JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME IV, 1914

BOARD OF EDITORS

Frederick Leslie Raxsome Carl S. Scofield Fred. Eugene Wright

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLAXT INDUSTRY GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY.

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICE OF PUBLICATION

THE WAVERLY PRESS

BALTIAIORE, MD.

\>

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IY JANUARY 4, 1914 No. 1

OCEANOGRAPHY".— 7^/ie circulation of the abyssal water of the

oceans. Austin H. Clark, National Museum.

The geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the recent

crinoids, animals which, occurring at all depths, are thruout

life, with veiy few exceptions, strictly sessile, and of which the

j^oung are developed entirely in the water immediately surround-

ing the adults, furnishes data of the greatest importance for the

solution of the problems connected with the abyssal circulation

of the oceanic waters. This circulation, as would be expected,

differs radically from the circulation of the surface waters, and is

altogether of a much simpler type. As indicated by the distri-

bution of the recent crinoids, the general scheme of the abyssal

circulation of the oceanic water is as follows:

The surface water of the antarctic regions, bathing the shores

of the antarctic continent and forming the circumpolar antarctic

stream, is in reality abyssal water, derived entirely from the

abysses of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. It has nothing

whatever to do with the surface water of the rest of the globe,

from which it is separated by a broad neutral zone, the so-called

west wind drift. Antarctic water enters the basins of the Pacific,

Atlantic and Indian oceans in the form of great peripheral cur-

rents (the Humboldt, Benguela and Australian currents) flowing

along their southern, southeastern and eastern borders, which,

in the Pacific and Atlantic, plunge beneath the surface at about

the latitude of the equator, but are continued as deep currents

northward, westward, and finally for a greater or lesser distance

2 CLARK: CIRCULATION OF ABYSSAL WATER OF OCEANS

southward, along the eastern, northern and northwestern mar-

gins of these basins. At every point in their course these currents

give off water from their seaward (left) side which falls into the

abysses and forms the strictly abyssal water; on account of the

effect of the rotation of the earth this process is carried on far

more actively in the southern than in the northern hemisphere.

In the northern hemisphere the rotation of the earth; instead of

inducing the flow of water from the borders of these currents into

the abysses, tends to cause the currents to hug the coast and, by

rendering them more compact, to prevent the diffusion of their

water and hence to maintain their motion and to preserve them

as currents. Also it operates to bring their upper levels near

the surface so that, wherever a powerful surface current flowing

diagonally away from the shore causes the formation of a vacuum,

as it were, between itself and the coast, the water of these periph-

eral currents, composed of water of the strictlj" abyssal type,

and ultimately of antarctic origin, immediately rises to the

surface. This occurs off northwestern Africa and off southern

California, and again off the Kurile Islands and off the New

England coast from Cape Cod northward; on the New England

coast, however, the identity of the antarctic water is more or less

concealed by mixture with water of low salinity coming from the

north.

In the pocket-like Gulf of Alaska the rotation of the earth

causes the water of the antarctic current to pile up, and to rise

nearly, in the winter possibly in some places quite, to the sur-

face. Over the surface of this cold antarctic water flows the wind-

impelled drift from the Kuro-Siwo, which divides, part of it

skirting the northern part of the Gulf of Alaska, and part flow-

ing southward down the coast. The water of the Kuro-Siwo

drift and the antarctic water are of the same salinity, and there-

fore they mix readily. Hence the southern derivative from the

Kuro-Siwo drift, the so-called California current, as it flows

southward dissolves into itself the cold water of the antarctic

stream immediately beneath it, presenting the curious phenom-

enon of a current flowing southward, yet at the same time

becoming colder and colder.

dole: chlorine content of rain water 3

In the southwestern portion of the basins of the Pacific, At-

lantic and Indian oceans the abyssal water slowly rises and,

flowing southward, takes the place in the circumpolar antarctic

circulation of the water lost thru the Humboldt, Benguela and

Australian currents.

In the central portion of the oceanic basins the general motion

of the water is from east to west, the water lost from the currents

flowing northward across the basins and being picked up by the

southerly currents on the other side. This circulation is rapid in

the high southern latitudes, diminishing in intensity northward.

The water of the circumpolar west wind drift of low southern

latitudes, north of the true antarctic current, is mainly surface

water from the north caught up and driven forward by the strong

wind. This west wind drift forms a band dividing the abyssal

antarctic circulation from the superficial circulation further north.

By this drift many organisms, pelagic at some stage of their

existence, or capable of transportation by floating objects, are

distributed thniout the southern latitudes, tho they are unable

to withstand truly antarctic conditions; and to this is largely

due the similarity of the faunas of southern Africa, southern

South America, southern Australia and New Zealand, a simi-

larity which is in no way indicated by the crinoids of these

localities.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Note on the chlorine content of rain water

at Tortugas, Fla. R. B. Dole, Geological Surve}'. Com-

municated by F. W. Clarke.

The appreciable quantity of salt carried by normal rainfall

off the seacoast is well shown by test of a sample collected by

the writer on Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Fla. After heavy all-

night rains and morning showers had thoroly washed the roof of

the Marine Biological Laboratory a large sample of rain was col-

lected during the afternoon of June 13, 1913, in a galvanized

bucket under one of the gutters. This sample was immediately

bottled and later tested at Washington, D. C, by E. C. Bain. A

250 cc. portion concentrated to 25 cc. and titrated with a solu-

tion of silver nitrate, 1 cc. of which was equivalent to 0.5 mgm.

4 dole: chlorine content of rain water

of chlorine, had a chlorine content of 2.9 parts per million. The

residue from a liter dried at 180°C. was 31 parts per million, only

a small part of which could be attributed to solution of the

bottles for the residue contained but 2.0 parts per million of

silica.

Tho this content of chlorine can not be considered an average

because of the variable effect that wind-borne spray has on the

salt in the rain it serves as a contribution to the rather scanty

knowledge regarding the composition of rain water in the United

States. The above-mentioned chlorine, 2.9 parts per million, is

equivalent to about 5 parts of sea salt. With an annual rainfall

of 60 inches this is equivalent to a precipitation of 65 pounds of

salt per acre per annum. Figures quoted by Clarke^ for Barbados

are equivalent to 193 pounds and others range from 24 pounds in

England to 298 pounds in Ceylon.

1 Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry: U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 491, p.

50. 1911.

I I'll

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted thru the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Some lavas of Monte Arci, Sardinia. Henry S. Wash-

ington. Am. Jour. Sci. (4). 1913.

This extinct volcano was visited in October, 1904. It has not been

described since 1857. It is shown that the volcano consists of a core

of rhyolite, with later flows of dacite, andesite and trachyte, closing;

with extensive sheets of basalt, in many respects resembling the nearby

and better known Monte Ferru. Detailed petrographic descriptions

of the lavas are given, together with seven complete analyses. An

apparenth- new mineral was found, which is to be further investigated.

The paper is a preliminary one, and the volcano is worthy of another

visit and fuller study. H. S. AV.

GEOLOGY. — Observations on the Daubree experiment and capillarity in

relation to certain geological speculations. John Johnston and L.

H. Adams. J. Geol. 1913.

Those who believe that meteoric waters are an important factor in

the production of the phenomena of volcanism must always face the

problem of devising a plausible account of the manner in which acces-

sions of water can be introduced into the magma. This difficulty they

have endeavored to obviate b}^ instancing an experiment of Daubree,

who found that water would pass thru a porous sandstone against a cer-

tain excess counter pressure of steam. This passage of water is, as

Daubree pointed out, a manifestation of capillar}^ action; the authors

show that this same effect may be secured by means of a much simpler

experimental arrangement. Now capillary forces are effective only

when there is a surface of separation within the pores; moreover they

diminish steadily with, rise of temperature, and vanish at the critical

6 abstracts: plant physiology

point of the liquid. Consequently, the Daubree experiment gives no

ground for supposing that capillary forces would be effective in causing

water to penetrate into deep seated and highly heated rock-masses.

This conclusion has l.een pointed out before ; the purpose of the present

paper is to enforce it, since the opposite, and erroneous, conclusion still

frequently appears as an argument in favor of the likelihood of the in-

troduction of water by means of capillarity into molten magmas. Even

if we make the' somewhat unlikely assumption of free liquid surfaces

far dowTi in the rocks, any pressure producible by capillarity is in general

likely to be small in comparison with the pressure due to the hydrostatic

column, except in pores of such fineness that the amount of water that

could flow thru them is infinitesimal. J. J. and L. H. A.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — The water requireme^its of j)lants. I. Inves-

tigations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911. L. J. Briggs and

H. L. Shantz. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 284, 1913.

This paper deals with the amount of water absorbed by plants in the

production of a unit weight of dry matter. In order to determine this

ratio, which is called the "water requirement," plants were grown to

maturity in large pots having a capacity of about 115 kilos of soil, pro-

vided with tight covers, with openings for the plants, the space between

the cover and the stem of the plant being sealed with wax. Thirty-one

varieties were tested at Akron, Colorado, in 1911, six pots being used in

each determination, and the results expressed with their probable error.

Of the crops tested, those most efficient in the use of water were mil-

let, sorghum and corn, the ratio being 275, 306 and362 respectively, that

is, these crops used 275, 306 and 362 pounds of water in the production

of one pound of dry matter. The least efficient were the legumes^

alfalfa, Canada Pea and sweet clover, with ratios of 1069, 800 and 709..

respectively, while the water requirement of the small grains was inter-

mediate, being 507 for wheat, 539 for barley, 614 for oats, and 724

for rye.

Different varieties of the same crop showed measurable differences in

their water requirements. Determinations made under field conditions

agreed very well with the pot determinations. A comparison of the re-

sults with wheat and sorghum grown at Akron, Colorado, and Amarillo

and Dalhart, Texas, showed that while evaporation in Texas was 18

per cent higher than in Colorado, sorghum had the same water require-

ment, while wheat required 36 per cent more water in Texas than in

Colorado. L. J. B. and H. L. S.

references: technology 7

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.— r/)e water requirement of plants. II. A

review of the literature. L. J. Briggs and H. L. Shantz. Bureau

of Plant Industry, Bulletin 285, 19L3.

This paper reviews the literature relating to the water requirement of

plants. In summarizing the papers the data are presented in tabular

form and arranged Avith respect to the subject considered, such as the

effect of soil moisture content, type of soil, amount of soil used, ferti-

lizers, temperature, light, humidity, carbon dioxide content of the air,

relative leaf area, duration and period of growth on the water require-

ment, as well as the water requirement of different plants when grown

under comparable conditions. L. J. B. and H. L. S.

REFERENCES

TECHNOLOGY. — Recent -papers of the Bureau of Standards:

The dehydration of clays. G. H. Brown and E. T. Montgomery. Pp. 2.3.

1913.

The effect of overjiring upon the structure of clays. A. V. Bleininger mid

E. T. Montgomery. Pp. 23. 1913.

The technical control of the colloidal matter of clays. H. E. Ashley. Pp. 118.

1913.

The determination of phosphorus in steels containing vanadium. J. R. Cain

and F. H. Tucker. Pp. 11. 1913.

Electrolytic corrosion of iron in soils. Burton McCollum and K. H. Logan.

1913.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 273d meeting of the Society Avas held in the Cosmos Club on

October 29, 1913.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Physiography of the Southern Andes (illustrated.): Bailey Willis.

No abstract.

Use of physiography in the study of Rocky Mountain stratigraphy: W.

T. Lee. Reasons are here presented for abandoning the belief that

extensive land masses persisted in the southern Rocky Mountain region

thruout the Cretaceous period. Radical differences of opinion exist as

to the significance of certain continental deposits that rest unconform-

able^ on the Cretaceous rocks in the southern Rocky Mountain region.

In many places on either side of the mountains the base of these con-

tinental deposits is conglomeratic and contains pebbles of older rocks,

mainly the pre-Cambrian crystallines which constitute the core of the

range. Those who beheve that this conglomerate marks an unconform-

ity of considerable magnitude appeal to the evidence of these pebbles

as proof of a long interval of erosion following a notable upheaval of

the mountains. Others who doubt the magnitude of the unconformity

are of the opinion that the pebbles may have been derived from nearby

lands that had not been previously submerged, and argue that they

might have found their wa}^ to their present resting place without any

notable upheaval or long interval of erosion. It seems necessary, there-

fore, to inquire whether the evidence warrants the belief that any con-

siderable part of the southern Rocky Mountain region remained above

sea-level thruout Cretaceous time or whether the Cretaceous sea ex-

tended uninterruptedly over this region. The determination of this

question would materially aid in the solution of the problem whether

the unconformity in the southern Rocky Mountain region marking the

separation of the conformable Cretaceous beds, mainly of marine origin,

from the lowest conglomerate of the younger rocks of continental origin,

denotes an orogenic movement and erosion of sufficient magnitude to

make it the appropriate line of separation between the Cretaceous and

the Tertiary systems.

It seems evident that no notable crustal movement affected the

southern Rocky Mountain region for a long time prior to the beginning

of the Upper Cretaceous period, and that there was ample time for the

formation of a peneplain over this region.

proceedings: geological society 9

The distribution of the Dakota sandstone about the present moun-

tains and its attitude toward them; its presence within the mountains at

great altitudes; and its relation to the older formations seem to prove

that the Dakota sandstone extended practically continuously over the

present mountain region.

The distribution of the marine sediments of Colorado age, that lie on

the Dakota sandstone, is essentially the same as that of the Dakota,

that is, they occur on both sides of the mountains and at numerous

places within the mountain region and their lithologic character is not

such as to indicate that they were derived from the present mountain

area rather than from the continental land masses that existed both east

and west of the interior Cretaceous sea. Their presence near Brecken-

ridge, Colorado at an altitude of 13,4000 feet, and in many other places

at nearly as great altitudes, proves that these places at least were below

sea-level in Colorado time, and an inspection of their distribution leaves

little room for doubt that they were deposited continuously over the

mountain region.

The sedimentary rocks of Montana age in the Rock\' ^Mountain region

are more variable than those of Colorado age, but their general lithologic

character does not seem to harmonize with the postulate that any con-

siderable part of them was derived from the present .mountain area.

In general, the marine shale formations thicken toward the present

mountains while the sandstone formations thicken away from tha moun-

tains. In brief, the Upper Cretaceous formations behave as if no Rocky

]\Iountains existed when they were laid down.

If the Rocky Mountain region was covered with Cretaceous sedi-

ments, it follows that this region must have been uplifted and the

older rocks exposed to erosion before the conglomerate, consisting of

pebbles of these older rocks, could have been formed.

The 274th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club on

November 12, 1913.

Under informal communications ISlr. Edson S. Bastin discussed the

origin of the titaniferous iron ore at Caribou, Colorado. These ores

occur within small, irregular bodies of gabbro which in turn lie within

a large stock of monzonite. There is clear field evidence that both

gabbro and iron ores are magmatic differentiations from the monzonite

magma. The differentiation has proceeded along two lines leading to

the formation wdthin the same gabbro mass of (1) iron ores composed

essentially of augite, magnetite and spinel, and (2) ores much richer in

magnesia composed of olivine and magnetite. The chemical changes

during differentiation were shown by plotting a number of analyses of

these rocks and ores in diagrammatic form.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The change of optical and crystallographic properties of quartz with tem-

perature. F. E. Wright. This paper is published in full in Jour. Wash.

Acad. Sciences, 3, 485. 1913.

10 proceedings: geological society

Evidence of the inorganic origin of petroleum: C. W. Washburne. No

abstract.

Resins in Paleozoic Coals: David White. The discoveries by Eu-

ropean paleobotanists of supposed secretory cells and canals in petrified

woods of Paleozoic age, were reviewed, and in the light of data afforded

by certain American coals of low bituminous rank, interpreted as proba-

bly resin-bearing for the most part. This conclusion rests on the exami-

nation of the canal casts found in certain carbonized woods in the bi-

tuminous coals of the interior basins; on the observation of lumps of

exudate resins in Paleozoic coals of Iowa, Illinois and Indiana, and, in

particular on the physical and chemical characters of the canal fillings

found in carbonized petioles in the upper part of the Quadrant quartzite

of Montana all of which indicate that these secretions are resinous, and

that, accordingly, some of the Paleozoic woods found petrified were

resin-bearing. It appears that the resin contributions of the Paleozoic

plants were perhaps as large as those furnished by the coal-forming

floras of the Cretaceous and Tertiar3\

Studies in a number of western coal fields of the occurrence of resins,

which are always present and often conspicuous in the lower rank coals

of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, show that when, as the result of regional

metamorphism,. these coals are brought to a low bituminous rank the

effects of pressure metamorphism are found in physical changes as well

as in probable chemical changes in the resin lumps; also that during

the alteration indicated by the passage from about 58 per cent to 68 per

cent fixed carbon (pure coal basis) the resin lumps have become crackled,

changed to a dark brown, to a brownish black and, successively, to a

black carbonaceous granular powder. The process seems, in effect, to be

a devolatilization (carbonization) of the resin lumps. So far as known

no resin lumps are present in coals characterized by so high a percentage

of carbon (pure coal basis) as 68.

The deadening of the cannel coals found in association with high rank

coals, such as semi-bituminous and anthracite, is thought to be due to

the reduction of the waxy and resinous substances characteristic of the

cannel group of coals. As causally related to this phenomenon atten-

tion was called to the fact that, so far as observed by the speaker, no

commercial oil field has yet been found in any part of the earth in re-

gions where the coals of the formations that contain or overlie the oil

sands have been brought to a carbonization represented by 70 per cent

or more, the inference being that the distillation of the organic matter

has gone so far as to devolatilize or drive off the petroleum in the form-

ations of these regions.

The 275th meeting of the Societv was held in the Cosmos Clul? on

November 26, 1913.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Quaternary History of the Mount St. Elias Region, Alaska: A. G.

INIaddren. The southern slopes of the Mount St. Elias region front on

the Pacific Ocean with a rather regular coast line that is in marked

proceedings: geological society 11

physiooraiihic contrast with th(> deoply-fiorded coast line of the south-

eastern Alaska and Prince William Sound regions on either side of it.

This contrast is further accentuated by the much higher relief and re-

juvenated recent glaciation of Alpine type, so strongly developE-d in the

extensive area dominated by the great mountain masses of St. Elias and

Logan, whose heights are about 18,000 and 19,500 feet respectively.

The physiographic evidence clearly indicates that the Mount St. Elias

province has not passed thru the same episodes of Quaternary develop-

ment as have the deeply fiorded provinces which characterize the re-

mainder of the Pacific continental shores of Alska to the southeast and

southwest of its central part. The geologic evidence in this regard ap-

pears to prove that the relief of the Mount St. Elias region has been pro-

foundly rejuvenated in late Pleistocene time, and to indicate the strong

probability that this deformational uplift has continued thruout Re-

cent up to present time. This evidence is in the form of a stratified

marine coastwise terrane, from 4000 to 5000 feet thick where well de-

veloped, which is quite fossiliferous to the westward in the Yakataga

district and in the Chaix Hills, where it is not altered by deformation

as it is about Yakutat Bay and eastward. This terrane comprises one

or more thick marine shale members that are remarkable from the fact

that they contain quantities of ice-borne and glaciated bowlders and

cobbles of a great variety of metamorphic rocks in unassorted arrange-

ment. Blocks of these 5 to 10 feet in diameter are common in the

shale matrix and give a most distinctive lithologic character to the

terrane thruout its distribution, Avhich enables it to be recognized where

the shales are too much mashed to yield fossil remains. The fossils

appear to be of early Pleistocene age. The whole terrane has been

uplifted and deformed, so that it now stands at elevations from 3000 to

6000 feet above present sea level and forms the foothill mountains

along the south flank of the St. Elias range.

The Cretaceous-Eocene contact in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain.

L. W. Stephenson. The Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf

Coastal Plain are separated from the overlying Eocene and younger for-

mations by an unconformity of regional extent. Several authors, includ-

ing Harris, Vaughan, Hill and Vaughan, and Dall, have stated some of

the important facts in regard to the differences exhibited by the faunas

on either side of the contact, but the magnitude of these differences has

not been sufficiently recognized by geologists.

During the time represented by the unconformity separating the Cre-

taceous and Eocene strata some very important changes took place in

the molluscan life of the area. A preliminary stud}' of the mollusks of

the upper part of the Cretaceous (Exogyra costata zone) of the eastern

Gulf region, where the hiatus is as narrow as it is anywhere in the At-

lantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, has showm that of 168 identified species

practically all became extinct before the Eocene ]\lidway formation be-

gan to be deposited. These species represent 89 genera, of which at

least 16 of the more common genera, including one whole order — the

Ammonoidea — became extinct. These faunal differences are greater

12 proceedings: geological society

than those which transpired thru evolutionary development during the

time of deposition of the Tombigbee sand and the overlying Selma

chalk and its non-chalky equivalents, or in terms of the Western Interior

section, approximately during the time required for the deposition of

the Niobrara formation and the Montana group.

Harris and Vaughn have both pubHshed statements to the effect that

there is a great break, both stratigraphic and faunal, between the Cre-

taceous and the Eocene, as evidenced by the fact that not a single

species is kno^vn certainly to have crossed from one system to the

other. Vaughan characterized the differences as expressive of a com-

plete faunal revolution. In his opinion the changed that took place in

the marine life of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain during the time

represented by the unconformity, are more striking than those that have

taken place between earliest Midway time and the present, for no great,

orders that lived during Midway time, comparable to the Ammonoidea,

have become extinct.

In the opinion of E. W. Berry, as expressed in a letter to the writer,

the differences in the Cretaceous and Eocene floras of the eastern Gulf

region are profound, and he believes that the unconformity represents

a very long interval.

The hiatus marks a great diastrophic movement, as a result of which

the shore lines were pushed far to the eastward and southward. The

faunas were thus forced into new environments. Altho there is no evi-

dence of marked climatic changes, unknown factors may have induced

more rapid evolutionary changes in the marine life, but liberal allowance

being made for a quickening of development, the hiatus must have been

of great duration in order to produce the observed changes, even when

measured in terms of geologic .time. How much of that time should be

classed as Cretaceous and how much as Tertiary cannot be determined

with the available data. Cretaceous time, however, did not end with

the deposition of the uppermost Cretaceous strata as preserved, neither

did Eocene time ])egin with the deposition of the lowermost Eocene

strata, but the lines separating the two periods probabl}^ lies somewhere

toward the middle of the hiatus.

The contact metamorphic copper deposits at Mackay, Idaho. J. B.

Umpleby. The contact metamorphic copper deposits at Mackay, Ida-

ho, are of particular interest because thej^ represent the replacement of

engulfed blocks of limestone after the solidification and jointing of the

porphyry inclosing them. Eight of these engulfed blocks and several

shoots of garnet-diopside rock, clearly of limestone derivation, crop out

in an area of about one scjuare mile. The most complete metamorphism

is of blocks along a pronounced fault, but metamorphism is locally in-

tense where onh' normal jointing of the porphyry was observed.

Both exomorphism and endomorphism are clearly recorded. The

former changed the blue limestone of White Knob into white marljle

thruout a mass one square mile in area and 1000 feet thick. It also

caused a conspicuous marmorization of the engulfed blocks of limestone.

Here a broken zone of garnet-diopside rock is external to the marble

proceedings: the chemical society 13

zone. On White Knob lime-silicate rock is not al)imdant, but in one

place it comprises a vein 3 to 5 feet wide which cuts across the marble

beds.

The garnetization of the porphyry is clearly shown at several places

in the mine. In one specimen garnet replaces the granite-porphyry

along joints and in another as a wave advancing into unfractured but

permeable material. In places ore bodies cut directly across the Hme-

stone-granite-porphyry contact. Elsewhere garnet-chalcopyrite ore,

in bunches of minable size, occurs at the intersection of joints well out

in the granite-porphyry.

These features are believed to indicate: (1) that the garnetization

took place after the solidification and fracturing of the inclosing por-

phyry, and (2) that, because the limestone blocks were entirely sur-

rounded by rigid porphyry at the time of metamorphism, the silica,

alumina, and iron of the silicate rock could not have been concentrated

from the limestone, but must have been supplied by deeper unconsoli-

dated portions of the batholith.

Adolph Knopf, Acting Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 231st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on November 25,

1913. Dr. P. A. Levene, of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Re-

search of New York City spoke on The chemistry of the nucleic acids.

He told the story of his own initiation into the study of the chemistry

of living tissue, and sketched the early history of the researches on the

nucleic acids of protein. It was early estabhshed that the molecule

of one of the more complicated of these acids contains two purin bases,

two pyrimidine bases, phosphoric acid, and a carbohydrate. The Ger-

man investigators directed attention to a simpler acid, inosinic acid, the

study of which was taken up by Dr. Levene and his co-workers, with

gratif^-ing success. This acid contains hypoxanthin, phosphoric acid

and a new pentose sugar, ribose. Further studies showed the relations

of these groups in the compound. The successive details by which the

structure of the other analogous acids was worked out, both as to the

main groups and the structures within the groups, cannot be given in a

brief abstract, altho of the greatest interest even to those comparatively

uniformed in this complex branch of organic chemistry.

Discussion. Acree pointed out that the work of Dr. Levene has

cleared up the configuration of the pentoses, and emphasized the ul-

timate practical importance of these researches. Seidell inquired as to

the synthesis of these compounds; Dr. Levene stated that most such

efforts have been unsuccessful; furthermore, that their analysis is more

important at present than their sj^nthesis. Schreiner gave an apprecia-

tion of these researches from the standpoint of the student who wishes to

get at the composition of the compounds commonly produced in nature,

as against those devised by man. Berg inquired as to the molecftlar

weight of the nucleic acids; the simplest has been shown to be probably

14 proceedings: anthropological society

twice the structural formula. Voegtlin spoke of the application of en-

zymes in analyzing the acids into their component groups. In reply

to questions by Johnston, Acree, Chesnut and others the following

points were brought out: There is no evidence that tliere is more than

one animal nucleic acid and one plant acid of the polynucleitide struc-

ture, tho there are several mono-nucleitides. The origin of the sugar

groups is not knoAATi; experimentally, the breaking up of the hexoses by

enzymes always leads to two 3-carl3on chains, never to a pentose. The

animal acid contains a hexose, whose structure is not yet kno^vn. A

living animal enzyme is necessary for the analysis of the animal acid,

and the technique involves the skill of the surgeon as well as that of

the chemist.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 469th regular meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wash-

ington, was held November 25, 1913, in the National Museum.

Dr. Daniel Folkmar, who has charge of the report on "Mother

Tongue" in the census, addressed the Society on Some results of the

first census of European races in the United States. Statistics of the

mother tongue, or native language, of the "foreign white stock" of the

United States are presented in the report soon to be issued by the Bureau

of the Census. It was prepared under the supervision of the chief

statistician for population, assisted by the speaker as expert special

agent. There are presented, for the first time in the census, figures

directly relating to the ethnic composition of the white population of

the United States, in so far as that is indicated by the native language.

This term is taken to mean the language of customary speech in the

homes of the immigrants before immigration.

One of the most interesting facts disclosed in this report is the great

numerical preponderance, which is still held by the mother tongues of

northwestern Europe as a whole, notwithstanding the high rank numeri-

cally which has been gained by a few individual mother tongues from

eastern and southern Europe — especially the Italian, Polish, and Yid-

dish. These three now stand third, fourth, and fifth in rank. The Eng-

lish mother tongue is by all odds the one most largely represented in the

foreign white stock of the United States. The numbe.', 10,037,420, is

considerably greater than that of the German mother tongue, which

latter, contributes more than one-fourth (27.3 per cent) of the total for-

eign white stock of the Ignited States, as reported in 1910. Italian,

Polish, and Yiddish come next in rank, but none of them number as

much as one-fourth of the German. To these three mother tongues,

intermediate in rank but considerable in number, may be added the

Swedish, French, and Norwegian, all l)elonging to northwestern Eu-

rope, except a portion of the French. No other mother tongue than the

eight thus far enumerated furnishes as much as 2 ])er cent of the total

of the foreign white stock of the United States, or numbers as much as

proceedings: anthropological society 15

1,000,000. The eight major mother-tongue stocks ah'eady named ac-

count for 87.5 per cent of the total foreign white stock.

How small a factor the ''new" immigration from southern and eastern

Europe really is up to the present time, may be better shown by compar-

ing it with the total white population of the United States. Taking as

100 per cent the total white population of the United States in 1910,

numbering 81,731,957, the so-called "native stock" constitutes 60.5 per

cent and the three great linguist families of foreign stock from north-

western Europe constitute 27.1 per cent, making a total of 87.6 per cent.

The elements from southern and eastern Europe constitute, therefore,

less than 13 per cent of the total. Of this the two principal Latin

mother tongues — the*French and the Italian — contribute less than 5 per

cent, and the two principal Slavic mother tongues — the Polish and the

Bohemian — and the Hebrew, taken together, contribute also less than

5 per cent, leaving to all the remaining mother tongues another 5 per

cent or less of the total. Of the total foreign white stock of the United

States, 32,243,382, there are 8,817,271 persons who are of German stock

when counted according to mother tongue, but a trifle under 8,500,000

(8,495,142) of German stock when counted by their country of origin,

Germany.

Immigrants from Austria are far more Slavic than Germanic. Rus-

sian immigration is shown to be far more Hebrew (52.3 per cent) than

Russian (2.5 per cent) or even Slavic. Immigration from Turkey in

Europe is not so much Turkish as Greek and Bulgarian.

Both the first and the second generations of immigration from Russia

show that over 0.50 per cent report Yiddish and Hebrew as their mother

tongue.

The returns for "Yiddish and Hebrew" reflect ethnic composition

less satisfactorily than the returns for other mother tongues. A part-

how large a part there is no means of judging — of those whose ancestral

language is Hebrew doubtless have reported German, English, Polish,

or other mother tongues. Of the total number of Yiddish-speaking

people 838,193 come from Russia, 144,484 from Austria-Hungary, 41,342

from Roumania, 14,409 from the United Kingdom and 7,910 from

German3^

The paper was discussed bj'^ Messrs. Stetson, Hough, and Farquhar

and yirs. James.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV JANUARY 19, 1914 No. 2

METEOROLOGY. — A return to normal atmospheric transpar-

ency. H. H. Kimball. Weather Bureau.

Attention has already been invited in this Journal, 3, 269, to

the diminution in atmospheric transparency which was quite

generally observed during the latter part of 1912, and which was

attributed, in part at least, to the presence at high levels of great

quantities of dust derived from the eruption of Katmai Volcano

in Alaska, in June, 1912. It will doubless be recalled that the

first violent eruption occurred on June 6, that the dust cloud was

first observed at Madison, Wis., on June 8, at Mount Weather,

Va., on June 10, at various points in Europe between June 20

and June 27, and at Bassour, Algeria, on June 19.

The purpose of the present paper is to present evidence de-

rived from observations made at the Mount Weather Observa-

tory, or under its supervision, relative to the gradual precipita-

tion of this dust from the atmosphere.

Humphreys^ has computed that dust particles of the size that

are thrown to the greatest heights by the most violent volcanic

eruptions require from one to three years to fall to the under sur-

face of the isothermal layer. From this level they will quickly

be carried to the surface of the earth by the processes of condensa-

tion and precipitation of atmospheric moisture. These compu-

tations seem to be in accord with the duration of the various

optical phenomena that have been observed to follow volcanic

eruptions.

1 Bull. Mount Weather Obs., 6, 11, 1913.

17

18 KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

The following observations are available for a study of the grad-

ual precipitation of dust from the atmosphere during the past

year:

1. Measurements of the intensity of insolation, or the in-

coming solar radiation.

2. Measurements of the percentage of polarization of skylight.

3. Measurements of the solar and the anti-solar distances of

the neutral points of Babinet and Arago, respectively.

4. Observations of the intensity and duration of twilight colors.

Solar radiation intensity measurements have been made at fre-

quent intervals thruout the day at Mount Weather since the

beginning of 1908. But few observations were obtained in 1910,

and in the winter months previous to 1912-1913.

For comparative purposes I have summarized in Table 1 the

observations made since May 1, 1912, with the sun at zenith

distance 60°, which is the highest point reached by the sun in De-

cember at the latitude of Mount Weather. The monthly means

of measurements made in the successive years are not strictly

comparable, for the reason that since May, 1911, the attempt has

been made to obtain measurements whenever the sun was unob-

scured by clouds, while previous to that time measurements were

made on the best days only, and when there was a prospect of

obtaining a series extending over at least two hours.

The ratios in column 6, Table 1, are the means of the quotients

obtained by dividing the monthly means, given in columns 2 and

3, by the corresponding averages for the respective months, de-

rived from observations obtained previous to June, 1912. ^ Simi-

larly, the ratios in column 7, Table 1, are the means of the quo-

tients obtained by dividing the monthly maxima, given in columns

4 and 5, by the corresponding average maxima for the respective

months, derived from observations obtained previous to June,

1912.

After what has been said relative to the monthly means for

consecutive years we might expect that the ratios given in column

7, which are derived from maximum radiation values, would be

2 These observations will be found tabulated in Bull. Mount Weather Obs., 5,

303-310, 1913.

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

19

larger than the ratios of column 6, which are derived from mean

radiation values. Actually, however, the averages of columns 6

and 7 are practically in accord for 1912, omitting the ratios for

May 1 to June 9, inclusive, while for 1913 the average of column

7 exceeds the average of column 6 by about 5 per cent.

TABLE 1

Monthly Summary of Solar Radiation Intensities with the Sun at Zenith

Distance 60°. Mount Weather, Va.

1912

May 1-June 9

June 10-30

July

August

September

October

November

December

1913

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

a. m.

p. m.

MAXIMUM

a. m.

p. m.

Gram calories per min. per cm^

RA- CURRENT

TIO AVERAGE

1.06

0.86

0.86

0.73

0.80

0.81

0.90

0.97

0.90

0.91

0.85

0.79

0.87

0.89

0.88

0.93

0.95

0.87

0.94

1.01

1.15

0.86

0.77

0.70

0.81

0.91

0.88

1.01

0.93

0.94

0.94

0.95

0.92

0.93

0.86

0.96

0.99

0.94

0.97

1.08

MEAN

RATIO

1.10

0.86

0.81

0.71

0.81

0.86

0.89

0.99

0.92

0.93

0.89

0.87

0.90

0.91

0.87

0.95

0.97

0.91

0.96

1.04

The last column of Table 1 is simply the average of the two

preceding columns. It is believed that it gives a close approxi-

mation to the monthly means of the relative intensity of solar

radiation for the period under consideration, as compared with

the intensity under normal conditions for the respective months.

These relative intensities, together with intensities for Madiso:i,

20

KIMBALL : NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

Wis.,^ obtained in a similar manner, are plotted in figure 1. The

curve that best fits the data shows a rapid fall from above nor-

mal between May 1 and June 9, 1912, to 29 per cent below nor-

mal in August 1912, followed by a ra,pid rise during the autumn

of 1912, and a slower rise in 1913 to normal values at the end of

the year. So few radiation measurements have been obtained

during winter months that the relative intensities computed for

these months are of doubtful value. The intensities measured at

Mount Weather on December 13, 1913, areas high as have ever

been measured at this observatory with the sun below zenith

distance 60°.

TABLE 2

Total Radiation Received on a Horizontal Surface for Hours that were

1912

Cloudless. Ratio

1913

Mount Weather, Va.

May 20- June 9

June 10- July 31

September 1-October 31

HOUR ANGLE FROM NOON

7-5

6-7

0.61

1.04

6-5

5-6

0.87

1.00

5-4

4-5

0.96

1.05

0.96

4-3

3-4

0.98

1.02

0.95

3-2

2-3

1.04

0.94

0.96

2-1

1-2

0.94

1-0

0-1

0.96

Measurements of the total radiation received on a horizontal

surface from the sun and sky have been made at Mount Weather

since May, 1912. A comparison of the results for 1912 and 1913

for hours when the sky was cloudless is given in Table 2. The

results for August are omitted, as a different register was used

in August, 1913 from that in operation during the other months.

There are not mahy hours during the summer, at Mount

Weather, when the sky is free from clouds. It can therefore

only be claimed that the data in Table 2 indicate that with a

cloudless sky the total radiation received on a horizontal surface

during September and October, 1912, was about 5 per cent less

than that received during the same period in 1913, and that there

was much less heat received diffusely from the sky between May

20 and June 9, 1912, than during the same period in 1913. This

^ The observations for Madison, Wis., previous to July, 1912, will be found

tabulated in Bull. Mount Weatlier, Obs., 5, 177-181, 1912.

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

21

latter is indicated by the smallness of the ratios for early morning

or late afternoon hours for the first period in Table 2. With low

TABLE 3

Monthly Summary of Skylight Polorization in the Sun's Vertical and at

Solar Distance 90°, With the Sun at Zenith Distance 60°. Mount

Weather, Va.

22

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

sun, the proportion of the radiation that is received diffusely

from the sky is relatively great.

Skylight polarization is intimately connected with atmospheric

transparency, since an increase in the primary diffusion is ac-

companied by an increase in the secondary scattering in the lower

atmosphere. This increases the intensity of the horizontally or

negatively polarized component of the light, and neutralizes to

some extent the postive or vertical polarization of skylight. In

Table 3 are summarized skylight polarization observations made

Fig. 1. Variations in solar radiation intensities and in the percentage of sky-

light polarization. Circles indicate data for Mount Weather, Va.; crosses, data

for Madison, Wis.

at Mount Weather when the sky was free from clouds and there

was no snow on the ground. In the last two columns are given

the departures of the monthly values for 1912 and 1913 from the

averages for the respective months derived from observations

taken previous to June, 1912. These departures are plotted in

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

23

figure 1, and their variations are in close accord with the varia-

tions in the relative intensity of solar radiation.

TABLE 4

Antisolar Distance of Arago's Neutral Point. Mount Weather, Va.

24 KIMBALL: NORMAL* ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY

During the early part of 1913, it was noticed that after sunset,

as the lower atmosphere became less and less illuminated, the

skylight polarization increased rapidly, sometimes by as much

as 50 per cent, and to nearly the degree of polarization under

normal conditions. This increase became noticeably less after

the middle of August, 1913.^

The solar and the antisolar distances of the neutral points of Bab-

inet and Arago, respectively, have varied in accordance with

the variations in skylight polarization. This was to be expected,

since these distances depend upon the relative intensities of the

vertically and the horizontally polarized components of sky-

light.

Table 4 will serve to illustrate the movements of both the neu-

tral points. It will be noticed that simultaniously with the in-

crease in the diffusion of light by the dust in the upper atmosphere,

there was an increase in the antisolar distance of Arago's neutral

point with the sun above the horizon. With the sun below the

horizon, however, the intensity of the primary-diffused light from

the upper atmosphere, which was highly but not necessarily com-

pletely polarized, caused a decrease in the antisolar distance of

this neutral point. The minimum distance was not only smaller,

but it occurred with a lower sun than under normal conditions.

With the decrease in the intensity of the primary-diffused sun-

light, in 1913, the antisolar distance of the neutral point gradu-

ally increased with the sun below the horizon, and the minimum

distance occurred with a higher sun.

Jensen^ has shown that there may be a relation between varia-

tions in the color of skylight and the positions of the neutral

points.

At the present time the solar and the antisolar distances of

the neutral points appear to be decreasing with the sun both

above and below the horizon.

* Skylight polarization measurements made after sunset will be found tabulated

in Bull. Mount Weather Observatory, 6, 39, 1913.

5 Jensen, Dr. Chr., tjber die grosse atmospherisch-optische Storung von 1912,

pp. 10-11 (Separatabdruck aus den Mitteilungen der Vereinigung von Freunden

der Astronomie und kosmischen Phj^sik).

KIMBALL: NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPARENCY 25

The twilight colors are intensified by the presence of fine dust in

the atmosphere, as was markedly the case after the eruption of

Krakatoa Volcano in 1883. In another paper ^ I have presented

evidence that during the fall of 1912 the red colors, especially,

were unusually brilliant, and perhaps, also, of unusual duration.

At the Mount Weather Observatory the brilliancy of the twi-

light colors has been the occasion of frequent remark during the

past few months, and especially during September, October, and

November. On some evenings the glow in the west has been

distinguishable for nearly an hour and a half after sunset.

During the fall of 1912 a noticeable feature of twihghts was

the streaked appearance of the sky, as tho the dust or haze was

arranged in horizontal layers. This has not been the case during

the fall of 1913.

Notes relative to twilight colors made by Weather Bureau Ob-

servers at the various stations thruout the United States are

rather inconclusive as to the intensity of these colors in 1913 as

compared with their intensity in 1912. It seems evident, how-

ever, that while the maximum of intensity culminated in the

month of November, in 1912, in 1913 the maximum was reached

as early as September.

Summary. Pyrheliometric and polarimetric observations unite

in indicating a gradual increase in atmospheric transparency since

the marked minimum in August, 1912. This increase is prob-

ably due to the precipitation from the atmosphere of the dust

that was introduced into high levels by the eruption of Katmai

Volcano in June, 1912.

At the same time, the solar and the anti-solar distances of the

neutral points of Babinet and Arago respectively, indicate that

there may still be traces of this dust in the upper atmosphere.

The duration of the Katmai dust cloud appears to have been

less than the duration (2 years) of the dust cloud "that followed

the eruptions of 1902-03, and markedly less than the duration

(3 years) of the dust cloud that followed the eruption of Kra-

kotoa in 1883.

6 Monthly Weather Review, 41, 153-159, 1913.

26 "^ vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

GEOLOGY. — Sketch of the geologic history of the Florida coral

reef tract and comparisons with other coral reef areas. ^ Thomas

Wayland Vaughan, U. S. Geological Survey.

GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA

The southern end of the mainland of Florida is underlain by

two limestone formations, Viz : the somewhat sandy, rather soft,

light colored Miami oolite, and the more or less sandy, non-oolitic,

dark or light Lostmans River limestone, which may be friable

or indurated, and sometimes is crystalline. Four principal kinds

of material are represented in the Florida keys. The surface of

the keys north of Cape Florida is sandy. The most conspicuous

constituent of the main keys from Soldiers Key to the southern

end of Big Pine Key is the Key Largo limestone, an elevated

coral reef rock. The prevalent rock from the Pine Keys west-

ward to Boca Grande Key is the soft, non-arenaceous Key West

oolite. The surface material of the Marquesas is largely com-

posed of the detrital remains of calcareous algae probably over-

lying an oolitic foundation, while that of the Tortugas is largely

coral detritus underlain by more consolidated limestone.

In order to indicate the relative importance of oolite and the

elevated coral reef rock in the formation of the keys and nearby

parts of the mainland, the following rough planimeter measure-

ments are given: Miami oolite, area 1300 square miles; Key

West oolite, area 370 square miles — oolite, total area 1670 square

miles. Key Largo limestone, elevated coral reef, area 66 square

miles. According to these measurements chemical precipitation

of calcium carbonate with subsequent transformation into oolite

has predominated over the constructive agency of corals in the

ratio of roughly 25: 1, but, as undoubtedly the figures for the

oolite are too small and those for the elevated coral reef are too

large, 100 : 1 'is probably nearer to the proper ratio. In this

connection it will be stated that on Andros Island, Bahamas, the

ratio of the constructive work of the present reef to that of the

agencies that previously resulted in the formation of the Pleisto-

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and

of the President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 27

cene oolite, is approximately as 1 to several thousand, or, as a

constructive agent, chemical precipitation has been several thou-

sand times more effective in forming Umestone than corals.

topographic relations of the FLORIDA BARRIER REEF

The living barrier reef of Florida extends as a broken chain

from Fowey Rocks at the north to off Key West near Sand Key

at its southwest end. Luxuriant reefs also occur around the Tor-

tugas atoll. The principal reefs lie just within the 10-fathom

curve and stand on the seaward margin of a platform. They are

separated from the main line of keys by Hawk Channel, which

has a maximum depth of about 7 fathoms, and the keys in their

turn are separated from the mainland by a series of shallow bays

and sounds. The platform on which the reefs stand extends

around the entire coast of Florida. Northward of Fowey Rocks

the reefs disappear but the platform continues. The platform

also exists on the west side of the peninsula of Florida but

bears no reefs. It is evident that the platform is independent of

corals and that it owes its existence to agencies other than those

dependent upon the presence of coral reefs.

BUILDING OF THE MARQUESAS AND THE TORTUGAS

There are two rival hypotheses for the formation of atolls, one

of these attributes them to the submarine solution of the inte-

rior of a mass of limestone; the other accounts for them by

constructional agencies. In order thoroly to test the solution

hypothesis the results of four lines of invetigations were brought

to bear upon it, and all are concordant. (1) All the bays, sounds,

and lagoons within the Florida reef and key region are filling

with sediment; (2) Drew's investigations of denitrifying bacteria

show that chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate is taking

place in the lagoons; (3) the chemical examination by R. B.

