimes seen to kindle and be destroyed in passing our atmos-

phere and whose smoke might be attracted and retained by our earth;

or whether it was the vast quantity of smoke, long continuing to issue

during the summer from Hecla, in Iceland, and that other volcano

which arose out of the sea near that island, which smoke might be

spread by various winds over the northern part of the world is yet

uncertain.

It seems, however, worth the inquiry, whether other hard winters,

recorded in history, were preceded by similar permanent and widely

extended summer fogs. Because, if found to be so, men might from

such fogs conjecture the probability of a succeeding hard winter, and

of the damage to be expected by the breaking up of frozen rivers in

the Spring; and take such measures as are possible and practicable,

to secure themselves and effects from the mischiefs that attend the last.-

2 See Sparks, "Life of Benjamin Franklin," 6: 455-457. (Cited in Proceedings

of the Amer. Phil. Soc, 45: 127. 1906.)

HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 367

The idea then that volcanic dust may be an important factor

in the production of climatic changes is not new, but hitherto

the idea has not been supported either by a clear explanation

of the process by which such dust can lo-v/er average tempera-

tures or by a discussion of all the available observational data.

In fact the rational or theoretical discussion has not long been

possible since, in almost every particular, it depends upon the

results of recent investigations.

We shall now briefly consider, under separate heads, the sev-

eral points essential to an understanding of how volcanic dust may

influence, and of the extent to which it actually has influenced,

our average temperatures — by what process it may modify and

to what extent it actually has modified our climates.

Atmospheric regions. At an elevation that in middle latitudes

averages about 11 kilometers the temperature of the atmosphere

becomes substantially constant, or, in general, ceases appreciably

to decrease with increase of elevation, this is, therefore, the upper

limit of distinct vertical convection and of cloud formation.

Hence, while volcanic or other dust in the lower or cloud region

of the atmosphere is quickly washed out by snow or rain, that

which by any process happens to get into the upper or isother-

mal region must continue to drift there until gravity can bring

it down to the level of passing storms. In other words, while

the lower atmosphere is quickly cleared of any given supply of

dust, the isothermal region retains such dust as it may have

for a time that depends upon the size and density of the indi-

vidual dust particles themselves, or upon the rate of fall.

Size of volcanic dust particles. From the angular dimensions of

a reddish brown corona, known as Bishop's ring, seen around

the sun after the eruptions of Krakatoa, Pele and certain other

volcanoes, it has been calculated, by the aid of the laws of dif-

fraction, that the average diameter of the particles to which this

ring was due, assuming them spherical, was about 1.85 microns.

Hence, with this information, it becomes possible to calculate

the time of fall of volcanic dust.

Tiine of fall. By using the excellent measurements recently

made by McKeehan^ on the terminal velocity of falling globules,

■^ Phys. Rev., 33: 153. 1911.

368 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

it is easy to show that spherical particles of volcanic dust of the

size above determined would require more than a year to fall

from only the maximum height already reached by sounding

balloons down to the upper cloud limit. But as most volcanic

dust does not consist of solid spheres, but rather of flakes and

rods, and again, as much of it is finer than the size assumed, it

follows that the time of fall may, in rare cases, be as much as

two to four years, or possibly even longer. Obviously then vol-

canic dust once in the upper atmosphere must remain in it for

many months and be drifted out, from whatever origin, into a

thin veil covering perhaps the entire earth. Hence to find its

effect on the temperature of the lower atmosphere it is necessary

to determine its action on radiation, both terrestrial and solar.

Comparative action of volcanic dust on terrestrial and on solar

radiations. Since those vqlcanic dust particles that remain long

suspended in the atmosphere are large in comparison to the cube

of the wave-length of solar radiation, at the region of maximum

intensity, and small in comparison to the cube of the wave-

length of terrestrial radiation, also at the region of maximum

intensity, it is easy, by the use of equations developed by Ray-

leigh,^ to compare the action of the dust on the two kinds of

radiation.

This calculation shows that volcanic dust particles, of the size

indicated by Bishop's ring, is roughly 30 fold more effective in

shutting solar radiation out than it is in holding terrestrial radia-

tion in. Therefore a veil of volcanic dust must produce an

inverse green-house effect, and, if long continued, should per-

ceptibly lower our average temperature. Let us see then what

observational evidence we have on the effect of volcanic dust

on insolation intensity and average temperatures.

Pyrheliometric records. This subject has been carefully studied

by Dr. Kimball^ of the U. S. Weather Bureau, who finds that

there was a marked decrease in the insolation intensity from

the latter part of 1883 (the year this kind of observation was

begun) to and including 1886, from 1888 to 1892, and during

1903. There has also been a similar decrease since about the

Phil. Mag., 47:375. 1899.

* Bull. Mt. Weather Obsy., 3: 69. 1910.

HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

369

Discrepancies Between Average Temperatures and Sun-Spot Numbers

NATURE or

DISCREPANCY

1755-56

1766-67

1778-89

1784-85-86

1799

1809

1812-13-14-15-16

1831-32

1856-57

1872-73

1875-76

1884-85-86

1890-91-92

1902-03-04

1912-13

Cold

Warm

Cold

PROBABLE CAUSE

Kotlugia, Iceland, 1755.

Hecla, Iceland, 1766.

Mayon, Luzon, 1766.

Maximum number (annual) of sun-spots ever e-

corded and unusually short spot period. Can

it be that the solar constant actually was dis-

tinctly greater than usual at th's time?

AsAMA,! Japan, 1783. The most frightful erup-

tion on record.

Skaptar JokuU, Iceland, 1783.

Vesuvius, Italy, 1785.

Fuego (?), Guatemala. (Uncertain.)

St. George (?), Azores, 1808. (Uncertain.) Etna(?),

Sicily, 1809. (Uncertain.)

Soufriere, St. Vincent, 1812.

Mayon, Luzon, 1814.

Tomboro, Sumbawa, 1815, very great.

Graham's Island, 1831.

Babujan Islands, 1831.

Pichincha, Ecuador, 1831.

Cotopaxi (?), and others, 1855-56. (Uncertain.)

Vesuvius, Italy, 1872.

Merapi, Java, 1872.

Vatna JokuU, Iceland, 1875.

Krakatoa, Straits of Sunda, 1883, greatest since

1783.

Saint Augustin, Alaska, 1883.

Tarawera, New Zealand, 1886.

Bogoslof, Aleutian Islands, 1890.

Awoe, Great Sangir, 1892.

Pele, Martinique, 1902.

Santa Maria, Guatemala, 1902.

Colima, Mexico, 1903.

Katmai, Alaska, 1912.

Capitals indicate exceptional violence.

370 HUMPHREYS: PRODUCTION OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

middle of 1912. Now all these decreases of insolation intensity,

amounting at times to 20 per cent of the average intensity, fol-

lowed violent volcanic eruptions that filled the isothermal region

with a great quantity of dust.

Surface temperatures. It has been known for a long time that

the number of sun-spots and the average temperature of the

earth are roughly related in the sense that the greater the num-

ber of spots the lower the temperature, and the smaller the

number of spots the higher the temperature. But this relation

has many marked exceptions, every one of which, or at any

rate all the more important ones, occurred immediately after

violent volcanic explosions and presumably therefore were caused

by volcanic dust.

The list on l^age 369 gives the more important of these dis-

crepancies, since the beginning of sun-spot records to the present,

and their probable causes.

From the above it appears quite certain that volcanic dust

can lower the average temperature of the earth by an amount

that depends upon the quantity and duration of the dust, and

that it repeatedly has lowered it certainly from 1°F. to 2°F.

for periods of from a few months to fully three years. Hence

it certainly has been a factor, in determining our past climates,

and presumably may often be a factor in the production of our

future climates. Nor does it require any great volume of dust

to produce a marked effect. Thus it can be shown by a simple

calculation that less than the one thousandth part of a cubic

mile of rock spread uniformly thru the upper atmosphere as

volcanic dust would everywhere decrease the average intensity

of insolation received at the surface of the earth by at least 20

per cent and therefore would, presumably, if long continued,

decrease our average temperatures by several degrees.

CONCLUSION

It has been shown in the above, among other things, that

volcanic dust in the high atmosphere decreases the intensity of

solar radiation in the lower atmosphere, and therefore the aver-

age temperature of the earth, substantially as theory indicates

BURGESS AND WALTENBERG: MELTING POINTS 371

«

a priori that it should; and this effect has been clearly traced

back to 1750, or to the time of the earliest reliable records.

Hence it is safe to say that such a relation between volcanic

dust in the upper atmosphere and average temperatures of the

lower atmosphere has always obtained, and therefore that vol-

canic dust must have been a factor, possibly a very important

one, in the production of many, perhaps all, past climatic changes,

and that thru it, at least in part, the world is yet to know many

another climatic change in an irregular but well-nigh endless

series — usually slight tho always important, but occasionally it

may be, as in the past, both profound and disastrous.

PHYSICS. — Melting points of the refractory elements. I. Ele-

7nents of atomic weight from 4-8 to 59. G. K. Burgess and

R. G. Waltenberg, Bureau of Standards. To appear in

The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

The elements included in this list are the iron group: nickel,

cobalt, iron, manganese and chromium, and also vanadium and

titanium. In subsequent papers results will be given on other

refractory elements now being studied, and it is hoped eventually

to include all the available refractory elements in this series of

melting point determinations. The method mainly used is that

of the micropyrometeri which, with substances that melt sharply

as nickel, cobalt and iron, permits working to a precision of 1 or

2 degrees with a few thousandths of a milligram of the material.

An estimation of the melting points of the iron group elements^

was made some years ago by a similar but less sensitive method

at a time when none of these melting points was well known.

The object of these earlier measurements was primarily to demon-

strate the convenience and reliability of the method especially for

those elements which can be obtained pure only in minute quan-

tities. It is believed that the present series of determinations,

with the improved apparatus, will contribute to a more exact

1 A micropyrometer, by G. K. Burgess, Jl. Washington Academy of Sciences,

3:7. 1913. Phys. Zs., 14: 158. 1913. Bull. Bureau of Standards, 9: 475. 1913.

2 Melting points of the iron group elements by a new radiation method, by

G. K. Burgess. Bull. Bureau of Standards, 3: 345. 1907.

^

372 BURGESS AND waltenberg: melting points

knowledge of these melting points. The melts were made for the

most part in pure hydrogen, and except for titanium, were taken

on platinum strips 6 to 8 cm. long, 4 mm. wide, and 0.01 or 0.02

mm. thick. Manganese was also melted on nickel strips and

titanium was melted on iridium strips.

Calibration with nickel and palladium. For melts on platinum

the pyrometer was calibrated in terms of the melting points of

nickel and palladium. The melting of these metals is extremely

sharp on platinum and they appear to show no alloying until

they melt. It is assumed that they melt on platinum at the same

temperatures as in crucibles; this we have found to be the case

for nickel, palladium, platinum, and iron. Numerous observa-

tions were made with various metals upon the possible effects on

the melting point determinations of alloying with the platinum

strip. We are convinced, that except possibly in some cases which

we shall not consider here in which there may be a chemical

reaction among the materials in the furnace, as for example when

silicon, platinum and hydrogen are together, there is no signifi-

cant alloying effect with the apparatus and materials as we use

them.

The melting points of both nickel and palladium may be con-

sidered as well established by several series of measurements.^

We have made an independent optical determination of the nickel

melting point in hydrogen with an Arsem furnace.* The nickel

was melted in a magnesia crucible contained within an out-glazed,

closed-end porcelain or kaolin tube. Temperatures were meas-

ured with a Holborn-Kurlbaum form of Morse pyrometer which

had been calibrated by Dr. Kanolt at the melting points of anti-

mony (630°), AgaCuo (779°), silver (960?5), copper (1083°), and

diopside (1391°). Five observations by Dr. Kanolt on the melt-

ing point of platinum with this pyrometer gave 1755° =t 5 in

an iridium furnace, or in exact agreement with the generally

accepted value. ^

For nickel, four observations gave us 1449°, 1450°, 1449°, 1449°

' See Day and Sosman, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. 157, 1911.

Waidner and Burgess, Bull. Bureau of Standards, 3: 163. 1907.

« Jl. Am. Chem. Soc, 28: 921. 1906.

BURGESS AND WALTENBERG: MELTING POINTS 373

in the Arsem furnace, by the method of optical heating and cool-

ing curves,^ values which are close to Day and Sosman's value,

1452°. Four observations of the melting point of nickel on

iridium with the micropyrometer gave us 1452°.

With the long filament pyrometer lamps used, the equation®

log c = a + 6 log r (in which c = current and T = absolute temper-

ature and h is very nearly unity) is sufficient for very considerable

temperature ranges, and permits a calibration in terms of two

temperatures only, i.e., nickel and palladium. Applying this

equation by extrapolation to the determination of the platinum

melting point by observing the melting of platinum strips mounted

as usual for taking metal melts, we obtained 1755° ± 5 from six

observations. The values found for diopside (1391°) and anor-

thite (1549°) by Day and Sosman were also exactly reproduced

by us with the micropyrometer.

The metals actually used for calibration in hydrogen were

"Kahlbaum" electrolytic nickel {MP -= 1452°) and pure Heraeus

palladium {MP = 1549°), both of the same grade as used by Day

and Sosman.^ A sample of their palladium gave exactly the same

melting point as ours. In controlling the constancy of the pyrom-

eter lamps and studying the reproducibility of the melts some

35 observations were taken of nickel and 20 of palladium. The

various metals were not studied in regular order but were mixed

as indiscriminately as possible, with observations on the standard

points, nickel and palladium.

Iron. Pure electrolytic iron from three sources and as many

different methods of preparation was used, namely, from Prof.

C. F. Burgess (99.97 per cent Fe) from Langheim-Pfanliauser

Werke A. G. (99.98 per cent Fe) and from a sample (99.99 per

cent Fe) prepared by Mr. J. R. Cain of this Bureau. "Kahl-

baum" iron in powdered form and iron reduced on the platinum

strip in hydrogen from Kahlbaum iron oxide were also used.

5 C. W. Kanolt, Tech. Paper No. 10, Bureau of Standards, 1912.

6 Pirani, Verh. Phys. Ges., 12: 323. 1910.

^ Day, Sosman and Allen, 1. c. The analysis by Dr. Allen of these products

gave the nickel as 99.835 pure and the palladium 99.975.

374 BURGESS AND WALTENBERG : MELTING POINTS

TABLE I

Melting Point of Iron in Hydrogen by Micropyrometer

Electrolytic, C. F. Burgess 1538°, 1537°, 1530°, 1534°, 1530°, 1532°

Mean 1533°

Electrolytic, Langheim-Pfanhauser 1524°, 1532°, 1534°,. 1534°, 1535°

Mean 1532°

Electrolytic, Cain 1533°

Powder, "Kahlbaum" 1534°

From Oxide, "Kahlbaum" 1532

o

The mean value is 1533° ±1°. This is somewhat higher than

all other recent determinations, which range from 1502° to 1532°.

In the Arsem furnace, we obtained in vacuo 1531°, 1529°, 1531°,

1527°, and in hydrogen 1523° and 1527°.

Cobalt. The cobalt used was cobalt ''Kahlbaum" in the form

of powder, Kahlbaum's Wiirfeln, cobalt reduced in hydrogen on

the platinum strip from ''Kahlbaum" cobalt oxide, and a sample

kindly furnished by Messrs. Day and Sosman, cut from material

which had been used for their determinations and which was

originally powdered cobalt "Kahlbaum,"^ shown by Dr. E. T.

Allen to be 99.951 per cent cobalt. The mean is 1477° ± 2.

TABLE II

Melting Point of Cobalt by Micropyrometer

((

Kahlbaum," powder and Wtirfel together; 1478°, 1479°, 1482°, 1476°, 1475°,

1476°, 1478°

Mean 1478°

Co from the oxide "Kahlbaum" 1475°, 1478°

Day and Sosman's sample 1474°, 1478°, 1478

o

Three observations taken in the Arsem furnace each gave for the

melting point of cobalt 1478°. Finally two melts of cobalt on

iridium gave with the micropyrometer 1477° and 1478°. The

value of the cobalt point which Day and Sosman found is 1490°

in a nitrogen atmosphere.

Chromium. Strictly pure chromium was not available, and it

is difficult to locate exactly the melting points of an impure vis-

cous substance. Observations were taken on two samples from

* Day, Sosman and Allen, 1. c.

BURGESS AND WALTENBERGI MELTING POINTS 375

Kahlbaum and on one from Dr. H. Goldschmidt, all of a purity

probably not greater than 98 per cent.

TABLE III .

Melting Point of (98 per cent?) Chromium by Micropyrometer

Kahlbaum I 1527°

Kahlbaum II 1536°, 1513°, 1513°

Goldschmidt 1514°, 1524°

As the best representative value we may take 1520°. The

melting point of pure chromium, however, may well be above that

of iron, as may be shown by a consideration of the well known

formula for lowering the freezing point by metallic impurities.

On the other hand, the value 1520° may be more nearly correct

if the oxides present do not lower but raise the chromium melting

point as was found in the case of vanadium by Ruff and Martin.^

If chromium is melted, for example, in a slightly oxidizing atmos-

phere or in impure hydrogen, an apparent melting point above

that of platinum may be obtained.

Manganese. We have not been able to obtain pure manganese,

and the impure samples from Kahlbaum and from Goldschmidt

are even more sluggish than chromium. The Goldschmidt man-

ganese was from a sample of about 97.5 per cent pure. Melts

were taken both on platinum and on nickel strips with the micro-

pyrometer using gold (1063°) and palladium as calibration points.

Those on nickel were less satisfactory, due apparently to evapo-

ration of nickel.

TABLE IV

Melting Point of (97.51) Manganese by Micropyrometer

Kahlbaum on Pt., 1242°; on Ni 1221°

Goldschmidt on Pt., 1261°, 1264°, 1279°; on Ni 1254°

The mean is 1254°, which is probably lower than the melting

point of strictly pure manganese by 20°.

Vanadimyi. Dr. v. Wartenberg of Berlin kindly sent us some

97 per cent vanadium prepared by him from the suboxide by

' Ruff and Martin, tJber reines Vanadin. Zs. Angew. Chem., 25: 49. 1912.

376 BURGESS AND WALTENBERG! MELTING POINTS

the alumino-thermic method with calcium; it contains traces of

Ca, Al and Fe. Professor Wedekind of Strassburg also furnished us

with a sample of his 97 to 98 per cent vanadium. We have also

examined' two samples purchased from Kahlbaum at different

dates. None of the samples melts sharply, the substance being

viscous; all samples show evidences of incipient melting many

degrees below the temperature at which the melting is complete.

With the Kahlbaum samples, evidences of melting were appar-

ent as low as 1500°; melting was complete at about 1720°, the

samples showing evidences of non-homogeneity of composition.

With Dr. V. Wartenberg's and Professor Wedekind's vanadium

the following results were obtained:

TABLE V

Melting Point of 97 per cent Vanadium by Micropyrometer

97 to 98 per cent V from Wedekind 1700°, 1757°, 1773°, 1717°

97 per cent V from v. Wartenberg; 1680°, 1691°, 1691° (pieces of about 0.001 mg.),

1685°, 1699°, 1705° (medium sized pieces), 1725° (largest pieces).

Evidences of incipient melting were apparent at about 1650° with

these materials. Other determinations of the vanadium melting

point range from 1680° to 1750°. We would place the vanadium

melting point at about 1720°, both from a consideration of our

own and of other determinations.

Titanium. Prof. M. M. A. Hunter, of Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute kindly placed at our disposal a sample of pure titanium,

which he had prepared from material furnished by the Titanium,

Alloy Manufacturing Company of Niagara Fails. This titanium,

analyzed by Professor Hunter, contains only a trace of iron and

no other detectable impurity. Professor Wedekind likewise kindly

sent us two samples prepared by him of 94 to 95 per cent purity

and one by Dr. v. Wartenberg. The colloid titanium of Wede-

kind melted at 1508° to 1451°, and his powdered titanium at

1452°. We also took observations on two samples from Kahl-

baum, which were evidently quite impure, showing evidences of

an extended melting range. For the Kahlbaum samples the fol-

lowing melting points were obtained: 1664°, 1724°, 1677°, 1737°,

1641°. The titanium of Hunter and of v. Wartenberg showed

BURGESS AND WALTENBERG : MELTING POINTS

377

no signs of melting on platinum ; their melting points were taken

on iridium strips.

TABLE VI

Melting Point of Titanium by Micropyrometer

Ti From Professor Hunter 1790°, 1785°, 1785°

Mean 1788°

Ti From Dr. v. Wartenberg 1778°, 1807,° 1815°

Mean 1800°

These melting points are fairly sharp, and the location of the

temperature was made by calibrating the micropyrometer for the

iridium strip by taking observations on it of the melting of pal-

ladium (1549°), and of platinum (1755°).

Summary. We have shown that the mipropyrometer may be

made an instrument of precision for the determination of the

melting points of refractory metals and salts ; that in the case of

the metals examined, the effect of alloying of microscopic particles

on platinum and iridium is inconsequential until after melting

which we have shown for nickel, cobalt and iron to occur at the

TABLE VII

Melting Points of Elements of Atomic Weight 48 to 59

* Assumed value on platinum strip; also observed value on iridium strip.

t Crucible melts in electric furnace.

t Crucible melts in electric furnace; also on iridium strip "with micropy-

rometer.

§ Five samples all agreeing to within 3°.

378 BURGESS AND waltenberg: melting points

same temperature for minute particles on the strips as for con-

siderable quantities in crucibles of magnesia.

Assuming the melting points of nickel to be 1452°, palladium

1549° and platinum 1755°, and the calibration curves of the

pyrometer lamps of the form log c = a + 6 log T, for the range

here studied, we have determined the melting points of Fe, Co,

Cr, Mn, V and Ti with the micropyrometer and of Ni, Co and

Fe in quantity in the electric furnace, all melts having been taken

in pure hydrogen and Fe also in vacuo. For Cr, Mn and V,

strictly pure materials were not available, and we can but esti-

mate the melting points of the pure elements.

In the complete paper, the method is discussed more in detail

and photomicrographs are given showing characteristics of the

various melts.

\.

7^/

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 89th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washngton was

held on May 6, 1913, at the Cosmos Club with twenty-four members

and two guests present.

The following papers were presented:

The effect of the recent freeze in California (illustrated) : Dr. David

Griffiths. Dr. Griffiths discussed the effect of the January freeze on

vegetation of the southwest, with special reference to California. The

main regions where tropical and subtropical things are being grown

were visited. He showed 40 lantern slides made from negatives taken

in February and March, showing injuries to citrus fruits, avocados,

cherimoyas, mangoes, carobs, acacias, olives, eucalyptus, etc.

While the temperatures were unusually low, there are indications

that they have been lower in the remote past. That such cold spells

of weather are very infrequent is proved by the fact that such natives as

Rhus lauriiia, eriogonums in California, and the giant Cereus, scholia,

Celtis, Olneya, etc., in southern Arizona are severely injured. Many

introduced trees which had attained a diameter of 3 feet were killed

outright. Injuries were very severe thruout all of the citrus regions, but

even where the temperatures went to 10-17° Fahr. in general thruout

a region, an occasional orchard situated upon an abrupt elevation above

the general plain escaped with even unfrozen fruit. Because of differ-

ences in elevation, air-drainage and exposures, conditions are exceed-

ingly varied and present some of the most important problems in con-

nection with the relation of climatic conditions to crop development.

At no time in the present generation has there been such an oppor-

tunity to determine the adaptability of the scores of introduced plants

of the Pacific Coast region. Thru some of the various agencies oper-

ating in agricultural lines a careful survey should be made the present

season to systematize and place on record the results of a condition

which, altho of infrequent occurrence, is nevertheless of the utmost

scientific and economic import.

The method of types applied to the nickernut: Mr. H. C. Skeels. Mr.

Skeels called attention to the last sentence of division (e) under Canon

15 of the American Code of Botanical Nomenclature, which reads as

379

380

proceedings: botanical society

follows: "The genera of Linnaeus' Species Plantarum (1753) are to

be typified thru the citations given in his Genera Plantarum (1754)."

Under this clause the following genera were mentioned :

Applying the method of types to the nickernut, Mr. Skeels called

attention to Mr. Trimen's identification of the Flora Zeylanica speci-

mens which are published in volume 24 of The Journal of the Linnean

Society, Botany. On the basis of these identifications, Mr. Skeele con-

cluded as follows :

"In conclusion, going back to our three original species, the 'Catti

kitsjir of the East Indies, the Caesalpinia nuga (L.) Alton of the floras,

under the method of types of the American Code, becomes Caesalpinia

crista L., the type being Fl. Zeyl. 157. The common grey-seeded nicker-

nut generally known as Caesalpinia or Guilandina honducella, becomes

Guilandina bonduc L., the type being Fl. Zeyl. 156. And the yellow-

seeded, large-leafletted nickernut, generally known as Guillandina bonduc

becomes Guilandina major (DC.) Small, being based thru De CandoUe,

on Guilandina bonduc L. Species Plantarum, ed. 2."

What would be the effect of the irctic night on tropical or subtropical

vegetationf Dr. F. H. Knowlton. Dr. Knowlton called attention to

the ancient floras of the North Polar region. Many of the fossil plants

found there are of a tropical or subtropical character. No satisfactory

explanation of the relation of such plants to the conditions of light and

darkness supposed to have prevailed has been found. Dr. Knowlton

asked for suggestions from the members of the Society and a brief

discussion followed.

C. L. Shear, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE ^"^^ *

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill AUGUST 19, 1913 No. 14

METEOROLOGY. — Evaporation in the great plains and inter-

rnountain districts as influenced by the haze of 1912. Lyman

J. Briggs and J. O. Belz, Bureau of Plant Industry.

It has recently been shown by Abbot and Fowle^ and by Kim-

ball,^ that the haze of 1912, presumably due to the eruption of

Mt. Katmai on June 6 and 7, 1912, gave rise to a marked dimin-

ution in the intensity of the solar radiation at the earth's surface.

Abbot and Fowle found that the total direct radiation of the

sun was reduced about 20 per cent at Bassour, Algeria, and also

at Mt. Wilson, California, when the effect reached its maximum

in August. Kimball reports an average reduction of 17 per cent

in the intensity of the solar radiation received at Mt. Weather,

Va., during the last half of 1912, while at Madison, Wis., an av-

erage reduction of 14 per cent was observed for the same period.

During the past five years the writers have been engaged in a

series of evaporation measurements^ in the great plains and in-

tennountain districts, and it has seemed desirable to determine

to what extent the reduction in the solar intensity during 1912

affected the evaporation. In making such a comparison, it

must of course be recognized that evaporation is profoundly in-

1 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 60: 29. 1913.

2 This Journal, 3: 269. 1913. Also, Bull. Mt. Weather Observatory, 5: 295.

1913. /

' In cooperation with the Office of Dry Land Agriculture, and the Office of

Western Irrigation Agriculture, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

381

382

BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE

fluenced by a number of other factors, such as temperature,

cloudiness, humidity, and wind velocity. In any comparison of

this kind one would, therefore, expect to encounter anomalies

in the records from an individual station resulting from these

disturbing factors (see Table III).

The evaporation records are based upon daily measurements

of the change in elevation of a free water surface, after correct-

ing for precipitation. The evaporation tanks are either 6 or 8

TABLE I

Normal Evaporation at Stations in the Great Plains and Intermountain

Districts

STATIONS

Amarillo, Tex

Dalhart, Tex

Garden City, Kans...

Hays, Kans

Akron, Col

North Platte, Neb....

Newell, S. Dak

Edgeley, N. Dak

Dickinson, N. Dak...

Williston, N. Dak....

Judith Basin, Mont...

Nephi, Utah

San Antonio, Tex

Fallon, Nev

Yuma, Ariz

Sn

NO. OP

YEAB3

OBS.

5

4

5

4

5

4

5

3

4

5

4

3

APRIL

MAT

inches

7.55

7.89

7.61

6.85

5,43

6.05

4.81

3.89

4.08

4.72

4.10

4.80

5.93

•6.20

8.34

88.25

inches

9.09

9.73

8.76

7.26

6.91

6.75

6.49

4.87

5.03

6.11

5.40

7.21

6.57

8.34

10.92

109.44

JUNE

1-15

inches

5.22

5.70

4.63

4.24

4.10

3.72

3.44

24

55

79

86

25

44

91

92

61.01

JUNE

16-30

JULY

inches

5.54

6.25

5.51

4.61

4.43

4.79

4.53

3.42

3.65

4.04

3.25

4.82

4.83

4.99

5.59

70.25

inches

9.68

10.56

10.00

9.09

9.36

8.50

9.23

6.91

7.34

7.92

7.61

9.67

9.61

11.05

11.33

AUGUST

137.86

inches

9.06

10.04

9.35

8.82

8.61

7.74

7.53

5.88

6.31

6.24

6.94

9.23

9.55

10.05

11.10

SEPT.

TOTAL

Apr.l to

Oct. 1

126.45

inches

8.00

8.26

7.69

6.96

6.85

6.44

5.54

4.31

4.28

4.11

4.86

6.13

7.24

6.14

8.19

95.00

inches

54.14

58.43

53.55

47.83

45.69

43.99

41.57

31.52

33.24

35.93

35.02

46.11

48.17

51.68

61.39

feet in diameter, and 2 feet deep, and are sunk in level ground in

a freely exposed space to within 4 inches of the top, the water

level being maintained at approximately 4 inches below the top

of the tank.

At most of the evaporation stations, ''normals" based upon at

least four years records, exclusive of those of 1912, are now avail-

able. The monthly normal evaporation, from April to Septem-

ber inclusive, for 15 stations located in the great plains and in-

BRIGGS AND BELZ : INFLUENCE OF HAZE

383

termountain districts, is given in Table I. Since the eruption

of Mt. Katmai occurred early in June, the records for this month

are divided into two parts. At the foot of the table is given the

sum of the combined evaporation occurring at the 15 stations

for each month, designated as Hn. In Table II is given the evap-

oration for the corresponding periods during the summer of

1912, the combined evaporation for all of the stations during

TABLE II

Evaporation in 1912 at Stations in the Great Plain.s and Intermountain

Districts

each period being given at the foot of the table and designated

as 2e.

In comparing the evaporation during 1912 with the normal

evaporation, two procedures have been followed. Fir§t, the ratio

(Ze/XriJ of the total evaporation occurring at all of the stations

during a given month in 1912 to the normal evaporation for that

period has been calculated (Table II). Second, the ratio of the

384

BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE

evaporation at a given station during a given month in 1912 to

its normal evaporation for the corresponding period has been de-

termined, and the mean of these ratios for all stations for each

month has been computed, together with the probable error.

These results are given in Table III. The results of the two meth-

ods of comparison will be seen to be in good agreement. The

mean value is given in Table IV, with the corresponding ratios

TABLE III

Ratio of the Monthly Evaporation in 1912 at Each Station to the Normal

Evaporation

STATIONS

Amarillo, Tex

Dalhart, Tex

Garden City, Kans..

Hays, Kans

Akron, Colo

North Platte, Neb...

Newell, S. Dak

Edgeley, N. Dak....

Dickinson, N. Dak..

Williston, N. Dak...

Judith Basin, Mont.'.

Nephi, Utah

San Antonio, Tex....

Fallon, Nev

Yuma, Ariz

Mean

Probable error

0.93

1.04

0.89

0,86

0.80

1.01

0.95

0.89

0.82

0.64

0.74

0.69

0.92

0.87

0.86

=0.019

1.09

1.05

1.24

1.14

1.03

1.12

0.99

0.94

0.92

0.78

0.77

0.87

1.16

0.89

0.82

0.99

=0.025

JUNE

1-15

0.95

0.81

1.03

0.74

0.71

0.75

1.06

1.04

0.89

1.14

0.96

0.99

0.80

1.06

0.92

0.9S

=0.023

JUNE

16-30

0.73

0.61

0.69

0.71

0,87

1.00

0.78

0.89

0.81

1.13

1.05

0.72

1.07

0.86

=0.028

1.13

1.05

1,06

1,10

0.81

1.06

0.86

0.82

0.83

0,75

0,78

0.96

1.10

0.88

0.83

0.93

=0.024

AUGUST

1.05

0.91

0.99

1.04

0.82

0.96

0.88

0.72

0.94

0.80

0.89

0.96

112

0.88

0.81

0.92

=0.019

SEPTEMBER

0.81

0.82

0.92

1.01

0.68

0.82

0.67

0.64

0.75

0.77

0.90

1.00

1.13

0.99

0.93

0.84

=0.026

for the temperature and sunshine. Sunshine records were not

available at all the evaporation stations, and the ratios given

were obtained from Weather Bureau records for 30 stations in

the region in which the evaporation tanks were located.

It will appear from the ratios given in Table IV, that the evap-

oration during 1912 was abnormally low. The evaporation dur-

ing April was 14 per cent below nonnal. However, the average

number of hours of sunshine during April was also 7 per cent

BRIGGS AND BELZ: INFLUENCE OF HAZE

385

below normal, which would account at least in part for the dimin-

ished evaporation. May was normal, both with respect to evap-

oration and hours of sunshine. The evaporation for the first half

of June, during which the eruption of Mt. Katmai occurred, was

8 per cent below nonnal; the second half of June was 14 per cent

below normal; July, 6 per cent below; August, 8 per cent below;

and September, 15 per cent below. The number of hours of sun-

shine was also somewhat below normal during this period. The

Weather Bureau sunshine records are obtained with the Marvin

sunshine recorder, which is essentially a differential thermometer

in vacuo, one bulb being blackened. When the rate, at which

solar radiation is received, is sufficient to develop a certain differ-

ence in the temperature of the bulbs, the sun is recorded as shin-

ing. It is evident that any reduction in the intensity of the solar

radiation in midsummer (due to dust in the atmosphere or other

TABLE IV

causes) would enter into the records from this instrument as a

reduction in the number of hours of sunshine. The observed

reduction in sunshine (Table IV) following the eruption may

therefore be attributed, in part at least, to a reduction in the in-

tensity of the solar radiation transmitted by the upper atmos-

phere, rather than to an actual increase in cloudiness. There

is obviously no way of separating these two factors from a con-

sideration of the sunshine records alone.

It thus appears that the average evaporation as measured at

15 stations was below normal during the four months following

the eruption of Mt. Katmai, the average reduction in evaporation

being about 10 per cent. This "is somewhat less than the ob-

served reduction in the intensity of solar radiation as reported

386 AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER

by Abbot and Fowle and by Kimball, if we assume that for

small changes in radiation, the evaporation is directly. proportional

to the radiation received. In this connection, it should be re-

called that the pyrheliometer measurements deal only with the

direct rays of the sun. Since the scattered radiation would be

proportionately somewhat increased b}'^ the dust, the actual re-

duction in radiant energy during 1912 was probably not quite

so great as indicated by the solar measurements. This would

tend to bring the results more nearly in accord with the evapora-

tion measurements.

In addition to measurements of the energy of the direct solar

beam. Abbot and Fowle* have also measured the total sky ra-

diation and the absorbed radiation. In former years, the sum of

the three parts of the solar radiation has found to fall below the

value of the solar constant by not more than 0.05 calorie. Their

measurements in 1912, however, show an outstanding difference

of about 0.28 calorie, which they attribute to the greater diffuse

reflection of the atmosphere resulting from the haziness. This

amounts to a reduction in the intensity of the solar radiation at

the earth's surface of about 10 per cent, a value which is in good

agreement with the observed diminution in evaporation. The

reduction in the mean evaporation at the 15 observing stations

following the haze of 1912 thus appears to afford an approximate

measure of the reduction in the intensity of the solar radiation

at the earth's surface.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — A crystal contact disturbance preventer

for radiotelegraphic receiving. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval

Radiotelegraphic Laboratory.

In 1908 I published the results of a study of the rectifying

action of certain contacts, silicon-steel, carbon-steel, and tellur-

ium-aluminum. Soon after this it occurred to me that the prop-

erty of rapid change of resistance with impressed voltage shown

by these contacts, might be made use of in shunting to earth

loud interfering signals and atmospheric disturbances, so trouble-

^ loc. cit., p. 13.

AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER 387

some in radiotelegraphic receiving, and in the spring of 1909 very

encouraging results were obtained from a tellurium-aluminum

contact placed around the primary of the receiving transformer.

It was found however, that in actual service, while occasionally

remarkable results were obtained in cutting out disturbances,

the tellurium-aluminum contact was too unstable to be depended

upon. Silicon in contact with metals was found to be less

sensitive than the tellurium contact and also too unstable for

practical use. Iron pyrites, zinkite, galena, and many other

crystals have been tried at various times and unsuccessful ex-

periments were also made with the Lodge-Muirhead mercury

TABLE I

coherer, several other types of coherers, with vacuum valves

and the electrolytic detector. It has recently been found that

silicon in contact with certain crystals, especially with metallic

arsenic, of which the dark colored impure variety is the best,

forms a practical device for leading strong disturbances to earth

without interfering with the reception of the regular signals.

Table I shows the detector galvanometer deflections with the

disturbance preventing circuit in and out, the antenna being

excited by a tuned buzzer circuit with different degrees of close-

ness of coupling. ,

Table II shows the relation between tuned buzzer circuit

signals and natural atmospherics, the maximum throw of the

388 AUSTIN: CRYSTAL CONTACT DISTURBANCE PREVENTER

galvanometer during a period of 10 seconds being taken as the

atmospheric reading.

The disturbance preventer is more effective in the case of

strong interfering signals than against atmospheric disturbances,

as it is quite possible to read signals of twenty times audibility

thru disturbing signals of many hundred times audibility on

the same wave length. The best results are obtained with loose

coupling and with a considerable amount of inductance in the

antenna, with a series condenser if necessary, and the disturb-

ance preventer contact shunted across only that part of the in-

ductance which acts as the primary of the receiving transformer.

TABLE II

An increase of the effect may be obtained by throwing the

circuit out of tune to the loud signals by placing disturbance

preventers across the capacity or across other portions of the

inductance, and also in the secondary circuit. But in gen-

eral, except under extraordinary circumstances, these introduce

complications in handling which are out of proportion to their

benefit.

Fairly good results have been obtained also with a contact of

carborundum with other crystals. These combinations however,

while more stable under extremely powerful disturbances, in

general do not fall low enough in resistance , to give as satisfac-

tory results as the silicon-arsenic. I wish to express my indebt-

edness to my assistant. Chief Electrician Mineratti in the latter

portions of this work.

SOSMAN AND MERWIN: DATA ON PALISADE DIABASE 389

GEOPHYSICS. Data on the intrusion temperature of the pali-

sade diabase. R. B. Sosman and H. E. Merwin, Geophysi-

cal Laboratory.

In his report on the petrography of the Newark igneous rocks

of New Jersey,^ Prof. J. Volney Lewis has described an interest-

ing type of inclusion which occurs frequently in the Palisade dia-

base. Slabs of the underlying Newark shale and arkose sand-

stone have been "floated" up into the igneous rock until they

stand at various angles between horizontal and vertical. In con-

nection with an investigation on the specific volumes of rocks at

high temperatures it became of interest to compare the specific vol-

umes of the included and including rocks in this type of inclusion.

Professor Lewis very kindly supplied us with specimens for

the purpose, and our indebtedness to him both for material and

for published descriptions is here acknowledged.

The specimens first obtained were from the quarry of the Fair-

view Stone Crushing Company, at the north end of the diabase

hill between Fairview and Granton, New Jersey. This mass is

an offshoot of the great Palisade sill which outcrops along the

west bank of the Hudson River and extends southwest thru New

Jersey. It lies only 800 feet west of the western border of the

main sill, and is not over 200 feet vertically above the upper

surface of this silL-

In 1907 there was visible in the quarry mentioned ''an arkosic

sandstone slab about 10 feet thick at one end and tapering to

about 5 feet at the other and over 100 feet long, lying at an angle

of about 10 degrees with the horizon. This inclusion is within

10 feet of the bottom of the diabase sheet, which here rests on

thinly laminated black and gray shales." We are informed by

Professor Lewis that since that time quarrying operations have

followed this slab back until it joined the underlying strata,

thus establishing its connection with the floor of the intrusive

mass. It was, therefore, not possible to obtain specimens of the

actual inclusion, but specimens of the underlying arkosic sand-

^Geol. Surv. New Jersey, Ann. Rep., 1907, pp. 97-167. See, in particular,

pis. 27 and 28, and p. 135.

2 J. V. Lewis, Geol. Surv. New Jersey, Ann. Rep., 1906, p. 122; H. B. Kuem-

mel, ibid., 1897, p. 73.

\

390 sosMAN AND merwin: data on palisade diabase

stone and shale, apparently continuous with the floated slab, were

obtained.

A preliminary experiment, made by heating specimens of the

diabase and the arkose ^ide by side in a platinum crucible, showed

that at a temperature where the diabase would flow readily, the

sedimentary rock was also partly fused, altho in the original in-

clusion there was no indication of fusion. The authors there-

fore undertook, as a side issue to the main question of the volume

relations, a brief study of the relative fusing temperatures of

the rocks in question. The results, while necessarily incomplete

because of the complexity of the rocks and the unknown factors

involved, show that the temperature at which the diabase was

intruded must have been considerably lower than the temperature

necessary to liquefy this . diabase in the laboratory. This fact

has long been suspected, altho there has been hitherto very

little quantitative evidence bearing on the question.^

The diabase. There is no published analysis of the rock from

this particular locality, but the rock is very similar to the ''basal-

tic diabase" in the near-by railroad tunnels thru the Palisade sill,

and to that of Rocky Hill.^ Mr. Hostetter's determinations on

our specimen gave 0.6 per cent water at 105°, 8.74 per cent FeO,

and 1.51 per cent Fe203. The character of the rock would be

approximately represented by the following weight percentage

composition: SiOs 51, AI2O3 13, CaO 10.5, MgO 7.5, FeO 8.5,

Fe203 1.5, alkalies 3.5, Ti02 1., water and miscellaneous 1.5.

Its density at 20° was 2.97.

The rock is fine grained, and consists of a dense holocrystalline

mass of feldspar and augite, with phenocrysts of pyroxene and

of plagioclase feldspar. Minor minerals are biotite, magnetite,

and occasional olivine.

Fusion of the diabase. The tests were made by placing small

fragments of the rock, wrapped in platinum foil, in an electrically

heated furnace held at a constant known temperature, measured

by a thermoelement and potentiometer. After exposure to this

' See F. E. Wright, Intrusive Rocks of Mt. Bohemia, Geol. Surv. Michigan,

Ann. Rep., 1908, p. 391.

* Geol. Surv. New Jersey, Ann. Rep., 1907, p. 121, analysis 4, 5, and 12; and

pi. 16. Description, pp. 126-128.

SOSMAN AND MERWIN : DATA ON PALISADE DIABASE 391

temperature for a measured time, the rock was quenched by

fusing off its supporting wire and dropping it out of the furnace

into a basin of mercury. Microscopic examination then showed

what changes had taken place at the high temperature. A fresh

fragment was of course used for each test.

The lowest temperature at which tests were made was 751°.

After the diabase had been held at this temperature for fifteen

minutes, and then quenched in mercury, the phenocrysts of

feldspar and pyroxene showed no change whatever; in the augitic

groundmass a red brown mineral had formed, having an index

of refraction of 1.74 and resembling certain basaltic hornblendes

high in ferric iron.

There were no indications of fusion at 751°, nor at 850°, 953°,

1035°, 1052°, and 1101°. Fragments of the rock were held fifteen

minutes at the first four of these temperatures, and seventy-five

minutes at the last two. All gave practically the same result as

the quenching at 751°, except that the red brown mineral de-

creased in amount with rising temperature. A dusty yellow-

brown material which could not be identified^, appeared in small

amount at 1101°.

After seventy-five minutes at 1150° the phenocrysts were still

unchanged, but the clear red-brown hornblende (?) had disap-

peared. A dusty yellow-brown substance, too dark for the de-

termination of its optical properties, appeared to coat other min-

erals in films, and showed a few bubbles in places. Its occurrence

suggested strongly the beginning of fusion of the lowest melting

portion of the rock. Fifteen minutes at 1175° gave a little dark

glass which could be positively identified, so that we may take

1150° as the approximate beginning of the temperature-interval

of fusion. Feldspar and pyroxene phenocrysts remained un-

changed at 1175°.

Fifteen minutes at 1200° produced considerable brownish bubbly

glass of refractive index 1.60-1.61, and fused nearly all the pyrox-

ene phenocrysts. Seventy-five minutes at the same temperature

practically removed the pyroxene and gave a more homogeneous

glass, none having refractive index above 1.60. The feldspar

phenocrysts, except around their borders, remained unchanged.

392 sosMAN AND merwin: data on palisade diabase

The fragments of rock had an external appearance of incipient

fusion.

Seventy-five minutes at 1225° caused the fragment to flow.

About a third of the feldspar remained ; the remainder was glass,

containing dark brown octahedral and cubic grains which formed

out of the glass. These grains had the high refraction of spinel.

Heatings of fifteen and sixty minutes at 1250° fused or fluxed

still more of the feldspar but did not remove it entirely. Fifteen

minutes at 1302° left only traces of feldspar, and produced a

clear glass, of refractive index equal to and slightly less than 1.60.

With its present composition, therefore,- and under atmos-

pheric pressure the diabase can not flow at a temperature below

1150° (at which temperature the lowest melting portion probably

fuses), and does not flow appreciably below 1225°. It is com-

pletely liquid at about 1300°.

The inclusions. These consist both of feldspathic sandstone

and shale. "The thinner portions of the sandstone inclusions

are very hard and compact, and look in all respects like fine-

grained, light colored granite. . . . From this facies every

gradation is found to apparently normal feldspathic sandstone

(arkose) in the thicker portions, showing little sign of alteration."

Fusion of included arkose. We obtained from Professor Lewis

a specimen of arkose which had been entirely surrounded by

coarse grained diabase under conditions where it must have

taken up the temperature of the molten rock, and so situated

that it could not have been traversed by mineralizing solutions

after the solidification of the rock. This specimen was from the

Palisade sill, in the Pennsylvania Railroad cut east of Marion

station, Jersey City, where ''thin sheets of arkosic sandstone,

perhaps originally continuous, lie in an irregular undulating po-

sition in the diabase."^ This inclusion varies in thickness from

4 inches to 3 feet (10-90 cm.). The fragments examined were

not over 2 cm. from the diabase.

The metamorphosed arkose consists chiefly of quartz and ortho-

clase. New growth of orthoclase is visible around some of the

original grains. It is all somewhat dusty, probably from sub-

sequent alteration, altho biotite and hornblende, also present,

^ J. V. Lewis, loc. cit., 1907, p. 135, (4),- and pi. 28.

SOSMAN AND MERWINI DATA ON PALISADE DIABASE 393

are very fresh. The latter minerals and magnetite appear to

have originated chiefly from chloritized biotite originally present

in the arkose, altho the surrounding magma may have contribu-

ted to their growth. One of the specimens showed, in a small

cavity, well terminated crystals of quartz, orthoclase, and horn-

blende, apparently outgrowths of these minerals in the arkose.

Calcite and datolite, which are found in some parts of the under-

lying arkose, are not found in this inclusion.

The characteristics just mentioned show that this rock could

never have been fused. The retention of original cross-bedding

in another specimen^ is certain proof that the arkose could not

have flowed.

Heated for thirty minutes at 1023°, this arkose showed no

trace of glass. The biotite and hornblende were destroyed, feld-

spars more clouded, magnetite and quartz unchanged. After sev-

enty-five minutes at 1150° the rock was more than half fused to

a bubbly glass of refractive index 1.490 to 1.502. The feldspars

were all fused, and only quartz and magnetite remained. Such

a rock containing unaltered feldspar might fuse at a somewhat

different temperature, but inasmuch as the feldspar was altered

in part before the intrusion of the diabase the temperatures here

observed are applicable.

Fusion of underlying arkose and shale. As mentioned above,

we also obtained thru Professor Lewis specimens of the under-

lying arkose and shale at Granton, and it was upon these that

the preliminary fusion tests were made. It was only after sev-

eral measurements had been made on both rocks that datolite

(which does not occur •uniformly, and is sometimes entirely ab-

sent) was found in the arkose. Its presence renders the tests on

these rocks inconclusive, but the results are included as a matter

of record.

