JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME IX, 1919

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A. S. Hitchcock J. Franklin Meyer Robert B. Sosman

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JOURNAL

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Vol. 9 JANUARY 4, 19 19 No. i

PALEONTOLOGY. — On some Tertiary fossils from the Pribilof

Islands.'^ Wiluam H. Dall, U. vS. National Museum.

In 1899 I enumerated the fossils found at Black Bluff, St. Paul

Island, Bering Sea, Alaska.- They occur at this place in frag-

ments of sedimentary rock torn from the ocean bed and up-

heaved with their enclosing lava above the sea level. Mr. G.

Dallas Hanna, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, who has been

stationed on the island for a number of years, reports that the

Black Bluff locality is now entirely exhausted of its fossils.

However, this loss is more than made up for by the discovery

of two new localities, one on St. Paul and one on St. George

Island. Curiously enough the locality on each island is locally

known as Tolstoi Point, the Russian word Tolstoi meaning

"broad" being used geographically in numberless localities in

Alaska.

The collection is of interest as linking up the age of the strata

from which these fragments were derived with the beach deposits

at Nome which are referred to the late Pliocene.

In Mr. Hanna's collection are 47 species of which 44 are

mollusks, 31 gastropods and 13 bivalves.

The St. Paul collection has only seven species, all found on

both islands and also found at Black Bluff, so they are possibly

of the same age as the Black Bluff series. Of the St. George

^ Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

2 The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part III. Pp.

546. Government Printing Office. 1899.

TABLE I

Fossils Collected by Mr. G. Dallas Hanna from Sedimentary Inclusions

IN THE Volcanic Rocks op St. Paul and St. George Islands, Bering Sea.

Admete sp. aff . A. middendorffiana Dall

Chrysodomus pribiloffensis DaU

Chrysodomus satiirus Martyn

Chrysodomus saturus tabularis Dall

Chrysodomus solutus Hermann

Chrysodomus solutus elatior Middendorff

Chrysodomus solutus cordatus Dall n. var

Chrysodomus borealis Philippi

Colus sp. n

Colus sp. indet

Plicifusus sp. indet

Plicif usus arcticus Philippi

Volutopsius sp. aff. malleatus Dall

Volutopsius sp. aff. regularis Dall

Pyrulofusus sp. aff. harpa Morch (dextral)

Pyrulofusus sp. aff. deformis Gray (sinistral)

Buccinum glaciale parallelum Dall

Buccinum tenue Gray

Buccinum sp. indet

Boreoscala greenlandica Perry

Argobuccinum oregonense Redfield

Trichotropis n. sp

Iphinoe kroyeri Philippi

Tachyrhynchus n. sp

Natica clausa Broderip & Sowerby

Natica aleutica DaU

Velutina laevigata Pennant

Cingula robusta Dall

Pecten (Chlamys) islandicus beringianus Middendorff

Thracia curta Conrad

Astarte actis Dall

Astarte sp. indet

Rochef ortia sp. indet

Cardiura calif orniense Deshayes

Cardium ciliatum Fabricius

Serripes gronlandicus Gmelin

Spisula alaskana Dall

Mya intermedia Dall

Saxicava pholadis Linne

Panomya ampla ? Dall

Polyzoon

Tiurbellaria?

Balanus fragments

G"

P

G

PG

G

PG

G

PG

G

" G indicates St. George; P St. Paul.

kempton: ancestry of maize 3

specimens seven species appear to be new out of thirty-three

which are specifically identifiable, or nearly 20 per cent.

The ensemble of the collection points to climatic conditions

similar to those prevailing at present in the region, while the

earliest Nome bed indicates decidedly warmer water. It is

probable that this Pribilof fauna conformed to more rigorous

conditions prior to the glacial epoch.

The St. George collection as a whole has only seven species

identical • with those found at Black Bluff, St. Paul Island,

which latter fauna is doubtless Pleistocene. With the Pliocene

second elevated beach fauna at Nome one-third of the St. George

collection is identical, but in this third the characteristic warmer

water species are not represented. So I conclude that the

material obtained by Mr. Hanna represents a period later than

the Nome second beach and earlier than that of the Black Bluflf

fauna. A list of the species is given in table i. The type

specimens are preserved in the U. S. National Museum.

BOTANY. — The ancestry of maize. J. H. Kkmpton, Bureau of

Plant Industry. (Communicated by William R. Maxon.)

In a recent article entitled The evohiiion of maize, Weather-

wax^ raises again the issue of the origin of the genus Zea. He

reviews the literature, summarizes the descriptions, and presents

in a new light many of the morphological differences and

similarities of Zea mays and the related plants, Euchlaena

luxurians and Tripsacum dactyloides. Students of these genera

will welcome the bringing together of these descriptions, accom-

panied as they are by excellent illustrations. Since the article

aims at a comprehensive evaluation of the relationship of these

genera, it is perhaps unfortunate that much of the "gross

morphology" has been disregarded, with a consequent over-

emphasis of the organological features. There are, moreover,

a few misstatements, and some of the views of previous workers

seem to have been misinterpreted. It is hoped that a discussion

of these points will contribute to a better understanding of the

subject.

' Weatherwax, Paul. The evolution of maize. Bull. Torrey Club 45: 309-342

1918.

4 kempton: ancestry of maize

In the description of Zea, the statement appears that varia-

tion in this genus is mostly quantitative in nature, a conclusion

hardly justified by the facts. The line of demarcation between

quantitative and qualitative variation is, of course, more or less

arbitrary, but there can be no question that Zea stands apart

from related genera in the number of discontinuous variations.

It is unfortunate that Weatherwax has not had the opportunity

to become acquainted with the instructive variations isolated by

experimental breeders.

Another statement that must be challenged is that branches

of maize may arise "singly or two or more from one node" (p.

316). It is difficult to understand how this error survived a

second reading. Reference is made, however, to a text figure for

substantiation. This figure seems to have been drawn from a

normal plant and furnishes no evidence of this most unusual

type of branching.

Equally surprising, from a morphologist, is the confusing of

husks or bracts with prophylla. On page 314 we learn, ". . . .

and the shortness of its axis enables the leaf sheaths to cover the

inflorescence and mature fruit. In some cases the laminae and

ligules of these prophylla are present (Fig. 6) but often they are

lacking (Fig. 7)." Again, in the legend under Fig. 7, page

315, "the prophylla have lost their laminae and ligules."

That prophylla sometimes possess laminae and ligules would

be an important observation, if true, but it seems clear that the

author has failed to distinguish between these most interesting

and highly specialized organs and the relatively unspecialized

bracts, or husks. This confusion by a professed morphologist

is the more astonishing in view of the unusual structure of

prophylla and their consequent interest from a morphological

standpoint.

In drawing attention to the unsatisfactory treatment accorded

the female inflorescence of teosinte by previous investigators,

Weatherwax has, inadvertently no doubt, misquoted Collins,

and in justice a correction should be noted. We have, quoting

from Weatherwax: "Collins' description- (p. 525) of the spike

2 Collins, G. N. The origin of maize. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2: 520-530.

1912.

kempton: ancestry of .maize 5

as 'one rowed' is equally misleading." In looking for this

reference I have succeeded in finding only the following, which

appears as a footnote on page 525 and not as a part of a de-

scription of this genus: "As might be expected theoretically

the early generation of the hybrids between single-rowed teosinte

and double-rowed maize occasionally result in an odd number of

rows. Well formed ears with 3, 5, 7 and 9 rows have already

been observed in such hybrids." Without the context the

distinction between "single-rowed" and "one-rowed" may seem

slight, but when contrasted with the double or paired rows of

maize it is difficult to understand how the meaning could have

been perv^erted.

The major part of the paper is devoted to a discussion of the

relative merits of the several theories of the origin of maize,

and the conclusion is reached that maize developed by simple

evolution from a grass somewhat similar to the Andropogoneae.

While this solution is not new, organological evidence is con-

tributed which the author beheves affords it additional support.

In reaching his conclusions it w^ould seem that Weatherwax has

overlooked some important considerations and misinterpreted

others, and it may be well, therefore, to examine his evidence

somewhat in detail.

The author has found organological evidence of the perfect-

flowered nature of all spikelets of the genera Zea, Euchlaena, and

Tripsacum, a fact which satisfactorily accounts for the true-

breeding perfect-flowered races of Zea but does not explain the

infrequency with which such flowers are found in Tripsacum and

Euchlaena. If well developed perfect flowers are ever found

in the pistillate inflorescences of Euchlaena or Tripsacum, they

occur very rarely and may not be compared with their relatively

normal development in Zea. The importance of this disparity

in the frequency of perfect-flowered variations should not be

overlooked in determining whether Zea or Euchlaena is the

more primitive type.

In indicating the evolution of these genera, the author has

recorded the changes that have taken place and has constructed

a seemingly plausible sequence of events which may prove mis-

6 kempton: ancestry of maize

leading. There is and can be no question that Zea, Kuchlaena,

and Tripsacum have a common ancestry, but whether the

differences between Zea and the other genera can be more satis-

factorily explained by ascribing the diversities to simple evolu-

tion from a single common ancestor than by assuming a hybrid

origin is a question that to the writer's mind has not been fully

appreciated by Weatherwax. To answer these questions,

differences must be considered, as well as similarities.

One of the chief differences between Zea and the other genera

lies in the form of the pistillate inflorescence, or ear, the origin

of which has been the subject of much discussion. The theory

receiving the greatest support is that of fasciation, proposed by

HackeP and accepted by Gernert,^ Worsdell,'' and others. This

theory is open to the objection that it fails to account for the

fact pointed out by Mrs. Kellerman^ and Montgomery,'^ that the

ear is the homologue of the central spike of the tassel. Collins^

has called attention to the fact that the central spike is as much

in need of explanation as the ear, and has suggested an alter-

native theory, which has been adopted by Weatherwax, that the

central spike originated by the shortening of some of the branches

of the panicle until they were reduced to paired spikelets. On

this basis the ear is homologous with the central spike, the re-

duction of the branches having occurred before the male and

female inflorescences were differentiated.

While the latter theory would seem to fulfill the conditions,

the case for fasciation cannot be peremptorily dismissed without

some explanation of the frequent occurrence of bifurcated ears

which breed true. Further support of the fasciation theory

is to be found also in a true-breeding race having fasciated and

bifurcated central spikes, which we have succeeded in isolating.

The full description of this mutation will be published shortly.

^ Hacked, E. Gramineae. Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 2: 1-97. 1889.

* Gernert, W. B. Analysis of characters in corn and their behavior in trans-

mission. Champaign, 111. 1912.

* WoRSDELL, W. C. The principles of plant teratology, Vol. 2. London. 1916.

* Kellerman, Mrs. W. A. Primitive corn. Meehan's Monthly 5: 44. 1895.

^ Montgomery, E. G. What is an ear of corn? Pop. Sci. Mo. 68: 55-62, figs.

1-14. 1906.

« Op. cit.

kempton: ancestry oe maize 7

Contrary to Weatherwax's assertion, there is in reality no

mathematical difficulty involved in developing ears with ten,

fourteen, or eighteen rows by the fasciation of 4-rowed branches.

Ears having rows in these numbers can be obtained by the

abortion of a row of paired spikelets or the abortion of the pedi-

celled spikelets of one of the component branches, both of which

phenomena are of rather frequent occurrence. Moreover, the

writer is inclined to believe that a statistical investigation would

probably show varieties with ten, fourteen, and eighteen rows

to be less common than those having rows that are multiples

of 4. The ver}^ large number of 8-rowed varieties and th-

complete absence of 6-rowed varieties have also to be cone

sidered.

In view of the fact that maize is intermediate in a great many

respects between the specialized characteristics of teosinte and

the more primitive characteristics found in pod corn, Collins

conceived the idea that it probably originated as a hybrid be-

tween teosinte and a primitive grass having many of the char-

acteristics of pod corn. Weatherwax's contention that pod

com can not be accepted as a "primitive type" seems beside the

point, since no one but the very early writers has held such a

view. The various types of pod corn do, however, afford a

series of characters that may properly be called primitive, since

they are shared by many species of Andropogoneae. The fact

that these characters are not all combined in a single mutation,

but have occurred independently in various combinations, would

seem to strengthen rather than weaken this evidence that they

are ancestral. And since there is no genetic obstacle to uniting

the characters of the various types by properly selected matings,

there can be no objection to their theoretical combination.

Furthermore, since pod corn appears as mutations from highly

specialized commercial varieties, there surely need be no surprise

that the so-called earless plants have undeveloped ear buds in the

axils of their leaves.

A confusion of terminology doubtless accounts for the dis-

agreement between Collins and Weatherwax on the presence of

staminate flowers in the branches of pod corn. There are, of

8 kempton: ancestry of maize

course, in pod corn as in the normal maize from which it mutated,

two kinds of branches, those with shortened internodes borne

on the upper part of the plant, known as ears, and the more or

less elongated lower branches known as tillers or suckers. As

is well known, the latter are frequently similar in all respects

to the main stalk and may terminate in an entirely staminate

panicle. In making the statement that staminate flowers had

not been found on the branches of pod corn, Collins was refer-

ring to the upper branches, while Weatherwax in contradicting

this observation is undoubtedly referring to the basal branches,

or suckers. The imputation that suckers have been confused

with independent plants would hardly occur to one familiar

with genetical methods.

Another fundamental difference between pod corn and

teosinte, which, through an apparent misunderstanding. Weather-

wax has attempted to discredit, is the occurrence of branches

in the axils of prophylla. Collins' statement that such branches

w^ere the rule in teosinte and had not been observed in pod corn

meets with the disapproval of Weatherwax, who states that he

has frequently observed such branches which can be induced

by the destruction or injury of the terminal bud. As has been

previously stated, Weatherwax fails to understand the funda-

mental distinction between prophylla and bracts, which may be

due to the fact that the differences are of such a miagnitude as

to be easily detected with the naked eye and as such come under

the heading of "gross morphology."

That all branches are enclosed in prophylla does not mean

that they are borne in the axils of such prophylla, since these

leaf -organs are borne on the short basal joints of the branches

which they enclose ! In Euchlaena and in some types of maize,

branches are developed from buds in the axils of prophylla, as

well as from buds in the axils of leaves and husks, but in pod

corn we have never found such prophyllary branches. Sec-

ondary branches in the axils of husks are easily induced in almost

any type of maize by preventing the development of the ear,

but we have never succeeded in forcing the development of

buds in the axils of prophylla. In view of the evident mis-

kempton: ancestry of maize 9

understanding it seems doubtful whether Weatherwax has

found branches in the axils of the prophylla enclosing branches

of pod corn. It has to be considered also that the significance

of such a phenomenon depends in a large measure on the fre-

quency of its occurrence. It may be expected that in course of

time and by examining a sufficiently large number of plants

an industrious morphologist would find an example of pod corn

with branches in the axils of prophylla, though as yet none has

been observed.

There is apparently also a similar misunderstanding with

respect to the "mixed inflorescences" in teosinte. Collins states

in effect that he has never observed pistillate flowers in the male

panicle or staminate flowers in the female inflorescences of

Euchlaena. It is not quite clear from Weatherwax 's contradic-

tion of this statement whether he refers to the panicle termina-

ting the main culm or to the panicles terminating primary,

secondary, tertiary, or branches of higher order. In examining

several thousand plants of the commercial teosinte of Florida

we have never found even an indication of pistillate flowers

in the tassels of the main culms, and their occurrence in the

tassels of basal primary branches is rare. Pistillate spikelets,

however, are common in the terminal inflorescences of secondary

branches and branches of a higher order. This point is im-

portant, since in both maize and teosinte the branches are less

specialized than the main culms. Unless great care is exercised

in growing plants, confusion is likely to arise between branches

and main stalks. Unfavorable climatic conditions in the early

stages of growth will often result in the abortion or only partial

development of the main culm. This abortion of the main

culm will not be detected at maturity unless the plants have been

marked. While it may be that Weatherwax has actually found

pistillate spikelets in the main panicle of the central culm, in

view of the possibilities of error his statement should be accepted

with reservation until more definitely substantiated.

With respect to the occurrence of flowers of both sexes in the

female inflorescence, it is apparent that Weatherwax is again

confusing two separate and distinct phenomena. Investigators

lo kempton: ancestry of maize

familiar with teosinte are well aware of the fact that the female

spikes often terminate in staminate tips. These staminate tips

correspond to the same phenomenon on the ears of maize, but the

occurrence of entirely male spikelets definitely located at the

less specialized tip should not be confused with perfect flowered

spikelets located in the alveoli of the highly specialized rachis

at the base of the spike. The occurrence of sharply differ-

entiated staminate tips on the pistillate spikes of teosinte seems

to emphasize, rather than minimize, the greatly specialized

nature of the female inflorescences. The transition from single

pistillate to paired staminate spikelets is abrupt and is accom-

panied by an equally abrupt change in the rachis and glumes.

It must be repeated that there is a complete absence of func-

tioning stamens in the specialized pistillate portion of the spikes

of teosinte, while in maize perfect-flowered spikelets not only

have been found throughout the entire ear, but strains breeding

true for this condition have been isolated. The fact that all

species of the Maydeae are structurally bisexual should not be

allowed to obscure the importance of this point.

A careful study of teosinte, not only in the large commercial

plantings of Mr. Heinisch in Florida, but also in widely diverse

environments and under carefully controlled breeding experi-

ments, together with a study of hybrids between the Floridian

and Mexican types, fails to show a variation at all comparable

with that observed in even carefully bred varieties of maize.

The chief support of a hybrid origin for maize lies not only in

single character differences or similarities but also in the more

general features which have been overlooked or lightly dismissed

by Weatherwax. The greater frequency of variation in maize

compared to almost any other species seems to the writer to

offer a very reasonable ground for doubting its simple evolution

from the same common ancestor with Euchlaena and Tripsacum.

Aside from the extreme variability, it is hard to understand,

with Weatherwax's theor}% how, sharing as they did the same

habitat, Zea and Euchlaena ever became differentiated. They

hybridize readily, the hybrids are perfectly fertile, and they

become indistinguishable when grown together.

cook: size of MAYA FARMS II

With respect to the many true-breeding abnormal forms,

Weatherwax admits that a single ancestral type combining all

of these cannot be visualized, but with this evidence he is still

loath to accept an additional ancestor. The statement "that

many of the tetratological conditions that do not fit into the

foregoing theory (simple evolution) as reversions are not in-

herited" can hardly be passed unchallenged without an enumera-

tion. Practically all maize breeders are familiar with many

true-breeding tetratological forms which cannot be looked upon

as reversions to a single ancestral line.

It is difficult to understand why the fundamental differences

between Zea and other members of the Maydeae should be

overlooked and a theory adopted whose chief support hes in the

fact that teosinte and Tripsacum share with maize the rudiments

of perfect flowers. It scarcely needs argument to prove that all

are descended from perfect-flowered ancestors. The suppression

of sex organs is a universal attribute of any unisexual organism

and as a basis for proving relationship is equal in ever>" respect

to the observation of Weatherwax, "that common to all three

genera (Zea, Euchlaena, and Tripsacum) is the jointed vegetative

stem."

AGRICULTURE.— ^/^<? size of Maya farms. O. F. Cook,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Among many parallel features of the ancient civilizations of

Peru and Mexico were the methods of producing and distributing

the supplies of food. Each householder had an assignment of

land to produce food for the family. An area sufficient for a

man and his wife was known in Peru as a topo, tupu, or topu.

Another topo was granted for each boy and half a topo for each

girl, perhaps because more feasts and ceremonies were required

in raising boys. In addition to the fields assigned to families,

the people of each community were charged with the cultivation

of lands set aside for the support of the priests and for other public

purposes. A national system of storehouses was maintained

by the Inca government as a protection against distress from

crop failures or other local disasters.

12 cook: size of MAYA FARMS

The system followed by the Mayas of Yucatan has been de-

scribed by Brinton as follows:

Personal tenure of land did not exist. The town lands were divided

out annually among the members of the community, as their wants

required, the consumption of each adult being calculated at twenty

loads (of a man) of maize each year, this being the staple food.

I mention this particularly in order to correct a grave error in Landa's

Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan, p. 130. He says, "Suelen de costumbre

sembrar para cada casado con su muger medida de CCCC pi^s que llaman

hun-iiinic, medida con vara de XX pies, XX en ancho y XX en largo."

The agrarian measure uinic or hun uinic (one man) contained 20 kaan,

each 24 yards (varas) square. One kaan was estimated to yield two

loads of com, and hence the calculation was forty loads of the staff of

life for each family. Landa's statement that a patch 20 feet square

was assigned to a family is absurd on the face of it.^

Since Bishop Landa's Relacion is by far the largest body of

direct knowledge of the Maya civilization, it is worth while to

remove an unwarranted impeachment of the practical value of

this important record. The passage quoted by Brinton may not

be free from ambiguity of construction, but the charge of "grave

error" is hardly to be justified. Neither the Spanish original

nor the accompanying French translation of Brasseur de Bour-

bourg is "absurd" in the manner alleged. Instead of a patch

20 feet square, a square of 400 feet on each side is indicated by

Landa; that is, 400 times as much land as Brinton supposed.

Confusion doubtless arose from the use of the words medida and

vara in senses that are somewhat unusual, though hardly to be

misunderstood in relation to the context. Substitution of que

for lo qual also makes Brinton's transcription of the passage

appear more casual and ambiguous than the original. The

sense may be stated as follows :

They follow the custom of sowing for each married man and his

wife an area 400 feet square, which they call hun uinic, measured with

a stick 20 feet long, 20 sticks in breadth and 20 in length.

Brinton does not state the source of the figures that he would

substitute for Landa's, but since the two versions fall within the

same order of magnitude they may be said to confirm rather

than to contradict each other. The Bishop's "one man" area

1 Brinton, D. G. The Maya Chronicles, 27, 1882, the second paragraph as a

footnote. See also. Essays of an Americanist, 438, 1890.

cook: size of maya farms 13

amounts to 160,000 square feet, the other to 103,680 square

feet, in our system corresponding to 3.67 acres and 2.38 acres,

respectively. It could not be expected that all of the lands

would produce equally, and the report may relate to different

districts where the sticks used in measuring the fields were not

of the same length.

The word kaati, defined by Brinton as an area, seems to have

been the name of the stick or cord used in measuring, but since

each kaan of length would represent one-twentieth of the hun

uinic unit, the kaan might serve also as a measure of area. Using

a 20-foot stick, 20 kaan in length would amount to 400 feet,

and the kaan area to 8000 square feet. Reducing the stick to

16 feet would restrict the kaan as an area to 5120 square feet,

nearly equivalent to Brinton's kaan of 5184 square feet, or

square of 24 yards. In eastern Guatemala canquib or kankib

is the native name of small, slender palms of the genus Chamae-

dorea, with smooth, long- jointed trunks less than half an inch in

diameter, ideally adapted for measuring-rods. The usual mean-

ing of can is "yellow," while quit is a general name for small

reed-like palms.

The harvest of forty-man-loads of maize from the Maya farms

in Yucatan might be estimated roughly at about 80 bushels,

not a large yield for two or three acres, but maize is seldom very

productive in tropical countries of low elevation. At altitudes

of 9,000 to 11,000 feet in the Cuzco district of Peru a topo of

maize, equivalent to about seven- tenths of an acre, is expected

to yield 8 to 10 fanegas of 260 pounds each, corresponding roughly

to 42 and 52 bushels per topo, or from 60 to 75 bushels per acre.

The topo is reckoned now at 4,000 square varas, equivalent to

30,820 square feet, but may have been larger in ancient times.

That the family requirement of maize under the Inca system

should have been smaller than among the Mayas could be ex-

plained by more extensive use of other foods, as potatoes, ocas,

ullucus, and quinoa, in the Peruvian tablelands.

The ancient agricultural system of the Pima Indians of Arizona

provided a farm unit of 100 steps "of the same foot," as stated

by Russell, used in dividing the cultivated lands among those

14 oberholser: spizixidae, new family of birds

who helped to build the irrigation ditches. Farms of loo or

200 steps were assigned, "according to the size of the family."

Since a "step of the same foot," at an ordinary walking gait, is a

little more than four feet, the Pima unit may be estimated at

about four acres, or slightly larger than the Maya "one man"

area, 400 feet square. Allotments of 10 acres of irrigable land

are now being made to each member of the Pima nation.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Spizixidae, a new family of pycnonotine

P as serif ormes. Harry C. Oberhoi^ser, Biological Survey.

Further researches in the family Pycnonotidae apparently make

necessary the removal of still another group as the type of a

separate family. The genus Spizixos is not at all closely allied

to its present family associates, and the proper course seems,

therefore, to be its segregation as a new family, which will bear

the name

Spizixidae, fam. nov.

Diagnosis. — Similar to the Pycnonotidae, but bill shorter, stouter,

and somewhat compressed, its height at base much more than half the

length of the exposed culmen, and equal to the length of biU from

nostril (instead of much less), its width at the anterior end of nostrils

equalling or exceeding one-half the length of the exposed culmen (in-

stead of much less) ; lateral outline of maxilla somewhat convex (in-

stead of concave) ; mandible, basally broad, its width at the beginning

of the interramal feathering (angle of gonys) equal to the length of

gonys (instead of only one-half to two-thirds the length of same);

interramal space anteriorly broadly rounded, almost U-shaped (in-

stead of narrow, triangular, and rather pointed — nearly V-shaped),

and rami posteriorly almost parallel, instead of being widely divergent;

gonys much up-curved distally; culmen strongly decurved from ex-

posed base; bristles of chin much developed, reaching beyond the

middle of the bill; nostrils entirely and densely covered by antrorse

bristly feathers.

Family characters. — Bill thick, short and pyrrhuline; culmen rounded,

curving down from the frontal feathers; angle of gonys opposite the

anterior end of nasal fossae; gonys sharply ascending distally, keeled

distally, but rounded proximally; terminal portion of maxilla tomium

strongly notched; lateral outline of maxilla convex; interramal space

anteriorly broadly U-shaped, the rami posteriorly almost parallel;

nostrils small and rounded, situated at the anterior edge of the nasal

fossae and nearly on a level with the surrounding rostral surface ; entire

nasal fossae covered by stiffish antrorse feathers ; head entirely feathered

and with long nuchal hairs; tail of twelve feathers, slightly rounded,

oberholser: spizixidae, new family op birds 15

and long, occupying more than one-half the total length of bird; wings

moderately short and rounded, the first primary spurious, but more

than half the length of the second, and the tertials short ; feet of moderate

size; tarsi short, and scutellate, but sometimes rather indistinctly so;

claws of moderate size.

Type genus. — Spizixos Blyth.

Remarks. — This new family seems to be a considerably specialized

offshoot of the Timaliine stem. In its nuchal hairs, feet, tarsi, and

general characters, it is evidently related, at least in a general way, to

the Pycnonotidae. So far as we can judge from its external structure

it does not exhibit any distinctively corvine, parine, or fringilline char-

acters. Of the genera composing the family Pycnonotidae, the Spizixidae

seem most closely allied to Criniger Temminck. In the closely covered

nostrils they resemble the Irenidae, but are, of course, otherwise differ-

ent, and apparently lead from Criniger in the Pycnonotidae to the

Irenidae.

The two species and the two additional subspecies which make up

this new family of birds, are all at present included in the genus Spizixos

Bl)rth, A new genus is, however, needed for one of the species, and by

the institution of this a new alignment of forms will necessarily follow.

Spizixos Blyth.

Spizixos Blyth, Journ. Asiat. Bengal 14: 571. August, 1845.

(Type by monotypy, Spizixos canifrons Blyth).

Generic characters. — Conspicuously crested; wing longer than tail;

bill relatively less elevated, its height at base less than the length of

gonys; subterminal commissiu^al tooth of maxilla strongly developed,

its infero-posterior salient angle sharp, about equal to a right angle, its

anterior upper edge slightly concave to tip of bill.

Type. — Spizixos canifrons Blyth.

Remarks. — ^The type is the sole species, though this genus also in-

cludes a recently described subspecies.^ The forms of this group are,

therefore, Spizixos canifrons canifrons Blyth, Spizixos canifrons in-

grami Bangs & Phillips.

Cophixus,^ gen. nov.

Generic characters. — Similar to Spizixos Blyth, but head not crested;

wing shorter than tail; bill relatively more elevated, its height at base

at least equal to the length of gonys, often more; subterminal com-

missural tooth of maxilla less strongly developed, its infero-posterior

^ Spizixus canifrons ingrami. Bangs & Phillips. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 58:

285. April, 1914. (Mengtsze, Yunnan, China.)

» Kwipda- obtusus; ixus = ^^i<^ , viscum.

1 6 oberhoIvSEr: spizixidae, new family of birds

salient angle obtuse, much more than a right angle; its anterior upper

edge strongly convex to tip of bill.

Type. — Spizixos semitorques Swinhoe.

Remarks. — ^This new genus contains two nominal species. Spixizos

semitorques Swinhoe, from eastern China, and Spizixos cinereicapillus

Swinhoe from Formosa. The latter is, however, although confined to

the island of Formosa, clearly but a subspecies of the former, as its indi-

vidual variation indicates. The forms of the present genus, therefore,

stand as: Cophixus semitorques semitorques (Swinhoe), Cophixus semi-

torques cinereicapillus (Swinhoe).

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — The specific heat of platinum at high temperatures. Wal-

ter P. White. Phys. Rev. 12: 436-441. December, 1918.

The specific heat of platinum has been redetermined from 100° to

1300° with a precision estimated to be better than 0.3 per mille and

with very satisfactory agreement with the results of Gaede at 100°

and with those of Plato, Corbino, Magnus, and Fabaro at higher tem-

peratures. Most published results below 100° appear to be i per

cent or more too high. The atomic heat of platinum at constant vol-

ume is, from 100° up, above the value 5.96, indicated by Dulong and

Petit's law and by the accepted kinetic theories of the solid state,

and also increases regularly to 1300° and probably beyond that.

W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — Heat convection in air, and Newton's law of cooling. Wal-

ter P. White. Phys. Rev. 10: 743-755. December, 1917.

In very narrow layers of air between vertical surfaces at different

temperatures the convection currents, in the main, flow up one side

and down the other, with eddyless (stream-line) motion. It follows

that these currents transport heat to or from the surfaces only when

they turn and flow horizontally, from which fact it follows, in turn,

that the convective heat transfer is independent of the height of the

surface. It is, according to the laws of eddyless flow, proportional to

the square of the temperature difference and to the cube of the dis-

tance between the surfaces. As the flow becomes more rapid {e. g., for

a 20° difference and a distance of i .2 cm.), turbulence enters, and the

above relations begin to change. The change is apparently gradual,

and the present results, as well as some obtained by other experimenters,

are rather negative as to the possibility of expressing the flow simply

17

1 8 abstracts: physics

for the corresponding range of conditions, which covers those most

usual in calorimetry. The results, however, are sufficient to serve as a

practical guide in calorimeter designing. For the dimensions tested,

the transmission of heat by convection in horizontal layers was a little

over twice that in vertical. W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — The necessary physical assumptions underlying a proof of

the Planck radiation law. F. RussELL v. Bichowsky. Phys.

Rev. 11: 58-65. January, 19 18.

In order to prove Planck's radiation law by means of the quantum

theory, only two physical assumptions need be made: first, that energy

is absorbed or radiated by a radiating system in quanta of hv; second,

that a radiating system has the statistical properties of a perfect gas,

i. e., that Maxwell's distribution law holds for the distribution of the

local values of the energy among the coordinates defining the state of

the radiating system. (The usual auxiliary assumptions, such as

Planck's oscillators or Larmor's regions of equal probability, are not

only unnecessary but misleading.)

Although these two assumptions are sufficient for deriving the Planck

radiation law, both of them, and particularly the latter, are very dubious,

it being almost unthinkable that a radiating system can have the statis-

tical properties of a perfect gas and yet not have the equipartition law

hold. For these and other reasons it seems necessary to give up at

least the second of the quantum hypotheses and to assume that the

distribution of energy in a radiating system does not obey Maxwell's

law — ^that is, to assume that in a radiating system the distribution

of the local values of the coordinates is a function not only of the energy

of the system but also of some other variables. If we do this and as-

sume, for definiteness, that the distribution of the local values of the

generalized momenta is a function not only of the total energy E of

the system but also of the Helmholtz free energy A, and further assume

that the total energy of a radiating system cannot be less than a cer-

tain limiting value Eq {E^ turns out to equal hv), we can, following

the methods of Gibbs and Ratnowsky, derive in a very simple manner

the Planck radiation law, and moreover we can do this without assum-

ing discreteness of radiant energy, without contradicting classical

mechanics (equipartition does not hold for systems of this kind), with-

out discarding infinitesimal analysis or without contradicting thermo-

dynamics or the direct experimental evidence of the photoelectric

effect that the hv law holds only as a limiting case.

abstracts: ornithology 19

A translation of the mathematical part of "The entropy equation

of solid bodies and gases, and the universal quantum of activity," by

Simon Ratnowsky (Ber. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 16: 232 . 1916) is appended.

F. R. B.

ORNITHOLOGY.— A new bullfinch from China. J. H. RiIvEy. Proc.

Biol. Soc. Wash. 31: 33-34. 1918.

A new form of Pyrrhula erythaca Blyth, particularly interesting by

reason of its apparently widely isolated range in the mountains of Chili

Province, China, was discovered by Geo. D. Wilder, of Peking, China.

It differs from Pyrrhula erythaca erythaca . in smaller size and several

color characters. It is here named Pyrrhula erythaca wilderi in honor

of its discoverer. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — A revision of the races of Toxostoma redivivum

(Gambel). Harry C. Oberholsbr. The Auk 35: 52-61. 1918.

Of the four described forms of Toxostoma redivivum only one has

been generally considered valid. The study of a large amount of ma-

terial now makes it possible to recognize three geographic races. These

are, Toxosioma redivivum redivivum (Gambel) from southern California,

with which Toxostoma redivivum pasadenensis (Grinnell) is identical;

Toxostoma redivivum sonomae (Grinnell) from northern and central west-

ern California; and Toxostoma redivivum helvum (Thayer and Bangs) from

northern Lower California. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Svuan Lake, Nicollet County, Minnesota, as a breed-

ing ground for waterfovul. Harry C. Oberholser. Fins, Feathers

and Fur 13: 1-4. 1918.

A thorough biological survey of Swan Lake, Nicollet County, Minne-

sota, was made in 19 17 to ascertain its value as a breeding ground for

waterfowl. It appears to be one of the two or three best lakes in

Minnesota for this purpose. It is not deep, and is filled with a large

number of species of water plants, many of which furnish ideal food

for various kinds of water birds. During the three days from July 25

to 27, 191 7, twenty species of water birds were observed on the lake,

and forty-three species of land birds in its immediate vicinity. The

lake is valuable, especially to the state of Minnesota, as an aid in the

conservation of the game supply, and it should have permanent pro-

tection. H. C. O.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 8o8th meeting was held at the Assembly Hall of the Carnegie

Institution, November 9, 19 18, Vice-President Humphreys in the

chair; 65 persons present. The minutes of the 807th meeting were

read in abstract and approved.

J. C. Hammond presented the first paper on Observations of the solar

eclipse of June 8, IQ18, by the Naval Observatory Eclipse Expedition.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

The party was located at Baker, Oregon. The program comprised

(i) observing the times of the contacts, (2) photographing the corona,

and (3) photographing the flash spectrum. The equipment consisted

of a 5-inch equatorial, a 3-inch Fauth transit with a latitude level

attached, three cameras of focal lengths 65 feet, 105 inches, and 33

inches, respectively, and three spectrographs, each employing a concave

grating and used without slit.

A thin cloud or haze over the sun during totality affected the results.

The times of the contacts were determined, good photographs of the

inner corona and prominences were taken with the 65 -foot photo-

heliograph, and some results of value will be obtained from a discussion

of the spectrographs.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Mr. C. G. Abbot.

Herbert H. Kimball and S. P. Ferguson presented the second

paper on Meteorological phenomena of the solar eclipse of June 8, igiS.

This was illustrated by lantern slides.

The paper was a summary of meteorological observations obtained

at about 55 Weather Bureau stations within the zone of 90 per cent

obscuration of the sun, and of measurements of both incoming and

outgoing radiation obtained at Goldendale, Washington, by means

of a Smithsonian pyranometer and an Angstrom pyrgeometer.

At Goldendale the sky was partly overcast on the day of the eclipse,

but clear about the sun during the totality. Between first contact and

about 10 minutes after totality, approximately one-third the usual

amount of radiation was received, and the temperature fell 3.6° C.

During totality the outgoing radiation averaged about 0.162 calorie

per min. per cm.-, which is less than observations on clear nights would

lead us to expect, probably because of radiation received from the

cloud layer.

20

proceedings: philosophical society 21

Preliminary analysis of the meteorological records indicates that, in

general, the fall of temperature was comparatively small, the changes

of pressure small and irregular, and the changes of direction of the wind

apparently rather large, but irregular. The small change of tempera-

ture may be due, partly, to cloudy weather prevailing along the path

of totality, and the irregular fluctuations of pressure and wind to condi-

tions favoring the development of local storms.

Confirming results found in studies of other eclipses, the greatest

changes of conditions, in most cases, occurred between five and twenty

minutes after the passage of the shadow; also, there are evidences of

inblowing and outflowing winds around the area of totality suggesting

the circulation found during the eclipses of 1900, 1901, and 1905.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. Bauer, Abbot,

and Humphreys.

C. G. Abbot presented the third paper on Observations of the Smith-

sonian eclipse party, June 8, igi8. This paper was illustrated by

lantern shdes.

Mr. L. B. Aldrich assisted by A. Kramer and by Rev. Clarence

Woodman, a volunteer, observed the total solar eclipse near Lakin,

Kansas, June 8, 1918. Besides noting general phenomena, Rev. Wood-

man observed times of contact as follows on Greenwich mean time:

Latitude 37° 53' 04" N.

Longitude 101° 17' .51" W.

ist Contact 10'* 19™ 48. 5^

2d Contact ii'' 27™ 15.1^

3d Contact ii"! 28" 37.3

4th Contact 12'' 29™ 45.4^

He also exposed two 3 -inch 11 -foot focus cameras which had been

set up and adjusted in the four days preceding the eclipse.

Messrs. Aldrich and Kramer observed with the pyranometer the

radiation of the sun and sky separately and in combination from about

I P.M. of June 8, through the eclipse until sunset and continued after

sunset, observing the intensity of twilight on a horizontal surface.

During totality and in the night they observed the nocturnal radiation.

The week of preparation was unfortunately so cloudy that no focus

plates could be taken, and no rating of the camera driving clock on the

sun could be made. Indeed as late as noon of June 8, it seemed that the

sky would surely be overcast during the eclipse. However, the after-

noon proved nearly cloudless apart from streaks of cirrus and occasional

cumulous clouds.

The observers regarded the degree of darkness during totality as

unexpectedly great, and the spectacle as unusually grand. Successful

photographs of about 70 seconds' exposure were obtained, but they

were somewhat marred by imperfect rating of the clock due to the

bad weather.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Mr. Kimball.

22 proceedings: entomological society

L. A. Bauer presented the fourth paper, by Bauer and Fisk, on

Results of magnetic observations during the solar eclipse of June 8, iqi8.

This paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

The solar echpse of June 8, 1918, offered an exceptional opportunity

for rnagnetic and allied observations, since somewhat over one-third

of the belt of totality was situated in the United States. An inter-

esting circumstance was also the fact that this eclipse was the repeti-

tion of the one of May 28, 1900, in connection with which systematic

observations according to the first author's directions for the study of a

possible magnetic effect during a total solar eclipse, were made. In

response to the appeal sent out by the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, magnetic data

are available at present from seven stations within the belt of totality,

sixteen stations outside of the belt but within the zone of visibility

of the eclipse, and three stations outside of the zone; the stations

covered the region of the earth from China, Australia, and the Philip-

pines to Porto Rico. With a view to varying the conditions, the

station selected by ly. A. Bauer for his work was at Corona, Colorado,

the elevation of which is 11,500 feet; the changes in magnetic declina-

tion observed during the eclipse at this mountain station proved to be

of special interest.

The various curves showing the results of the magnetic observations

at the different stations, as projected on the screen, showed a number of

extremely interesting features. It was pointed out that, in general,

the most notable effects revealed by the magnetic curves did not occur

according to absolute time nor according to local mean time, but fol-

lowed closely the times at which the eclipse occurred at the different

stations. The stations in the United States also revealed magnetic

effects before the time of the local eclipse, resulting evidently from the

easterly progression of the effects which had arisen in the portion of the

earth over which the eclipse had already occurred. Not only were

the conclusions reached with reference to the eclipse of May 28, 1900,

and subsequent eclipses, verified by the effects observed during the

eclipse of June 8, 191 8, but a number of additional facts have been

disclosed which will assist materially in the final analysis of this in-

teresting phenomenon. It was again shown that the magnetic fluctua-

tions observed during the eclipse are analogous in their nature to the

solar diurnal variation, differing from it chiefly in degree.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Mr. Abbot.

Harvey h. Curtis, Recording Secretary.

THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 317th regular meeting of the Society was held in the hall of the

Perpetual Building Association's Building, iioi E St., N. W., Decem-

ber 4, 1918. Twenty members were present. President Sasscer

presided.

proceedings: entomological society 23

J. R. HoRTON, of the Bureau of Entomology, and Charles W. Leng,

33 Murray St., New York City, were elected to membership.

The president announced that he had appointed A. N. Caudell,

L. O. Howard, and August Busck a committee to prepare for publica-

tion a biographical sketch and bibliography of Mr. Frederick Knab.

A vote of thanks was extended by the Society to the editor, Mr.

Baker, and the corresponding secretary, Mr. RohwER, for their

excellent work in successfully resuming publication of the Proceed-

ings in spite of formidable difficulties.

The following were elected officers of the Society for the ensuing

year: President, B. R. Sasscer; ist Vice-President, W. R. Walton;

2nd Vice-President, A. B. Gahan; Recording Secretary, R. A. Cushman;

Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer , S. A. RohwEr; editor of the Pro-

ceedings, A. C. Baker; additional members of the Executive Committee,

A. N. Caudell, E. R. Ely, and A. L. Quaintance; nominated to

represent the Society as Vice-president of the Washington Academy of

Sciences, S. A. Rohwer.

The regular program comprised the following:

Snodgrass, R. E. : Notes and exhibition of water-color drawings of fruit

insects. Mr. Snodgrass, who is engaged in illustrating in water-color

for the Bureau of Entomology the life histories and character of in-

jury of the principal insect pests of deciduous fruits, exhibited a collec-

tion of remarkably fine illustrations, the results of his work to date.

In connection with the exhibition of drawings Mr. Snodgrass pointed

out some of the interesting points in the life histories of his subjects.

The drawings and accompanying remarks proved exceedingly interest-

ing and the artist was highly complimented upon his excellent work

by Messrs. Cushman, Rohwer, Gahan, and Snyder.

A. B. Gahan, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A Guide to United States Government Publications has been compiled,

by W. I. Swanton and has just been issued as Bulletin No. 2, 1918,

of the Bureau of Education.^ The bulletin gives not only information

concerning the mailing lists, methods of distribution, lists of publica-

tions, and classes of publications issued by every office of the executive

departments, but also a concise outline of the organization and functions

of every office. The bulletin should prove useful to all who have

occasion to use the publications of the Federal bureaus.

Dr. Charles Greeley Abbot, Director of the Astrophysical Ob-

servatory, has been appointed Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian

Institution.

Mr. J. C. HosTETTER, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution, has returned to Washington after a year's absence in charge

of optical glass manufacture at the Charleroi plant of the Pittsburgh

Plate Glass Company.

Mr. Logan Waller Page, director of the Bureau of Public Roads

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, died in Chicago on December

9, 1918, in his forty-ninth year. Mr. Page was born at Richmond,

Virginia, January 10, 1870. He was geologist to the Massachusetts

State Highway Commission and director of the testing laboratory' of

the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University from 1893 to

1900, when he entered the government service. He became director

of the Office of Public Roads (later the Office of Public Roads and

Rural Engineering) in 1905. Practically all of his work was devoted

to the building and maintenance of public roads. He was a member of

the Washington Society of Engineers, president of the American

Highway Association, and actively connected with a number of other

engineering societies.

Dr. J. N. Rose, of the National Museum, and his son, George Rose,

who have been conducting botanical explorations in Ecuador during

the past summer, returned to Washington early in December. Collec-

tions of nearly two thousand numbers were obtained.

Dr. A. HoYT Taylor, professor of physics at the University of North

Dakota, now lieutenant commander in the Navy, has resigned after a

year's leave of absence, and will continue his work at the Bureau of

Standards on naval radio communication.

1 Obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, price 20 cents.

24

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 JANUARY 19, 19 19 No. 2

MATHEMATICS. — Note on rotations in hyperspace. Edwin

BiDWELL Wilson, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

In a recent paper C. L. E. Moore ^ has discussed rotations in

hyperspace, by treating first the resolution of a complex 2 -vector

M into mutually completely perpendicular simple 2 -vectors or

planes. The problem is of sufficient interest, perhaps, to justify

my sketching very briefly the method by which I attacked the

problem of discussing rotations in hyperspace in a paper read

before the American Mathematical Society- over ten years

ago, but never published. My method was founded on the

general reduction of the homogeneous strain to canonical form,

and in particular on the work subsequently printed in this Jour-

nal.^ It is there shown that a real strain about a fixed point

has four types of transformation as possibiHties.

1. The tonic. That is a stretching along a fixed direction.

This corresponds to a real root of the characteristic equation,

and to each real root there is at least one such direction in space. ^

2. The shear. This arises only when two or more real roots

of the characteristic equation are equal, and consists in the

^ Moore, C. L. E. Rotations in hyperspace. Proc. Amer. Acad. 53: 651-694.

1918.

^ See, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 13: 265. 1907.

^ Wilson, Edwin B. Note on multiple algebra; the reduction of real dyadics and

the classification of real homogeneous strains. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 173-177.

1917-

* The multiplier may be negative, «. e., the stretching may be accompanied by a

reversal of direction; nevertheless for analytical reasons, we may speak of a fixed

"direction."

26 wii,son: note on rotations in hyperspace

simplest case of the superposition upon the stretching of a shding

parallel to the fixed direction, and proportional to the distance

from the fixed direction, as is necessary if lines originally passing

through the origin are to remain lines passing through the origin.

The shear may be of various degrees of complexity; for example,

if there are three equal real roots there is a plane through the

fixed direction which is fixed, and in it the shear is simple ; whereas

the displacement of points not in this fixed plane is partly in

the fixed direction and partly in another direction parallel to

the fixed plane. (It is not necessary that there be shearing when

there are multiple roots. It is clear that two different direc-

tions in space may be fixed with the equal ratios of stretching

for those directions, and with the same ratio for all directions in

their plane.)

3. Cyclotonic. This is a combination of stretching with ellip-

tic rotation in a plane. It arises when there is a pair of conjugate

imaginary roots in the characteristic equation. All lines are

stretched in a definite ratio, and are turned through a definite

"angle," provided angle be measured by the sectorial area in an

ellipse concentric with the fixed point instead of by the sectorial

area in a circle.

4. The cyclotonic-shear. In the simplest case, where the

characteristic equation has a pair of conjugate imaginary roots,

each occurring twice, the transformation consists in a cyclotonic

change in each of two nonintersecting planes through the origin

combined with a displacement parallel to one of the pairs. For

conjugate imaginary roots of greater multiplicity various com-

plexities of cyclotonic-shear are possible. (It is not necessary,

however, that shear accompany multiple roots in this case any

more than in case the roots are real.)

A rotation is a transformation in which length and an angle

remain unchanged. As length remains unchanged it follows that

all the real roots of the characteristic equation must be either

+ 1 or — I ; for otherwise there would be at least one direction

in which stretching took place. Moreover, the magnitudes of

the imaginary roots must also be equal to +1, i- e., the roots

must be complex quantities or there would be at least one plane

WILSON: NOTE ON ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE 27

in which stretching took place. Next, if a real root is double,

there can be no shear corresponding to that double root, because

in the shear all lines through the origin in a fixed plane through

the fixed direction must change their direction, with the sole

exception of the fixed direction itself, and an angle cannot remain

always unchanged in the case of a shear. In like manner, it

may be seen that when an imaginary root is multiple, the shear-

ing terms must be absent if the strain reduces to a rotation.

If there are a certain number of real roots equal to + 1 , a space

of the same number of dimensions is left absolutely unchanged.

If there are a certain number of roots — i , these may be paired

to represent a rotation of i8o° in a certain number of planes,

which will take care of all if the number of roots — i is even.

If the number is odd, there will be one direction left over, along

which directions are reversed. This case corresponds not to a

rotation, but to a reflection, and, consequently, the number of

roots — I must be even. The transformation of rotation, there-

fore, reduces to the identical transformation in a space of a cer-

tain number of dimensions, and to rotations through angles

of 1 80 ° or otherwise in a number of independent planes sufficient

to make up the total multiplicity of the hyperspace.

The fact that there are no shearing terms in the dyadic or in

the matrix, $, means algebraically, that the equation of lowest

degree satisfied by the dyadic has only as many factors as there

are different roots in the characteristic equation, each factor

raised to the first power, namely:

($ - !)($ -\- I)($-e'^I)($ — g-'"!) =0

or

($2 — I)($2 _ 2C0Se$ +1) =0

It is necessary to point out that the different independent

spaces which correspond to the dift'erent roots of the equation

are perpendicular. Consider, for instance, any direction in a

space corresponding to -fi, and any direction in that corre-

sponding to — I. The transformation leaves the first direction

unchanged, and reverses the second, so that each angle is changed

into its supplement; and if angles are to remain unchanged, the

directions must be perpendicular. In like manner, there may

28 POSNJAK AND MERWIN: BUCHER CYANIDE PROCESS

be considered a direction in the space corresponding to + 1 ,

and a direction in one of the planes in which rotation occurs. If

the plane is not perpendicular to the direction, there is one line

in the plane which is, and only one. The rotation will turn this

line into another direction in that plane, and, consequently, will

change a right angle into some other angle; hence, the plane

must be perpendicular to the direction.

In a similar way, consider two planes in which there is rota-

tion. Unless the planes are perpendicular, there is just one line

in one of the planes which is perpendicular to the other plane.

The operation of the rotation in the two planes will throw this

line into some other, and again angles will be changed, which is

impossible in a rotation; and the planes must, therefore, be per-

pendicular. It therefore follows that the fixed space and space

in which directions are reversed and the various planes in which

there are rotations are all mutually perpendicular in the sense

of complete perpendicularity.^

This brings the discussion to an end by the determination of

the fundamental existence-theorem for rotations in generalized

space. It is the theorem which Moore establishes prior to subse-

quent work. The method of treating rotations in ordinary space

which was given by Gibbs in his lectures, and may be found in

the Vector Ajtalysis,^ is dependent upon the knowledge that

in three dimensions a rotation has a fixed axis. Much of the

subsequent work, however, could, I beheve, be carried over to

higher dimensions in much the same way as the simpler case was

treated by Gibbs.

CHEMISTRY. — Note on the Bucher cyanide process for the

fixation of nitrogen. EuGEN Posnjak and H. E. Merwin,

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

In the course of an investigation of the Bucher cyanide

process^ undertaken by this Laboratory at the request of the

5 The treatment may, of course, be carried through analytically by taking a

general vector p and its transform <t>p calculated from the canonical form, and by

expressing the conditions on the coefficients of 5 which require constancy of length

and invariance of angle.

* Wilson, Edwin B. Vector Analysis (Gibbs). New York, Charles Scribner's

Sons, 1901. See pp. 334-347-

1 Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. 9: 233. 19 17.

POSNJAK AND MERWIN: BUCHER CYANIDE PROCESS 29

Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Department of the Army, it

was found by means of microscopical examinations that the

nitrogen-bearing constituent of some of the crude technical

products manufactured by this process consisted principally

of some other substance than ordinary sodium cyanide.

Ordinary sodium cyanide was found to be an essentially iso-

tropic substance, crystallizing in cubes, and having a refractive

index of 1452 =>= 0.003. After this cyanide had been fused,

slight double refraction amounting to about 0.005 was observed.

The material found in the technical products above mentioned

appeared in weakly doubly refracting colorless grains about

0.03 mm. in diameter. The refractive indices are a = 1-527,

/3= 1.532, 7 = 1.537. The optic axial angle observed was

so near 90° that the optical character could not be determined.

Evidently only chemical tests were made by Bucher. It was

therefore necessary to repeat his experiments to establish whether

sodium cyanide or this other substance was formed by his reac-

tion. The Bucher process, as known, consists in heating a mix-

ture of sodium carbonate, charcoal, and iron powder (catalyst)

in a stream of nitrogen at a temperature above 900°. The re-

action is written as follows:

NasCOs + 4C + N2 :^ 2NaCN -f 3CO

In our experiments, mixtures containing varying amounts of

sodium carbonate, carbon, and iron were prepared. Each was

placed in an iron boat within an electric furnace which contained

a reaction chamber consisting of a copper tube closely fitting

within one of siUca glass. A stream of nitrogen was passed

through the tube while a certain temperature between 900°

and 1000° was maintained for several hours. The reaction

product was rapidly cooled by lifting the tube out of the fur-

nace without interrupting the flow of nitrogen and was then

examined microscopically. In all experiments sodium cyanide,

together with some of the ingredients of the original mixture,

proved to be present, which confirms the reaction given by

Bucher.

As it did not seem feasible to investigate the conditions of

formation of the substance in question at the factory, attempts

30 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS

were made to recover it in sufficient purity from the crude product

with the view of preparing a sample for analysis.

Recovery by distillation was first tried in the following way:

The crude product was put in a copper tube which was closed at

one end and which fitted inside a similar tube of siUca glass.

These tubes were placed in an electric furnace and heated about

three hours at 800 ° while the other end of the tube was connected

■vvith a vacuum pump and cooled. When taken apart no change

could be observed.

The same experiment was repeated at approximately 975°.

It was now necessary to run the pump constantly as an evolu-

tion of gas was taking place. On taking the apparatus apart

metallic sodium was found in the cold portion of the tube. In-

asmuch as the crude product usually contains sodium carbonate,

the following reaction probably took place:

NazCOa + 2C = 2Na + 3CO

Microscopical examination of the crude product in the tube

showed that the substance in question still remained. Thus

distillation appears not to be a suitable method for its separa-

tion.

According to Bucher,^ sodium cyanide can be easily distilled

out of his briquets at a temperature even below 800°. These

experiments therefore substantiate the microscopical evidence

that the samples of the crude product examined do not contain

any appreciable amount of sodium cyanide.

The investigation of the chemical nature of the substance in

question is being continued.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— 5ow^ physical constants of mustard

"gas." Leason H. Adams and Erskine D. Williamson,

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Some time ago it was desired, for military purposes, to know

the compressibility of so-called mustard gas. Accordingly, the

necessary measurements were carried out at this laboratory,

^ IyOC. cit., p. 246.

ADAMS AND WILI.IAMSON : PHYSICAL, CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS 3 1

and at the same time certain other properties of this substance

were determined from its behavior under hydrostatic pressure.

The compound 2,2-dichloroethylsulfide^ — (C2H4C1)2S — is known

as mustard gas or mustard oil, and is, when pure, a colorless,

oily liquid which boils about 217°. The compressibility was

measured by the same method and using the same apparatus

as that already described. ^ The procedure, in brief, is as fol-

lows: The material to be compressed is surrounded by kero-

sene in the interior of a thick-walled steel cylinder, one end of

which is closed while the other end is fitted with a piston and

leak-proof packing. By means of a hydraulic press the piston

is forced into the cylinder, thus subjecting the kerosene and the

given material to hydrostatic pressure and thereby decreasing

the volume of each. The decrease in volume of the substance

for each increment of pressure is determined from a pair of read-

ings of pressure and corresponding piston displacement. Pres-

sures were measured by an electrical method, the precision be-

ing such that one scale division was equal to about one megabar;^

the displacement of the piston was read on a dial micrometer

which was graduated to 0.01 mm. Temperature regulation

was obtained by an electric heating coil of asbestos-covered

"nichrome" wire wrapped around the heavy steel cyHnder and

covered with an insulating layer of felt. About 10 g. of the

material was contained in a steel capsule closed at the top and

terminating below in a capillary which dipped into a cup con-

taining mercury. Pressure could thus be transmitted through

the mercury seal to the interior of the capsule.

Table i shows the results for the decrease in volume (at 3 1 . 5 °)

of the liquid under pressure. The second and third columns

of the table give for two separate runs the values of — Lv/vo

where Au is reckoned from the initial pressure, Po = 392 mega-

bars, and Vo is the volume^ of the liquid at 31.5° and atmos-

1 Also called thiodiglycolchloride. Conf. BeiIvSTEIn, Vol. I, p. 358. Ber. Deutsch.

Chem. Ges. 19: 3260. 1886.

- Joiirn. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: January, 19 19.

' I megabar = 10* dynes /cm^. = 1.020 kg. /cm^. = 0.987 atm.

* This was calculated from the known density which at 20°, 25°, 30°, and 35°,

respectively, is 1.274, 1-269, 1.264, and 1.258.

32 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS

pheric pressure. The values of Av as a function of P may be

represented by a power series yielding the equation

A^i'o = 4.24 X 10-5 (P - Po) - 6.3 X 10-^ (P - PoY

however, the results are expressed equally well by the exponential

equation

A / or — 0.364.10-' (P — Po)l /■ \

— MyVo = o.ii8[i— £? " j (i)

which gives a more reasonable course to the compressibility

curve and hence is to be preferred for extrapolating to zero

pressure. In the third column of table i are shown the values

of —div/vo calculated from equation (i).

By differentiation this equation becomes

-dv/dP = 49 . 5 e-'-'''''"^' ^ (2)

from which we find the compressibility ( —dv/dP) at P = o to

be 49.5 X 10 ~^ per megabar, while at 1000 and 2000 megabars,

respectively, the compressibility is 34.4 X 10 ~^ and 23.9 X

10

-6

TABLE I

Decrease in Volume op Mustard "Gas" under Pressxhie

After the conclusion of the measurements of compressibility

the freezing pressure and resultant change of volume at a few

temperatures were determined. This could be done without

removing the material from the apparatus. By referring to

figure I it may be seen how the desired quantities may be ob-

tained from a series of readings, at constant temperature, of

pressure P, and piston-displacement R. When freezing or

melting of the substance in the capsule takes place, P remains

constant while R increases or decreases and the resulting discon-

tinuity at once locates the freezing pressure for the given tem-

perature.^ Moreover, the change in volume on melting may be

' Conf. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 47: 415. 191 1.

ADAMS AND WILI^IAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS 33

obtained by multiplying the cross-section of the piston by the

quantity i?2 — ^i which is obtained graphically (see Fig. i ) .

The necessary readings must be taken with decreasing pressure

since, on account of the propensity of liquids for under-cooUng

to a temperature several degrees below their melting point,

they will generally support a pressure far beyond the true freezing

pressure before soUdification takes place. ^ Dichloroethylsulfide

requires at ordinary temperatures about looo megabars super-

pressure to start it freezing. This corresponds to an under-

cooling of 14°. ,—

PRESSURE

Fig. I. Diagram to illustrate how the freezing pressure and consequent change

of volume may be obtained by plotting pressure against piston-displacement.

When the pressure on the liquid is raised, freezing does not take place promptly

and the liquid thus passes into the undercooled or metastable region, as shown by

the dotted line.

The results for the freezing-points at several pressures are

shown in figure 2 and in table 2, which also gives the change of

volume V — V^ in cm^ per gram. From these results it may

' A corresponding superheating of the solid has been observed only in rare in-

stances.

34 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF MUSTARD GAS

be seen that the compressibility measurements of table i were

extended by about 500 megabars into the region of undercooled

liquid. At ordinary pressures the melting point of the sample

used is 13.9°, but although it was a carefully purified and color-

less preparation, a slight variation in pressure during melting

was observed. This indicates a small amount of impurity re-

maining in the material and doubtless the melting point of pure

dichloroethylsulfide at P = i is a few tenths of a degree higher

than the figure here given.

45

40

35

30

O

US

Q

UJ

q: 25

<

q:

UJ 20

LU

15

10

500

1000

15C0

2000

2500

PRESSURE MEGABARS

Fig. 2. The small circles in this figure represent the freezing points at various

pressures. The smooth curve drawn through the circles is slightly concave toward

the pressiu^e axis.

In order to test for the possible existence of other sohd modi-

fications of this substance, the pressure on it was increased to

12,000 megabars at 38°; but no new^ forms were discovered.

From the data contained in table 2 we may calculate by the

Clausius-Clapeyron equation the latent heat of melting. Thus

Ai/ = o.o239i7(Fi— F.)dP/d7,

where AJf is the latent heat in calories per gram, T is the absolute

temperature, Vi — F, is the change of volume on melting in

HITCHCOCK: A PECULIAR SPBCIES OF LASIACIS

35

cm'./g., anddP/dr is the slope of the P — T curve expressed

in megabars per degree; practically it is the pressure in megabars

required to raise the melting point one degree. Over the range

of temperature covered by our measurements we find

A H = 25 cal. per gram.

This is a value which is higher than the latent heat of melting

TABLE 2

ResuivTS for Freezing Pressures, and Change op Volume of Freezing

" By extrapolation.

of most substances. On the other hand the compressibility and

change of volume upon freezing do not differ markedly from the

average for organic liquids.

BOTANY. — A peculiar species of Lasiacis. A. S. Hitchcock,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

In 1759 Linnaeus described Panicum divaricatum^ from

Jamaica, distinguishing the species as divaricately much-

branched. This is the first species to be described of a group

having perennial branched, woody clambering or trailing stems,

broad, flat blades, and panicles of smooth, roundish spikelets, set

obhquely on the pedicels, the indurate fruit with a woolly tip.

The aspect of the plants is that of a shrubby climbing bamboo.

Several allied species have been described and referred to the

genus Panicum. In 1864 Grisebach- recognized the group as a

1 Syst. Nat. ed. 10. 2: 871. 1759.

2 Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 551. 1864.

36 HITCHCOCK: A PECULIAR SPECIES OF LASIACIS

section of Panicum and gave to it the name Lasiacis, meaning

woolly tip. The aspect of the species is so distinct and the

technical spikelet characters so pronounced that the present

writer elevated this section to the rank of a genus in 1910.^

Lasiacis includes 13 species ranging from Mexico and the West

Indies to Paraguay, one species entering the United States in

semitropical Florida.

Lasiacis ruscifolia (H. B. K.) Hitchc. & Chase {Panicum com-

pactum Swartz), is more variable and has a wider range than

the other species. In an account of the genus as represented

in the West Indies^ occurs the following note:

"In all the Trinidad specimens the spikelets contain a second

sterile lemma, a character not found in any other species known

to us. This second sterile lemma equals the first, contains a

hyaUne palea, and infolds the fruit rather more closely than the

sterile lemma commonly does in other species. The fruit borne

one joint higher on the rachilla consequently faces in the direc-

tion opposite to the one in Paniceae, that is, the palea side of

the fruit faces the second instead of the first glume."

A reconsideration of the group leads me to the conclusion

that we have here a distinct species, for not only is there this

unusual character of a second sterile lemma but also a distinct

geographical range. Of the group to which it had been referred,

all the specimens from Trinidad, the lower Orinoco, and eastern

Brazil have a second sterile lemma, while outside of this range,

that is, north and west, there is but one sterile lemma in all

the specimens examined. In other respects, such as shape of

blades and panicle, pubescence, shape and size of spikelets, the

new species does not dififer from L. ruscifolia from which it has

been separated. The specimens of the new species, Lasiacis

anomala, agree closely among themselves in all these characters,

but also agree with many specimens referred to the more variable

species L. ruscifolia.

The peculiarity of the case under consideration consists in

the nature of the single diagnostic technical character, the second

» Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 15: 16. 1910.

* Hitchcock and Chase. Grasses of the West Indies. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.

18: 339. 1917,

HITCHCOCK: A PECUUAR SPECIES OF LASIACIS 37

Sterile lemma. To those unfamiliar with the morphology

of the grass spikelet it may be explained that the spikelets of

the tribe Paniceae are characterized by two membranaceous

bracts (glumes) at the base or outside, a third bract (sterile

lemma) like the glumes in texture, and often enclosing a staminate

flower but producing no seed, and finally a fertile lemma, which

is indurate or at least thicker than the glumes, and which in-

closes a seed. The presence of a second sterile lemma is contrary

to our concept of the whole tribe and if found here and there

among our specimens would be looked upon as a teratological

development. A priori one would be inclined to assign generic

rank to a species or group of species possessing this character.

In the case before us, however, the specimens possessing this

character are indistinguishable in other respects from L. rusci-

folia. Even specific rank is granted only because of the distinct

range and the uniformity of the specimens. A technical diag-

nosis follows:

Lasiacis anomala Hitchc. n. sp.

Stems woody, branching, clambering over bushes, glabrous, the

main culm as much as 5.5 mm. thick, and 5 meters long; sheaths

glabrous or more or less pilose, striate, ciliate on the margin, densely

villous on the collar; ligule a short ciliate membrane; blades ovate-

lanceolate or elliptic lanceolate, as much as 10 cm. long and 3 cm.

wide on the main flowering culms, usually 4-6 cm. long and 1-2 cm.

wide on the lateral flowering branches, rather thin, narrowed and

usually asymmetric at base, sometimes a little cordate-clasping,

puberulent, or sometimes glabrate on the upper surface; panicles

oblong-ovoid, 7-10 cm. long, 3-5 cm. wide, those on the lateral branches

smaller, the lower branches somewhat distant, spreading or somewhat

reflexed, all rather compactly flowered, puberulent, the pedicels angled,

rather stout, 1-2 mm. long; spikelets ovoid, becoming nearly globose

at maturity, 3-4 mm. long; first glume about one-third, second glume

about two-thirds, as long as the spikelet; first and second sterile

lemma about equal and about as long as the fertile lemma, the glumes

and lemmas slightly woolly at the tip, the second sterile lemma in-

folding the fruit more closely than usual for the first lemma in other

species; fruit ovoid-globose, obtuse, because of the presence of a second

sterile lemma the palea side facing the second glume.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 865557, collected along

the edge of jungle, Fort George Road, Port of Spain, Trinidad, Novem-

ber 27, 1912, by A, S. Hitchcock (Amer. Gr. Nat. Herb. no. 595).

38 schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments

Distribution: Trinidad to eastern Brazil.

Specimens Examined.

Trinidad: Broadway 2504, 2564, 2627; Bot. Card. Herb. 2303;

Hitchcock loooi, 10063, 10117, 10136.

Venezuela: Santa, CataMna, Rusby <Sf Squires ;i 58; Island of Mar-

garita, Miller & Johnston 184.

Brazil: Rio Branco, Kuhlmann 3358; Ceara, Gardner, 1889, 1894.

TECHNOLOGY. — -The determinateness of the hysteresis of indi-

cating instruments . F. J. Schlink, Bureau of Standards.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of the present paper is to set down briefly the

results of one of several concordant preliminary experiments

carried out to determine to what extent hysteresis or variance

determinations with respect to nonintegrating mechanical mea-

suring instruments are themselves sufficiently definite and re-

producible to warrant wide application in instrument testing,

calibration, and utilization. The conclusion is reached that

no extraordinary experimental care is required to arrive at

hysteresis determinations of very definite utility, and that,

under stated conditions, such determinations are of a highly

reproducible character. These results are forecast in a paper

just completed by the author, to which the reader may refer

for a general discussion of hysteretic cycles in the operation of

measuring instruments and of the fundamental relation which

such cycles bear to testing and calibration.^

apparatus and method

In order to minimize the experimental difficulties and to per-

mit of useful generalization of the results of the investigation,

the instrument chosen as the basis for this work was a spring-

controlled self-indicating weighing scale of the stabilized-plat-

form pointer-and-dial type, a sort commonly used for the weigh-

ing of postal and express parcels, and to a very limited extent

of vegetables and other low-priced commodities of trade.

The choice of this particular type of instrument, shown dia-

1 The concept of resilience with respect to indicating instruments. To be published

in the Journ. Franklin Inst., February, 1919.

schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments

39

grammatically in figure i, was influenced by the following major

considerations :

I. It comprises many elements typical of measuring instru-

ments generally, including: (a) a helical force-resisting spring;

(b) a Hnk work of several jointed bars; (c) a rack and pinion for

magnifying the motion of the parts and transmitting it to a

pointer rotating over a full circle of graduations; (d) a large

Fig. I. Schematic illustration of mechanism of stabilized-platform pointer-and-

dial type of spring scale. It will be noted that an eccentric disposition of the load

on the platform is associated with a horizontal reaction in the check-rod (the lower-

most link shown). The friction of the terminal journal bearings of this rod is

proportional to this reaction, and hence to the product of the load itself and the

displacement of its center of gravity from the center of the platform.

mechanical backlash (0.20 to 0.28 radian — 11° to 16° — at the

pointer) which is only -partially compensated by gravitational

force-closure.

2. The independent variable, viz, the load weighed, is essen-

tially nonhysteretic and, therefore, admittedly reproducible

with very high precision.

3. The aggregate fractional resistances of the apparatus

are inherently large and moreover subject to ready control

40 schunk: hysteresis of indicating instruments

within a wide range by simply varying the point of appHcation

of the load upon the platform in a direction parallel to the plan

of the platform-supporting linkwork.^

4. As a consequence of the large frictional resistances, the

variance of the indications of such a scale is so great as to be

very easily observed and has, in common with that of many

other crude and ill-constructed instruments, hitherto been

deemed quite incapable of systematization or regularization.

(Such scales are in fact so "unreliable" in their indications when

read in the ordinary way, that their general use in trade is com-

monly prohibited by regulation.)

In order to afford accurate control over the position of applica-

tion of the load, which, as has been stated, is a factor largely

determining the aggregate amount of hysteresis of scales of this

type, the standard weights used were suspended from below by

cords secured at opposite ends of a light horizontal bar super-

imposed on the platform. Projecting downward from the cen-

ter of this bar was secured a rubber stud or tip serving to localize

the load within a small and determinate area on the platform

while holding the bar itself above the platform and free from

contact with it.

Since such scales are not artificially damped, gradual move-

ment of the platform and pointer to their positions of rest at

the several loads was provided for in the one direction by gen-

tle and careful appUcation of the weights manually, and in the

other by the use of the relatively slow motion of the rack-and-

pinion gear of a microscope stand by which a vertical rod was

gradually withdrawn from contact with the upper surface of

the platform after the removal of a given weight increment. By

these means it was possible to assure aperiodic, reasonably

steady, and shockless motion of the pointer, without overshoot-

ing of the rest point. The reasons and basis for this method are

discussed in detail in the first reference cited. Regularization

of operation of the scale, or the setting up of the cycUc state,

treated in the same reference, was carried out before beginning

the experiment by simply operating the scale a number of times

2 See Bureau of Standards Technologic Paper No. 106.

schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments

41

over the actual maximum range of movement involved in the

weighing of the capacity load.^ Limitations of space prohibit

L0AD,OZ.

Fig. 2. Results of cyclic calibrations of stabilized-platform pointer-and-dial type

of spring scale. Dotted lines connect points in a series of observations in which

the detail path of the function was not then determined. The niunbers to the

right of the determinations indicate the number of the check observations taken,

which gave substantially (see text) the same value as the observation recorded.

detailed consideration of these prerequisites in the present

necessarily brief discussion.

* It was important to determine whether cycUc states set up on different occasions

were actually identical, and to this end, the scale was strongly jarred and distiu-bed

between successive runs, so as to insure definite dislocation of the acquired relations

of journals and bearings, gearing, etc., within the limits, of course, of the clearances

obtaining. Renewed cycUc operation of the scale brought about a regularization

as perfect as could be desired, a result hardly less than astonishing, when the essential

crudity of the instrument is considered. The finish and fit of the moving parts of

this type of scale are of a sort that would be considered intolerable in any ordinary

engineering instrument, e. g., a Bourdon gage or a pocket voltmeter.

42 schunk: hysteresis of indicating instruments

THE particular RESULTS OBTAINED

Figure 2 presents the results of the cycHc calibration of a scale

of the type described having the following general constants:

Range of graduation: o to 20 pounds, corresponding to rotation

of the pointer through 2 revolutions = 4x.

Number of joints having relative motion, 7 (including duplicates as

below; actual number of single journals and bearings 10). Turning

pairs : duplicated, 5 ; not duplicated, i . Higher pairs toothed gearing,

I.

Displacement, for the purpose of the experiment, of the point of

application of the load from the line of centers of the link or stem sup-

porting the platform, 7.0 cm.

Interval of graduation: 1/2 ounce = 1/32 pound = 1/640 or 0.0016

(approx.) of the nominal capacity.

Interval of estimation of pointer position for the purposes of the

experiment: o.i ounce = 1/3200 or 0.0003 (approx.) of the nominal

capacity.

After taking the readings reproduced in the figure, the drift of indica-

tion at full load was examined and found to amount to but 0.5 ounce

in nine and one-half hours. On removing the load the zero reading

exhibited a drift of 1.2 ounce to practically its initial value in i hour.

The amount of the drift occurring during the course of the series of

hysteresis observations recorded was probably negligible, and certainly

at no time greater than o.i to 0.2 ounce. The existence of drift in

directly measurable amount in this scale is believed to be the result

of an easily remediable structural defect, viz, weakness of a certain

portion of the inelastic sheet metal framework supporting the mechanism.

The following are the particular results, many of which ap-

pear directly in the graph:

I. The hysteresis loop, ^ or any portion of it, except at such a

critical region as that designated BC in the figure, determined

under the condition of slow^ aperiodic change of reading, was

practically reproducible within a maximum deviation of one- to

two-tenths of a graduation or at the largest separation of the

loop where the relative precision is high, within a precision of

about one or two parts in one hundred. It is to be noted that

this small amount of dispersion of readings corresponds to a

mutual displacement of repeated readings of but one-half the

■* It is to be noted that the hysteresis obtained is for the major part the result of

frictional resistances and, concomitantly, of bearing clearances. (See Bureau of

Standards Scientific Paper No. 328.) It is known that only a relatively very small

portion of the hysteresis observed can be the result of elastic hysteresis of the re-

sisting spring of the scale.

schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments 43

width of the Hnes of the diagram. It is beUeved that a repro-

duction of the cycles even more precise would have resulted,

had more delicate means of releasing the load upon the pan,

and more rigid supports for the apparatus, been at hand.

During the experiment, the zero point remained surprisingly

constant except that at the completion of the second run, it

dropped sharply by three-tenths of a graduation, after which

being readjusted to its initial value it remained stable except

for the drift before mentioned, throughout a great number of

subsequent observations. This displacement of the zero was

undoubtedly due to an accidental irreversible slip of some

loosely secured part of the exterior frame of the scale, which

was notably deficient in rigidity, or of the dial.

2. At the critical region BC and other regions of beginning

backward movement of the mechanism, the existence of a marked

passivity due to imperfectly compensated backlash, increased

the dispersion of successive observations considerably.

3. The curves corresponding to reversal of the change of load

before the extreme range of indication under investigation has

been reached, are rapidly asymptotic severally to the upper

and lower branches of the major loop, respectively.

4. The major loop tends to a decidedly skew lenticular form,

roughly triangular, a result which is the direct consequence of

the force system obtaining in this type of instrument, in that

the frictional resistances tend to increase proportionally to the

load, when the reactions in the stabihzing check are large. Other

indicating instruments are more likely to give a loop of nearly

symmetrically lenticular form.

GENERAL CONCIvUSIONS

The general conclusions educible in the main from the present

data, though fully supported collaterally by a considerable

mass of experimental data necessarily omitted here, and by

analogy, are the following:

I. The hysteresis loops obtained in the specified cyclic caU-

bration of a (nonintegrating) mechanical measuring instrument

nearly free from transient after-effects at rates of operation ob-

44 schunk: hysterbsis of indicating instruments

taining in the experiment, are highly reproducible and invariant

in themselves, even in the presence of very considerable instrumental

friction and the resulting so-called unreliability of indication.

2. If the instrument is used therefore under the conditions

hereinbefore specified as defining the manner of its calibration,

the positiveness and certitude of its indications over a very

large portion of its range of indication are enormously increased,

as compared with the results of operation in the ordinary and

unregularized manner.

3. The middle portion of the calibration loop while in general

exhibiting the largest absolute range of variability or variance

of indication, in the ordinary manner of operation of the instru-

ment, is the region most useful for obtaining results of the high-

est relative precision in the cyclic manner of operation above

outHned.

4. Knowing the operational history of the instrument subse-

quent to regularization,^ accurate reduction of a given indica-

tion can be carried out by this method with complete elimina-

tion of first-order variance.

5. The limiting values of the variant (casual or nonrepetitive)

errors of such an instrument can be accurately set down upon

the performance of a calibration of the type referred to, for any

given range of operation in question, since the major loop corre-

sponding to that range circumscribes and completely encloses

^ In this connection it is clear that one of the factors tending to make the history

of the instrument movement uncertain can be eliminated by application of critical

or over-critical damping, since the effect of this expedient is to obviate the more

or less irregular and indeterminate oscillations of the indicator about its rest point,

which would normally depend upon the rate and manner of change of the independent

variable during its application. The utility of such damping is especially marked,

for instance, in the case of the controlled use in the laboratory, of automatic weigh-

ing scales which commonly revert to zero between weighings, since in such cases,

the damping assures approach to the rest point over an acctuately determinate

functional path. In this connection it should be mentioned that critical or over-

critical damping will be definitely disadvantageous if regular reversion of the instru-

ment to its zero cannot be depended upon. Moreover, if the scale in question is

to be used without correction of its readings, its adjustment to critical or over-

critical damping implies that the calibration of the dial shall have been performed

with respect to the curve of increasing readings, while the application of simple

additive corrections, if they are to be used, is to be carried out with reference^to the

same branch of the hysteresis loop.

schlink: hysteresis of indicating instruments 45

all minor or secondary loops observed over ranges of indication

between its own terminal limits.

6. When the result of (4) is impracticable or inconvenient on

account of the uncontrolled nature of the service to which the

instrument is subjected, the best average result in the use of an

instrument will in general be obtained when its scale values

are adjusted to the mean^ of the upper and lower limits of the

maximum hysteresis loop rather than to the lower branch thereof,

since when the cyclic history is unknown or indeterminate, in-

dications within the loop are indefinitely more probable of oc-

currence than indications on its periphery.

* The mean is a first approximation to the position of the "normal" calibralrion

line, in the absence of specific information regarding the skewness of the chance

distribution of indications across the loop.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

FHYSICS.—The general character of specific heats at high temperatures.

Walter P. White. Proc. Nat. Acad. 801.4:343-346. Novem-

ber, 1918.

The specific heats of three forms of silica and two silicates (alkali

feldspars), determined for temperatures up to 1300°, indicate that the

atomic heats at constant volume for the substances increase above the

theoretical value 5.96, as the heats of metals have been known to do,

and hence that such increase is a very general phenomenon, as has

been suspected. W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — Calorimetric lag. Walter P. White. Journ, Amer. Chem.

Soc. 40: 1858-1872. December, 1918.

The lag effects of bodies external to calorimeters, although more

complicated in expression, are found to follow the same general laws

as the simpler lag effects already described. More carefully stated

than previously, these effects prove to be three: (i) equivalent to the

heat capacity of the calorimeter; this can be eliminated if a calorimeter

is directly calibrated; (2) much smaller, depending on the amount of

thermal leakage; this can be avoided, if necessary, by using the adia-

batic method; (3) dependent on the jacket temperature, which disap-

pears for constant jacket temperature; this one causes the calorimeter

to have a different effective heat capacity when used adiabatically.

W. P. W.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ ternary system MgO-AWzSiOi.

G. A. Rankin and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: 301-325.

April, 191 8.

The temperature-concentration relations of the various crystalline

phases in equilibrium with liquid in the ternary system MgO-Al203-

Si02 have been investigated, and are represented by diagrams and a

model. A ternary compound, 2Mg0.2Al203.5Si02, unstable at its

46

abstracts: physical chemistry 47

melting point and considerably affected by solid solution has been ob-

served in two forms. The ju-form (unstable) crystallizes from glass

at temperatures below about 950°, and transforms at somewhat higher

temperatures into the a-form (stable). The properties of both forms,

but especially the a-forms, are close to those of the mineral cordierite.

The effects of solid solution in flattening two of the boundary curvxs

of the field of this compound are discussed. The preparation and

properties of crystalline aggregates of substances which dissociate

when melting are considered. Crystals of natural cordierite dissociate

when melting. Brief consideration is given to the effects of FeO in

magnesian rocks and minerals. H. E. M.

INORGANIC CUUMISTRY.— Solubility and fusion relations at high

temperatures and pressures. George W. Morey. Journ. Engin,

Club Phila. 35: 509-519. November, 1918.

An address, giving a popular discussion of the principles underlying

the solubility relations of binary systems composed of both volatile

and nonvolatile components. In addition, some new compounds of

the alkalies with AI2O3 and Fe203 are described, as well as a new method

for determining solubilities under difficult experimental conditions.

G. W. M.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/z^ laws of chemical equilibrium. Ers-

KiNE D. Williamson and George W. Morey. Journ. Amer.

Chem. Soc. 40: 49-59. January, 191 8.

In examining the complicated chemical systems which present

themselves in the study of geophysical problems it is found that the

approximate formulas used for dilute solutions break down and prove

worse than useless even for qualitative application. The monumental

work which the genius of Willard Gibbs evolved in 1876 remains the

safest guide and that to which reference must necessarily be made.

The extreme mathematical setting with which he surrounds his argu-

ments has militated against the general use of his results by chemists,

and a consequence of this is that much ink has been spilled in proving

by roundabout and far from rigid methods, theorems which are either

explicitly stated by Gibbs or are so readily deducible from his equa-

tions as to be implicit in his work. This paper has therefore been

written as an attempt to popularize, in so far as such a term can be

used in this connection, the derivation of the fundamental equations

and to deduce from them such additional formulas as are found neces-

48 abstracts: geology

sary for the derivation of the theorems bearing on the chemical side of

equilibrium. The applications of these theorems to actual cases will

be discussed in later papers. R. B. S.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. — Pressure-temperature curves in mono-

variant systems. George W. Morey and Erskine D. William-

son. Joum. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 59-84. January, 191 8.

Willard Gibbs, in his paper "On the equilibrium of heterogeneous

substances," derives expression giving the relation between the varia-

tions in pressure and temperature in monovariant systems. The authors

derive from this equation two fundamental theorems concerning the

relations of the P—T curves in such a system, for the case where a linear

relation exists between the compositions of r or fewer phases in a sys-

tem of r components. These considerations make possible (with no

other knowledge than the composition of the phases at an invariant

point) the fixing of the order of succession of the (n + 2) P~ T

curves which proceed from an invariant point in a system of n com-

ponents and (when the state of aggregation of the phases is known in

addition) the fixing of their actual position within fairly narrow limits.

This is illustrated by considering the P — T curves which proceed from

the five quintuple points in the ternary system H20-K2Si03-Si02.

Gibbs' general equation is not in a form which is convenient to apply.

A general method is given for casting it into a convenient form for

practical use and a concrete interpretation of the coefficients involved

is given. The application of this equation to the actual slope of the

P — T curves, and especially to the change in slope with change in

composition of phases of variable composition, is discussed in detail,

taking as examples typical P — T curves from the ternary system

HzO-KsSiOa-SiOa. R. B. Sosman.

GEOLOGY. — Some manganese deposits in Madison County, Montana.

J. T. Pardee. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 690-F. Pp. 131-143.

1918.

The deposits are along the west side of Madison Valley near Cherry

and Wigwam creeks and in the foothills east of Jefferson Valley, near

Renova, localities that are, respectively, 70 and 30 miles southeast

of Butte, Mont. Though the deposits are small, they yield ore that is

almost free of silica and is therefore very desirable for making ferro-

alloys. They are also of interest because the manganese in them is

abstracts: geology 49

primarily of sedimentary origin, and accordingly they differ from most

of the other manganese deposits known in this general region, which

are related to metalliferous quartz veins.

On Wigwam and Cherry creeks irregular lenslike bodies of man-

ganese oxides, chiefly psilomelane and subordinately manganite and

wad, are found in an ancient marbleized limestone that underlies the

Cambrian Flathead quartzite. The general features of these deposits

clearly show that the ores were deposited in solution cavities and have

also made room for themselves by replacing the limestone. Their com-

position and structure suggest that they were deposited by surface

waters circulating through joints or other openings in the limestone,

probably during the Tertiary period. Under these conditions the only

apparent source of the manganese is the limestone itself, which contains

small proportions of manganese and iron oxides.

Iron ore and manganiferous iron ore are exposed about 3 miles south-

west of Renova. The localization of the deposits at the top of shales

overlying the Flathead quartzite and their close association with an

old stuface of erosion suggest that they are portions of an iron-bearing

stratum enriched by weathering when the land was being worn down

to the level of the old surface and therefore are to be regarded as pri-

marily of sedimentary origin. If this is the true explanation,

similar ore bodies are to be expected at the same geologic horizons in

the neighboring districts. R. W. Stone.

GEOIyOGY. — The structure and stratigraphy of Gravina and Revillagigedo

islands, Alaska. Theodore Chapin. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof.

Paper 120--D. Pp. 83-100. 1918.

The discovery of fossils of Jurassic or Cretaceous age has made

possible some changes in the geologic mapping of Gravina Island.

This paper is a supplemental report on the region and discusses the dis-

tribution, character, structure, stratigraphic relations, age, and correla-

tion of rocks ranging from .Devonian to Quaternary. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — The Nesson anticline, Williams County, North Dakota.

A. J. Collier. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-G. Pp. 21 1-22 1,

with map and section. 1918.

The Nesson anticline, discovered by a U. S. Geological Siurvey party

in 1 91 7, is a fairly well marked arch or dome about 30 miles east of

50 abstracts: mammalogy

Williston. It is of interest because the rocks of North Dakota in general

lie nearly flat, and because an artesian well drilled a few miles west of

the crest of the anticline yields a small flow of gas. The stratigraphy

and structure are described, and it is suggested that wells be drilled

nearer the crest of the anticline in search of a larger flow of gas.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and oil and gas prospects of the Lake Basin field,

Montana. E. T. IL\ncock. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-D.

Pp. 101-147, with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1918.

Describes the Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy of an area north-

west of Billings, discusses the structural folds and numerous faults

in detail, and recommends that drilling be done in the Big Coulee-

Hailstone dome in a search for oil and gas. If that dome proves barren,

the possibility that oil and gas occur in commercial quantities in the

Lake Basin is believed to be very slight. R. W. Stone.

MAMMALOGY. — East African mammals in the United States National

Mtisetmt. Part. I. Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Carnivora. N.

HoLLiSTER. Bulletin 99, United States National Museum.

Pages 1-194; 3 text figures; plates 1-55. August 16, 1918.

This first volume of a bulletin dealing with the extensive collection

of East African mammals preserved in the National Museum, to be

completed in three parts, consists of a general introduction, brief his-

torical account of the collection, a map with a dictionary of localities

and annotated lists of specimens of the insectivores, bats, and carni-

vores. The collections made by the Smithsonian African expedition

under the direction of Col. Theodore Roosevelt, 1909-10, and by the

Paul J. Rainey expedition, 1911-12, form the basis of the work, but all

specimens from Sudan, Eritrea, Abyssinia, Somaliland, Lado Enclave,

Uganda, British East Africa, German East Africa, and Zanzibar, re-

ceived by the Museum from any source, are listed. These collections

contain 1,833 specimens of mammals of the three orders, representing

155 species. There are 64 types. Generic and specific synonymies;

type localities and location of type specimens; lists of specimens with

critical notes; tables of external, cranial, and dental measurements;

and field notes recorded by the collectors are given. The plates illus-

trate the skulls of all type specimens. N. H.

abstracts: ornithology 51

ORNITHOLOGY. — Food habits of the swallows, a family of valuable

native birds. F. E. L. BeaIv. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 619: 1-28;

pis. 1-2. 1918.

So far as agriculture is concerned, there is no more useful family of

birds than the swallows. Of the thirteen species of this group occurring

in the United vStates, seven are so widely distributed that their food

habits are of much economic importance. These are Progne subis,

Petrochelidon htnifrons, Hirundo ntstica erythrogastris, Iridoprocne

bicolor, Tachycineta thalsassina, Riparia riparia, and Stelgidopteryx serri-

pennis. The study of the food of these species shows that they are,

like the rest of the swallows, practically not at all harmful to man,

since they injure neither wild nor cultivated fruit or seeds, nor molest

other birds. With the exception of one species, Iridoprocne bicolor, all

the United vStates swallows are almost exclusively insectivorous, yet

they do not disturb domestic bees or silkworms or devour unusual

numbers of other beneficial insects. On the other hand, they feed on

some of agriculture's worst insect pests, among them the cotton -boll

weevil, clover weevil, alfalfa weevil, and chinch bug.

Since swallows feed almost entirely while on the wing, it follows that

most of the insects they catch are flying species. Hymen op tera,

Diptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera, form about eighty-five per cent

of the food of the swallows in the United States. Orthoptera, a favorite

item of food with many birds, and Lepidoptera are not eaten to any

considerable extent. Among the food elements of each of the United

States species examined there were found a great number of different

species of insects, and lists of such discovered during the course of

stomach examinations are given; that under Petrochelidon lunifrons

amounts to 149. The only North American swallow that subsists

to any extent on vegetable matter is Iridoprocne bicolor ; in the case of

this species to the extent of twenty per cent. Most of the vegetable

fruit of this bird is made up of the berries of the bayberry; the rest

of such wild berries as those of the red cedar and Viriginia creeper.

Harry C. Obbrholser.

ORNITHOLOGY.— iVo/^5 on North American birds. V. Harry C.

Oberholser. The Auk 35: 185-187. 1918.

The North American goshawk, Accipiter atricapillus Wilson, appears

to be a subspecies of the European goshawk, and its two present sub-

species should, therefore, stand as Astur gentilis atricapillus (Wilson);

and Astur gentilis striatulus Ridgway. The American golden-crowned

kinglets are evidently subspecies of the European bird, and their names

52 abstracts: ornithology

should thus become Reguliis regulus satrapa Lichtenstein, and Regulus

regulus olivaceus Baird. The form of fox sparrow called by Riley

passerella iliaca altivagans has been discredited by most recent authors,

but is shown by further study to be a recognizable race. The same is

true of Melospiza melodia inexspectata Riley from Moose Lake, British

Columbia. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — -The crow and its relation to man. E. R. Kalm-

BACH. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 621, 1-92; pis. 1-2; figs. 1-3. 1918.

This bulletin concerns only the races of the common crow, Corvus

hrachyrhynchos, with its various subspecies. These together inhabit

practically all the United States and Canada. In the eastern United

States the species is common and ranges over all kinds of country. It

is one of the species that gather into roosts, particularly during the

winter season, and at such times as many as nearly 300,000 birds some-

times assemble. Its close association with man makes its economic

relations of much importance, and owing to its practically omnivorous

habits the study of its habits presents more complicated problems

than that of almost any other North American bird. In fact, not less

than 656 specifically different items have been identified in stomach

examinations. The present investigation is based on 21 18 stomachs

and some 3000 circulars of inquiry. The results show that the chief

food of the crow consists of com and insects; the latter chiefly Coleop-

tera, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera (larvae), and Hemiptera. Some spiders

and crustaceans are also taken, as well as reptiles and amphibians,

together with small mammals, principally rodents. One of the crow's

most injurious habits is the destruction of wild birds and their eggs,

and young poultry; but the latter can be partly if not wholly prevented

by proper care. In some places, particularly in the southern United

States, the crow often resorts to carrion for food, and under similar

circumstances molests livestock.

The conclusion regarding the economic status of Corvus hrachyrhyn-

chos reached through the present investigation is that when feeding

on injurious insects, crustaceans, rodents, and carrion it is beneficial;

but when destroying small reptiles, amphibians, wild birds, poultry,

corn and other crops, and disturbing livestock, it is injurious. Any

necessary means should be employed to prevent its depredations, but

the species is at times too beneficial to be entirely exterminated. It has

practically no natural enemies, and a reasonable reduction of numbers

by man in areas where there are too many crows is desirable.

Harry C. Oberholser.

abstracts: vital statistics 53

VITAL STATISTICS. — The relation between birth rate and death rate

in a normal population and the rational basis of an empirical formula

for the mean length of life given by William Farr. Alfred J. Lotka.

Quart. Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 16: 121. 191 8.

In a previous publication it was shown by the author that under con-

stant conditions the relation between birth rate per head b and death

rate per head d in an isolated population approaches the form

i/b = f: f-^'-'' '^ p{a) da (I)

where p{a) is the probabihty, at birth, that a random individual will

reach age a.

When the relation (i) is plotted in rectangular coordinates it bears

an outward resemblance to a hyperbola.

We may write (i) in the parametric form:

b = i/L + mr -\- nr^ -\- . . (2)

d = i/L + (i — m)r -{- nr^ -^ ... (3)

where r is the natural rate of increase of the population and L is the mean

length of life (expectation of hf e at birth) .

Neglecting the second and higher powers of r it is easily shown that

(2) and (3) are equivalent to the relation (4) between b and d,

^(•^-^^l .... (4)

/^ i—m\f, w \ _ m(i-

which, it will be seen, is indeed hyperbolic in form.

On the other hand. Equation 4, when expressed as a relation be-

tween Vft and Vd assumes the simple hnear form

I — ni , m

+ ~ = L (5)

b d

a relation which is identical in form with Farr's empirical formula

for the mean length of life

\ .\ X'-.'- =L (6)

3 ^ 3 ^

The empirical cofficients Vs and Vs which occur in Farr's formula

thus receive a rational interpretation.

Numerical illustrations taken from British Statistics are given in

the original. -^- J • L-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFIUATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Board of Managers met on November 25, 19 18. Progress was

reported on arrangements for a meeting place for the affihated societies

and the problem offered by the rapidly increasing cost of publication

of the Journal was considered.

The Board of Managers met on December 13, 19 18. The Editors

were authorized to transfer the contract for printing the Journal

for 1919 from the Williams & Wilkins Company, of Baltimore, to the

Eschenbach Printing Company, of Easton, Pennsylvania.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last issue of the Journal: Rear Admiral George Washington

Baird, U. S. N., Retired, 1505 Rhode Island Avenue, Washington, D. C. ;

Dr. Atherton Seidell, Hygienic Laboratory, Public Health Service,

Washington, D. C.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 587th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Carnegie Institution, Saturday, November 30, 1918; called

to order at 8. 10 p.m. by Vice President Hopkins; 35 persons present.

Deaths of the following members were noted: Douglas C. Mab-

BOTT, killed in France; D. E. Lantz, former Recording Secretary of

the Society, victim of the recent epidemic of influenza; and Frederick

Knab.

Informal communications were presented as follows:

Dr. L. O. Howard called attention to a communication and speci-

mens he had received from Charles Russell Orcutt, of California. The

specimens had been identified by Dr. Paul Bartsch as a noxious Euro-

pean snail and had been discovered by Mr. Orcutt in a restricted area

in California. Dr. Howard told of the steps that were being taken

by the state to exterminate this newly imported species. This com-

munication was commented upon by Dr. Bartsch, w^ho mentioned

other introduced species of snails which had become pests.

Dr. T. S. Palmer brought to the attention of the Society that the

year 19 18 had been a very prosperous one for the A. O. U. in spite of

wartime conditions. There are 950 members of the A. O. U., of whom

75 are in France. Of the latter, Douglas C. Mabbott, also a member

54

proceedings: biologicaIv society 55

of the Biological Society, had been killed. Doctor Palmer called at-

tention to the several species of birds of paradise now on exhibit by the

New York Zoological Society. He also referred to the increased cost

of food seeds for caged birds incident to the war. The question of food

seed shortage and substitute was discussed by Mr. W. L. McAxEE.

Major R. W. Shufeldt spoke of various preserving fluids for ana-

tomical, pathological, and zoological specimens. He exhibited several

specimens preserved by them, and called attention to some of their

advantages.

The regular program was as follows:

A. S. Hitchcock : Some notes on the botany of Long's Peak, Colorado.

It was illustrated by numerous lantern slides.

M. W. lyYON, Jr.: Influenza. A brief account of the symptoma-

tology and etiology of the recent epidemic of influenza.

The paper was discussed by Dr. H. S. Bennett, L. O. Howard, R.

W. Shufeldt, W. P Taylor, and others.

The 588th regular and 39th annual meeting of the Society was held

in the Assembly Hall of the Carnegie Institution Saturday, December

14, 1918; called to order at 8.00 p.m. by President Rose; 18 mem-

bers present.

On recommendation of the Council the following named persons were

elected to membership: Maunsell S. Crosby, W. Lee Chambers.

Charles B. Cory, Charles C. Deam, George L. Fordyce, C. I,

Clay, Albert O. Garrett, Morton J. Elrod, Henry W. Fowler,

H. M. Denslow, H. Gifford, John Dryden Kuser, V. A. Huard,

Arthur H. Helme, Philip Dowell, Edward A. McIlhent-j^y, W. E.

vSaunders, Frank Smith, Aretas A. Saunders, W. B. Mershon,

E. Lawrence Palmer, Lynds Jones, Althea R. Sherman, Robert

Thomas Moore, Frank L. Burns, Harry B. Weiss, Frederic C.