Dole of samples of sea-water flowing into and out of the Tor-

tugas lagoon, collected twice daily for a lunar period, show that

altho both carbonate and bicarbonate radicles are in solution

uncombined carbon dioxide is not present, and that the water

possesses no capacity for further solution of calcium carbonate

28 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

by virtue of its content of free carbon dioxide; (4) the determina-

tions by Dole of the saUnity of the water within the Tortugas

lagoon and at the southern end of Biscayne Bay show a higher

concentration than that in the open sea-water on the outside,

indicating that tidal inflow and outflow are not sufficient com-

pletely to mix the water in the lagoons with the water of the sur-

rounding sea and that concentration by evaporation is taking

place. As the results of these lines of inquiry are so positive,

the formation of lagoons by submarine solution may be definitely

eliminated from consideration.

Of the constructional agencies to which the rims of atolls

might be attributed attention was directed to the effects of winds

and currents. It is a matter of common knowledge that if a

current impinges against an obstruction lying across its course it

divides, a part swerves to each side and incurves on the back of

the obstruction, with the result that crescentic accumulations

are built whenever the moving medium deposits material. It is

also well known that the form of a deposit from a current moving

in a straight line is correspondingly rectilinear. Current-shaped

crescentic keys and crescentic sand dunes are familiar phenom-

ena; as also are linear ridges formed either of water-borne sedi-

ment or of wind-driven sand. Good instances of crescentic keys

and a mud atoll (Breton Island) are found off the mouth of Mis-

sissippi River.

As regards coral reefs, Hedley and Taylor have pointed out

that, for the Great Barrier Reef of Australia :

The growth of an individual reef is shown to proceed in a regular

cycle. If the reef reaches the surface with its axis along the wind, then

its shape endures; but if across the wind, then its extremities are pro-

duced backward, forming first a crescent, later a horseshoe, and lastly

an oval, thus inclosing a lagoon.

There is a striking similarity in the configuration of the Mar-

quesas and the Tortugas. There is an entrance to the lagoon of

each in the southeast, southwest, and northeast quadrants; and

the principal arc of the rim of each is from the southeast to the

northwest entrance. The bow of this arc in each instance is

against the prevailing direction of the wind, which is predomi-

nantly from the east, and against the direction of movement of

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 29

the Florida counter-current, while its northern limb in each

instance trails with these currents. As many details of the ]Mar-

quesas and the Tortugas can not be considered in this summary,

the conclusion will at once be expressed that the atoll rims of

both the jMarquesas and the Tortugas are constructional phenom-

ena and owe their configuration to the prevailing winds and

currents. The detrital material on which these agencies have

worked in the Marquesas is mostly of other than coral origin;

while in the Tortugas, altho of complex composition, it consists

largely of coral debris.

The Marquesas rim is geologically Recent, and evidently re-

quired no change of sea level for its formation. As the surficial

material of the Tortugas rests upon an older, harder, calcareous

basement, it appears that the Tortugas atoll with its inclosed

lagoon was outlined during a previous physiographic cycle. Fur-

ther evidence, later to be adduced, renders it reasonably certain

that the Tortugas were initially outlined during subsidence after

uplift following the close of the Pliocene, that they were then

elevated to an amount of perhaps 50 feet, that the last event

has been one of subsidence back nearly to the same level as that

preceding the elevation, and that the Recent corals have estab-

lished themselves on an old atoll basement already prepared for

them.

OSCILLATIONS OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT

A study of the Florida coast line shows that its last important

movement was downward. This deduction is based on the ex-

istence of submerged channels and submarine fresh-water springs

on the east coast, on the indented character of the coast line

with accompanying submerged channels on the west coast, and

on the presence of underground passages containing salt water

and free openings or cavities that extend to a depth as great as

30 feet below sea level on the southern keys. The evidence is

clear that the keys participated in the uplift and subsequent

depression that affected the mainland, and that at one time they

stood more than 30 feet higher with reference to sea level than

the}^ now do. This uplift and the subsequent depression,

according to all available evidence, extended to the Tortugas.

30 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

The evidence presented shows that the platform on which the

present barrier reef of Florida is growing has, geologically just

antecedent to its present relation to sea level, stood 30 feet or

more higher, and has been brought to its present position by

depression.

The Pleistocene barrier reef, which is 105 feet thick according

to the boring on Key Vaca, was formed during the period of sub-

sidence which followed uplift at the close of Pliocene deposition.

SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT

The geologic history of the Florida reef tract may be summa-

rized as follows : During Pleistocene time along a curve from the

eastern side of Biscayne Bay, first trending southward and then

bending westward, a barrier coral reef flourished. This was sep-

arated by a channel from the main bank on which the Miami

oolite was forming or had formed in strongly agitated waters.

West of the coral reef, on an extensive flat in shallow water, the

Key West oolite was forming, while still farther westward the

Tortugas were outlined under the influence of winds and cur-

rents. This period of events was succeeded by elevation of the

entire key region to probably 50 feet above its previous level.

The last period of uplift was succeeded by one of depression,

lowering the surface 30 feet or more and establishing prac-

tically the same relation of the sea level to land as now prevails.

Subsequent to the beginning of this depression the present

barrier reef has developed seaward of the keys on a platform

already prepared for it, the Marquesas have been formed by

winds and currents, and coral reefs have again established them-

selves in the Tortugas.

COMPARISONS OF THE FLORIDA REEF TRACT WITH THOSE OF

ANDROS ISLAND, BAHAMAS, CUBA AND AUSTRALIA

Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer showed in 1902, as is evidenced

by the pouch-shaped harbors of the Cuban coast and by the

submerged filled channels, such as the one in Havana harbor,

that the last movement of the Cuban coast was downward.

Therefore, the platform on which the Cuban reefs occur has

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 31

been brought to its present position by subsidence. The barrier

reef of Andros Island, Bahamas, also occupies the outer edge of

a depressed platform.

It has been shown by the Australians, Andrews, Hedley and

Taylor, and David, that the platform of the Great Barrier Reef

of AustraUa has been brought to its present position thru sub-

sidence apparently associated with extensive faulting along the

eastern Queensland coast. Therefore the Floridian, Cuban,

Bahaman, and Australian barrier reefs all have a similar relation

to change of sea level, as in each instance the platforms on which

they occur have been brought to their present position thru

subsidence.

There is one important difference between the relations of the

Recent barrier reefs of Florida and Andros Island, Bahamas, and

those of Cuba. The oscillations of the strand line in Florida

and Andros Island have taken place without appreciable differ-

ential crustal movement, while in Cuba there was notable de-

formation antecedent to the last depression. The Pleistocene ter-

races rise in height toward the eastern end of Cuba in Oriente

Province where altitudes of about 600 feet are attained near Cape

Maisi. The terraces decline in height toward the west, and west

of the longitude of Manzanillo there is a slope from the north to

the south coast. In Barbados Pleistocene reefs extend to 1000

feet in elevation.

COMPARISON OF WEST INDIAN WITH CENTRAL PACIFIC REEFS

Alexander Agassiz discovered that in the Paumotuan atolls the

Recent corals were growing as a thin crust on an older limestone

foundation. His explanation of the formation of the atolls by

the destruction of the interior of a limestone mass must be dis-

carded. As there was evidently a period of atoll formation in

the Paumotus previous to the establishment of the Recent corals

the conditions there simulate those in the Tortugas, Florida. A

great developnent of Pleistocene and perhaps late Tertiary coral

reefs in the tropical Pacific has been proven in the most convinc-

ing manner, and there is abundant evidence of differential crustal

movement in the tropical Pacific in Pleistocene time similar

32 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

to that indicated for the West Indies. E. C. Andrews and C.

Elschner have both described warping and tilting, the former for

the Fijis, the latter for the Pacific more or less in general. Agas-

siz described an elevated atoll Makatea, in the Paumotus; and

Andrews has given a detailed description of the elevated atoll of

IMango, Fijis. Because of the differential nature of the earth

movements, in certain places old atolls have been uplifted to

heights as great as 230 feet in Makatea, and 600 feet in Tuvutha,

Fijis; while other old atolls, such as Rangiroa and others in the

Paumotus, now stand at or near sea level. In other areas there

has been depression, Bora Bora for instance, as Dana, P. Mar-

shall, and more recently W. M. Davis, have shown. Systematic,

detailed studies of the relations of the Recent to the older reefs,

with special reference to oscillation of sea level and differential

crustal movement in Pleistocene time, are among the desiderata

in the investigation of coral reefs.

barrier reef platforms

It has already been stated that the existence of the platform

on which the Recent barrier reef of Florida stands is independent

of the reefs, as it is continuous irrespective of the geographic

limits of the reefs. A similar statement may be made regarding

the Bahamas and Cuba, where in each instance the platform is

independent of the reefs which merely grow upon its surface

where conditions are favorable for the life of corals. E. C. An-

drews in 1902 remarked regarding the platform of the Great Bar-

rier Reef of Australia that ' ' the continuance in width of the shelf

southwards of the limits of reefs (coralline), and the great shoals

thereon, points to a minor part only of the shelf being formed of

coral growth." An inspection of the Admiralty charts for the

eastern coast of Australia shows conclusively that the platform

on which the Great Barrier Reef of Australia stands has an exist-

ence independent of the Great Barrier Reef, and that corals have

established themselves on this platform where the conditions

favorable for their life are realized.

An examination of the barrier reef platforms of Florida, An-

dros Island, Bahamas, Cuba, and Australia, all lead to the same

vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs 33

conclusion, viz: (1) The platforms have an existence independ-

ent of coral reefs and were formed by other than coral reef agen-

cies; (2) the reefs exist only on those portions of the platforms

where the conditions requisite for the life of reef corals prevail.

In this connection attention is especially directed to the per-

sistence along the margin of continental plateaus of a rapid de-

clivity from about the 30-fathom curve to the 50-fathom curve

as compared with the usually gentler slope from the shore to

between 30 and 40 fathoms. This relation is well exhibited along

both the Australian and the North American platforms.

Having presented criteria for recognizing the relations of con-

tinental and large insular platforms supporting barrier reefs to

the presence of the reefs, islands such as those in the Society and

Fiji groups may be considered. Daly in 1910 pointed out that

the depth of the drowned valleys in these groups ''appears never

to exceed 45 fathoms." The maximum depth according to his

compilation is from 19 (Raiatea) to 41 fathoms (Murea), both

members of the Society group. There is wonderful accordance

between the maximum depths within the barriers of the Pacific

Islands and the depths on the Australian continental shelf both

within and without the Great Barrier Reef region. A study of

the charts of barrier reef islands, as Viti Levu, Fijis, and Tahiti,

Society Island, shows that the platforms are independent of the

presence of reefs, and therefore the relations in these islands are

similar to those indicated for barriers off continental shores, for

here the reefs are also superimposed on platforms antedating their

presence. The problem of the depth of barrier platforms is a

world-wide one for it is only an aspect of the general problem of

the history of continental shelves,

ATOLLS

The atolls previously discussed in this paper occur on plat-

forms, rise from comparatively shallow depths, and owe their

shapes to winds and currents. The atolls that margin flat sum-

mits of eminences rising from oceanic depth must be attributed

to somewhat different causes. The greater abundance and lux-

uriance of reef-forming organisms on the peripheries of atolls are

34 vaughan: geologic history of coral reefs

due mostly, if not solely, to the intolerance of such organisms to

sedunent. Certain of my experiments show conclusively that,

if the colonies are protected from sediment, the growth of corals

within a lagoon may exceed that of corals on the outside. The

possibilities of a basement attaining the proper depth, where the

other necessary vital conditions prevail, are numerous and need

not here be recapitulated.

As bearing on the relative stability of one so-called coral island,

it will be stated that Dr. Jos. A. Cushman has found Nummulites

in the borings from the Bermuda deep well at depths from 131

to 193 feet, or, expressed in fathoms, from 22 to 32 fathoms below

sea level. As these fossils indicate either a lower Oligocene or

an upper Eocene age for that part of the bore, it is evident that

crustal changes in the Bermudas since that time have been slight.

Relative crustal stability for the Paumotus has been indicated.

Daly's compilation of the depth of atoll lagoons is most signifi-

cant, as it shows accordance in depth with the lagoons of barrier

islands. Whether or no his hypothesis of the rise of sea level

to an amount of about 30 fathoms in the tropics, due to the dis-

appearance of glaciers, be accepted, it at least is evident that

great crustal subsidence for atoll areas is not indicated by the

facts at present available. ^

^ This paper is an abstract of data and conclusions bearing on the coral reef

problem from the following publications by the writer:

A contribution to the geologic history of the Floridian Plateau. Carnegie

Institution of Washington, Publication 133, 99-185, 15 pis., December, 1910.

Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands and on the formation of the

Floridian and Bahaman oolites (abstract). Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., 3, 302,

303, May 19, 1913.

Preliminary remarks on the geology of the Bahamas, with special reference to

the origin of the Bahaman and Floridian oolites. Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington, Publication 182, 47-53, 1914 (in press).

The building of the Marquesas and Tortugas atolls, and a sketch of the geo-

logic history of the Florida reef tract. Idem, 55-67, 1914 (in press).

To the abstract of discussions included in the papers cited are added a more

general account of barrier reef platforms and some remarks on atoll rims that

margin the fiat summits of eminences rising from oceanic depths.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 92d regular meeting of the Botanical Society was held at the

Powhatan Hotel on Tuesday evening, December 2, 1913, at which a

dinner and special program were given in honor of the seventieth birth-

day of Dr. Edward Lee Greene.

Dr. C. L. Shear presided. Mr. John H. Parker was elected to mem-

bership. The program was as follows:

Personal experiences: Frederick V. Coville. Mr. Coville related

incidents in connection with his first meeting with. Dr. Greene at the

Madison Botanical Congress in 1893, and expressed a high appreciation

of his work, particularly of his Landmarks of Botanical History.

Berkeleyan days: V. K. Chestnut. Mr. Chestnut spoke of his student

days at the University of California and of the inspiration received

from Dr. Greene by his botanical students.

Botanical writings: A. S. Hitchcock. As a writer, Dr. Greene has

been prolific. Besides numerous papers in various periodicals, such as

the bulletins and the proceedings of the California Academy, Botanical

Gazette, Bulletin of the Torrey Club and Erythea, he has published several

books, notabl}' Flora Franciscana, Manual of the Botany of the Region

of San Francisco Bay, five volumes of Pittonia and two volumes of

Leaflets.

The value of Dr. Greene's influence upon botanical thought does not

rest solely upon the large number of new species he has described, but

in that he has studied many groups of plants from Cruciferae to Com-

positae, from Viola, Rhus and Eschscholtzia to Boraginaceae and

Polemoniaceae, has revised many genera, sections and groups, dis-

cussed relationships, and set on their feet, as it were, species and genera

of early authors that had been relegated to oblivion by those that

followed.

Reminiscences: Ivar Tidestrom. Mr. Tidestrom gave a brief ac-

count of Dr. Greene's earlier work, particularly his early collecting and

his work at Berkeley.

Rocky Mountain flora: Prof. Aven Nelson. Dr. Greene's work in

the Rocky Mountain states was reviewed briefly and special emphasis

was laid on the influence of this work on that of the later botanists.

Response: Dr. Greene. After expressing his appreciation of the

honor accorded him by the Botanical Society, Dr. Greene related a few

interesting incidents connected with his life, particularly his earl}- trips

of botanical exploration in the Southwest.

P. L. Ricker, Corresponding Secretary.

35

36 proceedings: chemical society

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 232d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on December 11,

1913. Dr. M. X. SulUvan was nominated to represent the Society as

a vice-presidient of the Washington Academy of Sciences. The presi-

dent appointed A. B. Adams, J. A. Le Clerc, and R. C. Wells as an

auditing committee to audit the accounts of the treasurer for the year.

The following papers were then read :

J. G. Fairchild, of the Bureau of Mines: First paper: Electro-

anahjsis of the copper alloys. The methods described were planned in

order to obtain more rapid results in analyzing brass, bronze, type

metal and other copper alloys. The paper has been published in Met.

and Cheni. Eng.

Second paper: The iodometric determination of iron. This paper,

like the preceding, gave details of procedure for a rapid commercial

method.

Discussion: Andrews pointed out that the reaction used in the

method for iron comes to an equilibrium, which can be displaced

toward ferrous iron by extracting the iodine with a solvent such as

carbon bisulfide.

W. D. Collins, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Radioactivity of Vir-

ginia mineral ivaters. The tests were made by boiling out the gases

from the sample and observing their effect on an electroscope. Ac-

tivities of from 110 down to 0.7, in terms of the 10-" unit, were found.

These are of the same order of magnitude as radioactive springs in

other parts of the world.

Discussion: Ross called attention to investigations published in the

french Comptes Rendus showing that certain Italian springs caused,

rather than cured, certain diseases. He showed that quantities of ra-

dium emanation that can be taken without effect greatly exceed the

amounts that can be obtained from any spring water. Custis stated

that experiments show that repeated small doses of the emanation pro-

duce effects that cannot be obtained by single large doses. I. K. Phelps

mentioned that practically all waters are radioactive, but Collins pointed

out that the activity of sea-water, for instance, is only about 0.001 of

that of the least active of the springs in question.

G. A. Menge, of the Hygienic Laboratory : The Preparation of amino-

nitriles. The speaker described the methods for preparing nitriles, going

from anhydrous hydrocyanic acid thru cyanhydrin by means of liquid

ammonia, as the methods described in the literature did not give sat-

isfactory results. Amino-aceto-nitrile and a number of other mem-

bers of this series were prepared. The liquid ammonia method gives

practically the theoretical yield.

G. B. Spencer, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Goettingen. The speaker

first paid a tribute to Wallach, who has recently received the Nobel

prize for his work on the terpenes. He then described the city and the

university, and spoke in particular of the many important discoveries

which the sciences of chemistry, physics, and mathematics owe to the

men of Goettingen. Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV FEBRUARY 4, 1914 No. 3

GEODESY. — Our Northern Boundaries.^ O. H. Tittmann.

Coast and Geodetic Survey.

In accordance with the custom of this Academy, which prescribes

a theme in which the retiring President is especially interested, I

have chosen ''Our Northern Boundaries."

It happens that your speaker has been engaged for the last ten

years as Commissioner on the part of the United States, in co-

operation with Dr. W. F. King, the British Commissioner, in the

formidable task of delimiting the Alaska boundary and re-marking

and establishing in precise manner the boundary from the Pacific

Ocean to Lake Superior and from the St. Lawrence River to Grand

Manan Channel.

It would lead too far afield in an address of this kind to enter

into a detailed account of the complications and controversies

which had to be settled by 1>arious commissions before the treaties

negotiated by Secretaries of State John Hay and Elihu Root

afforded the means and prescribed the method for finally fixing

our northern boundaries. My purpose is to confine myself to

a few illustrative references of their origin and in this connection

I recall an incident which may serve to suggest the cause of many

difficulties in boundary questions. While serving on the staff

of General Foster, the American agent before the Alaskan Boun-

dary Tribunal which convened in London in 1903, a banquet was

given at which I was placed at a narrow table immediately oppo-

' Address of the retiring President of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

Delivered before the Academy on Thursday evening, January 14, 1914, at the

Cosmos Club.

37

38 tittmann: our northern boundaries

site Lord Alverstone, Chief Justice of England, who presided over

the Tribunal. In introduicng me to two gentlemen, between

whom I sat, he explained that they had been associated with him

in the consideration of various grave international boundary

questions and that they had all come to the conclusion that maps

were very unreliable evidence.

Having in mind that our contention before the Tribunal in-

volved the use of maps, the obvious answer was that some maps

were doubtless unreliable.

This difficulty of the unreliability of maps was encountered

immediately after the signing of the Treaty of Peace of 1783, in

regard to our northeastern boundary. For, that treaty carried

the boundary down the middle of the St. Croix River to its mouth.

This, in the light of our modern geography seems quite explicit,

but after the lapse of eleven years it became necessary to appoint

a commission to decide upon the identity of the St. Croix River.

This identification was successfully accomplished under the

Treaty of 1794. But how about the line from the mouth of the

St. Croix thru Passamaquoddy Bay?

Its course was defined in the Treaty of Peace of 1783 to be such

as to assign to the United States "all islands within 20 leagues of

any part of the shores of the United States and lying between lines

to be drawn due east from the points where the aforesaid boun-

daries between Nova Scotia on the one part and east Florida on

the other shall respectively touch th^ Bay of Fundy and the At-

lantic Ocean, excepting such islands as now are, or heretofore have

been, within the limits of the said province of Nova Scotia."

This general provision was difficult of interpretation .because

both governments claimed some of the islands. Several treaties

which failed of ratification were proposed. One of them contained

an extraordinary provision which would have placed Campo

Bello Island within the limits of the United States boundaries,

but provided that it should remain under British jurisdiction.

Thus, there was no settlement of the disagreement of the two

governments until the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, the beginning of

the hundred years of peace which we are to celebrate in December

of this year. Under that treaty Commissioners were appointed

tittmann: our northern boundaries 39

for the settlement of the dispute and altho they decided on the

ownership of the principal islands, they were not required to lay

down the line. Their decision rendered in 1817, may therefore be

likened to a first approximation of the solution of the problem.

Three-quarters of a century later, under the convention of 1892,

Commissioners were again appointed and they marked a part of

the line and disagreed as to the rest, principally because the

nationality of a little islet, less than half an acre in extent, and

lying in the course of the boundary, had not been specifically es-

tablished by the Commissioners under the treaty of 1814. This

was a second approximation. One hundred and eighteen years

after the Treaty of Peace of 1783, it became possible to fix this

part of the line by courses and distances and by reference to mon-

uments on the ground and it may surprise you to know that the

line from the mouth of the St. Croix to its headwaters has never

been laid down on a chart, or marked on the ground, except in so

far as the work of the present commission has progressed.

These complications in the settlement of the boundary thru

Passamaquoddy Bay, briefly outlined in the foregoing, are typical

of the process of the delimitation of the whole line.

In 1803 Jefferson, in his annual message to Congress, said that

a further knowledge of the ground in the northeastern and north-

western angles of the United States had evidenced that the boun-

daries established by the Treaty of Paris between the British

Territories and ours in those parts, were too imperfectly described

to be susceptible of execution.

At one time a part of the northeastern boundary matter was

.submitted to the King of The Netherlands for arbitration, but his

decision rendered in 1831 was rejected by both governments. A

remarkable example of difficulties caused by unreliable maps or

surveys is afforded by that portion of the line which forms the

boundary between the State of New York and the Province of

Quebec. As early as 1606, James I proclaimed the 45° parallel

as the boundary between the Provinces of New York and Quebec,

and between 1771 and 1774, two surveyors, Valentine and Collins,

marked the boundary supposedly along the 45th parallel. When

the Commissioners under the Treaty of Ghent attempted to trace

40 tittmann: our northern boundaries

the line along the 45th parallel, called for by the treaty, it was

discovered that the 45th parallel was about three-quarters of a

mile south of the Valentine-Collins line and that the United States

had built a fort costing about a million dollars at Rouses Point,

north of the 45th parallel and therefore under the treaty defini-

tion in British territory. This discovery was made in 1818 and

caused a dispute which was settled by the Webster-Ashburton

treaty of 1842 under which the Valentine-Collins line was adopted

by a compromise in regard to other disputed parts of the boundary.

Here I may digress from my subject for a moment to interject

the remark that the Commissioners under the Treaty of Ghent

missed their opportunity of demonstrating the great practical

value of one of the most useful and precise astronomical instru-

ments, the Zenith telescope. For they were equipped with one,

but failed to use it, because its verticality was dependent on a

plummet. A similar instrument, which however was equipped

with a level, was in the possession of the Coast Survey and this

was transferred, ''ceded" as Superintendent Hassler said, to Lieut.

Talcott for the purpose of another boundary survey in 1833 and

to him fell the distinction of developing and applying the method

of determining latitudes with the Zenith telescope.

We may resume the story of treaties based on incorrect maps,

at the northwestern angle of the Lake of the Woods. The Treaty

of 1783 provided that the boundary should run from the north-

westernmost point of the Lake of the Woods, on a due west

course to the Mississippi. A glance at the map will show the

impossibility of such a line and the fact was recognized in the

Treaty of 1794 by the admission that the course and location of

the Mississippi was uncertain and, in the Treaty of 1818, it was

provided that if the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the

Woods was not on the 49th parallel, a line should be drawn north

or south to the 49th and the boundary should run from their inter-

section due west to the Stony Mountains. By the time of the

Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842 it was known that the north-

westernmost point of the Lake of the Woods was north of the 49th

parallel and the description of the boundary was accordingly

modified.

tittmann: our northern boundaries 41

In this cursory account we have now reached the summit of the

Rocky Mountains. The controversies connected with the Oregon

question were formally settled by the Treaty of 1846 which defined

the boundary from the summit to the Pacific Ocean.

That portion of the boundary which was described as running to

the middle of the channel which separates the continent from Van-

couver's Island and thence southerly thru the middle of said

channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific Ocean gave rise to a

serious and prolonged controversy as to which channel was meant,

a controversy in which insufficient charts played but a minor part,

but which would have been avoided if the treaty makers had laid

down the line concurrently with the making of the Treaty, This

dispute was submitted to the German Emperor who decided in

favor of the United States by the award of October, 1872.

A review of the condition of the demarcation of the northern

boundary when Secretaries Hay and Root undertook to perfect it,

discloses that from Grand Manan Channel to the headwaters of

the St. Croix, a distance of 110 miles, the boundary had not been

marked on any series of maps nor had reference monuments been

placed on the ground.

From the headwaters of the St. Croix to the River St. John it

was monumented. Thru the St. John and to the headwaters

of the St. Francis it was marked on treaty maps. Thence to

the St. Lawrence it was monumented and laid down on maps.

Thru the Great Lakes and thru the water communication,

to the northwestern angle of the Lake of the Woods, a dis-

tance of 1500 miles it was unmarked, but was laid down on inac-

curate maps and therefore impossible of definition on the ground

by either government acting for itself.

It was marked at intervals from the Lake of the Woods to the

Gulf of Georgia, but in the region between the summit of the

Rocky Mountains and the Gulf of Georgia, a distance of 410 miles,

about 220 miles had never been surveyed, traced or monumented.

From Point Roberts on the Gulf of Georgia to the Pacific Ocean

it was laid down on a chart, but had never been referred to objects

on shore or defined with such accuracy that it could be reproduced

without question. This condition was giving rise to international

questions on different parts of the boundary.

42 tittmann: our northern boundaries

In connection with the re-marking of the boundary from the

summit of the Rocky Mountains westward, it developed that no

trace could be found of the report of the American Commissioners

on the delimitation of the boundary between 1856 and 1869,

By a singular coincidence and fatality no trace could be found by

the British Government of the records of its Commissioner, al-

tho copies of the maps were on file in both countries. The

circumstances connected with the discovery of the British records

have perhaps never been published and may be here recorded.

Pending the consideration of the marking and re-marking of the

line the Dominion Government despatched Dr. Otto Klotz, a

Canadian astronomer, to London to make another attempt at

their recovery. He searched the archives of the Foreign Office

and War Department, but in vain. While on a visit to the obser-

vatory at Greenwich, he happened to note a box on one of the

upper shelves with the letters ''B.N.A." inscribed on it. Reinter-

preted them to mean British North America and their possible sig-

nificance flashed thru his mind. He asked what the box con-

tained. No one knew. A ladder was sent for and the box opened

and the records were found.

The relevant and important parts were printed for the use of

the Canadian Government. A copy was furnished to this govern-

ment. This happy find by Dr. Klotz doubtless prevented com-

plications which might otherwise have arisen as to the details of

the boundary and obviated the necessity of a new treaty or of

special provisions in the general treaty already referred to in the

beginning of my address as having been negotiated by Secretary

Root, Under this Treaty of 1908, the task of marking and re-

marking the boundary was assigned to two Commissioners, The

definition of the line through the Great Lakes was assigned to

the existing International Waterways Commission and extends

through a distance of about 1200 miles.

The survey and re-marking of the remainder of the distance,

about 2500 miles, that is from the Pacific Ocean to Lake Superior

and from the St. Lawrence to the Grand Manan Channel, was

entrusted to the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-

vey, representing the American Government and Dr. W. F. King,

tittmann: our nobphern boundaries 43

Chief Astronomer of the Dominion of Canada, representing the

British Government.

To avoid wearying you with details, I have placed against the

wall a map which will convey to your eyes the progress made.

It indicates that a careful trigonometric and topographic survey

has been made of the greater part of the line and that compara-

tively little of the field work remains to be done on the boundary

under consideration. The labors of the International Waterways

Commission, it is understood, are also drawing to a conclusion and

thus we shall soon have a thoroly marked boundary and be in pos-

session of accurate maps and a precise definition of the whole line

as the result of processes based on sound engineering principles.

THE ALASKA BOUNDARY

Included in my subject is the delimitation of the Alaskan fron-

tier, but this chapter I shall treat very briefly, as the circumstances

connected with it are fresh in your memories.

The Alaskan boundarj^ naturally divides itself into two sections..

The first is the 141st meridian of west longitude and runs from the

Arctic Ocean to a point about 10 marine leagues from the coast, a

distance of 645 miles. About this stretch there never was any

dispute, but it was deemed best to prescribe by a treaty, signed at

Washington in 1906, the manner of ascertaining the location o£

the 141st meridian and of tracing the line.

Our knowledge of geodesy makes it evident that if in a stretch

of 600 miles various points should be determined astronomically

on the 141st meridian, the resulting line would be a zigzag, fol-

lowing the intersection of the verticals with the ground, that is,

the meridian would not lie within the plane of one geometric

great circle.

The Commissioners were therefore directed to determine the

141st meridian by telegraphic longitude at a suitable point thru

which the}'' were to trace a north and south line. This point

havmg been established at the crossing of the meridian and the

Yukon River, a zealous, able and energetic corps of engineers cut

a line thru the timber from Mount Natazhat on the south, to

the Arctic Ocean, monumented it and made a careful trigonometric

44 TITTMANN : OUR NORTHERN BOUNDARIES

and topographic survey, extending about 2 miles on each side of

the boundary. Aside from its immediate purpose this monu-

mented line and attendant triangulation will serve as a most valua-

ble base for the orientation of future topographic and economic

surveys both sides of the line. In the main this distance was a

transit line, but owing to the difficulty of traversing the ice

fields and rugged mountains, between Mount Natazhat and

Mount St. Elias, a trigonometric survey was carried for a distance

of about 150 miles, around by way of the Scolai Pass to the merid-

ian south of Mount Natazhat to a point on the slopes of the

Elias Alps.

It gives me pleasure to announce to the Academy that the

Commissioners believe that the field work along the 141st merid-

ian is completed. The reservation implied by the word ''believe"

means that the final plotting of the work between Mount Natazhat

and Mount St. Elias has not been completed and that this plotting

may develop a topographic lacuna in the ice fields of that region.

The other section of the line extending from Mount St. Elias to

the Portland Canal and thence thru Dixon Entrance to Cape

Muzon shared the fate of our other boundaries in being a subject of

controversy which was happily settled by the Tribunal of London

which rendered its decision in 1903. It is interesting to recall,

however, that at the time of the Alaska Purchase, Senator Sumner,

in advocating the purchase, began his scholarly speech with the

following words: ''In endeavoring to estimate its character, I

am glad to begin with what is clear and beyond question. I refer

to the boundaries fixed by the treaty."

The correctness of this statement was not borne out by subse-

quent events. Thirty-six years elapsed before the ensuing dis-

putes were settled by arbitration. Under the terms of the arbitral

award, Messrs. King and Tittmann were appointed to effect the

delimitation on the ground. Excepting some trigonometric

determinations and a final monument or two this has been ac-

complished. The boundary peaks have been determined trigono-

metricall}^, a photo-topographic survey has been made and

monuments have been placed at important and accessible points

and now the preparation of the final maps for the whole boun-

gray: micrometer microscopes 45

dary from Cape Muzon to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of about

1600 miles, nieasur-ed along the frontier is in progress.

All honor to the distinguished statesmen of both countries who

successfully strove to find a peaceful settlement of the many con-

troversies which have been barely touched upon by me. Their

justification lies in the homely adage, that, "Good fences make

good neighbors."

PHYSICS. — Micrometer microscopes. Arthur W. Gray. Bureau

of Standards. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards.

The purpose of this communication is to outline a simple and

rapid method of applying the proper corrections to the readings

of micrometer microscopes when making length measurements

of precision, and also an accurate graphical procedure for comput-

ing convenient correction tables. The numerous sources of error

that need attention will not be discussed in this brief paper.

In order to emphasize the advisability of examining a microscope

intended for accurate measurements Table 1 is introduced, which

shows the magnitudes of the periodic errors found in some micro-

scopes. On the assumption that the micrometers read correctly

at the beginning and at the end of a turn, the corrections in ten-

thousandths of a turn that must be added to the reading at the

end of each fifth turn indicated in the first column are recorded in

the other columns. Under A are the corrections for one turn of a

microscope that had been repaired as well as possible after its

micrometer thrust bearings had been discovered scored by a grain

of dirt. Under B are those found for a turn of a microscope used

in making important length measurements. The instrument had

46 gray: micrometer microscopes

never before been investigated. A curious feature of this micro-

scope was the regular repetition *of this series of corrections every

other turn, with a somewhat different but equally regular series

for the alternate turns. Column C represents a screw of unusual

excellence, made by a firm noted for high-grade astronomical in-

struments. D represents the average and E the worst of a group

of ten others made by this same firm. The irregularities which

these ten exhibit are of the same order of magnitude as those of the

best microscopes belonging to the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures.

While the need of applying corrections to some of these micro-

scopes is perfectly evident, it may be well to point out that screw

irregularities are of importance even in such micrometers as those

of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. An exami-

nation of the correction tables appended to one of Benoit's

papers^ shows that an error of about 1.5 ^ can be made in com-

paring two lengths if the only corrections applied are those for

deviations of the mean screw values from the nominal value of

100 M per revolution; and further that most of the error will be due

to neglecting the periodic corrections.

In comparing two lengths with a transverse comparator it is a

common practice to multiply the changes in each ixiicrometer

reading by the mean scale-value and subtract. But even less labor

is required to take into account all necessary corrections, after the

microscopes have been calibrated once for all. The writer's

method of doing this is essentially a simplification of the procedure

followed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures

in measuring the national prototype meters.- The principal gain

is effected by reducing to two tables (both of which can be mount-

ed on a single card) all the information contained in the six tables

used by the International Bureau. The table for the left micro-

scope gives at one inspection the total correction AL that must be

added to any reading U of the left microscope to give the cor-

rected reading aL; that for the right microscope gives — A^, the

' J. R. Benoit: Mesures de dilatation et comparaisons des regies metriques,

Trav. et Mem., 2, C. 131, 1883. The tables are on pp. c, xi, and xii.

^ Described in the above mentioned paper by Benoit.

gray: micrometer microscopes 47

negative of the total correction to the reading R'. Reversing the

sign of aR is merely a matter of convenience. It is usually suffi-

cient to enter the corrections for every tenth of a turn and to

obtain those for the hundredths by interpolation. A convenient

arrangement is one similar to that followed in most mathematical

tables: the whole turns are indicated at the side and the tenths

at the top.

The displacement corresponding to one division ( = 0.01 turn)

of the microscope may differ so little from 1 n that only small cor-

rections will be required to reduce the readings to microns. It may

however, well happen that reduction to the desired length unit

might require corrections so large as to be inconvenient. It then

becomes advisable to select an auxiliary unit corresponding to

the average screw-value, and to express all corrections in terms

of this unit, which should be the same for both microscopes.^ It is

further advantageous to minimize the magnitude of the correc-

tions by adjusting both microscopes to give almost the same mag-

nification— if possible one that permits a simple reduction factor.

Then all computations can be made in terms of the auxiliary unit,

multiplication by the reduction factor being deferred until the end.

Another gain is effected by recording obser^'ations in such a

form that the corrections can be added directly without any copy-

ing of figures. For example, the complete record and computation

for a single comparison of two bars A and B would appear about

as follows:

' All these considerations apply with increased force to a larger group of micro-

scopes, for example; a group of four used to read a divided circle, or several used

to step off a considerable length by means of a bar reaching from one microscope to

the next.

48 gray: micrometer microscopes

.". Lj^ — L^ = 1168.0 divisions. Since the magnification by the

microscopes was such that 1 division = f m

L^ - L^ = i oi 1168.0 = 876.0 m.

The accuracy that can be obtained with microscopes having

errors even as large as those Hsted under A in Table 1 is shown by

measuring three times with each of a pair the same interval of

999.05 M = 1332 (f m). The results are recorded in Table 2

below. In each series the center of the field was located consec-

utively near the right edge, the center, and the left edge of the

image, so as to obtain wide variations in the corrections, which

were taken from a correction table of the type described. Part of

the deviations from the averages are to be ascribed to inaccurate

focusing and another part (perhaps )to linear interpolation, which

is not altogether justifiable with such large and irregular periodic

errors. Nevertheless, the agreement is even better than would

have been predicted.

The calibration of a microscope by one of the processes usually

described involves such laborious computations and least-square

adjustments that it is no wonder to find it attempted only as a

last resort when the demands of high accuracy compel. While, of

course, the complete calibration of any divided scale requires con-

siderable time, it is, however, possible to determine microscope

corrections more accurately and with less labor than would appear

from previous accounts. The whole procedure can be made one

of direct measuremxcnt and simple graphical addition.

In determining the screw errors it is customary to use the ocular

of the microscope under investigation for viewing the displacement

of the spider-lines. An enormous gain, however, is secured by

removing the ocular and measuring the displacements by means

of a second micrometer microscope.^

•• The use of an auxiliary microscope for this purpose was first brought to my

attention by Mr. E. D. Tillyer, of the Bureau of Standards, to whom I am indebted

for many valuable suggestions and criticisms. He informed me that it was the

regular practice at the United States Naval Observatory. (See J. C. Hammond :

Introduction to Publications of U. S. Nav. Obs. 6, A XIII. 1911.) Sir David Gill

(Roy. Astrom. Soc. Monthly Notices 45, 65. 1884) also employed a compound

microscope in a simple apparatus he designed for rapidly and accurately investi-

gating screw-errors; but his method is in several respects inferior to that of the

Naval Observatory.

gray: micrometer microscopes 49

With this second microscope the following distances are deter-

mined: (1) That traveled by the spider-lines as the screw (S)

under investigation is advanced five whole turns. (A different

number of turns may sometimes be more convenient.) (2) That

traveled during each single turn. (3) That traveled during each

fifth (or tenth) of a turn. It is not necessary that the screw of

the auxiliary microscope (A) be very accurate, because all the

pointings will be confined to the same portions of this screw,

each only a fraction of a turn long. Besides, any irregularities

here will be rendered negligible by choosing an objective that

will magnify the interval to be measured sufficiently to make its

image nearly fill the usable portion of the field of view. The

measurement of consecutive five-turn intervals for the entire

length of the screw is not necessary, but it is advisable in order to

reduce the acumulation of errors by addition in determining the

progressive corrections; and the extra time consumed is a small

item. Again, it is hardly worth while to carry out measurements

(2) and (3) with everj^ turn. It will usually be found sufficient

to measure the first and the last turn of each five-turn interval.

Since adjacent turns are not hkely to differ much, this grouping

in pairs will check blunders.

After all the intervals have been measured, a length close to

the average for one turn of S is selected as a basis of comparison.

A multiple of ten divisions of A is convenient. By simply adding

the deviations of the measured five-turn intervals from five times

this basis, we compute the progressive corrections at the beginning

of each five turns, choosing the point of zero correction at the

middle of the screw. These corrections will be expressed in divi-

sions of A, and the same unit is retained in all stages of the compu-

tation until the end, when the correction curves are read off by a

scale which automatically translates into the numbers to be en-

tered in the final table.

We now plot a series of curves the abscissae of which are the

whole turns of S, that is, the comb readings of the micrometer to

which it belongs. The ordinates of the first curve (Co) are the

progressive corrections mentioned in the preceding paragraph;

those of the second (Cioo) are the lengths of the one-turn inter-

50 gray: micrometer microscopes

vals; those of the next five (opso, 20^40, 40P60, eoPso, soPioo) are the

lengths of the one-fifth turn intervals in proper order. The next

step is to adjust these curves so that they are mutually consistent,

that is to say, the progressive corrections found by adding five

consecutive ordinates of Cioo should agree with the corrections

represented by Co, and any ordinate of Cioo should equal the sum

of the corresponding ordinates of the curves 0P20, ....

soPioo- If the curves are plotted to a suitable scale the additions

are quickly made by marking off the distances on strips of paper.

These adjusted curves afford a fairly safe means of interpolation

to obtain the corrections for intervals not actually measured. The

curve plotted from the sums of the components of each interval

is likely to lie above or below that plotted directly from the entire

intervals. This divergence can 'proceed from progressive error

or gradual change of scale value in the screw of the auxiliary mi-

croscope, or from thermal expansion of S; but it is of no conse-

quence. The adjustment is first directed towards rendering the

two curves parallel, then any distance separating them is divided

among the curves representing the components of the interval by

merely shifting the base lines from which the deviations would be

measured.^

After the adjustments have been completed, the curves for the

one-fifth turn intervals are added graphically to form a new set

(C20, C40, Ceo, Cso) yielding the corrections at the beginning of each

fifth. If interpolation is necessary, it is readily accomplished

graphically with sufficient accuracy. The interpolating curve

for any selected turn will exhibit the corrections at every drum

reading within this turn. Five points besides the initial zero are

obtained from the correction curves just mentioned. If inter-

polating curves are plotted for several turns evenly distributed

along the course of the screw, sufficient data can be obtained for

plotting curves (Cio, C30, C50, C70, C90) to give the correction at

every tenth of a turn, or oftener, as functions of the comb readings.

5 Altho adjustments of this kind made by different computers would prob-

ably differ slightly, a least-square solution would be a sheer waste of effort, since the

differences in almost any case would affect the final corrections by considerably less

than the accidental error of a pointing in using the micrometer of which S forms

a part.

gray: micrometer microscopes 51

All that now remains is to determine the magnification and to

translate these curves into the figures that forms the final table.

It is, of course, desu'able that the numbers in the correction

table, and also the tabular differences, be small. Tabular dif-

ferences arising from periodic irregularities cannot be reduced

except by improving the screw. Progressive errors and deviations

from the nominal screw-value, however, even if small, lead to the

accumulation of large corrections when many turns must be used.

But if the magnification is adjustable, these corrections can often

be materially reduced. The first of the series of curves plotted,

namely, that representing the progressive errors, was based on

deviations of the measured lengths of individual turns from the

length represented by the basis selected for comparison. If a

known length, such as a standard millimeter, be measured with

the microscope to which the screw S belongs, and the readings cor-

rected by using the curves described above, the distance measured

that would correspond to the basis of comparison is likely to differ

somewhat from the distance to be represented by 100 divisions

(one turn) in the correction table. A little reflection will make

it apparent that corrections for this divergence can be added to the

progressi\'e corrections by the simple device of drawing a line at

the proper angle thru the point selected for zero correction. The

distance parallel to the axis of ordinates between this line and the

progressive curve (Co) measures the total correction for any comb

reading. It is, therefore, evident that these corrections can be

reduced to a minimum for any given part of the screw by adjust-

ing the magnification of the microscope so as to give this line the

most favorable slope. A moment's inspection of the progressive

curve will decide what this should be. After the magnification

has been adjusted with sufficient closeness, a standard length

interval should be carefully measured, and the correcting line

accurately located. Several measurements using different parts

of the screw will afford valuable checks on the accuracy of the

correction curves. Table 2 represents measurements of this kind.

We are now ready for the final step of reading off the corrections

from the curves and entering them in the table. A translating

scale is used which reads the pbts in terms of the unit chosen for

52

:^OSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL : SILVER VOLTAMETER

expressing the corrections in the table. A piece of co-ordinate

paper cut diagonally at the proper angle forms a convenient scale.

The corrections at the beginning of each turn are measured by the

distances between the curve of progressive corrections and the

inclined line correcting for magnification. The corrections at the

tenths of a turn are read from the corresponding curves, the base

line of each being shifted if necessary to correct for magnifica-

tion within a turn. (Progressive errors within a turn as well as

periodic errors were cared for in deriving the curves.) These

internal corrections must, of course, be added to the correction at

the beginning of the turn before entering in the table.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.— r/ie silver voltameter. Part IV. E.

B. Rosa, G. W. Vinal, and A. S. McDaniel. To appear in

full in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

In the three papers preceding this, the course of the work has

been traced from its beginning in 1908 until the International

Technical Committee met in Washington in April, 1910, to carry

out a joint investigation of the voltameter and to determine the

voltage of the Weston Normal Cell in terms of the international

ohm and the international ampere, the latter being derived from

the silver voltameter. The object of the present work is to make

a further comparison of the porous cup and Smith forms of volta-

meter, since these have been found the most reliable forms dur-

ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL! SILVER VOLTAMETER 53

ing the committee's work and to make such other experiments

as might afford data for the voltameter specifications, not yet

adopted.

The International Committee fixed the voltage of the cell to

five significant figures (1.0183 volts at 20°C.), but it is desirable

to reach an accuracy sufficient to justify recording six figures,

since the voltameter is a primary standard. Results are ex-

pressed as the voltage of the Weston Normal Cell at 20° computed

from the defined electro-chemical equivalent of silver, 1.11800

mg. per coulomb.