Our specimen of the underlying arkose at Granton consisted

of about two-thirds alkali feldspars and nearly one-third quartz,

with some augite, the latter being in crystals partly inclosing felds-

par and quartz, as tho derived from constituents of the near-by

diabase and from chloritized biotite present in the arkose before

the intrusion. The feldspars had clear borders which had evi-

^Lgc. cit., 1907, p. 135, (3).

394 sosMAN AND merwin: data on palisade diabase

dently grown upon the original feldspar grains, partly filling the

pores of the rock with fresh feldspar. Calcite and datolite also

occurred as pore-filling minerals.

Heated for fifteen minutes at 950°, the arkose showed no ex-

ternal change. A small amount of glass was found, formed by

the fusion of datolite. The quartz appeared unchanged. After

fifteen minutes at 1150°, glass was again present, resulting as

before from fusion of datolite. Seventy-five minutes at the same

temperature produced 10 to 15 per cent of glass of index 1.50-

1.52. The orthoclase had begun to fuse around the edges of

crystals and around the inclusions contained in the crystals.

Our specimen of the underlying shale was a very fine grained

rock of density 2.59, banded with white and blue-black streaks,

and having coarser lenses containing garnet. In the white por-

tion quartz was identified, and probably andalusite.

Heated for fifteen minutes at 950°, the finest grained parts of

the rock showed no marked change and no glass could be found.

Fifteen minutes at 1150° caused the fragment to flow, and sev-

enty-five minutes at the same temperature converted over one-

half of it into glass of refractive index 1.51 and less, with a few

fragments of original quartz remaining. But the extremely fine

grain of the rock rendered it unsatisfactory for these experiments.

Both the shale and the arkose just described contained min-

erals of secondary origin resulting from the intrusion. Some of

these probably formed during the period of cooling; therefore

effects produced by heating these rocks might be quite different

from those which might have been caused at the same temperature

in the original rock. *

Conclusion. The foregoing facts may be summarized in the

following statements: (1) The ''basaltic" facies of the Palisade

diabase begins to fuse at about 1150°, and enough of it is fused

at 1225° to permit the rock to flow; (2) The arkose now found

in the diabase in the form of inclusions is more than half fused at

1150°, but shows no fusion at 1025°. (3) These inclusions as act-

ually found show no indication of fusion or flow.

As indicated by their present properties under atmospheric pres-

sure, there is therefore a gap of at least 100°, and probably more,

between the maximum temperature to which the arkose inclusions

SOSMAN AND MERWIN : DATA ON PALISADE DIABASE 395

could have been subjected, and the minmium temperature at which

the diabase could have flowed. At the time of intinision, there-

fore, either the fusion temperature of the arkose minerals was

greatly raised by the conditions then existing, or the fusion tem-

perature of the diabase was lowered, or both causes acted together.

From experiments not yet published, we know that there is a

considerable net volume increase accompanying the fusion of the

diabase; its mean temperature of fusion would therefore proba-

bly be raised by increased pressure. About the volume change

of the arkose minerals we know nothing ; but from geological evi-

dence the depth of overlying rock was probably not great, in

comparison with the depths and pressures necessary to produce

large changes in their fusion temperatures.

The most likely agent that suggests itself to bridge the gap

between the laboratory fusion temperature of the arkose and

that of the diabase is the water which the evidence of the sur-

rounding rocks shows to have been present in the magma. Its

effect in lowering the fusion temperatures of silicates is quantita-

tively unknown, but qualitatively we know it may be very large.

Other factors of perhaps less importance are the boric acid now

found in the datolite of surrounding rocks, and the carbon dioxide

and fluorine which may have been present.

The foregoing investigation may serve to emphasize a point

which is all too frequently overlooked in current speculation on

the fusion of rocks on the basis of the laboratory data now avail-

able. The conditions of fusion, differentiation, intrusion, and

crystallization may have been modified, not slightly but pro-

foundly, by volatile colnponents of which only occasional traces

are retained in the rock as we find it at the surface of the earth.

To draw final conclusions, then, on the basis of any property

possessed by a particular rock type or even by a particular speci-

men may lead us widely astray. This is not to say that the prob-

lems involving the effect of volatile components can not be

solved, for experimental methods have been and are being worked

out to handle them; but until we know in what directions and

to what extent these volatile ingredients ha^'e modified the con-

ditions of rock formation, extended generalisation is hazardous

and of doubtful utility.

396

WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE

PHYSICS. — An electrical goniometer furnace for the measurement

of crystal angles and of refractive indices at high temperatures.

Fred. Eugene Wright. Geophysical Laboratory.

The measurement of the change in the optical properties and

in the interfacial angles of crystals with change in temperature

has long interested mineralogists, and many attempts have been

Fig. 1. Photograph of Goldschmidt's two circled goniometer with thermo-

electric furnace attachment mounted in position ready for measurements. Ai, A2,

upper and lower water jackets; Pi, P2, rubber tubing for circulation of water thru

Ai, A2; Fi, F2, platinum wires, 0.4 mm. in diameter, of heating spirals in furnace; B,

crystal holder extending into center of furnace; T^, T2, thermoelement wires.

made, since the pioneer work of Schrauf and Mallard, to devise

satisfactory methods for the purpose. The introduction oi elec-

trical methods and appliances has greatly simplified the problem

and recently F. Rinne^ has successfully adapted aa electric re-

1 Neues Jahrb. Min. Geol. u. Pal, 1910, II, 13!

WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE

397

sistance furnace to the measurement of the refractive indices of

prisms at temperatures up to 750°C. In the different heating

devices, however, which have heretofore been employed, in-

sufficient attention has been given to the furnace design with

reference especially to the heat distribution and to accuracy

of the temperature measurements, with the result that the

data obtained are encumbered with unnecessarily large prob-

Fig. 2. Vertical section thru furnace and water jacket; Ai, Ao, water

jackets; S, intake for circulating water; F, platinum furnace wires; Ci, C , alun-

dum cave on inner faces of which platinum wire spiral is wound; a, alundum seg-

ment; B, asbestos ring; /, bare thermal junction; /, crystal; M, magnesium pow-

der; D, supporting bar of furnace; Ti, Ti, thermoelement wires.

able errors. In the present furnace, the effort has been made

to meet these objections and to produce an instrimient of fair

precision which may serve not only for the measurement of the

interfacial angles of a crystal, but also for the direct measurement

of its refractive indices at any temperature up to 1150°C., at

398

WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE

which temperature the light of the furnace becomes relatively

intense and the measurements are correspondingly less satis-

factory.

The furnace fits as an attachment on the Goldschmidt two-

circled goniometer (fig. 1, ^). It consists of two flat disks of

alundum (7 cm. in diameter and 5 mm. thick) on one side of

which a spiral of 1.75 mm. pitch is stamped ;2 into its grooves

platinum wire 0.4 mm. thick is wound and then covered with a

Fig. 3. Top view of furnace after water jacket Ai has been removed. Figure

3a shows arrangement of alundum segments, a, b, c, of asbestos ring segments

d, e, f, of crystal holder H, of crystal /, and of thermoelement wires T, in case

the furnace is used for measuring interfacial crystal angles. The arrows indicate

the paths of the rays from collimator to crystal and then to telescope of the go-

niometer. In figure 3b, the arrangement is sketched for the case of the measure-

ment of the refractive index of the prism P by the minimum deviation method.

The letters have the same significance as in figure 3a.

thin layer of alundum cement and baked at 1200° to 1300°C.

These disks are backed by magnesia powder and mounted in

hollow cylindrical water jackets (fig. 2) Their edges are shielded

from direct contact with the water jackets by asbestos wool pack-

ing. The details of construction are evident from figures 1 and

2. Segments of alundum 10 mm. thick and of the shapes indi-

cated in figure 3, a, b, c, are placed in position on top of furnace

2 Made on special order by the Norton Company of Worcester, Mass.

WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE 399

cake Co, and serve to support the upper furnace part Ai, (figs.

1 and 2). Outside of these segments asbestos ring segments

are fitted as indicated in figure 3, d, e, f. Since alundum is a

good conductor of heat the alundum segments tend effectively

to render the heat distribution uniform at the center of the fur-

nace while the outside asbestos rings are poor conductors and

tend to confine the heat properly. In figure 1 asbestos wool

has been used in addition to the asbestos rings as an extra pre-

caution. The furnace opening at the crystal holder B is also

shielded to some extent by asbestos wool.

Heat is supplied thru the wires, Fi, F^ (fig. 1), 4.5 to 5 am-

peres current at 110 volts being required to heat the furnace to

1150°. Cold water passing thi-u the tubes, Pi, P^, (fig. 1) and

and the water jackets, Ai, A^, completely protects the gonio-

meter parts from the heat. Temperatures are read by means of

the thennoelement {Ti, To, fig. 1) either on a millivoltmeter of

the Siemens and Halske type or on one of the potentiometer-

galvanometer systems of this laboratory.

In order to adapt the two circled goniometer to such measure-

ments a special carriage (fig. 1,B) was made to replace the usual

crystal centering and adjusting carriage. This part is hollow

and into it a porcelain tube is inserted on the end of which small

platinum jaws are fitted, similar to those used in the themial

microscope recently described.^ In these jaws the crystal is

mounted and adjusted before the furnace parts are set in posi-

tion. Thiai the carriage B and the porcelain tube holder the

thermoelement wires (0.2 mm. in diameter and enclosed in fine

porcelain tubes) pass and are so adjusted that the bare ther-

mal junction of the thermoelement is in direct contact with the

crystal.

After the crystal has been adjusted and centered approxi-

mately in the platinum jaws, the furnace part A2 is raised to

about the position indicated in figure 2. The alundum and as-

bestos ring segments are then put into position and the upper

furnace Aj placed on them. After the proper electric and water

3 This Journal, 3 : 232-236. 1913.

400 WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE

jacket connections have been made, the furnace can be carried

to any temperature up to 1150° and the crystal angles or the

refractive indices of a prism measured by the ordinary room tem-

perature methods which are in general use. As the crystal is

enclosed in the furnace a dark room is not necessary for the

measurements.

As noted above the adjustment of the crystal or prism is done

practically by hand both by moving and tilting the crystal

slightly and by bending the platinum jaws as a whole. In the

present apparatus this procedure is often tedious and it is planned

to modify the present adjustment device so as to facilitate this

part of the procedure. For crystal angle measurements this ad-

justment is unnecessary because the theodolite principle is there

used and any direction in the crystal may serve as a pole, the

proper reduction of the observed position angles being made

later by routine calculation. The arrangement of the alundum

segments in the furnace for the measurement of crystal angles

is indicated in figure 3a, while that for measuring the refractive

indices of properly oriented crystal prisms by the minimum de-

viation method is shown in figure 3b. The methods of measure-

ment followed are the standard room temperature methods and

need not be described here.

It may be of interest to note that recent preliminary measure-

ments in the goniometer furnace on a cleavage rhomb of calcite

indicate that the cleavage angle of calcite at 600°C is 75°52',

while at room temprature (30°) it is 74°55', a change in the cleav-

age angle of nearly one degree during a temperature rise of about

600°. At 700° the calcite crystal faces lose their lustre and be-

come white (formation of CaO) and are valueless for goniometric

work. The above change in cleavage angle indictes an average

increase of 1 minute in angle for every 10° temperature rise. It

would seem, therefore, that the practice of expressing crystal

angles to seconds of arc without giving the temperature at the

time of measurement can serve little jxirpose and is in fact illusory

as regards the actual accuracy implied.

An extended series of measurements of the change of the op-

tical properties and crystallographic angles of the rock making

WRIGHT: ELECTRICAL GONIOMETER FURNACE 401

minerals with temperature rise has been commenced at the Geo-

physical Laboratory — the birefringence, extinction angles, and op-

tic axial angles being measured on the new thermal microscope

while the refractive indices and crystal angles are measured on

the thermoelectric goniometer furnace. In each case only min-

erals of definitely known composition are to be taken and the

temperatures of melting and of inversion controlled by the heating

and quenching methods now in use in this laboratory. Accu-

rately oriented crystal sections are to be ground on a new crystal

grinding goniometer which is now practically finished in the work-

shop of the laboratory. With this instrument, in which the

device for autocollimation described recently in this Journal*

has been adopted, it will be possible to orient and to grind crystal

plates with reference either to their crystallographical directions

or to their optical directions.

So far as can be judged from preliminary measurements, the

results obtained with the electrical goniometer furnace on fav-

orable material, are accurate to about 5° in temperature, about

1' in crystal angle readings and 1 or 2 in the fourth decimal

place in refractive index measurements.

The three instruments — new thermal microscope, goniometer

furnace attachment, and crystal grinding goniometer — render pos-

sible the quantitative study of crystallography and of mineral

optics at high temperatures. Such study should add materially

to an understanding of the crystallographic forces and of their

relation to other physical forces, such as internal friction and

surface tension.

4 This Journal, 3 : 235. 1913.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ASTRONOMY. — Determination of tiyne, longitude, latitude and azimuth.

William Bowie. Special Publication No. 14 of the U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, 1913.

This is the latest issue of a series of manuals prepared by the U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey for the guidance of the astronomic observer

in the field and the computer in the office, in carrying on the geodetic

astronomy of the Survej'" in a systematic manner.

This publication necessarily contains much data that appeared in the

fourth edition but there is also much new material, the principal items

of which are : The determination of time and longitude, using the transit

micrometer; a description of the transit micrometer; determination of

time with the vertical circle for use in connection with azimuth obser-

vations; a description of the method of observing azimuth coincidently

with horizontal directions in primary triangulation; an example of the

determination of an azimuth in Alaska with a transit equipped with a

transit micrometer; examples of the records and computations in the

different classes of work, as actually made at present by the Survey;

and statements of the field cost of the different classes of work.

W. Bowie.

GEODESY. — The California-Washington Arc of Primary Triangula-

tion. A. L. Baldwin. Special Publication No. 13, U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, 1913.

In the spring of 1903 the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey began the

reconnaissance for an arc of primary triangulation to extend from the

primary triangulation in northern California to Puget Sound. The

work of reconnaissance was not done continuously in any one season,

402

abstracts: geology 403

but was done a little at a time, in order to interfere as little as possible

with the observations. The observing was completed in four summer

seasons, beginning in June, 1903, and ending in July, 1906.

The length of the primary triangulation of this arc, along the axis of

the scheme, is 577 miles (929 kilometers) and the length of the subsidi-

ary schemes, secondary in character, is about 30 miles (48 kilometers).

Fifty-seven stations constitute the main scheme. The mean latitude of

the three old stations of the Thirty-ninth Parallel triangulation, from

which the arc started, is 39° 05', and the northernmost point lies in

latitude 47° 23'. The triangulation follows closely the meridian of

122° 30'.

There were used to control the lengths in this triangulation the Yolo

base in California, the Willamette base, near Eugene, Oregon, and the

Tacoma base, near Tacoma, Washington. The Yolo base was meas-

ured in 1881 in connection with the transcontinental triangulation,

while the other two bases were measured in 1906.

Each of the triangulation stations was well marked and hence is

available for the surveyor and engineer. The publication contains de-

scriptions of the location and marking of the stations, also the latitude

and longitude of each point in the scheme and the azimuth of each line

observed over for horizontal directions.

A series of sketches and an index enable one to find readily the data

for any portion of the area covered by the triangulation. W. Bowie.

*

GEOLOGY. — The Onondaga fauna of the Allegheny region. E. M.

Kindle. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 508. Pp. 144, with a

map and sections.

, The Onondaga limestone is represented from Hudson River to Lake

Erie by a zone of frequently recurring outcrops across central New York

State. Passing under Lake Erie, the fauna reappears in rocks of the

same lithologic facies in northern and central Ohio, and reaches as far

west as Louisville. The most westerly recorded appearance of the fauna

is at the Bake Oven, in southwestern Illinois, so that it has an east-

west extension of about 1000 miles. In sharp contrast with this con-

siderable westerly extension of the Onondaga fauna beyond its type

region in eastern New York is the comparatively insignificant southerly

extension of the fauna and formation as it has been generally recognized.

The formation barely crosses Delaware River, according to most of the

papers dealing with the stratigraphy of the Devonian in the Allegheny

region, which give it a north-south extension of scarcely 200 miles. This

404 abstracts: entomology

insignificant southerly extension of a fauna which has been recognized

as so persistent in a westerly direction seems more surprising when it

is recalled that nearly all the other faunas characterizing the major

divisions of the New York Devonian section have been traced southward

from New York entirely across Pennsylvania into the Virginias. Thus,

it is seen that the prevailing conception of the Onondaga fauna, which

presumes its absence south of New York, gives to it an anomalous posi-

tion as compared with the other important faunas of the Devonian

section of New York. The evidence gathered during several seasons of

field work in the Allegheny region indicates that this conception is not

well founded, and that the southerly extension of the Onondaga fauna

is quite comparable in distance with its westerly extension. The field

studies have shown that the Onondaga fauna in the Allegheny region

extends far south of the area in which nearly pure limestones were

deposited during Onondaga time, into a region where shale-forming sedi-

ments partly or completely dominated those of calcareous type. This

fauna has been found in nearly all the sections studied from New York

to Tennessee.

The direct bearing of these new data on the paleography of Onondaga

time is obvious. They indicate the extension of the eastern shore line

of the Onondaga sea in a southwesterly direction from southeastern New

York to the east of the Allegheny region instead of far to the west of it,

as previously drawn in paleogeographic maps, across the States of Ohio,

Indiana, and Kentucky. -^In the light of this new evidence it appears

that the eastern shore line of the Onondaga sea trended southwestward

across north-central New Jersey and southeastern Pennsylvania. It

probably traversed the States of Maryland and Virginia near the present

axis of the Blue Ridge. From southwestern Virginia this shore line

appears to have trended westward not far from the Kentucky-Tennessee

line as far as the valley of Tennessee River, where it resumed its south-

erly trend. E. M. K. •

ENTOMOLOGY. — Three interesting butter flies from eastern Massa-

chusetts. Austin Hobart Clark. Proceedings of the United

States National Museum, 45: 363-364; pis. 32.

Junonia coenia Hiibner is recorded from Newton ville and from Coffin's

Beach, near Annisquam; Fenisecatarquinius (Fabricius) is recorded from

Newton ville; and a specimen of Euphydryas phaeton (Drury) from New-

tonville representing the variety superha Streker is described and

figured. A. H. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill SEPTEMBER 19, 1913 No. 15

OCEANOGRAPHY. — Observations on ocean temperatures in the

vicinity of icebergs and in other parts of the ocean. C. W.

Waidner, H. C. Dickinson and J. J. Crowe, Bureau of

Standards.

Thru the courtesy of the Navy Department an opportunity

was afforded representatives of the Bureau of Standards to make

observations on the temperature of sea water in the vicinity of

icebergs and in the open sea with a view to obtaining information

on the possibihty of detecting the proximity of ice from tempera-

ture records.

The Bureau party embarked on the U.S.S. Chester, leaving

Philadelphia on June 2, 1912, under command of Captain Decker.

Mr. Crowe was subsequently transferred to the U.S.S. Birming-

ham, under command of Captain Hughes, and continued obser-

vations from June 19, until the return to the port of Philadel-

phia on July 11, 1912.

Temperature equipment. Some of the more important apparatus

assembled for these experiments consisted of the following: (!) A

surface electrical resistance thermometer, consisting of a flat coil

of silk-covered nickel wire inclosed between copper sheets, and

insulated by thin layers of mica. The resistance of the nickel

coil was about 100 ohms. (2) Deep sea thermometers of the Neg-

retti and Zambra type kindly loaned by the Bureau of Fisheries.

(3) Several standard mercurial thermometers. (4) A Leeds and

Northrup recorder, suitable for use with the resistance thermom-

eters. This was kindly loaned for these experiments by the

Leeds and Northrup Company.

405 ^

406 WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE : OCEAN TEMPERATURES

All of the apparatus was carefully calibrated before leaving the

laboratory. The surface thermometer was mounted with its flat

face directly against the inner surface of the ship's f-inch plates,

about 6 feet below the water line. Simultaneous measurements

of temperature, made with a sensitive mercurial thermometer in-

serted in the water and with the surface thermometer and recorder

mounted as above, showed that the sudden changes in sea water

temperature were indicated by the recorder without any signifi-

cant time lag. The suspended system of the D'Arsonval galvanom-

eter of the recorder was so carefully balanced by the makers

that the records were Entirely unaffected by the rolling and pitch-

ing of the ship. As used, a change of 1°C. corresponded to a

movement of the pen of 18 mm. on the record sheet. The dis-

placement of the paper was about 60 mm. per hour.

Fig. 1. Record of June 17, 1912

Temperature records. Practically continuous temperature rec-

ords were obtained from June 4 until July 10, 1912. The tempera-

tures recorded ranged from 3° to 25°C. The balance point of the

recorder was changed to bring the temperature records on the

paper by the insertion of suitable known resistances in one arm

of the Wheatstone bridge circuit of the recorder, the calibration

of the surface thermometer being made with the corresponding

resistances in the circuit.

Figure 1 shows the temperature record obtained on board the

U.S.S. Chester, June 17, 1912. Several small bergs or "growlers"

were sighted on the horizon at 9.45 a.m. Almost simultaneously,

the record shows a sudden fall of temperature from 8?7 to 7?3 C,

or nearly 1?5 C. At this time the ship was over 10 miles from the

nearest of the growlers. The temperature continued to fall irregu-

WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE : OCEAN TEMPERATURES 407

larly as the growler was approached until 10.45 a.m. when the tem-

perature was 5?7C., at which time the distance from the growler,

estimated by the range finder, was about 500 yards. At 11.00

a.m. the distance was about 150 yards. A party put out in a

boat to take observations of temperature around the growler whose

mass was estimated at about 12,000 tons. The surface tempera-

ture as determined by the observers in the life boat ranged from

5?8 to 6?7C.

At 1.20 p.m., the ship steamed toward a large berg about 12

miles distant. The course of the ship around this berg is shown

by the diagram in the upper right corner of figure 1. The course

Z) is 6 to 7 miles in length. The various legs of this course A, B,

— G are also indicated on the temperature record, figure 1, No

significance can be assigned to the irregular fluctuations of tem-

perature observed around this berg (see figure 2).

About 5.25 p.m. the ship lay to, abeam of the berg at a distance

of 300 yards. A party put out in a small boat for temperature

observations. The time until about 7.00 p.m. was spent in the

immediate neighborhood of the berg, the ship sailing around the

berg, while the party in the small boat was taking observations.

From about 7.00 to 9.30 p.m. the ship lay to, during which time the

ship and berg drifted apart. The ship then cruised around until

midnight in an unsuccessful effort to locate the berg with the aid

of two powerful searchlights. From measurements made with two

stadimeters, on the ship and on the whaleboat respectively, the

mass of the berg was found to be about 400,000 tons.

The mean of a number of temperature observations taken from

the whale boat gave the following surface temperatures: 20 feet

from the berg 4?5, 35 feet 4?9, 50 feet 5?0, 75 feet 5?4, 200 feet

5?7C. The temperature at a distance of 50 feet from the berg and

at a depth of 5 fathoms was 3?6C., and at a depth of 20 fathoms

3?3. At some miles distant from the berg temperatures were

encountered as low as those observed a few feet from the berg.

Variations in the salinity of sea water. Variation in the salinity

of sea water in the neighborhood of icebergs due to the diluting

action of the water resulting from the melting of the ice is so

small as to be entirely masked by the accidental variations found

408 WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE : OCEAN TEMPERATURES

in sea water. The following determinations of the densities of

samples of sea water, taken under conditions specified and after-

wards tested in the laboratories, serve to illustrate this.

Echoes from icebergs. The testimony of numerous observers

is on evidence that the echo of the fog horn may frequentlj^ but

by no means always, be detected when in the proximity of an

iceberg or even of a bank of fog. The amount of evidence on

this point leaves no doubt as to the correctness of the above

statement. The experiment of sounding the fog horn when in

the vicinity of a number of the bergs encountered on thetrip was

tried but in lio instance was an echo detected. A few experiments

were also made to determine whether an echo could be detected

under water coming from the larger submerged portion of the

berg. For this purpose the ship's bell was lowered into the water

and signals produced by striking the bell. Observers stationed

at the ship's submarine signal telephones listened for evidences

of the echo. The ship was at a distance of 1 to 2 miles from the

fair sized berg encountered by the U.S.S. Chester on the afternoon

of June 17. It was difficult to draw postive conclusions on ac-

count of the disturbing noises present in the telephone receiver,

but a number of observers were convinced that they heard faint

echoes. There was no time to investigate and improve the tele-

phonic apparatus, so that the most that can be said is that these

preliminary experiments look hopeful enough to merit more

careful experiments.

Other ohservations. The results of other experiments such as

firing 3 and 5-inch shells into the berg, the utility of searchlights

in locating bergs at night, etc., will undoubtedly be covered in

the official reports of the commanding officers. It may be worth

WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE : OCEAN TEMPERATURES 409

while to record, however, the general mipressions of the authors,

unfamiliar with such matters, that the effects of cannon fire were

disappointingly small and the utility of powerful searchlights

surprisingly limited. Altho the lookouts were provided with spy

glasses or with binoculars, it is of interest to note that the ice-

bergs were invariably first seen with the unaided eye. The dif-

ficulty of picking up icebergs under some conditions is illustrated

by the following incident. While the ship was steaming toward

a large berg in sight, a heavy fog fell. One lookout was in the

crow's nest, four were on the bridge, and two in the ship's eyes.

Notwithstanding this the berg was first picked up from the

quarterdeck after the ship had passed the berg some 200 yards

abeam.

Samples of ice broken from the berg by gun fire were taken

aboard ship. These contained considerable amounts of included

air, which probably accounts for their white appearance. The

ice was surprisingly hard and free from any definite cleavage

planes. The whitish appearance was generally characteristic of

all the 'bergs met with. In some instances there were narrow

streaks of ice, transparent and of a blue color, that penetrated

entirely thru the bergs.

The water resulting from the melting of the iceberg was found

to have the same density as that of distilled water. It was free

from any characteristic taste. So far as our observations go,

the temperature of the air furnishes no evidence of value as to

the proximity of a berg.

Discussion of observations. An examination of the tempera-

ture records which were obtained under a variety of conditions,

in the region 37° to 43° 30' north latitude and 43° to 53° west

longitude, at once impresses one with the difficulty of separating

the large and sudden variations of sea water temperature, so

frequently met with, from any variations that may be caused

by the proximity of icebergs. We have obtained records in

some parts of the ocean in which the temperatures were practi-

cally constant to a few tenths of a degree for many hours. On the

other hand, some of the records show that the temperature vari-

ations in other parts of the ocean, where no ice is near, are as

great and as sudden as any observed in the neighborhood of

410 WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE: OCEAN TEMPERATURES

bergs. Ha^ang established the existence of such variations in

sea water temperatures, it follows that it will be very difficult

and often impossible to draw definite conclusions as to the prox-

imity of ice from temperature records.

Jurje /Z/9/Z

ion

•hi

man Curve

-/

\.

X

-y^

/

/on.

JOM,

-remper.t>^r. near ^r^s(ot,o^^ ^o° Y^'^

arbitrarily fa/refi ^^ "■

Fig. 2. Temperature about an iceberg

In approaching or leaving a berg the temperature of the sea

water may rise or fall or remain practically constant. In figure

2, the temperature records of figure 1 are reproduced, the tem-

perature at the iceberg being arbitrarily taken as the zero of

temperatures for each course. Curve a, figure 2, is the temper-

WAIDNER, DICKINSON AND CROWE! OCEAN TEMPERATURES 411

ature record in approaching and leaving a growler. The re-

mainder of the curves in figure 2 are the records for all the courses

around the large berg, shown in figure 1. The temperature

records for the several courses differ so much that no certain

effect can be attributed to the iceberg. The mean of the curves

for all the courses is shown in the lower part of figure 2.

Course

-/

-2

oppraacAwd

/eai^//7^

/OM

/ff/f

Mean Cuf^i^^

+;

-/

Temperature r?ear ber^sCahouf 5O0 ycfs)

arb/fran'/y f^/re/? as o°

Fig. 3. Average temperature about several bergs

In figure 3 are reproduced all the temperature records, ex-

cept those of June 17, for approaching and leaving icebergs, the

temperatures at the bergs being always arbitrarily taken as the

zero of temperature. The mean curve shown below, indicates

412 BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS

that in general there was a fall in temperature of about 1° in 4

or 5 miles in approaching the various bergs. In all but two in-

stances the minimum temperature was found near the bergs. So

far as our records go, therefore, it does not seem possible to draw

positive conclusions as to the absence or proximity of ice from

the temperature records of sea water. This is not a condemna-

tion of the use of suitable recorders on ships. As Barnes has

shown, the temperature record may give valuable information

on the approach to shore and shallow water, on the identifica-

tion of characteristic ocean currents, and, as his records seem to

show, even of the proximity of icebergs in some parts of the

ocean where the variations are less erratic than in the regions in

which our observations were made.

If the "characteristic iceberg effect" observed by Barnes, i.e.,

rise of temperature on approaching icebergs, had been present

around the bergs observed by us and of the same or even much

less magnitude, our records would have rendered such an effect

evident, notwithstanding the irregular variations of temperature

usually found to exist. In view of the differences in the charac-

ter of the records obtained by Barnes and by us, it is very desir-

able that further observations be made in different parts of the

ocean, and under as varied conditions as possible, before attempt-

ing to draw final conclusions.

In conclusion, we wish to express our indebtedness to Captain

Decker, Captain Hughes, and their officers and crews for their

hearty cooperation and many acts of kindness during our stay

on shipboard.

ELECTRICITY. — High-frequency amjiieters. J. H. Bellinger.

To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, Sci-

entific Paper No. 206.

For the measurement of current at radiotelegraphic frequen-

cies, about 50,000 to 2,000,000 cycles per second, it is general

practice to utilize the thermal effect of the current. The elec-

trodynamic effect of the current has not been very successfully

utilized; because, when the wire is coiled up to form an electro-

dellinger: high frequency ammeters 413

dynamometer, conditions are favorable (impedance large and

capacity large) for part of the current to flow thru the dielectric

instead of the wire, in amount varying with the frequency. The

superiority of the hot-wire ammeter and the modifications there-

of, in high frequency work, is due to the simplicity of form which

the portion of the circuit within the instrument may have, per-

mitting a minimum of self-inductance and capacity, A single

straight wire of very small diameter is the only form of ammeter

circuit which can be taken as a 'priori reliable at all frequencies.

When the instrument is required to carry relatively large cur-

rents, such a wire is not sufficient, and more than one elementary

path must be provided for the current. The distribution of cur-

rent among these paths is determined solely by the resistances,

at low frequencies, while at high frequencies the inductances pre-

dominate. Consequently the current distribution and the read-

ings of the instrument are likely to change as the frequency is

varied.

There are three general types of ammeters in use for large cur-

rents of high frequency: (a) that employing wires in parallel,

(b) the so-called unshunted ammeter in which a single wire has

different portions of its length in parallel, and (c) the ammeter

employing thin metal strips. Both experimental and commer-

cial instruments of all these types were investigated, experimen-

tally and theoretically. All types were found to be subject to

errors at radiotelegraphic frequencies. This fact is of great

moment, for the ammeter is the cardinal instrument in high fre-

quency work. It is of value in measurements of resistance and

power, as well as of current. In some of the ammeters investi-

gated the readings were found to increase with increase of fre-

quency, and in others to decrease. These changes are entirely

independent of the thermometric method used to measure heat

production. The thermometric device may depend on expan-

sion, calorimetry, electric resistance, or thermoelectric effect.

The observations were made by passing high-frequency and

low-frequency current successively thru the instruments. An

instrument under test was always in series with an instrument

which could be taken as standard, and the two were observed

414 BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS

simultaneously. Thus the ratio of indicated current at high and

low frequency, for equal total current in the circuit, was obtained.

The high-frequency current was generated by the. oscillatory dis-

charge of a condenser across a spark gap. The instruments were

in a secondary circuit, loosely coupled to the primary, and con-

sisting of an inductance coil, the instruments, and Leyden jars,

in series. The chief source of accidental error in the observations

was the slight unsteadiness of the current together with the dif-

fering lag of the indicating devices of the instruments.

From the dimensions and arrangement of the wires it was

found possible to predict quantitatively the changes of reading of

the wire instruments with frequency, while theoretical considera-

tions also made it possible to predict qualitatively the perform-

ance of the strip instruments. It is an interesting coincidence

that the changes of reading occur just in the range of radiotele-

graphic frequencies. In some of the instruments, the current

distribution was constant from low frequencies up to about 100,000

then underwent changes, and became constant for 1,500,000

and higher frequencies. Thus, in one sense, physically infinite

frequency was practically attained. The order of agreement of

calculation and experiment attained with these instruments is

in itself one of the most interesting results of the investigation.

It shows that calculations based on the formulas for self and

mutual inductance of finite portions of a circuit are valid, to the

observed degree of accuracy, for short lengths and for damped

high-frequency oscillations.

In the case of the parallel wire ammeter, mutual inductances

between parts, which had hitherto been supposed to be negligible,

are the determining factor in the change of current distribution.

In the so-called unshunted ammeter, the errors are chiefly due

to the self-inductances of parts other than the hot wire. In this

case, they can be minimized by symmetrical location of the cur-

rent leads. In the strip ammeter, the terminal blocks have been

found to be the source of large errors. These are reduced by

proper shaping of the blocks.

One effective means of reducing the errors of these ammeters

at high frequencies is by using working parts of high resistance.

BELLINGER: HIGH FREQUENCY AMMETERS 415

i.e., metal wires or strips which are very thin and of high resis-

tivity. Another expedient is to change the design so that the

deflections depend on the entire heat production in the instru-

ment instead of on that in one branch of its circuit. It was found

possible to apply this idea to the thermocouple instruments, as

well as to those whose indications depend on other thermometric

principles. Still another method of improvement is to arrange

the working parts (either wires or strips) as equidistant elements

of a cylinder, so that each has the same set of mutual inductances.

This design approaches as a limit the circular tube, which theo-

retically has no change of current distribution with frequency.

In common with the others, however, it is subject to an error

which has hitherto been overlooked. It is difficult to obtain very

thin wires or strips of uniform cross-section, and this variation

results in the resistances of elements being unequal while the

inductances are substantially equal. As a result the current

distribution may be uniform at high frequency and not at low

frequency.

Eddy currents induced in neighboring masses of metal are

found to cause no error. Inductive action of the leads near an

instrument in some cases appreciably affects the readings, and

must be guarded against. The distributed capacity of the cir-

cuits within the instruments is found to cause no error, but the

capacity of auxiliary parts produces an appreciable effect at the

highest frequency used, 1,500,000 cycles per second. This ef-

fect was very striking, two instruments in series carrying differ-

ent amounts of current. Apparently part of the current was

shunted out of one of the instruments by electrostatic induction.

A means of eliminating the effect was found for the purposes of

ammeter comparison. This phenomenon suggests that the cur-

rent in a conducting circuit may not be a definite quantity at

frequencies over 1,000,000.

In conclusion, it may be said that all types of ammeters in

use for large currents of high frequency are subject to errors.

The sources of error have been isolated and studied. Some were

shown to be negligible, and others very serious. Means of hn-

proving the designs have been worked out.

416 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses

CHEMISTRY. — The interpretation of mineral analyses.'^ Roger

C. "Wells, Geological Survey.

In a recent number of this Journal W. T, Schaller proposed an

improvement in the usual method of reducing a mineral analysis

to a chemical formula which seems to have some advantages. ^

A little later F. E. Wright and C. E. Van Orstrand published a

paper on the determination of the order of agreement between

observation and theory in mineral analyses in which they state

that Schaller's method is in error in certain details of principle

and discuss several methods of making comparisons between

analytical data and theoretical formulas based upon the method

of least squares.^ Without doubt both of these papers represent

certain advances, but as they stand there is too much variance

between them. The subject is one of general interest and fun-

damental importance so that some further observations may not

be inappropriate.

The excellent analysis of pearceite upon which the discussion

in these papers is based was published some time ago by F. R.

Van Horn and C. W. Cook.^ At present only methods of com-

paring the analytical data with theory are in question. Van Horn

and Cook obtained from their analysis the atom numbers of sul-

fur, arsenic and silver 10.80, 2.000 and 7.886 from which they

easily deduced the correct formula, 8Ag2S.As2S3. The real ques-

tion decided concerned only one atom in 15, that is between the

formulas 9Ag2S.As2S3 and 8Ag2S.As2S3. The analysis was con-

siderably more accurate than necessary to decide this point.

The improvement proposed in the calculation by Schaller is

suggestive altho not essential to the evaluation in this case and

consists in the use of an arithmetic mean instead of a single value

of the greatest common divisor by which percentages found in

an analysis are reduced to numbers of atoms. The details of

carrying out this calculation may be found in his paper. He thus

obtained the numbers 10.92, 2.02 and 7.97 which are closer to

^ Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

^ Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 97. 1913.

3 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 223. 1913.

" Amer. Journ. Sci., (4) 31: 518. 1911.

wells: interpretation of mineral analyses 417

the whole numbers of the formula 11, 2 and 8 than the numbers

above. Schaller also expressed the numbers in another form

intended to show their variation from whole numbers more clearly

as follows 11 XO.993, 2 x 1.01 and 8 xO.996. In this form devia-

tions from the requirements of theory are shown as factors of

the quantities involved.

Wright and Yan Orstrand begin their discussion on page 224

as follows: ''The underlying purpose of such calculations is not,

however, to improve a chemical analysis by mathematical mani-

pulation, which is obviously impossible, but to obtain a logical

basis of comparison for the given analysis with the anal3^sis calcu-

lated from the chemical formula." Unfortunately, while object-

ing to "mathematical manipulation'' the authors of the second

paper appear to have recommended and rejected methods of cal-

culation on purely mathematical grounds entirely apart from any

consideration of the necessary chemical relationships involved.

In the first method of calculation described they begin by infer-

ring that the correct numbers are 11, 2 and 8. They then derive

by the method of least squares a "weight percentage composi-

tion" (column 5) for comparison with the analysis which totals

99.84. In other words they present a basis of comparison that

totals less than the original investigators obtained in their analysis,

viz., 99.89, and conclude "the differences between the observed

(y) and computed (y') values {o-c, column 1-5) are a proper

measure of the degree of approximation of the actual analysis to

that computed from the inferred chemical formula." Let us see

how this works out. Assuming equal errors in all the percentages

of an analysis of the mineral in question, say, 0.10, we come out

of the comparison with the following differences: 0.05, 0.09,0.05

and 0.08. In other words the chemist should have unequal errors

in his percentages to obtain a perfect comparison! Now as a

matter of fact he does have unequal errors in his percentages, and

these errors are roughly proportional to the percentages involved.

Working out the scheme on the assumption that the errors are

the same fraction, say 1 /200th of all the percentages gives no

differences whatever. Obviously the more nearly all errors can

be made proportional to the quantities of substance involved the

better the comparison will turn out on the whole.

418 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses

This leads us to the conclusion that ''residual errors" or "dif-

ferences" have very little meaning by themselves. This meaning

can only be brought out by comparison with the magnitudes

involved. For example an error of 1 gram in weighing 7 grams of

arsenic is a very different order of error from that of 1 gram in

59 grams of silver. This is a general proposition but it has partic-

ular application in chemical operations where we are so frequently

concerned with the numbers of atoms involved, the atoms hav-

ing different weights. If we are to make equally good determina-

tions of atomic quantities of two substances we must keep our

relative errors not our absolute errors the same in the two deter-

minations. So far as my experience in tracing the effects of errors

upon the results in different chemical operations goes, I believe

that the best policy for the chemist to pursue is to assume a given

error in a measurement, carry thru the whole calculation and

ascertain exactly what effect the error will produce in the final

result. As is well known, relative errors in a magnitude are trans-

mitted unchanged in multiplication and division of the magnitude

by other magnitudes, but they are affected irregularly or may

practically disappear in additions and subtractions.

The chemist well knows that in addition to "random" errors

there are errors that depend on the elements involved and the

methods used. For example, it is not difficult to determine silver

with accuracy; the same cannot be said of arsenic. Sulfur is

usually weighed as barium sulfate, a substance over seven times

heavier than its equivalent of sulfur, while copper is frequently

weighed as metal. Even if the same accidental error in milli-

grams is made in weighing these two substances the sulfur deter-

minations will turn out to be seven-fold as accurate as that of

the copper. Neglecting these special relations, however, it may

be said that errors will tend to be proportional to the magnitudes

involved. This relation does not hold strictly because the analyst

usually allows himself a little more laxity in the case of the minor

constituents and in these the "constant" errors attain more signif-

icance. This difference in the nature of the errors is of fundamental

importance in deciding upon methods of calculation and comparison.

In the method employed by Van Horn and Cook one deter-

wells: interpretation of mineral analyses 419

mination is assumed to be free from error and the remaining atom

numbers show discrepancies from the requu-ement of theory.

Schaller's method is a simple method of distributing the dis-

crepancies. It occurred to Wright and Van Orstrand that the

method of least squares would give a still better distribution of

discrepancies. In the illustration worked out by them, however,

(first method) it is obvious that the tj values (observed data) are

weighted by multiplication by the respective molecular weights

{x values). It would be perfectly possible to weight the observa-

tion equations in any arbitrary manner. It would seem, however,

that if the discrepancies are assumed to be random ones the weight-

ing should be based upon the magnitude of the discrepancies rather

than that upon the molecular weights involved. In view of what

has been said it can be seen that the weighting should probably

also vary with the mineral, the number of atoms, etc., so that the

chief difficulty would be in getting chemists to agree upon a

system of weighting.

There is some objection from a chemical point of view to any

method involving a distribution of discrepancies. It must be

borne in mind that a mineral may be a mixture, a solid solution,

or a molecular species. All these possibilities occur in nature

and some species occur in a state of remarkable purity. Yet it

is hardly to be expected that natural products formed from, or

open to attack by, migrating solutions of various kinds can be

wholly free from inclusions of foreign matter. Under these circum-

stances a clear differentiation between fact and hypothesis should

be preserved. An analysis is a more or less imperfect expression

of certain facts, viz., the composition of the substance in question;

that this composition may be expressed in a chemical formula is

an hypothesis which may find only approximate verification in

the case of a mineral. As our knowledge widens minerals are

being found more and more to be solid solutions to a slight extent ;

these interesting relationships are brought out by independent

derivations of the atom numbers but masked by a distribution of

''errors." Methods involving a distribution of errors are there-

fore strictly applicable only to very pure compounds.

But in reverting wholly to a comparison of percentages we lose

420 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses

some advantages possessed by a comparison of the atom numbers.

Residuals of the latter may be compared with one another with

respect to the possibility of their combination into simple mole-

cules. In objecting to this method of comparison on mathematical

grounds the authors of the second paper appear to have over-

looked an important distinction. In weighing out the mineral

for analysis as well as in all the analytical operations there are

the same atoms involved, atoms of different weights — here eleven

atoms of sulfur, two of arsenic and eight of silver — so that the

percentages of the different elements are already weighed, i.e.,

''weighted" according to these proportions and, in dividing, the

chemist simply tends to restore unit weight to each determina-

tion of the common divisor upon which the atomic theory depends.

When we compare percentages we compare data for eleven atoms

of silver, two of arsenic, and eight of silver; on the other hand,

when the comparison is between different values of the greatest

common divisor we are comparing numbers having a significance

common to all the atoms in the mineral.

Now in view of the consideration on page 419 it appears in

general that (a) when percentages are compared the principal

constituents will contain the smallest relative errors while con-

stant errors will tend to compensate one another. The tptal

essential constituents expanded to 100 per cent will therefore be

the best basis of comparison with the theoretical percentages.

(b) When the atom numbers are to be compared the one obtained

from the minor constituent will be most affected by "constant er-

rors" such as those of weighing and measuring, the one obtained

from the major constituent will be most affected by "relative

errors," those proceeding from chemical transformations. Which

kind of error will predominate here will depend again upon the

mineral and the method of analysis. The plan has heretofore

been to base the value of the common divisor upon the minor

constituent. Schaller's proposal bases the divisor upon all the

constituents. Another plan would be to base the value of the

common divisor upon the chief constituent or the most accurately

determined one. A factor may be very simply obtained, however,

by taking 1 /100th of the molecular weight assumed for the mineral,

wells: interpretation of mineral analyses

421

which is obviously theoretically correct for each formula assumed.^

It is then only necessary to multiply the combining ratios found,

bj^ this factor, to obtain the exact atom numbers found in the

analysis.

The comparison of the analysis under discussion with theory

may therefore be made by either of the two following methods:

(0 2748\

„ ' „ j X 107.88. Simi-

larly for the copper. In the case of replacements such as that of copper for silver

here the molecular weight assumed must be obtained by taking proper propor-

tions of the atom numbers of the simplified formula. As the number of replace-

ments increases, the more difficult it becomes to derive either a "theoretical"

molecular weight or a theoretical percentage.

- Obtained from 17.48, etc., above by dividing by -atomic weights.

' Considered as Ag2 and Cua.

/2009 1^

* Obtained from 0.5451, etc., by multiplying by (

molecular weight assumed.

where 2009.1 is the

M

^ If M is the molecular weight assumed 1 per cent of M is — ; if y per cent of

IT

an element has been found, the molecular portion will be — and this will be as

many atoms as the atomic weight of that element is contained in ^— - or -^ — ;

hence the factor for each molecular ratio will be

100'

422 wells: interpretation of mineral analyses

If the arguments set forth in the preceding discussion are vahd

the relative discrepancies in the last columns are the best indices

of the agreement of the data found with the formula assumed.

To say that 10.95 has a discrepancy of —0.5 per cent from the

theoretical value 11 is very simular to expressing 10.95 as 11. X

0.995. In my opinion the "mean relative discrepancy" is probabl}^

the best single value which can be found to indicate the order of

agreement of a mineral analysis with the formula.

The principal conclusions in this paper may be summarized

as follows:

1. "Differences" are not a good measure of concordance when

comparisons are made between several numbers of different mag-

nitude or where different chemical elements are concerned. The

discrepancies should also be thought of as factors or percentages

of the quantities involved.

2. Before a mathematical simplification in analytical data is

attempted the nature of possible errors and their mode of trans-

mission to the final result should be considered.

3. The analytical percentages of a mineral analysis will in

general contain some random errors and will certainly contain

errors characteristic of the individual elements. The errors will

however tend to be proportional to the quantities of substance

involved. If the chemist wishes to bring up the accuracy of all

the constituents to their full measure in the determination of the

whole mineral, he should devote his chief attention first to the

constituent which he believes to be subject to the greatest abso-

lute error and next to the other constituents in the order in which

they occur by weight beginning with the predominating one.

4. Any method of comparing the analytical data with theory

which involves a distribution of the discrepancies may mask

some relations, such as those of solid solution or the presence of

a free element and should therefore be used only in the case of

pure compounds.

5. The percentage of the essential constituents found should

first be expanded to 100 per cent and then compared directly with

the theoretical percentages. Or the combining ratios found may

, 1.- T 11 ji r J molecular weight assumed , ,,

be multiplied by the lactor -—- and the atom

numbers thus found compared with theory.

steiger: analysis of deep well water 423

6. The ''mean relative discrepancy" of all the determinations

is probably the best single index of the agreement of a mineral

analysis with a chemical formula.

CHEMISTRY. — Note on the analysis of water fro??i a deep well

in Pennsylvania. George Steiger, Geological Survey.

The well from which the water was obtained is situated eight

miles southwest of Imperial, Allegheny County, and five miles

northwest of McDonald, Washington County, Pennsylvania. ^

Down to 6300 feet the well was perfectly dry; at this point water

was encountered and finally filled the well to a depth of 3000 feet.

At the request of Dr. G. F. Becker, the Peoples Gas Company,

owners of the well, collected two samples of five gallons each.

One sample was sent to the laboratory of the Bureau of Mines

at Denver for radioactive tests; the other was shipped to the

laboratoiy of the U. S. Geological Survey for the general chemi-

cal analysis.

Grams per Kilogram of Water

Fe 0.16 SO4 0.05

Mg 2.48 CI 161 .80

Ca 25.19 Br 0.70

Sr 3.55* I

Ba trace

Na 64.55 263.64

K 5.16 Sp. G 1.211

112.5 X 10~" grams of radium per liter.

Silicon, aluminum, titanium, phosphorus, manganese, lead, bismuth, and

carbonic acid, were tested for and were found to be absent.

* Equivalent to 7.8 grams of SrCl2 per liter.