Kennard, Charles Theodore Ramsden, Carl Otto Rosendahl,

Samuel F. Rathbun, Reginald Charles Treherne, Alexander

Howard MacKay, Raymond J. Pool, P. A. Taverner, C. B. Wil-

liamson, Joseph Mailliard, Joseph Francis Charles Rock, J.

Chester Bradley, James Alexander Munro, Charles W. Howard,

Frank S. Daggett, Frank T. McFarland, Charles A. Shull.

Reports of Officers and committees for the year 19 18 were received.

Election of officers for the year 191 9 resulted as follows:

President, H. M. SMiTtf; Vice Presidents, A. D. Hopkins, Vernon

Bailey, N. Hollister, A. S. Hitchcock; Recording Secretary, M. W.

Lyon, Jr.; Corresponding Secretary, W. L. McAtee; Treasurer, N.

Dearborn; Members of Council, J. W. Gidley, Wm. Palmer, E. A.

Goldman, Alex. Wetmore, H. C. Oberholser.

President Smith was nominated for Vice President to represent the

Society in the Washington Academy of Sciences.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian

Institution, held on December 12, 1918, Senator Thomas, of Colorado,

and Representatives Ferris, Padgett, and Greene were elected to

membership on the Board.

The Bureau of Fisheries, U. S. Department of Commerce, will build

a new laboratory, estimated to cost $50,000, at Seventh and B Streets.

Experimental work at the American University Experiment Station,

of the Chemical Warfare Service was discontinued on December 31,

the most of the personnel having been transferred or discharged. A

few of the officers remain to write up reports of the work of the Station.

Dr. N. Iv. Bowen, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu-

tion, has accepted the professorship of mineralogy at Queen's Univer-

sity, Kingston, Ontario.

Major General William Crozier, U. S. A., former Chief of Ordnance

and later commander of the Northeastern Military Department at

Boston, has been transferred to the retired list of the Army on his own

application, after a service of nearly forty years.

Professor E. C. Franklin returned to Stanford University, Cali-

fornia, in December, after spending the greater part of the past year

in research on the synthetic process for the fixation of nitrogen.

Dr. George E. Hale, of the National Research Council, and Prof.

A. A. NoYES, of the Nitrate Committee, returned from England in

December.

Mr. Henry Hinds has resigned from the Geological Survey to enter

the employ of the Sinclair Oil and Gas Company, at Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Lieut. Herbert Graham Kubel, formerly cartographer with the

U. S. Geological Survey, died on December 30, 1918. He left the posi-

tion of acting chief engraver of the Survey in January, 1918, to receive

a commission as first lieutenant in the Air Service. He was a member

of the Society of Engineers.

Dr. H. A. LuBS has resigned from the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, to enter the employ of E. I. du Pont de

Nemours & Company,

Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the National Research Council, returned

to the University of California in December.

Professor Joji Sakurai, director of the newly established Institute

of Physical and Chemical Research in Tokyo, Japan, visited Washing-

ton in December.

56

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol.. 9 FEBRUARY 4, 19 19 No. 3

GENERAL SCIENCE. — -Science and the after-war period.^

George K. Burgess, Bureau of Standards.

Somewhat more than a year ago it was my privilege to address

the Philosophical Society of Washington on the subject Science

and warfare in France^ in which I endeavored to indicate in some

small measure the role science was playing in the war we all hope

has just been brought to a close.

At this time, may we not consider the transition period into

which we are entering and ask ourselves what will be the effect

of war on science, the men of science, and in the relations of

science to the community and the state? What are some of the

lessons this war has taught? And what plans have been made

here and elsewhere to apply them?

A scientific man would hardly be so rash as to pose as a

prophet, yet he may, nevertheless, try to assemble and pass

in review some of the tendencies of the time; and it is only

by an intelligent examination of the underlying changes which

are being produced in science and in its relation to society,

that he is enabled to see his way ahead a little more clearly

into the mist of the future; and he may thereby be enabled, at

least in some small degree, to chart his course and take ad-

vantage of the various currents that have been set in motion

by the war.

1 Address of the retiring President of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

presented before the Society January 4, 1919.

- Scientific Monthly, October, 191 7.

57

58 burgess: science and after- war period

The question may here be asked, can we not see from previous

wars what this war will bring forth, or at least the broad Unes

along which progress will be made, in science and in its relation

to mankind? But with what previous war shall we compare

this? Surely not with the short Franco-German war of 1870 in

which but two nations were engaged; if with the world-wide

wars of the French revolution and Napoleon, we have a duration

of twenty-five years as compared with four; and if any war prior

to that epoch is considered, the development of science was

hardly in a state to form a basis of comparison.

Again it may be asked, does war, did this war, stimulate

scientific progress? Viewing the wealth of apphcation of science

in modern warfare, you will probably unhesitatingly say. Yes,

but if you undertake to make a list of fundamental, new scientific

principles developed as a war reaction I believe you will be

embarrassed to name even a few of them; although there have

been, of course, hundreds, nay, thousands, of applications of

known scientific principles to new uses. It is still too soon,

however, to estimate the scientific advance during the war

and as caused by the war and such, even though I were competent,

is not my purpose here. It wiU evidently be impossible to

treat adequately the subject Science and the after -war period

except in a most summary manner and I shall have to limit

myself to certain phases in which I have been interested, paying

particular attention to the physical sciences and the relation of

science to industry.

SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION

What is the effect of the war on scientific production, is not an

easy question to answer. Many men have been killed, including

a few who are scientific producers and many more young men who

might have become distinguished in science; furthermore, not a

few scientific centers have been destroyed. Thus viewed, there

would appear to be a net loss to science in the world, but at the

same time there have been stimulated to greater endeavor a

considerable number of men of scientific ability and many new

laboratories have been established. I believe that, for the

burgess: science and after- war period 59

United States, the effect of the war will not have been detri-

mental to scientific production as our losses in young men of

scientific attainments have been relatively insignificant, and

also, I firmly trust, the country has in part learned the lesson

of the advantage to the nation of generously supporting research.

For a country such as France, which has borne the brunt of

the fighting for four years — and not until after the first battle

of the Marne was any effort made to conserve her scientific

men — the matter appears to be much more serious; but who

dares to predict that the United States with nearly three times

her population will lead France as a producer of original ideas

in science a generation hence ? It is well to remember that many

of the master minds in science of the nineteenth century were

born during the Napoleonic wars, and that it is quality and not

quantity that counts in scientific progress.

Finally one may ask, is the after-war period to be one of

great scientific activity or one of relative quiet, and what will

be the lines along which development will take place? This

brings us to a consideration of the nature and permanence of

war activities in science. Never before have science and scientific

men been used to such an extent both relatively and absolutely

as the servants of war, both in the mihtary estabUshments proper

and in the not less important industrial supports. It is evident

that what is beneficial in these relations should be maintained.

In addition to the advancement in scientific knowledge, much of

which is not yet generally available, brought into being by the

war, there has also been worked out for war purposes, in a more

or less satisfactory way, schemes of cooperation of scientific men

with each other, with the state, with industry, and with the

military establishment. Some of these are transitory in character,

others are serviceable for both peace and war, and some have

been devised especially for the after- war period.

One might perhaps expect a certain relaxation of effort, even

among scientific workers, following the strenuous eft'orts of the

war, but one must not forget the natural zest of the scientific

man to get back to his chosen field which he will want to culti-

6o burgess: science and after- war period

vate in his own way and not under the more or less arbitrarily

imposed conditions of mihtary requirements. Although much

of the scientific work of the war has been done individually,

probably by far the greater part has been by collective efforts

of groups of workers usually under the guidance of some re-

sponsible committee or executive. Although this is no new

phenomenon in scientific research, yet this cooperative method

of attacking difficult problems has been, under the stress of war,

developed to an hitherto unheard-of degree. It is probable that

the naturally individuahstic traits of scientific men will tend to

cause a lessening of this type of common endeavor; although in

the distribution of investigation, between groups or individuals,

there will probably be a greater number of groups than before

the war, the habit of working together having been fostered,

and its advantages appreciated in certain cases. For scientific

research carried out in the interest of industry, this group method

will very likely be greatly developed.

STANDARDIZATION

One of the fundamental factors of the greatest economic

importance, which the exigencies of the war have brought re-

peatedly to the fore both in battle and in workshop, is what one

might almost call the crusade of standardization. This has

taken on innumerable aspects and has constantly been recurring

in conservation programs, economic production, and in the

eUmination of waste, time, materials, and men. The savings that

may be accompUshed by the scientific application of what we may

call the principles of standardization in production, manufacture,

and distribution of many, if not most, of the more usual com-

modities of commerce and industry is so great that I believe that

it is not an exaggeration to say that by this means alone our

national debt could soon be paid off, both interest and principal.

An indication of what can be done along this fine has been ably

demonstrated in our own country by The War Industries Board

and in particular its Conservation Division working in coopera-

tion with the various industries.

burgess: science and after- war period 6i

This cooperation between Government and industry has been

made most effective by the enforced revival of the guild organiza-

tion in industry. The fact that an industry has been represented

successfully as a whole during the war by an elected committee

in treating with the Government and among themselves on

matters of common interest, is charged with great possibilities

for like action along voluntary lines during peace times. Al-

though of course many of the questions thus treated may be

considered as outside the realms of science, nevertheless the

scientific man cannot be separated from this development, which,

it is most urgently desired, may be continued, although along

less arbitrary lines than were necessary in time of war.

SPECIFICATIONS

A closely related matter is that of preparing satisfactory

specifications for materials and manufactured articles. Wash-

ington might almost have been called a specification factory

during the past eighteen months. This is economically one of

the most important of subjects and too great emphasis cannot be

given to the desirability, not merely for materials of military

interest but for all uses, of being able to define adequately and

sufficiently — not too loosely nor yet too rigorously— the ma-

terials and articles that form the basis for practically all pur-

chases. There have been, and still are in many fields, great con-

fusion, uncertainty, and differences of opinion as to facts, and

most of this is, in the last analysis, a result of ignorance

of the scientific data regarding properties and materials on which

the specifications are based. The nation has undoubtedly

suffered untold losses on account of this ignorance, and endeavors

should be made on a sufficiently comprehensive scale to eliminate

as much as possible the waste arising from this cause.

Innumerable instances could be cited of the harmful and

costly effects of too rigid specifications and of course we all

know some of the dangers of too loosely drawn specifications.

I will cite two of the former in my own field of metallurgy. -A

foreign government had a limitation, dating some thirty years

back, of 0.05 per cent copper in a certain grade of munition steel

62 burgess: science; and after- war period

being made here. All the steel made from certain ores in this

country necessarily carried four or five times the stipulated

copper. Although at first insisting on the rejection of the

steel, the government in question finally accepted it after over-

whelming evidence was submitted showing that ten times the

amount of copper was not only not detrimental but also of actual

advantage in this steel. This single contract involved several

millions of dollars; the total cost of all the experimental work

ever done the world over on the effect of copper on steel would

be at most a few thousands.

The second illustration is given by another government which

desired to purchase steel here for aircraft parts with a phosphorus

and sulphur content together of less than 0.03 per cent. They

could buy no steel, and if they had been able to place an order

it would have been at an exorbitant price. The fact that all the

other allied countries were using a much less rigid specification

with safety finally convinced them that theirs was too severe.

Incidentally this latter case shows the evident advantages of

interchange of ideas and experience in such matters.

Not a little of the delays in production of many materials

for war purposes was due to the multiplicity of specifications

insisted upon by the various independent purchasing depart-

ments of the Government. Some progress is being made toward

unity in standardization and specifications in the War Depart-

ment and it is highly desirable that there be constituted a central

body with authority for all departments. A single board, for

example, to frame metal specifications for all would make for

economy and efficiency.

That the technical public is now ready for such simplification

and uniformity is evident by the recent creation, somewhat on

the British model, of the Engineering Standards Committee.

The Germans are also said to be forming a similar organization

and the French and Italian governments have organized stand-

ards committees. It is to be hoped that this is one of the after-

war activities to be pushed. It is not too much to say we have

entered an era of standardization. It is not necessary before a

burgess: science and after- war period 63

group of scientific men, however it may be elsewhere, to state

that standardization necessarily involves research, often very

elaborate and costly.

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

The relation of science to industry has been a fruitful subject

for discussion in recent years both here and abroad and nowhere

has the question of industrial research, as it is often called,

been cultivated more intensively and made more progress as a

direct result of the war than in Great Britain; and it may be

of interest to mention briefly some of the steps in the progress.

Following the economic congress of the Allied Nations at

Paris, there was formed in July, 1916, a committee, presided

over by Lord Burleigh, on commercial and industrial policy

after the war, and the reports emanating from this body and its

auxiliaries cover the whole field of the economic aspects — in-

dustrial, commercial, technical, and scientific — of the after-

war period, and lay particular emphasis, for example, on the

protection and development of "key" or "pivotal" industries,

most of them requiring the highest grade of scientific and technical

skill for their maintenance and advancement, such as synthetic

drugs, optical glass, chemical glassware and porcelain, dye-

stuffs, magnetos, high explosives, etc.

It is of interest to note in passing that the questions of decimal

coinage and the compulsory use of the metric system of weights

and measures were also considered and their adoption not ad-

vised. The arguments advanced for this conservative stand,

if valid, are of a nature that would seem to make it difficult

ever to make the metric system universal. A transition period

like the present has precedent for the establishment of such a

simpHfication of units and standards; for the metric system

originated during the French Revolution and the International

Bureau was founded at the time of the war of 1870.

There has since been established in England a Ministry of

Reconstruction to deal with the numerous problems the transi-

tion period presents. A Department of Scientific and Industrial

Research with a Parhamentary Secretary has also been created

64 burgess: science and aeter-war period

and has been active for nearly two years: (i) It has been

encouraging firms in well-established industries to undertake co-

operative study of the scientific problems affecting their processes

and raw materials, and has at its disposal a sum of one million

pounds for grants on the basis of an equal subscription from indus-

try; (2) the Department has further prepared to undertake at the

public cost investigations of general interest; (3) the importance to

industries of the establishment of standards on a scientific basis

is recognized and the financial control of the National Physical

Laboratory has been taken over, with provisions for pensioning

the staff; (4) efforts are being made to increase the numbers of

trained research workers, which had reached a dangerously low

ebb in 1915 as recognized by Lord Burleigh's committee, who

found but forty qualified, unattached persons available for

research in the United Kingdom.

Very substantial results have already been achieved in these

several fields and hardly a copy of Nature can now appear which

does not record some new grant, technical committee, industrial

research association, or other advance in the interdependence

of science and industry under governmental supervision. It is

also especially significant to note that some of the industries are

also standing on their own feet and establishing their own re-

search laboratories along cooperative lines.

There is also the recently founded British Science Guild with

a distinguished membership which maintains lectureships and

does much to foster the dissemination of the aims of research

among the public.

This spirit of organized research has been contagious through-

out the British Empire and there are being established similar

associations, institutes, and laboratories in Canada, Australia,

South Africa, and elsewhere.

Rather curiously in the democratic British communities, it is

the Government that appears to be taking the lead in the stimula-

tion of scientific research, particularly in its relation to industry.

It is probable that the reasons for governmental initiative are

in part a result of the abnormal conditions of the nation at war

BURGBSS: SCIENCE AND AFTER- WAR PERIOD 65

during which time individual efforts are much more difficult of

effective expression — the community in the time of danger is

thinking and acting as a unit under mihtary stress, and military

methods predominate. As normal times return we may expect

the state to relax its vigilance and the individual person, society,

or industry to reassert to a greater degree their qualities of

initiative and independence. It is not improbable, however,

that there is a genuine conscious effort for the more generous

support of research by the British public as a national asset,

which support will be maintained in peace times on a much

more extensive scale than in pre-war times.

UNION OP SCIENTIFIC WORKERS

Another incident significant of the trend of the times is the

formation in October last of the British National Union for

Scientific Workers with five hundred members whose main

objects, most worthy of repeating here, are: (i) to advance the

interest of science as an essential element of the national life;

(2) to regulate the conditions of employment of persons of ade-

quate scientific training and knowledge; (3) to secure in the

interests of national efficiency that all scientific and technical

departments in the public service, and all industrial posts in-

volving scientific knowledge, shall be under the direct control

of persons having adequate scientific training and knowledge.

The question that every scientific man in America naturally

and perhaps unconsciously asks himself on hearing of such an

organization is, of course, why not form such a union here?

Indeed, the matter has been discussed in some centers and it

would probably not be difficult to organize in the United States

a similar union of scientific workers. Bodies somewhat similar

aheady exist among various educational and professional groups.

It should be borne in mind, however, in considering this matter

that in addition to the general objects stated above, the scientific

workers of England were almost compelled to organize in order

to have representation on the so-called Whitley Industrial

Councils, having to do with matters affecting labor and manage-

ment relations in industry and one of the creations of the re-

construction program.

66 burgess: science and after- war period

Forming what is perhaps the natural corollary to the foregoing,

there has been some serious discussion in Britain of the desira-

bility of having representatives of science as such in Parliament;

certain of the universities have had representation for a long

time but it is doubtful if the matter of representatives of science

is pushed seriously. If science, why not literature, the arts, and

so on?

While we are considering the question of the scientific man

himself, there is one phase of his relation to science and to in-

dustry that I cannot pass by, which will need perhaps even more

serious consideration in this transition period than it has had

in the past. I refer to the bidding for his services by technical

industries. A man who leaves the university or professional

school and enters the research department of an industrial

concern is not the man I mean. Is not the case different for

a man who has chosen his career of scientific investigation in

a university or other scientific institution independent of or

under state control ? This man, if taken from his environment by

offers of financial gain, goes to enrich most certainly some special

interest with his science and is still a valuable member of the

community; but generally speaking, is it not of advantage to

the community to keep that man contented in his, what I am

tempted to call, more natural environment? Natural, for he

chose it and adapted himself to it. When the staff of an in-

stitution of the character of the Geophysical Laboratory is in

danger of being absorbed by industry, does not the matter

become of serious concern? Should not the industries rather

be encouraged to take their scientific men when they are young

and not break up going scientific concerns? No doubt a certain

amount of interchange in scientific personnel is to be encouraged

but it should be interchange and not bleeding practiced by

industry. Providing an adequate supply of scientifically trained

men for the needs of industry, and defining the proper relations

between industrial management and scientific centers, are

questions meriting the most serious concern of the community.

Our supply of scientifically and technically trained men is all

burgess: science and after- war period 67

too meager and if, as many expect, there is now to be a period

of expansion in the foreign trade of the United States involving

possibly the establishment abroad of numerous branches of highly

technical industries, the demand for such men will become

more urgent than ever, particularly in the case of men of scien-

tific training with engineering experience.

EDUCATION OF SCIENTIFIC WORKERS

This brings us to the question of the education of scientific

men, which subject it is possible to mention but briefly. Here

again the interruption, disorganization, and readjustment of

educational training in America have been insignificant as com-

pared with the disturbances in education brought about by the

necessities of war of the European countries, but even in this

country experiments with intensive training and shortened courses

have been tried on a large scale but, it must be borne in mind,

for a limited period only. Our educational institutions will

undoubtedly be able to preserve some of the beneficial char-

acteristics brought out by such speeding up but for the most

part there probably will be little effect on the kind of training

our scientific men will get.

It would appear to be highly desirable that as large a propor-

tion as heretofore of our scientific men pass a portion of their

preparative period abroad amid cultural surroundings different

from those in which they grew up. As a beginning it is to be

hoped that many of our young men now in France will be given

the opportunity to take advantage of the generous offer of the

French Government for instruction in the schools and universities

of France. This if carried out on a considerable scale, will

have far-reaching effects, the benefits of which can hardly be

overestimated. It is also to be hoped our universities will not

only encourage the coming of foreigners more than heretofore

but also render easier the migration of American students from

one American institution to another. The establishment in

Washington of schools framed on lines similar to the "Kcole des

Hautes Ktudes" and the "College de France," which are devoted

exclusively to research would go far toward making more gener-

68 burgess: science and after- war period

ally available the research facilities and scientific men of the capi-

tal.

During the war the scientific men of the country have been

thrown into close association with each other, perhaps even

closer in many instances than in pre-war times in spite of the

decrease of attendance at scientific meetings and in the number

of such meetings ; in addition, there have been developed, as never

before, acquaintance and cooperation of the men of science

of this and the aUied countries; and not only the men of one

science have been thrown together but representatives of what

we ordinarily consider very diverse sciences have been brought

into close personal and professional contact. All this makes

for the unity of science and the broadening of scientific men.

It would seem desirable to make an effort to perpetuate this

habit of association of scientific men from dijfferent countries.

You will recall that in 19 14 there were projected several inter-

national congresses in science and engineering. Would it not

be well, as soon as circumstances permit, at least to revive these

projected congresses with such limitations as comply with the

conclusions reached recently in London by representatives of the

National Academies of the Inter- Allied Nations?

SCIENTIFIC PUBUCATIONS

A very important matter, that has been held generally in

abeyance by the war, which will soon again require the serious

attention of scientific gatherings, is that of the poHcies regard-

ing scientific pubUcations. Very definite proposals have been

discussed recently in England looking particularly to the avoid-

ance of duphcation, confusion, and other anomaUes in scientific

Uterature and to its more effective distribution. This question

again is a variant of the standardization problem and is further

compHcated by interests or prejudices, both national and pro-

fessional, of numerous societies representing often, if not com-

peting, yet overlapping fields of science. For any particular

branch of science, there are also the international aspects to be

considered including the question of language; and it is within

the bounds of possibility, for example, that there will occur a

burgess: science and after- war period 69

revival of the more concerted efforts for the use of an auxiliary

international language such as Esperanto, or, if you will, some

standardized international form of expression in science.

If I have dwelt with less emphasis on some of the recent,

strictly American tendencies of scientific development, I trust

it fair to assume you are acquainted with most of them. The

great work of the National Research Council is certainly familiar

to us all and it is good news to hear that plans are being developed

toward reorganizing the Council to meet the conditions of the

reconstruction period. There is great need in the United States,

with our relative geographical isolation and great distances

between many scientific centers, for an active scientific body

devoted to the initiation, stimulation, and correlation of scientific

research.

Furthermore, by emphasizing the recent British developments

in the relations of state, industry, and science, I by no means

desire to imply that we have not been active in America. These

matters are being freely discussed here and many plans are being

formulated, and some are in operation, for cooperative research

in various branches of science particularly as applied to industry.

The weekly and monthly scientific press are full of them. It

is to be noted that in contrast with the British experience, in

America less expectation is being placed on governmental aid

to new research projects; an exception to this is, of course, the

Smith-Howard bill now before Congress for promoting engineering

research in the several states.

CONCLUSIONS

In America, individual initiative in the past has on the whole

been more potent than the state in providing the funds for main-

taining research. In the prosecution of the war now drawing

to a close, however, the Federal Government has spent huge

sums on projects requiring scientific investigation and develop-

ment, and, in order to carry out the scientific projects of military

urgency, has mobiHzed the scientific men of the country. Is it

well during the after-war period to demobilize completely this

army of scientific men? No one would yet think of having

70 cushman: cretaceous age of limestones

no organized military force in peace time, and there is in every

well-organized state always at least a skeleton army with all

branches represented, including a competent staff, arsenals,

depots, surplus munitions, and supplies.

The great scientific bureaus of the Government are organized

for the problems of peace and, although they can give a good

account of themselves under war conditions, yet would it not

be well, at least until the millennium is more clearly in sight, to

retain more than a nucleus of an organization of scientific men

in the service of the state and especially in the military and naval

establishments? We can all name branch after branch of each

of these services which before the war contained almost no

scientific personnel but to which have been added during the war

scores and hundreds of scientific men; and in some cases it was

no easy matter to gather and coordinate this personnel.

What therefore appears to me as one of the very important

problems of the transition period, namely the proper balancing

and distribution of the scientific forces of the country as between

the military and civilian activities of the state on the one hand,

and the industrial and academic activities of the country on the

other, is even now undergoing the process of being solved.

The readjustment will go on largely unperceived at the moment,

and the changes will be accompanied by the usual quiet but sig-

nificant struggles. The more rapidly the world settles down to

more stable conditions, the more promptly will we reach this

dynamic equilibrium of the distribution of scientific men and the

balancing of competing fields in scientific research.

GEOLOGY. — Lower Cretaceous age of the limestones underlying

Florida} Joseph A. Cushman, Sharon, Massachusetts.

(Communicated by T. W. Vaughan.)

A study of the Foraminifera of well borings from a number of

the deeper wells of Florida has proved of more value than was at

first expected. vSome of these wells reach depths not heretofore

penetrated in this area. The wells giving the most important

results and their depths are as follows:

1 Published by permission of the State Geologist of Florida.

cushman: cretaceous age of limestones 71

Near Burns, Wakulla County; 2,153 feet.

Jacksonville, Duval County; 980 feet.

St. Augustine, St. Johns County; 1,440 feet.

Anthony, Marion County; samples from 50-500 feet.

Kustis, Lake County; samples from 100-180 feet.

Bushnell, Sumter County; samples from 380-3,080 feet.

Apopka, Orange County; samples from 50-390 feet.

Sanford, Seminole County; samples from 95-113 feet.

Cocoa, Brevard County; a sample from 190 feet.

Tiger Bay, Polk County; 770 feet.

Okeechobee, Okeechobee County; samples to 500 feet.

Fort Myers, Lee County ; 950 feet.

Marathon, Key Vaca, Monroe County; 2,300 feet.

The examination showed many Foraminifera, among w^hich

were two species of the genus OrhitoUna occurring at different

levels. One of these, a small conical species, is encountered

at much higher levels than the other which is a large, low, some-

what concave species. The first of these is very close to, or

identical with, a species of OrhitoUna known from the Quitman

Mountains of Western Texas, where it characterizes a horizon

of the Fredericksburg group of the Lower Cretaceous. A species

seemingly identical is found in the Lower Cretaceous of the

Province of Navarra in northern Spain. Other species of different

groups, echinoderms, etc., are identical in Spain and northern

Mexico in the Lower Cretaceous,

Below the Fredericksburg in the Quitman Mountains, in the

same section, in the Trinity group of the Lower Cretaceous

are horizons marked by great numbers of OrhitoUna texana which

is seemingly identical wdth the larger species of the Florida well

borings and found only at some depth below the conical species.

In the borings accompanying these species are others that are

close to Lower Cretaceous species of Europe.

The limestone characterized by these species of OrhitoUna

seem to underlie practically the whole of the peninsula of Florida,

being found in the wells at the north near Burns, Jacksonville,

and St. Augustine, in the well at the south on Key Vaca, and

in the central region at Anthony, Eustis, Bushnell, Apopka, and

Tiger Bay.

Assuming the altitude above sea level at Apopka as 150 feet,

72 cushman: cretaceous age of limestones

the Lower Cretaceous stands 35 feet above present sea level,

for the conical Orbitolina appears in the well borings 115 feet be-

low the surface. From similar data it appears to be 33 feet below

sea level at Anthony and less than 100 feet below sea level at

Eustis.

At other locahties, it is 400 feet below sea level at St. Augustine,

820-845 feet at Jacksonville, 500 feet at Tiger Bay, and 1,248

feet at Marathon. Assuming an even rate of slope and that

the conical Orbitolina is confined to a single horizon, this gives a

dip southward from Apopka to Tiger Bay of about 9 feet to the

mile and from Apopka northeastward to St. Augustine of about

6 feet to the mile. A low anticline is thus indicated with its

center somewhere in the general region of Apopka.

On the upper surface of this Lower Cretaceous Umestone the

upper Eocene is represented by the Ocala limestone and in part

at least by the Claiborne. The borings indicate that this contact

is unconformable, because there is no Upper Cretaceous present

in any of the well samples that were examined. This may be

due to deposition and subsequent erosion or to the area being a

land mass at this time. As the Washita, or upper group of the

Lower Cretaceous, is unrepresented so far as can be seen, this

group, if deposited, may have been eroded during Upper

Cretaceous time while the whole area was elevated to a slight

degree, the elevation having taken place, as in other regions,

at the end of Lower Cretaceous time. The structure indicates

this possibility rather than that the whole series was deposited

and subsequently was entirely removed by erosion. It seems

then that the area must have been a land mass during Upper

Cretaceous and early Eocene time.

The Ocala and Claiborne are not represented, as far as the

samples show, at Apopka and this area may have been an island

during the deposition of the Ocala.

Where the typical Ocala is developed it seems to be only about

40 feet thick instead of the much greater thickness usually

assigned to it. The fossils of the Ocala are brought up from

lower levels but are evidently specimens that have dropped

down from higher levels during the drilling. A bed of peculiar

lotka: contribution to epidemioIvOgy 73

Nummulites characterizing the Claiborne occurs just below the

Ocala and makes an excellent criterion for delimiting that forma-

tion. The Ocala also dips to the northeastward and to the

south from the Apopka region.

From the present occurrence of the Ocala above sea level in

west central Florida and its occurrence in the Tiger Bay and St.

Augustine wells at 360 and 224 feet, respectively, below the

surface, a dip somewhat like that of the Lower Cretaceous is

indicated.

The general conclusion from the evidence of the Foraminifera

is that the whole of the Florida peninsula and probably a part

of north Florida as well, as indicated from the data near Burns,

are underlain by rocks of Lower Cretaceous and perhaps older

age and that on the Lower Cretaceous the upper Eocene beds

were deposited. The area was probably uplifted at the end

of the Lower Cretaceous and remained a land mass during

Upper Cretaceous and early Eocene time, after which it was

again depressed and except in the region of Apopka was under

water during the deposition of the Ocala Umestone in late Eocene

time.

Epidemiology. — a contribution to quantitative epidemiology.

Alfred J. Lotka, New York City.

In his recent paper on Pathometry^ vSir Ronald Ross de-

velops, for a certain class of cases, the equation

F,,o = A/P J" c F,s ds. (i)

In this equation Ff^ ds denotes the number of cases which

at time t have been afifected for a length of time comprised within

the limits of 5 and 5 + ds; Fio is accordingly the rate at which

new cases are developed at time t. The total population is P,

the unaffected population A, while c is the coefficient of in-

fectivity.

A solution is given by Sir Ronald Ross, among other things,

for the special case that the coefficient of infectivity c is inde-

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. 93: 235.

74 lotka: contribution to epidemiology

pendent of the "duration" (age dated from inception) of the case,

and that Ff^ is constant, namely

F:,s = Ft.o (2)

over the range defined by

qi < s < q-2 (3)

while

Ft,s = o (4)

outside of this range.

A solution can still be obtained, as indicated below, if we

abandon these restrictions,- retaining only the following as-

sumptions :

1. Immigration and emigration are negligible.

2. The affected population is always a small fraction of the

total and, the total population being given as constant, the

unaffected population also may therefore be considered as

practically constant.^

3. The coefficient of infectivity c, though a function of the

duration s, is independent of t. This is equivalent to saying that

the infectivity of the disease varies in each affected person

according to the "age" (duration) of the case, but is the same

function of this age from case to case, at all times.

Equation (i) is then of the form

c (s) Ft,s ds. (5)

^ We shall, however, retain the condition expressed in Equation (4) . This is

virtually no restriction at all since qi and ^2 in (3) may be given any values from 0

to 00 , and in practice the duration of the disease is always limited to finite time.

At most the condition (4) might be construed as excluding infection by nonaffected

carriers.

2 In the notation of Sir Ronald Ross's paper we have, in fact, in this case

A P-Z

— = = I since Z, the affected population, is small as compared with P, the total

population. The coefficient K which occurs in (5) and subsequent equations is

thus practically unity.

The case is here analogous to that of certain chemical reactions in which one of the

reacting substances is present in large excess, as for instance water, when used as a

solvent for the reacting substances in dilute solution, and when itself consumed or

formed in the process. The concentration of the water in such cases may be re-

garded as practically constant.

lotka: contribution to epidemiology 75

It will be convenient to adopt a somewhat different notation

to designate F,^ the "survivors" at time t, "of duration 5,"

out of the original batch F< ^ of new cases.

If we denote by F (t) the new cases per unit of time at time

t, and consequently by F (^ — s) the new cases per unit of time

at time (i — s), then let F {t — s) p (s) denote the survivors

at time t of the new cases per unit of time which originated at

time {t — s). Evidently the relation between this notation

and that in the original paper referred to above is

Ft,s = F(t-s) p(s). (6)

In this notation (5) becomes

F (t) = K P F {t- s)p is) c is) ds (7)

which, in view of (4), may indifferently be written

F (0 = K J'^ F{t- s) p (5) c (s) ds. (8)

The integral equation (8) is of the type dealt with by Hertz.'*

To solve it we must know the value of F {t) from / =0 to / =(72,

or what is the same thing, the number of cases at every "age"

(duration) between o and q-2 at time / = o. We may leave

out of account the number of cases of "age" (duration) above

g2 at time q-2, since they have ceased to be infective.

We have then by Hertz

trf Kj ^sp{s) c (5) e -%^ ds

Where Ui, u^ . ■ ■ are the roots of the equation for m

1= K J'^ pis) c (5) e -"' ds. (10)

* Math. Ann. 65: 86. At the same time, it will also no longer be warranted to

make the assumption (implied in a constant population) that the death rate is not

appreciably affected by the progress of the disease (unless indeed the disease is

never fatal) . Moreover, if a large proportion of the population has become affected,

the unaffected portion of the population will in practice be inherently difTerent in

character from the total population. It will contain a larger proportion of persons

of low "susceptibility." So long as the number of persons affected forms but a

small fraction of the total population, we may neglect this "selective" effect, as has

been done above. But with a large "affected" proportion of the total population

this neglect is no longer justified.

76 lyOTKA: CONTRIBUTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGY

From the nature of the case q^, p (s), and c (s) are never nega-

tive. It follows that (id) has one and only one real root U,

which is I o according as

K J'^ p(s)c(s)ds^i . (ii)

It can easily be shown that any other root must have its

real part less than U.

It follows that for large values of i the term with the real root

U outweighs all other terms in (9), and F {t) approaches the value

F (0 = F (o) e""' . (12)

Furthermore,

Fit- s) = Fio)e ""''-'' (13)

and

Ft,s = F (t ~ s)p{s) = F{o)e "" ^'"^^ p (s) (14)

The function F,^ is thus determined.

For Z (t), the total number of cases existing at time t, we have

by Equation 86 of Sir Ronald Ross

Z (t) = JJ Fit- s)p is) ds (15)

= F it) r e -""' p is) ds (16)

= Ci^(0° iC = const.) (17)

since we are assuming that p (5) is independent of t; and hence

by (12)

Z it) = C F io) e^' (18)

= Zio)e ^' (19)

that is to say, the affected population increases in geometric

progression with the time, at the same proportional rate as do

the new cases per unit of time.

In practice, if this state of affairs persists, a time must be

reached when, with a constant total population, the affected

population can no longer be regarded as a small fraction of the

total, and when, therefore, the solution here given no longer

applies.^

One point deserves special notice. It will be observed that

since U is determined by Equation, (10), it is wholly independent

* See footnote 4.

IvOTka: contribution to epidemiology 77

of the subsequent fate of the afifected persons after they pass

beyond the period qi q^ of infectivity, or of their condition before

they enter it, provided only that they enter it with a given value

of P {Qi}- This may appear at first sight somewhat surprising,

but on reflection is found to be in accord with reason.

The case discussed above is strictly analogous to the "Prob-

lem in Age-Distribution" which has been treated by Prof. F. R.

Sharpe and the writer elsewhere.*^ The development given

above is what the present author had in mind when he wrote,

in a previous publication:^

Brief reflection shows that we can apply to this case (endemic disease)

a mathematical treatment precisely analogous to that of the growth

of a population ; for we may think of the diseased portion of the popula-

tion as a separate aggregate, into which new individuals are recruited

by fresh infections, just as new individuals enter an ordinary popula-

tion by procreation. On the other hand, members are continually

eliminated from the aggregate, first by deaths, secondly by recoveries.

On the basis of these considerations formulae can without difficulty

be established between the factors enumerated above. Such general

formulae, however, involve certain functions which are unknown, and

the determination of which by statistical methods would at best present

great difficulties.

In conclusion it may not be out of place to remark that, aside

from mathematical similarity, what places the two cases — ^growth

of a population and spread of a disease — in the same class, is

the physical circumstance that both are cases of autocatalytic

or autocatakinetic growth. The rate of growth at any instant

increases with the size of the existing nucleus or focus, other

things equal.

* See also Sharps and Lotka. Phil. Mag., Apr. 191 1, p. 436.

^ Nature, Feb. 8, 1912, p. 497.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/7^ color of inorganic compounds. F.

Russell v. Bichowsky. Joum. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 500-508.

March, 191 8.

It is shown that every valence state of an element can be associated

by means of purely experimental evidence with a definite "atom color."

There is a marked relation between atom color thus determined and

valence and valence variability. The atom color of every element in

its normal valence state, that is, in the valence state which corresponds

to its place in the periodic system, is zero (all nonvariant-valence

atoms have their normal valence). The atom color of an element, in

valence states where the valence is decreased or increased by an odd

number from the normal valence, lies further in the blue than the atom

color of the same element in any other valence state. The atom color

of an element in a state whose valence is removed by an even number

from normal will be zero if compounds of the element do not exist in

which the valence of the element is removed by an odd number from

normal; otherwise the atom color will lie ftu-ther in the yellow than

the atom color of the same element in a state of valence removed by

an odd number from normal. Compounds between nonvariant-

valence elements will be colorless. Compounds between a nonvariant-

valence element and a variant-valence element will have the same color

as the "atom" of variant-valence element. Compounds between other

elements will have colors more to the blue than the sum of their atom

olors. All these regularities can be deduced from a variation of Lewis's

theory of atom structure. The almost perfect accord between the de-

duction and the facts indicates very strongly that Lewis's fundamental

hypotheses are correct. F. R. B.

c

78

I

abstracts: entomology 79

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z^ equilibrium between carbon mon-

oxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and free sulftir. John B.

Ferguson. Journ.Amer.Chem.Soc. 40: i 626-1 644. November,

1918.

This paper contains an extended account of the investigation of the

reaction CO + V2SO2 < ^ CO2 + V4S2, a partial summary of which

appeared last year. The study was undertaken primarily as a part

of a comprehensive study of certain gas reactions and their r61e in vol-

canic activity, and this particular reaction was selected because it af-

forded a direct means of determining the free energy or thermodynamical

potential of sulfur dioxide, one of the most important of the volcanic

gases.

The composition of the equihbrium gas mixtures obtained, with the

corresponding initial gas mixtures, both calculated and actual, and the

resulting equilibrium constants, are given in tabular form and the ther-

modynamical calculations based thereon given in detail. The latter

give an average mean value of 3 . 99 for the thermodynamical constant

I and — 22510 calories for the change in free energy for the reaction

under standard conditions. For the reaction Sr + O2 < ^ SO2 under

similar conditions, the value for the change of free energy is - 69761.

R. B. SOSMAN.

UNTOMOhOQY. —Memoirs on the Coleoptera VIII. Thomas L.

Casey. New Era Printing Company, Lancaster, Pa. November

12, 1918.

In this volume the author reviews several large subfamilies of the

Carabidae or ground beetles. A very large number of new species and

subspecies are described, especially in some of the groups of the Bembi-

diinae and in the Celia and Amara of the Amarinae. A r^sum^ of the

American genera and subgenera of the Pterostichinae is given in some

detail. There can scarcely be a doubt that all the forms enumerated

have at least some taxonomic standing, although the true interrelation-

ship of the various units is a problem that cannot be solved except

in many years of careful study.

There are two passably definite methods in the investigation of

natural groups in the Insecta, so far as the delimitation of species is

concerned. One of these methods, which is more especially developed

among the German investigators, constantly bears in view the over-

looking of differences, in order to reduce specific forms to the smallest

80 ABTRACTS: APPARATUS

possible number. The other, which might be regarded as more

essentially the French system, carefully records differences, whether of

structure or facies, and endeavors to formulate a taxonomic scheme in

accordance therewith. One system is based more especially upon

resemblances, the other upon differences. Either system when carried

to an extreme must involve mistakes, though knowledge as a whole

is more likely to be advanced by the second than by the first of these

systems. The author of the present volume inclines to the French

system, which apparently is also preferred by most of the English

investigators. T. L- C.

APPARATUS. — Temperature uniformity in an electric furnace. John

B. Ferguson. Phys. Rev. 12: 81-94. July, 1918.

The problem of temperature uniformity in an electric furnace is inti-

mately connected with almost all investigations carried on at high

temperatures. For this reason it has generally been considered as a

part of a larger problem and has been solved to the extent demanded

by the requirements of the work at hand. In this paper the writer

presents a more general discussion of the subject, together with many

results obtained by him in his various investigations bearing directly

thereon. The production of temperature uniformity in an electrically

heated air column may best be done by means of three independent

heaters and end plugs. R. B. S.

APPARATUS. — Thermal leakage and calorimeter design. Walter P.

White. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 379-393. February, 1918.

The interchange of heat between a calorimeter and its environment

(thermal leakage) is practically proportional to their temperature

difference, except for the effect of evaporation and for that of convec-

tion, which is, for ordinary calorimetric conditions, more nearly pro-

portional to the square of that difference. If evaporation is suppressed

the advantages of a constant thermal leakage factor are obtained by

preventing convection. Recent investigations upon convection show

how this may most advantageously be done. In adiabatic work there

is little fear of convection, hence either very large temperature inter-

vals or ver}^ large air gaps can be profitably employed. Incidentally,

it is pointed out that the ordinary rule, that thermometric lag causes

no error where only one thermometer is used, deserves careful interpre-

tation, or else restatement, in the case of some thermochemical .de-

terminations. R. B. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

At the meeting of the Board of Managers on January lo, 1919,

it was voted to turn over the accumulated exchanges and miscellaneous

publications owned by the Academy to the lyibrarian of the Smithsonian

Institution, with the request that he first complete the files of the In-

stitution where possible, and then distribute the remainder in what-

ever manner will make the publications most useful to scientific libraries.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last issue of the Journal:

Mrs. Agnes Chase, Bureau of Plant Industry", U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. John Bright Ferguson, Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Morris Hacker, District Building, Washington, D. C. (Nomi-

nated as Vice-President by the Washington Society of Engineers.)

Dr. Eugen W. Posnjak, Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C.

Mr. SiEVERT Allen Rohwer, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OP WASHINGTON

The 318th regular meeting of the Society was held in the hall of the

Carnegie Institution, January 8, 19 19. There were present 32 mem-

bers and 5 \'isitors.

The President read the following Ust of members of the Society who

have been in the military service: Captains D. L. Van Dine, A. H.

Jennings, J. D. Hood, E. H. Gibson, and G. F. White; Lieutenants

W. H. White, L. H. Dunn, and E. W. Scott; Sergeant R. C. Shannon,

and Privates Wm. Middleton and C. A. Weigel, while Dr. O. H.

Basseches was in training camp at the signing of the armistice. Of

these Captain A. R. Jennings has died in the service. The President

appointed Dr. W. D. Pierce, Mr. August Busck, and Dr. A. G.

Boving as a committee to draw up a memorial and prepare a bibliog-

raphy of Captain Jennings.

81

82 proceedings: entomological society

The regular program was as follows:

E. R. Sasscer: Hydrocyanic-acid gas and its use in the contort of

insects. (Presidential address.) This paper dealt with the history

of the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas in the control of insects. Reference

was made to its discovery in 1872 by Scheele and its early use as an

insecticide in CaHfomia in ^1886 by D. W. Coquillett. Brief reference

was made to the occurrence of hydrocyanic acid in nature, indicating

that in addition to its occurrence in the secretion of certain myriapods,

it is also found in the seed, foliage, or bark of certain plants, thirty-

odd plants being listed which contain the acid in nature.

After discussion of the preparation of hydrocyanic-acid gas as used

against insects, a brief history of its use against the following was

given: Citrous Insects, Greenhouse Insects, Mill and Stored Product

Insects, Nursery and Deciduous Fruit Insects, Household Insects and

Sanitation, and Soil Insects.

Brief mention was made of the effect of this gas on the germination

of seed. Also the effect of the gas on insects and man was given con-

sideration.

The reading of the address was followed by lantern sUdes showing

the development of the apparatus used in the fumigation of citrous

trees and the vacuum process of fumigating nursery stock and bale

cotton.

The address called forth a lively discussion. Mr. Schwarz stated

that he had first used cyanide of potassium in his killing bottles about

1868, and that he had seen it used as an insecticide for the protection

of crops as early as 1879. This was in a small vineyard in Texas, the

owner surrounding his vineyard with a belt of cyanide of potassium

solution to protect it from the ravages of leaf-cutting ants. Immense

numbers of the ants were killed in attempting to cross the poisoned

ground.

Dr. Quaintance recalled the remarkable activity in the development

of insecticide work at about the time hydrocyanic-acid gas was first

used. Mr. Hutchison spoke of the experimentation with war gases as

insecticides and of the great success attending the use of some of them.

As a possible explanation of the difficulty of killing certain insect

larvae. Dr. Boving explained the mechanism of the closing apparatus

in the tracheae.

Notes and exhibition of specimens: Mr. Schwarz commented on the

fact that an Australian lady-bird beetle which has stood in the litera-

ture as Vedalia koebelei Blackburn has never been described by Black-

burn, but the preparatory stages were described by Coquillett in such

manner as to fix the species, which must, therefore, be known as Vedalia

koebelei Coquillett. Dr. Quaintance mentioned the case of the recently

described Califomian apple Coleophora, which through delay in the

publication of its description by Heinrich, its real author, and the de-

scription of it in an economic paper by W. D. Volcke, must be known

as Coleophora volckei Volcke, placing Mr. Volcke in the position of

naming a species for himself. Other examples of this were cited by

Dr. Howard, Mr. Schwarz, and Mr. Caudell.

Mr. Hutchison exhibited photographs showing method of rearing

body lice for experimental purposes.

R. A. CusHMAN, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Captain Howard E. Ames, Medical Director, U. S. N., Retired,

died on December 27, 191 8. Dr. Ames had been an officer in the Navy

since 1875, and had been on the retired list since 191 2. He served as

medical officer on board the Bear, which rescued General Greely and

his party in the Arctic regions.' He was a member of the Biological

Society.

Mr. Andrew Braid, hydrographic and geodetic engineer of the

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sturvey, and chairman of the U. S. Geographic

Board, died on January 3, 1919, in his seventy-third year. He was a

native of Scotland, and had been in the service of the U. S. Government

since 1869. He was chief of the instrument division for several years,

and was in charge of the standard weights and measures of the United

States during the years just preceding the establishment of the Bureau

of Standards.

Dr. Keivin Burns of the Division of Optics, Bureau of Standards,

is absent on an extended trip abroad in connection with his scientific

work.

Col. G. A. Burrell, of the Chemical Warfare Service, returned to

private chemical engineering work at Pittsburgh in January. He

was called to Washington by the Bureau of Mines early in the war, to

take charge of the research organization that later became the American

University Experiment Station of the Chemical Warfare Service.

Mr. Alonzo Howard Clark, curator of the division of history of

the National Museum, and editor of publications at the Smithsonian

Institution, died on December 31, 191 8, in his sixty-ninth year Mr.

Clark was bom at Boston, Massachusetts, April 13, 1850. He had

been with the Smithsonian Institution since 1881. He was the author

of several publications on the fishery industries of the United States,

and was a frequent contributor to historical and genealogical periodicals.

Dr. G. W. CoggeshalIv has resigned from the Emergency Fleet

Corporation and has returned to the Institute of Industrial Research.

Dr. A. S. CusHMAN has been honorably discharged as Lieutenant

Colonel, Ordnance Department, U. S. A., and has returned from Frank-

ford Arsenal, Philadelphia, to resume his former duties as director of the

Institute of Industrial Research.

Mr. John Gaub, in charge of the laboratories of the Filtration Plant,

has resigned to become Health Officer and Examiner of Foods at Mont-

dair, New Jersey.

83

84 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. D. R. Harper, 3rd, physicist at the Bureau of Standards,

and engaged in the personnel and employment work of the Bureau

during the war, resigned at the close of the year and has joined

the staff of the U. S. Bureau of Efficiency, where he will assist in the

reorganization and expansion of the Internal Revenue Service.

Mr. M. D. Hersey of the Bureau of Standards recently returned

from an extended trip abroad. He spent several months in England,

France and Italy, conferring with officials there in regard to the de-

velopment of aeronautic instruments.

Professor A. S. Hitchcock, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, is

chairman of the Committee on Nomenclature of the Botanical Society

of America.

Mr. Neil M. Judd, of the department of anthropology, Smithsonian

Institution, has been appointed curator of American archeology in the

National Museum.

Dr. Paul D. Merica, associate physicist in the metallurgical division

of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned from the Bureau and is with

the International Nickel Company at Bayonne, New Jersey.

Dr. P. W. Merrill has resigned his position at the Bureau of Stand-

ards to take up scientific work at the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, at Pasadena, California.

Professor C. K. Leith, professor of geology at the University of

Wisconsin, and member of the Shipping Board, sailed for France early

in January to join the American peace delegation.

Dr. Wallace Clement Sabine, professor of physics at Harvard

University, died at his home on November 11, 191 8. He had been

located in Washington during the war as Director of the Section of

Technical Information of the Bureau of Aircraft Production.

Professor T. T. Smith of the University of Kansas, who has been

in charge of the work on optical instruments and the testing of optical

glass at the Bureau of Standards for the past year, has returned to the

University.

Mr. H. F. Stale Y, formerly professor of ceramic engineering at

Iowa State College, joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards in

December as metallurgical ceramist. Mr. Staley had been engaged in

war research at the Bureau since June, 191 8.

Lieut. D. L. Webster, formerly with the National Research Council,

has returned to the department of physics of the University of Michigan.

Dr. Edgar T. Wherry, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, has been appointed editor-in-chief of The American

Mineralogist. Among the associate editors is Dr. W. T. SchalleR,

of the U. S. Geological Survey.

Major F. E. Wright, of the Ordnance Department (formerly of the

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution), has been elected presi;

dent of the Optical Society of America.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 FEBRUARY 19, 19 19 No. 4

APPARATUS. — An apparatus for growing crystals under con-

trolled conditions. J. C. HosTETTER, Geophysical Labora-

tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Crystals, to be suitable for the study of the effects of pressure,

must be perfectly developed and of comparatively large size.

The criterion of perfect development, in this case, is not in the

possession by the crystals of those rare faces that so delight

the crystallographer, but in the possession of maximum strength.

In general, it may be said that the causes which diminish the

transparency of those crystals that are normally transparent,

also decrease the strength of the crystals. Perfect transparency

in a crystal results only when the rate of growth is small and

constant, or nearly so, throughout the entire growing period.

Nontransparency in a crystal (except that due to the inclusion

of foreign sohds), is usually indicative of suddenly increased

growth rate with the attendant development of cleavage planes

and, frequently, inclusion of mother-liquor. For growing crystals

that are suitable for pressure studies there is required, there-

fore, apparatus in which all variables affecting rate of growth

are under control. The degree of supersaturation in the mother

liquor at any time determines the increment of growth;' con-

sequently, the conditions affecting supersaturation — primarily,

^ While this is generally true there are certain important exceptions which can-

not be adequately explained at the present time. An interesting case is that of

gypsum described by W. J. Fawcett, Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada 7: 218. 1913.

85

86 hostettsr: apparatus for growing crystals

temperature and evaporation — must be under definite control.

Of lesser importance — but nevertheless, essential — ^are the di-

rection of concentration currents, and the number of cr3^stals

which serve as nuclei for growth. When these variables are

controlled it is not a difficult task to grow very perfect crystals

of large size.

In this note we will confine ourselves to the growth of soluble

substances from solution, and merely mention the growth of

very slightly soluble substances in crystal form, which has been

developed very thoroughly,'- and the growth of crystals from

melts. ^

Neglecting the effects of hydrostatic pressure, it may be said

in general that there are four methods of producing super-

saturation in a saturated solution and, hence, growth of a crystal

immersed therein. In a solution saturated with respect to a

certain crystal phase at a definite temperature we may produce

supersaturation by (i) lowering (or, in rare cases, raising),

the temperature, (2) allowing the solution to evaporate, (3)

dissolving in this solution held at constant temperature, ex-

tremely finely divided particles of the crystalline phase, or (4)

adding another solvent in slight amount.^ It is quite evident

that a crystal-growing apparatus based on any, or a combination

of all, of these principles will be satisfactory if the variables are

properly controlled, but in most of the crystal-growing devices

described in the literature, the governing of some of the essential

conditions has been left entirely to chance. Practically, de-

vices based on temperature change are easier to control and,

probably, the most easily constructed. The apparatus finally

developed and described below is based on this principle.

^ Almost all methods for the growth of "insoluble" precipitates in crystal form

are based on diffusion processes. For a discussion of the essential conditions see

Johnston. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 36: 16. 1914.

3 R. Nacken has recently described apparatus for growing crystals from melts;

but the crystal nucleus is supported on a wire which becomes enclosed by the crystal

as growth proceeds. (Neues Jahrb., 1915, II, 145.) Such crystals are, for this

reason, not suitable for pressure studies.

^ As alcohol to an aqueous solution of a sulfate.

hostetter: apparatus for growing crystals 87

To the essential conditions previously discussed we must

add another if the crystal-growing process is to be continuous;

namely, that the supersaturated solution must be given definite

circulation over the nuclei to be developed. Recently a crystal-

growing apparatus with controlled circulation has been patented

by Kriiger and Finke.^ In this apparatus the mother-liquor

is saturated in one chamber and then passed into another chamber

of lower temperature where deposition takes place on the crystal

nuclei to be grown ; the solution is then returned to the saturating

vessel. This patent of Kriiger and Finke furnished the basis

for the apparatus described by Valeton® and the apparatus de-

scribed below has been taken in part from that described by

these investigators, but with numerous changes in details of

construction.

Essentially the apparatus consists of 2 thermostats (S and C

in figures i and 2), connected by tubes, with the necessary

stirring and circulating devices. The thermostats are filled

with saturated solution of the crystals being studied. One

thermostat — the "saturator" (S) — contains the crystals, which

maintain the solution saturated; the other thermostat — the

"crystallizer" (C) — is held at a slightly lower temperature

and it is in this cell that growth takes place. The thermostat

vessels are storage battery jars, 20 by 20 by 20 cm., with 25

mm. holes drilled through the sides where necessary for the

entrance of tubes. The thermoregulators^ (shown at T and Ti)

are filled with mercury, and operate, through relays, the 5 -candle-

power cylindrical carbon lamps (H and Hi) used as heaters.

In the saturator the cooled solution stream flows oyer a heater

* German patent No. 228246, a copy of which I have been unable to secure.

A brief description of their apparatus is given in W. VoigT. Lehrbuch der Kristall-

physik, p. 9, 1910.

^ J. J. P. Valeton. Ber. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. 67: 1-59. 1915.

' Attention may be here called to the threaded glass parts of the thermoregu-

lators which carry the adjustable contacts. These threaded parts are small homeo-

pathic vials (Whitall Tatum Co.) which have been drawn down and sealed to

ordinary soft tubing. I have found their use advantageous in other cases where

glass-to-metal connections are necessary.

88

hostktter: apparatus for growing crystals

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90 hostkttkr: apparatus for growing crystai<s

(H) before striking any crystals. The stirrers are of silver.

A coil of small lead pipe (W) serves as a water jacket for one of

the tubes connecting the thermostats. The openings (O and d)

permit the removal of volunteer crystals, in case of accident,

without disconnecting the entire apparatus; for a similar reason

the return tube is cut at (R) and the platinum gauze filter fF)

may be detached. The entire apparatus is packed with felt in

a large, wooden box.

The degree of supersaturation of the solution entering the

crystallizer may be controlled by adjusting (i) the temperature

difference between the saturator and the crystallizer, (2) the

rate of circulation between the two thermostats, and (3) the

temperature and the rate of flow of the cooling water in the coils

at (W). The difference in temperature between the saturator

and the crystallizer that is permissible depends upon the change

of solubility with temperature, and especially upon the extent

to which the solution of a particular salt can be supersaturated.

In the case of the alums, for instance, solutions containing salt

equivalent to 15 per cent supersaturation may be handled with-

out causing precipitation, but on the other hand the change

of solubility with temperature is fairly large. Practically,

therefore, a temperature difference of 0.3° to 0.5° was found

to give good growth.

With other materials, however, this difference might be too

large and if so there would result a period of excessive growth,

or a shower of volunteer crystals that would ruin the crystals

being developed. No measurement of the actual rate of transfer

of solution from one thermostat to the other was made. The

rate of stirring must obviously be kept constant while crystals

are being grown. If the room in which the apparatus is placed

is subjected to large temperature fluctuations it is necessary

to maintain the temperature of the water in the cooling coils

at the same temperature as that of the crystallizer.

The course of the circulating solution is as follows: The

solution comes into the saturator through tube (R), flows over

the heating lamp (H), the hot stream striking the feeding crystals

HOSTETTER: apparatus for growing CRYSTAlvS 91

and becoming saturated. Before the solution returns to the

crystalhzer it must pass down between more crystals into the

platinum gauze filter at (F) ; thence to the crystalhzer. En

route it is cooled slightl/ in the water- jacketed tube before enter-

ing the crystalhzer. The supersaturated current now passes

over the nuclei at (N) and excess material deposits thereon.

The cooled solution returns through (R) to the saturator. The

currents caused by the auxiliary stirring (A and A]) in the thermo-

stats are such as to assist the main circulation between the two

thermostats.

Instead of depending upon chance for the formation of nuclei

it is far better to introduce small well-formed crystals which

have been developed elsewhere. If a warm saturated solution

is allowed to cool overnight there will usually be some small

crystals that are suitable as nuclei. Where these crystals have

been in contact with the bottom of the vessel there is under

each one a small terraced cavity. This has been brought about

partly by the fact that mother-liquor did not have access to the

bottom surface during growth. While growing in this manner

the original nucleus may be lifted several millimeters. When

these crystals are placed in the crystalhzer they should be oriented

with the cavity on top. New growth will soon build up the top

to a plane surface. Each day the crystal should be turned

over so as to avoid the development of deep hollows under-

neath. The crystals should likewise rest on plane glass and not

on the irregular bottom of the battery jar. Before introducing

crystals into the crystalhzer it is advisable to dip them into

a saturated solution (as in the saturator) and wash off loose

particles.

It has been mentioned that the rate of growth is also influenced

by the number of nuclei. With a temperature difference of

0.3-0.5° and 5 nuclei present the rate of growth for potash

alum was about i.o mg. per hour per sq. cm. of crystal surface

exposed to the solution.

The surface of the solution in the saturator was uncovered

and evaporation allowed to take place — thus helping in the

92 hostetter: apparatus for growing crystals

maintenance of saturation. In the crystallizer, however, the

only supersaturation desired is that under control and conse-

quently evaporation was prevented by a layer of kerosene

floating on the solution. Crystals introduced into the crystallizer

were lowered beneath the oil in a bottle.

It is of great advantage to have large crystals or aggregates of

crystals for use in the saturator to serve as "raw material"

from which to grow well developed crystals. In the case of the

alums, for instance, large-sized material is commercially available,

and such is the case with numerous other salts. Where material

can not be secured in large particles the finely-divided salt must

be used and as this can not be piled up in the saturator like

large-sized material, recourse is had to the use of small bags

suspended in the solution and refilled from time to time with the

fine crystalline material. Under the influence of the oscillating

temperature obtaining in the solution in the saturator such

finely divided material soon coalesces into aggregates which are

entirely suitable for this purpose.

If the presence of fine thread or of wire is not objectionable

in the final crystal the nucleus may be suspended in the solution

by such means. This avoids the necessity of turning the crystal

each day and also gives a more symmetrical crystal. Crystals

grown around such suspensions are usable for a great variety

of purposes but as pointed out previously such crystals are not

suitable for pressure investigations.

Even though the crystals grown under thoroughly controlled

conditions appear beautifully clear and perfect to the unaided

eye, microscopic examination^ frequently reveals the presence

of minute inclusions, the causes of which require further study.

Also, it may be mentioned here that "isotropic" crystals grown

under these conditions often show zones of local strain when

examined in polarized light. ^

An observation may be recorded here regarding the development

of faces on alum crystals. As normally grown such crystals

* Very kindly made by my colleague Dr. H. E. Merwin.

" Wright, F, B., and Hostetter, J. C. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 415. 1917.

HOSTETTER: APPARATUvS for growing CRYSTAIvS 93

form flattened octahedra, diagrams of which are shown in position

in the sketches of the crystalHzer. Ordinarily such crystals

are nearly free from any of the related faces such as the cube

and the rhombic dodecahedron; the cube face may be observed

but it is always small and the rhombic dodecahedral face is

even less developed. Such is the case when the crystals are

grown continuously without periods of solution intervening.

If, for any reason, the growth of the crystal is stopped and solu-

tion of the crystal takes place the edges of the crystal are rounded

in the initial stages of dissolution: when conditions are changed

so that growth recommences the rounded portion of the crystal

flattens during growth and in so doing a rhombic dodecahedral

face is developed. During the future growth of the crystal

this new face is very prominent and in none of the cases observed

here has it ever filled out to form the sharp edge of the original

octahedron. A similar development of the rhombic dodeca-

hedral face can be induced if the edge of the octahedron is re-

moved by other means and the crystal then allowed to grow.

The "repair" of crystals during growth is thus seen to follow

along the lines of least resistance.

It should be emphasized here that the mere fact that all es-

sential conditions are under control in the crystal-growing ap-

paratus described above, is not, in itself, a guarantee that any

salt can be made to form large crystals under the conditions

obtaining therein. Some salts may be readily enough crystal-

lized in large well-formed crystals — other salts under the same

conditions will yield a multitude of small crystals rather than

a few large ones. Potassium alum and sodium chlorate were

grown very successfully in this apparatus but experiments with

ammonium chloride yielded only a mass of fine, fernlike crystals

instead of growth on certain crystals which had been introduced

as nuclei. In this case the effect was not caused by incorrect

adjustment of conditions for these fine crystals appeared and

increased in size in the crystallizer, thus showing that con-

ditions were optimum. On several occasions all crystals except

one were carefully removed from the crystallizing chamber

94 tutton: x-ray analysis and assignment of crystals

and circulation of liquid continued, but here again, instead of

deposition taking place on the remaining crystal, other nuclei

were formed developing later into the usual fernlike growths.

These experiments were repeated under a sufficient variety of

controlled conditions to show that the phenomenon was con-

nected with certain relations at present beyond our control.

The literature is filled with observations on the effect of

foreign material on crystal habit but experience gathered in the

course of these investigations has shown that, in general, such

effects have been largely overestimated, at any rate in certain

classes of salts. Furthermore, it will be shown in future publica-

tions that there is nothing mysterious about the action of addi-

tion products in many cases, but that a simple explanation based

on well-known physico-chemical laws will suffice.

The crystals grown in this apparatus have been used in the

study of certain problems connected with the linear force of

growing crystals,^" and also the effects of nonuniform pressure

on solubility. ^^ The publication of other results, delayed by the

war activities of this Laboratory, will be made as opportunity

permits.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— X-fa>; analysis and the assignment

oj crystals to symmetry classes. Alfred E. H. Tutton,

Past President of the Mineralogical Society of London.

(Communicated by R. B. Sosman.)

A memoir on the above subject is contributed by Edgar T.

Wherry to a recent issue of this Journal^ which calls especially

for some notice, inasmuch as it is largely based on certain mis-

conceptions regarding fundamental crystallographic facts, of

a type which is becoming increasingly common among the

growing number of workers and writers on this new and highly

inviting subject of X-rays and crystals. The memoir in question

assumes that evidence has been accumulating that the crystals of

1" Becker, G. F., and Day, A. L. Journ. Geol. 24: S'^iSSS- 1916.

" HosTETTER, J. C. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7:79. 1917. Wright, F. E.,

and HosTETTER, J. C. Op. cit. 7: 405. 191 7.

1 This Journal 8: 480. 1918. Compare also Dr. Wherry's reply, p. 99.

TUTTON: x-ray ANAIvYSIS and assignment of CRYSTAIvS 95

certain substances — notably the diamond, sylvine (potassium

chloride), pyrites and its analogues hauerite and cobaltite,

the nitrates of barium, strontium, and lead, and the rutile group

of minerals — are in a sense intermediate in structure between

two crystal classes, possessing some of the attributes of each.

It is advocated that the difficulty be overcome in each of such

cases by assigning the substance to both classes. It is further

assumed that they are usually cases of weak hemihedrism.

The diamond, although formerly classed as hexakis-tetra-

hedrally hemihedral (class 31), has for some time now, largely

owing to the very definite proof of the absence of electric polarity

by Van der Veen, been considered as holohedral, that is, as

belonging to the class 32 of full cubic symmetry. This view has

now been shown to be correct by W. H. and W. h. Bragg, as the

result of their X-ray structural analysis. The memoir of Dr.

Wherry, however, regards the Bragg result as indecisive, and as

indicating holohedrism as a whole, but a tetrahedral structure-

unit symmetry. Etch-figures are cofisidered to bring out partial

symmetries when equilibrium is delayed, and in the case of

diamond they are at first hemihedral, but given longer time

become eventually holohedral. It is concluded in the memoir,

therefore, that while the system of diamond is cubic, and the

space-lattice structure is holohedral, the structure-unit is tetra-

hedral.

In the case of sylvine, also found holohedral by X-ray analysis,

the etch-figures indicate gyrohedral (class 29) symmetry, which

it is assumed is due to the difference in atomic volume of potas-

sium and chlorine; whereas in the case of rock-salt, which is

undoubtedly holohedral (qf class 32), although class 29 etch

figures are also produced at first, they are subsequently further

developed into class 32 figures and this is supposed to be due to

the near equality of the atomic volumes of sodium and chlorine.

The memoir finally concludes that this family of halides belongs

to the cubic system, with a holohedral space-lattice and a gyro-

hedral structure-unit.

96 tutton: x-ray anaIvYsis and assignment of crystals

With regard to the pyrites family of minerals, it is considered

that the Bragg results indicate that the space-lattice and crystal

molecules of pyrites, FeSo and hauerite, MnSo, in which the two

negative atoms are alike, possess pyritohedral (pentagonal dodeca-

hedral) symmetry, and those of cobaltite, CoAsS, in which the

two negative atoms are different, "tetartohedral" symmetry.

As some specimens of pyrites exhibit tetartohedral traits it is

further assumed that the structure of pyrites is Fe = S = S,

the two sulphur atoms being of different valency, tetradic and

dyadic. The whole group is described as belonging to the cubic

system, with a "pyritohedral space-lattice" (sic, particularly

definitely stated in the table given), and a tetartohedral structure-

unit.

Barium nitrate and its strontium and lead analogues are

similarly assumed, from the X-ray results of Nishikawa and

Hudinuki, to have "pyritohedral space-lattices," with a tetarto-

hedral structure-unit in each case.

Rutile, TiOo, is assumed to be of holohedral habit, but to

exhibit occasionally trapezoidal hemihedrism. The somewhat

contradictory X-ray results of Vegard and of Williams are dis-

cussed, and the views of Williams adopted as more reasonable.

The conclusion is that the system is tetragonal, the space-lattice

holohedral, and the structure-unit trapezoidal.

The final conclusion in the memoir is that both the symmetry

of the space-lattice as a whole, and that of the crystal molecules

or unit cells of the space-lattice, may find expression in significant

physical features, and that both should be taken into account in

the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes, even although

it may be necessary at times to state two different classes for

the same crystal.

With the first portion of this conclusion all can agree, provided

(as is not stipulated in the memoir) that it be kept clear as a

fundamental fact, that it is the space-lattice that determines

the crystal-system and the obedience to the law of rational

indices, while it is the structural detail (represented only by

a point in the space-lattice) that determines which particular

TuTTON: x-ray analysis and assignment of CRYSTAIvS 97

one of the 32 classes of possible crystal- symmetry is developed.

But with respect to the last sentence of the conclusion — that a

crystal can be allocated to two different classes — it is absolutely,

fundamentally, wrong and entirely unacceptable. There is

no more accurate science than modern crystallography. The

old method of regarding crystal-classes as holohedral, hemi-

hedral (half the faces suppressed), and tetartohedral (three-

fourths of the possible faces suppressed) is gone forever, and

crystal classification is now at length scientifically and very

definitely based on the possession of fixed elements (planes and

axes) of symmetry, every one of the 32 possible classes of crystals

having its own absolutely unique elements of symmetry. A

structure either possesses the elements of symmetry of a particular

class or it does not; there is no halfway house.

The greatest misconception in the memoir, however, and one

which probably gave rise to that just alluded to, is that a space-

lattice can be anything but holohedral {e. g., the frequent refer-

ence in the memoir to the pyritohedron as a space-lattice).

Now there are only fourteen space-lattices, those which Bravais

verified and immortalized after their original discovery by

Frankenheim, and all are essentially and necessarily holohedral

(retaining this term as a convenient one to express full systematic

symmetry). They are too simple to be anything else. The

three belonging to the cubic system (for all the seven systems

are represented among the fourteen) are those having for their

elementary cells the cube (No. i), the centered cube (No. 2)

which is a cube with a point at the center, and the face-centered

cube (No. 3), a cube with a point in the center of each face.

If each point of these lattices be imagined to represent a poly-

hedron of such a nature that when an unlimited number are

packed together in contact, space is completely filled, the No. i

polyhedron would be a cube, which is obviously a triparallelo-

hedron; that of No. 2 space-lattice would be a cubo-octahedron,

an octahedron so far modified by faces of the cube that each

octahedral face has the shape of a regular hexagon, the solid

being a heptaparallelohedron ; and that of No. 3 would be a

98 tuti'on: x-ray anai^ysis and assignment of crystal,s

dodecahedron, a hexaparallelohedron. The point-systems cor-

responding to the crystal-classes of lower than the full systematic

symmetry are not space-lattices at all, but Sohncke regular

point-systems, including in many cases those involving enantio-

morphism added by Schonflies, Fedorov, and Barlow, and later

also accepted by Sohncke. The pyritohedron, the "hemi-

hedral" pentagonal dodecahedron, referred to in the memoir

and its accompanying table as a space-lattice, is not a space-

lattice, but a Sohncke regular point-system; indeed vSohncke

allocates three of his point-systems, Nos. 54, 55, and 56 to the

pyrites class 30. As the space-lattice is always holohedral,

the suggestion made in the memoir, if carried out, would result

in every substance belonging to a class other (lower) than the

holohedral class of the system to which it conforms being rele-

gated not only to that subsidiary ("hemihedral" or "tetarto-

hedral") class in question, but also to the holohedral class of

the system, that is, to two different classes of the same system,

possessing quite different elements of symmetry, which is absurd.

For all structures, even "tetartohedral" ones, have a fundamental

space-lattice, about the nodes of which their detailed atomic

structure may be considered as grouped. Indeed, the point-

systems may quite legitimately be, and often are, considered

as composed of interpenetrating space-lattices.

It cannot, therefore, be made too clear that the space-lattice

only determines the crystal system and not the class. It ex-

presses the grosser crystal structure, that of the molecules or

polymolecular groups, each point or node of the lattice repre-

senting a single molecule or the small group of two, three, four,

etc., molecules necessary to the complete crystal structure.

It is the whole structure, including the detailed arrangement

of the atoms in the molecule or group, which determines the class.

Pyrites most certainly belongs to the dyakis dodecahedral class

30, of which the pentagonal dodecahedron is a prominent form,

the third of the five cubic classes; but its space-lattice is No. 3,

the centered-face cube, just as in the case of the alkali chlorides.

Hauerite is similar, but there is some evidence from the Braggs'

WHURRY: reply to dr. TUTI'ON S DIvSCUSSION 99

results that cobaltite may belong to the tetrahedral pentagonal

dodecahedral class 28, like barium nitrate. The Braggs have

shown that the alkali chlorides are most probably holohedral.

The rutile group requires much more research, there being no

satisfaction in building conclusions on contradictory data.

The present moment is a dangerous one in the history of the

use of X-rays in unravelHng crystal structure. No more specula-

tions built on incorrect crystallography are desirable. What

is needed is solid, well and carefully carried out, prolonged and

thoroughly tested experimental work, and a complete revision

of the principles on which results are based, with the view of

rendering them both more fully trustworthy and of definite

application. Two fundamental problems are especially urgently

requiring solution before much further progress can be made,

namely, the falling away of reflection intensity with increase

of order of spectrum, and the quantitative relationship between

reflection-intensity and atomic number or atomic weight (mass).

While we cannot hope to get much more information from the

Laue radiograms than at present, the Bragg spectrometric

method is full of promise, and when these root-problems are

satisfactorily settled much more progress may be expected to

be made with the finer details of the structure of the more im-

portant crystalline substances.

Yelverton, S. Devon, England.

November 18, 1918.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— i?^:^/,)' to Dr. Tutton's discussion of

the assignment of crystals to symmetry classes. Edgar T.

Wherry, Bureau of Chemistry.

In the course of his scientific study of natural phenomena,

man is continually devising pigeon-holes into which to distrib-

ute given series of facts. Nature, however, often refuses to be

pigeon-holed, and persists in bringing to the attention of all

who will stop, look, and listen numerous facts which do not

accord with the classification in vogue at a particular time.

New classifications must therefore be continually worked out

loo wherry: reply to dr. tutton's discussion

as science advances; and this may be just as true in crystal-

lography as in any other field. In the paper under discussion^

the writer endeavored to point out an instance where changes

in view-point appear to be needed, and is glad to take up Dr.

Tutton's criticism (preceding article) and to show that the

difference between us consists chiefly in our willingness to admit

the above proposition. Dr. Tutton's summary of the paper in

question is reasonably adequate; but whether that paper is

based on "misconceptions regarding fundamental facts" must

be decided by the reader of the present discussion.

The magnificent research on diamond by Fersmann and

Goldschmidt- has surely established for all time the fact that

tetrahedral (Class 31) features are often shown by both the

habit and the etch figures of this mineral. The proof of the

absence of electric polarity by Van der Veen, which no attempt

has been made to discredit, can not alter that fact. What

is needed is an explanation of the apparent discrepancy, and that

is what the writer endeavored to supply. The structure of the

mineral having been established to the satisfaction of all con-

cerned by the Braggs, the writer saw therein a way to account

for the difficulty, for the structure as a whole, with which the

electric polarity is presumably connected, is admittedly holo-

hedral (Class 32) while the symmetry of the unit cells is tetra-

hedral (Class 31), which is reflected in the habit and etch-figures.

In other words, the writer accepts the correctness of the work

of all the authors, whereas those by whom diamond "has for

some time now . . . been considered as holohedral" must ignore

or discredit the work of Fersmann and Goldschmidt, as well

as overlook the significance of the Bragg demonstration that the

symmetry of the unit cell of diamond is less than that of the

structure as a whole. The last sentence of the writer's con-

clusion, which Dr. Tutton considers "absolutely, fundamentally

' This Journal 8: 480. 1918.

^ Through the writer's failure to correct proof of his paper the title of the work

by these authors was given as "Diament" instead of "Diamant." Also, the heading

of the last double column of the table should, of course, read "atomic."

wherry: reply to dr. tuTTOn's discussion lOl

wrong and entirely unacceptable" is, as the writer endeavored

to show, a direct corollary to the Braggs' work. And since

Dr. Tutton elsewhere in his discussion accepts the results of the

Braggs, it seems evident that he does not appreciate the writer's

viewpoint at all.

The writer made no attempt to revive the "old method of

regarding crystal classes as holohedral, hemihedral, and tetarto-

hedral," but merely used such terms, following Dana, as con-

venient, brief designations of certain symmetry classes. None

of his conclusions would be altered were the classes to be referred

to by numbers or by any other method. Nor has he denied that

"every one of the 32 possible classes has its own absolutely

unique elements of symmetry" or that "a structure [as a whole]

either possesses the elements of symmetry of a particular class

or it does not."

It certainly seems inconsistent in Dr. Tutton to assert that

"there are only fourteen space-lattices," in the same paper in

which he accepts the correctness of the Braggs' work on diamond.

For the structure they assign to that mineral, though not in-

cluded among Bravais's fourteen, is, according to the criterion

used by Dr. Tutton in his discussion, a space-lattice. Each

point of this structure may be "imagined to represent a poly-

hedron of such a nature that when an unlimited number are

packed together in contact, space is completely filled." In

this case the polyhedron is a regular tetrahedron, so far modified

by faces of the rhombic dodecahedron that each tetrahedral

face has the shape of a regular hexagon.^ X-ray studies have

shown, moreover, similar lattices to exist, as for instance a tri-

gonal one in bismuth. How many others may be discovered

by subsequent research the writer would not venture to pre-

dict, but he certainly would not claim that our present knowledge

is complete and final in this (or any other) respect.

As far as pyrite is concerned, the underlying structure is

admittedly not a simple space-lattice, but compound, or com-

* Compare Adams. Nole on the fundamental polyhedron of the diamond lattice.

This Journal 8: 240. 1918.

I02 wherry: reply to dr. tutton's discussion

posed of two interpenetrating simple ones. The disagreement

over this point, therefore, is merely a matter of definition of terms,

Dr. Tutton preferring to use "interpenetrating point-system"

for what the writer would call a "compound space-lattice."

Substitution of the one term for the other would not alter the

conclusions reached in the original paper to the slightest degree.

It should be noted, further, that the view that molecules rather

than atoms occupy the points or nodes of space-lattices has been

rather definitely disproved by the very X-ray study of crystals

which started the present discussion.

To summarize: in the paper under discussion, the writer

assembled the data for a number of crystals, in the assignment

of which to symmetry classes one method of study gives results

which conflict with those of other methods of study. He presented

an interpretation of the relations which appeared to him capable

of reconciling these discordant results, involving the new con-

ception that crystals may belong to one symmetry class with

respect to some properties and to another class with respect

to other properties. Dr. Tutton apparently feels that the

present views of crystallography are adequate to explain all

past (and future) crystallographic observations. Rather than

recognize that diamond, pyrite, etc., belong simultaneously to

two different classes, depending on what property is considered,

he prefers to ignore observations which do not accord with the

one of these symmetry classes which for one reason or another

he wishes to accept for each substance. In diamond, he overlooks

the Class 31 habit and etch-figures, in pyrite the Class 28 habit

and electrical phenomena, and so on. The writer does not

believe that ignoring results which do not suit a preconceived

theory is the proper scientific spirit, and prefers to modify or

revise current ideas when necessary to explain undeniable ob-

servational facts, even though this may lead to his being accused

of putting forward "speculations built on incorrect crystal-

lography."

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — The conditions of calorimeiric precision. Walter P.

White. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1872-1887. December,

1918.

In a calibrated calorimeter practically all the errors come in tem-

perature measurement, and the most, though often not the greatest

of these come in the "cooling correction," that is, the determination

of the effect of the thermal leakage between calorimeter and environ-

ment. This thermal leakage is analyzed into its factors. R. B. S.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/te place of manganese in the periodic

system. F. Russell v. Bichowsky. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40:

1040-1046. July, 1918.

The older arguments placing manganese in the seventh group of

the periodic system {i. e., giving manganese a normal valence of 7) now

appear open to question. On the other hand there are 12 different

lines of argument based on purely chemical relationships which indi-

cate its position in the eighth group. This conclusion is also in accord

with the more decisive reasoning based on atom color presented in

a previous paper. An improved form of the periodic table, showing

the relations of the eighth and rare earth groups to the rest of the

periodic system, is presented. F. R. B.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ melting points of cristohalite and

tridymite. J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ.

Sci. 46: 417-426. August, 1918.

The melting point of cristobaHte has been redetermined and found

to be 1 7 10 =•= 10° C. This value is consistent with the experimental

evidence which was obtained in a study of a portion of the ternary

103

104 abstracts: mineralogy

system CaO-MgO-Si02 and which had caused the earher investiga-

tions to be viewed with suspicion. Tridymite is unstable at its melting

point and this unstable melting occurs at 1670 ± 10°. Artificial

tridymite made from quartz could not be melted owing to the rapidity

of the tridymite-cristobalite inversion, but a sharp melting was ob-

tained with natural material. Since this unstable melting point is

below that of cristobalite, there can no longer be room to doubt that

cristobalite is the high temperature form of silica. R. B. Sosman.

GEOLOGY. — Asphalt deposits and oil conditions in southwestern Arkan-

sas. Hugh D. Miser and A. H. Purdue. U. S. Geol. vSurvey

Bull. 691-J. Pp. 271-292, with maps. 1918.

There are seven asphalt deposits in Pike and Sevier counties,

Arkansas. The asphalt occurs in the Trinity formation of I.owe,

Cretaceous age which rests on upturned edges of Carboniferous limestone

and sandstone. Doubtless the asphalt is a residue of crude petroleum

whose lighter and more volatile parts have escaped by evaporation.

This petroleum is believed to have been derived from the Carboniferous

rocks underlying the Trinity formation, near the base of which the

asphalt is found. The geologic structure is not favorable to accumula-

tion of petroleum, and the few wells that have been sunk for oil have

not found it in commercial quantity. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY.— J/a/zaw Icucitic lavas as a source of potash. Henry

S. Washington. Met. and Chem. Eng. 18: 65-71. January

15, 1918.

This paper attempts an evaluation of the total amount of potash

that is present in the lavas of the six chief Italian volcanoes along the

west coast that have erupted leucitic lavas, which are therefore high

in potash.

It is considered that in these volcanoes Italy possesses one of the

largest if not the largest of the visible supplies of potash known to

exist. Some other silicate rock sources of potash are briefly discussed,

especially the Leucite Hills in Wyoming and the belt of glauconite

that extends from New Jersey into Virginia. R. B. S.

MlNBRAhOGY. —Augite jrom Stromholi. S. Kozu and H. S. Wash-

ington. Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: 463-469. June, 1918.

This paper records the optical characters and chemical composition

of the augite crystals that were being thrown out of the volcano of

abstracts: entomology 105

Stromboli during the visit of A. I^. Day and the authors in August 1914.

Analyses of the lavas are also given. The augite is shown to be of a

commonly occurring type. The paper is part of an investigation on

the augites and other pyroxenes of ItaUan and other localities.

H. S. W.

VOLCANOLOGY. — The representation of a volcano on an ItaUan

renaissance medal. H. S. Washington. Art and Archaeology

7: 256-263. July-August, 1918.

This paper describes a lead medal of Leonello Pio, Count of Carpi,

which dates from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The re-

verse represents a volcano in violent eruption, and it is shown that this

commemorates almost certainly an eruption of Vesuvius in 1500,

concerning the actuality of which there has existed considerable doubt.

If so, this is the earliest known representation of Vesuvius in eruption.

H. S. W.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Comparative morphology of the order Strepsipieras

together unth records and descriptions of insects. W. DwighT

Pierce;. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 391-501, pis. 64-78. 1918.

This article comprises the second supplement to a monographic

revision of the order Strepsiptera published as Bulletin 66 of the United

States National Museum. It contains additional biological studies

on the occurrence of parasitism by these insects, and a review of all

literature on the order which has been published since the first supple-

ment. The leading feature of the article is the study of the com-

parative morphology of the order, tracing the modification of the various

portions of the thoracic structures especially throughout the group.

It is shown that the prescutum of the metathorax from being a trans-

verse separate piece moves backward into the scutal area in the form

of a triangular piece, and in .successive modification tends to supply

the scutum and approach, and even push backward the scutellum.

It is shown that the changes in the thoracic structure can be coordinated

with the antennal and wing structures which have previously been used

for separating the families and genera. A more complete argument

as to the reasons for separating the group as an order is presented to-

gether with a set of five rules for the formation of an insect order.

A number of new species and genera are described and illustrated, and

io6 abstracts: apparatus

the article also contains a large list of new host records and a bibliog-

raphy of recent works. W. P. D.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Medical entomology a vital factor in the prosectttion

of the War. W. Dwight Pierce. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 20:

No. 5. Pp. 91-104. October 3, 1918.

The author brings out in this article the importance of entomo-

logical work in the study of diseases showing that the entomologist,

parasitologist, and physician are all needed to work out their par-

ticular phases of the problems of disease transmission. Seven types

of relationships of insects, disease organisms, and vertebrate hosts are

defined. Various types of transmission of disease organisms by in-

sects are also illustrated. The author brings out especially the im-

portance of insect-transmitted diseases to armies and finally mentions

a number of problems which still remain to be solved. W. D. P.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— /CM/^nm tales. Franz Boas, together with

texts collected by Alexander Francis Chamberlain. Bur. Amer.

Ethnol. Bull. 59. Pp.387.

This comprises 77 texts in the Kutenai Indian language with English

translations, 25 with both interlinear and free translations. Forty-four

were collected in 1891 by the late Prof. Alexander F. Chamberlain of

Clark University, the remainder by Professor Boas in 1914. They

are followed by 32 pages of Abstracts and Comparative Notes and

Kutenai-English and English-Kutenai vocabularies. Kutenai con-

stitutes one of the smaller linguistic stocks, Kitunahan, and embraces

but two closely related dialects. The material is therefore of unusual

value to the student of American languages, while the comparative

notes render it equally important to the folklorist and those interested

in comparative mythology. J. R. Swanton.

APPARATUS. — Calorimetric methods and devices. Walter P. White.

Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1887-1900. December, 1918.

In this paper various forms of jacket covers (and of stirrer mountings)

are described and compared. R. B. S-

APPARATUS. — Some points regarding calorimeter efficiency. Walter

P. White. Journ. Franklin Inst. 186:279-287. September, 1918.

This discussion has special reference to the precision required and the

conditions prevalent in commercial work. R. B. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Board of Managers met on January 27, 19 19. A budget for

the year was adopted, renewing the appropriations for 19 18 with minor

changes. A revision of the Standing Rules of the Board, as recommen-

ded by the Executive Committee, was adopted. The following appoint-

ments were announced: Members of Executive Committee, Paul

Bartsch and Walter T. Swingi,e; Committee on Membership:

T. Wayland Vaughan, chairman, G. N. Collins, Walter Hough,

H. E. Merwin, and E. T. Wherry; Committee on Meetings: E.

W. Shaw, chairman, C. W. Kanolt, H. H. Kimball, H. L. Shantz,

and S. S. Voorhees; Editor of Journal for term 1919-1921, Robert

B. SOSMAN.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last issue of the Journal :

Mr. Edward Chester Barnard, International (Canadian) Boundary

Commissions, 719 Fifteenth Street, Washington, D. C.

Dr. Samuel Jackson BarnETT, Department of Research in Terres-

trial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,

D. C.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 327th meeting of the Society was held in the lecture room of

the Cosmos Club on April 10, 191 8. The regular program was as

follows :

Edwin Kirk: Paleozoic glaciation in southeastern Alaska. During

the past field-season a tillite of Silurian age was found in south-

eastern Alaska. Kosciusko and Heceta Islands, where the best Silurian

glacial deposits are to be found, lie between 55° and 60° north latitude

and 133° and 134° west longitude. These islands are situated on the

west coast of Prince of Wales Island, toward the northern end. The

most favorable locality for ah examination of the conglomerate is in

the large bay about midway on the north shore of Heceta Island.

The coast here is well protected from storms and there is a continuous

outcrop of the limestone underlying the conglomerate, the conglomerate

itself, and the overlying limestone. In places the conglomerate is well

broken down by weathering, making the collection of pebbles and

boulders an easy matter. As exposed, the beds outcrop along the shore

between tide levels, and give an outcrop perhaps 2,000 to 3,000

feet in length.

107

I08 PROCeSDINGS: GEOLOGICAIv SOCIETY

The glacial conglomerate is under- and overlain by fossiliferous

marine limestones. The succession of beds is clearly shown and un-

mistakable. The strata as a whole in this region are badly disturbed,

and as is the case throughout southeastern Alaska, contacts are very

poorly shown, being, as a rule, indicated by an indentation of the shore-

line and a depression running back into the timber. At present,

therefore, although the relative positions of stratigraphic units are

obvious, the character of the imconformity and the nature of the

passage beds are poorly known.

The limestone series overlying the conglomerate carries a rich Con-

ch id imn fauna. In certain thin beds the rock is almost wholly made

up of the brachiopods. This fauna appears to be identical with that

of the Meade Point limestone of the Wrights and Kindle. The type

exposure of the latter is at the northern end of Kuiu Island. At the

base of the limestone at this locaUty is a boulder bed which I believe

to be glacial in origin and to be correlated with the conglomerate of

Heceta. The limestones below the conglomerate likewise carry a

rich fauna consisting of pentameroids, corals, and gasteropods. The

general aspect of both faunas seems to place them as approximately

late Niagaran in age.

The conglomerate itself has a thickness of between i,ooo and 1,500

feet. In the main the conglomerate appears to consist of heterogeneous,

unstratified, or poorly stratified material. Rarely lenticular bands

of cross-bedded sandstone occur in the mass. These are clearly

water laid and indicate current action.

The boulders in the tillite range in size up to two or three feet in

length, as seen. The boulders consist of greenstone, graywacke,

limestone, and various types of igneous rocks. Limestone boulders

are scarce. All the boulders are smoothed and rounded. Facetted

boulders are numerous and, given the proper type of rock, character-

istic glacial scratches are to be found. The scratches show best on

the fine-grained, dense greenstone. Limestone boulders and certain

types of igneous rocks do not show them at all. The shoreline is strewn

with these pebbles and boulders, which were undoubtedly derived

from the conglomerate, as they are not to be found on the adjacent

limestone shores. All the material collected was taken from the con-

glomerate itself, however. This is well broken down by weathering

in some places, and the pebbles may be picked out with the fingers

or tapped out with the hammer.

Throughout the Paleozoic section of southeastern Alaska are vast

thicknesses of volcanic material, tuffs, breccias, and flows. Con-

sidering the sediments as a whole, climatic conditions through the

Paleozoic do not seem to have been very different from those of com-

paratively recent times and physical conditions may have been very

nearly the same.

H. E. Merwin and E. Posnjak: The iron-hydroxide minerals.

Studies of composition, density, optical properties, and thermal be-

proceedings: geological society 109

havior have led to the conclusion that only one compound of ferric

oxide and water is known, Fe203.H20, which exists in two pure crystal-

line forms, goethite and lepidocrocite. The fibrous material commonly

known as limonite is really fibrous goethite with additional water,

silica, etc., held in capillaries. It has been possible to find a series of

specimens representing the expectable properties of such impure fibrous

goethite with variable water content. Turgite appears to be mix-

crystals of Fe203.H20 and hematite, with properties varying according

to the composition.

The amorphous brown iron ores when air dried contain sub-micro-

scopic pores from which water has escaped, but they still hold in these

pores variable amounts of water in excess of the formula Fe203.H20.

They often show marked double refraction due to strain, but are readily

distinguished from fibrous goethite by lack of splintery fracture and

by lower refractive index.

All these minerals except well-crystallized goethite often occur in

very close association.

J. B. Mertie, Jr.: Repeated stream piracy in the Tolovana and

Hess River Basins, Alaska. The theme of particular interest to which

this paper was devoted is an example of stream piracy eflfected by one

stream at the expense of another; and a subsequent repetition of the

same process under diflferent physiographic conditions whereby the

second stream recovered a considerable proportion of its former drain-

age. The present watershed therefore represents the third recognizable

period of stability in the physiographic history of the two drainage

basins.

The two streams in question are Livengood Creek, a tributary of

Tolovana River, and the south fork of Hess River, in the Tolovana

district, northwest of Fairbanks, Alaska. Gold-placer mining on

Livengood Creek has furnished the necessary underground data on the

configuration of bedrock under the gravels. An abnormally steep

bedrock gradient at the lower end of the old bench channel on Liven-

good Creek justifies the inference that this stream in its earliest recog-

nizable stage was much shorter than at present. The pronounced

back-hand drainage of its present upper tributaries is regarded as cor-

roboratory evidence of this hypothesis. Also the present divide

between the two streams has been found by drilling to be silt-filled.

An original stream piracy is thus deduced, whereby Livengood Creek

stole the headwater tributaries of the south fork of Hess River. The

depth to bedrock in the present silt-filled divide, and the depth to

bedrock in a narrow gorge in the lower part of the south fork of

Hess River, together with the elevations at these two localities, show

exactly how much of the upper drainage of the south fork of Hess River

was pirated.

The new physiographic condition that brought about the original

piracy was a progressive drowning or inundation of the stream valleys

no proceedings: Washington society of engineers

of the Yukon-Tanana region, which resulted in a regional elevation of

the base level, and was accompanied by extensive silt alluviation.

This new physiographic cycle took place in at least two stages, at the

end of the first of which occurred a period of stability when the piracy

of the south fork of Hess River by Livengood Creek was accomplished.

vSubsequently, these silt-filled valleys were drained, and the regional

base level was reduced, and it was during this period that the final

readjustment of the two drainage basins was efi'ected, and the south

fork of Hess River recovered a large part of its former drainage. vSuper-

position of both streams onto bedrock has been responsible for the pres-

ervation of the present silt-filled watershed between them.

This topic is discussed in more detail in U. S. Geological vSurvey

Bulletin 662-D, entitled "The Gold Placers of the Tolovana District,

Alaska."

The 328th meeting of the Society was held in the Conference Room

of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey on May 8, 191 8. The

regular program was :

George Otis Smith: .4 century of government geological surveys.

Published in A Century of Science in America. Yale University

Press, 191 8. Also in American Journal of Science Vol. 46, pp. 171- 192,

1918.

At the 329th meeting of the Society, held on December 11, 1918,

the Presidential address was delivered by the retiring President, Frank

H. Knowlton: Evolution of Geologic climate. The address will be

published in full in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of i!\.merica

at a later date.

At the Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting held on the same evening

the following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President,

E. O. Ulrich; Vice-Presidents, G. H. Ashley and H. S. Gale; Treasurer,

Wm. B. Heroy; Secretaries, R. W. vStone and R. S. Bassler; Members

at-Large-of-the-Council, L. W. Stephenson, H. G. Ferguson, D. F.

Hewett, R. C. Wells, Eugene vStebinger.

EsPER S. Larsen, Jr., Secretary.

WASHINGTON SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS

Ten meetings of the Society were held during the year 1 918 as follows:

January 15, 191 8: William C. Edes, Chairman of the Alaskan

Engineering Commission: The Alaska Railroad.

February 5, 191 8: Joint meeting with the Washington Section of

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Professor C. A.

Adams, of Harvard University: Standardization in engineering.

February 19, 19 18: Lieut. Col. Henry vS. Graves, Forester and

Chief of the U. vS. Forest Service: The Forest Engineers in France.

March 4, 1918: William B. Landreth, Deputy State Engineer

of New York : Relation of the Barge Canal to the transportation problems

of the United States.

PROCEBDINGS: WASHINGTON SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS III

March 19, 191 8: J. O. Martin, of the Chesapeake and Potomac

Telephone Company : Wires of war.

April I, 191 8: Moving pictures of the Battle of Cambrai.

April 16, 1 91 8: Hon. C. B. Miller, Member of Congress from

Minnesota: Personal experiences on the Western Front.

The regular meeting scheduled for October 8, 1918, was not held.

This was in conformity with the wishes of the Board of Health, on ac-

count of the epidemic of influenza.

November 19, 191 8: Moving pictures: From ore to finished

"National" pipe.

December 3, 1918: Annual banquet. vSpeakers: Edwin F. WendT,

President of the Society; Adolph C. MillER, Member of the Federal

Reserve Board; Charles Piez, Vice-President and General Manager

of the Emergency Fleet Corporation; Ira W. McConnell, of the

American International Shipbuilding Corporation; Prof. O. M. W.

Sprague, of the Council of National Defense; and Dr. H. W. Wiley.

December 17, 1918: Annual Meeting for the election of officers;

moving pictures illustrating the highways of the United vStates. The

following officers were elected for the year 191 9: President, Morris

Hacker; Vice-President, William C. Thom; Secretary, H. C. Graves;

Treasurer, G. P. Springer; Members of the Board of Direction, 1919-

1920, John C. Hoyt, Anthony F. Lucas, Oscar C. Merrill, Edwin

F. Wendt.

H. C. Graves, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. P. W. Bridgman has returned from the naval experimental

station at New London, Connecticut, to the Jefferson Physical Lab-

oratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Dr. Edgar Buckingham, who has been associated with the work of

the scientific attache of the American Embassy in Rome, returned to

Washington in February.

Dr. George H. A. Clowes, formerly of the Gratwick Research

Laboratory at Buffalo, N. Y., and lately engaged in research at the

American University Experiment Station of the Chemical Warfare

Service on the physiological effects of war gases, left Washington in

January to take up biochemical research at the laboratories of EH

Lilly & Company, of Indianapolis, Indiana.

Dr. Oliver L. Fassig, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, has been elected

secretary, and Mr. Francois E. Matthes, of the U. S. Geological

Survey, treasurer, of the Association of American Geographers.

Major General John Headlam, who lectured before the Academy

in April 191 8, on "The development of artillery during the war," has

been awarded the distinguished service medal by vSecretary of War

Baker, "for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services rendered

the United States Army while serving as chief of the British Artillery

Mission to the United vStates."

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, Curator of Physical Anthropology in the United

States National Museum, has been made an Honorary Fellow of the

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.

Dr. M. S. Sherrill, formerly with the Ordnance Department in

Washington, sailed in January for an extended trip in South America.