The procedure was according to the best methods learned from

previous work. In all cases the electrolyte was carefully tested

for its purity and the acidity determined. The voltameters

used were chiefly the porous pot and Smith's form, but on several

occasions we used the siphon form, the modified ring-shaped

siphon, and the Poggendorff form.

Since we had learned from previous work that the effect 'of acid

in pure electrolyte is to lower the deposit, we sought to find if

possible a quantitative relation between the amount of acid, ex-

pressed in equivalents of HNO3 per million, (X) and the decrease

in deposit, also expressed in parts per million, (F). As a result

of a large number of comparisons of neutral voltameters with

others made acid by varying amounts we have found the following

relation

Y = -4.5X + 0.02X2

which we think is justified by the figures given in the complete

paper.i

For acidities below 10 parts per million the square term is of

course unnecessary. The above equation was used in comput-

ing a correction to each deposit, but this correction was very small

in all cases for the results given below. The result of 156 deposits

in the porous cup form is:

1.01826- volts

The average deviation of a single observation from the mean is

1 Von Steinwehr's recently expressed opinion to the contrary (Instrumenten-

kunde, November 1913) was based on earlier work which was not so conclusive as

our recent work.

54 ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER

0.00003 0 and the computed probable error of a single observation

is 0.000025. The probable error of the mean result is O.OOOOO2.

The result of 55 deposits in the Smith form is:

1.018274 volts

The average deviation of a single observation from the mean is

0. 00004 0 and the computed probable error of a single observation

is 0.000084. The probable error of the mean result is O.OOOOOs*.

The mean of the porous pot form and the Smith form is there-

fore

1.01827 volts

which we give as the final result. The electrolyte was so pure

that no volume effect was observed in either form of voltameter.

With other forms of voltameter we have obtained the follow-

ing results: Siphon form (relative experiments, 5 observations)

1.01832; Modified siphon (7 observations) 1.01835: Poggendorff

form (9 observations) 1.01830. We thus have results with five

forms of voltameter all confirming the decision of the International

Committee, but the difficulties arising from the anode slime in the

last two make them more uncertain and difficult to use. The

siphon voltameter requires so much electrolyte that the presence

of the slightest trace of impurity increases the ''volume effect"

noted previously in several other forms.

We made a number of miscellaneous observations on the effect

of various impurities, but will mention here only the excessive

deposits obtained when considerable CO2 is present in the atmos-

phere above the voltameters. Two possible theories are given in

the complete paper to account for the slight difference occasion-

ally appearing in the deposit between the Smith form and the

porous pot form.

A further study of the effect of acid on solutions known to he

impure has shown the effect to be quite variable depending on the

nature of the impurity. This fact we believe accounts for much

of the conflicting opinion found in the literature on this subject.

We have endeavored to find just what the action of acid is by

which it reduces the deposit from pure electrolyte, but our results

are chiefly negative. It seemed possible that in the case of an

ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL! SILVER VOLTAMETER 55

electroh^te appreciabh' acid the decrease might be due to a de-

positing out of the hydrogen ions before the silver begins to de-

posit, since there is probably at the instant the current begins to

flow a greater difference of potential at the cathode than obtains

later, as the discontinuous character of the deposit indicates that

the potential difference must break thru a sort of surface film

and establish outlets for the current to the platinum cathode.

If this were possible, by making deposits of about 1 mg. each

from solutions containing acid and without acid, the difference

ought to be apparent. This we have done for varying lengths of

deposit, measuring the silver by titration with ammonium sul-

phocyanate. The results showed always an agreement of both

deposits between themselves and with the computed value for the

silver within the experimental error. But when we electrolj'zed

oxygen into the platinum cathode for four hours previous to

making a deposit a loss of about 0.2 mg. was observed, this was

not again found on subsequently using the bowl unless it had been

oxygenated as before.

We have made a careful study of the effect of various septa

other than filter paper on the voltameter. First raw silk was in-

vestigated. Extracting raw silk in neutral double distilled water

we find the extract to be distinctly basic toward both methyl

and iodeosine and the concentrated extracts will restore the

color to magenta solution previously decolorized by sulphurous

acid, thus indicating the presence of an aldehyde. The colloidal

character of the solutions was ascertained by the ultra-microscope.

After prolonged washing or use in the voltameter the so-called

''silk glue" which probably gives rise to the above effects is elimi-

nated and a hydrolytic process into amino acids appears causing

a reverse action in the voltameters. We have never claimed that

these two actions take place at the same time, as implied recently

by von Steinwehr. We think that silk like filter paper should be

excluded from use in the silver voltameter.

Our experimental evidence indicates that porous pots if prop-

erly prepared are without influence on silver nitrate. A new

pot or one that has been baked may contain free alkali which must

be washed out with nitric acid and water until perfectly neutral

56 ROSA, VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER

and then several portions of silver nitrate filtered thru the

pores until equilibrium between the pot and solution is obtained

since at the beginning the pot acts as a catalyzer, to reduce a very

small amount of solution. After being properly prepared there

is no evidence of stenolysis or other abnormality in the ordinary

use.

The question of the purity of the deposited silver is an impor-

tant one, but the conflicting evidence in the literature does not

enable one to decide even whether inclusions are present or not.

The uniformity of the results that we have obtained in three series

of experiments suggests that the inclusions must be very small

or surprisingly constant in amount. It seems to us that inclu-

sions if present would be between crystals rather than in a crystal

perfectly formed according to the cubic system and hence greater

inclusions are to be expected in deposits which are less crystaline

because of the action of colloids.

We have endeavored to detect the presence of AgNOs in the

deposits by amalgamating them with mercury then washing the

amalgam and testing for nitrates by phenol sulphonic acid. Our

blank experiments, adding AgNOs to the amalgam after precipi-

tating any mercury and silver salts present worked satisfactorily,

but we have been unable to detect any appreciable AgNOs in the

best deposits altho a trace was found in striated deposits.

If considerable filter paper was used some organic matter was

visible after amalgamating the deposit. We tried to determine

the water content of a striated deposit having an excess weight

over a normal deposit of 0.56 mg. by alloying the deposit to the

platinum crucible in which it was made over an alcohol blast, and

found a loss of 0.053 mg. which previous experiment showed was

not due to the change in the platinum crucible alone. We were

not able at this time to make further experiments and therefore

do not consider the result conclusive.

The reactions in the voltameter have not generally been con-

sidered as reversible, that is, an equivalence of the loss in weight at

the anode and gain at the cathode, but since our previous work has

shown that the supposed complex reactions at the anode do not

probably exist we examined the possibility of reversibility. For

an anode we used a hea\^^ deposit contained in a large platinum

ROSA. VINAL, AND McDANIEL: SILVER VOLTAMETER 57

bowl and connected the electrolyte in this thru a siphon to a

second bowl serving as cathode. First we measured the pro-

gressive change in acidity of the anode solution as electrolysis

took place and found that practically no change of acidity occurs

until the silver on the anode was reduced to about 0.5 gram after

which it rose very abruptly. Next we measured the potential

difference between the anode and an intermediate electrode and

found this also constant until about 2.5 gram of silver remained.

We then examined the question quantitatively as follows:

WEIGHT OP SILVER

ON ANODE BOWL

grams

8

DEPOSIT IN

CURRENT ' LOSS AT ANODE ! GAIN AT CATHODE ' STANDARD

I I VOLTAMETER

amp. mg. \ mg. mg.

0.500 2164.81 1 2164.78 I 2164.81

9 I 0.500 , 2092.12 2091.92 ^ 2091.83

* '

The results show a surprising agreement. These were made

using a pure crystalline deposit for the anode. With a striated

deposit made from a filter paper contaminated solution the result

was very different. The anode turned dark and had a very large

amount of slime all of which was collected and added to the bowl.

The results using a pure solution and this impure anode are as

follows :

Anode lost 2095 .43 mg.

Cathode gained 2092 .21 mg.

Standard voltameter 2091 .83 mg.

The conclusion leaves no room for doubt that the purity of the

anode is essential in such an experiment and this should be con-

sidered in voltameter work in general.

We have added to our complete paper a further discussion of

the volume effect (see Part III) in reply to von Steinwehr's criti-

cisms. (Zs. f. Instr., November, 1913) we have shown that this

phenomenon of excess deposit in large bowls over small bowls,

when impure electrolyte is used, is not confined to the porous cup

form as von Steinw^ehr asserts, but has been observed in the filter

form by Schuster and Crossley and in the siphon and Smith

forms by ourselves. We have overcome this troublesome volume

effect by purifying the electrolyte. We wish to lay great stress

on the purity of the electrolyte used in obtaining the results

58 CLARKE AND STEIGERI METALLIC ELEMENTS

recorded in this paper. This question of the purity of the elec-

trolyte has received less attention from previous observers than

it deserves. We have described our methods for purifying silver

nitrate in Part III of this series of papers.

GEOLOGY. — The relative abundance of several metallic elements.

F. W. Clarke and George Steiger,U.S. Geological Survey.

During the past twenty-five years, several estimates of the

relative abundance of the commoner chemical elements have been

published from the laboratory of the United States Geological

Survey. 1 These estimates, however, covered only such consti-

tuents of the earth's crust as are usually determined in the course

of fairly complete analyses; including, in many cases, the less im-

portant elements barium, strontium, nickel, chromium, vanadium

and zirconium. For the more familiar metals, copper, lead, zinc

and arsenic, no really adequate data were available ; and no attempt

was made to compute either their abundance or their frequency.

Such attempts have been made by others, however, but not alto-

gether conclusively. -

In order to gain a definite idea as to the relative abundance of

the elements in question, a number of composite analyses were

made. That is, in each group of substances investigated, many

samples were blended into one uniform sample, and that was then

analyzed. The average content of each metal was determined

in that way with as close an approximation to accuracy as could

have been attained by many individual analyses. Four such

composites have been studied thus far; namely, two of oceanic

clays, contributed by Sir John Murray;^ one of silt or mud from

the delta of the Mississippi; and one of igneous rocks which had

previously been analyzed in the laboratory of the Survey. For the

the Mississippi silt the general analysis, not heretofore published,

is as follows:"* The composite was made up of 235 separate sam-

^ For the latest of these estimates see Survey Bulletins 419 and 491. Also a

paper in Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 51, 214.

2 See for example Vogt, Zeitsch. prakt. Geol., 1S9S, pp. 225, 314, 377, 413, and

1899, pp. 10, 274; and Kemp, Econ. Geol., 1, 207.

' For the complete analyses of these clays see Journ. Geol., 15, 783.

* Except when otherwise stated the analyses given here were made by Mr.

Steiger.

CLARKE AND STEIGERI META.LLIC ELEMENTS 59

pies, collected by E. W. Shaw. For the determination of NiO,

CiiO, PbO, ZnO and AS2O5, 200 grams of the silt were taken. The

presence of organic matter prevented the separate, determina-

tion of ferrous iron. The chlorine in this analysis is doubtless

due to salt from the Gulf of Mexico.

TABLE 1

Composite Analysis of 235 Samples of Mississippi Silt

SiO, 69.96 CI 0.50

AI263 10.52 F 0.07

FeoOs 3.47 CroOs 0.01

MgO 1.41 V2O3 0.02

CaO 2.17 NiO 0.017

NasO 1.51 MnO 0.06

KoO 2.30 BaO 0.08

H2O- 3.78 SrO trace

H2O+ 1.96 CuO 0.0043

TiOo 0.54 ZnO 0.0010

ZrO, 0.05 AsiOs 0.0004

CO2 1.40 PbO 0.0002

P2O5 0.18 Organic 0.66

SO, 0.03 100.6229

S 0.07 Less 0 0.13

100.4929

For the four composite analyses aboye mentioned the data

under immediate consideration are as follows :

A. The ''red clay" of the oceanic depths. Composite of 51 sam-

ples, dredged from the sea bottom and representatiye of all the

great oceans. The larger part of this material was collected by

the Challenger Expedition. Determinations (by E. C. Sulliyan)

of CuO, ZnO, PbO and AsoOs made on 150 gram portions.

B. "Terrigenous clays," from oceanic depths of 140 to 2120

fathoms. Composite of 52 samples, namely 4 ''green muds,"

and 48 "blue muds," also mainly from the Challenger Expedition.

Determinations made on 300 gram portions.

C. Composite of 235 samples of Mississippi silt, as in the fore-

going analysis. For the heax-y metals 200 gram portions were

taken.

60

CLARKE AND STEIGER : METALLIC ELEMENTS

D. Composite of 329 igneous rocks, all American. Determi-

nations on 90 gram portions.

In the red' clay a trace of molybdenum was also detected by Dr.

Hillebrand.

TABLE 2

Summary op Data from Composite Analyses

These figures give quite clearly the order of magnitude of the

several percentages, and they are corroborated by the work of

other investigators. In a series of 36 igneous and metamorphic

rocks of British Guiana, Harrison found ^ mean percentage of

0.025 copper. In 23 of his samples lead was also sought for, and

detected in 5 of them, the maximum amount being 0.02 per cent.

In a typical specimen of the Columbia River basalt Wells found

0.034 of copper, and the same quantity was determined by Jensen

in an andesite from Fiji. In the porphyries of Leadville, Colorado,

Hillebrand was able to determine lead. Out of 18 samples, taken

at points remote from ore bodies, the average amount found was

0.002 per cent of PbO. One porphyry also yielded 0.008 per

cent of zinc oxide, and a rhyolite contained 0.0043 per cent.

In four rocks granite, porphyry and diabase from the Archean

of Missouri, Robertson determined the following percentages of

lead, zinc, and copper:

Pb 0.00197 to 0.0068; average, 0.004

Zn 0 .00139 to 0 .0176; average, 0 .009

Cu 0.00240 to 0,0104; average, 0.006

The adjacent limestones also carried these metals, but in slightly

smaller proportions. Similar results were obtained by Finlayson

from igneous rocks adjacent to lead mines in Great Britain. His

averages are Pb, 0.0032 per cent, and Zn, 0.028. In the lime-

stones and dolomites of the Dubuque region, Iowa, Weems de-

termined lead and zinc. The average of nine samples gave

CLARKE AND STEIGER: METALLfC ELEMENTS 61

0.00326 per cent of Pb, and 0.00029 of Zn. Many other deter-

minations of the hea\'y metals in rocks are scattered through

the literature of geology but these examples are sufficient to illus-

trate what has long been known. The researches of Forchham-

mer, of Sandberger, and of Dieulafait are familiar to geologists,

but they lack the quantitative basis which is supplied by the com-

posite analyses given here.^ The heavy metals are widely dif-

fused throughout the crust of the earth, and generally in determi-

nable proportions. The order of abundance, as now ascertained,

appears to be Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, As, with, of course, local variations.

With the aid of the estimate here given for zinc, which is near

0.005 per cent of ZnO or 0.004 Zn, it becomes possible to gain some

notion as to the relative abundance of cadmium; for the two metals

are commonly associated. In 10906 shipments of zinc ores from

Webb City and Joplin, Missouri, mostly in carload lots, Waring^

found an average percentage of 57.96 Zn and 0.358 Cd, The

ratio is 1 Cd to 162 Zn. From 42 analyses of sphalerite given

in Hintze's Handbuch der Mineralogie, the mean ratio is 1 to 163.

From 82 analyses of European zinc ores, cited by Jensch,^ the

ratio 1 to 277 appears. The mean of these three estimates is 1

to 201 ; that is, in round numbers, zinc seems to be about 200

times as abundant as cadmium. A more precise estimate can

hardly be made at present; but the figure is better than no esti-

mate at all. It has a quantitative basis, and is therefore some-

thing more than a mere guess. If the percentage of zinc in the

earth's cinist is 0.004, then that of cadmium is of the order of

0.00002.

In the course of the regular rock analyses made in the laboratory

of the Geological Survey, many determinations have been made of

elements of minor quantitative importance. These determi-

nations are numerous enough to fix their numerical significance

between maximum and minimum limits as follows :

* For literature references see Survey Bulletin 491, The Data of Geochemistry,

pp. 600-602, 643. *

* Cited by Siebenthal in U. S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources, 1908,

1, 796. See also, for other data, Waring's paper in Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, 26,

16.

^ Ahren's Sammlung chem. techn. Vortriige, 3, 201.

62

CLARKE AND STEIGERI METALLIC ELEMENTS

In round numbers, abolit 1200 such analyses, nominally com-

plete, have been made and in 793 of them barium oxide was

determined or proved to be absent. The mean of these determi-

nations, counting absences as zero, is 0.0104 per cent, which is

probably a maximum. If the remaining 407 rocks were all free

from barium, and so regarded, the average percentage of BaO

would be 0.069, a minimum; and between the two figures the most

probable value would lie, their mean being 0.086. Upon this

basis of computation the following table of percentages has been

constructed.

TABLE 3

Summary of Data from Rock Analyses

In three of the composite analyses already cited, similar deter-

minations were made, and the results obtained fit in fairly well

with the figures of this table.

The percentages found are shown in the following table :

The data so far obtained may not be final; but they clearly

indicate the several orders of magnitude which it was sought to

determine.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BOTANY. — Annona sericea and its allies. William E. Safford.

Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 16,

Part 10. pp. 263-275. December 13, 1913.

In continuance of his studies in the Annonaceae, the writer finds that

the silky annona of French Guiana (Annona sericea Dunal) is the type

of a natural subgroup of the genus Annona, that should be segregated as

a section, for which he proposes the name Pilannona to give it co-ordinate

rank with Euannona, Atta, llama, Annonella, and Chelinocarpus. As

in other natural plant groups there are certain species which appear to

form connections with allied groups, so in the section Pilannona the type

species, Anno7ia sericea Dunal, which has normally 3 petals, appears to

be allied to the 6-petaled A. paludosa Aubl., while at the opposite end of

the series Annona jamaicensis Sprague approaches A. cherimola, belong-

ing to type section Atta. In addition to descriptions of the principal

species included in this section photographs of a number of original type

specimens are presented, including that of Annona echinata Dunal in the

De Candolle Herbarium at Geneva, and the flower of A . sericea described

and figured by Dunal in his classical monograph of the Annonaceae.

Among the new species described and figured are Annona jenmanni,

from British Guiana; A. trinitensis, from the island of Trinidad; A.

longipes from southern Veracruz, Mexico; A. holosericea, from the

Pacific coast of Costa Rica; spraguei, from Panama; Annona cercocarpa,

from Colombia and acumhiata, collected on the Isthmus of Panama in

1861 by Dr. Sutton Hayes. In addition to the above Annona jamaicen-

sis Sprague is redescribed and illustrated with two photographs.

This paper deals with the taxonomy of the species described. It will

be followed shortly by a more comprehensive one on the '' Classification

63

64 abstracts: botany

of the genus Annona with descriptions of new and imperfectly known

species/' which will form part 1 of the Contributions from the United

States National Herbarium volume 18. Both papers are preliminary to

an account of the economic custard-apples and their allies, to be pub-

lished by the United States Department of Agriculture.

W. E. S.

BOTANY. — Descriptions of new plants, preliminary to a report upon the

flora of New Mexico. E. O, Wooton and Paul C. Standley,

Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16, 109-196.

pi. 48-50. 1913.

For some time the authors of this paper have been engaged in the prep-

aration of a Flora of New Mexico. This work, which has now been com-

pleted, will, it is expected, be published in the near future. The only

general descriptive manual covering any portion of the arid south-

western United States heretofore available has been Coulter's Botany of

Western Texas (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., vol. 2), a work which unfortu-

nately is now out of print.

Little attention having been given by taxonomists to the flora of

New Mexcio in recent years, it was to be expected that many unde-

scribed species would be discovered during the progress of the investi-

gation just mentioned. These are described in the present paper, partly

to reduce the bulk of the complete Flora and partly to prevent confu-

sion on the part of those who wish to use it. Altogether 198 species are

described as new. The largest number in a single family (50) is found in

the Carduaceae, the group which has the largest number of representa-

tives in the state. In this family a new genus, Herrickia, is named,

based upon a plant of northern New Mexico, related to Aster and

Xylorrhiza. Among the other plants described may be mentioned two

new Yuccas, an Agave from the Organ Mountains, two oaks, six species

of Padus, a Robinia (the second species of this genus kno\\ai from the

western United States), eight species of Gaura, five of Penstemon, eight

of Erigeron, and four thistles. In addition to the new species described,

65 new names or new "combinations" are published.

P. C. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 16th annual meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was

held at the Cosmos Club, January 15, 1914, with President Tittmann

in the chair. The following were elected officers for the ensuing

year: President, David White; Corresponding Secretary, George K.

Burgess; Recording Secretary, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, E. W. Vab,-

KER[ y ice-Presidents, Representing the Anthropological Society: F. W.

Hodge; Botanical Society: F. L. Lewton; Entomological Society: A.

L. Quaintance; Electrical Engineers Society: E. B. Rosa; Foresters

Society: W. B. Greeley; Historical Society: J. D. Morgan; Biolog-

ical Society: PaulBartsch; Chemical Society: M. X. Sullivan; Engi-

neers Society: G. W. Littlehales; Philadelphia Society: L. A. Fisch-

er; Geological Society: F. L. Ransome; Archaeological Society:

Mitchell Carroll; N on-Resident Vice-Presidents, Ira Remsen and J.

M. Coulter; Managers, Class of 1917, A. H. Brooks and L. 0.

Howard.

The report of the Corresponding Secretarj^ showed the total member-

ship as 369, an increase of 14 during the past year, and that the Academy

has lost by death the following: Dr. J. R. Eastman, the first President of

the Academy; Prof. Alexander Macfarlane; Dr. Robert Fletcher; Gen.

C. W. Raymond.

The Treasurer's report showed the total receipts $4805.69, disburse-

ments $3657.82, cash on hand $1147.87, investments $12,090.

The report of the Auditing Committee was also received.

The following were elected to resident membership: Erwin F. Smith,

L. H. Dewev, W. W. Stockberger, Haven Metcalf, Bert S. Butler, Monroe

Hopkins, W. R. Blair, C. W. Burrows, W. Blum, J. T. Kellev, Jr., Paul

JyFox, Dr. W. W. Randall, J. F. Mitchell, W. Salant, A. Seidell, C. S.

Hudson, W. N. Berg, G. E. Patrick, R. O. E. Davis, Percy H. Walker,

W. W. Skinner, W. H. Waggaman, H. C. Gore, Rene de M. Taveau.

President-elect White then took the chair and President Tittmann

delivered an address on ''Our Northern Boundaries" (this Journal 4,

37, 1914).

George K. Burgess, Corresponding Secretary.

65

66 PEOCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 516th meeting was held November 15, 1913. Vice-President

Paul Bartsch in the chair and thirty-five persons present.

F. V. CoviLLE presented a commmiication on The physiology of the

blueberry. His remarks were based on wide experience in green house

and outdoor culture of this plant. Three conditions are essential to its

successful propagation: (1) an acid soil; (2) the presence of the micor-

rhizal fungus to enable the plant to obtain nitrogen; and (3) the stimu-

lating effect of cold on the twigs while they are dormant. The last is a

condition of vital importance, associated as it is with the transformation

of starch into sugar. As a result of this series of experiments, the com-

mercial propagation of the blueberry is now possible. Very large berries

have been developed, some of them from | inch to | inch in diameter.

The various means of cultivation were explained and illustrated by

means of numerous lantern slides.

W. C. Kendall, the second speaker announced on the program,

was absent, and the chairman asked Dr. Leon J. Cole of the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin to address the Society. He responded by giving

an account of his experiments in breeding pigeons for the study of color

inheritance.

Owing to the lateness of the hour, the communication by Barton

W. EvERMANN was postpoucd.

The 517th meeting was held November 29, 1913. President E. W.

Nelson in the chair and sixty-three persons present.

The meeting was devoted to a discussion of Parallel Development.

A. D. Hopkins read a paper on Parallelism in mor-phological characters

and physiological characteristics in Scolytoid Beetles. He had made a

special study of these beetles and his ideas of parallelism in nature were

largely founded on evidence they have furnished. He defined the subject

as follows :

"Parallelism in morphological characters and physiological charac-

teristics in Scolytoid beetles relates to the occurrence of the same or

similar elements of structure or the same kind of activity in two or

more species, genera, subfamilies, or families. Parallel species, genera,

and larger groups are those in which structure or habit is in many

respects alike. Such species or groups may be closely allied or more or

less widely separated. Universal parallelism relates to repeated or

multiple origin, development, and evolution of the same or similar

inorganic or organic forms or activity.

"This tendency towards parallel development appears to be in ac-

cordance with a fundamental principal or law of parallelism in evolution,

under which the origin and evolution of the same form or activity,

under the same or similar physical influences, has been repeated many

times; or, in other words, that under similar environments, needs, and

requirements in nature, independent development and evolution from

proceedings: biological society 67

a common base may produce repeatedly the same or similar morpho-

logical and physiological results."

Nmnerous examples were given and illustrated on the board, of

characters of structures and characteristics of habit which were paralleled

over and over again in connected and disconnected genera, subfamilies,

and families. He also illustrated characters and characteristics which

were paralleled in all of the species of a single genus and in connected

genera, groups, subfamilies, and famiUes, and said further:

"Thus we see that parallel modification in morphological and physio-

logical elements is an important factor to be considered in taxonomy.

It is evident from a comparative study of the various systems of classi-

fication that the failure of taxonomists to fully realize its importance

has led to many erroneous conclusions and much confusion.

"In conclusion, it seems to me that we have two fundamental ques-

tions to be answered in regard to the origin, evolution, and classification

of organisms.

"1. Are the taxonomic characters and characteristics of the species,

genus, family, order, class, and kingdom the result of phylogenetic descent

from a single ancestral nucleus, thru natural selection and the inheritance

of selected characters f or

"2. Are they the result of phylogenetic descent from many nuclei

thru natural selection and natural parallelism?

"I am inclined to the belief that an affirmative answer to the second

question would be more nearly in accord with natural law."

President Nelson exhibited a series of mammal skins in pairs

similar in outward appearance but widely different in structure and

classification, showing the parallelism of shape and color.

0. C. Oberholser discussed parallel development as illustrated

in birds. He showed a large series of specimens in which resemblances

in form and color were very striking.

J. W. GiDLEY pointed out the difference between parallel and con-

vergent development.

Messrs. Lyon, Hay, Baker, Bartsch and Gill took further part in

the discussion.

Dr. Hopkins closed the discussion by stating that the illustrative

material presented by Messrs. Nelson and Oberholser had sho^vn

only one phase of the principle — homomorphic parallelism, which is not

correlated with evidences of natural affinity, but is repeated in more

or less widely separated groups and species, while the other — homol-

ogous parallelism — is parallelism of structure, color, habit, etc., which

is correlated wdth evidence of natural affinity and is repeated in the

same species or in connected genera or larger groups.

The 34th annual meeting and 5 18th regular meeting was held De-

cember 13, 1913, President E. W. Nelson in the chair and twenty-eight

persons present.

The annual reports of officers were received. The election of officers

68 proceedings: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

for 1914 took place and resulted as follows: President, Paul Bartsch;

Y ice-Presidents, J. N. Rose, A. D. Hopkins, W. P. Hay, Mary J.

Rathbun; Recording secretary, D. E. Lantz; Corresponding secretary,

W. L. McAtee; Treasurer, Wells W. Cooke; Members of council,

William Palmer, Hugh M. Smith, Vernon Bailey, Marcus W.

Lyon, Jr., N. Hollister.

The president, Paul Bartsch was selected to represent the Society

as a vice-president of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

The president appointed as Committees on Publication the following :

N. Hollister, W. L. McAtee, Wells W. Cooke.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV FEBRUARY 19, 1914 No. 4

ELECTROCHEMISTRY. ~Compariso7i of the silver and iodine

voltameters and the determination of the value of the faraday.

G. W. ViNAL and S. J. Bates. To appear in full in the Bul-

letin of the Bureau of Standards and Journal of American

Chemical Society. Communicated by E. B. Rosa.

A form of iodine voltameter was devised by Washburn and Bates

and described by them in the J. Am. Chem. Soc. 34, 1341. This

instrument was found to be of about the same order of reproduci-

bility as the silver voltameter. Because of the reversibility of

the reactions taking place at the anode and the cathode and the

character of the deposit which precluded the possibihty of inclu-

sions of foreign material it seemed a desirable instrument to

use in the determination of the faraday, especially since the values

for this constant had heretofore been based on the silver measure-

ments alone.

Accordingly arrangements were made for a comparison of the

silver and iodine voltameters at the Bureau of Standards during

the summer of 1913. The operation of the iodine voltameters

was in general the same as previously described by Washburn and

Bates. The silver voltameters were of the porous cup and Smith

form following the usual procedure of the Bureau of Standards.

Since the same current passed through the silver and iodine

voltameters, the ratio of silver to iodine may be immediately

calculated. As a result of ten experiments in each of which

several voltameters of both types were employed we find the ratio

^^ = 0.85017

Iodine

69

70 hedgcock: injury by smelter smoke

which is slightly higher than the ratio (0.84998) of the present

atomic weights. All sources of error have been carefully examined

and are critically discussed in the full paper. None, however, are

believed to be sufficient to account for the difference between

this value and the ratio of the present international atomic weights.

Using the results of the silver voltameter to measure the

coulombs passing through the circuit according to the decision

of the London Electrical Conference (1.11800 mg. of silver = 1

coulomb) the electrochemical equivalent of iodine is:

1.31502 mg. per coulomb.

The value of the faraday on the basis of the present internation-

al atomic weight of iodine (126.92) and the foregoing value of the

electrochemical equivalent of iodine is:

'- = 96,515 coulombs.

0.00131502

The value of the faraday derived from the atomic weight of

silver and the defined electrochemical equivalent of silver is:

107.88

0.00111800

= 96,494.

The mean value of the two is 96,504, but we recommend for

general use the round number 96,500.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — Injury by smelter smoke in southeastern

Tennessee. George Grant Hedgcock, Bureau of Plant

Industry. Communicated by Karl F. Kellerman.

Observations were made on the condition of the vegetation in

the region surrounding Ducktown and Copper Hill, Tennessee,

in the neighborhood of the copper smelters during the month of

September, 1913, before any frost injury had taken place. The

area affected by the acute form of injury is probably larger than

it was during 1905 and 1906 when J. K. Haywood^ of the Bureau

of Chemistry made studies of the effects of the smoke in this

region. The actual damage by acute injury at present is possibly

slightly less, owing to a greater area of smoke diffusion, but is

1 U. S. D. A. Bur. CJaem. Bui. 113, pp. 13, 1908.

hedgcock: injury by smelter smoke 71

still continuing in the same general directions as reported by Hay-

wood, extending farthest to the north, 12 to 15 miles, and to the

west 8 to 10 miles or even more. The acute injury to the south

and east does not extend more than half the latter distance. No

accurate estimate can be made of chronic injury which apparently

extends much farther in all directions. Prevailing winds are the

deciding factors as to the directions in which acute injury extends

the farthest, and owing to the contour of the country all localities

in any direction are not equally affected. In the worst affected

area little herbage is found, and the hills look like a desert with a

greatly eroded appearance. Beyond this area grasses have been

able to maintain themselves owing to the greater dilution of the

fumes. Various flowering plants, such as asters, goldenrods,

and legumes begin to appear at a still greater distance than grasses,

and along with them certain species of trees. Garden beans

(Phaseolus vulgaris) are especially susceptible to the fumes, and

are a good index of the SO2 injury.

Deciduous trees appear to be more resistant to smoke than

conifers in this region. The deciduous trees along the Ocoee

River to the westward appear to be resistant in the following order,

the most highly resistant being named first: Quercus alba, Acer

rubrum, Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, Populus deltoides, Oxy-

dendrum arboreum, Liriodendron tulipifera, Robinia pseudacacia,

Platanus occidentalis, and Uhiius crassa. On the uplands the most

severe injury was found. It was most noticeable on slopes of

hills facing the smelters. Of the Oaks the following order of

resistance was noted: Quercus alba, Q. prinus, Q. coccinea, Q.

palustris, Q. digitata, Q. minor, Q. marylandica, Q. veluiina, and Q.

triloba.

The element of the smoke that is the chief cause of injury is

undoubtedly SO2. Haywood ascribes the inj ury to this gas. The

usual form of acute injury to deciduous trees consists of irregular,

reddened areas of dead leaf tissue between the veins. The region

in the immediate vicinity of the midrib and principal veins of the

leaves is last to be affected. Repeated acute injury of this sort

kills the twigs of the trees, and finally brings about the death of

whole trees. Few conifers are found in the region of acute injury,

and no observation of these was made.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS.— TAe histonj of Ohm's law. J. C Shedd and M. D. Heesey.

. Pop. Sci. Mo., 83, 599-614, December, 1913.

The earlier part of this paper gives an outline of the experimental de-

velopment of Ohm's law in the hands of Cavendish and others using the

static discharge; of Barlow, who, using the steady current from a voltaic

pile, concluded that the resistance of a conductor varies with the square

root of its length; of Cumming, who was led to this same conclusion; of

Davy, who discovered that wires having the same ratio of length to cross-

section offered the same resistance; of Becquerel, who was the first to

show that the resistance of a wire varies directly as the length and in-

versely as the cross-section; and finally in the hands of Ohm himself,

who, publishing first a radically incorrect relation, gradually arrived at

the present complete form of the law which bears his name.

The latter part of the paper endeavors to trace the sequence of ideas

in Ohm's mind, and also to explain the origin of the misconceptions re-

garding his work which prevailed for so many years among scientific

men. M. D. H.

'PHYSlC^.—ThePentajie Lamp as a working standard. E. C. Critten-

den and A. H. Taylor. To be published in the Bulletin of the

Bureau of Standards and in the Transactions of the Illuminating

Engineering Society.

The best standards of candlepower are electric incandescent lamps,

but it is not always practicable to use them. Of the various flame

standards the Harcourt 10-candle pentane lamp appears to be the best

for general use. This lamp has the disadvantages of being large and not

easily portable, of using fuel which is expensive and somewhat dangerous,

and of requiring more air than ordinary ventilation will supply, but in

spite of these faults its use is increasing rather rapidly.

The candle power is not usually exactly ten, and the exact value

must be determined by a photometric test. The intensity is affected

abstracts: geodesy 73

by atmospheric conditions, but when the proper corrections are made

a given lamp will repeat its value very closely.

It is found that the pentane commercially obtainable increases in

density rather rapidly by the fractional distillation which occurs in the

lamp. The density (at 15°C.) should be between 0.6235 and 0.626, but

it usually reaches 0.635 when a little over half of the liquid has been

used. Beyond this point there is a marked increase in the intensity of

the flame. For an approximate correction, the variation may be as-

sumed to be linear and to be 1 per cent in candle power for each 0.01 in

the density of the liquid.

When the lamps are operated in a well ventilated room the most im-

portant cause of variation is the humidity. Water vapor in the air

lowers the intensity of the flame and variations due to that cause may

exceed 15 per cent. Previous work at the Bureau of Standards^ has

indicated that 1 per cent, of water vapor in the air causes a decrease of

5.67 per cent, in the candle power of the flame, whereas the correction

officially established in England is 6.6 per cent. The present paper

gives further data based on about 75,000 individual photometer settings

on 27 lamps, including all lamps tested in 1911 and 1912 whose tests

have extended over a range of 0.5 per cent or more of water vapor in

the air. The mean result is an exact check of the correction factor pre-

viously found at the Bureau.

To facilitate the reduction of observations to normal candle power a

■chart is given from which the departure of a lamp from normal value

can be read directty when the barometric pressure and the readings of

the wet and dry bulb thermometers of a ventilated hygrometer are

known. The chart is plotted for a pentane lamp, but it may be applied

to other flames without introducing serious errors. E. C. C.

GEODESY. — Triangulation on the coast of Texas, from Sabine Pass to

Corpus Christi Bay. Charles A, Mourhess. Special Publica-

tion No. 17, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1913.

This publication contains the results of the triangulation of the U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Engineer Corps, U. S. Army, along

a portion of the coast of Texas. The earliest observations involved in

this work were made in Galveston Ba}' in 1850, and the most recent work

was completed in 1912. The geographic positions of over 700 points,

all correlated to the same geodetic datum, are given, together with a

complete description of all permanently marked stations. A series of

1 Rosa and Crittenden, Transactions Illuminating Engineering Society, 5,

753, 1910.

74 abstracts: zoology

sketches and an index of stations make it possible to find readily the

data for any given locality. The triangulation is tertiary in character,

which makes it reasonably certain that the length of any line in the main

scheme is known with an accuracy as great as one part in ten thousand.

C. A. M.

BOTANY. — Plants of the Alpine Club expedition to the Mount Robson

Region. Paul C. Standley. The Canadian Alpine Journal, special

number, pp. 76-79, pi. 1-5. 1913.

The special number of the Canadian Alpine Journal, of which this

paper is a part, contains a report upon an expedition undertaken by the

Alpine Club of Canada in 1911 to explore Jasper Park, Yellowhead Pass,

and the Mount Robson region in British Columbia and Alberta. The

first three papers consist of a report upon the mammals, by Mr. N. Hol-

lister, one upon the reptiles and batrachians by Mr. Hollister, and one

upon the birds, by Mr. J. H. Riley.

The plants reported upon were collected by Mr. Hollister and Mr.

Riley while engaged primarily in collecting mammals and birds, no

attempt being made to secure a complete representation of the flora of

the region. One hundred and forty-seven species are listed, five of them

{Cryptogramma acrostichoides, Vagnera pumila, Ophrys convallarioides,

Orchis rotundifolia, Artemisia laevigata) being illustrated by photo-

graphs. Four new species were described from the collections previous

to the publication of the final report. Several of the species collected

in the Mount Robson region represent notable extensions of range.

P. C. S.

ZOOLOGY. — Two interesting mammals from the island of Tobago, West

Indies. Austin H. Clark. Annals and Magazine of Natural

History, (8), 13, no. 73, pp. 68-70, 1914.

In this paper are recorded specimens of Marmosa tobagi Thomas, and

of Dasypus novemcinctus hopUtes G. M. Allen from the island of Tobago.

The distribution of the species of the genera Marmosa and Dasypus

in the West Indies is given, and it is suggested that, while probably

endemic on Tobago, the mouse-opossum was possibly introduced into

Grenada and the Grenadines by man.

A sketch of the history of our knowledge of these interesting forms is

given, and it is pointed out that, while armadillos were reported from

Tobago so long ago as 1658, and from Grenada in 1667, the animal occur-

ring on'CJrenada was not specificall.y determined until 1911, while that

on Tobago has up to the present time remained quite unnoticed by

mammalogists. A. H. C.

abstracts: technology 75

ZOOLOGY. — Sopra una piccola CoUezione di Onychophora da Australia.

Austin H. Clark. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 43, no. 7, pp. 316-319.

January 7, 1914.

This paper is based upon a small collection of onychophores sent to

the author by Prof. R. Hamlj-n Harris, the Director of the Queensland

Museum, at Brisbane, Queensland.

The species represented in the collection are Peripatoides gilesii Spen-

cer, P. orientalis (Fletcher) and P. oviparus (Dendy).

In an appendix is given a complete list of all the species of onycho-

phores known from the Australian region (including New Britain, New

Guinea and the Moluccas), with the habitat of each in detail. A. H. C.

TECHNOLOGY — Surface insulation of pipes as a means of preventing

damage hy electrolysis. Burton McCollum and O. S. Peters,

Bureau of Standards. Technologic Paper No. 15. (In press.)

An investigation of the subject of surface insulation of pipes as a

means of preventing damage to underground metallic structures by stray

currents from electric railways has recently been completed at the Bureau

of Standards. Tests were made of the various substances available for

the purpose of insulation of underground structures, including paints,

pitch and asphalt dips, pitch and paper and asphalt and felt wrappings,

and so forth. Test specimens were made by Hning shallow sheet iron

cones with the material to be tested. Before being subjected to the final

test each cone was filled nearly full of ten per cent salt (NaCl) solution

and an alternating difference of potential of 80 volts (effective) applied

across the coating for thirty seconds in order to be sure that it was con-

tinuous and without flaws. A milli-ammeter in series with the specimen

indicated a defective coating by a kick of the needle. The electrical

resistances of the perfect specimens were then approx'mately determined

with a Wheatstone bridge. In the case of the paints these resistances

were found to be of the orders of from 10^ to 10" ohms per square centi-

meter while for the wrappings they were much higher.

The final test of the specimens which survived the preliminary test

consisted in allowing water and air alternately to come in contact with

the coating while a direct potential difference of either 4 or 15 volts was

applied across the coating. The value of the voltage applied depended

on the thickness and other characteristics of the coating. In some of

the specimens made up from each material the iron of the cone was made

negative and in others positive, while in the case of the paints some of

the specimens were subjected to the alternate action of air and water

76 abstracts: technology

with no potential difference applied in order to check up the effect of

the electric stress.

The alternating contact with the coating of air and water was obtained

by filling the cone and allowing the water to evaporate which took about

a week. Readings of the current flow were made at suitable intervals.

The first appearance of current flow was taken as indicating the end of

the useful life of the specimen as an insulating coating.

The average life of the paints was about one hundred and sixteen days,

the maximum life obtained from any specimen being but little more than

a year. No conclusive evidence was obtained that the low potential

differences applied had any effect in hastening the initial failure of the

coatings. The wrappings lasted longer than the paints and dips but

none of them much more than four hundred days. It seems from the

results that the failure of the coatings must be caused by absorption by

them of water which in time penetrates to the iron, allowing current to

flow and destroy the coating by electrolysis. After the first appearance

of current flow the destruction of the coating was observed to proceed

very rapidly.

The conclusion drawn from the results of the laboratory tests, i.e.,

that the protection against electrolysis which is obtained by wrappmg

or painting pipes or other metallic bodies for use underground is only

temporary, is borne out by tests on insulated pipes buried in the ground

under practical conditions, and also by correspondence with gas and

water companies whose experiences lead to the same conclusion.

B. McC.

TECHNOLOGY — Industrial gas calorimetry. C. W. Waidner and E.

F. Mueller. To appear as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau of

Standards.

After reference to the more important types of calorimeters that have

been applied to the measurement of the heating values of gases, the

principle of the flow calorimeter is set forth, and an example is given

showing the reductions of, and corrections to the observed data that are

required in order to find the total and net heating values.

The results of an experimental investigation of laboratory gas meters,

showing the errors to which such meters are liable, the precautions to be

observed and the accuracy attainable in their use, are given at length. It

is shown that an accuracy of about 0.2 per cent may be attained if the

meter is calibrated in situ at the time of use, and that the calibration

may be reproduced from time to time by making suitable adjustments,

to an accuracy of about 0.5 per cent.

abstracts: technology 77

The results are given of an extended series of investigations of the

various factors that may affect the accuracy of heating value determina-

tions with flow calorimeters, such as: Completeness of combustion;

accuracy of the temperature measurements; the magnitudes of the vari-

ous heat losses from the calorimeter, particularly as affected by the vol-

ume of the entering air and of the products of combustion and by the

atmospheric humidity; and the accuracy of measurements of the quanti-

ties of water and of gas. The effects of certain other factors, which

depend on the nature of the gas tested and are particularly noticeable

in the testing of illuminating gas, are briefly considered.

The results are given of an extended series of experiments with natural

gas and with nearly pure hydrogen which show that, when the necessary

corrections for losses of heat from the surface, for the effect of atmos-

pheric humidity, etc., were applied to the observed heating values

obtained with flow calorimeters of suitable design and construction, the

total heating values thus found were in agreement to about 0.3 per cent

with the total heating values obtained with calorimeters of theBerthelot

bomb type, provided due allowance was made for the difference between

the heat of combustion at constant pressure and the heat of combustion

at constant volume. The results obtained with illuminating gas indi-

cated that the heating values obtained with the Berthelot bomb type of

calorimeter were probably in error, being too low (about 1 per cent),

but further investigation will be required to determine the cause of the

discrepancy found.

The summarized results are given of a critical investigation of eight

flow calorimeters, representing types widely used in this country or

abroad, and of one calorimeter of the comparison type.

The investigation has shown that several of the calorimeters that were

investigated could be used, when proper precautions were observed and

suitable corrections were applied to the observed heating values obtained

with them, to determine the total heating values of most kinds of gases

to an accuracy of about 0.3 per cent. Some of the calorimeters are,

however, subject to constant errors that cannot be eliminated or be read-

ily determined except by comparison with a standard instrument, such

errors for one calorimeter amounting to nearly 2 per cent.

Examination of a very large amount of data obtained during the in-

vestigation indicates that with those calorimeters free from significant

constant errors, total heating values should be determinable, under

conditions obtaining in the practical testing of gas, to an accuracy of*

the order of 1 per cent. C. W. W. and E, F. M.

78 abstracts: technology

TECHNOLOGY— .So/»e kadless fritted glazes. E. T. Montgomery.

Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper. (In press.)