This water contains about eight times the cjuantity of dissolved

salts per kilogram as that of sea-water. When received, a quan-

tity of suspended matter was present, probably finely divided

rock introduced through the process of drilling. This was sep-

arated by filtration and the filtrate which was perfectly clear

was used for analysis. Dr. Becker who will be assisted by Mr.

C. E. Van Orstrand, in the near future, intends studying the

well regarding temperature and radioactivity. It was in rela-

1 A complete description of this well by I. C. White will be found in the Bulle-

tin of the Geological Society of America, 24: 273-282. 1913.

424 ashe: a new shrubby buckeye

tion to the radioactivity that lead, bismuth, and barium were

very carefully tested for.

When time permits drill cores of the accompanying rock will

be analyzed in the hope of throwing some light on the source of

the large strontium content; this metal being of rare occurrence

in surface rocks of this locality. Dr. R. B. Moore who kindly

made the determination of the radioactive matter states that the

amount is not excessive for water of this character.

For the collection of the water the Survey is indebted to Mr.

John G. Pew, Vice-President of the Company.

BOTANY. — A new shnibby buckeye. W. W. Ashe, Forest

Service.

Aesculus microcarpa sp. nov. Leaves with slender glabrous pet-

ioles, much longer than the middle leaflet; mostly five obovate-

oblong leaflets, which are sharply serrate, slender petiolulate,

glabrous on unfolding except for minute tufts of hair in the axils

of the veins; when mature glabrous, firm in texture and pale be-

neath; twigs slender, glabrous, glaucescent. Flowers, opening in

Rabun County, Georgia, the last of April and early in May,

about 3 cm. long, pale yellow or toward base orange, petals con-

nivent, very unequal, puberulent, the claws puberulent; claws

of lateral pair longer than calyx tube, the limb ovate or oblong;

pedicels slender, mostly longer than the oblong-campanulate

puberulent calyx tube. Fruit smooth, about 3 cm. thick, one-

seeded, with thin, smooth reddish brown valves; seed spheroid,

about 2 cm. in diameter. A shrub 1 to 3 m. in height. Growing

with Aesculus pavia L. along rocky banks of streams and open

red clay hills of western South Carolina and northern Georgia,

between altitudes of 160 and 500 m. Type material which is in

the herbarium of the author, is from Cherchero Creek, Rabun

County, Georgia; it was collected in April and September, 1911.

This shrub is most closely related to Aesculus octandra Marsh,

which grows with it along the upper edge of its distribution in

Rabun County, Georgia. The flowers of the proposed species

are about one-third larger than those of Ae. octandra, more slen-

der, not so pubescent, the calyx more tubular, and the thyrse is

smaller. The seed is solitary, spheroid, and about one-half the

size of that of Ae. octandra.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — The determination of aqueous vapor above Mount Wilson.

F. E. FowLE. Astrophysical Journal, 36: 359. 1913.

The quantity of precipitable water existing in the form of vapor be-

tween the top of Mount Wilson and the outer hmits of our atmosphere

during fair weather from June to November, 1910, and 1911, was deter-

mined by the spectrobolometric method described in detail in the Astro-

physical Journal, 35: 149. 1912 (see this journal, 2:318. 1912). The

average quantity present was 0.69 cm. and the range from 0.2 cm. to

about 2.8 cm. of precipital)Ie water. The difference in the monthly

means would be small but for a few exceptionally moist days in August;

almost the dryest day indeed for 1910 was August 13 (0.17 cm.) and the

dryest for 1911, September 12 (0.12 cm.). A gradual but generally

slow increase in atmospheric water vapor often took place during the

observations which extended from about 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. This averaged

0.12 cm. For about 40 per cent of the days this increase was less than

0.1 cm.

These spectrobolometric results were then used in a study of the

formula of Hann which, with a coefficient determined from balloon and

kite observations, has been in use for connecting surface humidities

with the quantity of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. This coefficient

was redetermined by means of the data above discussed. The general

mean for the coefficients (1.8) agrees closely with that derived by Hann

(1.9), also with that from Humphrey's data (1.7). The range of values

is, however, so great (from 0.33 to 11.80) that we must regard the for-

mula, though applicable for mean conditions, as of no value for individ-

ual days. F. E. F,

425

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 724th meeting was held on April 12, 1913, at the Cosmos Club.

President Abbot in the chair; 55 persons present. ' The minutes of the

723d meeting were read and approved.

Mr. R. S. Woodward presented a paper on The laws of falling bodies.

The history of the subject, beginning with the first consideration of the

problem by Gauss and Laplace 110 years ago, was reviewed. These

investigators differed in their conclusions, Gauss maintaining that there

is a meridional deviation towards the equator, which Laplace denied.

Poisson made some corrections to Gauss's work but accepted his con-

clusions, as did most of the subsequent workers. In view of conflicting

opinions, differences in experiments, and of obvious defects in the mem-

oirs, the speaker has thought it worth while to study the subject further,

taking into account the recent work in geodesy. The method of La-

grange was used to derive the equations. The height of fall was limited

so that there wovild be no exterior effects on account of other bodies.

Discussion of equations was carried to terms of the second order and

some results of the application of the formulae given. The conclusion

reached was that the deviation in the meridional plane due to the rota-

tions and figure of the Earth is towards the north. The easterly devia-

tion is very much larger than the northerly. There is need of more

information regarding the geodesy of the subject. The paper was dis-

cussed by Messrs. Bauer, Littlehales, Wead, and Rosa.

Mr. C. W. Waidner spoke on Sea water temperatures iyi the vicinity

of icebergs, giving results of the experiments carried out by a party of

three from the Bureau of Standards on a United States cruiser. The

thermometer was a flat rectangular nickel coil enclosed between two

copper plates pressed close to the side of the ship and connected to a

Leeds and Northrup recorder. The equipment and charts showing some

of the records were illustrated by lantern slides. So far as detection

of proximity of icebergs is concerned, the general conclusion was that,

while such records may be of help, the normal variations are generally

so erratic and large in comparison with effect due to icebergs that it

is practically impossible to get definite indications from the records.

Other experiments made on salinity and density of sea water indicated

that nothing could be accomplished, as the diluting effect is infinitesimal.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bauer, Littlehales, and Burrows

as to the radiation method from the surface of icebergs and by Mr.

Abbot.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

426

proceedings: biological society 427

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 512th meeting of the Biological Society of Washington was held

on April 19, 1913 at the Cosmos Club, with Vice-President Hay in the

chair and about 30 persons present.

Henry Talbott exhibited an unusually large tooth of the fossil shark,

Carcharodon megelodon. from South Carolina and by way of compar-

ison the much smaller teeth of Odontaspes from Chesapeake Beach,

Maryland.

Wells W. Cooke commented on the spring migration of birds, not-

ing that this year the yellowthroat, redstart, wood thrush and catbird

had arrived three da}' s ahead of schedule time.

The regular program consisted of a communication by C. D. Marsh,

on Stock Poisoning by Larkspur. He stated that ranchmen of the west

had long claimed losses of stock due to larkspur, and on scientific in-

quiry had found their observations correct, and that the monetary loss

was considerable. Altho larkspur occurs in other parts of the world it

apparently only causes trouble in the Western United States. The

average mortality in affected areas of the west is from 3 to 5 per cent,

but as many as 20 head out of a herd of 200 have been fatally poisoned

in twenty-four hours. The low larkspur appears to be always dangerous,

but the tall only becomes so in August after the fruit matures. The

poison is a cumulative one and requires from 3 to 10 per cent of the ani-

mal's body weight of larkspur plant to cause death or alarming symp-

toms. The symptoms consist of general discomfort, nausea, constipa-

tion, a characteristic arching of the back and sudden collapse, followed

by partial recovery and a repetition of similar attacks, and if the case

is a fatal one, to end in respiratory paralysis and death by asphyxia.

Animals do not become immune to the poison. Horses may be experi-

mentally poisoned but when feeding on the range do not eat into a patch

of larkspur enough to consume a toxic quantity. Sheep are naturally

immune to the poison and may be fed a continuous diet of little else

than larkspur without showing any symptoms. The cowboy's treatment

of the disease is bleeding but the proportion of recoveries by this method

is not greater than in natural recovery. Rational treatment consists in

placing the poisoned animal on sloping ground with head upward so

that the abdominal viscera fall back from the thoracic organs. ^ Drug

treatment consists of eserin pilocarpine and strychnine administered

hypodermically. Under this method 96 per cent of poisoned animals

recover. Alcohol is also effective but less practical. The paper was

illustrated by lantern slides, showing the larkspur in detail and on

ranges, and numerous animals in various stages of poisoning. The paper

was discussed by Messrs. Bailey, Weed, Hitchcock, Gill, Lyon and

others.

The 513th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington

was held on INIay 3, 1913 at the Cosmos Club, with President Nelson

in the chair and 56 persons present.

428 proceedings: biological society

Dr. H. M. Smith called attention to a large whale shark captured

during the past year in Florida waters. It originally measured 38 feet

in length, but as now mounted, 45 feet. Pictures of this shark were ex-

hibited and extracts from a letter by the captor read. Dr. Smith's

remarks were discussed by the chair and by Dr. Gill.

BEGULAR PROGRAM

The remarkable extinct fauna of southern California revealed in the

asphalt deposits near Los Angeles: Dr. C. Hart Merriam.

The asphalt in this region was known to the Indians for centuries

and was mentioned by the early Spanish padres. Altho remains of

animals in the asphalt deposits have been known since about the middle

of the last century,. they have only' lately been extensively studied by

Dr. J. C. Merriam of the University of California. The viscous asphalt

appears to have acted as a natural trap, first entangling certain birds

and mammals, which in turn served as bait to larger predatory forms.

The remains may be. roughly divided into three groups: (1) Birds,

some still existing,*but mostly extinct, among them, hawks, eight genera

of eagles, vultures, including both North and South American condors,

a condorlike bird, Teratorms of huge size, owls, ravens, herons, a pea-

cock; (2) Small mammals, as spermophiles, kangaroorats, etc., and small

carnivorous forms as weasels, skunks, badgers, bobcats, grey foxes;

(3) Large mammals, as deer, antelopes, buffaloes, elephants, mastodons,

glyptodons, and large predatory forms as wolves, mountain lions giant

lions, sabertoothed tigers, and bears. Often several individuals of car-

nivorous forms, as giant wolves, sabertoothed tigers are associated with

a single large ruminant. Discussed by Messrs. Gill, Hay and others.

Notes on the big bears of N or th America: Dr. C. Hart Merriam. The

speaker commented on the lack of adequate material for a systematic

study of these bears. The black bear and allied forms he regarded as

constituting a distinct genus from the brown and grizzly bears belonging

to the genus Ursus, about forty forms of which could be recognized as

inhabiting the North American continent and adjacent islands.

Distribution of game animals in Africa: Edmund Heller. Mr.

Heller spoke of the life zones and areas of East Africa illustrating the

subject with maps, views of topography, and characteristic mammals.

The following areas, based mainly upon watersheds, were recognized:

West Nile, East Nile, Uganda, East Africa, Abyssinia; and these life

zones: Congo Forest, Tropical, Nyika, Highland Veldt, Highland

Forest.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary, pro tem.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill OCTOBER 4, 1913 No. 16

CHEMISTRY. The electrolytic reduction of iron for analysis.

J. C. HosTETTER. Geophysical Laboratory. Communicated

by A. L. Day.

In the view of the ease with which reductions can be carried

out electrolytically, it is surprising that this subject should have

been so neglected in the field of analytical chemistry. The electro-

lytic reduction of iron for subsequent titration seems to have

attracted little attention. ^ W.th other ends in view, ferric salts

have often been reduced by this means.

This method has been investigated to some extent by the writer

for the specific purpose of subsequent titration, and has been em-

ployed by him at intervals during the past year. Since the method

is entirely practicable and occasionally very desirable, it may not

be amiss to call attention to the conditions to be controlled when

this method is used for analytical purposes and to indicate the

degree of accuracy of which it is capable.

The optimum conditions for complete reduction are primarily

those which lessen the formation of oxidizing compounds by the

current. The most suitable electrolyte for this particular prob-

lem is dilute sulfuric acid. The temperature during electrolysis

should be above 60°C. and the current density low. These con-

dition s^ are unfavorable to the formation of both hydrogen per-

1 The only work hitherto undertaken from this viewpoint which has come to

the attention of the writer, is a paper offered by H. C. Allen at the Rochester

meeting of the American Chemical Society (Sept., 1913). The paper was read by

title only and appears not to have been published.

2 For discussion of these conditions see Gmelin-Kraut Handb. d. anorg. Ch.,

7th Auf., Bd. I, Abt. 1, 128, 558.

429 *

430 hostetter: electrolytic reduction of iron

oxide and persulfuric acid. The amount of peroxide formed at

the cathode by the action of nascent hydrogen on oxygen diffusing

from the anode depends partly on the cathode material.^ Thus

Pd, under given conditions, yields most hydrogen peroxide, Pt,

and Hg come next, while metals, which do not readily absorb

hydrogen, as Au, Ag, Zn, Cu and Pb yield but very little. With

oxidizable anodes, such as Mg, Zn, etc., hydrogen is the sole

product of the anode.* In the presence of ferrous sulfate, however,

the amount of hydrogen peroxide formed in the cathode chamber

must necessarily be low. With the reducing action of the current

any peroxide would oxidize the ferrous sulfate to ferric and this,

in turn, would be reduced by the current. This was tested out

experimentally with 1 mg. of iron present and found to be true.

Therefore, the time of electrolysis after complete reduction can

produce no excess consumption of permanganate due to peroxide

formation.

Considering the above facts, it was decided to use a gold dish

of 800 cc. capacity as cathode (effective surface, 200 sq. cm.).

Inasmuch as soluble anodes yield no oxidizing materials in the

solution, Mg and amalgamated Zn anodes were first employed.

By this means, the reduction is made very rapid and the use of

a porous cell around the anode is dispensed with. Since, however,

it is difficult to obtain these metals free from impurity, such as

iron — thus introducing a correction — the use of soluble anodes

was abandoned and a Pt anode with porous cell substituted.

The use of a porous cell as an anode chamber introduces two

sources of error: (1) The absorption of iron salt by the cell itself;

(2) diffusion of iron into the anode chamber where it is immedi-

ately oxidized. The first is probably negligible since the cell

"seasons" rapidly. The second is made neghgible in the follow-

ing manner. W^hen the reduction is complete in the cathode

chamber — as shown by test for ferric iron with thiocyanate — the

current is stopped, the contents of the anode chamber poured

into the cathode chamber and, after filling the anode chamber

with fresh acid, the current is allowed to run some 5 to 10 minutes

' M. Traube, Ber. 15: 2434. 1882.

' Cf. Elsasser, Ber., 9: 1818. 1876; 11: 587. 1878.

hostetter: electrolytic reduction of iron

431

longer until the last of the iron is reduced. In this manner, the

iron left in the anode chamber at the end of the electrolysis is

reduced to 0.1 to 0.3 mg. A siphon connecting the two chambers

was also employed to lessen this diffusion. The large currents,

however, caused so much heating in the siphon tube that its use

was abandoned in favor of the above scheme.

Of the materials tested for suitability as porous cells, the un-

glazed ]\Iarquardt porcelain crucibles (20 cc.) seem to answer

best. To keep spray from the anode out of the cathode chamber,

TABLE I

Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate

TABLE II

Electrolytic Reduction of Ferric Ammonium Sulfate Solution

the top of the crucible is covered with a funnel of the same dia-

meter. The anode lead is brought down thru the stem. The

funnel is clamped over the crucible with a frame of glass rod;

tension is secured with rubber bands. Oxygen escapes thru a

lateral hole in the funnel stem. The anode is of Pt foil with an

effective area of some 28 sq. cm. /

The Method. The ferric (sulfate) solution (volume 300 cc.) is

placed in the gold dish (cathode) and 10 cc. sulfuric acid (1.84)

432 cobb: new nematode genera

added. The anode chamber is filled with acid (1 : 30), the anode

inserted and electrolysis started. The temperature is raised to

80°C. The current employed is about 8 amperes, while the volt-

age drop across the cell is 8 volts. Under these conditions 0.5

gram iron is reduced to the ferrous condition in 60 to 70 minutes.

After a drop test with thiocyanate shows that reduction in the

cathode chamber is complete, the current is stopped, the anode

chamber acid is added to the main solution and, after refilling the

anode chamber, the electrolysis is continued 10 minutes. At the

end of this time the cathode liquid is titrated with permanganate.

It will be seen that the method as carried out is not particularly

rapid. On the other hand its favorable features are : (1) nothing

is introduced into the solution that may carry impurity, and (2)

conditions need be defined only within wide limits. The accuracy

of the method can only be determined by more extensive compari-

son with reductions by other methods. The precision attainable

under the best conditions is shown in Table I and II. Under

ordinary conditions a precision of better than 1 part in 200 or

300 can not be expected until after the method has been more

completely developed.

HELMINTHOLOGY. — New nematode genera found inhabiting

fresh water and non-brackish soils. N. A. Cobb, Bureau

of Plant Industry. Communicated by Walter T. Swingle.

The following pages give the characters of twenty-six proposed

new nematode genera, as well as those of a type species' for

each genus.

Seventy-three per cent of these genera are found in arable

soils in various parts of the world. Nearly half of them have

come to light thru a study of the soils of the Arlington Farm of

the United States Department of Agriculture, located on the

Potomac River, in Alexandria County, Virginia, directly oppo-

site Washington, D. C. In the following pages wherever the

word '^4rlington" is used, it refers exclusively to this farm. As

this farm is close to the District of Columbia, and its soils similar

to those of the District, it may be assumed that all the species

cobb: new nematode genera 433

found at Arlington occur in the District of Columbia, and prob-

ably also in adjacent parts of Maryland and Virginia.

Nine-tenths of the proposed genera are due to the discovery

of new forms; the others are proposed on the basis of later in-

vestigations of species earlier made known, and assigned, with

some doubt, to existing genera. A number of the genera are

known to the writer to contain numerous species, and in such

cases it has been possible to select as a type species one already

known to be thoroly representative of a well defined generic group.

Most of these genera are injurious to vegetation, and many

of them contain species that are very abundant and widespread.

The morphology, physiology, life-history, distribution and eco-

nomic relationships of the species belonging to these genera will

be treated in a separate publication.

The following diagram illustrates the nature of the formula

used in the tabulation of the various necessary measurements:

„ ,■■- 88^

Fig. 1. Diagram of the descriptive decimal formula used for nematodes; 6, 7, 8,

10, 6 are the transverse measurements, while 7, 14, 28, 50, 88 are the correpond-

ing longitudinal measurements. The formula in this case is :

7. 14. 28. 50. 88.

6. 7. 8. 10. 6.

The unit of measurement is the hundredth part of the length

of the body, whatever that may be. The measurements become,

therefore, percentages of the length. The absolute length is

^iven in millimeters as a final non-paired term.

The measurements are taken with the animal viewed in profile;

the first are taken at the base of the pharynx, the second at the

nerve-ring, the third at the cardiac constriction or end of the

neck, the fourth at the vulva in females and at the middle (M)

in males, the fifth at the anus.

Owing to the fact that the measurements vary somewhat with

varying technique, a brief note as to the method of fixation and

434

cobb: new nematode genera

KEY AKD CHAHACTERS

She iollowlng characters are common to all known species of these twenty-

Six proposed new genera: pharynx present, all known males have two equal spicula;

no bursa, except in Eutylenchus. Diploseapter . ana Isonehus: no eye-spots.

MOUTH ARMED WITH AN AXIAL^ no spinneret ; quite naked,(Exe.2 & 3).

Spear bulbed at base. 1-3^ of body-length(Exo.l&4) ;no amphidsl Exc .l&G)

Canal Dorylaimoid *amphids stirrupform;Hd .papillate, -rf- '8' •**

Canal Tylenchoid ;** spear 6-80$S of body-length in lota-

Cephalic setae four; striae coarse; renette present.

Bursa none;skin grooved lengthwise; no lips. -rf -9

Bursa ribless; skin not grooved; lips 3. -rf

Cephalic setae none;renette present .doubtful in 6&7.

Striae huge .retrorse; oesophageal bulbs faint. -rf -9

Striae fine! or none in 6); has oesophageal swellings.

Head somewhat beaklike, lipless; renette present. ;rf -5-

Head as usual, not beaklike; renette( pore)present .

Lips papillate; spear diffuse; amphids slitlike, -rf? '$''

Lip-region helmeted ; spear obvious ; no lips or papillae. =cf -9-

Spear plain. amphids stirrupf orm(unknown in 8&ll);no renette(Exc .in 8

Canal Tylenchoid ;** striae coarse; lipless;bursa ribbed. -cT -?

Canal Dorylaimoid;* striae finelor 0);lips 6(0 in 14 ) ,bi-papillate.

Vestibule broad; spear acute ,cylindroid.

Lip region discoid, much expanded. '9'

Lip region not discoid;(f's with 2 anal papillae side by side.

Labial ribs uniform, not grouped;llps united. -J- '9'

Labial ribs in groups, lips distinct. '9'

Vestibule small or none.

Lip region protrudable. -rf- '9'

Lip region not protrudable.

Spear conoid, short, toothlike.

Spear slender, very long, 40% of neck, flexible. -<S '9"'

MOUTH WiTHOUT SPEAR- Striated( Exc.6&26 ) .Labiate(Exc. 21).

Pharynx armed with a tooth, conoid or pyramidal! Exc. 16 ) .

Tooth spearlike;no renette or spinneret;no setae( Exc.l5&17 ) .

Alimentary canal Dorylaimoid ;**lips bi-papillate.

Alimentary canal Tylenchoid,* lips mono-papillate. 'i''

Tooth not spearlike, obscure in 15.

Striae resolvable into elements.

Oesophagus bulbed; has setae, spinneret & renette. '9'

Oesophagus plain;no setae or renette. '9

Striae not further resolvable; spinneret present;lips papillate.

NEW

GENERA

XIPHINEMA

ATYLEHCHUS

EUTYLEKCHUS

IOTA

TYLEUCHORHYNCHUS

ARCHIONCHUS

NEMOBCHOS

ISONCHUS 8

DISCOLAIMUS

ACTINOLAIMUS

ANTHOLAIMQS

10

11

DORYLAIMELLUS 12

NYGOLAIMUS

TRICHODORA

NYGOLAIMUS

ARCHIOKCHUS

ACHROMAPORA

CRYPTONCHUS

13

14

13

6

15

16

Cephalic setae ten;renette unknown.

Cephalic setae none.

Lips bi-papillate;amphids stirrupform;no renette.

Lips not bi-papiliate;amphids elliptical;no renette.

Pharynx unarmed ,'prismold{Exc.24&26); spinneret ( Exc.20&23) .

Meek Rhabditoid , i .e .with median & cardiac, bulbs.

Renette present ; "diggers"on Hd.;no spinneret. *rf

Renette unknown; no "diggers"; spinneret present. -rf-

Beck not Rhabditoid ,( no median bulb)

Head with empty expansions or bladders;has renette.

Head without chitinous bladders.

Amphids none; skin not striated;renette unknown.

Amphids and spinneret present, fine striae, or none.

Cardiac bulb present, amphids not spiral:has renette.

Cardiac bulb none or rudimentary.

Amphids spiral , renette present, lips 3, faint , flat .

Amphids transv. slits; no renette;lips 3, massive, conoid

'9'

'9

'9^

'9

NANNONCHUS 17

OIONCHUS

UDONCHUS

DIPLOSCAPTER

HALIPLECTU3

18

19

20

21

WILSONEMA 22

GYMNOLAIMtlS 23

CHRONOGASTER 24

ANONCHDS 25

TRISCHI STOMA 26

* Oesophagus without bulbs, posterior portion much the wider; intestine with a

distinct short segment in front of the rectum,- the pre-rectum

**Oesophagns with median and v/ith cardiac bulbs, intestine without pre-rectum.

*** '9'* .ovaries two and reflexed.

-9-, ovaries two and outstretched.

'8 .ovary single, in front £; reflexed.

-9 .ovary single. In front & outstretched-

-rf-, testes two and outstretched.

-d .testis single. in front & outstretched.

cobb: new nematode genera

435

DESCRIPTIONS OP TWENTY-TWO HEW SPECIES

PROPOSED AS TYPES IK CONNECTION WITH THE POREGOINC NEW GENERA.

«

Part of the descriptive matter is given in key-form for the sake of brevity,

and for the purpose of exhibiting relationships not shown in the foregoing key.

The following characters are held in common. Excretory pore .when present, just

behind the nerve-ring. Spicula arcuate,- strongly so in Triehodora . slightly so

In Nannonchus and Isonchus.

NEW SPECIES

-9 A. decalineatus

-9

-9-

squafflosum

cylindricus

radicicolus

= d -9-

'9

'9'

'9

0. obtusas

T. obtusa

N. galeatus 7

18

14

Striae 200 or less:contour crenate or serrate;head rounded.

'Lip region mobile;male never losing the spear. ~<S

Xip region fixedimale losing the spear at final moult. "i^

Striae iiOO-t-.or none , plain, (Exc. 16); contour ent ire{Exc.21 ) .

Tail broad.end rounded ;head rounded;lips not set off(Exc.l8).

form of tail cylindroid, at least in the female.

Wedian bulb i wide as neck;Post .bulb elongated-pyriform. -rf

Median " -f wide as neck; " " indefinite;Hd .continuous -rf-9

form of tail somev/hat hemispheroid .

Head expanded .armored with strong, chitinous framework.

Head not armored, continuous.

Post. half oesophagus cylindrical ,3/5 wide as neck.

Post. part oesophagus clavate .hardly half as wide as Nk. -rf

Tail more or less conoidjhead continuous; lips often set off.

Conoid .no part cylindroid: not acute . (Exc.9 ' s of 10).

Terminus slightly swollen;head rounded;lips not set off.

Ceph. setae 0;lips faint ,6( ?); spinneret conoid .obtuse.

Ceph. setae 6( ? ) ; subceph.4; lips huge, with terminal flaps.

Terminus not swollen. round ed( Exc. 21 ,22 ) ;Hd .rounded (Exc .9 ,11,13)

Dermal pores throughout the body;lips set off in 11 only.

Pores in lateral rows of about 100;tail convex-conoid. '9'

Pores in submedian rows of about 140; tall conoid. -<f-'9'

'DRrr7:al pores none.

Head with either setae or elaborate appendages.

Appendages 4 slender setae, i long as head is wide. '9

Appendages elaborate dorsal & ventral double "combs". '9'

Head naked;knomn d's with supplementary organs

Cephalic papillae 5, lips not set off by constriction.

Tooth minute, at base of tubular pharynx;tail conoid. '9

Tooth protrudable,its apophyses bulbed;tail conv-conoid ' 9 '

Cephalic papillae 12;amphids very near lip region.

Labial region discoid, set off by deep constriction. '9'

Labial region not discoid.

Lips 5, region set off by a distinct constriction.

Oesophagus with small bulb near spear; tail conoid

Oesophagus strictly Dorylaimoid ; tail conv-conold.

Lips 0, region not set off by distinct constriction.

Pharynx a 5-ribbed cup; supplementary orgs.,fascicles -rf- ' 9

Pharynx a tubular spear-guide; " " not " -rf-'9

Conoid, then cylindroid: head rounded.

Oesophagus plain;spiral amphs .opp.base of pharynx, <; tail setiferous.

Setae 10, i long as Hd.is wide.cf supplementary organs 0. '9' N. granulosus 17

Setae 4, 4 long as Hd.is v/ide; supplementary orgs. tubular 'rf '9 A. monhystera 25

Oesophagus bulbed ;amphids elliptical; tail naked. '9 U.tenuicaudatus 19

U.t enuicaudatus 19

T. pelluoida 26

A. truncatus 11

H. pellucidus 21

C. gracilis 24

W. capitatum 22

C. nudus 16

porplexans 6

D. texanus 9

-rf- ' 9 '

N

virginianus 12

japonicus 13

radiatua 10

americanum 1

The following previously described species are proposed as type species for four

new genera. These four species were first discovered and described by the writer,

and assigned, doubtfully, to existing genera. Later investigations render it ad-

visable to propose new genera for their reception, as follows: — .

436 cobb: new nematode genera

preservation is inserted near the end of each description. In

most cases the formulae given represent an average derived from

the measurement of several adult individuals.

By the use of suggestive conventional signs the formula is

made to convey considerable additional information. Thus the

following formula

35

T 1.5 ^7.5il8.5 -50^;... .?.?-•.?..» 1.8 mm.

1^° iV5"" '2:4"^""0"' 4-5 2.5

indicates that:

The cuticle is traversed by rather coarse transverse striae/

which are resolvable into rows of dot-like markings/ and is

traversed longitudinally by wings, — one on each side of either

lateral line.^ The head bears lips, each of which is armed with

two papillae. There are ten cephalic setae, — two of unequal

size on each submedian line, and one on each lateral line. The

tubular phaiynx is armed with a spear, which is bulbous at

the base. Spiral amphids are present.^ The excretory pore

is located just in front of the nerve-ring. ^ The oesophagus

bears two bulbs: a median bulb half as wide as the corre-

sponding portion of the neck, and a cardiac bulb well filling the

base of the neck.^ The tail end is armed with caudal glands,^

The two ovaries are outstretched in opposite directions and

occupy 35 per cent of the length of the body.^

1. Xiphinema americanum, n.g., n.sp.

Papillae minute. Anterior three-

1.7 irnn. fourths of the spear about as

thick as cuticle; posterior two-

"^"q ^VX ^' ™* fifths twice as thick. Spear bulb

about one-fourth as wide as neck.

1 Formula line of coarse dots. Fine dots mean fine striae; plain line, no striae.

2 Dots above and below formula line between 2nd and 3rd terms.

3 Short lines above and below formula line between 2nd and 3rd terms.

* Indicated in conventional sketch at left of formula.

^ Oblique line in front of nerve-ring measurement.

^ Underscoring the 2nd and 3rd diametral measurements, thus indicating the

presence of a bulb at that point. Length of mark indicates size of bulb.

^ Mark at right hand end of formula line.

* Dashes before and after 50, and 35 used as "exponent."

Note. Absence of any particular mark indicates the absence of that particular

feature, so far as at present known.

cobb: new nematode genera 437

Anterior three-fifths of the oesophagus tubular, coiled, uncoiling when

spear is thrust out; posterior two-fifths half as wide as the neck. Ventral

row of about seven innervated, slightly elevated supplementary organs occupy-

ing a space about four times as long as the tail. Spicula arcuate, rather stout,

swollen in the middle, tapering both ways; proximal ends hardly cephalated.

Accessory pieces present. Flemming to glycerine. The measurements in par-

entheses are taken at the base of the spear.

Habitat; distribution. About the roots of a variety of plants, — corn, grass,

citrus trees, on the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of the United States.

Genus represented in many parts of the world. Known to the writer from

North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceanica. There are beyond doubt

dozens of species, possibly hundreds. Form usually more slender than in Dory-

laimus.

2. Atylenchus decalineatus, n.g., n.sp.

Striae about 200; interrupted by

?--_, 3...1 .i.2.:/„^...i.a... -.66 "%'-Q- '6 mm. ten longitudinal grooves. Setae

i. 2.1 2._5^2i9 2.9 1.9 . /..i , i

45 near the margin ot the head,

^=. |-*-| "^-•••^•4>""|--,y— ~-g;9 "ivs" '^ ™"' slender, spreading, nearly as long

~ as the head is wide. Spear acute,

shaft half as wide as the adjacent annules; its bulb twice as wide. Median bulb

ellipsoidal, half as wide as the neck with small valve; posterior swelling

oblong, half as wide as the neck, without valve. No supplementary organs

or special male papillae or setae. Spicula arcuate, one and one-third times

as long as the anal body diameter, tapering; constricted slightly at the

proximal end. Hot sublimate to balsam.

Habitat; distribution. On roots of cranberries {Oxycoccus macrocarpus) ,

Cranberry bog, New Lisbon, New Jersey, Atwood Grove, Fla.

3. Eutylenchus n. g. setiferus (Cobb) n. Comb.

r^ .2.-.5 .i.o.-.-r .!&.• 7K......Ski.^. .7 mm. Amphids unknown. Caudal glands

'~ * probably absent. Supplementary

organs absent. Other characters as given in the original description of the

species. (Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. IV, Part 10, Oct., 1893.)

Measured fresh.

Habitat ; distribution. Genus here established for the reception of the writer's

Tylenchus setiferus, found about the roots of plants in Northern New South

Wales, Australia. Tylenchus setiferus, Cobb, thus becomes the writer's Eutylen-

chus setiferus.

4. Iota squamosa, n.g., n.sp.

Striae about 150, each subdivided,

r_ ...•.7.....(.i.5:.!....?.Q.-.-^.-..2.?.-....!.5.4— ?.§-• 8 mm. and consisting of eight squamules.

l^ £.6 (7.) 7,2- 7,3 5.3 3.9 .,• j -i

37 Spear one-third as wide as one

(;^ „,.7...Jiaa......V.:..2.2...^..rM....5.|.:.^.. .3 mm. of ^^e annules, posterior fourth

twice as wide; bulbous base one-

third as wide as the neck. Tail convex-conoid, of nine annules. Vulva between

the twelfth and thirteenth annules. No male supplementary organs or pap-

illae. Spicula twice as long as the anal body-diameter, slender, tapering, acute.

438 cobb: new nematode genera

proximal third a little wider and uniform. Flemming to glycerine. The meas-

urements in parentheses are taken at the base of the spear.

Habitat; distribution. Roots of Mango, Bangalore, India. The genus Iota

is widespread in acid soils, swamps, bogs, etc., and doubtless contains many

species, a number of which are known to the writer from various parts of the

United States, Europe, Australia and Oceanica. The males, in some species at

least, at the final moult, become much longer and slenderer, and lose the oral

spear. Many species onlj^ about 0.5 mm. long; relatively very wide and inflex-

ible, with coarse retrorse annules.

5. Tylenchorhynchus cylindricus, n.g., n.sp.

Wings indicated by two longi-

/-_ .9 . ii.6/._. .17.8 ...-57- 94..3.... .7 mm. tudinal lines. Head with

'^— .9 3.2 ~ 3.J 3.1 3.1 • ^ • •. , J , ■^■

minute six-ribbed, chitmous,

C^ :| ^2'^'' = ^lii '^.5 ^Ili ^* "™* yellowish framework with in-

distinct posterior equatorial

band. Spear minute, barely knobbed at base- Median bulb prolate, half as

wide as the neck with an obscure elongated valve; cardiac swelling pyriform,

three-fourths as wide as the neck. Excretory pore — uncertain. Hot sublimate to

balsam.

Habitat; distribution. A single species from the soil of reclaimed coastal

swamp lands. Southern California.

6. Archionchus perplexans, n.g., n.sp.

Papillae marginal, spreading.

r-=,, 4.2 13.2/^ 25. 'bV 94.8 .5 ^. Amphids transverse, half as long

" ' ' 43 ' as the head is wide. Pharynx

^=■0 1^1 — •''b's = ^ai? — ^TTs ^a!i - '^ '°°' twice as deep as head is wide;

surrounded by distinct, massive,

muscular sac, set off from the oesophagus by a constriction. Spear tooth-

like at the end of large, tubular apophysis, which is prominently expanded at its

base. Tooth and apophysis thrust forward together. Oesophagus^ tubular, one-

fourth as wide as the neck, widening gradually in the posterior third to half as

wide as the neck. . Oesophageal tube not passing through the tooth. Intestine

joining the middle of the posterior surface of the oesophageal swelling. Supple-

mentary organs two, one in front of the other, mammiform, opposite the posterior

half of the spicula. Spicula one and one-half times as long as the anal body diam-

eter, tapering slightly, rather blunt; proximal ends cephalated by constriction.

Flemming to glycerine. Resembles Chaolaimus, Cobb.

Habitat; distribution. This species from the roots of pasture plants, Arling-

ton; citrus roots, Valencia, Spain. A widespread genus.

7. Nemonchus galeatus, n.g., n.sp.

Lips connate, amphids unknown.

C;=. 5L.3....7.5/_ 11,6. ...r§4.-.. 9.5.9 5^,5 „jn. Spear relatively massive, four

.8 1. 1.3 1.5 1.. , ii i_ J •

go tunes as long as the head is

(;=- \'l {'"^--^^'X "2.2 ^iil 1-3 mm. wide; anterior portion about

one-sixth as wide as the head,

somewhat more distinctly chitinized than posterior two-fifths which is twice

cobb: new nematode genera 439

as wide. Bulb of spear two-fifths as wide as the corresponding portion of the

neck. Median bulb ellipsoidal, two-thirds as wide as the neck. No supplemen-

tary organs or special male papillae. Spicula about three times as long as the

anal body diameter extending nearly straight forward, but slightly arcuate,

and tapering in the distal third to the blunt, somewhat cephalated tips; proximal

two-thirds uniform, one-fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the

body. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. A single species from Arlington.

8. Isonchus radicicolus, n.g., n.sp.

Wing single. Spear simple, mi-

C^ lis |l|^"^2:8 "a! ^f:f ■ 1-1 """• nute, with double guide, some-

what wider than one of the

f_ 2.2 10,3/_ 11.8 -M 96.5. .8mm. ,. , , tj . x

*-"^ 1.9 3^ z.i 3.8 2.5 adjacent annules. rrolate me-

dian bulb, two-thirds as wide as

the neck. Posterior swelling fully half as wide as neck, ending indefi-

nitely. No male supplementary organs or papillae. Spicula tapering, one

and one-half times as long as the anal body diameter; proximal ends cephalated

by constriction. Accessory piece parallel, half as long. Bursa extending from

opposite the proximal ends of the spicula to terminus; one rib barely in front

of the anus; four others together toward the terminus, all smaller, especially the

final. Female tail with two terminal innervations. Bursa with ribs more numer-

ous and more strongly developed than in Tylenchus. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. Single species from soil about the roots of cotton

plants, Springfield, South Carolina.

9. Discolaimus texanus, n.g., n.sp.

r^ .5 8.2 24.1 .'41^° 97.9 1.3 mm. ^^P^ connate, palmately innervated,

^ '' 1.4 2.6 3. 3.2 1.9 margin crenate. Papillae several to

each lip. Amphids half as wide as the corresponding part of the head, appar-

ently connnected with lateral series of spaced ellipsoidal internal structures

extending from end to end of the body. Spear tapering, rather stout, about

as long as the lip region is wide, with single guiding-ring. Posterior three-fifths

of the oesophagus, two-thirds as wide as the neck; lining very distinct. All the

characters of Dorylaimus, but with the lip-region strongly modified to form a

mobile sucking disk for use in opposition to the spear. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. The present species from the roots of alfalfa, San

Antonio, Texas, and from roots of citrus trees. Riverside, California. Wide-

spread genus, known to the writer from the West Indies, Texas, California, Japan

and Europe.

10. Actinolaimus radiatus, n.g., n.sp.

Amphids about one-third as wide

C:^c j| Ifl — '^{[r, '^e! ^rX' ^'^ '™' as the head. Pharynx as deep as

head is wide, lined with six radia-

Vw- — '^i.s 3. 3.6 2. 1.4 tmg grooved, strong, chitmous ribs.

Mouth opening circular, half as

wide as the head, very finely corrugated, leading to the cup-shaped pharynx.

Spear somewhat longer than the head is wide, one-fifth as wide as the head, with

440 cobb: new nematode genera

single, distinct, guiding ring. Oesophagus widening considerably in front of

the middle to three-fourths as wide as the neck. First fascicle of nine supple-

mentary organs about twice as far in front of the anus as the proximal ends

of the spicula; second fascicle of about five, about twice as far from the anus as

the first; third fascicle of two still ftirther forward; the larger fascicles one-fourth

as long as the body is wide. Spicula faintly constricted in the middle, taper-

ing both ways; not cephalated; twice as long as the anal body diameter.

Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. Roots of plants and among algae, Potomac River and

its banks, Arlington Farm near Washington, D. C; Douglas Lake, Mich. Genus

represented in all parts of the woiid, and proposed for the reception of species

similar to the writer's Dorylaimus labyrinthostomus, in which the pharynx is more

or less immobile, radially striated and elaborately constructed. Dorylaimus

labyrinthostomus, Cobb, thus becomes Actinolaimus labyrinthostomus (Cobb).

11. Antholaimus truncatus, n.g., n.sp.

r-=. ..9 8- 2?.. .....'49^*. 99...... 1.5 mn. ^^P^ angular. Amphids unknown.

1.5 3.5 4.1 3.8 2.6 Spear small, nearly as long as the

lip region is wide. Pharynx cup-shaped, then fitting the spear. Oesophagus very

narrow, very suddenly enlarging a little in front of the middle to three-fourths

the width of the neck; lining unusually massive. Chain of contiguous circular

organs throughout the length of the body in the lateral fields, one-fourth to

one-third as wide as the body. Characters of Dorylaimus, but with the lips

petaloid and strongly developed, and specially modified and mobile. Flemming

to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. A single species from the roots of cotton plants, South

Carolina.

12. Dorylaimellus virginianus, n.g., n.sp.

Head set off by a narrow con-

C:^c;-| 1^1 ^^ 3^^ ?|^ 1.5 n^. striction. Lips connate, rounded;

one set of papillae near the mouth

r_-.4 6.4 £4.3 -M- 96.5 1.4 mm. ■ u.-t^ xu xu

l-=^.7 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.5 -^'^ """• openmg, the other on the margm

of the head. Amphids three-

fourths as wide as the head. Spear Dorylaimoid, compound; first and

second sections of equal length, each a little shorter than the head is wide;

third section a little longer, expanded, faintly chitinized; followed by a short

constriction, and then a rudimentary, elongated, ellipsoidal oeosphageal bulb

one-third as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. Posterior half of

the oesophagus three-fifths as wide as the neck. Supplementary organs in iso-

lated pairs located one in front of the other, one pair as far from the anus as is

the terminus, the other twice as far, all flattish-conoid. Spicula as long as the

anal body diameter; plump, strongly tapering, bent at the middle, cephalated by

expansion, without accessory pieces. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. A single species from Arlington.

cobb: new nematode genera 441

13. Nygolaimus pachydermatus, n.g., n.sp.

7.7 22. 56 98.

1.9 2.4 ■ 2.5 1.9

f-=^r- -6 v-7 22. 56 ^?*„-- 1.8 nrni. Measurements derived from a

t— t^l.l 1.9 2.4 2.5 1.9 . r^ +• 1 X, - 1

young specimen. Cuticle thicker

on the tail. Lips connate, set off by constriction. Amphids half as wide as the

corresponding part of the head. Spear half as long as the head is wide, conical,

slender, pointed, tooth-like; without guiding-ring. Posterior half of the oesoph-

agus enlarged to three-fourths the width of the neck. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. A single species from roots of cherry trees, Tokyo,

Japan. Other species occur in Eastern United States.

14. Trichodorus obtusus, n.g., n.sp.

Papillae fiattish-conoid, outward

r^.^'LiA Li^J IL; 22.^ — IMl — ii^^- i. mm. pointing, on margin of head.

^— '^l.g (3.3) 3,6 4.1 4.V 2.3 \ f ° .

Amphids nearly halt as wide as

a^^l'.l (lis) ^sU ^3:9 ~4.4 ^2.1 ^-^ """• the head. Pharynx exceedingly

narrow. Spear flexible, exceed-

ingly slender, inclosed in a long muscular sheath. Oesophagus mainly

narrow and tubular, about one-sixth as wide as the neck. Supplementary organs

three, fiattish-conoid, distinctly interrupting the ventral contour; the hindermost

opposite the proximal ends of the spicula; the second twice ais far from the anus

as the first ; third nearly twice as far from the anus as the second. Spicula slender,

uniform; proximal ends cephalated by expansion. Flemming to glycerine. The

measurements in parentheses are taken at the base of the spear.

Habitat ; distribution. Several species from various parts of the United States,

the present one from about the roots of grasses, Arlington.

15. Achromadora n.g. minima (Cobb)

r*.o2-8 "^^ ■ 17. . .'45' 87. sinin,. Habitat; distribution. Genus pro-

L''^2.5 ? • 3^ 4.4 2.8 J t \-u 4.- f+i, •; '

posed for the reception ot the writer s

Chromadore minima, and similar soil and fresh-water species. Distinguished

from Chromadora by the presence of well developed spiral amphids. The dor-

sal tooth is farther back and is opposed by a small ventral "pocket" as shown in

the figure of Chromadora minima. Measured fresh. Species found, probably, in

all parts of the world. Species are known to the writer from Australia, Fiji, and

various parts of the United States.

16. Cryptonchus nudus, n.g., n.sp.

<_ 3.2 9.2^ 26. . '54^*. .91. > 1.9 mm. Striae resolvable with difficulty, and

'-""'^1.4 i.v ■ 2. 2.2 1.5 ^jj^Q rows of dots. Lips six, rather

inconspicuous, each with one papilla. Amphids as wide as pharynx, about one-

fourth as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck; located opposite the

junction of the first and second quarters of the pharynx. Oesophagus plain,

half as wide as neck, lining relatively massive. Eggs elongated. Hot sublimate

to balsam and Flemming to glycerine. Caudal gland apparently a single cell.

Habitat; distribution. Single species. Differs from Cylindrolaimus in the

form of the amphids, and the strongly developed oesophagus with its various

regions, and in the presence of a dorsal tooth at the base of the pharynx and in

the absence of setae. Found about the roots of aquatic plants, Potomac River,

Arlington and in Douglas Lake, Mich.

442 cobb: new nematode genera

17. Nannonchus granulatus, n.g., n.sp.

Head continuous. Lips six, thin,

?,^ol.4 9.3 17. '52'*^'' .91. ,i.imra. arched over pharynx, each with one

f^^l.e ""3. 3.4 4.3 2.5 .,, o . , ,■, . .

papilla. Spiral amphids of two

winds, one-fourth as wide as the

head. Oesophagus two-thirds as wide

as the head; finally expanding to two-fifths as wide as the base of the neck; lining

very distinct. Eggs ellipsoidal, as long as the body is wide. No supplementary

male organs or papillae; about seven finger-shaped ventrally submedian setae on

the anterior two-thirds of the tail. Spicula tapering, nearly straight, somewhat

longer than the anal body diameter, accompanied by a relatively massive acces-

sory piece, parallel to and two-thirds as long as themselves. Distal end of ac-

cessory piece expanded laterally, and relatively massive. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. A single species found about roots of aquatic plants,

Potomac River, Arlington. Another similar species, Long Key, Fla.

18. Oionchus obtusus, n.g., n.sp.

/-^ 2.5 7.6/? .23, '57^^ 98- . , .9 mm. ^eck conoid, convex-conoid at the

t^^^2.5 3.6 4.6 4.2 2.9 head. Lips confluent; region low, flat.

Amphids at the slight labial constriction; one-fourth as wide as the lip region.

Pharynx narrow; cylindroid or prismoid. Somewhat arcuate dorsal tooth, like

a short Dorylaimoid spear, but not hollow. Oesophagus beginning two-fifths as

wide as the head, almost imperceptibly expanding to the middle; thence cylindrical,

and one-half as wide as the neck; three small organs at base, as in Trilobus.

Lining very distinct. Peculiar series of four small internal lateral organs just be-

hind the neck. Terminus of tail with peculiar large pore, presumably a peculiar

spinneret pore. Eggs elongated. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. About the roots of grass, borders of irrigation ditch,

Jamaica, West Indies.

19. Udonchus tenuicaudatus, n.g., n.sp.

- . ,- ,,25 Traces of labial papillae. Amphids

0, „ 1-9 8.4 „ 16. 01 °°: > .5 mm. ^ ^

— °2.3 3.2 3.ii 3.6 2.6 transverse, ellipsoidal, one-fifth as

ong as the corresponding diameter of the neck. Pharynx cyathiform, then

narrow, with small, acute, narrow, forward-pointing dorsal tooth at the base

of cyathiform portion, opposed by a very minute ventral tooth. Anterior two-

fifths of the oesophagus three-fifths as wide as head, then suddenly slightly

increasing in diameter, so that at the nerve-ring it is half as wide as the neck;

enlarging finally into a spherical bulb with simple valve. Thin-shelled eggs,

elongated, one at a time in the uterus. Flemming to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. On aquatic plants and among algae. Cockpit Springs,

Jamaica, West Indies.