Dr. F. H. Symth, formerly of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-

nology, and lately captain in the Chemical Warfare Service, stationed

at the American University Experiment Station, has received a

temporary appointment as physical chemist at the Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

ViLHjALMUR Stefansson was awarded the Hubbard Gold Medal of

the National Geographic Society on January 10, 191 9.

Word has been received that Mr. M. N. Str.\ughn, formerly of the

Bureau of Chemistry in Washington, and a member of the Chemical

Society, died in Porto Rico on January 9, 1919.

112

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Voh. 9 MARCH 4, 19 19 No. 5

PETROLOGY. — Microscopic examination of clays. R. E. Som-

ERS, Cornell University. (Communicated by David White.)

Most of the clays referred to in this report were examined

microscopically in order to determine the minerals contained in

them, and in addition thin sections of some of the burned sam-

ples were studied so far as time would permit in order to obtain

some idea of the changes that took place in burning.

The investigation is not to be regarded as an exhaustive one,

as much still remains to be done along this line, but so far as it

went, it is thought that the results are of interest.

Table i gives the minerals that were noted in the different

specimens examined, and also their approximate abundance.

IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTER OF MINERALS

Quartz. — When in medium or coarse grains, quartz can be

readily discriminated by means of its index of refraction, low in-

terference color, and lack of cleavage. There are no other min-

erals in clays which resemble it under these conditions. When,

however, it is in small grains, it greatly resembles kaolinite. Its

index of refraction is then of little assistance, the interference

color is lowered to about that of the kaolinite, and its determina-

tion has to depend upon its more angular shape and its more

rapid extinction, or "quicker wink." Such grains are generally

too small to make use of the difference in optical character.

While quartz was noted in many of the clays examined, it

was particularly abundant in the residual ones. Most of the

Wilcox clays from the Embay ment area showed but little.

Kaolinite. — This can be distinguished by its orthodox charac-

113

114

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

TABLE I

The Composition of Clays

° The minerals listed here represent the identifiable grains, but some of them

contain a variable quantity of exceedingly small grains not identifiable, and which

are indicated in the column headed Colloid matter. Aside from this, most of the

clays undoubtedly contain colloidal particles so small as not to be visible with the

ordinary microscope.

'' S, scarce; C, common; M, moderate amounts; A, abundant; V A, very abundant.

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

115

From Oriskany shales, limestones and

sandstones

Kunkletown, Pa., disintegrated quartz-

ite

Kunkletown, Pa., clay with quartzite

Kunkletown, Pa., clay with quartzite,

washed

Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude No. i

Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude No. 2

Saylorsbiu-g, Pa. washed

Saylorsburg, Pa., Crude, Cement

Company's mine

Shirley sburg, Pa.

Miscellaneous Residual Clays

Bauxite, Ark., banded clay under

bauxite

Bauxite, Ark., white clay under

bauxite

(Both have some large flakes of mica)

Oreana, Nev., Pitt-Rowland deposit

Lovelocks, Nev., Adamson-Dickson de

posit

Beatty, Nev., Bond-Marks deposit

Antioch, Calif.

Fort Payne, Ala., Brower Mine

Fort Payne, Ala., Cochrane pit. Sili

ceous bauxite

Fort Payne, Ala., Cochrane pit, bauxite

Bynum, Ala., Kraus pit, white clay

Bynum, Ala., Kraus pit, black clay

Sedimentary Clays

Carboniferous

Cheltenham Clay, St. Louis dis.. Mo.

Raw washed pot clay, LaClede-Christy

Weathered pot clay, LaClede-Christy

Fire-brick clay, LaClede-Christy

Selected crude clay, LaClede-Christy

Weathered pot clay, Highland Clay Co.

Washed pot clay. Highland Clay Co.

Indianaite, Huron district, Indiana

Earthy white clay

Massive white clay

FHnt Clay district, Central Missouri

Plastic clay. Bland, Mo.

White clay, Owensville, Mo... Sassman

pit

Red clay, Owensville, Mo., Sassman pit

s

VA

M?

A

VA

C

A

C

'^ Probably mostly sericite.

ii6

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

Flint clay, Owensville, Mo., Sassman

pit

Flint clay, Hofflins, Mo., Cox pit

Flint clay, Owensville, Mo., Connell pit

Flint clay. Rosebud, Mo., Toelke and

Heidel pit

Diaspora clay. Rosebud, Mo., Brown

pit

Diaspora clay, Owensville, Mo., Con-

nell pit

Diaspora clay, Rosebud, Mo., Brown

pit

Diaspora clay, Owensville, Mo., Sass-

man pit

Diaspore clay, Owensville, Mo., Con-

nell pit

Lower Cretaceous

White clay, Gordon, Ga., upper bed,

Col. Kaol. and Alum. Co.

Nodular clay, Gordon, Ga., upper bed,

Col. Kaol. and Alum. Co.

White clay. Dry Branch, Ga., crude,

Amer. Clay Co.

White clay. Dry Branch, Ga., washed,

Amer. Clay Co.

Allendale, S. Ca., Box pit

Abbeville, S. Ca., Hill pit

White clay, S. W. of Trenton, S. Ca.

Bath, vS. Ca. McNamee Kn. Co., i

Bath, S. Ca. McNamee Kn., Co., 2

White clay, Langley, S. Ca.

White clay, Langle3% S. Ca.

Upper Cretaceous

Rayflin, S. Ca., Edisto Kaohn Co.

White clay, Aiken, S. Ca.

Ripley

White clay, Perry, Ga., Houston KaoHn

Co.

White part of mottled clay, Perry, Ga.,

Houston Kaolin Co.

Red part of mottled clay. Perry, Ga.,

Houston Kaolin Co.

Sagger clay, Hollow Rock, Tann.

Sagger clay. Hollow Rock, Tenn.

Lignitic clay, India, Tenn.

Brown sandy clay, E. Paris, Currier pit

Dark clay, E- of Paris, Currier pit

c

c?

c

M

VA

A

A''

'^ Stained with hematite.

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

117

Porter's Creek

Wad clay, Benton, Ky., Howard pit

Wad clay, Briensburg, Ky.

Wilcox formation

Andersonville, Ga., Sweetwater mine,

white clay

Andersonville, Ga., Sweetwater mine,

mottled clay

Enid, Miss., No. 5 pit, Bramlett

Enid, Miss., No. 21 pit, Bramlett

Holly Springs, Miss., stoneware clay

Lagrange, Teiin., Dale sand pit, claylens

Lagrange, Tenn., McAnee pit

McKenzie, Tenn., No. 10 ball, John-

son-Porter

McKenzie, Tenn., No. 11 ball, John-

son-Porter

McKenzie, Tenn., Sparks pit

Sagger clay, Henry, Tenn., Chrisman

and Reynolds

I S. G. P. clay, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle

No. 5 Ball, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle

No. 7 Ball, Whitlock, Tenn., Mandle

No. 4 Ball, white, Whitlock, Tenn.,

Mandle

No. 4 Ball, dark, Whitlock, Tenn.,

Mandle

Puryear, Tenn., Dixie Brick & Tile Co.

Wad clay. Hazel, Ky., Cooley Ball and

Sagger Clay Co.

Dark ball clay. Hazel, Ky., Cooley

Ball and Sagger Clay Co.

No. 4 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky.

Constr. & Imp. Co.

Old No. 4 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky.

Constr. & Imp. Co.

No. 5 clay, Pryorsburg, Ky., Ky.

Constr. & Imp. Co.

No. 3 Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Mayfield

Clay Co.

Ball, Pryorsburg, Ky., Mayfield Clay

Co.

No. I Ball, Hickory, Ky., Old Hickory

Clay & Talc Co.

Crude clay, Lester, Ark., Camden Coal

and Clay Co.

Washed clay, Lester, Ark., Camden

Tertiary

Crude, Edgar, Fla.

Washed, Edgar, Fla.

M?

Il8 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

ters when of larger size, combined with its flaky nature and very

often its tendency to combine in fan- or worm-shaped bunches.

Low index of refraction and low birefringence separate it from

the other micaceous minerals. When fine, it can merely be noted

as minute, transparent plates, of an index of refraction close to

the balsam, and verv^ low interference color.

The kaolinite occurs as single scales or plates, sometimes in

bunches of fan-shaped character, and as vermiculites. In one

clay, the Indianaite from Lawrence County, Indiana, spherulite-

like bodies were also found.

Specially fine examples of "fans" were noted in the clay from

Perr\^ Georgia, Bynum, Alabama, Bauxite, Arkansas, and

Antioch, California.

Good examples of vermiculites were seen in samples from

South Carolina, Perry, Georgia, Bauxite, Arkansas, Antioch,

California, and the nodular white clay from Gordon, Georgia.

The Florida clay from Okahumpka and Edgar, as well as the

samples from Langley and Aiken, South Carolina, showed large

single flakes.

Hydromica. — This is a distinctly micaceous mineral, which has

single and double refractions higher than those of kaolinite, yet

not so high as muscovite or sericite. Furthermore, the degree

of these refractions varies in different clays. It is therefore

assumed^ that there is an isomorphous gradation between seri-

cite and kaolinite, with a gradual loss of potash and addition of

water, and, in weathering products such as these, hydromica

represents a transition stage of weathering toward kaolinite

as the final product.

The fan of the hydromica is similar to that of the kaolinite, but

it may occur in larger grains. Radiating bunches and spherulite-

like grains were found in the white clay from near Huron, In-

diana.

COMPARATIVE ABUNDANCE OF KAOLINITE AND HYDROMICAS

Descriptions of the microscopic examination of clays that have

appeared from time to time, make frequent reference to kao-

^ For discussion of hydromica see Gai,pin, Sydney L. Studies of flint clays and

their associates. Trans. Am. Ceram. Soc. 14: 306 and 338.

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS II9

linite, but the presence of mica is less often commented on, and

yet, judging from the nature of the clays described in this report,

it seems to be quite abundant.

The same might possibly be inferred from the chemical com-

position of many kaolins which show a small percentage of pot-

ash; for since feldspar seems to be very scarce, the former may

be regarded as belonging to mica.

Vogt, for example, in 1906, concluded that china clay consisted

of kaolinite, muscovite, and quartz, although he based his con-

clusions on the chemical composition of the material."

Later, Hickling,-^ after studying the china clay of Cornwall,

states that in the finest washed clays, kaolinite, mica, quartz,

and tourmaline are present, but that the first two make up 90

per cent of the mass. He adds, however, that the relative

amounts of kaolinite and muscovite are difficult to estimate.

He differentiates the mica into two classes, viz, primary mica

and secondary mica derived from feldspar.

He refers to the kaolinite as occurring as irregularly hexagonal

prisms, with rough faces, which show strong transverse stria-

tions corresponding to the basal cleavage. "These prisms are

usually curved, sometimes quite vermiculiform. The shorter

prisms commonly present a fanlike arrangement and exactly

resemble the similar forms of mica, from which they can be dis-

tinguished only by their lower interference tint."

Isolated plates or very short prisms may occur, and then "even

with convergent polarized light, it is not easy to judge the amount

of birefringence under such circumstances, and, consequently,

to decide to which mineral a given fragment belongs; hence the

difficulty of estimating their relative proportions. Both kinds

show the same irregular form (due probably to development

within decaying feldspars) and the same evidence of corrosion

on the edges. The low interference-tint and low index of re-

fraction definitely distinguish these crystals from mica.

- Vogt, G. De la composition des argiles. Memoires publics par le Societe

d'Encouragement pour I'lndustrie Nationale, Paris, 1906, pp. 193-218.

^ HiCKLiNG, G. China clay. Its nature and origin. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.

36. 1908-09.

I20 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

The identification of kaolinite rests on the following evidence:

(a) The index of birefringence is distinctly low, about that

of quartz, but variable.

(b) The index of refraction is very near to i .56.

(c) The prismatic crystals extinguish parallel to the basal

plane.

(d) Basal flakes show a biaxial interference figure.

While Hickling refers to the mica as muscovite, he notes that

it may be hydrated ; indeed he thinks that the muscovite changes

directly to kaoHnite in the clay, because: i. He can find mica

but no kaolinite in feldspar or in the granite. 2. There is no

difference in form between the mica and kaolinite. 3. He finds

prisms which are mica at one end and kaolinite at the other.

He also quotes the observations of Johnstone, ^ who found that

by exposing muscovite to pure water, and Vv^ater saturated with

CO2, for 12 months, it had changed to hydromuscovite. This

Hickling believes shows a conversion in the direction of kaolinite.

In line with these observations, reference may be made to

the work of Galpin^ on flint clays. In these he found platy masses

of what at first appeared to be kaolinite, which frequently show

"ribs" or plates of higher index and birefringence intergrown

with those of kaolinite, and which ribs show practically every

grade of variation between kaolinite and muscovite.

Halloysite. — Two clays, viz, those from north of Huron,

Indiana, and the Bond-Marks deposit near Beatty, Nevada,

contain material in platelike grains, which is isotropic, and is

probably to be regarded as halloysite. In no other samples

could this material be so definitely identified.

Rutile. — The presence of rutile is interesting, in view of the

probable constant occurrence of titanium in high-grade clavs.

Practically every clay examined shows rutile in some amount. In

some cases it is in grains or prisms, perhaps 0.015-0.020 mm. in

diameter, when its color and refractive properties distinguish

■* Johnstone, A. On the action of pure -water and of -water saturated -with carbonic

acid gas on minerals of the mica family. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 45: 363. 1889.

* Galpin, S. L. Studies of flint clays and their associates. Trans. Am. Ceram.

vSoc. 14: 301. 1912.

SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF ClyAYS 121

it at once. More generally, however, it is found upon close

examination as very minute grains or needles which are never-

theless so clear-cut that their refractions can be plainly seen.

The interference color is of the first order, but the particles are

so small that the actual birefringence is thereby shown to be

very high. They vary from perhaps cooi mm. to o.oio mm. in

diameter and if in needles are 5 or 6 times as long as they are

wide. In number these grains are very abundant, but in actual

bulk, they represent a very small quantity of rutile.

Rarer Minerals. — Tourmaline is well marked by its pleochrom-

ism, and its frequent occurrence is notable. Epidote is occa-

sionally seen as a slightly greenish mineral of moderate single

and double refractions. Grains of both high index and bire-

fringence are common, though not in any abundance, and they

prove to be zircon and titanite. A distinction between the two

is quite possible by means of the higher interference color of

the titanite. Zircon is much the commoner.

Diaspore. — This is easy to determine by its moderately high

index and double refraction, and its occurrence in irregular

grains. It is quite common in certain of the clays examined

from Missouri. Since the diaspore in these clays or their as-

sociated rocks sometimes occurs in grains sufficiently large to

be seen with the naked eye, it may be mistaken for quartz, but

can be separated from it and clay by means of bromoform (sp.

gr. 2.8), in which the diaspore (sp. gr. 3.4) sinks, while the as-

sociated minerals float. ^

Texture. — It would be very difficult to standardize clays by

size of particle, because any one clay is apt to be made up of

particles of all sizes, and because there is no standard to use.

Comparing these clays with each other, however, it may be said

that relatively coarse grains average o. 100 mm. or more in size,

medium grains 0.020-0.025 mm., and fine grains o.oio mm. or

less.

MINERALS IN THE BURNED CEAY

A number of the clays were molded into one-inch cubes.

These were all fired for 8 hours up to 950° C. After this one

* Wherry, E. T. Field identification of diaspore. Amer. Mineral. 3: 154. 1918.

122 SOMERS: MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF CLAYS

set was refired for 8 hours to 1,150° C, and a second set for 10

hours to 1,300° C. They were then ground to thin sections

and examined under the microscope.

Quartz grains usually stand out with much greater clearness

in the burned than in the raw clay, due to the fact that the

hydrous aluminum silicates tend to mat or fuse together to a

fine-grained ground mass which holds the quartz. In some speci-

mens a fluxing action appears to have taken place between the

fine-grained material and the silica, resulting in a corrosion of

the quartz, but this is comparatively rare.

Hydromica on heating to 1,150° C. either practically disap-

pears, forming an isotropic mass, or else it loses the greater

part of its interference color. The only exception to this was

where the hydromica grains were much larger than usual, in

which case it was noticed that the central portion of the grains

retained usually the original interference color.

This change of the hydromica on heating would seem to sug-

gest that it furnishes some of the flux for the clay, and other

things being equal, there may be a connnection between the de-

gree of densification at the temperature mentioned, and the quan-

tity of hydromica present.

Kaolinite when not fluxed, appears to retain its shape and at

least a good part of its original interference color. Tourmaline

and probably epidote disappear even at 1,150° C, but the rutile,

zircon, and probably titanite seem to be unaffected even at

1,300° C. The persistence of the rutile can be plainly seen even

through the particles are very small.

Sillimanite was noticed in a Florida white clay fired at 1,300°

C, where the conditions happened to be just right for its develop-

ment. That it has formed from the large flakes of kaolinite

or low-grade hydromica is clearly indicated by one composite

flake of the two minerals.

The actual reason for its development is not evident, other

clays carrying similar micaceous flakes, and burned at the same

time, not showing the sillimanite in the burned product.

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126 bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal

This development of sillimanite by burning and its possible

abundance in porcelain'^ may be the explanation of another

feature noted. In some of the clays, as indicated in the de-

scriptions, a double refraction is produced in the ground mass

of the clay by burning to higher temperatures. It is very

probable that this is caused by particles too minute to be easily

recognizable, and that the development of the interference

color may be due to the formation of sillimanite. The single

and double refractions of the material would not be against it,

but it is not proven in any way except by analogy.

In the sections where sillimanite was actually determined, it is

present in the form of slender crystals of fair size, and can surely

be distinguished b}' its moderate relief, low interference, optical

character, and cross fractures.

In table 2 there are given in summarized form the features

which a number of the thin sections show. They are worth

recording, although the series is not sufficiently large to warrant

drawing definite conclusions. For further comparison the table

also gives the texture of the clay, relative abundance of the

important constituents, and porosity after burning.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— ^M. unusual stdfur crystal F. Rus-

sell Bichowsky, Geophysical Laboratory. (Communicated

by R. B. Sosman.)

The accidental mixing of a hot alcoholic solution of ammonium

polysulfide with a mixture of benzonitrile, hydroxylamine hydro-

chloride, and ether resulted, among other things, in the forma-

tion of the single, well-developed, orange-red, translucent crystal

figured below. The crystal was measured and figured (Fig. i)

under the impression that it was a crystal of some organic com-

pound, but later analysis showed that it was almost pure sulfur

containing 0.33 per cent carbon, 0.09 per cent hydrogen, o.io

per cent nitrogen, 0.07 per cent ash, and a trace of chlorine.

The density 2.01 is not unusual for sulfur, and the angles are

in close accord with those calculated, using the Goldschmidt^

^ Klein, A. A. The constitution and microstructure oi porcelain. Trans. Am.

Ceram. Soc. 18: 377. 1916.

' GoLDSCHMiDT. Krystallographische Winkeltabellen, p. 313. Berlin, 1897.

bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal

127

axial ratios 0.8138 : i : 1.9055. The crystal was about 6 mm.

long and weighed 0.27 gram. The following faces were ob-

served (both the Miller and Goldschmidt symbols are given in

order): c, (001), o; b, (010), 000 ; a, (100), 00 o;e, (loi), 10; m,

(no), 00 ; V, (oi3),oV3;«, (on), 01; s, (113), V3; y, (112), V2;

p, fin), i; y, (331), 3; r, (311), 31; ^ (211), 21; q, (131), 13; k,

(120), GO 2; /?, (130), 00 3; X, (210), 2 CO ; p, (310), 30) . Of these

the faces f, (211), 21, and p, (310), 300, are new. The larger

faces m, f?, and c were all somewhat pitted and striated and often

gave double signals. The other faces all gave first quality sig-

nals with the exception of faces 7 and f which in the instruments

used gave but faint (though well-

defined) ones. Faces 7 and T occurred

but once, the first as a narrow im-

perfect bevelling of the edge (in)-

(iio), the second as a linelike but

perfect face bevelling the edge (100)-

(311). The remaining faces occurred

the theoretical number of times,

except faces X and p which occurred

three instead of four times each.

The most unusual feature of this

crystal is the well-developed zone

[001] containing the brachy- and

macro-pinacoids a and b (2 times

each), the primary prism ;w (4 times), the rare macro-prisms k

and h (4 times), the rare brachy-prism X (3 times)- and the

new p face (3 times). Another interesting zone is the oblique

zone [oil] containing the faces n, p, r, f, and a. The corre-

sponding zone [loT] is less well developed.

The zonal relations of the crystal are in themselves sufficient

to establish the symbols of the new faces, but as a check the crys-

tal was carefully measured on a makeshift one-circle goniometer

using reflections from different parts of the faces and reading on

different parts of the circle. The results agreed closely with

I have been unable to find the original

An unusual sulfur crystal.

2 Given by Gol,dschmidT, loc

reference.

cit.

128

bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal

those calculated from the Goldschmidt axial ratio. The angles

for the rarer faces are: (oio)-(i3o), measured 22° 18', calculated

22° 16'; (oio)-(i2o), measured 31° 33', calculated 31° 34';

(oio)-(2io), measured 67° 51', calculated 67° 51'; (oio)-(3io),

measured 74° 48', calculated 74° 49'; (oii)-(2ii), measured

65° 30', calculated 65° 19'.

Table i contains a complete list of the faces reported for

rhombic sulfur, their discoverer, Miller and Goldschmidt sym-

bols, principal Goldschmidt position angles, and the number

of times reported in the literature examined.

TABLE I

Faces Observed on Rhombic Sulfur

a = 0.8138

c = I 9055

bichowsky: an unusuaIv sulfur crystal 129

a Corrected value. Goldschmidt gives the erroneous value 74° 39'.

f> New calculation.

« New symbol.

The symbol ' indicates Va'-

' Rome; DE l'IslE. Crystallogr. i: 289. 1783.

2 MoHS. Mineralogy, Edinburgh 3: 52. 1825.

^ ScACCHi. Mem. Geol. Campan., Rend. Ac. Nap. (1849), 103; Zts. D. Geol. Ges.

4: 168. 1852.

* Brooke-Miller. Mineralogy 109. 1852. (Quoted from Brezina. «)

5 Zapharovich. Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst. 19: 229. 1869.

* Brezina. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 60: 539. 1869.

" Friedlander. Min. Sammlung Strassburg, 262. 1878. (Quoted from Dana,

System of Mineralogy.)

8 Fletcher. Phil. Mag. V. 9: 186. 1880.

9 Dana. Amer. Journ. Sci. 32: 389. 1886.

1" MoLENGRAAF. Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 14: 45. 1888.

'^ Busz. Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 17: 550. 1890.

'- Weed and Pirsson. Amer. Journ. Sci. 42: 401. 1891.

1' PELIKAN. Tscherm. Min. Petr. Mitt. 12: 344. 1891.

''' Busz. Zeitschr. Kyrst. Min. 20: 560. 1892.

'^ Schmidt. Zeitschr. Kyrst. Min. 29: 210. 1898.

i« MiLLOSEViCH. Atti Accad. Lincei 7: 2 Sem. : 249. 1898.

1' Goldschmidt: Quoted in Krystallographische Winkeltabellen, Berlin, 313.

1897.

18 BuTTGENBACH. Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. Liege (1898), 25 Mem. 73.

I30

bichowsky: an unusual sulfur crystal

Figure 2 is a stereographic projection of the known faces. The

dots representing the known faces have an area proportional to

number of times reported. This figure emphasizes the more

important zonal relations of sulfur and particularly the predomi-

nance of the primary pyramid zone [iTo]. The brachy- and

macro-dome zones [Too] and [010], as well as the oblique zones

[loi] and [on], are also well developed. Among the lesser

zones sulfur shows a curious preference for zones (and faces)

bOlO

hl30

Fig. 2. Stereographic projection of the known faces of sulfur crystaL

with an intercept ratio involving an odd number such as 3, as

compared with those involving an even number such as 2. Com-

pare the development of the zones [130], [3T0], [103], [301],

[03!], [013], with the corresponding zones [120], etc. The poor

development of zones, except [no], having (no) as a pole is

interesting. The usual rule that faces at the intersection of

important zones are likely to be most commonly developed is

schaller: plancheite and shattuckite 131

well emphasized in sulfur, as are certain quantitative relations,

but the number of sulfur crystals reported is too small to

make quantitative relations of much value.

MINERALOGY. — Plancheite and shattuckite, copper silicates,

are not the same mineral. Waldemar T. Schaller, Geo-

logical Survey.

The name plancheite was given by Lacroix,^ in 1908, to a blue

copper silicate from the French Congo, Africa. About five

years later a blue copper mineral from Bisbee, Arizona, sent to

the U. S. Geological Survey for identification, by Philip D. Wil-

son, of Bisbee, was determined by qualitative tests as probably

plancheite. Abundant material was available for various de-

terminations and it was soon found that several discrepancies

existed "between the properties of the two minerals from Arizona

and from Africa. Accordingly a detailed investigation of the

Arizona material was undertaken and it was determined that the

Arizona mineral was not plancheite and that an additional

new copper mineral was intimately associated with and geneti-

cally derived from the more abundant blue mineral, which in a

preliminary note- was named shattuckite, the other new copper

mineral being called bisbeeite. So far as known to the writer,

plancheite has not been found in Arizona. The essential proper-

ties of shattuckite and of bisbeeite were published in the Third

Appendix to Dana's System of Mineralogy. The paper describ-

ing in detail the properties of these two new copper silicates has

not yet been published.

Zambonini^ has recently questioned the validity of shattuckite

as a separate species and has urged its identity with plancheite.

He gives a new analysis of plancheite which does not agree with

1 Lacroix, a. Sur une yiouvelle espece mineral, provenant du Congo frangais.

Compt. Rend. 146: 722-725. 1908; Les mineraux accompagnant la dioptase de

Mindotdi {Congo frangais): plancheite, nov. sp. Soc. Fran?. Mineral. Bnll. 31: 247-

259. 1908.

2 ScHAHER, W. T. Four new minerals. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5: 7. 1915.

^ Zambonini, F. Sur I'identite de hi shattuckite et de la plancheite. Compt.

Rend. 166: 495-497. 1918.

132 schaller: plancheite and shattuckite

the original one, but which does agree with the analyses of shat-

tuckite. Explanations of his results are suggested at the close

of this paper.

The nonidentity of shattuckite with plancheite, notwithstand-

ing their very close resemblance in properties and in chemical

composition, was definitely determined before the name shat-

tuckite was proposed. The direct comparison of the two min-

erals was readily made, as Prof. Lacroix had kindly presented

to the writer in Paris in 191 2 a typical specimen of plancheite.

The available specimen could not yield a sample of plancheite

of the requisite purity for chemical analysis. Plancheite is in-

timately mixed with other copper silicates, the most abundant

of which in the single specimen examined, is what is ordinarily

called chrysocolla. A set of three thin sections of parts of the

plancheite specimen shows that probably several other copper

silicates are also present, although the two named are predom-

inant. The fibers and spherulites of plancheite are imbedded, in

places, in the massive pale green chrysocolla and the other copper

silicates. The thin sections also show that although small

fairly pure masses of plancheite spherulites occur in the rock,

these masses are bordered by a layer of some other copper min-

eral. Judging only from the single specimen, it would be most

difficult, if not impossible, to prepare even a very small sample

of nearly pure plancheite for chemical analysis.

Abundant shattuckite was available, from which samples

were prepared that after careful selection contained only small

amounts of included tenorite. The analyses of three different

samples of shattuckite establish its formula as 2CuO.2SiO2.H2O;

whereas the formula of plancheite, as revised, is given as 6CuO.-

5Si02.2H20 (the original formula proposed is i5Cu0.i2Si02.-

5H2O).

If the only quantitative basis for determining the question of

the supposed identity of shattuckite with plancheite were the

chemical analyses, then the two minerals would readily be con-

sidered as identical. But there is a simple and absolutely con-

clusive method by which the question as to the identity of the

two minerals can be answered. This is by a comparison of their

schaller: plancheite and shattuckite

^53

optical constants, of which the refractive indices are the easiest

determined. If the refractive indices show a distinct difference,

then the minerals are not the same.

The refractive indices of both minerals were determined by

the writer before any mention of shattuckite was published and

it was found that the lowest refractive index («) of shattuckite

was considerably higher than the highest (7) refractive index

of plancheite. The actual determinations are shown in table i ;

there are also given the independent determinations kindly made

by E. S. Larsen, of the U. S. Geological Survey. Mr. Larsen's

values are more accurate than those of the writer and should

be taken as the correct values. The accurate determinations of

the refractive indices of such finely fibrous minerals as those under

discussion is an operation requiring very careful work and con-

siderable experience.

As table i readily shows, there is sufficient difference in the

optical constants of shattuckite and plancheite to preclude their

being identical.

TABLE I

Refractive Indices of Plancheite and Shattuckite

« Stated to be near 1.70 (7), Lacroix, A. Mineral. France 4: 758. 1910.

b Two sets of determinations, made at different times.

Zambonini's analysis of- plancheite yields the same formula

as^has been derived for shattuckite and he naturally concludes

that the two minerals are the same. Two suggestions are offered :

(i) that, through inadvertence, the mineral furnished Zambonini

(obtained from Lacroix in Paris) really was shattuckite and not

plancheite. This suggestion could have been readily proved

or disproved by a determination of the refractive indices of the

134

knowlton: a fossil maize from peru

material analyzed; (2) the material analyzed (plancheite) con-

tained enough impurities (copper silicates) to affect the composi-

tion of the sample so that the results obtained are comparable

to the composition of shattuckite.

But whatever may be the exact chemical relations of these

two minerals and whatever may be the formula of plancheite

the difference in the refractive indices proves conclusively that

they are not the same.

PALEONTOLOGY. — Description oj a supposed new fossil species

oj maize from Peru. F. H. Knowlton, U. S. National

Museum.

Some months ago the United States National Museum came

into the possession of a very remarkable specimen of fossil

corn from Peru. It was sent in as an ethnological specimen,

- - having been secured from a dealer in

curios in the city of Cuzco, Peru, by Dr.

W. F. Parks, of St. Louis, Missouri.

Dr. Walter Hough, of the Division of

Ethnology in the National Museum,

brought the specimen to me for iden-

tification. Although it is wonderfully

well preserved, it is in many particulars

so different from the ordinary types of

corn with which I was famihar that its

affinity was not recognized until this was

pointed out by Mr. G. N. Collins, of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, who for

many years has been making a special

study of the origin, evolutionary history,

and distribution of Indian corn (Zea).

The specimen has suffered practically no distortion during

fossiHzation, though a portion of the apex has been broken

off and lost. It is now a little more than 6 centimeters in

length and was probably about 8 centimeters long when complete.

The greatest diameter is nearly 4 centimeters. The point

of attachment for the "ear" was very small, suggesting that it

Fig. I . Fossilized ear of corn.

KNOWLTON: a fossil maize from PERU 135

was perhaps drooping, unless it was held upright by the developing

leaves. The axis or "cob" has entirely disappeared so far as any

structural elements are concerned, and its place has been filled

by a closely cemented, fine-grained siliceous sand. The indi-

vidual kernels or grains of com are mostly roughly triangular in

shape, and markedly different in size. The grains are not ar-

ranged in vertical rows but in some parts of the ear there is evi-

dence of their being in diagonal rows, though this is perhaps ac-

cidental. When viewed as a whole the grains appear to be very

irregularly placed. In color the grains are dark brown, almost

black, and as the matrix replacing the axis is light yellow in

color, the grains stand out in strong relief. No structural or

cellular elements are retained in the interior of the grains, this

being filled with very fine-grained compact sand.

Now the question arises as to the name by which this unique

specimen should be known. It must be confessed at once that

it proves exceedingly difficult, if not, indeed, impossible, to find

characters by which it can be adequately separated from certain

living types, such, for instance, as the Copacabana variety from

the regions of Lake Titicaca, yet the fact that it is so completely

fossilized lends support to the probability of its being several'

thousand years old instead of a few hundred years. For this

reason alone, and in order that it may be independently re-

ferred to, I venture to give it the name Zea antiqua.

It is of course extremely unfortunate that nothing is known

as to the condition under which this specimen was found. If

this were known it might be possible to fix its age with a reason-

able degree of certainty. As it stands, however, there is little

but the fact of its thorough fossilization to base an opinion on,

and from this I venture the tentative suggestion that it seems

hardly likely to be younger than at least several thousand years.

In a recent paper on "The evolution of maize," by Paul Weather-

wax,^ he says: "Geology and archaeology are of little value to us

in solving these problems, since the oldest remains of these

plants found in the rocks or in human habitations are practically

modern."

1 Bull. Torrey Club 45: 334. 1918.

136 CLARK: THE CRINOID GENUS HOLOPUS

It seems to me that the specimen under discussion falls very

little short of supplying the needed paleontological data on the

antiquity of maize. Its very modern appearance may of course

readily be interpreted as an indication of its comparatively

recent age, but, on the other hand, there is more than a reason-

able conjecture that it could be actually as old as has been sug-

gested, in which case it shows that the real ancestors of maize

must apparently be sought much earlier than has usually been

assumed.

ZOOLOGY. — The systematic position of the crinoid genus Holopus.

Austin H. Clark. U. S. National Museum.

The systematic position of Holopus has never been definitely

determined. In the latest general work on the Crinoidea^ it

was placed by Springer and Clark at the end of the Articulata,

in Family 8, Holopidae, beyond Family 7, Eugeniacrinidae, and

Family 6, Saccocomidae ; but this disposition was admittedly

provisional.

Holopus has frequently been associated with Edriocrinus,

but it does not seem possible that the two can really be closely

related.

In Holopus the disc, arms, and pinnules are so obviously of

the same type as those of the pentacrinites and comatulids that

the relationship with these forms can scarcely be denied. The

arms of Holopus are very short and thick and closely appressed

against each other; comparison, therefore, must be with the

closely appressed arm bases of such types as Endoxocrinus or

the genera of the Charitometridae (especially Crinometra) and

not with the distal portions of the pentacrinite or comatulid

arms, or with the widely separated arms of many forms. The

asymmetry of Holopus is duplicated in many of the Comas-

teridae.

The disc of Holopus is identical in character with that of the

very young of the comatulids in which perisomic plates are

present — Comactinia, Comissia, Thaumatocrinus, and Pentame-

' Zittel-Eastman's "Paleontology," 1913, p. 241.

CLARK: THE CRINOID GENUS HOLOPUS • 137

irocrinus — even to the detail of the slight eversion of the edges

of the orals.

So far as I can see, the column of Holopus is composed of

radials only. In the young specimen figured b}^ Alexander

Agassiz the uniformity of the ornamentation on the outer ring

appears to indicate that it is composed of a single series of plates,

which must be the radials. In one of the specimens figured by

P. H. Carpenter- the series of tubercles running down the median

line of each sector of the column indicates that the same plate

(the radial) persists as far as this ornamentation extends, and

probably also to the circumference of the basal disc.

An analysis of all the available characters^ indicates that

Holopus occupies practically the same developmental plane as

the pentacrinites and the comatulids; indeed it is questionable

which of the three groups should be considered the most special-

ized.

My personal opinion is that the pentacrinites, the comatulids,

and Holopus are very closely related, in spite of their extraordinary

superficial dissimilarity.

In the pentacrinites the column is enormously developed; so

rapid is the growth that the proximales as they are continuously

formed beneath the calyx never succeed in becoming attached

to it, but are continuously pushed outward by the formation

of new proximales between the last formed and the calyx; the

proximales later become separated by the intercalation of other

columnals, appearing in the fully developed column as the cirrif-

erous nodals. The basals are much reduced and lie horizon-

tally.

In the comatulids a short column is formed and a proximale

appears which, becoming firmly attached to the calyx, increases

enormously in size and, the larval column being discarded, con-

tains the entire adult stem. The basals, in nearly all the types,

become metamorphosed into an internal septum and entirely lose

their original character. The base therefore is entirely com-

- "Challenger" Report, Stalked Crinoids, 1884, plate III, fig. i.

' Phylogenetic study of the recent crinoids , Smiths. Misc. Coll. 65: No. 10.

August 19, 1915-

138 michelson: a second archeological note

posed of radials, practically horizontal in position, plus the

proximale.

In Holopus the same line of specialization has apparently been

followed further; the column and the basals have disappeared,

and the attachment is by means of the radials, which in the coma-

tulids dominated the base. It is conceivable that the very

young Holopus is essentially like a short-stemmed comatulid

in which the radials, growing very rapidly, form a cylindrical

ring with the basals, spread outward until they all lie in the same

plane, closing the proximal end, and that this ring becomes at-

tached by its lower border to the object upon which the larva

rests.

ANTHROPOLOGY.— i4 second archeological note.^ ' Truman

MiCHEi/SON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

Nearly three years ago I showed in this Journai^^ that the

provenience of the gray sandstone pipe discussed by Squier

and Davis in their Ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley,

pages 249 and 250, must be the upper Mississippi region near

the Rock River because the original of the pipe figured there

is either the same as that of the Sauk pipe shown on plate 2

at the end of volume 2 of Beltrami's Pilgrimage, or it belongs

to the same culture. It will be recalled that previously there was

uncertainty as to the provenience of this pipe. I now find that the

lowest of the three pipes shown on the plate facing page 279 of

Em. Domenech's Voyage pittoresque, said to be from Tennessee,

is also of the same culture; indeed it is almost impossible not to

believe that the same artist fashioned all three pipes, so great is

their likeness.

^ Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 6: 146. 1916.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— A^ote on the sintering of magnesia.

John B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 1: 439-440.

June, 1918.

The sintering of chemically pure magnesia has been generally re-

garded as difficult if not impossible, and this note is intended to place

upon record the conditions under which such a sintering was found

to take place readily. Pure magnesia powder, upon prolonged heating

at temperatures ranging from 1600° to 1720° C, sinters to a cake of

considerable mechanical strength and this sintering is due to a recrystal-

lization, forming a mass of interwoven crystals, rather than to the

presence of any bonding materials. J. B. F.

ENTOMOIyOGY. — Origin oj the castes of the common termite, Leuco-

termes flavipes Kol. C. B. Thompson. Journ. Morph. 30: No.

I. 1917.

Termites, since they belong to that most interesting group known

as "social insects," have been studied with interest by entomologists

for many years. One of the most important unsolved problems in the

complex life cycle of termites has been the origin of the castes.

There have been two theories as to the origin of the castes. According

to most of the older writers, all the young are undifferentiated or alike

upon hatching, and only become differentiated later through the ex-

ternal influences of food or protozoan parasites; the other view is that

the castes are predetermined in the egg or embryo by intrinsic factors.

Dr. Thompson shows that the fertile and sterile types are prede-

termined at the time of hatching and may be distinguished by the

bulk of the brain, the relative size of brain and head, the structure

of the compound eyes, and the size of the sex organs. He also proposes

a simplification in the nomenclature of forms and castes in termites

and in this and a previous paper on the origin of the frontal gland

in termites. T. E- SnydER.

139

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 809th meeting of the Society was held at the Administration

Building of the Carnegie Institution, November 23, 1918; Vice-Presi-

dent Humphreys in the chair; 50 persons present.

Mr. W. F. Meggers presented the first paper on Photography of the

red and infra-red solar spectrum. This paper was illustrated by lantern

slides.

Ordinary photographic plates stained with dicyanin have been used

extensively for several years at the Bureau of Standards in recording

the arc spectra of metals and tube spectra of gases in the red and adja-

cent infra-red spectral regions. The spectra of about half of the chem-

ical elements have thus been investigated from the yellow at wave-

lengths of about 6000 A into the infra-red to about 9000 A, and in some

cases to wave-lengths greater than 10,000 A.

This success in photographing the long waves from artificial sources

suggested an attempt to photograph the infra-red solar spectrum

on dicyanin stained plates, for, up to the present time, no complete

or accurate determinations of wave-lengths corresponding to Fraun-

hofer lines in the infra-red have existed, and there have been scarcely

any reliable measurements in spectra of the chemical elements in this

same region; identifications of absorption and emission lines have,

therefore, been few and uncertain.

This work was first undertaken at the Johns Hopkins University in

April, 191 7, and a brief account of it was published in the Astrophysical

Journal^ together with a map of the solar spectrum from 6860 A to

9600 A. Over 2000 Fraunhofer lines were measured between wave-

lengths limits and about 400 of them were identified with emission

^ Meggers. Astrophys. Journ. 47: i. 1918.

140

proceedings: philosophical society of WASHINGTON 141

lines in the spectra of twenty of the chemical elements. Nearly 80

per cent of the total number of lines remained unidentified, and many

of these, in addition to the well-known absorption bands A and B, due

to oxygen in the earth's atmosphere, were suspected to be of terrestrial

origin. An opportunity to separate the solar from the telluric lines

by aid of the Doppler-Fizeau displacement suffered by lines of solar

origin came with an invitation to use the Porter spectrograph at Alle-

ghany Observatory. Light from the eastern and western limbs of the

sun was photographed simultaneously in two parallel spectra in which

all lines of solar origin appear displaced in opposite directions, while

those due to absorption in the earth's atmosphere have the same wave-

lengths in both spectra. The spectrograms show that about 75 per

cent of the absorption lines with wave-lengths between 6400 A and 9400 A

arise in the atmosphere of our earth.

A line (wave-length 7664 A) characteristic of potassium is under

ordinary circumstances exactly coincident with one of the lines in the

A band due to terrestrial oxygen, but was compelled to betray its solar

origin by means of the Doppler-Fizeau effect. The presence of free

oxygen in the solar atmosphere was demonstrated by the coincidence

of six solar lines with lines in the emission spectrum of oxygen. All

of the evidence for solar oxygen lies in its infra-red spectrum.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman and

Humphreys.

The second paper on The hot spell of August, 1918, was presented by

Mr. A. J. Henry.

The hot spell of the first decade of August, 191 8, had its origin over

Montana and the central and northern Plains States. It was prac-

tically stationar}^ over eastern Kansas and western Montana from the

ist to the 3d, inclusive, and on the 4th spread eastward by way of the

Ohio valley to western Pennsylvania and also northeastward into the

southern part of the Lake region. On the 5th it reached its greatest

geographical extension; the area affected on the evening of that date

was a little more than a million square miles, or just about one-third

of the area of the LTnited States, excluding Alaska and outlying pos-

sessions. The increase in the area of the heated territory from the 4th

to the 5th was in round numbers a quarter of a million square miles.

The peak of the high temperature in the west was reached on August

3-5 and in the east on August 6-7. In the east the daily maxima declined

irregularly until the 14th, when normal conditions were reached. The

period of extraordinarily high temperature was short, not exceeding

three days at any one place. The high temperatures were associated

with a dry atmosphere and there was therefore not much bodily dis-

comfort and but few heat prostrations were reported in the daily

press.

The abnormally high temperature was due to a combination of favor-

able circumstances. These in the order of their importance are: (i)

A pressure distribution that inaugurated and maintained a system of

southerly winds over the great interior valleys and the middle Atlantic

142 proceedings: philosophical society of WASHINGTON

States. (2) The prolonged period of high temperature over the

Plains States preceding the hot spell. (3) The absence of clouds and

consequently unhindered insolation throughout the period of the hot

weather.

Diagrams were shown illustrating the pressure distribution in the

United States at the beginning of the hot spell and its daily eastward

advance to the Atlantic.

The eastern limit of the hot weather corresponded roughly with the

72d meridian of west longitude, which it may be remembered passes

through central Massachusetts.

Local thunder showers set in over the upper Ohio valley, the northern

portion of the Appalachian region, western Maryland, and the District

of Columbia in the later afternoon of the 7th, bringing to an end in those

districts the unusually high temperatures that had prevailed during

the preceding 48 hours. While high maxima were recorded in eastern

Pennsylvania, eastern New York, and western New England on the

yth, local showers on the 8th brought relief from the extremely high

maxima but normal temperatures were not reached in the east until

the 14th.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Kimball,

Humphreys, Kadel, and Hayford.

The 8ioth meeting, being the 48th annual meeting of the Society,

was held at the Administration Building, Carnegie Institution, Decem-

ber 7, 1 91 8; President Burgess in the chair; 22 members present.

The report of the Secretaries was read by Mr. E. C. Crittenden.

This report showed that the present active membership is 182, a net

gain of 12 during the past year. Among the active members there

were seven deaths during the year, namely: Henry Adams, Thos.

B. Ford, G. K. Gilbert, R. A. Harris, Artemas Martin, Richard

Rathbun, Geo. M. vSearle. Also one member on the absent list.

Captain Ernest Weibel, died of wounds received in France. There

was one resignation during the year and thirteen were transferred to

the absent list, a number of these being men who were engaged in over-

seas military duty. There were 2i2> ^i^w members elected during the

year.

The Society held 14 meetings for the presentation of papers. At

these meetings :^2) communications were presented. About 15 per

cent of the Society presented papers. The average attendance at the

meetings was 45, constituting about 25 per cent of the membership of

the Society.

The General Committee adopted new By-laws on December 22, 191 7,

to supplement the revised By-laws of the Society which had been

adopted November 24, 191 7. These By-laws have been published

and issued to the members of the Society.

The report of the Secretaries was accepted and ordered placed on

file.

proceedings: botanical, society of WASHINGTON 143

The report of the Treasurer was read by Mr. H. F. MuELLER. This

report shows that the receipts from dues, interests on investments, and

miscellaneous items amounted to $1,194.96. The expenses for the

same period, including expenses of the officers, programs, hall for meet-

ings, and grants, amounted to $804.34. I^i addition, the Cosmos Club

bond of $1,000 was paid and a Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis

Railway bond was purchased for $1,065.50. The balance on hand

December 6, 1918, is $509.25, being $325.12 greater than the balance

on hand one year previous. The par value of the securities held by

the Society is now $12,500, being the same as one year previous. A

list of the securities held by the Society is attached to the Treasurer's

report, as is also a list of delinquent dues and the estimated liabilities

of the Society. The excess of income over expenditures for 19 18 is

shown to be $377.38.

The Auditing Committee reported that it examined the books of the

Treasurer and found the Treasurer's report to be a correct statement

of the resources and liabilities of the Society.

The reports of the Auditing Committee and Treasurer were ordered

accepted and placed on file.

The report of the Tellers, consisting of Messrs. D. R. Harper and

R. M. WiLHELM, was read by Mr. Harper. A total of 42 ballots was

received. Following the report of the Tellers, the Society proceeded

to the election of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording Secre-

tary, and two members of the General Committee. The result of elec-

tion is as follows: President, W. J. Humphreys; Senior Vice-President,

R. B. Sosman; Junior Vice-President, R. L. Faris; Recording Secre-

tary, S. J. Mauchly; Treasurer, E. F. Mueller; General Committee,

H. H. Kimball, F. E. Fowle, and D. L. Hazard, to fill unexpired term

of Mr. vSwann.

H. ly. Curtis, Recording Secretary.

The Sixth meeting was held at the Administration Building of the

Carnegie Institution, Januar}^ 4, 1919; President Humphreys in the

chair; 72 persons present.

The evening was devoted to hearing the address of the retiring

President, Mr. George K. Burgess, on Science and the after--utir

period. The address was published in this Joltrnal.^

vS. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 130th regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos

Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, October i, 1918. Thirty-two members and

three guests were present. The following paper was presented:

The eradication of the citrus canker: Karl F. KIellERMAN. vSince

the autumn of 1914 the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture has been cooperating with the Gulf States in a

^ 9: 57-70. 1919-

144 proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON

campaign for the eradication of the canker disease of citrus fruit and

trees. The first observation regarding a plant disease which presuma-

bly was citrus canker is with reference to nursery stock introduced

into Texas in 1 911. It is not improbable that earlier shipments of

nursery stock were infected, and it is certain that many later ship-

ments of Citrus trifoliata orange seedlings from Japan, both into Texas

and into other Gulf States, were infected.

Citrus canker is primarily a leaf-spot and fruit-spot, although it also

affects twigs and even old bark and wood. In its early stages, how-

ever, it resembles the sour-scab of citrus trees, a troublesome but not

an especially serious disease that is widely prevalent in the South.

Until late in the year 1913 plant pathologists and nurserymen did not

clearly distinguish between these two diseases, and, therefore, prior to

its recognition and the determination of its serious character, the ship-

ment of infected nursery stock was probably taking place throughout

the southern areas where citrus culture was being extended.

During the seasons of 1913 and 19 14 special efforts were made by

State nursery inspectors, by nurserymen, and by citrus growers to

check the spread of the disease by complete defoliation of infected

stock followed by immediate and thorough spraying with strong Bor-

deaux mixture and by painting visible infections with Bordeaux paste.

These treatments were ineifectual, however, and citrus growers in

southeastern Florida became so concerned over the rapid and destruc-

tive spread of citrus canker and the failure of the methods usually

employed for controlling plant diseases that they originated the plan

of spraying infected trees with burning oil, thus completely destroying

them. Eradication work of this character was undertaken imme-

diately and financed almost entirely by private subscriptions, but the

disease appeared to be gaining upon the forces attempting to control it.

Severe tropical storms, in addition to the usual means of spreading

the contagion, considerably increased the number of properties in-

fected. The grapefruit, the orange, the lime, and the lemon are so

readily infected with citrus canker that it does not appear probable

that any method except that of complete destruction of all infected

trees will serve to check the disease in any locality. Even at the worst,

however, but a very small fraction of the citrus properties of the South

have been infected, and those in California have escaped completely.

Furthermore, the infected properties usually can be cleansed of the

disease before many trees are lost.

Throughout the last three years great emphasis has been given to

the necessity of unusual precautions and constant care to prevent the

spread of canker, which is extremely infectious to all kinds of citrus

trees. The progress of the work has been very satisfactory, and there

appears to be no doubt that the few infections occurring in South

Carolina and Georgia have been eradicated, so that further work in

these states will not be necessary. The amount of infection in Florida,

Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas has been very greatly re-

duced, and while very thorough scouting and inspection will be neces-

proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON 1 45

sary in these States, in order promptly to locate scattered infections

which may occur, it is believed that further seriously destructive out-

breaks of canker can be prevented.

The 1 8th annual meeting of the Society was held immediately after

the regular meeting. In the absence of the regular officers, all reports

were omitted. The following officers were elected for the ensuing

year: President, Karl F. KellERMan; Vice-President, C. R. Ball;

Recording Secretary, Chas. E. Chambliss; Corresponding Secretary,

R. K. Beattie; Treasurer, h. L. Harter. Walter T. Swingle was

nominated for Vice-President in the Washington Academy of Sciences.

The 131st regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Carnegie Institution at 8 p.m., Thursday, December 5,

1918.^ Forty -four members and three guests were present. The

following papers were presented:

Effect of temperature and other meteorological factors on the growth of

sorghums: H. N. Vinall. The speaker stated that the purpose of tliis

study was to determine the reactions of the sorghum plant to climatic

conditions. Several varieties were grown under field conditions at

Chillicothe, Texas, Bard and Chula Vista, California, and Puyallup,

Washington. The average of the monthly means of temperature for

the growing seasons at the above points was 75.6°, 81.8°, 62.4°,

and 60.4° F., respectively. The percentage of actual to possible sun-

shine was 75, 93, 68, and 46. The total degrees of positive tempera-

ture received by the sorghums at Chillicothe was 3028°, at Bard 4236°,

at Chula Vista 1895°, and at Puyallup 1615° F.

None of the sorghums matured at Puyallup, but all matured at Chula

Vista with only 280° difference in the total of positive temperatures.

This would seem to indicate that the amount of sunshine is an impor-

tant factor in bringing sorghums to maturity. The conformance of the

sorghums of Chillicothe, Bard, and Chula \^ista to Linsser's Law of

Growth was remarkable. The "physiological constant," according to

this law, for the period from planting to maturity, was for Chillicothe

0.539, Bard 0.530, and Chula Vista 0.526.

Vegetative characters which are ordinarily considered stable,

such as the number of leaves per plant, varied with the climatic condi-

tions. Blackhull kalir had 3 and Sumac sorgo 6 more leaves at Bard

than at Chula Vista. The varieties also showed decided differences in

height and diameter of the stem and in the size of the leaf at these

two places.

Studies on the effects of different dates of planting at Bard indicate

that "more favorable conditions are obtained if the date of planting

is regulated so that the early stages of the plant's development coincide

with a period of high temperatures and the later stages, when the plant

is nearing maturity, come when moderate temperatures prevail."

' The November meeting was not held on account of the influenza epidemic.

146 proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON

Defects in wood in relation to airplane construction: Lieut. J. S. BoycE.

Since airplane construction aims to secure the maximum strength with

the minimum weight, it is self-evident that wood with any defects

which weaken it appreciably must not be used for this purpose.

One type of defect is the so-called advance rot, which is merely the

early stages of decay, the fungus mycelium having already invaded and

weakened the wood, but the only microscopical evidence of this condi-

tion is a slight discoloration of the wood. Advance rot is quite prev-

alent in the more important woods used in airplane construction,

among which are Sitka spruce (Picea sitckensis), Douglas fir {Pseudo-

tstiga taxifolia), yellow birch {Betida lutea), white oak (Otiercus alba),

and white ash (Fraxinus aniericana). Considerable skill is necessary

to separate stock with advance rot from that with harmless discolora-

tions resulting from chromogenic fungi or other causes.

Very slight lightning wounds, known as "lightning rings," are serious

defects in airplane members, since there is a decided tendency for the

wood to separate easily along the annual rings in which such wounds

occur.

In order to make such defects properly understood in their relative

importance, it will be necessary to disseminate information in simple

form concerning the structure, mechanical properties, and defects of

wood throughout the airplane industry.

The 132nd regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Carnegie Institution at 8 p.m., Wednesday, January 15,

1919. Thirty members and five guests were present. Mr. Clifford

H. Farr, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership.

The following papers were presented:

The potash-containing marls of the eastern United States: R. H. True.

Greensand marls were first recognized in America in 1768 near Marl-

boro, New Jersey. After the Revolution their use as fertilizers de-

veloped rapidly, marl railroads having been built in the early thirties

to haul marl from the most valuable deposits to the surrounding farm-

ing country. In the early forties over a million tons were shipped by

rail in one year in this state alone. The digging of similar deposits

discovered in Virginia began about 1833 and ceased only when the Civil

War broke out. The war and the heavy demand on labor led to the

ready adoption of guano, ground bone, and other concentrated fer-

tilizers, and marling practically ceased.

In 1824 Seybert found them to contain calcium carbonate, potassium^

and other substances. Rogers and others claimed chief value for potas-

sium, Ruffin for the lime. With the present shortage of potassium

these marls furnish a useful source for a very great supply over a prac-

ticable hauling radius. Marl samples collected in New Jersey and in

Virginia when used in sand cultures yield sufficient available potassium

to support a normal growth when supplied at the rate of five or more

tons per acre.

Germination of immature seeds: J. B. S. Norton. The consideration

of immature seed har\^ested under certain conditions in the case of

proceedings: botanical society of WASHINGTON 1 47

some crops and at all times with other crops leads to a number of prac-

tical questions. It was shown in the experiments reported that wheat

seed first began to germinate six days after blossom. Germination

increased to 78 per cent at the end of two weeks, then decreased at

ripening time and rose slowly to 92 per cent a month after harvest.

Corn began to germinate when 12 days old, germinated over 20 per

cent in the roasting-ear stage, 88 per cent at four-weeks age, then de-

clined and rose slowly after the grain began to lose weight. Tomatoes,

peas, and cowpeas germinated well before maturity, and a number of other

species germinated to some extent. Blackberry, lily, euphorbia, and

ragweed, seeds that might be expected to have difficult germination

when ripe, were tried in immature condition to see if the cause of dor-

mancy acted before ripening. No germination was obtained in these

species.

The 133rd regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos

Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, February 4, 1919. Fifty-eight members

and five guests were present. Messrs. M. N. Pope, Curtis H. Kyle,

J. P. Benson, J. I. Lauritzen, R. N. Jones, P. G. Russell, L. G.

Hoover, and J. A. Stevenson were elected to membership. The

program consisted of the following papers:

Producing self-fertile muscadine grapes (with lantern) : Chas. T.

Bearing. The office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has conducted muscadine-

grape investigations for the past 12 years with a view to the develop-

ment of this native type of grape as a fruit industry for the southeastern

United States where other grapes do not thrive. These investigations

have been in the nature of field surveys, studies of proper cultural,

handling, and utilization methods, and breeding.

The breeding work has aimed toward maintaining the desirable

characters of the species while securing improvement in those ways in

which this seemed possible. The production of self -fertile varieties

has undoubtedly been the most important result. At the time these

investigations were undertaken, there was not such a thing as a self-

fertile muscadine grape. All the fruiting varieties were self -sterile

and dependent on insects to bring fertile pollen from the wild male

muscadines. The Department now has a large collection of self-fertile

varieties.

The value of these self -fertile varieties is evident, (i) They are of

inestimably great value in breeding work in that they afford for the

first time the opportunity to intercross within the species without using

as one parent a variety of unknown fruiting qualities (male vine).

Breeding directly for a combination of the desirable characters found

in the fruiting varieties of V. rotundifolia is now possible. (2) They

afford directly a cluster of increased size (a breeding object) in that the

self -fertile varieties are the result of perfecting the large-clustered male-

type blossoms rather than the small-clustered female-type blossoms.

(3) They afford greater productiveness in that they are able to set a

larger per cent of the bloom buds as berries due to their self -fertility.

148 proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON

They afford opportunities for greater vineyard production as well as

vine production, for they can be used in place of nonproductive male

vines as pollinators for imperfect hermaphrodites.

It has been abundantly proved that the new perfect-flowered or

hermaphroditic type is a result of perfecting the pistils of the bloom of

the male type of vine rather than the rudimentary stamens of the bloom

of the female t3^pe. It is belie^^ed that it is merely a matter of time un-

til only perfect-flowered, self-fertile muscadine grapes will be grown in

the vineyards of the South.

Plant responses under artificial light (with lantern): L. C. Corbett.

That light is one of the most important factors in the environment of

green plants has been recognized as long as any phenomenon of plant

physiology has been observed. Many experiments have been conducted

to demonstrate the effects of the presence or absence of light as a fac-

tor of environment. The great majority of these experiments are

merely qualitative. They demonstrate the effect of a force with no

attempt to analyze or measure it. Plant physiology has up to recent

time been largely a qualitative science. This is to be explained chiefly

on the ground that bio-chemistry has not been sufficiently developed

to permit plant physiology to be other than a qualitative science.

While, as has been stated, there are numerous simple tests to illus-

trate the fact that light directly influences various plant activities, few

studies have been undertaken to show the relation of various portions

of the spectrum to plant responses.

More than twenty years ago the speaker had an opportunity to con-

duct a series of tests to determine the influence which artificial light,

used as a supplement to daylight, might have on the rate of develop-

ment of various plants growing in greenhouses. After a series of tests

extending over three years to determine the influence of incandescent

gas light as a supplement to daylight, a series of tests was inaugurated

to determine the influence of various-colored incandescent gas lights on

plant growth, when used as a supplement to daylight. In these tests

incandescent gas lamps were provided with globes tinted red, blue,

and green. The behavior of plants in the field of such lights was com-

pared with the behavior of like plants in the field of lamps carrying

clear globes. Different plants gave varying responses under the stim-

ulus of the different-colored light, but each light induced a character-

istic effect which was consistent for all plants, but in varying degrees.

Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 319th regular meeting of the Society was held Feb. 6, 1919, in

the new Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club; 36 members and 10 visi-

tors were present.

The following new members were elected: Dr. U. C. Loftin, of the

Bureau of Entomology, John D. Sherman, of New York, and E. A.

proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON 1 49

McMahon, of the Entomological Laboratory at Annapolis Royal,

Nova Scotia.

The regular program was as follows:

W. M. Mann: Notes on the Solomon Islands. An account of a col-

lecting trip to these islands, illustrated by lantern slides showing the

topography, flora, fauna, and the various types of natives, their dress,

habits, implements, and customs.

N. E. McIndoo: The olfactory sense of lepidopterous larvae. The

author described experiments conducted to determine if the larvae

are able to distinguish between various plants offered them as food,

the result of these experiments proving that they are able to do so.

The author is of the opinion that this is accomphshed by means of an

olfactory sense and locates the seat of this sense in certain minute

pits scattered over various portions of the body, each pit connected

with a sense cell. The structure and position of these organs were

illustrated by charts and drawings.

In discussing this paper Mr. Busck congratulated Dr. McIndoo

on his work and commented on the far-reaching possibilities it sug-

gested in economic entomology, when we shall know enough about

these supposed olfactory organs to tempt the codling moth away

from the apple by a perfumed bait. He pointed out that the organs

described by Dr. McIndoo were by no means a new discovery, but

that at least those of the head were well known by lepidopterists and

had all been carefully mapped out and named in connection with the

parts of the head and the head setae. Their position relative to the

setae is constant for each species and yields excellent generic and

family characters, which enable determination merely from a larval

head capsule.

Mr. Busck stated that he had hitherto considered the punctures as

remnants of aborted setae and he still thought they must be consid-

ered such, modified to serve other senses than touch; the setae are

sense-touch organs and have nerves running to their bases like the

punctures. As one ground for this view he mentioned that certain

of these supposed olfactory punctures, the ultra posterior punctures on

the head, in some species bear a small hair and in others not.

Mr. Busck criticized and objected to Dr. Mclndoo's arbitrary num-

bering of these punctures, starting on the thorax, continuing to the

last abdominal segment, and ending with the head. He suggested

as more rational and simpler to name them after the part of the body

they are found on, and he thought it common sense to adopt the al-

ready existing names for the head punctures, which were used by

Heinrich and himself and which were named after the head parts on

which the punctures are situated.

Dr. Pierce emphasized the bearing that papers like that under dis-

cussion have on taxonomy and economic entomolog\^ and predicted

that in future the determination of larvae by the minute characters

of small fragments will be very generally possible.

150 proceedings: entomological society of WASHINGTON

In reply to a question, Dr. Mclndoo stated that the organs that he

had discussed are, in his opinion, used by the insect in selecting its

host, but that this is theoretical. Dr. Baker stated that similar

organs in aphids undergo modification when the insects change to an-

other host plant for a long series of generations, and that in some cases

it is possible to determine from this what host plant a given individual

developed on. Mr. Busck was of the opinion that the lepidoptera

are not so susceptible to changes in host.

Notes and exhibition of specimens: Mr. Caudell exhibited a speci-

men of the Dectician Capnobotes fuUginosus Thomas that had fallen

prey to the wasp Palmodes praestans Kohl, the interesting points being

that the prey, itself probably predaceous, was killed by a wasp very

much smaller than itself and that the wasp is the fourth known speci-

men of its species.

Mr. Wood commented on the fact that living individuals of the woolly

apple aphis are now present in aerial colonies and attributed this to the

mild winter.

R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The Division of Mineral Resources of the U. S. Geological Survey

has been reorganized, with Dr. Edson S. Bastin as geologist in charge.

The section of metals will be in charge of G. F. Loughlin ; the section

of nonmetals, other than fuels, R. W. Stone; the section of mineral

fuels, C. E. Lesher; and the section of foreign resources, J. B. Um-

PLEBY. Mr. H. D. McCaskey, formerly chief of the Division, asked

to be relieved of his administrative duties after the signing of the arm-

istice in November, and will devote his time to special phases of

American mineral resources.

Dr. SAMUEiy S. Adams has been elected vice-president of the faculty

of Georgetown University, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Dr.

Frank Baker.

Mr. A. D. CoNLEY, associate physicist in the paper and textile

laboratory of the Bureau of Standards, resigned from the Bureau in

February to take up special research for the Wm. E. Cooper Company,

of Baltimore, Maryland.

Miss AiDA M. Doyle resigned from the Bureau of Chemistry in

February and is now with E- I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, of

Wilmington, Delaware.

Mr. J. D. Edwards, associate chemist, and Mr. A. D. Bell, assis-

tant chemist. Bureau of Standards, expect to leave the Bureau in April

to take up research at the laboratory recently organized by Dr. F. C.

Frary for the Aluminum Company of America, at Pittsburgh, Penn-

sylvania.

Dr. F. C. Frary, formerly of the Oldbury Chemical Company of

Niagara Falls, who has lately been engaged in war research, first in

Washington and later at the Edgewood Arsenal of the Chemical War-

fare Service, is organizing a research laboratory for the Aluminum

Company of America, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Dr. Ales Hrdli^ka, Curator of Physical Anthropology in the U. S.

National Museum, has been elected a member of the American Philo-

sophical Society.

Mr. W. H. Keen, formerly general manager of the Chemical Prod-

ucts Company and metallurgical superintendent of the Washington

Steel and Ordnance Company, is now factory manager of the U. S.

Copper Products Corporation, of Cleveland, Ohio.

Dr. Willis T. Lee is on leave of absence from the Geological Survey,

and is now head of the Department of Geology and Director of the

School of Engineering Geology in the University of Oklahoma, at Norman,

Oklahoma.

Major J. H. Mathews, who has been with the Ordnance Depart-

ment in Washington, has returned to the University of Wisconsin as

professor of physical chemistry.

151

152 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prof. EarlE B. Phelps, Professor of Chemistry at the Hygienic

Laboratory, Pubhc Health Service, resigned from the Service on March

I, 1919.

Professor Edward Charles Pickering, professor of astronomy and

director of the Harvard College Observatory, and a nonresident mem-

ber of the Academy, died at Cambridge on February 3, 1919, in his

seventy-third year. Professor Pickering was bom at Boston, Massa-

chusetts, July 19, 1846. Excepting the years 1867-1876, during which

he was Thayer Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, his entire academic career was spent at Harvard Univer-

sity. His astronomical work was especially concerned with the photom-

etry and spectrum photography of the light of the stars. He was a

member of the National Academy of Sciences, president of the Astro-

nomical and Astrophysical Society of America, and a member of many

American and foreign societies and academies. He had been a mem-

ber of the Academy since 1899, and was one of its nonresident vice-

presidents in 19 1 5 and 191 6.

Mr. Richard L. Templin, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, is

Engineer of Tests for the Aluminum Compan}^ of America, at New

Kensington, Pennsylvania.

Mr. Carl Vrooman, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, resigned in

January. Mr. Vrooman will remain for the present in Europe, where

he had gone as a member of the Agricultural Commission sent out by

the Department.

Mr. F. A. WerTz, associate chemist at the Bureau of Standards, will

leave the Bureau in March to take up research on varnishes and allied

products for the Devoe and Raynolds Company, Incorporated, of New

York City.

Brigadier General John Moulder Wilson, U. S. A., retired, died at

his home, 1773 Massachusetts Avenue, on February i, 1919, at the age

of 81. General Wilson first came to Washington in 1885, as superin-

tendent of buildings and grounds, in which capacity he had charge of

the construction or completion of many of the now familiar structures

of the city. He became Chief of Engineers in 1897, and retired in

1903. He had been for the past fifteen years a member of the Board

of Managers of the National Geographic Society.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 MARCH 19, 1919 No. 6

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— r/i^ classification of mimetic crystals.

Edgar T. Wherry and Eluot Q. Adams, Bureau of

Chemistry.^

As more or less fully described in all text-books on crystallog-

raphy, crystals which belong fundamentally to one system or

symmetry class may at times exhibit features characteristic of

other systems or classes. This may result from accidents of

growth, or from the approach of the angles to those of other

systems, either with or without twinning. It is customary to

group together part or all of these phenomena under the general

head of mimicry, mimetism, or mimetic behavior, and to add the

prefix pseudo- to the name of the system or class to which the

crystals apparently belong. In discussing certain crystallo-

graphic relationships, however, it may become desirable to dis-

tinguish the several types of mimetic phenomena on the basis

of their underlying causes, and to have special terms, for both

the original system or class and the one imitated, to apply in

each case.

The principal types of mimetic behavior are presented in

table I, together with prefixes proposed for, and typical illustra-

tions of, each of them. The prefixes are derived from well-

known Greek roots, transliterated in accordance with accepted

usage. The illustrations are drawn from minerals, since the

features in question are most familiar in them, although the

greatest use for the classification may prove to be among artificial

' Contribution from the Crystallography and Color Laboratories.

153

154 WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OV MIMETIC CRYSTALS

compounds. The subdivisions arc, it should be noted, not

mutually exclusive, and one crystal may fall simultaneously

into two or more of them, although usually most typical of one.

The names of the crystal systems and classes used are drawni

largely from Dana, with the following exceptions: cubic in place

TABLIC I.

Types of Mimetic Phenomena, with Prefixes Proposed, and Illustrations

General prefixes for the whole group {

{ for original class, homo- (same)

of isometric; trigonal as a distinct system; and rhombic in place

of orthorhombic. No changes in the plans of nomenclature here

proposed will need to be made should the use of other names be

preferred.

DISCUSSION OF TABLE I

Whenever it is desired to refer to mimetic behavior without

considering the cause or effect as such, the prefixes homo- and

pseudo-, signifying, respectively, "the same" and "false," may be

used. For instance, the crystallization of the aragonite group

may be described as "homo-rhombic but pseudo-hexagonal."

WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OP MIMETIC CRYSTALS 1 55

The cause of mimetic phenomena may be, first, extrinsic, or

connected with influences outside of the crystal, leading to

peculiarities of habit which may constitute either apparent

increase or apparent decrease in symmetry. It not infrequently

happens that the only forms present on a crystal possessing a

low degree of symmetry may be those which the class represented

has in common with other more symmetrical classes. A good

example of this is quartz, which though actually trigonal and

trapezohedral, may show only the first order prism and the

corresponding plus and minus rhombohedrons. If perfectly

developed, the only symmetry which this combination can show

is holohedral-hexagonal. It is here suggested that the true

class of a substance showing such a relationship be indicated

by the prefix crypto-, meaning "hidden," and the class which is

apparently represented by pheno-, signifying "apparent." The

quartz crystals showing only hexagonal forms would then be

fully described by stating them to be: "crypto-trigonal-trapezo-

hedral but pheno-hexagonal-holohedral." Other illustrations are

pyrite, which is often crypto-pyritohedral but pheno-holohedral

cubic; apatite, which is usually crypto-pyrainidal but pheno-

holohedral hexagonal; and so on.

A still more frequent type of mimetic effect, though not always

classed as such, is the decrease in apparent symmetry due to

distortion or irregularity in habit produced by external in-

fluences. This eff'ect is, indeed, almost universally present

among crystals, really perfect development being practically

never met with. Whenever simple descriptive terms are needed

for this type of relationship, the prefixes cndo-, meaning "in-

side," and ecto-, "outside," may be used. To cite a familiar

example, the metal coppej-, though well known to be funda-

mentally cubic, or endo-cubic, is almost always distorted, and

may be ecto-trigonal, ecto-rhombic, or even ecto-triclinic.

The second class of causes of mimetic phenomena may be

termed intrinsic, since essential features of the internal structure

of the crystal are responsible. The effect is connected with the

approach of the angles in crystals of one system or class to those

of another, and develops most commonly through more or less

156 WHERRY AND ADAMS: CLASSIFICATION OF MIMETIC CRYSTALS

multiple twinning. The symmetry is usually increased by such

twinning, hence good descriptive prefixes are ana-, meaning "up-

wards" and syn-, "together." The common twinned crystals

of aragonitc, for instance, would then be termed: "ana-rhombic

but syn-hexagonal;" phillipsite, "ana-monoclinic but syn-

tetragonal;" boracite, "ana-rhombic but syn-cubic," and so on.

Less frequently the symmetry is decreased by twinning, where-

upon the original class may be designated by kata-, meaning

"downwards" while para- "beside" referring to the individual

parts of the twins, may be used for the imitated one. Thus

spinel and other cul^ic minerals, when twinned on the octa-

hedron, often become apparently trigonal; they may be de-

scribed as "kata-cubic but para-trigonal."

There is still another situation in which the crystals of one

system may imitate those of another, consisting in the mere ap-

proach in angular values without twinning or distortion. It

should be noted here that the prefix hypo- has been applied

rather extensively to this type of relationship, though it is not

limited to mimetic crystals, but is used broadly for approach

of angular values to within 15° of those of the cubic, tetragonal,

or hexagonal systems. A new term is therefore needed for the

purpose of the present classification. The prefixes suggested to

describe this type of relationship are Icpto-, which means slight,

and peri-, which means around or about. For instance, the

triclinic plagioclase feldspars, such as albite, approach the mono-

clinic orthoclase very closely in angles and habit. The deviation

of their interaxial angles a and 7 from 90°, the value character-

istic of the monoclinic system, is but slight, and this can be well

expressed by calling them "lepto-triclinic but pcri-monoclinic,"

that is, "weakly triclinic, and approaching monoclinic angular

relationships." Other well-known examples are chalcocite, which

is lepto-rhombic and peri-hexagonal; muscovite, lepto-mono-

clinic and peri-hexagonal; and chondrodite, lepto-monoclinic

and peri-rhombic.

In conclusion it may be noted that the purpose of this paper

is not primarily the development of terms for these types of

mimetic phenomena, but rather the pointing out that it may at

ROWI.es : SYNOPSIS OF THE GKNUS OCHROMA 157

times be useful to distinguish the different types. Even though

none of the prefixes proposed be thought worthy of general

adoption by crystallographers, it is hoped that the desirability

of some method of distinction of the several types will not be

forgotten, and that in future descriptions of mimetic crystals it

will rarely be considered sufficient to refer to them only by the

prefix "pseudo."

BQT ANY .—Syiwpsis of the genus Ochroma, with descriptions of

new species. W. W. RowivEE, Cornell University. (Com-

municated by Frederick V. Covillc.)

The utilization of the wood of Ochroma has brought that

genus into prominence during the last few years. The manu-

facture of buoyancy and insulation products, such as life rafts,

refrigerators, and parts of lifeboats and aeroplanes, especially in

connection with the war, has become very extensive. Eighty

thousand floats made of balsa wood were used in constructing

the 250-mile submarine mine barrage in the North Sea; war

vessels as well as transports were in so far as possible equipped

with balsa life rafts and lifeboats; and special refrigerating trucks

with balsa as the insulating material were used in France. The

characteristics of the wood were investigated by the late Pro-

fessor R. C. Carpenter in a very thorough manner and the re-

sults were published in a paper entitled The properties of balsa

wood^ The importance of obtaining first-hand information re-

garding the quantity of wood available, and of discriminating

between the usable and unusable wood, led the American Balsa

Corporation to commission the writer and his son in April, 191 8,

to explore Central America with a view to finding out the amount

of timber available and to investigate as to the quality of the

wood and the kinds that grow in different regions. For this

purpose we spent seven months in Panama, Costa Rica, Nica-

ragua, and Guatemala. The taxonomic results of the survey

are given briefly in this paper.

The wood of the trees of the genus Ochroma is the most notable

among lightweight woods. It is generally known in vSpanish

* Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. 81: 125. 1917.

158 rowlee: synopsis op thk gknus ochroma

America as "balsa," and that word has been transferred to and

is in general use in the United States. Balsa is the Spanish word

for raft, and it was applied to this tree because the Spanish

colonists, when they migrated to the New World, found it in

use by the natives for rafts. When they found a tree obviously

related to an Old World species, the colonists usually trans-

ferred the European name to the new tree. Thus, "roble,"

the Spanish name for oak, was applied to like trees in the New

World; but there was nothing in Spain in any way like balsa,

and so the name of the object for which this wood was used was

transferred to the tree itself. This name was and still is largely

confined to countries where the trees were so used, that is,

Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica. In Nicaragua the tree

is called "gatillo;" in Guatemala, "cajeto" on the west coast,

and "moho" and "lana" on the east coast; in Cuba, "lanillo;"

in Jamaica "corkwood" and "down tree," or as the Jamaican

negroes have it, simply "dum," In these regions it is doubtful

if it was ever used for rafts.

Balsa is a very common and conspicuous tree in tropical

America. It is distinguished not only by its light soft wood,

but also by its large simple leaves, large solitary flowers, and

very conspicuous fruit, which is not unlike a cotton boll on a

large scale. When the fruit is matured, but has not finally

burst, it looks much like a rabbit's foot and presumably from

this the first species of Ochroma to be described received the

specific name ''lagopus." When the fruit finally bursts and the

mass of down falls to the earth, it suggests the fur of a rabbit.

The seeds are enveloped in this fur and are disseminated by it.

They resemble small grape seeds and, unlike cotton, the "down"

is not firmly and permanently attached to the seed.

The tree of the Greater Antilles was first given a binary name,

Ochroma lagopus, by the Swedish botanist, Olaf Swartz, in

1788^ and was more fully described by him four years later. -

At about the same time Humboldt collected specimens of

another species in the upper valley of the Magdalena River in

» Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 98. 1788.

^ Act. Stockh. 148. pi. 6. 1792. See also Swartz's later description, Fl. lad.

Occ. 2: 1 143. 1800.

ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA 159

Colombia and this was described by Willdenow under the name

Ochroma tomcntosa. This second species has never been found

outside the region where Humboldt collected it. Swartz's type

locality is "Jamaica, Hispaniola," but specimens from South

America, Central America, and the West Indies have been

universally referred to O. lagopus. These two species are the

only ones recognized in botanical literature at the present time.

Ochroma is confined to tropical America. Its nearest relative

in the eastern hemisphere is the baobab tree. It is a relative of

the "ceiba" {Bumbax) and "quipo" {Cavanillcsia), of tropical

America.

The species of this genus most frequently occur in the low-

lands and foothills, though rarely, if ever, where the soil is at all

affected by brackish or salt water. They have not been dis-

covered in the higher altitudes, that is, at more than i,ooo

meters above sea level.

Balsa is usually a second-growth tree, though it does occur

as an isolated tree in the primeval forest. It appears promptly

and abundantly where clearings have been made by natural

agencies, such as floods and fires, or by human cultivations. In

this respect it might properly be called a tree "weed." The

natural seeding in some places produces such an abundance of

young plants as to suggest weeds in a neglected garden. The

tree's growth is very rapid. During the first five or six years

of its life it may attain a trunk diameter of 60 to 75 cm., an

average increase in thickness of 12 or 13 cm. per year. It also

grows very rapidly in height, often attaining under favorable

conditions 16 or 20 meters in five or six years. This gives it a

place among the most rapidly growing trees known, if indeed

it is not the most rapid of all.

In the natural state, the wood is very perishable. One rarely

sees the remains of trees of balsa in the tropical forests. They

decay with apparently the same rapidity as a cotton fabric; the

wood absorbs moisture readily and shrinks and warps badly.

This is due undoubtedly to the feeble lignification of the cell

walls and to the lack of aseptic properties such as the timber of

oak and pine possess. It was only when the engineers of the

l6o ROWLEE: synopsis OP THE GENUS OCHROMA

American Balsa Company, after protracted investigation and

experiments, overcame these defects that the wood could be

fabricated into valuable products.

The leaves of Ochroma, even on an individual tree, are variable.

The seedlings of the different species are much more difficult to

distinguish, one from the other, than are the mature trees.

Even in the case of two species so distinct as O. concolor and 0.

limonensis the seedlings are very much alike. We have based

our descriptions upon the leaves of mature trees. The flowers,

however, are characteristic for each of the several species, though

they vary in shape, size, and texture.

TABLE 1.

ApPROxiMAtE Time of' Flowering and Fruiting of Ochroma

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aur. Sept. Oct.

roncolor Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

lagopus Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

limonensis V\. F'l. Fr. Fr

grandiflora Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr.

tomentosa Fl.? Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

velutina Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

bicolor Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

boliviana Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

obtusa Fl. Fl. Fr. Fr

The Species of Ochroma differentiate into two classes as re-

gards time of flowering and fruiting. In one group the fructifica-

tion takes place in the months of November and April; in the

other flowers and fruits develop from May to October.

Table i is based on our observations in Central America,

supplemented by an examination of herbarium specimens and

notes by collectors. Five of the species bear flowers and fruit

in one season of the year and four in the other season. vSo far

as we could learn, the season of flowering is clearly marked.

For example, no flowers or fruit were to be found on the Limon

balsa (0. limonensis) from December to March, while both were

present in profusion from May to August. On the other hand

no flowers or fruit were to be found on the Guapiles balsa {O.

bicolor) from May to August, but an abundance occurs from

ROWLEE; SYNOPSIS OP THE GENUS OCHROMA l6l

November to February. These species grow in contiguous

regions and, though they may overlap somewhat in distribution,

they are nevertheless distinguished by well marked morphological

characters.

With the exception of O. limonensis all these species flower

and fruit in the dry season of their respective regions. In

northeastern Costa Rica there is no well defined dry season

and this probably accounts for the exceptional flowering period

of O. limonensis.

»

Key to vSpecies

Calyx lobes carinate. Outer sepals triangular acuminate.

Leaves thin, green on both sides, conspicuously 5 to 7-lobed, glabrous

or nearly so i. O. concolor.

Leaves thick, rusty-pubescent, at least beneath, obsoletely 3 to 5-

lobed.

Flowers 10 cm. long 2. 0. lagopus .

Flowers 15 cm. long or more.

Calyx tube cylindric 3. 0. limonensis.

Calyx tube widened upward 4. 0. grandiflora.

Calyx lobes not carinate.

Leaves repand-dentate 5. 0. lomentosa.

Leaves not repand-dentate.

Calyx lobes triangular, acute, coriaceous.

Leaves rusty-tomentose on both sides, the hairs 5 to 7- (mostly

6)branched 6. 0. velutina.

Leaves glabrous and dark green above, white and stellate-

pubescent beneath, the hairs 10 to i5-(mostly i2)branched.

7. O. bicolor.

Calyx lobes elliptic or orbicular, obtuse, herbaceous.

Calyx lobes elliptic; leaves densely velutinous beneath.

8. 0. boliviana.

Calyx lobes orbicular; leaves scantily pubescent beneath.

9. 0. ohtusa.

I. Ochroma concolor, n. sp. Barrios balsa.

A tree attaining 25 meters in height and i meter in diameter, in

woodlands developing a long, smooth trunk, in the open a short trunk

and a round, symmetrical top ; heartwood in older trees red, wet, and

heavy, the wood of young trees white and light; leaves thin and mem-

branous, large and conspicuously lobed, with 5 to 7 acute lobes

separated by broad, convex sinuses, green and glabrous on both sides

except for a few tufts of brownish tomentum on the primary veins

beneath; stipules large, ovate, with prominent midribs; flowers 10

cm. long, glabrous; calyx tube 6 cm. long, glabrous within; calyx lobes

very dissimilar, 2 cm. long, the outer 2 acuminate, with a prominent

1 62 ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA

keel on the back, the inner 3 oblong, keeled, with expanded margin;

pod 12 cm. long; seed with a short, stout funicle.

Type in the U. S. National Herl^ariiim, no. 862345, collected at

Trece Aguas, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, Alay 9, 191 4, by O. F. Cook

and C. B. Doyle (no. 82). The following Guatemalan specimens

in the National Herbarium also represent this species: Mrs. William

Owen II, 1 1 A; Goll 230. The flowers are borne in December and

January and the fruit in February and March.

This species is very different from any other of the genus. It is

known only from the country surrounding the head of the Bay of

Honduras. It has not been reported from outside of Guatemala, but

undoubtedly grows in adjacent Honduras and British Honduras, and

in all probability in southern Yucatan. It occurs throughout the lower

Motagua Valley from above Quirigua to the sea. Well developed

trees are found on the reservation containing the Maya ruins, near

Quirigua. It also occurs rather abundantly in the valley of Lake

Izabal and the Golfete.

Goll reports the name "kapok;" Mrs. Owen gives the Indian names

"jujul" and "puj." The local names given us were "lana" and

"cajeto."

There arc two distinct species of Ochroma in northeastern Guate-

mala. In addition to the one characterized above, there is another

which is probably specifically identical with the species of northern

Costa Rica. Ochroma concolor grows on lower ground than the Costa

Rican species or, indeed, than any other species of Ochroma known to

us. In the Great vSwamp, along the San Francisco del Mar River,

east of Barrios and west of the mouth of the Motagua, many large

trees occur on ground that is inundated a considerable portion of the

year. The species occurs also on higher ground, as on the hospital grounds

at Quirigua, as well as near Virginia and along the Tomeja River.

2. Ochroma lagopus Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 98. 1788.

West Indian balsa.

Up to the present time, all the species of the genus except Ochroma

tomentosa Willd. have been included under this name, which, there is

every reason to believe, should be restricted to include only forms

that grow in the West Indies.

vSmaller in size than the preceding species, usually not exceeding 30

cm. in diameter and 18 meters in height; leaf blades small (15 to 20

cm.), brown-tomentose to nearly glabrous; flowers small, 10 cm. long;

calyx tube 6 cm. long, the lobes 2.5 cm. long, 2 cm. wide at the base

and 4.5 cm. at the summit, prominently carinate on the back. — Flowers

borne in February and March; fruit in April and May.

rowi^ee;: synopsis of* the; genus ochroma 163

Known in Cuba as "lanero;" in Jamaica as "corkwood," "down-

tree," "dum," and "bombast mahoe."

Cuba: Eastern Cuba, 1856-57, C. Wright 38; San L,uis, Oriente,

April 2, 1909, Britton 2334; Sevilla 'Estate near Santiago, August 31,

igo6, N. Taylor 140 (a tree 30 meters high, the trunk 28 cm. in diameter).

HispanioIvA: Taradia, prope Barahona, 1910, Tuerckheini 2826;

without locality, Wright, Parry & Brummel 20, 21.

Porto Rico: Manati, April 4, 1887, Sintenis 6766; Utuado, March,

1906, M. A. Howe; San Juan, December, 1898, Dignomtz 780.

Jamaica: Castleton, March 21, 1915, Harris 11962.

3. Ochroma limonensis, n. sp. Limon baIvSA.

A tree of very rapid growth, attaining large dimensions, up to a

meter in diameter and 30 meters in height; bark gray, somewhat

mottled; wood white, the annual rings indistinguishable; leaves large,

nearly orbicular, 25 cm. across, obsoletely 3- to 5-lobed (the margin

entire), nearly or quite glabrous above, refescent-tomentose beneath;

hairs 7 to 10- (mostly 8) branched; flowers 18 cm. long, yellowish

white; calyx tube 9 cm. long, cylindric, glabrous but warty on the out-

side, hairy within; calyx lobes acuminate, carinate on the back, 4 cm.

long, 2 cm. wide at the base, the inner with feltlike margins ; pods, 15

cm. long; funicle about half as long as the seed. — Flowers l)orne in

May and June; fruit in July and August.

This is the balsa of the lowlands of the Caribbean coast of Costa

Rica and Panama, extending as far west as the Reventazoh River,

Costa Rica, and east into Panama. Fine groves have developed along

the Banana, Bananito, Estrella, and Sixaola Rivers. Our nos. i, 2,

and 3 are of this species, no. i, collected on vSan Clemente Farm east

of the Bananito River, Costa Rica, being the type. No. 2 is from a

tree at Zent; no. 3 was collected near Moin Junction. The Zent tree

is of special interest. It was started as a seedling in April, 19 15, and

was photographed September 15th of that year. When measured by

us in May, 191 8, it was 16 inches in diameter, and had therefore grown

at the rate of five inches per year. Local observers agree that this

individual is not in any way exceptional.

4. Ochroma grandiflora, n. sp. ^ Ecuador balsa.

A tall tree with mottled gray bark and very light wood; leaves on

mature trees nearly entire, orbicular, 20 cm. wide, on young trees

lobed, very large (up to 90 cm.), rufescent beneath, glabrous above;

flowers 15 to 18 cm. long, showy; calyx tube 7 cm. long, spreading above,

3 cm. wide at the base, 7 cm. wide at the top, granular-puberulent out-

side, hairy within; calyx lobes 4 cm. long, 3 cm. wide at the base,

carinate, the inner ones broadly margined ; petals large and showy,

exceeding the stamens and style, the Umb 5 cm. broad, gradually

164 ROWIvEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA

narrowing into a broad claw 2 cm. wide, prominently parallel-veined. —

Flowering in July and August; fruiting in September and October.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected below Huigra,

Ecuador, in 1918, by J. N. Rose (no. 22,604). Also collected at

Hacienda La Josefina, San Carlos, Ecuador, vSeptember, 191 8, by

Capt. Claussen.

5. Ochroma tomentosa Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 695. 1809

Humboldt's balsa.

The original description of this species is as follows: "O. foliis

cordatis subtrilobis repandis, subtus tomentosis." It was based on

specimens collected by Humboldt and Bonpland in "America Meri-

dionali," and was reported from Colombia by Triana and Planchon

in 1862.^ It has been collected recently by Rusby and Pennell (no.

271), July 24, 1917, at Quebrada de Angeles, above Natagaina, De-

partment of Huila, Colombia, and also by Pennell (no. 3557), at

Honda, Department of Tolima, Colombia. The collectors noted it

as a large tree with white petals.

The calyx tube is very coarsely and densely tomentose with brown

hairs; the tube is short and broad. Most characteristic of the species,

however, are the repand dentations, i cm. apart, evenly distributed

around the margin of the leaf, giving it the appearance of the leaf of

Populus grandiden lata .

Ochroma tomentosa has not been reported beyond the limits of the

upper Magdalena River in Colombia, a region through which Hum-

boldt's expedition passed.

6. Ochroma velutina, n. sp. Red Pacific Coast balsa.

Wide-spreading tree, usually bifurcately branched, with smooth,

light gray bark; heartwood reddish; young shoots and leaves densely

velvety-tomentose; leaves ovate, with wide sinuses at the base, ob-

soletely 3-lobed, or more often entire, the lobes when present rounded;

blades variable in size, thick and firm, longer than broad; stipules

brownish tomentose, i to 1.5 cm. long and half as wide, when large

inclined to be auriculate and notched at the side, when small, oblong

and rounded at the apex; flowers small, about 8 cm. long, the pedicels

of about the same length; calyx tube firm and woody, cylindric, 4 cm.

long, glabrous externally at maturity, within densely clothed with

ascending appressed brown liairs; calyx lobes very dissimilar, the 2

outer triangular, 1.5 cm. long, tlie inner 2.5 cm. long, with wide felt-

like margins; petals about 8 cm. long, broadened toward the apex;

pod 10 to 15 cm. long, tapering at the ends.

Type in the U. vS. National Herbarium, no. 472290, collected "dans

les for^ts et paturages de Nicoya," Costa Rica, February, 1900, by

» Ann. Sci. Nat. IV. Bot. 17: :i22,. 1862.

ROWI.RR: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS OCHROMA 1 65

A. Tonduz (no. 13,498). The following additional specimens have

been seen: El Salvador, Renson 86; Bismarck, Panama, Williams

607; Ancon Hill, Panama, Bro. Celestine 119. The following are our

own collections : Orotina, 94 ; Zapotal, 6 ; Abangarez Pueblo, 5 ;

Tempisque, 113, 170, 189; all from Costa Rica. We collected it also

at Escuintla, Guatemala.

The flowers are borne in December, January, and February. The

fruit matures in February, March, and April, that is, the dry season

of the region where the tree occurs.

This is the smallest-flowered species known. It is widely distributed

on the Pacific slope of Central America from sea-level up to 500 or

600 meters and may be the form mentioned by Tonduz as "carac-

t^ristique pour la zone inferieur c6tes nord et ouest de Cocos Island, alt.

o-ioo m."

Ochroma veluHna differs from the other species in the following

respects: Its wood is harder and heavier; the leaves are densely

velutinous on both sides, are nearly or more often quite entire, and are

noticeably longer than broad, with a wide sinus at the base; the flowers

are small; and the calyx tube is cylindric, firm, and woody.

7. Ochroma bicolor, n. sp. Ouapiues baIvSa.

A tree attaining large size, 25 meters high and i meter in diameter,

with long, straight bole in the forest, and excurrent in habit when

growing in the open; bark mottled gray and white; leaves chalky white

with minute stellate hairs beneath, these 12 to 20- (mostly 20) branched,

dark, glistening green and glabrous above, thick and leathery, tending

to be acuminate, especially on the older trees, nearly as broad as long,

about 32 cm. across, with 2 to 4 obsolete primary lobes on each side,

the margin between these usually regularly and very shallowly sinuate -

lobed, with a vein terminating in each secondary lobe, the marginal

vein prominent; flowers with petals strongly reflexed at an thesis, 10

cm. long with petals extended; calyx tube firm, 5.5 to 6 cm. long,

granular-puberulent outside, silvery-sericeous within; calyx lobes 1.5

cm. long, plane on the back, triangular, acute, the inner ones with

felted margins; petals white, abruptly expanded above, the claw i

cm. broad, the limb orbicular, 3 cm. in diameter; stamen tube and

stigma equal in length, slightly shorter than the extended petals, much

exceeding the recurved petals at an thesis; mass of anthers as broad as

long; pod, 16 cm. long; down, light-colored; seed with very short or

obsolete funicle, 4 mm. long, 2 mm. thick. — ^Flowering in November

and December; fruiting in January, February, and March.

The type is our no. 10, collected on the grounds of the residence of

Superintendent J. H. Wilson of the United Fruit Company, at Guapiles,

Costa Rica. We also collected this species at Guacimo, along the

Parisiraa River. It is abundant throughout the whole region known

l66 ROWLEE: SYNOPSIS OF THE) GENUS OCHROMA

as the Llanuras de Santa Clara, Costa Rica, at a general elevation of

about 250 meters. The only specimens we have seen in herbaria are

Captain J. D. Smith's no. 6,453, from La Emilia, Costa Rica, collected

in April, 1896, and C. F. Baker's no. 2,149, from Chinandega, Ni-

caragua.

This species is very abundant in northern Costa Rica from the

Reventazon River north to Lake Nicaragua. It grows on higher land

than the Limon balsa, and while the two species grow in contiguous

districts they do not overlap to any great extent. It extends up the

Turrialba Volcano to a height of a thousand meters or more, and im-

doubtedly occurs on tlie whole northerly slope of the central cordillera

of Costa Rica.

When in leaf only, and especially with young trees, this species

closely resembles the Limon balsa, but the flowers are markedly different.

The pubescence, general outline, and texture of the leaves, as well as

the period of flowering, clearly distinguish the two species.

cS. Ochroma boliviana, n. sp. Bolivian balsa.

A tree 8 to 10 meters high, the trunk 20 to 25 cm. in diameter; leaves

obsoletely 3-lobed (the margin undulate but not denticulate), nearly

orbicular, 30 cm. in diameter, glabrous and dark green above, tawny

white and densely velvety beneath; calyx tube 5.5 cm. long, granular-

puberulent outside and densely white-tomentose within; calyx lobes

herbaceous-membranous, elliptic, acute, 4 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, the

inner ones not sharply differentiated into margin and keel, stellate-

pubescent without, densely white-tomentose within; petals conspicu-

ously parallel-veined and expanded above, protruding 5 cm. beyond the

calyx lobes, 5 cm. broad above.

Evidently very showy in flower, suggesting the northern tulip tree.

Flowers borne in July and August; fruit in August and September.

Known only from the following specimens, in the herbarium of the

New York Botanical Garden, all from the northeastern part of Bolivia

in the vicinity of Mapiri: Mapiri, July-August, 1892, Bang 1501 (type);

junction of the rivers Beni and Madre de Dios, August, 18S6, Rushy

1927; Mapiri, September 23, 1901, Williams 714; "San Carlos region de

Mapiri, 15° lat. sur," September, 1907, Buchtien. Vernacular names

"tami" and "palo de balsa."

9. Ochroma obtusa, n. sp. Santa Marta balsa.

A tree 10 to 15 meters high; twigs glabrate; leaves 20 by 20 cm.,

conspicuously 3-lobed, the sides of the lobes straight, giving the ap-

pearance of a maple leaf, glabrous or nearly so above, scantily covered

with slender branched hairs beneath; flower, 14 cm. long; calyx tube

5 cm. long, spreading above, at first granular-puberulent, becoming

glabrate; calyx lobes nearly uniform in outline, not carinate, nearly as

broad as long, 3 cm. long, densely tomentose on back, ciliate; petals

oberholser: diagnosis of a ne;w genus of bucerotidae 167

surpassing the calyx lobes, oblong-spatulate, 3.5 cm. wide, conspicu-

ously parallel-veined.

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected

at Mamatoca, vSanta Marta, Colombia, 1898-99, by Herbert H. Smith

(no. 829). The collector states that the tree is "common locally near

streams, at 500 to 2,500 feet. Flowers in December and January.

Petals pale yellowish. The silk enveloping the seeds is used for pillows,

etc., and is sold in the market (as 'lana') at Santa Marta. It is

collected in May, when it is found scattered on the ground under the

trees." We also refer to this species Broadway no. 4,418, collected

March 8, 1913, in Tobago; also Pere Duss. no. 3,634, April 10, 1895,

from Guadelupe, and his no. 185, from Martinique, although the last

two collections do not entirely agree with the type.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Diciiiiiosis of a new genus of Bnrcrotidae.

Harry C. Obrrholskr, Biological vSurvey.

The family Bucerotidae at the present time is represented in

the Philippine Islands by four genera. One of these, however,

Hydrocorax Brisson, proves to be composite. This genus Hy-

drocorax was first instituted by Brisson for Bitccros hydrocorax

Linnaeus;^ much later (1880) another species, Buccros min-

dancnsis Tweeddale, was added by Elliot; and subsequently still

another, Buceros semigalcatus Tweeddale, was referred to this

group. The last-mentioned species, however, is clearly not

congeneric, and should form the type of a separate monotypic

senus which we here call:

&

Platycorax,- gen. nov.