In the manufacture of American whiteware, china and porcelain and

of English bone-china, a glaze composed of borosilicates of the alkalies,

lime, lead and alumina maturing at a relatively low temperature (about

cone 3, approximately 1100°C) is applied to a body previously fired to

the desired maturing point fof the given body, approaching vitrification

more or less closely. It is essential in this process that the maturing point

of the glaze be considerably below that of the vitrification temperature

of the body in order to avoid, in the glost fire, undue softening of the

body and consequent deformation and loss. To accomplish this purpose

and at the same time to secure their inherent qualities of long tempera-

ture range, brilliancy and low viscosity, such low fusing glasses as boro-

silicates containing lead oxide are employed.

Chiefly on account of the poisonous nature of the lead compounds

used in making these glazes, the subject of leadless glazes has aroused

the interest and has received the serious attention of both technical

ceramists and of manufacturers for many years. The present work was

undertaken for the purpose of investigating the merits of the various

types of leadless glazes thus far reported, of studying their properties

and possibilities, of improving them if possible; and of making a general

comparison from a technical standpoint, between lead and leadless-

glazes for whiteware and china at a glost heat of Segar cone No. 3 (ap-

proximately 1100°C).

To this end numerous series of glazes were made up, being so planned

as to include a number of previously reported leadless glazes of merit,

and all methodically arranged in such a way as to fully cover the range

of composition which it was believed desirable to study. All of the glazes

were tested over six standard underglaze colors of known composition

and all of their properties were studied in direct comparison with a stand-

ard whiteware or china glaze made with lead, half of each trial being

dipped in this standard lead glaze and half in the leadless test glaze.

The results of this investigation developed many interesting technical

points both in regard to leadless glazes in themselves and in comparison

with lead glazes. In general, we may say that while lacking some of the

valuable characteristics and qualities of lead glazes, leadless glazes have

a few distinct advantages of their own. On the other hand, it is the

writer's opinion that it would be premature at the present time to say

that we can make a leadless glaze for whiteware, china or porcelain

which could be substituted for the present lead glaze. E. T. M.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington was

held at 4.30 p.m. December 9, 1913, in the National Museum, the presi-

dent, Mr. Stetson, in the chair. About fifty persons were present.

Dr. Charles B. Davenport of the Carnegie Institution, director of

the laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, addressed the So-

ciety on Man from the standpoint of modern genetics. He said that the

problem of the origin of species has now become largely reduced to

the problem of the origin and survival of the characters of the species.

Since groups differentiated by a single character are called biotypes, the

question of the origin of species is now that of the origin of biotypes.

Man is a congeries of biotypes. If these do not exist as distinct ele-

mentary species it is because of the tremendous hybridization that is

taking place between biotypes. These biotypes are most nearly real-

ized in islands, peninsulas, and out-of-the-way places. The most dis-

tinct of the human races exist today in such places as Australia and Cey-

lon, the Japan Islands (Ainos), Cape Horn, and inside of the Arctic

circle within the old and new world. But in small islands off the coast,

where people have been long settled and little disturbed, they tend to

approach a pure race or biotype.

Under the shelter of this isolation, incidentally, opportunity has been

afforded for an adjusted race to spring up; but there is danger of deterio-

ration thru too close inter-breeding. Hybridization, as stated, is con-

stantly preventing the complete development of these biotypes. This

hybridization has gone on with man since early times so that few bio-

types are now actuality realized. It is now going on faster than ever

and even the rare fairly pure biotypes are fast disappearing from the

globe. The work of the anthropologist of the future must be largely

with these hybridized biotypes; his principal study will be the inherit-

ance of the various differential traits.

The method of inheritance of some of these traits has already been

studied. Thus we know that the brown iris is dominant over its ab-

sence, as seen in blue eyes. The skin color of the negro is complex,

being due to two double (or four) factors; and these may work inde-

pendently of one another, so that we have over two, three, or four pig-

ment factors in the skin, producing the typical quadroon, mulatto,

Sambo, and full negro skin coloration. Dark brown hair is dominant

over blond hair; so that when both parents have only blond hair the

79

80 proceedings: anthropological society

children are all blonds. Two red-haired parents have only red-haired

offspring. But two glossy black-haired parents may carry red hidden

and so have red-haired children, as we so often see among the Irish.

Kinky or curly hair is dominant over straight. Two straight-haired

parents have, typically, only straight-haired children.

Many "hereditary diseases" depend on a "diathesis," a non-resist-

ance that is clearly inherited, and if matings of like or of relations occur

extensively we have the elements necessary for the production of a

biotjT^e. Among such diseases are Huntington's chorea, presenile cat-

aract, and night blindness. Other diseases are inherited as sex-linked

characters — such are color blindness and the "bleeding tendency."

Very striking is the tendency to produce a real biot3^e of the imbecile

class, because imbeciles tend to segregrate themselves and to inter-marry.

This is the reason why we get such histories as the Nams of New York,

the Hill Folk of Massachusetts, the Pineys of New Jersey, and the

Jukes of New York. Any condition that favors consanguineous mat-

ings, or matings of likes, favors the formation of a variety of the human

race, as Dr. Alexander Graham Bell (the Francis Galton of America)

long ago pointed out. Thus most institutions which do not provide

permanent custodial care tend to promote such marriages; for example,

among the deafmutes, tubercular, nervous paupers, and even alcohol-

ics and users of narcotics. On the other hand, in consequence of social

stratification, fine near-biotypes, like the Lowells of Boston, the Dwight

Woolseys of Connecticut, the Bayard-Jay-Livingston complex of New

York, and the first families of Virginia have arisen. Actors tend to

marry each other and so rapidly produce nearly pure strains of histrionic

talent. This nation owes more than it recognizes to its strains of in-

ventors, surgeons, commanders, statesmen, authors, artists, and finan-

ciers that have made her famous and given her the high standing she

has attained in the family of nations.

Thus biotypes in man prove to be real things and their study is quite

as much within the proper field of research of the anthropologist as are

the commonly recognized races of men.

The paper was discussed by Doctor Hrdlicka.

At the 470th regular meeting of the Society held December 16th,

1913, James Mooney, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, delivered

an address on TJie Gaelic factor in the world's population. The speaker

dealt chiefly with the Irish Gaels and drew a distinction between the

Irish of native Gaelic stock and the unassimilated alien element massed

in several of the northeastern countries as the result of the "Plantations"

under James I and Cromwell. This alien element was of English and

Lowland Scotch stock, with a slight Highland Gaelic infusion, Prot-

estant in religion and mostly Unionist in politics, while those of the

old native stock were as solidly Catholic and Nationalist. Speaking

broadly, in Ireland the Catholics represent the original Gaelic stock;

the Episcopalians, those of English stock; and the Presbyterians and

Methodists, those of Scotch origin, constituting respectively about 74,

proceedings: anthropological society 81

«

13, and 11 per cent of the total population. The present Gaelic race of

Ireland is a blend of the Gael proper, a Keltic people who arrived in the

country probably from northern Spain about 1000 B.C., and of all other

races who preceeded or followed them up to the end of the thirteenth

century, including the neolithic man, the unknown megalith builders,

the dark haired Firbolg, the Picts, Danes, Normans, and Welsh. The

Irish immigration to the American colonies previous to the Revolution

was mainly of the alien Scotch and English element, known sometimes

as Scotch-Irish. The Gaelic Irish immigrants did not begin to arrive in

any great number until after the war of 1812, excepting in Maryland.

The wars growing out of the Reformation and the Stuart contests

reduced the Irish race from an estimated 2,500,000 in 1560 to about

960,000 at the end of the Cromwellian war in 1652. In 1845 it reached

its maximum estimate of 8,500,000. Then came the great famine of

1846-47. Within three years nearly 1,500,000 perished of hunger or

famine fever. By the great flood of emigration Ireland has lost vir-

tually one-half of its population within sixty years. In 1911 it stood at

4,390,219, the lowest point reached in over a centur3^ Owing to gov-

ernmental and economic conditions this decrease has been chiefly at

the expense of the old native Gaelic stock rather than the Planter stock,

the Gaelic percentage, as indicated by the religious statistics, having

fallen from 83 to 74. In the sixty years ending March 31, 1911, accord-

ing to the official British figures, 4,191,552 emigrants left Ireland, or

nearly as many persons as are now living in the country. About 3,000,-

000 of these came to the United States, the total Irish immigration to

this country from 1821 to 1900 being, officially, 3,871,253. From 1821

to 1850 the Irish constituted nearly one-half of all our immigrants. Pre-

vious to the Revolution the "Scotch-Irish" immigration was so great

that in an official Parhamentary inquiry in 1778 it was asserted that

nearly one-half the American Revolutionary Army was of Irish origin.

Since 1870 the number of Irish-born in the United States has steadily

decreased, by death and dwindling immigration. According to the

census of 1910 there are now in the United States: Irish born, 1,352,155;

American born of full Irish parentage, 2,141,577; American born, one

parent born in Ireland the other in the United States (in most cases the

result of an Irish immigrant marrying an Irish American), 1,010,628.

Total of Irish birth or parentage, 4,504,360. This does not include any

of the 811,000 non-French Canadians in the United States, of whom a

large proportion are of Irish blood, or any of the 876,000 coming from

England, of whom also a large number are of Irish origin. Neither

does it include an}^ of the 1,177,000 American born "of mixed foreign

parentage," including such parentage combinations as Irish and German,

which alone probably runs above fifty thousand. Among the states.

New York stands first, with 1,091,000 of Irish birth or parentage; Mas-

sachusetts second, with 633,000; and Pennsylvania third, with 570,000.

For all these figures it may be asserted that more than four-fifths are of

Gaelic stock.

By the latest British census, 1911, the population of Ireland was

82 proceedings: anthropological society

4,390,219, of whom all but 157,037 were native born. Of the native born

about 74 per cent or 3,245,000 represent the old Gaelic stock. By the

same census there were 375,325 persons of Irish birth then living in Eng-

land and Wales, while an unofficial estimate puts those in Scotland at

about 220,000, or nearly 600,000 for the whole island, which with the

children of Irish parentage would probably total at least 1,500,000. The

same census gives 139,434 Irish born to Australia, or perhaps 350,000 of

Irish blood. South Africa and the other British colonies, exclusive of

Canada, have 100,000 of the same stock, while Canada has in round

numbers 990,000 of Irish birth or parentage, of whom about 750,000 are

of Gaelic origin, as indicated by religious denomination. Outside the

countries already named, Argentina has some 15,000 Irish born and the

rest of Latin America possibly as many more, with perhaps another

15,000 or 20,000 scattered over the rest of the world. To sum up, the

the total Irish-born population thruout the world is now about 6,875,000

or about 1,625,000 less than the population of the home country alone in

1845, while the whole nmnber of unmixed Irish blood may be about

seventeen million, of whom nearly fifteen million are of Gaelic stock.

The total Gaelic population — Irish, Scotch and Manx — of fairly pure

stock and racial identit}^, in every part of the world, probably numbers

close to twenty million.

At a special meeting of the Society held on January 6, at the National

Museum, Dr. Trumaj^ Michelson of the Bureau of American Eth-

nology, delivered an address. Notes on the Fox Indians of Iowa. — ^Their

own native name is Meskwa'ki'Ag', "Red-Earths;" the French name,

les Renards, is derived from the appellation of a single gens, Wago'Ag',

"Foxes;" the English name "Foxes" is a translation of the French les

Renards; the term "Outagamies" (and variants) is derived from the

Ojibwa UtAgamig, "they of the other shore." Their closest linguistic

relations are first with the Sauk, then the Kickapoo, then the Shawnee,

and then the so-called Abnaki tribes. They are also comparatively close

to the Menominee and Cree as compared with the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and

Potawatomi. The thesis that the Foxes were once an Iroquoian people

and subsequently took up an Algonquian dialect cannot be substantiated.

There is presumptive evidence that the Foxes were once in the lower

Michigan peninsula. However their proper history begins in the last

half of the seventeenth century in Wisconsin on the Wolf and Fox

Rivers. The long French wars broke out in the early part of the eight-

eenth century. Even the transportation of Kiala (that is, Kyanaw'^)

by De Villiers to Montreal, and his subsequent exile to Martinique, did

not break their spirit; and De Villiers paid for his overconfidence with

his life. Soon there was peace with sporadic outbreaks till Beauharnois'

recall, when war began again in earnest. However the Foxes assisted

the French against the English. After the overthrow of French power

in Canada the Foxes were favorable to the British interest. The fraudu-

lent treaty of 1804 with the United States was probably responsible for

the Foxes siding with the British in the war of 1812, and the subsequent

proceedings: anthropological society 83

troubles which culmmated in the famous BUick Hawk war. The Foxes

claim that as a body they took no part in this. However owing to con-

tinued disturbances with Indians and the pressure of white settlers, the

Sauks and Foxes sold their remammg lands in Iowa and agreed to remove

to Kansas. Nevertheless small bands of the Foxes returned continually

to Iowa, and it is even likely that a number of individual Foxes never did

remove to Kansas. In 1856 the Iowa legislature passed a bill enabling

the Foxes to settle in that state. Accordingly they purchased land with

their own money, near Tama, Iowa. From time to time this has been

added to till they now owti about 3000 acres. The maui body of the

Foxes as a matter of fact did not leave Kansas till the outbreak of the

Civil War when MAmlnwaniga'', the Fox chief, was unwilling to sign a

proposal to allot the Sauks and Foxes in Kansas. He was deposed

from his chieftainship by the agent for this reason and he went to Iowa

with nearly all the Foxes. In 1896 the state relinquished jurisdiction of

the Foxes to the federal government, and at the same time certain claims

of the Foxes against the Sauks were adjusted. There are some Foxes

enrolled A\ith the Sauks of Kansas and Oklahoma; the present population

of those in Iowa is about 356.

As an abstract of Dr. INIichelson's paper "Notes on the Social Organiza-

tion of the Fox Indians," read at the recent meeting of the American

Anthropological Association and largely incorporated in his present ad-

dress, A\'ill appear in Science, the main facts of Fox sociology are here

presented in but brief form. The tribe is divided into a number of ex-

ogamic gentes with animal names, which gentes perform certain courtesies

for each other such as burial and acting as ceremonial attendants at

clan-feasts. The tribe furthermore has a dual division in membership

which is thus regulated: the first child, boy or girl, belongs to the side

to which the father does, and so on alternately. The side the mother

belongs to is immaterial. These divisions are not exogamic, and are

not, as can be readily seen, in any fixed relation to the various gentes.

The dual division figures prominently in clan-feasts, and not merely in

rivalry in athletics, as has been thought. The folklore and mythology

of the Fox Indians is rich. A comparative stud}^ shows the contact of

two cultures, namely, that of the woodlands, and that of the plains.

European elements also enter into them.

At the 471st meetmg of the Society, held January 20, 1914, at the

National ISIuseum, Mr. Wm. H. Babcock, its recent Secretary, addressed

the Society on The North Atlantic Island of Brazil.

The speaker suggested that the Island of Brazil, which is conspicuous

as a round figure in the Atlantic in the latitude of southern Ireland on

many mediaeval maps, maj^ be the projecting northeastern corner of

America, which includes the Gulf of St. La^^Tence.

He exhibited twenty lantern-slide maps, beginning with a recent map

to show first the obstacles which defeated many attempts to reach Brazil

until John Cabot made his way thru ; secondly the structure of the Amer-

ican region above mentioned, which has islands in its included expanse of

84 proceedings: botanical society

water, also a curved north and south water passage from the strait of

Belle Isle to that of Cabot, dividing the land mass in two and leaving

Newfoundland cut off in front, also the true position of islands, moved

unduly far toward Europe on the mediaeval maps; also the three present

Brazils — that in South America, dating from soon after 1500; that in

Terceira of the Azores, from before 1351 ; and the still surviving tradition

of the West-Irish peasantry of a great Brazil west of them, which goes

back on the maps to 1325 and as a man's name beyond history.

The maps of Dalorta 1325, Dulcert 1339, the Atlante Mediceo 1351,

the Pizigani 1367. the Catalan Atlas 1375, Pinelh 1384, Giraldi 1426,

Beccaria 1435, Bianco 1448, a fifteenth century map, perhaps 1480,

copied by Nordenskjold, Prunes 1553 and others were given to show the

persistency of the tradition among geographers as to form and latitude.

The Catalan map* and another also show the island as including a sheet

of water containing islands. The map copied l)y Nordenskjold and that

of Prunes are instances of the island divided by the curved north and

south channel. The former of these two shows also a second Brazil

below Ilia Verde, recognized as Greenland, which must mean Labrador,

or Newfoundland or the region including them.

It is no doubt (like Bianco's map above) an instance of retaining two

traditions in one showing. Sylvanus 1511, Cantino 1502, an anonymous

Portuguese map 1502, and Schoner 1520 were presented as instances of

bringing this region eastward on the maps and comparatively near to

Ireland; Nicolay 1560 and Zaltieri 1566, as instances of shifting Brazil

on the maps over into Newfoundland waters after the width of the At-

lantic had become well known. Coppo, 1528, was given as an instance of

American land masses interpreted as islands — especially Greenland,

called Isola Verde. The Pizigani map records pictorially a disastrous

Breton expedition to some region southwest of the circular Brazil and

bearing the same name.

Outside of Ireland the word is first found in the expression "grana de

Bresile"^ — grain of Brazil — of a list of commodities embodied in a com-

mercial treaty dated 1193 between Ferrara and one of her Itahan neigh-

bors. In Ireland "Brazil" or "Breasail" is very ancient, having been

borne by a prehistoric celebrity and a sixth century saint.

This latter fact and the correspondence in direction and geographical

features of the North American region in question with the mediaeval

map-island of Brazil make the suggestion of some very early visit to

America by some one who spoke Irish well worthy of consideration.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY

The 93d regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington was

held at the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, January 6, 1914, ^vith 42 members

and 5 guests present.

Application for membership of Messrs. H. Pittier, Arno Viehoever,

and Raymond B. Wilcox were read. Messrs. Charles Thom, Charles

S. Ridgway, George D. Clark, Clarence W. Carpenter, William A. Day-

ton, Orlo A. Pratt, and Nathan R. Smith were elected to membership.

proceedings: chemical society 85

Mr. F. L. Lewton called attention to the discovery of the records of

the AVashington Botanical Club, a predecessor of this society from

1898-1902. He stated that these records were missing when the history

of the society was ^vritten up a few years ago, and also gave a brief

review of the club.

The scientific program was as follows:

Mr. Peter Bisset: The James River Hybrid Walnut. Lantern

slides were shown of a walnut tree on the Rowe Farm, on the James

River, opposite Lower Brandon, Va. The tree is 100 feet high, with a

spread of 123 feet, altho until a recent storm the spread was 134 feet.

At 4 feet from the ground the tree is 31 feet 3 inches in circumference,

and at 6 feet from the ground is over 25 feet in circumference. At 12

feet from the ground it divides into 4 large branches, three of which are

larger than any tree in the neighborhood. No one has any definite

knowledge of the age of the tree, but as the old farm house was built

about 200 years ago it is supposed that the seed was planted at that

time. Its growth was probably rapid, judged from seedlings which at-

tained a height of 5 feet 10 inches in one season, as compared with 3

feet in seedlings of Juglans nigra which grew beside them. A seedling

planted nearby about 1860 is now 2| feet in diameter and of the height

of the parent tree. The characters of the leaves and nuts are such as to

suggest a possible hybrid origin. The pubescence of the branches and

leaves agree with Juglans cinerea and the fruit and other leaf characters

suggest Juglans regia instead of /. nigra. The nuts are of low vitality

and very thick shell.

Dr. G. G. Hedgcock: Smelter Injury in Southeastern Tennessee

(with lantern), published elsewhere in this Journal.

Dr. D. N. Shoemaker: Some Chinese Horticultural Brassica Species

(with lantern). Horticultural Forms of Chinese Brassicas in the

Lnited States at present are :

Three well marked varieties of Mustard, Brassica juncea. These are

well established in the American Seed Trade.

Four types of non-pungent Brassicas, of uncertain specific relations :

1 . The heading forms, Chinese name Pai Tsai. These make long heads

resting on the surface of the ground, and present many varieties. 2. A

form with long broad petioles, and long light green leaf blades, the veins

of which are quite prominent. 3. A form with very broad short flat

petioles, and dark green leaf blades. These usually send up swollen

seeding stems. 4. A very loose-leafed round-petioled form, used by the

Chinese as a summer vegetable.

P. L. RicKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 233d Meeting was held on Monday, December 22, 1913, at the Cos-

mos Club. Prof. Earle B. Phelps, of the Hygienic Laboratory, lectured on

Recent advances in sewage chemistry. The chemistry of sewage has been de-

veloped by a process of evolution from the older water chemistry, but with

our present conception of the purposes of sewage disposal and of the objec-

86 proceedings: chemical society

tions to stream pollution, the older scheme of sewage analysis has failed

to yield results commensurate with the labor involved. In place of the

nitrogen cycle of water chemistry we are substituting a carbon cycle with

special reference to the oxygen relations. The difficulty of dealing an-

alyticalty with the reactions that are involved in the oxidation of sewage

under artificial or natural conditions makes it necessary to employ indi-

rect methods for this purpose.

"The oxygen requirement" of a sewage or effluent is defined as the

amount of oxygen which Avill be eventually consumed by the organic

matter when that sewage or effluent is brought into equilibrium with

oxygen-saturated water. The ''relative stability" of a given effluent

or polluted stream is similarly defined as the relation between the avail-

able oxygen in the mixture in the form of free dissolved oxygen, nitrites,

and nitrates, and the total oxygen requirement of the organic matter as

defined above. This establishes a practical working method for the

determination of the degree of purification of a sewage or of the degree

of pollution of a stream.

The actual determination of relative stability is made by the use of

methylene blue as an indicator for the oxygen-zero point. By the appli-

cation of the methods of physical chemistry the reaction has been shown

to be of the first order and from the time required to decolorize methyl-

ene blue one determines the relative stability ratio. A more direct

and generally applicable method is the actual determination of dissolved

oxygen before and after a period of incubation. These data give directly

the velocity of the reaction and its probable future course. By the ap-

plication of these newer methods the study of stream pollution is being

placed upon a quantitative scientific basis (Author's abstract).

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Sullivan, Gore, S. T. Powell,

and Bunzel, the following points were brought out: The deficiency in

oxygen is the factor which harms fish in streams. The effect of sewage

on oysters is entirely a -hygienic, not a chemical question. "Available

oxygen" includes free oxygen, nitrites, and nitrates, but no other sources

of oxygen. Acidity ancl alkahnity also enter as factors in the rate of

reaction.

Medical Director Ames, U.S.N. , who was a visitor at the meeting,

discussed the question of cooperation between municipal chemists and

sanitarians and manufacturers whose byproducts pollute streams, as

well as various projects for utilization of sewage. Professor Phelps

stated that our present knowledge of methods is in advance of our prac-

tice, because of the great expense of sewage disposal. The question of

saving the sewage for agricultural purposes was discussed by Ames,

Schreiner, Sullivan and Yoder. It was shown that the great dilution

of modern American city sewage makes it almost impossible to utilize

it for fertilizer, and that the concentrated sludge obtained by certain

methods of concentration is also not utilizable; in China the sewage is

very largely utilized, and in Hong Kong its disposal is a source of revenue

to the city.

proceedings: chemical society 87

The 234th meeting was lield on Thursday, January 8, 1914, at the

Cosmos Club. The president appointed the following committees:

Committee on Communications: H. C. Gore, Chairman, A. Seidell,

E. C. Shorey, W. Blum, and J. Johnston. Entertaiimient Committee:

A. N. Finn, Chairman, J. G. Riley, J. W. Turrentine, E. A. Inger-

soll, and J. C. Hostetter. The Secretary's and Treasurer's reports

were read.

Dr. William Duane of Harvard University was presented by the

chairman, and spoke briefly and informall^^ on radium and the radium

emanation, shomng samples of both and illustrating their effect in pro-

ducing phosphorescence in willemite.

The papers on the regular program were as follows :

L, F. Kebler, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Chemical investigations

in tablet medication. Medication by tablets has so many advantages

that it has come into wide use, altho the invention is of comparatively

recent date (1843). The speaker sketched the history of the patents

and the development of modern rapid machinery for making various

types and forms. A study has been made of the variations in Aveight of

various tablets due to the kind of machine used. A variation of not

over 2 per cent in the number made from a batch of given weight is

claimed for some machines and materials. Satisfactory tablets should not

vary more than 10 per cent. Fifty-four kinds of tablets made by single

punch machines showed 44 per cent exceeding a 10 per cent total weight

variation, and the rotary machine gave nearly the same results. The

tablet triturates however showed best results by the single punch ma-

chine. Molded tablets (compressed by hand) showed 79 per cent -with

a total weight variation of 10 per cent or over. Variations in composi-

tion as determined by analysis (324 samples, 449 analyses) sometimes

ran very high, 20 to 40 per cent variations, (usually below declaration)

being fairly common. Nitroglycerin tablets showed the widest variation.

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Yoder and Foster, it was stated

that the filling of the molds is by volume only, and that each of the

analyses reported on represents from 10 to 25 tablets as a sample.

Wirt Tassin: Metallography applied to inspection. Failures of engi-

neering structures whose members have passed all ordinary tests on sample

pieces have frequently occurred, and have been usually laid to "fatigue"

of the material due to repeated stresses. The failure of test pieces

really to represent the properties of the structural member is becoming

recognized as a frequent cause. The speaker described improvements

in the apparatus which he exhibited before this Society at the meeting

of February 13, 1913, and which is now being regularly used for examin-

ing directly large structural pieces in the foundry or shop. Slides illus-

trating the effects of various heat and mechanical treatments were shown

and discussed.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

88 proceedings: philosophical society

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 729th meetmg was held on November 8, 1913, at the Cosmos

Club, Vice President Eichelberger in the chair; 38 persons present. The

minutes of the 728th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. R. B. SosMAN presented a paper, illustrated by lantern slides,

giving the results of an investigation by himself and Mr. A. L. Day on

A method for determining the expansion of liquid metals. After reviewing

existing and rather conflicting data on the change in volume on fusion of

various rocks, the apparatus designed for such volume determinations

of metals and of solid and liquid silicates from 250° to 1600° was de-

scribed. The fundamental constant is the expansion coefficient of arti-

ficial graphite given by formula 10*^13 = 0.55 + 0.0016^ Volume measure-

ments on quartz up to 1600° show a dilatation which increases rapidly

as the inversion point of 575° is approached. Above this temperature

quartz contracts slightly. At about 1300° there begins a second and

(under these conditions) irreversible dilatation. Granite has a curve of

similar form. The volume of diabase glass was determined up to 1250°

and compared with Barus' well-known values. A simple explanation

of some of the conflicting features of his observations has been found.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Burgess.

Mr. A. W. Gray then spoke on Some peculiarities of invar. He de-

scribed some of the results obtained by himself and previous observers

in measuring the thermal expansion of invar. Numerous lantern slides

were exhibited to show various peculiarities of the alloy, method and

apparatus used by the speaker in determining expansivities, the precision

obtained in measuring elongations by the use of both freely suspended

and upwardly stretched wires, and the uniformity of temperature easily

secured in an electric furnace of the type used for most of the work. One

most striking feature is that at temperatures above- about 170° invar may

follow with considerable regularity either of two different expansion

curves, without ever jumping from one to the other except, perhaps,

when close to this critical temperature. Further above about 220° for

the upper curve and about 280° for the lower one, the expansivity of in-

var appears to be identical with that previously found for a specimen of

Bessemer steel. Under some conditions the same piece of invar may,

at high temperatures, expand noticeably faster than Bessemer steel.

Comment was made upon progressive shortening produced by repeated

alternations of temperature between 20° and 150°.

J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MARCH 4, 1914 No. 5

ASTROPHYSICS.— r/ie solar constant of radiation. C. G. Ab-

bot. ^ Smithsonian Institution.*

We live in a world warmed by the sun. While it is not

to be expected that everybody will devote himself to the

measurement of solar radiation, yet it is not surprising that

many have concerned themselves with measuring the quantity

on which all lives depend. So far as I am aware, this subject

was not pursued by the ancients to such a point as to obtain

measurements worth much present consideration. This is a

great pity, for thus we lack proof whether the sun's radiation

has changed progressively. Beginning about a century ago in-

vestigations of solar radiation were pursued with great assiduity

by various observers. The need was almost immediately per-

ceived pf reducing the observations to represent conditions out-

side the earth's atmosphere, as for example, on the moon, so

as to be independent of the haze and water vapor, and even of

the gaseous constituents of the air. It is required to know the

measure of solar radiation in free space as an index of the con-

dition of the sun, quite apart from its influence on terrestrial

affairs, but secondly it is of great importance and interest to

apply this knowledge to promote meteorological inquiries.

Sir John Herschel, who was a pioneer in solar radiation work,

proposed to express solar radiation in terme of a unit which

he called the actine, which is based on the melting of ice. But

by general consent, the gram calorie has been adopted as the

unit of measurement, and we say that the ''solar constant of

radiation" is the number of calories per square centimeter per

1 Address of the retiring president delivered before the Philosophical Society

of Washington, January 3, 1914.

89

90 abbot: solar constant of radiation

minute which would be produced by the complete absorption of

the solar radiation in free space at the earth's mean solar distance.

Preparatory researches of great interest were made in the eight-

eenth century by Bouguer, Lambert, DeSaussure and Leslie.

Determinations of the solar constant of radiation, however, may

be said to have begun about eighty years ago with the investiga-

tions of Sir John Herschel, Principal Forbes, and Pouillet. The

problem comprises two parts : First, to measure the intensity of

the solar radiation at the earth's surface; second, to estimate the

loss it has suffered in passing through the atmosphere. It will

be convenient to consider the atmospheric influences briefly be-

fore taking up the methods of measuring the solar radiation, and

then to return to a more thorough discussion of the atmospheric

transmission.

Atmospheric transmission. The determination of the trans-

mission of the atmosphere rests primarily upon the hypothesis

of Bouguer, first put forward in 1729 and elaborated in Bouguer's

posthumous work published in 1760. The late Dr. Langley has

placed this matter in so very clear a light in his paper on the

Amount of the Atmospheric Absorption- that I cannot do better

than to quote from his statement.

If a beam of sunlight enters through a crevice in a dark room, the

light is partly interrupted by the particles of dust or mist in the air, the

apartment is visibly illuminated by the light laterally reflected or diffused

from them, and the direct beam, having lost something by this proc-

ess, is not so bright after it has crossed the room, as before. In com-

mon language, the direct light, to an observer in the path of the beam,

has been partly "absorbed," and the problem is, to determine in what

degree. If a certain portion of the light (suppose one-fifth) were thus

scattered, the beam after it crossed the room would be but four-fifths

as bright as when it entered it ; and, if we were to trace the now dimin-

ished beam through a second apartment altogether like the other, it

seems, at first, reasonable to suppose that the same proportion (i.e.,

four-fifths of the remainder) would be transmitted there also, and that

the light would be the same kind of light as before, and only diminished

in amount (in the proportion i x f). The assumption originally made

by Bouguer and followed by Herschel and Pouillet, was that it was in

this mamier that our solar heat was absorbed by our atmosphere, and

that by assuming such a simple progression the original heat could

be calculated.

2 Amer. Jour. Sci., third series, 28: September, 1884.

abbot: solar constant of radiation 91

If ^0 be the intensity of the original beam before entering the

transparent medium whose transmission is to be investigated,

then after the passage through the first stratum of unit thickness

let us suppose a fraction of the original, represented by p, has

passed through, so that what was A o becomes A op. Then since

a second stratum identical with the first in constitution and

thickness must, according to Bouguer's assumption, have an

identical effect, the ray which was Ao will emerge from the sec-

ond stratum Aop~, and so on. The fraction p transmitted by

the unit of thickness is the common ratio of a geometric progres-

sion, so that after passing through a thickness m of the medium,

the intensity of the light which was formerly Ao will become

AoP".

As the height to which the atmosphere extends in appreciable

density is very small compared with the radius of the earth,

the thickness of the layer traversed by a solar beam of a zenith

distance not exceeding 70° is approximately proportional to the

secant of the zenith distance of the sun at the time of observa-

tion. If we regard unit thickness as that corresponding to a

barometric pressure of 760 mm. of mercury, then p in our for-

mula corresponds to the vertical transmission coefficient of the

atmosphere above sea-level, and for any station where the baro-

metric pressure is B the intensity of the ray from the sun as it

reaches the earth's surface, which we call A, may be expressed

by the formula.

A = Aop ^

760 ^®°^'

Some writers have preferred to use the formula as a formula

of "absorption" rather than of transmission. In that way the

expression reduces to a somewhat different form, but its funda-

mental principles are the same. The investigations of Herschel,

Forbes, Pouillet and others up to the time of Langley had refer-

ence to this exponential formula, based upon the hypothesis of

Bouguer, which was to the effect that successive equal layers of

transparent material transmit equal fractions of the incident ray.

A convenient method of applying the atmospheric transmis-

sion formula is to take logarithms of both members of the equa-

92 abbot: solar constant of radiation

tion so as to reduce the expression to the form of the equation

of a straight line. Thus

log A = TjQQ sec z log p + log Ao

By this equation the intersept of the best straight line on the

axis of ordinates is the logarithm of the intensity of solar radia-

tion outside the atmosphere, and the inclination of the line to

the horizontal is the logarithm of the atmospheric transmission

for vertical rays.

The reader must bear in mind that the simple expression thus

obtained is given only in illustration of the work of the earlier

investigators, and it must be hedged about with certain condi-

tions and limitations in order to apply it, as we shall see later,

to the determination of the solar constant of radiation by the

most approved methods.

Instruments. Herschel's actinometer: This instrument con-

sists of a thermometer with a large cylindric bulb, containing a

deep blue fluid (the ammoniacal sulphate of copper) and en-

closed in a wooden case blackened interiorly and covered with

a piece of plate glass. The thermometer has a very large bulb,

and it is adjusted in volume by means of a screw, so as to regu-

late the position of the column of liquid on the thermometer

scale. Herschel introduced what is termed the dynamical meth-

od of observing the solar radiation, for he obtained not the total

rise of temperature of the instrument when long exposed to the

sun, but its initial rate of rise, corrected for the cooling or warm-

ing of the thermometer due to external conditions when the sun

is shaded. The determination of the cooling correction is done

by observing the rise or fall of the temperature for a certain time

interval before exposing to the sun, and again determining the

rise or fall after such exposure to the sun is completed. The

mean rate of warming or cooling, due to the surroundings, is

applied as a correction to the rate of warming due to the exposure

to the solar radiation.

Pouillet's pyrheliometer : A flat metal box, blackened on the

front, and filled with water, has a thermometer inserted at the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 93

rear, extending away from the direction of the sun. The in-

strument, hke that of Herschel, was exposed to the influence of

the surroundings while shaded for a certain interval of time, the

shade was then removed for a similar interval so as to allow the

solar radiation to fall upon the blackened box, after which the

instrument was again shaded. In practice it was found that the

water within the box could not be well enough stirred in order

to allow the average temperature of the water to be well ascer-

tained. The instrument was greatly improved by Tyndall, who

substituted mercury for water, and, in order to contain the mer-

cury used iron in the making of the box.

Crova alcohol actinometer : A large spherical bulb thermome-

ter containing alcohol, is enclosed in a nickel pated metal cham-

ber with a vestibule for the entrance of the rays. The stem of

the thermometer runs back, directly away from the sun, and is

enclosed in a nickel plated tube with a side opening for reading

the thermometer. A short mercury thread is introduced in the

alcohol column at a suitable point for observing. The method

of observing is the same as that adopted by Herschel and by

Pouillet.

Violle actinometer: A large spherical double walled enclo-

sure filled with water is kept at a known constant temperature.

A spherical blackened bulb thermometer lies at the center of the

enclosure, and the sunlight is introduced to it through a suitable

vestibule in the double walled chamber. Violle 's method of read-

ing was static, as opposed to the dynamic methods we have just

considered. He observed the total rise of the thermometer and

its fall after the cutting off of the sun rays, noting the position

of the column at fixed intervals after exposure and after closure.

The theory of the instrument as developed by Violle is simple

and elegant. As a standard the instrument is open to the ob-

jection that the water equivalent of the bulb of the thermometer

is very small, and difficult to measure, and that several corrections,

rather difficult of determination, should be applied. It was used

by Dr. Langley in his expedition to Mount Whitney in 1881.

Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometer : This instru-

ment has had the most extensive adoption in recent years of any

94 abbot: solar constant of radiation

form of instrument for measuring solar radiation. It was in-

vented about the year 1895. Two metal strips exactly similar

to one another, and blackened upon the front, are exposed

alternately to heating by the sun. Arrangement is provided for

passing an electrical current through the strip which is not at

the moment being heated by the sun. Thermo-elements, fas-

tened to the back of each strip, indicate when the temperature

of the exposed strip is equal to that of the strip which is electric-

ally heated. Under these circumstances it is assumed that the

energy of the electric current is equal to the energy received

from the sun. About 160 copies of this electrical compensation

pyrheliometer have been sent out from Upsala to different parts

of the world.

Several other kinds of pyrheliometers have been used in re-

cent years, among them two forms which have been devised by

the writer. We shall have occasion to speak of these later.

Early observations. Forbes observed with the Herschel actin-

ometer in 1832 at Brientzr and the Faulhorn. He showed that

the transmissibility of sun rays continually increases as the length

of path of the ray in air increases. Forbes rightly attributed this

to the non-homogeneity of the solar radiation, and the inequality

of transmission of the different component parts of it. Under

such circumstances Bouguer's formula of course cannot apply.

Forbes concluded that equal barometric columns of air give

equal transmission, whether taken from the high or low station.

In this he was wrong. He formed an empirical curve to repre-

sent all his observations at both stations, employing air masses

as abscissae and actinometer readings as ordinates. Instead of

extrapolating this curve directly to air mass zero he preferred to

find its tangents and thus derive the subsidiary curve of tangents

from which he derived a formula for extrapolating his observa-

tions. In this way he obtained results corresponding to the

value 2.85 calories per square centimeter per minute for the solar

constant. Thus Forbes cut loose entirely from Bouguer's ex-

ponential formula of atmospheric transmission.

Pouillet observed in the years 1837 and 1838 at Paris. His

work was published before that of Forbes, although done later.

abbot: solar constant of radiation

95

He found transmission coefficients by means of Bouguer's for-

mula. He apparent!}' did not investigate the defects of this for-

mula as thoroughly as Forbes did. His result for the solar con-

stant of radiation is 1.7633 calories per square centimeter per

minute. This value, on account of the non-homogeneity of the

solar rays, is necessarily too low.

Quetelet observed with a Robinson actinometer, similar in

form to Herschel's, at Brussels, from 1843 to 1853. These ex-

periments might well repay a critical examination now, not for

their value in determining the absolute measure of the solar

constant of radiation, but in connection with the variation of the

EA'erage intensity of the solar radiation from year to year as

influenced by volcanic eruptions.

Desains employed a thermopile, and compared the transmissi-

bility of the rays of the sun through a water cell at different

stations. He found the transmissibility of solar rays through

the water cell always increased by a long preliminary course

through moist air. This result is essentially the same as that

of Forbes, although obtained in a different manner.

Violle observed at many different stations, including Mont

Blanc. His instrument apparently read much too high, as no-

ticed by Langley in the report of the Mount Whitney expedi-

tion. He used a somewhat complicated empirical formula of

extrapolation, as he was fully cognizant of the defect of Bouguer's

formula, as indicated by Forbes. He obtained the following

values :

OUTSIDE

ATMOSPHERE

Altitude. . .

Barometer.

Calories.. .

2.54

These values should be reduced about one-fourth to make them

comparable with observations made in recent years at high eleva-

tions by many observers. In such a case the value outside the

atmosphere would become about 1.9 calories.

Crova made many observations at Mont-Pellier with his alco-

hol actinometer standardized against the Tyndall pyrheliometer.

96 abbot: solar constant of radiation

He made some attempts to extrapolate his observations to the

limit of the atmosphere, but these, like other solar constant val-

ues obtained by pyrheliometry alone, are not definitive. Great

value, however, attaches to the long series of direct observations

continued from 1883 to 1900 at Mont-Pellier. These show plainly

the influence of the volcano Krakatau and others.

K. Angstrom observed with the electrical compensation pyr-

heliometer at several stations at different altitudes on the island

of Teneriffe in the years 1895 and 1896. Some of his measure-

ments were made at the altitude of 3700 meters, and give direct

readings' of solar radiation as high as 1.63 calories per square centi-

meter per minute. Angstrom declined to determine from these

a value of the solar constant of radiation, recognizing that this

demanded observations of the solar spectrum as well as pyrhe-

liometric work. In later years he prepared spectro-bolometric

apparatus for this purpose, and made many solar constant meas-

urements therewith at Upsala. These measurements are still

being continued there by his successors. It is hoped that this

long and interesting series will soon be published.

Passing from this work of Angstrom, which belongs in a later

period, and omitting mention of valuable pyrheliometric obser-

vations by numerous observers in Italy, Switzerland, and Russia,

which I regret that space forbids me here to discuss, attention

must now be directed to the work of Langley, which marked an

epoch in this kind of investigation.

Langley 's observations. Prior to Langley's observations, there

had been numerous attempts to determine the solar constant,

which are well summed up in the excellent little book of Radau,

entitled Actinometrie. It is shown that nearly all observers were

in comparative agreement, so far as their actual observations go,

and if the transmission of radiation by the atmosphere be esti-

_B

mated by the simple formula A = Aop ''''^ which was em-

ployed by Pouillet and many others, the value of the solar con-

stant would be found in the neighborhood of 1.75 calories.

But Forbes, Desains, Violle, Crova and others showed con-

vincingly that this equation does not accurately express the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 97

diminution of radiation attending the decline of the sun from

zenith to horizon, or the descent of the observer from a high alti-

tude to a lower one. Accordingly several empirical formulae of

more complexity were proposed, which owing to their more nu-

merous constants, could be made to fit the observed variation of

the total intensity of radiation under different conditions more

closely. By the aid of such empirical formulae higher values

of the solar constant have been obtained. Some of these in our

own time have gone as high as 4 calories. Radau however says

''it is clear that the intensity of the solar radiation outside the

atmosphere cannot be certainly obtained from experiments which

have been made [prior to 1878] for the result depends essentially

on the manner of calculation." This conclusion is still applica-

ble to pyrheliometer measurements not supported by spectrum

observations.

The tendency toward high values of the solar constant was

powerfully stimulated by the publication of the report of the

Mount Whitney expedition by Langley in 1884. As Forbes and

Radau had stated, so Langley emphasized and acted upon the

B

fact that the formula A = Aqp'*^^ applies only to a homo-

genous bundle of rays in a pure atmosphere; and the intensity

of solar radiation outside the atmosphere can be exactly deter-

mined only when the atmospheric transmission coefficients of the

rays of all wave lengths, which go to make up the complex beam

of the sun, are separately determined and allowed for. Langley

was the first to determine and apply atmospheric transmission

coefficients for numerous rays of different wave lengths in the

solar spectrum. For this purpose he invented the bolometer, a

delicate electrical thermometer, and observed with it the varia-

tion of the intensity of each ray of the spectrum from low sun

to high. He found it impracticable to determine the transmis-

sion coefficients in the water vapor bands of the infra-red, but

assuming that there were no water vapor bands in the solar

spectrum outside our atmosphere, he avoided this difficulty by

smoothing the spectrum energj^ curve, which he computed from

his bolometric observations to represent the distribution of solar

98 abbot: solak constant of radiation

radiation outside the atmosphere, so as to leave no water vapor

bands in it at all. Had Langley stopped with these steps ac-

comphshed, he would have left us as the result of the Mount

Whitney expedition, 2.060 calories, the mean value as deter-

mined by high and low sun observations at Lone Pine, or 2.220

calories, the mean value similarly determined from observations

at Mountain Camp. But, by the train of reasoning given on

pages 142-144 of his report, he convinced himself that the expo-

nential formula does not hold for the earth's atmosphere, even for

a strictly homogeneous ray. He therefore altered his results by

two different procedures, one of which he states was of a kind to

give too low a value of the solar constant, and the other too

high. By this means he obtained the values 2.630 and 3.505.

The mean of these, 3.068, or in round numbers 3.0 calories per

square centimeter per minute he adopted as the solar constant.

But in fact, both procedures were calculated to give too high

results, and the most probable results of Langley's observations

lies below either of them, and is in fact 2.22, or 2.06 calories, ac-

cording as the work at Lone or Mountain Camp is regarded as

the better. Li order to recognize this, it is necessary to examine

the argument which led him to doubt the accuracy of the expo-

nential formula, as applied to the transmission of homogeneous

rays through the earth's atmosphere, but first let us consider

the basis of the formula.

We have seen that Bouguer's formula rests on the fundamental

assumption that the light is not changed in its nature in passing

from one layer to another, so that equal layers take out equal

fractions. This is not the case except for homogeneous rays.

It is therefore necessary to divide the beam up into parts, each

containing rays of approximately homogeneous transmissibility.