20. Diploscapter n.g. coronata (Cobb)

Habitat; distribution. Com-

C_ 4.5... i6,5/_. 24.2 .'55' .89.5 .4 mm. mon about the roots of diseased

V 4 . 5^4 6.1 6 . o c . o

50 plants, especially in warm coun-

C= i:!" • -iii =■ -Ls '7.1 '5:2 -2^ - '^5 '"'"• tries. Genus established to re-

ceive the writer's Rhabdilis

cobb: new nematode genera 443

coronata. Flemming to glycerine. This species occurs in Fiji, Panama, Europe,

Africa, and the United States. Possibly more than one species may be repre-

sented in the descriptions of the various authors who have reported upon Rhab-

ditis coronata, or, as now proposed, Diploscapter coronata.

21. Haliplectus pellucidus, n.g., n.sp.

gg Head end markedly convex-conoid,

/-— r, -5 . 7.3 11.6 '43' 95.2 ,x. mm. finally truncated: no cephalic se-

^— °1.1 2.J 2^7 3.1 2.3 ^ ' ,, , .

65 tae. Pharynx apparently absent,

(;=0j^-^ I'l ■'■gle ~z~s ^I'.l '''■• ""• really present and narrow. Am-

phids circular, one-third as wide

as corresponding part of neck; located one-third the distance to the median

bulb. Oesophagus one-half as wide as the head, to the relatively small ellip-

soidal median bulb, which is two-fifths as wide as the middle of the neck.

Cardiac bulb oblate, five-sixths as wide as neck, with rather simple, elongated

ellipsoidal striated valve. Opposite the spicula a ventral row of six small

somewhat hemispherical, equidistant, contiguous, innervated supplementary or-

gans. Post-anal flatfish, inconspicuous papillae to the number of about six on

each side, — -two ventrally submedian on the anterior half, and four subventral,

rather evenly distributed. Spicula arcuate, uniform, yellowish, one and one-

fifth times as long as the anal body-diameter; proximal ends plain. Accessory

piece yellow, more or less parallel, half as long. Hot sublimate to balsam.

Habitat; distribution. Found in brackish and sometimes in fresh water in

the Eastern States. Several species found on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of

the United States.

22. Wilsonema cephalatum, n.g., n.sp.

r— o 4...1 i7.../..-^„.28^ :s.2.' .??.t.™.>.3 mm. Habitat ; distribution. Genus proposed

^ 3.9 5. 5_// 7-1 o-'i r 2^1 X- r • ■ -1 J.

for the reception of species similar to

Plectus otophorus, de Man, Plectus auriculatus, Blitschli, and Plectus cephalatus,

Cobb. This genus is doubtless worldwide in its distribution. Known to the writer

from Australia, North America and Europe. Flemming to glycerine. Species

probably fairly numerous and individuals of certain species very widespread.

The present remarkable species is widespread in the United States, in arable

soils.

Named in honor of James Wilson, for sixteen years Secretary of Agriculture

of the United States.

23. Gymnolaimus n. g. exilis (Cobb)

4.5 7.5 23. -46^"^ 73. i.07 mm. Habitat; distribution. Genus pro-

^~ 1.6 1.9 2.1 2. 1. • posed for the writer's Aulolaimus

exilis, from Fiji. Differs from Cylindrolaimus in absence of amphids, caudal

glands and cephalic setae. Measured fresh.

24. Chronogaster gracilis, n.g., n.sp.

Striae about 650. Lips three,

r ^1.5 11./ • 25. '56 89. ,1.2 mm. somewhat confluent. Amphids

L^^ "^ 1.2 ' 2.3- 2.6 3. 1.6 1 in • 1 1, J T)U

^ 4g half as wide as head. Pharyjmx

r=-D^-^ . 12..1./. 2^.1. -M- . 92-.7 >i.i mm. ^s deep as the head is wide, one-

i. '^ .9 1.9 • 2^ 2.4 1.9 ,. , ., ,, ,• •

third as wide as the up region.

444 cobb: new nematode genera

Oesophagus half as wide as the neck. Cardiac bulb three-fourths as wide

as the neck, joined to the intestine by a slender ampulla as long as the neck

is wide. Eggs elongated, one at a time in the uterus. Spinneret with about

four finger-shaped, rather backward pointing setae, each not much longer than

the width of one of the adjacent annules. Spicula slender, tapering, actite, barely

cephalated, one and one-half times as long as the anal body diameter. Supple-

mentary organs nine, oblique, tubular, arcuate, protrudable, half to four-fifths

as long as the body is wide, occupying a distance twice as great as the length of

the tail, smaller and more amply spaced anteriorly, hindermost opposite the

proximal ends of the spicula. Hot sublimate to balsam.

* Habitat; distribution. Potomac River, near Washington, D. C. Douglas

Lake, Mich.

25. Anonchus monohystera, n.g., n.sp.

Striae about 500. About forty inter-

j'__^i..4 8.2/„.l7r '5Q...,.85.. ., 1. n,ni. nal ellipsoidal bodies in each lat-

^' ' ' * ' eral field, spaced, in two series.

[=a|-^ ■ I'^^^^ils '2.9 ^i-9^^" """* No cephalic papillae. Amphid one-

• ' fifth as wide as head. Pharynx half

as wide as head; about as deep as wide. Oesophagus nearly half as wide as the

neck, joined to the intestine by a narrow cardia as long as the neck is wide.

Twenty tubular supplementary organs, each one-third as long as the body is

wide, extending from the anus to the middle of the body, and continued to the

head by a series of about seventy minute depressions. Four to five well devel-

oped ventral, sublateral setae on the tail, one in front of the anus. Spicula

slender, twice as long as the anal body diameter; proximal ends slightly cephal-

ated by expansion, accompanied by accessory piece near the anus and extending

inward and slightly backward. Hot sublimate to balsam.

Habitat; distribution. Potomac River, near Washington, D. C. Douglas

Lake, Mich.

26. Trischistoma pellucida, n.g., n.sp.

^.e 9.1 22. '80^^ 92. . A mm. Cuticle naked, plain. Head continu-

l'^'^2.. 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.1 ^^g Pharynx Unarmed. Oesopha-

gus two-thirds as wide as neck. Cardia rather cylindrical, two-thirds as long

as the diameter of the neck. Tail terminus one-sixth as wide as the base of

the tail; apiculate by what appears to be a very minute spinneret. Flemming

to glycerine.

Habitat; distribution. Roots of sugar cane, Jamaica, West Indies. Re-

sembles Trilobus Bastian. There is an European species.

Errata. On p. 434 Trichodora should read Trichodorus.

" " 435 T. obtura should read T. obturus.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Park City district, Utah.

John Mason Boutwell, with contributions by Lester Hood

WooLSEY. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 77. Pp.

231, with maps, views, and sections. 1912.

The greatest geologic activity in the Wasatch Mountains took place in

the middle portion at its junction with the great east-west Uinta Range.

Within this area the most diverse formations are found on a prominent

spur which extends eastward from the main divide. Extensive and

irregular intrusion, widespread extrusion, thoro contact metamorphism,

persistent and recurrent faulting, and glaciation have produced in a

comparatively small area highly varied and complex results. At the

heart of the area, in the focus of these contending factors, have been

formed the most extensive and richest ore bodies in the range. This

area is known as the Park City district.

The general anticlinal structure of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds

which characterizes the Wasatch as a whole is interrupted in the Park

City district by a transverse (east-west) anticline or dome. Sediments

ranging from Cambrian to Tertiary here dip quaquaversally from a

series of laccolithic masses. It is noteworthy that these intrusions have

taken place along the line of the Uinta axis extended westward. The

doming by these masses athwart the general course of the Wasatch

naturally raises a query as to similar action in the formation of the

Uintas. This transverse Wasatch dome and the. Uinta dome are sepa-

rated topographically though not structurally by a north-south trough.

Into this, and thus blanketing the surface connection of these structures,

have flowed extensive and thick masses of andesite. The Park City

district is traversed diagonally by this axis. Here the sediments include

445

446 abstracts: geology

beds ranging in age from lower Carboniferous to Triassic. They have

been cut, deformed, and altered by a series of instrusives including the

highest of the laccolithic masses and the upward cutting stocklike and

dikelike masses which extend northeastward diagonally across the area

to the andesite flows which cover the sediments at the northeast. These

sediments rim around the instrusives and dip off from them to the

northwest, north, northeast, east, and southeast.

The sedimentary rocks of the Park City district are separable into six

divisions. The lowest comprises quartzites and limestones, each mapped

separately. The quartzites are unfossiliferous but undoubtedly repre-

sent the Weber quartzite (of Pennsylvanian age). Some of the lime-

stones, however, are of Pennsylvanian age, and others have yielded

lower Mississippian (Madison) fossils. Overlying the quartzite is the

Park City formation, consisting of limestone and sandstone. The Park

City formation has not furnished very abundant or well-preserved fos-

sils, but the fauna obtained from it is characteristic and has provisionally

been referred to the Permian. Next above is the Woodside shale, un-

fossiliferous in the Park City district, but in Idaho it has yielded a fauna

which is quite different from that of the Park City formation and closely

related to that of the overlying Thaynes formation. The Thaynes has

been recognized in Idaho and Wyoming and includes the well-known

Meekoceras zone, the typical lower Triassic of North America. These

characteristic cephalopods have not yet been definitely recognized in

the Thaynes formation in this district, but Meekoceras types have been

found at the same horizon elsewhere. The next formation is the Ankareh

shale, whose fauna does not differ conspicuously from that of the Thaynes,

which lies below. Overlying the Ankareh shale is the basal part of the

Nugget sandstone, whose age has not been definitely determined, but is

either Jurassic or Triassic and which in the Park City district is repre-

sented by beds 515 feet thick. A few miles to the northwest of the

district the Nugget sandstone is thicker and is overlain by the Twin

Creek limestone of Jurassic age.

The ores of the Park City district occur as lode deposits and as bedded

deposits in sedimentary and intrusive country rocks. The two types of

deposits are commonly associated thruout the region, tho some lodes

and veins occur alone..

The facts indicate that between early Triassic and early Tertiary time

dioritic intrusives invaded this area, metamorphosed the sediments, and

induced the deposition of rich lead-silver ores in certain members of the

calcareous formations; that after these intrusives had cooled to at least

references: geology 447

partial rigidity, the composite country rock was broken by persistent

fractures in northeast-southwest directions; that aqueous solutions of

alkaline nature and some gases arising from the deep-lying* still molten

portion of the magma transported ore-making elements outward toward

the surface; that these were deposited, on attaining suitably lower tem-

peratures and pressures, as lead-silver ores with associated copper and

gold in the form of bedded deposits in limestone and lode deposits in

fissures, by replacing certain more nearly pure limestone members along

and adjacent to feeding fissures and partly by filling fissures, partly by

replacing their walls; that movement recurred along these northeast -

southwest fissures brecciating and faulting the ore and was followed by

fracturing in a northwest-southeast direction; and that along the path-

ways thus formed waters descending from the surface have altered the

superficial portions of the primary sulfide ores to rich oxide and carbon-

ate ores, and that this process is still in progress. J. M. B.

REFERENCES

GEOLOGY.— T/ie mining districts of the western United States. James M. Hill,

with geologic introduction by Waldemar Lindgren. U. S. Geological Sur-

vey Bulletin .507. Pp. 309, with maps, views, and sections. 1912.

.Bibliography of North American Geology for 1911. John M. Nickles. U. S.

Geological Survey Bulletin 524. Pp. 162, including subject index. 1912.

Thirty-third Annual Report of Director of the United States Geological Survey

to the Secretary of the Interior. Pp. 175, with maps and sections. 1912.

ENGINEERING.— i^esiiZ^.s of spirit leveling in New York, 1906 to 1911, inclusive.

R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer. Work done in cooperation with State

of New York. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 514. Pp. 139. 1912.

Results of spirit leveling in Pennsylvania, 1899 to 1911, inclusive. R. B. Mar-

shall, Chief Geographer. Work done in cooperation with State of Pennsyl-

vania. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 515. Pp. 164. 1912.

Results of spirit leveling in Florida, 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 516. Pp. 23. 1912.

Results of spirit leveling in Alabama, 1911, R. B. Marshall, Chief Geogra-

pher. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 517. Pp. 38. 1912.

Results of spirit leveling in Ohio, 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer.

Work done in cooperation with the State of Ohio. U. S. Geological Survey

Bulletin 518. Pp. 108. 1912.

Results of spirit leveling in Tennessee, 1910 and 1911. R. B. Marshall, Chief

Geographer. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 519. Pp. 45. 1912.

B.YT>ROhOGY .—Surf ace-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part XI.

Pacific Coast in California. Prepared by W. B. Clapp, F. F. Henshaw, and

H. D. McGlashan. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 291. Pp.

218, views, and sections. 1912.

448 references: hydrology

Surface-water supply of the South Atlantic coast and 'eastern Gulf of Mexico,

1909. M. R. Hall and R. H.. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-

Supply Paper No. 262. Pp. 150, 5 pis. 1910.

Surface-water supply of the St. Lawrence River basin, 1909. C. C. Covert,

A. H. HoRTON, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply

Paper 264. Pp. 130. 1910.

Surface-water supply of the North Pacific coast, 1909. J. C. Stevens and

F. F. Henshaw. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 272. Pp. 521,

8 pis. 1911.

Surface-ivater supply of United States, 1910. Part I. No7'th Atlantic Coast.

C. C. Babb, C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply Paper 281. Pp. 305, 2 pis. 1912.

Surface-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part III. Ohio River basin.

A. H. HoRTON, M. R. Hall, and H. J. Jackson. U. S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply Paper 283. Pp. 158, views, and sections. 1913.

Surface-water supply of the United States, 1910. Part IV. St. Lawrence River

basin. C. C. Covert, A. H. Horton, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological

Survey-Water-Supply Paper 284. Pp. 125, with sections. 1912.

Surface-ioater supply of the United States, 1910. Part IX. Colorado River

basin. W. B. Freeman, E. C. La Rue, and H. D. Padgett. U. S. Geological

Survey Water-Supply Paper 289. Pp. 233, views, and sections. 1912.

Surface-ivater supply of the United States, 1910. Part X. The Great Basin.

E. C. La Rue, F. F. Henshaw, and E. A. Porter. U. S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply Paper 290. Pp. 264, maps, and sections. 1912.

Gazetteer of surface waters of California. Part II. San Joaquin River basin.

Prepared by B. D. Wood, under direction of John D. Hoyt, in cooperation

with the State Water Commission and the Conservation Commission of the

State of California. U.^S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 296. Pp.

102. 1912.

Water resources of California. Part I. Stream measurements in Sacramento

River basin. H. D. McGlashan and F. F. Henshaw. In cooperation with

the State Water Commission and the Conservation Commission of the State

of California. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 298. Pp. 411,

views, and sections. 1912.

Water resources of California. Part II. Stream measurements in San Joaquin

River basin. H. D. McGlashan and H. J. Dean. U. S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply Paper 299. Pp. 439 views, and sections. 1912.

Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part I. North Atlantic Coast.

C. C. Babb, C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey

Water-Supply Paper 301. Pp. 221, views, and sections. 1-913.

Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part IV. St. Lawrence River

basin. C. C. Covert, and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological Survey Water-

Supply Paper 304. Pp. 98, with map. 1912.

Surface-water supply of the United States, 1911. Part XI. Pacific Coast in

California. H. D. McGlashan and R. H. Bolster. U. S. Geological

Survey Water-Supply Paper 311. Pp. 304, map, and section. 1913.

STATISTICS.— Mineral resources of the United States. Calendar year 1911. Part

II. Nonmetals. George Otis Smith, Director, U. S. Geological Survey.

1912. Pp. 1224, with maps.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill OCTOBER 19, 1913 No. 17

PETROLOGY. —Magnetite basalt from North Park, Colorado.^

H. S. Washington and E. S. Larsen. Geophysical Labo-

ratory and Geological Survey.

The rock described in this paper was collected by A. L. Beekley

of the United States Geological Survey, to whom the authors

are indebted for the material and for the description of its occur-

rence. The specimen was collected at the top of Pole Mountain

in North Park, Colorado, about three miles southwest of Coal-

mont. The summit of Pole ]\Iountain is a small remnant of the

Tertiary volcanic rocks which are extensively developed on the

higher slopes to the south. The outcrops are poor and the mate-

rial probably represents a breccia. Most of the neighboring Ter-

tiary volcanic rocks are basaltic; but they are rich in soda and

in them magnetite is not exceptionally high.

The magnetite basalt is black, aphanitic and very porous;

megascopically it shows no determinable crystals. The micro-

scope shows that it is holocrystalline, and is made up of about

one-half magnetite, with nearly equal amounts of bytownite and

pale green augitic pyroxene, and a smaller amount of apatite.

The texture is poikilitic; euhedral crystals of magnetite are rather

evenly included in anhedrons of both feldspar and pyroxene.

The rock is apparently perfectly fresh. On account of the poros-

ity no determination of the specific gravity was made.

A chemical analysis was made, using the standard methods.

All of the major constituents, (except the alkalies,) and also

titanium were determined in duplicate, with closely agreeing

^ Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

449

450

WASHINGTON AND LARSEN: MAGNETITE BASALT

Analyses of Iron Ore Igneous Rocks

Si02. .

AI2O3.

FeoOg.

FeO..

MgO..

CaO..

Na20.

K2O..

H2O+

H2O-

CO2...

Ti02..

P2O5. .

CI....

s

CrsOs.

V2O3..

MnO..

NiO..

CoO..

BaO..

19.74

9.72

39.70

15.60

3.70

6.64

0.46

0.66

0.32

0.04

none

0.58

1.67

none

0.44

0.38

none

99.75

21.42

7.03

30.34

22.81

6.92

3.59

0.53

0.41

0.95

tr.

5.2

0.14

0.42

0.04

none

tr.

17.90

10.23

15.85

27.95

6.04

2.86

1.33

0.10

15.66

0.04

0.14

0.51

0.55

tr.

99.81 99.1599.191

D

11.73

6.46

30.68

27.92

3.35

3.95

0.50

0.26

0.64

0.32

12.31

0.82

0.12

0.04

E

26.62

11.62

19.50

21.87

2.57

6.47

1.06

0.34

1.30

9.50

0.20

101.05

20.30

7.60

29.99

25.65

3.68

3.50

1.70

7.80

0.03

0.102

0.34

G

10.77

4.61

39.27

21.73

2.34

4.84

0.31

0.24

0.44

13.52

0.02

0.11

0.52

0.37

0.27

0.07

100.69 99.50

H

7.82

3.20

29.40

29.78

5.67

3.42

0.61

0.17

0.38

17.23

0.14

0.06

0.63

0.22

0.43

0.10

99.26

4.08

6.40

33.43

34.58

3.89

0.65

0.29

0.15

1.32

14.25

0.02

0.20

0.45

8.04

0.39

88.41

2.52

0.06

0.23

0.05

0.29

0,17

0.39

tr.

0.02

99.71100.59

1 Including 0.05 C.

2SO3

A. Magnetite basalt (Arapahite). Pole Mountain, North Park, Colorado.

H. S. Washington, analyst.

B. Iron ore. Elizabethtown, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand

analyst. J. F. Kemp, 19th Ann. Rep. U. S. G. S., 3: 408. 1899.

C. Iron ore. Westport, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand, analyst.

J. F. Kemp, loc. cit., p. 402.

D. Iron ore. Lincoln Pond, Essex County, New York. W. F. Hillebrand,

analyst. J. F. Kemp, loc. cit., p. 407.

E. Magnetite rock. Joubrechkine, Wichera, North Ural Mountains. Duparc

(?), analyst. Duparc and Pearce, Mem. Soc. Phys. Gen., 36: 187. 1909.

F. Magnetite rock. Joubrechkine, Wichera, North Ural Mountains. Duparc

(?), analyst. Duparc and Pearce, loc. cit., p. 187.

G. Iron ore. Pine Lake, Victoria County, Ontario. F. J. Pope, analyst. F.

J. Pope, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 29: 380. 1899.

H. Iron ore. Horton, Renfrew County, Ontario. F. J. Pope, analyst. F. J.

Pope, loc. cit., p. 380.

I. Magnetite spinellite. Routivaara, Sweden. W. Petersson, analyst. W.

Petersson, Geol. For. Forh., 15: 49. 1893.

J. Iron ore. Kiruna, Lapland. G. Nyblom, analyst. P. Geijer, Geol. Kiruna

Distr., 1910, p. 177.

WASHINGTON AND LARSEN: MAGNETITE BASALT 451

results. Titanium was determined (in duplicate) by the color-

imetric method, as its amount was small, the color effect of the

very large amount of iron being removed by the addition of

phosphoric acid, a corresponding amount being added to the

standard manganese solution.- In a special large portion nickel,

chromium and vanadium were tested for. Not a trace of nickel

was found with dimethylglyoxime as a reagent. A coloration,

possibly due to chromium, was barely perceptible, even when

the solution was highly concentrated, and the amount of this

cannot be as much as 0.01 per cent, even if present. Vanadium

was determined by Hillebrand's method and its presence was

verified after the titration. Combined water was determined by

Penfield's method. The amount of V2O5 was subtracted from

that of P2O5, as it is precipitated and weighed with the phospho-

molybdate,^ if the latter is in sufficient excess. This is a point

to be borne in mind in the analysis of rocks containing notable

amounts of vanadium.

The analysis shows some remarkable features and, while nearly

all its constituents can be matched in the other analyses of iron

ore rocks derived from igneous magmas, it does not correspond

in all respects with any of them. One of the Adirondack ores

(B) resembles it most closely. It is especially remarkable in the

very low titanium, the hematite ore of Kiruna alone approaching

it in this respect. The phosphorus is notably higher than else-

where, while the absence of nickel and chromium is noteworthy.

The amount of vanadium is about that of most of the Adirondack

and Ontario ores.

The norm of the Colorado basalt is as follows:

Or 3.89 Mt 49.88

Ab 3.67

An 22.24

C 0.10

Hy 7.70

01 1.12

/ 99.77

2 Cf. W. F. Hillebrand, Bull. 422, U. S. G. S., 1910, p. 134.

3 Cf. J. R. Cain and J. C. Hostetter, Techn. Pap. Bur. Stand., No. 8, 1912.

452 WASHINGTON AND LARSENI MAGNETITE BASALT

This places it in the dofemane class and in the domitic order

(adirondackore), but transitional to the permitic order, hyper-

sthene and olivine being very low. It is in the permii-ic rang and

perhemic subrang — a position which is briefly expressed by the

symbol IV.4(5).1.1. The rang and subrang are as yet unrep-

resented and unnamed. The North Park District was occupied

by the Ute and Arapaho Indians, according to information fur-

nished by Mr. W. Marr of Hebron, Colorado. As the use of the

name Ute would suggest a locality in Utah, it seems to be prefer-

able to name the rang arapahase and the subrang arapahose.

The mode of the rock can be approximately estimated from

the norm, the corundum, hypersthene, olivine and a little anor-

thite being assumed to enter the pyroxene. The mode would

then be about as follows:

Bytownite 25

Augite 15

Iron ores 56

Apatite 4

The mode is, therefore, practically normative. As remarked

by Iddings^ this is ''at present the only known example of ex-

truded lava corresponding to the segregated iron ores." It may

be pointed out that nearly all such other iron ore rocks are asso-

ciated with gabbros, those of Kiruna (which are of hematite)

being derived from syenites, according to Geijer, and those of

Brazil (of which there are no analyses available) being associated

with highly sodic, nephehte-rich rocks. The relations of the

Colorado rock are too little known as yet for any discussion of

its associations.

While the rock would logically be called a magnetite basalt,

on account of its extrusive character and mode, yet it is so

unique as to occurrence and chemical composition, that a spe-

cial name seems to be justified. For this that of arapahite is

suggested.

J. P. Iddings, Igneous Hocks, 2: 332. 1913.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — Latent heat of fusion of ice. H. C. Dickinson, D. R.

Haeper, and N. S. Osborne. Bulletin, Bureau of Standards. In

Press.

Of the two experimental methods employed, one is the well known

method of mixtures in which an ice sample of from 100 to 200 grams

weight was allowed to melt in the calorimeter, cooling the water. The

other was an electrical method of somewhat higher precision. An ice

sample 500 grams in weight was put directly into the water and the

approximate amount of energy required to melt the ice supplied elec-

trically and measured, the small excess or deficiency being determined

from the small rise or fall of temperature of the calorimeter. The

usual calorimetric cooling correction was thus rendered relatively very

small and the heat capacity of the calorimeter needed to be known

only approximately^ The ice specimens used were from commercial

plate, can, and natural ice, and from ice frozen in the laboratory from

double distilled water both free from air, and containing air. They

were cut in the form of hollow cylinders to secure a more uniform rate

of melting. The samples were kept at the uniform temperature of

either — 0?72 or — 3?78 for several hours previous to the experiments,

and were so weighed and handled as to introduce each into the calo-

rimeter at the selected constant temperature with no significant error.

The heat of fusion of each of 92 samples of pure ice was determined

by one of the two methods. The results of the first half of these obser-

vations, made before the best experimental conditions were secured,

indicate no differences between the heats of fusion of the different

kinds of ice greater than the limits of precision, that is, about one part

in a thousand. The latter half show no difference as great as one part

in five thousand between the commercial Idnds of ice. The final figure

for the heat of fusion of pure ice is 79.63 cabs per gram mass.

H. C. D.

453

454 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — The enrichment of sulfide ores. W. H. Emmons. Bulle-

tin U. S. Geological Survey No. 529, pp. 252. 1913.

The theory of sulfide enrichment is stated as follows:

No metallic sulfide that is long exposed to air and water remains

unaltered. Iron sulfides, which are present in practically all sulfide

ores, are changed by weathering to iron oxides, and the changes are

attended by the liberation of sulfuric acid. ]\Iany of the metals form

soluble sulfates with sulfuric acid, and when conditions favor their

migration downward they are carried in solution to depths where air

is excluded. Unoxidized rocks are in general alkaline. Acid solutions

that encounter such rocks in the regions where air is excluded will lose

acidity, and as the solutions approach a neutral or alkaline condition

some of the metals they contain are deposited. If the solutions of

the metallic sulfates encounter metallic sulfides in depth precipitation

may take place, or there may be an interchange between the metals

in solution as sulfates and the metallic sulfides. Thus as a result of

precipitation or chemical interchange the metals are redeposited and

certain portions of the ore bodies become enriched.

The effects of physical conditions on the process of enrichment are

discussed and the chemistry of the process is approached from botii

the experimental and the theoretical side, the chemical relations of min-

erals of copper, silver, gold, lead, zinc, and iron being discussed in turn.

The literature of the principal deposits of copper, gold, and silver

sulfide ores in North America is reviewed with special reference to the

extent, character, and distribution of the secondary ores in each. Of

copper deposits with deeply enriched zones none are known to carry

pyrrhotite or abundant sphalerite. The data indicate that, in general,

ores containing abundant pyrrhotite and sphalerite become more

thoroly oxidized than those containing pyrite and chalcopyrite without

pyrrhotite or sphalerite; but oxidation and enrichment are not likely

to extend as deep in pyrrhotite or sphalerite ores.

Many auriferous deposits in the surficial zone appear not to have

been enriched by secondary agencies, while in others there is no evi-

dence of solution and re-precipitation of gold. It is concluded that

the solution of gold depends in the main on the presence, simultane-

ously, of manganese and chlorides. Its migration depends on the per-

meability of the lodes and the material of the primary ores. Of the

common minerals calcite and pyrrhotite will probably precipitate gold

from auriferous solutions most rapidly. All the districts of silver-gold

deposits in which gold is assumed to have migrated include mangan-

iferous ores. In deposits carrying both metals, especially where chlor-

abstracts: geology 455

ides form, secondary silver minerals are likely to be precipitated as

bonanzas near the sm*face, while gold may be carried to greater depths.

Abundant pyrrhotite in the primary ore quickly halts the downward

migration of both silver and gold. Sidney Paige.

GEOLOGY. — Kenova, Ky., West Virginia and Ohio, folio. W. C.

Phalen. Geologic Atlas of the United States, Folio 184, page 16;

with maps and sections, U. S. Geological Survey. 1912.

The rocks exposed include both the igneous and sedimentary classes.

The igneous rocks are peridotite dikes which cover a small area in the

western part of the quadrangle and are of interest in having been pros-

pected for diamonds. The sedimentary rocks belong in the Carbon-

iferous and Quaternary systems. The former system includes both the

Mississippian and Pennsylvanian series. Included in the Mississippian

are the Logan Formation and the Maxville Limestone. In the Penn-

sylvanian are included the Pottsville, Allegheny, Conemaugh and Mo-

nongahela formations. Pleistocene and Recent deposits constitute the

Quaternary system.

Tho no part of the quadrangle lies within the glaciated region, it

contains deposits of Pleistocene age. These are the low and high level

river gravels along the Ohio and Big Sandy Rivers and back of the city

of Ashland, in a district known as the ''Flatwoods." They were formed

by rivers that abandoned their former courses as a result of the inva-

sion of the neighboring region bj'^ ice.

The asymmetry of the drainage is probably dependent both on pres-

ent structure and the character of the rocks which are mainly sand-

stones, sandy shales and shales. Excepting the shales, the rocks are

water-bearing and produce many springs. The underground currents

flow more readily mth the dip than against it, with the consequent

tendency for erosion, both surficial and possibly underground to pro-

ceed up the dip. Thus the main streams of the region tend to lengthen

those tributaries, which, flowing with the dip, erode more rapidly than

those flowing against it, and consequently to push the divides between

trunk streams westward on the west side of the synclinal axis and east-

ward on the east side of this axis. W. C. P.

456 abstracts: botany

BOTANY.—^ key to common Nebraska shrubs. William H. Lamb,

Forest Service. Forest Club Annual, University of Nebraska 5.

1913.

This is a key, based on prominent distinctive characteristics that

can readily be observed by those who have had no special training

in botany, and intended as a guide in the identification of the more

common genera of shrubs and woody vines native and original in

Nebraska. W. H. L.

ZOOLOGY.^ — Descriptions of twenty new recent unstalked crinoids, belong-

ing to the families Antedonidce and Atelecrinida:, from the Dutch East

Indies. Austin H. Clark. Notes from the Ley den Museum, 34:

No. 2, Note XXV. 1912.

The following new species, all collected by the Dutch steamer Siboga

in the Dutch East Indies, are herein described: Antedon moluccana,

Compsometra iris, Compsometra parviflora, Compsometra longicirra, Comp-

sofnetra gracilipes, Iridometra (Eumetra) aphrodite, Iridometra gra-

cilis, Toxometra purpvjrea, Psathyrometra major, Psathyrometra minima,

Psathyrometra inusitata, Psathyrometra anomala, Nanometra clymene,

Trichometra delicata, Trichometrabrevipes, Thaumatometra alcyon, Thau-

matometra thysbe, Atopcrinus (a new genus of Atelecrinidte) siboga,

Atelecrinus sidcatus and Atelecrinus anomalus. A. H. C.

ENTOMOLOGY.— Ptccofe note su degli Onychophora. Austin H.

Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 42: 253-255. 1913.

Thru the courtesy of President J. C. Branner of Stanford University,

California, and of Prof. J. H. Comstock of Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York, the author has been enabled to examine a specimen of Peri-

patus taken by President Branner at Breves, on the island of Marajo

at the mouth of the Amazons, in 1882 and recorded by him, under the

generic name only, in 1886. It proves to be an example of Peripatus

(E piper ipatus) simoni Bouvier.

A specimen received thru Mr. W. E. Broadway from Tobago, British

West Indies (a new locality for the group) represents Peripatus {Epiperi-

patus) trinidadensis Stuhlmann, but appears possibly to indicate a local

variety, for which the name Peripatus {Epiperipatus) broadwayi is

suggested.

A specimen of Peripatus (Peripatus) juanensis Bouvier is recorded

from Vieques, near Porto Rico, and three specimens of Peripatoides

novae-zealandiae (Hutton) are recorded from New Zealand. A. H. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill . NOVEMBER 4, 1913 No. 18

GEOPHYSICS. — Water and the viagmatic gases. Arthur L.

Day and E. S. Shepherd. Geophysical Laborator}'-.

Two serious attempts have been made in recent years to estab-

lish a conclusion which geologists generally have been somewhat

slow to accept, namely, that water of magmatic origin is not

found among the gases exhaled by active volcanoes.^ Notwith-

standing the fact that this conclusion is diametrically opposed to

the commonly accepted explanations of volcanic activity and

the further fact that the evidence offered in both instances is of

a somewhat fortuitous kind, it has hitherto remained uncontro-

verted by well-established facts of observation. It may there-

fore have some interest to present very briefly the preliminary

results of a study of the volcanic gases emanating from the Kil-

auea crater during the summer of 1912 the ultimate purpose of

which is to endeavor to establish the character and effects of the

chemical reactions concerned in volcanic activit}^ It happens

that both of the attempts to show that volcanic emanations are

anhydrous have depended chiefly upon evidence obtained at this

crater.

The character of the evidence hitherto offered may be illus-

trated briefly as follows. Green noted that active lava flows, and

even the Kilauea crater itself, often appear to be giving off gases

in quantity when no steam cloud can be seen above them. Brun

observed that the cloud when present does not evaporate in the

air and shows no optical phenomena in sunhght. He was able

to obtain no condensed moisture in glass tubes exposed within

' William Lowthian Green, Vestiges of the molten globe, vol. 2. 1887. Albert

Brun, Recherches sur I'Exhalaison Volcanique. 1911.

457

458 DAY AND shepherd: water and magmatic gases

the smoke cloud (100 meters distant from the point of emer-

gence), and he observed further that a dew-point hygrometer

exposed within the cloud indicated a smaller moisture content

than in the clear air near-by. Some other observations were

offered pointing to the same conclusion, but the above citations

fairly serve to show the character of the observations which led

to the conclusion that water had no part in these exhalations.

Jt has seemed to the writers, in considering this problem, that

evidence of this kind is unconvincing. Such evidence may serve

to prove that the cloud above Kilauea does not consist entirely

of steam, but it is a very different matter to conclude from it

tiiat no steam is emitted, particularly in view of the fact that the

extensive hygrometer measurements offered by Brun all show that

the observations were made in an unsaturated atmosphere, and

the further fact that the temperature of the gases at the moment

of emission was not far from 1200? The latter point seemed to

us of vital importance in any attempt to identify volcanic gases,

for nearly all the recorded analyses of the gases contained in

volcanic rocks^ include gases (e.g., CO or H2) which undergo im-

mediate alteration and lose their identity if released into the air

at such a temperature as 1200? We therefore undertook the

somewhat hazardous task of going io the bottom of the crater

itself and collecting the gases direct from the liquid lava before

they had come in contact with the air at all.

The gases were collected under the following conditions. A

lava fountain broke thru the floor of the crater beside the lava

lake and by its own spattering quickly built for itself an en-

closing dike. When this dike had grown to a completely enclos-

ing dome, an ideal gas collector was provided by the volcano

itself; for this dome, because of the continual bursting of great gas

bubbles within, was lined with the same liquid lava from which

the gas was being released. From the narrow cracks in the

sides of the dome, sheets of pale blue flame could be seen burn-

ing at night, which indicated (1) an excess pressure within, and

in consequence (2) that the gases released from the liquid lava

first came in contact with the air upon emerging from the dome.

2 R. T. Chamberlin, The gases in rocks, Publications of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington, No. 106. 1908.

DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES 459

We accordingly chose a favorable opportunity, descended into

the crater and inserted a tube directly into one of these cracks

behind the flame which was burning there. This tube was con-

nected with a pipe-line some 7 or 8 meters in length, leading to a

train of 20 collecting tubes, each of one-half liter capacity, and

finally to a piston pump with a capacity of abour 2^ liters per

stroke. The splashing of the lava within the dome could not

only be heard and seen thruout the 15 minutes during which

the pumping was continued but the jar could be felt beneath the

observer's feet. The temperature at which the gases entered

the tubes was about 1000°.

With the first stroke of the pump water began condensing in

the glass tubes in considerable quantity, in plain view of the ob-

servers. This water, tho unexpected (in view of the statement of

Brun) also served as a most excellent wash bottle by means of

which to trap the halogens or other soluble salts asserted by

Brun to be present. At the close of the pumping the tubes were

sealed and taken out of the crater without mishap. Four days

later the contents of Tube No. 3 were removed for preliminary

analysis at the College of Hawaii in Honolulu. With the limited

facilities there available, no very elaborate analysis was possible,

but the following gases were found :

TABLE I

Weight

Per cent

SO2 51 .6

CO, 39 . 8

CO 5.5

It was not possible to analyze for H2 or N2, but a 1 : 1 mixture

of the gas residue with air gave no explosion on test. The tube

also contained about 50 cc. of water with sufficient free sulfur

to make it appear quite turbid. This water, when filtered and

treated with acid silver nitrate, showed no trace of chlorine. No

titanium was found.

The remaining tubes were transported to the Geophysical Lab-

oratory in Washington at the close of the field season (nearly

a year later) and analyzed there. The analysis of the fixed

gases contained in five of the tubes is tabulated below.

460

DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES

TABLE II

Analyses of the Fixed Gases (Proportions by Volume)

* Inasmuch as all the tubes contained water, practically all of the SO- had gone

into solution in the water and become altered before the final analysis was made.

TABLE III

Analyses of the Water (Proportions by Weight)

0.080

grams

Na20 0.0214

K2O 0.0102

CaO 0.0120

FejOs \

AI2O3 /

CI 0.220

F 0.565

NH3 0.0018

TiOo 0.005(?)

Total S as SO3 0.480

2

grams

o.osr

0.011

0.14 \

0.010

0.208

0.492

none

0.508

The major portion of

these may have come

from the glass or from

Pele's hair.

The conclusions from these analyses may be briefly recounted

as follows:

(1) To anyone familiar with gas equilibria, it is immedi-

ately obvious that this group of gases can not exist together in

equilibrium at a temperature of 1000° or more, but must be in

process of active reaction at the time of release from the liquid

lava. Reaction will begin between the gases in the rising lava

column the moment pressure has diminishd to the point where

they begin to be released from solution. As the lava rises to the

surface, the pressure upon it diminishes steadily, setting free a

continually increasing quantity of gas which is then free to enter

into new chemical relations. iVIoreover, these reactions (e.g.,

H2 + SO2 and H2 + CO2) are of a kind to produce heat in such

DAY AND shepherd: WATER AND MAGMATIC GASES 4(51

quantity as seriously to affect if not to determine the temperature

of the whole mass. This chemical activity will be a maximum

at the surface at the moment of discharge into the atmosphere

and the proportions of the reacting gases will vary with every

bubble which bursts from the liquid lava, as is plainly shown by

the variations from one tube to another in the above analyses.

It would seem to be a necessary consequence of this mode of

release of the gases previously in solution and the resulting exo-

thermic reactions between the gases after release, that the tem-

perature of the lava lake should rise when the quantity of gas

given off is large, and should diminish again when the gaseous

exhalation diminishes in volume, and this was found to hold true

thruout the activity of the summer of 1912 of which we were

witnesses. The measured changes in temperature in the lava

basin in this interval of about four months (the quantity of lava

in the basin remaining practically constant) amounted in maxi-

mum to 115° (June 13, 1912, 1070°; July 6, 1912, 1185°).

(2) The exhalation unquestionably contains water, of which

about 300 cc. were found condensed in our tubes. In view of the

fact that the water condensed and remained behind while the

fixed gases passed on thru the tubes and pump, it is not possible

from these observations to estimate the proportion of water to

the fixed gases.

(3) The presence of free S, SO2 and SO3 in the cloud affords

adequate explanation of the phenomena observed by Brun. The

visible cloud consists mainly of free sulfur (not of chlorides) and

we were able to collect it from the cloud, both at the point of

emergence and at the crater rim where Brim's observations were

made. It follows from this that the cloud would not evaporate

in the air nor show optical phenomena (rainbows), neither could

it be expected to condense upon the crater walls, nor in tubes, if

the point of collection was too far away from the point where the

gases were released from the lava. The observations of fact made

at Kilauea by Brun are for the most part confirmed by our

observations, but we were unable to discover in them any basis for

his conclusion that the exhalation is anhydrous, for the tiny sulfur

particles would supply abundant nuclei of condensation for any

462 DAY AND shepherd: water and magmatic gases

water in excess of the quantity required to saturate the atmos-

phere and any quantity smaller than this would evaporate freely

in the comparatively dry air at 1300 meters elevation. Further-

more, Brun's observation that the exposure of a dew-point hygrom-

eter within the cloud showed less moisture present than in the

clear air outside, finds equally ready explanation in the fact that

the cloud has been shown to carry SOo and SO3, and by conse-

quence sulfuric acid, which are excellent dehydrating agents.

A cloud charged with drying agents like these must, a priori, be

found drier than the surrounding air which is not provided with

siich drying agents. In confirmation of this we find that the

decomposition of the surface lava, which is continually exposed

to these gases, is everywhere a sulfuric acid decomposition, the

decomposition products being sulfates (alum, gypsum) together

with considerable quantities of free sulfur.

(4) If the total quantity of gas drawn into our tube system be

estimated at about 1000 liters, then the quantity of chlorine is

less than 0.02 per cent. In confirmation of this low chlorine

content, analyses of the lava near the volcano which has been

constantly exposed to the smoke cloud for 20 years or more,

showed no test for chlorine in a 2 gram sample.^

(5) It is of the highest importance to note further that the

nitrogen exhaled by the volcano contains no argon. Bearing in

mind that argon is always present in the atmosphere in measur-

able quantities, and that it enters into no chemical combination

whatever, it would seem to be a necessary conclusion that the

atmosphere does not contribute to the gases which are given off

by the lava. If atmospheric ingredients were present in the

lava, then surely the argon must be given off again. This must

apply to all atmospheric ingredients including water, whether

originally gaseous or condensed, for if meteoric water were to

2 Brun appears to have tested for chlorine with a silver nitrate solution in an

atmosphere which is shown above to contain S, SO2 and SO3, and notes that it

immediately becomes clouded, but mentions no test to ascertain whether it was

the chloride or the sulphite which was thus precipitated. Similarly, he nowhere

offers a chemical analysis of the particular gases which he collected in tubes at

Kilauea, but contents himself with presenting two analyses of other gases pumped

from solid lava fragments reheated in vacuo some months afterward. (L'Exha-

laison Volcanique, p. 115.)

swingle: botanical name of the lime 463

find its way into the lava it must do so as a gas and on the same

terms as the other atmospheric gases, for the reason that the

critical temperature of water is but 374°, whereas the lava tem-

perature is 1000° or higher. It is therefore plain that capillary

phenomena (Daubree) can not be invoked to assist in the trans-

mission of water into the liquid lava in the temperature region

between 374° and 1000° in which H2O has no surface tension.

But quite apart from this, there is no more reason for assuming

that the water is of atmospheric origin than for assuming the

carbon compounds to be so.

In conclusion, we may add that the much discussed question

whether water is an active participant in volcanic activity ap-

pears to find adequate answer in these preliminary experiments,

so far as Kilauea is concerned. Not only was water actually

collected in considerable quantity (300 cc.) directly from the

liquid lava, at a temperature of 1000° or higher, but this was

done under conditions which completely excluded contamination

with air. Moreover, the presence of free hj^drogen associated

with CO2 and SO2 at this temperature is of itself a sufficient

guarantee of the presence of some water among the volcanic

gases. Indeed, the reaction between Ho and CO2 (the water

gas reaction H2 + CO2 ^ CO + H2O) has long been well

known and has been studied in great detail. ^

BOTANY. — The botanical name of the lime, Citrus aurantifolia-

Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The lime, altho closely related to the lemon and the citron,

differs from them in having small white flowers, fewer stamens,

thin-skinned fruits and winged petioles articulated with the blade

of the leaf. Because of these and other divergent characters it

seems proper to recognize it as a distinct species, as has been

done by many botanists. It is quite distinct from Citrus his-

trix, D. C, which is considered by Bonavia^ to be the ancestral

^ F. Haber, Thermodynamik technischer Gasreactionen. Berlin, 1905.

^ Bonavia, E., 1886, On the probable wild source of the whole group of culti-

vated true limes {Citrus acida Roxb., C. medica, var. acida of Brandis, Hooker,

and Alph. de CandoUe), in Journal Linn. Soc, Botany, 22: 213-218, figs. 1-3, (n.

145, Jul. 23).

464 swingle: botanical name of the lime

form from which the cultivated hme was derived and to which

Urban^ refers the lime as a variety.

The earliest postlinnean binomial name applied to the lime was

Limon spinosum, published by Philip Miller in 1768 in the 8th

edition of his Gardener's Dictionary. The specific name spino-

sum cannot be transferred to Citrus because it would be a homo-

njmi of Citrus spinosus published by Gmelin in 1774'' for a form

of the lemon quite unlike the lime. The next oldest name, Li-

mon'a acidissima, was published by Houttuyn^ in 1774 in spite

of the already existing name Limonia acidissima used by Lin-

naeus for the wood apple of Ceylon and India, which name Hout-

tuyn ruled out because he considered it inappropriate, rechris-

tening the wood apple Limonia pinnatifolia. Under the rules of

botanical nomenclature, no such substitution of names is per-

mitted no matter how inappropriate the original name may be.

The Limonia acidissiina of Houttuyn was undoubtedly the

common lime of the East and West Indies as it was based on the

Limonellus sive Limon Nipis of Rumphius^ and also on an ex-

cellent plate published in 1705 by Juffrouw Marie Sibylla Mer-

ian,^ the famous illustrator of insects who spent two years at the

beginning of the eighteenth century in Surinam drawing and

studying the insects of that colony and the plants upon which

they feed.

In 1777 Christmann^ in the German adaptation of Houttuyn 's

great work renamed the lime Limonia aurantifolia, this name be-

ing an avowed substitute for the invalid Limonia acidissima of

2 Urban, 1, 1905, Symb. antil., 4: 321, as Citrus Hystrix acida.

^ Gmelin, S. G., 1774, Reise durch Russland, St. Petersburg, 3: 278-279.

* Houttyun, Martin, 1774, Natuurlyke historic . . . , volgens het samen-

stel van den Heer Linnaeus, Amsterdam, Deel 2, 2: 444-445.

" Rumphius, G. E., 1741, Herb, amboin., Amsterdam, 2: 107. tab. 29.

^ Merian, Maria Sibylla, 1705, Metamorphosis insectorum surinamensium ofte

veranderung der surinaamschc insecten, Amsterdam, p. 17, pi. 17 (s. d. but pub-

lished 1705 vide Hagen, H. A., Bibl. Entom. 1: 534-535). As Houttuyn does not

specify the edition of Merian's work, it may be that he quotes from the second

Dutch edition, published in 1719. Color is given to this surmise by the fact that

the quotation made by Houttuyn differs by one word from the original text of

Juffrouw Merian as published in 1705.

^ [Christmann, G. F.], 1777, in Linne, Pflanzensystem nach der vierzehnten

lateinischen Ausgabe und nach des hoUandischen Houttuynischen Werkes iiber-

setzt, Niirnberg, 1: 618.

swingle: botanical name of the lime 465

Houttuyn. The fact that Houttuyn's name was preoccupied and

consequently untenable was doubtless realized by Christmann,

altho he makes no mention of his reasons for changing the name.

His description and citations of older literature, practically trans-

lated from Houttuyn, are ample to establish Limonia aurantifolia

as a valid species.

The name Citrus lima was published by John Lunan in 18 14^

for the common lime and has been recently revived by Percy

Wilson (North America Flora, 25:222, 1911). This name is a

homonym, however, since it was used for the common lemon by

Alexander Aitcheson before ISOG.^*^

The name Citrus limetta Risso, commonly applied to the lime,

was published by Risso in ISIS^^ but refers distinctly to a va-

riety of sweet lime having an abnormal fruit, probably a garden

variety of hybrid origin and certainly not a true lime. This be-

ing the type of Risso's species, his name cannot properly be ap-

plied to the common acid lime.

The subsequently published names for the lime, such as Cit-

rus spinosissima Meyer^^ 1818, C. acida Roxburg^^ 1832, C. Not-

issimus Blanco," 1837, C. Limonellus HasskarP^ 1842, and the

many varietal names under the various specific names for the

citron, the lemon or Citrus histrix, D.C. need not be discussed

here as Christmann's name has priority over all of them.

The oldest tenable name for the lime is therefore Christmann's

Limonia aurantifolia which upon being transferred to Citrus, be-

comes Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) n. comb.^*

5 Lunan, John, 1814, Hortus Jamaicensis, Jamaica, 2 : 451-452.

1° [Aitchison, Alexander], 18 (?), in Encyclopaedia Perthensis, 2 ed. (?) Perth.