Diagnosis. — vSimilar to Hydrocorax Brisson, but casque entirely

different: in superior aspect smaller, shorter, and narrower in general

outline (although the bird is actually larger), posteriorly narrower and

not so truncate, the anterior portion sharply much constricted, so

that the anterior third is much narrower than in Hydrocorax, and

concave in outline instead of evenly convex throughout its length: in

lateral aspect completely fia4;tened anteriorly, with no vertical pro-

jection, the whole bill therefore much less in height;'' feathered inter-

ramal space relatively as well as actually broader.

Type. — Buceros semigaleatus Tweeddale.

' Hydrocorax Brisson, Ornith. 4: 565. 1760. (Type by taiitonymy, Buceros

hydrocorax Linnaeus.)

'^ ifkoiTV'i, latus; Kopa^, corviis.

^ These differences in the shape of the casque are well shown by the figures given

in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1878, pages 278-279.

i68 obrrhoi.srr: diagnosis of a nivW grnus of bucrrotidae

Remarks. — This new genus diflfers so much from the other PhiHppine

genera, and in fact from all of the genera of the Bucerotidae, that a

close comparison is scarcely necessary. It is, of course, apparently

most nearly allied to Hydrocorax, although it is so different in ap-

pearance from Hydrocorax hydrocorax, the type of that genus, that it is

rather remarkable that it has not been separated before. It should be

stated, however, that Dr. Edgar A. Mearns had noticed the very

striking structural characters in Hydrocorax semigaleatus Tweeddale,

and just before his untimely death had planned to create a new

generic group for this species.

The third species commonly referred to the genus Hydrocorax,

Hydrocorax mindanensis (Tweeddale), has a smaller casque than

Hydrocorax hydrocorax, but it is of the same shape, and the species is

without doubt correctly placed in the same genus. The type of our

new genus, Platycorax semigaleatus (Tweeddale), is, therefore, its only

species.

The only other generic name applied to any species of Hydrocorax

is Platyceros Cabanis and Heine, ^ the type of which is Hydrocorax

hydrocorax; so that it is, of course, a synonym of Hydrocorax Brisson.

By the present separation of Platycorax, there are now five genera

of Bucerotidae in the Philippine Islands, of which four, including

Platycorax, are endemic,

* Mus. Hein. 2: 174, i860.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and sipied by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — The decrease in liUra-violet and total radiation ivitJi usage

of quartz mercury vapor lamps. W. W. Cobi^untz, M. B. Long,

and H. Kahler. Bur. Stands. Sci. Paper No. 330. Pp. 20.

1918.

It is well known that the radiations emitted by quartz mercury vapor

lamps decrease very markedly in intensity with usage of the lamp. The

object of this investigation was (i) to devise methods for determining

quantitatively the decrease in intensity of the emission with usage and

(2) to make preliminary measurements on radiant power life-tests of

quartz mercury vapor lamps.

The measurements of the radiations from these lamps were made

by means of a thermopile. The ultra-violet rays were absorbed by

means of a yellow glass and by this means it was possible to study the

decrease in the ultra-violet radiation as well as the decrease in total

radiation with tisage of the lamp. It was found the intensity of the

total radiation as well as the ultra-violet component, decreases to about

one-half of its initial value in the course of 1,000 to 1,500 hours.

W. W. C.

PHYSICS. — New Bamn^ scale for sugar solutions. Frrdrrick Bates

and H. W. BF;ARCii;. Bur. Stands. Tech. Paper No. 115. Pp.

II. 1918.

Many different Baume Scales have been proposed and used in the

past. At the present time there are still in use in the United States

three different scales for liquids heavier than water. Two of these,

namely, the "Holland" scale and the "Gerlach" scale are used in sugar

work. Neither is adapted to modern requirements. The new scale

lies between the "Holland" and "Gerlach" scales and has three im-

portant advantages which should commend it for general use. They

are:

169

I JO abstracts: spectroscopy

1. It is based upon the specific gravity values of Plato, which are

considered the most reliable of any available.

2. It is based on 20° C, the most convenient and widely accepted

temperature for sugar work.

3. It is based on the modulus 145, which has already been adopted

by the Manufacturing Chemists Association of the United vStates,

by the Bureau of vStandards, and by all American manufacturers of

hydrometers. H. W. B.

SPECTROvSCOPY. — Measurements of wave-lengths in the spectrum of

neon. Keivin Burns, W. F. Meggers, and P. W. Merrtt.i,.

Bur. vStands. vSci. Paper No. 329. Pp. 10. 1918.

The lines in the neon spectrum are very sharp, a quality which

recommends this gas as a standard source wherever the lines have

sufficient strength. The ultra-violet group between 3,369A and 3,52oA

may be used for standards, and there are a few good infra-red lines,

but the strength and distribution of the lines in the region 5,852A to

7,438A make the neon spectrum particularly useful as a comparison

in this region.

The wave-lengths of fifty-five lines in the neon spectrum have been

measured by means of the interferometer. These lines lie in the region

3,369A to 8,495A. The strong lines in the visible region of the spec-

trum have been observed with great accuracy, the probable error

being one part in several millions, or less than one-tenth the width

of the line. These strong lines were observed by means of three differ-

ent pairs of interferometer plates which were each used on several

interferometers. The ultra-violet lines and all the strong lines in the

visible were compared directly with the fundamental standard 6,438A.

Some of the deep red and infra-red lines were compared with well-

determined lines in the visible neon spectrum.

One hundred and eighty-nine faint lines in the visible and infra-

red neon spectrum have been measured by means of a concave grating.

The probable error of these grating measurements is one or two hun-

dredths angstrom. The region covered by the grating observations

extends from 5,343A to 8,783A.

The constant differences discovered by Watson are found to hold

with remarkable exactness in the case of lines which are strong enough

to be measured with the highest accuracy. In fact, the differences

are exactly constant within the limits set by the accuracy of the wave-

lengths. K. B.

abstracts: ceramic chemistry 171

UhUCTRIC VVY.—Elecirual oscillations in antennas and inductance

coils. John M. Miller. Bur. Stands. Sci. Paper No. 326. Pp. 20.

1918.

The mathematical theory of circuits having uniformly distributed

electrical characteristics, such as cables, telephone lines, and trans-

mission lines, is applied to the oscillations in antennas and inductance

coils.

It is shown how the frequency of the natural oscillation of an anternia

may be determined analytically or graphically when inductance coils

or condensers are inserted in the lead-in. Expressions are derived

which permit the calculation of the effective resistance, inductance,

and capacity of the antenna and it is shown that in so far as frequency

or wave-length computations are concerned the simple formula applica-

ble to ordinary circuits with lumped constants gives very accurate

results. Experimental methods are given for determining the effec-

tive and static or low-frequency values of the antenna constants.

Inductance coils are likewise treated from the standpoint of the

theory of distributed characteristics. Expressions are obtained for

the reactance of the coil at any frequency and for the natural oscilla-

tions of a circuit of coil and condenser. It is further shown that, in so

far as the frequency of oscillation is concerned, an inductance coil with

distributed characteristics is equivalent to a pure inductance of con-

stant value with a constant capacity across its terminals. Excepting

for skin effect, this pure inductance would be the same as the low-

frequency inductance of the coil. This explains a fact which has been

frequently observed experimentally, in particular for single layer

solenoids. J. M. M.

CERAMIC CHEMIvSTRY.— 77/6' calculation of the rational analysis

of clays. Henry S. Washington. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc.

1:405-421. June, 1918.

This paper discusses briefly the factors that render the so-called

"rational" analysis of clays uncertain, erroneous, and of little or no

value for any purpose. A method for calculating from the chemical

analysis the mineral composition, generally quartz, feldspar, and

kaolin, is suggested, which is an application of the principles and method

of calculating the "norm" of igneous rocks. In the case of clays the

procedure is of great simplicity and accuracy, is very expeditious after

the chemical analysis has been made, and yields results of great re-

Hability. H. S. W.

172 abstracts: botany

CERAMIC CHEMISTRY.— r/i^ effect of certain impurities in causing

milkincss in optical glass. C. N. Fenner and J. B. Ferguson.

Journ. Amer. Ceram. vSoc. 1: 468-477. July, 19 18.

In the manufacture of optical glass at one of the plants, a matter

which gave considerable difficulty for a while was the occasional produc-

tion of pots of glass which were affected by opalescence or milkiness.

The evidence indicated that the source of the trouble lay in the sulphate

and chloride content of the potash. The trouble disappeared when more

reliable methods of temperature-control were installed, by which an

assurance could be had of keeping the temperatures constantly at

1400° to 1420° C. Later, evidence was obtained which connected the

milkiness quite definitely with the impurities mentioned, at least as

regards the case under discussion, although in other cases the same

effect is to be ascribed to other causes. Reasons are given for the con-

clusion that the milkiness is caused not by the separation of sulphates

or chlorides themselves, but to some slight change in the physical

properties of the melt which permits the separation of clouds of minute

crystals of cristobalite. R. B. Sosman.

BOTANY. — Naming wheat varieties. CarleTon R. Ball and J.

Allen Clark. Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron. 10: 89-94. February,

1918.

Crop varieties should be designated by names that are short, simple,

appropriate, easily spelled, and easily pronounced. The multiplication

of names and other designations for crop varieties has been carried to

great extremes. Present designations may be classed as follows:

(i) Names, as Fultz or Kubanka; (2) descriptive phrases, as Early

Red Clawson; and (3) numbers, as Minnesota no. 162. The existing

confusion in names renders difficult the interpretation of published

results of experiments. This confusion occurs in two principal ways:

(i) The same name is applied to very different varieties in different

parts of the country; (2) the same variety passes under several different

names in different parts of the country, or even in the same part.

It is desirable to prevent a continuation of such practices and to

attempt a solution of the problems already existing. Accordingly, a

brief but comprehensive code of nomenclature has been formulated.

code of nomenclature

I. Eligibility to naming. No variety shall be named unless (a)

distinctly different from existing varieties in one or more recognizable

abstracts: botany 173

characters, or (b) distinctly superior to them in some character or

quahty; and unless (r) it is to be placed in commercial culture.

2. Priority. No two varieties of the same crop plant shall bear

the same name. The name first published (see Rule 4) for a variety

shall be the accepted and recognized name except in cases where it

has been applied in violation of this code.

J. Form of names. The name of a variety shall consist of a single

word.

4. Publication. A varietal name is established by publication.

Publication consists (i) in the distribution of a printed description of

the variety named, giving its distinguishing characters, or (2) in the

publication of a new name for a variety properly described elsewhere,

such publication to be made in any book, bulletin, circular, report,

trade catalog, or periodical, provided the same bears the date of issue

and is distributed generally among agronomists and crop growers; or

(3) in certain cases the general recognition of a name for a commercial

variety in a community for a number of years may be held to con-

stitute publication.

Paragraphs i to 4 have numerous additional clauses not given here

which explain or interpret the rule. Paragraphs 5 and 6 deal with formal

citation and with changes, respectively.

This code, essentially as presented, was officially adopted by the

American Society of Agronomy in November, 191 7.

C. R. B.

BOTANY. — Effects of various salts, acids, germicides, etc., upon the

infectivity of the virus causing the mosaic disease of tobacco. H. A.

Allard. Journ. Agr. Res. 13: 619-637. June 17, 1918.

The virus of the mosaic disease of tobacco was treated for various

periods of time with difTerent concentrations of acids, salts, etc., to

determine their effect upon the infectivity. Nitric and hydrochloric

acids, except in concentrations approaching one gram in 50 to 100 cc.

of virus solution, affected the infectivity but little. Somewhat stronger

solutions of citric, phosphoric, and acetic acid were required to affect

the virus. Manganese sulphate, sodium chloride, aluminium sulphate,

lithium nitrate, sodium nitrate, lead nitrate, silver nitrate, and mercuric

chloride affected the virus but little under the conditions of the experi-

ments. Carbolic acid, creolin, cresol, and phenol affected the infective

principle only slightly under the conditions of the experiments, and

there was no appreciable difference in their relative effects. Acetone

174 abstracts: phytopathqlogy

destroys the infective principle much less readily than ethyl alcohol.

In ethyl alcohol the infective principle is destroyed rather quickly in

alcoholic solutions stronger than 50 to 55 per cent. Eighty per cent

alcoholic strengths killed the virus in less than half an hour. Chloral

hydrate, benzoate of soda, quinine bisulphate, naphthalene crystals,

camphor, thymol, and glycerin, except in very strong solutions, reduced

the infectivity of the virus but little. The virus shows itself con-

siderably more susceptible to solutions of formaldehyde, a 4 per cent

strength destroying the infective principle very quickly. When the

virus is mixed with talc, kaolin, or soil, it frequently loses its infectious

properties more quickly than when merely bottled without the addition

of any preservative. H. A. A.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY. — A serious eelworin or nematode disease oj

wheat. L. P. Byars. U. vS. Dept. Agr. Circ. 114. July, 1918.

During the past year the eelworm disease of wheat, caused by

Tylenchus tritici (vSteinbuch) Bastian and long known in Europe, has

been found causing a great deal of damage in certain parts of the

United States, particularly in Virginia. Recent examinations have

shown a loss in some fields of as much as 40 per cent of the crop.

Wheat spikelets affected by the disease contain in place of the normal

kernels dark, hard galls filled with larvae of the nematode. These

larvae escape from the galls into the soil, reach the young seedlings,

become located between the leaf sheaths near the bud and are passively

elevated to the spikes. There they enter the young flowers and pro-

duce the galls within which they develop to maturity and lay eggs.

The latter give rise to larvae and in this way their life cycle is com-

pleted.

The disease may be controlled by the use of clean seed, crop rota-

tion, and sanitation. If uninfected seed cannot be brought in from

localities where the trouble does not occur the sound grain may be

separated from the nematode galls by floating off the latter in water.

L. P. B.

PROCKKDTNOvS OF THE ACADRMY AND AFFTUATKD

SOCIETIEvS

RIOLOGTCAL vSOCIETY OF WAvSHTNOTON

The 589th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Carnegie Institution, Saturday, January 11, 1919; called

to order at 8.00 p.m. by President Smith; 26 persons present.

On recommendation of the Council the following named persons were

elected to membership: (^jRorgk Wiijjctt, Los Angeles, and Walter

M. GiFFARD, Honolulu.

Deaths of the following named members were noted: Dr. Howard

E. Ames and Dr. W. T. Foster.

The annual report of the treasurer was received and accepted.

Prof. A. S. Hitchcock presented the following proposed amendment

to the b^^-laws: The President shall not be eligible for immediate

reelection. To follow at the end of first paragraph of Article H of the

by-laws.

President vSmith announced the membership of the Committee on

Communications as: A. S. Hitchcock, L. O. Howard, A. Wetmore,

R. E. CoKER, J. W. Gidley; and of the Committee on Publications

as: C. W. Richmond, J. H. Riley, Ned Dearborn, W. L. McAtee.

Under the heading of Brief Notes, Prof. A. S. Hitchcock referred

to the work of the Committee on Generic Types of the Botanical

vSociety of America, of which he is chairman. Under the same heading

President Smith referred to the mild winter so far experienced and its

eflfects on the unusual blooming of certain spring-flowering plants.

W. L. McAtee, with reference to the same subject, called attention

to the late blooming of some autumn-flowering species. In this con-

nection Dr. L. O. Howard called attention to a publication on this

same subject by Prof. ly. F. Ward many years ago.

J. B. Norton presented the first formal communication: A new

and easy way to recognize our local asters. He said investigation of

several local species of Aster showed great differences in the disk florets.

These differences were utilized in a key for the separation of the species

which it was suggested could be expanded to include all the forms in the

vicinity of Washington. The utilization of similarly neglected charac-

ters in other difficult groups would be advisable. His remarks were

illustrated by a series of well prepared diagrams showing the variations

in the different structures of the disk flowers of Aster. Discussion by

W. ly. McAtee and A. S. Hitchcock.

175

176 proceedings: bioIvOGicaIv society

Lyman Carrier presented the second formal communication: Dr.

John Mitchell, an early naturalist and historian. He gave a synopsis

of his rather extensive investigations into the Hfe of John Mitchell,, an

early physician in the English Colonies of America who was also

noted for his work as a naturalist, historian, and cartographer. Much

of his work is published anonymously and much of it is rare and rather

inaccessible. Discussion by A. vS. Hitchcock,

J. W. GiDLEY gav^e the third paper of the program: Significance of

the divergence of the first digit in the primitive mammalian foot.

A. S. Hitchcock presented the last paper of the program: A pecidiar

species of Lasiacis. Discussion by T. vS. Palmer. This paper appears

in full in this Journal (9: 35-3S. January 19, 19 19).

The 59otli regular meeting of the vSociety was held in the Auditorium

of the New National Museum, vSaturday, January 25, 1919; called to

order at 8.00 p.m. by President vSmith; 29 persons present.

On recommendation of the Council the following named persons

were elected to membership: Erich W. vSchwartze, Bureau of

Chemistry; Myron H. vSwenk, University of Nebraska; R. C. Mc-

Gregor, Bureau of vScience, Manila.

Informal communications were presented as follows: General T.

E. Wilcox: Remarks on the berries of Mitchella. President Smith:

Exhibition of and remarks on a piece of baleen of the right whale of the

Pacific Coast. He stated that this species is nearing extinction as

among 999 whales taken last year on the Pacific Coast but one was a

right whale. He also referred to whale meat as human food. W. L.

McAtee: Reference to an old publication, 178;^ to 1784, in which it

appears that peanuts and cotton were commonly raised about Wash-

ington at that time.

The first paper of the regular program was by G. Dallas Hanna :

Additions to the avifauna of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, including species

new to North America. In the collection of birds made on the Pribilof

Islands, Alaska, during the period June, 191 6, to vSeptember, 191 8,

there were 21 species which had not been secured there or reported

therefrom before. Four of these had not previously been collected

within the limits of North America.

Species new to North America and the Pribilof Islands: Eunetta

falcata, Falcated Teal; Ilctcroscclus brevipes, Polynesian Tattler;

Thalassoaetus pelagicus, Kamchatkan Sea Eagle; Anlhus spinolctta

japonicus, Japanese Pippit.

Species new to the Pribilof Islands only: Brachyramphus marmoratus,

Marbled Marrelet; Pufiinus tenuirosiris, vSlender-billed vShearwater;

Nettion crecca, European Teal; Aristonetta valisineria, Canvas-back;

Clangula clangtda americana, American Golden-eye; Arctonetta fischeri,

Spectacled Eider; Oidemia dcglandi dixoni, Pacific White-winged

Scoter; L'hen hyperborea hyperborea, Snow Goose; Brania canadensis

hutchinsii, Hutchin's Goose; Numenius tahitiensis, Bristle-thighed

Curlew; Haematopus bachmani, Black Oyster-catcher; Archibuteo

proceedings: biological society 177

lagapus sancti-johannis, Rough-legged Hawk; Spinus pinus, Pine

Siskin; PlcctropJienax Jiypcrborais, McKay's vSnow Bunting; J unco

Jiycmalis Jiyenialis, State-colored Junco; Pctrodwlidon hinifrons hini-

frons, Cliff Swallow; Hylocichla aliciac aliciae, Gray-cheeked Thrush.

Some notes on the food habits and color phases of Rodger's fulmar,

a common Pribilof bird, were given.

Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock, Wm. Palmer, W. L. McAtee for

E. A. Preble, and by L. vStejneger.

The second and final paper of the regular program was by W. L.

McAtee : An account of poisonous sumachs, Rluts poisoning, and

remedies therefor. Mr. McAtee gave a detailed account of the classi-

fication and natural history of the poisonous sumachs, of the various

theories as to why they poison, of the symptoms of poisoning, and

of the host of remedies that have been employed against it. Dis-

cussion by Dr. V. K. Chesnut.

The 591st meeting of the vSociety was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 8, 191 9; called to order at

8.00 p.m. by President vSmith; 53 persons present.

On recommendation of the Council, O. E. Jennings, Curator of

Botany, Carnegie Museum, was elected to membership.

The following amendment to the By-laws read at the 589th meeting

was favorably voted on by the vSociety: "The President shall not be

eligible for immediate reelection;" to follow at the end of the first

paragraph of Article H.

Under the heading of brief notes and exhibition of specimens. Dr.

R. W. vShufeldt exhibited seven lantern slides of pitcher plants,

Sarraccnia purpurea, taken about two years ago in an extensive swamp

near Glen Burnie, Maryland. He pointed out that this plant is now

practically extinct in the District of Columbia. After describing the

main characters of this and related species he showed by means of

one of the lantern slides some experiments he had been making with

5. purpurea extending over an entire summer, the main features of

which consisted in keeping a number of growing plants indoors and

giving them a very limited amount of light. Gradually the new-coming

leaves evinced an entire change of form and color. They became

pale green with every semblance of markings effaced while the decided

diminution in size was accompanied by a shrinkage of the wing, a

change in outline, and an almost complete atrophy of the pitchers.

In this connection Prof. W. P.^Hay said one of his students had brought

him a pitcher plant leaf stating it had been found in a locality near the

city of Washington. Professor Hay had visited the alleged locality

with the student, but they had been unable to find the rest of the

plant. The student however was a reliable person and Professor Hay

had no reason to doubt that the leaf had been found as stated. I. N.

Hoffman presented an informal note on certain nesting habits of

Shufeldt's junco.

178 proceedings: biological society

The following formal communications were presented:

E. W. Nelson: Dallia pectoralis, Alaska's most remarkable fish.

Mr. Nelson gave an account of the appearance and habits of this

fish and described the important part it plays in the economic life of the

natives of parts of Alaska. He related some of the myths concerning

its vitality after freezing. Discussion by Dr. H. M. vSmith.

Vernon Bailey: The western skunk cabbage in its prime. Mr.

Bailey gave an account of the characters and natural history of this

handsome plant and exhibited lantern slides of it in flower. Dis-

cussion by the chair and others.

M. W. Lyon, Jr.: I sohemagglutinin groups of men. Doctor Lyon

defined the term isohemagglutination and gave a brief account of the

discovery of the four well-recognized groups of men as deternn"ned

by the action of the serum of each group upon the red blood corpuscles

of the others. He pointed out that the first author to recognize the

four groups as such was Jan Jansky' in a rather obscure publication in

1907 (vSbornik Klinicky'-Arch. Bohemes de Medecine Clinique 8: 85-139.

1907). He designated these groups as I, II, III, and IV in the order

of their frequency of occurrence. Moss, in 19 10 (Bull. Johns Hopkins

Hosp. 21: 63-70. March, 1910), independently described the four

groups and designated them, respectively, as IV, II, III, and I. As

Jansky ''s group I has the most active serum and the most resistant

corpuscles Dr. L.von suggested it might be called the sthenic group.

P'or its direct opposite, Jansky"s IV, he suggested the term antisthenic.

For the more common of the other two groups, II, and its opposite,

III, he suggested the designations par asthenic and antipar asthenic, respec-

tively. A lantern slide table showing the agglutinative action of the

serums of 16 persons on the red blood corpuscles of the same persons

was shown. A series of test tubes showing the action of sthenic, para-

sthenic, and antiparasthenic serum on corpuscles of each of these

groups was exhibited. The antisthenic group is very rare and the

speaker knew of no individual available belonging to that group when

he prepared the demonstration tubes. Discussion by the chair, E. W.

Nelson, W. P. Taylor, and others.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Preparations are being made for another expedition to the Mt.

Katmai district in Alaska, under the auspices of the National Cico-

graphic Society- Professor Robert F. Griggs, of the Ohio State

Ihnversit)^ is director of the expedition, which will consist of photo-

graphic, surveying, topographic, and scientific parties. The scientific

work will include studies of the revegetation of country devastated

by aslifalls, and the /.oology of the region at the foot of the Valley of

Ten Thousand vSmokes. In addition, a cooperating party from the

Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, consisting of

Iv. T. Allen, C. N. Fenner, and K. G. Zies, will study the physics

and chemistry of the fumaroles and the petrology of the Valley. The

expedition will leave in May and return in vSeptember.

A joint influenza committee has just been created to study the recent

epidemic and to make comparable, so far as possible, the influenza

data gathered by the government departments. The members of this

committee are: Dr. William H. Davis, chairman, and Mr. C. vS.

Sloane, representing the Bureau of the Census; Dr. Wade H. Frost

and Mr. Edgar vSydenstricker of the Public Health vService; Col.

D. C. Howard, Col. F. F. Russell and Lieut. Col. A. G. Love, United

States Army; Lieut. Commander I. R. Phblps and Surgeon Carroll

Fox, Ihiited States Navy.

The proposed American vSocicty of Mammalogists has issued an

invitation to join in a movement to organize a society for the promotion

of the interests and study of mammalogy. It is intended that the

society shall devote itself to the subject in a broad way, including

studies of habits, life histories, evolution, ecology, and other phases.

Plans call for the publication of a journal in which both popular and

technical matter shall be presented, for holding meetings, both general

and sectional, aiding research and engaging in such other activities

as may be deemed expedient. The organization meeting will be held

in the New National Museum, Washington, D. C, April 3 and 4,

1919, sessions commencing at 10.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.nu No program

of papers has been planned for this meeting.

The Committee on Organization is: Hartley H. T. Jackson,

Chairman, U. vS. Biological Survey; Walter P. Taylor, Secretary,

U. S. Biological Survey; GlovER M. AllEn, Boston Society of Natural

History; J. A. Allen, American Museum of Natural History; Joseph

Grinnell, University of California; N. Hollister, National Zoological

Park; Arthur H. Howell, U. vS. Biological Survey; Wilfred II.

Osgood, Field Museum of Natural History; Edward A. Preble,

U. vS. Biological vSurvey; Witmer Stone, Academy of Natural vSciences

of Philadelphia.

Mr. A. A. Benedict, formerly of the Liniversity of Pittsburgh,

has joined the staflf of the Bureau of Standards as physicist in the sugar

laboratory.

179

l8o SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Tlie following members of the Chemical Warfare Service have joined

the stafif of the Bureau of Standards since January: Captain J. M.

Braham, in the electrochemical laboratory; Lieut. C. W. Clifford,

sugar laboratory; S. C. Langdon, electrochemical laboratory; F. W.

Rp:ynolds (formerly at Edgewood Arsenal), laboratory of metallurgical

chemistry; P. WrightsmaxV, gas laboratory.

Mr. J. R. Eckman, formerly of the Ordnance Department, has

joined the stafT of the Bureau of Standards as chemist in the analytical

laboratory.

Dr. Graham Edgar, formerly secretary of the Washington office of

the Research Information Service, National Research Council, has

resigned and is now with the Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Depart-

ment of the Army. Mr. Gordon S. Fulcher is his successor as secre-

tary of the Information Service.

Dr. C. vS. Hudson, Chief of the Carbohydrate Laboratory of the

Bureau of Chemistr}^ resigned from the Bureau on February 12,

1 91 9, and is now with the Samuel Heath Company, of Trenton, New

Jersey.

Col. E. Lester Jones, after service in the Army for about a year,

both in America and France, has returned to his duties as head of the

Coast and Geodetic vSurvey.

Dr. Chester N. Myers, organic chemist of the Hygienic Labora-

tory, Public Health Service, resigned from the Service early in March,

to organize a research laboratory for H. A. Metz and Company, manu-

facturers of local anesthetics and arsenicals, in Brooklyn, N. Y.

Mr. W. B. Newkirk, formerly with the Oxnard vSugar Company,

has joined the staff of the Bureau of vStandards as sugar technologist.

Capt. E. H. Pagenhart, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, is

now stationed at Fort Barrancas, Pensacola, Florida.

Captain L. L. vSteet.E, of the Ordnance Department, II. vS. A., has

joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards as chemist in the varnish

laboratory.

ISIr. A. F. Stevenson, sanitary chemist with the Hygienic Labora-

tory, Public Health Service, resigned from the vService on March i,

to go into commercial research work in New York City.

Mr. C. W. Stratford, formerly of the Tidewater Oil Company, has

recently come to the Bureau of Standards to take charge of an extensive

investigation on the general subject of lubrication, with particular

reference to the lubrication of internal combustion engines.

A Coast and Geodetic Survey party, under the direction of O. W.

Swainson, is at work on the triangulation and topographic surveying

of the Virgin Islands, recently acquired from Denmark.

Mr. E. D. WalEN, who for the past three years has been chief of the

Textile Section of the Bureau of Standards and has been engaged in war

research on the development of cotton fabrics as a substitute for linen

for use in airplane wing surfaces, resigned from the Bureau in February

and is now with the Textile Research Corporation at Boston, Massa-

chusetts.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 APRIL 4, 1919 No. 7

OPTICS. — Trigonometric computation formulae for meridian

rays. P. V. Wells, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated

by S. W. Stratton.)

The design of optical instruments is notoriously so laborious

and complicated that any simplification of notation, or shortening

of labor, is important. By far the largest amount of labor is

spent in tracing the actual path of selected rays through the

tentative system by means of the trigonometric formulae.

These formulae are simplest for logarithmic computation when

referred to the center of curvature of the refracting surface

instead of to its vertex. This is doubtless known to many

designers but as I have not seen it in the literature, it may be

useful to others.

The resulting formulae, using the notation defined in figure i ,

where the subscript k refers to the k'th surface are:

sin ^K = 7~ sin a^ (i)

Where Ck = Tk

l82

wells: formulae for meridian rays

Fig. I. — ^NoTATioN.

Symbols referring to the object-space are unprinied, to the image-space are primed,

the image-space for the k'th surface becoming the object-space for the (k -f i)'th

surface.

k'th refracting surface.

Hk = index of refraction, object-space,

n^ = index of refraction, image-space.

vertex distances,

i'k = VkCk = radius of curvature.

Uk = VrOk = object distance.

VkO^ = image distance.

Ck = OkCk = object distance (to center).

C„ = O^Ck = image distance (to center).

ds = VkVk + 1 = interval between vertices.

dcK = CnCK-f 1 = interval between centers.

slope angles.

slope angle of normal at incidence point.

"K = BkOkVk = slope angle of incident ray.

a = BkO'Vk = slope angle of refracted ray.

A

Ok = OrBkCk = angle of incidence.

e' = O' BkCk = angle of refraction.

hg = DkBk = incidence height (measured positively upward).

identities.

uk = uk :T:r: — • _. 1/ /.. > ^ a • ('^)

WHLLS: FORMUI.au for MliRIDIAN RAYS 1 83

There are two special cases which require consideration:

(i) when Uk is infinitely great, and (2) when r^ is large (greater

than ten times the focal length) . In the first case, since <pk = —6^

when Uk = ^ ^

Sill 0^ = — — . (7)

Tk

In the second case both Ck and Ck are large. The formula

usually given for this case, immediately derived from (7), {4),

and (6), is

sin ^K cos V2(«K+1+ gg)

sin ^K+i' cos \/2(«k: + O *

The angles are computed as usual, and Uk is computed from the

formula

Uk = i-K-i - Ck_, - dK-i- (g)

The transfer of origin back to the center is made by use of (5)

and (6), thus

Ck+1 ^ i-K+i - Uk + dK- (lo)

There are apparently two special cases : ( i ) when the incidence

is nearly normal, that is, when d-^ is small, and (2) when the

refracted ray is nearly parallel to the axis, that is, when ««:

is small, but in both cases formulae (/) to (5) may be used.

Although Ck and Ck are small when 0^: is small no precision

is lost in Ck+i or in of^+i which do not change in order of

magnitude. Similarly when o:k+i is small no loss of precision

occurs unless the interval between centers, dcK> is large. This

is evident from an expression of sin ^^41 which may easily

be derived from (4), (5), and (/), namely

rK+i sin ^K+i = Tk sin 4 + dcK sin a^+i-

When a^^i is small, ^^+1 is determined by 0^ Q-i^d the r's.

The angles 6 and a are both small only when r is large, a case

which has just been considered in formula (8).

The theory of optical instruments is burdened by too much

diversity in matters of convention. It seems inadvisable to

depart from the time-honored conventions of geometry and

trigonometry. Thus distances measured from left to right,

184 wells: kormulaic for meridian rays

and angles measured by anti-clockwise rotation, arc taken as

positive in the notation of this paper.

The vertex of each surface is taken as the origin for its radius

and for the object and image distances in refraction at that

surface. The slope angles are measured from the rays in to the

optic axis, and from the normal (to the surface at the incidence

point) in to the axis, and the angles of incidence and refraction

are measured from the rays in to the normal. Hence r and

if, u and a, n' and a', and d and d' group in pairs having like

sign. As r is measured toward the center of curvature, it is

convenient to measure both c and c' toward the center. They

are defined by equations (O), which have the advantage of sym-

metry as regards the signs of u and c.

The quantities — , r^, and dj^ are constants for each surface,

and their logarithms may be computed in a special column,

copied on a slip of paper, and used directly for all rays. Sim-

ilarly the logarithms of the ratios may be separately com-

puted for each wave-length and used for all the rays of the same

color.

For paraxial rays the angles d and a are small quantities of

the first order, so that sin d may be replaced by d, and cos Q by

unity. In this case the B's and as may be eliminated from

equations (7) to {4), giving the Gauss formula

l^K ^K Ck , .

Hk+i Tk - (nK+, - nKJCK

If one must work alone, the constants may be checked by com-

puting the paraxial rays both by (/) to {4), replacing the sines

by the angles, and also by (//). Decimal trigonometric tables

are most convenient, such as those published by the French

government.

COBLENTZ: NOTE ON COEFFICIENT OF RADIATION 1 85

RADIATION. — Note on the coefficient of total radiation of a

tmiformly heated enclosure. W. W. Coblentz, Bureau

of Standards.

Under the above title the writer pubhshed^ a value of the

so-called vStefan-Boltzmann constant of radiation from a uni-

formly heated enclosure or so-called black body. The value

is 0- = 5.72 X 10-'- =t 0.012 watt cm"'- deg~^ It is based

upon about 600 measurements, made with 10 receivers, which

are summarized in table 6 of a previous publication.- The data

obtained with receivers nos. 8 and 9 were not included because

the apparatus was defective. The data obtained with these

10 receivers were corrected for radiation lost by reflection,

which loss amounts to 1.2 per cent for receivers covered with

lampblack (soot) and 1.7 per cent for receivers covered with

platinum black. It does not include a set of measurements

made on an unblackened radiator. The reflection from a re-

ceiver covered with platinum black, then smoked, is 1.2 per

cent. These corrections were determined by direct measure-

ments upon some of the receivers and by comparison of the sur-

faces of the other receivers with samples of lampblack whose

reflection losses had been determined in a previous investiga-

tion.''

Experiments were made on atmospheric absorption and it

was shown that if any correction to these data for atmospheric

absorption is to be made, it can hardly be greater than o.i per

cent.

Recently a new determination' of this radiation constant was

brought to my attention, and in view of the fact that this paper

contains inaccurate statements concerning my own work a

few comments are permissible. For example, the statement

is made that the only novelty in the apparatus employed by

Coblentz and Emerson {loc. cit.) was a thermopile with a contin-

uous receiving surface, which is of secondary importance. As a

' Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci, 3: 504. 191 7.

- Coblentz and Emerson. Bull. Bur. vStand. 12: 549. 19 16.

» Bull. Bur. Stand. 9: 283. 1913-

* Kahanowicz. Nuovo Cimento (6) 13: 142. 1917.

1 86 COBLENTZ: NOTE ON COEI^'FICIENT OI^ RADIATION

matter of fact, the crucial part of the apparatus was a receiver

with potential terminals attached thereto, at a sufficient distance

from the ends to avoid the question of heat conduction to the

electrodes. These potential wires, which were from 0.003 mm.

to 0.02 mm. in diameter, accurately defined the length of the

central part of the receiver which was utilized in the measure-

ments. By exposing the whole length of the receiver to radia-

tion, conduction losses did not enter the problem. The writer is

not aware of anyone having used a similar apparatus which

compares with this receiver in nicety of construction, and re-

producibility of results under given conditions.

The receiver used by Kahanowicz was placed at the center

of a spherical mirror, with an opening in one side to admit radia-

tion. In this manner the correction for reflection was elimi-

nated. The shutter was close to the receiver. If its tem-

perature was different from that of the water-cooled diaphragm,

which was before the radiator, errors in the radiation measure-

ments would occur. As mentioned in my previous papers,

the shutter should be placed between the water-cooled dia-

phragm and the radiator, to avoid a change in surroundings

facing the receiver when the shutter is raised for making the

radiation measurements. The temperature range was from

260° C. to 530° C. The distance from the radiator to the re-

ceiver was 35 to 55 cm. A series of 28 measurements gave an

average value of o- = 5.61 X io~^- watt cm~'- deg~'. Of this

number 1 1 gave a value of 0- = 5.7. Out of a series of 4 measure-

ments made in Decemljer, 1916, with the distance d = ^6 cm.,

three gave a value of cr — 5.7.

No corrections were made for atmospheric absorption, which

for the temperatures used is not neghgible. In a previous

paper'' it was shown that on removing the moisture (va])or

pressure of 10 to 12 mm.) from a column of air 52 cm. in length,

the radiation constant was increased from a = 5.41 to 5.55 or

about 2.6 per cent. For the spectral region transmitted by

rock salt, to X = 15M, the absorption is about i percent.*^ Other

* Bull. Bur vStand. 12: 576. 1916. See table 3, series CI,XXX to CLXXXII.

* Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Loc. cit.

KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? 187

measurements mentioned in these papers indicate an absorp-

tion of 2 to 3 per cent of the radiations emitted at 1000° C.

for the average humidity of Washington.

Dr. H. H. Kimball, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, very kindly

sent me comparative data, showing that the vapor pressures at

Naples are considerably higher than at Washington. From these

data it would appear that the correction for atmospheric ab-

sorption must be at least i per cent. For the low temperatures

at which the radiator was operated, a fair estimate of the cor-

rection to the radiation data obtained by Kahanowicz is 1.5

to 2 per cent, or a value of o- = 5.69 to 5.72 X io~^^ watt cm~-

deg~^. In other words, the Naples value of the coefficient

of total radiation is comparable with other recent determinations

which indicate a value of o- = 5.7 X lo"^'^ watt cm~- deg~^

BIOLOGY. — What kind of characters distinguish a species from

its subdivisions?^ William C. Kendall, Bureau of Fisheries.

I do not claim to be an authority on Taxonomy, although

I have labored to some extent in Systematic Ichthyology, which

for a long time was to me a game of "follow the leader," and in

which game, it may be said, I was a "bhnd" follower.

The fixed views of my leaders, regarding what kind of char-

acters should constitute species and subspecies respectively,

seemed thoroughly reasonable and logical, but when independ-

ently I attempted to apply them in practice, I found myself

in a dense fog from which I have not yet emerged.

Briefly stated, a species was such by virtue of possessing one

or more "distinct and constant" characters distinguishing it

from all other species. These characters might be pronounced

or shght, but if "constant'' entitled the form so characterized

to a binomial label. Of course if there was only one specimen,

which was commonly the case, the above specific condition

was fulfilled.

If, however, two forms, which, if observed by themselves in

two separate localities, would seem to be distinct species, should

1 Remarks at the Symposium at the meeting of the Biological Society, Saturday,

March 8, 1919-

1 88 KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES?

be found to intergrade geographically in characters from one

terminus to the other, the one later described or named should

be regarded as a subspecies and be given a trinomial name.

My preceptors further impressed upon me that a species and

its subspecies could not develop in exactly the same environment.

I further learned that two forms though differing but slightly

and suspected of intergradation should continue to be regarded

as distinct species until intergradation should be proved.

As previously indicated, I subscribed to all this and am still

willing to accept those dicta as gospel, and let them go at that.

But the fog still hangs low. For that reason I cannot throw

any light upon the question before us tonight. Beyond that

which I have just stated no definite plan of procedure seems to

have been advanced by any ichthyologist. In fact there seems to be

no uniformity and little consistency in ichthyological classification,

especially as pertains to species and the minor divisions of species.

I have more than once read or heard it stated that there is

no such thing as species. If this be so, it would seem that there

is a widely prevalent illusion and the systematists are seeing

things. This would seem to be borne out by the fact that even

certain recognized leaders appear to adhere to no definite system.

In the same work one may find subspecies, species, and even

genera based upon exactly the same kind or degree of differences,

also good and valid species, according to the previously mentioned

definition, considered identical with another species.

Unfortunately, or rather, fortunately if you please, we are

limited to two sorts of names for the minor divisions of classi-

fication: binomial for species; trinomial for subspecies.

As I conceive of the objects of nomenclature, it is to afford a

means of concisely designating certain situations. In regard

to this point the question before us tonight seems to me to be:

How many of the various situations, if more than one, shall

be included in the binomial and how many in the trinomial

designation? For it must be recognized that if the previously

mentioned definitions of species and subspecies are accepted

without modifications or limitation, there are several situations

for which no provision has been made.

Kendall: what characters distinguish species? 189

Ichthyologically, I, myself, discern two kinds of phantoms,

which I designate as species. One is a taxonomic species,

the other a natural species. At times they may blend into one

but not always. Both conform to the definition given by my

leaders and both imply development of one form from another,

but there are two lines of development or derivation to be con-

sidered which I will designate as horizontal and vertical. The

first refers to derivation, development, and relationships on

the surface plane of a given time, past or present. The second,

to derivation and development in time from the past to the present.

Any cross-section of the vertical will present a horizontal plane

of development. In taxonomic considerations of species and

their subdivisions of living fishes, the tendency appears to be

to regard them in their horizontal aspect. That is, in their

relations to each other in the period of time in which they exist.

If the vertical is considered at all it is usually as though the

organism of the past was the same as the present. For instance,

it is stated that Salmo salar sehago is derived from Salmo salar,

as though the parent stock was the same as the Atlantic salmon

of today. It may or may not have been. That is a point to

be considered vertically. My meaning may become clearer

if we imagine a longitudinal section through the vertical from

the past to the present time.

During some period of time, recent or remote, through limita-

tions to interbreeding and other causes, it is conceivable that

two horizontal extremes developed differences of character

which graded in toward the center. The persistence to the

present time of these interbreeding connections constitute

a perfect intergradation geographically between the two extremes

of the present time. Again, it is conceivable that by expansion

geographically of one or the other or both of the differentiating

extremes, there is an actual or relative contraction of the in-

termediate connections. In other words, there is a tendency

toward segregation of the extremes through weakening of the

interbreeding connections.

Both phylogenetically and taxonomically in this situation

at the present time there can be only one species, not withstand-

190 KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES?

ing the fact, that, if we were ignorant of the existence of the

connecting forms, the two extremes would be sufficiently dif-

ferent to be regarded as distinct taxonomic species.

Phylogenetically the form at the center of distribution would

typify the species. The fact that one extreme or the other may

be the center of distribution does not affect the question. Un-

fortunately the species of the present-day taxonomist is often

already named and may have come from any point in the hy-

pothetical area mentioned. It may or may not be one or the

other extremes or it may or may not represent the center of

distribution. Consequently a subdivision of the species may in like

manner represent almost any point more or less remote from the

locality represented by the taxonomic species. In fact, accord-

ing to his niceties of discrimination or his idiosvncrasies, one

might make any number of subspecies, or whatever subdivisions

of a taxonomic species it is decided to call these geographical

representatives of a single natural species.

Now, if the two lines of differentiation, previously mentioned

as developing at each margin or extreme in more or less remote

time, should gradually separate, leaving a gap in the intergrada-

tion thus restricting the interbreeding to two independent

lines of further development, which proceed without further

interruption to the present time, they would result in two re-

lated natural species, conforming to the specific taxonomic

definition of species of the aforesaid authorities. The degree

of difference between these two species would depend, partly

at least, upon the remoteness of the period of divergence.

One of these independent lines, at one period or another,

may have repeated either one or both of the previously mentioned

situations. The more recent the divergence, the less distinct

the differences, until at the present time they are perhaps almost

indistinguishable from the first mentioned horizontal or real

intergradation. In fact, they may be quite indistinguishable to

the systematist having before him only small collections or col-

lections from a few localities only.

Again, suppose that, in some past period of time, more or

less remote, a small portion of one of the main divergent lines of

KENDALL: WHAT CHARACTERS DISTINGUISH SPECIES? I9I

development, progressing without a differentiation at the margin,

should be segregated — -put off at a way station, so to speak —

and, by virtue of little or no change of environment, should

be retarded or arrested in its phylogenetic development.

Then suppose that, at a later period, similar segregation takes

place, which for like reasons is also retarded or arrested. Both

of these forms, persisting in their isolation and limited inter-

breeding to the present day, to the horizontal observer would

appear as two intermediate forms, that is to say, connecting

links between the respective species resulting from each of the

main lines of phylogenetic development, previously referred

to. The result of the first mentioned segregation would resemble

the species at the present end of the main line other than the

one resulting from the line in which the segregation originated,

more nearly than would the result of the later segregation.

So, although they appear as intermediate forms between ex-

isting species, they are not. They represent, rather, vertical

intermediates between the common ancestral stock and the

one species at the present end of the line from which they them-

selves were segregated. They form no intergradation, continuous

nor interrupted, between the living species, but between an

ancestral species different from the present species, and are,

therefore, living fossils as it were. They may have, and probably

did pursue, some small degree of development themselves. They

should, I believe, be regarded as distinct species.

In my hypothesis I have designated only two of this latter

character. There might be many. The more there are, the

more difficult would it be to recognize the situation. But when

the intergradation is interrupted, as it is in these instances,

and particularly where each form is somewhat isolated at the

present time, as in such instances it is likely to be, I believe

that specific definition of my leaders fit the cases. The inter-

ruptions are represented by certain characters, which, whether

little or great, entitle the forms to specific designation. They

are natural species and should be thus taxonomically recognized.

There occur to me two other situations that might be, in fact

have been, mistaken for real intergradations.

192 cook: evolution through normal diversity

One is due to the intermingling and interbreeding of two

closely related species. It represents a reunion across lots

of long separated relatives. Of course, the intergrading forms

are hybrids and there is no question regarding the distinctness

of the species producing them or the designations of the results

of their crossing. The real problem is in recognizing the situation.

The other situation is that of degradation due to degeneration

of certain characters. The irregularity of distribution of the

various degrees of such degeneration, and the fact that all de-

grees, from apparently perfect individuals to extreme degenera-

tion of parts or characters, are sometimes found in one locality,

suggest physiological or pathological causes and are individual

rather than specific or subspecific in their significance. Such

forms are even now recognized as species or subspecies, but with

no more justification than there would be in regarding a group

of human beings affected with alopecia as constituting a distinct

race. "A man's a man for a' that."

The foregoing hypothetical situations are all represented among

fishes today, but are generally not correctly interpreted. Only

correct diagnoses of these cases render practicable the uniform

application of the previously mentioned definitions of species

and subspecies. Then, "true intergradation" designates sub-

species. All the other situations are specific.

EVOLUTION. — Evolution through normal diversity. O. F. Cook,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Mr. F. L. Lewton, of the United vStates National Museum,

has brought to my attention a paper by Thomas Meehan, which

contains the following passage :

The observations on this plant {Impatiens fulva) confirm records

I have made during the past quarter of a century that there is an innate

power to vary coexistent with the species itself, independent of any

conditions of environment. This may be granted without prejudice

to the proposition that changes can and do occur at times by the in-

fluence of environment, for which there is abundant evidence. It

seems proper to present the strong facts on the former side, because

of the modem tendency to exalt the latter as the prime motor in evolu-

tion.^

* Contribution to the life-histories of plants, No. X. Proc. Acad Phila. 1894: 53.

cook: evolution through normal diversity 193

The statement and its context are significant, and the issue

is fundamental, though obscured by much deductive reasoning.

Inheritance of "acquired characters," the changes that are

directly imposed or induced by the environment, is no longer

credited, but the environment is still supposed to cause evolu-

tionary changes indirectly, through the medium of selection.

It has been argued in many ways that evolution must be due

to environmental causes, but such inferences do not visualize

against a biological background. Not only is current dialectic

unclear in failing to recognize elementary distinctions between

causal and conditional relations, but essential facts continue

to be neglected and dangerous applications entertained, such

as the theory of natural selection used in Germany to justify

the war.

Historical interest may be claimed for the passage from Mee-

han on account of the definite recognition of normal diversity.

The expression "power to vary" may be misunderstood as

assuming a mysterious "principle" or hidden "mechanism of

evolution," but evidently it refers to the concrete, visible fact

of diversity as the general and normal condition among the mem-

bers of species. "The variations must be from some natural

law of evolution inherent in the plant itself" was an earlier

expression of the same idea that normal evolutionary diversity

is a general fact, not determined by environment.^

Darwin recognized variation as a general fact, but he was

wont to consider the environment as the cause, and the belief

in environmental causation became completely dominant in the

minds of many of his followers. Meehan's conception of varia-

tion as independent of the environment was framed many years

in advance of the formal recognition of heterism or normal di-

versity among the members of species as a general evolutionary

fact. Owing to the preponderance gained by the Darwinian

interpretation, the word variation had come with many writers

to refer almost exclusively to differences of accommodation to

environmental conditions. The new word heterism seemed

2 T. MbEhan. On the agency of insects in obstructing evolution. Proc. Acad.

Phila. 1872: 237.

194 cook: evolution through normal diversity

necessary as a means of referring definitely to the class of dif-

ferences which Meehan had described as "innate," "inherent,"

and "coexistent with the species itself." In proposing the

name heterism additional examples were given, and the phenom-

enon was associated with more specialized forms of diversity

that are admitted generally to be independent of the environ-

ment, as sexes, castes, and dimorphic or pfflymorphic species.^

Darwin had made much of the agency of' insects in develop-

ing the highly specialized floral organs of orchids and other

plants, and such adaptive specializations had been accepted

as evidence that the environment, acting through natural selec-

tion, is the active agent in evolution. Meehan 's observations

and reasoning led to the opposite view, that crossing by insects

would tend to keep the species uniform, and would thus interfere

with evolution, instead of carrying it forward. To him it ap-

peared that special characters might develop more rapidly if

peculiar strains were kept separate, instead of being crossed

by insects.

Efforts have been made to demonstrate the power of selec-

tion to induce changes of characters, but without finding any

consistent evidence. Progress appears to be made in cases

where the desired variations occur, but there is nothing to show

that variations in a particular direction can be induced by dint

of selection, after a pure-bred stock has reached a condition

of uniformity. vStatistical investigators often assume that

causal effects are demonstrated by proving that the average

of any particular character can be raised by selective elimina-

tion, but it remains to be shown that there is anything definitely

evolutionary in the shifting of averages. To hold logically

the idea that selection is the actuating cause of evolution, it

must be assumed that the selective elimination or cutting away

of one character or part of a species causes the other^ parts to

vary farther away from the selective stress, an assumption not

supported by definite evidence.

Apart from the mutation theory, the alternatives of selective

causation of evolution are the Lamarckian idea of direct influence

^ O. F. Cook. Aspects of kinetic evolution. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 8: 244. 1907.

cook: evolution through normal diversity 195

of the environment, to which Darwin himself often incHned,

and the idea of spontaneous variation within the species put

forward by Meehan in opposition to Darwin. As a hfelong

observer, famihar with many genera and species and large

numbers of living plants, Meehan was competent to give testi-

mony and he took an important step beyond Darwin in perceiving

that diversity inside the species is independent of the environ-

ment. Nevertheless, the evolutionary bearing of diversity

was still obscured because Meehan shared with Darwin the

mistake of supposing that contrasted characters must tend to

disappear, through the alleged "swamping effect of intercross-

ing," an idea that continues to be accepted by many because

it appears reasonable from mathematical or statistical points

of view. Galton's "law of ancestral regression" has been taken

as a mathematical demonstration of the reality of a swamping

effect.

In recent years the law of regression has been applied to al-

ternative inheritance as well as to quantitative or blended char-

acters, and no longer seems to require the assumption of an under-

lying tendency for the members of an interbreeding group to

reach a stable or uniform condition. Inheritance is seen to

be alternative rather than equational, as shown by intensive

studies of Mendelism and other methods of descent. Many

divergent or contrasted characters persist in hybrid populations,

instead of being obliterated or averaged away to uniformity.

Even when the hybrid offspring are closely alike in the first

or conjugate generation, ancestral differences may reappear

undiminished in the perjugate generations.

The so-called recessive characters that can be transmitted

for many generations without coming into expression, as well

as reversions or reappearances of characters of remote ancestors,

afford striking evidence that transmission is distinct from ex-

pression, and that transmission is permanent, while expression

is readily changed. Phenomena of variation and diversity

are largely differences of expression, including accommodations,

or varied expressions of adaptive characters, to suit different

conditions of existence.

196 cook: evoIvUTion through normal diversity

It was necessary to discard the idea of diversity being lost

through crossing, before it could be understood that new char-

acters might be preserved in natural species without the indi-

viduals being segregated, by selection or otherwise. Preserving

the adaptive variations no doubt facilitates evolution in direc

tions of increased fitness, but the argument from fitness is far

from proving that changes of characters are caused by selection.

We say that cold weather makes us put on overcoats, but not

that overcoats are made by cold weather. Species become

adapted through variation. Each separate group is a distinct

evolutionary system for developing new characters, some of

adaptive value and others not. How characters are originated

and preserved in transmission are questions that relate to the

mechanism of heredity, but the nature of the mechanism of

evolution is obvious. A very effective way of extending and

combining any characters that variation may afford is provided

by the organization of each species into a continuous fabric

of lines of descent, united through sexual reproduction.^

Endless individual diversity results from the continued de-

velopment and gradual diffusion of inherited characters among

the members of a species. To find the diagnostic characters,

those that are shared by all the members of one species but are

absent from related species, often requires very patient and per-

sistent work by systematists. Sometimes it is impossible to

determine, even from many specimens, whether one species

or more than one is represented. The groups must be canvassed

in nature to learn whether they are continuous or not, so great

and multifarious are the individual differences, while the general

similarities are obscure and difficult to state.

With diversity accepted as a normal and general condition

in species, evolution is seen as a process of continous integration

and differentiation of characters. The two essential conditions

of evolutionary progress are normal diversity (heterism) and

free intercrossing of lines of descent (symbasis), as in natural

•* O. F. Cook. The vital fabric of descent. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 301-323.

1906. See also, Methods and causes of evolution, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PI. Ind.

Bull. 136. 1908.

cook: evolution through normal diversity 197

species of plants and animals. The most familiar example

of heterism is the individual diversity of mankind, but the same

condition is recognized as soon as we become sufficiently familiar

with the members of other species of animals or plants. Di-

versity is reduced or eliminated temporarily by selective breed-

ing, or propagation in single or narrow lines, but reappears

when the natural condition of free interbreeding is restored.

Instead of tending to impede evolution, intercrossing of lines

of descent in species presents a condition most favorable for the

preservation and extension of new characters. The develop-

ment of multitudes of useless differences is the best evidence

of spontaneous development of useful characters. "The prime

motor in evolution," to use Meehan's words, "is an innate power

to vary, coexistent with the species itself, independent of any

conditions of environment."

Laboratory geneticists may believe that species consist nor-

mally of uniform, identical individuals, or may suppose that the

members of species tend to become uniform or to remain uni-

form if placed under the same environmental conditions, but

these assumptions are not based on familiarity with natural

species. Theories may be projected and logical systems de-

duced from the assumption of uniformity, as though a world

of uniform species really existed, just as mathematicians follow

relations of symbols into space of four dimensions. Facts

are often obscured by elaboration of conventional ideas. Wider

application of biology in agriculture, eugenics, and sociology

awaits clearer perception and presentation of the underlying

evolutionary and environmental relations.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— Some of the broader phy to pathological prob-

lems in their relation to foreign seed and plant introduction. Beveri^y

T. Galloway. Phytopathology 8: No. 3. March, 1918.

In this paper the author briefly reviews the progress in organized

coordinated medical sanitation and emphasizes the results in their

relation to plant sanitation; outlines the history of plant-exclusion

legislation and points out its bearing on systematic foreign seed and

plant introduction; and describes the present intensive work for the

protection of new plant introductions against diseases and other enemies

and suggests the approaching necessity of similar work for the country

at large.

Certain principles are recognized in the work of the Office of Foreign

vSeed and Plant Introduction:

( 1 ) That the work is international, and the broad phytopathological

problems require world-wide consideration and study from the economic

as well as from the phytopathological standpoint.

(2) That regulatory and restrictive measures, which are only pallia-

tive at best, must be internationalized to be most effective, and as such

measures are generally highly profitable when properly administered

they should receive the best support.

(3) That the science of plant hygiene, or the study of crops in re-

lation to environment, offers the broadest field for research and applied

science, and that this science will doubtless supplant many prevailing

practices in phytopathology as preventive treatment is supplanting

curative practices of the old-school physician.

The need of phytopathological surveys — local, national, and inter-

national— is strongly evidenced in the agricultural exploration work,

so strongly in fact that the question arises as to whether the risk

of introducing injurious diseases and insects is not too great to warrant

general agricultural explorations and consequent seed and plant in-

troductions, with no check except the necessarily imperfect examinations

after the material arrives.

198

abstracts: genetics 199

Agricultural exploration and introduction work is an important

function of the Government, but the time seems to be approaching

when these explorations should be back-grounded by phytopathological

surveys or the explorations and phytopathological work done simul-

taneously. Theoretically plants should be free from diseases and in-

sects, and, although theoretically only, there is no reason why efforts

should not be made to approach the ideal conditions in this respect.

The development of some phases of plant hygiene will require com-

bined effort and coordinated action of pathologists and others. Syste-

matic world-wide studies of the botanical relationships of some of our

principal crops seem desirable, not only to obtain a foundation for

intelligent action regarding the economic use of plants, but to aid

in supplying material with which to fight our present plant enemies.

The gradual shifting of plant industries from one region to another

is also an interesting study and is due in many cases to lack of proper

appreciation or understanding of plant sanitation. Sanitation as

a phase of hygiene must be considered. The removal of many causes

of disease is practicable, but a vast amount of educational work must

be done in this field before effective action can be secured. The in-

dividual can accomplish much, but only through the vState can far-

reaching results be brought about. The State, however, is moved

in such matters only by a groundswell of public opinion, and the best

way to create a groundswell for plant sanitation is to bring the individual

grower to a realization of its importance in all phases of his work.

B. T. G.

GENETICS. — A study of hybrids in Egyptian cotton. Thomas J.

Kearney and Walton G. Wells. Amer. Nat. 52 : 491-506.

Oct.-Nov., 1918.

Hybrids were made between two varieties of Egyptian cotton, Pima

and Gila, both of which had presumably originated by mutation. The

two varieties, as represented by the progenies grown from selfed seed

of the individuals which were the parents of the hybrids, differed sig-

nificantly in their means for some two dozen characters. Most of these

are size or shape characters. The parental ranges for nearly all charac-

ters overlapped considerably.

With very few exceptions, the means of the simple intervarietal

hybrids, in the first, second, and third generations, fell between the

parental means. The ^/s backcrosses obtained by twice crossing the

200 abstracts: zoology

simple hybrid with either parent were practically identical with the

preponderant parent in the means and ranges of the characters studied.

The simple hybrids showed little or no evidence of dominance in

the Fi nor of segregation in definite ratios in the F2, the Fo distribu-

tions having been, practically without exception, unimodal. None

of the hybrid plants appreciably exceeded the combined parental

ranges in respect to any character, while in the F2 of wider crosses,

e. g., between Egyptian and Upland cottons, extraparental characters

are abundantly expressed.

The second and third generations of the simple hybrids, as compared

with the parents after two and three generations of selfing, were not

more variable than the more variable Gila parent and were only a little

more variable than the Pima parent. This points to the possibility of

obtaining relatively stable and uniform recombinations of the desira-

ble characters of varieties belonging to the same general type, while

breeders have found it well-nigh impossible to "fix" wider crosses

such as those of Egyptian (or Sea Island) with Upland cotton.

T. H. K.

ZOOLOGY. — The criterion of suhspecific inter gradation in vertebrate

zoology. Harry C. Oberholser. Science, n. ser. 48: 165-167.

1918.

Intergradation is now generally accepted as the criterion of zoological

subspecies. What constitutes subspecific intergradation, however,

seems to be still debatable, particularly that kind of intergradation

represented by individual variation in a form geographically separated

from all other races of the species. This is illustrated by the case of

Aphelocoma calijornica and Aphelocoma calif ornica sumichrasti, the ranges

of which are widely separated by intervening forms which have not,

in all cases, direct geographic intergradation, although the individual

variation in the latter overlaps that in the former. If in such cases

we are to consider the two forms as distinct species, we must, to be

consistent, treat all island and isolated alpine forms as distinct species

however slightly and inconstantly they may be differentiated. The

logical course, however, seems to be to consider this individual varia-

tion as equivalent to contiguous geographical intergradation, and thus

regard individual variation as one of the chief criterions of subspecific

intergradation. H. C. O.

abstracts: ornithology 201

MAMMALOGY. — The Wisconsin Napaeozapus. Hartley H. T-

Jackson. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 9-10. February 14, 1919.

The cooperative field work of the U. S. Biological Survey and Wis-

consin Geological and Natural History Survey during the summers

of 191 7 and 1918 resulted in the collection of seven specimens of Nap-

aeozapus from four localities in northern Wisconsin. This is a definite

westerly extension of the previously known geographic range of the

genus. The Wisconsin animal represents a clearly defined form which

is named Napaeozapus insignis frutectanus. H. H. T. J.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The case of the genera Rhina and Magdalis. W.

DwiGHT Pierce. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 20: No. 4. Pp. 72-78.

September 27, 191 8.

This article straightens out a peculiar nomenclatorial tangle of these

two genera, and gives tables of the subgenera of Magdalis and of the

North American species of the genus. This is the first attempt at a

coordination of the European and American classifications of this

group. W. D. P.

ORNITHOLOGY.— r/t^ migration of North American birds. III. The

summer and hepatic tanagers, martins, and barn swallows. Harry

C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 145-152. 1918.

The tables of migration data in this paper concern the following

species, together with their subspecies: Piranga rubra, Piranga

hepatica, Progne subis, and Hirundo rustica. By means of these tables

it is possible to trace the migratory movements of these species both

in spring and in autumn, from north to south. In addition, the breeding

and winter ranges of each of the species and subspecies are given,

together with the same information for Progne cryptoleuca and Progne

chalybea, both of which, however, cannot be considered as of regular

occurrence in North America. The average of arrival and departure

at the various localities are in ^ome cases based on records extending

over as many as thirty-two years, though in most cases considerably

less. ' H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The common ravens of North America. Harry

C. Oberholser. Ohio Journ. Sci. 18: 213-225. May, 1918.

The subspecies of the common raven, Corvus corax Linnaeus, are

among the most difficult birds of the family Conndae. The differ-

202 abstracts: ornithology.

ences characterizing them are almost wholly those of size and propor-

tion, and, because great individual variation complicates the case,

these are largely average distinctions and require series of specimens

for proper elucidation. In the old world some sixteen or seventeen

forms are at present recognized, but in North America currently only

two, Corviis corax principalis of northern North America, with which

the birds in the eastern United States are considered identical, and

Corvus corax sinuatus of the western United States and Mexico. In

addition to these, another smaller form, Corvus corax clarionensis , re-

cently described from Clarion Island in the Revillagigedo group, of

western Mexico, now appears to be the race inhabiting western North

America from Lower California and Arizona to Oregon. The bird of

eastern North America from Alabama to southern Labrador, and west

to Minnesota and Arkansas, is described as a new race — Corvus corax

europhilus. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Birds observed near Minco, central Oklahoma.

Alexander Wetmore. Wilson Bull. 30: 2-10,56-61. 1918.

Lists of breeding birds from Oklahoma are particularly important

since little information is available concerning the geographic distribu-

tion of birds in this state. This contribution comprises notes on

sixty -two species and subspecies, mostly breeding birds from the vicinity

of Minco, in the central part of the State. The most interesting in-

formation from a distributional standpoint is the residence here of

Penthestes carolinensis agilis, Muscivora forficata, Agelaius phoeniceus

predatorius, Dryobates pubescens medianus, and Thryomanes bewickii

cry plus; and the occurrence during migration of Chordeiles minor

henryi. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the genus Puffinus Brisson. Harry C.

Oberholser. The Auk 34: 471-475. October, 191 7.

The notes in this paper relate to the generic groups, species, and sub-

species currently included in the genus Puffinus Brisson, particularly

such as concern North America. The new genus Calonectris, proposed

by Mathews and Iredale for Puffinus leucomelas and Puffinus kuhlU,

appears to be well characterized. The genus Ardenna Reichenbach is

likewise tenable and includes Puffinus gravis O'Reilly, Puffinus creatopits

Coues, and also Puffinus carneipes Gould, which has recently been made

abstracts: technology 203

by Iredale the type of a new but untenable genus, HemipufUnus. For

Puffiniis cimeaius Salvin and Puffinus chlororhynchus Lesson, a separate

generic group seems necessary, for which the name Thyellodroma Stej-

neger is available. Neither the proposed genus Alphapuffinus Mathews,

to include Puffinus assimilis, Puffinus Iherminieri, and Puffinus persicus,

nor Neonectris Mathews, proposed for Puffinus tenuirostris tenuirosiris,

Puffinus tenuirostris brevicaudns, and Puffinus griseus, are generically

separable from typical Puffinus. The action of Mathews in renaming

the Puffinus opisthonielas of Coues as Puffinus couesi and the transfer-

ence of the name Puffinus opisthomelas to the species commonly known

as Puffinus auricularis proves to be unwarranted, since an examination

of the types of both Puffinus auricularis and Puffinus opisthomelas

show that they belong, respectively, to the species to which the names

have commonly been applied. The Puffinus couesi of Mathews there-

fore becomes a synonym of Puffinus opisthomelas Coues. Further-

more, the subspecies of Thyellodroma cuneata (Salvin) recognized by Mr.

Mathews prove to be, on re-examination of pertinent material, all un-

tenable. H. C. O.

TECHNOLOGY.— 7^0/wo/ recovery. R. vS. McBridij, C. K- Ruinickkr,

and W. A. DunkIvEy. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. 117. Pp.

60. 1918.

The importance of high explosives in the present war has been amply

demonstrated. Nearly all types of explosives are used in some way,

but trinitrotoluol, commonly known as T. N. T., because of its high

power and great stability, is one of the preferred explosives. As an

important constituent in shells, T. N. T. is used both alone and mixed

with other explosives. Especially for naval use it is used alone, be-

cause the greater stability permits longer storage of the shells before

use. On account of the great demand for T. N. T. there has grown

up also a large demand for those materials for which it is made, espe-

cially toluol. This material finds numerous applications in the chemical

industries, but particularly it has been used in the manufacture of dye-

stuffs and for the preparation of T. N. T. For this latter it is only

necessary to treat the toluol with nitric acid under proper conditions

in order to produce the explosive, which is then refined by appropriate

means to such degree of purity as is required for the use for which it

is intended. R. S. M.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF vSCIENCES

The Board of Managers met on February 24, 191 9. Mr. Frederick

V. CoviLLE was elected vice-president to represent the National Geo-

graphic Society. A committee consisting of A. S. Hitchcock, Adoi^ph

Knopf, and W. R. Maxon was appointed to recommend to the Board

alternate plans for the sale of the Proceedings of the Academy.

The meeting of the Board on March 10, 19 19, was devoted to the

consideration of nominees for membership.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WAvSHINGTON

The 134th regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos

Club at 8 p.m., Tuesday, March 4, 1919. Forty-eight members and

six guests were present. Mr. G. Hamilton Martin, Jr., of the Bureau

of Plant Industry, was elected to membership. The program con-

sisted of the following papers:

A botanical trip to the Haivaiian Islands (with lantern) : Prof. A. S.

Hitchcock. During the summer and fall of 191 6, the speaker visited

the Hawaiian Islands, including in his travel the islands of Hawaii,

Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, and Lanai. Hawaii, the largest island,

is about 100 miles wide and contains about 4000 square miles. On

this are the two highest peaks, Mauna Kea (13,825 feet) and Mauna

Loa (13,675 feet), and the active volcano or lava pit, Kilauea. On

Maui is the great crater of Haleakala, said to be the largest in the

world. Honolulu is on Oahu; the Leper Colony on Molokai.

The three important industries are the raising of sugar, stock, and

pineapples. The ranches are located mostly on Hawaii, Maui, Molokai,

and Lanai, the largest being about 700,000 acres. As there are few

streams or wells in the drier parts of the islands the water supply is,

for the most part, rainwater stored in tanks.

The introduced ornamental trees and shrubs are numerous and con-

spicuous, and introduced weeds have supplanted the native flora in

the vicinity of the inhabited parts of the island. xVmong the important

or peculiar plants of the islands may be mentioned the koa {Acacia

koa), a common and useful native forest tree; the algaroba {Prosopis

jidijlora, introduced from America; the lobelias, consisting of about

100 species and 5 genera of Lobeliaceae, most of the species being

204

PROCIiEDINGS : BIOLOGICAL SOCmXY 205

arboreous and often palm-like in appearance; the silver sword {Ar-

gyroxiphinm sandwicense) , a composite with beautiful silvery leaves,

growing on the bare lava slopes of Haleakala; and the ape {Gunnera

petaloidea) , of the family Halorrhagidaceae, with enormous circular

leaf-blades. The ferns are very numerous in species and individuals,

often dominating the flora, especially in wet regions. The tree ferns

are conspicuous. They produce at the base of the leaf-stalk a mass

of yellow wool called pulu, which is used for stuffing pillows.

Vegetation of Paradise Key and the surrounding Everglades (with

lantern) : Mr. W. E. Safford. Paradise Key, an island in the heart

of the Everglades of Florida, nearly ninety miles south of Lake Oke-

chobee, is of great biological interest, as an example, within the limits

of the United States, of a subtropical jungle unspoiled by man. It

is reached by automobile, or by train and automobile from Miami,

thirty-seven miles to the northeastward. Though the temperature

sometimes falls below freezing point, the mildness of its climate is

attested by the presence of many tropical plants including a number

of lofty royal palms whose crests may be seen from a distance above

the sky line of the forest. These palms have given the name Royal

Palm State Park to a tract of land including Paradise Key, some of

the near-by marsh-land, and a corner of pine-land, granted to the Florida

Federation of Women's Clubs by the State Legislature and afterwards

augmented by the gift of a public-spirited woman. The paper, which

is to be included in a forthcoming publication of the Smithsonian In-

stitution, treats of the climate and physical geography, the various

plant formations, including water-plants, plants of the marshes, marsh-

loving shrubs, forest trees, lianas, epiphytes, and undershrubs, and con-

tains a short account of some of the most interesting plants of the

neighboring pine-lands, with reference to the interdependence of the

animals and plants of the region discussed, their geographical dis-

tribution and dissemination, and notes as to their economic importance

to the aboriginal inhabitants of southern Florida.

Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 592d meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, February 22, 1919; called to order at

8 p.m. by President Smith; 42 persons present.

O. P. Hopkins, Washington, was elected to membership.

Under the heading brief notes. Prof. A. S. Hitchcock and Dr. A. D.

Hopkins called attention to a recently issued book on the birds of

Colombia by Frank M. Chapman.

The formal program was an address by the retiring president. Dr.

J. N. Rose: Botanical explorations in Ecuador.

Dr. Rose gave an account of his recent botanical explorations in

Ecuador. He spent three months in that country during the past

summer and obtained some 6000 botanical specimens. He made two

2o6 proceedings: entomological society

sections from west to east, one from Guayaquil to Ambato and the other

from Loja to Santa Rosa. He also traveled down the Andean Valley

from San Antonio to Loja. He showed thirty slides made from photo-

graphs obtained during this trip. One of these showed a house made

of the giant bamboo which grows in the mountain canyons and which

forms such an important material in the building of houses along the

coast of Ecuador. Dr. Rose collected several species of cinchona,

a plant which is in use for the manufacture of quinine. vSpecimens

of cinchona bark, ivory nut, and various tropical fruits which had been

preserved in formalin were on exhibition.

Discussion by Messrs. H. M. Smith, A. D. Hopkins, A. S. Hitch-

cock, R. M. LiBBEY and others.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 320th regular meeting of the Society was held March 6, 191 9,

in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

There were present t,T) members and 41 visitors.

The minutes of the 319th meeting were read and approved.

Messrs. Richard T. Cotton and J. C. Furman, both of the Bureau

of Entomology, were elected to membership.

The Corresponding Secretary called attention to notices that he

had recently received, one from Martinus Nijhoflf of the Hague an-

nouncing that, since the removal of the submarine menace, he is in

position to fill old and new orders for literature; and one from the

publishers of Genera inscctorum listing the parts already published,

those to appear in 1919, and those that are out of print.

The program for the evening consisted of moving pictures made

1)y the Department of Agriculture and showing the practical applica-

tion of control measures against injurious insects.

Dr. Howard gave a brief talk concerning the application of moving

pictures to education and extension work in science especially as re-

lating to agriculture and entomology.

The first picture showed methods and apparatus for eradicating

poultry pests and a form of sanitary poultry house. Dr. Pierce

made a few preliminary remarks by way of explanation of this picture.

The second picture illustrated the fumigation of citrous trees in

California, and showed the various types of apparatus in use. The

legends had not yet been inserted in this picture, and it was fully ex-

plained as run off by Mr. vSasscER.

The last picture showed the eradication of the pink boll worm of

cotton in Texas. During the changing of the reels Mr. Busck gave

a brief summary of the history of the invasion of this insect into the

United States, and expressed the belief that the methods shown in

the picture were responsible for the absolute extermination of this

very serious pest from something over 10,000 acres of land.

R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The "United States Fixed-Nitrogen Administration" has been or-

ganized under the joint control of the Secretaries of War, Navy, In-

terior, and Agriculture. It will be a civilian organization, and is de-

signed to take over and operate all the federal government plants de-

signed for the fixation of nitrogen and the manufacture of ammonia

and nitric acid.

William Bowie;, Major of Engineers, U. S. Army, was honorably

discharged on February 28, 1919, and has resumed his duties as Chief

of the Division of Geodesy, U. S. Coast and Geodetic vSurvev.

Lieut. Paul C. Bowers, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service

in Washington, is now at the laboratories of E. I. du Pont de Nemours

and Company, at Wilmington, Delaware.

Dr. Keivin Burns, of the Bureau of Standards, has returned after

two months spent in visiting laboratories in Europe.

Mr. F. C. Clark, of the paper and textile laboratories of the Bureau

of Standards, left the Bureau in March and is now with the American

Writing Paper Company, at Holyoke, Massachusetts.

ISIessrs. Arthur L. Davis and H. H. Hield have been transferred

from the Sheffield, Alabama, plant of the Nitrate Division, Army

Ordnance, to the Arlington research laboratories of the Division.

Mr. L. A. Fischer has returned to the Bureau of Standards to re-

sume his duties as Chief of the Division of Weights and Measures.

During the war he was commissioned Major in the Ordnance Depart-

ment and was engaged in supervising the construction and use of muni-

tions gages.

Mr. E. W. Guernsey, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service,

is now at the research laboratories of the Brown Company, at Berlin,

New Hampshire.

Dr. John Johnston resigned as Executive vSecretary of the National

Research Council in March, in order to accept an appointment as

Professor of Chemistry in Yale University, at New Haven, Connecticut.

Mr. J. O. Lewis, superintendent of the petroleum experiment station

at Bartlesville, Oklahoma, has been appointed chief petroleum technolo-

gist of the Bureau of Mines, to succeed Mr. Chester NaramorE,

who has resigned from the Bureau to join the Union Petroleum Company,

at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Lieut. Gerald H. Mains has returned from active service in France

to resume work at the Bureau of Chemistry.

Dr. C. Hart Merriam has been elected chairman of the U. S. Geo-

graphic Board, as successor to the late Andrew Braid.

207

2o8 .SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the University of California, lias returned to

Washington to act as Chairman of the National Research Council.

Mr. Robert L. Moore, of the Bureau of Standards, has been trans-

ferred to the rubber laboratory- of the Bureau at the University of

Akron, Akron, Ohio.

Dr. James A. Nelson has resigned from the Bureau of Entomology

to take up farming near Mt. Vernon, Ohio, retaining a connection

with the Bureau as collaborator.

Mr. John D. Northrop, of the Geological vSurvey, resigned at the

end of January to enter the emplo)^ of an oil company at Cheyenne,

Wyoming.

Capt. U. W. Parsons, formerly with the Chemical Warfare Service,

is now at the Research Uaboratory of Applied Chemistry, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Capt. H. C. Porter, of the Ordnance Department, U. S. A., is now

with the Chemical Service Laboratories, Incorporated, at West Con-

shohocken, Pennsylvania.

Lieut. Col. GIvEnn S. Smith sailed for the Dominican Republic in

INIarch to make a preliminary inspection of topography with the pur-

pose of organizing a topographic survey under the direction of the

military government of the Republic.

Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, accompanied by D. D. CondiT, C. W.

Cooke, and C. P. Ross, left New York on March 19 for the Dominican

Republic, to make a preliminary inspection of the geology in prepara-

tion for a geological survey under the direction of the military govern-

ment of the Republic.

Dr. H. S. Washington, of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution, has been elected a foreign member of the Reale Accademia

dei Lincei of Rome.

A new edition of the Directory of the Academy and its affiliated

societies (the "Red Book") was distributed early in March.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 APRIL 19, 1919 No. 8

MATHEMATICS. — Straws due to temperature gradients, with

special reference to optical glass. Erskine D. Williamson,

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

In spite of the fact that the foundations of the mathematical

theory of this subject were laid as long ago as 1879,^ observers

have overlooked the simplicity of many of the results and their

bearing on practical problems. vSome time ago we had occasion

to evaluate the stresses that would occur in blocks of glass of

various shapes under varying heat treatments and in the follow-

ing pages we give the results obtained and some remarks on

their interpretation.

To get a concrete idea of the nature of the problems, con-

sider a sphere of glass originally homogeneous which is being

heated at a uniform rate. Under this heating condition there

is set up a determinate temperature gradient such that the out-

side layers are hotter than those inside. If the sphere were

to consist of a number of detached spherical shells, these shells

would separate, but if the sphere be solid, internal stresses are

set up to counteract the separation effect. For mathematical

purposes we may evidently consider these two actions as taking

place separately, i.e., we may consider each element of the

sphere as undergoing an expansion due to the temperature

effect and then being brought back to its equilibrium position

by internal stresses.

^ HoPKiNSON, J. Messenger of Math. 8: 168. 1879.

209

2IO WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS

A qualitative idea of the stresses can be immediately obtained.

Suppose the black parts in figure i represent concentric shells

which have become separated by the establishing of temperature

differences from shell to shell. To bring these together again

will require tensions radially in each of the white sections. The

radial tension must increase from the center to the outside as

each tension holds in the tension outside it. The effect will

Fig. I. Concentric Shells.

be radial stretching in all cases, but combined with the stretch-

ing in each shell there will be a total displacement inwards or

outwards for the outer and inner shells, respectively, and this

will result in a change of circumference which will be a decrease

for the outer shells and an increase for the inner. The super-

position of these effects gives the total strain.

MATHEMATICAL DISCUSSION OF PARTICULAR CASES

I. Spherical shell with a temperature distribution which is

symmetrical about the center. — Let the infinitesimal shell whose

p

radius is r become finally of radius r -f- p so that - = the tan-

dp

gential (or circumferential) strain and — = the radial strain.

Let Pp represent the radial stress at that point and Pt the tan-

WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS 211

gential. A tension is considered as a positive and a thrust

as a negative stress. Then

^ = ePr -f Pt-fPt + ad (i)

and - - -f P, + e Pt-f Pt + ad (2)

where 6 is the change in temperature from the initial condition

of no stress, a is the coefficient of linear expansion and e and f

are elastic constants for the substance. ^

The condition of equilibrium shows that

r dPr

Elimination of p and Pt yields

d-P, , dFr 2 a dd

r + 4 = • —

dr- dr (e-f) dr

and hence

,„ 2 ct r r^

i-^Pr = -J^^j r^e dr + Ci- + C, (4)

where Ci and C2 are constants to be evaluated by the boundary

conditions. Pt is then evaluated from equation (3).

II. Solid sphere with a temperature distribution which is sym-

metrical about the center. — This differs from the previous case

only in the evaluation of the integration constants. C2must

dd dP

vanish as -j- and -r~ must be zero at r = o.

dr dr

Hence

,.r^ 2 a. C r^

r'P,=-(^3i)Jr^<'dr + Q- (5)

III. Cylindrical shell or tube with temperature distribution

symmetrical about the axis. — ^In this case we made the assumption

that planes perpendicular to the axis remained plane. Except

at the ends this is justified and in fact it was found to be com-

I ^ f

* Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, for the substance in question are - and -.

e e

respectively .

212 WIIvI^IAMSON : STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS

pletely justified so far as experiment^ was possible.

If the stresses be Pi, P2, and P3, parallel to the axis, radially,

and tangentially in the plane at right angles to the axis , respec-

tively, and X be the displacement parallel to the axis of the

element originally defined by the coordinates (x, r), the elastic

equations are:

dX

-T' = ePi — fPo — fPa + ad = constant

ox

dp

— =-fPi + eP.-fPa + ad

- =-fPi-fP2 + ePs + ad

dPo

P3 = P2 + r

f.

dr

Pi rdr = o

The last two equations are necessary for mechanical equiUbrium

dX .

and the substitution of a constant for ^r^ is the form taken by

the assumption mentioned above.

Elimination yields

,dPi dd

(e-f)^ + «^=o

or (e-f) Pi + a^ = Ci (6)

dP2 d^Po _ a dd

^^^^ ^~dr+'dr^-~Je^)'dr

yielding r^Ps = -^J rddr + -^ + C3 (7)

The value of P3 is then obtained from

dP2

P3 = P.: + r^ .

* The experiments bearing on this will be published in the series of papers on optical

glass now in the course of publication by this Laboratory.

WIIvLIAMSON: STRAESrS IN OPnCAIv GLASS 2x3

IV. Solid cylinder with temperature distribution symmetrical

about the axis. — The only change necessary is that C3 in equation

dPa dd

(7) vanishes owing to ^r— and -r being zero at r = o.

V. Slab with temperature gradient through the smallest dimen-

sions, symmetrical about the center. — -The same assumption was

made as regards planeness as in the axial displacement for the

cylinder and the forces along the Hne of the temperature gradient

are neglected. (See previous footnote as regards experimental

evidence.)

The equations then are:

eP — fP + a^ = constant = Ci

and I Pdx = o

^ o

The integral gives us a method of evaluating the required con-

stant,

Cx-ad

/

•/ a

e-f

or

dx = o

J Cidx = a f

o »/ o

ddx

APPLICATION OF THESE EQUATIONS TO SPECIFIC CASES*

I. Spherical shell.

(la) . Shell heated linearly on the surface.

(Jb). Approximate formulae for the sam£ case when the internal

diameter is very small.

(la).^ In this case

do hr hai^

dr ~ 3K 30-2

Equation (4) therefore reduces to

* The temperature gradients ( — ) in all cases are taken from a forthcoming

paper on temperature distribution in solids, by E. D. Wiluamson and L. H. Adaks.

* h = rate of heating; k = diffusivity constant.

214 WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS

2« /hr^ hai^\ Ci C2

^' " ~(e-f) W + 6«r/ + 3 + r'

But Pr = o at r = a and r = ai so that Ci and C2 may be

evaluated, yielding

^' i5«(e-f)L r ^

a^ + 5a%i2_5aj5 a'ai^ — 2a^ai^ + a^ai*

a^ — ai^ (a^ — ai^)r^

]

«n I o 5ai^

Pt =,,...„ .^[-2r^-^ +

i5»c(e— f)L 2r

a^ + 5a^ai^ — 6ai^ a^ai^ — 2a^ai^ + a^aiH

a^ — ai^ 2(a^ — ai^)r' J

(16). The values are obtained by assuming ai small enough

to be negligible compared with a.

ah I a-ai^\

i5K(e-f)\ r^ /

ah. / a^ai^X

Pt = 7 7^( -2r2 + a^ + -^)

i5K(e-f)\ r^ /

II. Solid sphere. Linear heating, on outside surface.

The treatment is exactly as in the previous case and the

resulting equations are :

d^ _ hr

dr ~ 31c

Pr = 7 h\-^' + a^l

15K (e-f)L J

Pt = —~ — ^\-2r' + a2 1

15K (e-f)L J

Except at the center these agree with case (16). At the center

in the case of a sphere we have a tension in all directions of

a ha^

} TT but if there be a very small cavity the stresses must

i5»c(e-f) ^ ^

be got from (16), and it is found that the radial stress vanishes

while the tangential tension is double the value for the solid

sphere. It follows that small cavities, due for example to bubbles,

make glass much more liable to breakage during heat treatment.

WIIvI^IAMSON : STRAINS IN OPTICAI, GLASS 215

In the case of the sohd sphere it is also interesting to find

the elastic strains. These are got by substituting the values

of Pr and Pt in equations (i) and (2). This yields

«h ra2 / I 5 X-j

Tangential extension^ = —j-^ ~ |_^ - r^(^- + - jj

Radial extension^ = ; r I ~r + r

'5<to + ok)

\3n 9k/J

9k>

The nature of these strains was predicted at the beginning

of this paper, and it can be seen that in general the suggestions

were correct. The radial extension is practically constant for

it is approximately true for most solids that 4f = e, which gives

I 5

— — ^ = o.

3n 9k

On the other hand, the tangential extension is equal to the radial

at the center, but diminishes, passes through zero and becomes

a compression for larger values of r.

The form of these expressions shows that the stress at any

point may be analyzed into a hydrostatic tension proportional

to a^ — — combined with a shearing stress which causes radial

elongation and tangential contraction proportional to i + —

r^

and I— 7~, respectively.

III. Cylindrical tube.

Since the analysis is exactly similar, only the bare results are

written for the two cases considered, namely:

(Ilia). Linear heating, on outside only.

d^ hr_hai2

dr 2k 2kv

• The values of the constants e and f are here expressed in terms of k (the com-

pressibility modulus) and n (the rigidity modulus). e = 1 , f = .

3n 9k 6n 9k

2l6 WILLIAMSON: STRAINS IN OPTICAL GLASS

ah

p. = - --+ "^"^

4K(e-f) "^ 4'c(e-f) V° a=^ V

ahr^

i6K(e — f) """ 4f

ctiii- ahai" / i\ Ci C2

P2 =--^-7 ^+ . \. (inr— ) + -^ + -^

- l-K(e-f) \ 2/ 2 r-

where Ci and C2 are evaluated by equating the right hand ex-

pression to zero for r = a and r = ai.

SccT^' _L «hai^ / ^ i\ ^ Ci C2

^' -~i6K(e-f) + 4«(e-f)\ "^ 2/ + 2 "r^

where Ci and C2 have the values found for the preceding equation.

(III6). For a small-bored tube. Linear heating, on outside only.

ah(a2-2r-)

Pi =

P2 =

P3 =

8K(e-f)

ah(a^-r^-^)

i6/c(e-f)

o;h^a2-3r2 + -^J

i6K(e-f)

(IV). 5o/i(i cylinder. Linear heating, on outside only.

de _ hr

dr 2k

ahCa^ — 2r2)

Pi =

P2 =

Pa =

8K(e-f)

Qfh(a'^-r^)

i6K(e-f)

Q;h(a^ — 3r^).

i6/c(e-f)

(V). Slab. Linear heating, on outside only.

d^ hr

dr K

~ 2K(e-f)\3 ^ /

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 217

In all the cases except that of the sphere (for which the cal-

culations are exact) it must be emphasized that the calculated

stresses are the maximum values on the assumption that no

rehef takes place by bending. It will be shown in a later paper

that the stresses actually occurring approximate very closely

to the values thus calculated.

SUMMARY

General equations are derived for the elastic stresses produced

by temperature dififerences in spheres, cylinders, and slabs when

the temperature distribution is symmetrical about the center,

axis, or central plane respectively.

More specific equations are given for the case of the tem-

perature distribution due to uniform surface heating, which is

the most important case in practice.

ASTRONOMY. — Modern theories of the spiral nebulae.^ Heber

D. Curtis, Lick Observatory. (Communicated by W. J.

Humphreys.)

In one sense, that theory of the spiral nebulae to which many

Unes of recently obtained evidence are pointing, can not be

said to be a modern theory. There are few modern concepts

which have not been explicitly or impUcitly put forward as

hypotheses or suggestions long before they were actually sub-

stantiated by evidence.

The history of scientific discovery affords many instances

where men with some strange gift of intuition have looked ahead

from meager data, and have glimpsed or guessed truths which

have been fuUy verified only after the lapse of decades or cen-

turies. Herschel was such a fortunate genius. From the proper

motions of a very few stars he determined the direction of the

sun's movement nearly as accurately, due to a very happy

selection of stars for the purpose, as far more elaborate modern

investigations. He noticed that the star clusters which appeared

^ Abstract of a lecture given on March 15, 1918, at a joint meeting of the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences and the Philosophical Society of Washington. The

lecture was illustrated with numerous lantern slides.

2l8 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE

nebulous in texture in smaller telescopes and with lower powers,

were resolved into stars with larger instruments and higher

powers. From this he argued that all the nebulae could be

resolved into stars by the application of sufficient magnifying

power, and that the nebulae were, in effect, separate universes,

a theory which had been earlier suggested on purely hypothetical

or philosophical grounds, by Wright, Lambert, and Kant. From

their appearance in the telescope he, again with almost uncanny

prescience, excepted a few as definitely gaseous and irresolvable.

This view held sway for many years; then came the results

of spectroscopic analysis showing that many nebulae (those

which we now classify as diffuse or planetary) are of gaseous

constitution and can not be resolved into stars. The spiral

nebulae, although showing a different type of spectrum, were

in most theories tacitly included with the known gaseous nebulae.

We have now, as far as the spiral nebulae are concerned, come

back to the standpoint of Herschel's fortunate, though not fully

warranted deduction, and the theory to which much recent

evidence is pointing, is that these beautiful objects are separate

galaxies, or "island universes," to employ the expressive and

appropriate phase coined by Humboldt.

By means of direct observations on the nearer and brighter

stars, and by the apphcation of statistical methods to large

groups of the fainter or more remote stars, the galaxy of stars

which forms our own stellar universe is believed to comprise

perhaps a bilHon suns. Our sun, a relatively inconspicuous

unit, is situated near the center of figure of this galaxy. This

galaxy is not even approximately spherical in contour, but

shaped hke a lens or thin watch; the actual dimensions are

highly uncertain; Newcomb's estimate that this galactic disk

is about 3,000 Hght-years in thickness, and 30,000 light-years

in diameter, is perhaps as reliable as any other.

Of the three classes of nebulae observed, two, the diffuse

nebulosities and the planetary nebulae, are typically a galactic

phenomenon as regards their apparent distribution in space,

and are rarely found at any distance from the plane of our

Milky Way. With the exception of certain diffuse nebulosities

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OI^ SPIRAL NEBULAE 219

whose light is apparently a reflection phenomenon from bright

stars involved within the nebulae, both these types are of

gaseous constitution, showing a characteristic bright-Une spec-

trum.

Differing radically from the galactic gaseous nebulae in form,

and distribution, we find a very large number of nebulae pre-

dominantly spiral in structure. The following saUent points

must be taken into account in any adequate theory of the spiral

nebulae.

1. In apparent size the spirals range from minute flecks,

just distinguishable on the photographic plate, to enormous

spirals like Messier 33 and the Great Nebula in Andromeda,

the latter of which covers an area four times greater than that

subtended by the full moon.

2. Prior to the application of photographic methods, fewer

than ten thousand nebulae of all classes had been observed visu-

ally. One of the first results deduced by Director Keeler from

the program of nebular photography which he inaugurated with

the Crossley Reflector at Lick Observatory, was the fact that

great numbers of small spirals are within reach of modern power-

ful reflecting telescopes. He estimated their total number as

120,000 early in the course of this program, and before plates

of many regions were available. I have recently made a count

of the small nebulae on all available regions taken at the Lick

Observatory during the past twenty years- and from these counts

estimate that there are at least 700,000 spiral nebulae accessible

with large reflectors.

3. The most anomalous and inexplicable feature of the spiral

nebulae is found in their peculiar distribution. They show an

apparent abhorrence for our galaxy of stars, being found in

greatest numbers around the poles of our galaxy. In my counts

I found an approximate density of distribution as follows:

Galactic Latitude + 45 ° to + 90 ° 34 per square degree.

Galactic Latitude —45 to —90° 28 per square degree. .

Galactic Latitude +30° to -|-45° and— 30° to — 45° 24 per square degree.

Galactic Latitude — 30° to +30° 7 per square degree.

* CtTRTis, H. D. On the number of spiral nebulae, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 57:

313. 1918.

220

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE

No spiral has as yet been found actually within the structiire

of the Milky Way. We have doubled and trebled our exposures

in regions near the galactic plane in the hope of finding fainter

spirals in such areas, but thus far without results. The out-

standing featiu"e of the space distribution of the spirals is, then,

that they are found in greatest profusion where the stars are

fewest, and do not occur where the stars are most numerous.

This distribution may be illustrated graphically as follows:

THE FACTORS OF SPACE DISTRIBUTION

400,000 =•= Spiral Nebulae

Our own stellar universe

is shaped like a thin lens, and is perhaps

3,000 by 30,000 Hght-years in extent. In this

space occur nearly all the stars, nearly all the new stars, nearly

all the variable stars, most of the diffuse and

planetary nebulae, etc., but no spiral

nebulae.

300,000 =*= Spiral Nebulae,

4. The spectrum of the spirals is practically the same as that

given by a star cluster, showing a continuous spectrum broken

by absorption lines. A few spirals show bright-line spectra

in addition.

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 221

5. The space-velocities of the various classes of celestial ob-

jects are summarized in the following short table:

TABLE

The Factors of Space- Velocity

1 . The Diffuse Nebtdae.

Velocities low.

2 . The Stars.

Velocities vary with spectral type.

Class B Stars: average speeds 8 miles per second.

Class A Stars: average speeds 14 miles per second.

Class F Stars: average speeds 18 miles per second.

Class G Stars: average speeds 19 miles per second.

Class K Stars: average speeds 21 miles per second.

Class M Stars : average speeds 2 1 miles per second.

3 . The Star Clusters.

Velocities unknown.

4 . The Planetary Nebulae.

Average speeds 48 miles per second.

5 . The Spiral Nebulae.

Average speeds 480 miles per second.

The peculiar variation of the space- velocity of the stars with

spectral type may ultimately prove to be a function of relative

mass. The radial velocities of but few spirals have been de-

termined to date; future work may change the value given,

but it seems certain that it will remain very high.

It will be seen at once that, with regard to this iiriportant

criterion of space-velocity, the spiral nebulae are very distinctly

in a class apart. It seems impossible to place them at any point

in a coherent scheme of stellar evolution. We can not bridge

the gap involved in postulating bodies of such enormous space

velocities either as a point of stellar origin, or as a final evolu-

tion product.

On the older theory that the spirals are a part of oiu: own

galaxy, it is impossible to harmonize certain features of the

data thus far presented. If this theory is true, their grouping

near the galactic poles, inasmuch as all evidence points to a

flattened or disk form for our galaxy, would indicate that they

are relatively close to us. In that event, we should inevitably

have detected in this class of objects proper motions of the same

order of magnitude as those found for the stars at correspond-

ing distances. Such proper motions are the more to be ex-

222 CURTIS: MODERN THEjORieS OP SPIRAL, NeBULAS

pected in view of the fact that the average space velocity of

the spirals is about thirty times that of the stars. I have re-

peated all the earlier plates of the Keeler nebular program, and

was able to find no certain evidence of either translation or

rotation in these objects in an average time interval of thirteen

years. ^ Their form, and the evidence of the sp>ectroscope,

indicate, however, that they are in rotation. Knowing that

their space-velocities are high, the failure to detect any certain

evidence of cross motion is an indication that these objects

must be very remote.

Even if the spiral is not a stage in stellar evolution, but a

class apart, is it still possible to assume that they are, notwith-

standing, an integral part of our own stellar universe, sporadic

manifestations of an unknown line of evolutionary development,

driven off in some mysterious manner from the regions of greatest

star density?

A relationship between two classes of objects may be one

of avoidance just as logically as one of contiguity. It has

been argued that the absolute avoidance which the spirals mani-

fest for the galaxy of the stars shows incontrovertibly that they

must, by reason of this very relationship of avoidance, be an

integral feature of our galaxy. This argument has proved

irresistible to many, among others to so keen a thinker as Herbert

Spencer, who wrote:

In that zone of celestial space where stars are excessively abundant

nebulae are rare; while in the two opposite celestial spaces that are

furthest removed from this zone nebulae are abundant

Can this be mere coincidence? When to the fact that the general mass

of the nebulae are antithetical in position to the general mass of the

stars, we add the fact that local regions of nebulae are regions where

stars are scarce does not the proof of a physical connec-

tion become overwhelming?

It must be admitted that a distribution, which has placed

three-quarters of a milUon objects around the poles of our galaxy,

would be against all probability for a class of objects which would

be expected to be arranged at random, unless it can be shown

' Curtis, H. D. The proper motion of the nebulae. Publ. Astron. Soc.

Pacific 27: 214. 1915.

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 223

that this pecuUar grouping is only apparent, and due to some

phenomenon in our own galaxy. This point will be reverted to

later.