For this purpose it is necessary to observe the spectrum of the

sunlight by the aid of the bolometer or other satisfactory delicate

heat-measuring instrument. Even so, it is not possible to ob-

serve the transmission of the atmosphere at every wave length,

so as to determine the coefficients of transmission in the fine

lines of absorption by water vapor and oxygen which are in-

troduced by the earth's atmosphere. These lines are mainly

abbot: solar constant of radiation 90

grouped in the great bands made up of these fine Unes which

occur in the red and infra-red spectrum, and for them a special

procedure must be adopted, as was introduced by Langley. In

general, however, the bolometer suffices to give us atmospheric

transmission coefficients in sufficient number to deal with the

gradually changing transparency of the air for rays of nearly

adjacent wave-lengths. The proof of the formula for atmospheric

transm-ission for homogeneous rays follows. It will be seen that

the formula is one of extrapolation solely, and is not applicable

to computations of the transparency at different barometric

pressures, unless it be the fact (which is not usual) that the qual-

ity of the air from the different stations to the limit of the atmos-

phere is approximately identical. This indeed may be the case

at very high elevations of 4000 meters and over, but is not the

case for ordinary observing stations, so that in the use of the

formula of transmission it is generally erroneous to introduce

the barometric pressure in the exponent as was done by Pouillet.

Proof of formula for transmission. Imagine the atmosphere to

be made up of ?i concentric layers so chosen in thickness as to pro-

duce separately equal barometric pressures, and let the number

n be so great that the transparency of any single layer is sensibly

uniform, although the layers may differ from each other in trans-

parency by any gradual progression. The index of refraction of

air is so near unity that there will be no sensible regular reflec-

tion in passing from one layer to the next, and the transmission

of each layer may be expressed exponentially by Bouguer 's for-

mula, but with different coefficients of transmission for the several

layers.

Thus, suppose Eo to be the original intensity of a beam of

light incident upon the outermost layer at the angle whose se-

cant is m.

Then after passing successive layers the remaining intensities

become

E,=Eoar, E2 = Eoar-ao'"\ En^Eoa^ar- • • • • <"". (1)

The value of the secant of the angle of incidence will change

slightly in passing from layer to layer from two causes: First,

100 abbot: solar constant of radiation

the curvature of the earth; second, the refraction of the beam

in air. These causes produce opposite effects, the first tending

to increase the angle of incidence, the second tending to dimin-

ish it as the beam approaches the earth's surface. Their com-

bined effect is dependent on the height to which the temperature

exercises absorption and on the distribution of density with the

height. But it is generally supposed that the absorption of the

air above 40 miles from the earth's surface is negligible, and,

remembering that the atmospheric density diminishes with the

height, it appears that for zenith distances less than 70" the

effect of change of the secant of the angle of the incident beam

from the outermost to the innermost layer of the atmosphere

will not introduce error greater than 1 per cent. Accordingly for

zenith distances less than 70° we may write approximately

En = Eo{aia2 . . . . a„) « (2)

The symbols ay, ao .... an denote constants (providing

no change of transparency occurs during the interval of time

in question), and their values are slightly less than unity. We

may substitute for their product a single constant, a, itself a

proper fraction, and remembering that En is the intensity at the

earth's surface, above denoted simply by E, we have

E = Eoa-' (3)

Limitations of formula. No mention is made in this expres-

sion, of the barometric pressure, but it is easy to see that an

alteration of barometric pressure would signify, under the con-

ventions adopted in deriving the formula, a change in the number

of layers, n. This would cause an alteration of the quantity a,

which is the continued product of the transmission coefficients

of the layers, by introducing additional multipliers a^ + u a„+2

. ... or by the withdrawal of some a„_i, a„_2 Since

we have no means of determining the value of the terms so

introduced or taken away, there is no means of correcting for

change of barometer in the use of the expression (3) and it would,

for instance, be impossible to compute, from knowledge of the

abbot: solar constant of radiation 101

values of E, Eo, a, and m for one station, what would be the

value of E at some station of different barometric pressure. ^

From this we see that the unit of air mass to be taken for

each station is the air mass traversed by beams from zenith

celestial objects between the station itself and the outer limit of the

atmosphere, not from sea-level.

The determination of the solar constant of radiation, based

upon the demonstration which has just been given, depends upon

the following assumptions:

1. In a homogeneous medium, a homogeneous ray loses a

fixed proportion of its intensity in every equal length of its path.

2. The earth's atmosphere may be considered as made up of

a great number of layers concentric with the earth, each approxi-

mately homogeneous in itself over the area swept through by

the solar beam between zenith distances of 70° and 30° during

the time required for this sweep of the beam.

3. Surface reflection of the outer boundary of the atmosphere,

or the boundaries of its internal layers, is negligible.

4. Except in the known red and infra-red atmospheric bands,

the transparency varies gradually from wave length to waye

length, or if atmospheric absorption lines exist, the energy they

absorb is inconsiderable.

5. Atmospheric bands do not exist in the solar spectrum out-

side the atmosphere.

6. The quantity of solar energy beyond X = 0.3;u in the ultra-

violet and beyond X = 3.0^ in the infra-red is inconsiderable.

The soundness of these assumptions is best proved by the

results of a great number of observations made at sea-level and

at high altitudes during the last ten years by different observers,

but mainly by the staff of the Astrophysical Observatory of the

Smithsonian Institution.

Discussion of La7igley's solar constant value. We may now per-

ceive why the high solar constant value of Langley ought not to

be accepted. For, consider lines 26 to 43 of page 144 of the

Mount AYhitney report, which detail the precise method em-

^ This demonstration applies only to homogeneous rays.

102 abbot: solar constant of radiation

ployed in obtaining what Langley regarded as a minimum value,

namely 2,63 calories per square centimeter per minute:

We now proceed to determine from our bolometer observations,

a value which we may believe from considerations analogous to

those just presented, to be a minimum of the solar constant, and

one within the probable truth. All the evidence we possess shows, as

we have already stated, that the atmosphere grows more transmissible

as we ascend, or that for equal weights of air the transmissibility in-

creases (and probably continuously), as we go up higher. In finding

our minimum value we proceed as follows, still dealing with rays which

are as approximately homogeneous as we can experimentally obtain

them. Let us take one of these rays as an example, and let it be one

whose wave length is 0.6^1 and which caused a deflection at Lone Pine

of 201. The coefficient of transmission for this ray as determined by

high and low sun at Lone Pine and referred to the vertical air mass

between Lone Pine and Mountain Camp is 0.976. From the observa-

tions at Lone Pine then, the heat of this ray upon the mountain should

have been 201 X lOCO ^ 976 = 206.0, but the heat in this ray actually

observed on the mountain was 249.7, therefore multiplying the value

for the energy of this ray outside the atmosphere, calculated from

Mountain Camp high and low sun observations (275) by the ratio

Mtf^ we have 333.3, where .'33.3 represents the energy in this ray out-

side the atmosphere as determined by this second process. In like

manner we proceed to deal with the ravs already used, thus forming

column 8 in Talkie 120.

It is evident that the transmission coefficient determined for

the wave length 0.6/i by the aid of high and low sun observations

at Lone Pine, represented the mean transmission of a ray of this

wave length through a mass of air containing all the kinds of

strata between Lone Pine and the limit of the atmosphere. Such

a transmission coefficient would certainly be greater than that

which would have been found if the air had all been like that

between Lone Pine and Mountain Camp, because the lower lay-

ers are least transparent.^ Therefore the value 0.976 could be

known, a priori^ not to represent the transmission of the air be-

tween Lone Pine and Mountain Camp, but to be certainly greater

than the true transmission coefficient for the air between these

stations. Accordingly the discrepancy between the computed

and observed intensities at Mountain Camp is only what should

be expected, and implies no failure of the formula of Bouguer

at all; for that formula was used in the computation of the

< See Table 118 of the Mount Whitney report.

abbot: solar constant of radiation 103

intensity at JMountain Camp just quoted with a coefficient j)

which was certainly wrong. The argument on which Langley

acted may be stated in a plausible form as follows: If Bouguer's

exponential formula with the transmission coefficient obtained by

high and low sun observations at Lone Pine gives too low a value

of the intensity of homogeneous solar radiation for a station

within the atmosphere like Mountain Camp, as was shown by

actual observation, much more will it give too low a value out-

side the atmosphere. An equally plausible, and equally falla-

cious argument is the following : It is said that the density of

water decreases with increasing temperature at the mean rate

of about 0.00041 per degree from 0° to 100°, but observations

at 4° prove that water is actually denser at this temperature than

at 0°, therefore the supposed decreased density at 100° is a

delusion.

Solar constant work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-

tory. The earlier years of the work of the Astrophysical Obser-

vatory were devoted to the improvement of the bolometer and

the use of it for the determination of the positions of lines in the

infra-red solar spectrum. About 1902 attention began to be de-

voted to measurements of the solar constant of radiation. We

approached these measurements with a very much better instru-

mental equipment than that which had been Langley's in the

IVIount WTiitney expedition of 1881. Soon after the Astrophysi-

cal Observatory was founded, about the year 1890, Langley

introduced the automatic registration of the galvanometer in

connection with the spectro-bolometer, and in the subsequent

years the difficulties connected with the use of the recording

spectro-bolometer were so far overcome that the solar spectrum

could be observed from the extreme ultra-violet end of the spec-

trum at about 0.3^ to a wave length of about Sfx in the infra-red

with great ease and accuracy, in an interval of seven minutes of

time. Drift of the galvanometer, which in Langley's expedition

to ]\Iount Whitney he has told me often amounted to a meter

a minute on the scale, was now so far reduced that a centimeter

an hour would be unusual. In fact the bolometer, despite its

great sensitiveness, is about as easy to use for this work as an

104 abbot: solar constant of radiation

ordinary thermometer is for measuring the temperature of the

air.

Our first measurements of the sun's radiation as a whole were

made with the Crova alcohol actinometer, and in order to

standardize this instrument we constructed a modified Tyndall

pyrheliometer consisting of a copper box filled with mercury

and having a cylindric bulb thermometer inserted radially into

the box. Owing to the difficulty of keeping the small thread of

mercury at the proper point for reading purposes in the Crova

actinometer, we found it more desirable to develop the pyrheli-

ometer for our purpose. Soon a solid disk of copper with a radial

hole large enough to enclose the thermometer bulb was substi-

tuted for the box filled with mercury, the use of mercury being

limited to insuring a good heat connection between the bulb of

the thermometer and the copper of the disk. Some of these

copper disk pyrheliometers are still in use on Mount Wilson.

About 1909, however, the further improvement was introduced

of using silver in place of copper for the disk. A thin steel lin-

ing is provided for the hole where the thermometer is inserted,

so as to prevent the mercury from alloying with the silver. In

these silver disk instruments the thermometer stem, which is

introduced radially in the disk, is bent outside the chamber at

right angles so as to point towards the sun. The whole instru-

ment is mounted equatorially with a device for moving it by

hand to follow the sun from moment to moment. These disk

pyrheliometers, either of copper or silver, have now been in use

since 1906 with great satisfaction. Their constancy over long

periods of time leaves nothing to be desired, and the accuracy of

observation reaches a small fraction of 1 per cent.

As the disk pyrheliometer is a secondary instrument, it was

necessary to develop a standard primary instrument to compare

it with. As early as 1904 experiments were begun to produce a

pyrheliometer based upon the hollow chamber ''black body"

type, with a flowing liquid to carry off the heat produced by

the absorption of the solar rays within such a chamber. After

numerous experiments, and long trial, the water-flow standard

pyrheliometer was fully developed in 1910. Later stifl, another

abbot: solar constant of radiation 105

hollow-chamber instrument in which the chamber was bathed

with stirred water was employed to check the results of the

standard water-flow instruments. In each of these types of

standard instruments it is possible to introduce electrically known

quantities of heat for testing purposes, and in many experiments

it has been proved that the test quantities of heat thus intro-

duced may be recovered to within 1 per cent. Accordingly it is

believed that the standard scale of radiation has been thoroughly

established. The silver disk instruments are standardized by com-

paring them with such standard instruments, and the standard

scale of radiation so produced, which is believed to be accurate

to at least one-half of 1 per cent, has been diffused generally over

the world by the Smithsonian Institution. About twenty-five

copies of the silver disk pyrheliometer have been standardized

and sent out to Europe, North America, and South America for

this, purpose. The Smithsonian instruments read about 3.5 per

o

cent above those of Angstrom.

jNIeasurements of the solar constant of radiation were begun

in Washington in 1902 and have been continued at Washing-

ton or elsewhere in every succeeding year until the present

time. In 1903 it was noticed that the values of the solar radia-

tion outside the atmosphere obtained in Washington were vari-

able within the limits of about 10 per cent, and as some of the

changes appeared to occur between days which were of the high-

est order of excellence, it was thought possible that these changes

might occur in the sun, and not be caused by alterations of the'

transparency of the earth's atmosphere. To test this possibil-

ity, a station was established on ]\lount Wilson, California, in

1905 by invitation of Director Hale of the Mount Wilson Solar

Observatory. The station proved to be very favorable for the

work, and in 1908 a permanent structure of cement was built

there for the use of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.

In the years 1909 and 1910 spectro-bolometric observations for

the determination of the solar constant of radiation were also

made on the extreme summit of Mount Whitney in California

at an altitude of 4420 meters. At the same time observations

were being made at Mount Wilson at .an altitude of 1730 meters.

106 abbot: solar constant of radiation

The results from these two stations reduced to outside the atmos-

phere at mean solar distance, like those which had formerly been

obtained simultaneously at Washington and Mount Wilson, were

identical within the limit of the accuracy of the determinations.

The accuracy of the work at Mount Wilson and Mount Whitney

was so great that the average divergence between the observa-

tions of the same days was only 1 per cent. At Washington, the

sky conditions being less perfect, the average divergence from

simultaneous solar-constant results of Mount Wilson was about

3 per cent.

Evidences of solar variahility of short irregular periods. Numer-

ous observations of several years at Mount Wilson indicated a

fluctuation in the solar-constant values having a range of about

10 per cent. The fluctuations seemed to occur irregularly, some-

times running their course of 10 per cent or less within the period

of a week or ten days, and at other times keeping nearly constant.

It had been shown by the observations made simultaneously at

Mount Wilson and at Mount Whitney that the results, as re-

duced outside the atmosphere, appear to be independent of the

altitude of the observing station, on days when the sky conditions

appeared to the eye to be excellent. The march of the apparent

fluctuation of the solar constant values at Mount Wilson has not

been of a haphazard character. I mean by this that the values

progress in a definite direction, as for instance from a low value

to a high value by steps through several successive days, and

then as definitely progress in the opposite direction through other

successive days, and do not fluctuate widely from high values

to low, as would be the case if the irregularities were due merely

to instrumental error. Since, then, it appeared that the fluctua-

tions were neither of an accidental instrumental character, nor

of a character associated with the altitude of the observing sta-

tion, it appeared most reasonable to conclude that these fluctua-

tions were due to changes in the sun's emission.

To test this important conclusion it appeared necessary to

establish a second station, equally favorably situated with re-

gard to sky conditions as Mount Wilson, but so far remote from

Mount Wilson that local influences could not be expected to

abbot: solar constant of radiation 107

alter the results at both stations in the same direction on the

same day. Such a station was established at Bassour, Algeria,

in the years 1911 and 1912. Seventy-five days of simultaneous

measurement at Mount Wilson and at Bassour were obtained,

and of these days about fifty were so far free from the occurrence

of clouds, or other disturbing influences, at both stations, as to

be retained for purposes of comparison. The result of the com-

parison shows that when high values are obtained at Bassour,

high values are obtained also at Mount Wilson, and vice versa.

Thus the fluctuations which have been found, appear to be truly

existing in the solai- radiation outside the earth's atmosphere, for

the solar constant values obtained at two stations separated by

about one-third the circumference of the earth unite in showing

them.

Value of the solar constant. During the whole solar constant

campaign from 1902 to 1913, about 700 measurements of the solar

constant of radiation have been obtained, all but three of the

values ranging between 1.80 calories and 2.10 calories. The

range of these numbers is mainly attributable to the actual fluc-

tuation of the sun itself, though part, especially in W^ashington

work, is due to accidental errors of measurement. The mean

value from 690 measurements is 1.933 calories per square cen-

timeter per minute. It is believed that this number represents

the average value of the solar constant of radiation for the epoch

1902 to 1913 within 1 per cent. There is still the possibility,

however, that an appreciable quantity of solar radiation be-

yond the wave length of 0.3^ in the ultra-violet has been absorbed

by ozone in the higher atmosphere of the earth, and has been

impossible of determination at the stations employed. However,

from the consideration of the form of energy curve of the sun's

spectrum it is improbable that this lost ultra-violet radiation

can exceed 1 or 2 per cent.

Solar variability associated with sun-spots. Besides the short

irregular fluctuation of solar radiation above mentioned as having

been shown by the simultaneous measurements at Mount Wil-

son and Bassour, Algeria, it appears that a long period fluctua-

tion is associated with the sun-spot numbers. This connection

108 abbot: solar constant of radiation

is brought out by taking the mean monthly values of the solar

constant measurements at Mount Wilson from the year 1906

on, and comparing them with the mean monthly sun-spot num-

bers of Wolfer for the same period. From such a comparison

it appears that the greater the number of sun-spots the higher

will be the solar constant of radiation, and that an increase of a

hundred sun-spot numbers corresponds to an increase of about

0.07 calories per square centimeter per minute in the solar radi-

ation outside the earth's atmosphere. This is a very curious

circumstance, when it is recalled that the temperature of the

earth is generally lower at sun-spot maximum than at sun-spot

minimum, notwithstanding that, if the above result be true, the

solar radiation is more intense at sun-spot maximum than at

sun-spot minimum. On the other hand, the result is in line with

the irregular variability of the Myra type of variable stars.

Atmospheric transjiiission. In connection with the measure-

ments which have been made of the solar constant of radiation,

there have been some interesting by-products. Among these we

may mention first the determination of the transmission coeffi-

cients of the earth's atmosphere for light of all wave-lengths, in-

cluding the ultra-violet and the infra-red spectrum, and ranging

from wave-length 0.3m in the ultra-violet to wave length 2.5m in

the infra-red. These transmission coefficients have been ob-

tained by the Smithsonian observers at Washington, Mount Wil-

son, Mount Whitney, and Bassour. It is very interesting to com-

pare them with the transmission of the atmosphere as computed

according to the theoretical considerations of Rayleigh on the

cause of the hght of the sky. It is found that by means of these

transmission coefficients the value of the number of molecules in

the atmosphere may be obtained almost as accurately as by the

use of the more common laboratory methods for determining

the number of molecules per cubic centimeter of a gas of known

density. It is found that the theory of Rayleigh connecting the

change of transmission with the wave-length is closely confirmed

by the observations at Bassour, Mount Wilson, and Mount Whit-

ney. Similar measurements of atmospheric transmission for more

limited regions of the spectrum have been made by other ob-

abbot: solar constant of radiation 109

servers at high altitudes, and these also are found to agree closely

with the theory of Rayleigh, and with our own observations.

Not less interesting is the determination of the distribution of

energy in the sun's spectrum, and thereby of the probable tem-

peratures existing in the sun. The solar temperatures may be in-

ferred also from the value of the solar constant of radiation itself,

and the two methods agree substantially in giving the probable

solar temperatures as between 6000° and 7000° absolute Centi-

grade.

Recent halloon experiments. Notwithstanding the satisfactory

state of the theory of solar constant measurements by the meth-

od of Langley, depending upon spectro-bolometric observations

at high and low sun combined with measurements by the pyr-

heliometer, and notwithstanding the close agreement between

results obtained by this method for many years at stations of

differing altitude from sea-level to 4420 meters elevation, there

still exists the possibility that if we could, indeed, go outside the

atmosphere altogether, we should obtain values differing mate-

rially from those above given. So long as we observe at the

earth's surface, no matter how high the mountain top on which

we stand, the atmosphere remains above us, and some estimate

must be made of its transmission before the solar constant can be

determined. Different persons will differ in the degree of con-

fidence which they will ascribe to measurements of the atmos-

pheric transmission such as have been considered, and there are

still some who totally disbelieve in the accuracy of the results

thus far obtained, even though they be confirmed by observa-

tions at such differing altitudes. Accordingly it has seemed

highly desirable to check the results by a method of direct ob-

servation by the pyrheliometer, attaching the instrument for

this purpose to a balloon and sending it to the very highest pos-

sible altitudes. By a cooperation between the Smithsonian In-

stitution and the United States Weather Bureau, experiments for

this purpose were made in July and August of the year 1913.

The instruments employed were modified in form from the

silver disk pyrheliometer, which has been described above. As

the apparatus could not be pointed at the sun, the disk was

110 abbot: solar constant of radiation

placed horizontally, and the thermometer was contrived to re-

cord its temperature by photography upon a moving drum.

The receiving disk was alternately exposed to the sun and shaded

by the intervention of a shutter, operated intermittently by the

clock work which rotated the drum under the stem of the ther-

mometer. Five instruments of this kind were sent up on suc-

cessive days. While it was well known that the temperature of

the higher air would go as low as — 55°C., it was believed that

a blackened disk, exposed half the time to the direct sun rays,

would certainly remain above the temperature of —40°, which

is the freezing point of mercury. This expectation was disap-

pointed. Accordingly, owing to the freezing of the mercury in

the thermometer, the highest solar radiation records obtained

during the expedition were at the altitude of 13,000 meters,

although the balloons in some instances reached the altitude of

33,000 meters.

The results obtained, while they have not the same degree of

accuracy as those obtained by direct reading of the silver disk

pyrheliometer, are yet of considerable weight. All the measure-

ments unite in indicating values of the solar radiation at alti-

tudes of 10,000 meters and higher, which fall below the value of

the solar constant of radiation as obtained by other methods,

and above the value of the radiation at the summit of Mount

Whitney as obtained by different observers with pyrheliometers.

It is expected in the coming year to repeat the observations with

balloons under much improved circumstances. By aid of elec-

trical heating apparatus it is expected to keep the surroundings

of the disks at approximately the freezing temperature, even

though exposed to the air at temperatures as low as — 55°C.

In this way it is hoped to obtain good pyrheliometer measure-

ments as high as it is possible for sounding balloons to go, and

possibly to an altitude of 40,000 meters. As the atmospheric

pressure at such altitudes is less than 1 per cent of that prevailing

at sea-level, the experiments, if successful, may be expected to

remove reasonable doubt of the value of the solar constant of

radiation.

avherry: compositions of minerals 111

MINERALOGY. — Variations in the compositions of minerals.

Edgar T. Wherry, U. S. National Museum. ^ Communi-

cated by Waldemar T. Schaller.

"With the advance of scientific knowledge it becomes necessary

from time to time to revise some of our most fundamental con-

ceptions and definitions. In chemistry, for instance, the old

view is being abandoned that mixtures differ from compounds

in that the former can be separated into their constituents by

^'mechanical means" while the latter cannot. -

Most of our text-books of mineralogy are largely based on

Dana's System of 1892, and ignore the important advances which

have taken place since that time. In particular, the writer be-

lieves that the conception of mineral species which permeates

them is in need of revision, for, in the light of recent work, vari-

ability of composition must apparently be recognized as a funda-

mental principle of mineralogical chemistry. It is therefore pro-

posed that a species be defined as a natural inorganic substance

whose che7nical and physical properties are constant only within

certain limits, these limits varying widely from one case to an-

other. The possible ways in which variations in the chemical

composition of minerals can occur are through adsorption, iso-

morphous replacement, and solid solution.

Adsorption. While most minerals exemplify the crj^stalloidal

state of matter, colloids are also not infrequently represented.

As has been pointed out by several writers,* all minerals appear-

ing wax- or gum-like, or with botryoidal, dendritic, globular,

mammillary, nodular, reniform, or stalactitic structures, and at

the same time showing an amorphous character under the mi-

croscope, are to be regarded as gels, or solid colloids.

' Read at the Rochester meeting of the American Chemical Society, September,

1913.

2 W. Lash Miller, Science, 34: 257 1911.

3 F. Cornu, Centr. Min. Geol., 1909: 324; R. Marc. Fortschritte Min. Kryst.

Petr., 3: 11; A. Himmelbauer, ibid., 3: 32 (including a G-page bibliography),

1913.

M}' excuse for treating this subject so fully at this place is that American

mineralogists appear to have underestimated the importance of these contribu-

tions: in six recent text-books 1 have been unable to find the word colloid.

112 wherry: compositions of minerals

One of the most striking features possessed by gels is their

power of adsorbing foreign substances. For instance, the abihty

of the sesquioxides, when precipitated with ammonia, to take up

considerable amounts of phosphoric acid, boric acid, etc., has

long been recognized, and analytical methods modified in the

presence of these substances. The amounts so adsorbed bear in

general no relation to the molecular weights of the substances

concerned — that is, the law of definite proportions is not obeyed

— except that ''the composition of many [natural] gels agrees

frequently quite exactly with the corresponding formulas of crys-

tallized minerals."*

The extent to which adsorption causes variations in the com-

positions of colloid minerals becomes evident when the analyses

of bauxite, psilomelane, wad, the clays, chrysocolla, etc., are

inspected. It is not so certain, however, which constituents

should be regarded as united and which as adsorbed in these

minerals. Is an amorphous clay containing silica, alumina and

water to be regarded as an adsorption product of Si02 gel, AI2O3

gel, and water, or as kaolinite gel (H4Al2Si209) containing an

excess of one or the other constituents adsorbed? It will be nec-

essary to develop methods for the proximate analysis of colloidal

minerals — staining, fractional solution, plotting dehydration

curves, etc. — before such questions can be settled, a problem that

will keep mineralogical chemists busy for some time to come.

But meanwhile we should face the issue squarely, and in stating

the composition of such minerals admit their variable character

instead of attempting to assign them definite formulas, as is

done in text-books.

Then there is a whole series of minerals whose superficial ap-

pearance is that of colloids, but whose fibrous or foliated internal

structure betrays their crystallinity, such as chalcedony, limon-

ite, malachite, serpentine, dufrenite, etc. As there appears to

be no single descriptive term'^ in use for these, the word meta-

colloid is here proposed. A meta-colloid is to be defined as a

substance which, though originally colloidal in character, has he-

* Cornu, op. cit., p. 336.

^ Himnielbauer, op. cit., p. 39, calls them "gealterte Gelen."

wherry: compositions of minerals 113

come more or less crystalline, for this has evidently been the his-

tory of most of this class of minerals.

If the original colloids have compositions approaching those of

definite crystallizable compounds, then the change to a meta-

colloid may be regarded as a simple molecular rearrangement.

But if adsorbed constituents are present in excess over the

requirements for such compounds, what becomes of them? Ob-

servations bearing directly on this point are lacking, but some

analyses of meta-colloid minerals are certainly on record in which

the presence of foreign material is shown. It is only necessary

to turn to garnierite (Dana, System, p. 677), chloropal (ibid., p.

701) and dufrenite (ibid., p. 797), all of which often look crystal-

line (cryptocrystalline) and homogeneous under the microscope,

to find examples of this. It would therefore seem that in some

cases, at least, adsorption may occur even in meta-colloids, so

that it can not be regarded as safe to consider crystallinity alone of

minerals, whose features are those of meta-colloids, as a certain

proof of their definiteness of composition.

Solid solution. Especially in substances appearing in distinct

crystals it is quite generally assumed that, except for isomorphous

replacement,^ the composition is fixed, constant, and definite.

Yet even here there is evidence that some variation may occur.

Two cases have recently been discussed elaborately: nephelite,

which often contains 2 per cent more SiOo than is required by its

simple formula without evident effect on its crystallographic

constants, optical properties, or any other features;^ and pyrrho-

tite, in which the amount of sulphur can vary from 36.3 per cent

corresponding to FeS, to over 40 per cent, with only slight changes

in axial ratio and specific gravity, and without loss of crystallinity

or characteristic properties.^

But other well crystallized minerals have yielded analytical

results exhibiting even greater variability in the amounts of con-

^ The subject of isomorphous replacement is fully treated in the text-books,

and need not be discussed here. In one sense it is, of course, only a special case

of solid solution, but this term is here used only for non-isomorphous combina-

tions.

^ Foote and Bradley, Amer. Jour. Sci., 31: 25, 1911; 33: 439, 1912.

* Allen, Crenshaw, Johnston and Larsen, Amer. Jour. Sci., 33: 169, 1912.

114 COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID

stituents, especially the columbates, tantalates and titanates,

but also some sulfo-salts (binnite, tetrahedrite), halides (fluo-

cerite, yttrocerite), oxides (striiverite, uraninite), silicates (some

pyroxenes and amphiboles, to account for the composition of

which the conception of isomorphous replacement has to be

made unreasonably broad), etc.

It is customary at the present time to consider this variability

as due to " solid solution." Of course, the mere giving a phenome-

non a name does not explain it, but whatever may be its signifi-

cance its existence cannot be denied and should not be over-

looked. Consequently, even crystallinity cannot fairly he regarded

as a certain criterion of the absence of ^^ solid solution'^ or accord-

ingly of the definite chemical composition of a inineral.^

In conclusion, it may be urged that in future text-books and

writings dealing with the establishment of mineral species, notice

be taken of these relations, and that there be included along

with the simple, essential formula of each mineral, in so far as

one can be recognized, a statement of the extent to which vari-

ations in its composition occur.

BOTANY. — A hybrid between Tripsacum and Euchlaena. G. N.

Collins and J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry. -

In connection with studies in the heredity of maize and re ated

plants a fertile hybrid has been secured between Tripsacum dac-

tyloides L. and Euchlaena mexicana Schrad.

Euchlaena mexicana or teosinte is an annual grass, native in

Mexico, often grown for forage. The variety grown in the United

States requires a long season to mature and the only place where

seed is produced is in southern Florida. Tripsacum dactyloides

is a perennial grass, native in many parts of eastern United

States. The plant is of no economic importance.

The genera Euchlaena and Tripsacum are placed in separate

groups of the tribe Maydeae and the plants are so different that

^ This is in no way intended as a denial of the definite molecular structure of

crystals; and that it is quite possible to reconcile the latter conception with the

existence of solid solution will be shown in a later paper.

' Presented before the Botanical Society of Washington, February 3, 1914,

COLLINS AND KEMPTONI A NEW HYBRID

115

it is difficult even to contrast the characters. The following is

an attempt to formulate the more conspicuous differences:

Tripsacum

Plants perennial.

i\Iale and female flowers in the same

inflorescence.

Lateral inflorescences not enclosed in

bracts.

Fruit trapezoidal.

Order of flowering of pistillate flowers

from above downward.

Staminate spikelets in pairs, both ses-

sile.

Leaves averaging about 50 times as

long as wide.

Euchlaena

Plants annual.

Male and female flowers in different

inflorescences.

Lateral inflorescences enclosed in

bracts.

Fruit nearly triangular.

Order of flowering of pistillate flowers

from near the bottom upward.

Staminate spikelets in pairs, one ses-

sile, the other pediceled

Leaves averaging about 10 times as

long as wide.

Euchlaena and Tripsacum are the only American genera as-

sociated with Zea in the tribe Maydeae. Euchlaena and Zea

cross readily and a complete series of intermediates is known. ^

Although the possibility of securing a hybrid between such

diverse plants seemed verj^ remote, the paucity of wild relatives

encouraged us in repeated attempts to secure hybrids between

Tripsacum and Zea or Euchlaena. Until the present instance

these attempts have always given negative results.-*

The pollen parent of the present hj^brid belonged to a Mexican

variet}^ of Euchlaena, the seed of which was received from Mr.

H. A'. Jackson of Durango, Mexico. This variety is earlier

than the Florida teosinte and many of the plants show indica-

tions of contamination with maize. Among the most common

maize-like characters occurring in the teosinte from this region

are the development of a central spike in the staminate inflor-

escence, the greater prominence of the primary culm, and the

formation of a rudimentary cob in the pistillate inflorescence.

^ For a discussion of the characters of Euchlaena and Zea, see Collins, G.X.,

The origin of maize, Journ. AVash. Acad. Sci. 2: 520-530, 1912.

■• In view of the great disparitj' in the length of the stigmas, there may be

a mechanical difficulty in making the reciprocal cross, using Tripsacum as the

pollen parent.

The maximum elongation of the pollen tube in fertilizing Tripsacum flowers

would never exceed 2 cm., while the fertilization of an ovule of Zea or Euchlaena

could not be accomplished without an elongation of at least 10 cm.

116 COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID

Owing to the fact that the plant which supphed pollen for the

hybrid was grown in the greenhouse where all teosinte plants

behave abnormally, it was impossible to determine whether this

particular plant would have possessed many or few of these maize-

like characters had it grown normally in the open. As it de-

veloped in the greenhouse it was much reduced in stature, being

only about 2 feet high. A number of pistillate flowers were pro-

duced in the terminal inflorescence, the branches of which were

much reduced. But there was no tendency to form either a

cob or a central spike in the terminal inflorescence.

The plant of Tripsacum used as female parent of the hybrid

was an offshoot from a plant grown at Lanham, Maryland. In

February, 1913, a number of offshoots were removed from the

plant at Lanham and planted in the greenhouse at Washington.

Probably as a result of being grown in the greenhouse the stami-

nate portion of the first inflorescences that appeared were aborted.

The female flowers of one of these aborted inflorescences were

pollinated by Euchlaena, producing the hybrid under discussion.

As soon as pollinated the inflorescence was enclosed in a paper

bag. This was an unnecessary precaution, for the stigmas were

dry before any Tripsacum pollen was produced and there were

no other flowering plants of Tripsacum in the greenhouse at that

time. As a result of this pollination four seeds were secured.

The four hybrid seeds were planted on April 8, 1913, but only

one germinated. As soon as the seedling appeared above the

ground the soil was removed so as to expose the seed, allowing

us to make sure that the plant was growing from the Tripsacum

seed and not from the seed of some other grass accidentally oc-

curring in the soil.

All possibility that the plant was other than a true hybrid

was removed at an early date. As soon as the nature of the seed-

ling could be determined it was found to resemble the male

parent Euchlaena in all discernible characters. This resem-

blance continued throughout the life of the plant.

The abnormal characters of the particular plants used as par-

ents, induced by the greenhouse conditions, made impossible any

accurate comparisons of the hybrid with its individual parents,

COLLINS AND KEMPTON: A NEW HYBRID 117

but it can be said that the hybrid plant more nearly resembled

normal teosinte grown in the open than did any of the green-

house grown teosinte plants themselves. With respect to all

the differences listed above, the hybrid resembled Euchlaena.

The only suggestion of a Tripsacum character was that the main

stalk matured some days in advance of the branches or suckers.

This might be taken as a shght indication of a tendency toward

perennial habit. On the other hand this tendency may exist in

Euchlaena, which has not been carefully examined with this

character in mind. Seed was produced in abundance and was

indistinguishable from that of pure teosinte. Some of this first

generation hybrid seed has been planted and a number have

germinated showing the hybrid to be fertile.

The chief points of interest in this hybrid may be summarized

as follows:

1. The hybrid is bigeneric, and the parent types differ in pro-

found morphological characters.

2. One of the parents is strictly annual, the otlier perennial,

requiring several years to mature.

3. None of the characters of the female parent appeared in

the first generation; that is, the hybrid is completely patroclinous.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BOTANY. — Mexican g7'asses in the United States National Herhariuni.

A. S. Hitchcock. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 17: 181-389. 1913.

This paper includes a list of 615 species of Mexican grasses, 23 of

which are described as new, represented by specimens in the U. S.

National Herbarium. There is a key to the genera, and, preceding

each genus, a key to the species. Under each species are given the

more important synonyms, the type locality, the range, and an enu-

meration of the specimens from Mexico arranged by states. One new

genus, Triniochloa, is described. This includes three species, one,

from Chihuahua, collected by the author, being new, the others trans-

ferred from Avena. One of the latter, the type species, T. stipoides,

was first described as Podosaemum and later transferred to Muhlen-

bergia and to Avena.

The more important collections available in the present study are

those of Palmer, Pringle and the author, who have explored botanically

nearly all the states of Mexico. There are cited also many duplicates

of the early collectors, such as Bourgeau, Liebmann, Schaffner, Botteri

and Muller. A. S. H.

PHARMACOLOGY. — Individual variation in the alkaloidal content of

belladonna plants. A. F. Sievers. Journal of Agricultm-al Re-

search 1 : 129-146. 1913.

In a systematic study of the alkaloidal content of the leaves of a

large number of belladonna plants, some important facts have been

established. The leaves were assayed at five distinct stages of growth

from early in May to late in October and the results indicate that the

flowering stage is the most advantageous time to pick the leaves. A

higher percentage of alkaloids is found later in the season but the leaves

118

abstracts: phytopathology 119

are tlien too small and sparse for profitable harvesting. The physical

characteristics of the plant have thus far shown no relationship to the

alkaloidal content of the leaves. Luxuriant groAx^th is no criterion of

the medicinal value of the plant.

The individual plants show a remarkable variation in the alkaloidal

content. It is found that man}^ plants rich in alkaloids throughout the

season are equally rich in following seasons. The same is true of plants

that are unusually poor in alkaloids. This incHcates that the relative

production of alkaloids in these plants is largely due to the inherent

characteristic of the individual and not entirely to the varying external

influences. A. F. S.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. — Environmental influences on the physical

and chemical characteristics of wheat. J. A. LeClerc and P. A.

YoDER. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 275-291. 1914.

Previous work (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 128) showed that the

composition of wheat and its physical characteristics, such as the weight

per thousand, weight per bushel, and flintiness are not to any great ex-

tent herecUtary; that both the chemical composition and the physical

characteristics above enumerated are dependent upon the environ-

ment (climate and soil) in which the wheat grew. In the present paper

the authors describe investigations carried on in Maryland, Kansas,

and California in which small plots of soil from each of three localities

were interchanged. This experiment was continued during 1909-10-

11-12. Each year the crop from each plot was harvested and analyzed

for the usual chemical constituents and physical properties. From

these results it is seen that the wheat grown in any one locality is very

uniform in composition and in appearance, but quite different from the

same wheat grown on the same soils in the other two localities, sho^\'ing

that the climatic conditions prevailing during the period of growth

exerts the major influence in affecting both the chemical 'composition

and the physical characteristics of wheat. The wheat gro-^ii on the

check plot in each locality was identical, physically and chemically,

to that grown on the imported soils. J. A. LeC.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A hacterium causing the disease of sugar-beet

and nasturtium leaves. Nellie A. Brown and Clara O. Jamie-

son. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 189-210. 1913.

The paper deals with an organism causing a spot-disease on leaves

of nasturtium and sugar-beet. The spotting Avas noticed on these

120 abstracts: phytopathology

plants in the same year, occurring in widely separated areas — the nas-

turtium leaf-spot in Virginia, and the sugar-beet leaf-spot in Utah.

The cause of the disease, a bacterium, was isolated from each host,

and the organism isolated was proved up in each case by means of in-

oculations. As it was supposed that two distinct diseases were being

dealt with, work was carried on independently for two years, when,

through comparison of cultural and morphological tests and by cross-

inoculations, it was proved that the organisms causing the leaf-spot

disease on both hosts were identical. The same organism also pro-

duces spots on bean leaves and pods, also on leaves of lettuce, pepper,

and eggplant.

The organism is called Bacterium aptatum. It belongs to the green

fluorescent group of bacteria, and has been shown to be different from

Bacterium xanthochlorum , an organism in this group pathogenic

to potato ; and from Pseudomonas tenuis, which has been given the

same group number in the descriptive chart of the Society of American

Bacteriologists. It is also different from Bacterium phaseoU, although

both organisms produce the spotting of bean leaves and pods.

N. A. B.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— T'/ie/oo^-ro^ of the sweet potato. L. L. Harter.

Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 251-273. 1913.

The foot-rot, a new disease of the sweet potato, is caused by the fungus

Plenodomus destruens. It was found in Mrginia for the first time during

the summer of 1912 and caused extensive damage that season and in

1913. In some fields as much as 95 per cent of the plants were killed.

The organism kills the plants primarily by. the destruction of the cor-

tex of the stem, although occasionally it may be found on the vines

several feet from the hill. Numerous inoculations have proven the

parasitism of this fungus. Experiments have shown that it will grow

from diseased roots into the slips produced therefrom; also from dis-

eased slips into the roots. The fungus lives over the winter on dead

vines in the field and probably on the roots used for seed. The disease

occurs in the hot bed, so that it is likely that the sale or exchange of

slips and seed potatoes is largely responsible for its distribution. Sani-

tary methods and careful selection of only sound healthy potatoes for

seed are recommended as means of control. L. L. H.

abstracts: phytopathology 121

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— nc anthracnose of the mango in Florida.

S. M. McMuRRAisr. U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 52,

pp. 15. 1914.

An investigation of the mango anthracnose or blight was conducted

in Florida during the seasons of 1912 and 1913 ^\^th a view to deter-

mining (1) the cause of the disease, (2) the control of the disease, and

(3) the broader question of the suitability of the southeast coast of

Florida for the production of the mango on a commercial scale.

Infection experiments by the \M'iter and others have shown that the

blighting of the mango blossoms, the tear staining and scabbing of the

fruit, and the spotting of the leaves is due to Colletotrichum gloeospor-

ioides Penz.

The experiments on the control of the disease indicate that the blos-

som bhght form of the disease cannot be controlled by spraying with

Bordeaux mixture during seasons which are rainy at blooming time,

but that the fruit may be protected from fungus invasions and carried

through to maturity in a clean and disease-free condition b}^ spraying.

In regard to the third proposition, observations in Florida indicate

that a set of fruit cannot be expected unless the weather is dry at bloom-

ing time. This coincides entirely with the opinions expressed by writ-

ers on the mango from Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Hawaii, and forces

the conclusion that the main limiting factor of the mango is the condi-

tion of the weather at blooming time. Given clear, dry weather, a

good crop of fruit may be expected. Given, on the other hand, rainy

weather at blooming time, i.e., suitable conditions for fungus infection,

a failure is practically certain.

The main bloom of the mango occurs in March. The weather rec-

ords for Miami show that the months of March in 1912 and 1913 were

unusually rainy, but that the mean mrniber of rainy days for March

based on a record of 16 years is only 4.56 days, and that in 8 years out

of the 16 the number of rainy daj's fell below this mean. From this

it would appear that the chances for success are quite good, the hazard

being probably no greater than in most of the peach growing sections

of the Xorth.^. S. M. M.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — Polyporus dryadeus, a root parasite on the oak.

W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 239-250. 1913.

A brief history is given of this fungus since Bulliard first described

it in 1789 as Boletus pseudo-igniarius. Attention is called to Hartig's

122 ABSTEACTS: PHYTOPATHOLOGY

error in assigning to Polyporus dryadeus, the rot produced by P. dryophi-

lus. Several synonyms for P. dryophilus are also given and the rot

produced by it compared to the rot produced by P. dryadeus. The

disease was found in the forests of Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, Mary-

land, and Virginia. The first evidence of the disease is a reddish brown

discoloration of the inner bark and cambium; in the final stage of the

rot the color becomes white or creamy white. In all the uprooted

trees examined, the disease began in the lower portion of the roots and

spread upward toward the stool of the tree. The rot was found in the

roots of Quercus texana, Q. nigra, Q. alba, Q. velutina, Q. minor, Q.

rubra, and Q. prinus. The following conclusions are presented : .

1. Polyporus dryadeus is a root parasite of the oak producing a white

sap rot and heart rot in the roots.

2. In all the trees examined this rot did not extend upward into the

tree as a true heart or sap rot of the trunk, but was limited to the under-

ground parts of the tree.

3. The rot and sporophore described and figured by Robert Hartig

do not belong to Polyporus dryadeus but to P. dryophilus.

4. In the majority of cases only old or much suppressed trees or

trees growing under very unfavorable conditions are attacked by this

disease.

5. The disease does not seem to spread readily to adjacent trees.

6. The disease is widely distributed Ijoth in America and Europe

and is probably found in these countries throughout the range of the

oak. W. H. L.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A71 underscribed species of Gymnosporangimn

from Japan. W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research

1: 853-356. 1914.

Attention is called to the introduction into this country of a new

species of Gymnosporangium on Juniperus chinensis from Japan. The

three types of teliospores in the genus Gymnosporangium which have

characters of specific value are described.

Taxonomic descriptions are given of three species, Gymnosporangium

chinense, G. japonicum and G. haraeanum, all from Japan and on the

same host, Juniperus chinensis. The value of taking into considera-

tion at least two of the types of teliospores, the thin and thick-walled

ones found in each species of Gymnosporangium, is shown. W. H. L.

abstracts: pathology 123

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— n;-ee undescribed heart-rots of hardivood trees,

especially of oak. W. H. Long. Journal of Agricultural Research

1: 109-128. 1913.

Of the twenty heart-rotting fungi found in oak only the following

seven were present to any extent in the trunks and tops of the trees:

Hijdnum erinaceus, Polyporus sulphureus, P. dryophilus, P. berkeleyi,

P. frondosus, P. pilotae, and Fames lobatus.

Of the 2100 felled oak trees studied in the Ozark National Forest

64. S per cent were affected with butt rots. Tables are given for the

follo^\^ng fungi : Hydnimi erinaceus, Polyporus pilotae, Polyporus sul-

phureus, Polyporus berkeleyi, and Polyporus frondosus, showing the vari-

ous heights of rot produced by each in the trees.