5: G86. The "New and Complete American Encyclopaedia. . . . From the

Encyclopaedia Perthensis with Improvements," New York (John Low), 1805,

2: 578, gives a verbatim reprint of the description of Citrus lima in the edition

cited above.

" Risso, A., 1813, in Ann. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, 20: 195, pi. 2, fig. 1.

12 Meyer, G. F. W., 1818, Primitae Flora Essequeboensis, Gottingen, p. 247.

13 Roxburgh, W., 1832, Flora indica, Serampore, 3: 390.

'" Hasskarl, J. C, 1842, Flora, 25, 2 (Beibl.): 43

1^ Blanco, M., 1837, Flora de Filipinas,. Manila, p. 607.

18 The genus Limonia was founded on plants with pinnate leaves. The specific

name aurantifolia of Christmann undoubtedly means having orange-like leaves

in contrast with the original Limonia acidissima of Linnaeus (the L. -pinnalifolia

of Houttuyn and of Christmann).

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY— TAe Yentna District, Alaska. S. R. Capps. Bulletin U.

S. Geological Survey No. 534, pp. 72, with maps, sections, and views.

1913.

The geological formations that outcrop are: (1) a thick slate-gray-

wacke series of undetermined age, but pre-Tertiary; (2) intrusive gran-

ites and diorites, probably of Jurassic age; (3) Eocene clays and sands

with some lignite; (4) Tertiary gravels; (5) glacial moraines and out-

wash gravels; (6) recent stream deposits.

The gravel series which overlies the Eocene beds was found to be

structurally conformable upon the Eocene, and to antedate by a con-

siderable time interval the period of maximum glaciation. These grav-

els have hitherto been thought to be Pleistocene.

The placer gold of Cache Creek and the neighboring creeks is thought

to have been derived from quartz veins in the slate-graywacke series.

Its present distribution has been largely influenced by glacial erosion,

the present placers being found only in those places where ice erosion

was feeble, or where post glacial erosion has effected a reconcentration

of the glacially scattered gold. On Twin Creek and its tributaries the

placer gold is the product of post glacial concentration of gold from

the Tertiary gravels. S. R. C.

GEOLOGY. — Bismarck, N. Dak., folio. A. G. Leonard. Geologic

Atlas of the United States, No. 181. U. S. Geological Survey in

cooperation with North Dakota Geological Survey. 1912.

The formations represented range in age from Cretaceous to Recent.

The Fox Hills sandstone (marine), the lowest of the formations, is ex-

posed in the lower parts, of the bluffs of Missouri River in the southern

part of the area and in some tributary valleys. The base is not ex-

466

abstracts: geology 467

posed, but along the Cannonball River, just south of this area, the

formation has a thickness of 200 feet. Overlying this over most of

the area, in apparent conformity, are 650-700 feet of dark, gray, brown,

and black shale and sandstone of the Lance formation (fresh water),

the approximate equivalent of the Ceratops beds of Wyoming. In this

there is at least one workable 5-foot bed of lignite.

Conformably overlying the Lance or "Somber beds" are the ash-

gray and yellow shales and sandstone of the Fort Union (Tertiary),

having a maximum thickness of 200 feet. In this are numerous beds

of lignite ranging in thickness from a few inches to 35 feet,^ — -thick-

nesses of 5 to 10 feet are common. In places the lignite has burned

out along the outcrop baking the overlying shale to red or pink

clinker. The Fort Union carries a rich fossil flora, many freshwater

shells and a few vertebrate fossils.

The area, altho outside of the terminal moraines of the Wisconsin

stage of glaciation, contains considerable glacial drift. Remnants of

moraines, patches of till, and patches of boulders are found, the latter

so abundant in places as to form a pavement. This drift, tho indicated

on the map as probably of Early Wisconsin age, is in the text provi-

sionally referred to the Kansan stage of glaciation, since the appearance

is that of remnants of a much eroded deposit. The western limit of

continental glaciation is 50 to 60 miles west of the Missouri in this

latitude. Much of the dissection of the area is believed to have been

accomplished in Tertiary time but it also appears that there has been

a long period of erosion since the deposition of this drift. The valley

of Missouri River the author regards as pre-glacial. The economic

resources of the area are lignite, clay, gravel, sand, surface and under-

ground waters, and a good soil. Wm. C. Alden.

GEOLOGY.- — Geologic reconnaissance of a part of the Bampart Quad-

rangle, Alaska. H. M. Eakin. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey

No. 535.

The area treated is in central Alaska, between Yukon and Tanana

Rivers west of the 150th meridian. The consolidated stratified rocks

of the area include a greenstone group probably of late Paleozoic age,

a limestone and schist group of earlier Paleozoic age, a slate, quartzite

and schist group, in part of Lower Cretaceous age and a slate sand-

stone and conglomerate group, probably also of Mesozoic age. These

groups trend northeast and southwest across the area in a series of

belts, the succession from northwest to southeast being in the order

given.

468 abstracts: zoology

The consolidated stratified rocks are intruded by batholiths and thick

sills of monzonite, by a complex system of dikes of widely varying rock

types, and by pegmatite and quartz veins. Some pegmatite dikes have

centers of pure vein quartz. The solid rocks are overlain locally by

loosely cemented Kenai (Eocene) beds, and widely by alluvial deposits.

The latter include flood plain deposits of the present streams, stream

terrace deposits and high lying silts and gravels. Some of the high

lying gravels are evidently beach deposits.

Gold occurs in the metamorphic rocks at a number of places l)ut no

workable deposit has been discovered. Placer gold is mined in stream

terrace deposits and in the high lying beach gravels. Cassiterite occurs

in commercial quantities in some of the gold placers. H. M. E.

ZOOLOGY. — Description of a collection of unstalked crinoids rnade by

Captain Suenson in Eastern Asia. Austin Hobart Clark. Pro-

ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 26: 177-182.

1913.

The crinoids listed and described are the following: from near Hong

Kong, Comanthus japonica (J. Mliller), Zygomeira comata (A. H. Clark),

Catoptometra ruhroflava (A. H. Clark) and Dichrometra flagellata (J.

Miiller); of these only one, Zygometra comata, was previously known

from this locality; from the Philippine Islands, Oligometra serripinna

(P. H. Carpenter); from south of the Goto Islands, Parametra orion

(A, H. Clark); and from northeastern Korea, Thaumatometra tenuis

(A. H. Clark).

The faunal relationships of the east Asiatic coasts are discussed, and

the thirty-six endemic species occurring between southern Japan and

Korea and Cochin China are found to fall into four distinct categories:

(1) East Indian species, occurring in the Phihppine Islands and on the

coast of Cochin China, and extending northward as far as Hong Kong,

one of them possibly to Fuchow; (2) southern Japanese species, ranging

from Tokyo Bay westward to the Korean Straits and thence southward

along the Riu Kiu Islands to Formosa (Taiwan) and Hong Kong, where

they occur together with East Indian forms; (3) Arctic species, inhabit-

ing the cold water which bathes the continental shores of the Sea of

Japan, and ranging southward as far at least as the Korean Straits,

possibly even to Shanghai; and (4) Antarctic species, inhabiting the

Pacific coast of Japan and reaching their southern limit at Tokyo and

Sagami Bays. A systematic list of all the species recorded from the

region is given, and the faunal division, to which each belongs, indicated.

A. H. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill NOVEMBER 19, 1913 No. 19

MATHEMATICS. — A useful type of formula for the interpolation

and representation of experimental results. L. H. Adams.

Geophysical Laboratory.

Mellor, in his Higher Mathematics,^ remarks, ''The reader will

perhaps have been impressed with the frequency with which ex-

perimental results are referred to a series formula of the type:

y = A -\- Bx + Cx- + Bx^ H ,

in physical or chemical text books. For instance, I have counted

over thirty examples in the first volume of Mendeleeff's The

Principles of Chemistry and more than this number in Preston's

Theory of Heat^ It is well known that for the representation

of experimental results limited power series often leave much to

be desu'ed, and that such formulae adequately represent the data

only in comparatively few instances or over short ranges; and

yet as indicated by the above quotation this fact is seldom ap-

preciated. It is the purpose of this note to point out the ad-

vantage of functions other than power series and to advocate

their more general employment in cases where power series ob-

viously do not conform to the known general form of curve given

by the measurements.

By far the larger number of physical changes follow laws as

yet unknown, and so, until the precise theoretical function is

ascertained, the experimental results in question can be repre-

sented only by some sort of empirical formula. In the choice of

1 J. W. Mellor, Higher mathematics for students of physics and chemistry, p.

273.

469

470

ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA

the most suitable equation to be fitted to a given set of experi-

mental results there is usually considerable latitude; but among

the host of mathematical functions there will often be certain

ones which from their peculiar characteristics or general shape

are especially adapted to the data in hand. Nevertheless most

chemists and physicists, who desire to fit their experimental re-

sults to some equation, turn blindly to the familiar power series.

When the graph representing the

results is obviously non-linear,

the quadratic or parabola, y =

A -\- Bx + Cx^, is first tried; if

a satisfactory fit is not obtained

another term is added, and so

on until there is sufficiently close

agreement between the calcu-

lated and observed values thru-

out the range of observation.

Now it happens that in some

cases a parabolic equation repre-

sents the relation between two

physical quantities with great

exactness. A notable example is

the resistance of pure platinum,

which is a quadratic function

of the temperature between 0°

and 1000° to within 0.05 per cent

or better. Such accidents, how-

ever, are rare. More often than

not a cubic or a fourth power

equation is necessary especially for experimental observations of

high precision. For instance, according to Bridgman^ a power

series of at least five terms — and probably more — ^would be re-

quired to represent the resistance of mercury as a function of

pressure, with an accuracy of iV per cent, the degree of accuracy

of the experimental work thruout the range of pressures investi-

Fig. 1

Proc. Am. Acad. 44: 237, (1909).

ADAMS: A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA 471

gated (0-6000 atm.) As a first step in the search for a suitable

equation it is advantageous to plot the data and to consider the

general form of the graph, especially its limiting characteristics.

As an illustration let us consider the e.m.f. of a copper-con-

stantan thermoelement as a function of temperature. If we plot

e.m.f. against temperature we obtain a curve of the type shown

in figure 1.

The most important characteristic of this curve is its property

of becoming more nearly linear the farther it departs from the

origin. That is, the curve is asymptotic to a straight line (such

as the dotted line shown in the figure), which does not pass

Fig. 2

thru the origin. It is apparent that neither a parabola nor a

cubic equation (nor any power series with a reasonable number

of terms) can conform over a wide range to this essential con-

dition, namely, that of steadily increasing linearity with increas-

ing values of E or t. A power series can be made to approximate

only to a greater or smaller portion of the whole curve, the de-

gree of approximation being better the greater the number of

terms included in the series and the smaller the portion of the

curve dealt with.

On the other hand there are a number of possible functions

which have the desired general form. To derive one let us con-

sider the course of the slope dE/dt of the curve given in figure

472 ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA

1. The derivative is finite at the origin and increases with t,

rapidly at first and then more slowly, tending toward a constant

value as a limit (see fig. 2). Such a curve referred to the dotted

line as the axis is given by — - = 1 — e~\ in general by ^ — =

at dt

6 (1 — e^^), C being a negative quantity ;3 or when referred to the

dE

t — axis by equation — = a + 6 (1 — e*^'). Integrating and ap-

plying the initial condition that E = 0, ^ = 0, we have, E = At -{- B

(1 - e"). Where A = a -\-h,B = —. This equation is of the

desired form, and, as we have found by trial, is highly satisfactory

in a number of cases where the graph has the general form of

figure I, as for instance, the relations between temperature and

e.m.f. of copper-constantan thermoelements and between pres-

sure and resistance of manganin or of "therlo" wire.

The calculation of the constants of this type of equation offers

no especial difficulty: in fact it involves no more time or labor

than in the case of the cubic equation:

E = A't + B'P + C't'

a form of equation which is often used and is in general of less

utility. The method of evaluating the three constants, A, B

and C is as follows : Write down three simultaneous equations con-

taining pairs of corresponding values of E and t. Eliminate A

by addition or subtraction and B by division; we then obtain

an equation in C of the form :

(1 - e^'^) - P (1 - e''^) El - P E_2 ^ ^

(1 - e'^^) - Q (1 - e''^) E2 - Q E3

where P = — ^^^^ Q = j-- Assume now several values of C and

with the aid of tables of the exponential compute the corre-

sponding values of K. Then plot K against C and determine the

proper value of C by graphical interpolation. The value of C

being now known, B and finally A are readily calculated.

dE

3 Another suitable function is —- = a -{- b tanh ct which would lead to the equa-

dt

tion E = nT -\- h log cosh ct.

ADAMS : A USEFUL TYPE OF FORMULA

473

The result of the application of this equation to the copper-

constantan element is shown in table I. The eonstantan wire

consisted of selected lengths cut from a spool of No. 30 B. and S.

"Ideal" wire made by the Electrical Alloy Co. The points at

100°, 217?95 and 305?9 were obtained by immersing the ele-

ment (enclosed in a glass tube) in the vapors of boiling water,

naphthalene and benzophenone;^ those at the lower temperatures

by comparison with an element"^ previously calibrated against a

resistance thermometer. As table I shows, the curve when

passed thru the three upper points fits the three lower points

very satisfactorily; indeed the divergence is no greater than the

experimental error.

TABLE I

Comparison of Observed e. m. f. (E) of Copper-constantan Element with

THAT Calculated from the Equation E = 74.672 t - 13892 (i-g- 0-00261 /■)

^1 microvolt corresponds to about 0?02.

The above equation as compared with a series formula con-

taining a like number of constants (i.e., a cubic equation) pos-

sesses the following advantages, (1) In accord with what might

be expected from the general shape of the curve a better agree-

ment has been obtained between '^observed" and ''calculated"

^'alues. For instance if a cubic should be substituted for the

exponential equation described, the differences in the fourth

column of table I would each be greater than 5 microvolts

(0?1). (2) Since values of (1 — e~^) may be obtained by inspec-

^ Proper correction being made for barometric pressure. Cf. Adams & Johns-

ton, Am. J. Sci., 33: 538 et seq. 1912.

* This element belongs to Dr. W. P. White of this Laboratory. For descrip-

tion of the comparison of this element with the resistance thermometer, see Phys.

Rev. 31, 159. 1910.

474 PALACHE AND schaller: hodgkinsonite

tion and in one operation from tables of the Descending Expo-

nential/ the operation of calculating a series of values from the

exponential equation involves less labor than from a cubic equa-

tion. (3) Altho extrapolation is, in general, an operation beset

with many pitfalls, nevertheless, if an extrapolation is unavoid-

able, it is more reasonable to employ a function of proper general

form than to take some random function which can not be ex-

pected to fit the experimental results except over a small part

of the range of observation.

MINERALOGY. — Hodgkinsonite, a new mineral from Franklin

Furnace, N. J. C. Palache, Harvard University, and W. T.

Schaller, Geological Survey.

The mineral here described was sent to the Harvard Miner-

alogical Museum for identification in April of this year by Mr.

J. J. McGovern of Franklin Furnace, New Jersey. On being

informed that the mineral was of a new species, material for

further study and for analysis was freely supplied by Mr. H. H.

Hodgkinson, M. E., Assistant Underground Superintendent of

the mine, who first found the mineral in the mine workings and

whose name it bears. Mr. Hodgkinson states that the new min-

eral was found in the northern part of the ore body, in that part

of the Parker Mine formerly known as the Hamburg Mine and

quite near the hanging wall of the west leg of the ore body, be-

tween the 850- and 900-foot levels. The locality was marked

by a number of slips and faults, along some of which the mineral

occurs. It has been found in a number of specimens during the

year but nowhere in abundance.

Hodgkinsonite is a hydrous silicate of zinc and manganese

■crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It occurs in seams in

massive granular ore of the typical willemite-franklinite mixture;

the seams are generally very thin with but a film of the mineral

which is always associated with white barite and not uncommonly

with plates of native copper. Locally the film thickens to a

narrow vein and then the new mineral may show individuals up

to 2 cm. across, sharply angular in form and apparently with

^ Such, for example, as those in Becker and Van Ostrand's hyperbolic functions

(Smithsonian Mathematical Tables, Washington. 1909).

PALACHE AND SCHALLERI HODGKINSONITE 475

crystal faces but in reality determined in their outline almost

wholly by the older platy barite which encloses them. The clear

pink color and brilliant cleavage of hodgkinsonite, together with

the snow white barite make such specimens both striking and

attractive in appearance. One mass of ore with a surface 20 cm.

square is at least half covered with hodgkinsonite. In one case

only has such a vein been found in which the angular cells formed

by the intersecting barite plates were not wholly filled by hodg-

kinsonite so that the latter was free to develop crystal planes.

From this specimen three crystals of good quality were detached

and these served to establish the axial ratio of the species.

Other crystals were found occupying cavities in thicker veins

free from barite. These crystals, the largest 1 cm. long, were

much affected by solution, the faces being generally dull or

facetted. They were accompanied by black rhombohedral crys-

tals of pyrochroite and scalenohedral crystals of calcite, both

later in age and encrusting hodgkinsonite. The latter is im-

planted directly on willemite or franklinite and in one specimen

on manganese garnet. The association and mode of occurrence

both indicate a pneumatolytic origin for the new mineral.

Hodgkinsonite is monoclinic with normal symmetry. The

highly perfect cleavage, normal to the symmetry plane, has been

taken as the basal pinacoid. The elements were calculated from

the angles of the forms taken as (110), (Oil), and (221) together

with the inclination of the cleavage (001) to the prism zone.

These angles follow.

(001)=^ _ o .-,_i, > Average of 2 readings on 2 crystals.

(11^) "1 _ ' „_, )> Average of 7 readings on 3 crystals. '

f <p = 4° 42' 1

{011)n _ o , /i i\.verage of 2 readings on 1 crystal.

(221) ■> _ , > Average of 4 readings on 2 crystals.

The axial elements thus calculated are: '

Po = 0.7254 qo = 1.1114 /x = 84° 33J'.

a :b :c = 1.539 : 1 : 1.1165 0 = 84° 33^'.

476

PALACHE AND SCHALLER: HODGKINSONITE

The forms observed are c(OOl), m(llO), s(Oll), r(221), i(401),

x(305), g(552), it(322). The last four of these forms were found

only on the etched crystals, which had been measured with con-

siderable care before the better crystals were found. These four

high-index forms are no doubt vicinal and due to etching of the

crystals; they are nevertheless retained in the table of measure-

ments and a figure showing them is given since they are charac-

teristic of most of the specimens.

In the following table may be found all the observations made

on these crystals, together with the calculated angles for the

various forms.

TABLE 1

Angle Table for Hodgkinsonite

The crystals are acute pyramidal in habit as shown in figure

1, and are dominated by the equal development of unit prism

m and pyramid r. On the etched crystals this pyramid is re-

placed by a group of facets whose average position corresponds

to the symbol (552). The clinodome and prism faces are always

smooth but often dull and poorly reflecting. The faces of other

forms are minute and of the poorest quality. Figure 2 shows

one of the etched crystals, doubly terminated and with the small

faces of uncertain forms characteristic only of specimens of this

type.

The perfect cleavage of hodgkinsonite is parallel to the basal

pinacoid. The density is 3.91, determined by a pycnometer on

PALACHE AND SCHALLER! HODGKINSONITE

477

a gram of small fragments which were later used for analysis.

The hardness is a very little less than 5.

The optical characters have been only imperfectly determined.

The optic axial plane is parallel to (010). The mean refractive

index is 1.73, determined by the immersion method. The color

of the mineral varies from a bright pink to a pale reddish brown,

the luster is vitreous, the streak white.

Fig. 1

Fig. 1. Hodgkinsonite. Common habit of implanted crystals, showing basal

cleavage when removed from the matrix. Forms m(llO), s(Oll), r(221). On

etched crystals r is replaced by q{55'2) without change of habit.

Fig. 2. Hodgkinsonite. Doubly terminated etched crystal. Forms: c(OOl),

m(llO), s(Oll), .t(305), g(552), m(322).

The mineral decrepitates when held in the blowpipe flame,

wherein it fuses readily and quietly to a brown enamel. Heated

in a closed tube, hodgkinsonite decrepitates strongly, splitting

up into numerous thin cleavage scales which on further heating

yield water and become brown in color. The mineral is readily

soluble in acid, yielding gelatinous silica.

The chemical analj^sis of hodgkinsonite was made on carefully

selected cleavage fragments of a clear pink color and gave the

478

PALACHE AND SCHALLERI HODGKINSONITE

following results. Quarter gram samples were used as the total

amount of available material was only somewhat over a gram.

Analysis and Ratios of Hodgkinsonite (by W. T. Schaller)

* A duplicate determination of ZnO, of which a small amount was lost, gave

51.38 per cent.

t Determined directly by fusing the mineral with sodium carbonate and col-

lecting the water in a calcium chloride tube. A determination of the loss on

ignition, corrected for oxidation of the manganese, gave the value 4.68 per cent.

A doubtful trace of lead was encountered but iron and chlorine

were absent. No water was given off by the mineral at 110°.

The ratios yield sharply the formula 3 RO.SiO2.H2O where

R is chiefly zinc and manganese. If the manganese, calcium

and magnesium be arbitrarily taken together then the ratio of

MnO + CaO + MgO to ZnO is 309 to 653 or 1 : 2.11 or nearly

1 : 2. The formula may then be written MnO.2ZnO.SiO2.H26

which may, as the water is all constitutional, be interpreted as

Mn.(ZnOH)2.Si04.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Society was held on October 28, 1913, at the

National Museum.

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka addressed the Society, his subject being The

results of the speaker's recent trip to Peru; with remarks on the anthro-

pological problems of Peru, illustrated with lantern slides. In 1910 the

speaker made a brief exploratory trip in Peru, which resulted in the ac-

quisition of some valuable data and of important skeletal collections.

The opportunity to extend the investigations came during the early part

of the current year, in connection with the preparation of the anthro-

pological exhibits for the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego;

and as a consequence three busy months were spent on the Peruvian

coast and in certain parts of the mountain region of Peru, in explora-

tion of the ruined cities and ancient cemeteries. The principal objects

of the trip were, first, the mapping out as far as possible of the anthro-

pological distribution of the prehistoric Peruvian, more particularly the

coast people; second, the determination of the physical type of the im-

portant Nasca group of people, which represent one of the highest

American cultures; third, further inquiry as to man's antiquity on the

west coast of South America; and fourth, the extension of the speaker's

researches on pre-Columbian pathology. The conclusions to which the

speaker was formerly led were in the main corroborated. In regard to

the mountain regions much remains to be determined in the future.

As to the pathology of the native Peruvian before contact with whites,

the main work can perhaps be now regarded as done, or nearly so,

altho individual variation in different morbid processes seems inexhaust-

ible, and much in this hne remains to be secured by future exploration.

The ground covered was extensive and the skeletal material examined

was enormous, the selections alone filling over thirty boxes. No exca-

vation was practiced, attention being restricted, on the coast, to the

bones covering the surface of ancient cemeteries, exploited by the peons,

and to burial caves and houses in the mountains.

Since the speaker's trip to Peru three years ago, a change for the

worse was observed in the state of preservation of the ancient remains.

Also, where formerly there were seemingly inexhaustible quantities of

skeletal material there is now a dearth of it. No such collection as

that made in 1910, when the speaker gathered 3400 important crania,

will ever again be possible from these regions. The major part of the

479

480 proceedings: anthropological society

old population of the coast region belongs to the brachycephalic type

intimately related to the Maya Zapotec type in the north. Wherever

they lived, these people of the Peruvian coast were wont to practice,

more or less, the antero-posterior head deformation. Everywhere along

the coast there are evidences of more or less admixture with a more

oblong headed element closely related to the Aztec and Algonquin

types of North America. As among the North American Pueblos,

nowhere was the aboriginal Peruvian population at any time as great

as the relatively numerous cemeteries or ruins might lead one at first

to suppose, for these burial grounds and ruins date from different, altho

not far distant, periods.

The work done, while to some extent establishing a foundation, is

merely a fair beginning. Similar investigations and collections wait

urgently on the anthropologist in the important districts of Piura,

Eton, and Moquegua, on the coast; in the western sierras from the

neighborhood and latitude of Cajamarca to those of Arequipa; and in

the eastern highlands from Tiahuanaco to Moyobamba. The most im-

portant problems that await solution are (1) the derivation of the Pe-

ruvians; (2) the time of their advent into the country; (3) the extension

and exact physical characteristics of the Aymara and Quechua ; and (4)

the genetic relations of the Peruvian to the Argentinan and Chilean

aborigines. Besides this there remains to be established in many places

the correlation of culture with the physical type of the people. The

speaker repeated what he said in a former report, that, due to the lack

of scientific supervision of a great majority of the excavations practiced

in Peru to the present time, the archeological collections from that

country are made up of little more than curiosities which it is impossible

to refer either to any definite people or period.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill DECEMBER 4, 1913 No. 20

PHYSICS. — Determination of the zonal variation of the equiva-

lent focus. E. D. TiLLYER. Bureau of Standards. Com-

municated by Fred. E. Wright.

The method of lens testing developed by Hartmann^ in 1904

has given a very efficient means of determining the grouping of

the Hght rays after passage thru a lens system. This method is

laborious and difficult when applied to the zonal variations of the

equivalent focal length. In the present paper it is proposed to

show how one set of measures gives both the variations of the

position of the focus and of the equivalent focal length: also, by

making several sets in light of different wave lengths, the axial

and oblique chromatic aberrations can be obtained.

A diagramatical sketch of the apparatus used, is given in figure

1. A nearly parallel beam of light from a distant monochromatic

source falls upon a metal plate P pierced with small holes, only

two of which are shown, forming hght rays which pass thru the

lens system and are refracted in the normal manner. A shadow

photograph is taken upon a plate placed close to the lens, a second

at a considerable distance on the other side of the focus. These

shadow images are not as sharply defined as when both exposures

are made close to the focus. If, however, care is taken, a dark

center diffraction disk can be obtained which increases the ease

and accuracy of a setting.

Now consider the position of any ray R (fig. 1) with reference

to the axial ray. Let a, b equal the distances of this ray from the

1 Hartmann, Zeitschr. f . Instrumentenkunde. 1904.

481

482

tillyer: variation of equivalent focus

axis in the planes A and B respectively, let d equal the separation

of these two planes and v the distance from A of the intersection

of this ray with the axial ray, then we have

ad

v =

a-\-h

which is the position of the focus as given by Hartmann. A var-

iation of V as A ?; from the limiting paraxial value is the spherical

aberration.

7E

T"

Fig. 1

Abbe has shown that, if we assume no spherical aberration, a

lens will be free from coma for points near the axis when the ''sine

condition" is fulfilled. If the object is at infinity this reduces to

sin u

where E is the equivalent focal length, h is the distance from the

axis of the entering ray and u is the angle this ray makes with

the axis after refraction. If E varies from the limiting zero value,

as A £' when h varies, the lens has a different equivalent focus

for each zone. It can be shown in a lens without artificial stops

and with spherical aberration, that the corresponding condition

for freedom from zonal variation of equivalent focus (coma near

the axis) is A £' — A z; = 0.

tillyer: variation of equivalent focus

483

The metal plate used for isolating the individual rays has been

calibrated, and the height h determined ; the angle u can be obtained

from

a + h a •.

tan u = — r— = ->

d

V

and consequently E and AE — A v. This set of measures can be

repeated for different wave lengths, and the variations in the

quantities determined; from A ?; we find the axial chromatic aber-

ration and the departure from the Gauss condition, and from

AE — Av, the oblique chromatic aberration and the variation of

coma with color.

0.01 n:

0.01 E

The diaphragm plate, generally used with moderate size lenses,

has holes of 1 mm. diameter arranged in a line and located at about

3 mm. intervals. The error in the known position of the- holes is

less than 0.005 mm. which corresponds to an error of about one

part in ten tliousand in A E for the edge ray of an ordinary

small lens. The shadowgraphs are easily measured on a small

Zeiss comparator with sufficient accuracy for rays somewhat

484

tillyer: variation of equivalent focus

distant from the center. Near the axis it is almost impossible to

obtain an accurate value of either AE or A ?; and the problem be-

comes physically indeterminate.

This method was first tried upon a telescope objective of 320

mm. equivalent focus, the trigonometric residuals of which were

already known.

TABLE 1

Telescope Objective, E = 320, X = 0.55 ju- Residuals in Hundredths of a

Millimeter

From these residuals it is seen that the probable error of a

determination near the edge of the objective is only a few hun-

dreths of a millimeter. Moreover it is evident that this objec-

tive is exceptionally well made.

The results of measurement of the spherical aberration and

departure from the sine condition for three photographic objec-

tives are plotted in figure 2. Curves A and B were made from

high speed anastigmats with an aperture ratio of about F 3.5

while curve C is an older much used type of symetrical anastigmat

having an aperture ratio of about F 7.7. One pecuUar feature of

curve B is the difficulty experienced in determining the relative

positions of the zero values of E and v, the v curve apparently

having a point of inflection near the axis. This may be due' to a

small error in grinding the surface, to an error in the measurements,

or to a true aberration in this type of lens. Some evidence exists

that this is a true aberration since the actual coma found in this

lens changes sign at only a small angle with the axis. Both

lenses, however, are remarkable for their freedom from aberra-

tions and for the care taken in their construction. '

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ 485

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. The change in the crystal angles of

quartz with rise in temperature. Fred. E. Wright. Geo-

physical Laboratory.

Crystallographers agree that in the development of the science

of crystallography the two minerals, quartz and calcite, have

played an exceedingly important role. Quartz was the first crys-

tal substance to attract the attention of the ancient Greeks.

They observed that its crystals are bounded by plane and not

curved surfaces, as is the case in plants and animals; and they

named it ''crystal," i.e., clear ice, on the assumption that it

had been formed from water thru the action of intense cold.

Later they found that other substances had different but equally

characteristic shapes and they accordingly extended the term

''crystal" to signify the state of being bounded by flat surfaces

rather than to denote the mineral quartz to which the name

"rock crystal" is still applied occasionally. Further observa-

tions on crystals were not made until 1669, when Nicolaus Steno,

a Danish physician, found that^the angles between any two cor-

responding quartz crystals were the same even tho the shapes

and sizes of these faces varied from crystal to crystal. Steno 's

law of the constancy of crystal angles is of fundamental importance

and on it all subsequent work in crystallograpy has been based.

Steno's observations were made at room temperature and under

ordinary atmospheric pressure, and practically all subsequent

measurements of crystal angles have been made under similar

conditions of pressure and temperature, with the result that these

two factors have been less carefully considered by crystallogra-

phers than their importance possibly merits.

We may look upon a crystal as a system of forces which finds

expression in the development of the crystal faces and in the

other crystallographic properties and which, in turn, exerts a

definite influence on external forces, either physical or chemical,

within the range of its action. This system is not invariant but

has two degrees of freedom, temperature and pressure, and, even

tho their effects may be relatively shght, yet their recognition and

study should furnish data of value. In physical chemistry the

investigation of the temperature-pressure effects on chemical-

486 WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

physical systems has led to results of the greatest interest. In

crystallography the relations between the differential changes in

the crystallographic properties and the attendant differential

changes in the optical and other constants should lead to differ-

ential equations which on integration would state the relations

between the two systems of forces (crystallographic and physical)

and thus give us information on the character and order of mag-

nitude of the crystallographic forces themselves. It is essential in

this connection to measure not only the changes in the crystal-

lographical and optical constants with temperature and pressure

but also the specific heats at the different temperatures (energy

changes) . The measurement of these properties on a few selected

minerals is now being carried out at this Laboratory. In the

present preliminary paper the results of the measurements of

the changes in the crystal angles of quartz with temperature are

presented briefly.

Method and apparatus. The quartz crystals were measured on

the thermal two-circled goniometer described recently in this

journal.^ With this goniometer "the position of the normal to

each crystal face in space was fixed by two angles (angular polar

distance and azimuth angle) for each measured temperature. The

crystal was mounted in platinum jaws and securely fastened. No

effort was made to adjust the crystal accurately because it was

evident that any mechanical device consisting of different mate-

rials would not remain fixed in position over a temperature range

of 1200°. The entire crystal was first measured at room temper-

ature and then the furnace heated to a definite temperature, and

held there 5 or 10 minutes; at this temperature the entire crystal

was remeasured, the temperature being held constant during the

measurement and the angular values on several of the faces re-

peated to insure constancy of position of the crystal during the

readings. This procedure was repeated at each temperature of

measurement up to 1250°. By this method adjustment troubles

are eliminated and the measurement of the entii-e crystal is com-

plete for each temperature and independent of previous adjust-

ment and of any slight shifts in position which may have occurred.

1 Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3: 396-401. 1913.

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

487

From the position angles of the faces thus measured the angles

between the unit rhombohedrons over the pole were computed;

also the angle between the unit rhombohedron and the prism face

immediately below it.

During the measurements the adjustment of the goniometer

was tested and found satisfactory. Readings were made to j of

arc, the circle being graduated to ^'.^ j^^ h^q j^igj^ temperatures

the light from the furnace itself is so intense that an arc light is re-

51-30

35

5140

45

51 50

O 500 1000°

Fig. 1

quired for illuminating the signal. The Hght of the furnace was

cut out to a large extent by means of a blue filter (Wratten tri-

color blue) which absorbed all of the red and yellow and most of

the green of the spectrum, colors which are most intense in the

furnace, whereas the arc light emits relatively more blue light.

At 1250° the signals observed thru this filter were perfectly

sharp and the measurements were as easy to make as at room

temperatures.

The results of measurements are listed in Table 1 and are rep-

resented graphically in figure 1. /

2 In making the readings the quarters of minutes were recorded as follows :

/^' = 1-; 3^' = 1'; M' = 1' ; this method of indicating the quarter minutes was

found convenient and satisfactory' in practice.

488

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

TABLE 1

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

489

TABLE 1— Continued

Note: In this table the different sets of readings are lettered thus: a readings

made on October 4; 6, on October 7; c, on October 8; d, on October 10; e, on

October 15; /, on October 17; g, on October 18; li, on October 22; i, on October 24;

fc, on October 27; /, on October 28, 1913. All crystals measured were from Herki-

mer Co., N. Y., and were kindly loaned to the Laboratory by the U. S. National

Museum (Specimen No. 82925).

In Table 1 the computed changes in the polar angle p for the unit

rhombohedi'on (1011) are given in place of the measured angles,

which of themselves have no direct significance because the crys-

tals were purposely not accurately adjusted before the measure-

ment.

The heavy curve in figure 1 represents the average value of the

observations. At 575° it has a noticeable discontinuity which

marks the transformation of a into /3 quartz; this is accompanied

by a noticeable change in volume and also in the optical and crys-

tallographical properties. At the inversion temperature the

reflexion signals from all of the faces, both rhombohedi'on and

prism, become temporarily (2 to 5 seconds) indistinct; the sharp

signal widens out into a hazy patch of light, moves noticeably and

490 WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

finally regains its original sharpness but has usually shifted its

position noticeably in the field.

The form of the curve below 575° (a-quartz) suggests an expo-

nential curve. To test this conclusion the first, second and third

derivatives were formed by the method of differences between

values at constant intervals on the curve. The curves of these

derivatives were similar in shape to the original curve, thus prov-

ing that the original curve can not be adequately represented by

an ordinary polynomial equation up to the fifth degree. Accord-

ingly an exponential function of the form

y = at + b (e* - 1)

was tried with the following results, the constants a and b having

been ascertained from the observed values by the least square

method :^

2/=51°47'.4- 10.0113173^ + 0.01335(6'^^""- l)i

Expressed in absolute temperatures this equation becomes

?/ = 51°51'.4-|o.0113173r + 0.00087093e^^°|

* This function is the simplest combination of an algebraic with a transcenden-

tal function. The introduction of the exponential series into the equation has the

effect of rapidly increasing the slope of the curve near the inversion point. On

forming the second and third differential quotients of this function we find that

—— • = -Tz . Now in mechanics the first differential quotient is termed the veloc-

ity and the second differential quotient, the acceleration. The product, mass times

acceleration, defines the force acting. If we interpret the above differential quo-

tients from this view-point we find that the rate of change in acceleration of

angular velocity with temperature at any time is equal to the acceleration (force)

itself. This condition implies a force which increases with greatly increasing

rapidity as the temperature rises and indicates that at some definite temperature

(575° in quartz) the force has reached such a magnitude that the crystal forces can

no longer withstand it; a profound change in the internal arrangement results to

relieve the stresses set up. Simple inspection of the curve indicates that its rise

near the inversion point is so great that such a condition can not continue far

above 575°.

It is interesting to note that the exponential function above is similar in form

to that suggested by Dr. Adams in the last number of this Journal, p. 469. All

d^y d-y

such equations reduce on differentiation to the form -y-^ = K t^ and indi-

cate clearly that the curve they represent can not be expressed by a simple poly-

nomial with positive exponents. The introduction of the exponential function

provides more effectively for the extra rapid rise or fall and consequent straighten-

ing out of the curve than the addition of an extra term to a polynomial series.

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

491

The agreement between the values computed from the first

equation and the data of observation is indicated in Table 2.

A check on these values was obtained from the data on the

expansion of quartz parallel to the principal axis as determined by

RandalP and the specific volumes of quartz kindly furnished me by

Dr. Sosman of this Laboratory. These values are listed in Table

3. In Randall's paper the true expansion coefficients only are

given. From them the total expansion listed in Table 3 was

found by Euler's method of mechanical quadrature.

TABLE 3

The changes in the crystal angle p of the unit rhombohedron

with temperature as calculated from these data are given in column

5, the observed values in column 6 and the differences in column 7.

The agreement between observation and theory is excellent,

better in fact than might well have been expected from the data

used. Such close agreement should be considered more or less

accidental. '

* Phys. Rev., 20: 10-37. 1905.

492

Wright: change in angles of quartz

It is of interest to note the similarity in shape between the curves

representing the changes in other properties of quartz.^ These

are Hsted in Table 4 and are represented graphically in figure 2

after reduction to a common unit. From these curves it is evi-

dent that whatever it is that produces the changes in quartz 'as the

inversion point is approached, the relative changes produced bear

practically linear relations to one another. This applies to crystal

angles, total expansion, specific volume, birefringence and circular

polarization. The curves representing refractive indices as de-

termined by Rinne and Kolb^ are, however, somewhat different in

shape. No satisfactory explanation of this divergence has yet

been found. A redetermination of the refractive indices of quartz

at various temperatures is being undertaken in this Laboratory.

TABLE 4

In order to form an idea of the energy relations involved I ob-

tained from Dr. White of this Laboratory the values of his deter-

*The equations which represent the changes in the different properties of

quartz with temperature are:

Birefringence, y = 0.00910 - |o.ll5735i - 0.171195 (ei^o _ i) I lO'^

Specific volume y = 0.3772 + |o.l54944i + 0.202369 (eToo _ i) j lO"*

Total expansion, in cal- \ ^ ^ ^ + /o.090812i + 0.0961713 (.tItt _ {)\ io-4

^ . t ./ •

y= 0.0061302( + 0.0200392 (e'""-l).

/

ones per gram,

Excess spec, heat, per de-

gree

The constants in these equations were obtained by the least square method

from the data of observation.

6 Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, 2 : 138-158. 1910.

WRIGHT: CHANGE IN ANGLES OF QUARTZ

493

minations of the mean specific heats of quartz at 100°, 300°, 500°,

550°; also of the mean specific heats of two normal silicates, albite

and microcline, which do not have low temperature inversion points.

From these values the total heats were computed. The specific

heats of quartz were consistently higher than those of albite and

microcline which behave like other normal silicates in their specific

heat values. The differences between the total heats of quartz

100

0° 100

EXPANSION

SPEC. VOL.

200" 300"

CRYSTAL ANGLE

BIREFRINGENCE

400" 500°

SPEC. HEAT

Fig. 2

and microcline for the different temperatures are plotted in figure

2. The general shape of this curve is similar to that representing

the change in crystal angles except that its curvature is greater

and approaches that of a circular arc. Altho part of this differ-

ence in shape may be due to experimental error in the different

sets of values yet it is an appreciable difference and may express

relations of which we are at present unaware. It is evident, how-

ever, that in a general way the relative changes in the crystallo-

graphical and optical properties of quartz with temperature follow

494 CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE

the changes in its excess energy content. In calcite the change

in crystal angles with temperature is practically linear up to 600°.

This indicates that in quartz the excess in energy content repre-

sents an internal reaction or equilibrium condition which even-

tually causes the inversion. It will be of interest to study other

minerals, showing inversion points, with respect to their energy

content and crystallographical and optical properties at different

temperatures; also to ascertain the form of the curves near the

melting points.

PALAEONTOLOGY. — The systematic position of the Crinoid

family Plicatocrinidae. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

In the preparation of the section dealing with the Crinoidea in

the new edition (1913) of Eastman's translation of Zittel's Palaeon-

tologie, Springer and Clark^ were unable to come to a satisfactory

conclusion regarding the proper systematic position of the family

Plicatocrinidae (as defined by us including the genera Plicato-

crinus, Hyocrinus, Gephyrocrinus, Thalassocrinus, Ptilocriiius and

Calamocrinus) , which we tentatively placed among the Crinoidea

Articulata, just beyond the comatulids, the young of which the

species in this family greatly resemble.

The Articulata include all of the other recent crinoids so far

discovered and this fact, together with the close resemblance of

the species of Plicatocrinidae to the young of the comatuHds, was

largely responsible for our placing this family here. But the

species of the Plicatocrinidae differ from all of the other forms in-

cluded in the Articulata in a number of most important and fun-

damental features.

1. The tegmen is entirely covered with a pavement of solid

plates.

2. The orals are always present; they are not plane or spherical

triangles, as they are in all of the (comparatively few) species of

Articulata which possess them, but their edges are turned upwards

so that instead of presenting five sharp angles to the mouth they

^ When this paper was prepared and sent to press Mr. Springer was absent from

Washington, but he returned to the city just before its publication. After a dis-

cussion of the subject matter he requested me to add a note stating that he is in

complete accord with my conclusions as herein expressed.

CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE 495

meet above it in five sharp parallel edges, as do the orals of the

stalked young of the macrophreate comatulids.

3. The calyx is more or less asymmetrical; the two posterior

radials may be enlarged, as in Calamocrinus, or there may be a

very small basal just to the right of the anal area, as in Hyocrinus.

In the young of the comatulids the two posterior radials may be

larger than the others, and there is always a radianal, situated

more or less to the right hand side of the posterior interradius.

4. The dorsal cup is very large, entirely enclosing the visceral

mass dorsally and laterally; this condition is identical with that

found in the young of the comatulids, but only occurs in the adults

of the Articulata in the highly aberrant Marsupites.

5. The plates of the dorsal cup are very thin, entirely lacking

the extensive inward calcareous development so characteristic

of all the other species of the Articulata; in this the Plicatocrinidae

agree with the young of the comatulids, and with the highly

aberrant pelagic comatulids Marsupites and Uintacrinus.

6. Instead of occupying the entire distal edge of the radials as

in the Articulata (excepting only the highly aberrant Marsupites),

the arm bases occupy only a small part, as in the stalked young

of the comatulids.

7. There are no infrabasals.

8. There are no pinnules on the arm bases; proximal pinnules

are, except in a few very exceptional instances among the coma-

tulids, always present in the Articulata; but they are absent in the

young of the comatulids until a considerable size is attained.

9. Tho the pinnules have essentially the same basal structure as

those of the Articulata, they are in all ways more generalized, and

suggest in many ways ramules or degenerate arm branches rather

than perfect pinnules of the Articulata type ; in this they resemble

the pinnules of the very young comatulids, or of the growing tip

of the arm in larger specimens.

10. The apex of the dorsal cup shows a tendency to form a con-

cavity for the reception of the column.

11. The column lacks all trace of the modified columnal known

as the proximale, but adds new segments at its summit thruout

life; in this respect the column resembles that of the young coma-

496 CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE

tulids before the appearance of the final stem segment, which

eventually will come to form the centrodorsal.

12. There are no cirri; the column is attached by a heavy ter-

minal stem plate as in the young of the comatulids.

A few words of explanation regarding the column of the Articu-

lata may not be out of place here. The column of the Articulata

(entirely absent in the Comatulida Innatantes, the one suborder

of comatulids not represented in the recent seas) is entirely differ-

ent from that of any other crinoids for, instead of growing continu-

ously thruout life thru the formation of columnals just under the

crown, it possesses a definite growth limit at which further increase

in the number of columnals abruptly ceases, and the last columnal

to be formed becomes attached to the calyx by close suture (usu-

ally fusing with the inf rabasals) , enlarges, and becomes the so-

called proximale which is, to all intents and purposes, an apical

cal.yx plate. Immediately below this enlarged columnal or prox-

imale is another more or less modified columnal to which it is at-

tached by a modified close suture, the so-called stem syzygy

which, except for a superficial resemblance, has nothing in common

with the brachial syzygies.

The typical form of the column in the Articulata is seen in the

young of the comatulids at the time of the formation of the cen-

trodorsal; but this typical form persists in the adults only in the

genus Thioliericrinus, and in the family Phrynocrinidae. In

. such types as the Apiocrinidae the proximale is so enormously

enlarged that it involves with itself in this process a considerable

number of the columnals beneath it, so that a cone shaped series

of enlarged columnals is formed, each of which is a reduplication,

progressively Jess perfect, of the proximale just beneath the calyx.

Essentially the same state of affairs is seen in the Bourgueticri-

nidae, especially in the recent genus Ilycrinus. In the comatulids

(excepting in the Innatantes, which never possess one) the column

is discarded at the stem syzygy between the proximale and the

columnal just beneath it.

In the young pentacrinite the proximale is formed exactly as in

the young comatuUd; but the great excess of column growth in-

duces the formation of new columnals between the proximale and

CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE 497

the csdyx before the proximale has time to become attached; the

proximale therefore becomes pushed away from the calyx, but

exactly as in the case of the comatulids, cirri are protruded from

it, and it becomes united to the columnal just below it by a stem

syzygy, these two columnals now forming what is known as a nodal

and an infranodal, the nodal (with the cirri) being in origin a true

proximale, and the infranodal the columnal just beneath the true

proximale. Following the formation of this first nodal the pen-

tacrinite proceeds to grow an entirely new column, of which the

first nodal represents the terminal stem plate; this second column

grows to a definite length, and then the same nodal forming proc-

ess is repeated. Each pentacrinite nodal with the series of

internodals beneath it, therefore, is morphologically the equiva-

lent of the entire column in such types as the Apiocrinidae, Phryno-

crinidae, or the comatulids.

In the adult pentacrinites only nodals are formed just beneath

the calyx, so that here we have a series of reduplicated proximales,

just as in the Apiocrinidae; but none of these nodals become at-

tached to the calyx, for they are constantly being pushed away

from the calyx by the formation of new nodals. At a Uttle dis-

tance from the calyx intercalated columnals begin to appear be-

tween them, with the nearest of which they always unite them-

selves by syzygy, so that at a somewhat greater distance from the

crown the nodals (proximales), united by syzygy to the infra-

nodals, with which they form syzygial pairs, become regularly

spaced, forming the typical pentacrinite column as we commonly

find it.

In the bourgueticrinoid type of column any two of the colum-

nals may be united by stem syzygy; these double columnals are

rare in the distal portion of the column, but increase in frequency

toward the crown. Each of these syzygially united pairs of col-

umnals represents an effort to form a proximale which, thru

excessive stem growth, has been thrust away from the calyx

exactly as in the case of the pentacrinites. In addition to these

there is just under the crown a definite series of proximales, cor-

responding to the continuously growing and indefinite series found

in the pentacrinites. To emphasize the essential similarity of the

498 CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE

columns of the pentacrinites and of the Bourgueticrinidae it may

be mentioned that the earhest nodals in the young pentacrinite

column resemble far more the syzygially united columns in the

bourgueticrinoid column than they do the nodals of the adult,

for they are much elongated, and the cirri are usually defective,

three, two, or sometimes only one, in number.

It is evident that the structure of the Plicatocrinidae in all of its

details corresponds very closely to that of the young comatulids

before the appearance of the columnal which is eventually to form

the centrodorsal ; it is also evident that this family can scarcely

find a logical position among the Articulata, from all of the other

forms in which it differs so radically.