It has been shown that the factors of space- velocity and space-

distribution separate the spirals very clearly from the stars of

our galaxy; from these facts alone, and from the evidence of the

spectroscope, the island universe theory is given a certain meas-

ure of credibility.

Another Une of evidence has been developed within the past

two years, which adds further support to the island-universe

theory of the spiral nebulae.

NEW STARS

Within historical times some twenty-seven new stars have

suddenly flashed out in the heavens. Some have been of

interest only to the astronomer; others, like that of last June,

have rivaled Sirius in brilliancy. All have shown the same

general history, suddenly increasing in light ten thousand-fold

or more, and then gradually, but still relatively rapidly, sinking

into obscurity again. They are a very interesting class, nor

has astronomy as yet been able to give any universally accepted

explanation of these anomalous objects. Two of these novae

had appeared in spiral nebulae, but this fact had not been weighed

at its true value. Within the past two years over a dozen novae

have been found in spiral nebulae, all of them very faint, ranging

from about the fourteenth to the nineteenth magnitudes at

maximum. Their life history, so far as we can tell from such

faint objects, appears to be identical with that of the brighter

novae. Now the brighter novae of the past, that is, those which

have not appeared in spirals, have almost invariably been a

galactic phenomenon, located in or close to our Milky Way,

and they have very evidently been a part of our own stellar

system. The cogency of the argument will, I think, be ap-

parent to all, although the strong analogy is by no means a

rigid proof. If twenty-seven novae have appeared in our own

galaxy within the past three hundred years, and if about half

that number are found within a few years in spiral nebulae far

224 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAI. NEBUlyAE

removed from the galactic plane, the presumption that these

spirals are themselves galaxies composed of hundreds of millions

of stars is a very probable one.

If, moreover, we make the reasonable assumption that the

new stars in the spirals and the new stars in our own galaxy

average about the same in size, mass, and absolute brightness,

we can form a very good estimate of the probable distance of

the spiral nebulae, regarded as island universes. Our galactic

novae have averaged about the fifth magnitude. The new

stars which have appeared in the spiral nebulae have averaged

about the fifteenth magnitude, but it would appear probable

that we must inevitably miss the fainter novae in such distant

galaxies, and it is perhaps reasonable to assume that the average

magnitude of the novae in spirals may be about the eighteenth,

or thirteen magnitudes fainter than those in our own galaxy.

They would thus be about 160,000 times fainter than our galactic

novae, and on the assumption that both types of novae average

the same in mass, absolute luminosity, etc., the novae in spirals

should be four hundred times further away. We do not know

the average distance of the new stars which have appeared in

our own galaxy, but 100,000 light-years is perhaps a reasonable

estimate. This would indicate a distance of the order of 4,000,000

Ught-years for the spiral nebulae. This is an enormous distance,

but, if these objects are galaxies like our own stellar system,

such a distance accords well with their apparent dimensions.

Our own galaxy, at a distance of 10,000,000 Ught-years, would

be about 10 minutes of arc in diameter, or the size of the larger

spiral nebulae.

On such a theory, a spiral structure for our own galax}^ would

be probable. Its proportions accord well with the degree of

flattening observed in the majority of the spirals. We have

very little actual evidence as to a spiral structure for our galaxy ;

the position of our sun relatively close to the center of figure of the

galaxy, and our ignorance of the distances of the remoter stars,

renders such evidence very difficult to obtain. A careful study

of the configurations and star densities in the Milky Way has

led Professor Easton, of Amsterdam, to postulate a spiral struc-

ture for our galaxy.

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 225

DISTRIBUTION OF SPIRALS

There is still left one outstanding and unexplained problem

in the island universe theory or any other theory of the spiral

nebulae. Neither theory, as outHned, offers any satisfactory

explanation of the remarkable distribution of the spirals. On

the older theory, if a feature of our galaxy, what has driven them

out to the points most remote from the regions of greatest star

density? If, on the other hand, the spirals are island universes,

it is against all probability that our own universe should have

chanced to be situated about half way between two great groups

of island universes, and that not a single object of the class

happens to be located in the plane of our Milky Way.

There is one very common characteristic of the spirals which

may be tentatively advanced as an explanation of the peculiar

grouping of the spirals.

A very considerable proportion of the spirals show indubitable

evidence of occulating matter, lying in the plane of the greatest

extension of the spiral, generally outside the whorls, but occas-

ionally between the whorls as well. This outer ring of occulting

matter is most easily seen when the spiral is so oriented in space

as to turn its edge toward us. But the phenomenon is also seen

in spirals whose planes make a small, but appreciable angle

with our line of sight, manifesting itself in such appearances

as "lanes" more prominent on one side of the major axis of the

elongated elUptical projection, in a greater brightness of the

nebular matter on one side of this major axis, in a fan-shaped

nuclear portion, or in various combinations of these effects.

The phenomenon is a very common one. Illustrations of seventy-

eight spirals showing evidences of occulting matter in their peri-

pheral equatorial regions, with a more detailed discussion of

the forms observed, are now being pubUshed,^ and additional

examples of the phenomenon are constantly being found.

While we have as yet no definite proof of the existence of

such a ring of occulting matter lying in our galactic plane and

outside of the great mass of the stars of our galaxy, there is a

* Curtis, H. D. Occulting effects of spiral nebulae. Univ. Calif. Semi-Cent.

Publ. (in press).

226 CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE

great deal of evidence for such occulting matter in smaller areas

in our galaxy. Many such dark areas are observed around

certain of the diffuse nebulosities, or seen in projection on the

background furnished by such nebulosities or the denser por-

tions of the Milky Way; these appearances seem to be actual

"dark nebulae."^ The curious "rifts" in the Milky Way may

well be ascribed, at least in part, to such occulting matter.

Though we thereby run the risk of arguing in a circle, the fact

that no spirals can be detected in our galactic plane, a natural

result of such a ring of occulting matter, would in itself appear

to lend some probability to the hypothesis. The pecuHar dis-

tribution of the spiral nebulae would then be explained as due,

not to an actual asymmetrical and improbable distribution in

space, but to a cause within our own galaxy, assumed to be a

spiral with a peripheral ring of occulting matter similar to that

observed in a large proportion of the spirals. The argument

that the spirals must be an integral feature of our own galaxy,

based on a relationship of avoidance, would then lose its force.

The explanation appears to be a possibility, even a strong prob-

ability, on the island universe theory, and I known of no other

explanation, on any theory, for the observed phenomenon of

nebular distribution about our galactic poles.

SUMMARY

The Spiral Nebulae as Island Universes.

1 . On this theory, it is unnecessary to attempt to coordinate the

tremendous space-velocities of the spirals with the thirty-fold

smaller values found for the stars. Very high velocities have

been found for the Magellanic Clouds, which may possibly

be very irregular spirals, relatively close to our galaxy.

2. There is some evidence for a spiral structure in our own

galaxy.

3. The spectrum of the majority of the spirals is practically

identical with that given by a star cluster; a spectrum of this

general type is such as would be expected from a vast congeries

of stars.

* Barnard, E. E. On the dark markings of the sky, with a catalogue of 182 such

objects. Astrophys. Journ. 49: i. 1919; Curtis, H. D. Dark nebulae. Publ.

Astron. Soc. Pacific 30: 65. 1918.

CURTIS: MODERN THEORIES OF SPIRAL NEBULAE 227

4. If the spirals are separate universes, similar to our galaxy

in extent and in number of component stars, we should observe

many new stars in the spirals, closely resembling in their life

history the twenty-seven novae which have appeared in our

own galaxy. Over a dozen such novae in spirals have been

found, and it is probable that a systematic program of repeti-

tion of nebular photographs will add greatly to this number.

A comparison of the average magnitudes of the novae in spirals

with those of our own galaxy indicates a distance of the order

of 10,000,000 light-years for the spirals. Our own galaxy at

this distance would appear lo' in diameter, the size of the larger

spirals.

5. A considerable proportion of the spirals show a peripheral

equatorial ring of occulting matter. So many instances of this

have been found that it appears to be a general though not uni-

versal characteristic of the spirals ; the existence of such an outer

ring of occulting matter in our own galaxy, regarded as a spiral,

would furnish an adequate explanation of the peculiar distribu-

tion of the spirals. There is considerable evidence of such oc-

culting matter in our galaxy.

An English physicist has cleverly said that any really good

theory brings with it more problems than it removes. It is

thus with the island-universe theory. It is impossible to do

more than to mention a few of these problems, with no attempt

to divine those which may ultimately be presented to us.

While the data are too meager as yet, several attempts have

been made to deduce the velocity of our own galaxy within the

super-galaxy. It would not be surprising if the space-velocity

of our galaxy, like those of the spirals and the Magellanic Clouds,

should prove to be very great, hundreds of miles per second.

Further, what are the laws which govern the forms assumed,

and under which these spiral whorls are shaped? Are they

stable structures; are the component stars moving inward or

outward? A beginning has been made by Jeans and other

mathematicians on the dynamical problems involved in the

structure of the spirals. The field for research is, like our sub-

ject matter, practically infinite.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Two lamprophyre dikes near Santaquin and Mount

Nebo, Utah. G. F. Loughlin. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

I20-E. pp. 9. 1918.

There is no local evidence by which these lamprophyre dikes can

be correlated with other igneous rocks. It is assumed that they repre-

sent a late stage of the Tertiary volcanic period. The dike rocks are

dark gray to black, dense, and porphyritic. Biotite is the only con-

spicuous megascopic mineral, and constitutes about 20 per cent of

the rock. The northern dike has a glassy groundmass crowded with

phenocrysts of augite, biotite, olivine, and magnetite, and minute

crystals of apatite. The southern dike consists of phenocrysts of biotite,

augite, apatite, and magnetite in a groundmass of feldspar. The chem-

ical composition of the northern dike is shown by analysis and com-

pared with rocks of similar composition. The rock is classed as a

vitrophyric albite minette. It seems probable that the two minettes

discussed are genetically related to a monzonitic magma represented

by the latite breccias and flows of the region. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — New graphic method for determining the depth and thick-

ness of strata and the projection 0} dip. Harold S. Palmer. U.

S. Geol. Siu-vey Prof. Paper 120-G. Pp. 7. with 3 plates and 5

figures. 191 8.

This paper presents three charts by means of which rapid solution

of the following problems may be made, namely: (i) to find the depth

to a stratum, given the dip and distance from the outcrop; (2) to find

the thickness of a bed or series of beds, given the dip and the distance

across the outcrop ; and (3) to find the inclination of the trace of a plane

upon a second plane, given the dip of the first plane and the angle

between the strike of the two planes.

Simple directions for the use of the charts are followed by a discussion

of the principles and accuracy of the method. H. S. P.

228

abstracts: paleontology 229

ENTOMOLOGY. — The question oj the phylo genetic origin of termite

castes. Caroline Burling Thompson and Thomas Elliott Sny-

der. Biol. Bull. 36: 115-129, 2 plates, 5 text figs. February,

1919.

The recent observation of one of the authors, that the castes of ter-

mites are of germinal origin and not produced by environmental con-

ditions, leads to the question of the phylogenetic origin of these varia-

tions or castes. Are termite castes to be considered as fluctuating

variations or as mutations?

Several lines of approach lead to this problem; the study of fossil

insects; the comparative morphology of termites; exact field observa-

tions on termite biology; breeding experiments to determine the type

of progeny and the results of hybridization. Although none of these

aspects have been exhaustively studied, there are some data, sum-

marized in this paper, drawn from the literature of social insects and

from the notes of the two authors.

The morphological facts show that a gradation of characters may be

traced throughout the members (castes of a species, e. g., Reticulitermes

flavipes). These castes might be interpreted either as the gradations

in a series of fluctuating variations, or as a series of mutations formed

by loss.

Field observations and breeding experiments seem to indicate that

although the "first form" reproductive individuals produce young

of all the castes, the "second" and "third form" individuals breed

true to their own fertile castes. In some breeding experiments in arti-

ficial nests, from parent reproductive individuals of the "second

form" no fertile individuals of any kind were produced.

The authors intend to undertake a series of studies and experiments

upon the morphology and the breeding of the termite castes. C. B. T.

FALUONTOhOGY.— Appendages of trilobites. Charles D. Walcott.

Smiths. Misc. Coll. 67: No. 4, Cambrian Geol. and Pal. IV. 115-216,

pis. 14-42, text figs. 1-3. December, 1918.

In this recent paper Dr. Charles D. Walcott summarizes his in-

vestigations of the appendages of trilobites during the past forty-

five years, a research undertaken in pursuance of a promise made to

Professor Louis Agassiz in 1873. Since that time, he writes, "I have

examined and studied all the trilobites that were available for evidence

bearing on their structure and organization."

230 abstracts: paleontology

His first summary of i88i^ is reviewed and corrected, together with

later papers^ discussing his various discoveries in this subject. The

highly organized trilobite, Neolenus serratus (Rominger), from the

Burgess shale quarry opened by Dr. Walcott, near Field, British Colum-

bia, several years ago, shows most graphically in the ten plates devoted

to its illustration the highly specialized development of appendages,

which is also figured in plates of the Ordovician trilobites, Isotelus,

Triarthrus, Calymene, and Ceraurus. In the figure of Neolenus the

appendages include antennules, caudal rami, endopodites, epipodites,

exopodites, exites, and protopodites. The evidence of appendages

is supplemented by numerous figured sections of Ceraurus and Caly-

mene.

After discussing the mode of occurrence, conditions of preservation,

manner of life including methods of progression, food, defense, and

ofifense, the author describes species with appendages, which include

besides the genera already mentioned, Kootenia dawsoni (Walcott),

two species of Ptychoparia including a new one, P. permulta, from the

Burgess shale quarry, Odontopleura trentonensis (Hall), Trinucleus

concentricus Eaton, and an unidentified Ordovician crustacean leg.

The work of C. E- Beecher with Triarthrus is reviewed in some detail,

and a different conclusion arrived at in certain features.

In section 2 of the paper the Structure of the Trilobite receives at-

tention, the author again referring to Beecher and other writers in-

cluding Jaekel, Beyrich, Barrande, and de Volborth. He then dis-

cusses in detail the appendages, summarizing them as follows:

Cephalic: (i) Antennules, (2) Antennae, (3) Mandibles, (4) Max-

illula, (5) Maxilla; Thoracic; Abdominal; Caudal rami.

Further comparisons are with the recent Anaspides tasmaniae G.

M. Thomson, a Malacostracan from Tasmania, Koonunga cursor

Sayce, and Paranaspides lacustris Smith, also the parasitic crustacean

Cyamus scammoni Dall, illustrations of all of which are given. After

the extraordinary interest of the finely developed specimens in the plates

representing Neolenus, attention will be drawn by those of Isotelus,

Triarthrus becki Green, and other Ordovician trilobites, together with

^ The trilobite: New and old evidence relating to its organization. Bull. Mus.

Comp. Zool. 8: 191-224, pis. I-VI. 1881.

* Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 20: 94. 1894; Smiths. Misc. CoU. 57: 164-208,

pi. 24, figs. I, ic. 1912; op. cit. pi. 6, figs. I, 2. 191 1 ; op. cit. pi. 24, figs, i, 10;

pi. 45, figs. I, 2, 3, 4. 1912; Text-book Pal. (Zittel), Eastman 2d ed. i: 701, fig.

1343. P- 716, figs. 1376, 1377. 1913; Smiths. Misc. Coll. 57: 149-153. 1912.

abstracts: navigation 231

the sections of Cambrian and Ordovician trilobites, and finally the

author's conclusions as expressed by several diagrammatic restorations,

also sketches of thoracic limbs of trilobites and recent crustaceans,

crustacean limbs, and six plates of tracks and trails of trilobites, each

adding evidence to the author's deductions as to the appendages.

Some conclusions drawn are that the trilobite's appendages show it

to have been a marine crustacean far more highly developed than would

have seemed possible in a period so infinitely remote. The following

are some of the conclusions:

In its younger stages of growth a free moving and swimming animal,

it later became a half-burrowing, crawling, and sometimes swimming

animal and moving at times with a flow of the tides and prevailing

currents.

Eggs have been found both within and free from the body. It was

at home on many kinds of sea-bottom and was able to accommodate

itself to muddy as well as to clear water.

It was intensely gregarious in some localities and widely scattered

in others, depending upon local conditions, and habits of the various

species.

Trilobites had an ample system of respiration by setiferous exopodites,

epipodites, and exites attached to the cephalic, thoracic, and abdominal

limbs, (as shown in restorations of the limbs on plates 34 and 35.)

The structure of the gnathobases of the cephalic Hmbs indicates

soft food such as worms, minute animal life, and decomposed algae.

The trilobite persisted from far back in pre-Cambrian time to the close

of Carboniferous time. . . and left its remains more or less abund-

antly through about 75,000 feet of stratified rocks.

The paper is profusely illustrated and carefully indexed

G. R. Brigham.

NAVIGATION. — The search for instrumental means to enable naviga-

tors to observe the altitude oj a celestial body when the horizon is not

visible. G. W. LittlehalES. Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 44: No. 8.

August, 1918.

The necessity of seeing the horizon, in order to find the latitude and

longitude of a ship at sea, has generally precluded the taking of observa-

tions of altitude at night when the number of celestial bodies shining

in the firmament is the greatest and would present the most numerous

opportimities for determining geographical position if the altitude

could be measured without reference to the sea horizon. And even

diuing the daytime navigators are often sensible of this inconvenience

on account of the obscuration of the horizon by haze or fog while the

luminary continues to be visible.

232 abstracts: navigation

While adverting to the instances in which the spirit-level or liquid

column has been adapted to instruments similar to the sextant, the

main object has been to give an account of the evolution of a dynamical

artificial horizon for use at sea and, especially, of the gyroscopic horizon

designed as an attachment to the frame of the sextant of reflection.

G. W. L.

NAVIGATION. — Altitude, azimvith, hour angle. G. W. Littlehales.

Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 43: No. 11. November, 1917.

This paper presents a chart or diagram for finding, by a simple

graphic method, hour angle or azimuth at sea. This chart is based

upon the function of the angle called the haversine (half versed sine),

not generally employed outside nautical circles, and the formula used

as a basis is:

hav(a) = hav(6 c) + hav(6 -\- c) — hav(6 « c) hav A

If the sides, h, c, be regarded as constants, a, A, being variables, this

expression takes the form,

y = mx + C

which is the equation of a straight line.

Based on this, a square chart is given, with sides graduated accord-

ing to values of a series of natural haversines, by means of which hour

angle and azimuth may be found, when the altitude and declination

of the body and the latitude of the place are given. By drawing a

straight line upon such a chart through two points easily determined,

a connection is established between hour angle and zenith distance

on the one hand, and between azimuth and polar distance on the other.

Hence, with either element of each of these two pairs given, the value

of the other may be taken from the chart. The chart itself is 2 feet

square and finely graduated so that it may be read with a great degree

of accuracy.

The diagram is practical for finding azimuth in sea navigation,

and it is possible that in the future it may be adapted so as to be used

generally for hour angle purposes as well, especially when the naviga-

tion of the air becomes a matter of daily experience. J. F. Meyer.

abstracts: navigation 233

NAVIGATION. — The chart as a means of finding geographical position

by observations of celestial bodies in aerial and marine navigation.

G. W. Littlehales. Proc. U. S. Naval Inst. 44: No. 3. March,

1918.

Building upon the principle that at any instant of time there is a

series of positions on the earth at which a celestial body appears at

the same given altitude and that these positions lie in the circumference

of a circle marked out by a radius arm whose pivot is that geographical

position which has the body in its zenith and whose length is the same

arc-measure as the zenith distance or the complement of the altitude

the method proceeds to recognize that the difference of the simultaneous

altitudes of the same celestial body at two geographical positions is

the shortest great circle arc-distance between the circles of equal alti-

tude passing through the two places. By supplying the altitudes

and azimuths of the celestial bodies as they would appear at stated

intervals of time in a chosen geographical position within the limits

of the chart, an observer, in a position as yet unknown, having measured

altitude of a celestial body, may at once lay down the locus of his

position by comparing the altitude so measured with the tabulated

altitude of that body and laying off the difference between the measured

and tabulated altitude as an intercept from the chosen geographical

position in the direction of the azimuth of the celestial body and toward

or away from the bearing of the body according as the measured alti-

tude was higher or lower than the tabulated altitude.

In the illustrative specimen, consisting of a map of the United States,

a large compass diagram has been centered at the middle position

in latitude 39° and longitude 97°, since the attending tabulation is

with reference to this point; and since all altitude-differences are laid

off from there, circumferences of equal distances from this point have

also been delineated, in order that, with a given altitude-difference,

the observer may at once proceed to find the point through which his

locus is to be drawn at right angles to the intercept of altitude-difference

by passing out by the amount of the altitude-difference to the proper

drawn or intermediate circumference along the compass-radial indicated

by the azimuth ascertained from the bordering tabulation. G. W. L.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Board of Managers met on March 24, 191 9. The report of

the special committee on distribution of the Proceedings was adopted,

providing for the supplying of certain libraries from the excess stock

on hand.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last report in the Journal:

Mr. D. Dale Condit, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Professor Ernest Fox Nichols, Yale University, New Haven,

Connecticut; and 2022 Columbia Road, Washington, D. C.

Professor Elmer Ottis Wooton, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 593d regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 8, 1919; called to order at

8.00 p.m. by Vice-President Hollister; 60 persons present.

Three informal communications were presented:

P. Bartsch : Remarks on a purple finch which had visited the grounds

about his dwelling in the city for three successive seasons. This in-

dividual bird had peculiar manners which distinguished it from the

several other birds with which it was associated. He had seen it pass

from immature to adult plumage.

L. O. Howard: Remarks on the spread of the European corn-

borer in Massachusetts and New York.

N. Hollister: Remarks on the ovipositing of an Indian python

in the National Zoological Park. It is at present brooding on twelve

eggs.

The regular program was a symposium: What kind of characters

distinguish a species from a subdivision of a species.

The discussion was opened by Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, who explained

that, as chairman of the committee on communications, he bad arranged

to have the subject discussed by the exponents of a few of the larger

234

proceedings: biological society 235

groups of organisms. It had been impracticable to include a discussion

of the very interesting categories, known as physiological species or

races, such as the parasitic fungi, among which are races that appear

identical morphologically but which are confined to certain host plants,

each to each, or such as the bacteria, many forms of which appear

identical morphologically but which cause distinct physiological effects,

either chemically on artificial substrata, or biologically in producing

diverse diseases of plants and animals. Mr. Hitchcock further stated

that much of our difficulty in determining whether a given form repre-

sents a species or a subdivision of a species results from our ignorance.

We do not have sufficient facts. If we are compelled to draw con-

clusions from a single specimen in a herbarium or even from several

specimens we can give only an opinion as to the relation of this form

to others, an opinion strengthened, it is true, by training and experience,

but at best only an opinion. If we have all the facts, or enough so

that lacking data may be safely ignored, our problem is to interpret

results and define relations.

Mr. N. HoLLisTER said: Nearly all systematic mammalogists

now distinguish subspecies from species by the test of intergradation :

some workers insist upon an actual blending of characters over con-

tinuous range between typical subspecies, while others admit what

is known as "intergradation of characters," even between insular

forms, to be sufiicient reason for the use of the trinomial. Old con-

ceptions of what is a species are now lightly considered, and authors

are frequently inconsistent in their treatment of forms. A good defi-

nition of a species was given a few years ago by one writer who stated

that "a species is a thing described as such." The same kinds of

characters, or precisely the same character, may serve in different

instances for distinguishing subspecies, species, or even genera. The

difference in the number of the enamel folds in the last upper molars

of the capybaras of Surinam and Paraguay was cited as a case where

a character sometimes of generic weight serves only to separate sub-

species. Specimens showing the process of the loss of one fold are

found in Brazil midway between the two typical races. It is a com-

mon experience for the monographer working with material assembled

from many collections to reduce numerous described species to the

rank of subspecies; the forms so treated still retain exactly the same

characters that served them as full species.

Dr. H. C. Oberholser spoke on the question from the standpoint

of an ornithologist. He said: Most ornithologists at the present

time regard the distinction between a species and a subspecies as one

of the presence or absence of intergradation. In other words, a sub-

species is an imperfectly segregated species — a form occupying a separate

geographic area and intergrading with some other form. This inter-

gradation may take place: (i) by gradual change over contiguous

geographic areas; (2) by an abrupt change in an intermediate area;

(3) by individual variation, whether or not the ranges of the two forms

adjoin. The amount of difference does not constitute the distinction

236 proceedings: biologicaIv society

between a species and a subspecies, because even very closely allied

forms are species, if their characters are trenchant and the birds do

not freely interbreed; while, on the other hand, however great the

differences may be between two forms, they are to be regarded as

subspecies if intergradation exists.

Dr. N. C. Kendall's remarks were published in a recent number

of this Journal (9: 187. 1919).

Dr. P. Bartsch speaking on the question with respect to moUusks

said: There are no hard and fast lines that can be invariably em-

ployed in deciding to which nomenclatorial category a certain form

should be assigned. He thought that in the present imperfect state

of our knowledge, most designations were largely a matter of judgment

and expediency. Systematists at present unfortunately recognize

only two categories, species and subspecies, by means of which they

attempt to designate all the products of Nature's laboratories. This

makes all sorts of compromises necessary in order to squeeze a given

form into|the one or the other of the two. It is his firm belief that

when the work of experimental biologists and breeders, which is heaping

up a pile of data, will have advanced a little further, we shall be furnished

with a mass of information which will demand recognit on of a larger

series of categories designed to express the true inwardness of phy-

logenetic relationship a little more definitely than it is expressed by

our present system of nomenclature.

In many instances it is not difficult to decide the status of a form.

The old definition that "A species embraces an aggregation of indi-

viduals which may differ in age, sexual, seasonal or individual char-

acteristics" is easily enough applied in many instances; likewise can

be applied the definition for the subspecies, which simply makes it

necessary to have connecting elements between two such groups,

but what shall be done with a case like the following.''

"In the Philippine Islands we have, as far as known, only a single

species of Vivipara in a given region. In Lake Lanao, on the other

hand, we have apparently about forty. At all events there seem to

be that many constant forms, for the young which I have extracted

from probably more than a thousand individuals have always agreed

with the parents in sculptural characters. The range of form modi-

fications in these Lake Lanao viviparas can best be seen by consulting

my papers on the group. ^ Another paper on this topic is almost

completed. This is based on an examination of about 3,000 specimens.

What designation shall be given to forms like these ? These are probably

the result of cross breeding between two distinctly related stalks of

the genus. At least my Cerion breeding experiments would indicate

this.

' The Philippine pond snails of the genus Vivipara. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

32: 135-150. pis. lo and 11. 1907; Notes on the Philippine pond snails of the genus

Vivipara, with descriptions of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 37: 365-367. 1909.

PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 237

Sometimes I have deliberately used a trinomial when the data at

hand really indicated a binomial. Let me explain by an example.

The genus Leptopoma has probably twenty phylogenetic stalks or super-

species in the PhiUppine Archipelago. Some of these groups have

in the past been considered a single widely distributed very variable

species. The abundant material which is rapidly accumulating in

the U. S. National Museum proves conclusively that ever}^ island has

its distinct form, and the larger islands, where faunal barriers exist,

may have two or more. In some cases, intergradations exist, while

in others they do not. Now the rule would say, designate the distinct

forms as species and those with intergrades as subspecies, but how

much more rational to consider the entire complex under one specific,

name and the various races under a trinomial — ^at least for the present

until material from the entire range showing all possible phases of

these groups will have been examined, for by so doing one has the

advantage of knowing at once that the organism in question is the

Leptopoma nitidum representative of Luzon, or a member of the Lep-

topoma gonio stoma group."

Mr. A. N. Caudell as an entomologist said: In his work on the

Orthoptera he recognized two grades below the species, that is the

geographical race, or subspecies, and the variety. He gave the follow-

ing definitions :

Species. A group of individuals separable from allied groups by

appreciable external morphological characters of a sufficiently stabilized

nature to prohibit a general mergence through variation, based on a

biological foundation sufficiently firm to assure breeding true to nature,

and the production of fertile progeny.

Geographical race. An assemblage of individuals of a species dis-

tinguishable from each other, and from the dominant form, by ap-

preciable external morphological characters and occupying different,

but adjacent, geographical regions, at the junction of which complete

mergence through variation occurs. In other words, races are incipient

species originating through variation caused by diverse environmental

conditions due to geographical distribution.

Variety. Individuals of a species or of a race varying more or less

from the typical in external morphological or colorational characters,

not with relation to geographical distribution and subject to complete

integration through variation.

Each of these groups was briefly discussed and emphasis was given

the fact of this being the present personal opinion of the speaker and

not intended in any way to represent the views of entomologists in

general. It was admitted that for use in a broader way, especially

in higher zoological groups, the definition of species should be broadened

to include physiological characters, and also, probably, biological

features.

Dr. S. F. Blake discussed the question from the botanical aspect:

A subspecies in botany, as in zoology, is ordinarily distinguished from

a species by the fact that it intergrades with a related form or forms.

238 proceedings: biological society

while a species does not. Two kinds of intergradation must be dis-

tinguished, that due to fluctuating variation, which indicates sub-

specific rank, and that due to hybridism, which may occur between

species. As most systematic work is done with herbarium specimens,

it is not possible to distinguish these by breeding tests, and their dis-

crimination is a matter of judgment and experience. Furthermore,

the absence of intergradation is not in itself a criterion of specific rank.

Many unit-character forms, very distinct in appearance, such as al-

binos or forms with peculiar leaves, will not be found to intergrade,

and they even have rather distinct geographical ranges. In such

cases the rank to be given the form in question depends on the extent

of the botanist's field experience. In general, forms distinguished

by several constant characters are species; forms distinguished by only

one or by inconstant characters, subspecies ; but there is no absolute

test which can be applied, and in doubtful cases the decision depends

on the experience and point of view of the botanist.

Each of the above speakers was limited to ten minutes for the pre-

sentation of his remarks. After the formal remarks a general dis-

cussion ensued in which Messrs. A. S. Hitchcock, A. N. Caudell^

P. Bartsch, N. Hollister, S. A. Rohwer, Iv. O. Howard, V. Bailey,

and M. W. Lyon, Jr., took part.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

An executive order by the President, dated February 26, 1919, trans-

fers twenty-three former officers of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey

from the War Department back to the jurisdiction of the Survey;

and forty-six officers, similarly, from the Navy Department to the

Survey. Five Survey vessels are also returned. The transfers are

to become effective before April i, 1919.

The Bureau of Mines has sent a special mission to Europe to collect

information on the methods discussed and those adopted in the rebuild-

ing of the mining and metallurgical plants and industries in the

devastated areas. The members of the mission are : F. G. Cottrell,

chief metallurgist; G. S. Rice, chief mining engineer; W. Perdue,

petroleum technologist; and F. K. Probert of the University of Cali-

fornia, consulting mining engineer. The mission will have headquarters

in London.

Messrs. Hoyt S. Gale and J. B. Umpleby, of the U. S. Geological

Survey, have gone to France to investigate certain questions of mineral

resources, particularly potash salts, involved in the peace negotiations.

Dr. Olaf Andersen, of the Mineralogical Institute, Kristiania,

Norway, visited Washington in March.

Lieut. Col. W. D. Bancroft, of the Chemical Warfare Service,

has been elected Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical

Technology of the National Research Council.

Dr. W. N. Berg, formerly captain in the Sanitary Corps, and stationed

at Camp Lee, received his honorable discharge from the Army in March

and has returned to the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Major Charles Harrod Boyd, for forty years an officer of the Coast

and Geodetic Survey, died on February 9, 191 9, at his home in Port-

land, Maine, in his eighty-sixth year. He entered the Survey in 1855,

served with the Port Royal expedition in 1861, and served under Gen.

Barnard on the fortifications near Washington later in the war, re-

tiring from the Survey in 1894.

Dr. H. L. Curtis, of the Bureau of Standards, has gone for a three

months visit to European laboratories to obtain data on the progress

of certain war problems.

Dr. Alfred C. Hawkins, recently appointed crystallographer in

the laboratories of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, is spending

a few weeks in studying recent advances in this subject at the Bureau

of Chemistry and other Washington laboratories.

239

240 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Capt. p. E. Landolt of the Nitrate Division, Army Ordnance, has

resigned from the ser\dce and has returned to his work as chemical

engineer with the Research Corporation at New York City.

Dr. A. O. Leuschner, who has been with the National Research

Council since November, 191 8, returned to the University of California

in the latter part of March.

Mr. James W. McGuire, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, has

been appointed a member of the U. S. Geographic Board.

Lieut. Col. William McPherson, Chemical Warfare vService,

Professor of Chemistry at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio,

who was stationed in Washington in the early part of the war and was

later sent to France, received his honorable discharge from the Army

in March, and has returned to the University.

Dr. W. B. Meldrum, professor of chemistry at Haverford College,

and until lately a member of the Chemical Warfare Service and of the

price section of the War Trade Board, has received a temporary ap-

pointment as assistant physical chemist at the Geophysical Laborator\%

Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Professor Sem Saeland, Professor of Physics and Rektor of the

Technological Institute of Norway, at Trondhjem, Norway, visited

Washington in March.

Dr. H. C. Taylor, head of the department of agricultural economics

in the College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, has been ap-

pointed Chief of the Office of Farm ^lanagement. Department of

Agriculture.

Col. W. H. WiLMER, Medical Corps, U. S. A., returned to Washington

on March 22. He expects to continue in the Army for a period to

write the history of the laboratory work of the Air Service in France.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 MAY 4, 1919 No. 9

BOTANY. — Revision of Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants used for

poisoning fish. S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The genus Ichthyomethia, belonging to the tribe Dalbergieae

of the family Fabaceae, is of economic importance among the

aborigines of tropical America as one of the plants commonly

used as a fish poison. Its use for this purpose in Jamaica,

where it is called dogwood, was so well described by Patrick

Browne^ that it is only necessary to cite his quaint account.

The bark of the root of this tree is used for the same purposes, and

with the same effects, as the leaves and branches of Surinam poison,

already described : it is pounded, and mixed with the water in some

deep and convenient part of the river, or creek, etc., from whence it

may spread itself more diffusively around; and in a few minutes after

it is well mingled, you'll see the fish, that lay hitherto hid under the

neighboring rocks, or banks, rising to the surface, where they float as if

they were dead; in which situation they continue for a considerable

time; but most of the large ones that are left, recover after a time;

while the smaller fry are all destroyed, and float upon the surface, for

some days after. The eel is the only fish I have observed, that could

not be intoxicated with the common doses of this bark, though it af-

fects it verv^ sensibly; for the moment the particles spread where it

lies, it moves off, and swims with great agility through the water.

I have sometimes seen them chased to and fro, in this manner, for some

minutes, without being any ways altered.

The tree is generally considered as one of the best timber-trees in the

island. The wood is very hard, and resinous; and lasts almost equally

in or out of water. It is of light brown color, coarse, cross-grained, and

heavy.

The bark of the roots of the genus has found some apphcation

in eclectic medicine, under the name Piscidia or Piscidia bark,

^ Nat. Hist. Jam. 296. 1756.

241

242 BIvAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA

but it is not listed in the United States Dispensatory. The

active principle, according to Hart as quoted by Felter and

Lloyd, ^ is a neutral body, piscidin (C29H24O8), which has narcotic

and analgesic properties. It has been used for alleviating

insomnia and neuralgia, for allaying spasms, and for similar

purposes. Experimentally it has been found to bring about

death in animals by causing heart failure or by arresting respira-

tory action.

Although this genus has generally been known under the name

Piscidia, given it by Linnaeus in 1759, it is necessary under the

American Code of Botanical Nomenclature to adopt for it the

name Ichthyomethia, published by Patrick Browne in 1756,

with a reference to the original species, Eryihrina piscipula L.

In addition to the original species, Ichthyomethia piscipula

(L.) Hitchc. (Eryihrina piscipula L., 1753; Piscidia erythrina L.,

1759), and some species wrongly ascribed to the genus by early

authors, four species have been described : Piscidia Americana Moc.

Sesse, P. mollis Rose, P. cubensis Urban, and Ichthyomethia

havanensis Britton & Wilson. A sixth species is Derris grandifolia

Donn. Smith, the fruit of which, unknown to the describer of the

species, shows it to be a member of this genus. In addition to

these species, study of the specimens in the National Herbarium,

supplemented by material from the New York Botanical Garden

and the Gray Herbarium, has shown the existence of three new

species, closely related to /. piscipida but distinguished by

constant characters and definite geographical ranges. My

thanks are due to the curators of the herbaria mentioned for

the loan of the material.

Of the eight species here recognized, three (/. grandifolia,

I. mollis, and I. cubensis) are very distinct in characters of foliage

and pubescence. The other five form a closely related group

centering around the original species, /. piscipula. In making

out the characters which distinguish these species, and in cor-

relating them with distribution in definite floristic regions, I

am indebted for advice and assistance to Mr. William R. Maxon.

The first of these, /. piscipula, definitely known as a native only

' King's Amer. Dispensatory ed. XI. (3d revision) 2: 15 10. 1900.

blake;: revision of ichthyomethia 243

of Jamaica, is distinguished by having the leaves evenly but

not densely short-pilose beneath with spreading-ascending,

usually rufescent hairs, while in the other four species they are

merely puberulous to strigose. In two of these, I. havanensis

and I. communis, the leaves are densely puberulous beneath

with incurved or ascending hairs, which are more numerous

along the veins and veinlets and coincide with them in direction.

In the remaining two species, /. americana and /. acuminata,

the leaves are distinctly strigose or strigillose beneath, and the

hairs, except along the costa and the primary lateral veins, do

not follow the direction of the nervation, but all point toward the

margin of the leaf; in consequence of which the hairs which

arise from the secondary and tertiary veinlets diverge from their

veinlets at approximately a right angle, and those which arise

from the surface below and near the veinlets lie across the latter

transversely. Associated with these characters of pubescence

is a difference in the ceraceous covering of the under leaf surface.

In I. communis the waxy covering is comparatively thick and is

divided by the ultimate veinlets into definitely raised areoles.

In most of the other species it is thinner and flatter and, owing

to the weaker development of the veinlets, does not have the

same areolate appearance.

Piscidia carthagenensis, Jacq.,^ briefly described by Jacquin

from fruiting material collected at Cartagena, was said to differ

from P. erythrina L- in its obovate, much larger leaflets. No

material from Colombia has been seen by the writer, and Jac-

quin's account is so incomplete that is it necessary for the present

to leave the identity of the species in doubt. It is presumably

most closely related to /. acuminata, and may prove to be iden-

tical. DeCandolle's account of P. carthagenensis in the Prod-

romus^ evidently applies in part to Ichthyomethia piscipula

and perhaps to other species not then distinguished.

Loefling's Piscipula erythrina,'" incompletely described from

trees found by Loefling in northeastern Venezuela, is perhaps

' Enum PI. Carib. 27. 1760; Stirp. Amer. 210. 1763.

* Prodr. 2: 267. 1825.

6 It. Hisp. 275. 1758.

244 BLAKE: REVISION OP ICHTHYOMETHIA

identical witli Jacquin's P. carthagenensis. As I/oefling gives no

account of the pubescence of the leaves, it is impossible in the

absence of specimens to be certain of the identity of his plant.

The only South American material of the genus in the herbaria

which the writer has examined consists of fruits in the National

Herbarium collected at Rio Macara, Ecuador, altitude 455 to

610 meters, April, 1910, by C. H. T. Townsend (no. 849), and

leaves in the Gray Herbarium collected on Chatham Island,

Galdpagos Islands, 1899, by Snodgrass and Heller (no. 503).

Both these collections are too imperfect for specific determination.

Ichthyomethia P. Br. Nat. Hist. Jam. 296. 1756.

Piscipula Loefl. It. Hisp. 275. 1758.

Piscidia L. Syst. ed. 10. 1155. 1759.

Trees or shrubs, not climbing; leaves odd-pinnate, the leaflets oppo-

site; flowers in lateral panicles, appearing before the leaves; calyx

campanulate, obscurely 2 -lipped, the upper lip emarginate, the lower 3-

lobed, the teeth deltoid ; flowers rosy or white and red, rarely yellowish

white, vexillum suborbicular or oval-obovate, emarginate, short-

clawed; wings falcate-oblong, long-clawed, adherent to keel near mid-

dle, the Hmb auriculate above at base; keel obtuse, its petals long-

clawed, their limbs united near middle for about one-third their length,

auriculate-sagittate on upper side at base; stamens 10, the vexillar

one free at base for one-quarter to one-half its length, or rarely free

throughout; ovary sessile, many-ovulate; style filiform, incurved,

glabrous, with a smaU terminal stigma; legume indehiscent, firm, with

linear body, broadly or narrowly 2 -winged on each suture, stipitate^

I to 6-seeded, in age tending to break transversely between the seeds.

Type species, Erythrina piscipula L.

Key to Species

Wings as broad as or much broader than the body of the fruit ; leaflets

3 to 12 cm. long.

Leaves very densely and softly cinereous-tomentulose or pilose be-

neath ; vexillum glabrous (so far as known) ; vexillar stamen

entirely free (so far as known) .

Leaves densely tomentulose beneath i. /. grandifolia.

Leaves densely short-pilose beneath 2. I. mollis.

Leaves puberulous, strigose, or short-pilose beneath ; vexillum densely

pubescent; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth to one-half its

length.

Leaves puberulous to strigose beneath.

Leaves densely incurved-puberulous or ascending-puberulous

beneath, the hairs more numerous along the veinlets and

parallel with them ; stipe of fruit equaling or slightly ex-

ceeding the calyx.

BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 245

Low shrub ; petiole and rachis spreading-puberulous ; leaflet

prominulous-reticulate beneath; fruit 1.2 to 3.5 cm. long

S- I- havanensis.

Tree; petiole and rachis strigillose or appressed-puberul ous;

leaflets not prominulous-reticulate beneath; fruit 2.5 to 7.5

cm. long 4. 7. communis.

Leaves strigose or strigillose beneath, the hairs not more

numerous along the veinlets, crossing them transversely;

stipe of fruit much exceeding the calyx.

Lobes of lower lip of calyx obtuse or rounded

5- -^- americana.

Lobes of lower lip of calyx short-acuminate

6. I. acuminata.

Leaves short-pilose beneath with spreading-ascending

hairs 7-7. piscipula.

Wings much narrower than the body of the fruit; leaflets i to 2 cm.

long 8.7. cubensis.

I. Ichthyomethia grandifolia (Donn. Smith) Blake.

Derris grandifolia Donn. Smith, Bot. Gaz. 56: 55. 1913.

Tree, with stout branches ; shoots of the year cinereous-tomentulose,

the older branches glabrate; leaves 7 to ii-foliolate, 18 to 33 cm. long;

petiole, rachis, and petiolules densely cinereous- or sordid-tomentulose

with crisped spreading hairs ; leaflets 5.5 to 10 cm. long, 3 to 6.5 cm. wide,

oval or the lowest ovate, broadly rounded, mucronulate, rounded at

base, thick, above dull green, densely crisped-pilosulous, beneath densely

cinereous-tomentulose with crisped spreading hairs, these in youth

concealing the secondar}'^ veins; panicles cylindric, dense, 10 to 15 cm.

long, sordid-tomentulose; pedicels 1.5 to 4.5 mm. long; calyx 7 to 8

mm. long, densely sordid-pilosulous, the lobes of lower lip deltoid-

triangular, short-acuminate; vexillum oval-obovate, glabrous, 10 mm.

long; alae 12 mm. long (the claws 5.5 mm. long), the limb ciliate on

lower edge toward base; keel 13.5 mm. long, glabrous; vexillar stamen

entirely free; fruit 4 to 9 cm. long, 2.5 to 5 cm. wide, 3 to 5 -seeded,

densely sordid-pilosulous, the wings usually not divided, as broad as

or broader than the body, the stipe exceeding the calyx by i to 3 mm.

Type Locality: Cerro Gordo, Guatemala.

Specimens Examined:

Puebla: Zapotitlan, 1908, Purpus "= 2648."

Oaxaca: Near Dominguillo, altitude 1370 to 1675 meters, 1894,

Nelson 1826.

Guatemala: Volcan Imay, Dept. Jalapa, altitude 1525 meters,

1908, Kellerman 8048 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Cerro Gordo, Dept. Santa

Rosa, altitude iioo meters, August, 1892, Heyde & Lux 3709 (type

collection) .

This species departs from other members of the genus in its glabrous

banner and its free vexillar stamen. The flowers of the next species,

A'

246 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA

1. mollis, have not yet been collected, but from the agreement in other

features it is probable that they will show the same peculiarities. The

fruit of both species is precisely that of the type species of Ichthyo-

methia, and the character of the stamens is known to Vary in the same

way in related genera of this group.

2. Ichthyomethia mollis (Rose) Blake.

Piscidia mollis Rose, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1: 98. 1891.

Tree, 3 to 8 meters high; branches rather slender, softly cinereous-

tomentulose, in age glabrate; leaves 7 to 13-foliolate, 8 to 20 cm. long;

petiole, rachis, and petiolules densely cinereous-tomentulose ; leaflets

3 to 7.8 cm. long, 2 to 4 cm. wide, oval to ovate, acute to rounded,

at base rounded, whitish green on both sides, above densely pilosulous

with crisped hairs, beneath densely and softly short-pilose with as-

cending hairs, in age prominulous-reticulate ; fruit 2.5 to 5 cm. long,

3.5 to 4.5 cm. wide, i to 3-seeded, densely cinereous-puberulous, the

wings much wider than the body of the fruit, sometimes split in age.

Type Locality: Ridges about Alamos, vSonora.

Specimens Examined:

Sonora: Alamos, 1890, Palmer 355 (type collection). Dry hills,

Alamos, 1910, Rose, Standley, & Russell 12906, 135 15. Near Torres,

1903, Coville 1659.

This species is distinguished from /. grandifolia by having its leaflets

pilose rather than tomentose beneath. The flowers have not yet been

collected. The plant bears the vernacular name "palo bianco." One

of the specimens collected by Rose, Standley, and Russell, under their

number 12906, is remarkable in having dull green, rather sparsely

pilosulous leaves. It is doubtless a sucker growth or young shoot of

the plant, and is not properly to be taken as indicating variation in the

adult leaves, all those examined being very constant in both color and

pubescence.

3. Ichthyomethia havanensis Britton & Wilson, Bull. Torrey Club

44: 34. 1917.

Shrub, 2 meters high; branchlets sparsely puberulous, in age fuscous,

glabrate; leaves 9-foliolate, 10 cm. long; petiole and rachis rather

densely sordid-puberulous with spreading hairs; leaflets (immature)

3.5 cm. long, 1.5 cm. wide, elliptic to oblong-oval, obtuse to rounded,

mucronulate, at base cuneate-rounded, above dull green, spreading-

puberulous, glabrescent, beneath paler, prominulous-reticulate, densely

puberulous with ascending hairs somewhat more numerous along the

veins; calyx 5 mm. long, densely rufescent-strigillose, the teeth deltoid,

obtuse; fruit, 1.2 to 3.5 cm. long, 2 to 2.8 cm. wide, i to 3-seeded, ap-

pressed-puberulous, the wings much wider than the body, usually

undulate-divided.

BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 247

Type Locality: Near Cojimar, Havana, Cuba.

Specimens Examined:

Cuba: Thickets not far from Cojimar, May 14, 19 15, Leon cS" Roca

6194 (type; N. Y. Bot. Card.).

This species, of which only the type, in fruit and young leaf, has been

examined, is distinguished from the next by its smaller fruit and smaller

leaflets, these prominulous-reticulate beneath, as well as by the pubes-

cence of the rachis and petiolules.

4. Ichthyomethia communis Blake, sp. nov.

Tree, 20 meters high or less; branchlets strigillose, soon glabrate;

leaves 7 or 9-foholate, 12 to 22 cm. long; petiole and rachis sordid-

strigillose or appressed-puberulous, sometimes glabrate in age; leaflets

4 to 12 cm. long, 2 to 5 cm. wide, oblong or eUiptic to obovate-oval,

acute or short-pointed, rounded to cuneate at base, above green, ap-

pressed-puberulous, at length glabrate, beneath pale, not prominulous-

reticulate, densely incurved-puberulous, the hairs more numerous along

the veins; panicles 3 to 9 cm. long, many-flowered, often branched from

base, finely griseous-puberulous ; pedicels 2 to 6 mm. long; calyx 4.5

mm. long, densely cinereous-puberulous ; the teeth of lower lip broadly

deltoid, obtuse or rounded; vexillum 12.5 mm. long, suborbicular,

densely cinereous-pubescent on back; alae about 15 mm. long (the

claws 7 mm. long), the lamina sparsely pubescent; keel 12 mm. long

(the claws 6.5 mm. long), the petals pubescent below, the claws ciliate

beneath above the middle; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth to one-

half its length; fruit 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, 2.8 to 4 cm. wide, i to 6-seeded,

cinereous-puberulous, especially on the body, the wings much wider

than the body, usually undulate-divided, the stipe equahng the calyx

or exceeding it by only 6 (rarely 9) mm.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 41958, collected in forests

on coral soil, Ramrod Key (flowers), and on Jewfish Key, Florida

(leaves and fruit). May and July, by A. H. Curtiss (no. 685).

Other Specimens Examined:

Florida: Miami, 1877, Garber. Punta Rassa, Lee County, 1900,

Hitchcock 76; 191 6, Miss J. P. Standley 257. Marco, Lee County,

1916, P. C. Standley 12732. White Horse Key, and Key West, 1891,

Simpson 234. Palm Cape, Chapman 34.

Tamaulipas : Tampico, 1910, Palmer 510.

vSan Luis Potosi: Limestone hills, Rascon, 1892, Pringle 4110.

Veracruz: Pueblo Viejo, near Tampico, 1910, Palmer 541 (N. Y.

Bot. Card.).

Yucatan: Merida, 1865, Schott 260. Sisal, 1916, Gatimer & Sons

23219. Without definite locaUty, 1895, Gaumer 524.

Honduras: Ruatan Island, 1886, Gaumer 154.

Cuba: Manzanillo, 191 2, Shafer 12349. Ensenada de Mora,

Oriente, 1912, Britton, Cowell, & Shafer 12926 (N. Y. Bot. Card.).

248 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA

This Species, the commonest and most widely distributed of the

genus, has not previosuly been distinguished from I. piscipula. It is

readily separated, however, by the leaves, which in /. communis are

densely incurved-puberulous beneath, with the hairs along even the

ultimate veinlets parallel to the latter. In I. piscipula the leaves are

short-pilose with spreading-ascending hairs beneath, and the hairs

along the veinlets do not coincide with them in direction but lie across

them transversely.

/. communis is called "haabi" by the Mayas of Yucatan, and "chijol"

by the Huastecan Indians of Tamaulipas and Veracruz.

5. Ichthyomethia americana (Moc. & Sess^) Blake.

Piscidia americana Moc. & Sess^, PI. Nov. Hisp. ii6. 1887.

Tree; branchlets appressed-puberulous, soon glabrate; leaves 9 to

13-foliolate, 12 to 20 cm. long; petiole and rachis appressed-pubescent,

glabrescent, leaflets 4 to 8 cm. long, 1.7 to 4 cm. wide, oval-oblong or

elliptic-oblong or the terminal one obovate-oval, rounded or obtuse,

sometimes acute, rounded at base, pergamentaceous, above light green,

glabrous, beneath pale, evenly but not densely short-strigose, the hairs

on the costa and primary veins appressed to them, those on the sec-

ondary and tertiary veinlets and on the surface directed toward margin

of leaf, thus crossing the veinlets nearly at a right angle, and not more

numerous along than between them; panicles 8 to 24 cm. long, strigil-

lose ; pedicels 2 to 7 mm. long ; calyx 6 to 7 mm. long, cinereous-puberu-

lous with appressed hairs, the lobes of lower lip deltoid-ovate or broadly

deltoid, slightly overlapping near base, obtuse or rounded, rarely

acutish at tip; vexillum 15 mm. long, densely cinereous-puberulous

dorsally, in youth subsericeous; alae 15.5 mm. long (the claws 7 mm.

long), the laminae sparsely puberulous toward base; keel 15 mm. long

(the claws 7 mm. long), the petals puberulous below; vexillar stamen

free for one-third its length; fruit 1.5 to 7.5 cm. long, 1.8 to 4.3 cm. wide,

I to 6-seeded, appressed-puberulous, the glabrescent wings much wider

than the body, often undulate-divided, the stipe exceeding the calyx

by 6 to 12 mm.

Type Locality: Apatzingan, Michoacan, Mexico.

Specimens Examined:

Michoacan: Hacienda Guadalupe, near Rio Balsas, 1903, Nelson

6969. Nusco (Michoacan or Guerrero), 1899, Langlasse 936.

Guerrero: La Junta, 1903, Nelson 6991.

Guatemala: Naranjo, altitude 90 meters, 1892, /. D. Smith 2815.

This species is called "tatzungo" or "zatzumbo" by the Tarascan

Indians of Michoacan, according to Modno and Sess6. In Guerrero it

is known by the native name "cocuile" and the Mexican names "colorin

de peces" and "matapez." Although there is little in the description

BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 249

of Modno and Sesse to differentiate this species, its identity is clear

from the locality.

6, Ichthyomethia acuminata Blake, sp. nov.

Tree; branchlets strigillose, soon glabrate; leaves 7 to ii-foliolate,

17 to 30 cm. long; petiole and rachis strigillose, glabrescent; leaflets 4

to 13 cm. long, 2.2 to 7 cm. wide, oval to ovate-oval, or the terminal one

obovate-oval or rarely suborbicular, obtuse or rounded, rarely short-

pointed, rounded at base, pergamentaceous, above light or dark green,

glabrous or essentially so, beneath paler, evenly but not densely strigose

or strigillose, the hairs lying across the prominulous secondary and ter-

tiary veins and not more numerous along them than between them;

panicles 10 to 30 cm. long, strigillose; pedicels 4 to 8 mm. long; calyx

5 to 6 mm. long, densely cinereous-strigillose, the lobes of lower lip del-

toid, acute or acuminate; flowers "pink;" vexillum 13 to 15 mm. long,

densely cinereous-strigose dorsally, in youth subsericeous ; alae 15 to

18 mm. long (the claws 6.5 to 8 mm. long), the laminae sparsely pubes-

cent; keel 14 mm. long (the claws 6 mm. long), the petals pubescent

below, the claws ciliate below above the middle; vexillar stamen free for

one-quarter to one-half its length; fruit 2 to 8.5 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 cm.

wide, I to 5 -seeded, strigillose, the wings much wider than the body,

often undulate-divided, the stipe exceeding the calyx by 8 to 13 mm.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 639557, collected in An-

tigua, Lesser Antilles, February 4-16, 1913, by J. N. Rose, W. R. Fitch,

and P. G. Russell (no. 3419).

Other Specimens Examined:

Porto Rico: Playa de Fajardo, 1913, Britton & Shafer 1575.

Punta Guaniquilla, 1915, Britton, Cowell, & Brown 4576.

Culebra: Culebra, 1906, Britton & Wheeler 62.

Vieques Island: Punta Arenas to Boca Quebrada, 1914, Shafer

2912.

TorTola: Road Town to Sea Cow Bay, 1913, Britton & Shafer 684.

St. Croix : Christiansted, 1 9 1 3, Rose, Fitch, & Russell 3579. With-

out definite locality, 1896, Ricksecker 320.

St. Jan: Bethania, 1913, 5nVto« (5f 5/ia/er 336.

MoNTSERRAT: Without definite locality, 1907, Shafer 462.

Guadeloupe: Without definite locality, altitude 250 meters or less,

1892, Duss 2662.

Barbados: Dover or Constitution Hill, Farley Hill, 1895, Wahy 83.

Tobago : Scarborough, 1 9 1 4, Broadway 4808 .

This species and the preceding (/. americana) are distinguished from

the other species of the /. piscipula type by the character of their

pubescence and by the long stipe of the fruit. They are distinguished

from one another chiefly by the shape of the lower calyx lobes, which

are acute or short-acuminate in the present plant and taper from the

250 BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA '

base, while in I. americana they are obtuse or rounded, or rarely slightly

acutish at the extreme tip.

/. acuminata is known as "bois enivrant" and "bois a ^nivrer" in the

French Islands of the Lesser Antilles, and as "ventura" in Porto Rico.

7. Ichthyomethia piscipula (L.) Hitchc; Sarg. Gard. & For. 4:472.

Oct. 1891.6

Erythrina piscipula L. Sp. PI. 2: 707. 1753.

Piscidia erythrina L. Syst. ed. X. 1155. 1759-

"Piscidia inebrians Medic. Vorles. Churpf. Phys. Ges. 2: 394. 1787."

"Piscidia toxicaria Salisb. Prodr. 336. 1796."

Piscidia piscipula Sarg. Gard. & For. 4: 436. 1891.

Tree, 12 meters high or less; branchlets rufescent-strigillose, glabrate;

leaves 7-foliolate, 22 to 26 cm. long; petiole and rachis rufescent-strigose

or strigillose; leaflets 5.5 to 11. 5 cm. long, 4.5 to 7 cm. wide, oval or

obovate-oval, rounded or short-pointed, at base rounded to slightly

cordate, pergamentaceous, above deep green, strigillose-puberulous,

glabrate, beneath slightly paler, prominulous-reticulate, rather densely

short-pilose with spreading-ascending, usually somewhat rufescent hairs,

these somewhat more numerous and more or less appressed along the

costa and primary veins, those along the veinlets crossing them trans-

versely and not more numerous than on the surface between them;

panicles numerous, 5 to 16 cm. long, strigillose, much branched; pedi-

cels 4 to 7 mm. long; calyx 5.5 to 6 mm. long, densely cinereous-strig-

illose, the lobes of lower lip deltoid, the lateral ones broadly rounded or

obtuse, the middle one acute or acutish; corolla rosy or "white and red;"

vexillum 13 mm. long, densely strigillose dorsally, in youth subsericeous ;

alae 13.5 mm. long (the claws 6 mm. long), the lamina sparsely pubes-

cent along midline; keel 12 mm. long (the claws 5.5 mm. long), the petals

pubescent and short-ciliate below, their claws short-ciliate below above

the middle; vexillar stamen free for one-fourth its length; fruit 2.5 to

7 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 cm. wide, i to 6-seeded, cinereous-pubescent es-

pecially on the body, the wings much wider than body, often undulate-

divided, the stipe exceeding calyx by 2 to 6 mm.

Type Locality: "In America calidiore." Linnaeus's references all

relate primarily to Jamaica.

Specimens Examined:

Jamaica: Morant Bay, 1850, March (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Berwich

Hill, altitude 760 meters, 1899, Harris 7708. Hope Grounds, altitude

640 meters, 1903, Harris 8518 (N. Y. Bot. Gard.). Great Goat Island,

1906, Harris 9221. Vicinity of Kingston, 1910, Brown 364 (N. Y. Bot.

Gard.).

The use of this species by the natives of Jamaica as a fish poison

was known to many of the older writers. The species was apparently

' This combination was also published in November, 1891, by Kuntze (Rev.

Gen. i: 191).

BLAKE: REVISION OF ICHTHYOMETHIA 25 1

first listed by Hermann,^ in 1689, ^s "Coral arbor polyphylla non

spinosa." Sloan, ^ in 1696, gave a long list of trees, mentioned by still

older writers and travellers as fish poisons, which he doubtfully referred

to this species. Ray,^ in 1704, gave a good description of the plant

and mentioned its use. A figure of the leafless flowering branch and of

a portion of the fruit, with an account of this species and of other fish

poisons, was also given in Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica.^"

Ichthyomethia piscipula is readily distinguished by the pubescence of

its leaves, and is probably confined as a native to Jamaica, where it is

known as "dogwood." In the National Herbarium is a sheet from

Key West, collected in 1896 by A. H. Curtiss (no. 5656), and another

collected in Florida in 1877 by Garber. It is probable that both these

specimens were taken from cultivated trees.

8. Ichthyomethia cubensis (Urban) Blake.

Piscidia cubensis Urban, Symb. Antill. 7: 229. 191 2.

Shrub, I to 1.3 meters high; young branches greenish, densely rufes-

cent-strigillose, the older branches gray, lenticellate, glabrate; leaves

5 to 9-foliolate, 2.5 to 4.5 cm. long; petiole (3 to 7 mm. long), rachis,

and petiolules (i mm. long) densely rufescent-strigillose ; leaflets i to

2 cm. long, 6 to II mm. wide, oval to oblong, emarginate, apiculate, at

base rounded to subcordate, coriaceous, prominulous-reticulate be-

neath, above light green, lucid, sparsely strigillose toward margin or

glabrous, beneath obscurely strigillose chiefly along the veins; panicles

rufescent-strigillose, 2 to 2.5 cm. long; pedicels 2 to 4 cm. long; calyx

rufescent-strigillose, 4 mm. long, the lobes of lower lip deltoid, broadly

rounded; corolla "pink or white" or "yellowish white;" vexillum 12.5

mm. long, subsericeous-strigose when young; lateral petals 13 mm. long

(the claws 7 mm.), the limbs sparsely pubescent at base, sparsely ciliate

at apex; keel 12.5 mm. long, (the claws 6.5 mm.), the limbs of the petals

sparsely pubescent below toward base; vexillar stamen free for one-

third its length ; fruit hnear, straightish, rufescent-strigillose, sometimes

constricted between the seeds, i to 6-seeded, 2 to 4.8 cm. long, 5 to 7

mm. wide; wings 4, only i mm. wide; stipe equaling calyx; seeds olive-

fuscous, 4.8 mm. long.

Type Locality: Riverside to Minas, Camaguey, Cuba.

Specimens Examined:

Cuba: Dry savanna, Riverside to Minas, Camaguey, April i, 1909,

Shafer 1171 (type collection; N. Y. Bot. Card.). Rocky soil, Palm

Barren, Santa Clara, March, 191 1, Britton & Cowell 10179 (N. Y. Bot.

Card.). Rocky sides of arroyo. Palm Barren, April, 1912, Britton &

Cowell 13293 (N. Y. Bot. Card.).

7 Par. Bat. Prodr. 328. 1689.

* Cat. PI. Jam. 143. 1696.

» Hist. PI. 3 (lib. xxxi.): 108. 1704.

1" Voy. Jam. 2: 39. pi. 176. f. 4-3. 1725.

252 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

This very distinct species was described by Urban from Shafer's

nos. 117 1 and 1549, of which the former is here selected as type. Ur-

ban gives the maximum size of the leaflets as 2.5 cm. long, and 1.7 cm.

wide, and the fruit as having wings up to 2 mm. broad.

Although the fruit of this species is very different in appearance from

that of the other members of the genus, owing to the great reduction

of the wings, the difference is only a comparative one. In its floral

structure I. cuhensis agrees precisely with other members of the genus,

and the morphology of the fruit is the same.

ELECTRICITY. — Methods oj 'measuring conductivity of in-

sulating materials at high temperatures. F. B. Sii,SBEE and

R. K. HoNAMAN, Bureau of Standards.

The piu-pose of this paper is to describe some measurements

carried out at the Bureau of Standards during the past two years,

on the resistance of various insulating materials at high tempera-

tures. This work was undertaken with a view to studying the

relative merits of various insulators for use in spark plugs, and in

particular to assist the Ceramic Laboratory of the Bureau in

developing improved porcelain bodies for this purpose. The

method finally adopted, as a result of this work, for the com-

parative testing of materials is described elsewhere.^ The

present paper will be confined to a description of the various

phenomena observed in the experiments which led to the method

finally adopted.

The electrical and thermal conditions under which a spark

plug is required to operate differ considerably with the type of

gasoline engine used. Measurements with imbedded thermo-

couples have shown that the temperature of the body of the in-

sulator within the metal shell seldom exceeds 250° C. in water-

cooled engines. The tip of the inner end, however, may reach

temperatures as high as 900 to 1000° C. It therefore appeared

desirable to study the resistivity of the specimens in the range of

temperature between 200 and 900° C.

The electrical stresses applied to a spark plug insulator by the

average magneto or battery coil ignition system used for firing

gasoline engines, are quite pecuHar and difficult to dupUcate in

* Report of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 191 8.

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 253

any method of measurement. The cycle of operation, following

the opening of the primary breaker contacts, consists of a rapid

rise of the potential applied to the spark plug from zero to a value

sufficient to break down the spark gap in the engine cylinder.

The breakdown voltage is of the order of 6000 volts and is reached

in a few hundred thousandths of a second. After this, a com-

paratively low voltage (800 volts) maintains the electric arc

between the spark points and lasts for a few thousandths of a

second. Since the interval between sparks is of the order of

0.05 to 0.1 second, it will be seen that the average voltage ap-

pUed over a complete cycle is quite low and has been found to be

approximately 150 volts. These pecuUar electrical conditions

should be kept in mind when considering the various methods of

measurement described below.

The materials studied in this investigation included porcelains,

glass, steatite, mica, and fused silica, as these constitute the only

class of substances sufficiently heat resisting for use in spark

plugs. While the detailed studies of polarization, etc. de-

scribed in this report were made on only a few of the porcelain

samples, the same effects seemed to be present to greater or less

degree in all cases and the process of conduction is probably

similar in all of them. The work of earlier investigators^ has

shown the complex nature of the phenomena, but as yet no com-

plete and satisfactory theory has been worked out to account for

them.

APPARATUS AND SPECIMENS

Most of the work reported in this paper was done on cup-shaped

specimens with flat bottoms 3 mm. thick. The principal ad-

vantages of this type of specimen are:

(i) The conduction takes place through the bottom of the cup, which

is of definite and easily measured dimensions.

(2) The large area and small thickness of the bottom ensure a rela-

tively large current even with material of high conductivity.

2 Gray, T. Phil. Mag. V, 10: 226. 1880. Haworth, H. F. Proc. Roy.

Soc. London 81 A: 221. 1908. Somerville, A. A. Phys. Rev. 31: 261. 1910.

Campbell. Nat. Phys. Lab. 11; 207. 1914. Kinnison, C. S. Proc. Amer.

Ceramic Soc. 17: 422. 1915. PoolE, H. H. Phil. Mag. 34: 195. 1917. Brace,

P. H. Trans. Amer. Electrochem. Soc. May 5, 1918.

254

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

(3) The path over the rim of the cup for any surface leakage is rela-

tively long.

(4) A satisfactory contact can be made between the specimen and

the electrodes by immersing the bottom of the cup in a conducting

fluid (in these experiments melted solder) and by inserting some of this

fluid inside the cup to form the upper electrode.

These specimens were used in the furnace shown in figure i.

Fig . I . Electric furnace as used in conductivity measurements .

The heating coil inserted in the plug below the specimen was found

necessary to compensate for the flow of heat through the bottom

of the furnace. By proper adjustment of the relative amounts

of current through the main winding and through this additional

coil, the temperatures inside and outside the cup could be equal-

ized. These temperatures were measured by two copper con-

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 255

stantan thermocouples, one of which was inserted in a closed

porcelain tube which dipped below the surface of the solder in

the interior of the cup, while the other was imbedded in the steel

cup containing the solder below the specimen. Readings of the

resistance were taken only when these two thermocouples showed

substantially equal temperatures.

In cases where cup specimens were not available, measure-

ments were made on assembled spark plugs and also on spark

plug insulators, and on short pieces of tubing. In these cases the

conduction took place between a central electrode and either the

shell of the spark plug or a band of platinum deposited around

the center of the outside of the insulator or tube. The measure-

ments with this type of specimen were definite in indicating the

resistance of the specimen, but owing to the uncertainty as to

the area of contact and the location of the lines of current flow,

it is difficult from such data to compute with accuracy the true

resistivity of the material.

For reducing the results of either type of specimen from the

observed resistance to a basis of the resistivity of the material,

the factors connecting these two quantities were computed from

the dimensions of the specimens. For the cup specimen,

the resistivity is obtained by multiplying the observed resistance

by K, where

and d is the diameter of the bottom of the cup and t the thickness

of the cup in centimeters. For the tubular specimen

K = ^ (approx.) (2)

^2.30 logio^^

where / equals the length of the external conducting band meas-

ured parallel to the length of the specimen, and Ro and Ri are

respectively the external and internal radii of the insulator.

In most of the work the resistances were measured by reading

a voltmeter connected across the specimen and an ammeter in

series with it, and taking the quotient of these values as the re-

256

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUIIEMENTS

sistance. As will be seen from the following, a wide variety of

sources was used to provide the appUed voltage and the indicating

instruments were correspondingly varied in character.

VARIATION OP RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE.

The first experiments were carried out with an appUed direct

Fig. 2. Typical results on porcelain cup showing variation of resistance with

temperature.

cmrent voltage of about 2000 volts which was obtained by recti-

fying with a kenotron a 3000 cycle voltage suppHed from a step-

up transformer. This rather compUcated system was chosen

in an attempt to dupHcate to some extent the voltages existing

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 257

in ignition systems, and although this source of voltage was later

abandoned, the data obtained with it brought out the salient

facts in regard to this type of conduction. The most striking of

these facts, as verified by other measurements made later, is the

very rapid decrease in resistance of the specimen with increase

in temperatm-e. This variation amounts to approximately

2 per cent per degree Centigrade at all temperatures. If the re-

sults are expressed by plotting resistance against temperature,

or conductance against temperature the resulting curves are so

steep as to render it impracticable to express the data over an

extended temperature range by a single curve. It is found, how-

ever, that by plotting the common logarithm of the resistance

against temperature, as in figure 2, a convenient Hne of sUght

curvature is obtained, and if this curvature is neglected, the

results can be represented approximately by the equation

logio R = a — bt (3)

This method of expressing the results is very convenient in re-

ducing the data to a basis of resistivity, since combining the re-

lation

p = KXR (4)

with equation (3) one obtains

logio p = a + logio K — b t = c—bt (5)

In this equation b and c are constants of the material and are

independent of the shape and size of the specimen used. Un-

fortunately, however, the values obtained for one of these con-

stants depends very markedly upon the other, so that a slight

error in one will cause a compensating change in the other. They

are, therefore, not well suited for comparing the relative merits

of the different materials and for this latter purpose it has been

found convenient to compute an "effective temperature" (Te),

which is defined as the temperature at which the material has the

arbitrarily selected resistivity of one megohm per centimeter cube,

and which may be computed from the equation

c - 6

T. = ~r- (6)

258 SILrSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

This value of T^ ranges from 350° C. in the poorer grades of

porcelain up to 800° C. for fused silica, and is a convenient index

of the value of the material as an insulator at high temperatures.

There is a complete absence of any critical temperature at which

the material undergoes an abrupt change in its resistance. This

shows the error of the commonly accepted idea that porcelain

breaks down and becomes conducting at a definite temperature.

This belief probably originated from experiments in which the

temperature of a porcelain sample was gradually raised while

being continuously subjected to an applied voltage. The effect

of the current flowing through the sample in such cases would

be entirely negligible up to a certain temperature at which the

power, ~ , supplied by the measuring current, became comparable

with the rate at which heat could be dissipated to the surround-

ings. Owing to the very rapid rate of change of resistance with

temperature, a very slight further increase in temperature would

materially decrease the resistance and consequently increase the

E^

^ loss. Unless the specimen was in a position to give off heat

freely to its surroundings, the temperature would rise rapidly

causing a further decrease in resistance, thus leading to an un-

stable state which would rapidly cause the fusion of the material

and the passage of an arc. The rapidity of change of resistance

with temperature makes this point of instability quite definite,

provided all the conditions of the experiment are maintained

constant, but this apparent critical temperature will depend very

greatly upon the contact between the specimen and the furnace,

upon the applied voltage and other conditions, so that this is

in no sense a specific property of the material.

The magnitude of this heating effect is exemplified by the

behavior of a porcelain sample tested when hot, for example at

500° C. At this temperature, the resistance of a centimeter cube

of ordinary porcelain is about 100,000 ohms, and if a voltage of

only 500 volts per millimeter (i. e., only about V20 of that required

to puncture it while cold) be applied, the current flowing will be

50 milliamperes and the power dissipated in the sample will be

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 259

250 watts. This will suffice to raise the temperature of the sample

at a rate of about 100° C. per second and will cause its rapid de-

struction.

This heating of the specimen by the measuring current was

observed on numerous occasions when making tests at 2000 and

1000 volts, and in each case the samples on removal from the

furnace were found to contain one or more spots where the por-

celain had been fused into a glass by the intense local heating.

In the later work at lower voltage, this effect was not present,

and readings were taken only when the current was substantially

constant.

POLARIZATION

The early measurements with high voltage direct current

showed a number of puzzling discrepancies, such as a variation

of the apparent resistance with the voltage used in making the

measurement and with the time of application of this voltage.

Such discrepancies indicated the presence of an additional phe-

nomenon to be reckoned with, which in the absence of definite

knowledge as to its origin was called "polarization" and will

be so referred to throughout this report.

The fundamental manifestation of this so-called poliarization

is that if a constant D. C. voltage be applied to a specimen, the

resulting current will decrease at first rapidly, and then more

gradually. The reduction in current is often equivalent to an

increase in resistance by a factor of 10 or 20. If the specimen is

allowed to remain at a high temperature but without applied

voltage for some time, the effect gradually disappears, but a

considerable time is required to accomplish this. The disappear-

ance is more rapid at high temperatures than at low. Figure 3

gives a record of the variation of the apparent resistance of a

glass beaker, as measured with 1000 volts D. C. after various ap-

phcations and removals of the measuring potential. The course

of the experiment is indicated by the arrows and the duration of

each period of application or of rest is indicated on the curve.

The lowest and highest curves give the resistance as observed

with very short application of the testing voltage just prior to the

26o

SDLSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

polarizing test, and on the following day, respectively. The

apparent permanent increase of resistance observed with this

specimen serves to explain some mysterious results obtained at an

earher date, in which one specimen had shown an increase of

resistance to more than twenty times its initial value | after

FJg- 3- Variation in resistance of glass cup resulting from polarization.

several successive tests. The fact that an appreciable time is

required to obtain a reading, even with quick acting direct cur-

rent indicating instruments, and that during this time the speci-

men is being polarized, is probably a complete explanation of the

variation of apparent resistance with appUed voltage. If the

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 26 1

applied D. C. voltage is suddenly reversed after a specimen has

become polarized to a considerable extent, the initial current

in the new direction is found to be approximately equal in mag-

nitude to the original current and much greater than the value

immediately preceding the reversal. This implies a counter

E. M. F. and an attempt was made to observe such an effect b}^

connecting an electrostatic voltmeter across the specimen. No

residual deflection of this meter was observed when the supply

current was removed, even after long continued polarization

of the specimen. This result is to some extent in contradiction

to facts mentioned by other observers.^

A magneto having alternate distributor points of the same

polarity connected together was also used as a source of voltage

and the polarizing effects found to be in every way similar to those

obtained with a steady D. C. source of the same average voltage

(150 volts).

When alternating current is applied to a fresh specimen, there

is no polarizing effect and the current remains constant indefi-

nitely, except when the current is so large as to produce heating

of the specimen. When alternating current is applied to a speci-

men which has been previously polarized by direct current, the

polarization disappears at a more rapid rate than if the alternating

current had not been appHed.

An attempt to throw light on these complex phenomena was

made by applying alternating and direct current simultaneously

to a specimen. This was accomphshed by connecting a trans-

former in series with a generator. By opening the primary cir-

cuit of the transformer, or the field of the generator, either source

of K. M. F. could be ehminated without opening the circuit or

interfering with the current flow from the other source. The

A. C. voltage was measured across the transformer terminals

with a moving iron voltmeter, and the D. C. voltage by a d'Ar-

sonval type D. C. voltmeter across the generator. The alter-

nating current through the specimen was passed through the

moving coil of an electro-dynamometer, the fixed coil of which was

excited by an alternating current of constant magnitude and in

« Maxwell, J. C. Electricity and Magnetism. Ed. 3. i; 393.

262

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN : CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

siIvSbee; and honaman: conductivity measurements 263

the same phase as the alternating voltage applied to the speci-

men. The direct current through the specimen was measured

by a D. C. milliammeter connected in series with the specimen

and the dynamometer. With this arrangement, each pair of

instruments measured only its particular component of the re-

sultant current and voltage and was not affected by the pres-

ence of the other component. Figure 4 shows the variation with

time during the course of the experiments of the resistances as

computed from the two components of the current. In this ex-

periment the maximum value of the A. C. voltage was greater

than the D. C. voltage, so that the resultant voltage applied to the

specimen reversed in sign during each alternation. Other ex-

periments, in which the maximum alternating voltage was less

than the D. C. voltage, and the resultant voltage was conse-

quently unidirectional, showed substantially the same effects.

Throughout the experiments, the temperature was held as nearly

constant as possible, but a gradual drift of resistance will be

noticed, which can be accounted for by a slight change of tem-

perature. It appears from these results that the resistance of

the specimen is substantially the same for both the alternating

and direct currents for all states of polarization. Or, in other

words, the polarization produced by the direct current offers

resistance to the passage of the alternating current and the de-

polarization produced by the alternating current reduces the

resistance offered to the passage of the direct current.

When alternating current alone was applied to a fresh speci-

men, the power factor of the circuit was found to be substantially

unity. If, however, the specimen had recently been polarized

by the application of direct current, the power factor was some-

what reduced; values as low as .9 having been observed.

The data described above are quite insufficient for the devel-

opment of any complete theory of this "polarization," but it

would appear that the assumption of a counter E. M. F. is ruled

out by both the experiments of combined alternating and direct

current and by the difficulty of imagining a mechanism capable

of producing a counter E. M. F. of the order of several thousand

volts, which would be required to produce the observed decrease

264 SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

of current. A possible explanation may be developed on a basis

of the migration away from one electrode, of the ions carrying

the current, thus leaving a scarcity of carriers for the further

passage of current in the original direction, but providing a

plentiful supply for currents in the reversed direction. Another

suggested explanation is the formation of resisting films which

may cover a considerable part of the area of the electrodes but

which are readily removed by electrolysis on reversal of the

current. Tests made using platinized surfaces as electrodes

instead of the melted solder showed no difference of behavior.

It may be noted in this connection that when the samples were

removed after cooling, the solidified solder adhered firmly to

both surfaces of the cups which had been tested with direct

current, but could be very readily peeled off from specimens

which had been tested on alternating current.

DISCUSSION OF METHODS FOR MEASURING RESISTANCES

As a result of the data obtained in the preHminary experiments

just described, it was decided to adopt as the most satisfactory

method for the rapid comparison of different types of insulating

materials, the volt-ammeter method using alternating current.

Under these conditions the observed resistance is substantially

independent of the frequency, voltage and time of application,

and the convenient values of 60 cycles and 500 volts were adopted

for the later work. Figure 2 shows the typical results obtained

by this method and indicates the agreement attainable on suc-

cessive runs even at different voltages. It should be remembered,

however, that the results thus obtained are for the material in

the unpolarized state and, when in actual use in ignition systems,

the material may show a much higher resistance to the uni-

directional impulse from the magneto.

Of other possible methods for such work, a bridge method

using D. C. would be objectionable because of the variable

amount of polarization which would occur. Attempts were

made to use alternating current as a source but the measurements

are compHcated by the effect of stray capacities shunting the

high resistances which are necessary, and the time required to

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 265

obtain a balance on the bridge is a serious draw-back because of

the rapid change in the resistance to be measured with even sUght

drifts of temperature.

The megger, while extremely rapid and convenient, is open

to the disadvantages of polarization and to the fact that the

voltage supplied varies very considerably with the resistance of

the specimen under test.

The use of a magneto in place of alternating current as a source

has the great advantage that it approximately duplicates the

conditions of operation in the engine. The magneto, however,

is very variable in its output, both from instant to instant and

as a result of permanent changes in the magnets, contact points,

etc. Moreover, there is an abrupt change in the operation of

the machine when the resistance of the specimen becomes so

low as to cause the spark in the safety gap to cease, and also

the total variation of the current delivered with various resistances

in the circuit is comparatively slight, with this type of machine.

A method involving the measurement of the rate of loss of

charge from a condenser connected in parallel with the specimen

has been used by Cunningham. This method imitates the con-

ditions of operation much more closely than does the A. C.

method but not as perfectly as the use of a magneto as a source.

The principal objections are the very delicate string electrometer

which is required and the necessity of recording the result

photographically .

TYPICAL RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The following table gives the results obtained by the use

of the alternating current method on a number of types of sam-

ples, the significance of the various constants being the same as

those defined on page 257.

These figures show a wide variation in the resistance of the

different materials but a rather surprising similarity in the con-

stant b which is a measure of the temperature coefficient of their

resistance. It should be mentioned in this connection that while

successive measurements with alternating current on a single

specimen give results repeating to a few percent, yet measure-

266

SILSBEE AND HONAMAN: CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

TABLE I

Resistivity of Insulating Materials

Material

Fused silica

Best porcelain tested

Typical mica plug

Average three aviation porcelains.

Average automobile porcelain. . . .

p at 500° C.

340 X lO«

80 X 10*

70 X 10^

40 X 10'

0.8 X io«

ments on different specimens of material which are supposed to

be identical show wide variations in resistivity amounting in

some cases to a factor of 10. This fact tends to indicate that the

conduction is due to a considerable extent to the presence of

small amounts of impurities which may vary greatly in amount

without appreciably affecting the composition of the material

as a whole.

It appears from the above data that the A. C. method developed

is very practical and convenient for comparative measurements

on samples of this character, but that there is a very wide field

of investigation concerning the phenomenon of polarization and

much interesting work may be done in developing theories as

to the precise mechanism by which conduction is carried on in

this class of materials.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Board of Managers met on April 14. Routine business was

transacted and new members elected. Mr. H. V. Harlan was ap-

pointed an associate editor to succeed Mr. J. B. Norton, who had re-

signed on account of absence from Washington.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last issue of the Journal :

Professor CharlEvS O. Appleman, Maryland Agricultural Experiment

Station, College Park, Maryland.

Miss Eleanora F. Bliss, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Harry V. Harlan, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Dr. S. L. JODiDi, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Irwin G. Priest, Bureau of vStandards, Washington, D. C.

Robert B. Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 812th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 18, 1919.

President Humphreys in the chair, 48 persons present. The minutes

of the 809th and 81 ith meetings were read in abstract and approved.

The paper of the evening was presented by Major L. T. Sutherland

on Some of the accomplishments oj the research division of the chemical

warfare service.

There was no discussion of the paper as such. However, the speaker

expressed his willingness to answer questions and his replies to the

questions asked him brought out many interesting points.

Upon motion duly seconded a unanimous vote of thanks was ten-

dered the speaker. Adjournment took place at 10:09 p.m., following

which there was a social hour with light refreshments.

The 814th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 15, 191 9.

President Humphreys in the chair, 45 persons present. The minutes

of the 813th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

The first paper was presented by Mr. L. A. Bauer on The field of a

uniformly magnetized elliptic homoeoid and applications.

There have been repeated occasions in the course of the author's

investigations when he had need for the simplest possible expressions

defining the magnetic field of certain magnetized bodies, such as ellip-

soids of revolution, homoeoids, focaloids and cylinders. A variety

268 proceedings: phii^osophicai^ socmTY

of investigations will be found in treatises and papers by eminent

authors, but the derived expressions either stop at the gravitation

potential and intensity components, or but special cases of magnetiza-

tion are treated. Furthermore the published expressions for general

cases are often needlessly complex or they contain errors of one kind

or another which in some instances have been repeated by later authors.

Hence, the attempt was made to derive the desired expressions in the

simplest manner possible for practical application. Certain war prob-

lems gave added zest to this attempt.

According to Poisson, who first solved the problem of induced mag-

netism in an elUpsoid placed in a uniform magnetic field, if V be the

gravitation potential at the point (x, y, z) of a body of uniform density

W

p, then — — - is the magnetic potential of the same body umformly

magnetized in the direction x with the intensity A = p. Similarly

with regard to any other direction of uniform magnetization. If the

imiform magnetization results from magnetic induction, the mag-

netizing field at all points in the interior of the body will be uniform.

So that if the external magnetizing field is uniform, the magnetic field

resulting from the magnetization will also be uniform for all points in

the interior of the body.

The ellipsoid is the only body for which — is a linear function of the

coordinates x, y, z in the interior, and V, accordingly, a quadratic

function of the coordinates. Poisson's method can, therefore, be ap-

plied to the case of the ellipsoid.

Hence ii A, B and C be the intensities of magnetization parallel

to the three axes of the ellipsoid, and X', V and Z' the components of

.gravitational intensity due to a homogeneous ellipsoid of uniform den-

sity p = I, the magnetic potential due to the ellipsoid at any external

point as resulting from the induced magnetization will be

V = AX' - BY' - CZ' (i)

As defined by Thomson and Tait^ "an elliptic homoeoid is an in-

finitely thin shell bounded by two concentric similar elUpsoidal surfaces."

The total intensity produced by such a shell at points within the hollow

interior is zero, and at external points anywhere infinitely near the

homoeoid it is perpendicular to the surface, directed inward and equal

to 47rp/, where p is the constant density of the homogeneous mass and

t is the thickness of the shell at the point for which the intensity is

sought. 2 Since, furthermore, any two confocal homoeoids of equal

masses produce the same intensity at all points external to both, we

have in general that the total intensity produced by a homogeneous elliptic

homoeoid at an external point {x, y, z) is equal to 4irpt, p being the constant

density and t the thickness of the elliptic homoeoid at the point {%, y, z),

^ Thomson and Tait's Natural Philosophy. Pt. 2: 43, footnote 2.

"^ Idem. Pt. 2: paragraphs 519-525.

PROCEEDINGS: PHIIvOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 269

confocal to the given homoeoid and passing through x, y, z; the intensity

is along the normal and directed inward, or towards the given shell.

On the basis of equation (i) and MacLaurin's theorem the author

has deduced:

1. Expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized rotation

ellipsoid in a more convenient form for the general case than previous

ones.

2. Expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized prolate

elliptic homoeoid have been established, possibly for the first time.

It was also shown that expressions in finite form may be established

for the field of an inductively magnetized elUptic homoeoid in general —

that it is not necessary to assume a rotation elliptic homoeoid. This

matter is of special interest in view of the fact that expressions for the

field of an inductively magnetized soUd elUpsoid, in general, have not

yet been estabHshed in finite form.

In conclusion various applications of the derived formulae were given.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and was discussed by

Messrs. Abbot, Littlehales, Sosman and Humphreys.

The second paper, also illustrated by lantern slides, was presented by

Mr. S. J. Mauchly on Some results of atmospheric-electric observations

made during the solar eclipse of June 8, igi8. •

The observations forming the subject of this paper were made in the

belt of totality near Lakin, Kansas, in accordance with the general

plan of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington for magnetic and electrical observations

during the total solar echpse of June 8, 1918. The observing station

was located on a level treeless plain and the general weather conditions

on the afternoon of the echpse were favorable for atmospheric-electric

observations. The period of totality at Lakin was of about 84 seconds

duration.

The potential-gradient was determined from eye readings of an elec-

troscope giving the p. d. between the earth and an ionium collector

supported at a distance of 95 cm. above the ground, from the middle of

a long, insulated, horizontal wire. Observations were made every

two minutes over a period of 6 hours approximately symmetrical about

the time of totality. The main results may be summarized as follows :

(i) Beginning 8 minutes before and continuing througl;out totality

there was a rapid but nearly uniform decrease of the potential-gradient

amounting to about 25 per cent of the values immediately preceding.

The general minimum thus established persisted for about 20 minutes

after totality and was marked by a sharp secondary minimum 6

minutes after mid-totality.

(2) Throughout the general minimum referred to there was almost

total absence of the irregular, short-period, fluctuations which char-

acterized the potential-gradient on the afternoon of the eclipse. Be-

ginning 20 minutes after totahty and continuing for about 20 minutes

there was a marked but gradual increase to approximately normal

270 proceedings: philosophical society

values of both the gradient and the ampHtude of its short-period fluctu-

ations.

For the observations of the specific conductivity of the air the as-

piration apparatus devised by Gerdien was employed. By the use of

a separate apparatus for each, it was possible to make approximately

simultaneous observations of the positive and negative conductivities.

The time for a single determination was 2 minutes, and, except for the

time required for making frequent calibration and leak tests, the ob-

ser^'ations were made continuously throughout a period of 6 hours

symmetrical about totality. The results showed, for both signs, a very

marked increase in conductivity just before totality. These abnormal

values continued for about 20 minutes after totality when both con-

ductivities began to decrease. The time of return to normal afternoon

values, for both signs and also for the total conductivity, corresponded

very closely to the time when the potential-gradient regained its normal

values.

A short resume of the results of atmospheric-electric observations

during previous eclipses by other observers was also given and com-

parisons made with the foregoing.

Adjournment took place at 10:20 p.m. and was followed by a social

hour and refreshments.

The 8 1 6th meeting, a joint meeting with the Washington Academy of

Sciences, was held at the Cosmos Club, March 15, 1919, President Hum-

phreys presiding.

The address of the evening was given by Dr. H. D. Curtis on Modern

theories of spiral nebulae.

This address was illustrated by lantern slides and has appeared in

this Journal ig: 217. 1919).

S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the National Museum, has returned from an

extended lecture tour to various army camps.

Mr. C. F. BowEN resigned from the Geological Survey in April to

enter the employ of the Carter Oil Company. He will leave soon

for a six months' trip in Venezuela and Colombia.

Mr. F. W. Dearborn of the Ordnance Department has joined the

staff of the Bureau of Standards and will be engaged in research on the

chemistry of cellulose.

Mr. Wilson B. Emery resigned from the Geological Survey in April

to enter the employ of the Ohio Oil Company at Cheyenne, Wyoming.

The Chicago Speedway Hospital has been turned over to the Public

Health Service, and two of the seven subdivisions of the building will

be devoted to research and to the instruction of public health officers.

This part of the work of the hospital will be under the direction of Dr.

Joseph Goldberger, of the Hygienic Laboratory.

Dr. J. A. Harker, formerly of the National Physical Laboratory, in

London, visited Washington in March on business connected with the

organization of scientific and industrial research in England.

Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst, a patron of the Academy, died at

her home at Pleasanton, California, on April 13, 1919, in her seventy-

seventh year. She was the widow of the late Senator George Hearst,

of California, coming with him to Washington in 1886. She took an

active part in educational affairs during her residence in the city. She

was elected a patron of the Academy in 1901.

Mr. O. B. Hopkins, of the Geological Survey, is on leave of ab-

sence and is engaged in work for the Imperial Oil Company in Canada.

Mr. H. E. Howe, formerly manager of the commercial department of

A. D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts, will hereafter

devote his efforts to the interests^of the National Research Council and

particularly to the work of its Division of Industrial Research. Mr.

Howe was attached to the Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Department,

U. S. A., during the latter part of the war.

Mr. M. B. Long, of the gas laboratory of the Bureau of Standards,

has resigned in order to accept a position in the research laboratory of

the Western Electric Company, in New York City.

Mr. J. B. Norton, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who has been

appointed Agricultural Explorer in the Office of Foreign Seed and

Plant Introduction, has left Washington on an expedition to China.

Mr. B. E. SivE, formerly of the chemical reagent testing laboratory

271

272 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

of the Bureau of Standards, is now with the American Colortype Com-

pany of Chicago, Illinois.

The Treasury Department published in April a "Manual for the Oil

and Gas Industry under the Revenue Act of 191 8," designed to assist

the oil and gas producer to calculate the depletion of his reserves.

Attention is called to the publication here as it is not issued by one of

the scientific or technologic bureaus and might not reach the scientific

public through the usual channels.

The Division of Biology and Agriculture of the National Research

Council met in Washington, April 14. Fourteen members were nomi-

nated by 10 national societies of biology and agriculture, 3 each from the

Botanical Society of America and the Society of American Zoologists,

and one each from the other societies. These members nominated 8

members at large. The Washington members are: G. N. Collins,

American Genetic Association; A. S. Hitchcock, Botanical Society of

America; George R. Lyman, American Phytopathological Society;

Charles V. Piper, American Society of Agronomy; A. G. Mayer,

Carnegie Institution; C. F. Marbut, Bureau of Soils; H. F. Moore,

Bureau of Fisheries, members-at-large.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 MAY 19, 1919 No. 10

PALEONTOLOGY. — Significance of divergence of the first digit

in the primitive mammalian foot. Jamus WilIvIAMS Gidley,

U. S. National Museum.

In connection with some recent research work on Basal Eocene

mammals I have had occasion to make a critical study of the

primitive mammalian foot, especially as regards the meaning

of divergence of the first digit. On the interpretation of this

character depends in no small degree our concept of the early

life history of the Mammalia.

Based on certain modifications observed especially in the

hind feet of marsupials, including divergence and opposability

of the hallux associated with a tendency to enlargement of the

fourth digit and reduction and syndactylism of the second

and third digits, Huxley in 1880' expressed the view that

the existing marsupials have been derived from an

arboreal ancestry. Later Dollo,- in full accord with this

view, discussed the evidence for it at considerable length. vSoon

followed a review by Bensley^ in which he expressed general

agreement with the interpretation of Huxley and Dollo.

In 1904 Matthew published an article on "The Arboreal

Ancestry of the Alammalia,"' in which he accepted the

views of Huxley, Dollo, and Bensley regarding the arboreal

ancestry of the marsupials, and expressed his belief that the

^ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 655.

' Les ancetreses Marsupiaux etaient-ils arhoricoles? Miscellanees biologiques,

1899.

^ Amer. Nat. 35: 117-122. 1901.

^Amer. Nat. 38:813-815. 1904.

273

274 gidl^y: primitive; mammalian foot

placentals are likewise of arboreal origin. This latter belief was

apparently based, principally at least, on the fact that the first

digit, in both the fore and hind feet of the early Eocene mammals

of generalized type, is so frequently found in a divergent posi-

tion, and on the condition found in the earliest known Primates.

But unhke Huxley and Dollo, who considered arboreal adaptation

in the marsupials a specialization and not a primitive condition,

Matthew advanced the hypothesis that opposability of the first

digit in the early mammals was a primitive condition. While I

do in the main indorse Matthew's characterization of a hypo-

thetical "common ancestral group," I am unable to agree with

him regarding arboreal ancestry as applied to placentals in gen-

eral, and therefore differ from him in the interpretation of the

conditions found in the primitive mammalian foot. In order

more clearly to set forth my own view I here quote the prin-

cipal arguments advanced by Matthew in support of his inter-

pretation :

(i) In the first place, as far as we can trace back the history of each

of the arboreal groups, we find their first ancestors with the first digit

as fully opposable as in the modern representatives {e. g., the Middle

Eocene primate Northarctus).

(2) Second, in those groups which have not an opposable thumb, we

find as we trace back their ancestry that the trapezium, whose form and

facets give the surest indication on this point, approaches more and

more nearly to the type preserved in the Primates, etc.

(3) In the four Basal Eocene mammals (Pantolambda, Euproto-

gonia, Claenodon, and Dissacus) in -which this part of the skeleton is

known, the form of the bone [trapezium] is surprisingly uniform, and

when the manus is put together, the first digit is thrown partly out-

ward from the rest of the hand, and permits of much freer motion than

the remaining digits, with a considerable degree of opposition.

Following this, in the same article, Matthew states that the

primitive opposability of the hallux is less clearly indicated but

suggests this is due to the probability that the evolution of the

hind foot for terrestrial locomotion "began earlier or proceeded

more rapidly." He further suggested that "the hypothesis

that all mammals passed through a stage when the pollex and

hallux were opposable," would explain among other things,

"(a) the presence of but two phalanges on digit i, three on each

of the others ; (6) the epiphysis of digit i being proximal as in the

gidl^y: primitive mammalian foot 275

phalanges, instead of distal as in the remaining metapodials ;

(c) the anomalous musculature of digit i on all mammals, the

object of which is clearly seen when the digit is opposable, but

is quite unexplained otherwise." In further substantiation of

the arboreal ancestry hypotheses, Matthew's first proposition

above quoted has, I believe, little weight as evidence. First,

because Notharctus can hardly be considered primitive, since

the known species, even in the Bridger epoch, had advanced in

foot, limb, and skull structure well toward the condition found

in the present-day South American apes; second, admitting NoiJi-

arctus to be primitive, the presence of true opposability in this

genus can aflfect the proposition under discussion only so far

as the Primates themselves are concerned, and cannot be taken

as evidence of arboreal ancestry for other orders of mammals,

especially as there is no indication of close relationship between

any of them and the Primates.' At most the evidence in the case

of Notharctus can not be interpreted to mean more than that the

group which it represents (the Primates) had adapted themselves

to an arboreal habitat at a comparatively early period. But

opposability probably followed or accompanied and did not

precede their adaptation to tree-living habits. If this be true

it explains why there are so many cases in which opposability

has not been developed even in strictly arboreal forms, and like-

wise why these cases seem to be confined to species of compara-

tively small size. For example, many species of rodents and

insectivores are living to-day almost exclusively in the trees, }'et,

so far as I am aware, there is not one example of true opposability

among the Insectivora, and but one among all the Rodentia,

living or extinct. This single exception is furnished by the

African genus, Lophiomys, in which the first digit of the hind

foot is thus developed, and this animal is not arboreal. Among

the Insectivora some of the Tupaiidae are mostly arboreal in

habit, more so than in any other members of the order, yet even

in this family there is not the slightest trace of opposability.