Polyporus pilotae was found in the following species of trees : Quercus

alba, Q. velutina, Q. texana, Q. coccinea, Castanea pumila, and C. dentata.

The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of this rot for each host

are given. It is a delignifying rot in which long white strands of cellu-

lose are usually the most prominent feature.

A string and ray rot of oaks caused by Polyporus berkeleyi is a rot in

which the wood fibers are first delignified and then absorbed, leaving

more or less intact the medullary rays and the vessels. In a later

stage all the elements are gradually destroyed until only a brown mass

of very rotten wood and fungus hyphae is left in the stool of the tree.

Polyporus frondosus is also a delignifying fungus. It was found in

only 12 trees out of 1968 white oaks examined. It has been found on

various species of oak and also on chestnut throughout the United

States and Canada, and also in Europe. W. H. L.

PATHOLOGY. — Cysticercus ovis, the cause of tapeworm cysts in mutton .

B. H. Ransom. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 15-58. 1913.

The discovery by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry that

sheep slaughtered under Federal supervision were not infrequently in-

fested with cysticerci located in the musculature, led to an investiga-

tion as to their identity. They were evidently the same parasite as

that named Cysticercus ovis by Cobbold in 1869, which has generally

been considered identical with Cysticercus cellulosae, the pork-measle

parasite, the intermediate stage of Taenia solium of man. Some au-

thors, however, have looked upon it as an aberrant form of Cysticercus

tenuicollis, the intermediate stage of Taenia hydatigena (also known as

T. marginata), a dog tapeworm. By means of feeding experiments it

124 abstracts: pathology

was definitely proved that Cysticercus ovis is neither Cysticercus cellu-

losae nor C. tenuicolUs. Like the latter it is the intermediate stage of

a dog tapeworm, but of a species heretofore unrecognized in its adult

stage. The name of this species is Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869). Dogs

become infested as a result of devouring measly mutton, and sheep as

a result of swallowing the eggs of the tapeworm in food or water con-

taminated by the feces of infested dogs. There is no reason to suppose

that the parasite is transmissible to man; in fact no tapeworm infesta-

tion occurred in a human subject (the writer) after the ingestion of

live cysticerci. Cysticercus ovis may attain its full development in

sheep in less than three months after infection and in the dog the tape-

worm may reach egg-producing maturity in seven weeks after the in-

gestion of the Cysticercus. C. ovis is practically limited to the inter-

muscular connective tissue, and thus differs from C. tenuicolUs which

occurs in more or less intimate relation with serous membranes. Un-

like the latter it apparently does not pass through the liver in its migra-

tions from the alimentary tract to its final location.

Cysticercus ovis has been found occasionally in England, France,

Germany, Algeria, German South West Africa, and New Zealand. Its

presence has been determined in seven of the western United States.

As yet no infestation has been found in sheep from the eastern United

States. Wolves, probably, as well as dogs, may serve as hosts of the

adult tapeworm. The Cysticercus may occur in goats.

Over 17,000 of the sheep slaughtered under Federal supervision during

the year 1912, prior to December 1, were found to be infested with

Cysticercus ovis. So far as the sheep in the western United States are

concerned the number actually infested probably exceeds 2 per cent.

A full discussion of Cysticercus ovis is given under the headings of

historical summary, life-history investigation, zoological description,

remarks on morphologj'" and comparison with other species, macroscopic

appearance, distribution in body, degeneration, diagnosis, geographic

distribution, prevalence, age of infested sheep, economic importance,

significance in meat inspection, survival after death of host, and pro-

phylaxis. B. H. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 94th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Tuesday, February

3, 1914. Messrs. Raymond B. Wilcox, Arno Viehoever, and Henry

Pittier were elected to membership.

The scientific program was as follows :

Brief notes and reviews of literature. Dr. David Griffiths reviewed

a prospectus of a stock company which has been organized in Australia

for the purpose of eradicating the cactus, which is there considered a

serious pest. Mr. S. C. Stuntz called attention to the return from

Brazil of Mr. A. D. Shamel, who has been there with Messrs. Dorsett

and Poponoe, who are studying methods of tropical fruit culture and

introducing the varieties that maj^ be of value in this country. Mr.

Shamel brought back over 1100 photographs which have thus far been

taken by them, and prints of these ^vill soon be available for study at

the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction for those who are

interested.

Dr. R. H. True: A report on the Atlanta meeting of the Botanical

Society of America. Dr. True gave a report on the attendance at the

meetings and number and character of the papers read before the

different sections, with special notes regarding those of a botanical

character.

Dr. H. Hasselbring: The relation between transpiration and the

absorption of inorganic constituents by plants. (Published in Bot. Gaz.

57: 72-73. January, 1914.)

Mr. G. N. Collins: A hybrid between Tripsacum and Euchlaena

(uith lantern). (See this Journal, p. 114.)

Dr. Walter H. Evans: An attempt at revegetation on Kodiak Island,

Alaska. The conditions on Kodiak Island following the eruption of

IVIount Katmai in May, 1912, were described and an account was given

of experiments in restoring the meadows and pastures of the experiment

station on that island.

The level land was covered ^vith the ash, or, more correctly, the

debris from the explosion, to a depth of 12 to 14 inches, and practically

all vegetation was destroyed. The only natural revegetation was where

hummocks of earth brought the original soil nearer the surface or where

plants came through cracks that formed in the deposit during the sum-

mer season. In these places fireweed, Epilobium anguslifolium, and

125

126 proceedings: philosophical society

Alaskan redtop, Calamagrostis langsdorfii, have come up abundantly.

In some instances where the deposit fell in the edge of marshes it sunk

in such a way that the grass came through and is growing luxuriantly.

On the hills and steeper slopes the rains have washed the ash to- the

bottoms along the creeks or into the sea.

At the experiment station, in order to furnish pasture and forage for

the live stock, experiments in revegetating the more level tracts have

been begun. Soon after the eruption had ceased manure was spread

on the land, which was then disked and seeded to rye. This gave some

winter pasture and a light crop the following year. In the spring of

1913 experiments were undertaken on an extensive scale. Land was

manured and commercial fertilizers were applied and a large amount

of grass and leguminous seed was sown with oats as a nurse crop. Wher-

ever nitrogen either in manure or as nitrate of lime was applied, good

growth was secured. Less growth followed where only Phosphoric

Acid and Potash were used and where no fertilizer was applied the

seed germinated, grew slowly, and finally died unless the roots were

able to penetrate the layer of ash and reach the soil below.

In gardens and wherever an especial effort was made to mix the

deposit with the underlying soil, better growth was reported than nor-

mal, the ash appearing to have been of benefit, probably by reason of

the improved physical condition of the soil.

P. L. RiCKER, Corresponding Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

The 730th meeting was held on November 22, 1913, at the Cosmos

Club, Vice President Fischer in the chair; 55 persons present. The

minutes of the 729th meeting were read and approved.

Mr. W. W. CoBLENTZ made an Exhibition of extrerne forms of ther-

mopiles, showing four forms. They are of bismuth-silver giving an

e.m.f. of 80 microvolts per degree and of bismuth-bismuth tin alloy

having a thermal e.m.f. of 127 microvolts. The novelty in these ther-

mopiles is the receiver, which is a completely opaque curtain which can

be adapted to many forms. The forms shown were: point receiver or

stellar thermopile, surface receiver to be used in place of the single

o ^ ...

thermal element in an Angstrom pyrheliometer, receivers m series

parallel reducing resistance one fourth, and the receivers in a U-shaped

trough for physiological work.

Mr. L. A. Bauer then spoke on Results of a first analysis of the Sun's

general magnetic field. The chief results are: (1) The magnetic axis

determined from the published data between parallells 60° N. and 60° S.

January, 1912, to February, 1913, is found to be inclined for the sun, 9°

to 12° to the axis of rotation, practically the same as that of the Earth;

(2) the Sun's magnetic field is asymmetrical about the equator in much

the same manner and direction as is that of the Earth; (3) the analysis

determined four instants distributed over a year w^hen north end of

Sun's magnetic axis was on the central meridian; since a whole number

proceedings: philosophical society 127

of rotations must have occurred during the intervals, it was possible to

determine a period of rotation appljdng, perhaps, to the Sun as a whole,

the preliminary synodic period thus found was nearly 33 days; (4) the

solar magnetic field is as complex as that of the Earth and the distorting

systems which are superposed upon a primary, simple magnetic field

follow laws very similar to those disclosed in the study of the Earth's

field. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. Mr. Burgess dis-

cussed the question of magnetic state under high temperature and pres-

sure; Messrs. Swann and White also discussed the paper.

]\Ir. W. F. G. Swann then gave an illustrated paper on The atmospheric

potential gradient and a theory as to its connection with other phenomena

in atmospheric electricity. The application of the ordinary theory of

conduction of electricity in gases to the atmosphere shows the mere

existence of an atmospheric potential gradient of the kind found carries

with it the following requirements: (1) the ratio of number of positive

ions per cc. at the Earth's surface to the number of negative ions shall

be greater than unity; (2) the above ratio shall increase with potential

gradient ; (3) neither the number of positive ions per cc. nor the number

of negative ions per cc. at the Earth's surface are the same thing as the

numljers which would, if the atmospheric field were absent, exist in ordei

to result in a balance between recoml)ination and formation; (4) the

atmospheric potential gradient, in a homogeneous atmosphere, shall

decrease with the height in the neighborhood of the Earth's surface ; (5)

there should be an apparent, but not necessarily true, increase of the

rate of ionization with the height. The problem of the conduction of

electricity between parallel plates immersed in a gas shows that the usual

solution is quite inapplicable when the rate of formation of ions is small

and the plates are a finite distance apart; accordingh% a new calculation

is given. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bauer, Marvin, Sosman,

and Humphreys, particularly in reference to the present rather primitive

state of the science of atmospheric electricity.

The 731st meeting was held on December 4, 1913, at the Cosmos Club,

being a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences.

President Tittmann, of the Academy, in the chair; about 150 persons

present.

Professor Jean Perrin, of the University of Paris, spoke on Brownian^

movement and molecidar reality. The paper gave a brief review of the

history of the subject and of the author's work, and was illustrated by

cinematographic photographs showing three experiments to illustrate

the BroA\'nian movement.

The chair called for a rising vote of thanks to the speaker for his very

interesting and instructive address.

The 732d meeting, 43d annual meeting, was held on December 20,

1913, at the Cosmos Club, President Abbot in the chair; 28 persons

present. The minutes of the 42d annual meeting were read. The

report of the Secretaries was read by IMr. Humphreys, showing an active

128 proceedings: philosophical society

membership of 146, a net gain of 8 over last year. Fifteen regular meet-

ings have been held. The report was ordered accepted and placed on

file. The Treasurer's report, dated December 16, 1913, was read by

Mr. Sosman, showing total receipts of $983.44 for the year; total expendi-

tures of $1677.49, including cost of additional investment for $1000

registered bond of the Cleveland Illuminating Company; total invest-

ments $11,000; cash in hand $527.15. The report was ordered accepted

and placed on file. The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting

of Messrs. Paul, White, and Whitten, was read by Mr. Paul. This

report showed statements in Treasurer's report were correct and that

the arrears in dues are $57.00. The report was ordered accepted and

placed on file. The reading of the names of members entitled to vote

was omitted by unanimous consent. Messrs. Hersey and Paris were ap-

pointed tellers.

The following officers were duly elected for the ensuing year: Presi-

dent, L. A. Fischer; Vice Presidents, W. S. Eichelberger, Wm. Bowie,

G. K. Burgess, W. J. Humphreys; Treasurer, R. B. Sosman; Secre-

taries, J. A. Fleming, P. G. Agnew; General Committee, L. J. Briggs,

E. G. Fischer, N. E. Dorsey, R. L. Faris, R. A, Harris, F. A. Wolff,

E. Buckingham, D. L. Hazard and M. D. Hersey.

During the election the question of more suitable quarters for meetings

was informally discussed. A rising vote of thanks for his long, faithful

and cheerful service was extended the retiring Secretary, Mr. Hum-

phreys, The Secretary was instructed to determine as to whether the

present is the forty-second or forty-third annual meeting and to correct

minutes, if necessary. The rough minutes of the meeting were read,

corrected and approved. After adjournment a buffet luncheon was

served.

The 733d meeting was held on January 3, 1914, at the Cosmos Club,

Vice President Eichelberger in the chair; 46 persons present.

The evening was devoted to the address of the retiring President, Mr.

C. G. Abbot, on The solar constant of radiation (see this Journal, p.

89).

The chair expressed to the speaker the thanks of the Society members

and friends for the interesting and illuminating paper.

• J. A. Fleming, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV MARCH 19, 1914 No. 6

PHYSICS. — The brightness of optical images. P. G. Nutting,

Eastman Kodak Research Laboratory.

The relative brightness of an object and its image formed by a

lens may be calculated by certain well known formulae when the

relative aperture of the lens is small and the object distance great.

Experimental determinations of relative brightness have been

made but not with sufficient precision to permit of a satisfactory

deduction of the light lost during transmission through the lens.

In this article are given first an extension of the theory to

lenses of all apertures and focal lengths and to all object distances.

A method is described of measuring relative illumination with a

precision as high as that reached in the best ordinary photometry.

Both investigations were initiated and carried out at the research

laboratory of the Eastman Company. The unabridged paper

(to appear elsewhere) contains the complete mathematical theory

and experimental data.

The theoretical investigation leads to an expression for the

flux density I of radiant power, in watts per unit area, entering

the image, relative to that (7o) leaving the object. This expres-

sion is in terms of radius of effective aperture R of the lens, dis-

tance of object u and image v measured from the nodal point of

the lens. The formula is simplified if we substitute magnification

m for the ratio v/u of image distance to object distance, and in-

troduce the symbol a = R/F, the* ratio of the radius of effective

aperture to equivalent focal length F. The complete formula is

129

130

nutting: brightness of optical images

in which M =

f.i

VI

r.

~ = xM\m log

^o L

1

T

1 + ^

I + T 1 + T

a2

1 -m2

(1 + ?«)-

and T = m'^s

T/D

Fig. 1

X.e

SV

/fa

In tlie special case of a very distant object, this expression

simplifies to ■k log (1 H-a^) or for narrow apertures to the ordinary

formula / ^I^Tra-. When image and object are at equal distances

(m = l),

/ 1 „ 8 + a2

— = -TV a- —

/o 2 (4 + a'Y

The relative brightness of image and object, computed by the

above formulae for any lens aperture F /D and any magnifica-

tion m =vju is given in the following table:

nutting: brightness of optical images

131

APER-

TURE

1

2

10

•20

oO

100

w = 0

.704

.1902

.0312

.00785

.00196

.000314

.000878

?n = .1

. 580

. 1580

.0255

.00()25

.00102

.000259

.000065

.521

.1321

,0219

.00553

.00134

.000210

.000051

m = .5

.333

.0864

.01290

.00349

.000878

.000135

.000044

m = 1

m = 2

.179

.4091

.00785

.00197

.000490

.000078

.000019

.0775

.0210

.00347

.000870

.000217

.0000346

.0000086

J3Cf

l_

I.

.0O3

.s

m

10

Fig. 2

1.S

Figure 1 shows relative brightness plotted against relative

apertures, both on logarithmic scales. The curves are sensibly

straight lines.

Figure 2 shows the variation of relative brightness with rela-

tive distance of image and object, v/u. Relative brightness

decreases rapidl}^ at first, then slowly and steadily to zero for

great magnifications.

In measuring relative illuminations the arrangement finally

adopted was that shown in figure 3. The test object was a sheet

132

nutting: brightness of optical images

of opal glass >S, 14 inches square, forming the front face of a cubic-

al box containing a tungsten lamp of 1500 candle power. Op-

posite the source, 5 meters distant, was a white magnesia block

&-•-■::-'

□

Fig. 3

.90S

Fig. 4

o:s

M upon which an image of the source could be thrown by the

lens L under test. The brightness of this image was compared

with that of the same spot with the lens removed by means of a

modified Beckstein illuminometer.

nutting: brightness of optical images

133

The relative brightness of block (without lens) and source /i:7o

is the area of the source divided by the square of the distance to

the edge (not center) of the source to within 0.1 per cent error.

Relative brightness of image and block without lens is the meas-

ured ratio Ii.Ii, hence the desired relative illumination of image

and object I^'-Iq is obtained by multiplication. Since the com-

parison screen of the photometer is illuminated directly by the

source, there is no curve due to fluctuations in the source by mat-

black walls, and the remainder is measured and corrected for.

The results obtained on the different lenses are tabulated below.

For each test are given the numerical aperture at which the text

was made, the relative brightness 7i//o of source and receiving

block, relative distance m of image and object, observed relative

brightness /2//0, the same quantity computed — neglecting losses

b}^ reflection and absorption {B) — and finally the ratio of observed

to computed brightness T which is the percentage transmission

of the lens.

If there be no absorption of light within a lens, a transmission

of .76 corresponds, for 6 air glass surfaces, to a mean refractive

index of about 1.55; hence the higher observed transmissions are

quite up to theoretical possibility.

The first five lenses in the above list were used at various meas-

ured apertures. Data are given in the following tables, and

in the curves of figure 4.

134

gray: temperature uniformity

The Tessar and Cooke F/4.5 lenses gave results as follows:

These tables show a fair constancy of transmission T as the

stop is varied. It may be noted further that the departure of

actual from indicated aperture ratio is the same'in the high speed

lenses of different makes.

PHYSICS. — The production of temperature uniformity in an elec-

tric furnace. Arthur W. Gray. To appear in full in the

Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards,

In the present paper certain improvements of the electric

furnace described several years ago by the writer^ are presented;

experimental evidence shows that it is possible in the new furnace

to heat a region of considerable length to any desired temperature

up to about 700° C. so uniformly that irregularities in the tem-

perature distribution will be less than the effect of heterogeneity

» Joura. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2: 250. 1912.

gray: temperature uniformity 135

in thermoelements of the best quaUty, and probably less than

the uncertainties at present existing in our knowledge of the

temperature scale itself. The method has been applied to a

furnace designed to heat uniformly bars under measurement for

thermal expansivity; but the application of it clearly is not lim-

ited to problems of this general character.

The iron tube of the trial furnace,- together with its contents,

is retained without essential alteration. The principal change

consists in removing the heating coil from the tube upon which

it had formerly been wound and substituting two independent

concentric heaters to supply heat uniformly for the entire length

of the interior. In the experiments so far made air has formed

the insulation, filling the small annular space separating the orig-

inal tube from the first heater, and also the larger space between

the heaters, except for some layers of mica and of asbestos cloth,

in all about 4 mm. thick, wrapped tightly around the ribbon of

the inner heater. The outer one is covered in the same way,

and the space between this and the casing of the whole furnace

is filled with asbestos-magnesia compound. The end plugs con-

sisting of two thick blocks of a good heat conductor separated

by a thick layer of a poor conductor are attached to large insu-

lating heads filling the entire cross-section of the casing. In most

of the experiments heat was supplied to the plugs by means of

coils filling the grooves turned in the outer conducting blocks,

just as in the former furnace; but recently considerable improve-

ment was effected by cutting these coils out of action, and sub-

stituting flat coils of the same diameter as the outer heater,

against the ends of which they bear.

The concentric heaters are of nichrome ribbon wound longitu-

dinally, instead of helically, upon iron pipes. A flat mat is made

of the resistor ribbon and strips of micabeston^ woven together

in basket fashion. This is wrapped about the heater tube

(previously covered with a layer of micabeston), and the oppos-

ing ends of each insulating strip are lapped for a short distance

2 For an illustrated description see the communication cited above.

^ An insulating preparation of mica flakes and a resinous cement pressed into

large, thin, flexible sheets.

136 gray: temperature uniformity

and tucked under alternate lengths of the ribbon. Then follows

another layer of micabeston and, finally, a wrapping of asbestos

cloth. As each layer is applied it is drawn down firmly by a

tight helical bandage of cotton tape, which is removed as soon as

the layer has been cemented in place by warming and then cool-

ing the tube. The final wrapping of asbestos cloth is secured

by a bandage of nichrome ribbon. The lengths of ribbon bound-

ing each edge of the mat and the two on either side of the middle

are left long enough at one end to serve as electrical terminals.

When the heater is wound, these terminals come out at opposite

ends of a diameter at one extremity of the tube, and they con-

nect the two halves of the winding in parallel.

This method of winding possesses the following advantages:

(1) Any irregularities in the resistance of the heating ribbon are

distributed in such a way as to produce a minimum effect upon the

longitudinal distribution of temperature. (2) The winding is non-

inductive. (3) The maximum difference in electrical potential

that can occur between adjacent portions of the winding is lim-

ited to the drop in a length of ribbon twdce as long as the furnace.

This makes the danger of arcing by accidental contact consider-

ably less than in the ordinary form of inductive winding. (4)

If adjacent windings should accidentally touch, only a short

length of ribbon could be short-circuited. (5) Spaces for the side

openings down which the length-defining wires are suspended

can be provided without affecting the heat supplied per unit

length of the furnace tubes. (6) The location of the terminals

combines both convenience and safety.

A furnace of the type here described requires considerable

time to attain thermal equilibrium. The lag, however, causes

no great inconvenience, because in any precise expansion deter-

minations sufficient time should be allowed for the specimen to

reach mechanical equilibrium, that is to say, for all unbalanced

internal stresses to disappear. The gain in temperature uni-

formity and constancy more than counterbalances any time lost

from avoidable lag. Nevertheless, it seems likely that a furnace

amply sufficient for most purposes could be made with consid-

erably less lag. In this connection it might be mentioned that

gray: temperature uniformity 137

the principal use of the inner concentric heater is to hasten the

attainment of approximate thermal equilibrium. Experience has

shown that when the proper adjustment has been secured, the

steadying action of the insulation within the outer heater is

sufficient to wipe out fluctuations in both losses and supply of

heat.^

The temperatures and temperature distributions were deter-

mined by two thoroughly protected Pt-Pt Rh thermoelements of

the best quality in connection with a Diesselhorst potentiometer.

The sensitivity was such that one millimeter change in the gal-

vanometer deflection indicated a change in temperature of be-

tween 0.058° and 0.086°, depending on the temperature.

Even before the flat end-heating coils were substituted for the

coils in the outer conducting blocks of the plugs, fair uniformity

throughout the central 30 cm. for which the furnace was designed

could be easily obtained by proper adjustment of the heating

currents. Good performance was not limited to some particular

temperature, as is the case with furnaces in which adjustment

of the distribution is attempted by the ordinary cut-and-try

method of crowding the windings near the ends. For example,

at 667° C. the mean temperature throughout the full 30 cm. was

0.37° lower than the temperature at the center, with a maximum

drop of one degree at the extreme" ends of the interval; at 145°

the mean temperature over the same region was 0.08° lower than

at the center, with a maximum drop of 0.25° at the extreme ends.

As an indication of the constancy attainable, it might be men-

tioned that during the twenty minutes that passed while the

observations at 667° were being made the temperature at the

center rose 0.067°, or at the rate of 0.2° per hour. During this

period no attention whatever was paid to regulation of the heat-

ing currents.

'' The use of two concentric heaters bears some resemblance to the cascade fur-

nace described by Harker (Proc. Roy. Soc. A 76: 237. 1905), for reaching a temper-

ature of about 2000°C in a heater-tube made of the same material as Nernst lamp

glowers. To avoid the necessity of having contacts on this tube capable of carrying

relatively large currents, and the consequent severe stress on the parts, it was sur-

rounded by a coil of nickel wire heated bj^ an independent circuit to about 1000°,

and insulated from the inner tube by a layer of zirconia. No precaution seems to

have been taken to secure uniformity of temperature within.

138

gray: temperature uniformity

Greater uniformity of temperature in the central region than

had been secured by other experimenters after repeated attempts

to adjust properly the crowding of windings was regularly ob-

tained at widely differing temperatures even when heat losses

through the ends were reduced merely by the action of the double

plugs without supplying any heating current whatever to the

coils in the end blocks. Adjustment of the temperature gradient

was considerably facilitated by the installation of the flat coils

covering the ends of the outer heater tube described above.

This change also made it rather easy to produce fair uniformity

for the entire length of the heater tubes — 32 cm. longer than the

bars the furnace was designed to heat.

That no unusual effort is required to obtain moderate uni-

formity of temperature is shown by the table below, which rep-

resents sixteen consecutive runs made while determining the

expansivity of a bar of invar. Alongside the temperature ob-

served at the center is recorded

Temperature Distribution in Consecutive Trials of an Electric

Furnace

the correction that must be added to obtain the mean temperature

throughout the 30 cm. occupied by the bar. In many of the runs

the heating currents required to maintain the desired tempera-

ture were estimated and switched on late in the afternoon. The

furnace was then left to itself over night. The temperature

distribution found the following morning was explored and used.

Reference to the table shows that in only one case (and that

under known unfavorable conditions) did the mean temperature

differ by more than 0.16° from that at the center.

CLARK : NOCTURNAL ANIMALS 139

ZOOLOGY. — Nocturnal animals. Austin H. Clark, National

Museum.

Ill the discussion of zoogeographical problems, and especially

in the reconstruction of hypothetical land bridges over which ani-

imals are assumed to have migrated from one region into another,

comparatively little attention has been paid to analyzing the

data upon which sweeping generalizations are based.

We are tempted to consider as a homogeneous unit all of the

animals collectively occurring in any one locality, speaking of

this unit as the ''fauna" of this locality, and forgetting that in

reality it is a heterogeneous collection of animal forms derived

from all of the more adaptable and virile types in all the faunal

complexes which from the distant past to the present day have

swept over the region.

Since in reality the terrestrial animals of any given locality

collectively form a heterogeneous faunal complex, instead of a

homogeneous entity, it becomes essential that we should endeavor

to find some criterion by which this complex may be separated

into its original constituents, or at least whereby a beginning may

be made in this direction.

On land, abundance of light alternates with a more or less com-

plete absence of light, and we therefore find many animal types

which are strictly diurnal, like most birds, many which are

strictly nocturnal, like the bats, and many which are indiffer-

ently one or the other, like most insects.

Nocturnal animals, properly speaking, are animals which,

while capable of performing all their normal functions in the day

time, and not dependent upon other nocturnal animals, are ac-

tive only at night.

Thus none of the amphibians come within the category of

nocturnal animals, for the amphibians are active whenever the

humiditj^ is high enough so that they are in no danger of dermal

desiccation, whether at night or during rains; similarly, though

active chiefly or entirely at night, none of the terrestrial Crus-

tacea or molluscs are properly nocturnal.

]Many of the herbivorous mammals are most active at night, at

which time they often make long journeys for water; this is done

140 CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS

to avoid overheating and loss of too much water from the body,

and, in many places, to avoid certain insects, such as the species

of Simulium, Glossina, the Tabanidae, etc., which, larger and

more dangerous than any nocturnal insects, always breed in or

near water and bite only in the daytime.

The predacious mammals and birds are active chiefly (though

not by any means entirely) at night for the reason that, following

the path of least resistance, they always conform to the habit

of taking their prey when it is least able to defend itself, and

therefore they must be considered as fortuitously, not as truly,

nocturnal.

The day is physiologically the most favorable time for the per-

formance of the normal functions of animals, and at the same time

it is the period of greatest meteorological and thermal diversity.

Therefore it would seem that new types of animals would always

first arise as diurnal species.

If a new animal type arose as a diurnal form, and proved

virile and adaptable, it would soon populate all available situa-

tions, and would increase so that there would be no room for

further additions to its numbers.

But a type sufficiently virile and adaptable to attain such a

condition would most assuredly give rise to crepuscular, and

finally to nocturnal, forms. It is at this developmental stage

that we find, for example, the rodents and the lepidoptera of

the present day.

A new type of subsequent origin, of the same habits but eco-

nomically more efficient, would follow the same course, and there-

fore would extirpate the diurnal species of the preceding less

efficient type long before it had any effect upon the nocturnal

species, so that, when the second type had become fully estab-

lished, we would find it consisting of diurnal and crepuscular

species, while the older type would consist of strictly nocturnal

species, hiding by day and encroaching upon their more eflScient

rivals' food suppl}^ at night.

This is exactly the process by which the deep sea fauna has

been formed from the littoral fauna.

CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS 141

The strictly nocturnal mammals are the elephants, the hippo-

potamus, the tapirs, the rhinoceros, the sloths, Galeopterus

(Cynocephalus), the anteaters, the aard-varks, the armadillos, the

pangolins, the bats, the opossums, the solenodons, the lemurs

(except in Madagascar), and the monotremes (except the

aquatic species); among the birds the kiwis and the owl-parrots

(Stringops) are nocturnal, and among the reptiles the geckos;

among the invertebrates the most striking and isolated nocturnal

types are the onychophores and the millipeds.

A glance at this list of strictly nocturnal types brings out many

points of interest.

Among the birds and mammals the average size is much greater

than that of the diurnal types.

oVIost of the nocturnal mammals have long palaeontological

records, and, collectively, the included groups are considered as

much more ancient, primitive and aberrant than the diurnal

types.

Taken as a whole the nocturnal animals of the globe indicate

zoogeographic affinities very different from those indicated by

the diurnal animals; for instance, the nocturnal fauna of America

shows a close affinity to that of Africa, and also an affinity with

that of Australia, while the occurrence of tapirs, otherwise con-

fined to the Malayan region, is of interest; but the affinity indi-

cated by overwhelmingly the greater part of the diurnal fauna

of America is with eastern Asia.

The two fundamental differences in the conditions under which

the nocturnal animals live as contrasted with the diurnal are (1)

the much lower and more uniform temperature, and (2) the

more or less complete absence of light.

It is precisely these two differences which delimit the condi-

tions under which the abyssal marine animals live as contrasted

with the httoral marine animals, and we are therefore not sur-

prised to find that the nocturnal fauna of the land corresponds

in its relation to the diurnal fauna exactl}^ to the abyssal fauna

of the oceans in its relation to the littoral fauna.

This comparison enables us to understand how a given type

(as for example the bats), exclusively nocturnal in the tropics.

142 CLARK: NOCTURNAL ANIMALS

may become more or less diurnal in the cold northern regions,

just as an organism confined exclusively to the abysses in the

tropics may become sublittoral, or even littoral, in the antarctic

or in the arctic; for the coeflficient of virility and adaptability

necessary to enable an animal type to thrive under nocturnal

conditions in the tropics, or in the deep sea, is equivalent to

that necessary to enable it to exist in unnaturally cold surround-

ings, or in unnaturally great diurnal temperature variations.

In this short paper no attention has been paid to the innumer-

able intergrades between the intertidal fauna, and the faunas of

the land and of fresh water, or to the singularly instructive faunas

of deserts, wet belts, saline lakes, caves, or of abnormal situa-

tions in general, nor to isolated island faunas, nor to the charac-

ters presented by burrowing animals collectively considered ; nor

has attention been given to the singular fact that, parallel to the

abstract similarity between the nocturnal terrestrial fauna and

the abyssal fauna of the oceans, the fresh water fauna is actually

more closely allied to that of the deep sea than either is to the

littoral fauna from which both have been derived, but in which

the ancestral types have been supplanted by more efficient types

of subsequent origin which as yet have not intruded either into

the fresh water or into the deep sea; though these points, and

many others, have a very intimate bearing upon the problem

of the nocturnal terrestrial fauna.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMmTRY .—Selective adsorption by soils. E.

G. Parker. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 179-188. 1913.

Soils not onh^ have the power of adsorbing dissolved salts from solu-

tions but also of adsorbing one ion at a greater rate than another.

The presence of bases of the soil (Ca, Mg, etc.) in solution after

shaking certain salt solutions with or percolating them through a soil

is probably not due to a direct chemical reaction of the salt in solution

^vith the silicates of the soil, but to a reaction of free acid, resulting

from a selective adsorption of the cation, with the mineral components

of the soil. The rate of adsorption of chlorin ions from a solution of

potassium chlorid by soils is much less than of potassium ions. The

selective adsorption of potassium from a potassium-chlorid solution

by a soil increases in amount with the concentration up to a certain

point and then remains practically constant. In general, the smaller

the soil particles the greater the selective adsorption of potassium from

a potassium-chlorid solution. The presence of sodium nitrate decreases

the adsorption of potassium from a solution of potassium chlorid by a

soil up to a concentration of about 37.5 grams of potassium chlorid per

liter and then increases it. The presence of monobasic calcium phos-

phate does not change appreciably the adsorption of potassium from a

potassium-chlorid solution.

Finally, if a mineral fertilizer be applied to a soil and exposed to the

rain and thus dissolved and carried through the soil in solution, these

substances will be adsorbed (an entirely physical phenomenon) either

as a whole or selectively from the solution by the vast surface of the

soil particles and will be held there by this same physical force until

the plant or subsequent leaching removes it.

143

144 abstracts: entomology

The presence of other mineral substances added to the soil may or

maj' not increase or decrease the rate at which this adsorptive phenom-

enon takes place. E. G. P.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The Calliephialtes parasite of the codling moth. R.

A. CusHMAN. Journal of Agricultural Research 1 : 211-237. 1913.

This parasite was introduced into California from Europe in 1904.

The start on the work discussed was made with specimens secured from

the California State Insectary.

The adult female is about half an inch long, exclusive of the oviposi-

tor, which about equals the body in length. It is long and slender,

black with red legs. The male is somewhat shorter and more slender

than the female. There is considerable variation in size depending on

the larval food supply.

The codling moth is attacked in the larval stage after it has spun

its cocoon, the parasite first killing the host by stinging and then depos-

iting a single egg within the cocoon. The egg is white and smooth, 1.5

mm_. long and about one-fifth as wide at the widest part, rounded at

the cephalic end and tapering toward the caudal end. The incubation

period was found to average slightly over two days.

The newly hatched larva is yellowish in color with the head large

and distinct. After the first molt the form changes to the normal

larval habitus of insects of this class. It feeds externally on the host,

entirely consuming the fluid contents. This requires on the average

about 7 days, after which the larva spins its cocoon. About 10 days

later for females and 7.5 days for males, pupation takes place. The

act of pupation requires about 15 minutes for males and 35 to 41 min-

utes for females, the difference being due to the fact that after exuvia-

tion the ovipositor increases greatly in length. The average pupal

period for females was about 1 1 days and for males about 9 days. The

average time spent in the cocoon by females was 21.5 days and by males

17.7 days.

Transformation to the adult took place about a day before the emer-

gence from the cocoon. The average total developmental period for

females was about 30 days and for males about 25 days.

There were found to be two complete and a partial third generation

during the breeding season, a part of the third and all of the fourth

constituting the hibernating brood. Hibernation takes place in the

full-grown larval stage. The males appear in the spring about 10

days ahead of the females. R. A. C.

abstracts: entomology 145

ENTOMOLOGY. — The Occurrence of a cotton boll weevil in Arizona.

W. DwiGHT Pierce. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 89-96,

figs. 1-9. 1913.

A new variety of the cotton boll weevil, Anthonomus grayidis thur-

beriae, has been found to occur in a state of nature on the co-called Ari-

zona wild cotton, Thiirberia thespesioides, in mountain canyons of the

Santa Catalina, and Santa Rita ^Mountains of Arizona.

The weevil breeds in the buds and bolls of this plant at altitudes of

4000 to 5000 feet. It can hardly have more than two full generations

a year because of the late blooming season of the plant. The species

hibernates as an adult in the bolls, remaining in the pupal cell often

until September 1, although the majority probably emerge in August.

Attack on the buds begins about August 15. The egg is usuall}-

inserted in the lower part of the bud, and this soon drops to the ground.

The larva develops and pupates in the fallen bud and emerges in a few

weeks. The second generation is probably almost entirely on the

bolls.

At Victoria, Texas it has been found that the Arizona variety can

breed in cotton and that it can interbreed with the genuine cotton boll

weevil.

The greatest significance of the discovery of this weevil lies in the

fact that the westward extension of cotton culture has brought cotton

production to within twenty miles of one of the canyons where the wee-

vil was actually found.

The apparently greater adaptability of the Arizona form to extremes

of climate may also indicate the possibility that this form could success-

fully endure the severe climate of the western Texas cotton areas where

the boll weevil has never succeeded in establishing itself. W. D. P.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Descriptions of twenty-three new genera and thirty-

one new species of Ichneumon-flies. Henry L. Viereck. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 359-386. December

31, 1913.

Describes the new genera Eristernaulax, Macroneuroides, Tracha-

gathis and Zadiolcogaster in the Braconidae, and in the Ichneumonidae

the following as new: Aglaojoppidea, Cryptanuridimorpha, Crypto-

phion, Cryptopterigimorpha, Digonocryptus, Epiopelmidea, Joppo-

cryptus, Lamprocryptidea, Monogonocryptus, Phaenolabrorychus,

Photocryptus, Polyaenidea, Polyc\Ttidea, Polycj^timorpha, Thymari-

146 abstracts: entomology

morpha, Zaglyptomorpha and Zamastrus from South America, and

Diaglyptidea and Photoptera from Java. The new species described are

mostly from South America. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Miscellaneous contributions to the knowledge of the

weevils of the families Attelahidae and Brachyrhinidae. W. D wight

Pierce. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 365-426.

May 23, 1913.

In the portion of this paper deahng with the family Attelahidae the

author treats only of the subfamily Rhynchitinae which he divides into

two new tribes, giving a key to the species of the genus Eugnamptus, to

which most of the North American species belong. In the family

Brachyrhinidae the author proposes a new classification in which he

describes five new subfamilies, twenty-six new tribes, the new genera

Amydrogmus, Hadromeropsis, Bradyrhynchoicles, and Glaphyrometopus,

and the new subgenera Panscopidius 2,nd Neopanscopus, together with

twenty-four new species and nine new varieties. J. C. Crawford.

ENTOMOLOGY. — New potato weevils from Andean South America.

W. DwiGHT Pierce. Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 347-

351, figs. 1-3, pis. 39-41. January 10, 1914.

During 1913, shipments of potatoes for propagation by the Depart-

ment of Agriculture from various points on the western slope of South

America were found infested by live weevils when received at Washing-

ton, D. C.

Three species of weevils were found in these various shipments.

Their manner of attack was such that it was extremely difficult to detect

infestation in lightly infested potatoes. The larval feeding cell is not

usually very large and is entirely within the tuber, although near the

surface. Advices from Peru indicate that infested potatoes are not un-

commonly served at the table, because of the difficulty of detecting the

injury externally.

The species Rhigopsidius tucumanus Heller occurs in Argentina, Peru,

Bolivia, and Chile.

The other species, both representing new genera are found in Peru.

These species are described as Premnotrypes solani, n. sp. and Trypo-

premnon latithora, n. sp. W. D. P.

REFERENCES

Under this heading it is proposed to include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published in or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style ussd below. These references are

not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journ.vl.

PALEONTOLOGY

KxowLTox. F. H. Results of a paleobotanical study of the coalbearijig rocks of the

Raton Mesa region of Colorado and New Mexico. American Journal of Science,

IV. 36: 526-530. May, 1913.

KxowLTON, F. H. The fossil forests of Arizona. American Forestry 19: 207-

218. April, 1912.

White, D. The fossil flora of West Virginia. West Virginia Geological Survey

5 (A) : 390-453, 488-491. 1913.

White, D. A new fossil plant from the state of Bahia, Brazil, .\merican Journal

of Science, IV. 35: 633-636, f. 1-3. June 1913. (Descvihes Alethopteris Bran-

neri, sp. nov. — W.R.M.).

EVOLUTION

CoLLixs, G. N. and Kemptox, J. H. Inheritance of waxy endosperm in hybrids of

Chinese maize. IV^ Conference Internationale Genetique, Pari,s, 1911: 347-

357. 1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. and Kemptox, J. H. Inheritance of ica.xy endosperm in hybrids

with sweet corn. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 120 : 21-27, f . 1. April 5,

1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. Mosaic coherence of characters in seeds of maize. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 132: 19-21. June 19, 1913.

CoLLixs, G. N. Mendelian factors. Science 38: 88, 89. July 18, 1913.

Swingle, W. T. Variation in first generation hijbrids {imperfect dominance); its

possible explanation through zygotaxis. IV^ Conference Internationale Gene-

tique, Paris, 1911: 581-594, f. 1-10. 1913.

BOTANY

Bartlett, H. H. Systematic studies on Oenothera, — //. The delimitation of

Oenothera biennis L. Rhodora 15: 48-53, pi. 102, 103. April 12, 1913.

Brittox, N. L. and Rose, J. N. Studies in Cactaceae. — /. Contributions from

the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 239-242, pi. 66^73. April 10, 1913. (In-

cludes descriptions of 7 new species in Echinocactus, Epiphyllum, Hylocereus,

Nyctocereus, Opuntia, and Wittia.— W. R. M.)

Collins, G. N. A variety of maize with silks maturing before the tassels. Bureau

of Plant Industry Circular 107: 3-11, f. 1-3. February 7, 1913.

Cook, O. F. The abortion of fruiting branches in cotton. Bureau of Plant Industry

Circular 118: 11-16. -March 22. 1913.

147

148 references: botany

Davis, B. M. A catalogue of the marine flora of Woods Hole and vicinity. Bureau

of Fisheries Bulletin 31 : 795-833. 1913.

Davis, B. M. General characteristics of the algal vegetation of Buzzards Bay and

Vineyard Sound in the vicinity of Woods Hole. Bureau of Fisheries Bulletin

31 : 443-544, charts 228-274. 1913.

Dewey, L. H. A purple-leaved mutation in hemp. -Bureau of Plant Industry

Circular 113: 23-24. February 15, 1913.

Eggleston, W. W. a trip across Vermont by Luigi Castigilioni, an Italian noble-

man, in August, 1785. Bulletin of the Vermont Botanical Club 8: 21, 22.

April, 1913.

Fairohild, D. and Simmonds, E. The grafted papaya as an annual fruit tree.

Bureau of ^lant Industry Circular 119: 3-13, f. 1-4. March 29, 1913.

Fairchild, D. Some Asiatic Actinidias. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular

110: 7-12, pi. 1, 2+f. 1, 2. January 18, 1913.

Greene, E. L. The two Howells, botanists. American Midland Naturalist 3:

30-32. January, 1913.

Hitchcock, A. S. Mexican grasses in the United States National Herbarium.

Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 17: 181-389. July 15, 1913.

Kempton. J. H. Floral abnormalities in maize. Bureau of Plant Industry Bul-

letin 278, 5-18, pi. 1, 2+f. 1, 2. April 2, 1913.

McKee, R. and Ricker, P. L. Nonperennial Medicagos: the agronomic value and

botanical relationship of the species. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 267:

5-38, pi. 1-13. February 21, 1913.

Maxon, W. R. Saffordia, a new genus of ferns from, Peru. Smithsonian Miscel-

laneous Collections 61^: 1-5, pi. 1, 2+f. 1. May 26, 1913. (Describes Saffordia

induta, a new genus and species allied to Trachypteris. — W. R. M.)

Meade, R. M. Supernumerary carpels in cotton bolls. Bureau of Plant Industrj'

Circular 111 : 25-28, f. 1, 2. February 1, 1913.

Meade, R. M. Methods of securing self-pollination in cotton. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 121: 29, 30, f. 1. April 12, 1913.

Oakley, R. A. and Garver, S. Two types of proliferation in alfalfa. Bureau of

Plant Industry Circular 115: 3-13, f. 1-8. March 1, 1913.

Piper, C. V. On the identity of Poa crocata Michx. Torreya 13: 35. February,

1913.

Piper, C. V. The wild prototype of the cowpea. Bureau of Plant Industry Circu-

lar 124: 29-32. May 3, 1913.

Ricker, P. L. Directions for collecting plants. Bureau of Plant Industry Cir-

cular 126: 27-35, f. 1-5. May 10, 1913.

Smith, J. D. and Rose, J. N. A monograph of the Hauyeae and Gongylocarpeae,

tribes of the Onagraceae. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium

16: 287-298, f. 45-.54. August 23, 1913. (Includes descriptions of Hauya Rus-

byi, sp. nov., and of the new genera Burragea and Xylonagra. — W. R. M.)

Spaulding, P. A^o^es o?i Cronartium Comptoniae. Phytopathology 3 : 62. Feb-

ruary, 1913.

Standley, p. C. Five new plants from New Mexico. Proceedings of the Biolog-

ical Society of Washington 26: 115-120. May 21, 1913. (Describes Nuttallia

Springeri, Amelanchier australis, Amsonia arenaria, A. hirtella, and Chrys-

othamnus elatior, spp. nov. — W. R. M.)

references: phytopathology 149

Steele, E. S. Four new species of goldenrod from the eastern United States.

Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 16: 221-224. February

12, 1913. (Four new species of Solidago are here described. — W. R. M.)

Steele, E. S. An invesliyalion of "Lacimaria scariosa." Torreya 13: 78, 79.

April 6, 1913.

SuDWORTH, G. B. Forest Alius. Geographic distribution of North American

trees. Part I — Pines. Maps 1-36, 1913. (U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service Publication.)