The order Inadunata of Wachsmuth and Springer includes Cri-

noidea in which the arms are free above the radials; the dorsal

cup is limited to radials, basals, infrabasals (when present) and

anal plates; no interradials nor interbrachials occur except at the

posterior (anal) side, and the brachials are never incorporated

in the cup; all the plates of the cup are united by close suture; the

mouth is subtegminal ; the column is circular in section (with very

rare exceptions), without a proximale.

It is at once evident that the Plicatocrinidae agree with the mem-

bers of this order far better than they do with those of the Articu-

lata, differing only in a lack of a distinct differentiation of the

posterior area, and in the possession of open food grooves and an

open mouth. But in the Encrinidae, which are referred to this

order, the posterior area is in no way different from the others,

while in at least three of the recent genera of the Plicatocrinidae

it is not quite the same, so that this difference is very slight. In

many of the fossil Inadunata we do not know the disk; while

among recent types the genera of the Plicatocrinidae have the

deepest food grooves and the nearest approach to a subtegminal

mouth; it may be that in reality this apparent difference is non-

existent.

A rapid survey of the various families of the Inadunata — in

the suborder Larviformia the Stephanocrinidae, Pisocrinidae, Hap-

locrinidae, Allegecrinidae, Synbathocrinidae and Cupressocrinidae,

and in the suborder Fistulata the Hybocrinidae, Heterocrinidae,

CLARK: CRINOID FAMILY PLICATOCRINIDAE 499

Anomalocrinidae, Cremacrinidae, Catillocrimdae, Belemnocrinidae,

Dendrocrinidae, Crotalocrinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Botryocrinidae

and Poteriocrinidae — cannot fail to give the impression that there

is certainly more than a superficial similarity between these types

and the Plicatocrinidae. As an interesting point it may be noticed

that the systematic interrelationships within the family order

Inadunata are decidedly heterogeneous, and the same character

is clearly reflected within the family Plicatocrinidae.

While the Phcatocrinidae, broadly speaking, may be said to

agree perfectly with these families collectively — that is to say the

characters presented by the component species may all be matched

in the order Inadunata and in no other order — the family cannot

definitely be assigned to any certain position. Therefore the

most logical position for the Plicatocrinidae appears to me to be

within the order Inadunata, at the end of the series of families,

beyond the Poteriocrinidae.

Long ago (1899) Dr. F. A. Bather reached the conclusion that the

Plicatocrinidae fwhich he divided into Plicatocrinidae and the

Hyocrinidae) were really inadiuiate forms, and he accordingly

included them in the Inadunata, which he considered as compris-

ing the Hybocrinidae, the Stephanocrinidae, the Heterocrinidae,

the Calceocrinidae, the Pisocrinidae, the Catillocrinidae, the

Zophocrinidae, theHaplocrinidae, the Allegecrinidae, theSynbatho-

crinidae, the Belemnocrinidae, the Plicatocrinidae, the Hyocrinidae

and the Saccocomidae.

Of the four great orders of crinoids, two, the Camerata and the

Flexibilia, range from the Ordovician thru the Carboniferous.

The Inadunata began in the Ordovician, one (possibly two)

families persisting to the Permian, and one to the Trias, in which

horizon the stalked pentacrinites were already developed. The

Articulata began, so far as we can ascertain, in the Trias, and all

of the fossil types (excepting only the Thiolliericrinidae and the

Eugeniacrinidae) persist in the recent seas. It is thus not at all

surprising that we should find in the recent seas, in addition to the

dominant Articulata, a remnant of the Inadunata.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — Triangulation along the west coast of Florida. Clarence

H. SwicK. Special Publication No. 16, U. S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey. 1913.

This publication gives the results of triangulation done by the Coast

and Geodetic Survey and the Engineer Corps, U. S. Army, on the west

coast of Florida from Cape Sable to the Alabama boundary and from

the inland town of Gainesville to the coast at Cedar Keys. This, to-

gether with Appendix No. 6, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Report

for 1911, gives all the available triangulation data for the State of

Florida.

Altho only of tertiary accuracy, this triangulation has a great prac-

tical value in that it furnishes to the geographer and to the engineer the

geographic positions of more than 1150 points all correlated on one

geodetic datum. The observations involved extend over a period of

more than sixty years and some of the stations are lost, but in the bays

and harbors and at other important places along the coast new triangu-

lation supplements the old, and, as a rule, the more recent points are

permanently marked and may be recovered without difficulty. There

is given the latitude and longitude of each station and the azimuth of

each line observed over; also all available descriptions of the location

and marking of the stations. A series of sketches and an index of

stations make it possible to find readily the data for any point or locality.

C. H. SwiCK.

GEOPHYSICS. — Note on the temperature in the deep boring at Findlay,

Ohio. John Johnston. Am. Jour. Sci., (4) 36: 131-134. 1913.

A record of a series of temperature observations made in a hole

drilled to a depth of 3000 feet in the neighborhood of Findlay. The

temperature gradient in the sedimentary rocks at horizons between

1100 and 2600 feet proved to be about 0?41C. per 100 feet, which is

smaller than what has been considered the common average value of

this gradient. J. J.

500

abstracts: physical chemistry 501

PHYSICS. — La mesure des temperatures elevees par le thermometre a gaz.

Arthur L. Day and R. B. Sosman. J. d. Physique (5), 2: 727-

749; 831-844; 899-911. 1912.

A translation into French, by Prof. P. Chappuis, of "High Tempera-

ture Gas Thermometry" (Pubhcation of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, No. 157, 1911). The material has been somewhat con-

densed and rarranged, and the later work on the revision of the lower

portion of the high temperature scale and on the boiling point of sulfur

("The nitrogen thermometer scale from 300° to 630° with a direct de-

termination of the boiling-point of sulfur. Am. J. Sci. (4), 33: 517-533.

1912) added. A. L. D.

ELECTRICITY. — The analysis of alternating current waves by the

method of Fourier, with special reference to methods of facilitating

the computations. F. W. Grover. Scientific paper 203, Bull.

Bureau of Standards. 1913.

The natural method for the analysis of alternating electromotive

force and current curves is by means of the classic equations of Fourier,

but on account of the labor involved, recourse is often had to graphical

or approximate methods. Runge has shown that, by grouping similar

terms, the number of terms, which need to be calculated in the Fourier

method, may be materially reduced, but his work does not seem to be

generally known. The present paper has for its purpose the presenta-

tion of the method of Runge in a form which shall be of especial serv-

ice in making numerical computations. By systematic arrangement

of the work, and by use of tables given, the labor of calculation has

been very considerably reduced. Examples of the analysis of actual,

experimentally obtained curves are given, which illustrate the methods

of computation, and the practical applications which may be made of

the results of the analj^ses. F. W. G.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— T/ie physical chemistry of Seger cones.

Robert B. Sosman. Trans. Am. Ceramic Soc, 15 : 482-498. 1913.

The relation of certain simple principles of physical chemistry to the

behavior of the Seger pyrometric cones, which are widely used in the

ceramic industry for the indication of heat effects in the kilns, was

illustrated by experiments and charts. The high temperature cones

Nos. 28 to 42 form a simple two-component series composed of alumina

and silica. Their behavior agrees well with the known properties of

this system, taking into account the three retarding influences: (1) lack

of initial homogeneity, (2) slow rate of fusion of silica, and (3) high

502 abstracts: geology

viscosity of the melt. Cones 5 to 27 are made up of four oxides. It

is possible to discuss them, however, as a three-component system of

orthoclase, calcium silicate, and aluminum silicate, with excess silica as

a relatively inactive addition. In this system, as in the foregoing, the

control exercised by the low-melting eutectics upon the indications of

the cones is well brought out. R. B. S.

GEOLOGY. — Are quantitative physico-chemical studies of rocks prac-

ticable? Arthur L. Day, Comptes Rendus Congres Interna-

tional G^ologique XI, Stockholm, 1910. Vol. II, pp. 965-967.

An address before the Section on Mineralogy and Petrography of

the Eleventh International Congress of Geologists, in which an effort

was made to show by reference to recent laboratory studies of simple

mineral relations, using physico-chemical methods, that these methods

must eventually find application in the study of the very complicated

mineral systems (the igneous rocks) also. A. L. D.

GEOLOGY. — The volcanoes and rocks of Pantelleria. Henry S. Wash-

ington. J. Geol., 21: 653-670. 1913.

Ths island of Pantelleria was studied in September, 1905, and the

paper describes both the volcanic structure and the petrography of the

very interesting lavas.

Pantelleria (which lies about half-way between Tunis and Malta) is

entirely volcanic. It consists of an early, large cone, composed of

trachytes and pantellerites. After a large explosive caldera was formed

in this, a second volcanic phase began, consisting of the building up of a

trachyte core within the caldera. Later this was faulted and a large

block tilted down, smaller cones and flows of glassy pantellerite being

poured out about this. Volcanism ceased with the formation of many

small basaltic cones on the flanks of the earliest cone.

The important lavas are described in great detail, seventeen complete

chemical analyses having been made. The trachytes and pantellerites

are interesting because they carry abundantly well developed crystal

of soda-microcline, an unusual feldspar, the crystals of which are to

be investigated optically and chemically later. The latter rocks are

also noteworthy for their content in the rare, triclinic, sodic amphibole,

cossyrite. The basalts are of a common type, but their occurrence here

in connection with such highly sodic rocks is of interest.

The relations of the lavas to the volcanism were examined, and there

is a probable connection between the successive changes in the magma

and the phases of volcanicity, a feature apparently here recognized for

abstracts: mineralogy 503

the first time. Such a connection would be of great volcanologic im-

portance, and as there is evidence of its obtaining at other volcanic

centers, it will form the subject of future investigation.

The analyses of these rocks made by the author show that all the

earlier analyses, which have been very often cited, are subject to serious

analytical errors. The paper closes with a comparison of the Pantel-

lerian lavas with those of other regions. H. S. W.

PETROLOGY. — The index ellipsoid (optical indicatrix) in petrographic

microscope work. ' Fred. Eugene Wright. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 35:

133-138. 1913.

In this paper the importance of presenting the subject of microscop-

ical petrography consistently from the viewpoint of the index ellipsoid

aS' applied to wave-front normals is emphasized. The various optical

properties employed in practical petrographic microscope work can be

best described and explained systematically, by means of the index

ellipsoid. The use of the so-called "axes of elasticity," a, b, C, or X, Y,

Z, in this connection is confusing and only adds to the difficulties

encountered by the observer in mastering the subject. They should

accordingly be abandoned and the French usage of naming the princi-

pal axes of the index ellipsoid, a, /3, y (or Up, nm, ng) adopted. This

applies in particular to the different modes now in vogue for expressing

extinction angles. For a given crystal face an extinction angle is simply

the angle between a definite crystallographic direction on the face and

one of the axes, a' or y', of its optic ellipse, and this fact should be indi-

cated in the expression for the extinction angle. To introduce "axes

of elasticity" (a', c', or X', Z') in this connection is not only needless

but less direct, as it introduces entirely new conceptions which, experi-

ence has shown, only tend to bewilder the student. F. E. W.

MINERALOGY. — Two varieties of calciovolborthite{?) from Eastern Utah.

W. F. HiLLEBRAND and H. E. Merwin. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 35:

441^45. 1913.

From chemical studies, two minerals from Paradox Valley, Colorado,

are considered to be varieties of calciovolborthite. In the absence of

optical data concerning the original mineral, the following optical

properties, determined from one of these varieties, .are assigned to

calciovolborthite. Color, yellow-green, with no distince pleochroism;

biaxial, with strong inclined dispersion; optically negative for blue and

positive for red; a^g, = 2.01, (8Na = 2.05, 7xa = 2.10. The optical

properties give evidence of monoclinic symmetry. W. F. H.

504 abstracts: zoology

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— T'/ie simultaneous crystallization of calci e and

certain sulfides of iron, copper and zinc. H. E. Merwin. Am.

Jour. Sci. (4).' 1913.

The study of three occurrences of the sulfides of ron and zinc has

established the certainty of the deposition of marcasite and the strong

probability of the deposition of wurtzite contemporaneously with calcite.

The marcasite is d finitely oriented with regard o the calcite and also

to accompanying pyrite. A close similarity between the crystallo-

gra hie elements of pyrite and marcasite is shown. H. E. M.

BOTANY. Le fruit mur et les jeunes semis de VAeglopsis Chevalieri.

Walter T. Swingle. Bull, de la Soc. bot. de France, 60:406-

409, Fig. A, No. 5, seances de mai-juin, Sept. 15, 1913.

As a supplement to the original description of Aeglopsis Chevalieri,

the structure of the ripe fruit and the mode of germination are described

in detail. The shell of the fruit is less woody than that of the other

genera of the hard-shelled group of citrous fruits with the exception of

Chaetospermum. The fruits are slightly pyriform at the base and often

show a low protuberance at the apex. The peel is brilliant orange-

brown. The membrane separating the cells is very thin, making them

triangular in shape. They are filled with large flattened seeds immersed

in a sticky transparent amber-colored aromatic fluid. The shell of the

fruit is made up of two layers, the brilliantly colored hardened glandu-

lar skin, and a woody layer, on the inside of which there are numerous

small glands. It is thought that these may secrete the sticky fluid sur-

rounding the seeds. A seven-celled fruit is figured in cross and longi-

tudinal section.

The seeds germinate quickly and the cotyledons, altho they turn

green remain underground but near the surface. The first pair of

leaves are opposite, sessile and cordiform. There is also a second pair

of opposite leaves which are distinctly petiolate. This plant differs from

all others of the tribe Citreae hitherto studied in having this second pair

of opposite leaves. Maude Kellerman.

ZOOLOGY. — A Revision of the crinoid family Mariametridce. Austin

HoBART Clark. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash-

ington, 26: 141-154. 1913.

The family Mariametridse, as here revised, includes six genera, Pontio-

metra, Oxymetra, Liparometra (nov.), Lamprometra (nov.), Dichrometra

and Mariametra, to which forty-nine described species are assigned.

The range of each genus is given, together with the reference to the

original description. A key showing the differential characters of the

genera is included. A. H. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 86th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a joint

meeting with the Anthropological Society of Washington, was held in

the Auditorium of the New National Museum, on Monday evening,

October 20, 1913.

His Serene Highness, the Prince of Monaco, gave a lecture on Re-

searches in oceanography and anthropology , illustrated with lantern slides

and motion pictures.

The various ingenious devices used in the manifold branches of

oceanography were described by the speaker, and their operation on

his own yacht clearly illustrated by a number of moving pictures —

pictures that showed not only how the work was done, but also the

alertness and the zest of the investigator to learn new facts.

The remarks on anthropology were confined chiefly to an account of

the reasons for, and uses to be made of, an Anthropological Institute

which, thru the speaker's generosity, is being established in Paris.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 228th meeting was held in Baltimore, at the Physical Laboratory

of the Johns Hopkins University, on May 17, 1913. The meeting was

called to order at 8.25 p.m. by W. W. Randall. The following papers

were presented:

The theory and application of the selenium cell, by A. H. Pfund. Dis-

cussion by Sidell, Cox, Acree and Randall.

The absorption spectra of solutions (Illustrated), by J. Sam Guy.

C. P. Van Gundy, Secretary pro tem.

The 229 meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, on October 9, 1913.

The fohowing papers were read:

Equilibrium in the system alkali carbonate-silica, Paul Niggli of the

Geophysical Laboratory. Presented by John Johnston. The systern

M20-Si02-C02 has been experimentally investigated for the alkali

metals sodium, potassium, and lithium.. The changes in weight were

determined of mixtures of alkali carbonate and silica, under one at-

mosphere of carbon dioxide, at various accurately measured tempera-

tures. The paper appeared in full in the November Journal of the

American Chemical Society. The paper was discussed briefly by Foster

and Johnston.

505

506 proceedings: the botanical society

New crystalline silicates of potassium and sodium by G. W. Morey of

the Geophysical Laboratory. The bomb used for heating mixtures in

the presence of water at high temperatures was described and shown.

The properties of the new sihcates and sihcate-water melts which have

been prepared \Yere then briefly covered, and samples were shown.

The paper will appear in full in the Journal of the American Chemical

Society.

Reports from the Rochester meeting of the general Society were made

as follows: C. L. Parsons, on the proceedings of the Council; R. C.

Wells, on the physico-chemical papers; I. K. Phelps, on biochemistry;

J. A. LeClerc, on agricultural chemistry, papers on hygiene, and ex-

cursions; M. X. Sullivan, on various papers not mentioned in the other

reports; Hillebrand and Bigelow, on the Smoker; Walker, on the coal

analysis discussion; and Cameron, on the fertilizer section. The

question of agreement on analytical methods, raised by Cameron, was

discussed by Hillebrand, who pointed out the need of testing the homo-

geneity of standard samples before sending them out.

The question of the absorption of the American Chemical Journal

by the American Chemical Society was discussed at some length. The

meeting decided to take no action in opposition to the decisions of the

Council and Directors of the general- Society.

The 230th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, on November 13,

1913. The President appointed the following committee to represent

the Society at the McGee Commemorative Meeting on December 5.

F. W. Gierke, W. Blum, F. K. Cameron, W. F. Hillebrand and D. T.

Day.

The election of officers for 1914 resulted as follows: President, M. X.

Sullivan, Bureau of Soils; First Vice-President, C. L. Alsberg,

Bureau of Chemistry; Second Vice-President, H. H. Bunzel, Bureau of

Plant Industry; Secretary, R. B. Sosman, the Geophysical Laboratory;

Treasurer, F. P. Dewey, the Mint; Councilors, J. A. LeClerc, L. M.

ToLMAN and P. H. Walker of Bureau of Chemistry, and S. F. Agree

of Johns Hopkins University; Executive Committee, E. C. McKelvy

of Bureau of Standards, R. C. Wells of Geological Survey, J. Johnston

of Geophysical Laboratory and E. W. Boughton of Bureau of Chem-

istry.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 13th annual meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held at the Bureau of Plant Industry on October 17, 1913, with

seventeen members present. The customary reports were presented

and approved and the following officers elected for the ensuing year:

President, C. L. Shear; Vice-President, A. S. Hitchcock; Recording

Secretary, C. E. Chambliss; Corresponding Secretary, P. L. Ricker;

Treasurer, H. H. Bartlett. Mr. F. L. Lewton was nominated as Vice-

President from the Society for the Washington Academy of Sciences.

proceedings: the botanical society 507

The 90th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held on October 6, 1913, at the Cosmos Club with forty-two mem-

bers and seventeen guests present, including the following distinguished

European botanists: Frau Dr. Brockmann-Jerosch, Zurich; Dr.

Edward Rxjeel, Zurich; Prof. Carl Schroter, Zurich; Prof. C. von

TuBEUF, Munich.

The program consisted of brief informal remarks, as follows:

President Stockberger: An address of welcome to the guests of the

Society.

Mr. Walter T. Swingle: Citrus plants of the world and their im-

portance and use in connection with citrus culture and citrus breeding.

Prof. C. VON Tubeuf: A brief summary of the results of twenty years'

work with the mistletoe. (Translated by Prof. Schroter).

Mr. David Fairchild : Plant introduction work of the Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Prof. Carl Schroter: Impressions received during the American

International Phyteographic excursion.

Mr. Carl Kellerman : Nodule production and nitrogen fixation by

plants other than leguniinosae.

Mr. Haven Metcalf : The chestnut blight disease. ■

Mr. W. E. Safford: Photographs of bullthorn acacias.

The 91st regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held on November 4, 1913, at the Cosmos Club with forty-six

members and five guests present.

Dr. Harry B. Humphrey and Messrs G. C. Husmann and K. J. J.

Lotsy were elected to membership.

, The action of the retiring Executive Committee relative to the giving

of a dinner in honor of the seventieth birthday of Dr. Edward L.

Greene was called to the attention of the Society by the President and

a committee was appointed to arrange the details.

The following scientific program was presented:

Abbreviations used in the citation of botanical literature. Prof. A. S.

Hitchcock. The speaker pointed out the different methods used for

abbreviating citations, the extreme contraction on the one hand, such

as "O B Z" (Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift) , and on the other

the elaborated citations used by some authors in the Pflanzenreich.

Abbreviations should be brief as possible consistent with clearness, but

should follow a definite system. The speaker described the system fol-

lowed in abbreviating citations used in the Contributions from the Na-

tional Herbarium. The record of authorized abbreviations of authors

and titles is indexed in a card catalog. Authors consult this record

when preparing manuscript for publication, thus aiding the editor to

secure uniformity.

Non-parasitic foliage injury. Mr. Carl P. Hartley. Notes were

given on the effects of drouth and storm on leaves of ornamental trees

at Washington, D. C, for the past season. June and July were hot

and dry, -ndth but 35 per cent of normal rainfall. Norway maple, es-

508 proceedings: the botanical society

pecially in street planting, suffered most from drouth, the margins of

leaves being killed; in the worst cases whole leaves except parts imme-

diately adjoining the veins died. Most other trees, including Acer ru-

hrum, escaped serious leaf injury. A northeast storm with hail and a

66-mile wind at the end of July injured many species, especially sugar

maple and American basswood. The storm injury to maple resulted in

the death of part of the leaf at the -margin and between the veins, with-

out laceration or other external indication of mechanical injury. These

storm-injured maple-leaves could be distinguished from those hurt by

drouth only by their limitation to parts of trees especially exposed to

the storm.

Pitfalls in 'plant 'pathology. Dr. H. W. Wollenweber. A revision

of the hundreds of species of Fusarium in literature has led the speaker

to believe that the genus Fusarium contains only 30 to 50 different

forms. A sharp criticism was given to mycologists who send unre-

liable specimens to the international " Pilzcentrale" in Amsterdam.

Many errors are caused by the earlier opinion that Fusaria as a rule

are adapted to one particular host. Upon receiving a request for a

particular wound-parasitic Fusarium even the author of that species

is liable to make the following mistake. He isolates from a diseased

specimen a fungus, which he sends to the inquirer when it has produced

sickle shaped spores which he thinks belong to species* previously de-

scribed by him. Upon a second request perhaps a year later he would

isolate similarly from another specimen of the same host presuming to

obtain the same fungus. The speaker by chance checked up the strains

sent under the same name to three different places at various time by

the same author and found two different species. Careful reference to

the source and the method of isolations and determination are required

to eliminate mistakes of this sort.

If one is unfamiliar with the method used to develop sporodochia

with normal spores he might consider a subnormal spore as normal.

This leads to another pitfall, where diagnoses of the same species disagree

and the subnormal fungus is described as new. An example of this

kind is F. trichothecioides Wr., wound parasite of the potato, a fungus

the early stage of which is described as F. tuherivorum by Wilcox and

Link.

Nectria ipomoeae Halsted is mentioned as an example of a species

furnishing many pitfalls. This is a cosmopolitan saprophytic ascomy-

cete which crosses the path of various specialists. This fungus is called

Nectria ipomoeae when isolated from Ipomoea, N. coffeicola when from

Coffea, N. cancri, when from canker spots of Theobroma, N. vandae

when from Vanda.

Nectria discophora Mont, has been four times described as a new

species by Paul Hennings, as pointed out by v. Hohnel and Weese,

simply because it looked different when collected from various hosts in

different stages of its development. In pure culture all these stages

could be easily imitated by special treatment and the mistakes once

discovered lead to a remarkable simplification of the nomenclature.

proceedings: biological society 509

The perfect form has been obtained from various fungi with Fusaria-

Hke spore forms. They belong to such genera as Gibberella, Nectria,

Hypomyces, Calonectria and Neocosmospora. But the conidia of these

ascomycetes have not sufficient relationship to Fusaria Avithout known

perfect form to justify identification with any species of Fusarium sec-

tions, such as elegans, discolor, martiella, roseum and gibhosum.

In neglecting such facts we would be exposed to a pitfall in the fol-

loAving case: Fusarium, culmorum W. G. Smith {F. rubiginosum App.

& Wr.) has conidia looking so much like small conidia of Gibberella

Saubinetti (Mont.) Sacc. that they seem to be identical. The former,

however, develops chlamydospores and no perfect form, the latter no

chlamydospores but the perfect form under culture conditions. If we

overlook this we may conclude after having proved one strain to have

Gibberella perithecia, that we also have proved F. culmorum to be a Gib-

berella. Literature is rich with such errors.

Sections of a fossil wood from asphalt lake near Los Angeles, Cal.

Dr. Albert Mann. Thin sections of the petrified wood were exhibited

under a microscope which showed fungus hyphae. Brief notes were

given as to the apparent method of the groA\'th of the fungus and the

possible identification of the tree was discussed.

P. L. RicKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 414th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on October

18, 1913, with former President L. 0. Howardin the chair and 61 persons

present.

The program consisted of, three communications:

The Federal migratory bird regulations and their assistance in the con-

servation of bird, life in America: T. S. Palmer. The speaker outlined

briefly the history of the Weeks-McLean Bill, approved INIarch 4, 1913,

and of the adoption of regulations for its enforcement which have been

promulgated by the Department of Agriculture under proclamation of

the President dated October 1, 1913. Maps of the winter and breed-

ing ranges of some of the species of birds affected were shown, together

with another showing the division of the country into two zones. Rea-

sons were given for the exceptions in certain States to the general closed

season. In general the beneficial effects upon the bird life of the coun-

try expected as a result of the enforcement of the • Federal law were

pointed out. Hugh Smith and Col. Joseph JI. Acklen took part in

the discussion which followed.

The breeding of the loggerhead turtle: W. P. Hay. The communica-

tion was accompanied by lantern slides. It was an account of observa-

tions of • the habits and reproduction of the diamond-backed terrapin

and the loggerhead turtle made at Beaufort, North Carolina. This

place is near the northern limit of the distribution of the loggerhead

turtle and the speaker was of the opinion that normally in this latitude

few of the eggs of the species are left to hatch and that the young

from those that may hatch all perish with the first cold weather.

510 proceedings: the anthropological society

The first yearns results in breeding some Bahama shells (Cerion) on

the Florida Keys: Paul Bartsch. A former communication by the

speaker gave an account of the transfer of two races of Cerion from the

Bahamas to various Florida Keys. The present paper was an acQOunt

of observations of the condition of the new colonies at the end of the

first year. In general they have prospered and in several localities have

reproduced young.

The 515th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 1,

1913, with President E. W. Nelson in the chair and about 50 members

present.

Under the heading Brief notes ajid exhibition of specimens, C. Dwight

Marsh related an observation in Montana of a noise made by a bull

snake (Pituophis sayi) which was in close imitation of that made by a

rattlesnake. The sounds were made by the respiratory organs and

were observed by a number of persons.

REGULAR PROGRAM

A. D. Hopkins spoke of Depredations by forest insects and their con-

trol. He gave a brief historical sketch of early insect invasions of for-

ests and of the means adopted to combat the pests. The greater part

of the paper was devoted to depredations of which the author had

personal knowledge. The efficacy of modern methods was pointed out,

especially the control work undertaken by the Bureau of Entomology

in collaboration with the United States Forest Service. These have

been generally adopted by large private holders of timber lands and

much saving of valuable timber has resulted.

Paul Bartsch gave an account of the results of dredging for mollusks

at Chincoteague, Virginia. In two days collecting eleven new species

were found. The speaker gave an account of some personal experi-

ences and observations on the island. He was followed by W. P. Hay,

who also spoke of his experiences during a visit to Chincoteague and

gave some interesting historical notes of the place.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

At a special meeting of the Anthropological Society on November 4'

1913, Dr. John R. Swanton read a paper entitled The Indian village-

Dr. Swanton stated that, while it is a common notion that country life

preceded urban life this view is hardly correct, urban life in its germs

going back probably almost as far as man himself. He then took up

the various factors tending to produce the village, determine its char-

acter, and subsequenty knit it together. These he found to be of

three orders, material, social and religious. Among the first he enumer-

ated material available for the construction of houses, position with

reference to the food supply and fresh water, and occasionally also

position with reference to the sun. Among social factors he treated

proceedings: the anthropological society 511

trade, desire for exchange of ideas, need of mutual protection and rela-

tionship, especiall}^ in the peculiar form it assumed under totemism.

Finally the growth of a village or town cult was traced from the prac-

tical independence of shamanism pure and simple to the complete

town ritual, sometimes directly, sometimes thru the fusion of clan

ceremonies, and sometimes thru the rituals of religious or other soci-

eties. These factors were illustrated by reference to the tribes of the

north Pacific coast and the gulf area. A possible evolution was sug-

gested in three stages, first the haphazard collection of hunters, fishers,

or perhaps agriculturahsts, in a certain spot; second the development of

social relations among them, particularly thru intermarriage, and thirdly

a religious seal or stamp of unity, tho it was not the writer's intention to

set this up as a hard and fast process of evolution. It was noted that

totemic clans among some tribes might have been evolved in a similar

manner. In conclusion a short comparison was made between the Indi-

an village and the modern city, attention being called to the fact that

in the latter the most important determining factor is trade, while in

the former relationship, religious observances, and to some extent

motives of protection were much more prominent.

The subject was discussed at some length by Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt,

who confined his remarks to the village in the social organization of the

Iroquois. The basis of the social organization was actual or fictitious

blood kinship traced thru the mother. The cohesiveness of the several

units was obtained thru the ties of duty and privilege subsisting be-

tween clans united by the marriage of their sons and daughters. The

clans were organized into two brotherhoods of clans, one of which rep-

resented the masculine and the other, the feminine, in nature. This di-

vision was maintained in all public meetings. The one side was there-

fore called the "father side," and the other, the "child side," which of

course was the "mother side." Strong lines of actual or artificial kin-

ship and cleavage existed between these two groups. The clans's to-

tems have no especial religious significance at present, that is, there are

no ceremonies in honor of them. That there were such in early times

is quite possible. The decadence of the worship of the clan totem was

probably due to the unification of the clan government into that of the

tribe, and later, of the tribe into that of the confederation. The great

influence of the council of women, composed of mothers only, in the

affairs of the village and tribe and confederation was emphasized, and

illustrated by the effectiveness with which they could stop or prevent

a war. They needed only to forbid their sons to engage in warlike

activity under penalty of becoming outlaws to the tribe and confedera-

tion. The gradual adoption of the Tuscarora tribe of North Carolina

by the Iroquois League on motion of the Oneidas as their sponsors was

described, the Tuscaroras being first regarded as infants, then as boys

who were not allowed to take part in the wars and councils of the League,

and then, finally, as warriors having their chiefs to represent them in

the Federal Council of the League.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

512 ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS

ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS

The Washington Academy of Sciences will hold a joint meeting with

the Philosophical Society on December 4 at 8.15 p.m., in the Cosmos

Club Assembly Hall. Prof. Jean Perrin, Professor of Physical Chem

istry at the University of Paris will address the Academy on Brownian

movement and molecular reality.

NINETEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS, WASHING-

TON, D. C, OCTOBER 5 TO OCTOBER 10, 1914

Preliminary notice

Pursuant to arrangements made at the Eighteenth International

Congress of Americanists, in London, 1912, the Nineteenth Congress

will meet in America in 1914 in two Sessions, the first at Washington,

D. C, and the second at La Paz, Bolivia.

The Session at Washington will be held under the auspices of the

Smithsonian Institution, in cooperation with the George Washington

University, Georgetown University, the Catholic University of Amer-

ica, the Anthropological Society of Washington, and the Washington

Society of the Archaeological Institute of America.

During the Session an excursion will be made to the highly interest-

ing aboriginal quarry and workshop at Piney Branch, D. C;

and following the Congress it is expected that two excursions will

be arranged, one to Ohio for the examination of ancient mounds, the

other to New Mexico for the study of ancient ruined pueblos and

cliff-dwellings, as well as of the present Pueblo Indians in their native

environment.

To avoid delay in announcements, and to facilitate the organization

of the Session, those who desire to become members are urged to com-

municate as soon as practicable with the Secretary, giving the titles of

papers which they ^vish to present before the Congress, together with

a brief summary of each.

Ales Hrdlicka, Secretary,

U. S. National Museum,

Washington, D, C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. Ill DECEMBER 19, 1913 No. 21

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Pre^mmar?/ results of a first

analysis of the sun's general magnetic field.^ L. A. Bauer,

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution

of Washington.

The question whether the sun, like the earth, is surrounded by

a magnetic field, received renewed interest from Hale's certain de-

tection in 1908 of magnetic fields iii sun-spots, by means of the

effect of magnetism on light discovered by Zeeman in 1896. Pre-

vious investigators had shown that for a direct magnetic effect

attributable to the sun to be readily measurable on the earth, the

sun's magnetic moment would have to reach a very large fig-

ure. Accordingly our surmises hitherto have had to be confined

exclusively to certain phenomena exhibited by the coronal stream-

ers and motion of solar prominences, and by polar lights and

magnetic perturbations.

It is a source of extreme satisfaction, therefore, that the means

were given Hale to institute a direct attack and undertake the

systematic detection of a possible general solar magnetic field,

employing the same method which had proved successful in the

case of sun-spots. As the probable field-intensity now was on

the order of about one-tenth to one-hundredth of that encoun-

tered in the spots, the instrumental difficulties seemed almost

insuperable. The observed displacements of the spectrum lines,,

to be ascribed to the sun's general magnetic field, are, in fact,

found to be so small that but for the superior instrumental appli-

1 Presented before the Philosophical Society of Washington, November 22, 1913.

To be published more fully in J. Terr. Mag. and Atmos. Elec, 19. 1914.

513

514 BAUER: ANALYSIS OF THE SUN's MAGNETIC FIELD

ances and refined methods employed, they would have been re-

garded as falling within the limits of error of spectroscopic

work. After a very laborious investigation extending over sev-

eral years, in which various persons took part, and instrumental

appliances were employed such as are only to be had at the

Mount Wilson Observatory, Hale felt justified in making some

announcement of the results obtained. His report on his "pre-

liminary results of an attempt to detect the general magnetic

field of the sun" was published in the July 1913 number of the

Astrophysical Journal.^

All observations have been made thus far with the slit of the

spectroscope set on the sun's central meridian. The measured

displacements, suffered by the lines of the solar spectrum when

the glowing vapors, from which they originate, pass thru the

magnetic field, are those due almost exclusively to the component

of the field at right angles to the sun's axis of rotation. The

reason for this is a two-fold one: First, the terrestrial observer

of solar phenomena is nearly always in the plane of the solar

equator so that his line of sight is practically always perpendicu-

lar to the sun's axis of rotation. Twice a year, about Decem-

ber 5 and June 3, it is exactly so, and midway between these

dates the maximum deviation from perpendicularity is but 7°15'.

Secondly, the certain detection of the small displacements must

at present be confined, because of the comparative weakness of

the field, to the Zeeman effect obtained when looking along the

lines of magnetic force. The detection of the effects at right

angles to the lines of magnetic force, and the possibility of thus

measuring also the component of the sun's magnetic field par-

allel to the axis of rotation, appears almost hopeless. Altho

the solar magnetician is therefore not able at present to map

the magnetic forces prevailing over the sun with the same com-

pleteness and definiteness as can be attained with respect to the

earth's magnetic field, nevertheless, much has already been

accomplished.

•

2 See also his preliminary note in J. Terr. Mag. and Atmos. Elec, 17: 173.

1912.

BAUER : ANALYSIS OF THE SUN's MAGNETIC FIELD 515

In Hale's published report, the Zeeman displacement which

had been detected with sufficient certainty, was tabulated for

various heliographic latitudes for the three lines: X5812.139,

X5828.097 and X5929.898, all of which probably originate at com-

paratively low levels on the sun. The present analysis is based

entirely on these published data and, since these are designated

by Hale as preliminary ones, the results derived accordingly from

this analysis must be regarded as wholly preliminary and as

likely to be superceded by later ones which may be based upon

more extensive observations. The prime purpose here has been

to ascertain if precisely the same method of analysis be employed

for the solar magnetic data, as for the terrestrial magnetic data,

some indications, at least, are obtained to show whether or not

the magnetic fields of the two bodies follow somewhat analogous

laws. In order to obtain strictly comparable data, it was neces-

sary to make at the same time a fresh analysis of the earth's

magnetic field on the basis of the same magnetic component in-

volved in the solar data, and applying to the region 60° north

to 60° south.

The chief results deduced from this first analysis of the sun's

general magnetic field are :

1. The magnetic axis, as determined from the published data between

the parallels 60° north to 60° south and for the four series of observations

between January 1912 to February 1913, is found to be inclined, for the

sun, 9° to 12° to the axis of rotation. The same angle of inclination

for the earth was 11?6, in 1885.

2. The sun's magnetic field is asymmetrical about the equator in

much the same manner and in the same direction as is that of the

earth. It is quite possible that the sun's actual magnetic poles, or

equivalent points, as in the case of the earth, will be found not to be

diametrically opposite each other.

3. The analysis determined four instants, distributed over a year,

when the north end of the sun's magnetic axis was on the central me-

ridian. Since a whole number of rotations of the sun must have oc-

curred during the intervals between the four instants, it was possible

to determine a period of rotation which applies, perhaps, to the sun as

a whole, instead of to the surface, as is the case with the methods hith-

erto used. The synodic period of nearly 33 days which represented

the present magnetic data best, differs considerably from the period

usually regarded as the solar rotation period. It will therefore be highly

516 BAUER: ANALYSIS OF THE SUN's MAGNETIC FIELD

important, from a cosmical standpoint, to test the new period as soon

as additional series of observations are available. It may also play

an important part in the discovery of the cause of the sun-spot cycle,

however, the period obtained must be regarded at present as but a

preliminary one.

4. It is found that the solar magnetic field is as complex as that of

the earth and that the distorting or disturbing systems which are super-

posed upon a primary, simple magnetic field follow laws very similar

to those disclosed in the study of the terrestrial magnetic field. Thus,

for example, the plane containing the magnetic axis of the sun is dis-

placed in passing from the northern to the southern hemisphere in

precisely the same direction, eastward (in the direction of rotation), as

was found to be the case with the earth's magnetic axis. Accordingly,

to give the requisite precision to the term ''magnetic axis," the region

from which it is determined must be carefully stated, as well as the

method employed for fixing its position.

The close analogies that thus appear to exist between the

magnetic field of the sun and of the earth, coupled with the fact

disclosed by Hale that the magnetic polarity of the sun corre-

sponds to that of the earth, may possibly indicate, since the direc-

tion of rotation of the two bodies is the same, that the origin of

both magnetic fields will have to be referred finally to similar

causes. In any case, the fact that the sun's field turns out to be

as complex and as irregular as that of the earth and that these

apparent irregularities follow similar laws for both bodies, would

seem to strengthen the conclusion already reached in the investi-

gation^ of the terrestrial magnetic field, that it may not be neces-

sary to refer the cause of the non-coincidence of the magnetic

axis with the axis of rotation chiefly to heterogeneity of structure

of the bodies under discussion.

' A consistent theory of the origin of the earth's magnetic field. This Journal.

3: 1. 1913, and On the origin of the earth's magnetic field (Phys. Rev. N.S.,

1: 256. 1913.

AUSTIN: ARC AND SPARK RADIO TRANSMISSION 517

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Further comparison of arc and spark

radio transmission. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio Tele-

graphic Laboratory.

In order to make a comparison of the relative desirability of

arc and spark transmission under summer conditions, a test was

carried on between the Arlington station and Colon during the

months of July and August of the present year. This time was

chosen for the test on account of the fact that the signals are

weakest at this period of the year, while at the same time the

atmospheric disturbances are the strongest^ so that the test may

be considered as carried on under the most trying conditions.

Hitherto all the long distance tests carried on by the Navy De-

partment in connection with Arlington have been made during

the winter months, when atmospheric disturbances are at a min-

imum and all conditions are favorable to long distance trans-

mission. It was especially wished to make a comparison of the

relative desirability of arc and spark transmission under summer

conditions in order to determine whether the conclusions favor-

able to the arc, which had been drawn from the Arlington-Salem

tests, would be supported.

For this work a 100 k.w. Poulsen arc belonging to the Uni-

versal Radio Syndicate was available for comparison with the

regular rotary gap set of the Arhngton station. The regular

experiments began on July 25. The distance from Arlington to

Colon is 1780 nautical miles. From the formula deduced from

the Brant Rock experiments, the Arhngton signals, at a wave

length of 4000 meters, should be faintly audible at this distance,

using a sensitive crystal detector and an antenna 200 feet high.

As a matter of fact, the signals are just below audibility with

ordinary detectors, as is shown from their strength on the more

sensitive ticker. This fact may be due to the passage of the

waves over Cuba, or to other conditions of transmission in this

portion of the world.

The recei\'ing work at Colon was done by Chief Electrician

Meneratti, assistant at the Naval Radio Laboratory. The re-

ceiving apparatus used consisted of a Federal receiving set, which

518

AUSTIN: ARC AND SPARK RADIO TRANSMISSION

is especially efficient at the longer wave lengths, a slipping con-

tact ticker, and a Fessenden heterodyne. The regular antenna

of the Colon station, 180 feet high and of about 0.004 m.f.

capacity, was used for the work. The arc signals were sent out

from Arlington at wave lengths of 4000, 5000, 6000 and 7000

meters. Two wave lengths were used with the spark, 3500 meters

and 2500 meters. The latter, however, proved so unsatisfac-

tory at this distance that its use was abandoned after the first

few days.

On account of the continuous atmospheric disturbances quan-

titative comparisons were of little value. The following table

gives the number of schedules sent at the various wave lengths,

and the corresponding number received:

The table shows that the best results were obtained with the

arc at 7000 meters, every schedule being successfully received.

The same is true of the 5000 meter arc waves, but in this case all

the work was done at night which prevents its being properly

compared with the other schedules. The 4000 meter arc and

the 3500 meter spark waves, which may be fairly compared, were

received with the same degree of regularity and were of approxi-

mately the same strength as compared on the slipping contact

ticker. In this connection it must be remembered, as will be

explained later, that while 90 per cent of the spark schedules

were weakly audible on the heterodyne or ticker, practically

none of the messages were readable. It appears from the report

that 50 per cent of all the arc messages sent at the various wave

length, that is, 65 per cent of the arc schedules heard at all.

AUSTIN: ARC AND SPARK RADIO TRANSMISSION 519

would have been completely readable by double repetition. The

very poor showing of the 6000 meter wave, compared with the

4000 and 7000 meter waves, is probably due to a defect in the

receiver at this wave length.

One of the most interesting portions of the work was the study

of the behavior of the ticker and heterodyne under the condi-

tions of continuous atmospheric disturbance at Colon. The re-

ports indicate that the heterodyne is somewhat more sensitive

than the ticker, but that the difference is not very great. With

spark signals the note produced by both is unmusical and diffi-

cult to distinguish from the atmospherics, and both are inferior

to a good crystal detector in receiving weak 500 cycle signals

thni continuous atmospherics. With arc signals, however, the

case is entirely different. Here the slipping contact ticker pro-

duces the same rustling sound as in the case of the spark, but

the heterodyne produces a musical note of any pitch found most

suitable for reading thru the disturbances.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOPHYSICS. — The hydr-othermal formation of silicates, a review.

George W. Morey and Paul Niggli. J, Am. Chem. Soc, 35:

10S6-1130. 1913.

This is a discussion of the theoretical principles underlying the be-

havior of water-silicate systems at temperatures ranging up to 500°,

followed by an annotated bibliography in which are assembled all of

the data relating to hydrothermal syntheses. These data unfortu-

nately afford practically no- reliable quantitative information; quali-

tatively, even, they leave much to be desired, for many minerals have

been obtained but once by a given investigator, in a manner which was

not reproducible and under conditions which were not specified. The

minerals which have been most commonly obtained are chiefly those

which are stable — or at any rate phanerostable — over a wide range of

•conditions; for example, quartz and the feldspars. In all cases the

'Crystals obtained are very small, so that accurate chemical analysis is

usually out of the question; their identification by optical methods may

even be doubtful.

Hydrothermal syntheses, like the paragenetic relationships investi-

gated by Van't HofT, are determined by the solubility relations of all

the possible solid phases which may be formed from the components

present in the solution, even altho the concentration of these components

in the solution is vanishingly small. Many of the reactions are, without

doubt, practically restricted to the solid phase, altho they take place

thru the medium of the solution. These solubility relationships are

thus not simple ; but study of the question is further complicated by the

frequent appearance of metastable phases, which again is coordinated

with the rates of the various possible reactions. Now, as is well known,

rates of reaction are often affected very greatly by factors which in

other respects are of altogether minor importance; hence slight differ-

ences, e.g., in the composition, or even in the texture or fineness of

grain, of the initial solid phase — may exert considerable influence on the

520

abstracts: physics 521

result. These considerations serve to show that there may in certain

cases be difficulties in the way of always being able to reproduce a given

result; in order to do this in any case, it is necessary to control carefully

the amount of water relative to the volume of the containing vessel

(the degree of filling), the temperature, and, if possible, the pressure

also. The critical point of water is only a secondary factor in deter-

mining the nature of the product, its influence being effected principally

thru the change in concentration of the solvent (liquid or fluid) in the

neighborhood of the critical point.

The thoro investigation of hydrothermal syntheses is beset with many

difficulties, apart from the technical problems inherent in operating on

heterogeneous systems within closed bombs at high temperatures.

Nevertheless our knowledge of the real relationship of these minerals

can be advanced materially if care is taken to control the factors in-

volved, the most important of which are the initial composition of the

system (including therein the relation between the amount of water and

the volume of the bomb) and the temperature. G, W. M. and P. N.

PHYSICS. — Densities at high temperatures. Arthur L. Day, R. B.

SosMAN and J. C. Hostetter. Am. Jour. Sci. (4). 1913.

The existing and rather conflicting data on the volume change of

rocks on fusion are reviewed briefly. A method and apparatus is de-

scribed for the determination of the specific volume of metals or of solid

or fused silicates from 200° to 1600°. The basis of measurement is the

expansion of artificial graphite, which was determined from 20° to 1500°.

Volume curves are given for tin, lead, and the eutectic of lead and tin.

Measurements were made on quartz up to 1600°. The volume of

quartz increases more and more rapidly as 575° is approached. At this

point the inversion takes place to the high-temperature form, whose

volume decreases slightly with rising temperature. Between 950° and

1250° gasses are given off. Above 1300° the volume is increased greatly

by the formation of cristobalite. Granite shows the same form of curve

as quartz. Above 500°, however, it is not possible to obtain its true

volume expansion because of the shattering and permanent dilation due

to unequal expansion of the minerals and to escape of gasses. The same

is true of crystalline diabase.

The curve of glassy diabase can be obtained, however. The glass

crystallizes with contraction of volume at about 900°, then begins to

fuse again at about 1 150°. On cooling, the liquid again crystallizes with

contraction. This behavior explains completely the results of Barus,

522 abstracts: chemistry

which have been widely quoted. A recalculation of his data on the

basis of redetermination of his fundamental volume show them to be in

good agreement with the new measurements. The bearing of these

data upon the occurrence of "floated" slabs of rock in the Palisade

diabase is discussed. * A. L. D.

CHEMIS'SRY.^— A method for the determination of magnesium in cal-

cium salts. J. C. HosTETTER. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1913.

The usual methods for the determination of magnesium in the pres-

ence of calcium are not applicable when the latter element amounts to

as much as 1000 times that of the magnesium. The essential feature of

the method here presented is the concentration of the magnesium into

a precipitate containing but a small amount of calcium. This concen-

tration is effected by precipitating Mg (0H)2 with a slight excess of

solid Ca (0H)2. The magnesium in this precipitate is determined as

pyrophosphate after removal of the calcium by two oxalate precipita-

tions. Determinations in some 30 highest-grade calcium salts show,

generally, far more magnesium than reported by the makers.

J. C. H.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— T'/ie phenomena of equilibrium between

silica and the alkali carbonates. Paul Niggli. J. Am. Chem. Soc,

35:1692-1727. 1913.

This is a record of an experimental investigation of the equilibrium

between silica and melted alkali carbonate, at temperatures of 900-

1000° and under a pressure of 1 atm. carbon dioxide. A series of ex-

periments were made with the carbonates of potassium and sodium, and

a few with lithium carbonate. The systems R20-Si02-C02 (R = K,

Na, Li), under the above-mentioned conditions behave similarly on the

whole, and differ only in details. Silica added to alkali carbonate is

transformed into silicate as long as any carbonate remains. In the

melts there is equilibrium between carbonate and pairs of silicates, as

follows :

I K2CO3 + KaSisOs ^ 2K2Si03 + CO2

II NazCOs + Na2Si03 ^ Na4Si04 + CO2

III (presumably) 2Li2C03 + Li4Si04 <^ LigSiOg + 2CO2

The solid phases, which separate from the melts, consist of silicate

or carbonate, but contain no free silica until the proportion of silica

exceeds that corresponding to the higher silicate. The amount of car-

bonate depends only on the ratio R20/Si02, when external conditions

arc constant ; when this ratio becomes identical with that of the silicate

abstracts: mineralogy

523

richer in silica, the melt is free from carbon dioxide. In each case the

compound containing more silica is the poorest in silica which can be

prepared pure at the particular temperature merety by putting to-

gether carbonate and silica. Moreover, rise of temperature, the pres-

sure remaining constant, favors the lower silicate.