^ It may be here remarked that, in my opinion, there is some evidence that this

important order, and probably some other orders of mammals as well, have been

derived independently from different though probably more or less closely related

premammalian ancestral groups.

276 gidley: primitive mammauan foot

Among the Primates themselves there is a whole group of living

species, the South American marmosets, that, in the fore feet at

least, show no evidence of opposability, although they are strictly

arboreal in habits. These smaller, lighter-bodied animals

seem never to have acquired the function of grasping a limb, but

depend rather on their sharp, widely spread claws for support in

progressing among the tree tops.

Matthew's second and third propositions, above quoted, do

not strictly concern opposability but refer rather to simple di-

vergence of the first digit. And the crux of the whole proposi-

tion seems to lie, after all, in the interpretation of this condi-

tion.

"Primitive opposability" and "more or less opposable" are

terms which the advocates of arboreal ancestry have frequently

used, but have never clearly defined. These terms seem to ex-

press a condition somewhat different from the kind of opposa-

bility developed in the modern Primates, and as used by Matthew,

as I interpret it, seem to imply that simple divergence of the

first digit may be taken as proof of opposability or at least former

opposability. It becomes necessary then, to distinguish clearly

between "opposability" and "divergence" of the first digit, as

for an intelligent discussion, one should understand clearly what

is meant by "opposability." As applied to arboreal adaptation

opposability can imply but one condition, viz., a modification

which gives the power to grasp or hold, by opposing the first

digit to the others, and this is always accompanied by a special

and distinctive arrangement and development of the digital

muscles. Opposability, it is true, is usually accompanied by a

complete divergence of the opposing digit, ^ but divergence, in

all stages, is frequently observed where there is no other evi-

dence of opposability. Moreover, examples of divergence

without opposability are found most frequently in the older

Eocene representatives of almost all the orders of mammals

in which the feet are known, while true opposability has not

* An exception to this is seen in some of the phalanges in which the first meta-

carpal is closely appressed to the second, but the toe is opposable and divergent

in its phalangeal portion.

gidlEy: primitive mammauan foot 277

been found in any forms of older age than the middle Eocene;

and here it is known only in species of a single order. These facts,

together with the absence of opposability in tree-living rodents and

insectivores, as already pointed out, would in themselves suggest

that this condition of opposability is relatively modern in develop-

ment, or at least not primitive; and in further support of this

view it may be noted that in those orders in which opposability

has been developed and retained, it is always most advanced in

those species which are in other respects notably specialized.

Thus, in the Primates, opposabiHty, especially in the hind feet,

is found best developed in the heavier, long-limbed monkeys and

apes. It has reached its greatest perfection in the hand of man,

although doubtless the higher stages of perfection of this function

were accomplished after man, formerly arboreal, had finally taken

to a terrestrial habitat. Contrary to what one might expect,

if opposability were a primitive condition, in the little marmo-

sets of South America, which among living Primates are con-

sidered a rather primitive and generalized group, there is, as

already stated, not the slightest approach to opposability of the

pollex, which is long and functional and it is only moderately

developed in the hallux. Yet these little animals are as strictly

arboreal in habits as any group of the order. If opposabiHty of

the first digit is a primitive condition, then why is it so poorly

developed in this particular group while so well developed and

perfected in the more highly specialized members of the order?

Granting that all Primates began their career in an arboreal

habitat, it seems to me a more logical conclusion that the little

light-bodied marmosets have never developed opposability,

finding the primitive sharp claws sufficiently effective for cling-

ing to the bark of trees, while the heavier-bodied forms, or those

species which early formed the habit of swinging from limb to

limb as a method of progression through the trees, very quickly

took advantage of the primitively divergent first digit to develop

opposability. This function once developed to a degree where

the grasp became firm, the claws would no longer act as formerly,

and the constant pressure thus transferred to the palmar side of

the toe, or finger tips, would soon modify them into the "nail," so

characteristic of the Primates,

278 gidle;y: primitive mammalian foot

If by the term "primitive opposability" is meant simple di-

vergence of the first digit, it seems to me purely assumption,

based on no convincing evidence, to interpret this condition as

denoting an arboreal habitat. This interpretation, moreover,

seems not warranted without the most positive proof, especially

when such a foot as that of Claenodon, for example, or any

other primitive mammalian foot of the basal Eocene types shows

no evidence of true opposability and, moreover, could be derived,

with such comparatively slight changes, directly from the primi-

tive reptilian type of foot. In fact it is but a short step in me-

chanical adaptation from the reptilian state to the type of foot

of which Claenodon is a somewhat advanced example. On exam-

ining a foot of Sphenodon or other reptile of generalized type,

the distinctly reptilian characteristics seem to be these: Foot

completely plantigrade; metapodials all more or less divergent,

permitting free spreading of the digits; metapodials shorter than

phalangeal portion of the digit; first digit shortest; fourth digit

longest of the series; phalangeal formula digits I to V, 2, 3, 4, 5,

and 3 or 4, respectively. Comparing now the type of foot under

discussion. The following seem to be the principal modifications

which mark its advance over the reptilian type: The foot has

remained plantigrade with the metapodials shorter than the

phalangeal portion of the digit and with digit IV, though rel-

atively shortened, still longest of the series; digits II to V are

drawn somewhat more closely together, but are still capable of

considerable spreading; the first digit, retaining more or less its

original reptilian position, is left more divergent than the others;

and the phalanges of the median two digits are reduced to the

mammalian number, three in each digit.

These simple modifications seem to be purely mechanical

adaptations brought about in changing from the reptilian crawl-

ing manner of locomotion, to the mammalian walking gait,

and each modification may be readily explained on this hypothe-

sis. In the normal position a reptile or batrachian carries the

feet well out from the body, with the toes directed more or less

outward in such a manner that the short first digit is directed first

inward then forward toward the end of the stride, the heel re-

gidIvEy: primitive mammauan foot 279

maining on the ground, so that normally the weight of the body

is not brought fully on the ends of any of the metapodials. In

terrestrial mammals, even of the most primitive plantigrade

type, the feet are brought more under the body in walking, the

radius and tibia, respectively, are brought to the inside, the first

digit pointing constantly inward and the others more or less

directly forward. The result of this modification would be to

bring the weight of the body more exactly on the ends of the

median toes, especially at the finish of the stride at which time

the heel is raised clear of the ground. This would have a tendency

to stiffen the wrist and ankle joints, through a closer articulation

of their bony elements, to bring the divergent metapodials more

closely together, and to shorten the median pair of toes. This

change in position of the feet and consequent change of the

manner in which the toes are applied to the ground in walking

may have been the primary cause of the reduction in phalanges

of digits III and IV, and would quite satisfactorily account for

the divergence of the first digit so frequently found in the prim-

itive mammalian foot. It will be especially noted that the

first digit is shortest, and in the mammalian position of the foot

is so placed as to take no considerable part in the function of

walking, hence it has been least modified and soonest lost in

terrestrial forms which acquired a digitigrade gait.

It is plainly obvious that, from a central type of primitive

mammalian foot similar to that just described, in which the

first digit is unreduced, it is but a short step to true opposability.

The divergent first digit could readily be converted into a grasp-

ing organ, and the modification to opposability doubtless was

soon accomplished by those forms which early adopted an ar-

boreal habitat. But among ground-living forms, in the other

direction, it was an equally short step to the strictly terrestrial

digitigrade type, in which the first digit was gradually atrophied,

as it became functionless through being raised from the ground,

and in many species has been lost altogether. In the process of

development of the digitigrade type the functional metapodials

are brought closely together and have become relatively length-

ened while the phalangeal portion of these digits becomes short-

ened. It is through these stages of development that have

28o gidlEy: primitive mammalian foot

come directly the modern ungulate types of feet. Still another

type developed from the primitive terrestrial mammalian foot,

or possibly directly from the reptilian stage, is that type of which

the short-toed amblypod and probosicidian feet are examples.

In these forms the toes remain more or less spreading, and all,

including the first when present, function in bearing the weight

of the body. In this type of foot the heel may become raised

from the ground as in the digitigrade type, but this modification

is always accompanied by the development of a pad so that this

portion of the foot still functions in carrying its share of the body-

weight as in the plantigrade type. It may be further assumed

that the various aquatic types of feet are directly derivable from

some such foot as that of Claenodon.

It would thus seem that the primitive mammalian foot, of the

central group, must have been primarily terrestrial, and from this

generalized type of foot, with divergent but not primarily op-

posable first digit, have been developed all sorts of modifications of

foot structure, each adaptable to the kind of environment chosen,

and that divergence of the first digit is primarily an inheritance

from the primitive reptilian condition, and can not be considered

as in any way supporting the hypothesis of an arboreal ancestry

of the Mammalia. It is likewise quite as apparent, it seems to

me, that true opposability of the first digit wherever found

should be considered a direct specialization of the primitive

condition brought about by a mechanical adaptation to a pe-

culiar (arboreal) life habit.

This viewpoint is certainly not weakened and seems to be

strengthened by the difference in type of modification observed

in the hind foot of marsupials as compared with that of the

Primates. In the former, as observed by Huxley, opposability

of the first digit is accompanied with enlargement of the fourth

digit, and reduction and syndactylism of the second and third

digits, while in the latter there is no approach to either of these

modifications. This difference seems to be fundamental, and

suggests that the marsupials took to tree-living habits at a some-

what earlier stage of development while the fourth digit was

yet considerably longer than the others, and for that reason

more directly opposed by the first digit.

peters: measurement of small dilatations "281

INTERFEROMETRY. — The use of the interferometer in the

measurement of small dilatations or differential dilatations.

C. G. Peters, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by

S. W. Stratton.)

The dilatometer originated by Fizeau and further developed

by other investigators consists of two interferometer plates

separated by three pins of slightly different length, made in the

form of a tripod or ring. When this interferometer is illuminated

and viewed in the proper manner, curved interference fringes

appear. The change in the length of the pins is determined

from the displacement of these fringes past a reference mark,

which is usually ruled in the center of the lower surface of the

upper mirror. The quantity that is actually determined, how-

ever, is the change in the distance between the two plates at the

reference mark, which is equal to the change in length of the

pins, if their behavior is identical, or nearly equal to their mean,

but not their individual change in length when they behave

differently. In fact, two of the pins may expand while one

contracts, or the three pins may change in such a manner as

to cause the fringes to rotate through 360° without causing any

displacement of the fringes past the reference mark. The

unequal variations in the length of the pins cause the direction

and angle of the wedge between the plates to change, which in

turn changes the direction and width of the fringes. This

was slightly noticeable in our work with three pins of steel,

quartz, brass, or copper, and quite pronounced with glass near

600° C. H. G. Dorsey^ observed this fact in his work on the

thermal expansion of zinc.

The exact change in length of each individual pin can be de-

termined from the change in the order of interference (the num-

ber of light waves) between the plates at the points of contact

of the pins. This was accomplished without changing the

Fizeau apparatus in any way except to make the reference marks

at these points of contact. The pins were made in the form of

cones, about 4 mm. across the base and 10 mm. long. Three

' Phys. Rev. 26: 5. 1908.

282 peters: measurement of small dilatations

conical holes, 0.5 mm. in diameter, 0.2 mm. deep, and about

15 mm. apart, were drilled in the lower surface of the cover plate.

The pins were placed between the interferometer plates so that

the points of the cones fitted into the holes in the cover plate.

These holes kept the pins in their triangular positions, stopped

any creep of the cover plate and served as reference marks in

the determination of the change in length of the pins. The

fringes were viewed with a Pulfrich- apparatus. With this

instrument the part of the interference pattern which is obscured

by the pins can be easily bridged with the crosswires.

Let the lengths of the three pins be designated as A, B, C,

the wave length of the light as X, and the order of interference

between the plates at each reference mark as ai, bi, C\, under

one condition, and ai, bi, Co, under a second condition. The

absolute changes in the lengths of the pins are then :

(i)

(3)

The changes in order (ao - ai), etc., can be obtained, from

the displacement of the fringes past the reference marks or from

the determination of the whole orders ai, ao, bi, etc., by using

the approximate length of the pins and the measured fractional

orders due to several wave lengths, by the method described by

Meggers,^ which holds as well for straight fringes as for Haid-

inger's rings.

The relative or differential changes in the length of the pins

can be determined from the differences in order at the reference

marks. The quantity (ai - 61) is the difference in the orders

between the plates at A and B under the first condition, and

(a2 — 62) is the difference in the orders at .4 and B under the

second condition. These quantities are determined from the

whole number of fringes and the measured fractions, between

2 Zeitschr fiir Inst. i8: 261. 1898.

3 Bull. Bur. Stand. 12:203. 1915-16.

PETERS: MEASUREMENT OF SMALL DILATATIONS 283

the reference marks at A and B. The change in these differences

of order is then

(02 — bo) — (oi — bi)

and the relative change in the length of A and B is

AA -AB = ^ [(a, - 62) - (ai - b,)] (4)

Similarly, the relative change in the length of A and C is

AA - AC = ^ [(a2 - C2) - (ai - Ci)] . (5)

If AA is known or has been obtained from the determination of

(do - Gi), equation (i), the value of B and C can be com-

puted from these relations.

The arrangement of the apparatus just described was used

at the Bureau of Standards to measure the differences in the

thermal expansion of steel samples, and to determine the thermal

expansions of steel, copper and brass simultaneously in the tem-

perature interval of o° to ioo° C. It is now being used in the

investigation of dental materials to determine the thermal ex-

pansion and the change in length while setting. The results

of these investigations will be published in the Bulletin of the

Bureau of Standards. This form of the apparatus is very easily

made and adjusted. The pins can be cut out in a few minutes

and their size measured with sufficient accuracy with a microm-

eter. They can be of almost any shape as long as the base is

plane and the top is brought to a conical point. The reference

marks can be drilled in the cover plate in a very short time and

it is not at all necessary to know the distances between them.

The fact that only a small area of the plates close to the refer-

ence marks and not a portion of the plates removed from the

samples is used in making Ithe measurements of the absolute

change in length of the pins, eliminates the necessity of having

the plates perfectly flat. They may be slightly concave or con-

vex. The same thing holds for the relative determinations.

The interference fringes denote the difference in separation

of the plates at the reference marks, even though the intervening

surfaces deviate slightly from true planes.

284 PETERS: MEASUREMENT OF SMALI^ DILATATIONS

By using the Fizeau apparatus in the manner described in

this paper the absolute change of length of one, two, or three

small pins can be determined during one experiment. The

exact change in each pin is determined and not the mean change

of the three pins. The unequal change of similar pins is not

important in most practical tests, but where precision is de-

sired it is quite annoying. The differential changes in length

of three pins can also be determined without knowing the abso-

lute change of any of them.

As it is rather difficult to watch the displacement of the fringes

past the three reference marks simultaneously, it is better to

determine the absolute change in length of one pin by equation

(i) and compute the values for the other two pins with equa-

tions (4) and (5). The results in either case are exactly the same

because they depend upon the same measurements of the frac-

tional orders. The accuracy of these results is limited only by

the accuracy with which the fractional orders are determined.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BOTANY. — A botanical trip to Mexico. A. S. Hitchcock. Sci.

Monthly 8: 129-145, 216-338, pis. 34, maps 6. February, March,

1919.

An account is given of a trip made in 19 10 for the purpose of study-

ing and collecting grasses. A map showing the itinerary indicates

that all the states north of the isthmus of Tehuantepec were visited

except Sinaloa, Tlaxcala, and the territory of Tepic. There is a dis-

cussion of the topography (illustrated by a map), the rainfall (with a

table and map showing the annual rainfall at representative stations,

a map showing isohyets, a series of maps showing the annual rainfall

by months), and the temperature. An account is given of the floral

regions, the range conditions, and the forage crops.

Especial attention is given to the distribution of the grasses in rela-

tion to the floral regions, of which the most important are the eastern

Coastal Plain, the western Coastal Plain, the Plateau, the slope from

the Plateau to the Coastal Plain, the high mountains, and the ponds and

marshes.

Orizaba was ascended to nearly 18,000 feet, Popocatepetl to snowline

(about 15,000 feet), and Nevada de Colima to the summit (14,370 feet).

A. S. H.

ECONOMICS.— Potoio flour and potato bread. J. A. LeClerc. The

Potato Magazine. January and February, 1919.

This article compares the composition of potato and wheat flours

and of breads made with a combination of 20 per cent of potato flour and

80 per cent wheat flour. It also shows how many pounds of the various

food constituents of potato, potato flour, and of wheat flour can be ob-

tained for one dollar with varying prices for these products. The

amount of food constituents obtained from one acre of land grown to

potatoes and to wheat is also given. Bread made with the use of po-

tato flour as a part substitute is appreciably richer in mineral constit-

uents than is white bread, but somewhat poorer in fat and protein.

285

286 abstracts: technology

With flour at $12.80 per barrel and potatoes at $1.75 per bushel, flour

is a cheaper food than potatoes, and will furnish considerably more dry

matter, protein, fat, and starch, and heat units for $1.00. On the other

hand potatoes will furnish four times as much mineral ingredients as

will the white flour for the same money. On the basis of average yields

of 100 bushels of potatoes and 14 bushels of wheat per acre, one acre

of land planted to potatoes will produce more food than in the form of

wheat to the following extent: 36 lbs. of mineral constituents or a

gain of 560 per cent; 28 lbs. of protein, a gain of 37 per cent; 437 lbs.

of starch, a gain of 87 per cent; 848,000 calories, a gain of 76 per cent.

J. A. LeC.

TECHNOLOGY. — The micro structural features of "flaky steel. Henry

S. Rawdon. Bull. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. No. 146, p. 183. 19 19.

One of the most vital problems in the manufacture of steel is the

occurrence of defects designated as "flakes." These spots are usually

revealed, if present in steel, when the tension specimen is taken so that

it represents the mechanical properties of the material in a direction at

right angles to the direction of forging. Flakes constitute one of the

most serious problems met with in the manufacture of large caliber

guns. Their occurrence in chrome nickel steels of the type used for

air-plane crank-shafts is also a serious problem. To the unaided eye,

a "flake" appears in the fracture of a freshly broken test specimen as a

silvery white, very coarsely crystalline area surrounded by metal having

the normal appearance. Such areas vary in size from minute spots to

those I cm. or more in diameter. Microscopic examination of numerous

specimens showed that the coarsely crystalline appearance is a surface

configuration only. The "flake" has no depth; the metal in such areas

is refined to the same degree as throughout the body of the piece.

Within the mass of the steel, flakes exist as intercrystalline discontin-

uities. They may be located by means of X-ray examinations and when

the specimen is broken along the line of such discontinuities a typical

flake is revealed. The discontinuities in the metal often enclose in-

clusions of a nonmetallic nature in the form of very thin films. This

is not always the case, however, and while flakes appear to occur most

readily in "dirty" steel, it is not safe to assume that the presence of

inclusions necessitates the presence of flakes. H. S. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 594th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, March 22, 191 9, called to order at

8:00 p.m. by Vice-President N. Holuster; 33 persons present.

The regular program was as follows:

J. W. GidlEy: Notice of a large canid from the Cumberland Cave de-

posits. Mr. Gidley briefly referred to the discovery of these deposits

in western Maryland through the digging of a railroad cut and to his

explorations of them. He then described the remains of a large doglike

animal found in them by him. He pointed out its relationships to

modern wolves, coyotes, and to the doglike remains in the asphalt

deposits of southern California.

A. C. Baker : Intermediates in the Aphididae and their relation to

alternate hosts. Rearing experiments have shown the existence of

adult intermediate forms in all species studied carefully by the writer.

These forms show modifications in nearly all important structural char-

acters. They occur between the forms on one host and between the

forms on a primary and a secondary host. Thus they indicate the

ultimate division of species, such as the latter, into two. In fact,

almost, this occurred in the experiments. Host races were developed

with such species as Aphis rumicis. These races differed in structure,

after 50 generations or more, and individuals of them nearly all died

when transferred to the host of their ancestors.

Our American species of Anoecia on Cornus compared with specimens

from different parts of Europe (from H. Schouteden, Albert

TuLLGREN, and others) differs in sensory organs. Our species, as

reared, never developed the European characters. In most cases

it became modified in the opposite direction. Races were developed

which live the year round on grass roots, laying their winter eggs there.

These forms differed very distinctly in structure from those including

Cornus in their host cycle. In some sections of the country these,

or similar races, seem to be settled as definite species with definite

structure and definite reproductive and host habits. In our classifica-

287

288 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

tions we have no names for these potential species. In some cases

it is necessary to rear very large numbers to determine the connection

between forms existing in nature and it would seem advisable to have

some designation for such groups of individuals.

The family seems to be in a more or less pliable state and these

cases which we are able to observe may indicate the method by which

different forms have come into existence and possibly some of the

methods by which species fixation has taken place.

Discussion by Dr. L. O. Howard and S. A. RoiiwER.

R. H. True: Bernardin de Saint-Pierre as a plant ecologist. The

author of "Paul and Virginia" wrote a three- volumed book, entitled

"Studies of Nature," intended to prove to a world that was lapsing into

atheism that a beneficent Providence rules the affairs of men and of

Nature. In this effort he studies the relations of plants to the main

factors of their environment. He groups plants into two great classes,

those enjoying a limited water supply, the mountain plants, and those

whose supply is not limited, those of the plain, marsh, and riversides.

Devices for collecting or shedding water are traced in foliage and stem.

Flowers are dealt with in relation to light and heat, seeds and fruits to

means of securing distribution. Many practical relations are discussed

such as forest planting to increase rainfall, and the relation of stock

grazing to forest injury. He deals with his evidence in a teleological

spirit, oftentimes proving too much, but writing always with vivacity,

clearness, and charm. As "nature writing," his work is worthy of

attention from this later generation. It should not be neglected by

plant ecologists and naturalists.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 330th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday evening,

January 22, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and 60 persons present.

The meeting was a memorial to Grove Karl Gilbert. After

introductory remarks by President Ulrich, the following program was

presented :

Biographical outUne W. C. Mendenhall

Gilbert in his administrative relations C. D. Walcott

(read by E. O. Ulrich)

Gilbert as the student and expounder of geologic structure

F. L. Ransome

Gilbert the physiographer and explorer H. E. Gregory

Gilbert the glaciologist W. C. Alden

Gilbert the physicist and mathematician R. S. Woodward

Gilbert the topographer. J. H. Renshawe (read by E. O. Ulrich)

Gilbert as a man C. Hart Merriam

Personal reminiscences. ...CD. White, H. C. Rizer, and J. S. Diller

The 331st meeting of the society was held at the Cosmos Club on

Wednesday evening, February 12, 1919, President E. O. Ulrich, pre-

siding, and 74 persons present.

proceedings: geoIvOGical societv 289

informal communications

T. W. Vaughn: Correlation of Tertiary formations on the perimeter

of the Carrihean Sea.

R. S. BassIvEr: Quartz from Waynesboro formation crystallizing

with three-faced terminal pyramid and used for correlation.

REGULAR PROGR.\M

Ralph Arnold : The economic value of paleontology.

E. W. Shaw: Stratigraphy of the Gulf Coastal Plain as related to

salt domes.

This paper being in a way introductory to the following paper on

the program has to do primarily with those features of the stratigraphy

that are of principal interest in the study of salt domes. The more sig-

nificant of these features relate to the age and thickness of the forma-

tions, and to the rigidity, chemical nature, and specific gravity of the

materials composing them.

As is well known the formations are of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age

and with the exception of the Jurassic most of the main divisions of

these eras are known to be represented by deposits. Perhaps the

divisions of the Cenozoic are more fully represented than those of the

Mesozoic.

The aggregate thickness of the Cenozoic is commonly between 5000

and 7000 feet, the Eocene being 2500 to 3000, Oligocene and Miocene

2000 to 2500, and the Pliocene and Quaternary from 1000 to 3000. The

upper Cretaceous seems to have the thickness ranging from 1500 to

2500 and the lower Cretaceous, where present, from a feather edge to

about a thousand feet. Over a large area in coastal Louisiana and

Texas the aggregate thickness of the various Cretaceous, Tertiary, and

Quaternary formations probably ranges between 8000 and 12,000 feet

and may average about 10,000 feet.

Apparently most of formations thicken somewhat toward the coast

but the average or aggregate amount of thickening is unknown. To

the east there is a notable thinning and rise of certain formations at

least; beds lying at a depth of 2000 feet near Mobile lie at far greater

depths two hundred miles to the west and a similar distance from the

coast.

The age and nature of the materials underlying the Cretaceous along

the Gulf Coast can only be conjectured. Knowledge concerning these

materials and in particular as to whether or not they include beds or

masses of salt and intrusions of igneous rock might be of considerable

assistance in solving the salt dome problem. In central and western

Texas the Triassic and Permian beds are many hundred feet thick and

are salt bearing but they dip to the west and without reversal can not

be present in Louisiana. Neither this nor any other known fact proves

that there are no Permian or Triassic salt beds under Louisiana, but on

the other hand the only reason for suspecting that they are present is

the conclusion that the salt, gypsum, dolomite, sulphur, and other

mineral matter in the salt dome came from below and the fact that

such mineral matter is perhaps more common in the Permian and Tri-

290 proceedings: geological society

assic than in any other group of beds. The copper and other metalHc

minerals, small quantities of which have been reported at one or two

places, harmonize with the hypothesis.

The lithologic features of the Cretaceous and Tertiary that are of

special interest in the salt-dome problem are the generally more clayey

and apparently also more carbonaceous constitution of the material

west of the Mississippi as compared with that to the east. Apparently

the salt domes occur where the beds are thicker, softer, and more

carbonaceous, and the writer suspects that there is some relation be-

tween these characteristics of the region and the domes. There are,

of course, a good many more or less thoroughly indurated beds including

chalk and limestone west of the Mississippi, particularly in the older

formations, but the mass of Mesozoic and Cenozoic materials as a whole

seems to be of a conspicuously yielding nature.

The great thickness and the low degree of rigidity are apparently

related to a westward littoral current which, though not strong enough

to carry sand except along the strand, has for ages carried ver}/ fine-

grained and clayey material westward from the mouths of the Missis-

sippi and other ancestral and present-day rivers discharging from the

central and eastern portion of the Gulf embayment. The most striking

general feature of the samples that I collected on the Fish Hawk ex-

pedition, a few years ago, is the contrast between the dark and clayey

sea-bottom material west of the Mississippi and the lighter-colored and

coarser-grained material to the east.

Since the deposits are mainly unconsolidated and many layers are

plastic it seems presumable that in the process of intrusion, differences

in specific gravity between intruding and intended materials will control

to a more or less notable degree the form of the intrusion. For example

it seems quite possible, if not probable, that if a rising mass of salt or

one of molten rock comes to a position where the overlying material

weighs less per cubic foot than the rising mass, the mass may cease

rising and may even "mushroom," whereas if the overburden were

heavier the intrusion might continue to rise and might even develop

into an extrusion. The clay and incoherent sand of the gulf coast have

an average specific gravity including the water in their pores of about

two (probably somewhat less than two) and therefore are a little lighter

than salt and much lighter than igneous rock. Hence the absence of

igneous rock at the surface cannot be taken as an indication that the

salt domes have not formed over igneous plugs.

Another way that differential specific gravity may play a part in the

growth of salt domes is based on the fact that the hydrostatic head

at any point underground is only about half the weight of overlying

deposits. Assume a bed of salt with a perfectly smooth top lying at

a depth of 10,000 feet and upon this salt a bed of sand with interstices

filled with water which, by way of connecting interstices, forms a

continuous column up to the surface of ground water. Where the

grains of sand rest upon it the salt supports a pressure about 8000

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 29I

pounds to the square inch. Where the water rests upon it the pressure

is only about half as great. Salt being somewhat plastic the difference

in pressure would no doubt cause the sand grains to sink into the

salt and the salt to rise between sand grains until friction put an end to

the adjusting process, which might be in a fraction of an inch.

Now suppose a rising igneous plug approaches the salt bed and raises

the temperature until, with whatever aid may be rendered by the

ever-present water, it melts the salt. The process outlined above

would then proceed to a much greater extent, the salt rising like so

much water until the supply near enough the plug to be melted was

exhausted. Apparently the process might involve the pushing aside

of a large body of sand and other materials and the development of a

considerable mass of salt, accompanied by unusual secondary deposits

due to the unusually high temperatures.

G. S. Rogers: Origin of the salt domes of the Gulf Coast. The origin

of the great plugs of salt that occur here and there beneath the Coastal

Plain of Texas and Louisiana is an obscure problem which has been a

subject of much speculation. The small diameter of these plugs and

their great depth (at least 5,400 feet in once case) indicate that they are

not original bedded deposits. Nearly all x\merican writers have adopted

the view that the salt has been deposited by ascending brines, but the

plausibility of this theory is injured by the stupendous quantitv of

brine involved, for no likely condition has been suggested under which

the waters would deposit more than a fraction of their dissolved load.

Although direct evidence of the mode of formation of the salt plugs

is scanty, there are several indications that positive tectonic forces have

been involved. The plugs are arranged rather regularly along lines

that are undoubtedly related to the main structural features of the

region. Moreover, the plugs have caused a sharp and very local up-

thrust or doming of the normally flat-lying sediments, the uplift in

some cases amounting to at least 3000 feet. The surface beds may be

only slightly disturbed, if at all, but down on the flanks of the salt mass

dips of 60° or more are common and in some cases formations have

been thrust clear through the beds that normally overlie them. Still

more direct evidence is afforded by the structure of the salt itself;

as seen in the mines the salt contains dark streaks which, though com-

monly standing almost vertical, are in places thrown into intricate

folds which bear an extraordinary resemblance to the flow structure of

ancient rocks. The common elongation of the salt crystals in a ver-

tical direction and the rough horizontal cleavage of the salt also suggest

vertical movement.

Laboratory experiments have shown that salt under differential

pressure behaves as a highly plastic substance; that its plasticity is

increased by heat; and that if shattered it is easily welded by pressure.

In view of the field evidence cited, the writer believes that the salt

plugs are offshoots of deeply buried bedded deposits which have been

subjected to great pressure or thrust, and have been partially squeezed

upward in a semiplastic condition along lines of weakness. As the

292 proceedings: geological society

region lies along a heavily loaded sea coast, the nature of the lateral

thrust is not difficult to understand. The fact that the surface beds

are undisturbed, except immediately around the salt plugs, is ex-

plained by the nature of the section — a series of indurated and rigid

formations overlain by a great thickness of relatively yielding and

plastic sediments. Indirect evidence of the origin of the plugs is also

afforded by their identity in structure and composition with the Euro-

pean salt stocks, the tectonic origin of which is declared to be unmis-

takable.

The 332nd meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club

Wednesday evening, March 12, 191 9, President Ulrich presiding and

46 persons present.

informal communications

G. W. Stose: Travertine from Rock Creek Park, District oj Columbia.

Travertine occurring in a granite country would seem to be unusual,

but travertine has recently been found on the granite and schist in

Rock Creek Park, near Blagden Mill road. This deposit of aragonite

travertine occurs at the mouth of an apparently large spring which

empties into Rock Creek. On investigation the spring proved to be

an overflow from a nearby city reservoir. It seems therefore that the

travertine deposit came from lime dissolved out of the cement in the

masonry of this reservoir and its conduit.

In discussing Mr. Stose's paper, R. S. BasslER, of the National

Museum, called attention to the deposit of calcareous stalactites in a

culvert under the aqueduct along Potomac River in the District of

Columbia. These stalactites are derived from lime used in the masonry

of the aqueduct, and a new crop is found on each annual visit of a class

in geology.

R. B. Sosman: The temperature inversions in the fumaroles of the

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska Peninsula. The peculiar

inversion of temperatures in the fumaroles of the Valley, which was

discovered in 191 8 and reported by Prof. R. F. Griggs in his lecture

before the Washington Academy of Sciences on February 18, 191 9,

and which seemed at first the most puzzling feature of the fumaroles,

may find explanation in the "velocity cooling" which is known to

occur in a jet of gas issuing from an orifice. It has been observed

experimentally by Joule and Thomson' and by Bradley and Hale^ in

high-pressure air jets, and is discussed by S. A. Moss'^ in connection with

experiments on steam flowing from orifices. The cooling effect is due

to the conversion of heat energy into translational kinetic energy,

which is subsequently converted back into heat when the high-velocity

jet of steam is checked. We have here the possibility that the ap-

parent temperature of a jet, as measured by a thermometer, will show

variations with the shape and size of the thermometer.

' Joule and Thomson. PhiL Mag. (4) 4: 491. 1852.

2 Bradley, W. P., and Hale, C. F. Phys. Rev. 29: 266. 1909.

^ Moss, S. A Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. 38: 766. 1916.

proceedings: geological society 293

The temperature differences found by measurements at different

levels in the fumaroles of the Valley are, however, on a larger scale

than any that are ordinarily observable experimentally, and it is still

possible that some other factor may be active in addition to the ve-

locity cooling.

T. W. Vaughn : Note on Eocene corals from Peru and on other fossils

from Haiti and Trinidad.

REGULAR PROGRAM

F. K. Matthes: Relief shading of topographic maps. The most

difficult thing which cartographers and topographers have to deal with

is representing the vertical element in the delineation of land features.

This delineation can be done in several ways as by hachuring, con-

touring, and by shading. Hachuring has been developed to an art in

Europe. It requires a draftsman with a steady nerve and hand, and

the reproduction of his work by expert engravers. The art had reached

fine execution by 1815, yet in Europe, long ago, hachuring was replaced

by shading. The same effect is obtained with perhaps one-twentieth

the cost. Shading represents land forms perhaps more adequately

than hachuring and can be used to better advantage and more generally

than hachuring.

For the last three decades in the United States we have devoted our

energy almost exclusively to contouring. No country has done better,

but we have used contours where their use was at a disadvantage.

Delineation of land forms has been attempted also by hypometric tints

but these must be based primarily on contour work. It is a good

practice for hachuring and shading to be done as if a relief model were

hung vertically on a wall and illuminated above and to the left. In

experimental work done by J. H. Renshawe, of the U. S. Geological

Survey, this lighting element has been employed but Mr. Renshawe has

developed one method different from that of European topographers,

in that dark shading is used to express the lowest altitude of river

areas, whereas in European maps lowlands are lighter and high plateaus

are dark. On shaded maps made recently by the U. S. Geological

Survey, high plateaus are given a light shading and flat areas close to

sea level are given a deep shading. This obviates confusion found on

European maps in which both the mountain tops and the valley bot-

toms are given the same high light.

O. E. Meinzer: Quantitative methods for estimating ground-water

supplies. This paper relates only to ground water, or phreatic water —

that is, water in the zone of saturation. It is not concerned with the

subsurface water that occurs above the water table. It relates not

to the quantities of water stored in the earth but to the rate of replen-

ishment of the ground-water supply, on which conservation develop-

ments must be based.

Four principal groups of methods are used to determine the annual

recharge or the "safe yield" of ground water: the Intake, Discharge,

Water-table, and Underflow methods. The first of these consists in

294 proceedings: geological society

measuring the quantity of surface water that seeps into the earth and

percolates into the zone of saturation; the second in measuring the

ground water that is discharged through springs, or by evaporation

from soil and plants ; the third in observing the fluctuations in the water

table, which represents filling or emptying of the ground-water reser-

voir; the fourth, like the gaging of surface streams, in measuring the

flow of ground water at selected cross-sections.

Discharge methods comprise two very different kinds of methods:

(i) the difl'erentiation of ground-water run-off from direct run-off

through study of hydrographs, etc., and (2) the mapping of areas that

discharge ground water by evaporation and transpiration, and experi-

ments to determine rates of discharge under specific conditions of soil,

vegetation and depth to water table. In arid regions plants of certain

species habitually utilize water from the zone of saturation. For such

plants the name phreatophyte, meaning a "well plant," has been pro-

posed.

The water-table methods are best adapted to regions, such as Cal-

ifornia, which have well-defined rainy and dry seasons. The average

annual increment to the ground-water supply can be computed by

multiplying the average rise of the water table in the rainy season by

the percentage of available pore space, and multiplying this product

by the area of the water table of the given aquifer. The most uncer-

tain factor is the percentage of available pore space, or specific yield,

which is not the same as the porosity of the rock, because when the

water table descends some of the water is held against the pull of gravity

by the molecular attraction of the rock. Tests of specific yield have

been made (i) by laboratory experiments; (2) by examination of sam-

ples of material which is above the water table but which in the high-

water stage was in the zone of saturation; and (3) by making hea\y

pumping tests and ascertaining the total pumpage and the total volume

of sediments drained thereby.

The two lines along which additional research are most needed

relate to the habits of phreatophytes and their rates of transpiration

and to the specific yields of different kinds of sediments. A very for-

tunate feature of the quantitative work is that the three principal

methods — intake, discharge, and water-table — are entirely independent

of each other and can be used as checks upon one another.

The 333rd meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club on

Wednesday evening, March 26, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and

48 persons present.

INFORMAL communications

F. L. Hess: Phenocrysis in granitic intrusions. Deposits of rare

metals are commonly connected with granites and are usually in the

outer parts of granitic intrusions, and it thus happens that many of the

deposits are accompanied by extraordinary forms of the granite. Close

to the cobalt deposits on Blackbird Creek in Lemhi County, Idaho,

a remarkable porphyritic granite is found on Big and Napias Creeks. The

proceedings: geological society 295

phenocrysts are speroidal or elliptical and as much as three inches long

by two inches in diameter. They weather out and look like rounded

pebbles. The main intrusion is exposed for about three miles along

the creek but it is not known at what angle the creek cuts the dike.

Smaller dikes are from fifty to several hundred feet broad and all are

crushed to gneisses along their sides.

D. E. Winchester: Contorted hittiminous shale of Green River

formation in Northwestern Colorado. In the upper part of the oil shale

series of northwestern Colorado there is a zone of rich black bituminous

shale which is everywhere contorted showing on its weathered surface

minute folding and faulting. This shale which has been observed

over a wide area is overlain and underlain by beds of laminated and

uncontorted shale and sandstone. The bituminous shale itself con-

tains a large amount of microscopic vegetable material, including algae,

etc., and this may furnish a clue as to the reason for its contorted con-

dition. The region is one in which there is practically no faulting, and

beds dipping as much as 15° are the exception rather than the rule.

It is concluded that the twisting of the laminae occurred before the

bituminous shale was completely solidified and that the beds containing

the great amount of vegetable matter were least competent and may

therefore have taken up any movements which may have occurred in

the region. vSpecimens of thinly laminated shale rich in organic matter

but occurring at a horizon 300-500 feet below the black contorted beds,

show intricate folding and minute faulting.

Discussion; E. O. Ulrich: The same contorted condition of thin beds

can be seen in mud laid down on tidal flats and then slumped by tidal

undercutting. It is shown also in West Canada Creek at Trenton

Falls, New York, where the limestone, once a limy mud, has these fea-

tures. C. D. White: Green River beds essentially horizontal are a

good place to see thin contorted strata. The contorted beds are buried

beneath shale and sandstone. It would seem that the organic beds

between sandstones must have been slimy mud a long time after burial

and even if somewhat hardened must have been the easiest zone for

slipping. They doubtless were somewhat solidified when the crumbling

took place else there would be no faulting. Possibly the shale exhibited

by Winchester was deeply buried and the contortion is due to movement

along the oil shales after they were partly solidified. The overlying

and underlying formation,s have a somewhat reinforced structure and

slight jars or lesser earth movements would be taken up by oil shale

beds which are rich in vegetal matter. Similar structure is found in the

Elkhorn coal on Marrowbone Creek in eastern Kentucky, where the

upper part of the coal bed moved on the lower part. W. C. Alden:

This kind of structure is common in glacial lake beds where we find

zones a few inches thick highly contorted, while above and below are

beds clearly and beautifully laminated, which show no disturbance.

It is suggested that the contortion may be due to freezing before the

superincumbent layers were deposited. G. H. Ashley: In northern

Indiana the plankton found in the small lakes resembles in structure the

296 proceedings: geological society

shale shown by Winchester. This jelly-Uke material moves with the

movement of the water. Storms move the water-weeds and the hght

floating jelly-hke stuff may be moved at the same time, and rumpled.

REGULAR PROGRAM

Robert B. Sosman: Note on volcanic explosions. The usual con-

ception of a volcanic explosion is that of the release of a store of pent-

up energy which has been held in a confined space by external pressure.

The idea takes two forms: (i) The "boiler explosion," in which the

pressure has been raised by heat to a value which exceeds the break-

ing strength of the containing rocks; or, (2) the "geyser eruption,"

in which a metastable configuration of the materials of the volcano

has been disturbed and a violent reaction has begun. In either case,

the conception is that of a system in rapid reaction in an effort to reach

equilibrium, following some change in external conditions.

An experiment by the speaker, made several years ago, showed that

finely divided alumina, which is well known to be very hygroscopic,

could be superheated in an open electric furnace and then be "ex-

ploded" by a mechanical disturbance. The phenomenon is strikingly

analogous to the dust explosions of Lassen Peak and Mont Pelee.

The steam boiler and the geyser may be called "explosive systems."

Another class of -explosions results from the initiation of chemical re-

actions in "explosive mixtures," such as gunpowder, or a mixture of

sulfur and potassium chlorate. It seems unlikely that many volcanic

explosions can be of this character, on account of the difficulty of ac-

cumulating the necessarily large quantities of substances capable of

reacting (such as oxygen and hydrogen), without the dissipation of the

energy by continuous quiet reaction, as at Kilauea.

In a third class are the "explosive substances," of which nitroglycerin

is the most powerful common representative. These explode by in-

ternal disintegration and recombination, and can be "detonated"

by methods other than simple rise of temperature. Organic dust

(flour, coal) with oxygen and moisture adsorbed on the surfaces of its

grains is, to all intents and purposes, a chemical compound and an

explosive substance, though of a milder type than the nitro-compounds;

and even inorganic dust with adsorbed moisture, such as the alumina

in the experiment cited, is, analogously, an explosive. It is suggested

that dust explosions of the Peleean type, which are often plainly super-

ficial and not deep-seated, are true explosions, possibly set off by me-

chanical disturbances. The same may be true of Vulcanian and Plinian

explosions, the explosive in these cases being a metastable liquid silicate

or a mixture of liquid and solid silicates, brought into its metastable

condition by a gradual rise of temperature or by the gradual accumula-

tion of water or magmatic gases, either through distillation or through

fractional crystallization. The specific character of the shock necessary

to detonate an explosive substance; the limited range of propagation

of the explosive wave in a powdered material, as contrasted with the

more complete detonation which can be brought about in a continuous

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 297

liquid or solid explosive; and the fact that the force of a detonated ex-

plosion is often in the direction of the detonating impulse and inde-

pendent of the configuration of surrounding materials (Pel^e, Lassen);

are all applicable to the explanation of known phenomena of volcanic

explosions.

E. O. Ulrich: Newly discovered instances of early Paleozoic

oscillations. Anyone who will undertake a comprehensive course of

critical and detailed comparison of stratigraphic sections must inevitably

reach the conclusion that the old land surface was exceedingly unstable

with respect to sea level and subject to oft-repeated differential move-

ments and warping.

At times certain parts were pushed up, while other parts lagged, and

yet others sank, actually or but relatively, beneath sea level. In other

words, the vertical movements of the lithosphere were differential,

and the displacements of the strandline were not erestatic, as taught

by Suess, but varied in volume and direction from place to place.

The differential character of the movements of the continental areas

with respect to sea level is indicated by abrupt local, or even widely

distributed changes in the character of the sediments; by imperfections

in the record of marine deposits at one place which are partly and some-

times, perhaps, wholly supplied in the sedimentary record at another

place; by the sudden extinction of, say, an Atlantic fauna in a given

area by a Gulf of Mexico or an Arctic fauna; and by other more or less

competent criteria.

Most convincing evidence of land tilting, with alternating east and

west tilts more common than those to the south or north, was brought

out by detailed comparisons of the sedimentary record on the flanks of

old uplifts in interior North America. Particularly illuminating are

the facts showing restriction of formations of considerable thickness

to one side of such uplifts and similar restriction of other formations to

the opposite side. Geographic restriction of deposits, hence also of

the seas in which they were laid down, is indicated over and over again

on the flanks of the Cincinnati, Nashville, Ozark, Wisconsin, and

Adirondacks domes. These domelike areas rarely, if ever, formed

islands. As a rule, when they were not completely submerged, they

were connected with larger land areas, often probably forming penin-

sular projections.

Oscillation of land and sea areas was the rule also in the Paleozoic

Appalachian Valley. However, the conditions here dift'ered in that the

seas were largely confined to subparallel structural troughs. These

troughs were not all submerged at the same time; and only very seldom

was any one of the five or six troughs submerged throughout its length.

As a rule tilting, or difi"erential movements, produced canoe-like de-

pressions which, when they reached depths permitting marine submer-

gence, formed narrow inland bays. These bays were emptied and again

filled many times, and each submergence differed more or less in its

geographic expression from those preceding it.

298 proceedings: geoi.ogical society

The old belief in broad, deep, and long enduring continental seas — •

seas that began early in the Cambrian and continued spreading wider

and wider until well toward the close of the Ordovician — ^is still held

and taught in some of our best universities. But this inexcusable con-

servatism is possible only by closing our eyes to the overwhelming ac-

cumulation of opposing facts. vSooner or later it must be abandoned by

all. In its place the more progressive geologists conceive of smaller,

very shallow, and frequently shifting bodies of water, of seas, that filled

a given basin in one age and were withdrawn in the next, that returned

again and again in familiar patterns, though perchance from different

quarters, in succeeding geological ages. In short, seas that migrated

in and out of the structural basins — sometimes extending far across the

continents and at other times limited to much smaller areas — ^whenever

and wherever a formation of the lithosphere demanded corresponding

readjustment of land and marine areas. These adjustments were al-

ways marked in the stratigraphic record by recognizable signs.

Each year's field work is disclosing evidence of Paleozoic oscillations

previously unknown; and some of them occur in what had seemed

altogether unhkely places. The purpose of my paper is to discuss a

half dozen or so of the more striking instances that have been discovered

since the publication of the "Revision." The first of these is found

in central Pennsylvania, the second and third in east Tennessee, the

fourth in northeastern Alabama, the fifth in Wisconsin, the sixth in the

Mississippi Valley. In the last two the formations lie practically

horizontal, in the others they are folded in the usual Appalachian

manner. R. W. Stone, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The organization meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists

was held in the New National Museum, Washington, D. C, April

3 and 4, 19 19, with a charter membership of over two hundred and

fifty, of whom sixty were in attendance at the meeting. The follow-

ing officers were elected: C. Hart Merriam, President; E. W.

Nelson, First Vice-President; Wilfred H. Osgood, Second Vice-

President; H. H. Lane, Recording Secretary; Harley H. T. Jackson,

Corresponding Secretary; Walter P. Taylor, Treasurer. The Coun-

cilors are: Glover M. Allen, R. M. Anderson, J. Grinnell, M. W.

Lyon, W. D. Matthew, John C. Merrl\m, Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.,

T. S. Palmer, Edward A. Preble, Wither vStone, and N. Hollister,

Editor.

Committees were appointed on: Life histories of mammals, C. C.

Adams, Chairman; Study of game mammals, Charles Sheldon, Chair-

man; Anatomy and phytogeny, W. K. Gregory, Chairman; and Bibli-

ography, T. S. Palmer, Chairman.

The policy of the society will be to devote its attention to the study

of mammals in a broad way, including life histories, habits, relations

to plants and animals, evolution, paleontology, anatomy, and other

phases.

Publication of the Journal of Mammalogy, in which popular as well

as technical matter will be presented, will start this 3'ear.

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences held in Wash-

ington on April 28-30, 1919, the following fifteen persons were elected

to membership: Prof. Joseph Barrell, geologist, Yale University;

Dr. Gary Nathan Calkins, zoologist, Columbia University; Dr.

Heber Doust Curtis, astronomer, Lick Observatory; Mr. Gano

Dunn, electrical engineer. New York City; Dr. Lawrence Joseph

Henderson, biologist, Harvard University; Dr. Reid Hunt, pharma-

cologist. Harvard University; Prof. Treat Baldwin Johnson, chemist,

Yale University; Prof. Winthrop John Osterhout, botanist. Harvard

University; Prof. Frederick HanlEy Seares, astronomer, Mt. Wilson

Observatory, Cahfornia; Dr. William Albert Setchell, botanist.

University of California; Maj. Gen. George Owen Souier, electrical

engineer. Signal Corps, U. S. A.; Prof. Augustus Trowbridge,

physicist, Princeton University; Prof. Oswald Veblen, mathematician,

Princeton University; Dr. Ernest Julius Wilczynski, mathematician.

University of Chicago; Prof. Edwin Bidwell Wilson, physicist,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. C. G. Abbot was elected

Home Secretary of the Academy.

299

300 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Rear x\dmiral John E. Pillsbury, U. S. N., Retired, was elected

President of the National Geographic Society on April 17, as successor

to Mr. Otto H. Tittmann, who retired from the office on account of

ill health. Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary, U. S. N., Retired, was

elected a member of the Board of Managers to fill the vacancy caused

by the death of the late Brig. Gen. John M. Wilson, U. S. A.

Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian

Institution, sailed for South America on May i to inspect the Smith-

sonian solar constant observing station at Calama, Chile, and to ob-

serve the total solar eclipse at La Paz, Bolivia. He expects to return

to Washington in August.

Prof. J. M. Aldrich has been appointed Associate Curator of the

Division of Insects in the National Museum. Prof. Aldrich was for-

merly with the University of Idaho, but more recently has been working

with the Bureau of Entomology. He is one of the best-known Dip-

terists in North America and is the author of our most recent catalogue

of these insects.

Dr. George Ferdinand Becker, geologist in charge of the division

of physics and chemistry, U. S. Geological Survey, and a charter mem-

ber of the Academy, died on April 20, 191 9, in his seventy-third year.

Dr. Becker was born in New York City on January 5, 1847. He began

work as a constructing engineer, with the Joliet Iron and Steel Company,

then after a few years became instructor in mining and metallurgy at

the University of California. He was appointed geologist in the U. S.

Geological Survey in 1879, and was thus associated with the develop-

ment of the vSurvey almost from its beginning. He approached geologic

problems from the viewpoint of the mathematical physicist and engi-

neer, and made many contributions to geophysics, as well as to special

fields in both physics and geology. The establishment of the Geophys-

ical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution grew out of investigations

begun by him under a grant from that Institution. He was a member

of the National Academy of Sciences, the Geological »Society of Wash-

ington, and other American geological and engineering societies, including

the Geological Society of America of which he was president in 1914.

Dr. F. Russell v. Bichowsky, of the Geophysical Laboratory, has

been granted by the National Research Fellowship Board a research

fellowship in chemistry at the University of California.

E. D. Bromley, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, has been

engaged in a triangulation in the northern half of Chesapeake Bay, to

determine the geographic positions of certain points used in testing

the long-range artillery at Aberdeen, Maryland.

Dr. Keivin Burns, of the division of optics, Bureau of Standards,

resigned from the Bureau on May i. He will spend a year on the

Pacific Coast and will devote his attention to the use of dicyanin in

astrophysical research.

]Mr. J. C. Crawford, formerly Associate Curator of the Division of

Insects of the National Museum, has resigned and accepted a position

in the Bureau of Entomology.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 3QI

Captain S. T. Dana has resumed his duties with the Forest Service

as Assistant Chief of Forest Investigations. During the war he was

on the General Staff as secretary of the Army Commodity Committee

on Lumber, and in charge of determining wood requirements of the

Army.

Col. E. Lester Jones, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geo-

detic Survey, has been named by the King of Italy an officer of the

Order of S. S. Maurizo e Lazzaro.

Dr. Leonard B. Loeb, formerly of the Bureau of Standards,

has been granted a research fellowship in physics by the National Re-

search Fellowship Board.

Major A. O. Leuschner has returned to Washington from a furlough

in California and is at present acting chairman of the Division of Phys-

ical Sciences of the National Research Council.

Dr. Samuel C. Prescott, of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-

nology, formerly major in the Sanitary Corps, U. S. A., has been ap-

pointed expert in charge of dehydration investigations in the Bureau

of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, and will continue the investi-

gations on this subject carried on during the war under the direction of

the War Department.

Mr. Homer P. Ritter, for many years an officer of the U. S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey and a member of the Mississippi River Com-

mission, died at the Emergency Hospital on April 21, 1 919, in his sixty-

fifth year. He was returning from a meeting of the Mississippi River

Commission at Memphis and was taken ill on the train. Mr. Ritter

was born in Cleveland, Ohio, March 4, 1855. After receiving his tech-

nical training at the Columbia School of Mines he was employed for

several years on railway surveys. He entered the Coast and Geodetic

Survey m 1885, and had been employed on field work in all parts of the

United States and in Alaska. He succeeded Henry L. Marindin

as a member of the Mississippi River Commission in 1904. He was a

member of the Society of Engineers.

Mr. R. Sano, founder and director of the meteorological observatory

of Kanayama, near Sendai, Japan, visited Washington in April.

Mr. A. H. Smith, of the rubber laboratory. Bureau of Standards,

will leave the Bureau on July i, to accept a position with the Goodyear

Rubber Company, at Akron, Ohio.

Mr. Wm. Schaus has recently been appointed as Assistant Curator

in the Division of Insects of the National Museum. Mr. Schaus is

a student of Lepidoptera and in recent years has spent much time in

tropical America where he made large collections which have been

given to the National Museum.

Dr. C. H. T. Townsend sailed, early in April, for Brazil where he

has accepted a position as entomologist for the Brazilian government.

Dr. Townsend has been with the Bureau of Entomology and has spent

most of his time studying the Muscoid Diptera.

302 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A Washington Section of the American vSociety of Mechanical En-

gineers has been organized, with the following officers: S. W. Strat-

TON, Bureau of vStandards, chairman; Maj. J. H. Kijnck, vice-chairman;

Prof. Geo. a. WeschlER, Catholic University, secretary; H. L. Whitte-

MORE and A. E. Johnson, members of executive committee. The Sec-

tion held a meeting with the following program: S. W. Stratton,

Standardization of screw threads; Col. E. C. Peck, Gage work of the

Ordnance Department for the U. S. Army; H. L. Van Keuren, Certi-

fication of gages at the Bureau of Standards; C. G. Peters, The use of

interference methods in calibrating length standards.

The Medical Society of the District of Columbia, one of the affiliated

societies of the Academy, is raising a fund of $100,000 for the erection

of a permanent home for the Society. A site on M street near Con-

necticut Avenue has already been purchased. Dr. Edward Y. David-

son is chairman of the building committee.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

One vear ago this Journal^ outlined the war reorganization of the

National Research Council which went into effect on April i, 191 8.

With the coming of peace this plan of organization has been elaborated

and the Council placed on a continuing basis. The present organiza-

tion was adopted on February 11, 191 9, by the council of the National

Academy of Sciences, and is, in brief outline, as follows:

The membership is to consist of: (i) Representatives of national

scientific and technical societies; (2) representatives of the federal

government; (3) representatives of other research organizations, and

other persons whose aid may advance the objects of the Council. The

membership is organized into thirteen divisions, grouped into two

classes, as below:

(a) Divisions dealing with general relations: I, Government Divi-

sion. II, Foreign Relations. Ill, States Relations. IV, Educational

Relations. V, Industrial Relations. VI, Research Information vSer-

vice.^

(b) Divisions of science and technology: VII, Physical Sciences.

VIII, Engineering. IX, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. X,

Geology and Geography. XI, Medical vSciences. XII, Biology and

Agriculture. XIII, Anthropology and Psychology.

Each division in the class of science and technology, and some of the

divisions in the class of general relations, will have a salaried chairman,

who will be stationed in Washington. The affairs of the Council will

be administered by an executive board, which will include, in addition

to ex-ojficio members from the Council itself, the President and Home

Secretary of the National Academy and the President of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science. The Chairman of the

1 This JouRNAi, 8: 337. 1918.

2 See this Journal 8: 223, 339. 1918.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 303

Council will receive a salary of Si 0,000 per year, and the chairmen of

divisions, as well as the executive secretary of the Council, will receive

$6000.

Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the University of California, is at present

Acting Chairman of the Council. Officers of some of the divisions have

been selected as follows: Physical Sciences, Maj. C. E. Mendenhall,

chairman; Engineering, Dr. H. M. HowE, chairman, Mr. G. H. Clev-

Enger, vice-chairman; Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Lieut.

Col. W. D. Bancroft, chairman, Prof. Julius Stieglitz, vice-chairman;

Biology and Agriculture, Prof. C. E. McClung, chairman, Prof. L. R.

Jones, vice-chairman.

Further information on the organization of the Council will be pre-

sented as soon as the organization is completed.

UNION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKERS

A mass meeting of scientific and technical employees of the federal

Government, called by a committee consisting of H. L. Shantz (Agri-

culture), W. L. Thurber (Interior), L. W. Chaney (Labor), P. ' G.

Agnew (Commerce), and F. L. Lewton (Smithsonian), was held at the

National Museum on Thursday, May 8, 191 9. The attendance was

about 400. R. H. True, of the Department of Agriculture, presided.

The call for the meeting stated the following reasons for the formation

of an organization:

Improvement of conditions and facilities for more effective scientific

and technical work; adequate presentation of the needs and results of

such work to the public and to legislative and administrative officers;

greater freedom in both official and non-official activities; just and rea-

sonable salaries based on service performed and the economic and social

conditions which prevail; greater public recognition of the aims and

purposes of research; advancement of science and technology as an

essential element of national life.

After a statement concerning the British National Union of Scientific

Workers and similar movements in Great Britain, the following three

plans were discussed:

(i) To work only through existing organizations, namely, the Acad-

emy and the National Research Council; (2) to form an independent

organization of those federal employees doing scientific or technical

work; (3) to form a scientific "and technical branch of Federal Employees'

Union No. (2).^

Plan No. (i) received very httle support. A large number of speakers

discussed plans Nos. (2) and (3). It was generally agreed that organi-

zation was necessary; that the situation of the scientific and technical

bureaus is serious, as the better men tend to leave and can not be re-

placed under the existing salary scale; and that cooperation with ex-

isting organizations is not excluded by either Plan (2) or Plan (3).

1 Federal Employees' Union No. i was organized in San Francisco. No. 2

embraces practically all governmental bureaus in the District of Columbia.

304 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Some of the arguments and assertions presented were as follows:

For Plan (2) and against Plan (3) : A general employees' union does

not and can not represent the special problems of the scientific group.

The scientist does not work by hours. The scientist is much more

easily appealed to by proper conditions and by recognition than by

financial considerations. The scientist works best under conditions

similar to those of the university teacher. Independence of action

would be too greatly limited by affiliation with the Union. Many

things are done in the name of organized labor Avhich are not approved

by the great majority of scientists. A political threat through affiliation

with the American Federation of Labor is an undesirable method.

The government employee owes full allegiance to the government and

should join no organization which might conceivably interfere with

that allegiance. Affiliation will keep out many who would join an in-

dependent organization. If found desirable, affiliation with the union

may be brought about later.

For Plan (3) and against Plan (2) : An independent organization

would not be large enough to exert any influence. Affiliation will help

to bring the needs of the scientific profession before the public. There

is an unfounded belief in the public mind that the scientific investigator

is not a producer; independent organization would only tend to con-

firm such a prejudice. The American Federation of Labor has no con-

trol over the action of its constituent unions. All organizations take

actions that are not approved by considerable fractions of their mem-

bership. The plan does not involve a political threat. Congress, in

general, desires information and wishes to act justly toward the federal

employees and has welcomed the aid of the Union. The constitution

of the Union forbids strikes, either direct or sympathetic. Over 550

scientific and technical workers are already a part of the L^nion's 2 1 ,000

members. The Union has in three years secured the following benefits

to all federal employees: A general increase of salary; the defeat of

the Borland amendment to increase the hours; progress on a retirement

plan; and the Reclassification Commission. The Joint Congressional

Reclassification Commission, which wishes to deal with employees

through organizations and not as individuals, is now at work and im-

mediate action is necessary; Union funds and machinery are available

for immediate action.

The meeting voted 185 to 132 in favor of Plan No. (3). R. H. True

was elected chairman, and P. G. Agnew, of the Bureau of vStandards,

secretary, of the temporary organization, consisting of a general in-

terim committee composed of the chairman and secretary and repre-

sentatives from the scientific and technical bureaus, one representative

for each 20 members.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 JUNE 4, 1919 No. n

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— r/j^ statement of acidity and

alkalinity, with special reference to soils. Edgar T. Wherry,

Washington, D. C.

In the course of observations on the acid and alkaline reac-

tions of soils supporting the growth of native plants, which the

writer has been making at odd times during the past several

years, considerable attention has been paid to the method of

presenting the results ; and it has been concluded that the usual

plans can be improved upon, especially from the point of view

of their ease of comprehension on the part of workers in non-

mathematical sciences. Certain suggestions in this connection

are put forward in the present note.

Two dififerent methods of stating reactions are in general

use by chemists, the "concentration" and the "potential" meth-

ods. In the concentration method the number of gram equiva-

lents of hydrogen-ion per liter is stated, usually as an integral

power of 10 with a coefficient; in the potential method, the

exponent of 10, stated to one decimal place (which is directly

proportional to the electric potential produced by the hydrogen-

ion) is used alone. Thus, the acidity of a given solution might

be described as either 5.0 X io~® gram-equivalents of H"*" per

liter, or as Ph = 5.3. It^ takes, however, considerable effort

to appreciate the relative magnitude of quantities thus stated;

to tell off-hand, for instance, whether 5 X io~^ is greater or

less than 6 X io~^; to realize that a solution with Ph = 2.4 is

6300 times as acid as one with Ph = 5.6; and to recognize

whether a given solution is acid or alkaline in reaction without

considering the relation of the exponent to 7 (that of a neutral

solution) .

305

3o6 wherry: acidity and alkalinity

The usefulness of methods in which computation begins at the

neutral point in describing reactions has been urged by Walker

and Kay for natural waters/ by L. J. Henderson^ for biological

fluids, and by the writer for soils. ^ The plan adopted by the

first two authors has been criticized by Clark and Lubs^ as "very

inadequate," but that depends on the point of view. The

methods here proposed, which represent an extension of those

just referred to, are contrasted with the usual ones in table i ;

they appear to the writer quite adequate to express the relations

involved, and to possess several distinct advantages, as pointed

out in the discussion of the table.

The first five columns of table i need no comment, as they

represent simply a statement of well-known methods of de-

scribing reactions; but the remainder require some explanation.

Under the proposed concentration method, as headings of col-

umns 6 and 7 the terms specific acidity and specific alkalinity^

are used, since the unit, instead of being i gram-equivalent per

liter, as in the usual methods, is the number of gram-equivalents

per liter of each ion present in a standard substance, namely

pure water at ordinary temperature, which is practically 10-'.

The actual numbers corresponding to the powers of 10 repre-

senting the reactions likely to be met with in soils have been

inserted in columns 6 and 7.

The headings of the potential columns are also new; as these

values may well be called chemical potentials, the letter X,

representing the Greek letter chi, the initial of chemical, is applied

to them.^ It may be noted here that only the first of these

columns need be used, if in the definition of chemical potential

the sign of the ion is included; that is, when a given number is

* Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 31: 1013. 1912

"8016110646: 73. 1917.

' Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 6: 675. 1916. 8: 591. 1918.

^ Journ. Bacter. 2:14. 1917.

* Walker and Kay calkd them relative acidities and alkalinities; the writer in

previous publications has used the term intensity of acidity and alkalinity, but it is

better to limit the conception of intensity to potentials. Acidivity and alkalivity

might be used if desired,

* For the suggestion of this symbol, as well as for much additional assistance in

the preparation of this paper, the writer is indebted to Dr. E. Q. Adams of the Bureau

of Chemistry. i

wherry: acidity and ai^kaunity

307

stated, it is understood that it is + when applied to a positive

ion and — to a negative one.

In the last column are given descriptive terms for such re-

actions as are commonly met with in soils. In the study of soils

associated with various native plants the writer has found that

" May be grouped together as "circumneutral."

certain more or less well-defined types of reaction can be rec-

ognized, and it seems desirable to have a special name to apply

to each of these. Starting at the acid end of the series, and using

for simplicity the numerical specific acidities and alkalinities,

these are as follows; • -

3o8 wherry: acidity and alkai^inity

Specific acidities greater than looo are shown only by bog-

peat, which supports a characteristic flora of "oxylophytes"

or acid-soil plants; for such reactions the term superacid may be

used. Some bog-peats, many upland-peats, and other soils also

supporting oxylophytes, show values of from looo down to loo;

for these the term mediacid seems appropriate. Many ordinary

woods soils and field soils are also acid, but to a degree so much

smaller that typical oxylophytes do not grow in them; the

specific acidities under such conditions range from loo down to.

lo, and may be characterized by the well-known term subacid.

The slight degree of acidity represented by numbers less than lo,

for which minimacid is suggested, and the similar alkalinities up

to lo, minimalkaline, are observed in woods and field soils, also

associated with certain types of plants; there is no evidence of

marked change in flora on passing the neutral point, so such reac-

tions may in general be classed as circumneuiral. The soils de-

rived from limestone rocks under conditions where the lime is

not extensively leached out, and also natural waters rising

through calcareous materials, often show a specific alkaUnity of

from ID to loo, and for them the term subalkaline, corresponding

to that used on the acid side for a similar range, may be used.

Medialkaline and superalkaline soils, using these prefixes in the

same senses as was done on the acid side, are presumably met

with in "alkali" regions where free sodium carbonate occurs.

It is realized that the division of reactions into groups of equal

length in the above manner is a somewhat artificial and arbi-

trary procedure. No claim is made, however, that the dividing

lines between the groups are actually important critical points,

at which the growth of any large number of species ceases.

This method of subdivision and nomenclature is merely put

forward to fill what is believed to be a real need, namely, for a

series of readily understandable and roughly quantitative terms

which may be used in the description of the reactions of soils,

especially in discussions of plant distribution.^

Certain advantages possessed by the proposed methods of

stating reactions may now be indicated. The neutral point is

^ An example of how the method works out in practice will shortly be published

elsewhere. •

COLLINS; INTOLERANCE TO SELF-FERTILIZATION 309

clearly marked by the figure o; the exponents of the H and OH

ions present in a given solution differ only in sign, and solutions

of equivalent acidity and alkalinity are described by numerically

identical terms, which is not the case in the usual methods.

But the most desirable feature appears to the writer to be the

ease with which the relative magnitudes of reactions under com-

parison can be appreciated when the numerical specific acidities

and alkalinities are used. For example, in a recent study of the

occurrence of azotobacter in cranberry soils^ it was found that

untreated soils had ?„ = 54 to 5.6, and limed soils 6.2 to 6.4.

With this method of statement it is not apparent, without stop-

ping to calculate it out, in what direction the reaction has been

altered or how extensive the change has been. If the same data

are stated by the proposed chemical potential method, however,

Xh = 1.6 to 1.4 and 0.8 to 0.6 respectively; and when 10 is

raised to these powers the corresponding numerical specific

acidities are 40 to 25, and 6 to 4, showing directly and clearly

that liming has reduced the acidity to about Ve of its original

amount.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the proposed methods

of describing reactions are by no means adapted only to work

with soils; they may prove useful in other fields as well. It

may be urged especially that the readiness with which the numer-

ical specific acidities and alkalinities can be understood by workers

in nonmathematical sciences should lead to favorable consider-

iation of this method whenever results obtained by physical-

chemical measurement are to be applied in other fields.

BOTANY. — Intolerance of maize to self-fertilization. G. N.

Collins, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Of the important cultivated crop plants maize is perhaps the

least tolerant of self-fertilization. Only one strain among hun-

dreds that have been tested has yet been discovered, the vigor

of which is not reduced by even a single generation of self-fer-

tilization. Many strains that have been under investigation

* Gainey, Science 48: 654. 1918.

3IO COLUNS: INTOLERANCE TO SELE-FERTILIZATION

require special care to keep them alive after four or five successive

self-pollinations. In view of this serious limitation it seems re-

markable that the species has developed no adequate means of

avoiding self-pollination.

The staminate and pistillate flowers of maize are borne on

different parts of the plant, but most varieties are synacmic, or

at most slightly proterandrous, and as the staminate flowers are

at the top of the plant it is only when winds continue during all

the time pollen is being shed that self-pollination is avoided.

It is obviously of advantage to a plant with the sexes disposed

as in maize not to be entirely dependent on cross-pollination.

But it appears almost equally obvious that a slight departure

from synacmy toward proterogyny would be more advantageous

than a similar departure in the direction of proterandry.

Maize may be successfully pollinated at any time within 5

to 10 days after the emergence of the silks. With a variety

normally proterandrous, pollen continues to fall from a plant for

one or two days after the silks emerge. If a period of calm pre-

vails at this time, the ear will be fertilized by pollen from the

same plant. Should there be wind during the forenoon, when

most of the pollen is liberated, or if the plant be slightly more

proterandrous, fertilization will be dependent on pollen from

other plants, and if no foreign pollen is at hand the ear will be

sterile. If, on the other hand, the silks were to appear before

the pollen, there would be the same opportunity for cross-polli-

nation as with proterandrous plants, and should no foreign

pollen be available, pollen from the same plant beginning to

fall while the silks were still receptive would give self -pollinated

seed instead of a sterile ear.

From the behavior of varieties imported from the tropics it

was at one time thought that the more primitive varieties of

maize were more proterandrous, and that the practically synac-

mic nature of improved varieties was the result of intensive

breeding.^ As selection is usually practiced, markedly pro-

terandrous individuals would be considered barren stalks and

^ Collins, G. N. A variety of maizt with silks maturing before the tassels. 'U.S.

Dept. Agric. Bur. PI. Ind. Circ. 107. February 7, 1913.

COLUNS: INTOLERANCE TO SELF-FERTIUZATION 311

would be eliminated. It now appears, however, that the growing

of a variety in a new environment may result in accentuating

the proterandrous character. Since the investigations with

primitive types have been conducted in this country with in-

troduced material, it may be that the observed proterandrous

tendency of these types is due largely to environmental causes.

The idea that maize may be of hybrid origin makes possible

another explanation of why maize is synacmic and at the same

time intolerant of self-pollination.

Euchlaena, the nearest relative of maize and usually regarded

as an ancestor, is not intolerant of self-fertilization. Com-

parisons of selfed and crossed strains of Euchlaena do not show

a measurable reduction of vigor as a result of self-pollination,

and there is no difhculty in maintaining vigorous selfed strains.

In fact, as a result of the excessive branching that obtains in

Euchlaena, a very large proportion of the seed is normally self-

pollinated. Intolerance of self-fertilization is therefore among

the characters of maize that must be sought outside Euchlaena.

If intolerance of self-pollination were derived from some other

source than Euchlaena, it seems not unreasonable to suppose

that the ancestor possessing this intolerance would have also

some means of securing cross-fertilization, which is not necessary

in Euchlaena. This means is suggested by another non-Euch-

laena character, the tendency to produce perfect flowers or

androgynous inflorescences which are proterogynous.

Whenever both stamens and pistils are developed in the same

maize inflorescence, the silks appear before the pollen falls.

This is true for both terminal and lateral inflorescences. Termi-

nal inflorescences mature before the lateral, and since the normal

pistillate inflorescence has the lateral position, the delay at-

tendant on this position neutralizes the natural proterogyny,

with the result that maize plants generally are synacmic or

proterandrous. There is thus a sense in which maize is pro-

terogynous, the proterandry being that of the plant instead of

the individual flower or inflorescence and resulting from the

separation of the sexes into difi"erent parts of the plant.

312 ANDERSON: EXPLORATIONS IN THE ARCTIC

Whenever two plants with widely different characteristics are

crossed, characters, which in either parent may be advantageous,

may unite to make an unfavorable combination. It has been

assumed that the plant which combined with Euchlaena to

produce maize must have been perfect-flowered. It now seems

reasonable to assume also that this other ancestor was ade-

quately protected against self-fertilization by complete proter-

ogyny.

If a perfect-flowered proterogynous plant with a terminal

inflorescence were combined with Euchlaena, the inability to

withstand self-pollination might be retained, while the segre-

gation of the sexes to different parts of the plant would result in

the practical loss of the proterogyny.

In view of these considerations, it is suggested as probable

that the extreme intolerance of maize to self-pollination was

introduced through a perfect-flowered ancestor and that in this

ancestor the danger of self-pollination was guarded against by

proterogyny.

ZOOLOGY. — Recent zoological explorations in the western Arctic.^

Rudolph Martin Anderson, Biological Division, The

Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by

M. W. Lyon, Jr.)

The early explorers of this region — -Hearne, Ross, Franklin,

Dease and Simpson, CoUinson, McClure and others — were

usually naval officers or agents of the Hudson's Bay Company,

and made very few observations on the animal life outside of

occasional comments on the larger game animals or the few

species important to the fur trade. The first really important

zoological work to result from these explorations was done by

Dr. John Richardson, who travelled in the western Arctic in

1821-23, 1826-27, and 1847-48, summarized in the accounts of

these explorations, and in the monumental "Fauna Boreali-

Americana."

^ Abridged from a paper read iiefore the Biological Society of Washington,

April 5, 1919.

ANDERSON: eXPIX>RATlONS IN THB ARCTIC 313

The next great naturalist in the north was Roderick Mac-

Farlane, still living in Winnipeg, who, beginning in the late

fifties and continuing until the nineties, enriched the United

States National Museum with collections made in the Mackenzie

basin and the region around Liverpool Bay and Franklin Bay.

E. W. Nelson at St. Michaels and farther north from 1877 to

1 88 1, and John Murdoch at Point Barrow in 1881-83, made

very important contributions both to collections and to zoolog-

ical hterature. Other scientific collectors who reached spots

on the western Arctic coast were Frederick Funston (about 1896),

E. A. Mcllhenny (1898), and Frank Russell (1894). David T.

Hanbury (1904) and Roald Amundsen (1906-07) made some

notes, but little in the way of zoological collections.

Mr. E. A. Preble, of Washington, although not strictly an

Arctic worker himself, in 1908 summed up all previous Arctic

zoological work and bibliography in his Biological investigations

of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region (North American Fauna,

No. 27).

The speaker, in carrying on zoological collecting and explora-

tion for the American Museum of Natural History in the Arctic

from 1908 to 191 2, visited practically all points on the Arctic

coast from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Coronation Gulf, as well

as many Arctic districts away from the coast, notably on both

sides of the Endicott Mountains divide in Alaska, the Mack-

enzie delta, and the edge of the timber-line in the Great Bear

Lake and Coppermine River region in Canada. The Canadian

Arctic Expedition, 1913-16, covered a good part of the same

region, although its activities were mainly on or near the coast.

The first year's base (19 13-14) was at CoUinson Point, Alaska,

and the base for the next two years on Dolphin and Union

Strait, whence the territory was worked west to Darnley Bay

and east to Bathurst Inlet. The southern branch of the ex-

pedition was prepared for both terrestrial and marine zoological

work, and extensive collections of plants, insects, fishes, and

invertebrates were made, as well as good series of the larger

animal forms. The northern division of this expedition was

mainly interested in geographical work and did very Uttle zo-

314 ANDERSON: EXPLORATIONS IN THE ARCTIC

ological work. The reports of this expedition are now being

published by the Canadian government in extended form, the

separates on each group being distributed as soon as printed.

The principal difficulties in Arctic zoological work are (i)

difficulty of transportation; (2) Hmited fauna in winter; (3)

limited scope for field work in each summer; (4) necessity of

moving at best season for field work.

It is worthy of note that the eastern North American land

fauna runs far to the westward along the Mackenzie River sys-

tem. Traces of Western influences begin to appear in the

Mackenzie delta.

Tongues of the Hudsonian life zone extend far beyond the

Arctic Circle in places. The isothermal lines are very irregular.

The prevailing east and west migration along the Arctic coast

brings some Pacific forms far east along the coast.

There is an extensive north and south bird migration along

part of the Mackenzie system, the Anderson River, Liverpool

Bay, and towards Banks Island.

There is little migration along the Coppermine River.

Traces of the Siberian fauna come across from Bering Strait

and Kotzebue Sound to the Colville delta on the Alaskan Arctic

coast.

There has evidently been a great diminution of some forms of

bird life in the Arctic in recent years, the same as elsewhere,

but this is not primarily due to destruction by natives, except

perhaps in parts of western Alaska.

The reduction of game and fur animals is due principally to

white men's influence, directly or indirectly. The numbers of

individuals and conditions of existence of many species are

rapidly changing over many large areas in the Arctic, and causing

rapid and extensive shifting of native population.

The Arctic marine life is fairly uniform in circumpolar regions,

the conditions of life being nearly uniform. Large series of

terrestrial animals show that there is less variation of some

species over large areas, than has been supposed.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers ^re requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and mineral deposits of the Colville Indian Reser-

vation, Washington. J. T. Pardee. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.

677. Pp. 1 80, 12 plates and i figure. 1918.

The rocks exposed are the Covada group which consists of schistose

argillite, greenstone, and limestone of probable Carboniferous age; the

intrusive Colville granite probably Cretaceous ; dike rocks and lavas of

Tertiary age; and Pleistocene glacial deposits.

The Pleistocene Cordilleran Ice cap overran all the Reservation

except part of San Poil Valley. After the ice had withdrawn the valley

of Columbia River was ponded to the present 1700 foot contour. This

water body was displaced by the Nesplem Silt from which the river

carved terraces as it re-excavated its channel. The Nesplem Silt is

correlated with the White Silt formation of Dawson in Frazer valley,

British Columbia.

The mineral deposits consist chiefly of veins that contain silver, lead,

and zinc and contact metamorphic deposits valuable mainly for copper.

Most of the known lodes of economic importance are confined within

four more or less definite area near Nesplem, Park City, Covada, and

Keller. With respect to roek formations, the lodes are about equally

divided between the Colville granite and the Covada group. No metal-

bearing lodes have been found in rocks younger than the Colville

granite. Most of the veins are narrow, the oxidized zone is shallow,

and secondary enrichment, though conspicuous in one or two mines, is

not common. Some of the contact metamorphic deposits are large

but of very low grade. J. T. P.

315

3l6 ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY. — Relation of landslides and glacial deposits to reservoir sites

in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Wallace W. Atwood.

U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 685. Pp. 38, 8 plates, 17 figs. 1918.

Inasmuch as experience has shown that many landslide masses and

certain of the glacial deposits are not able to withstand the pressure of

a high head of water without serious leakage, it seems desirable to pub-

lish a description of the mountain canyons and the deposits commonly

found in them and of the geologic conditions associated with the lakes

in the mountains, so that, in the future, no expensive errors need be

due to a failure to recognize the geologic formations bordering a pro-

posed reservoir site. Glacial deposits of the Wisconsin glacial stage are

described in detail. Landslides and torrential deposits in larger canyons

are discussed. Several reservoirs are described and illustrated in de-

tail. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Tintic mining district,

Utah. Waldemar LindgrEn and G. F. Loughlin, with a historical

review by V. C. Heikes. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 107.

Pp. 282. 39 plates, 49 figures. 1919.

The report gives the result of a detailed re-survey of the Tintic dis-

trict, results of the first survey by G. W. Tower, Jr., and G. O. Smith

having appeared in the nineteenth annual report of the Survey in 1898.

The scope of the report is similar to that of other Survey professional

papers on mining districts, and particular attention may be directed to

the following feattues:

Part I (by G. F. L.): — Revision of the stratigraphy based on newly-

discovered paleontologic evidence, proving the existence of lower,

middle, and upper (?) Cambrian, lower and upper Ordovician, upper

(?) Devonian, and Mississippian strata; unconformities at the base of

the Ordovician and of the Mississippian; description and correlation

of igneous rocks, including early latite or andesite, early and late rhyo-

lites, later latites and monzonite, and basalt; magmatic differentiation

of the igneous rocks, comparing evidence for and against magmatic

stoping, abyssal and marginal assimilation; folding and faulting, the

latter taking place during 5 periods; rock alteration considered under

three heads: (a) before volcanic activity (formation of chert, dolomite,

and some sericite, and prevolcanic products of weathering) ; (6) during

and immediately after volcanic activity; {c) distinctly later than vol-

canic activity.

abstracts: geology 317

Part II (by V. C. H.): — Gives history and production from 1869 to

1916, including production by ore zones and by kinds of ore; also the

history of smelting and milling.

Part III (by W. L.) : — Discusses relations of deposits to fractures in

igneous and sedimentary rocks, showing selective replacement of lime-

stone ; underground water ; mineralization, with particular attention to

silicification of limestone and dolomite, paragenesis of ore and gangue

minerals, horizontal and vertical zones of deposition, and processes of

oxidation of different ores, genesis of the ore deposits; future of the dis-

trict. Detailed descriptions of mines follow, and reconnaissance re-

ports on the East Tintic and North Tintic districts are included.

G. F. L.

GEOLOGY. — The Genesis of the ores at Tonopah, Nevada. U. S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 104. Edson S. Bastin and Francis B.

Laney. Pp. 47, 16 plates, 22 figs. 1918.

This investigation supplements the work of Spurr and Burgess by

applying to the ores methods of microscopic study not in general use

when these reports were prepared. The Tonopah district is underlain

by a thick series of rocks that are products of volcanic activity and are

believed to be of Tertiary age. In spite of complicated faulting most

of the volcanic formations are rather flat-lying. In 19 15 the Tonopah

production of silver was exceeded in the United States only by that of

Butte.

The bulk of the metal production of the district has come from ore

bodies lying wholly within the Mizpah trachyte. Following are the

more important conclusions:

1. The hypogene or primary ores have been modified in places by

oxidation and enrichment through the agency of the air and oxygenated

solutions originating at or near the surface. The high silver content of

much of the ore obtained in the past and of some ore now remaining is

unquestionably due in part to these processes.

2. There is evidence not only of recent oxidation of the ores but also

of at least one period of ancient oxidation, and supergene sulphide en-

richment was probably an accompaniment of each of these periods.

3. The rich silver ores now being mined at Tonopah are probably

in the main of hypogene or primary origin.

4. Mining has shown that in certain veins the primary sulphides

become less abundant with increasing depth, though the same species

are present; mere increase in depth may account for this change in

3l8 ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY

some veins, for every vein must finally end in depth as well as laterally;

in many veins change in wall rock has been at least a contributing factor.

The veins developed by other deep workings are heavily mineralized

and of high grade, and the geologic evidence is favorable to the per-

sistence of rich primary silver ores to depths considerably greater than

those yet attained in the mining operations.

Although hot ascending waters are encountered in a number of the

deeper workings, there is little evidence that these waters are now de-

positing ores. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Coal south of Mancos, Montezuma County, Colorado.

A. J. Collier. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691 -K. i6 plates, 2

figs. 1919.

There are two coal-bearing formations near Mancos, Colorado, the

Dakota sandstone, in the lowlands north of the town, which yields a very

impure coal of bituminous rank, and the middle formation of the Mesa-

verde group which yields a coal of somewhat lower rank than the Dakota

coal, though relatively pure and much esteemed as a fuel.

The formations have a uniformly low dip to the south. The coal

beds here described are all in the Menefee formation, are bituminous and

are nearly all less than 6 feet thick. Three mines supply local demand.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Lost Creek coal field, Morgan County, Utah.

Frank R. Clark. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-L. Pp. 311-

322, I plate, I fig. 1918.

The Lost Creek coal field lies in Morgan County, Utah, about lo or

12 miles northeast of Devil's Slide Station, on the main line of the Union

Pacific Railroad.

The coal bed, which is lenticular and varies greatly in thickness even

in small areas, is confined to one coal-bearing zone. It is sub-bitumi-

nous and contains much moisture and many impurities in the form of

small lenses or partings of bone and shale.

The rocks exposed in this field comprise two formations which differ

widely in character as well as in age; the older formation is of Jurassic

age and the younger of Tertiary age (Wasatch formation). These

formations are separated by a great unconformity representing a long

interval of time during which the older rocks were minutely folded and

the folds were later truncated by erosion. The rocks that are here

assigned to the Jurassic consist of limestone, shale, and well-indurated

sandstone.

ABSTRACTS: GEOLOGY 319

The rocks overlying the Jurassic unconformably are correlated with

the Wasatch formation of Echo Canyon, and consist of an upper and a

lower conglomerate and intervening sandstone and shale.

The structure of the Jurassic formation is intricate and complicated.

The rocks are highly folded and may be faulted.

The Wasatch beds were laid down on the truncated edges of the Juras-

sic rocks and are now generally flat lying.

The coal in the Lost Creek field occurs in small areas and is generally

too thin to be of economic value.

The lyost Creek coal, being inferior in rank to subbituminous coal of

nearby fields, is not hkely to receive serious attention.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — A geologic reconnaissance for phosphate and coal in south-

eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. AlfrEd Reginald

ScHULTz. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 680. Pp. 8i, 2 plates, 8

figures. 1918.

Describes fully the stratigraphy of the region, embracing a geologic

column from pre-Cambrian to Quaternary; describes the geologic

structure briefly. The occurrence of phosphate rock in several localities

is given in such detail as is possible from reconnaissance examination

only, but it is apparent that in the Snake River Range, Bighole Moun-

tains, and Teton Range, particularly along the east side of Teton Basin,

a large amount of phosphate is present. The analyses show considerable

variation but they indicate the presence of some high-grade ore that

contains approximately the equivalent of 70 per cent of tricalcium phos-

phate. Beds of coal have been found at several localities in this field

and are at present being mined in a few places. Most of the coal beds

that have been exploited are of Cretaceous age, belong to the Frontier

formation, and represent the northward extension of the coal beds

which are so extensively developed and on which active mines are lo-

cated in southern Lincoln County, Wyoming. Beds of coal are also

found in rocks stratigraphically below the Frontier formation, which

probably represent the Bear River coals that have been prospected in

the vicinity of Sage, Wyoming, but on which no active mines are

located. The coal is bituminous and rather free from impurities, and

occurs in beds i to 4 feet thick. According to report some of it has

been coked with fair success. Most of the coal is badly shattered, as

would be expected in a region where so much faulting has taken place.

Several sections and analyses are given. R. W. Stone.

320 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — The Upper Chitina Valley, Alaska. Fred H. MoFFiT.

U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 675. Pp. 80, 13 plates, 2 figs. 191 8.

This report deals largely with the more purely scientific aspects of

the geologic problems, discussing at considerable length the stratig-

raphy and the igneous rocks. It has been proved that the copper-

bearing rocks, which have yielded valuable deposits in the lower Chitina

Valley, occur also in the upper valley. It is also shown that the forma-

tions from which the Nizina placers have derived their gold occur in this

region. On the other hand, no mineral deposits of proved value have

yet been exploited in the upper Chitina basin. It must be said, however,

that comparatively little prospecting has been done in this field.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska. Theodore

Chapin. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 668. Pp. 64, 10 plates, 4 figs.

1918.

Discusses the distribution, age, and correlation of the various geologic

formations in a little-known region, and the development of its land

forms. There has been but little productive mining in the region, and

its geology does not encourage the hope of finding extensive placers,

yet the wide distribution of alluvial gold indicates considerable mineral-

ization. Moreover, the presence of a large number of intrusive igneous

rocks also encourages the hope of finding local mineralization of the

bedrocks. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY.— r/te Nenana coal field, Alaska. G. C. Martin. U. S.

Survey Bull. 664. Pp. 54, 12 plates. 1919-

The Nenana coal field lies southwest of Fairbanks in the northern

foothills of the Alaska Range. The rocks of the Nenana coal field con-

sist of the coal-bearing beds, metamorphic and igneous rocks beneath

the coal -bearing beds, and gravel, sands, and silts above them.

The coal-bearing strata consist of slightly consolidated sands, clays,

and gravels with numerous beds of lignite. These beds are of Tertiary

age. The coal -bearing beds rest unconformably upon Paleozoic (?)

schist and igneous rocks and are overlain unconformably by Quarternary

gravels, 1,500 or 2,000 feet thick.

The structure of the coal areas is fairly simple. The individual coal

areas consist of shallow and gently warped basins in which the beds are

at some places steeply folded or faulted against masses of crystalline

abstracts: ornithol,ogy 321

rock that separate the basins. No intrusive rocks are known to cut

the coal measures.

The coal of the Nenana field occurs in many beds of different thickness,

the thickest measuring perhaps 30 to 35 feet, which are distributed

rather uniformly through the coal measures. At least twelve coal

beds are of workable thickness, and six or more measure over 20 feet.

The analyses show that the coal is a lignite of good grade, of about the

same quality as that of Cook Inlet. R. W. StonE.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of the little yellow

bittern from the Philippine Islands. Alexander Wetmore.

Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 31: 83-84. June 29, 19 18.

The form of Ixobrychus sinensis occurring on the Philippine Islands

proves to be different from all the other races of this species, and,

as it has no distinctive name, is to be known as Ixobrychus sinensis

astrologus Wetmore. It is apparently most closely allied to Ixo-

brychus sinensis bryani (Scale) , from the island of Guam in the Marianne

group, from which it differs chiefly in its smaller size, darker upper

parts, and paler neck. Its type is from Paete, Laguna, Luzon Island,

Philippine Islands, and its range extends from the island of Luzon to

Panay Island in the Philippine Archipelago. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. VI.

Horned larks. Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 345-349

(map). 19 18.

The geographic distribution of the American horned larks extends

from the Arctic Ocean to Bogotd, Colombia. Twenty-three sub-

species are now distinguishable, most of which are resident. Five

subspecies not currently recognized are here revived and their geo-

graphic distribution delineated. These forms are Otocoris alpestris

enthymia, Otocoris alpestris aphrasta, Otocoris alpestris leucansiptila,

Octocoris alpestris, ammophila", and Otocoris alpestris enertera. The map

shows the distribution of all the American forms, and tables indicate

the migration movements of the four forms that are most migratory.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— BiVds of Glacier National Park. Florence Mer-

RiAM Bailey. General information regarding Glacier National

Park, season of 1918. 52-64. 1918.

This list of 184 species and subspecies is reasonably complete for

322 ABSTRACTS: ORNITHOLOGY

the Glacier National Park. It comprises all the species heretofore

authentically reported from the Park, together with many unpublished

data from recent field work in this region. It may be regarded as a

prehminary contribution, and contains only brief notes on each species

and subspecies, including their manner and place of occurrence in the

Park. Harhy C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Bones of birds collected by Theodoor de Booy,

from kitchen-midden deposits in the islands of St. Thomas and St.

Croix. Alexander Wetmore. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54:

513-522, pi. 82. 1918.

A collection of seventy-three fragments of bird bones from kitchen-

midden deposits on the islands of St. Thomas and St. Croix furnishes

a number of interesting records. Among these remains thirteen species

are represented, including three not identifiable more than genericaUy.

Nine species are attributed to the island of St. Thomas, including

five not hitherto recorded. These five are Puffinus Iherminieri, Sula

leucogastris, Fregata magnificens [rothschildi], Anous stolidus, and an

interesting new genus and species of the family Rallidae. The last

mentioned is apparently most closely allied to the genera Ar amides

and Gallirallus, and is here named Nesotrochis debooyi. From St.

Croix six species are recorded, of which Stda piscator [= Sula sula],

Nesotrochis debooyi, and Corvus leucognaphalus were previously unknown

from this island. The last is of particular interest, since no species

of this genus has been recorded in the West Indies farther east than the

island of Porto Rico. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Attracting birds to public and semipublic reser-

vations. W. L. McAtee. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 715: 1-13.

1918.

Birds exert a steady influence in reducing the numbers of injurious

insects and other plant feeders, and should, for this reason, be partic-

ularly useful in public reservations. Birds are beneficial as enemies

of a great variety of pests, and many observers claim that an abundance

of birds on their grounds has kept down all the ordinary enemies of

vegetation. They are, therefore, deserving of careful protection;

and more attention should be given to attracting them to public and

semipublic reservations such as national parks, national forests, national

bird reservations, state parks, zoological gardens, the environs of res-

abstracts: ornithology 323.

ervoirs and water works, boulevards, and roadsides. On the national

reservations much could be done to attract waterfowl by planting

suitable water plants which form a large part of the food of such birds,

and by furnishing for upland game birds coverts which would also

provide abundant food from their fruits. In public parks and

zoological gardens the bird population may be very much increased

by the proper installment of drinking places, bird boxes for breeding

places, and feeding stations during the winter; nor should the planting

of suitable trees and shrubs on parkways, boulevards, and along road-

sides be neglected. Without much doubt the use of bird-attraction

methods on such public and semipublic lands would benefit not only

these areas but, through the increased destruction of injurious insects^

also all the adjoining lands and the country at large.

Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The duck sickness in Utah. Alexander Wet-

more. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 672: 1-26, 191 8.

The annual losses from disease among wild fowl in the Salt Lake

Valley, Utah, became so great that the Biological Survey began, in

1 9 13, an investigation of the causes. Although for many years the

ducks in the Bear River marshes, at the northern end of Great Salt

Lake, have been known to be affected by a peculiar sickness, this did

not become serious until 19 10; but in that year so many thousand

wild ducks died in this region that sportsmen and other persons interested

in wild fowl became much alarmed over the situation. The same con-

dition has been reported from other areas — Owens Lake, California,

Tulare Lake, California, Lake Malheur, Oregon, Lake Bowdoin, Mon-

tana, and the Cheyenne bottoms near Great Bend, Kansas. The

species affected in these various outbreaks comprise 36, and include

many species of ducks, gulls, terns, shore birds, and other water-fowL

together with a few land birds such as Pica pica hudsonia, Xanthocepha-

lus xanthocephalus, Anthus spinoletta rubescens, and even Petrochelidon

lunifrons lunifrons.

The most conspicuous symptoms of this peculiar duck disease in-

dicate a paralysis of the nerve centers controlling the muscular system.

It is first noted in the inability of the bird to fly for any great distance,

and finally in the lack of power to fly at all. The paralysis extends

later to the legs and feet, then to the head and neck, so that the bird

ultimately becomes entirely helples?.

324 abstracts: ornithology

Many theories were advanced regarding the cause of this peculiar

malady. One of these attributed it to a bacterial or protozoan in-

fection. Some persons claimed that the birds were poisoned by sul-

phurous or sulphuric acid from the smelters near Salt Lake City;

and still other people contended that the sickness was due to the waste

waters from the settling ponds of the sugar factories. A number of

additional but much less plausible theories were also suggested. The

investigations finally carried on about Great Salt Lake have clearly

proved that the real cause is a toxic action of certain soluble salts

found in alkali, such as the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The

birds take these into the system by feeding in water heavily charged

with them, in places such as drying flats about the margin of Great

Salt Lake, particularly in the Bear River region. Fresh water is the

only cure, and this has been found effective in all cases of the sickness

where the birds treated were not too far gone. Birds slightly affected

and even many that were entirely helpless recovered nearly always

when simply given moderately fresh water to drink. Since the cause

of this disease over wide areas in the northern part of Great Salt Lake

is the restriction of the inflow of fresh water, the chief possible means

of alleviation must be found in the draining of the mud flats and

the increase, somehow, of the inflow of fresh water.

Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY.— iV<?/^5 on North American birds. VI. Harry C.

Oberholser. Auk 35: 463-467. 1918.

Examination of a series of specimens of the belted kingfisher shows

that Streptoceryle alcyon caurina is a readily recognizable race by

reason of its greater size alone. Although the American bam owl has

been recently made a subspecies of the South American Tyto perlata,

the comparison of a series of specimens with examples of the European

races indicates that the North American bird is only subspecifically

related to them, and that it must therefore stand as Tyto alba pratin-

cola. All the American forms of Certhia are certainly but subspecies,

and are undoubtedly forms of the European Certhia familiaris, not of

Certhia hrachydactyla Brehm, as claimed by a recent author. In a

recent revision of the Paridae by Dr. C. E- Hellmayr, Penthestes ca-

rolinensis was made a subspecies of Penthestes atricapillus, but a close

study of these birds in life and in the cabinet indicates that they are

entirely distinct species. The race of Myrtle warbler described as

abstracts: ORNlTHOIyOGY 325

Deridraica coronata hooveri by Mr. R. C. McGregor has not been cur-

rently recognized, but a thorough study of a large amount of material

proves that it is readily separable by both size and color. The redpoll

known as Acanthis hornemanni exiUpes Coues has recently been claimed

to be a subspecies of Acanthis Unaria, but since the two breed in the

same localities over wide areas they must be specifically distinct.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— MMtowJa ornithologica. IV. Harry C. Ober-

HOLSER. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 31: 125-126. November 29,

1918.

By the change of the generic name Euphonia to Tanagra the current

names of several species and subspecies become untenable. By this

transfer to the genus Tanagra, the Euphonia vittata of Sclater becomes

preoccupied and is here named Tanagra catasticta. For a similar reason

Euphonia aurea pileata Berlepsch is renamed Tanagra aurea cynophora;

Euphonia violacea magna Berlepsch must be known under the new name,

Tanagra violacea pampolla Oberholser; Euphonia laniirostris peruviana

Berlepsch and Stolzmann must be called Tanagra laniirostris zopholega

Oberholser; and Euphonia olivacea Desmarest must be replaced by

Tanagra minuta (Cabanis). H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. 11. The

scarlet and Louisiana tanagers. Harry C. OberhoIvSER. Bird

Lore 20: 16-19. 1918.

This paper contains tables of migration data for both spring and

fall, together with the summer and winter distribution of Piranga

erythromelas and Piranga ludoviciana. These data are from localities

in the United States and Canada, and, as in the previous paper, cover

the earliest, latest, and average dates of arrival and departure in both

spring and autumn. ^ H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region [October to November, IQ17].

Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 22. 19 18.

During October and November, 19 17, notwithstanding the unusually

cold weather, few northern birds made their appearance. Strangely

enough some birds remained later than is common, and one species,

Pisobia minutilla, broke all its records, remaining until November

22, nearly a month beyond its previous latest date. On the other hand,

326 abstracts: ornithology

Larus argentatus appeared on November 21, which is four days ahead

of its previous eariiest record. Some species were more than ordinarily-

numerous, among which might be mentioned Sturnella magna magna

and Oxyechus vociferus.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Annotated catalogue of a collection of birds made

by Mr. Copley Amory, Jr., in northeastern Siberia. J. H. Riley.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 607-626. 1918.

Mr. Copley Amory, Jr., who accompanied the Koren Expedition

to the Kolyma River of northeastern Sibera in 19 14, made a collection

of 228 birds. These were obtained at localities ranging from near the

mouth of the Kolyma River to the Tomus Chaja Mountains, and are

referable to 76 species and subspecies. This paper is an annotated cata-

logue of these, and includes the localities and dates where each species

was observed or collected, together with remarks on plumage and the

status of races, and Mr. Amory's field notes on habits and distribution.

Some of the interesting results of the study of this collection are the sub-

stantiation of Mr. G. M. Mathews' division of Canutus canutus into

three subspecies ; of the recently described Budytes flavus plexus Thayer

& Bangs; and of Otocoris alpestris euroa Thayer & Bangs. It is also

worthy of note that the Lapland longspur occurring in the Kolyma dis-

trict is much nearer Calcarius lapponicus alascensis than to Calcarius

lapponicus coloratus. Harry C. OberholsER.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of Cyanolaemus

clemenciae. Harry C. Oberholser. Condor 20: 181-182. Sep-

tember, 1918.

Examination of a series of Cyanolaemus clemenciae discloses the

existence of a hitherto unrecognized subspecies, which will stand as

Cyanolaemus clemenciae bessophilus. It differs from Cyanolaemus

clemenciae clemenciae in its shorter bill, duller upper parts, and paler

lower surface. It ranges from southeastern Arizona, southwestern

New Mexico, central western Texas, south to the State of Chihuahua,

Mexico, and in winter to Vera Cruz. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new Lanius from Lower Cali-

fornia. Harry C. Oberholser. Condor 20: 209-210. Novem-

ber, 19 18.

The breeding shrike from the southern two-thirds of Lower Cali-

fornia, including the adjacent islands, proves to be subspecifically dis-

abstracts: entomology 327

tinct from all the other races of the species. It is here named Lanius

ludovicianus nelsoni in honor of Mr. E. W. Nelson, the Chief of the

Biological Survey. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— r/ze summer birds of the St. Matthew Island Bird

Reservation. G. Dallas Hanna. Auk 34: 403-410. October,

1917.

The St. Matthew Island Bird Reservation consists of three islands —

St. Matthew, Hall, and Pinnacle. St. Matthew Island, which is

the largest of these, is some 22 miles long by two to three miles wide,

and rises to an altitude of 1800 feet. The weather-worn rocks are

either devoid of vegetation or covered with a scant growth of mosses

and other low plants. The information presented here was gathered

on a trip of investigation for the Biological Survey in July, 1916. Al-

together 37 species and subspecies are now known from these islands

including four reported only by Dr. A. K. Fisher in 1899. Of all

these only eight are land birds. Brief notes on the abundance and

manner of occurrence are added under each species. The beautiful

McKay snowflake, which is confined to these islands in the breeding

season, is, it is satisfactory to note, still here the most abundant land

bird of the level areas. Harry C. Oberholser.

ENTOMOLOGY. — A revision of the North American Gracilariidae from

the standpoint of venation. Chas. R. Ely. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash.

19: 29-77, P^s. 6-9. 1918 (issued Sept. 1919).

This paper presents a new arrangement for the North American

Microlepidoptera of the family Gracilariidae. It contains a generic

synopsis in which great stress is laid on the venation, especially the

position of vein 1 1 in the fore wings. Three new genera are charac-

terized and the other genera known to occur in our fauna are briefly

described. A catalog of the species and a list of the food plants of the

larvae adds to the usefulness of the paper. S. A. RohwER.

ENTOMOLOGY. — Idiogastra, a new suborder of Hymenoptera with

notes on the immature stages of Oryssus. S. A. RohwER and

R. A. CusHMAN. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 19: 89-98, pis. 11 and

12. 1918 (issued Sept. 1919).

The oryssoid Hymenoptera have long been recognized as a well-

defined group but with characters which indicated that they are in-

328 abstracts: paleontology

termediate between the generalized and specialized forms. The un-

usual larva and larval habits, together with adult characters, caused the

authors to remove the oryssoids from the suborder Chalastogastra and

place them in a new suborder. The paper includes detailed descrip-

tions of the larva and pupa of Oryssus occidentalis Cresson and gives

diagnostic characters for the new suborder. One unusual feature of the

group is the long-exserted ovipositor of the pupa which in the adult

becomes concealed within the body, extending anteriorly in an inverted

position into the prothorax where it rights itself and follows nearly

the same cotuse back to the apex of the abdomen where it is hidden

within the sheath. S. A. R.

ENTOMOLOGY. — A contribution to the biology of North American

Diptera. Chas. T. Greene. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 19:

146-157, pis. 17-20. 1 918 (issued Sept. 1919).

This paper contains detailed descriptions of the larvae and pupae of

six species of flies, which are rather common in the District of Colum-

bia, and includes notes on the habits of the immature stages. Good

illustrations by the author accompany the article. S. A. RoHWER.

PALEONTOLOGY. — Pliocene Foraminifera of the Coastal Plain of the

United States. Joseph Augustine Cushman. U. S. Geol.

Survey Bull. 676. Pp. 98, 31 plates. 191 8.

Two Pliocene formations are represented: The Waccamaw forma-

tion and the Caloosahatchee marl. Nearly all the species in all the

material are identical with those found at the present time along our

Atlantic coast, but those from the Waccamaw formation of

North and South Carolina and also some of those from Shell Creek,

Florida, are much more similar to the material now found north of Cape

Hatteras, while the Caloosahatchee River material represents a typically

tropical shoal-water fauna such as may be found about southern Florida

and in shallow water about the West Indies.

The species of Foraminifera found in the later Miocene of the Coastal

Plain of the eastern United States are described or recorded. An at-

tempt has been made to include all records of the Foraminifera reported

from the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain from Alabama to New Jersey.

The Miocene Foraminifera are not susceptible of so definite a division

into faunas as the Pliocene Foraminifera. The species of the Maryland

abstracts: mycology 329

and Virginia region are either identical with or allied to species now

occurring in comparatively shallow water in the same general region.

R. W. Stonb.

MYCOLOGY. — Rhizoctonia in lawns and pastures. C. V. Piper and

H. S. CoE. Phytopathology 9: 89-92. February, 1919.

Brown patches in fine turf have long been known, and, as they com-

monly occur in midsummer, have usually been ascribed to "sun scald."

Observation of the spots as they occurred in 19 14 near Philadelphia

furnished strong evidence that the cause was an organism, but the

pathologists who studied specimens failed to disclose the causal agent.

The abundant occurrence of the trouble in the vicinity of Washington

in 191 6 and since gave opportunity for study. The brown spots usually

appear in summer with the advent of hot moist weather and are most

conveniently studied on well-kept turf. The spots are at first small,

but increase rapidly in a concentric fashion, reaching a definite size

varying from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet in diameter, and then cease

spreading. In the early morning a fine white mycelium may be ob-

served over the discolored turf. Cultures from this as well as from

sclerotia on the stems proved the fungus to be the well-known Rhiz-

octonia solani. From artificial culture it was easy to induce the forma-

tion of brown patches in grass turf under favorable weather conditions.

The fungus is known to attack an enormous list of herbaceous plants,

but strangely enough has never been reported as attacking any grass,

although there is one record of the occurrence of the mature form of the

fungus (Corticum vagum) on maize.

Rhizoctonia is, however, very common in lawns and pastures and has

been observed by the authors in many places from Minnesota to Maine

and southward to the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. Among the plants

attacked are redtop, red fescue, Rhode Island bent, carpet bent, velvet

bent, Kentucky bluegrass, rough-stalked meadow grass, as well as many

lawn weeds. Crab-grass and Bermuda grass seem perfectly immune,

as is also white clover.

Most of the grasses slowly recover in the brown patches with the

advent of cool weather in fall, but some are completely killed. Certain

strains of carpet bent and velvet bent grown in pure cultures near

Washington are especially injured by the disease but others are com-

pletely immune. Spraying at intervals with Bordeaux mixture helps

protect the grass tiu^, but such applications need to be frequent.

C. V. P.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. H. Foster Bain resigned from the Bureau of Mines in May, and

will sail from Vancouver on June 12 to continue his explorations in

China for New York mining interests.

Professor Joseph Barrell, professor of structural geology at Yale

University, and a nonresident member of the Academy, died on May

4, 1 91 9, in his fiftieth year. Professor Barrell was born at New Provi-

dence, New Jersey, December 15, 1869. His early work was in mining

engineering and in the geological department of Lehigh University,

following which he entered the geological faculty of Yale in 1903.

Taking up geology from the view-point of the engineer, he made many

contributions to the science in the fields of structural geology, meta-

morphism, petrology of the igneous and metamorphic rocks, and sedi-

mentation and peneplanation in their relation to the larger problems

of the movements of the earth's crust.

Lieut. Col. Alfred H. Brooks, geologist in charge of Alaskan Mineral

Resources, U. S. Geological Survey, who has been with the American

Army in France since the summer of 191 7, returned to Washington

on April 28. He has received his discharge from the Army and is

again taking up his geological work with the Survey.

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,

returned in April from a visit to Texas, where he inaugurated explora-

tions of aboriginal workshops and village sites near Austin, Round

Rock, and Gatesville. The work is being continued by Prof. J. E.

Pearce of the University of Texas.

Mr. James M. Hill, Jr., is on leave of absence from the Geological

Survey. He sailed from New Orleans early in April and is a member of

a party engaged in prospecting for platinum in Colombia.

Dr. Walter Hough left Washington in May for Arizona, to conduct

ethnological and archeological explorations in the White Mountain

Apache Reservation for the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Mr. Charles M. Hoy, of the National Museum, left Washington on

April 28 for Australia, to collect animals and other biological material

for the Museum.

Mr. Neil M. Judd left Washington on May 14 for Utah, to make an

archeologic reconnaissance of the Paria plateau, near the Grand Canyon

of the Colorado.

Dr. J. C. Martin, assistant curator in the division of economic

geology of the National Museum, resigned in May to accept a position

with the Geological Survey.

330

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 33 1

Mr. Earl V. Shannon has been appointed Assistant Curator in the

Department of Geology of the National Museum.

Capt. D. L. Williams, formerly of the Chemical Warfare Service,

and stationed at the American University Experiment Station, is now

in Utica, New York.

Major O. B. Zimmerman, formerly liaison officer between the Army

Engineer Corps and the Bureau of Standards, is now with the Inter-

national Harvester Company in Chicago.

ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

(Figures in parenthesis indicate term of office)

Chairman of the Council: James R. Angell.

division of physical sciences

Chairman: C. E. Mendenhall; Representatives of American Astro-

nomical Society: W. W. Campbell (2), H. N. Russell (i), Joel

Stebbins (3); American Physical Society: H. A. Bumstead (i),.

William Duane (2), Irving Langmuir (2), Ernest Merritt (3),

R. A. Millikan (i), E. B. Wilson (3); American Mathematical Society:

E. W. Brown (i), L. E. Dickson (3), H. S. White (2) ; Members at large

(nominated by the Division): J. S. Ames (2), L. A. Bauer (3), Wil-

liam Bowie (2), Henry Crew (i), C. F. Marvin (i), Max Mason

(3), M. I. Pupin (i), S. W. Stratton (2), A. Trowbridge (3).

division of engineering

Chairman: Henry M. Howe; Vice-Chairman: Galen H. Clev-

Enger ; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Arthur M. Greene

(3), W. F. M. Goss (i), D. S. Jacobus (2); American Institute of Elec-

trical Engineers: Comfort A. Adams (2), F. B. Jewett (3), W. R.

Whitney (i); American Institute of Mining Engineers: HennEN

Jennings (2), Philip N. Moore (i), Joseph W. Richards (3); Ameri-

can Society of Civil Engineers: Anson Marston (3), H. H. Porter

(i), George S. Webster (2); American Society for Testing Materials:

A. A. Stevenson (i); American Society of Illuminating Engineers:

Edward P. Hyde (2); Western Society of Engineers: Arthur N.

Talbot (3) ; Society of Automotive Engineers: Charles F. Kettering

(i); Members at large: Henry M. Howe (i), Galen H. Clevenger

(2), Edward Dean Adams (3), John J. Carty (2), Gang Dunn (2),

Van H. Manning (2), Charles F. Rand (i), E. G. Spilsbury (i),

Bradley Stoughton (3), S. W. Stratton (3), Ambrose Swasey (i),

William R. Walker (3).

division of chemistry and chemical technology

Chairman: W. D. Bancroft; Vice Chairman: Julius Stieglitz;

American Chemical Society: C. L. Alsberg (i), W. D. Bancroft (i),

C. G. Derick (i), J. M. Francis (3), E. C. Franklin (2), W. F. Hille-

brand (3), John Johnston (2), Julius Stieglitz (3), J. E. Teeple

(2); American Electrochemical Society: Colin G. Fink (3); American

332 SClENTnfIC NOXeS AND NEWS

Institute of Chemical Engineers: Hugh K. Moore (i); American

Ceramic Society: Albert V. Bleininger (2) ; Members at large: C. H.

Herty (3), G. A. HuLETT (3), A. B. Lamb (2), A. A. Noyes (i), C. L.

Parsons (2), E. W. Washburn (i).

DIVISION of geology AND GEOGRAPHY

Vice Chairman: E. B. Mathews; Association of American Geog-

raphers: W. M. Davis (2), N. M. Fenneman (3), J. Russell Smith

(i); American Geographical Society: Isaiah Bowman (2); Geological

Society of America: J. M, Clarke (2), Whitman Cross (3), R. A.

Daly (2), H. E. Gregory (i), A. C. Lawson (3), C. K. Leith (i);

Paleontological Society: T. Wayland Vaughan (i); National Geo-

graphic Society: Gilbert Grosvenor (3); Members at large: Ralph

Arnold (2), Eliot Blackwelder (3), A. H. Brooks (2), A. L. Day

(3), Ellsworth Huntington (2), Douglas Johnson (i), E. B.

Mathews (3), R. A. F. Penrose, Jr. (i), David White (i).

division of biology and agriculture

Chairman: C. E. McClung; Vice Chairman: L. R. Jones; Amer-

ican Society of Agronomy: Charles V. Piper (3); American Society

of Bacteriologists: Samuel C. Prescott (i); Botanical Society of

America: William Crocker (2), A. S. Hitchcock (i), L. R. Jones

(3) ; Ecological Society of America: W. M. Wheeler (2) ; American

Society of Economic Entomologists: P. J. Parrott (3) ; Society of

American Foresters: Barrington Moore (3) ; American Genetics

Association: G. N. Collins (i); American Society for Horticultural

Science: U. P. Hedrick (i); American Phy to pathological Society:

•G. R. Lyman (2); Society of American Zoologists: M. F. Guyer (2),

F. R. LiLLiE (i), G. H. Parker (3); Members at large: I. W. Bailey

(i), B. E. Livingston (3), C. E. McClung (i), C. F. Marbut (3),

A. G. Mayor (2), H. F. Moore (2), J. R. Murlin (3), W. Osgood (2),

A. F. Woods (i).

Prof. J. C. Merriam will be acting chairman of the Council until

July I, 1 91 9. Major A. O. Leuschner is acting chairman of the Divi-

sion of Physical vSciences until July i, during the absence of Dr. C. E.

Mendenhall as Scientific Attach^ to the American Embassy in Lon-

don. Mr. G. H. Clevenger is acting chairman of the Division of

Engineering during the absence of Dr. H. M. Howe as Scientific At-

tache to the American Embassy in Paris. Prof. E. W. Washburn

is acting chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Tech-

nology until July i, during the period of Col. W. D. Bancroft's service

with the Army. No chairman has been elected for the Division of

Geology and Geography. The organization of the Division of Medical

Sciences and the Division of Anthropology and Psychology has not yet

been completed.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 JUNE 19, 1919 No. 12

ANTHROPOLOGY. — -Two proto-Algonquian phonetic shifts.

Truman Michelson, Bureau of American Ethnology.^

The following paper will eventually appear in elaborated form

in the International Journal of American Linguistics, so that this

presentation is to be regarded as an abstract. Hence it is that

the proofs are given concisely, and certain unimportant details

are passed over.

Some years ago^ I pointed out that in Fox the interchange of

-aw- and -0- was of regular occurrence. At the time it escaped

me that -aw- and -a- also interchanged; and that whether -0-

or -a- interchanged with -aw- was dependent on the particular

consonants that immediately followed. Examples are: d'wapi-

witA.'mawaHc'''' "then he began telling them," kewltAmon'''' "I tell

thee," nfwltAmdg^'^''' "he will tell me," neme'tciwitAmd' gundn""^

"he told us (excl.) plainly;" pe'se'tawin"*' "listen thou to me,"

krpe"setdn"' "I shall hsten to thee," nl'pe'setag'""'" "he will

listen to me;" d'tota'wiyAn'^'' "the way you (sing.) treated me,"

d'td'tondn"*' "the way I treated you (sing.)," dHo'tdguHd'

"the way he was treated by;" d'ponine' 'kawdHc' "then he ceased

pursuing them," kl' pemi'ne' kdn""^' "I shall pursue thee,"

^^wiw^^fea'^o""^' "he was pursued," Acd'Ani pemi'ne'kdg^'^'^' "he

was pursued by the Sioux;" kene' ckina'wipen^'" "you hate us,"

kene'ckino'n"'' "I hate thee," kene'ckindgo'g''' "they hate thee;"

kVpydtawip'^^" "you will bring it to me," kepydtonep''"'^' "I

bring it to you," d'pydtoHc'' "when he brings it," pydtof' "if

he brings it," kVpydtdgog'''^ "they will bring it to thee;"

1 Printed with permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

* This Journal 4: 403, 404. 1914.

333

334 MICHELSON: ALGONQUIAN phonetic SHIIfTS

keneno'tawi "dost thou understand me," awita ncnoHo'fiAgu's""

"he might not understand us (incl.)," keneno'ton^^' "I under-

stand thee," keneno'tdg^'^'^' "he understands thee;" keneno'tdtlpen'"'''

"we (incl.) understand each other;" d'mdnd"kawuHc'' "then

many attacked him" [really an independent passive in

formation], d'mdnd'^kdguHc'^ "then he was attacked by many;"

keteminawdf" "if he takes pity on him," keteminawi "take pity

on him," ketemino' nagd^^^ "I take pity on you," kctemind'k'^

"he takes pity on thee," nenl'cwiketemind'gdpen""' "we (excl.)

are both pitied." From the above it follows that -aw- appears

as -0- before -n-, -t-, [in final syllables], -He-, -'k-; as -d- before

-g-, -t- [normally], -'s-. I have evidence to show that -aw- also

has the same shifts before the same consonants (or their phonetic

correspondents) in Cree, Sauk, Kickapoo, Shawnee, Ojibwa,

Potawatomi, Ottawa, Algonkin, Peoria, Delaware, Penobscot,

and Passamoquoddy. Hence it is quite certain that these shifts

took place in the Algonquian parent language. I call attention to

the fact that this is the first time in the history of American lin-

guistics that phonetic shifts in the parent language of any Amer-

ican linguistic stock have been pointed out.

I have previously shown that n (or its phonetic equivalent)

changes to c (or its phonetic equivalent) before i which is the ini-

tial sound of a new morphological unit in Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo,

Shawnee, Menomini, Ojibwa, Algonkin, and Peoria. The change

of 5 to c under the same conditions occurs in Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo,

and Ojibwa. The interchange of a and d is found in Sauk, Fox,

Kickapoo, Shawnee, and Peoria. Further researches may show

that these shifts occur in other Algonquian languages also, and so

perhaps may Ukewise be referred to the Algonquian parent lan-

guage. The contraction of -wa- to -o- occurs in a number of

Algonquian languages, but the evidence of Cree is unfavorable

to the theory that this particular shift is to be ascribed to the

Algonquian parent language. As the shift occurs in languages

which are geographically all contiguous it is possible the shift

has simply spread, so as to be practically pan- Algonquian rather

than proto- Algonquian.^

3 See this Journal 4: 402. 1914; Amer. Authropol. n. ser. 15: 470. 1913; Inter-

nat. Journ, Amer. Ling, i: 50. 1917.

AUSTIN: coil, ANTENNAS 335

RADIOTELEGRAPHY.- — Quantitative experiments with coil an-

tennas in radiotelegraphy. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval

Radio Laboratory.

The use of large inductance coils for sending, receiving, and

direction determination was first proposed by the late Professor

Braun,' who carried out experiments at Strassburg on signals

from the Eiffel Tower and gave the general theory of a coil used

as an antenna.^

Received current measurements, such as the laboratory made

some years ago for the verification of the theory of transmission

between ordinary antennas, have now been made for closed

coils. According to the theory, a rectangular vertical coil of

A^ turns, height H and length L, is equivalent to two vertical

antennas of effective height NH at a distance apart L, with their

respective currents in opposite phase. Taking into account

the phase difference due to the difference in path, either in sending

to a point p, or in receiving from p, the effect will be the same

as that of one antenna of height NH multiplied by the phase

L

difference 2 tt t^ cos d where 6 is the angle between the plane of

A

the coil and the direction of ^.^

Now, the expression for the received current in a receiving

antenna, with an antenna sending sustained waves, is, disre-

garding absorption:"^

S S Y / \

where I^ is the sending antenna current, h^ the effective height

of the sending antenna, h,^ that of the receiving antenna, X the

wave length, d the distance, and i? the receiving antenna resis-

tance, expressed in amperes, ohms, and meters. If either or

both of the antennas is replaced by a coil, we must replace its

* Braun, F. Jahrb. Draht. Telegr. 8: 1-132. 1914.

^ Mr. KoivSTER, of the Bureau of Standards, has developed an excellent direction

finder on this principle.

' Zenneck. Wireless Telegraphy. 1915. p. 234 and note 307, p. 425.

* ZennEck. Wireless Telegraphy. 1915. p. 248; Bur. Stand. Bull. 11: 70.

1914-

336 AUSTIN: COIL ANTENNAS

L

height by NH2 tt t^ cos 6 where NH is the height of the coil times

the number of turns, and we find for a

Coil Sending and Antenna Receiving

IsN,H, Ls h,

Ir = 120T 73 — ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ P"

IsN,H,LA

In the same way for an

Antenna Sending and Coil Receiving

(2)

Ir = 2369 j^2J^ cos 0, (3)

and for

Coil Sending and Coil Receiving^

IsNsHsLJV,H,L,

I^ = 14880 3JT-, cos 9^ cos 0y. (4)

The effective height h of an ordinary antenna equivalent to

any coil NH may be expressed if ^ = 0, by

NHL area X turns

h = 2Tr — ^ = 2 TT ^^^ • (5)

The equations show that, other things being equal, if an antenna

be used, both for sending and receiving, the received current falls

off as the wave length, while if one coil be used, it falls off as the

square of the wave length, and with two coils as the cube of the

wave length.

The value of the constant in the equation for a sending coil

requires some consideration. The value given assumes that as

the radiated field grounds itself, it takes the form of a field

formed by the coil and its image as in the case of an antenna.

This is probably true, at least for a coil whose dimensions are

large compared with its distance from the ground. In the case

of reception, this question does not enter.

^ Dr. Dellinger, of the Bureau of Standards, has published coil formulas in

practical units with slightly different constants in a confidential report for the

Signal Corps, Radio Transmission Formulas, July 191 7.

AUSTIN: coil. ANTENNAS

337

Signals from Arlington have been measured at the laboratory

on two coils. One was a crossed coil direction finder mounted

on the roof of one of the buildings, having 56 closely wound

turns, a height of 1.82 meters and a length measured between

the planes of the front and back vertical sections of 1.29 meters.

The second coil supported from masts, had 7 turns 80 cm. apart

and measured 21.6 X 24.4 meters, 6 being 42°. The results are

shown in tables i and 2.

TABLE I

Arlington Arc Received at Laboratory on Direction Finder

TABLE 2

Arlington Arc Received at Laboratory on Large Con,

TABLE 3

Large Con, at Laboratory Received on Antenna at Arlington

Table 3 shows the current received on the antenna at Ar-

lington from the large coil. at the laboratory excited by a coupled-

338

AUSTIN: COIL ANTENNAS

bulb circuit. The received currents in all three cases were mea-

sured with shunted detectors and galvanometers,^ calibrated and

tested for proportionality between deflection and current squared

in each experiment.

In each of the tables, for the sake of comparison, the results

are reduced to a common value of sending current and a common

receiving resistance.

The observed values in tables i and 2 are seen to be uniformly

larger than the calculated. This is supposed to be due to an

action of the coil as an antenna since an increase in the length of

TABLE 4

Comparison op Antennas and Cons

the leads increases this difference. When the lower side of the

coil is on or close to the ground, there is also an effect due to

radio frequency earth currents just as in the case of the ground

antenna. The reason for the increased error at the shorter wave

lenghts is not yet clear. The agreement of observed and cal-

culated values in the case of the coil sending (table 3) is all

that could be desired. From this, sending from a coil and re-

8 This Journai, 8: 569. 1918.

AUSTIN: COIL, ANTEJNNAS 339

ceiving on an antenna, seems to offer the most accm'ate method

for determining antenna effective height.^

Table 4 gives the effective heights of antennas which are

equivalent either for sending or receiving to coils of various area

turns, calculated from equation 5,

The observations in this paper have been taken for the most

part by W. B. Grimes, Chief Electrician (Radio), assistant in the

laboratory.

^ In experiments of this kind incorrect results may be obtained, if observations are

made too near the natural wave length of the coil, as in the case the current distri-

bution is no longer uniform on account of the effect of the distributed capacity.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Seneca fiction, legends, and myths. Collected by

Jeremiah Curtin and J. N. B. Hewitt. Paper accompanying

the 32d Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Pp. 36-83. 1918.

This paper consists of 58 stories classified as "fiction," 21 legends,

14 traditions, 4 tales, 9 myths, and i note on native medicine collected

from the Seneca Indians on the Cattaragus reservation in 1883, 1886,

and 1887 by the late Jeremiah Curtin; 31 legends and myths of much

greater average length obtained by Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt of the Bureau

of American Ethnology in the autumn of 1896, the last three accom-

panied by native Seneca texts; 23 pages of notes; and a short but im-

portant interpretative introduction of 29 pages. In this last Mr.

Hewitt gives a history of the Seneca tribe, describes and explains the

material in general terms, laying stress upon the importance of dis-

tinguishing true myths and legends from popular and even indecent

tales not confined by any means to primitive peoples; attempts and

outline of Mr. Curtin's views regarding primitive mythology; and

concludes with a short but interesting exposition of his own opinions

upon that subject. J. R. S wanton.

ELECTRICITY. — Electrical characteristics and testing of dry cells.

Bur. Stand. Circ. No. 79. Pp. 44. 19 19.

This circular summarizes the available information on dry cells. A

brief description of the materials and methods of construction, and

elementary theory of the operation of the cells is given. The various

sizes and kinds of dry cells on the American market are described.

The electrical characteristics of the cells and methods of testing them

are discussed. In an appendix are given the proposed specifications

for dry cells which have been prepared by the Bureau.

G. W. ViNAL.

340

ABSTRACTS: OPTICS 341

METALLURGY. — Conservation of tin in bearing metals, bronzes, and

solders. G. K. Burgess and R. W. Woodward. Bur. Stand.

Tech. Paper No. 109. Pp. 9. 19 18.

This paper gives practical suggestions for the conservation of tin in

bearing metals, bronzes, and solders; much of the data having been

obtained from questionnaires sent to representative manufacturers and

users of the above named alloys. Tables are given showing the chemical

composition and physical properties of many of the suggested alloys

and also for service tests of genuine babbitt and a high lead bearing

metal. Tentative recommendations for standard grades of bearing

metal are also included.

Proper solders for various industrial uses are recommended and a new

solder consisting of a preponderance of lead with small amounts of

tin and cadmium is described. R. W. W.

PHYSICS. — Preliminary determination of the thermal expansion of

molybdenum. Lloyd W. Schad and Peter Hidnert. Bur.

Stand. Sci. Paper No. 332. Pp. 9. 19 19.

The thermal expansion of an exceptionally pure specimen of molyb-

denum (99.85 per cent) was determined from — 142° to +305° C. A

short description of the apparatus and of the method used in obtaining

high and low temperatures is given.

The results are shown in the form of tables, from which were com-

puted, by the method of least squares, the following two empirical

equations which satisfy the observations:

Li = Lo(i + 5.15 i X io~® + 0.00570 f^ X 10"^) and

Li = Lo(i + 5.01 t X io-« + 0.00138 t- X io-«)

where L< is the length of the specimen at any temperature t within

the proper range; in the first case +39° to — 142° C, and in the second

case +19° to +305° C. The probable error of the length computed

from these equations is less than 3 X io~^ per unit length. P. H.

OPTICS. — Optical conditions accompanying the striae which appear as

imperfections in optical glass. A. A. Michelson. Bur. Stand.

Sci. Paper No. 333. Pp. 5. 1919.

Striae are conveniently divided into two classes; first those which

appear as isolated bright streaks ; second, those in which such streaks are

numerous, forming bright irregularly continuous bands. Optical in-

vestigation with two forms of interferometers show that the former

342 abstracts: technology

are due to laminae of smaller index and of thickness of the order of a

hundredth of a millimeter. They do not seriously affect the optical

qualities of lenses or prisms. The second class of striae in general does

not affect the optical performance ; but, in the case of lenses and

plane parallel plates, etc., in which the light traverses the striae at

approximately normal incidence, the performance may be quite as good

as with a perfect specimen. A. A. M.

TECHNOLOGY. — The table of unit displacement oj commodities.

Bur. Stand. Circ. No. 77. Pp. 67. 1919.

This circular showing (i) the number of pounds per cubic foot as

packed for shipment, (2) the number of cubic feet of space required for a

short ton, (3) the number of cubic feet of space required for a long ton,

and (4) the manner in which the material is packed, lists several hundred

commercial commodities alphabetically. Appendixes give special

information concerning automobiles, canned fruits and vegetables, and

fresh fruits and vegetables.

This table has been prepared to meet an immediate demand for such

information and will be revised and augmented from time to time as

further data are obtained. The Bureau will, therefore, be pleased to

receive information, criticisms, and suggestions from those interested

in the table. H. M. RoESKR.

TECHNOLOGY.— 5o/(f^r5 for aluminum. Bur. Stand. Circ. No.

78. Pp. 9, pis. 2. 1919.

The use, serviceability, method of application, and composition of

solders for aluminum are discussed in the light of special tests made

at the Bureau of Standards on commercial and other compositions of

solders. All soldered joints are subject to rapid corrosion and disinte-

gration and are not recommended except where protection from cor-

rosion is provided. Suitable compositions for solders are obtained

by the use of tin with the addition of zinc or both zinc and aluminum

within wide percentage Umits. Solders are best applied without a

jBlux. The higher the temperature at which the "tinning" is done,

the better the adhesion of the tinned layer. A perfect union between

solder and aluminum is very difficult to obtain, but the joint between

previously tinned surfaces may be made by ordinary methods and with

ordinary soft solder. Only the tinning mixture need be special. Tables

of the composition of many solders are given. J. F. M^yer.

ABSTRACTS: MAMMAL,OGY 343

TECHNOLOGY. — Tests of hollow building tiles. Bernard D. Hath-

cocK and Edward SkiIvIvMAN. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No.

120. Pp. 29. 1919.

These tests were made upon the types and sizes of tiles most commonly

used in practice, and were carried out with the idea of studying their

strengths and the relations existing between their various properties,

especially those introduced by the kinds of clays used, the method of

manufacture, and the positions in which they are laid. The principal

tests discussed are those of compression and absorption which together

total approximately 250. Strain readings were taken upon some with

an 8-inch Berry strain gage for moduli determinations. The testing

machines used were of the Olsen Universal type.

The results obtained show the loads at incipient failures, the maxi-

mum compressive strengths, and the moduli of elasticity of the various

types and size of the tiles tested on end, on edge, and flat. Relation-

ships are established between the moduli of elasticity and the com-

pressive strengths, the colors of the tiles Ind their compressive strengths,

the colors of the tiles and their moduli of elasticity, the percentages

of absorption and the compressive strengths, and the percentages of

absorption and the colors of the tiles. B. D. H.

MAMMALOGY. — East African mammals in the United States Na-

tional Museum. Part 2. Rodentia, Lagomorpha, and Tubuli-

dentata. N. Holuster. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 99, part 2.

Pp. i-x, 1-184, pis. 1-44, fig. I. May 16, 1919.

This second volume of a report on the mammals from Eastern Equa-

torial Africa contained in the collections of the National Museum

lists 4,863 specimens of rodents, hares, and aardvarks, all but 100 of

which were collected by the Smithsonian African Expedition, under the

direction of the late Col. Theodore Roosevelt, 1909-10, and by the Paul

J. Rainey African Expedition, 1911-12. The richness of the National

Museum collection of East African mammals is well illustrated by the

fact that in the two parts of this work so far published, dealing only

with six orders of mammals, are listed 6,696 specimens, including 142

types; representing 349 valid species and subspecies. The plan of

arrangement of the text adopted in the first volume has been followed

throughout, and the geographical limits are the same. A list of all

localities with index references to an accompanying map; generic and

specific synonymies; type localities and location of type specimens;

critical notes on distribution, habits, nomenclature, and taxonomy;

lists of stations where each form was collected; and full tables of

measurements of specimens are included. The skulls of all type speci-

mens are figured natural size. It is hoped that a third volume, contain-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

The 127th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Interior Department the evening of Friday, June 7, 191 8, the

occasion being an address by Professor William S. Franklin, of the

Department of ^hysics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam-

bridge, Massachusetts, entitled Some needed lines of research in me-

teorology. This address, which was informally discussed by Messrs.

C. F. Marvin and W. J. Humphreys, has since been pubhshed in the

Monthly Weather Review for October, 1918 (46: 449-453. 1919),

under the title, A much needed change of emphasis in meteorological re-

search.

The 128th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Chem-

ical Society of Washington at the Administration Building of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, the evening of Thursday, Janu-

ary 9, 1919. Dr. F. B. Power, retiring President of the Chemical

Society, delivered an illustrated address on The distribution and char-

acter of some of the odorous principles of plants. This lecture has sub-

sequently been published in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering

Chemistry (11: 344-352. April, 1919).

The 129th meeting of the Academy, the twenty-first Annual Meet-

ing, was held at the Administration Building of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington, the evening of Tuesday, January 14, 1919, with

President Lyman J. Briggs in the chair. The minutes of the last

annual meeting were read and approved.

The Corresponding Secretary, Dr. R. B. Sosman, reported that the

membership on January i, 1919, consisted of 6 honorary members,

4 patrons, and 506 members, one of whom was a life member. The

total membership was 516, of whom 315 resided in or near the District

of Columbia, 193 in other parts of the United States and in Canada,

and 8 in foreign countries. The net gain for the year was 37. During

the year the Academy lost by death 8 members: Henry Adams,

March 27, 191 8; Frank Baker, September 30, 191 8; Grove Karl

Gilbert, May i, 1918; John Harper Long, June 14, 191 8; William

Battle Phillips, June 7, 191 8; Richard Rathbun, July 16, 191 8;

Charles Richard Van Hise, November 19, 191 8; and Henry Shaler

Williams, July 31, 191 8. The Board of Managers held 12 meetings

during the year. The principal matters of general interest acted on by

the Board have been reported in the Journal. Among these matters

344

PROCKEDINGS : WASHINGTON ACADEMY 345

of general interest was the adoption by the Board of a definite limit

of resident membership based upon the scientific population of Wash-

ington as recorded in the "Red Book" of the Academy. The mem-

bership is limited by this action to twenty per cent of the scientific

population, or one in five. This, it is believed, will give additional

emphasis to the fact that the Academy recognizes, by election to its mem-

bership, original research and scientific or engineering attainment.

The Committee on Membership has given a great deal of time and care

to the selection of candidates during the past year, and it is fitting

that this public acknowledgement should be made of the Academy's

indebtedness to that committee.

The Corresponding Secretary's report then reviewed briefly the ob-

jects of the Academy, as stated in its articles of incorporation, comparing

these objects with the accomplishments of recent years.

The Recording Secretary reported upon the ten public addresses

given under the auspices of the Academy during the year, most of which

had been published in full in the Journal.. The lecture by Professor

Fridtjof Nansen, entitled Changes in oceanic and atmospheric tem-

peratures ana their relation to changes in the sun's activity was published

in the Journai. as an author's abstract (8: 135-138. March 4, 1918).

The Treasurer, Mr. R. ly. Faris, submitted a report covering the last

four months of the year, a report for the period from January i to

August 31, 19 1 8, having been submitted by his predecessor, Major

WiiyiviAM Bowie. A recapitulation for the year showed total receipts,

$6,594.76; total disbursements, $9,168.18, including $2,500.00 ex-

pended for Liberty Bonds; cash balance on hand Dec. 31, 191 8, $4 11. 39.

The Auditing Committee, consisting of Messrs. C. N. FennEr, J. A.

Fleming, and G. N. Collins, reported that the statement of the

Treasurer was in full agreement with the accounts and with the se-

curities on deposit.

Dr. A. Knopf read the report of the Board of Editors.

The report of the tellers, Messrs. E- C ZiES, F. Wenner, and Robert

B. SoSMAN, was read by the Corresponding Secretary. The tellers

reported that the mail ballot had resulted in the election of the following

officers for 1919: President, F. L. Ransome; Corresponding Secretary,

Robert B. SosuAn; Recording Secretary, William R. Maxon; Treasurer,

R. L. Faris; Non-resident Vice-Presidents, C. K. Leith and J. A. Bras-

hear; Members of Board of Managers, Class of 1922, C. G. Abbot and

W. F. HillEbrand.

The following Resident Vice-Presidents nominated by the affiliated

Societies were then elected: Anthropological Society, George M.

Kober; Archeological Society, AlES Hrdlicka; Biological Society,

Hugh M. Smith; Botanical Society, Walter T. vSwingle; Chemical

Society, Atherton Seidell; Electrical Engineers Society, P. G. Agnew;

Society of Engineers, Morris Hacker; Entomological Society, S. A.

Rohwer; Society of American Foresters, Raphael Zon; Geological

Society, F, H. Knowlton; Historical Society, AllEn C. Clark; Medical

346 proceedings: Washington academy

Society, W11.LIAM Gerry Morgan; Philosophical Society, W. J. Hum-

phreys. The National Geographic Society had nominated no Vice-

President.

The newly-elected President, Dr. F. L. Ransome, then took the chair

and the retiring President, Dr. Lyman J. Briggs, delivered an address

entitled, The resistance of the air. This will be published in a later

number of the Journal.

The 130th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, January 30, 1919, the

occasion being an illustrated lecture by Major F. R. Moulton, U. S. A.,

on The duration of the stars. Beginning with illustrations showing the

principal observatories of the United States and the apparatus by which

solar and stellar phenomena have been studied and photographed,

the lecturer showed photographs of the moon and of the sun, the one

an example of a completely dead world, the other an example of a world

which is giving off great quantities of energy and is very far from a

state of equilibrium. The source of the sun's energy was discussed

and shown to be a result neither of chemical reactions norof the energy

released by the contraction of an aggregate of particles. The latter

source would permit the sun a life of at most a few million years, whereas

geological and biological evidence demand periods of one hundred

million years or more. The source of the sun's energy and its probable

life cannot at present be estimated.

After showing diagrams illustrating the relative size of the moon,

earth and sun, and the relative size of the orbits of the planets as com-

pared with the distances of the so-called fixed stars, the lecturer passed

to a consideration of the probable life of those stars. The problem of

the life of star clusters is one that can be dealt with mathematically,

and the lecturer calculated the probable period that must have elapsed

in order that a more or less heterogeneous collection of stars might,

by their mutual gravitation, be brought into the form now found in

many of the recognized clusters. In view of the immense distances

involved in the dimensions of these clusters, it follows that even a

single passage of one star from one side to another of such an aggregate

would take a million years; and the total time necessary to form the

aggregate as it is now seen must be of the order of several thousand

million years.

An interesting digression at this point covered some of the lecturer's

work during the war, on the trajectories of projectiles and the best

form of projectiles to obtain maximum range. The problems involved

in this work were mathematical problems, in many ways similar to the

mathematical problems of the astronomer with which the speaker had

just been dealing, and he showed in a very practical way the wide

applicabiUty of mathematics as a working tool whether in the hands of

the scientist or the engineer.

The lecturer finally considered the possible structure and location of

certain nebulae which have been made the subject of much study in

recent years. These may be distant galaxies equal in magnitude to the

PROCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY 347

galaxy of which the sun is a member. As the age of star clusters, as

clusters, within our own galaxy may be measured in thousands of mil-

lions of years, it may become possible to estimate the age of the galaxy

itself in enormously magnified time units in the same sense in which

we measure the distances of the stars in terms of light years rather than

in terms of our usual standards of length. And, finally, we may pass

from the contemplation of the age and extent of our galaxy to that of

the age and extent of these great aggregates of galaxies, or super-gal-

axies, which are by no means beyond the scope of the human mind.

The 131st meeting of the Academy was held at the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club, the evening of Tuesday, February i8, 1919. Prof.

Robert F. Griggs, of the Ohio State University, Director of the

National Geographic Society Katmai Expeditions, delivered an ad-

dress on Katmai and the Ten Thousand Smokes. The lecture, which

was profusely illustrated by lantern slides, reviewed the more general

features of this remarkable region, which have been made familiar

through the very interesting series of illustrated articles published by

the speaker in the National Geographic Magazine, and dealt also with

some of the more technical aspects of the subject as discussed in several

recent papers published in Volume 19 of the Ohio Journal of Science,

under the titles. The recovery of vegetation at Kodiak (pp. 1-58), Are

the Ten Thousand Smokes real volcanoes? (pp. 9 7- 11 6), The great hot mud

flow of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (pp. 11 7-142), The character

of the eruption as indicated by its effect on nearby vegetation (pp. 173-209).

The i32d meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Phil-

osophical Society of Washington at the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, the evening of Saturday, March 15, 19 19. Dr. H. D. Curtis,

of the Ivick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, California, delivered an

illustrated address on Modern theories of the spiral nebulae. This lec-

ture has subsequently been published in the Journal (9: 217-227.

April 19, 1919).

The 133rd meeting of the Academy was held at the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, March 20, 1919. Lieut.

Col. John R. Murlin, U. S. A., Director of the Division of Food and

Nutrition, Sanitary Corps, U. S. Army, delivered an illustrated address

on Food efficiency in the United States Army. "The United States, in

conjunction with her AlUes, has waged war effectively. Many people

are concerned to know also whether the war has been conducted effi-

ciently, which is a very different matter. It may be safely said that

in one respect at least we have done far better than in any previous

war, viz. in the nutritional care of the soldier.

"Army regulations lay a clear responsibility for the character of the

food and quality of the cooking upon the Medical Department. It

has always been a routine matter of inspection by medical officers to

pass upon the sanitation, .including the character of food and quality

of cooking, of the mess. Feeling this responsibility, in view of the

348 PROCEEJDINGS : WASHINGTON ACADEMY

rapid expansion of the army Surgeon General William C. Gorgas or-

ganized in his office, in August, 19 17, a Division of Food and Nutrition.

This continued as an independent division until after the signing of

the armistice. This Division commissioned and trained 113 officers

who made nutritional surveys of all the large camps in this country and

40 of them were sent to France to be assigned one to each division of

combatant troops as nutrition officers. Just before the signing of the

armistice a request was received that all subsequent divisions should

have nutrition officers assigned them from this side. After the nu-

tritional surveys had been completed nutrition officers were stationed,

one in each camp, to act as inspectors and advisors on all food matters,

chiefly on matters relating to the proper construction of menus and the

proper use and conservation of food. In short, the function was what

might be termed that of food engineers.

"The nutritional surveys have shown for the first time what is the

actual average consumption of food by healthy soldiers kept at hard

work tliroughout the training period. The average consumption for

427 messes scattered throughout all the training camps in the United

States and covering all periods of the year is 3633 calories per man per

day, distributed as follows: 14 per cent protein, 31 per cent fat, and

55 per cent carbohydrate. In addition to this the average soldier in

something over 300 surveys has consumed 365 calories, which he pur-

chased from the canteen. This added to the consumption from the

mess makes a total food consumption of 3998 calories. The surveys

also showed for the first time a definite seasonal variation in food con-

sumption. They showed likewise a progressive and consistent improve-

ment in food conservation up to the signing of the armistice, at which

time discipline and morale suffered a distinct diminution resulting in

greater waste of food.

"In comparison with the garrison ration authorized in army regula-

tions as the basis for the subsistence of one man for one day, the amount

of food actually consumed leaves a margin of fully 20 per cent. The

Division of Food and Nutrition recommended a reduction of this margin

to 10 per cent, but the recommendation was not adopted by the General

Staff.

' 'The surveys have demonstrated marked physical improvement in the

soldiers during the period of training. For example, at Camp Devens

the 303d Field Artillery exhibited in a period of five months an average

gain in weight of more than six pounds, due to "muscling up." There

was also a distinct gain in height, much of which no doubt was due to

"straightening up."

"The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides and motion pictures,

showing methods of food inspection, methods of serving, of dishwashing,

of baking and handling of bread, and of feeding sick and wounded

soldiers." {Author's abstract.)

WihhiAM R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 813th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February i, 191 9;

President Humphreys in the chair; 68 persons present. The minutes

of the 812th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

Major Fred E. Wright presented the first paper on War time de-

velopment of the optical industry. (No abstract).

The second paper was by Mr. E. D. WHvIvIamson on Temperature and

strain distribution in glass. The paper was illustrated by lantern

slides.

Abstract: When a temperature gradient is set up in a solid, stresses

result, owing to the unequal expansions of the various parts. The

same is true of a viscous liquid, except that in the case of the latter there

is a slow yield to the forces and in time the stresses and strains would

vanish for that temperature distribution. At any time, then, there is a

specific temperature distribution (dependent on the previous heat

treatment) for any piece of glass, under which the glass is unstressed.

If this temperature distribution be known the stresses produced when

the temperature becomes equal throughout the mass can be calculated

from elasticity data.

The paper dealt in detail (i) with the nature of the temperature

gradients produced by uniform heating or cooling, at a constant rate,

of the surface of solids of the following shapes, viz, slab, square rod,

cylindrical rod, brick, short cylinder, and sphere; and (2) with the

stresses set up in solids whose unstressed temperature distribution is

that considered in (i). The stress relations were treated in full for the

case of a sphere only.

The next paper was by Messrs. A. Q. Tooi. and J. Valasek on Some

characteristics of optical glasses in the annealing range. This paper was

presented by Mr. Tool and was illustrated by lantern slides.

Abstract: In order to carry out the process of annealing glass effi-

ciently a thorough knowledge of its various properties in the range of

temperatures employed is necessary. In this respect the viscosity of

the glass is very important, since any information as to its magnitude

and variation with the temperature enables one to calculate the time

required for the stresses to relax to any predetermined ratio of their

initial value and to draw some conclusions as to the best cooling pro-

cedure. The term annealing temperature is used here to designate that

constant and uniform temperature, consistent with the most efficient

annealing procedure, at which the glass should be held while the stresses

disappear. This temperature is determined by a study of the relaxation

of stresses in a sample of glass at various temperatures. The two types

of methods which have been employed for this purpose involve either

a determination of the rate of decrease of internal forces by means of

the double refraction exhibited, or the measurement of the rate of

deformation of a suitable piece of glas§ under externally applied forces.

A form of the first type, often recommended for practical testing, was

tried after some modification. Briefly, it consisted of heating a glass

349

350 PROCeeDINGS : PHILOSOPHICAIv SOCIETY

cylinder with polished ends at a constant rate between crossed nicols

and noting the temperature at which the double refraction began

sensibly to diminish and also the temperature at which it vanished

rapidly. It was found by experiment that the lower temperature gave

good results as an annealing temperature and that the glass could be

held at the higher temperature for a reasonable time without serious

deformation.

Maxwell's "relaxation time" for the internal stresses in unannealed

glass was determined at various temperatures by measuring the con-

stants of the elliptical polarization by means of a modified Stokes

eUiptic analyzer,

. In measurements of the second type, the stretching and bending of

glass strips under load was employed, following Twyman and others.

The results indicated that the relaxation time not only depends on

the temperature and the kind of glass, but also that larger stresses will

relax more quickly. Stretching and bending gave practically the same

results but the optical method gave considerably larger values, the dis-

crepancy varying with the kind of glass. For large and equal stresses

there was a better agreement.

Twyman's empirical exponential law for the change in the relaxation

time with temperature holds quite closely for small temperature ranges.

The constant in the exponential term appears to increase with the

temperature and vary considerably with the glass. The most efficient

method of cooling seems to be such that the rate increases exponentially

according to the same law, as long as the stresses in the glass remain

at all times below the breaking stress.

A phenomenon which may be of considerable importance in annealing

and other processes in glass manufacture as well, was an apparent endo-

thermic transformation found when careful heating curves were taken

by means of differential thermocouple.

Mr. C. G. Peters has shown that this effect is accompanied by a very

marked increase in the thermal expansion coefficient. This would ap-

pear to make it advisable to carry out the annealing below the region

of this effect. It occurs in general, immediately following the tempera-

ture at which double refraction begins sensibly to diminish. It was

found in all the optical glasses tested as well as many others.

Lately Mr. M. So has pubhshed similar results for some Japanese and

other glasses. He failed however to observe a corresponding effect

on cooling which had been the first indication of it observed in this

laboratory.

A very plausible explanation would appear to be that the rapid heating

disturbs the equilibrium between the components existing in the glass,

which, in connection with the rapid decrease of viscosity, tends to re-

establish itself with corresponding rapidity causing the thermal effects

observed.

Discussion: Major Wright stated that the temperature ranges cited

by the authors agreed very closely with those found by him. Mr.

proceedings: philosophical society 351

Littleton spoke on some of the characteristics of Pyrex glass. The

paper was also discussed by Messrs. White and Peters.

The last paper of the evening was by Mr. L. H. Adams on The an-

nealing of glass.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

.Abstract: The class of materials known as glasses is peculiar in

many ways. At ordinary temperatures glasses are as hard, rigid, and

elastic as ordinary solids, but when heated they gradually become

softer and change without discontinuity into viscous and finally into

thin liquids. During cooling the reverse process takes place and there

is therefore a long range of temperature in which so-called solidification

takes place. It is primarily due to this fact that cooled objects of glass

acquire internal strain.

Optical glass must be free from strain, first because if the strain is ex-

cessive the glass may fracture when handled or when heated again,

and second because the surfaces of a badly annealed lens or prism may

gradually warp and thus impair the definition of the finished instrument.

For the practical annealing of optical glass it is sufficient to know

for several temperatures the time required for the removal of strain.

The necessary measurements have been made for nine kinds of optical

glass and the application of the results to the annealing of optical glass

in the factories has met with entire success.

Discussion: Mr. White inquired if the method of annealing glass

by holding it at a given temperature for a rather long time and then

subjecting it to sudden cooling had not been introduced by Williamson

and Wright. Mr. Williamson stated that his use of the method was

due to the fact that it could be easily carried out by ordinary glass-

workers and with the available furnace equipment. Major Wright

stated that the method had been rather unconsciously adopted.

The 815th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March i, 1919;

President Humphreys in the chair; 30 persons present. The minutes

of the 814th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

Mr. W. P. White presented the first paper on Change of state in solids

— facts and theories. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

Abstract: Changes of state in the solid, that is, changes of crystalline

form, are from thermodynamic necessity like the change of state solid-

liquid, that is, melting, in that the production of the high temperature

form is always accompanied by an absorption of heat, but they show

great variety in many phenomena. Nearly every law or rule which

has been set up for such transformations has been shown to be abund-

antly violated. For example, in cases where of two forms both can be*

cooled to absolute zero, it is demonstrable that the high temperature

form must at the temperature of inversion have the greater entropy,

which involves that at some portion of the temperature scale below that

point its specific heat must be higher, and the supposition is natural

that the specific heat would be higher at all temperatures. In 40 per

352 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

cent of the investigated cases, however, the high temperature form at

the inversion temperature has a lower specific heat; that is, its specific

heat after being higher reverses and becomes lower again.

So, also, excellent atomic theories have accounted for the fact that

of two forms the one of larger volume* has the larger specific heat, but

it turns out that in 70 per cent of the investigated cases it is the more

dense form which has the larger specific heat. Again, it is a general

rule that as bodies are compressed their power to resist further compres-

sion increases, but out of 27 cases of inversion 17 had the form of smaller

volume more compressible. Finally, the high temperature form,

being produced by an absorption of heat, that is, by doing work against

attractive forces, would be expected to have a larger volume. In 25

per cent of the known cases even this expectation is not realized.

In order to explain this last surprising circumstance, Bridgman

(whose experimental work has furnished the above results) points out

that we must suppose atoms to have shapes other than spherical with

centers of attraction situated elsewhere than in the center, but he

points out that the nonspherical form means merely that the centers of

repulsion (which by determining the resistance of the atom to pene-

tration by other atoms determine what we think of as its boundary),

must be distributed in a way which is very far from spherical symmetry.

It is idle to assign definite patterns to these distributions of centers of

force, but the fact is clear that while with atoms in any given arrange-

ment a slight compression involves the doing of work against the re-

pulsive forces, the rearrangement of atoms involved in a change of

state may produce changes of volume to which the change in energy

bears no correspondence. There is merely a 3 to i probability that they

will correspond in sign. About one solid substance in three is estimated

to show changes in crystalline form.

In some work done by the speaker it turned out that the quartz

inversion, which has been known to be preceded by an abnormally large

and progressive change in volume and various crystalline properties,

also manifests an absorption of heat which is quite out of relation to the

work done in expansion, unless we suppose that the compressibility is

extraordinarily modified. Hence all the phenomena of this change,

which is detectable over a range of 500 degrees or more, have the char-

acteristics of a change of state, except that we do not appear to have

two different forms in equilibrium at the same temperature, as we do

in most other cases. The promptness of these changes affords a re-

markable contrast to other changes of state between quartz and other

.forms of silica, which are unusually sluggish.

Discussion: This paper was discussed by Messrs. Williamson,

SoSMAN, BicHOWSKY, and Humphreys.

Mr. F. B. SiLSBEE then presented a paper on Some peculiarities of

electrical conduction in porcelain. This paper was illustrated by lan-

tern slides, and has been published in this Journal (9: 252).

Discussion: Mr. L. J. Briggs asked if electrodes other than those of

molten solder had been used. Mr. White inquired concerning the ef-

proceedings: philosophical society 353

feet, on the "polarization" of increasing the thickness of the porcelain

plates, also whether a saturation test could not be utilized to determine

the possible functioning of electrons.

In reply, Mr. SilsbeE stated that platinum electrodes had also been

used but with similar results; that no experiments had been made to

test the effect of increasing the thickness of the porcelain plates; and

that he did not think the saturation test could be made owing to the

introduction of thermal complications due to actual heating of the por-

celain, by the currents even before the currents ceased to be proportional

to the applied potential-differences.

Mr. SoSMAN suggested the possibility of finding a solution of the

problem in a study of the glass in the porcelain. The paper was also

discussed by Messrs. Williamson and Bichowsky. Mr. Agnew com-

mented on the great variety of causes given for the failure of airplane

engines, and the frequent lack of consistency between explanation and

evidence.

The 817th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 29, 191 9;

President Humphreys in the chair ; 80 persons present. Minutes of the

815th and 8 1 6th meetings were read in abstract and approved.

The first paper was persented by Mr. W. R. Gregg on Trans -Atlantic

flight from the meteorologist's point of view, and was illustrated by lantern

slides.

Abstract Inasmuch as weather conditions constitute a vital factor

in the success or failure of trans-Atlantic flight, it is essential that these

conditions be known as accurately as possible, in order that an aviator

may know beforehand his "margin of safety" and may make his plans

accordingly. The purpose of the paper is, therefore, briefly to present

(i) a statement giving the present state of our knowledge relative to

average surface meteorological conditions over the portions of the

North Atlantic between Newfoundland and Ireland and between

Newfoundland and Portugal via the Azores; (2) a similar statement

as to free air conditions, particularly at altitudes of 500 to 1000 meters;

and (3) an analysis showing the assistance that may be rendered by

the winds, providing an aviator, with this in mind, carefully selects

his time for flight.

Under the first and second headings conditions of temperature,

humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, fog, pressure and winds are briefly

summarized, this summary being based upon such few observations as

have been made at sea and to a greater extent upon those made over

adjacent land areas. In the application of the latter due consideration

has been given to the essential differences between marine and con-

tinental climates, particularly with reference to free air conditions.

In the third part of the paper the necessity of having observations

at the time of flight is pointed out. If such observations are available

and if the airspeed of the machine is known, the meteorologist is able

quickly to indicate the successive directions toward which the airplane

should be headed, in order that it may keep to any desired course;

354 PROCEEDINGS: PHII^OSOPHICAI, SOCIETY

also, the resultant speed along that course, or the total time required

for making a flight.

Conditions of pressure and wind that would be favorable for eastward

and westward flights along the two routes are briefly discussed, and

tables are given showing the average number of days, monthly, seasonal

and annual, that are favorable for such flights. The figures in these

tables are based upon an examination of daily marine weather maps

covering a period of ten years. The results of this study show : (a) at

an altitude of 500 to 1000 meters conditions are favorable for an eastward

trip approximately one-third of the time, the percentage being slightly

greater along the northern than along the southern route ; (6) at greater

altitudes the percentage of favorable days materially increases, es-

pecially along the northern route; (c) for the westward trip the per-

centage of favorable days is so small as to make trans-Atlantic flight in

this direction impracticable until the cruising radius of air-craft is

increased to such an extent that they are relatively independent of wind

conditions; (d) there is little choice as to season, for, although the pre-

vailing westerlies are stronger in winter than in summer, yet, on the

other hand, stormy conditions are more prevalent in winter, the net

result being about an equal percentage of favorable days in the two

seasons. The transition seasons, spring and autumn, show a slightly

smaller percentage than do summer and winter. For full publication

of this paper see Monthly Weather Review, February, 191 9.

Discussion: The paper was discussed by Messrs. BowiE, Aul,t,

Humphreys, Brooks, and Hazard.

Mr. C. F. Marvin presented the second paper on The flight of aircraft

and the deflective influence of the earth's rotation. The paper was illus-

trated by charts.

Abstract: Objects moving freely in a horizontal manner over the

earth's surface are deflected constantly to the right in the Northern

hemisphere by a force which at airplane speeds, say 40 meters per sec-

ond, and at latitude 50 degrees, amounts to .447 dynes per gram of

moving matter.

The purpose of the paper was to indicate the amount by which an

aircraft flying in still air may be carried off any desired course by the

action of this small force, especially when a compass is the only guide

followed in holding the course.

The speaker showed that a residual or resultant force, in addition to

the deflective influence, almost constantly exists in assumed straight-

away flying and arises from the reactions between the airplane and the

air. The pilot has no knowledge of or control over this force, which,

nevertheless, dominates the flight and operates to turn the machine

from its course, now to the right, now to the left, in an irregular and

entirely accidental manner. Repeated rectifications of the course are

necessary, and it was assumed for purpose of quantitative analysis that

on the average the pilot rectifies the course every 60 seconds of the

flight.

proceedings: bioIvOGicai, socmTv 355

Although the accidental forces dominate the flight and necessitate

frequent rectification, nevertheless these tend to average out and their

sum to become zero. The same is true of accidental side slipping effect.

Therefore the problem resolves itself into finding the displacement by

the deflective influence when operating during the interval between

rectifications.

It was shown the aggregate effect tended to carry the craft to the

right of it 5 course in the Northern Hemisphere by a small angular

amount given by the equation,

"^60

e = ^-~ t sm <p

86164

in which t is the time in seconds between rectifications and (p is the

latitude.

The angle 6 could be regarded as a compass correction and the error

of flight eliminated by steering to the left of any specified course by

the angular amount 6, values of which for different latitudes were given

varying from over 5 minutes of arc at latitude 20 degrees to nearly 15

minutes at 80 degrees. It was also shown that the linear displacement

from course varied as the sin'^ 6 or nearly as the square of the time be-

tween rectifications and in a lo-hours' flight would amount to nearly

5000 meters.

While not a part of the main purpose of the paper, it was pointed

out that the equations lead to the deduction that gliding could be pro-

longed if executed in a right-hand instead of a left-hand turn of large

radius. Also, turning to the right when climbing is more efficient than

turning to the left.

Following the second paper Mr. L. J. Briggs spoke briefly on the

application of certain other dynamical principles to the flight of air-

craft.

S. J. MauchIvY, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAI. SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 595th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hah of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 5, 1919; caUed to order at

8 p. m. by President Smith; 55 persons present. Eight informal com-

munications were presented.

W. P. Taylor: The Olympic elk, Cervus roosevelti, thought to have

been extirpated in Washington State outside of the Olympic Moun-

tains, has recently been reported from the following localities within

Pacific County; two bands of. 40 each on the Nasel River, one band

of about 50 on North River, one band of 25 on the Nemah River, two

small bands on the South Fork of Wallapa River, and one small band

on the main Wallapa River. There are said to be about 175 animals in

aU.

A. S. Hitchcock: Attention called to two recent botanical publica-

tions, and copies of the books exhibited: Prof. J. F. Rock, A mono-

graphic study of the Hawaiian species of the Lohelioideae, and Prof. E. D.

Me;rril,Iv, Rumphius's Flora Amboinensis.

356 PROCSEIDINGS: BIOI.OGICAI, SOCIETY

H. C. Ob^rholskr: Remarks on ornithological activities during

1918 in which year 26 subspecies and 3 distinct species (one of the latter

an extralimital straggler) had been added to the North American avi-

fauna, while 8 forms were removed from the list.

T. S. PaIvMER: Remarks on the rare New Caledonian bird, kagu,

RhinochiUis jubatus, but few specimens of which are found in collections,

none in the U. S. National Museum, although it is frequently seen in

zoological gardens there being at present a specimen living in the col-

lection of the New York Zoological Society.

T. S. PaIvMER: Remarks on the number of bison in North America

thirty years after the first census in 1889. There are at present 7300

individuals of which 4300 are in Canada as against a total of 1091 in

1889. There were born in 1918 iioo calves. The government owns

eight herds, embracing 850 animals.

A. Wetmore: Remarks on the shape and size of the pupils of birds,

particularly of the black skimmer, Rynchops niger, in which the con-

tracted pupil is a vertical slit.

N. Dearborn: Remarks on the apparent preference by a pair of

bluebirds for a newly-painted blue-colored box over an old weather-

worn greenish one.

H. Smith: Exhibition of drawings of the deep-sea fish, Gargariscus

semidentatus.

The regular program consisted of two communications:

Agnes Chase: Oil grasses and their uses in perftimery. Four

grasses, native of the Hast Indies, furnish essential oils. All belong to the

Andropogoneae. Cymbopogon nardus, citronella grass, and C. citratus,

lemon oil grass, are not known in the wild state. They are cultivated

throughout the tropics, but on a commercial scale mostly in the Hast

Indies. From 1909 to 191 7 experiments were carried on with C. citratus

by the Department of Agriculture in Florida. It could be grown on

sandy pineland at a fair profit. In these two species the sterile plants,

cut above the base, are distilled. The oil is used for scenting soap and

for adulterating other oils. Cymbopogon martini, rusa grass, is not cul-

tivated, but harvested from the wild plants common in India. Only

the inflorescence is distilled. Rusa, or palmarosa, oil is used chiefly

for adulterating attar of roses. This is the Andropogon schoenanthus of

pharmacopoeias, but not the real species. Anatherumzizanioides, Khus-

Khus or Vetiver, is both wild and cultivated, now spread throughout

the tropics and grown sparingly in southern Louisiana and southern

California. The oil is obtained from the roots. Its volatility is

low and it is used as a fixative for other oils. The roots are woven into

mats, screens, fans, etc., in India, and are made into perfume powder.

Discussion by Messrs. H. M. Smith, and A. S. Hitchcock.

R. M. Anderson: Recent zoological exploration in the western Arctic.

Dr. Anderson, who was in Washington to attend the organization meet-

ing of the American Society of Mammalogists, gave an account of several

years of zoological exploration along the western coast of Arctic America.

He described his itinerary and referred to the difficulties of zoological

proceedings: entomologicaIv society 357

collecting in the Arctic, calling attention to the limitations of travel

during the short summer and the ease of travel in winter. In winter,

however, animals of migratory and hibernating habits ar^ not encoun-

tered. He described the topography of the territory explored, the

distribution of the animal and plant life in it and the migrations of

some of the forms. He discussed in particular the muskoxen, the yield

of long-fibered wool, and contemplated attempts to domesticate them.

Among other interesting discoveries was a spider whose nearest relatives

occur on certain mountain summits in the United States. Attention

was called to the relatively high summer temperature and the twenty-

four-hour period of daylight and to its stimulating effect on plant life

and to the fact that Arctic animals have to endure a relatively hot sum-

mer climate during part of their year. The collections brought back

are being studied by various specialists and the published reports will

occupy several octavo volumes. Discussion by Messrs. T. S. Palmer,

H. M. Smith, W. P. Taylor, R. M. I^ibbey, E. A. Preble, W. B. Bell,

and H. C. Oberholser.

M. W. Lyon, Jr., Recording Secretary.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 321st meeting of the Society was held in the Auditorium of the

Cosmos Club, on April 3, 19 19. Thirty-three members and 4 visitors

were present. President Sasscer presided.

program

Gibson, Edmund H. : Some war-camp insect problems. This was an

informal account of the insect problems which the speaker as a captain

in the Sanitary Corps had to contend with at Camp Humphries, Vir-

ginia. Captain Gibson spoke of the methods adopted in controlling

mosquitoes, flies, and bedbugs, and illustrated his talk by maps, charts,

and photographs.

For the control of mosquitoes both drainage and oiling were employed

as well as the occasional removal of the floating debris in the small

bays along the river front. As a result of the mosquito eradication a

well-known malarial district was converted into a section comparatively

free from mosquitoes ; and as shown by charts of the Public Health Ser-

vice the camp made the best record of any of the cantonments situated

in malarial regions.

Against the flies, traps and the treating of manures with gasoline

flame were resorted to. As a result of this work no epidemics of dys-

entery or typhoid occurred in the camp. Captain Gibson brought out

the fact that in the observations on the results of the fly work this camp

was the only one in the country in which the various species of flies were

considered separately.

A very serious infestation of bedbugs was controlled and the bugs

entirely exterminated by two applications of kerosene followed by

fumigation with carbon disulphide.

358 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Most of the discussion consisted of questions, Captain Gibson's an-

swers to which are incorporated in the above summary of his remarks.

KoTiNSKY, Jacob : The ftmdaniental factors of insect evolution. (A

translation). This paper was a translation from the Russian of Chet-

verikov. The author advanced the theory that the development of

insects has been from large to small, supporting this idea by paleon-

tological evidence. This was contrasted with the development of mam-

mals, the mammoth forms of which reached their greatest development

and died out, the present forms having developed from smaller forms.

He found the reason for this contrast in development lines in the dif-

ference in the skeleton, the exoskeleton of the insects combined with

their small size having protected them from their enemies and permitted

the development of the tremendous numbers that exist.

In the discussion that followed it was pointed out by Mr. RohwER

that iust as at present it is the largest insects of a region that are col-

lected first and the smaller forms later, so it is with fossil insects. Up

to the present most of the fossil forms discovered are large, but that

there were minute contemporary insects is shown by the Florissant de-

posits, from which many very minute forms have be6n taken. Mr.

BuscK expressed the opinion that in the Lepidoptera the primitive forms

are as a rule small. Dr. Baker commented on the effect of climatic

conditions and abundance of food supply in the determination of the

sexes of insects, and stated that the size of insects can be reduced by

limitation of food supply. Mr. Marlatt suggested that perhaps the

different conditions of air, water, and soil in ancient times tended to

produce animals of immense size.

R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey reports the completion of the

new outHne map of the United States on the Lambert Conformal

Conic Projections; scale, i : 5,000,000; dimensions, 25 X 39 inches;

price, 25 cents. This map is intended merely as a base to which may

be added any kind of special information desired. It is based on the

same system of projection (the Lambert projection) as that which was

employed by the armies of the allied forces in the military operations

in France. For an area of the shape and position of the United States,

this projection has several marked advantages over the Mercator and

the Polyconic projections. Throughout the larger and more important

part of the United States, that is, between latitudes 3072° and 49°,

the maximum scale error is only one-half of one per cent. The standard

parallels of the map of the United vStates are latitudes ^5° and 45°,

and upon these parallels the scale is absolutely true. The scale for any

other part of the map, or for any parallel, can be obtained from Special

Publication No. 52, page 36, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Office of Drug and Oil Plant Investigations, Bureau of Plant

Industry, is installing a laboratory at Arlington Farms to study the

technology of fats and vegetable oils, in connection with its projects on

oil-yielding crops and utilization of waste.

The Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer Surveyor left Norfolk, Vir-

ginia, on April 21 en route to the Pacific via the Panama Canal. Deep-

sea soundings will be made from off Chesapeake entrance to the Ba-

hamas and from Jamaica across the Caribbean Sea.

The Twelfth Annual Conference of Weights and Measures Officials,

composed of delegates from the States and larger cities of the United

States, met at the Bureau of Standards on May 21-24, iQiQ) 27 States

being represented. The object of these conferences is to bring about

uniform laws and regulations regarding the inspection of commercial

weights and measures and also to discuss matters of technique and pro-

cedure. Among other results of the Conference was the adoption of a

resolution favoring the metric system. Officers elected for the following

year were : President, S. W. Stratton, Director of the Bureau of Stand-

ards; First-Vice President, Chas. G. Johnson, State Superintendent for

the State of California; Second Vice-President, Thure Hanson, Com-

missioner of Weights and Measures of Massachusetts; Secretary, L. A.

Fischer, of the Bureau of Standards.

Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the National Museum, returned in May from

a trip to the Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas, where he has been

conducting breeding experiments under the joint auspices of the Smith-

sonian Institution and the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Professor L. C. Graton, of Harvard University, came to Washington

in June and expects to spend several months in the Bureau of Internal

Revenue of the Treasury Department, in charge of copper mine valua-

tion under the Income Tax Unit of the Bureau.

359

360 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. C. T. Greene, of the Bureau of Entomology, has recently been

made honorary assistant custodian of Diptera in the Division of In-

sects of the National Museum and is assisting Dr. Aldrich in the ar-

rangement of the Museum's collection of Diptera.

Major F. R. Moulton, formerly of the Ordnance Department, U.

S. A., received his discharge from the Army and returned to the Uni-

versity of Chicago in April.

Captain Edwin H. Pagenhart, U. S. R. (Engineers), has received

his discharge from the Army and has returned to the Coast and Geodetic

Survey.

Mr. E. A. vSchwarz and Mr. H. S. Barber have recently returned

from a trip to the Florida Everglades, where they collected many in-

sects, which will be added to the collections of the National Museum.

One very interesting Scolytid beetle belonging to a tropical genus has

already been described by Mr. Schwarz.

Major Samuel A. Tucker, of the Chemical Warfare Service, and

Washington representative of the newly-organized Chemical Founda-

tion which took over enemy-owned patents during the war, closed the

Washington office in May and has returned to New York.

Mr. R. J. Wig, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, and chief en-

gineer of the concrete-ship department of the Emergency Fleet Corpora-

tion during the war, has resigned from the Fleet Corporation to go into

private engineering work at San Diego, California.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 JULY 19, 1919 No. 13

THYSICS.— "Physical" vs. "chemical" forces. P. V. WELLS,

Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by S. W. Stratton.)

In his remarkable memoir on the constitution of solids and

liquids, Langmuir^ considers in some detail those forces which

are concerned in the structure of matter, stating their charac-

teristics with great clearness. But unfortunately he adopts

definitions of "physical" and "chemical" forces connoting a

narrowness to the term "physical" which is quite unhappy. I

realize, however, that his purpose in this is to emphasize the

relation of many terms and phenomena usually regarded as dis-

tinct.

Science has arrived at a stage in its evolution where the classi-

fication between physics and chemistry appears artificial. Of

course all classification is necessarily arbitrary and appears so

especially at the boundaries between classes. There must,

therefore, be confusion and difference of opinion among those

who approach the study of what may perhaps be called twin

fields, such as physical chemistry or chemical physics, from differ-

ent points of view. The appropriate attitude in such matters

seems to be to avoid the artificial issue by classification and nomen-

clature derived from a viewpoint common to both.

In view of the historical significance of the words "physical"

and "chemical," their use in classifying forces appears rather un-

natural. A less artificial nomenclature is that derived from the

fundamental theory of the constitution of matter common

1 I. Langmuir. Jotirn. Amer. Chem. Soc. 39: 184S. 1917.

361

362 WELLS: PHYSICAL VS. CHEMICAL FORCES

to both physics and chemistry, according to which forces are

classified as (i) molar,"^ (2) molecular, (3) atomic, and (4) electronic.

There is little anthropomorphic in these words, and they center

the attention on the phenomena. The classification is quali-

tative in the sense that no quantitative relations of these forces

to energy have yet been defined. The electron theory of atomic

structure, however, dispels much of the vagueness surrounding

many of the forces, and raises into further prominence the con-

viction of Faraday that there is but one fundamental type of

force.

Electronic forces may be defined as those which maintain

the negative or valence electrons and the positive nucleus in

equilibrium as a single system. Similarly, atomic forces may

be defined as those which maintain two or more atoms in equi-

librium as a single system ; molecular forces as those which main-

tain two or more molecules in equilibrium as a single system;

and molar forces those which maintain two or more masses in

equilibrium as a single system. Each group of forces may be

regarded as the residual fields of force remaining unsaturated in

the smaller systems constituting the components of the system

under consideration.

For the description of certain phenomena the molar theory is

sufficient, but soon a stage is reached at which the phenomena

must be considered in more detail. The system considered is

then restricted to groups of molecules. This system is in its

turn further restricted to atomic groups, and so on. The im-

portant point is that each theory includes all those preceding as

special cases, as the result of simplifying approximations, or as

arising from statistical considerations. The more closely one

wishes to' examine the nature of the extended system the more

the point of view approaches that of the restricted system. The

key to the nature of molecular forces, for example, is to be found

in atomic considerations. This is the point particularly empha-

sized by Langmuir in his paper.

2 Molar is derived from tlie Latin moles, a large mass. In the Century Dic-

tionary molar forces are defined as those producing motions between large masses,

molecular forces those between molecules, but which are insensible at sensible dis-

tance.

WEI.LS: PHYSICAIy VS. CHEMICAI, FORCES 363

Whatever the nature of the fields of force, the effect of neigh-

boring systems would be expected to be more definite the more

discrete the structure. Thus electronic forces are definitely

characteristic of the nature of the element, showing the finite

differences of the periodic system. Atomic forces show more

continuity, only two distinct types occurring, corresponding to

primary and secondary valence. These may be called primary

and secondary atomic forces. Molecular systems have lost so

much of their discreteness that combinations of molecules do

no't follow the laws of definite and multiple proportions. In

such phenomena as molecular association and surface structure,

the discreteness of atomic constitution begins to give place to

statistical continuity. Moreover, even in these phenomena,

the forces are relatively so weak that molecules are not usually

regarded as permanently grouped together.

In order to avoid the troublesome conflicts which are involved

in the use of the words physics, physical chemistry, and chemis-

try, for many purposes it would be convenient to classify these

portions of science into molar theory or molics, molecular theory

or moleculics,^ atomics, and electronics.

Molics deals only with continuous quantities and ideal dis-

continuities such as surfaces. This is the province of classical

physics. In molecules the statistical nature of molar quantities

must be considered. For instance, actual surfaces between

distinct phases are not regarded as mathematical surfaces of

discontinuity, but as possessing a molecular structure, so graph-

ically shown by Langmuir and his predecessors. Such phenom-

ena as molecular association, condensation and those connected

with colloids and ions in gases are also typically molecular in

that finite groups of molecules are involved and the range of

forces is not large compared with the distances between mole-

cules. Moleculics thus includes much of what is often called

physical-chemistry. The complexity of molecular systems lim-

its the application of quantitative methods, in spite of the great

advances in statistical mechanics.

3 The accent might be placed upon the penult, as in monalomic.

364 safford: notes on dahlia

The great fertility of the atomic theory has produced such a

mass of systematic knowledge that the province of atomics is

easily defined. Moreover, the definiteness and comparative

simplicity of atomic systems makes classification easy. This is

still more striking in the case of electronics, which perhaps may

be even more productive of systematic knowledge than atomics

has been. To some, attention to nomenclature is considered

trivial, but early in his career Faraday remarked the importance

of clever definitions which he always recorded, and demonstrated

by his example the close relation between the progress of science

and its nomenclature. Moreover, if the main purpose of science

is economy of thought, it is as necessary to systematize and

classify facts already known, as to discover new facts only to

have them buried unappreciated.

BOTANY. — Notes on the genus Dahlia, with descriptions of two

new species from Guatemala. W. E. Safford, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

The impression that the many "double-flowered" dahlias of

our gardens are forms created by modem horticulturalists from

single-flowered types is erroneous. In the earliest illustration

of plants belonging to this genus, made more than three cen-

turies and a half ago, only double-flowered forms are repre-

sented. Indeed, the genus itself was based by Cavanilles on

Dahlia pinnata, a plant with double heads identical in form with

certain "peony-flowered" dahlias of modern catalogues. Fran-

cisco Hernandez, the protomedico of Philip II, sent by his sover-

eign in 1570 to New Spain to study its resources, figured at

least three dahlias under the Aztec names Acocotli, Cocoxochitl,

and Acocoxochitl, all of which are derived from cocotli, signifying,

Hke the word "syringa," a hollow-stemmed plant; acocotli hter-

ally translated becoming "water-cane," or "water-pipe;" cocoxo-

chitl, "cane-flower" or "hollow-stem flower": and acocoxochitl,

"water-pipe-flower." It is interesting to note, in connec-

tion with this vernacular name, that it was also applied by the

Aztecs to plants of distinct families, including umbellifers, one

safford: notes on dahlia

365

of which, an aromatic Ligusticum with a hollow stem and fleshy

roots resembHng those of the genus Dahlia, was erroneously

figured under the same heading as the two dahUas first described.

Fig. I. — Duplex-flowered Dahlia, called Acocotli by the

Aztecs. After Hernandez (1575).

Hernandez was not a botanist, but grouped his plants accord-

ing to their uses and appearance, rather than to their botanical

affinities.^ Two of his figures, representing dahhas of the type

1 In connection with the hollow-stemmed umbellifer of Mexico, it may be of

interest to note that from the hollow stems of the allied Cicuta the shepherds of

Virgil and Theocritus made pan-pipes, or syrinxes, "disparibus septem compact a

ciciitis fistula."

366

safford: notbs on dahlia

now called "Duplex," with leaves like those of Dahlia variabilis,

were poorly drawn (see fig. i), but a third figure, reproduced in

the accompanying illustration (fig. 2) was that of a Dahlia with

Fig. 2. — Peony-flowered Dahlia, called Acocoxochitl

by the Aztecs. After Hernandez (1575).

flowers of the "peony type" and with leaves resembling those of

Dahlia glabrata. This figure was accompanied in the Roman

edition of Hernandez's work by a very brief and inadequate

description. In the Madrid edition- it is described under the

2 Vol. I, p. 14, cap. 24.

safford: notes on dahlia 367

heading "De Acocoxochitl seu flore Acocotli," as having flower

heads with yellow disk and purple ray-florets, after which the

author goes on to say that many more forms of Acocoxochitl

occiu" in Mexico, differing from one another in the size and color

of the flowers, some of them white, others yellow, others purple

or red, others white tinged with purple, or perhaps yellow tinged

with red, and a great many other kinds, in some cases with double

or multiple whorls of ray flowers, either forming circles or clus-

tered in compact bunches {manipuli) . The roots he describes as

fleshy, or succulent, and fascicled like those of asphodel, with a

resinous or somewhat sweetish artichoke-Hke taste.

Although both the flowers and leaves of cultivated dahlias

show considerable variation, yet there are certain features in

both which are more or less uniform. In one group of the genus

the ray-florets are broad and flat; in another they have a ten-

dency to become involute or quilled, while in a third the margins

are bent backward or revolute. These distinct groups are further

characterized by their foliage, the leaves of which, whether sim-

ple, pinnate, or bipinnate, have a peculiar texture and vary simi-

larly in form. Very little attention is paid to the leaf -charac-

ters of dahhas either in standard works on horticulture or in

florists catalogues. A well defined species like Dahlia coccinea,

for instance, may be found under the heading leaves once pinnate,

in spite of the fact that in the original drawing of the type plant

the lower leaves of this species have their lower pinnae again

pinnate. In consequence of this carelessness and also perhaps

from the fact that the lower leaves of the forms figured in cata-

logues are seldom shown, some authors have gone to the extent

of uniting into a single species Cavanilles' Dahlia pinnata, D.

rosea, and D. coccinea.

In nearly all the monographs on the genus Dahlia hitherto

published the different varieties have been grouped from the

horticulturalists' point of view, according to the forms of the

flowers, under such headings as "single, duplex, anemone-flow-

ered, collarette, pompon, fancy, decorative, peony-flowered, and

cactus dahlias," without identifying the single-flowered forms

with botanical species (except perhaps in Dahlia coccinea and

368 safford: notes on dahlia

Dahlia imperialis) or attempting to connect the "duplex" and

double forms with their primitive single ancestors. It is very-

probable that the types upon which several species have been

based were hybrid plants. Dahlia pinnata itself, the type of the

genus, was probably a hybrid. In the Index Kewensis its name

is discarded as a synonym for the subsequently described D.

variabilis. In the same way the handsome Dahlia juarezii with

large double heads composed of strap-shaped florets having their

edges turning backward, in sharp distinction to the involute or

quilled florets of the artificial-looking "pompon dahUas" and

the broad, flat-rayed heads of the "century" type of modem

catalogues, is also to be regarded as a hybrid. DahUas with flow-

ers identical in form with the type of Dahlia juarezii, the ancestor

from which the "cactus dahlias" of our gardens have sprung,

are no longer called "cactus dahlias" by specialists, but "cactus

hybrids." One of the ancestors of Dahlia juarezii must have

been a single flowered species, with eight revolute ray-florets.

Such a plant has recently been discovered in the mountains of

Guatemala by Mr. Paul Popenoe, in honor of whom it is pur-

posed to name the species described below. In addition to this

species Mr. Popenoe brought back with him a handsome tree

DahHa, already represented in the U. S. National Herbarium,

but hitherto erroneously referred to Dahlia imperialis by some

authorities and by others to Dahlia variabilis. This second species

represented in the herbarium by two sheets collected in Guatemala

by Mr. WiUiam R. Maxon, is described below under the name

Dahlia maxonii.

There are several other undescribed species of the genus

Dahlia in the National Herbarium, but there is no space within

the limits of this paper to describe them. Indeed the whole

genus should be carefully revised by a botanist familiar with

closely allied genera of composites and the work should be based

upon material collected in the elevated regions of Mexico and

Central America where the plants are endemic, not upon garden-

grown specimens. Much of the material in herbariums is in-

complete, owing to the absence of characteristic lower leaves

of the plants represented; and many of the specimens are in

safford: notes on dahlia 369

bad condition, owing both to the difficulty of drying succulent

plants like dahUas. which wilt as soon as gathered, and to the

injury of the flower heads by insects.

Dahlia popenovii Safford, sp. nov. Tepeacocoxochiil (Nahuatl) ; Papalotl,

Tunaita (Guatemala).

A herbaceous plant about i meter high with fascicled, fleshy roots

and slender, erect, hollow, striated, purplish stems glabrate near the

base and sparsely clothed above with minute, whitish, woolly hairs.

Leaves membranaceous, opposite with the bases of the petioles con-

nate, as in the rest of the genus, the lower ones (lacking in the type)

described as bipinnate; the upper ones simply pinnate, usually 3-foUo-

late, or simple and deeply 3-lobed, with the leaflets or lobes decurrent

on the rachis and winged petiole, sparsely clothed with short, stiff

hairs; leaf-Uke bracts of the inflorescence simple, laceolate, acuminate,

sessile; leaves of young seedlings simple, broadly ovate, with the base

decurrent on the slender petiole. Inflorescence more or less corym-

bose, with the flower heads borne on long slender, petioles, erect or

slightly curved at an thesis, at length recurved or nodding; peduncles

12 to 14 cm. long bearing one or two bracts, sometimes with a shorter-

peduncled head issuing from the axil of the bract. Flower heads 6

to 9 . 5 cm. broad, those of the type with bright scarlet or cardinal rays

and yellow disks ; outer involucre calyx-like, as in the rest of the genus,

composed of 5 spreading or recurved spathulate-oblanceolate bracts;

inner involucre composed of about 10 erect, diaphanous, oblong scales,

rounded at the apex, enlarging after anthesis; ray florets 8, sterile,

widely spreading, rounded and abruptly pointed at the tip, revolute

or turning backward along the margins as in forms of the "cactus"

type of cultivated dahlias; disk florets hermaphrodite, tubular; mature

achenia 12 or 13 mm. long, concealed by the thin, diaphanous paleae

borne on the disk, these resembling the scales of the inner involucre

and almost equal to them in size.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1010584, collected near

San Lucas, Department of Zacatepequez, Guatemala, at an approximate

altitude of 6600 feet, October 21, 191 6, by Wilson Popenoe (no. 682).

This handsome species, which is probably an ancestor of the hybrid

Dahlia juarezii, from which the "Cactus Dahlias" of our gardens have

been derived, is named in honor of its discoverer, Mr. Wilson Popenoe,

of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. It is represented

by a single specimen, and by several seedlings propagated at Yarrow,

Maryland, from seeds collected by Mr. Popenoe. In Mr. Popenoe's

field notes he writes as follows :

Antigua, Guatemala, October 23, 1916. — On my way back from

Guatemala City to this place I collected some wild dahhas about 2

kms. above Santa Lucia, at an approximate elevation of 6600 feet,

where the plants were most abundant. I have not seen them as low

370

safford: notes on dahlia

Fig- 3- — Dahlia popenovii, showing two flower heads, mature fruiting head, upper

leaves of mature plant and a single leaf of a young seedling; also a ripe

achenium. Drawn from type material and from a photograph of the flower by

Mrs. R. E. Gamble, Bureau of Plant Industry. All natural size.

safford: notes on dahlia 371

as 5000 feet, but have found them up to 7000, which is as high as I

have gone. I do not know how much higher they may occur. The

plants observed near Santa Lucia grow to a height of about 4 feet.

The stem is a dull greenish purple to purpUsh green, usually glabrous

but sometimes with scattering hairs toward the upper portion. Leaves

2 -pinnate near the base of the stem, i -pinnate or simple above; leaflets

of the lower leaves ovate acute, 2 . 5 inches long, i . 5 inches broad,

remotely dentate, sparsely furnished with short bristly hairs, which

are more scant beneath; rachis not exceeding 5 inches in length, often

very short; petiolules o to 0.75 in. long. The flowers are 2 to 3.25

in. broad, with 8 ray florets, the latter sterile and orange brown or

crimson in color, in some forms short and broad, in others long and

narrow with the margins recurved or revolute, giving to the flower the

appearance of a Cactus Dahlia, and contrasting with the other form

having broadly spreading flat rays rounded at the tips.

From photographs of these contrasted forms it is evident that the

latter species is the true Dahlia coccinea of Cavanilles, the type figure

of which it exactly resembles.

Dahlia maxonii Safford, sp. nov. Tree Dahlia of Guatemala. Tzoloj

(Kekchi); Shikor (Pokomchi); Quauhacocoxochitl (Nahuatl).

A tall plant with vertical terete hollow stem 3 to 5 meters high and

5 to 7 cm. thick, at length becoming woody, with joints at intervals

formed by the clasping bases of the connate petioles of the opposite

leaves. Leaves membranaceous, pale green beneath, deep green

above, quite smooth or sparsely hairy, those of the inflorescence and

on the upper part of the stem simple or pinnate, those on the lower

portion of the stem bipinnate; leaflets lanceolate, terminating in a

long slender point, the terminal leaflet narrowed and the lateral ones

rounded and unequal at the base, with the blades more or less decur-

rent on the narrowly winged rachis, the margins dentate (the larger

leaflets with 16 to 18 teeth on each side), the lower pair often bilobed

and sometimes with an additional pair of small leaflets at the base,

as in several other species of the genus; leaves of young seedlings sim-

ply pinnate, with the rachis scarcely or not at all winged. Flower

heads peduncled, erect; peduncles 10 to 12 cm. long, those of axillary

heads somewhat shorter and subtended at the base by simple caudate-

acuminate leaf -like bracts narrowed at the base into a winged petiole

I or 2 cm. long; involucre composed of two distinct series, the outer

consisting of 5 green, fleshy, widely spreading, spathulate-ovate bracts

obtuse at the apex 10 to 15 mm. long and 5 to 8 mm. broad, the inner

of about 10 membranaceous diaphanous, oblong, scales rounded at the

apex, overlapping before anthesis, at length erect, 18 to 20 mm. long

and 8 to 10 mm. broad. Ray florets neutral, lavender-pinkish or lilac,

ovate, flat, widely spreading as in the cultivated forms of the "century

type," 4 to 5 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. broad with the apex roimded or

abruptly pointed; disk-florets hermaphrodite, often sterile, tubular,

372

safford: notes on dahlia

Fig. 4. — Dahlia maxonii, showing fully expanded flower, two unopened buds, disk

floret, and achenium, together with a bipinnate and a simple leaf. Natural

size. Drawn by Mrs. R. E. Gamble.

safford: notes on dahlia 373

sharply 5 -toothed, yellow, 10 mm. long; mature achenia, 1.5 mm.

long.

Type in the U. S National Herbarium, no. 473271, collected at

Socoyoct^, Department of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, January 16, 1905,

by William R. Maxon (no. 3295).

Distribution: Mountains of Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, and across

the boimdary into the state of Chiapas, Mexico.

This handsome tree dahlia is named in honor of Mr. William R.

Maxon, collector of the type material. It is further represented in

the U. S. National Herbarium by specimens from Sepacuite, Alta

Verapaz, collected by George P. Goll (no. 224), Guatemala, without

definite locality, by Heyde (no. 319) and Mrs. William Owen (no. 2a

"Tzoloj"); in cultivation near Guatemala City by Wilson Popenoe (no.

728); and in the vicinity of San Cristobal, state of Chiapas, Mexico,

at an elevation of 7000 to 8800 feet, by E. W. Nelson (no. 3173).

In Mr. Maxon's field notes he describes it as a plant "8 to 15 feet

high; flowers lavender-pinkish, 4 inches across; buds and young shoots

eaten as 'greens;' a very common plant." Mr. Popenoe's notes, dated

Tactic, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, December 16, 19 16, are as follows:

"This tree dahlia is extensively used here for hedges. The stems are

cut and inserted in the ground, projecting three or four feet; they take

root and grow, and when the plants have reached ten or twelve feet

in height they produce quantities of lilac-pink flowers, three to five

inches broad. Just now they are in all their glory, and Tactic is brilliant

with them. This impresses me as being an unusually fine decorative

plant. It should be cultivated in the United States. In addition to

the typical form, — single pink, — three others are known in this region.

Some of them may be distinct species. The people say they are wild

plants. One resembles the typical form except that it is quite double.

Another is a single white, its flowers resembling those of the single pink

in everything except color. The fourth form is double white. The

flowers of this form are very handsome and are used by the Indians to

adorn the images of saints which they keep in their houses. Don

Matias Acevedo says that water contained in the hollow stems is medi-

cinal. It is used here as a gargle in cases of sore throat. This plant

is called shikor in Pokomchi,^ which is the language spoken in Tactic.

In Kekchi, which is the language spoken throughout most of the Alta

Verapaz, the name is tzoloj."

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BIOLOGY. — A sketch of the natural history of the District of Columbia,

together with an indexed edition of the U. S. Geological Survey s 191 7

map of Washington and vicinity. W. L. McAtee. Bull. Biol.

Soc. Washington 1: 1-142, maps 5. 19 18.

The purposes of this publication are to present a brief biological

history of the District of Columbia, to point out the best places for

field work, and to supply geographical assistance. The earliest obser-

vation on the natural history of the region was made by Captain John

Smith in the year 1608, who reported several kinds of mammals from

this region, particularly bears and deer. The first information regarding

the botany is furnished by Petiver, who in 1698 published some notes

on plants sent him from Maryland. The first formal list of the plants

of the District of Columbia was published in 1816, and from the 142

species then credited to this region, the list has increased until at the

present time there are approximately 1600 species known from the

vicinity of Washington.

Insects, of course, are more numerous here than any other group of

animals, and beetles alone number 3000. Several hundred species,

chiefly Diptera and Hymenoptera, have been described from material

collected near Washington. Of other invertebrates there are known

from the District of Columbia, 90 species of mollusks, 308 species of

spiders, 10 phalangids, and 246 rotifers. Among the vertebrates,

fishes have received more attention than any other group except birds,

and there are now 94 species recorded fromthis region, several of which

were described from local specimens. Owing to the presence of tide-

water, a number of salt-water fishes are found there. Of batrachians

there are 27 species, and of reptiles, 36. The birds of the District have

been more carefully studied than any other group of vertebrates, and

there is now a list of some 300 species and subspecies. Of mammals

there are 41 species, 3 of which were originally described from specimens

obtained near Washington. It is of interest to note that within his-

toric times, the buffalo, elk, and puma were to be found near what is now

374

abstracts: geography 375

the City of Washington. The Indians of Algonquina stock who in-

habited this region, ah abandoned it about the year 1700.

The Fall Line, separating the Piedmont Plateau from the Coastal

Plain, runs through the District of Columbia and acts as a more or less

definite faunal barrier, most so in the case of plants and insects. An-

other interesting feature of this region is the numerous magnolia bogs

and their relation to the pine barrens of New Jersey. Careful study

of these bogs has shown that they possess a large percentage of the

characteristic pine-barren plants, and that they now harbor these sur-

vivors of the plant waves that accompanied the successive depressions

of the Atlantic Coast region. Furthermore, the absence of pine barrens

from the District of Columbia is due only to the absence of extensive

areas of suitable soil deposits. Other types of cohecting ground about

Washington, with mention of localities where such are to be found,

together with some of the more desirable plants and animals to be ob-

tained at each, are also given. One of the chief features of this bulletin

is an indexed edition of the recent United States Geological Survey

map of the District of Columbia and vicinity, to which a detailed index

furnishes a ready means of reference. All the old collecting spots,

archaeological sites, and the minor topographical details, are indicated,

and it is thus possible to locate any place of biological or other interest

in this region. Harry C. Oberhoi^sER.

GEOGRAPHY. — The Canning River region, northern Alaska. ErnesT

DE K. Leffingwell. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper No. 109.

Pp. 245. Pis. 35, figs. 33. 1919.

The report deals chiefly with the geography and geology of an area

about 70 miles square south of Camden Bay on the Arctic coast of

Alaska. In addition it gives facts and interpretations relating to many

problems in other fields of science.

Under geography are described the Franklin mountains, Romanzof"

mountains, and some other, parts of the Arctic mountain system.

North of the mountains is the Anaktuvuk Plateau, a rolling tundra

upland that slopes gradually seaward. The flat and almost featureless,

coastal plain rises very gradually from the Arctic Ocean southward to the

Anaktuvuk Plateau. The coast line is generally straight and the land

very low. The shore is characterized by low mud banks, shallow

lagoons, sand spits, islands, and mud flats. Maps accompanying the

reports present the first accurate chart of the north Arctic coast of

Alaska from Martins Point to Colville River. In the mountains the

376 abstracts: mycoi^ogy

rivers flow through marked glacial troughs; in the upland through

wide valleys; and in the costal plain nearly at the surface of the tundra.

Canning River is 120 miles long; other large streams of the area are the

Okpilak, Hulahula, and Sadlerochit.

Under Geology are described: Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic

rocks. Pleistocene glaciers extended from the mountains well down the

valleys but did not reach the coast. Present glaciers are confined to the

higher mountain valleys.

The occurrence of ground ice is described and the literature of this

subject reviewed in considerable detail. The author concludes that the

two varieties of ground ice most common in northern Alaska are formed

by the burial of river ice by sediments, and the growth in place of ver-

tical ice wedges. J. T. Pardee.

MYCOIvOGY. — Further data on the susceptibility of rutaceous plants

to citrus -canker. H. Atherton Lee. Journ. Agr. Res. 15:

661-665. 1918.