Swingle, W. T. 2'ype of species in botanical laxonouiy. Science 37: 864-867.

June 6, 1913.

TiDESTROM, I. Novitales florae uiahensis. Proceedings of the Biological So-

ciety of Washington 26 : 121, 122. May 21, 1913. (Describes Delphinium pine-

torum, Eriogonum Kearneyi, Oreocarya Shantzii, and Merlensia Sampsonii,

spp. nov.— W. R. M.)

Wight, W. F. North American species of the genus Amygdalus. Dudley Memo-

rial Volume (Stanford Univer.sity Publication), 130-137. 1913. (Includes

description of Amygdalns Havardii, sp. nov. — W. R. M.)

PHYTOPATHOLOGY

BuNZEL, H. H. A biochemical study of the curly-top of sugar beets. Bureau of

Plant Industry Bulletin 277: 5-28. March 13, 1913.

Cook, O. F. Leaf-cut, or ioinosis, a disorder of cotton seedlings. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 120: 29-34, f. 1. April 5, 1913.

Fairchild, D. The discovery of the chestnut bark disease in China. Science 38:

297-299. August 29, 1913.

Field, E. C. Fungous diseases liable to be disseminated in shipmeni.s of sugar cane.

Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 126: 3-13, f. 1-7. May 10, 1913.

Hawkins, L. A. Experiments in the control of grape anthracnose. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 105: 3-8, pi. 1, 2. February 10, 1913.

Hedgecock, G. G. Notes on some western Uredineae which attack forest trees. II.

Phytopathology 3 : 15-17. February, 1913.

Orton, W. a. International phytopathology and quarantine legislation. Phyto-

pathology 3 : 144-151. August 14, 1913.

Orton, W. A. Powdery dry-rot of the potato. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular

110: 13-15. January 18, 1913.

Pool, V. W., and McKay, M. B. The control of the sugar-beet leaf-spot. Bureau

of Plant Industry Circular 121: 13-17. April 12, 1913.

Roberts, J. W. The ''rough bark" disease of the yellow Newton apple. Bureau

of Plant Industry Bulletin 280:5-16, f. 1, 2, pi. 1-3. April 12, 1913. (This

disease is caused by Phomopsis mali. — W. R. M.).

Spaulding, p. The present status of the white pine blister rust. Bureau of Plant

Industry Circular 129 : 9-20, f . 1-6. June 7, 1913.

Shear, C. L. and ^^'ooD, A. K. Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the genus

Glomerella. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 252" 5-110, pi. 1-18+f. 1-4.

January 25, 1913.

Shear, C. L. and Stevens, N. E. Cidtural characters of the chestnut blight and

its near relatives. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 131 : 3-18. July 5, 1913.

1.50 references: entomology

Shear, C. L. and Stevens, N. E. The chestnut-hlight parasite (Endothia para-

sitica) from China. Science 38: 295-297. August 29, 1913.

Shear, C. L. The lijpe of Sphaeria radicalis Schw. Phytopathology 3: 191,

192. August 14, 1913.

Shear, C. L. Soitie obscrraiions on phy to pat holoy tea I pruhleiUfi in Europe and

America. Pliytopathology 3: 77-87. April,' 1913.

Shear, C L. Endothia radicalis {Schw.). Phytopathology 3: 61. February,

1913.

Wollenweber, H. W. Studies on the Fusarinni problem. Phytopathology 3:

24-50, pi. 5, f. 1. February, 1913. (Includes descriptions of Fnsarium redo-

lens, F. conglutinans, and F. Sclerotium, spp. nov. — W. R. M.)

ENTOMOLOGY

Alexander, C. P. A revision of the South American dipterous insects of the

family Plychopteridae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 331-

335. February 20, 1913. (Includes description of a second South American

species, Tanyderus patagonicus. — J. C. C.)

Alexander, C. P. A synopsis of part of the neotropical craneflies of the sub-

family Limnobinae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 481-549,

pis. 65-68. April 30, 1913. (Treats of the tribes Eriopterini and Limnophilini

and describes thirty-seven new species and three new subspecies. The

author gives keys to the genera and species included. — J. C. C.)

Bruner, L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthopterq {Acri-

diidae-short-liorned locusts. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44:

177-187. February 11, 1913. (Two new genera, Cumainocloidus and Uru-

bamba, are described, together with six new species and one new variety. —

J. C. C.)

Bruner, L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthoptera (Ad-

denda to the Acridiidae-short-horned locusts). Proceedings of the U. S.

National Museum 46 : 585-586. June 11, 1913. (One new species is described.

— J. C. C).

Caudell, a. N. Notes on nearctic orthopterous insects. I. Nonsaltatorial forms.

Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 595-614. April 18, 1913. (De-

scribes one new species and gives keys to the genera and species of various

groups. — J. C. C.)

Caudell, A. N. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Orthoptera

{exclusive of Acridiidae). Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44:

347-357. February 20, 1913. (Describes nine new species in several genera.

—J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoplera, — No. 7. Proceedings of the

U. S. National Museum 45: 309-317. Text fig. 1. May 22, 1913. (Describes

Pareniaca and eleven new species in the superfamily Chalcidoidea and three

new species in the Cynipoidea, mainly from North America. — J. C. C.)

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoplera, — No. 6. Proceedings of the

U. S. National Museum 45 : 241-260. Text figs. 1-2. May 22, 1913. (Deseribes

the new genera Bruchocida. Coccidoxenus, Zacalochlora, Trichomalopsis,

Aplastomorpha, Cassidocida, and Thriposoma in the Chalcidoidea, together

with twenty-six new species mostly in the same superfamily. — J. C. C.)

references: entomology 151

Crawford, J. C. Descriptions of new Hymenoptera, — No. S. Proceedings of the

U. S. National Museum 46: 343-352. December 23, 1913. (Describes Peri-

lampidea, Xenomymar and Neoymar (new genera) and ten new species,

mostly from Trinidad, in the Chalcidoidea and three new species in the

Serphidoidea. — -J. C. C.)

CocKERELL, T. D. A. N'ew parasitic Hymenoptera of the genus Eiphosoma. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 61-64. August 23, 1913. (De-

scribes four new species and gives a table to the species occurring in North

and Central America. — ^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Descriptions of neiv species of Saturnian moths in the collection

of the United States National Museum. Proceedings of the U. S. National

Museum 44: 121-134. February 20, 1913. (Deals with the genus Hylesia,

gives a key to the species, and describes thirtj^ new species mostly from

South America. — ^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Lcpidoptera. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 627-649. July 22, 1913. (De-

scribes forty new species, two new subspecies and the new genus Altimaenas

(family Arctiidae). In all 242 species are listed. — J. C. C.)

Dy.\r, H. G. Descriptions of new Lepidoptera, chiefly from Mexico. Proceedings

of the U. S. National Museum 44: 279-324. February 11, 1913. (Describes

the following new genera: Epimolis in the Arctiidae; Hypenopsis in the

Noctuidae; Calomathetes in the Notodontidae; Edia, Paranatula and Bal-

lovia in the Pyralidae. A total of 117 new species and one new subspecies in

several families are described. — J. C. C.)

Gahan, a. B. New Hymenoptera from North America. Proceedings of the U. S.

National Museum 46 : 431-443, pi. 39. December 30, 1913. (Includes descrip-

tions of Euphoriana and Eumicrosoma, new genera of the families Braconidae

and Scelionidae respectively, and of 13 new species, mostly of the superfamilv

Chalcidoidea.— J. C. C.)

Girault, a. a. a systematic monograph of the chalcidoid Hymenoptera of the sub-

family Signiphorinae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 : 189-233.

May 22, 1913. (Describes fourteen new species in the single genus recognized

in the subfamily. — J. C. C.)

Kennedy, C. H. Notes on the Odonala, or dragonflies, of Bumping Lake, Wash-

ington. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 111-126. September

30, 1913.

Knab, F. Gad-flies {Tabanidae) of the genus Stibasoma. Proceedings of the U.

S. National Museum 46 : 407-412. December 23, 1913. (Includes a key to the

American members of this genus and descriptions of one new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. N ew moth-flies (Psychodidae) bred froyn Bromcliaceae and other plants.

Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 103-106. August 23, 1913.

(Describes four new species of the genus Psychoda, bred from water found

at the bases of the leaves of Bromeliaceae and in flower bracts of Calathea.

—J. C. C.)

M.\LLOCii, J. R. The genera of flies in the subfamily Botanobiinae ivith hind tibial

spur. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 2.39-266, pis. 23-24.

December 6, 1913. (Gives keys to the four genera included and to the species

of the genus Hippelates, ten of which are new; includes also descriptions of

the new genera Prohippelates and Pseudohippelates. — J. C. C.)

152 references: entomology

Malloch, J. R. A STjnopsis of the genera of Agromyzidae, loith descriptions of

new genera and ftpccies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 127-

154, pis. 4-6. December 6, 1913. (Gives keys to the subfamilies, tribes, genera

and to the American species of some of the genera; describes Paraleucopis,

Paramilichia and Euchlorops, new genera; proposes Paramadiza, new name

for Madiza of authors, not of Fallen; describes eleven new species. — J. C C.)

Malloch, J. R. Azotes on some American Diptera of the genus Fannia, with descrip-

tions of new species. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 621-631,

pi. 77. April 30, 1913. (Describes five new species and gives a key to the

species of one group of the genus. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Descriptions of new species of American flies of the family Bor-

boridae. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 361-372. February

20, 1913. (Describes ten new species in several genera. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Two new species of diptera in the United Slates National Museum

collection. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44 : 461-463. February

20, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. Three new species of Anthomyidae (Diptera) in the United States

National Museum collection. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45:

603-607. June 11, 1913.

Morgan, A. C. New genera and species of Thysanoptera, with notes ondislrihution

and food plants. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46: 1-55. August

23; 1913. (Describes the new genera Rhipiphorothrips, Microthrips, and

Horistothrips, nineteen new species, and one new variety, mostly from North

America. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. a. a synopsis and descriptions of the ncarctic species of sawjlies

of the genus Xyela, with descriptions of other new species of sawflies. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45: 265-281, text fig. 1. May 22, 1913.

(Describes the new genus Allantopsis in the family Tenthredinidae and

twenty-one new species in various genera. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. A. New parasitic Hymenoptera belonging to the tribe Xoridini. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 45 : 353-361. May 22, 1913. (Describes

eleven new species. — J. C. C.)

Rohwer, S. A. Descriptions of thirteen new species of parasitic Hymenoptera and

a table to certain species of the genus Ecphylus. Proceedings of the U. S. Na-

tional Museum 45 : 533-540. June 4, 1913.

Rohwer, S. A. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera,

superfamilies Vespoidea and Sphecoidea. Proceedings of the U. S. National

Museum 44: 439-454. February 20, 1913. (Describes fourteen new species.

—J. C. C.)

Viereck, H. L. Results of the Yale Peruvian expedition of 1911. Hymenoptera-

Ichneumonoidea. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 469-470.

February 20, 1913. (Describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Viereck, H. L. Descriptioris of six new genera and twelvencw species of Ichneumon-

flies. Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum 44: 639-648. April IS, 1913.

(Describes the new genera Amyosoma, Arichelonus, Diachasmimorpha, and

Shirakia in the family Braconidae, and Eripternimorpha and Zaparaphylax

in the family Ichneumonidae. — J. C. C.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV APRIL 4, 1914 No. 7

MINERALOGY. — Supplementary note on the crystal form of

hodgkinsonite.^ C. Palache, Harvard University. Com-

municated by W. T. Schaller.

Through the kindness of Mr. McGovern of Frankhn Furnace

the writer has been supphed with specimens of a second occurrence

of the new mineral hodgkinsonite. These are in the form of veins

from 3 to 7 cm. in width consisting of a granular mixture of

hodgkinsonite and willemite ; the veins cut the normal f ranklinite

ore with well defined boundaries.

The material of the veins is in large part compact but at quite

irregular intervals there occur tiny cavities upon whose waUs are

implanted excellent crystals of hodgkinsonite. The crystals do

not exceed 2 mm. in length but they are clear and brilliant and

give measurements so much better than any obtained on the first-

found specimens that the elements have been recalculated and a

new table of angles is here presented containing the new data.

It will be seen that the forms include the better ones of the first

list together with several new ones; the habit is however entirely

similar to that first described, the acute pyramids formed by

combination of two prisms and two pyramid faces, m and r,

having their summits more or less modified by the other planes.

The forms previously described as etch forms have not been found

on these crystals and they may well be dropped from the form

series of the mineral. Nine crystals were measured and gave a

1 Hodgkinsonite, a New Mineral from Franklin Furnace, N. J. C. Palache and

W. T. Schaller, this Journal, 3: 474. 1913.

153

154

gilbert: transportation of debris

very consistent set of observations which together with the calcu-

lated angles and new elements are shown below.

HODGKINSONITE

po = 0.7201 go = 1.1025 /i=84°35' a:6:c = 1.538: 1: 1.1075 ^ = 84^35'

GEOLOGY. — The transportation of debris by running water. ^

G. K. Gilbert, based on experiments made with the assist-

ance of Edward Charles Murphy.

Scope. The finer debris transported by a stream is borne in

suspension. The coarser is swept along the channel bed. The

suspended load is readily sampled and estimated, and much is

known as to its quantity. The bed load is inaccessible and we

are without definite information as to its amount. The primary

purpose of the investigation was to learn the laws which control

the movement of bed load, and especially to determine how the

quantity of load is related to the stream's slope and discharge

and to the degree of comminution of the debris.

Method. To this end a laboratory was equipped at Berkeley,

Cal., and experiments were performed in which each of the three

conditions mentioned was separately varied and the resulting

variations of load were observed and measured. Sand and

gravel were sorted by sieves into grades of uniform size. Deter-

minate discharges were used. In each experiment a specific

^ Abstract of U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 86. (In press.)

gilbert: transportation of debris 155

load was fed to a stream of specific width and discharge, and

measurement was made of the slope to which the stream auto-

matically adjusted its bed so as to enable the current to transport

the load.

The slope factor. For each combination of discharge, width,

and grade of debris there is a slope, called competent slope,

which limits transportation. With lower slopes there is no

load, or the stream has no capacity- for load. With higher

slopes capacity exists; and increase of slope gives increase of

capacity. The value of capacity is approximately proportional

to a power of the excess of slope above competent slope. If

S equal the stream's slope and a equal competent slope, then the

stream's capacity varies as {S — a)". This is not a deductive,

but an empiric law. The exponent n has not a fixed value, but

an indefinite series of values depending on conditions. Its range

of values in the experience of the laboratory is from 0.93 to 2.37,

the values being greater as the discharges are smaller or the

debris is coarser.

The discharge factor. For each combination of width, slope,

and grade of debris there is a competent discharge, k. Calling

the stream's discharge Q, the stream's capacity varies as (Q — r/c)°.

The observed range of values for o is from 0.81 to 1.24, the values

being greater as the slopes are smaller or the debris is coarser.

Under like conditions o is less than n; or, in other words, ca-

pacity is less sensitive to changes of discharge than to changes of

slope.

The fineness factor. For each combination of width, slope,

and discharge there is a limiting fineness of debris below which

no transportation takes place. Calling fineness (or degree of

comminution) F and competent fineness 0, the stream's capacity

varies with (F — 0)^'. The observed range of values for p is

from 0.50 to 0.62, the values being greater as slopes and dis-

charges are smaller. Capacity is less sensitive to changes in

fineness of debris than to changes in discharge or slope.

The form factor. Most of the experiments were with straight

channels. A few with crooked channels yielded nearly the same

^ Capacity is defined for the purposes of this paper as the maximum load of a

given kind of debris which a given stream can transport.

156 gilbert: transportation of debris

estimates of capacity. The ratio of depth to width is a more

important factor. For any combination of slope, discharge,

and fineness it is possible to reduce capacity to zero by making

the stream very wide and shallow or very narrow and deep.

Between these extremes is a particular ratio of depth to width,

p, corresponding to a maximum capacity. The values of p

range, under laboratory conditions, from 0.5 to 0.04, being greater

as slope, discharge, and fineness are less.

Velocity. The velocity which determines capacity for bed

load is that near the stream's bed, but attempts to measure bed

velocity were not successful. Mean velocity was measured

instead. To make a definite comparison between capacity and

mean velocity it is necessary to postulate constancy in some

accessory condition. If slope be the constant, in which case

velocity changes with discharge, capacity varies on the average

with the 3.2 power of velocity. If discharge be the constant, in

which case velocity changes with slope, capacity varies on the

average with the 4.0 power of velocity. If depth be the constant,

in which case velocity changes with simultaneous changes of

slope and discharge, capacity varies on the average with the 3.7

power of velocity. The power expressing the sensitiveness of

capacity to changes of mean velocHy has in each case a wide

range of values, being greater as slope, discharge, and fineness

are less.

Mixtures. In general, debris composed of particles of a single

size is moved less freely than debris containing particles of many

sizes. If fine material be added to coarse, not only is the total

load increased but a greater quantity of the coarse material is

carried.

Modes of transportation; movement of particles. Some par-

ticles of the bed load slide; many roll; the multitude make short

skips or leaps, the process being called saltation. Saltation

grades into suspension. When particles of many sizes are moved

together the larger ones are rolled.

Modes of transportation; collective 7novem.ent. When the condi-

tions are such that the bed load is small, the bed is molded into hills,

called dunes, which travel downstream. Their mode of advance

gilbert: transportation of debris 157

is like that of eolian dunes, the current eroding their upstream

faces and depositing the eroded material on the downstream

faces. With any progressive change of conditions tending to

increase the load, the dunes eventually disappear and the debris

surface becomes smooth. The smooth phase is in turn succeeded

by a second rhythmic phase, in which a system of hills travel

upstream. These are called antidunes, and their movement is

accomplished by erosion on the downstream face and deposition

on the upstream face. Both rhythms of debris movement are

initiated by rhythms of water movement.

Application of formulas. While the principles discovered in

the laboratory are necessarily involved in the work of rivers,

the laboratory formulas are not immediately available for the

discussion of river problems. Being both empiric and complex,

they will not bear extensive extrapolation. Under some circum-

stances they may be used to compare the work of one stream

with that of another stream of the same type, but they do not

permit an estimate of a river's capacity to be based on the deter-

mined capacities of laboratory streams. The investigation

made an advance in the direction of its primary goal, but the

goal was not reached.

Load versus energy. The energy of a stream is measured by

the product of its discharge (mass per unit time), its slope, and

the acceleration of gravity. In a stream without load the

energy is expended in flow resistances, which are greater as

velocity and \dscosity are greater. Load, including that carried

in suspension and that dragged along the bed, affects the energy

in three ways. (1) It adds its mass to the mass of the water

and increases the stock of energy pro rata. (2) Its transporta-

tion involves mechanical work, and that work is at the expense

of the stream's energy. (3) Its presence restricts the mobihty

of the water, in effect increasing its viscosity, and thus consumes

energy. For the finest elements of load the third factor is more

important than the second; for coarser elements the second is the

more important. For each element the second and third together

exceed the first, so that the net result is a tax on the stream's

energy. Each element of load, by drawing on the supply of

158 gilbert: transportation of debris

energy, reduces velocity and thus reduces capacity for all parts

of the load. This principle affords a condition by which total

capacity is limited. Subject to this condition a stream's load

at any time is determined by the supply of debris and the fineness

of the available kinds.

Flume transportation. In the experiments described above —

experiments illustrating stream transportation — the load trav-

ersed a plastic bed composed of its own material. Other

experiments were arranged in which the load traversed a rigid

bed, the bottom of a flume. Capacities are notably larger for

flume transportation than for stream transportation, and their

laws of variation are different. Rolling is an important mode

of progression. For rolled particles the capacity increases with

coarseness, for leaping particles with fineness. Capacity in-

creases with slope and usually with discharge also, but the rates

of increase are less than in stream transportation. Capacity is

reduced by roughness of bed.

Vertical velocity curve. The vertical distribution of velocities

in a current is controlled by conditions. The level of maximum

velocity may have any position in the upper three-fourths of the

current. In loaded streams its position is higher as the load is

greater. In unloaded streams its position is higher as the slope

is steeper, as the discharge is greater, and as the bed is rougher.

Pilot tube. The constant of the Pitot velocity gage — the

ratio between the head realized and the theoretic velocity head —

is not the same in all parts of a conduit, being less near the water

surface and greater near the bottom or side of the conduit.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ASTROPHYSICS. — The non-selective transmissibility of radiation

through dry and moist air. F. E. Fowle, Astrophysical Journal

38:392. 1913.

The change in the transmissibihty of radiation associated with atmos-

pheric water-vapor between the wave-lengths 0.371/x and 1.74/z was

first determined; this rendered possible the evaluation of the trans-

missibility of radiation by dry air vertically above Mount Wilson (1730

meters). In the following table are given, for a few selected wave-

lengths, the coefficients of transmission for dry air, aa\, the factor for

the change produced by atmospheric water-vapor when the amount

of precipitable water is 1 cm., a^\, and the theoretical values for dry

air computed from the theory of molecular scattering.

TTAVE-LEXOTH

0 370 ; 0.400 I 0.430 \ 0.460 i 0.500 0.600 ; 0.750 1.000 i 1.500

a^x I 0.957 0.962' 0.967; 0.9710.976 10.977 | 0.988 0.990 0.988

ttax (observed) 0.683 0.757 0.808 0.85l|o. 885* 0.916* 0.977 0.98?' 0.990

aa\ (computed) 0.680 0.755 0.808 0.8500.890*10.946* 0.977 0.987^ 0.986

; , I '\ j '

* Places of selective transmission.

The corresponding values of a^ for air containing w cm. of precipitable

water-vapor would be a^x ' «ax-

The transmission coefficient for dry air was then used for the deter-

mination of the number of molecules, A'^o, per cc. of a gas at 760 mm.

pressure and at 0°C. The result was

No = 25.6 X 1018,

found to correspond very closely with the present best value from

other methods, 27 billion billion ( Alillikan) . This mode of analysis shows

that for dry air, except where selective absorption accurs, the deple-

tion of the beam from the sun or other celestial body, as observed in

159

160 abstracts: physics

1910 and 1911 at Mount Wilson was caused almost wholly by molecular

scattering. From 0.36/z to 0.50^ the depletion is practically wholly

of this nature. Then come the great selective absorption l^ands, which

except near the D lines, have been eliminated from this discussion.

Even in the infra-red between these water-vapor bands, molecular

scattering accounts for the observed depletion of radiation bj^ the

atmosphere.

The same analysis applied to atmospheric aqueous vapor shows

that the observed absorption is very much too great to be accounted

for by the number of water molecules present. The transmission

coefficients found by various observers for liquid water, however (0.2 1/x

to 0.50m), are such as would be expected from this amount of water

in vapor form. This leads to the inference that its absorption in liquid

form in this region results from molecular scattering. The number

of molecules, No, computed from the transmission coefficients of liquid

water is about

A^o = 28 X 10^^

The increased absorption connected with atmospheric water-vapor

and the departure of the transmission coefficients from strict propor-

tionality to the inverse fourth power of the wave-length in the sense

that the coefficients for smaller wave-lengths are too high, leads to the

inference that the vapor is loaded with something greater in size than

molecules. This loading could be due to dust or iron, although there is

not definite evidence why these should be proportional to the amount of

water-vapor present. The presence of nuclei, formed by the action

of the ultra-violet light of the sun on the moisture present in the air,

seems perhaps the most satisfactory explanation.

In the above study the amount of water-vapor present in the air was

measured by the depths of three calibrated selective absorption lines

in the infra-red. The effect of scattering, which varies slowly and

continuously with the wave-length, was eliminated. It has been shown

in an earlier paper {Astrophysical Journal, 37: 359. 1913) that the mean

results of such determinations of the amount of aqueous vapor in the

atmosphere agree with the mean results of estimates of it from obser-

vations with kites and balloons. F. E. F.

PHYSICS. — Standard density and volumetric tables, 4th edition. Bureau

of Standards Circular No. 19. (In press.)

In this circular the following tables are included : Table 1 gives the den-

sity of water (according to P. Chappuis) at every tenth of a degree from 0°

abstracts: geology 161

to 40°C. Tables 2 to 8, inclusive, are standard density and specific grav-

ity tables for ethyl alcohol. They are based on work done at this Bureau

and published in Vol. 9, No. 3, of the Bulletin of the Bureau of Stand-

ards (Reprint No. 197). Tables 9 to 11, are similar tables for methyl

alcohol. They are based on the work of Doroshevskii and Rozhdest-

venskii. Tables 12 and 13 are density tables for sugar solutions.

Tables 14 and 15 are density tables for sulphuric acid solutions. Tables

16 to 19 give the relation between specific gravity and degrees Baum^,

in use in the United States. Table 20 is for changing the density basis

of hydrometers and picnometers. Table 21 gives the weight of a liter

of air at various pressures and temperatures. Table 22 gives the

difference between the weight of 1 cc. of water in vacuo and in air at

various pressures and temperatures. Table 23 gives the apparent weight

of various volumes of water at various temperatures when weighed

against brass weights in air. Table 24 gives the temperature correction

for glass volumetric apparatus. Tables 25 to 37 give the corrections

to be applied to the weight of water, in air, to give the capacity of glass

volumetric apparatus. Table 38 gives the density of water (according

to Thiesen) at temperatures from 0° to 102°C. Tables 39 and 40 are

master scales for the graduation of hydrometers to indicate percentages

of ethyl alcohol by weight and by volume and percentages of "Proof

Spirit." G. K. B.

GEOLOGY. — The Noatak-Kobuk region, Alaska. Philip S. Smith.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 536. Pp. 160, with maps and

illustrations. 1913.

Practically all of the Noatak-Kobuk region lies north of the Arctic

Circle, and as a whole is a mountainous region. The rocks from which

the geology of the region has been inferred have been separated into

two main divisions, namely, sedimentary and igneous. The sedimen-

tary rocks have been divided into thirteen groups as follows: Unconsoli-

dated deposits consisting of recent stream gravels; recent beach deposits;

beach and outwash deposits; Tertiary deposits; the Mesozoic rocks

separated into the Bergman, Koyukuk, and Anaktuvuk groups; the

Paleozoic rocks subdivided into the Lisburne limestone, Noatak sand-

stone, Devonian limestone, Silurian limestone, undifferentiated Paleo-

zoic limestones, and undifferentiated Paleozoic metamorphic schists.

The last two divisions of Paleozoic rocks may possibly include some

rocks of pre-Paleozoic age. The igneous rocks have been subdivided

162 abstracts: geology

into four main groups: Basaltic effusives, granitic intrusives, early

intrusives and effusives, and greenstones. P. S. S.

GEOLOGY. — Iron-ore deposits of the Eagle Mountams, California.

E. C. Harder. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 503. Pp. 81,

with maps, views and sections. 1913.

The Eagle Mountain iron ores are located in the northern part of

the Eagle Mountains, Riverside County, California. The broad

structural feature of the northern third of the Eagle Mountains —

that is, of the portion consisting of sediments and intrusive granite

and where the iron ores occur — ^is an oval dome, extending in a gen-

eral east-west direction across the range. The iron ores with associated

metamorphic minerals occur as replacements in dolomite. Locally,

as at the east end of the area, they have replaced the entire series of

dolomite lenses, leaving the associated quartzite but little altered.

Elsewhere they occur within the dolomite lenses or beds in bands or as

irregular masses roughly parallel to the bedding. The ore is predomi-

nantly hematite, but here and there consists of masses of magnetite.

Much of the hematite contains disseminated magnetite, making it

slightly magnetic, but probably less than 10 per cent of the entire quan-

tity of ore is magnetite.

The succession of geologic events in Eagle Mountain region is as

follows: (1) Deposition of sandstone, siliceous shale, and dolomite.

(2) Intrusion of porphyritic granite into the sediments. (3) Alteration

of granite porphyry to augen gneiss and the sediments to schists and

crystalline limestone. (4) Erosion interval followed by submergence

and deposition of a great thickness of quartz sandstone; then the depo-

sition of arkosic sandstone, followed by the formation of beds and lenses

of dolomite and quartz sandstone, and, lastly, of beds of sandstone and

conglomerate. (5) Intrusion of quartz monzonite in two main sills.

(6) The heat and pressure accompanjdng the intrusion recrystallized

and consolidated the sediments and perhaps locally developed meta-

morphic minerals. (7) During the latter part of the intrusion, or

shortly after it, iron ores and metamorphic minerals were introduced

by deep-seated solutions replacing the dolomite and to a slight extent

the quartzite. (8) Doming of the sediments and intrusives, accom-

panied by great faulting. (9) Erosion exposing all the rock formations,

accompanied by the sculpturing of mountains and followed by the de-

velopment of great outwash aprons around the mountains.

A. H. Brooks.

abstracts: geology 163

GEOLOGY.- — Geology and ore-deposits of the Phillipsburg quadrangle,

Montana. W. H. Emmons and F. C. Calkins. U. S. Geological

Survey Professional Paper 78. Pp. 271, with maps, views, and

sections. 1913.

The consolidated sedimentary rocks range in age from Algonldan to

late Cretaceous. The Algonkian Belt series is represented by about

20,000 feet of shale, sandstone and impure limestone. It is overlain,

with an unconformity that is locally conspicuous, by the Flathead

quartzite of Cambrian age, which constitutes the base of a Palaeozoic

series about 4500 feet thick, which consists mainly of limestones, but

whose uppermost .strata, are quartzitic. These rocks were covered b}^

several thousand feet of Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstone and shale,

the latest that survive being of Colorado or Montana age. No struc-

tural unconformities are apparent in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic series,

but several epochs are unrepresented by deposits.

Intrusive igneous rocks occupy a large proportion of the surface. With

the exception of a few diabasic and dioritic sills, the important intrusive

masses are of irregular or dome-like form and are probably of early

Tertiary age. Most of them belong to the granite and diorite families.

The Phillipsburg batholith, one of the most important economically, is

petrographically similar to the Boulder batholith, but less alkalic. The

most unusual intrusives are pj^roxene aplites, associated with grano-

diorites or quartz monzonites, some of. which contain primary scapolite.

The rocks already described are overlain with marked unconformity

by Tertiary tuffs and lavas in small amount, and by stream and glacial

deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age. There is clear evidence of

two widely separated glaciations. Remnants of Tertiary erosion sur-

faces of low relief are well preserved, and the glacial sculpture of the

high mountains is striking.

The structure of the pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks is highly com-

plex. The most remarkable structural features are overthrusts which

have pushed Algonkian rocks several miles eastward over rocks as late

as Jurassic and which have been folded. These overthrusts are thought

to have a close relation with the similar ones in the Rocky Mountains

further north and further south, described by Willis, Richards and others.

The igneous rocks and the Tertiary gravel deposits have suffered some

deformation, but much less than the older strata.

The ore deposits are classified accorcUng to mode of occurrence as

follows: A. Deposits filling fissures. (1) Silver-bearing veins in granite,

(2) Gold-bearing veins in granite, (3) Silver-bearing veins in quartzite,

164 abstracts: geology

(4) Gold-bearing veins and sheeted zones in quartzite. B. Replace-

ment deposits related to fissures or to bedding planes. (1) Silver-

bearing replacement veins in sedimentary rocks, (2) Silver deposits in

bedding-planes of calcareous rocks, (3) Gold-bearing replacements veins

in sedimentary rocks. C. Replacement deposits of contact meta-

morphic origin. (1) Gold-copper deposits, (2) Magnetite deposits.

D. Gold placers.

All the important deposits in place are in or near the intrusive bodies.

They were deposited by ascending solutions, and it is regarded as prob-

able that these solutions were given off from the intrusives now exposed

or from deeper ones that are still concealed. F. C. C.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Nome and Grand Central quadrangles,

Alaska. Fred H. Moffit. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 533.

Pp. 140, with maps and views. 1913.

The Nome and Grand Central quadrangles are situated in the south-

central part of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Along the southern border of the area is a narrow coastal plain,

sloping gently upward from Bering Sea to the foot of the hills a tew

miles inland while on the north side are the Kigluaik Mountains, whose

highest peaks within the quadrangle are about 3,000 feet. The rest of

the area is a dissected upland with hills reaching a maximum elevation

of about 2600 feet and shoA\ing smooth rounded contours.

The oldest rock formation is the Tigaraha schist, the topmost mem-

ber of the Kigluaik group, which consists of l)iotite gneisses, coarsely

crystalline limestone, biotite schist, and siliceous graphitic schist.

The Tigaraha schist is exposed in the most northern part of the area

and has a general southerly dip. It is intruded by dikes and sills of

granite, diorite and diabase. Overlying the Kigluaik group and occu-

pying nearly aU the remainder of the mapped area is the Nome group

of formations, made up chiefly of chloritic and feldspathic schists and

altered limestones Avith many greenstone and a few granite intrusives.

The a^e of the Kigluaik and the Nome groups is unknown. They

probably range from Paleozoic or pre-Paleozoic to middle Paleozoic.

The Quaternary unconsolidated deposits of the area include sands and

gravels of marine and of fluvial origin, glacial deposits, and the mantle of

unassorted debris due to weathering.

Within the coastal plain five or six of the old beaches have been dis-

covered and these give direct evidence of changes in the relative heights

of land and sea. They range in elevation from 34 feet below sea level

ABLTRACTS: GEOLOGY 165

to 70 or 79 feet above sea level, and except where removed or uncovered

by erosion are buried under later gravel deposits, having a maximum

thickness of 120 feet. F. H. M.

GEOLOGY. — Nitrate deposits. Hoyt S. Gale. U. S. Geological Survey

Bulletin 523. Pp. 36. 1912.

This paper consists of a short summary of the natural occurrences of

nitrate salts kno^\^l in the United States. The descriptions are chiefly

compiled from the references to such occurrences found scattered

throughout geologic and other literature, the use of such deposits as a

source of nitrate for the manufacture of powder during war time having

been a frequent source of comment. Some new descriptive data by the

author and analyses from materials collected in the field are also in-

cluded. The article contains a review chiefly by quotation, of the

theories concerning nitrification as bearing on the probable origin of

such deposits. H. S. G.

GEOLOGY. — The Jurassic flora of Cape Lisburne, Alaska. F. H-

Knowlton. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 85-D.

Pp. 55, with sections. 1914.

The Jurassic section of Cape Lisburne, to which the name Corwin

formation has been given, reaches the thickness of over 15,000 feet.

So far as at present known the fossil flora is uniformly cUstributed

throughout, and embraces 17 species, only one of which is described as

new. This flora is compared with known Jurassic floras of various

parts of the world, and the conclusion is reached that it is not only

•undoubtedly Jurassic in age — which had previously been questioned —

but belongs either in the upper part of the Middle Jurassic or Bro^vn

Jura, or the extreme lower part of the Upper Jurassic or White Jura —

that is to say it is probably not older than the Bathonian, and certainly

not younger than the Oxfordian. Several pages are devoted to a dis-

cussion of the geographic range of Jurassic floras in general, their means

and avenues of dispersal, and the probable climatic conditions that pre-

vailed in Alaska at the time this flora flourished there. F. H. K.

GEOLOGY. — The origin of colemanite deposits. Hoyt S. Gale

L^. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-A. Pp. 9, 1913.

Colemanite, the borate of lime from which practically all commercial

borax and boric acid is derived in this country at the present time, has

been discussed by various writers, but its origin has always been ascribed

to the dessication of saline or alkaline waters, usually as deposits of

166 ABSTpACTS: GEOLOGY

Tertiary lakes. A study of some of the characteristic colemanite de-

posits has suggested the probable vein origin of this mineral, without

necessary association with dessication deposits. The vein character is

indicated in the physical structure of the deposits, which also give evi-

dence of the formation of colemanite by replacement of limestone.

The boric acid is assumed to have been derived from volcanic sources,

since volcanic activity has characterized the region in which these de-

posits occur, and intrusive or flow rocks are generally found in intimate

association with the ore bodies. H. S. G.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of Lemhi County, Idaho. J. B.

Umpleby. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 528. Pp. 182, with

maps, sections and views. 1913.

The rock formations of Lemhi County, Idaho, include: (1) a gneissoid

granite of Archean age, (2) a widespread series of Algonkian schists,

slates and quartzites, (3) about 6000 feet of Paleozoic strata which

include Cambrian quartzite, Ordovician, Silurian (?), and Devonian

dolomitic limestones, and Mississippian limestone, (4) large batho-

lithic masses of granite, and (5) Tertiary lavas and lake-beds.

The ore deposits may be grouped as gold placers and lodes, lead-silver

veins and tabular replacements, copper-bearing gold veins, cobalt-

nickel deposits, and tungsten-bearing veins. Two epochs of minerali-

zation are recognized, the older late Cretaceous or early Eocene and the

younger late Miocene or early Pliocene. All of the deposits, except a

small group of gold-silver veins, belong to the earlier epoch.

The gold-bearing veins are inclosed in many types of rock in Lemhi

County, but few of them are far distant from rocks of the granite rhyolite

family. Lead-silver deposits are recognized only in the southeastern

part of the county and at present are affording the principal production.

They are inclosed in Paleozoic formations and are thought to be geneti-

call}^ related to a quartz diorite facies of the granite intrusion. The

copper deposits have not proved of noteworthy commercial importance.

Cobalt-nickel deposits occur in only one of the nineteen mining districts

in the county. They occur as lens-like bodies and as bunches and

disseminations along fractured zones. Some of them are known to con-

tain about 2 per cent each of cobalt and nickel. Tungsten is mined in

one district where it is associated with zinc, copper, lead, molybdenum,

iron and silver minerals in lenticular quartz veins. J. B. U.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES.

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

A special meeting of the Anthropological Society of Wasliington was

held February. 3, 1914, in the National Museum, the President, Mr.

Stetson, in the chair. About eighty persons were present.

Miss Frances Densmore, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, read a

paper on Sioiix War Songs, using the stereopticon, the phonograph, and

vocal selections in illustration of her theme. She first showed lantern

slides of the prairie, where the long war drama of the Sioux was enacted,

then portraits of some old Sioux warriors, and, last, a nmnber of native

drawdngs of war incidents. Many war customs were illustrated by the

details, as well as by the subjects, of these dra\\ings. One phonograph

record of a woman's voice was given in connection with the portrait of

a woman who sang a song in honor of a relative killed in war. The

remaining songs were given vocally, the melodies being those sung by

the Indians, but no effort being made to imitate the Indian manner of

singing. Each drawing had one or more songs which were either sung

at the time the incident occurred, or composed in honor of the event.

These songs were phonographically recorded by the men who made the

drawings, and were afterward transcribed in musical notation by the

writer.

It is said that the Sioux, among all the Indian tribes, were the best

as friends and the worst as enemies. They were indeed men to be

feared in the old days. One of their societies was well named the

"Strong Hearts." They were trained from childhood to have "strong

hearts," and thej^ held to a purpose when others failed. The warriors

of a certain society carried in war a lance to which was fastened the skin

of a crow. When that lance was planted in the ground they dared not

retreat from it. So in loyalty to a friend, or in hatred of an enemy,

they struck their lance into the ground and staid by it.

War among Indians had an aspect different from that which it has

among civilized nations. It was not an occasional calamity, it more

nearly resembled a steady occupation. To the individual it offered a

career. A man could best become rich and honored by going to war.

A man was rated according to his generosity, and having given away

his goods there must be some way of securing a new supply of wealth.

A war party afforded this opportunity. War was a means of revenge,

and Indian revenge was a terrible thing. War was for the defence of

the home, and the protection of the hunting ground which meant the

food supply. Indian warfare was, after all, the physical expression of

167

168 proceedings: chemical society

something which must always go on, only changing its form, as forces

do, and passing from physical to mental battle grounds.

There was much of interest on the warpath besides the killing of

enemies and the capture of horses. A war party traveled far and brought

back strange tales of distant lands. New customs were frequently in-

troduced into the tribe as a result of war expeditions or the taking of

captives.

Only a successful Avarrior could belong to the leading societies of the

tribe, with, their special tents for meeting, their feasts and their parades,

all of which were very attractive to the Indian. But the greatest re-

ward was the right to sing of one's valor, at the assemblages of the tribe.

Daniel Folkmar, Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The 235th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February 12,

1914. The following papers were read:

F. P. Dewev, of the Bureau of the Mint: Artificial sperrylite. Sperry-

lite, PtAs2, which is especially interesting as the only chemical compound

containing Pt found in nature, has been duplicated in a matte made in

the refinery of the San Francisco Mint. The product is beautifully crys-

tallized and closely resembles the original sperrylite found at Sudbur5^

P. H. Walker, of the Bureau of Chemistry: Note on a new extraction

apparatus. This apparatus, which is made of iron and copper tubing

and is free from rubber connections, was shown and briefly described.

Discussion: Chamberlaine spoke of the method of extraction by re-

peated washings without a condenser.

F. K. Cameron, of the Bureau of Soils: Potash from kelp. Four

principal sources of potash have been in view: (1) desert salt deposits,

(2) orthoclase, feldspar and leucite, (3) alunite, (4) the giant kelps of

the Pacific. Four types of kelp yield considerable amounts of potassium

chloride, which effloresces on the plant during drying. This salt can be

separated from the sodimn chloride without difficulty, but no method

has been worked out for separating the potash while leaving the large

amount of available nitrogen behind with the organic matter, thus giv-

ing the organic residue a value. It is estimated that the Pacific kelps

could supply six times the amount of potash now imported into the

United States. Lantern slides were sho\Am illustrating the beds of kelp

as they occur, from Southern California to Alaska, the appearance and

manner of growth of the different species, and the methods of harvest-

ing and loading now in commercial use in the South.

Discussion: In reply to inquiries by Andrews, Bunzel, Seidell, Sos-

man, and Bassett, the following points were brought out: Very little

of the nitrogen is present as nitrate. The potash is not all removed by

a single extraction. Only one company is operating on any considerable

scale, although a number of companies have been floated; considerable

kelp is being cut on the Mexican coast, where it is easily air dried. Cap-

ital has held back from investment in kelp-cutting largely because no

monopoly rights or patents are connected with the industry. Data are

proceedings: geological society 169

lacldng for a comparison of the relation of iodide to chloride in sea water

with the same ratio in the plants. Houston discussed various points

brought out l\v the lecturer, and suggested that the bulkiness of the

kelp fertilizer is in some respects a desirable property; also that the

present state of the fertilizer industr}' is not such as to encourage invest-

ment in new fertilizer ventures, one principal trouble being overproduc-

tion of mineral fertilizers both in the United States and Germany.

Robert B. Sosman, Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 276th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 10, 1913.

Presidential address. The Tertiary orogeny of the N^orth American

Cordillera and its problem. Frederick L. Ransome. In extended

form this address will be published with other Silliman lectures for 1913

in a Dana memorial volume by Yale University.

The 21st Annual Meeting was then held at which the following officers

were elected to serve for the ensuing j'ear: President, Arthur Keith;

Vice-presidents, T. Wayland Vj^ughan, Arthur C. Spencer; Treas-

urer, Sidney Paige; Secretaries, Frank L. Hess, Clarence N. Fen-

ner; Members-at-large of the Council, Ernest F. Burchard, Charles

W. GiLMORE, D. F. Hewett, Esper S. Larsen, G. C. Martin. Vice- '

president, Washington Academy of Sciences, Frederick L. Ransome.

The 277th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Januarj' 14, 1914,

Under the head of "Informal Communications" E. G. Woodruff

described a well at DeBeque, Colorado, with periodic discharges of oil,

gas, and water.

Regular Program

Comparison of the geologic history of the Florida Reef tract with that of

other reef areas (illustrated) : T. Wayland Vaughan. The paper is

published in Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 4:26-34. 1914.

Some ellipsoidal lavas on Prince William Sound, Alaska (illustrated):

S. R. Capps. Near Ellamar, Alaska, there is a series of several thousand

feet of diabasic and basaltic lava flows interbedded at frequent intervals

with water-laid sediments. Many of the flows show ellipsoidal, spheroidal,

or pillow-shaped forms. It is believed that the alternation of marine

sediments with lava flows, all being structurally comformable, gives

strong evidence that the flows were poured out under water, and that

in this area the ellipsoidal forms of the lavas are due to sub-aqueous

cooling.

The original top of a flow, where overlain by sediments, is found to

have an uneven surface, the sediments filling in the irregularities.

The bottom of the sedimentary bed is thus uneven. The top of a sedi-

mentary bed has an even surface, and the lavas outpoured upon it have

themselves conformed to this surface, and the flow is therefore smooth

on the bottom. This distinction was of great value in deciphering the

structure in an area of considerable metamorphism and steeplj^ tilted

rocks.

170

proceedings: geological society

Review of papers by L. Keith Ward (a) The relationship between the

ore bodies and the igneous rocks of the Heemskirk-Comstock-Zeehan region,

Tasmania. (6) The origin of certain contact rocks high in lime and mag-

nesia. A. C. Spencer. No abstract.

The 278th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 28, 1914.

Under the head of "Informal Communications," J. M. Hill, described

a copper deposit in an apparent sink hole in northeastern Arizona.

Regular Program

Bituminous shale in northwestern Colorado and northeastern Utah: E.