The study of systems of this type is important because their behavior

serves as a simple prototype of that of the magma, which is a highl}^

complex system containing both volatile and non-volatile components.

The so-called " mineralizers" are merely volatile components; the effects

of their presence differ only in degree from that of the other components.

The main difference is due to the vastly greater effect of changes of

pressure and of temperature on the concentration (in the melt) of the

volatile component, by reason of the close relation of the concentra-

tion to that of the gas phase itself. In consequence of this, there is a

"mobility" of equilibrium which is characteristic of the magma and

without doubt very closely associated with many aspects of its behavior,

e.g., with the likelihood of eruption, differentiation, etc. P. N.

MINERALOGY. — The melting phenomena of the plagioclase feldspars.

N. L. BowEN. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 35: 577-599. 1913.

The method of quenching was applied to the determination of the

melting intervals of pure, artificial plagioclase feldspars. It was found

possible to determine accurately the temperatures of beginning of melt-

ing (solidus) for compositions ranging from pure An to Abs Aui and of

completion of melting (liquidus) for the range An-AbsAui. Very pure

natural material, Bakersville oligoclase was used to determine the point

on the solidus corresponding to its composition. Similar material, Amelia

County albite, served to fix the melting point of albite. The results of

this work are summarized below:

COMPOSITION

An

AbiAns

AbiAno

AbiAni

Ab2Ani

Aba Aril

Ab77-BAn22.6

Ab4Ani

AbgAni. . . .

Ab98An2 —

TEMPERATURE OF BEGINNING

OF MELTING. SOLIDUS

TEMPERATURE OF COMPLETION

OF MELTING. LIQUIDUS

1550° ± 2°

1521° ± 2°

1490° ± 2°

1450° ± 2°

1394° ± 2°

1362° ± 2°

1334° ± 2°

1265° ± 3°

524 abstracts: petrology

It was also found possible in several instances to determine the com-

position of the liquid phase, present at temperatures within the melt-

ing interval, by measuring the refractive index of the quenched glass.

Thus points on the liquidus were determined by an independent method

and were found to be in excellent agreement with the results of the

temperature method.

In the theoretical discussion, equations are developed which express

the concentrations on the liquidus and solidus at any temperature in

terms of the melting temperatures and latent heats of melting of the

two components. The experimental results therefore make possible the

calculation of the latent heat of melting of anorthite and of albite. The

calculated values are 104.2 calories per gram for anorthite and 48.5

calories per gram for albite and these values remain practically constant

for all ranges of composition. The calculated latent heat of anorthite

is in excellent agreement with the figure found by direct measurement,

105 calories per gram. No direct determinations of the latent heat of

albite have been made. It is shown that if these values of the latent

heats are taken and liquidus and solidus curves calculated, the resulting

curves pass very close to the experimentally determined temperatures

(within the limits of error of the temperature measurements) . It is also

shown that values of the latent heats differing from these by as little as

10 per cent will not give a like result. This extreme agreement with

the requirements of theory and its bearing on certain theoretical ques-

tions is discussed.

The geological significance of the complete solid solution of the feld-

spars is considered, as well as the extent to which zoning may occur

under favorable conditions and the consequent great range of tempera-

ture thru which plagioclase may crystallize. N. L. B.

PETROLOGY. — Graphical methods in microscopical petrography. Fred

Eugene Wright. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 36: 509-539. 1913.

Experience in microscopiqal petrography has shown that the results

furnished by graphical means are, as a rule, sufficiently accurate and

in accord with the quality of the data of observation. Graphical

methods in petrography serve three purposes: (1) to solve certain equa-

tions, (2) to represent data of observation, and (3) to picture certain

important crystallographical and optical relations. In all these cases

it is essential: (a) that the graphical means employed represent the

relations adequately and as free from distortion as possible; (b) that

they are easy of application, and (c) that wherever possible the func-

abstracts: petrology • 525

tions be plotted in such a form that their changes can be represented

by straight Hnes. Eight plates, drawn on these principles, are included,

and furnish solutions for the following equations :

sin i = n sin R, sin- / = n- sin- y, = sin ??i sin ??2,

y — a

1^ j_

^~ y'

, cot A = sin B ■ cot C, and

a- ~ 13- .

F. E. W.

PETROLOGY.^ — A graphical plot for use in the microscopical determi-

nation of the plagioclase feldspars. Fred. Eugene Wright. Am.

Jour. Sci. (4), 36: 540-542. 1913.

On this plot the changes in the optical properties of the plagioclase

feldspars with chemical composition are indicated by a set of curves,

the purpose being to furnish the petrologist, in convenient form and

on a single sheet, all the constants essential for the accurate determina-

tion of the plagioclase feldspars in thin rock sections. A new set of

curves for the extinction angles on sections showing symmetrical carls-

bad-albite twinning is included, the values having been derived graph-

ically from the best available measurements on plagioclase feldspars.

PETROLOGY. — Oblique illumination i7i petrographic microscope work.

Fred Eugene Wrioht. Am. Jour. Sci. (4), 35: 63-82. 1913.

The study of interference phenomena resulting from oblique illumina-

tion between crossed nicols enables the observer to determine many

optical features in a given mineral plate. These phenomena are iden-

tical, so far as interference colors go, with the phenomena obtained in

interference figures from the same plate in convergent polarized light.

The study of mineral plates by the method of oblique illumination is of

value because it impresses the mind of the observer with the interde-

pendence of optical and crystallographic properties. It is, however,

highly important that the observer realize the essential agreement be-

tween the phenomena observed in oblique illumination and those seen

on interference figures in convergent polarized light. In the inter-

ference figures the interference color phenomena are seen at a glance,

and if they be studied with reference to the position of the mineral

526 abstracts: geology

from which they are obtained, all of the conclusions to be ascertained

by means of the method of oblique illumination can also be derived

with even greater facility from the interference figure. For the study

of interference phenomena the method of oblique illumination does not

offer any special advantages over the convergent polarized light method,

but it does present certain disadvantages in manipulation and in the

distinctness of the phenomena observed which cannot be disregarded

entirely. This is especially true if oblique illumination be obtained by

use of a stop in the eye circle of the ocular as recently suggested by

Schneiderhohn.

In this paper, the phenomena produced by oblique illumination are

discussed in some detail. Attention is directed to an obvious but im-

portant fact, too often disregarded in petrographic microscope work,

that for the accurate measurement of extinction angles central illumina-

tion by parallel plane-polarized light is highly essential. Satisfactory

measurements of extinction angles cannot be made when the section is

illuminated by a strongly convergent cone of light, incident under all

angles and in all azimuths, F. E. W.

GEOLOGY. — The volcanic cycles in Sardinia. H. S. Washington.

Comptes Rendus Congres Geologique International XII, Toronto,

1913.

The volcanoes of northwestern Sardinia were studied in the autumn

of 1905. They belong to three distinct periods, with interesting lavas,

which show very marked cycles, or recurrent successions of characters,

in their eruptions. These lavas are now being studied, and are to be

described soon, along with some forty analysed, in a series of papers.

Taking these volcanoes as a text, some broad subjects of modern

petrology are discussed briefly. It is pointed out that, while no one

sequence of types is generally applicable, the sequence seems to vary

with the magmatic character and usually closes with basalts, tho any

generalizations must be rather hazardous owing to the inherently ac-

cidental character of the rock sequences observed by us. A change in

the character of the magma and in the volcanic cycles seems to be con-

nected with a change in the mode of volcanicity, the relation being pos-

sibly a causal one, but the inadequateness of present data for such studies

is pointed out. The so-called Atlantic and Pacific tribes of rocks are

briefly discussed and objections raised against them, it being urged

among other things that it is illogical and unjustified to select only two

types for contrast to the exclusion of others equally important. In con-

ABSTKACTS: GEOLOGY 527

elusion, the importance of further and more detailed systematic study

of volcanoes, the need of numerous chemical analyses, the importance

of the application of physico-chemical research to petrological problems,

and the magnitude and complexity of such future investigations, are.

insisted on. H. S. W.

GEOLOGY. — The general principles underlying metamorphic processes^

John Johnston and Paul Niggli. J. Geol. 21: 481-516. 1913.

This paper is an endeavor to set for'th the most important general,

principles concerned in rock metamorphism — a general term which in-

cludes a number of special cases all of which, however, differ only in

the degree of predominance of one (or more) of a definitely limited

group of effective factors. These factors are: temperature, uniform

pressure, stress (non-uniform pressure), and gross composition of the

system at the time of metamorphism ; the same, namely, which determine

the equilibrium of the relatively simple chemical systems hitherto in-

vestigated experimentally. The knowledge gained from a study of

these simple systems may be used as a basis for a prediction of the-

general character and significance of metamorphic processes; tho in

applying the principles one must always bear in mind th se circum-

stances which oppose the attainment of a state of true equilibrium,,

such, for example, as slowness of reaction or the formation of metastable

intermediate products.

Now, altho the general character of the process may be predicted,

no particular statement as to the effects produced in a given system

by change of any of the above factors can yet be made, owing to lack

of the requisite quantitative data. In this connection, it is to be noted

that the general application of experimental results which obtain for

a given system under given external conditions, to another system under

similar conditions, or even to the same system under widely differing con-

ditions, is subject to considerable limitation. Conclusions drawn from

such extrapolation of experimental evidence will commonly be of little

value, and may be altogether misleading; moreover, one may as well guess,

the final result as arbitrarily choose the data required in calculating it.

From this we see that the application of the above simple principles,,

which determine rock metamorphism, to the complicated rock systems,

will be no simple matter, but will require extended experimental investi-

gation and a long time. In such investigation the first thing necessary

is a definite conception of the general processes of rock metamorphism ;

this it was the purpose of the authors to present. The choice of par-

528 . abstracts: geology

ticular problems in this large field will doubtless be aided greatly by a

study of natural mineral associations from the physical chemical stand-

point, a study which at the same time will certaily provide us with

information bearing directly on the problems at issue. J. J. and P. N.

»

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Koyukuk-Chandalar region, Alaska. A. G.

Maddren. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 532. Pp. 116, with

maps and views. 1913.

The Koyukuk-Chandalar itegion, as here described, embraces the

greater part of two coextensive basins, situated north of the Arctic

Circle, from which flow the Koyukuk and Chandalar Rivers, large north-

ern tributaries of the Yukon River. Placer gold bearing gravels occur

along the upper branches of several of the principal tributaries of these

large rivers, and the exploitation of these deposits since 1899, with a

total production of about $3,000,000, has given the region its economic

importance and the distinction of being one of the northernmost gold

mining districts in the world. Gold lode deposits also occur about the

sources of Big Creek in the Chandalar Valley.

The general geology of these two basins is similar. The bedrock

consists largely of a complex of highly metamorphosed schistose, prob-

ably pre-Cambrian or early Cambrian, sediments of mica-quartz, quartz-

itic, and phyllitic types. In these schists granitic intrustives of late

Cretaceous or early Tertiary age occur, which are in part metamorphosed

but in part also comparatively unaltered. The mineralization, that

has been locally induced by some of these intrusives, appears to be

largely accountable for the gold. Across the central part of the region

extends a belt of more or less metamorphosed sediments, largely made

up of cherts and fine-grained quartzites, considered to be of Devonian

age. The northern mountainous belt of the region is largely occupied

by a thick series of massive, probably Carboniferous, crystalline lime-

stones in which are some thinner beds of semi-schistose sediments. In

the southwestern part of the region the central Koyukuk Valley is

occupied by Cretaceous sediments, largely marine and unmetamor-

phosed, but considerably folded and somewhat faulted. Only one small

isolated area of Tertiary sediments is known. It is on upper Dall

River and contains at least one bed of lignite. There are also some

horizontal basaltic and andesitic flows in the southern part of the dis-

trict which are probably of late Tertiary or early Quarternary age.

The mountainous northern half of the region has been heavily glaci-

ated. The headwater valleys, both of the Chandalar and Koyukuk

abstracts: geology 529

basins, owe their present bed rock configuration to the erosion effected

by long valley glacier ice streams that had their sources on the Arctic

divide and flowed southward. Upon the retreat of these valley glaciers,

which have now entirely disappeared from this part of the Arctic

Mountains, widespread deposits of glacial outwash gravels, sands, and

silts were left along the large valley. The present large streams have

dissected and aggraded their flood plains but large quantities of the

older gravels still remain as wide sloping terraces. In many cases the

gold-bearing gravels represent old pre-glacial stream gravels. These

deposits are now buried under silts and recent stream gravels and are

mined by shafts and drifts. But most of the gold production has been

from shallow deposits of gravel along the present streams. A. G. M.

GEOLOGY. — -Ore deposits of the Helena mining region, Montana.

Adolph Knopf. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 527. Pp.

143, with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1913.

The Helena mining region is an area of 1300 square miles in south-

western Montana. The oldest rocks consist principally of sediments

ranging in age from Algonkian to Cretaceous. They include mainly

limestone, shale, and quartzite and lie in angular accordance from the

lowermost member to the top of the series. They are conformably

overlain by andesite and latite lavas and breccias of probable late Cre-

taceous age. These older rocks were invaded by a large granite mass

which forms the northern extension of a great intrusion in southwestern

IVIontana, known as the Boulder batholith. Large intrusions of aplite

in irregular masses and dikes followed the main irruption. They are

commonly tourmaHniferous, and in places, notably so. In late Miocene

time, a series of dacites, consisting of lavas, tuffs and breccias, locally

at least 2400 feet thick, were extravasated upon the deeply eroded sur-

face of the granite and older rocks.

The ore deposits of the region fall into two distinct groups, widely

separated in time of origin. The older are late Cretaceous or early

Tertiary in age, the younger are post-Miocene. The ore bodies of the

first period of mineralization are mainly argentiferous lead and gold-

silver deposits. They have furnished the greater part of the production

of the region; in fact, the value of their output has been roughly three

times that of the post-Miocene deposits. The argentiferous lead de-

posits constitute the prevailing type of ore body of the older group.

They are situated as a rule near the contact of the granite and the rocks

invaded by it, and are replacement-fissure lodes containing galena, sphal-

530 abstracts: paleontology

erite, pyrite, and arsenopyrite. They are commonly tourmaliniferous.

In certain deposits, as at Rimini, tourmaline is extremely abundant;

in fact, it occurs there in the same abundance that characterizes the

tin lodes of Cornwall. Three types of tourmalinic lodes with transi-

tions between them are recognized — lead-silver, copper-silver, and gold.

The predominant is the tourmalinic lead-silver, a type peculiar to the

region, so far as shown by the literature of ore deposits. The ores were

formed at high temperatures, and it is regarded as probable that the

ore-forming solutions were a final differentiation product of the granitic

magma.

The ore bodies of post-Miocene age are essentially precious-metal

deposits. They are characterized by the tendency of the quartz gangue

to display a cryptocrystalline development, either flinty, chalcedonic,

or densely saccharoidal, resembling porcelain. Equally characteristic

is the thinly lamellar calcite of the gangue and its pseudomorphic re-

placement by quartz, forming a type of ore common in so many of the

late Tertiary gold fields of the Western States. In common with these

the tenor of the ores decreases abruptly below the 500-foot level. These

deposits are typically developed in the upper Miocene dacites of Low-

land Creek, but their analogues at Marysville have furnished the bulk

of the output. A, K.

PALAEONTOLOGY. — Cambrian Holothurians. Austin H. Clark.

American Naturalist 47 : 488-507. August, 1913.

Among the remarkable organisms described from the Cambrian of

British Columbia during the past year by Dr. Walcott were a number

which he referred to the Holothuroidea, the most extraordinary of

these being a pelagic animal called by him Eldonia ludwigi. As the cor-

rectness of the determination of these creatures as holothurians was

questioned in a review by Dr. Hubert Lyman Clark, the present author

was led to reply to his criticism for the reason that, as stated in Dr.

Walcott's original paper, it had been he who first suggested the possi-

bility that Eldonia might be a holothurian, tho he had not at the time

examined the other specimens.

Dr. Walcott, Dr. Hubert Lyman Clark and the present author all

made independent investigations upon the material in question, and

the last mentioned was led to the following conclusions: Eldonia is a

free-swimming holothurian, and is most closely related to the species

of the family Elpidiidae. In body form alone does Eldonia resemble a

medusa; this general resemblance may therefore be safely disregarded

abstracts: paleontology 531

as a parallelism resulting from a similar pelagic habit. In the general

shape of the body as well as in the course of the digestive tube Eldonia

approaches Trochosphaera (and trochophore larvae); but the enormous

discrepancy in size, the broad fringe about the body, the large tentacles

on either side of the mouth, the absence of muscles of the group type

characteristic of the rotifiers, and the submarginal anus, seem to nega-

tive the idea that the two can be in any way related. The medusoid

body form, the absence of a protrusible proboscis and the presence of

a large branched tentacle on either side of the mouth appear to offer

conclusive evidence that Eldonia cannot be a worm. The digestive tube

of Eldonia resembles that of the heteroradiate echinoderms, and espe-

cially that of certain holothurians; the tentacles on either side of the

mouth suggest an affinity with the holothurians; the radial canals

leading to a central ring are comparable to the radial canals and the

central ring of the holothurians; the broad circular muscle about the

body suggests a modified longitudinal holothurian muscle, and is of

the group type characteristic of the echinoderms; the broad brim about

the body is strikingly similar to the brim developed in certain elpidiid

holothurians, such as Euphronides tanneri and Scytoplanes typicus. A

pelagic holothurian is knoAvn as an inhabitant of the recent seas; tho

very different in origin and in affinities from Eldonia it demonstrates

that a pelagic habit is not impossible in the group. The species of the

family Elpidiidae are preeminently inhabitants of the deep sea; this

suggests that the fossil representatives of the family should be found in

very early geological formations. Therefore Eldonia is a pelagic holo-

thurian, related to the species of the family Elpidiidae.

No marine animals are known outside of the holothurian family El-

pidiidae which have a body form like that of Louisella pedunculata in

all its details; but this species agrees in every particular with one or

other of the species in that family. We cannot, therefore, escape the

conclusion that Louisella peduncidata should find a place in the family

Elpidiidae along with all the recent animals which in any way resemble

it.

By exactly the same reasoning Laggania camhria is assigned to a

position in the same group.

The type specimen of Mackenzia costalis shows a pleated structure

which can only be interpreted as due to longitudinal mesenteries, prob-

ably eight in number; there appear to have been sixteen processes

around the mouth which probably indicate tentacles retracted before

preservation; the distal portion of the body resembles closely the distal

532 abstracts: botany

portion of the body in the genus Edwardsia. Thus, as Mackenzia cos-

talis presents characters not found outside of the Zoantharia, and in

that group pecuHar to the family Edwardsiidae, it seems necessary

to assign it to a position in the family Edwardsiidae, near the genus

Edwardsia.

In brief the disposition of these fossils is as follows :

Holothuroidea

Family Elpidiidae

Genus Laggania

Genus Louisella

Family Eldoniidae (near the Elpidiidae)

Genus Eldonia

Zoantharia

Family Edwardsiidae

Genus Mackenzia.

A. H. C.

BOTANY. — Feroniella, genre nouveau de la trihu des Citresie, fonde surle

F. oblata, espece nouvelle de I'Indo-Chine. Walter T. Swingle.

Bull, de la Soc. bot. de France, 59 : 774-783. Fig A, PL 18. No.

8, seances novembre-decembre, 1912. Pub. Feb. 18, 1913.

To the eight known species of hard-shelled citrous fruits, comprising

four genera, is added a ninth species, Feroniella oblata, from Cochin-

china, the type of a new genus Feroniella. This genus resembles Fe-

ronia in having pinnate leaves, large flowers and one-celled fruits due

to the fusing of the 5 to 6 ovary cells, and differs from it in having

twice the number of stamens (four times as many as the number of

petals), filaments with hairy basal appendages, smooth seeds, and the

epicarp composed of radially disposed prismatic elements. Appen-

dices to the filaments are not known in any other plant hitherto studied

of the tribe Citreae. The hairs of the appendices become entangled

and form a sort of cup, protecting the base of the ovary from insects

too small to effect pollination. The structure of the epicarp of the

fruit also differs in its radially disposed woody structure from that of

the other genera of this tribe.

The type of the genus, Feroniella oblata, takes its specific name from

the shape of the fruit which is a flattened spheroid like a mandarin

orange. A cross section of the fruit is figured and an excellent plate

shows a twig with leaves and flowers, giving the flower structure in

detail. This tree, which attains a height of 8 to 20 meters, is found

•I

abstracts: zoology 533

thruout Cambodia and also occurs in Cochinchina, central Laos and

eastern Siam.

Feronia lucida Scheff. is transferred to this genus, becoming Feroni-

ella lucida (Scheff.) Swingle. Maude Kellerman.

ZOOLOGY. — -Revision of the crinoid genus Himeromeira. Austin Ho-

BART Clark. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, 46:

279-289. 1913.

This paper includes a history of the genus, a list of all the references

to the included species, correctly identified, a key to the species, a list

of the six species with the synonymy, range and depth of each, and

a discussion of the phylogenetical interrelationships within the group.

This genus differs from the more closely related genera in having the

proximal or lower pinnules very much enlarged, with the first the longest

and the following decreasing in size. There are three specific groups

within the genus of two species each, distinguished by different stages

in the specialization of the lower pinnules. In the first, least special-

ized, group thes^ pinnules are scarcely stouter than in the allied genera,

but they are long and flagellate, the first being the longest. This group

ranges from the East Indies to the Persian Gulf. In the second group

the lower pinnules are very stout, but they possess a flagellate tip. This

group ranges from the East Indies to the Maldive Islands. In the

third, most specialized, group the lower pinnules are extremely stout,

and end abruptly without a flagellate tip. This group occurs from the

Moluccas and the Philippine Islands to the Mergui Archipelago. In

all of the three groups the more specialized of the two species occurs

in the Malay Archipelago. A. H. C.

TECHNOLOGY. — The metric carat. Bureau of Standards Circular

No. 43.

After July 1, 1913, the metric carat of 200 mgms. is recognized as the

standard of weight for diamonds and other precious stones and this

standard will be used in the certification of all carat weights submitted

to the Bureau after that date. The Treasury Department also adopted

this standard on the same date for use in the customs service in levying

the duties on gems. The change from the former uncertain and in-

definite carat weight, usually equal to about 205.3 mgms., to the defi-

nite and impler metric carat was facilitated in the United States by the

joint action of all the large dealers in diamonds, pearls and other pre-

cious stones, who, reahzing the chaotic condition due to the various

534 abstracts: technology

weights used as a carat, after recommendation by the International

Bureau of Weights and Measures and the Bureau of Standards decided

upon the metric carat as the solution of the difficulty and decided to

put its use into effect on the same date. Until recent!}^ nearly every

civilized country of the world has used a different standard of weight

for diamonds. Many of the nations, however, have lately adopted the

one unit of a carat of 200 mgms., and Spain, Italy, Bulgaria, Denmark,

Norway, Japan, Portugal, Roumaia, Switzerland, Sweden, France, Ger-

many, Holland and Belgium are in the list with the United States of

those countries which now have the new international standard. In

England the change has not yet been adopted. '

The circular gives complete tables by which weights in the old carats

can be determined in terms of the new unit and vice versa, and also

calls attention to the need of more accurate weighing of precious stones

because of their great value and especially of greater care of the bal-

ances and weights used for the purpose. R. Y. Ferner.

REFERENCES

HYDROLOGY.— 5u?-/ace ivater supply of the United States, 1910. Part XII.—

North Pacific Coast. F. F. Henshaw, E. C. La Rtje, and G. C. Stevens: U.

S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 292. Pp. 685. 1913.

Gazetteer of surface waters of California. Part III. — Pacific Coast and Great

Basin streams. B. D. Wood : U. S. Geological SurveyWater Supply Paper 297.

Pp. 244. Prepared in cooperation with State Water Commn. and Conserva-

tion Commn. of State of California.

Water Resources of California. Part III. — Stream measurements in the Great

Basin and Pacific Coast River Basins. H. D. McGlashan and H. J. Dean.

• Prepared in cooperation with State Water Commn. and Conservation Commn.

of State of California. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 300.

Pp. 956. 1913.

Surface water supply of the United States. 1911. Part X. — The Great Basin.

F. F. Henshaw, H. D. McGlashan, and E. A. Porter. U. S. Geological Sur-

vey, Water-Supply Paper 310. Pp. 210, maps and sections. 1913.

Water powers of the Cascade Range. Part II. — Cowlitz, Nisqually, Puyallup,

White, Green, and Cedar drainage basins. F. F. Henshaw and Glenn L.

Parker. Prepared in cooperation with Washington State Board of Geologi-

cal Survey. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply paper 313. Pp. 170,

maps and sections. 1913.

TECHNOLOGY. — Recent papers of the Bureau of Standards:

The density and thermal expansion of linseed oil and turpentine. H. W.

Bearce. Pp. 27. 1912.

The melting points of fire bricks. C. W. Kanolt. Pp. 17. 1912.

Comparison of five methods used to measure hardness. Ralph P. Devries.

Pp. 27. 1912.

Action of the salts in alkali water and sea water on cements. P. H. Bates, A. J.

Philips, and Rudolph J. Wig. Pp. 157. 1912.

The evaporation test for mineral lubricating and transformer oils. C. E.

Waters. Pp.13. 1913.

Legal specifications for illuminating gas. E. B. Rosa and R. S. McBride.

Pp. 31. 1913.

Surface insulation of pipes. Burton McCollum and O. S. Peters. 1913.

The manufacture of lime. W. E. Emley. Pp. 130. 1913.

Th^ function of time in the vitrification of clays. G. H. Brown and G. A.

Murray. Pp. 26. 1913.

Electrolysis in concrete. E. B. Rosa, Burton McCullom, and O. S. Peters.

1913.

Physical testing of cotton yarns. W.S.Lewis. Pp.31. 1913.

Determination of siilfur in illuminating gas. R. S. JNIcBride and E. R.

Weaver. Pp. 46. 1913.

535

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 726th meeting was held on May 24, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,

Vice-President Bowie in the chair; 33 persons present.

Mr. C. G. Abbot presented a paper on Results of measurements of

solar radiation. The essential features of this paper are presented in the

article on The variations of the sun by Abbot, Towle and Aldrich pub-

lished in this Journal, 3 : 309-315. 1913. Messrs. Humphreys, Paul and

Hersey discussed the paper.

Mr. A. W. Gray then spoke on The control of temperature in an elec-

tric furnace. After a brief review of previous experiments to secure uni-

formity of temperature in an electrically heated air column by using the

central portion of a sufficiently long tube and by crowding the windings

near places where heat was losf most rapidly, the speaker described a

development of the electric furnace. The independently heated end

plugs of the earlier pattern were retained; two concentric cylindrical

heaters of nichrome ribbon, wound longitudinally and separated by air

and asbestos, supplied heat uniformly for entire length of the interior.

The new winding distributes any irregularities in resistance in such a

way as not to affect the longitudinal distribution of temperature, is non-

inductive, limits difference of potential between adjacent windings to

drop occurring in a length of ribbon twice as long as furnace, limits to

this length the amount of ribbon that can be accidentally short-circuited,

and brings out both terminals of a heater at same end of furnace and

diametrically opposite. Lantern slides were presented showing results

under various conditions. A further improvement consisted in moving

heating coils of plugs to extreme ends of furnace, making it easy to

secure uniformity of temperature within a few tenths of a degree over

at least twice the length of the furnace. The paper was discussed by Mr.

"White as to point of highest temperature and mechanical details. At

10.00 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

The 727th meeting was held on October 11, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,

Vice-President Bowie in the chair; 41 persons present.

Mr. L. J. Briggs presented a paper giving the results of an investiga-

tion by himself and Mr. H. L. Shantz on The water requirements of plants.

The governing conditions determining the absorption of water by the

roots of plants, its translocation thru the stems, and its final evaporation

from the leaves were first discussed. Attention was directed to peculiar

structural modifications found in certain plants, which are apparently

536

proceedings: the philosophical society 537

for the purpose of reducing the loss of water. In view of these changes,

wide variations as regards efficiency in use of water by different plants

might be expected. The authors found this to be the case. The amount

of water transferred is very great compared with the dry matter pro-

duced. In the experiments direct evaporation from the soil was pre-

vented by the use of perforated covers, the openings about the stems of

the plants being sealed with wax. Six pots were used for each variety,

to provide a basis for calculating the probable errors of the water require-

ment ratios. The water requirement is profoundly modified by differ-

ences in climatic environment. The average for 25 varieties grown at

Akron, Colorado, in 1912 was only 79±2 per cent of that of the same vari-

eties in 1911, while the evaporation in 1912 was 78 ± 2 per cent of that

in 1911. Paper was illustrated by photographs and lantern slides.

Upon request of the chair, Mr. Shantz made some additional remarks

concerning the investigation. Botanists were interested in this question

as early as 1699. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bowie, Curtis,

CoBLENTZ, Humphreys, and Wenner.

Mr. M. D, Hersey then gave a brief review of the Birmingham meeting

of the British Association. In the Engineering Section great interest was

shown in the discussion of complex stress distribution and failures and in

report on electrical units and nomenclature. .In the Physical and Mathe-

matical Section the papers dealt chiefly with modern theories of radia-

tion. Reference was made to the Presidential and Vice-Presidential

addresses and the relatively greater importance attached to the social

and general features than with the American Association.

Upon the suggestion of Mr. Hersey, the chair invited Mr. W. F. G.

SwANN to give informally brief abstracts of his papers before the Bir-

mingham meeting on The electrical resistance of thin metallic films and on

The exj)ression for the electrical conductivity of a metal. The first give a

theory to explain the abnormally high apparent specific resistance of a

very thin film, while the second called attention to the fact that Drude's

expression requires a correction in coefficient in denominator from 4 to 3.

At 10 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

The 728th meeting was held on October 25, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,

Vice-President Bowie in the chair; 30 persons present.

Mr. J. H. Bellinger presented a paper on The measurement of high

frequency currents. Three effects made use of in such measurements are

electro-dynamic, electro-static, and thermal. The last is most success-

fully and generally used and four methods involving this effect were dis-

cussed. The different appliances, experimental apparatus, and standard

instruments were briefly described. The theoretical considerations and

formulae were discussed. The conclusions drawn were that circuit of

ammeter must be simple, the straight wire type of instrument is superior,

and that errors may be eliminated by use of high resistance. The paper

was discussed by Messrs. Olshausen and Rosa.

Mr. F. W. Wells then presented by invitation a paper entitled

538 proceedings: geological society

Interpreting irregular data. The manifestations of nature are of utmost

irregularity; of all sciences, that of agriculture is richest in data but

poorest in correlation. The most generally used method for discussion is

that of averages, but in biological and other fields this method is of little

value. The author has been quite successful in the application of the

integral of the probability curve to data of this character. Lantern

slides were shown to illustrate such application to data for turbidity of

Washington water before and after operation of filtration plant, and to

data showing number of leucocytes in morning and evening milk. The

paper was discussed by Messrs. Hersey and Swann.

Upon invitation of the chair, Mr. C. E. St. John, of the Mt. Wilson

Solar Observatory, gave an informal report upon the social and scientific

features of the recent conference of the Solar Union at Bonn. He ab-

stracted briefly each day's proceedings. Reports were given by various

committees on solar radiation; standard wavelengths; solar atmosphere;

solar rotation, sun-spots and eclipses, and magnetic state of the Sun.

The speaker referred particularly to the favorable reception accorded

the work of Abbott and to the fact that the American contingent of

workers is bearing its fair share in the development of solar research.

The chair expressed the thanks of the Society to Mr. St. John for the

report. At 10.00 p.m. the meeting adjourned.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 270th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club on

April 23, 1913.

An informal communication was presented by B. S. Butler on Basic

ferric sulfates in Utah.

REGULAR PROGRAM

A remarkable skeleton of Stegosaurus (illustrated) : C. W. Gilmore.

The type specimen of Stegosaurus stenops recently prepared and placed

on exhibition in the U. S. National Museum constitutes the most per-

fect skeleton of this remarkable chnosaur ever found. It is also unique

in being the first specimen to give positive evidence as to the position

and arrangement of the large dermal plates with which, in life, its back

was adorned. The position of the various parts of the skeleton, as ex-

plaining the manner of death, and entombment of this particular speci-

men were discussed.

The facts relating to the dermal armor which now appear to be es-

tablished from this preliminary study are: (1) That the armor of the

neck, back, and tail was formed by two rows of erect plates, the ele-

ments of one row alternating with those of the other; (2) that the total

number of plates in the two rows was not less than 20 and not more

than 22; (3) that the position of the largest plate of the series appears

to be above the base of the tail and not over the pelvis; (4) that the

usual number of dermal spines on the tail is four arranged in two pairs.

proceedings: geological society 539

A microscopic study of sulfide ores of copper (illustrated) : L. C.

Graton. This paper is presented in full in the Bi-nioyitfily Bulletin of

the American Institute of Mining Engineers. 1913.

The 271st meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club on

May 14, 1913.

Reconnaissance of the Lower Eraser River, B. C. : N. L. Bowen. The

speaker examined the region bordering on the Fraser River from Lyt-

ton to Vancouver, British Columbia, during the summer of 1912, for the

Geological Survey of Canada. The section crosses the Coast-Cascade

uplift. The oldest rocks are highly disturbed argillites and quartzites

with thin beds of limestone and associated volcanic rocks which are

correlated on lithologic grounds with the Cache Creek group of Penn-

sylvanian age. With these are infolded a series of banded gray argil-

lites which have yielded a single Mesozoic fossil and which are consid-

ered probably Jurassic. These latter have formerly been described by

G. M. Dawson under the name Boston Bar group and tho he considered

them probably Palaeozoic, the name is retained. Both of these earlier

series strike, as a rule, northwestward and commonly have high dips.

They have been invaded by Upper Jurassic granites which are generally

somewhat sheared and in places have become typical gneiss. On the

western flank of the Coast Range, near Agassiz and Chilliwack, occurs

a sedimentary series which is probably also Jurassic, tho much less

metamorphosed than its supposed eastern equivalent (Boston Bar group).

The beds have yielded only indefinite Mesozoic fossils. The chief rock

types are conglomerate, argillite, usually black, and limestone with a

possible basal member of quartz porphyry. The strikes are north-

eastward, a rather unusual strike in the Cordillera.

Lower Cretaceous rocks, characterized by a moderate degree of dis-

turbance, occupy a do^vn-faulted belt running roughly parallel to the

valleys of Fraser and Anderson rivers. The structure within the belt

is synclinal. The rocks are dominantly clastic; arkose, argillite, and

conglomerate making up the group, locally termed the Jackass Moun-

tain group. Later batholithic rocks, provably Upper Cretaceous,

occupy a mde belt near Hope and Agassiz. They differ from the Ju-

rassic granites in being fresh and unsheared, and the dominant types

are granodiorite, quartz diorite, and diorite with a later alkaline granite

probably separated from the other types by a considerable time interval.

The Jurassic and the Cretaceous batholiths make up the Coast Batho-

lith. The Eocene beds of the Puget group occurring in the lower courses

of the Fraser are clearly younger than all the rocks heretofore men-

tioned including the later batholiths. They are slightly disturbed and

consist, on the whole, of little indurated beds of sandstone, conglomerate,

and shale, presumably of estuarine character. The whole region with

the exception of the higher peaks was covered with the Cordilleran ice

sheet.

So77ie special features of the glaciation of the Catskill Mountains: H.

E. Merwin. Many of the rounded peaks of the Catskills reach heights

540 ANNOUNCEMENTS

of nearly 4000 feet above the sea and above the Hudson-Mohawk low-

land east and north. Glacial striae have been found on the tops of

some of these peaks, but the peak farthest south, Slide Mountain, al-

titude 4200, is covered with loose residual gravel. The Catskills are

unique in having several long deep valleys trending across the path of

the main ice movement. These head in the bold escarpment above the

Hudson valley, and drain westward. From their heads passes open

about 2000 feet above the jHudson valley. During the period of ice

retreat tongues of ice from the lobe in the Hudson valley flowed thru

the passes down the valleys producing deposits which simulate accumu-

lations from local glaciers. In hollows between spurs on the north sides

of some of the peaks masses of ice entering from the north seem to have

been cut off. Against these stagnant masses, yearly advances of the

main ice tongues made deposits which are now barriers between the

spurs.

The present attitude of German geographers toward W. M. Davis'

explanatory description of land forms: FRANgois E. Matthes. (No

abstract.)

Ralph W. Richards, Secretary.

ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS

CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

(Local Section American Chemical Society)

The 233d meeting will be a special meeting, to be held at the Cosmos

Club at 8.15 p, m., Monday, December 22. Professor Earl B. Phelps,

of the Hygienic Laboratory will lecture on ''Recent Advances in Sewage

Chemistry."

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

INDEX TO VOLUME III

PROCEEDINGS, PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE

ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washing-

ton. Proceedings: 31, 91, 128, 155,

200, 304, 479, 510.

Biological Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 174, 267, 427, 509.

Botanical Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 92, 132, 264, 279, 596.

Programs and announcements: 52.

Chemical Society. Proceedings: 129,

197, 260, 340, 505.

Announcement: 540.

Congress of Americanists, Nineteenth

International : 512.

Geological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 50, 156, 173, 199, 237,

300, 343, 538.

National Academy of Sciences. Semi-

centenary anniversary : 240.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 46, 296, 426, 536.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 121, 154, 197, 339,

505.

Programs and Announcements: 52,

512.

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbot, C. G. *Report on the astro-

physical observatory, Smithsonian

Institution, for year ending June

30, 1912. 110.

Allen, E. T. *The sulfides of zinc,

cadmium, and mercury; their crys-

talline forms and genetic condi-

tions. 114.

-Th

O TTQ VI Q t 1 /-vt-» y-»

r +u.

,,,« of\r\

sun. 309.

326.

* Abstracts.

541

^///O <)"

f

540

ANNOUNCEMENTS

of nearly 4000 feet above the sea and above the Hudson-Mohawk low-

land east and north. Glacial striae have been found on the tops of

some of these peaks, but the peak farthest south, Slide Mountain, al-

titude 4200, is covered with loose residual gravel. The Catskills are

unique in having several long deep valleys trending across the path of

the main ice movement. These head in the bold escarpment above the

Hudson valley, and drain westward. From their heads passes open

about 2000 feet above the [Hudson valley. During the period of ice

retreat tongues of ice from the lobe in the Hudson valley flowed thru

the passes down the valleys producing deposits which simulate accumu-

lations from local glaciers. In hollows between spurs on the north sides

of some of the peaks masses of ice entering from the north seem to have

been cut off. Against these stagnant masses, yearly advances of the

main ice tongues made deposits which are now barriers between the

spurs.

The present attitude of German geographers toward W. M. Davis'

explanatory description of land forms: FRANgois E. Matthes. (No

abstract.)

Ralph W. Richards, Secretary.

i

ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEETINGS

CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

(Local Section American Chemical Society)

The 233d meeting will be a special meeting, to be held at the Cosmos

Club at 8.15 p. m., Monday, December 22. Professor Earl B. Phelps,

of the Hygienic Laborator}^ will lecture on "Recent Advances in Sewage

Chemistry."

RnRTT/RT "R SosMATsr. Secretarv.

ERRATA

Page 39, table, columns 1 and 2, for "camphor" read "thymol"; for "thymol"

read "camphor"; column 4, for "23" read "77"; column 5 omit "77" and the

last "100"; column 6, below "50" insert "23" and "100".

Page 249, second line from top read

"F. H. Tucker" instead of "F. H. Tuttle."

uuijuuiiuni H H F* I1 1 rt iBBBBBBBOiWie»iecis?geei3eaaoBec-& iiHtasijijeecaiSJCias.'i^^

INDEX TO VOLUME III

■* , :?

PROCEEDINGS, PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE

ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washing-

ton. Proceedings: 31, 91, 128, 155,

200, 304, 479, 510.

Biological Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 174, 267, 427, 509.

Botanical Society of Washington. Pro-

ceedings: 92, 132, 264, 279, 596.

Programs and announcements: 52.

Chemical Society. Proceedings: 129,

197, 260, 340, 505.

Announcement: 540.

Congress of Americanists, Nineteenth

International : 512.

Geological Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 50, 156, 173, 199, 237,

300, 343, 538.

National Academy of Sciences. Semi-

centenary anniversary : 240.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Proceedings: 46, 296, 426, 536.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 121, 154, 197, 339,

505.

Programs and Announcements : 52,

512.

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbot, C. G. *Report on the astro-

physical observatory, Smithsonian

Institution, for year ending June

30, 1912. 110.

The variation of the sun. 309.

ApAMS, L. H. *0n the density of solid

substances, with especial reference

to permanent changes produced by

high pressures. 113.

*0n the effect of high pressures

on the physical and chemical be-

havior of solid substances. 165.

A useful type of formula for the

interpolation and representation of

experimental results. 469.

Albright, A. R. *Hydrogeneration

with colloidal palladium as cata-

lyzer. 263.

Aldrich, L. B. The variation of the

sun. 309.

Allen, E. T. *The sulfides of zinc,

cadmium, and mercury; their crys-

talline forms and genetic condi-

tions. 114.

Anderson, John F. *Further at-

tempts to transmit poliomyelitis

thru the agency of the stable fly.

337.

Ashe, W. W. A new shrubby buckeye.

424.

Austin, L. W. A comparison of arc

and spark sending apparatus for

radiotelegraphy. 284.

A crystal contact disturbance pre-

venter for radiotelegraphic receiv-

ing. 386.

Difference in strength of day and

night signals in radiotelegraphy.

326.

* Abstracts.

541

^/z

O'n^

in;.,

■ v-i

■ 'I

'•::;1

^!l

i

•i M

*^t ^

n >

« 'm

542

INDEX

Further comparison of arc and

spark radio transmission. 517.

The high frequency resistances of

inductances. 94.

The measurement of received ra-

diotelegraphic signals. 133.

*Recent experiments in radio-

telegraphy. 299.

Aters, S. Hexrt. The destruction of

bacteria in milk by ultra-violet

rays. 160.

Babcock, Wm. H. *The Islands of

Antillia. 31.

Baldwin, A. L. *The California-

Washington arc of primary tri-

angulation. 402.

Bartlett, H. H. *Absorption and

excretion of salts by roots, as in-

fluenced by concentration and

composition of culture solutions.

I. Concentration relations of dilute

solutions of calcium and magne-

sium nitrate to pea roots. 26.

*Problem of the identity of Oeno-

thera Lamarckiana. 175.

Bastix, E. S. *Secondary enrichment

in silver. 52.

Baiter, L. A. A consistent theory of

the origin of the Earth's magnetic

field. 1.

Preliminary results of a first analy-

sis of the sun's general magnetic

field. 513.

*Researches of the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism; land mag-,

netic observations, 1905-1910. 20.

Beattie, J. H. *City street sweep-

ings as a fertilizer. 254.

*Effect of asparagin on absorption

and growth in wheat. 255.

Belz, J. O. Evaporation in the great

plains and inter-mountain dis-

tricts as influenced by the haze of

1912. 381.

Bingham, Eugene C. *Fluidity and

its relation to other physical and

chemical properties. 341.

Boughton, E. W. *The effect of cer-

tain pigments on linseed oil with

a note on manganese content of

raw linseed oil. 257.

Boutwell, John ]\Iason. *Geology

and ore deposits of the Park City

district, Utah. 445.

BowEN, X. L. *The binary sj'stem:

Xa2Al2Si208 (nephelite, carnegie-

ite) -CaAl2Si208 (anorthite). 90.

*The melting phenomena of the

plagioclase feldspars. 523.

*Reconnaissance of the lower

Eraser River, B. C. 539.

Bowie, Wm. *Determination of time,

longitude, latitude and azimuth.

402.

*Precise level net of the U. S. 298.

Brezeale, J. F. *Effect of lime upon

the alkali tolerance of wheat seed-

lings. 197.

Briggs, Lyman J. *Application of

the microscope to physical prob-

lems. 48.

Evaporation in the great plains

and inter-mountain districts as

influenced by the haze of 1912.

381.

A mechanical differential telether-

mograph and some of its applica-

tions. 33.

*The water requirements of plants.

536.

Brooks, Alfred H. *Works of the

Alaska Railroad Commission. 300.

Bryce, James. *Physical aspects of

Australia and Xew Zealand. 297,

339.

BuNZEL, H. H. *A biochemical study

of the curly-top of sugar beet. 251.

Bureau of Standards. *Metallograph-

ic testing. Circular Xo. 42, 1913.

251.

*The testing and properties of tex-

tile materials. Circular 41, 1913.

166.

Abstracts.

INDEX

543

Burgess, George K. ^lelting points

of the refractory elements. I.

Elements of atomic weight from 48

to 59. 371.

A micropjTometer. 7.

Preliminary note on the critical

ranges, A3 and A2, of pure iron.

329.

*Present status of the temperature

scale. 21.

BuRLixo, Lancaster D. *Habitat of

the Cambrian brachiopoda. 199.

Caix, J. R. The determination of

phosphorus in steels containing

vanadium. 249.

Capps, S. R. *The Yentna District,

Alaska. 466.

Clark, Austin* Hobart. *Cambrian

Holothurians. 530.

*Crinoidea (supplement). 294.

The systematic position of the

crinoid family Plicatocrinidae. 494.

*A revision of the crinoid family

Mariametridae. 504.

*The crinoids of the Indian Ocean.

169.

*The crinoids of the Museum fiir

Naturkunde, Berlin. 171.

*The crinoids of the Natural His-

tory ^luseum at Hamburg. 171.

*The crinoids of the Solomon Is-

lands. 171.

*Description of a collection of un-

stalked crinoids made bj' Captain

Suenson in Eastern Asia. 468.

*Descriptions of eleven new cri-

noids belonging to the families

Calometridae and Thalassometri-

dae discovered by the Siboga in

the Dutch East Indies. 168.

*Descriptions of twentj' new recent

unstalked crinoids, belonging to

the families Antedonidae and Ate-

lecrinidae, from the Dutch East

Indies. 456.

-*The distribution of animals and

its bearing on the peopling of

America. 196.

-*Die Fauna Sudwest-Australiens :

Crinoidea. 169.

-*An ingenious method of causing

death emploj^ed by the Obeah men

of the West Indies. 196.

-*Xaumachocrinus, a new genus

belonging to the crinoid family

Phrj-nocrinidae. 168.

-*Xotes on American species of

Peripatus. 170.

-*Xotes sur les crinoides actuels du

museum d'histoire naturelle de

Paris. 169.

-*0n a collection of recent Crinoids

from the waters about Ireland.

336.

-*0n a small collection of recent

crinoids from the Indian Ocean.

170.

-*Piccole note su degli Onycho-

phora. 456.

-*Preliminary description of eleven

new crinoids belonging to the fami-

lies Himerometridae, ^lariametri-

dae and Colobometridae discovered

by the Siboga in the Dutch East

Indies. 170.

-*The recent crinoids of Australia.

169.

-*Das relative Alter der rezenter

Seelilienfaunen. 171.

-*Restoration of the genus Eldonia,

a genus of free swimming Holo-

thurians from the middle Cam-

brian. 167.

-*A revision of the American species

of Preipatus, with a list of known

forms. 170.

-*Revision of the crinoid genus

Himerometra. 533.

-*Seventeen new East Indian cri-

noids belonging to the families

Comasteridae and Zygometridae.

168.

• Abstracts.

544

INDEX

*Six new East Indian crinoids be-

longing to the family Charitome-

tridae. 168.

*A study of biological paleogeog-

raphy in its bearing on the origin

of man in America. 167.

*A study of the salinity of the sur-

face water in the North Pacific

Ocean and in the adjacent enclosed

seas. 165.

*Three interesting butterflies from

eastern Massachusetts. 404.

Cobb, N. A. Draconema: A remark-

able genus of marine free-living

nematodes. 145.

New nematode genera found in-

habiting fresh water and non-

brackish soils. 432.

Notes on Mononchus and Tylen-

chulus. 287.