G. Woodruff and D. T. Day. In general this region is a moderately

dissected plateau containing many small badland areas. Both Creta-

ceous and Tertiary rocks outcrop, but the bituminous shale was found

only in the middle member of the Green River (Eocene) formation.

The formation as a whole is a little more than 2,000 feet thick in the

eastern part of the area but considerably less in the western part.

Bituminous shale was found in long lenticular beds ranging from a

fraction of an inch up to 80 feet in thickness. An exposure half a mile

long shows only a moderate variation in thickness but a study of a

township reveals great differences in thickness and continuity.

The shale is a brown tough rock with a light brown, waxy streak.

The amount of carbonaceous material present varies considerably.

The major bedding and a large part of the minor bedding is regular,

but in most of the rich shale there is an irregularity of lamination which

gives to it a peculiar curly structure.

Both field evidence and microscopic studies show that the movement

of oil in the shale has not been extensive nor even locally intensive.

Microscopic studies show also that the shale contains a considerable

amount of oil which can be liberated by leaching. Greater quantities

of oil, however, are obtained by ordinary distillation processes. The

results of distillation tests are shown by the following table :

NUMBER OP TEST

Conn Creek

Kimball Creek

Kimball Creek (second test)

Parachute Creek

4A Ranch

Temple Station

Ute Station

White River. Subsurface sample

White River. Near surface

Nine Mile Creek

Hill Creek....

PART OF SEC-

TION SAMPLED

Uft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

ft. 10 in.

ft. 10 in.

4

2

3 ft.

3 ft.

ft.

ft.

6 in.

6 in.

6 in.

9 in.

GALLONS

OP OIL PER

SHORT TON

OF SHALE

61.2

31.6

26.2

20.0

10.4

45.2

16.0

33.3

35.5

39.0

16.0

proceedings: geological society 171

It is estimated that sufficient gas is generated during distillation to

carry on the operation without the addition of other fuels. Different

samples of the oil began to boil at from 70° to 80°. From 2 to 10 per

cent of the oil was distilled under 150°. From 33 to 55 per cent of the

oil volatized between 150° and 300°. The residues varied from 44 to 66

per cent. The amount of ammonia contained in the shale has not yet

been determined. These data indicate that the bituminous shale is a

valuable resource. The deposits are easily accessible by railroad, pipe

lines or tram tracks.

The conditions of "antiplanation^' in sub-Arctic regions (illustrated) :

H. M. Eakin. a widely distributed topographic feature in central

and western Alaska, the development of which is apparently peculiar

to those regions of the earth's surface that are exposed to the rigors of a

sub-Arctic climate was described as essentially flat-topped accumula-

tions of loose rock. They include flat-topped hills, ridges, passes and

terrace-like forms. The materials involved have migrated under the

thrust and heave of frost action in moisture saturated soil. They have

been moved at extremely slow rates and for very short distances.

Inequalities in the amount of soil mingled with the rock waste cause

different parts of the accumulating mass to move at different rates.

These irregularities are mutually cumulative and the slopes which they

affect become more and more irregular and finally exhibit the flats and

scarps here discussed. These phenomena indicate the action of a mor-

phologic process distinct from the processes of aqueous erosion, which

oppose its operation; distinct from equiplanation which, according to

Cairnes, is a process affecting more widespread, regional areas, and which

reduces relief by the migration of materials from hills to valleys; and

distinct from the general phenomena of solifluction in being localized

in its operation and in resulting in a special and distinct type of topo-

graphic featm-e. The process is termed antiplanation — a specific process

that is active in forming high level flats and plains of limited extent

wherever the essential conditions are met.

Problems of the glacial geologist: Frank Leverett. Certain prob-

lems, such as the cause of the glacial epoch, the alternation of glacial

and interglacial stages, the origin and relations of loess deposits, etc.,

are world-wide in bearing. Others, such as the localization of the ice

centers of North America and the lowan drift question are regional.

There are also collateral problems such as the effect of the ice load in

producing deformation of the earth's crust, the effect of climatic changes

of the ice age upon migration, extinction of species, and the develop-

ment of new species. To the glacialist also fall certain determinations

leading to a geologic time scale through combining data on cataract

recession, ice-border recession, uplift of shore lines of glacial lakes,

relative amounts of weathering, and erosion of the several drifts, etc.

The cause of the glacial epoch, which was thought by many, a generation

ago, to be solved by Croll, is generally regarded today as an unsolved or

but partially solved problem. Chamberlin and students under his

direction have in the past twenty years thoroughly considered many

172 proceedings: geological society

terrestrial factors affecting climate and the varying relations of the

ocean and the air under differing conditions of temperature as well as

reactions involved in exposure of fresh areas to oxidation and weather-

ing. The ingenious hypothesis of the cause of glaciation advanced by

Chamberlin as a result of these studies is full of suggestive ideas which

but few students have as yet had time adequately to consider.

As to the manner in which the ice sheet accumulated on the North

American continent very little has as yet been determined. Conditions

are much more complex here than in Europe and a solution seems likely

to require about as elaborate an investigation as is required to determine

the cause of the ice age. If, as seems likely, the Labrador center was fed

by moist air currents from the Gulf of Mexico, and the Keewatin by

those from the Pacific, it becomes a problem to* explain the recently

announced Patrician center north of Lake Superior. It is also difficult

to account for the development and great extent of the Keewatin center

under present conditions of altitude and slope. There are, however,

indications that in early Pleistocene time the coast ranges of Alaska

were much lower than now and they may have had less influence in

checking the winds from the Pacific and in causing precipitation to be

chiefly near the coast.

There is wide difference of opinion concerning the climatic conditions

at the time of loess deposition and it remains to be determined whether

the loess is interglacial or glacial. The opinion is almost unanimous

that it is chiefly of eolian deposition, water being influential merely in

distributing it down the great waterways and exposing it to the action

of the \vind. To what extent the loess is derived from the glacial ma-

terials and to what extent from the semi-arid western plains is unde-

termined.

The question of a stage of glaciation closely connected with the main

loess deposition is still open. It is here that the lowan glacial stage

was originally placed. Opinions on the lowan drift are-now quite di-

verse, its existence being questioned by some, its Illinoian age being

claimed by others, while a number of geologists still place it close to the

main loess deposition and claim for it a much later time that the Illinoian.

The 279th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 11, 1914.

Under the head of "Informal Communications," Dean Winchester

described the anticlines of eastern Montana, Wyoming and North

Dakota.

Regular Program

The Camwnball marine member of the Lance formation: E. R. Lloyd.

The Lance formation in parts of the Dakotas consists of two parts;

a lower part, approximately 400 feet thick, with predominant somber

colored shale and yellow sandstone, of continental origin; and an upper

part, about 300 feet thick of sandstone, shale, and limestone of marine

origin. To this upper part the name Cannonball marine member is

given. The lower sediments of continental origin contain a flora which

proceedings: geological society 173

according to Knowlton is indistinguishable from that of the Fort Union

and is distinctly a Tertiary flora. It also contains remains of turtles

and dinosaurs, particularly of the genus Triceratops which is diagnostic

of the Lance formation and which has, at least until recently, been con-

sidered by vertebrate paleontologists to be a distinctively Cretaceous

form. The Cannonball member contains an invertebrate and verte-

brate fauna of over fort}' species very closely related to the marine

cretaceous fauna of the Fox Hills sandstone.

The distinctively marine fossils of the Cannonball member were

found near Haley, N. D., by C. J. Hares, and on Cannonball River,

N. D., by E. R. Lloyd at about the same time in 1912. The member

is thicker and better exposed on Cannonball River and this was accord-

ingly selected as the type locality. The strata are practically flat lying,

but a comparison of altitudes instrumentally determined on lignite

beds in the Fort Union show a small but persistent dip to the north-

east and north. The Cannonball member has been traced and mapped

in a strip extending from near Mandan, North Dakota, to the eastern

part of Harding County, South Dakota, a distance of about 130 miles.

The marine fossils were found throughout the whole of this distance.

The mechanics of granite intrusion in the Black Hills, South Dakota.

Sidney Paige. In the Black Hills schists and quartzites form the mat-

rix for invading granite masses. The schists suffered marked deforma-

tion in the vicinity of the intrusive masses, being thro\^^l into closely

appressed recumbent folds and receiving a second schistose structure.

Parallel with this new structure there has been lit-par-lit injection. The

quartzite broke into blocks which became separated by the advancing

magma. These features suggest that the conditions under which the

intrusion occurred involved the lateral distension of the invaded rocks

though this distension took place under a great load. There is no

evidence that the magma was able to dissolve fragments of the schist

upon a large scale, and it seems that such assimilation as maj' have

occurred was merely incidental to physical or mechanical features, and

not a primary process inducing or permitting the advance of the magraa.

Through injection and impregnation the composition and specific

gravity of the schist approaches that of the granite. The prime cause

of the advance of deep seated mag-matic material is probably to be sought

in movements incidental to adjustments toward isostatic equilibrium.

As sea bottoms sink there is a landward transfer of material, and con-

tinents rise. Where there are weak spots strong warps develop, lateral

distension results, and the upward invasion of the magma is permitted.

Frank L. Hess, Secretary.

REFERENCES

Under this heading It Is proposed to Include, by author, title, and citation, references to all

scientific papers published In or emanating from Washington. It is requested that authors cooperate

with the editors by submitting titles promptly, following the style used below. These references are

not intended to replace the more extended abstracts published elsewhere in this Journal.

ANTHROPOLOGY

Babcock, W. H. Eskimo long-di$tance voyages. American Anthropologist, n. s.

15:138-141. January-March, 1913.

Babcock, W. H. Early Norse visits to North America. Smithsonian Miscellaneous

Collections 59'": 1-213, pis. 1-10. 1913.

Clark, V. S. The Filipinos in Hawaii. Rept. 31st Ann. Lake Mohonk .Conf.,

pp. 114-117. 1913.

Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Music, — II. Bulletin 53, Bur. of Amer Eth-

nology, pp. i-xxi, 1-341. 1913.

Fewkes, J. W. Casa Grande, Arizona. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur. vimer. Ethnology,

pp. 25-180, pis. 1-78 + figs. 1-54. 1912 [pub. 1913].

Fewkes, J. W. Antiquities of the upper Verde and Walnut Creek valleys, Arizona.

28th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 181-220, pis. 79-102 + figs. 56-68.

1912 [pub. 1913].

Fewkes, J. W. Great stone monuments in history and geography. Smithsonian

Miscellaneous Collections 61«: 1-50, figs. 1-36. 1913.

Fewkes, J. W. Porto Rican elbow-stones in the Heye Museum, with discussion

of similar objects elsewhere. Amer. Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 435-459, figs.

116-129. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].

Fletcher, Alice C. Brief history of the International Congress of Americanists.

Amer. Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 529-534. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].

Fletcher, R. Columns of infamy. American Anthropologist, n. s. 14:636-642.

October-December, 1912 [pub. 1913].

FoLKMAR, D. Mother tongue of the foreign white stock. Thirteenth Census of the

United States, 1910. [Reprint of Chap. IX, pp. 959-1015, of Volume I of the

Thirteenth Census Report. 1914.]

Frachtenberg, L. J. Coos texts. Columbia University Contributions to An-

thropology 1: 1-216. 1913.

Frachtenberg, L. J. Contribution to a Tutelo vocabulary. American Anthro-

pologist, n. s. 15:477-479. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914].

Frachtenberg, L. J. Coos: An illustrative sketch. Bur. Amer. Ethnology,

Bull. 40, Pt. 2 (in part), pp. 295-429. 1914.

Hrdlicka, a. Anthropological work in Peru in 1913, with notes on the pathology

of the ancient Peruvians. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 61^^: 1-69,

pis. 1-26. 1914.

174

references: entomology , 175

Hrdlicka, a. The Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, 1914.

American Anthropologist n. s. 14:695, 696. October-December, 1912 [pub.

19131.

MicHELSON, T. Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algonquian

tribes. 28th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethnology, pp. 221-290b. 1912 [pub.

1913].

MiCHELSON, T. Vedic, Sanskrit, and Middle Indie. Journ. Amer. Oriental Soc.

33:145-149. 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. [Revieiv of] Ketkar's "History of caste in India." Current An-

thropological Lit. 2: 84, 85. 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. Note on the Fox negative particle of the conjunctive mode. Ameri-

can Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 364. April- June, 1913.

MiCHELSON, T. Contributions to Algonquian grammar. American Anthropolo-

gist, n. s. 15 : 470-476. July-September, 1913 [pub. 1914] .

Parker, G. E. The Indian: personal vs. property. Rept. 31st Ann. Lake Mohonk

Conf., pp. 47-52., 1913.

SwANTON, J. R. A foreword on the social organization of the Creek Indians. Amer-

ican Anthropologist, n. s. 14:593-599. October-December, 1912 [pub. 1913].

SwANTON, J. R. Coonti. American Anthropologist, n. s. 15: 141, 142. January-

March, 1913.

ENTOMOLOGY

Alexander, C. P. The Tipulidae in Brunetti's ''Fauna of British India; Dip-

tera Nematocera." Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 118-120. September

15, 1913. (A critical review of this work, indicating the synonomy of various

genera and species. — J. C. C.)

Alexander, C. P. A new Geranomyia from the Philippine Islands {Diptera,

Tipulidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 137-139. November 29, 1913.

Banks, N. Eastern species of Rachicerus. Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15: 51. April 9, 1913. (Includes a key to the three

species occurring in eastern United States. — J. C. C.)

Banks, N. Asilids catching Hymenoptera. Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15: 51. April 9, 1913.

Banks, N. Notes on Diptera. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of

Washington 15: 52. April 9, 1913.

Banks, N. New exotic neuropteroid insects. ' Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15: 137-143. October 2, 1913. (Describes 12 new

species, mostly from South America and India. — J. C. C.)

Barber, H. S. Luminous Collembola. Proceedings of the Entomological So-

ciety of Washington 15 : 46-50. April 9, 1913. (Notes on the luminosity

of a species of the genus Anurida and of Neanura quadrioculata; also includes

a bibliography of articles on luminosity in this group. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. a new species of Rhodites from California (Hymenojitera,

Cynipidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 93, 94, pi. 2. August 23, 1913.

(Describes R. weldi, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. On Catocola denussa and C. herodias (Lepidoptera. Noclui-

dae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:97, 98. August 23, 1913. (Rede-

scribes C. denussa, giving reasons for its validity. — J. C. C.)

176 , references: entomology

Beutenmuller, W. a new species of Amphibolips. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 122, 123. October 30, 1913. (Describes A. montana, from North

Carolina.— J. C. C.)

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A uew Audricus from New Jersey (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 124, 125. October 30, 1913. (Describes

A.flavohirtus. — J. C. C.)

Beutenmuller, W. Notes on Hepialus auratus Grote (Lepidoptera, Hepialidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 129, 130. October 30, 1913.

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A new empid from the Black Mountains, North Carolina

(Diptera, Empididae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 130. October 30,

1913. (Describes Rhamphomyia novecarolina. — J. C. C.)

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. Description of a new gallfly (Andricus decidua) ; {Hymenop-

tera, Cynipidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 131, 132. October 30,

1913.

BEUTENMtJLLER, W. A ncw Nomaretus from Mount Mitchell, North Carolina

(Coleoptera, Carabidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 139, 140. Novem-

ber 29, 1913. (Describes N. Schwarzi, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Bird, H. On the larval habits of two species of Oligia (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 123, 124. October 30, 1913.

Busck, a. Notes on the genus Mieza Walker, with descriptions of three species

frotn Costa Rica (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae) . Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 70-73. June 30, 1913.

Busck, A. New Microlepidoptera from British Guiana. Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus 1: 88-92. July 21, 1913. CDescribes eight new species in several

genera. — J. C. C.)

Busck, A. A new Acrolophus from British Guiana. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 117. September 15, 1913.

Busck, A. Two Microlepidoptera injurious to chestnut. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 102-104. October 2, 1913.

Busck, A. Seven new Microlepidoptera from Mexico. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 140-143. November 29, 1913.

Caudell, a. N. Notes on the yellow crane-fly, Tipul;, flavicans Fabr. Proceed-

ings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 45, 46. April 9, 1913.

Caudell, A. N. A neio pseudophylliid from Jamaica (Orthoptera, Locustidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 57,58. May 31, 1913. (Gives a key to the

Jamaican species of the genus Jamaicana and describes one new species, /.

flava.—J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The spotted beet webworin. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin

127, Pt. 1, pp. 1-11, pis. 1-4. May 31, 1913. (A brief life-history of Hymenia

perspectalis in the District of Columbia, with an account of some allied species

and methods of control. — J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The abutilon moth. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 126:

lj-10, pis. 1-5. December 6, 1913. (A brief life-history of Cosmophila erosa

in Virginia. — J. C. C.)

Chittenden, F. H. The Florida fern caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulle-

tin 125 : 1-10. October 29, 1913. (A brief life-history of this species, Eriopus

floridensis, injuring ferns in greenhouses in the northern United States, with

methods of control. — J. C. C.)

references: entomology 177

Chittenden, F. H. The rose slug-caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin

124: 1-9. October 31, 1913. (A short life-history of Euclea indeiermina in

West Virginia and Maryland, with remedies. — J. C. C.)

CocKERELL, T. D. A. Pseudomasaris bred in California. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 107. October 2, 1913. (Describes

one new subspecies. — J. C. C.)

CusHMAN, R. A. The Calliephialtes parasite of the codling moth. Journal of

Agricultural Research 1: 211-235, figs. 1-15, pi. 20. December, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Notes on cotton moths. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 1-12.

January 27, 1913. CA key to the American species of the genera Cosmophila,

Gonitis, Aletia, Alabama, and Anomis, with descriptions of seven new species,

mostly in the last named genus. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The species of Sphida Grote (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor

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American species of Sphida and describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larvae of Xanthopastis timais Cramer (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 20-22. February 20, 1913. (Describes one

new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A note on the Macrothecinae {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1:22, 23. February 20, 1913. (Describes three new

North American species. — J. C. C.).

Dyar, H. G. The species of Airida Moschler {Lepidoptera, Lithosiidae) . Insec-

utor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 26-33. March 29, 1913. (Gives a key to the

American species of Afrida and describes twelve new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Five new North American Pyralidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 34, 35. March 29, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. The American species of Dysodia {Lepidoptera, Thjjrididae) . In-

secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 37-45. April 30, 1913. (Gives a key to the

American species and describes twelve new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larva of Trichostibas parvula {Lepidoptera, Yponomentidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae ]\Ienstruus 1: 48, 49. April 30, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Another larva of Xanthopastis timais {Lepidoptera, Noctuidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 49, 50. April 30, 1913. (Gives a key to

distinguish the four known larval forms. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The larva of Delias henningia Eschschollz {Lepidoptera, Pieridae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 58. May 31, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. A galleriine feeding in cacao pods {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). In-

secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 59. May 31, 1913. (Describes the new genus

Tineopsis, with a single species, T. theobromae, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Note on the systematic position of Pseudacontia rhizoleuca Brabant

{Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor Inscitiae 'Menstruus 1:59, 60. May

31, 1913. (Describes the new genus Brabantia, with a single species, B.

rhizoleuca, from South America. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A' note on Talara ruficoUis Schaus (Lepidoptera, Lithosiidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 75. June 30, 1913. (Describes Paraprepia

and Parillice, new genera, and one new species from Brazil. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. The species of Calyptocome Warren {Lepidoptera, Geometridae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 79-87. July 21, 1913. (Gives a key to the

American species and describes thirteen new species. — J. C. C.)

178 references: entomology

Dyar, H. G. The separation of some species of Lineodus (Lepidopiera, Pyralidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 94-96. August 23, 1913. (Gives a key to

some of the American species and describes three new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Descriptions of six new Pyralidae from British Guiana. Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 98-100. August 23, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. A note on Diathrausta nerinalis Walker {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 100-102. August 23, 1913. (Describes

four new forms of this species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Notice of volume II, no. 4, of Barnes and McDunnough's "Contri-

butions to the Natural History of the Lepidoptera of North America." Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 102-106. August 23, 1913. (Gives the synonomy

of many of the species described as new in this article and describes one new

species from Cuba.^J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. Note on the American silvery species of Argyria {Lepidoptera, Py-

ralidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 111-114. September 15, 1913.

(Gives a key to the American species which have silvery white ground color

and describes seven new species. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. An additional note on Calyptocome. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus

1: 120. September 15, 1913.

Dyar, H. G. Notes on the species of Galasa Walker {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 125-129. October 30, 1913. (Gives a key

to the American species and describes five as new. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G. A new pyralid from Newfoundland {Lepidoptera, Pyralidae). In-

secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 139. November 29, 1913. (Describes Py-

rausta Bedded, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

Dyar, H. G., and Knab, F. Three new neoptropical mosquitoes. Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 76-78. June 30, 1913.

Ely, C. R. Notes on the cocoons of some of the species of the genus Acrobasis, and

descriptions of three new species, from East River, Connecticut. Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 51-57. May 31, 1913.

Ely, C. R. The food plant of Cleonus calandroides Rand. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 104, 105. October 2, 1913. (This

species lives in the roots of Cakile endetula. — J. C. C.)

FoLSOM, J. W. North American spring-tails of the subfamily Tomocerinae. Pro-

ceedings of the U. S. National Museum 46:451-472, pis. 40-41. December

30, 1913. (Includes descriptions of one new species of Tritomurus and of

one new species and one new variety of Tomocerus. — J. C. C.)

Forbes, W. T. M. Trichoclea ruisa, new species; A structurally aberrant noctuid

(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:74, 75. June

30, 1913.

Foster, S. W. The cherry fruit sawfly. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 116,

Pt. 3, pp. 73-79, pis. 9, 10. January 31, 1913. (A brief seasonal history of this

species, Hoplocampa Cookei, in California. — J. C. C.)

Gahan, a. B. Identity of Scotioneurus stenostigma Prov. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15:38-40. April 9, 1913. (Species

redescribed from tvpe specimens and transferred to genus Aspilota. — J.

C. C.)

Gahan, A. B. Sotne notes on the palpi of Aphidiinae. Proceedings of the Ento-

mological Society of Washington 15: 86, 87. June 10, 1913. (The maxillary

references: entomology 179

palpi of Diaerelus rapae are almost as frequently three-segmented as four-

segmented; examination of large series of specimens of other species of the

subfamily showed no variation. — J. C. C.)

Gill, J. B. The fruit-tree leaf-roller. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 116,

Pt. 5, pp. 91-110, pis. 12-16. March 12, 1913. (Discusses the life-history and

habits of Archips argyrospila, with notes on natural enemies and method of

control.— J. C. C.)

GiRAULT, A. A. A netv scelionid from Queensland, Australia, parasitic on acridiid

eggs, with diagnosis of Australian species. Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15:4-8. April 9, 1913. (Contains also a key to the

Australian species of the genus Scelio. — J. C. C.)

GiRATjLT, A. A. Critical notes on sotne species of Mymaridae from the Sandwich

(Hawaiian) Islands, with comparative notes on Australian, North Arnerican,

and European forms. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washing-

ton 15: 9-20. April 9, 1914. ("Describes one new species and one new variety

of the genus Polynema. — J. C. C.)

Heideman, O. Description of two new species of North American Tingitidae.

Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 15: 1-4. April 9,

1913.

Hood, J. D. Two new Thysanoptera from Porto Rico. Insecutor Inscitiae Men-

struus 1: 65-70, pi. 1. June 30, 1913. (Includes description of the new genus

Podothrips.— J. C. C.)

Hood, J. D. On a collection of Thysanoptera from Porto Rico. .Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus 1: 149-154, pi. 5. December 31, 1913. (Describes the new genus

Dinurothrips, founded upon D. Hookeri, sp. nov. — J. C. C.)

JoxES, P. R., AND Davidson, W. M. Ldfe history of the codling moth in the Santa

Clara valley of California. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 115, Pt. 3, pp.

113-181. January 18, 1913. (Methods of control also are treated. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Some nectropical Syrphidae (Diptera). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus

1: 13-15. February 20, 1913. (Describes Quichuana, new genus, with two

new species. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. Na7nes and synonomy in Anopheles {Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 15-17. February 20, 1913.

Knab, F. Some earlier observations on the habits of Aphiochaeta juli (Brues).

{Diptera, Phoridae). Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:24. February 20,

1913.

Knab, F. A new bromelicolous Megarhinus {Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1 : 35, 36. March 29, 1913.

Knab, F. Changes in the mosquito-fauna of Panama. Proceedings of the Ento-

mological Society of Washington 15: 40-42. April 9, 1913. (Changes of the

physical features of Panama, due to the canal construction and the conse-

quent formation of Gatun Lake, have brought about a great increase in the

numbers of certain species of mosquitoes previously found to occur in very

small numbers. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. A new Heterostylum from Mexico {Diptera, Bombyliidae) . Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 110, 111. September 15, 1913.

Knab, F. The contentions regarding "Forest malaria." Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 110-114. October 2, 1913. (A

180 KEFERENCES: ENTOMOLOGY

reply to an article by Dr. Lutz reiterating a belief that the epidemics of

malaria in question were caused by other than bromelicolous Anopheles. —

J.C.C.)

Knab, F. a new Cuban Chaoborus (Diptera, Culicidae). Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus 1: 121, 122. October 30, 1913.

Knab, F. a new American Phlebotomus {Diptera, Psychodidae) . Insecutor

Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 135-137, fig. 1. November 29, 1913. (Describes a

new species, P. airoclavatus, from Trinidad. — J. C. C.)

Knab, F. A note on some American Simuliidae. Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus

1 : 154^156. December 31, 1913. (The new name Simulium Lutzi is proposed

for S. exiguum Lutz, not of Roubaud. — J. C. C.)

Lutz, A. The insect host of forest malaria. Proceedings of the Entomological

Society of Washington 15: 108, 109. October 2, 1913. {Cellia argyrotarsis is

said to be much more responsible for the spreading of malaria in Brazil than

C. albimana. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. A new genus and tioo new species of Chloropidae (Diptera). In-

secutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1: 46^8. April 30, 1913. (Includes description

of Eugaurax, a new genus based upon E. floridensis, n. sp., from Florida.^

J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. Four new species of North American Chloropidae (Diptera).

Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 1:60-64. May 31, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. A new species of Agromyzidae (Diptera). Insecutor Inscitiae

Menstruus 1: 109, 110. September 15, 1913. ("Describes Milichia orientalis

from the Island of Guam. — J. C. C.)

Malloch, J. R. A neiv species of Simulium from Texas. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 133, 134. October 2, 1913.

Malloch, J. R. Two new species of Borboridae from Texas. Proceedings of the

Entomological Society of Washington 15: 135-137. October 2, 1913.

Marsh, H. O. The horse-radish webworm. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 109,

Pt. 7, pp. 71-76. January 30, 1913. (A short life-history of this species,

Plutella armor acia, occurring in Colorado. — J. C. C.)

Marsh, H. O. The striped beet caterpillar. Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 127,

Pt. 2, pp. 13-18, pi. 5. May 19, 1913. (A short account of the life-history of

Mamestra trifolii in Colorado and Kansas, with a list of its natural enemies

and recommendations for control. — J. C. C.)

Morgan, A. C. An enemy of the cigarette beetle. Proceedings of the Entomologi-

cal Society of Washington 15: 89. June 10, 1913. (Larvae and adults of the

Clerid beetle, Thaneroclerus girodi, are predaceous, feeding on the cigarette

beetle, in the larval, pupal, and adult stages. — J. C. C.)

Parker, W. B. The hop aphis in the Pacific region. Bureau of Entomology

Bulletin 111 : 1-43, pis. 1-10. May 6, 1913. (The life-history, habits, dam-

age, natural enemies and control of this species, Phorodon humuli, are given

at length.— J. C. C.)

Parker, W. B. The red spider on hops in the Sacramento valley of California.

Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 117: 1-41, pis. 1-6. May 3, 1913. (Dis-

cusses the life-history and habits of Tetranychus biniaculatus, with methods of

control.— J. C. C.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. IV APRIL 19, 1914 No. 8

MUS^ERALOGY .—Cnjstallized chrysocolla from Mackay, Idaho.

Joseph B. Umpleby, Geological Siu'vey.

Crystallized chrysocolla has been found only in a few places,

and descriptions of its optical properties do not agree. ^ It seems

worth while, therefore, to describe briefly some exceptionally good

material from the Empire copper mine, situated three and one-

half miles southwest of Mackay, Idaho. The specimen analyzed

was picked from the ore bins of the Copper Bullion tunnel during

an examination of the deposits by the writer in 1912. Copper

silicate ore has afforded most of the production from these de-

posits, but very little of the material is crystallized.

The chrysocolla is characteristically brown in color and con-

tains much iron, but locally it is bluish green and free from iron.

The latter variety only is described in this paper.

The crystalUzed chrysocolla at Mackay occurs as mammillary

crusts, as small masses of irregular shape, and as acicular crystals

imbedded in other copper minerals. The acicular crystals are

microscopic in size and in the thin section appear both as radi-

ating groups and narrow bands of closely packed individuals

oriented normal to the sides of the bands. The massive variety

offered the best material for analysis, but even with it consider-

able difficulty was experienced in separating a sufficient amount

for chemical examination. Within distances of a few millimeters

1 A description of chrysocolla from the Belgian Congo, by H. Buttgenbach

(Ann. Soc. geol. publ. Congo Beige, p. 31-70, 1913) gives the following optical

properties: fibres, uniaxial + , mean index of refraction 1.39 (average of 6 readings

from 1.33 to 1.48); mostly second order colors. Lindgren (Prof. Paper 43, U. S.

Geol. Survey, p. 113, 1904) states that chrysocolla from Clifton-Morenci, Arizona,

is negative with double refraction about like augite.

181

182

umpleby: crystallized chrysocolla

the pure material grades into ferruginous chrysocolla and copper

pitch ore, and traversing it are ill-defined layers of malachite;

films of kaolin occur along minute fractures. The physical prop-

erties of this massive form are: hardness, about 3; density, 2.4

(Jolly balance determination not satisfactory, because of many

minute fractures) ; luster, somewhat waxy ; color, beryl green

(Ridgway's color scale); streak, white; tenacity, brittle.

Examined microscopically both in refractive index solutions

and in thin section the mineral is seen to have one distinct cleav-

age normal to the elongation and possibly one parallel to it, al-

though what appears to be cleavage in the latter direction may

be merely an overlapping of fibers. It is uniaxial, optically

positive, has positive elongation, and is highly birefringent.

The indices of refraction are W, 1.46 and E, 1.57 ±, a small varia-

tion in the values from different grains making it impossible to

place a satisfactory value in the third decimal place. Thick

grains show pleochrbism in colorless (W) and pale bluish green

(E) tones. The mineral belongs to the hexagonal or to the tet-

ragonal system of crystallization.

Partial Analysis of Chrysocolla, E,. C. Wells, Analyst.

A partial analysis of the massive material, carefully selected

with a hand lens, was made in the chemical laboratory of the

United States Geological Survey in order to make certain that

the material was chrysocolla. Although the analysis is unsatis-

factory in that it only totals 97.7 per cent, it is beheved that the

results prove that the crystalline substance is chrysocolla.

safford: pan-pipes of peru 183

Prior to recasting the analysis into mineralogical composition

portions of the pulp analyzed were examined in index solutions,

in order to determine what compounds other than copper sili-

cate should be recognized. Kaolinite is present along numerous

cracks in the specimen, but it was impossible to estimate its

relative amount. There is present, however, a considerable

amount of amorphous material which breaks as does the chrys-

ocolla and which has a refractive index lower than 1.45. It

was identified as opal. One hundred grains were examined in

each of ten portions of the pulp analyzed with the result that

on the average 9 out of each 100 were opal, the maximum range

being 5 to 14 with most of the counts approximating the average

value. Many of the grains were in part amorphous and in part

crystallized, so that the average value is based on numerous esti-

mates in addition to the actual count. The. percentage of opal

in the material as thus determined corresponds well with that

calculated from the analysis and serves as a check on the cal-

culation. In the recasting of the analysis alumina was assumed

to determine the amount of kaolinite; copper, zinc and calcium

oxides to determine the amount of chrysocolla; and the balance

was considered as opal. This gives an opal with 3.85 per cent

of water, a reasonable amount.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— Pan-pipes of Peru. William Edwin

Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.^

In 1887, while on a cruise in the South Pacific, the writer found

in a prehistoric grave at Arica, on the coast of Chile near the

Peruvian boundary, a pair of pan-pipes made of several graduated

reeds, very similar in form to the syrinx, or fistula, of the ancient

Greeks and Romans. This discovery inspired him with a desire

to learn what he could regarding the occurrence of similar instru-

ments in America and their possible connection wdth the classic

instruments of the old world. Afterwards, while acting as com-

missioner to Peru and Bolivia, for the World's Columbian Expo-

sition, the writer encountered at Puno, on the Peruvian shore of

' Read before the Anthropological Society of Washington at the meeting of

March 3, 1914.

184

safford: pan-pipes of peru

Fig. 1. Syrinx {Huayra puhura) from Peru. Photographed from a specimen

in the U. S. National Museum (no. 95,908). About five-sixths natural size.

safford: pan-pipes of peru 185

Lake Titicaca, an orchestra composed entirely of pan-pipes of

various sizes, some of the instruments producing shrill notes like

those of a piccolo, others flute-like notes, and the largest, tones

like those of an organ or calliope.

It was observed that the instruments were always grouped in

pairs. No single instrument was capable of producing all the

notes of the scale, but only alternate notes, separated by intervals

of a third, the intervening notes being played by a second player

upon an instrument which was the mate or complement of the

first. Nearly all the instruments consisted of 16 reeds arranged

in 2 rows of 8 graduated reeds, those of the inner row closed at

the bottom by a joint of the reed, while those of the outer row

were open both at the top and bottom. The reeds were secured

side by side, not by wax as in the Grecian syrinx, but by a splint

of cane wrapped about them, the upper ends forming a horizontal

line, the lower ends a series of steps, with the longest reeds on the

right of the player when in use (fig. 1). The performers, who

were full-blooded Quichua Indians, sounded the pipes by blowing

across the opening of the inner or closed reeds, the corresponding

outer open reeds apparently serving the purpose only of giving

volume or quality to the note sounded. Some of the smaller in-

struments were composed only of 14, or 7 pairs, of reeds, but in

other respects resembled the rest (fig. 2).

The lowermost instrument of each pair sounded the notes mi,

sol, si, re, fa, la, do, mi; while its slightly smaller mate supplied

the intervening notes /a, la, do, mi, sol, si, re, fa. The theme of

one of the tunes played by the Titicaca Indians was the following:

This was repeated again and again. The time was quick and the

Indians trotted along the street while playing, with short shuffling

steps, keeping time to the music. When they arrived at a cross

street and before the church they followed one another in ring,

very much like the players represented on funeral vases from

prehistoric graves. They wore close-fitting, pointed caps knit

186 safford: pan-pipes of peru

partly of vicuna and partly of sheep's wool, some of them prettily

figured with geometrical designs or conventionalized figures of

viscacachas or llamas, but all of them more or less greasy. Over

the caps they wore broad-brimmed gray felt hats wreathed with

flamingo feathers of a pretty rose color or with feathers of other

birds artificially dyed in bright shades of magenta, yellow, or

purple. Over coarse white shirts they wore ponchos and over

loose white drawers tightly fitting trousers slit from the lower

margin of each leg to the knee and displaying the white drawers

beneath. Some of them wore sandals of rawhide, but the major-

ity were barefooted. On reaching the residence of the prefect

they entered the court and stood in a ring while they played the

national air of Peru in a creditable manner. The writer was

informed by the prefect, Don Jose de la Torre, that these Indians

came every year during the national festivities from their home

on an island in Lake Titicaca, to pay him a formal visit. When

they finished playing, he applauded them and cried "sumahh,"

the Quichua word for good, or bravo! Then each player came

before him and, bending one knee, bowed almost to the ground.

The prefect patted each one on the head in succession, and then

told them all to begone. Having regaled themselves with gen-

erous draughts of pisco they filed out of the patio and continued

their procession through the streets of the town.

The instruments composing the orchestra were fairly well at-

tuned. The middle pair, corresponding in pitch to the key of c,

was composed of reeds varying in length from nearly 26 cm.,

producing the note e, to about 6.5 cm., producing a note exactly

two octaves higher. The dimensions of the lower-toned pair were

twice those of the middle pair, the pipes, ranging from approxi-

mately 52 cm. to 14 cm. in length (inside measurements), produc-

ing notes one octave lower. The smallest pair should have been

one-half the size of the middle pair, but as a matter of fact, the

component reeds were slightly short, and the resulting notes

were consequently sharp. The effect of the whole orchestra,

however, was not unpleasing to a musical layman.

On measuring the reeds composing the various sets of pan-

pipes their lengths were found to correspond almost exactly with

safford: pan-pipes of peru

187

the theoretical lengths of pipes producing corresponding notes

of the diatonic scale. If the length of the c pipe be indicated by

L, the c' pipe, an octave higher, measures one-half this length,

or ^ L, while the lower C pipe measures twice its length, or 2 L.

The upper g, or sol pipe, which produces the fifth, or dominant,

measures f L, while the lower G pipe is twice as long as the

latter, or t L. The length of the upper / pipe, which produces

the fourth, or subdominant, is f L, while the lower F pipe is

twice as long, or f L. In the same way, we have the length of

the upper e, or mi pipe, producing the major third 1^ L; the

lower E pipe I L; the upper a, or la pipe, f L; the lower A, i L;

the upper h, or si pipe, tV L; the lower B pipe, if L; that is, tV

longer than the c pipe.

The pipes were not all cut with equal accuracy: sometimes a

reed was a little too long or too short, consequently producing

a flat or a sharp tone.

The following table shows the actual measurements in milli-

meters of the reeds composing the smallest pair of syrinxes in

the United States National Museum. (No. 210,439).

It could hardly be expected that in making instruments so

crude as these pipes, fashioned from simple reeds, the Indians

should have an established standard pitch. Slight variations

were found in different sets of instruments in the same orchestra,

although an attempt had undoubtedly been made to attune them

perfectly. An odd Peruvin syrinx in the collection of the United

188 safford: pan-pipes of peru

States National Museum (no. 95,908, shown in fig. 1) has pipes

producing alternate notes of the scale as above described, but

they are in lengths which produce a scale in the key of/. The

reed producing the tonic, or do tone (/) is 120 mm. long (inside

measurement) . The fa and la {B\> and D) pipes below, theoreti-

cally f and I the length of the do pipe, are actually 180 mm. and

144 mm. long; the sol (c) pipe above theoretically f the length

of the do pipe, is actually 80 mm., and consequently sounds

true; but the upper re and /a {g' and h'\?) pipes at the extreme left

of the instrument are too long, and consequently almost a half-

tone flat. It is probable that this irregularity was not intentional

on the part of the instrument maker, especially if he gauged the

length of the pipes by his ear alone rather than by definite meas-

urements. Writers on musical instruments often show a tend-

ency to give too great importance to accidental irregularities

of this kind and to regard them as intentional. As a matter of

fact, to correct a pipe for flatness the Titicaca Indians pour either

water or a little pisco (grape brandy) into it, thus shortening

the vibrating column of air to the required length. Specimens

of flukes made of single reeds with holes for the fingers and thumb

are sometimes dug up from prehistoric graves in Peru with the

original holes plugged and replaced by new holes slightly above

or below the original ones, showing that the first holes had been

made by guess work and the resulting tones were too sharp or

too flat for the ear of the player, who, finding his instrument to

be "out of tune," felt obliged to correct it. In the same way,

when the players of pan-pipes come together to form an orchestra,

it is often necessary for some of them to tune their instruments

to accord with the others. This is easily done by raising the pitch

of the flat-toned instruments, as described above.

That pan-pipes are not an intrusion from Spain is proved con-

clusively by their occurrence in prehistoric graves. That the

ancient Peruvians played them in mated pairs producing alternat-

ing notes in the scale is equally certain from the fact that on vases

interred with mummies, players of pan-pipes are represented in

pairs, sometimes with the two instruments on which they are per-

forming connected loosely by a long string.

safford: pan-pipes of peru

189

So far as the writer knows, this is the first account of the

methods used by the Peruvians in attuning and playing their pan-

pipes. The instrument is often represented in collections by a

single specimen, and the alternating notes produced by it have

caused no little wonder to observers unaware that they repre-

sented not a scale but only half the notes of a scale, requiring a

second complementary instrument to make it complete.

Ml DO LA FA RE SI SOL Ml

RE 51 SOL Ml DO LA FA

Fig. 2. A pair of syrinxes from Lake Titicaca. The two instruments are

complementary. Both are necessary for producing the notes of the scale. Other

instruments, also in pairs, are twice and four times the length of these. From

specimens in the U. S. National Museum (no. 210,439) collected at Puno by W. E.

Safford. About five-twelfths natural size.

Usually each instrument is played by a separate person; but

the writer saw one expert performer who, to show his skill, played

on two instruments at the same time, one superimposed upon the

other, a feat evidently regarded by his companions with admira-

tion. No melody can be played by a single instrument: a pair of

instruments must always be used. What the original scale of the

ancient Peruvians was is not definitely known, but this can be

ascertained by measuring the lengths of the component reeds,

even if they have been crushed and are incapable of yielding

sounds. Undoubtedly they produced octaves, from the fact that

there are always pipes one-half the length of larger pipes, and some

190

safford: pan-pipes of peru

of these must have sounded the key-note or tonic chord. The

Peruvians also recognized, in all probability, the notes of the

major or minor third and the fifth, corresponding to the dominant

drone of the bagpipe. This would be suggested by a natural

harmonic or node in a single pipe, formed after the manner of the

harmonic tones of a bugle. Whatever may have been their scale

it is certain that they did use instruments in pairs to produce

notes necessary for producing a melody; and the variation in

size of their instruments point to their playing in symphonious

chords. The alternating notes may be compared to those of a

mouth-organ or accordion; but in the latter instruments the

consecutive notes of the scale are produced by alternately blowing

and inhaling the air. It would require too much breath to blow

continuously across the open tubes of a syrinx: the resulting

music would have a "wheezy" or gasping effect. But when the

scale is produced by two players, it is pleasantly legato, each

player having an opportunity of catching his breath while his

mate is piping a note. Thus:

Instrument,

No. I.

Instrument,

No. 2.

-<9-

■(9-

-«>-

1 1 1 1 1 rG> T-\

mi fa sol la si do re mi fa sol la si do re mi

lE:

-n-

The pan-pipe may be regarded literally as the prototype of the

organ, the graduated pipes of which suggest a giant inverted

syrinx blown from below. In Peru the orginal Quichua name of

the pan-pipe is huayra puhura, or "air-pipes;" but it is now usually

designated as zampotla, a Spanish word corresponding to the

Italian zampogna. This name is used ordinarily in Spain and

Italy to designate bag-pipes, but is likewise applied to pastoral

wind instruments of various kinds, just as in English we use the

name "pipes." On the shore of Lake Titicaca the pipers held the

pipe in the left hand, beating time with a stick, held by the right

safford: pax-pipes of peru 191

hand on a drum suspended from the left arm. On some of the

ancient Peruvian burial vases, instead of a drum, a hollow gourd

is represented as the instrument for marking the rhythm.

The question as to whether the syrinx was invented independ-

ently by the aborigines of South America or whether it was

brought to the western hemisphere from elsewhere is an interest-

ing one. Certainly the instrument was wide-spread before the

dawn of history. Syrinxes are found not only in Europe and on

the southern shore of the IVIediterranean but also in Java, on

many islands of the Pacific Ocean, among certain tribes of North

American Indians, as well as in northern South America, Brazil,

Peru, and Bolivia. Whether their occurrence bears upon the

problem of the origin of the x4merican Indians is a question. The

greatest caution should be exercised by the student of ethnology

in tracing the origin of tribes by means of any one instrument or

any single art. Often very similar arts are the result of similar

conditions of climate and resulting raw materials. The art of

weaving among the ancient Peruvians is very similar to that of

the aborigines of Asia and Europe, yet it does not follow that this

art was brought to Peru in prehistoric times. Llamas, alpacas,

and vicunas, are endemic in South America: why should not the

art of weaving the wool obtained from these animals be equally

of South American origin? It is a remarkable fact that the pan-

pipes which are most closely similar in construction to those

played by the Indians of Peru and Bolivia are found among the

Solomon Islanders, especially those inhabiting the Florida Group

— black-skinned, woolly-haired cannibals, in no way allied to the

Indians of South America. Just as the orchestras of the Quichuas

and Aymaras are composed of instruments of several definite sizes,

so those of the Florida Islanders are similarly grouped; the shrill

treble pipes being called galevu-soniruka; those of medium tone,

half their size, galevu-kahauinamu; and the deeper, baritone

instruments twice the size of the latter by the suggestive name

galevu-ngungu. The instruments themselves, like those described

above, consist of a double row of graduated pipes the reeds of

one row being closed at the bottom by a natural joint, those of

the other row being open.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal, and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — I nter'pr elation of anomalies of gravity. Grove Karl

Gilbert. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 85-C. Pp.

37. 1913.

Hayford and Bowie, in discussing the deflections of the plumb line