CoBLENTz, Wm. W. The constants of

spectral radiation of a uniformly

heated enclosure. 177.

The constants of spectral radiation

of a uniformly heated enclosure or

so-called black body. 10.

Summary of tests made on bis-

muth thermopiles. 357.

Cook, F. C. *Comparison of plant,

meat, and yeast extracts. 131.

Cook, O. F. *Heredity and cotton

breeding. 152.

Ivory palms in Panama. 138.

A new generic name for the sapote.

158.

Web-spinning fly larvae in Guate-

malan caves. 190.

CoKBETT, L. C. *Lawn soils and

lawns. 254.

CoviLLE, Fkedeeick V. The forma-

tion of leafmold. 77.

Crenshaw, J. L. *The sulfides of

zinc, cadmium, and mercury, their

crystalline forms and genetic con-

ditions. 114.

Crowe, J. J. Observations on ocean

temperatures in the vicinitj' of

icebergs and in other parts of the

ocean. 405.

Preliminary note on the critical

ranges, A3 and A2, of pure iron.

329.

Curtis, H. L. *Some properties of

electric condensers. 296.

CuSHMAN, A. S. *Electrolytic deter-

mination of tin in canned food

products. 131.

Dale, T. N. *The commercial marbles

of western Vermont. 152.

Darton, N. H. *Construction of a

structure map of the northern an-

thracite field. 199.

Day, Arthur L. Water and the mag-

matic gases. 457.

*Arc quantitative physico-chemi-

cal studies of rocks practicable?

502.

*Densities at high temperatures.

521.

*La mesure des temperatures ele-

v^es par le thermometre a gaz.

501.

Dellinger, J. H. High-frequency

ammeters. 412.

Dickinson, H. C. *Latent heat of

fusion of ice. 453.

*New calorimetric resistance ther-

mometers. 296.

Observations on ocean tempera-

tures in the vicinity of icebergs

and other parts of the ocean. 405.

Dole, R. B. *Concentration of min-

eral waters in relation to their

therapeutic activity. 130.

DoRSEY, N. E. *The earth inductor

as an inclinometer. 49.

DuRAND, E. Dana. *Race statistics of

the last census. 91.

Eakin, H. M. *Geologic reconnais-

sance of a part of, the Rampart

Quadrangle, Alaska. 467.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

545

*Quaterary problems of central

Alaska. 301.

Emmons, W. H. *The enrichment of

sulfide ores. 454.

EvERMAN, Barton W. *Alaska fish-

eries and fur industries in 1911.

172.

Faris, R. L. *A new type of compass

declinometer. 112.

Fassig, Oliver L. *Hurricanes of the

West Indies. 333.

Fenner, Clarence N. *Petrographic

study of the specimens of loess,

tierra cocida, and scoria collected

by the Hrdlicka-Willis Expedition.

115.

*Study of a contact metamorphic

ore-deposit. The Dolores mine,

at Matehuala, S. L. P., Mexico.

116.

Fischer, L. A. *Some types of false

weights and measures found in the

U.S. 46.

FooTE, Paul D. *Note on the cali-

bration of optical pyrometers. 151.

FowLE, F. E. *The determination of

aqueous vapor above Mount Wil-

son. 425.

The variation of the sun. 309.

Franklin, Edward C. *The action

of potassium amide on cupric ni-

trate in liquid ammonia solution.

334.

*The action of potassium amide on

thallium nitrate in liquid ammonia

solutions. 335.

*Ammonia, with experiments. 339.

*Potassium ammonotitanate. 335.

Fuller, H. C. *Determination of

caffein in tea and coffee. 342.

Garret, G. H. *Study of a contact

metamorphic ore-deposit. The Do-

lores mine, at Matehuala, S. L. P.,

Mexico. 116.

Gilbert, C. C. *Ores of the Mount

Lyell copper district of Tasmania.

344.

GiLMORE, C. W. *A remarkable skele-

ton of Stegosaurus. 538.

Gore, H. C. *Biochemistry of the

banana. 342.

*Estimation of tartaric and malic

acids by the use of uranium acetate

and ammonium molybdate. 198.

Gore, J. H. *Siamese life and indus-

tries. 307.

Gray, A. W. *The control of tempera-

ture in an electric furnace. 536.

Griffiths, David. *Effect of the

recent freeze in California. 379.

Grover, F. W. *The analysis of alter-

nating current waves by the

method of Fourier, with special

reference to methods of facilitat-

ing the computations. 501.

GuLBRANDSEN, SvERRE. *Incandes-

cent gas lighting. 340.

Harper, D. R. *Latent heat of fusion

of ice. 453.

Hedgcock, G. G. *Notes on diseases

of trees caused by Mistletoes. 265.

Hedges, Florence. *A knot of citrus

trees caused by Sphaeropsis tume-

faciens. 29.

Heller, Edmund. *Distribution of

game animals in Africa. 428.

Hersey, M. D. *A mechanical model

of the least square adjustment.

296.

Hess, Frank L. Triplite from eastern

Nevada. 286.

Hewett, D. F.' *Occurrence of petro-

leum near Cody, Wyo. 51.

Hicks, W. B. *A short practical meth-

od for the estimation of potas-

sium. 342.

Hill, J. N. *Zinc-lead deposits of the

Yellow Pine district, Nev. 238.

HiLLEBRAND, W. F. Calcium vana-

dates from Peru, Colorado and

Utah. 157.

A danger to be guarded against in

making mineral separations by

means of heavj' solutions. • 137.

* Abstracts.

546

INDEX

Two varieties of calciovolborthite

(?) from eastern Utah. 138.

*Two varieties of calciovolbor-

thite (?) from eastern Utah. 503.

HiNE, Thomas B. *Potassium am-

monotitanate. 335.

Hitchcock, A. S. *Notes on the bot-

any of Trinidad. 266.

Holmes, W. H. *Agricultural imple-_

ments of the mound-builders. 304.

*Scope and relationship of history

and archaeology. 304.

HosTETTER, J. C. The electrolytic re-

duction of iron for analysis. 429.

*A method for the determination

of magnesium in calcium salts. 522.

*Densities at high temperatures.

521.

Hough,' Walter. *Savage mutila-

tions for decoration. 200.

Howard, L. O. *Dangerfrom import-

ed plants and fruits, and govern-

ment efforts to avoid it. 121.

Hrdlicka, Ales. *Results of a trip to

Peru; with remarks on anthropo-

logical problems. 479.

Humphreys, W. J. *Factors in cli-

matic changes in the past. 299.

*The 1912 excursion of the Ameri-

can Geographical Society. 47.

*0n the physics of the atmosphere.

333.

Violent uprushes in cumulus

clouds. 93.

Volcanic dust as a factor in the pro-

duction of climatic changes. 365.

Hunt, W. F. Triplite from eastern

Nevada. 286.

*Potassium ammonomagnesate and

potassium ammonoborate. 130.

Johansen, Fritz. *Zoological results

of the Denmark expedition to

northeast Greenland. 268.

Johnson, W. T., Jr. The destruction

of bacteria in milk by ultra-violet

rays. 160.

Johnston, John R. *History and

cause of the coconut bud-rot. 26.

Johnston, John. *Note on the tem-

perature in the deep boring at

Findlay, Ohio. 500.

*0n the density of solid substances,

with especial reference to perma-

nent changes produced by high

pressures. 113.

*0n the effect of high pressures on

the physical and chemical behavior

of solid substances. 165.

*The general principles underlying

metamorphic processes. 527.

Kanolt, C. W. The melting points of

some refractory oxides. 315.

Kearney, Thomas H. *Indicator

value of natural vegetation in the

Tooele Valley, Utah. 264.

*The wilting coefficient for plants

in alkali soils. 119.

Kellerman, Karl F. Suggestions for

frost protection. 53.

Kimball, H. H. The unusual atmos-

pheric haziness during the latter

part of 1912. 269.

Kindle, E. M. *The Onondaga fauna

of the Allegheny Region. 403.

Knopf, Adolf. *The Eagle River

region, southeastern Alaska. 258.

*Ore deposits of the Helena min-

ing region, Montana. 529.

Knowlton, F. H. *Effect of the

Arctic night on tropical or sub-

tropical vegetation. 3^0.

*A paleobotanical study of the

coal-bearing rocks of the Raton

Mesa region of Colorado and New

Mexico. 173.

KoLSTER, F. A. *National and inter-

national regulation of radiocom-

munication. 299.

Lamb, Wm. H. *The catalpa septum:

a factor in distinguishing hardy

catalpa. 294.

' Abstracts.

INDEX

547

*A key to common Nebraska

shrubs. 456.

*The phylogeny of grasses. 119.

*A synopsis of the red firs. 167.

Larsen, E. S. Magnetite basalt from

North Park, Colo. 449.

*Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and

selenium as immersion media for

the determination of high refrac-

tive indices with the microscope.

114.

Latheop, Elbert C. *Chemical

changes in heated soils. 261.

*The chemistry of steam-heated

soils. 256.

*Guanine from a heated soil. 253.

*Normal and abnormal constitu-

ents of soil organic matter. 252.

LeClerc, J. A. *Effect of lime upon

the alkali tolerance of wheat seed-

lings. 197.

*Influence of environment upon

the composition of wheat. 262.

Lee, Willis T. *Coal fields of Grand

Mesa and the West Elk Moun-

tains, Colorado. 362.

*Recent discovery of dinosaurs in

the Tertiary. 173.

Leffingwell, E. DeK. *Reconnais-

sance of the Arctic Slope of Alaska.

343.

Leonard, A. G. *Bismark, N. Dak.,

folio. 466.

Leverett, Frank. *Time relations of

glacial lakes in the Great Lakes

region. 237.

Lewis, W. S. *Physical testing of

cotton yarns. 167.

Lewton, Frederick L. *Cotton of the

Hopi Indians: a new species of

Gossypium. 24.

*Kokia: a new genus of Hawaiian

trees. 25.

— ■ — *Rubelzul cotton: a new species of

Gossypium from Guatemala. 24.

LiLLiE, Ralph S. *Physico-chemical

conditions of anesthetic action.

340.

LiNDEMUTH, J. R. *Analysis of cer-

tain Pacific coast kelps. 262.

LoTKA, Alfred J. A natural popula-

tion norm. I. 241.

A natural population norm. IL

289.

LouGHLiN, G. F. *Reconnaissance in

the Southern Wasatch Mountains.

50.

Lyon, Marcus, Jr. *Tree-shrews.

268.

Maddren, a. G. *Geology of the Koy-

ukuk-Chandalar region, Alaska.

528.

McCoLLUM, Burton. *Electrolysis in

plain and reinforced concrete. 361.

McCuRDY, George Graves. *Ancient

man, his environment and his art.

307.

McDaniels, a. S. The silver volta-

meter. III. 40.

McNeil, H. C. *]Moisture determina-

tion by means of calcium carbide.

129.

Marsh, C. D. *Stock poisoning by

larkspur. 427.

Maxon, Wm. R. a new genus of

davallioid ferns. 143.

Merriam, C. Hart. *Notes on the

big bears of North America. 428.

*Remarkable extinct fauna of

southern California revealed in the

asphalt deposits near Los Angeles.

428.

Mertie, J. B., Jr. *Igneous rocks of

the Raton Mesa Region. 302.

Merwin, H. E. Calcium vanadates

from Peru, Colorado and Utah.

157.

*Some special features df the glaci-

ation of the Catskill Mountains.

539.

* Abstracts.

548

INDEX

*The simultaneous crystallization

of calcite and certain sulfides of

iron, copper and zinc. 504.

*Two varieties of calciovolborthite

(?) from eastern Utah. 503.

Data on the intrusion tempera-

ture of the Palisade diabase. 389.

— — ^Media of high refraction for refrac-

tive index determinations with the

microscope; also, a set of perma-

nent standard media of lower re-

fraction. 35.

*Media of high refraction for use

with the microscope. 48.

*Mixtures of amorphous sulfur

and selenium as immersion media

for the determination of high re-

fractive indices with the micro-

scope. 114.

Two varieties of calciovolborthite

(?) from eastern Utah. 138.

Moore, Riley B. *Observations in

St. Lawrence Island. 129.

MoREY, George W. *The hydrother-

mal formation of silicates. 520.

Mueller, E. F. *New calorimetric

resistance thermometers. 296.

MuLFORD, F. L. *Lawn soils and

lawns. 254.

Nelson, E. K. *Tests for absinthe.

261.

Newton, Philip. *Negritos of the

Philippines. 32.

Niggli, Paul. *The general principles

underlying metamorphic processes.

527.

*The hydrothermal formation of

silicates. 520.

*The phenomena of equilibrium

between silica and the alkali car-

bonates. 522.

Norton, J. B. *Some interesting

facts concerning the genus Aspara-

gus. r32.

Orton, W. a. Environmental influ-

ences in the pathology of Solanum

tuberosum. 180.

Osborne, X. S. *Latent heat of

fusion of ice. 453.

Nutting, P. G. On the absorption of

light in heterogeneous media. 322.

Paige, Sidney. *Bearing of Pre-

Cambrian structure on the origin

of the Homestake ore body. 173.

Palache, C. Hodgkinsonite, a new

mineral from Franklin Furnace,

N. J. 474.

Palmer, A. H. *Atmospheric humid-

ity as related to haze, fog, and

visibility at Blue Hill. 361.

Parker, E. H. *Analysis of certain

Pacific coast kelps. 262.

Parker, G. H. *The sense of smell in

fishes. 295.

Peters, O. S. *Electrolysis in plain

and reinforced concrete. 361.

Phalen, W. C. *Kenova, Ky., West

Virginia and Ohio, folio. 455.

Piper, C. V. *The Filipinos and the

problem of their government. 128.

PoGUE, J. E. *Ores of the Mount

Lyell copper district of Tasmania.

344.

Priest, Irwin G. *A photometric

error sometimes accompanying the

use of a pair of nicols, and a pro-

posal for its elimination. 298.

*A simplified formula for the

change in order of interference due

to changes in temperature and

pressure of air. 150.

Rabak, Frank. *Some effects of re-

frigeration on sulfured and unsul-

fured hops. 120.

*Wild volatile-oil plants and their

economic importance. I. Black

sage; II. Wild sage; III. Swamp

bay. 23.

Reid, F. R. *Studies in soil catalysis.

255.

Richards, Ralph W. *Niter near

Melrose, Mont. 301.

Robinson, W. O. *Manganese as a

fertilizer. 255.

• Abstracts.

INDEX

549

Rogers, L. A. *Drying by the freez-

ing method. 197.

RoHWER, S. A. *Sawflies and their

relation to forestry. 175.

Rosa, E. B. *Electrolysis in plain and

reinforced concrete. 361.

The function of research in the

regulation of natural monopolies.

201.

The silver voltameter. III. 40.

Rose, J. N. *A portrait of Linnaeus.

92.

Safford, W. E. Chelonocarpus, a

new section of the genus Annona,

with descriptions of Annona sclero-

derma and Annona testudinea.

103.

Pseudannona, a new genus of

Annonacae from the Mascarene

Islands; together with notes on

Artabotrys uncinatus and its syn-

onymy. 16.

Salant, W. *Concerning the pharma-

cological action of the tartrates

197.

Sanstrom, J. W. *Atmospheric stud-

ies. 110.

ScHALLER, Waldemar T. The calcu-

lation of mineral formulas. 97.

*The crystallography of natram-

blygonite. 152.

Hodgkinsonite, a new mineral

from Franklin Furnace, N. J. 474.

Immense bloedite crystals. 75.

The refractive indices of strengite

249.

*A study of the tourmaline group.

151.

ScHREiNER, Oswald. *The chemistry

of steam-heated soils. 256.

*Lawn soils and lawns. 254.

*Problems of soil fertility. 260.

Seidell, A. *Seasonal variation in

the iodine content of the thyroid

gland. 131.

Shantz, H. L. *The water require-

ments of plants. 536.

Shaw, E. W. *Mud lumps at the mouth

of the Mississippi. 343.

Shaw, Harry B. *Control of seed pro-

duction in beets. 264.

Shear, C. L. *Studies of fungous par-

asites belonging to the genus

Glomerella. 194.

Sheldon, R. E. *The sense of smell in

fishes. 295.

Shepherd, E. S. Water and the mag-

matic gases. 457.

Shorey, E. C. *Recent work on the

chemical composition of humus.

260.

*Some organic soil constituents.

256.

SiEVERS, Arthur F. *A preliminary

study of the forced curing of lem-

ons as practiced in California. 25.

SiNGEWALD, Joseph T., Jr. *Rela-

tions of ilmenite to magnetite in

titaniferous magnetite. 199.

Skeels, H. C. *Method of types ap-

plied to the nickernut. 379.

Skinner, J. J. *Beneficial effect of

creatinine and creatine on growth.

254.

*City street sweepings as a ferti-

lizer. 254.

*Effect of asparagin on absorption

and growth in wheat. 255.

*Effect of histidine and arginine as

soil constituents. 253.

*Influence of phosphate on the

toxic action of cumarin. 253.

*Lawn soils and lawns. 254.

*Physiological action of certain or-

ganic soil constituents. 261.

Smith, Clayton. *Concerning the phar-

macological action of the tar-

trates. 197.

Smith, Hugh M. *Recent progress in

the study and culture of the com-

mon eel. 268.

SosMAN, R. B. Data on the intrusion

temperature of the Palisade dia-

base. 389.

'■ Abstracts.

550

INDEX

*Densities at high temperatures.

521.

*La mesure des temperatures 61e-

vees'par le thermometre a gaz. 501.

*The physical chemistry of Seger

cones. 501.

Spencer, Arthur C. Chalcocite de-

position. 70.

Spurr, J. E. *Study of a contact

metamorphic ore-deposit. The Do-

lores mine, at Matehuala, S. L. P.

Mexico. 116.

Stanton, Timothy W. Some varia-

tions in upper Cretaceous strati-

graphy. 55.

Steiger, George. Note on the analy-

sis of water from a deep well in

Pennsylvania. 423.

Stockberger, W. W. *Some effects of

refrigeration on sulfured and unsul-

fured hops. 120.

Stose, George W. *Apishapa, Colo.,

Folio. 117.

*Geology of the salt and gypsum

deposits of southwestern Virginia.

117.

SxTLLivAN, M. X. *Biochemical fac-

tors in soils. 252.

■ *Manganese as a fertilizer. 255.

*Origin of certain organic soil

constituents. 260.

*Studies in soil catalysis. 255.

SwANTON, John R. *The Creek con-

federacy. 306.

SwiCK, Clarence H. *Triangulation

along the west coast of Florida.

500.

Swingle, Walter T. The botanical

name of the lime, Citrus auranti-

folia. 463.

Chaetospermum, a new genus of

hard-shelled citrous fruits. 99.

*Feroniella, genre nouveau de la

tribu des Citreae, fonde sur le F.

oblata, espece nouvelle de I'lndo-

Chine. 532.

*Le fruit m<ir et les jeunes semis

de r aeglopsis chevalieri. 504.

Tassin, Wirt. *E,ate of cooling in the

green and its influence on the phys-

ical properties of annealed metals.

263.

Tenny, L. S. *Knot of citrus trees

caused by Sphaeropsis tumefa-

ciens. 29.

Tillyer, E. D. Determination of the

zonal variation of the equivalent

focus. 481.

Tittmann, O. H. *Last meeting of the

International Geodetic Conference

at Hamburg. 48.

ToLMAN, L. M. *Study of changes

taking place in the conversion of

cider into vinegar. 130.

Tracy, S. M. *Rediscovery of Oeno-

thera grandiflora. 175.

True, Rodney H. *Absorption and

excretion of salts by roots, as in-

fluenced by concentration and

composition of culture solutions.

I. Concentration relations of dilute

solutions of calcium and magne-

sium nitrate to pea roots. 26.

*A preliminary study of the forced

curing of lemons as practiced in

California. 25.

Tuttle, F. H. The determination of

phosphorus in steels containing

vanadium. 249.

Van Orstrand, C. E. The determina-

tion of the order of agreement be-

tween observation and theory in

mineral analyses. 223.

Tables of the exponential function.

345.

Vaughan, Thomas Wayland. *Re-

marks on the geology of the Ba-

hama Islands, and on the forma-

tion of the Floridian and Bahaman

oolites. 302.

ViNAL, G. W. The silver voltameter.

III. 40.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

551

Waidxer, C. W. Observations on

ocean temperatures in the vicinity

of icebergs and in other parts of

the ocean. 405.

Walcott, Charles D. *Cambrian

Brachiopoda. 336.

Waltenburg, R. G. Melting points

of the refractory elements. I.

Elements of atomic weight from

48 to 59. 371.

Ward, Robert De C. *Two climatic

cross-sections of the United States.

334.

Washington, H. S. Magnetite basalt

from North Park, Colo. 449.

*The volcanic cycles in Sardinia.

526.

*Tlie volcanoes and rocks of Pan-

telleria. 502.

Weed, Walter Harvey. *Geology and

ore deposits of the Butte district,

Montana. 363.

Wells, Roger C. The interpretation

of mineral analyses. 416.

*Quantitative relations between

o.xidizing and reducing solutions.

342.

Wettengel, E. B. *Electrolytic de-

termination of tin in canned food

products. 131.

White, Walter P. New modified ther-

moelectric methods in calorimetry.

319.

WiEN, W. Recent theories of heat and

radiation. 273.

Wilder, Burt G. *The brain as a

guide to the affinities of verte-

brates. 176.

Williams, Tom A. *The dream in the

life of the mind. 155.

Willis, Bailey. *Index to the strati-

graphy of North America, with

map compiled by Willis and Stose.

118.

Wissler, Clark. *Doctrine of evolu-

tion and anthropology. 155.

Wood, Anna K. *Studies of fungous

parasites belonging to the genus

Glomerella; 194.

Woodruff, E. G. *Cone in cone

structure in coal from St. Anthony,

Idaho. 237.

Woodward, R. S. *The laws of falling

bodies. 426.

WooLSEY, Lester Hood. *Geology

and ore deposits of the Park City

district, Utah. 445.

Wright, Fred Eugene. *Application

of the microscope to physical prob-

lems. 48.

*A graphical plot for use in the

microscopical determination of the

plagioclase feldspar. 525.

*The index ellipsoid (optical indi-

catrix) in petrographic microscope

work. 503.

The change in the crystal angles of

quartz with rise in temperature.

485.

Calcium vanadates from Peru,

Colorado and Utah. 157.

The determination of the order of

agreement between observation

and theory in mineral analysis.

223.

An electrical goniometer furnace

for the measurement of crystal

angles and of refractive indices at

high temperatures. 396.

*Graphical methods in microscopi-

cal petrography. 524.

An improved vertical-illuminator.

14.

*Microscopical petrography from

the quantitative view-point. 115.

A new thermal microscope for the

measurement of the optical con-

stants of minerals at high tempera-

tures. 232.

*Oblique illumination in petro-

graphic microscope work. 525.

' Abstracts.

552

INDEX

-*Petrographic study of the speci-

mens of loess, tierra cocida, and

scoria collected by the Hrdlicka-

Willis Expedition. 115.

YoDER, P. A. *Influence of environ-

ment upon the composition of

wheat. 262.

SUBJECT INDEX

Agricultural Chemistry. *Analysis of

certain Pacific coast kelps. Par-

ker and LiNDEMUTH. 262.

*Chemical changes in heated soils.

E. C. Lathrop. 261.

Chemistry of steam-heated soils. O.

ScHREiNER and E. C. Lathrop.

256.

*City street sweepings as a fertilizer.

J. J. Skinner and J. H, Beattie.

254.

*Constituents of soil organic matter.

E. C. Lathrop. 252.

*EfTect of asparagin on wheat. J. J.

Skinner and J. H. Beattie. 255.

*Eflfect of creatinine and creatine on

growth. J. J. Skinner. 254.

*Effect of lime upon the alkali toler-

ance of wheat seedlings. LeClerc

and Brezeale. 197.

*Guanine from a heated soil. E. C.

Lathrop. 253.

■*Histidine and arginine as soil con-

stituents. J. J. Skinner. 253.

*Influence of environment upon com-

position of wheat. LeClerc and

YoDER. 262.

*Influence of phosphate on the toxic

action of cumarin. J. J. Skinner.

253.

*Lawn soils and lawns. O. Schreiner,

J. J. Skinner, L. C. Corbett and

F. L. MuLFORD. 254.

*ManganeBe as a fertilizer. M. X.

Sullivan and W. O. Robinson.

255.

*Organic soil constituents. E. C.

Shorey. 256.

*Origin of certain organic soil con-

stituents. M. X. Sullivan. 260.

*Physiological action of certain organ-

ic soil constituents. J. J. Skin-

ner. 261.

*Problems in soil fertility. O.

Schreiner. 260.

*Soil catalysis. M. X. Sullivan and

F. R. Reid. 255.

Agriculture. *Control of seed produc-

tion in beets. H. B. Shaw. 264.

*Indicator value of natural vegetation

in the Tooele Valley, Utah. T. H.

Kearney. 264.

— See also: Agricultural chemistry;

Plant pathology.

American Geographical Society. *Excur-

sion of 1912. W. J. Humphreys.

47.

Anthropology. *Agricultural imple-

ments of the mound-builders. W.

H. Holmes. 304.

*Ancient man. G. G. McCurdy. 307.

*Anthropological problems of Peru.

A. Hrdlicka. 479.

*Creek confederacy. J. R. Swanton.

306.

*Distribution of animals. A. H.

Clark. 196.

*Doctrine of evolution and anthro-

pology. C. Wissler. 155.

*Filipinos and the problem of their

government. C. V. Piper. 128.

*Race statistics of the last census.

E. D. DURAND. 91.

*Siamese life and industries. J. H.

Gore. 307.

*Savage mutilations for decoration.

W. Hough. 200.

Archaeology. *Scope and relationship

of history and archaeology. W. H.

Holmes. 304.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

553

Astronomy. *Determination of time,

longitude, latitude and azimuth.

W. Bowie. 402.

Astrophysics. *Report, Astrophysical

Observatory, Smithsonian Institu-

tion. C. G. Abbot. 110.

Variation of the sun. C. G. Abbot,

F. E. FowLE and L. B. Aldrich.

309.

Bacteriology. *Attempts to transmit

poliomyelitis. J. F. Anderson.

337.

Destruction of bacteria in milk. S.

H. Ayers and W. T. Johnson, Jr.

160.

Bio-Chemistry. *Biochemical factors

in soils. M. X. Sullivan. 252.

*Biochemical study of the curly-top of

sugar beet. H. H. Bunzel. 251.

*Biochemistry of the banana. H. C.

Gore. 342.

*Wild volatile-oil plants. F. Rabak.

23.

Botany. Botanical name of the lime.

W. T. Swingle. 463.

*Catalpa septum. W. H. Lamb. 294.

Chaetospermum. W. T. Swingle.

99.

Chelonocarpus. W. E. Safford. 103.

*Cotton of the Hopi Indians. F. L.

Lewton. 24.

*Diseases of trees caused by mistle-

toes. G. G. Hedgcock. 265.

*Effect of Arctic night on tropical or

subtropical vegetation. F. H.

Knowlton. 380.

*Genus Asparagus. J. B. Norton.

132.

*Feroniella, genre nouveau de la tribu

des Citreae, fonde sur le F. oblata,

espece nouvelle de I'lndo-Chine.

W. T. Swingle. 532.

*Identity of Oenothera Lamarckiana.

H. H. Bartlett. 175.

Ivory palms in Panama. O. F.

Cook. 138.

*Key to common Nebraska shrubs.

W. H. Lamb. 456.

*Kokia: a new genus of Hawaiian

trees. F. L. Lewton. 25.

*Le fruit m<ir et les jeunes semis de

r Aeglopsis chevalieri. Walter T.

Swingle. 504.

*Linnaeus, Portrait of. J. N. Rose.

92.

*Method of types applied to the nick-

ernut. H. C. Skeels. 379.

Name for the sapote. O. F. Cook.

158.

New genus of Annonaceae. W. E.

Safford. 16.

New genus of davallioid ferns. W.

R. Maxon. 143.

New shrubby buckeye. W. W. Ashe.

424.

*Notes on the botany of Trinidad.

A. S. Hitchcock. 266.

*Phylogeny of grasses. W. H. Lamb.

119.

*Rediscovery of Oenothera grandi-

fiora. S. M. Tracy. 175.

*Rubelzul cotton. F. L. Lewton. 24.

*Synopsis of the red firs. W. H. Lamb.

167.

— See also : Plant physiology.

Cattle poisoning. *Stock poisoning by

Larkspur. C. D. Marsh. 427.

Chemistry. *Action of potassium amide

on cupric nitrate. H. C. Franklin.

334.

*Action of potassium amide on thal-

lium nitrate. E.C.Franklin. 335.

Analysis of deep well water. G. •

Steiger. 423.

*Comparison of plant, meat, and yeast

extracts. F. C. Cook. 131.

*Concentration of mineral waters in

relation to their therapeutic ac-

tivity. R. B. Dole. 130.

Determination of phosphorus in

steels. J. R. Cain and F. H.

Tuttle. 249.

* Abstracts.

554

INDEX

*Drying by the freezing method. L.

A. Rogers. 197.

Electrolytic reduction of iron. J. C.

HOSTETTER. 429.

*Estimation of tartaric and malic

acids. H. C. Gore. 198.

*Incandescent gas lighting. S. Gul-

BRANDSEN. 340.

Interpretation of mineral analyses.

R. C. Wells. 416.

*Method for the determination of

magnesium in calcium salts. 522.

*Moisture determination by means of

calcium carbide. H. C. McNeil.

129.

*Paladium hydrogenation. A. R

Albrighc. 263.

*Pharmacological action of the tar-

trates. Salant and Smith. 197.

*Physico-chemical conditions of anes-

thetic action. R. S. Lillie. 340.

*Potassium ammonomagnesate and

potassium ammonoborate. E. C.

Franklin. 130.

*Potassium ammonotitanate. E. C.

Franklin and T. B. Hine. 335.

*Quantitative relations between oxi-

dizing and reducing solutions. R.

C. Wells. 342.

*Rate of cooling in the green. W.

Tassin. 263.

*Seasonal variation in the iodine con-

tent of the thyroid gland. Sei-

dell and Fenger. 131.

*Study of changes taking place in the

■ conversion of cider into vinegar.

L. M. TOLMAN. 130.

*Tests for absinthe. E. K. Nelson.

261.

— See also: Agricultural chemistry;

Biochemistry; Electro chemistry;

Geochemistry; Physical chemis-

try; Industrial chemistry; Organic

chemistry.

Climatology. *Climatic cross-sections

of the U. S. R. De C. Ward. 234.

*Effect of the recent freeze in Cali-

fornia. D. Griffiths. 379.

Crystallography. The change in the

crystal angles of quartz with rise

in temperature. Fred E. Wright.

485.

*The simultaneous crystallization of

calcite and certain sulfides of iron,

copper and zinc. H. E. Merwin.

504.

Economic geology. *Commercial mar-

bles of western Vermont. T. N.

Dale. 152.

Economics. Regulation of natural mo-

nopolies. E. B. Rosa. 201.

Electricity. High-frequency amme-

ters. J. H. Bellinger. 412.

*The analysis of alternating current

waves by the method of Fourier,

with special reference to methods

of facilitating the computations.

F. W. Grover. 501.

Electrochemistry . *Electrolysis in plain

and reinforced concrete. E. B.

Rosa, B. McCollum and O. S.

Peters. 361.

*Electrolytic determination of tin in

canned food products. Cushmann

and Wettengel. 131.

The silver voltameter. E. B- Rosa,

G. W. ViNAL and A. S. McDaniel.

40.

Ethnography. *Negritos of the Philip-

pines. 32.

Engineering. *Physical testing of cot-

ton yarns. W. S. Lewis. 167.

*Testing and properties of textile ma-

terials. Bureau of Standards Cir-

cular 41. 166.

References: 447.

Entomology. *Butterflies from eastern

Massachusetts. A. H. Clark. 404.

*Danger from imported plants and

fruits. L. O. Howard. 121.

*Piccole note su degli Onychophora.

A. H. Clark. 456.

• Abstracts.

INDEX

555

Geochemistry. Chalcocite deposition.

A. C. Spencer. 70.

*Sulfides of zinc, cadmium, and mer-

cury. E. T. Allen and J. L.

Crenshaw. 114.

Geodesy. *Precise level net of the U.

S. W. Bowie. 298.

*California-Washington arc. A. L.

Baldwin. 402.

*Triangulation along the west coast

of Florida. Clarence H. Swick.

500.

Geography. *Biological paleogeogra-

phy. A. H. Clark. 167.

*Islands of Antillia. W. H. Babcock

31.

Geology. *Apishapa, Colo.^ Folio. G.

W. Stose. 117.

*Are quantitative physico-chemical

studies of rocks practicable? Ar-

thur L. Day. 502.

*Arctic Slope of Alaska. E. de K.

Leffingwell. 343.

*The volcanoes and rocks of Pantel-

leria. Henry S. Washington. 502.

*Bismarck, N. Dak., folio. A. G.

Leonard. 466.

*Coal fields of Grand Mesa. W. T.

Lee. 362.

*Cone in cone structure in coal from

Idaho. E. G. Woodruff. 237.

*Eagle River region, Alaska. A.

Knope. 258. •

*Enrichment of sulfide ores. W. H.

Emmons. 454.

*Geology of the Bahama Islands. T.

W. Vaughan. 302.

*Geology of the Koyukuk-Chandalar

region, Alaska. A. G. Maddren.

528.

*Igneous rocks of the Raton Mesa

Region. J. B. Mertie, Jr. 302.

*Index to the stratigraphy of North

America. B. Willis. 118.

*Kenova, Ky., West Virginia, and

Ohio, folio. W. C. Phalen. 455.

*Mud lumps at the mouth of the Mis-

sissippi. E. W. Shaw. 343.

*Niter near Melrose, Mont. R. W.

Richards. 301.

*Onondaga fauna. E. M. Kindle.

403.

*Ore deposits of the Butte District,

Mont. W. H. Weed. 363.

*Ore deposits of the Helena mining

region, Montana. A. Knopf. 529.

*Ore deposits of the Park City dis-

trict, Utah. J. M. BouTWELL.

445.

*Ores of the copper district of Tas-

mania. Gilbert and Pogue. 344.

*Origin of the Homestake ore body.

S. Paige. 173.

*Petroleum near Cody, Wyo. D. F.

Hewett. 51.

*Quaternary problems of central

Alaska. H. M. Eakin. 301.

*Rampart Quadrangle, Alaska. H. M.

Eakin. 467.

*Reconnaissance of the lower Eraser

River, B. C. N. L. Bowen. 539.

*Relations of ilmenite to magnetite.

J. T SiNGEWALD, Jr. 199.

*Salt and gypsum deposits of western

Virginia. G. W. Stose. 117.

*Secondary enrichment in silver. E.

S. Bastin. 52.

*Some special features of the glacia-

tion of the Catskill Mountains.

H. E. Merwin. 539.

*Southern Wasatch mountains. 50.

*Structure map of the northern an-

thracite field. N. H. Darton.

199.

*The general principles underlying

metamorphic processes. J. John-

ston and P. NiGGLi. 527.

*The volcanic cycles in Sardinia.

H. S. Washington. 526.

*Time relations of glacial lakes in the

Great Lakes region. F. Leverett.

237.

* Abstracts.

556

INDEX

Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy. T.

W. Stanton. 55.

*Yentna District, Alaska. S. R. Capps.

466.

*Zinc-lead deposit, Nev. J. M. Hill.

238.

References: 447.

— See also: Economic geology; Pet-

rology.

Geophysics. Data on Palisade diabase.

R. B. SosMAN and H. E. Merwin.

389.

*Media of high refraction for use

with the microscope. H. E. Mer-

win. 48.

*Note on the temperature in the deep

boring at Findlay, Ohio. John

Johnston. 500.

Production of climatic changes. W.

J. Humphreys. 365.

*The hydrothermal formation of sili-

cates, a review. G. W. Morey

and P. NiGGLi. 520.

*Water and magnetic gases. A. L.

Day and E. S. Shepherd. 457.

— See also: Hydrology; Oceanography.

Helminthology. Draconema. N. A.

Cobb. 145.

New nematode genera. N. A. Cobb.

432.

Notes on Mononchus and Tylenchu-

lus. N. A. Cobb. 287.

Heredity. *Heredity and cotton breed-

ing. O. F. Cook. 152.

Hydrology. References: 447, 535.

Ichthyology. *Alaska fisheries and fur

industries in 1911. B. W. Ever-

mann. 172.

*Sense of smell in fishes. G. H.

Parker and R. E. Sheldon. 295.

Industrial Chemistry. *Effect of cer-

tain pigments on linseed oil. E

W. Boughton. 257.

International Geodetic Conference. *Last

meeting, at Hamburg. O. H.

TiTTMANN. 48.

Mathematics. Tables of the exponen-

tial function. C. E. Van Or-

STRAND. 345.

Useful type of formula. L. H.

Adams. 469.

Medicine. *Ingeniou§ method of caus-

ing death. A. H. Clark. 196.

Metallography. An improved vertical-

illuminator. F. E. Wright. 14.

*Metallographic testing. Bureau of

Standards Circ. 42. 251.

Note on ranges of pure iron. G. K.

Burgess and J. J. Crowe. 329.

References: 30.

Meteorology. Atmospheric haziness

during 1912. H. H. Kimball.

269.

*Atmospheric humidify. A. H. Pal-

mer. 361.

*Atmospheric studies. J. W. Sans-

TROM. 110.

*Factors in climatic changes in the

past. W. J. Humphreys. 299.

*Hurricanes of the West Indies. O. L.

Fassig. 333.

Influence of haze. L. J. Briggs and

J. O. Belz. 381.

*Physics of the atmosphere. W. J.

Humphreys. 333.

Violent uprushes in cumulus clouds.

W. J. Humphreys. 93.

Mineralogy. Calciovolborthite (?) from

eastern Utah. W. F. Hillebrand.

138.

Calcium vanadates. W. F. Hille-

brand, F. IjJ. Wright, and H. E.

Merwin. 157.

*The melting phenomena of the pla-

gioclase feldspars. N. L. Bowen.

523.

*Two varieties of calciovolborthite

(?) from eastern Utah. W. F.

Hillebrand and H. E. Merwin.

503.

Calculation of mineral formulas. W.

T. Schaller. 97.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

557

*Crystallography of natramblygonite.

W. T. SCHALLER. 152.

Hodgkinsonite. C. Palache and W.

T. ScHALLER. 474.

Immense bloedite crystals. W. T.

ScHALLER. 75.

Mineral analyses. F. E. Wright and

C. E. Van Orstrand. 223.

Mineral separations. W. F. Hille-

brand. 137.

Refractive indices of strengite. W.

T, ScHALLER. 249.

*Tourmaline group. W. T. Schaller.

151.

Triplite from eastern Nevada. F. L.

Hess and W. F. Hunt. 286.

Oceanograpluj. Ocean temperatures.

C. W. Waidner, H. C. Dickinson

and J. J. Crowe. 405.

*Sea water temperatures in the vi-

cinity of icebergs. C. W. Waid-

ner. 426.

*Salinity of surface water. A. H.

Clark. 165.

Organic chemistry. *Caffein in tea and

coffee. H. C. Fuller. 342.

Paleontology. . *Cambrian Brachio-

poda. C. D. Walcott. 336.

*Cambrian Holothurians. A. H.

Clark. 530.

*Extinct fauna of southern California.

C. H. Merriam. 428.

*Habitat of the Cambrian brachiopoda.

L. D. Burling. 199.

*Paleobotanical study of the coal-

bearing rocks of the Raton Mesa

region of Colorado and New Mexi-

co. F. H. Knowlton. 173.

*Recent discovery of dinosaurs in the

Tertiary. W. T. Lee. 173.

*Restoration of the genus Eldonia.

A. H. Clark. 167.

The systematic position of the crinoid

family Plicatocrinidae. Austin H.

Clark. 494.

Petrography. *Microscopical petrog-

raphy from the quantitative view-

point. F. E. Wright. 115.

*Study of specimens of loess, tierra

cocida, and scoria. F. E. Wright

and C. N. Fenner. 115.

Petrology. *A graphical plot for use

in the microscopical determination

of the plagioclase feldspar. F. E.

Wright. 525.

*Graphical methods in microscopical

petrograph}^ F. E. Wright. 524.

— Magnetite basalt. H. S. Washing-

ton and E. S. Larsen. 449.

*The index ellipsoid (optical indica-

trix) in petrographic microscope

work. Fred E. Wright. 503.

*Oblique illumination in petrographic

microscope work. F. E. Wright.

525.

*Study of a contact metamorphic ore-

deposit. J. E. Spurr, G. H. Gar-

ret, and C. N. Fenner. 116.

Physical chemistry. *The Binary sys-

tem. N. L. BowEN. 380.

*Effect of high pressures on behavior

of solid substances. J. Johnston

and L. H. Adams. 165.

*The phenomena of equilibrium be-

tween silica and the alkali carbon-

ates. P. NiGGLi. 522.

*The physical chemistry of Seger

cones. R. B. Sosman. 501.

Physics. Absorption of light. P. G.

Nutting. 322.

*Application of the microscope to

physical problems. Wright,

Briggs, etc. 48.

Bismuth thermopiles. W. W. Cob-

LENTZ. 357.

*Calibration of optical pyrometers. P.

D. Foote. 151.

Constants of spectral radiation. W.

W. COBLENTZ. 10, 177.

*Control of temperatures in an elec-

tric furnace. A. W. Gray. 536.

* Abstracts.

558

INDEX

*Densities at high temperatures. A.

L. Day, R. B. Sosman and J. C.

HOSTETTER. 521.

*Density of solid substances. J. John-

ston and L. H. Adams. 113.

Determination of the zonal variation

of the equivalent focus. E. D.

TiLLYER. 481.

*Determination of aqueous vapor. F.

E. FowLE. 425.

*La mesure des temperatures elevees

par le thermonetre a gaz. Arthur

L. Day and R. B. Sosman. 501.

A differential telethermograph. L.

J. Briggs. 33.

Electrical goniometer furnace. F.

E. Wright. 396.

*Fluidity and its relation to other

physical and chemical properties

E. C. Bingham. 341.

High frequency resistances. L. W.

Austin. 94.

*Latent heat of fusion of ice. H. C.

Dickinson, D. R. Harper and N.

S. Osborne. 453.

^Mechanical model of the least square

adjustment. M. D. Hersey. 296.

Media of high refraction. H. E.

Merwin. 35.

Melting points of the refractory ele-

ments. G. K. Burgess and R. G.

Waltenburg. 371.

Melting points of refractory oxides.

C. W. Kanolt. 315.

A micropyrometer. G. K. Burgess.

7.

*Mixtures of amorphous sulfur and

selenium as immersion media for

determination of high refractive

indices. H. E. Merwin and E. S.

Larsen. 114.

*New calorimetric resistance ther-

mometers. Dickinson and Muel-

ler. 296.

*New thermal microscope. F. E.

Wright. 232.

*Photometric error sometimes accom-

panying the use of a pair of nicols.

I. S. Priest. 298.

*Present status of the temperature

scale. G. K. Burgess. 21.

Recent theories of heat and radiation.

W. WiEN. 273.

*Simplified formula for the change in

order of interference due to changes

in temperature and pressure of air.

I. G. Priest. 150.

Suggestions for frost protection. K.

F. Kellerman. 53.

Thermoelectric methods in calori-

metry. W. P. White. 319.

References: 30.

— ■ — ^See also: Electricity; Electro-

chemistry; Geo-physics; Physical

chemistry; Radiotelegraphy; Ter-

restrial magnetism.

Physiological botany. Formation of leaf-

mold. F. V. Colville. 77.

Phytopathology. *Coconut bud-rot. J.

R. Johnston. 26.

*Fungous parasites. C. L. Shear

and A. K. Wood. 194.

*Knot of citrus trees caused by Sphae-

ropsis tumefacieng. F. Hedges

and L. S. Tenny. 29.

Pathology of Solanum tuberosum. W.

A. Orton. 180.

Plant physiology. *Absorption and ex-

cretion of salts by roots. R. H.

True and H. H. Bartlett. 26.

*Effects of refrigeration on sulfured

and unsulfured hops. W. W. Stock-

BERGER and F. Rabak. 120.

*Forced curing of lemons. A. F.

SiEVERS and R. H. True. 25.

*Water requirements of plants. L. J.

Briggs and H. L. Shantz. 536.

*Wilting coefficient for plants in

alkali soils. T. H. Kearney. 119.

Psycho pathology. *The dream in the

life of the mind. T. A. Williams.

155.

* Abstracts.

INDEX

559

Radiotelegraphy. Comparison of arc

and spark sending apparatus. L.

W. Austin. 284.

Crystal contact disturbance pre-

venter. L. W. Austin. 386.

Further comparison of arc and spark

radio transmission. L. W. Austin.

517.

Radiotelegraphic signals. L. W.

Austin. 133.

*Rece'nt experiments in radioteleg-

raphy. L. W. Austin. 299.

*Regulation of intercommunication.

F. A. KoLSTER. 299.

Signals in radiotelegraphy. L. W.

Austin. 326.

References: 30.

Railroads. *Work of Alaska Railroad

Commission. A. H. Brooks. 300.

Royal Society, London. 250th anniver-

sary celebration. L. O. Howard.

121.

Staiistics. References: 448.

Technology. *The metric carat. 533.

References: 535.

Terrestrial Magnetism. *The earth in-

ductor as an inclinometer. N. E.

DORSEY. 49.

Land magnetic observations, 1905-

1910. L. A. Bauer. 20.

*New type of compass declinometer.

R. L. Faris. 112.

Origin of the Earth's magnetic field.

L. A. Bauer. 1.

Preliminary results of a first analy-

sis of the sun's general magnetic

field. L. A. Bauer. 513.

Topography. *Physical aspects of Aus-

tralia and New Zealand. J. Bryce.

297, 339.

Vital Statistics. A natural population

norm. A. J. Lotka. 241, 289.

Weights and measures. *Types of false

weights and measures found in U.

S. 46.

Zoology. *American species of Peri-

patus. A. H. Clark. 170.

*The brain as a guide to the affinities

of vertebrates. B. G. Wilder.

176.

*Crinoids. A. H. Clark. 168, 169,

170, 171, 294, 336, 456.

*A remarkable skeleton of Stego-

saurus. C. W. Gilmore. 538.

*A revision of the crinoid family

mariametridae. Austin H. Clark.

504.

*Revision of the crinoid genus Hira-

erometra. A. H. Clark. 533.

*Sawflies and their relation to for-

estry. S. A. RoHWER. 175.

*Study and culture of the common

eel. H. M. Smith. 268.

*Tree-shrews. M. Lyon, Jr. 268.

Web-spinning fly larvae. O. F.

Cook. 190.

*Zoological results of the Denmark

expedition. F. Johansen. 268.

— ■ — See also: Entomology; Helmin-

thology.

* Abstracts.

Vol. hi. ; . No. 1.

^ January 4, 1913.

JOURNAL

OF THE

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THE WAVERLY PRESS

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THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OP SCIENCES

There were printed, from 1898 to the discontinuance of

the series in 1911, thirteen volumes of the Proceedings of

the Washington Academy of Sciences. The Proceedings

consist of original papers, covering a variety of subjects.

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CONTENTS

Original Papers

( Page

Terrestrial Magnetism. — A consistent theory of the origin of the earth's

magnetic field. L. A. Bauer 1

Physics. — A micropyrometer. George K. Burgess 7

Physics. — ^The constants of spectral radiation of a uniformly heated enclos-

ure or so-called black body. W. W. Coblentz 10

Metallography. — An improved vertical-illuminator. Fred Eugene Wright . . 14

Botany. — Pseudannona, a new genus of Annonaceae from the Mascarene

Islands; together with notes on Art abotrys uncinatus and its synonomy.

W. E. Safford 16

Abstracts

Terrestrial Magnetism. .'. 20

Physics 21

Chemistry 23

Botany 24

Plant Physiology •. 25

Phytopathology ♦ 26

References

Physics 30

Proceedings

The Anthropological Society of Washington 31

Vol. III. No. 2.

January 19, 1913.

JOUENAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

George K. Burgess Frederick Leslie Ransome Carl S. Scofield

BUBEAT7 OP STANDARDS GEOLOGICAL 8URVHT BUREAU dF PLANT 1NDU8TBT

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY,

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICE OF PUBLICATION

THE WAVERLY press

BALTIMORE, WD.