Inoculation tests made in the Philippine Islands with Pseudcnninas

citri upon 24 species representing 20 genera of the family Rutaceae, show

that 19 of the species are susceptible in greater or less degree. It thus

appears that citrus-canker is not closely limited to the genus Citrus,

but has a wide range of hosts among the Rutaceae.

Severinia buxifolia, Aegle marnielos, and Balsamocitrus gabonensis

all close relatives of Citrus, may safely be called immune to citrus

canker. Xanthoxylum rhetsa and Triphasia trifolia seem to be immune.

Chalcas (Murraya) exotica, Atalantia disticha, and Fortunella (Citrus)

japonica, also closely related to the genus Citrus, are strongly resistant

to citrus-canker.

Claucena lansium, Feronia limonia, Feroniella lucida, Chaetospermum

glutinosum, Hesperethusa crenulata, Paramignya longipedunculata, Cit-

Topsis schweinfurthii, Atlantia citrioides, Eremocitrus glauca, Fortunella

hindsii, Microcitrus australis, M. australasica, Toddalia asiatica, Evodia

ridleyei, E. latifolia, and Melicope triphylla, of different relationships to

the genus Citrus, all produce positive results when inoculated with

Pseudonionas citri, at needle punctures. Of these, Claucena lansium

and Feronia limonia develop infection very slowly, the others fairly

quickly.

Chaetospermum glutinosa shows naturally occurring infections of

citrus-canker and in the Phihppines its susceptibility is easily greater

than that of the sweet orange {Citrus sinensis). Fortunella hindsii

abstracts: mycology 377

occurs naturally in South China, very much isolated from sources of

citrus-canker infection. The abundance of cankers found on such

trees gives rise to the theory that this species may have been an original

wild host from which citrus-canker spread to cultivated species.

H. R. Fulton.

MYCOLOGY. — The parasitism, morphology, and cytology of Cronar-

tium ribicola Fischer. Reginald H. CollEy. Journ. Agr.

Res. 15: 619-659. Pis. 48-53. December 23, 1918.

In the white pine the myceUum of the fungus makes its way between

the cells of the phloem tissue, passes into the xylem along the rays,

and in some instances works its way between tracheids. The severe

damage to the tree attacked results from the driving out of the bark

after formation of the aecia and a consequent girdling action. Before

spore formation, the pine cells are quite tolerant of the presence of the

hyphae of the parasite. The mycelium in Ribes leaves is scattered;

haustoria are much less prominent and abundant than on the mycelium

in the pine host. The damage to Ribes varies greatly according to the

susceptibility of the species.

Pycnia are formed in broad layers just under the outer cork layers of

the bark. The aecia, more deeply seated than the pycnia, are formed

on the same general area as the pycnia, following the latter by one

season. The aecial peridium is three to five cells thick. Uredinia are

formed on the lower surface of the infected Ribes leaves, and are at

first covered by a peridium one cell in thickness. The teliospores are

produced in columns which in their young stages are identical with the

young stages of the uredinia, having the same type of peridium. Every

teliospore in the column may germinate.

The cytological processes agree very closely with those observed by

previous investigators on other rusts. At the inception of the dikaryon

at the base of the aecium, the union of two fertile cells regularly occurs,

but a number of cases were observed where several cells formed a large

placenta-like unit from which the aeciospore chains appeared to arise.

The similarity of the processes of conjugate division in the dikaryon

in the aecia, m-edinia, and telia, suggests a stability of nuclear material

throughout the dikaryon. The presence of centrosomes in the nuclei,

and occurrence of a number of chromesomes in excess of two, is dis-

cussed and illustrated very fully. R. H. C.

378 abstracts: mycology

MYCOLOGY. — Physoderma disease of corn. W. H. Tisdale. Journ.

Agr. Res. 16: 137-154. 1919.

The Physoderma disease of corn, which was discovered by Shaw in

India in 19 10 and by Barrett in the State of IlHnois in 191 1, is now

known to be more or less prevalent throughout the United States as far

westward as central Texas and Nebraska, and northward to southern

Minnesota and New Jersey. It causes little damage except in the South

Atlantic and Gulf Coast States and in the lower Mississippi Valley,

where there is considerable rainfall accompanied by high temperatures.

In these localities there may be as much as 10 per cent loss of grain.

At a distance the disease has the appearance of a true rust, but on

close observation the two can be easily distinguished. The small red-

dish-brown spots on the blades, which are seldom more than i mm.

in diameter, often coalesce to give the blade a rusty appearance. On

the midrib, sheath, and culm, the spots are often as much as 5 mm. in

diameter and may be almost black, due to the abundant production of

dark brown sporangia in the tissues. The parenchyma tissues of the

sheath may be entirely destroyed, leaving nothing but a shredlike mass

of vascular fibers in the later stages. Plants have been seen to break

over before maturity, due to a girdling of the lower nodes by the fungus.

The invaded cells are filled with dark brown zoosporangia, which live

over winter in the old diseased plants and in the soil. These sporangia

are carried by wind and spattering water to the young plants the fol-

lowing season, where they are lodged behind the sheaths and in the

buds. With sufficient free water and a high temperature (23° to 30 °C.)

they germinate by producing numerous uniciliate zoospores which come

to rest in from one to two hoiu-s and germinate by threadlike hyphae

which penetrate the epidermis of the host, invade a number of cells, and

produce within them a large number of sporangia which make the disease

evident.

The most probable means of control are careful sanitation and crop

rotation. W. H. T.

MYCOLOGY.— ^5!?^/^ scald. Chari.es Brooks, J. S. CoolEy, and

D. F. Fisher. Journ. Agr. Res. 16:195-217. 1919.

Apple scald is a transportation and storage disease of apples. Green

apples are more susceptible to the disease than mature ones, and apples

from heavily irrigated trees more susceptible than those from trees

receiving more moderate irrigation. The rapidity of the development

of the disease increases with a rise in temperature up to 15° or 20° C.

abstracts: phytochemistry 379

Stirring the storage air has been found entirely to prevent the develop-

ment of scald. Thorough aeration during the first eight weeks of

storage was found more valuable than later ones. Apples packed in

boxes or ventilated barrels have scalded less than those in tight barrels,

especially when the storage room received an occasional ventilation.

Ordinary apple wrappers have had no effect on apple scald, and paraffin

wrappers but little, but wrappers soaked in various oils and fats have

entirely prevented the disease. Accumulations of carbon dioxide (i

to 6 per cent) have not favored the development of scald but tended to

prevent it. The experimental results indicate that apple scald is due

to volatile or gaseous substances other than carbon dioxide which are

produced by the apples themselves. They can be carried away by

air currents or taken up by various absorbents. C. B.

PHYTOCHEMISTRY. — The distribution and characters of some of the

odorous principles of plants.^ Frederick B. Power. Journ. Ind.

Eng. Chem. 11: 344-352. April, 1919.

In this paper, which does not permit of a comprehensive abstract,

the author indicates the chemical characters of the great variety of

compounds to which the odor of plants is due, the distribution of these

compounds among the different plants, and the methods by which they

are obtained. Among the cryptogamous or fiowerless plants, such as

the algae, fungi, lichens, and ferns, there are very few which possess

any marked or distinctive odor, whereas the phanerogamous or flowering

plants contain such an exceedingly large number of odorous substances

as to preclude a complete enumeration of them. These substances,

many of which have been the subject of extended chemical study, are

of such a diverse character as to include representatives of practically

all the principal groups of organic compounds, comprising, for example,

the hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols and phenol

ethers, acids, esters, and lactones. The odorous products of the plant

are generally obtained by a process of steam distillation, and are then

commonly known as essential oils or volatile oils, most of which are

more or less complex mixtures, although frequently one constituent of

them may largely predominate. Some of the essential oils are obtained

by expression, such as those of the citrus fruits, notably the orange,

lemon, and bergamot. In some cases the odorous principles of plants

^ Abstract of an address of the retiring president of the Chemical Society of Wash-

ington. Delivered before a joint meeting of the Chemical Society and the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences, January 9, 1919.

380 abstracts: spectrophotometry

are of so delicate a nature that they can only be obtained in a tangible

form by a process of maceration with a purified fat, known as enfleurage,

whereby the perfume is absorbed and may subsequently be extracted

with alcohol. As examples of this class there may be mentioned the

flowers of the violet, jasmine, tuberose, jonquil, lily of the valley, and

mignonette.

The various families of plants which have been considered by the

author for the purpose of illustration include the Coniferae, Gramineae,

Palniae, Liliaceae, Iridaceae, Zin giber aceae, Orchidaceae, Aristolocki-

aceae, Annonaceae , Myristicaceae, Lauraceae, Cntciferae, Rosaceae,

Geraniaceae, Myrtaceae, Umbelliferae, Ericaceae, Labiatae, and Ccnn-

positae. In connection with these groups numerous volatile products

have been described with reference to the chemical character of their

individual constituents. The preparation by synthetic methods of

some of the odorous substances which occur in nature, or of compounds

related to them which are largely used in perfumery, has also received

consideration. F. B. P.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY. — The ultra-violet and visible transmission

of eye-protective glasses. K. S. Gibson and H. J. McNichoIvAS.

Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. 119. Pp. 47. 1919.

Many glasses are on the market and extensively advertised to pro-

tect the eyes from injurious radiant energy. Unfortunately, but little

authoritative information concerning the properties of these glasses

has been available. The public and even oculists and physicians

have had little to guide them in selecting such glasses except the claims

of makers and agents. One purpose of such glasses is to absorb the

injurious radiant energy which is emitted along with the light from

certain lamps, as well as from welding arcs and industrial furnaces,

while transmitting sufficient light for vision. They thus act as filters.

Another purpose in certain cases may be to absorb part of the light

so as to reduce a bUnding brilliance. Glasses of different types are

required for different needs. The degree to which these glasses actually

fulfill their avowed ptupose can only be determined by measurements

of their "transmission" {i. e., the ratio of transmitted energy to the

energy falling on them) for the various forms of radiant energy in

question. This paper gives the results of such measurements made

on a great number of glasses now on the American market. A sug-

gested specification for eye-protective glasses is given. K. S. G.

abstracts: technology 381

TECHNOLOGY. — Silica refractories. Factors affecting their quality

and methods of testing the raw materials and finished ware. Donai^d

W. Ross. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. 116. Pp. 84. 1919.

The quartz or amorphous siHca of raw sihca brick is gradually

transformed to crystal forms of lower specific gravity when the bricks

are burned during manufacture, and when subsequently heated in

use. Dr. C. N. Fenner, of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie

Institution, laid the foundations for the study of the silica refractories

by working out the physico-chemical properties of the silica minerals.

Mr. Spotts McDowell applied the results of this work in a study of

the permanent, crystal changes taking place in silica refractories on

being heated to temperatures usually attained in manufacture. He

also studied the effect of such changes on the strength of the brick, and

its tendency to spall (fly apart) when rapidly heated or cooled.

The writer took up the work at this point, in the hope of obtaining

some practical applications. He has studied the changes in volume,

porosity, and true specific gravity of most of the leading commercial

brands of silica brick, and of the raw materials from which they are

made, in conjunction with the crystal changes. The volume, porosity,

and specific-gravity changes were obtained by computation from the

dry weight of a piece, its weight when saturated with water, and its

weight when suspended in water.

The porosities of the quartzites in conjunction with their appearance

under the microscope, indicate that impervious, highly metamorphosed

quartzites, having tightly interlocking grains, are more apt to be suit-

able for the manufacture of silica brick than porous quartzites which

have rounded grains. The changes taking place on heating indicate that

the best bricks would be produced in manufacture by an extended

heating between 1250° C and 1350° C. and a final gradual rise to

higher temperatures. From the studies on commercial brick, it has

been determined that the true specific gravity of a silica brick is a direct

measure of the degree to which the brick has been burned, and in con-

junction with the porosity, indicates approximately what the subse-

quent expansion of the brick in use will be. Thus, by a simple pro-

cedure, the manufacturer can keep an accurate check on the nature of

the silica brick he is turning out, and in the same way the consumer

can determine what to expect from them in use. D. W. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFII^ATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 334th meeting of the Society was held in the Auditorium of the

Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, April 9, 1919, at 8.00 p. m.

Program

C. E. Van Ostrand: Temperatures in some deep wells in the United

States.

During the past few years observations of temperature have been

made in deep wells located in Texas, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania and West

Virginia. The apparatus used in making the tests was capable of an

accuracy of about 0.2 or 0.3° F. for depths of about 4000 feet, while

for greater depths the error may have risen in a few instances to o . 5 ° F.

The depth temperature curves, instead of being a straight line, as

would be expected from cosmological hypotheses, are generally curves

with a marked convexity toward the axis of depth. In the case of the

Goflf Well, for example, the rate of temperature increase varies contin-

uously from I ° F. in 97 . 5 feet at the surface, to i ° F. in 46 . 5 feet over

the interval, 6000 to 7000 feet.

Temperatures at the same depth in the Texas and Oklahoma fields,

differ widely from those in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The tem-

perature of the oil in two wells near Mannington, West Vriginia, is

83.2° F. at a depth of about 2900 feet. No record of oil temperature

was obtained in the Southwestern fields but an extension to a depth of

3400 feet of the depth temperature curves of five wells in the vicinity

of Ranger, Texas, indicates that the temperature of the oil in the rocks

is about 135° F. The average rate of temperature increase at the sur-

face for thirteen wells in Texas and Oklahoma, is 1° F. in 51 .5 ± 0.8

feet; the same for twelve wells in Pennsylvania and West Virignia is

i°F. in9i.5 ± 1.2 feet.

E. W. Berry: Present tendencies in paleontology. — It is difficult to

get into a sufficiently detached frame of mind correctly to visualize

the true position of the United States in the present status of paleon-

tology. We undoubtedly exhibit a provincialism and a radicalism

that goes with young nations as with young individuals. The future

belongs to us if we keep our ideals high enough. The paleontologic

sun is setting in Europe while the dawn is just breaking in America.

Progress in paleontology can only result from the action and reaction

of the two parallel lines of human endeavor, namely, the accumula-

tion of facts through exploration, research, and discovery, and the eluci-

382

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 383

dation of the accumulated facts through advances in philosophic in-

terpretation. The accumulation of facts usually far outruns their in-

terpretation. Stratigraphic paleontology cannot be divorced from

biological paleontology without becoming sterile. Hisotorical geology

is the idea we strive for. Loosely drawn genera and species are no

longer useful. Progress depends on research. True research does not

depend on subject matter but on method. I would wish to depreciate

the tendency, rampant throughout the world, to seek a justification for

research as a means towards some economic end. If the elucidation of

each history and the origin and evolution of life on the globe are not

of prime importance as ends in themselves; if the whence, and the why,

and the whither are not supreme, then indeed has our lot fallen among

evil days. I venture to hope that research will increase in both quality

and amount, and that the day will speedily arrive when a first rate

paleontologist can command a fair income in the successful practice

of his profession.

E. T. Wherry: Some practical applications of crystallography. —

This paper comprised illustrations of the application of petrographic

methods to certain chemical problems, including the identification in

foods of crystalline substances, such as magnesium ammonium phos-

phate which had been mistaken for glass; the control of the manufac-

ture of explosives and dyes by optical study of their crystals; and the

recognition of the nature of a peculiar type of crystallization in honey.

It was illustrated by lantern slides made from photomicrographs.

The 335th meeting of the Society was held in the Auditorium of the

Cosmos Club on Wednesday,April 23, 1919, at 8.00 p. m.

Program

G. W. Stose: Manganese deposits of the Appalachian Valley of

Virginia and Tennessee. — ^The manganese deposits of the Appalachian

Valley lie chiefly along its eastern border, but some occur within the

open valley, and others among the ridges on the western side. The

deposits are chiefly replacement deposits in clay and sand residual

from disintegrated limestone and calcareous sandstone, and 10 differ-

ent modes of occurrence have been observed. Eight of these are asso-

ciated with specific, geologic horizons, which range from earliest Cam-

brian to the Carboniferous. Other deposits are along fault planes

and in terraced stream gravels. Only i of the deposits is a carbonate

ore, which replaces dolomite and slate.

The conclusions reached are that: i, the localization of the deposits

at certain horizons, is due to their derivation from certain sedimentary

beds which were somewhat richer in manganese than sediments gen-

erally; 2, these richer zones occur at the base of formations and some

are associated with glauconite, phosphate, eolean sand grains, and

other detritus accompanying land waste at unconformities; 3, the

original mineral was probably a carbonate of manganese, calcium, and

iron; 4, the ores were concentrated by the solution of the original dis-

seminated mineral, by meteoric waters, and redeposition in porous

384 proceedings: geological society

layers or channels, replacing the sand and clay of the rock; 5, this con-

centration was favored by periods of long denudation and deep weath-

.ering and was therefore most extensive on old peneplain surfaces; 6,

the purity of the ore is controlled largely by the purity of the rock re-

placed; 7, some of the richer minerals were apparently derived from

other minerals by dehydration after deposition, and some psilomelane

appears to have been deposited with quartz while it was in a gelatinous

state; 8, only one of the deposits, which passes downward into car-

bonate ore, was a replacement of the bedrock below the zone of sur-

face weathering.

H. D. Miser: Manganese deposits of the Batesville district, Arkansas.

— The manganese ores consist of oxides and generally occur in irregular

shaped masses from less than one pound to 22 tons in weight, with

rough surfaces. Most of the masses are in clay; the others are in Ume-

stone, shale, chert, and sandstone, and there is much evidence that the

manganese oxides of which the masses are composed have replaced all

of these inclosing materials. The oxides have been derived from man-

ganese-bearing carbonates near the surface and do not extend below

the permanent water level of the district. The workable deposits

occur in the nearly horizontal Femvale limestone and Cason shale of

Ordovician age and in residual clays which were mainly derived from

these two formations. Most of the masses in the clays are residual,

having been freed from the above-named formations by their decomposi-

tion; the others have been formed by the replacement of the clays by

manganese oxides.

The Cason shale was laid down in shallow marine waters on an old

land surface and was probably the source of all of the manganese.

The manganese was apparently deposited as a carbonate in the shale,

and since then there have been two principal periods of reconcentra-

tion, the first taking place during one or more of several stages of emerg-

ence and erosion that occurred between the Ordovician and Carboniferous

periods, and the other about the time of the completion of the Upper

Cretaceous or early Tertiary peneplain whose approximate elevation

is marked by many of the even-crested hills of the district. During

both periods the manganese was concentrated in the Cason shale

and much of it was carried in solution from the shale down into the

Femvale limestone. Synclines were present during the earlier period,

as well as the last one, and the)^ probably offered favorable conditions

for the concentration of the manganese ores, as is shown by the fact

that most of the ores occur in synchnes.

E. L. Jones, Jr.: Manganese deposits of the Colorado River

Desert Region. — Deposits of manganese ore have been recently ex-

ploited in the desert region adjacent to Colorado River, that extends

from the Big Bend near Las Vegas, Nevada, to Yuma, Arizona.

The deposits are fillings in veins and brecciated zones and replace-

ment deposits. The veins and brecciated zones cut all the rocks of

proceedings: gkological socmTY 385

the region ranging from schist and granite of pre-Cambrian age to

basalt and conglomerate of Quaternary age, and the replacement de-

posits are in sandstone and tuff beds of Tertiary age. The ores con-

sist of the oxides psilomelane, pyrolusite, manganite, and wad. Cal-

cite generally accompanies the manganese oxides, and iron oxides,

barites, and gypsum occur in some of the deposits. Quartz does not

occur except as a constituent of rock fragments inclosed in the veins

and as unreplaced grains of the sandstone. The source of the man-

ganese oxides is obscure but in some of the deposits the manganese

oxides are believed to have been derived from the decomposition of

manganiferous minerals in overlying rocks and deposits by meteoric

waters. In other deposits the ore bodies may be residual from man-

ganiferous calcite deposited by rising hot solutions in the fissures.

J. T. Pardee: Manganese deposits of the Northwestern States. —

At Butte, Montana, lodes formed along steeply pitching fractures in

granite are characterized by manganese minerals in a zone peripheral

to the central copper zone. The arrangement of these zones suggests

a central deep source from which the metals were carried upward and

outward. Rhodochrosite, the carbonate of manganese, forms work-

able bodies from which more than 60,000 tons of ore were mined in

1 91 8. At Philipsburg, Montana, lodes cut Paleozoic limestone and

intrusive granite. In the limestone near the granite, large irregular

chambers filled with manganese oxides are found along the lodes.

During 191 8 and 191 9 they yielded more than 200,000 tons of high

grade ore. The manganese oxides are derived from the oxidation of

rhodochrosite which was introduced during a late phase of the lode

mineralization. Small deposits of the same origin as those at Butte

and Philipsburg occur in the Tintic and Erickson districts, Utah;

the Siegel and Ely districts, Nevada; Pleasant Valley, Oregon; and

Omak, Washington.

Deposits at several other places belong to a class whose manganese

was derived from more or less disseminated or obscure sources. The

extensive deposits in the Olympic mountains of Washington are possi-

bly of sedimentary origin though they have been greatly modified by

regional metamorphism. The deposits near Green River, Utah, were

concentrated during the weathering of a manganese-bearing Hme-

stone bed in the McElmo formation.

E. F. Burchard: Managanese-ore deposits of Cuba.- — Manganese

ore is found in Cuba, in Oriente, Santa Clara, and Pinar del Rio Pro-

vinces, but in Oriente Province only does it occur in large commercial

quantities. In Oriente the important deposits are in two areas, one

north of Santiago de Cuba, the other south of Bayamo.

The manganese ore of Oriente occurs in proximity to areas of vol-

canic rock, but the deposits of the other two provinces, which are small

and unimportant, are remote from volcanic areas. The ore is found

in the oxidized zone, mainly near the surface, but in places extends be

low groundwater level. The deposits are in sedimentary rocks of

386 proceedings: geoi^ogicaIv society

upper Eocene age, such as foraminiferal limestone, shaly, glauconitic

sandstone, conglomerate, and waterlaid andesitic tuff, and in igneous

rocks such as latite-porphyry and latite. Eocene time was charac-

terized in the area of Oriente Province chiefly by subsidence, with

active volcanoes, causing interbedding of volcanic and sedimentary

rock.

The ore consists of some or all of the oxides pyrolusite, psilomelane,

manganite, and wad, and braunite has been noted, but as a rule the

individual minerals are not readily distinguished. The deposits are

of three general types according to their associations : deposits in bedded

rocks, deposits in irregular siliceous masses (jasper, bayate) that occupy

openings in both sedimentary and igneous rock, and deposits of nodules

and fragments in clay. The "bedded" deposits comprise several varie-

ties, one of the most common having been formed by partial replace-

ment by manganese oxides of portions of tuff beds, and consisting of

poorly consolidated, tuffaceous material, granules of pink clay, zeolites,

and manganese oxides. Other bedded deposits are replacements of

limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate, and a fossil bog was noted.

The proximtity of volcanic rocks to the manganese-bearing areas,

and the broader structural relations, suggest the possibility that the

manganese was derived from volcanic rocks of the Sierra Maestra

Mountains, transported by artesian waters, together with silica and

deposited in the porous tuff strata and as masses of manganiferous

jasper in joints and fissm-es in the limestone and glauconitic sand-

stone. The jasper and bedded tuff, in weathering, have contributed

the manganese that is now found in the other rocks and in detrital

deposits.

D. F. Hewett: Summary. — Most manganese deposits offer two

rather distinct problems: (i) that which is concerned with the fea-

tures, source, manner of deposition, and distribution of certain primary

minerals, only a few of which are useful in the arts, and (2) that which

is concerned with the features, source, manner of deposition, and dis-

tribution of certain secondary oxide minerals which are derived from

the primary minerals and are highly useful.

Recent work shows, although the common primary manganese

minerals, such as carbonates, silicates, and sulphides are widely found

in deposits that are associated with igneous intrusions, there are a

number of poorly defined manganiferous carbonates and silicates

that are laid down with sediments. In some places these minerals

form concretions in the sediments but elsewhere they appear to be

uniformly distributed in thin zones.

Although the higher oxides and hydrous oxides of manganese appear

to be deposited in the belt of weathering only, the lower oxides are

apparently deposited under conditions found below the belt of weath-

ering, or may be formed when the higher oxides are affected by regional

metamorphism .

proceedings: geological society 387

Large bodies of the higher oxides and hydrous oxides of manganese,

accumulate near localized bodies of carbonates and silicates when

these are thoroughly weathered. In several regions, however, the

occurrence of many manganese oxide deposits on the remnants of old

erosion surfaces where the nearby sedimentary rocks are deeply weath-

ered and the sources of the manganese are consequently obscure, indi-

cates that under conditions of peneplanation there is an opportunity

to accommodate in small areas the manganese that was formerly

widely disseminated through the rocks.

R. W. Stone, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATIONS

A meeting to organize an International Research Council is being

held at Brussels beginning July i8, 1919. Delegates will be present

from the National Research Council of this coimtry, and from similar

organizations in the various countries which have been associated with

the United States during the recent war. The question of the admission

of neutral countries will be brought before the meeting. Countries

which have not organized a research council will be represented by

delegates from their national academies.

The delegates from the United States of America are: W. W. Camp-

bell, Chairman, Chairman of American Delegation, International As-

tronomical Union; H. M. HowE, Scientific Attache at Paris, also repre-

senting Engineering; C. E. Mendenhall, Scientific Attache at Lon-

don, also representing Physics; H. S. Washington, Scientific Attach^

at Rome, also representing Geology; Wm. Bowie, Chairman of American

Delegation, International Geophysical Union; E. W. Washburn,

Chairman of American Delegation, International Chemical Union;

W. S. Thayer, representing Medicine; John C. Penny, representing

Patents; D. W. Johnson, representing Geography; H. F. Moore,

representing Biology and Fisheries.

A meeting to organize an International Chemical Union was held

in London on July 15. The American delegates to this meeting were:

E. W. Washburn, Chairman; Edward Bartow, F. G. Cottrell,

Chas. L. Parsons, Julius Stieglitz, H. S. Washington; Alternates:

A. B. Lamb and Jas. F. Norris.

An International Astronomical Union and an International Geo-

physical Union will be organized during the meeting at Brussels. It

is planned to have these organizations take over the various interna-

tional astronomical and geodetic committees which were in existence

before the outbreak of the European war. Meetings of the Amer-

ican sections of these two unions were held at the National Re-

search Council in Washington on June 23-25, at which the follow-

ing delegates were selected: Astronomical Union, W. W. Campbell,

Chairman; W. S. Adams, S. I. Bailey, Benjamin Boss, W. S. Eichel-

berger, Philip Fox, W. J. Humphreys, S. A. Mitchell, F. R. Moul-

TON, H. N. Russell, Frank Schlesinger, C. E. St. John, F. H.

Seares, Joel Stebbins; Geophysical Union, Wm. Bowie, Chairman; L.

A. Bauer, H. C. Graves, A. O. Leuschner, G. W. Littlehales, C. F.

Marvin, H. F. Reid, Edward Simpson, J. T. Watkins; Alternates:

W. J. Humphreys, J. F. Hayford, W. J. Peters.

The provisional officers of the American sections of these two unions

are as follows: Astronomical Union, W. W. Campbell, Chairman;

Joel Stebbins, Secretary; Geophysical Union, William Bowie, Chair-

man; H. O. Wood, Secretary.

Conferences on the question of forming international organizations in

388

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 389

medicine, mathematics, geology, geography, biology, fisheries, and

patents will be held in connection with the Brussels meetings.

The plan of voting suggested for the international council and the

international unions is: One vote for nations having a population

of less than five million; one vote additional for each additional five

million of population or fraction thereof, except that nations having

over twenty million have five votes only. The colonies of Great

Britain will probably vote as separate nations.

THE TARIFF ON SCIENTIFIC SUPPLIES

Hearings were held on the three bills concerned with the tariff on

chemical and optical glassware and scientific apparatus (H. R. 3734,

3735, and 4386) before the Committee on Ways and Means of the

House of Representatives on June 11-13, 1919. Representative J. W.

FoRDNEY, of Michigan, Chairman of the Committee, presided. Among

those who testified at the hearing were: representatives of the glass

workers' unions; representatives of the manufacturers of chemical

glassware, chemical porcelain, optical instruments, and scientific ap-

paratus in general; and Dr. Charles H. HerTy, Editor of the Journal

of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Dr. W. F. HillEbrand, of

the Bureau of Standards, Mr. H. E. HowE, of the National Research

Council, Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Secretary of the American Chem-

ical Society, Lieut. Col. M. A. Reasoner, of the Field Medical Supply

Depot, U. S. A., Col. J. K. Rutherford, Ordnance Dept., U. S. A.,

and Mr. F. J. Sheridan, of the U. S. TariflP Commission. Practically

all the evidence was in favor of the removal of the duty-free importa-

tion privilege, and the imposition of whatever tariffs might be necessary

to insure the establishment of the scientific apparatus and chemical

glassware industries in the United States.

As these bills are of direct interest to all scientists and scientific in-

stitutions, the essential paragraphs of the bills are reproduced below :

H. R. 3734. (Introduced by Mr. Bacharach, of New Jersey, on

May 28, 1919.) A Bill to provide revenue for the Government and to

establish and maintain the manufacture of optical glassware in the

United States. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-

tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That on

and after the day following the passage of this act, there shall be levied,

collected, and paid upon the articles named herein^ when imported

from any foreign country into the United States or any of its possessions,

except the Philippine Islands and the islands of Guam and Tutuila,

the rates of duties which are herein prescribed, namely : Glass plates or

disks, rough cut or unwrought, for use in the manufacture of optical

instruments, spectacles, and eyeglasses, suitable only for such use, as

covered by paragraph 494 of the Tariff Act of October 3, 19 13, 45 per

centum ad valorem. And such articles and all scientific instruments

in which such articles as enumerated in said paragraph 494 are used,

shall not be entitled to free entry under paragraph 573 of the above

mentioned act.

390 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

H. R. 3735. (Introduced by Mr. Bacharach on May 28, 1919.) A

Bill to provide revenue for the Government and to establish and main-

tain the manufacture of chemical glassware in the United States. Be

it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United

States of America in Congress assembled, That on and after the day

following the passage of this act there shall be levied, collected, and

paid upon the articles named herein when imported from any foreign

country into the United States or any of its possessions, except the

Philippine Islands and the islands of Guam and Tutuila, the rates of

duties herein prescribed, namely: Glasswares and porcelain wares used

in the sciences, and in laboratories, or selected for laboratories of chem-

istry, physics, bacteriology, and biology, in their application to educa-

tion, the industries, medicine, and the public health, including equipment

for metallurgy, mineralogy, and testing of materials, and other similar

uses, as covered by paragraphs 80 and 84 of the Tariff Act of October

3, 1 91 3, 60 per centum ad valorem. And such articles shall not be

entitled to free entry under paragraph 573 of the above-mentioned

act.

H. R. 4386. (Introduced by Mr. MoTT on June 2, 1919.) A Bill

to provide revenue for the Government and to establish and maintain

the manufacture of philosophical, scientific, and laboratory apparatus

in the United States. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre-

sentatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled.

That on and after the day following the passage of this act there shall

be levied, collected, and paid upon the articles named herein, when im-

ported from any foreign country into the United States or any of its

possessions, except the Philippine Islands and the islands of Guam and

Tutuila, the rates of duties which are herein prescribed, namely: Philoso-

phical, scientific, and laboratory apparatus, utensils, and instruments,

and parts thereof, finished or unfinished, 60 per centum ad valorem.

UNION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WORKERS

The following resolution was adopted by the convention of the

American Federation of Labor, held at Atlantic City during the week of

June 16-2 1 . The resolution was initiated by the (District of Columbia)

Union of Federal Employees, with which the scientific and technical

workers are now affiliated,^ and was introduced into the convention

jointly by the National Federation of Federal Employees and the

American Federation of Teachers.

. Whereas, Scientific research and the technical application of re-

sults of research form a fundamental basis upon which the development

of our industries, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and others

must rest; and

Whereas, The productivity of industry is greatly increased by the

technical application of the results of scientific research in physics,

chemistry, biology and geology, in engineering and agriculture, and in

1 See this Joxjrnal 9: 303. May 19, 1919-

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 39 1

the related sciences ; and the health and well-being not only of the work-

ers but of the whole population as well, are dependent upon advances

in medicine and sanitation ; so that the value of scientific advancement

to the welfare of the nation is many times greater than the cost of the

necessary research ; and

Whereas, The increased productivity of industry resulting from

scientific research is a most potent factor in the ever-increasing struggle

of the workers to raise their standards of living, and the importance

of this factor must steadily increase since there is a limit beyond which

the average standard of living of the whole population cannot progress

by the usual methods of readjustment, which limit can only be raised by

research and the utilization of the results of research in industry; and

Whereas, There are numerous important and pressing problems of

administration and regulation now faced by federal, state, and local

governments, the wise solution of which depends upon scientific and

technical research ; and

Whereas, The war has brought home to all the nations engaged in it

the overwhelming importance of science and technology to national

welfare, whether in war or in peace, and not only is private initiative

attempting to organize far-reaching research in these fields on a national

scale, but in several countries governmental participation and support

of such undertakings are already active ; therefore be it

Resolved, By the American Federation of Labor in convention as-

sembled, that a broad program of scientific and technical research is of

major importance to the national welfare and should be fostered in

every way by the Federal Government, and that the activities of the

Government itself in such research should be adequately and generously

supported in order that the work may be greatly strengthened and

extended ; and the Secretary of the Federation is instructed to transmit

copies of this resolution to the President of the United States, to the

President pro tempore of the Senate, and to the Speaker of the House of

Repi esentatives.

Notes

A "Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory" has been organized in the

Nitrate Division of the Ordnance Department, with headquarters at the

American University, in buildings formerly occupied by the Chemical

Warfare Service. Lieut. Col. A. B. Lamb, of the Chemical Warfare

Service, is director; Dr. R. C. Tolman, formerly of the Chemical War-

fare Service, and Prof. W. C. Bray, of the University of California, are

associate directors; and Dr. H. A. Curtis, formerly of the Nitrate

Division, Ordnance Department, is executive officer. The work on the

fixation of nitrogen carried on during the war in the Agricultural

Department laboratories at Arlington, Virginia, the Geophysical Labora-

tory, and elsewhere, will be concentrated at the American University.

In the absence of Col. Lamb in Europe, Dr. Tolman is acting director.

At present the staff consists of fifty -five persons.

392 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A series of deep-sea soundings off the southern Atlantic and Pacific

coasts of the United States are provided for in the plans for all the

Coast and Geodetic Survey steamers which are being sent this summer to

the Pacific coast.

The offices of the National Research Council were removed on July i

from 1023 Sixteenth Street to the building formerly occupied by the

Navy League, at 1201 Sixteenth Street.

In the course of the survey of the Florida Reefs by the U. S. Coast

and Geodetic steamer Hydrographer (C. H. Ober, commanding), an

improved type of sounding tube has been tested during recent months

in the deep waters of the Straits, with marked success.

Dr. Graham Edgar, formerly secretary of the Washington office of the

Research Information Service, National Research Council, and lately

with the Nitrate Division, has been appointed professor of chemistry

at the University of Virginia.

Dr. W. S. EiCHELBERGER, of the Naval Observatory, has been nam.ed

as one of three American correspondents of the Bureau des Longi-

tudes of France.

Mr. CO. EwiNG has resigned from the Bureau of Chemistry to accept

the position of assistant chief chemist with the United Drug Company

(Liggett-Rexall) at Boston, Massachusetts.

Dr. L. J. Gillespie, chemist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, has

been appointed professor of physical chemistry in Syracuse University,

Syracuse, New York. He will assume the new position about Septem-

ber I, 1919.

Mr. William B. Heroy resigned from the Geological Survey on July

I, to accept a position on the editorial staff of the Electrical World,

published by the McGraw-Hill Company, in New York City.

Mr. E. Lester Jones, chief of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, has

been given the degree of Master of Arts by Princeton University.

Director Van H. Manning, of the Bureau of Mines, received the

honorary degree of Doctor of Engineering from the University of

Pittsburgh in June.

Dr. S. W. Stratton, director of the Bureau of Standards, was given

the honorary degree of Doctor of Science by Yale University in June.

Major Clarence J. West, formerly of the Editorial Section, Chemical

Warfare Service, will direct the newly-established Information De-

partment of the laboratories of Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge,

Massachusetts.

Mr. R. R. Williams resigned from the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, in April and is now with the Melco Chem-

ical Company, 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York City, manufacturers

of isopropyl and other secondary alcohols and their derivatives, in-

cluding acetone and various esters.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 AUGUST 19, 1919 No. 14

RADIOTELEGRAPHY. — Calculation of antenna capacity. L.

W. Austin, U. S. Naval Radio Research Laboratory.

The theoretical predetermination of antenna capacity has

always, until recently, been a matter of great uncertainty.

Professor Howe^ in 19 14 published an article in the London

Electrician giving methods for the calculation of capacities of

elongated flat top antennas composed of parallel wires, and giving

tables and curves making it possible easily to determine the

capacities of small antennas of this type. In another article

he later also gave formulas^ for umbrella antennas.

In 191 5 Doctor L. Cohen published antenna capacity formulas

in the Electrical World. ^ Very recently in Circular No. 74,

the Bureau of Standards^ gave formulas for elongated parallel

wire antenna capacities which are in very fair agreement with

observed values and also with the results of Professor Howe.

In all of these formulas, except where the results are given in

curves and tables, the calculations are more or less laborious,

and, of course, do not apply to antennas of other shapes than

those mentioned.

It was discovered empirically during the past year that the

capacity of all antennas not too elongated in shape and having

■ Howe, G. W. O. London Electrician 73: 829, 859, 906. 19 14.

2 Op. cit. 75: 870. 1915.

' Cohen, L. Electrical World 65: 286. 1915.

* Bur. Stand. Cir. 74: 239. 1918.

393

394 AUSTIN: RADIOTElvEGRAPHY

their wires not too widely spaced, can be very approximately

represented by the formula

c = (4Va + 0.88 a/h) X io~^ (i)

where c is the capacity, a the area, and h the mean height in micro-

farads and meters. For antennas having a length / more than

eight times the breadth b, the above formula must be multiplied

by an elongation factor, and we have

c = (4Va + 0.88 a/h) (i + 0.015 l/b) X io~'' (2)

Equation (i), while derived empirically, is in reality the sum

of the usual expressions for the capacity of a disk in space and

that for a two plate condenser, disregarding edge effect. These

equations can be depended upon to give results correct in general

to 10 per cent for the antenna top, to which must be added the

capacity of the downleads and that due to metal towers, etc.

The poorest agreement is found in the case of umbrella antennas,

where the amount of wire is often not sufficient to give full capacity.

The closeness of wire spacing required to give approximately

full capacity, differs very much with antennas of different shapes

and sizes, the required spacing being closer the smaller the an-

tenna. For long parallel wire antennas, this may be calculated

from the Bureau of Standards formula already mentioned. In

the case of some of the larger antennas, remarkably few wires

are required. For example, on a certain triangular antenna

about 300 meters on a side, flat tops composed of five wires about

one meter apart, strung around the sides of the triangle gave

nearly 90 per cent of the capacity obtained when the whole tri-

angular area was filled in. With parallel wire antennas of medium

dimensions, a spacing of one meter will generally insure over 90

per cent of the possible capacity.

Table i gives some observed values of capacity for elongated

parallel wire antennas, and a comparison of the capacities calcu-

lated according to the Bureau of Standards formula and equa-

tion (2). The data for calculation are given below table i.

Table 2 gives observed values of capacity for antennas of various

shapes compared with the values calculated according to equa-

tion (i).

AUSTIN : RADIOTEI.EGRAPHY

395

TABLE I

Elongated Parallel Wire Antennas — Capacity in Microfarads

Calculated

Leads Observed • .

Antenna Types Observed Est'd minus leads BS formula Eq. (2)

1. Marconi "L" 0.060 0.007 0.053 0.0542 0.0545

2. Medium Ship Type .. . 0.0020 0.0006 0.0014 0.00147 0.00151

3. Portable Ship Type .. . 0.00040 0.00006 0.00034 0.000335 0.000350

4. Model Marconi "L" ... 0.00028 0.000275 0.000255

Data for Calculation

Length

m

I. 1830

2- 91-5

3- 25.9

4. 18.3

Breadth

m

160

9 15

152

0.406

Number of Diam."

Area

wires n

32

II

6

mm

10

3

2.5

293

8.38

39-4

7-43

io'»

10'^

Height

m

104

49

12

I 52

1/b

II. 4

10

17

45

** Approximate wire diameter.

TABLE 2

Various Antenna Shapes — Capacity in Microfarads

Antenna Types Observed

5. Triangle 0.0155

6. Square 0.0180

7. Irregular 0.038

8. Triangle o . 0065

Leads

Est'd

0.003

0.002

O.OOI

Observed Calculated

minus leads Eq. (1)

Area

m2

9. Portable Triangle .. . 0.00084 0.00006 0,00078

10. Model Triangle

11. Model Circular Disk

12. Umbrella 0.016 0.0015

13. Model Circular Disk

0.0125 0.0129 5.98 10^

0.0150 0.0136 6.25 10^

0.0360 0.0378 26.8. 10*

0.0055 0.0054 I. 156 10^

0.00085 2 .67 10-

0.000075 0.000068 1.457

0.000135 0.000125 3.56

0.0145 0.0147 7.24 10^

0.000053 0.000055 0.933

Height

m

170

160

137

915

12

0.633

0.635

162

0.50

The chief uncertainty in the observed values of both tables

lies in the estimation of the capacity of the downleads, etc.

In the case of the models 4, 10, and 13, this was measured along

with that due to the measuring instruments and subtracted from

the observed values.

In addition to its importance in radiotelegraphy, equation (i)

has a more purely scientific interest, since it appears to represent

the capacity of plate condensers in general for all values of plate

separation provided one of the plates is grounded. The so-called

edge effect is represented by the capacity in space term. The

expression if exact for circular plates, should be nearly so for all

396

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL

not too elongated forms. Experiments are now being carried on

to verify these relations and the preliminary results indicate the

correctness of the equation for all ratios of R/d. This part of the

work will be published separately in the near future.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— 7/z^ crystallography and optical

properties oj the photographic sensitizing dye, pinaverdol.

Edgar T. Wherry and Ei^iyioT Q. Adams, Bureau of Chem-

istry.

CHEMISTRY

Pinaverdol is the trade name of a synthetic dyestuff^ related

to quinoline, and used to sensitize the silver halide^ of photo-

graphic plates to green and yellow light. Its structure is indicated

by the name "i,i',6'-trimethyW5c-cyanine iodide." "Cyanine

iodide" is a tautomeric form of the hydriodide of 4,4'-diquinolyl

1' ^

f f ?

5 4

8 N

Quinoline

4,4-olicjuinolyl methane

:yknip>e Iodide .^o-CvAoine lodiJe RnRverdo

1 A full description of the preparation and properties of this substance will appear

in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

2 "Halide" is a general term comprising chloride, bromide, and iodide, i. e.,

binary salts derived from any of the halogens.

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL 397

methane, and the isomeric "i6"o-cyanine iodide" is the corre-

sponding form of the hydriodide of 4,2'-diquinolyl methane —

that is, it differs from cyanine iodide in that the second (or

primed) quinoHne nucleus is attached at the carbon atom ad-

jacent to the nitrogen, instead of at the one diametrically op-

posite.

Prior to 19 14 this dyestuff was made only in Germany, but

is now being produced both in England and the United States.

The present paper consists of a detailed description of the crys-

tallography and optical properties worked out for the purpose of

testing the identity of these several preparations.

CRYSTAIvIvOGRAPHY

The crystals from different preparations of pinaverdol exhibit

considerable variation in habit, ranging from markedly prismatic

to thinly tabular. Orientation of the different types is made

easy, however, by the brilliant and striking reflection-pleo-

chroism present. There are two prominent zones of faces, lying

at right angles to one another, and all of the forms in one of them

reflect brass-yellow light, while the dominant forms in the other

yield beetle-green reflections. The former zone has been taken

as the prismatic one, and the latter held right and left. The

crystal system then proves to be monoclinic, although since the

base lies but 1° 40' away from the pole of the prism zone, and

the plus and minus orthodomes are often about equally de-

veloped, it is decidedly close to the rhombic system. According

to current usage, it would perhaps be described as "pseudo-

rhombic," but it seems to the writers desirable to use prefixes

which express more definitely the true relationships.^ In ac-

cordance with the plan we have proposed, pinaverdol would be

described as "lepto-monoclinic, but peri-rhombic." It may also

be noted that according to Fedorov's usage, since the prism angle

is 84° 30', that is, nearer 90° than 60°, this substance would be

classed as hypo-tetragonal or tetragonoidal.

About 20 crystals of all habits were measured on the Gold-

' Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9: 153. 1919.

398

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAV^RDOI^

Schmidt two-circle goniometer. Some of them proved to be

very rich in forms, although the majority of these are extremely

minute, and would have been very difficult indeed to locate on

any other instrument. The coordinate angles of the 41 forms

observed are hsted in table i ; not quite all of them were ob-

Fig. I.

Fig. 2.

Crystals of pinaverdol: Fig. i typical habit. Fig. 2 shows all forms observed.

served on any single crystal, but all were obtained on a sufficient

number of crystals to regard them as thoroughly established.

The probable error of measurement in the case of the larger

forms is =t 5'.

Typical combinations of these forms are shown in figures 1-4.

Figure i represents in orthographic and clinographic projections,

or plan and perspective, the typical habit of the bulk of the

crystals. The unit prism in (no) is the dominant form, with

narrow faces of the clinopinacoid b (010) in its zone. At rigth

angles to this zone lies that of the orthodomes, which are ap-

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVEIRDOL

399

TABLE I

Angle Table for Pinaverdol

System monoclinic; lepto-monoclinic, peri-rhombic a : b : c

m(= i8o — /3) = 88° 20'

1.1014 : I : 1.6053;

Observed ±5'

Calculated

Description

Narrow, curved

Narrow

Very narrow, curved

Dominant prism form 42°

Very narrow, curved 24°

Very narrow, curved

Part of curve

Small, often curved

Part of curve

16 Well developed

Very narrow, curved

Part of curve

Very narrow, curved

Dominant dome form

Part of curve

Dominant pyramid

Very narrow, curved

Very narrow, ciurved

Very narrow, curved

Very narrow, ciurved

Very narrow, curved

Narrow, curved

Narrow, but bright

Narrow, curved

9G° 00'

G°G0'

OG'

90"

75°

70°

61°

17

12"=

90 GG

9G° OG

9G° 00

90° GG

9G° GG

90° OG

9G° GG

90° GG

°OG

GG

I 40

90° GG

9G° GO

90° GO

90° GG

90° GO

90° OG

45

90^

9G° GO

43°

42°

41°

40°

60°

61°

54°

61°

54°

GO

90 OG

90° GO

38°

58°

72°

56°

45°

37°

27°

21°

12°

19°

25°

35°

43°

55°

70°

48°

65°

77°

73°

65° 05

55°

47°

35°

28°

19°

60°

73°

80°

73°

8g°

90° 00

G° OG

90° GO

74° 37

69° 51

61° 10

42° 15

24° 26

16° 51

12° 48

2° 04

1° 02

0° 31

05' 90° GO

90° GO

90° OG

90° GG

90° OG

90° GO

90° OG

,0

90 GO

90° GO

90° OG

43° 22

42° 49

42° 32

41° 58

41° 52

41° 41

41° 23

41° g6

40° 29

39° 53

38° 39

6g° 41

61° 25

53° 54

6g°56

53° 32

p

1° 40

90° GO

90° GG

90° GO

90° OG

90° GO

90° GG

90° GO

38° 46

58° 05

72° 42

56° 05

45° 02

37° 10

27° 15

21° 29

12° 04

18° 33

24° 33

34° 59

43° 19

55° 01

70° 54

47° 50

65° 26

77° 04

76° 58

72° 49

65° 03

54° 58

46° 48

35° 08

27° 37

18° 54

58° 37

73° 24

79° 38

73° 09

79° 31

400

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL

proximately equally developed, d (loi) and D (Toi). In the

zone of these domes there are also narrow faces of the base c

(ooi). Finally, small faces of the minus unit pyramid U (iii),

are usually present.

Using the upper, orthographic projection of fig. i as a basis,

figure 2 has been drawn to show the positions which are occupied

by all of the forms observed. Many of these have had to be made

D

Fig. 3- Fig- 4-

Pinaverdol crystals. Habits shown by material of English and German origin.

relatively much wider than they are in the actual crystals to

show them at all. For lettering these forms the plan has been

followed of assigning the usual letters, a, b, c, d, and m to the

simple forms, and then in any one zone following as far as possible

an alphabetical sequence. Thus the several prisms are made

successively /, k, I, m, n, o, and p, the plus orthodomes d, e,J, g,

and h, the plus unit s, u (iii), and w, the plus orthopyramids

a and /S, and the clinodomes a, 8, and e. The minus forms are

then named by capital letters corresponding to the small ones of

the plus forms. This gives D, E, F, G, H, and / for the ortho-

WHKRRY AND ADAMvS: PINAVERDOL 40I

domes, 5, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z, for the unit pyramids, and

A and B, regarded as Greek capitals, for two of the orthopyra-

mids; and finally, two letters left over, Q and R, are applied to a

steep orthodome and the remaining orthopyramid, respectively.

A habit rather frequently assumed, especially by material

received from England, is shown in plan and perspective in figure

3. Its peculiar tabular aspect is due to the prominent develop-

ment of the minus orthodome D (Toi). The prism m (no) is

usually present around the edge of the plates, although these

sometimes become so thin that the prism is practically crowded

off. The clinopinacoid, h (010), is often better developed on

crystals of this habit than in those of type i, and a small plus

orthodome, d (loi), is also usually present as a bounding form.

Instead of a plane face where the base, c (001), should lie, a curved

surface is usually present, which extends from about the position

of c back as far as that of the minus orthodome I (106).

Still another distinct habit is illustrated in figure 4. This

appears most frequently in a preparation obtained from Germany

before the war, which was crystallized from an unknown solvent.

In this there is marked elongation along axis h, making the

crystals pseudo-prismatic on the orthodomes d (loi) and D (Toi).

The only other unusual feature shown by these crystals is the

rather prominent development of the clinodome 5 (on).

COI^OR PHENOMENA

As noted in the introductory paragraph under the heading

Crystallography, the crystals of pinaverdol exhibit a striking

and brilliant reflection pleochroism. This phenomenon being a

rather uncommon one, it will now be described in greater detail.

In any biaxial crystal there are three directions at right angles

to each other in which properties connected with light are ex-

hibited. In the rhombic system these directions coincide with

the crystallographic axes; in the monoclinic, one coincides with

axis h, while the other two are limited to the plane of symmetry,

but do not in general coincide with either of the crystallographic

axes lying in that plane. In the present instance, however, the

properties of the crystals are peri-rhombic, as we have termed it.

402 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL

that is, very close to rhombic in character, so marked deviation

of the optical directions from axes a and c is not to be expected.

For practical purposes, therefore, the optical phenomena may be

considered in the general direction of the three crystallographic

axes.

The faces of the clinopinacoid h (loo) reflect light of brilliant

brass-yellow color. Those of the orthopinacoid a (loo) have not

been observed broad enough to determine the color accurately

but it does not appear to be materially different from that of h;

on theoretical grounds, of course, it must be at least slightly

different. The prism faces m (no), which lie about midway

between these two pinacoids, are correspondingly also brass-

yellow.

Faces lying perpendicular to axis c, or nearly so, show a deep

bronze-violet reflection color. Intermediate colors are of course

shown by all forms lying between the base and the prism, namely,

by the domes and pyramids, and the actual color is a brilliant

metallic green, which may perhaps best be described as beetle-

green. The nearer one of these forms lies to the base, the darker

the green, and the nearer the prism, the more yellow appears

in it. In fact, the colors of a form may be correlated directly

with the value of its coordinate angle p, which represents the

angle between the zone axis of the prism and the perpendicular

to the face in question. For forms of sufficient size to permit the

certain recognition of their color, the relations are as follows :

TABLE 2

Colors of Crystals

WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL 403

It is noteworthy that in every case the pseudo-faces which

have developed on pinaverdol crystals through contact with the

glass container show similar colors, corresponding to their posi-

tion. A most striking effect is obtained when a sheet, made up

of crystals lying in all sorts of positions, is removed from against

a glass surface and examined in reflected Hght, especially with the

aid of a low-power lens. Some of the grains are violet, some yel-

low, while the bulk of them are of different hues of green, the

whole effect being kaleidoscopic in character.

When viewed through a nicol prism two components can be

recognized in the light reflected from each face. The brassy

prism zone faces yield for the two opposed directions of the

vibration plane of the nicol, a yellow (plane parallel to c) and a

violet (plane parallel to a) component; the green dome faces

green (parallel to c) and violet (a) ; terminal forms show violet,

which changes but sHghtly as the nicol is revolved.

A similar pleochroism of reflected light has been observed in

but few substances. The best known case is magnesium platino-

cyanide, which has been described at length by Walter.^ A

dye known as diamond green or brilliant green, made by the

Badische works, was stated by the same author to show it also,

although no samples at our disposal do so. The mineral covel-

lite, CuS, gives a metallic blue reflection color on the base, and

Merwin^ states that the color varies noticeably in different

crystallographic directions. Goethite, FeOOH or Fe203.H20

yields nonmetalhc reflection from most of its faces, but one

pyramid is reported by Goldschmidt and Parsons'' as giving a

yellow colored signal.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES

Since pinaverdol is readily soluble in organic solvents, it is

necessary to use for its study by the immersion method under

the microscope aqueous liquids of known refractive indices, and

solutions of potassium-mercuric iodide and barium-mercuric

* Walter, B. Die Oberfldclien oder Schiller farben. Braunschweig, 1895.

5 Merwin, H. E. This Journal 5: 341. 1915.

^ Goldschmidt, Victor, and Parsons, A. L. Amer. Journ. Sci. 29: 235. 1910.

404 WHERRY AND ADAMS: PINAVERDOL

iodide in diluted glycerol were found to be satisfactory. Crystals

greater than 0.02 mm. in diameter are practically opaque for

ordinary white light, but by dissolving a little of the substance

in hot methyl alcohol and allowing the liquid to cool rapidly,

minute needles of satisfactory transparency can be obtained.

For red light, which may be obtained by the use of a Wratten

E-red No. 23 ray-filter, the transmission of light is much better.

The following optical properties could be observed:

In ordinary light: Crystals, rods with oblique or square termi-

nations, breaking into irregular fragments. Color very intense,

with pleochroism from violet-brown to brown to deep greenish

brown; or, in very thin crystals violet to brown to yellow-brown.

By the use of a monochromatic illuminator, the crystals showing

violet-brown color were found to transmit the red end of the

spectrum from the limit of visibility to the orange of wave length

about 600; on decreasing the wave length, marked absorption

was exhibited, the crystals being highly opaque for the yellow,

green, and part of the blue; but on reaching the middle blue at

about wave-length 470 transmission was again noted, and con-

tinued to the end of the visible violet. The directions in the

crystals giving brown or greenish brown behaved differently,

however, the red end of the spectrum being absorbed, while a

slight though distinct transmission appeared in the yellow and

green, with absorption in the blue and violet.

Refractive indices: There is such a tendency to yield metallic

reflections on the part of the pinaverdol crystals that refractive

index determinations do not yield very satisfactory results.

The lowest index a, which is shown lengthwise of the crystals of

the usual prismatic habit, is about 1.58, for light of wave length

625; this is the direction in which the transmission is usually

greatest, and the color violet. The other two indices are much

greater than 1.75, which is that of the highest liquid which it

has been found possible to prepare. They probably reach a value

of at least 2.00. The greenish brown and yellowish brown colors

correspond to these, the absorption being great in both of them.

In parallel polarized light, nicols crossed: The extinction is

pBKRHOLSER : GRANDAUDAE 405

inclined on crystals turned so that axis b is more or less vertical,

and reaches a maximum of 5 ° ^ 1°. The double refraction is

excessively strong, so that no color effects are obtained. The

sign of elongation is negative.

In convergent polarized light: Traces of biaxial figures are

sometimes seen, but little can be determined about them. The

plane of the optic axes runs lengthwise; the sign is clearly nega-

tive; and the optical orientation is X A c = 5° in acute angle

13, but whether Y or Z = 6 is uncertain.

These properties, with but minor variations, are shown by

several different preparations made in this laboratory, by a

German product obtained before the war, and by the English

"sensitol green." The identity of all of the substances is thus

established.

OKNlTHOhOGY .—Grandalidae, a new family of turdine Pas-

seriformes. Harry C. OberholsER, Biological Survey.

The genus Grandala was based by Hodgson on a unique new

species which had been obtained in Nepal and which was named

by him Grandala coelicolor.^ This beautiful and otherwise re-

markable bird has hitherto been referred to the Turdidae, usually

without question. It has commonly been considered most closely

allied to Sialia Swainson, and, indeed, by Seebohm- was even

made a subgenus of that group. It was evidently so placed

because of its booted tarsi, blue color, and general size, for in no

other important respect does it suggest Sialia. Even a casual

examination is sufficient to show that Grandala has, as Oates

long ago concluded,^ nothing to do with Sialia. In fact it does

not belong in the same family, nor, indeed, to any other currently

recognized family of passeriform birds, and it forms, consequently,

a very distinct monotypic group, which should stand as

Grandalidae, fam. nov. ^

Diagnosis: Similar to the Turdidae, but bill motacilline, not turdine,

slender; tip of maxilla not hooked; basal portion of culmen straight or

1 Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 12: 447. June, 1843.

2 Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 5: 328. 1881.

' Fauna Brit. Ind., Birds 2: iio. 1890,

4o6 oberholser: grandalidae

even slightly concave, with only the tip noticeably decurved (instead

of being convex and more or less decurved from base) ; gonys short,

not longer than the exposed portion of the mandibular rami (instead of

longer, as in the Turdidae), posteriorly not reaching to the anterior end

of the nostrils, and not ascending, but, with the mandibular rami, forming

a straight line ; nostrils entirely exposed ; wings very long and pointed ,

when closed reaching nearly to the end of the tail ; secondaries relatively

very short, much as in the Hirundinidae, their tips falling short of the

tip of the longest primary by nearly one -half of the total length of the

closed wing (instead of less than one-third in the Turdidae); second

primary, counting from the outermost, usually longest but always at

least equal to the third.

General characters: Bill rather short (about one-half the length of the

head), slender, somewhat depressed basally, but somewhat compressed

distally, in general aspect motacilline rather than turdine, its lateral

outline nearly straight, the culmen straight or slightly concave, near its

tip noticeably decurved; tip of maxilla not hooked; gonys short, not

longer than the exposed portion of mandibular rami, and posteriorly

not reaching to the anterior end of the nostrils, not ascending but con-

tinuing in a straight line from the mandibular rami ; terminal portion of

maxillar tomium slightly notched; nostrils fusiform or lengthened el-

liptical, entirely exposed, the feathers of the forehead reaching to their

posterior end; narial and rictal bristles short and weak; wings very

long and pointed, when closed reaching nearly to the end of the tail;

wing tip long, the secondaries relatively very short, the tip of the longest

primary exceeding them by nearly one-half (more than two-fifths)

of the total length of the closed wing ; tertials short, about the length of

the longest secondaries; first (outermost) primary very short, about

15 mm. in length; second primary usually longest; third primary equal

to the second or slightly shorter ; fourth primary decidedly shorter than

the third ; and all the others regularly decreasing in length ; none of the

primaries sinuated on their inner webs, but the third and fourth pri-

maries distinctly sinuated on their outer webs, and the fifth slightly so ;

tail of 12 feathers, about three-fifths of the length of the wing, deeply

emarginate, the feathers moderately broad and stiff, their ends obtusely

pointed ; upper tail-coverts rather long ; tarsi moderately long and slen-

der, their length about 2V5 times the length of the exposed culmen;

acrotarsium entire ; toes moderately long and slender ; claws of moderate

length and curvature; claw of hallux not lengthened; length of middle

toe without claw three-fifths of the length of the tarsus; plumage of

male more or less metallic ; coloration of sexes different ; and young

streaked.

Type genus: Grandala Hodgson.

Remarks: It is rather surprising that the genus Grandala has not

before been taken out of the Turdidae, since its aberrance is so apparent.

In only two important characters — its booted tarsi and streaked young

OBERHOLSEjR : GRAND AUDAS 407

— does it resemble the Turdidae. It is, so far as we recall, the only-

passerine bird, excepting members of the Hirundimdae, that has such

a remarkably long wing tip, which is produced by its relatively short

secondaries. By this and its other external proportions, it is one of the

most distinctively characterized of the families of Passeriformes. In

some respects, particularly those of its bill and booted tarsus, it recalls

some of the Sylviidae, and also some of the Brachypterygidae, as Oates

has already suggested,^ but from the latter family it differs in its rela-

tively short gonys (compared with the length of the exposed part of the

mandibular rami), less turdine shape of the bill, relatively short tarsi,

long second and third primaries (beginning from the outermost) rela-

tively short first primary, long wings, and long wing tip. It is, more-

over, probably more nearly related to the Turdidae than to the Bra-

chypterygidae, though not closely to either. Nor is it in any sense inter-

mediate, since it differs in many of the same respects from both these

families. It might be considered a highly specialized offshoot from the

turdine stem, although the determination of its exact affinities must

await the examination of its anatomy, which we confidently predict

will serve to emphasize still more strongly its external peculiarities.

The only species in this new family is Grandala coelicolor Hodgson.

* Fauna Brit. Ind., Birds 2: no. 1890.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

BOTANY. — The Cactaceae, descriptions and illustrations oj plants oj the

Cactus Family. N. L. Brixton and J. N. Rose. Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, Publication No. 248, Vol. I. Pp. 236,

pi. 36, figs. 302. June 21, 1919.

This work is the result of a long study by the authors based on ex-

tensive field observations and greenhouse and herbarium studies.

The investigation has been chiefly financed by the Carnegie Institution

of Washington, in cooperation with the New York Botanical Garden

and the United States National Museum, while the United States De-

partment of Agricultiu-e has taken care of the living collections brought

together in Washington.

The Cacti as here treated consist of a single order, Cactales, and of a

single family, the Cactaceae ; they are divided into three tribes, Pereskieae,

Opuntieae, and Cereeae. This volume contains the treatment of the

first tribes. The third tribe is to be treated in subsequent volumes.

The tribe Pereskieae contains the single genus, Pereskia, in which

19 species are described. The second tribe, Opuntieae, contains 7

genera, Tacinga and Grusonia, each with a single species, Pterocactus

with 4, Maihuenia with 5, Nopalea with 8, Pereskiopsis with 10, and

Opuntia with 264, grouped into 3 subgenera and 46 series.

The genera and species are described in detail and full synonymy is

given. One new genus, Tacinga and 42 new species are described.

All of the genera have been illustrated and of the 312 species, 267 are

represented by one or more illustrations. The illustrations consist of

36 plates of which 28 are in color, 3 are half-tones, and 5 are heliotypes.

The text-figures, 302 in number, consist of half-tones and zinc etchings.

J. N. R.

408

abstracts: ornithology 409

ENGINEERING. — The compressive strength of large brick piers. J.

G. Bragg. Bur. Stand. Tech. Paper No. iii. Pp. 39. 191 8.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the strength de-

veloped by brick piers of normal size as used in modern buildings, using

in their construction such materials and grades of workmanship as are

available in the United States.

The variables considered in the investigation are: (i) The quality

of bricks employed with respect to grade and geographical location;

(2) the quality and kind of mortar; (3) the grade of workmanship em-

ployed; and (4) the bonding of courses or method of laying the bricks.

The investigation comprises tests on 46 piers 30 in. X30 in. X 10 feet in

height, also 4 piers of the same cross sectional dimensions 5 feet in height.

The bricks used in their construction are representative of four widely

separated districts east of the Mississippi river and are classified ac-

cording to the following 3 grades: (i) Hard burned or best quality;

(2) medium burned or considered as common; (3) soft burned or poorest

product marketed. Three mortars were used in the beginning and three

grades of bond and workmanship were employed throughout the in-

vestigation. J. G. B.

ORNlTHOIyOGY. — The migration of North American birds, V.

The shrikes. Harry C. Obkrholser. Bird Lore 20: 286-290.

1918.

The tables of migration dates for Lanius borealis show the daily

progress of its migration both in spring and autumn between the

northern and southern limits of its range, including the average earliest

dates of spring arrival for localities in its breeding area and the average

and latest dates of its occurrence in places throughout its winter range ;

and in autumn the average and latest dates of the last one observed in

its breeding area and of the first one noted in the localities in its winter

range. Similar data are given for Lanius ludovicianus and its subspecies,

the geographic distribution of each one of which is also outlined.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The subspecies of Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus.

Harry C. Oberholser. Auk 35: 467-474. 1918.

No subspecies of Larus hyperboreus have hitherto been formally

recognized, but recent investigation has resulted in the reinstatement

of Larus barrovianus Ridgway as a readily separable race, differing

4IO abstracts: ornithology

chiefly in its smaller size and decidedly darker mantle. The range of

Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus extends over northern Asia, most of

Europe, and northeastern North America, while Larus hyperboreus

barrovianus occurs in western North America. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Food habits oj the mallard ducks of the United States.

W. L. McAtee. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 720: 1-36. 1918.

This bulletin contains the results of investigations on the food and

food habits of Anas platyrhyncha, Anas rubripes, and Anas fuhigula,

three closely allied and important game birds of the United States.

Of Anas platyrhyncha, which has furnished most of the breeds of do-

mestic ducks, examination of 1725 stomachs, taken at all seasons in

22 states of the United States and in 2 Canadian provinces, formed the

basis of the author's conclusions. The vegetable elements comprise

nine-tenths of the food of this species, and consist principally of sedges,

grasses, smartweeds, pondweeds, duckweeds, coontail, wild celery,

and various other water plants. Of some, such as Zizania aquatica,

chiefly the seeds are eaten, but of many others also the stems, leaves,

root-stocks, buds, and tubers are used. Other miscellaneous vegetable

items, such as seeds of trees like Planera aquatica and of shrubs like

Celtis, together with some acorns, are taken. The animal food of the

mallard, which is only about one-tenth of the whole, is made up chiefly

of insects and mollusks.

An interesting fact in connection with the stomach examinations of

this species is the large number of individual items which sometimes are

present. In a single stomach taken in Louisiana there were found

75,200 seeds of various water plants, and in another taken in the same

State, 102,400 seeds of Jussiaea leptocarpa.

Of Anas rubripes, including its subspecies Anas rubripes tristis, 622

stomachs were examined, chiefly from the United States. In these the

vegetable food made up 76 per cent of the contents, and consisted chiefly

of pond-weeds, grasses, sedges, and smartweeds, together with many

other less important items. The animal food, which was 24 per cent of

the whole, was mostly mollusks, crustaceans, and insects.

The Florida duck. Anas fulvigula, including its subspecies Anas

Julvigula maculosa, lives on vegetable food, mostly grasses, smartweeds,

sedges, water lilies, pondweeds, and other water plants, to the extent

of 60 per cent of its total food; and on animal diet, mostly mollusks,

insects, and crustaceans, to the extent of 40 per cent.

abstracts: ornithology 411

Two long tables at the end of this bulletin show the items of vegetable

food identified in the stomachs of all three species examined, and the

number of stomachs in which each item was found. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — On the anatomy of Nyctibius imth notes on allied

birds. Alexander Wetmore. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 54: 577-

586. 1918.

An examination of the trunk and visceral anatomy of Nyctibius

griseus abbotti furnishes some interesting results. It confirms Mr.

Ridgway's suborder Nycticoraciae, to include the superfamilies Capri-

mulgi, Podargi, and Steatornithes .

Owing, however, to the close relationship of the Podargi and Cap-

rimulgi, they are here regarded as best included in a single superfamily,

so that the suborder Nycticoraciae as here outlined would be divided into

two superfamilies, the Steatorniihoideae , containing a single genus

Steatornis, and the Caprimulgoideae, containing the families Podargidae,

Nyctibiidae, Aegothelidae, and Caprimulgidae.

Among other things, attention might be called particularly to the

forms of the tongues in this suborder, as there are four general types

representative of the Podargidae, Nyctibiidae, Steatornithidae, and

Caprimulgidae. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new lole from the Anamba Islands.

Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 197-

198. December, 19 18.

A specimen of lole olivacea from the Anamba Islands in the South

China Sea adds this species to their fauna, making altogether 57 species

and subspecies of birds now known from this archipelago. It proves

to be an undescribed race, and will stand as lole olivacea crypta. It

differs very markedly from lole olivacea charlottae of Borneo, but appears

to be the same as the bird from Sumatra. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— How; to attract birds in the East Central States.

W.L. McAtee. U.S.Dept.Agr. Farmers' Bull. 912: i-i 5. 1918.

The means of increasing the numbers of birds about the home and

elsewhere consist chiefly in methods of protection and provision for

nesting places, food, and water. Where feasible the most effectual

protection is a vermin-proof fence. Breeding places may be readily

furnished by boxes put up for the use of the birds, and water supplied

412 abstracts: ornithoi^ogy

for drinking and bathing by fountains and open pools. It is most im-

portant, however, to provide food. This can be done artificially,

particularly in winter, by feeding boxes and similar devices, but the

most permanent and practical plan is to plant various seed and fruit

producing trees and shrubs. Among the latter, alders, birches, larches,

pines, junipers, bayberries, hollies, and similar trees are among the most

satisfactory. The trees bearing fruits attractive to birds are here

tabulated in a manner to show graphically the duration of the fruit

season ; and those that are desirable to plant as a protection to cultivated

varieties which might be molested by the birds are separately indicated.

Harry C. Oberhoi^skr.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. IV.

The Waxmings and Phainopepla. Harry C. OberholseR. Bird Lore

20: 219-222. 1918.

This paper contains tables of migration dates for both spring and fall

from localities in the United States, Canada, and Alaska, illustrating

the migratory movements of Bomhycilla garrula, Bmnbycilla cedrorum,

and Phainopepla nitens. All of these species, Bomhycilla cedrorum

particularly, are more or less irregular and erratic in their movements.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The status of the genus Orchilus Cahanis. Harry

C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 203-204.

Dec. 30, 1918.

The generic name Orchilus Cabanis, proposed for a genus of South

American Tyrannidae, has commonly had assigned for its type Platy-

rhynchus auricularis Vieillot. Its type is, however, really Orchilus

pileatus Cabanis, which, since furthermore it is preoccupied by Orchilus

Morris, makes it a synonym of Lophotriccus Berlepsch. This leaves the

present genus Orchilus without a name, because Perissotriccus Ober-

holser, proposed for Orchilus ecaudatus Lafresnaye, is generically distinct

from the other species commonly referred to Orchilus. This being the

case, the new generic name Notorchilus is here proposed, with Platy-

rhynchus auricularis Vieillot for its type. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Three new subspecies of Passerella iliaca. H. S.

Swarth. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 161-163. December

30, 1918.

A recent study of Passerella iliaca and its subspecies, besides indicating

abstracts: ornithology 413

the distinctness of the recently described Passerella iliaca hrevicauda

Mailhard, has revealed the existence of three undescribed subspecies.

These are Passerella iliaca mariposae from Chinquapin, Yosemite Park,

California; Passerella iliaca fulva from Sugar Hill, Warner Mountains,

Modoc County, California ; and Passerella iliaca canescens from Wyman

Creek, east slope of White Mountains, Inyo County, California.

Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region. (December 1917, and Janu-

ary 1918.] Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 164-165.

1918.

Notwithstanding one of the severest winters in local annals, there

were few of the more northern winter birds about Washington during

December 191 7, and January 191 8. Many of the smaller birds were

very irregularly distributed and some of them not as numerous as usual.

Hawks of various species were uncommonly numerous close to the city

limits. A considerable increase was also noted in Colinus virginianus

and Sturnus vulgaris, both of which were seen in considerable

flocks. A single Plectrophenax nivalis noted on December 19, 191 7,

and a single Lanius borealis on December 28, are the most notable oc-

currences. Ducks of various species frequented the Potomac through-

out the season in much greater numbers than usual. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Two new genera and eight new birds from Celebes.

J. H. Riley. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 31: 155-159. Decem-

ber 30, 1918.

The zoological explorations of Mr. H. C. Raven in the island of Cel-

ebes, principally in the northern and middle portions, have resulted in

the gathering of a large collection of mammals and birds. In the pre-

liminary identification of the birds, six new species and two subspecies

have been discovered, two of the distinct species belonging to new

genera. These two new genera are Coracornis, a shrike-like bird allied

to Pachycephala Vigors and Horsfield, of which the type is Coracornis

raveni; and Celebesia, an interesting flycatcher allied to Malindangia

Mearns, the type of which is the new species Celebesia abbotti. The

other new species are Rhamphococcyx centralis, Lophozosterops striaticeps,

Catapenera abditiva and Cryptolopha nesophila. The two new sub-

species are an interesting new form of edible swiftlet, Collocalia vestita

aenigma, and Caprimulgus affinis propinquus. Harry C. OberholseR.

414 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — A geologic reconnaissance of the Inyo Range and the

eastern slope of the southern Sierra Nevada, California. Adolph

Knopf. With a section on the stratigraphy of the Inyo Range.

Edwin Kirk. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper no. Pp. 130,

pis. 23, figs. 8. 1918.

The region described in this report comprises Owens Valley, in eastern

California, and the portions of the Inyo Range and the Sierra Nevada

between which it lies. The sedimentary rocks of the Inyo Mountains

are more than 36,000 feet thick and range in age from pre-Cambrian

to Triassic. The Silurian is the only Paleozoic system not represented.

The Lower Cambrian of this area is not only notable for its great thick-

ness (10,200 feet), but it contains the oldest Cambrian deposits known

on the continent.

Early in Cretaceous time great masses of granitic rocks were intruded,

both in the Inyo Range and the Sierra Nevada. The escarpment of

the Sierra is composed dominantly of such rocks. Quartz monzonite

predominates, and is represented by two varieties — a normally granular

quartz monzonite and a porphyritic variety holding large orthoclase

crystals, which makes up the summit region of the range. Younger

than these is a coarse white alaskite (an orthoclase — albite granite),

which occurs in large masses in this part of the Sierra. Notable fea-

tures of the geology of the region are the great alluvial cones that ex-

tend out from the flanks of both ranges into Owens Valley; the two

epochs of glaciation recognizable in the moraines in the canyons of

the east slope of the Sierra; and the group of basaltic cinder cones on

the alluvial slope between Big Pine and Independence, some of which

stand on fault lines marked by fresh alluvial scarps.

The region is rich in mineral resources — silver, lead, zinc, tungsten,

gold, and marble— and the waters of Owens Lake yield soda and other

chemicals. The mines at Cerro Gordo in the Inyo Range have pro-

duced more silver-lead ore than any other mine in California. In 1913

large bodies of tungsten ore were discovered in the Tungsten Hills

west of Bishop. The ore consists of scheelite associated with garnet,

epidote, quartz, and calcite, and is of contact-metamorphic origin.

The ore bodies are important additions to the number of recognized

contact-metamorphic scheelite deposits, a class of deposits that pre-

viously had hardly been suspected as a possible source of tungsten.

A. K.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 135th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8.00 p.m., Tuesday, April r, 1919; 65 mem-

bers and 5 guests being present.

Under "Brief Notes and Reviews of Literature," Prof. A. S. Hitch-

cock exhibited a volume on "A Monographic Study of the Hawaiian

vSpecies of the Tribe Lobehoideae," by Prof. Joseph F. Rock. Mr.

Walter T. Swingle announced that, while he was in China, he pur-

chased for the Library of Congress a large collection of Chinese books,

mostly on natural history.

In a paper on A poisonous milkweed, Asclepias galioides, Dr. C.

DwiGHT Marsh gave briefly a history of the loss of sheep in Colorado

caused by the eating of the whorled milkweed. He stated that this

plant had never been definitely recognized as having a toxic character,

but careful feeding experiments demonstrated that it is exceedingly

poisonous, not only to sheep, but to cattle and horses. A study of the

distribution and habits of the plant shows that the problem of control

is one of peculiar difficulty, for in certain irrigated regions, particularly

in Colorado, this species is spreading with great rapidity.

Dr. C. H. Kaufman gave a paper on The genus Cortinarius, in which

he described some of the typical species of the group. The lantern

slides that were used were very instructive on the color and form of these

brown-spored agarics. He stated that the genus contained over 500

species, of which 200 species have been recognized in the United States.

They occur most abundantly in the temperate and colder zones, or in

the higher altitudes, being found abundantly northward to the limits

of forests and at elevations to the edge of the timber-line. Some

species are intimately connected with roots of forest trees, and individual

species are limited to special kinds of forests. They develop late in the

season, preferring as a rule, the cooler months. Many of these species

are highly colored and, as far as known, all are edible.

A joint paper on A physiological study of Pythiuni debaryanum Hesse

on the potato tuber was given by Drs. Lon A. Hawkins and Rodney B.

Harvey, in which it was shown that there is a correlation between the

resistance of the tissue of the potato to puncture and the resistance to

infection by the fungus. The paper was illustrated by motion photo-

micrographs showing the penetration of the cell walls of the potato by

the fungus.

415

41 6 proceedings: Entomological society

An animated cartoon on The black stem rust and the barberry, by Mr.

G. D. George, was shown and explained by Dr. H. B. Humphrey.

The Hfe story of this rust was shown on the film. The story begins

with the winter spores on stubble and wild grass and shows a spore

germinating, the sporidia blowing to the barberry bush, the formation

of cluster-cups on the barberry leaf, the blowing of a spore to the wheat

leaf, its germination and the entrance of the mycelium, through a

breathing pore, it branching and spreading within the leaf, and the

production and dispersion of the red or summer spores, and their escape

through the ruptured epidermis to infect other wheat plants.

A motion picture showing the opening of the flower of the night-

blooming cereus was contributed by Mr. H. PiTTiER. A two-reel film

on Citrus fumigation prepared as an educational film by the U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, was also projected.

The program was followed by a social hour with refreshments.

Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary.

THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 322nd meeting of the Society was held May i, 1919, in the As-

sembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, Vice-President Walton presided

and there were present 16 members and i visitor.

program

A. B. Gahan: The black grain-stem saw fly of Europe in the United

States. This paper dealt with Trachelus tabidus (Fab.), the establish-

ment of which in the United States has recently been dis-

covered. This insect may become a serious pest of small grain,

especially wheat, in this country. Some of the points discussed were

the distribution both in the United States and in the old world, char-

acter of injury, description of adult and larva and comparison with

related species, suggestions for control, and bibliography. The illus-

trations consisted of drawings of the adult, the larva of this and two

allied species of similar habit, and a map of the distribution in the

United States. The paper is to be published by the Department of

Agriculture.

In the discussion of Mr. Gahan's paper Mr. Walton stated that Mr.

McConnell of the Bureau of Entomology has discovered in Pennsylvania

a parasite that killed as high as 30 per cent of the sawfly larvae. Dr.

Quaintance remarked that this appears to be one of the few cases in

which the necessary measures for insect control conflict with good ag-

ricultural practice, the rotation of wheat and clover being undoubtedly

good agricultural practice and also favoring reproduction of the insect.

Mr. Walton took exception to this, stating that forage experts claim

better clover can be raised on plowed ground ; but planting on stubble is

easier and cheaper. Mr. Rohwer stated that sawflies are sluggish

fliers, and was of the opinion that if in the rotation the fields to be

proceedings: entomological society 417

planted to grain were far apart the infestation would be considerably-

reduced. Mr. Gahan thought that the fact that the species is already

widely distributed in both mountain and plains regions indicates con-

siderable ability to spread Mr. Walton suggested wind as a means

of spreading. Mr. RohwER stated it as his experience that sawflies

seek shelter in high winds, and also that the species is perhaps more

widely spread than outlined by Mr. Gahan, inasmuch as he has a larva

from near Parkersburg, West Virginia, that is probably this species.

NOTES AND exhibition OF SPECIMENS

Mr. ScHWARZ gave an account of a recent visit which he and several

other entomologists had made to the Florida Everglades and keys.

He described the topography and flora of the region especially contrast-

ing the character of the everglades keys with the Florida keys. He

spoke of the occurrence in semi-tropical Florida of the Coleopterous

genus Dendrosinus (family Scolytidae). The type of this genus, D.

glohosus Eichoff, was described in 1868 from two specimens said to have

come from "North America," but the correctness of this locality has

always been doubted. However, during this visit to southern Florida,

Mr. H. S. Barber discovered an undescribed species of this genus at

Marathon (Key Vacas) boring in the solid wood of Bourreria havaniensis.

This species differs greatly from glohosus, and the other species of the

genus, and Mr. Schwarz presented a description of it for publication in

the proceedings of the Society.

Mr. CuSHMAN discussed the larva of the spider parasite, Polysphincta

texana Gresson, describing its method of maintaining its hold on its

host.

Dr. Baker expressed the opinion that Neotoxoptera violae Theo.,

described from Egypt, is an aberrant form of Rhopalosiphum violae

Pergande of America since similar forms are obtainable from Pergandes

species in greenhouses here. Mr. RohwER thought that the fact that

a form of the American species resembling the African form can be

produced in the greenhouse was no proof that the American and African

forms are the same species. ^ He objected to the synonymizing of the

two until further proof of their identity is obtained. In support of his

contention he cited the case of the so-called Cladius pectinicornis,

one of the rose sawflies, stating that the American form, which has

heretofore been considered as the same as the European species, is

specifically distinct. Mr. Heinrich agreed with Mr. Rohwer, stating

that in the Microlepidoptera, American species that have formerly been

considered the same as European species are rapidly being found dis-

tinct, and the European names are being taken out of American litera-

ture.

4i8 proceedings: biological society

The 323rd regular meeting of the Society was held June 5, 1919,

in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. President Sasscer presided

and there were present 22 members and 6 visitors.

R. H. Hutchinson: Experiments with steam disinfection in destroy-

ing lice in clothing. Mr. Hutchinson prefaced his paper with some re-

marks about the louse, showing lantern slides, illustrating sexual char-

acters, eggs, hatching, and the effect of steam on eggs. Further slides

were then thrown on the screen showing field laundry units and a large

delousing plant used at debarkation camps, the speaker explaining in

detail all the different pieces of apparatus.

Major Harry Plotz, U. S. Army, who was among the visitors, ex-

pressed his appreciation of the assistance furnished by Mr. Hutchinson,

and told some of his experiences in connection with this work and in the

war zone before the United States entered the war. Dr. Baker was

interested in the presence, mentioned by Mr. Hutchinson, of the pe-

culiar yellow body in the nymphs of lice and the fact that it has not been

recorded in the literature of the louse. A similar yellow body always

occurs in several groups of Homoptera which he had studied. Its

forerunner is present in the egg and is carried to the interior at the time

of invagination. In parthenogenetic forms its history is tied up with

the development of the ovaries. Buckner in a rather extensive paper

on the subject has considered it a commensalistic organism. This

view, however, is not held by all embryologists.

A. N. Caudell: Notes on Zoraptera. Mr. Caudell spoke of the

biology and systematics of this peculiar order of insects. A point of

particular interest was the finding of winged forms by Mr. H. S. Barber,

and the fact that the insects have the habit of dealation.

G. C. Crampton: Phylogeny of Zoraptera. This paper was pre-

sented by title by Mr. Caudell, who exhibited the drawings to be used as

illustration in the published paper.

R. A. Cushman, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 597th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 3, 1919; called to order at

8.15 p.m. by Vice-President BailEy; 30 persons present.

The following informal communications were presented :

A. Wetmore: Remarks on the feeding of purple finches on certain

plant galls. The galls were the size of a finger-end and were held in the

feet of the birds while being torn open.

L. O. Howard: Remarks on the soon-expected arrival of the adults

of the seventeen-year locust and the desirability of securing more data

on the chimney-building habits of the immature insect. In this con-

nection Edith R. Keleher, Wm. Palmer, and A. Wetmore reported

their observations as to chimney building-habits.

R. W. vShufeldT: Remarks on and exhibition of a second specimen

of double-headed turtle and of a double-headed snake. Both speci-

proceedings: bioi^ogical society 419

mens had died in a very immature state. The snake had been identified

as Matrix sipedon. In this connection E. W. Nelson referred to a

double-headed snake observed by him.

The regular program consisted of two communications:

A. Wetmore: Notes on the brown pelican. The speaker gave an

account of the life and habits of this bird as observed by him on Pelican

Island, Florida, in the early part of the present year. His remarks were

illustrated by numerous lantern slides. Discussion by E. W. Nelson,

R. W. Shufeldt, a. S. Hitchcock, L. O. Howard, and I.N. Hoffman.

Vernon Bailey: The explorations of Maximilian, Prince of Wied,

on the Upper Missouri in 18 jj. The speaker described the travels of

this early naturalist and many of the animals encountered by him.

His remarks were illustrated by lantern-slide views of many of these

animals and by motion-picture views of many of the larger mammals

of the Upper Missouri region. Discussion by R. W. ShuFELDT.

The 596th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, April 19, 1919; called to order at 8

p.m. by Vice-President Hollister; 43 persons were present.

On recommendation of the Council H. H. Lane, of Norman, Okla-

homa, was elected to active membership.

Under the heading, "Book notices, brief notes, exhibition of speci-

mens, etc.," the following informal communications were presented:

W. P. Taylor : A brief account of the organization of the American

Society of Mammalogists on April 3 and 4, 191 9.

T. S. Palmer: Remarks on ornithological activities in Germany

during the war as revealed by a recently received ornithological journal

published in that country for 191 8. Ornithologists appeared to have

been active in Germany in spite of the war but their fields of research

were necessarily limited through lack of communication with the outside

world, but bird problems in Germany, migration records in Germany,

including rather complete migration records at Heligoland, and bibli-

ographic matters, especially of African birds, received rather marked

attention.

A. S. Hitchcock: Remarks on the organization of the National

Research Council as pertaining to biology.

The regular program was as follows:

Walter P. Taylor: Notes on Dr. J. G. Cooper's scientific investiga-

tions on the Pacific Coast. Dr. James Graham Cooper was one of the

most active students of birds and mammals on the Pacific Coast in the

middle nineteenth century. Bom in New York June 19, 1830, he early

became interested in the West through his connection with the Stevens

Survey of the Pacific Railroad Route along the 47th and 49th parallels.

He was most active as a field coUecter between the years 1853 and 1866,

during which period he worked for more than two years in Washington

Territory and collected widely in CaUfornia. He collected types or

420 proceedings: bioIvOGical society

cotypes of eight species of mammals; five specific names and one ver-

nacular name were given in his honor; and he published formal descrip-

tions of four birds, one mammal, and one reptile. His bird papers num-

ber twenty-six, his mammal papers thirteen. Before i860 his in-

terests were in general natural history, embracing botany and meteor-

ology as well as zoology. Subsequent to that time he concentrated his

attention on zoology, doing most of his work in conchology and or-

nithology. He died July 19, 1902, at Hayward, California.

Discussion by T. S. Palmer, A. S. Hitchcock, and L. W. Brown.

C. W. Field: Observations on the heath hen, illustrated by lantern

sUdes. Discussion by W. W. Grant, h. O. Howard, R. M. Libbey.

Albert Mann: Woods Hole diatoms, illustrated by lantern slides.

Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock, Mrs. N. Hollister.

The 598th regular meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, Saturday, May 17, 1919; called to order at

8.30 p.m. by President Smith; 45 persons present.

The following informal communications were presented:

W. R. Maxon: Exhibition of and remarks on a fungus of the genus

Mitromyces.

W. R. Maxon: Inquiry as to whether both sexes of birds are known

to sing. Discussion by H. C. Oberholser and Wm. Palmer, who cited

instances in which the females of certain species of birds are known to

sing.

F. V. CoviLLE : Remarks on a vine in the Department of Agriculture

having a length of 11 34 feet. It was planted 12 years ago and by ap-

propriate trimming can be made to grow 100 feet a year. It roots at

intervals of its length so that water and salts are not drawn through

its entire length. Discussion by A. S. Hitchcock and W. E. Safford.

A. S. Hitchcock: Remarks on the state of publication of the soon-

to-appear flora of the District of Columbia and vicinity.

I. N. Hoffman: Remarks on the recently reported occurrence of

several flocks of whooping cranes in Texas.

Wm. Palmer: Remarks on tide conditions of Chesapeake Bay as

influenced by winds and storms and observation on the large numbers

of dead croakers and of other fishes recently seen by him in the Bay in

the vicinity of Chesapeake Beach. These fishes furnished an abundant

food for crows and buzzards.

H. M. Smith: Exhibition of and remarks on an exceedingly small

(but not the smallest) species of fish, Lucania onmiata from a small fresh-

water lake in Georgia.

The regular program consisted of two communications:

F. V. CoviLLE: The strange story of the box huckleberry. (To be

published in full in a forthcoming issue of Science.)

W. E. Safford : Plants used in the arts and industries of the ancient

Americans.

M. W. IvYOn, Jr., Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN THE SIXTY-SIXTH CONGRESS

In addition to the large supply bills, which provide for the work of

the scientific bureaus of the Government, several measures have been

introduced in the first session of the Sixty-sixth Congress which are of

special interest to the scientific profession.

The three bills concerned with the tariff and the removal of the duty-

free privilege on scientific supplies were published in the preceding num-

ber of this Journal, together with a note on the hearings held on the

bills. ^ Mr Bacharach later combined the three bills into one (H. R.

7287) under the title: "A bill to provide revenue for the Government,

to establish and maintain in the United States the manufacture of scien-

tific instruments, laboratory apparatus, laboratory glassware, laboratory

porcelain ware — an industry essential to national defense." On July

15 a hearing on "surgical instruments" was held before the House Ways

and Means Committee, at which Col. C. R. DarnELL, of the Army

Field Medical Supply Depot, and representatives of three manufac-

turers of surgical instruments testified. On July 24 Mr. Bacharach

introduced a substitute bill, H. R. 7785, "To provide revenue for the

Government, to establish and maintain in the United States the manu-

facture of laboratory glassware, laboratory porcelain ware, optical

glass, scientific and surgical instruments," in which a paragraph was

added placing a duty of 60 per cent on surgical and dental instruments.

This bill was reported to the House without amendment, and recom-

mended for passage, on July 26 (Report 157).

Federal aid to research is provided for in the following bills:

S. 16 (Mr. Smith of Georgia) : "To estabhsh engineering experiment

stations in the States and Territories, in connection with institutions of

higher technical education, for the promotion of engineering and in-

dustrial research as a measure of industrial, commercial, military, and

naval progress and preparedness in times of peace or war." Referred

to the Committee on Education and Labor.

S. 105 (Mr. Gronna): "For the promotion of engineering and in-

dustrial research." To the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry.

H. R. 1108 (Mr. Raker) : "To make accessible to all the people the

valuable scientific and other research work conducted by the United

States through establishment of a national school of correspondence."

To the Committee on Education.

S. 15 and S. 1017 (Mr. Smith of Georgia), H. R. 7 (Mr. Towner),

and H. R. 2023 (Mr. Raker) provide for the creation of a federal De-

partment of Education.

* See this Journai^ 9: 389. 191 9.

' 421

422 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

ff Special provisions regarding research in the federal bureaus are con-

tained in the following bills and resolutions:

S. 814 (Mr. Owen): "To establish a department of health and for

other purposes." To the Committee on Public Health and National

Quarantine.

S. 2380 (Mr. Smoot): "To provide for an increased annual appro-

priation for agricultural experiment stations, to be used in researches

and experiments in home economics, and regulating the expenditure

thereof." To the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry.

S. 2507 (Mr. France): "To establish an executive department to

be known as the Department of Public Health, and for other purposes."

To the Committee on Public Health and National Quarantine.

»S. 2635 (Mr. Fletcher): "To authorize the Department of Com-

merce, by the National Bureau of Standards, to examine and test

manufactured articles or products for the owner or manufacturer

thereof, to issue a certificate as to the nature and quality of such man-

ufactured articles or products, and to prevent the illegal use of such

certificate." To the Committee on Commerce.

H. R. 3736 (Mr. Frear): "To transfer the Public Health Service

from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the In-

terior." To the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.

H. Concurrent Res. 12 (Mr. VailE, by request): "Requiring a

scientific study of values and relative values by the Bureau of Stand-

ards," To the Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures.

Attempts to relieve the admittedly desperate situation of the Patent

Office are contained in H. R. 5011, H. R. 5012, H. R. 6913, and H. R.

7010. These provide for making the Patent Office a separate depart-

ment of the Government, and for increasing the salaries and personnel.

Hearings on these bills were begun before the Committee on Patents

on July 9.

Several measures have been introduced to provide for research on the

causes, prevention and treatment of the still obscure disease, commonly

called influenza, which was epidemic in the United States in the latter

half of 1918. These measures include: S. Joint Res. 76 (Mr. Hard-

ing), H. R. 7293 (Mr. Black), H. R. 7700 (Mr. Larsen), H. R. 7778

(Mr. Fess), and H. Joint Res. 159 (Mr, Emerson). Mr. Myers has

introduced S. 1258, "To prohibit experiments upon living dogs in the

District of Columbia or in any of the Territorial or insular possessions

of the United States, and providing a penalty for violation thereof."

Referred to the Committee on the Judiciary,

At the request of the Engineering Council Mr. JONES of Washington

introduced S. 2232, and Mr. Reavis, H. R. 6649, "To create a De-

partment of Public Works and define its powers and duties." These

bills provide for the assembling of all the engineering activities of the

Government in one department. The Department of Public Works

would replace the present Department of the Interior, and such bureaus

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 423

of the latter as are nonengineering in character would be transferred

to other departments. The new department would include the following

existing organizations: Supervising Architect's Office, Construction

Division of the Army, several engineering commissions now under the

War Department, Bureau of Standards, Coast and Geodetic Survey,

Bureau of Public Roads, and Forest Service. Referred to the Com-

mittee on Public Lands.

On July 22 the House passed H. R. 6810, the "Prohibition Bill,"

introduced by Mr. Volstead: "To prohibit intoxicating beverages

and to regulate the manufacture, production, use and sale of high-

proof spirits for other than beverage purposes, and to insure an ample

supply of alcohol, and promote its use in scientific research and in the

development of fuel, dye, and other lawful industries." One of the

amendments accepted on July 2 1 just before the final passage of the bill

was as follows: "That alcohol may be withdrawn, under regulations,

from any industrial plant or bonded warehouse, tax free for the use of the

United States or any governmental agency thereof, for the several

States and Territories, and the District of Columbia, and for the use

of any scientific university or college of learning, any laboratory for use

exclusively in scientific research, or any hospital not conducted for

profit."

Of local interest are S. 2537 (Mr. France) and H. R. 6237 (Mr.

Lazaro, by request): "To. revive with amendments an act entitled,

'An act to incorporate the Medical Society of the District of Colum-

bia."' Referred to the Committees on the District of Columbia.

THE PUBLIC BUILDINGS COMMISSION AND THE SCIENTIFIC BUREAUS

«

The space available for the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines,

and other scientific and technologic branches of the Interior Depart-

ment has been considerably reduced by the action of the Public Build-

ings Commission, according to the report of that Commission made to

the Senate on July 8. Re- allotments of space have also been made in

the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Navy, Treasury, and War,

as well as in the various special war organizations. The apparent

saving to the Government "from the vacating of rented buildings is

estimated at about $350,000. The Geological Survey is restricted to

about one-half the floor space it now occupies. Realizing that the work

of the Survey cannot be properly done under such conditions and some

classes of work cannot be done at all, the scientific and technical force

of the Survey have protested this action in the following letter:

"To the Chairman, Joint Commission to assign space in public build-

ings:

"The undersigned, geologists, engineers, chemists, and other scien-

tific and technical members of the staff of the United States Geological

Survey, earnestly protest against the recent action of the Public Build-

424 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

ings Commission which will result in reducing the space allotted to

the scientific, technical and clerical employees of the Geological Survey

in the New Interior Building to 75 square feet per person, or about one-

half that now occupied.

"It is beyond argument that the industrial, social, and economic ad-

vancement of a nation is largely measured by its capacity to encourage

scientific researches and apply their results. The Federal and State

governments have recognized this fact by establishing scientific and

technical bureaus to aid in the development of the country's resources

and the administration of the laws.

"The proper housing of a scientific and technical bureau such as the

Geological Survey demands adequate consideration of freedom from

interruption, proper lighting and ventilation, and easy access to nu-

merous reference books, drafting tables, valuable maps in various

stages of completion, specimens of many materials, and considerable

special equipment.

"The Geological Survey in carrying out the work assigned to it by

Congress has been able to perform highly useful public service, to draw

to its staff men of the highest professional training and ideals, and to

create standards of workmanship and efficiency that are well known

and widely approved.

"After 30 years of service the Geological Survey found itself housed

under crowded and unsanitary conditions that hindered its efficiency,

menaced the standards of its work, and sufficiently endangered the

health of its employees to call forth a protest from the Public Health

Service. At that time the average floor space available to clerical

employees was about 64 square feet and to scientific and technical em-

ployees about 102 square feet. These conditions led to the preparation

of plans for a building especially adapted to the Geological Survey's

needs and in 19 13 to the passage of the bill authorizing the construction

of the New Interior Building, of which the Survey now occupies about

one-third.

"The present personnel of the Geological Survey in Washington in-

cludes about 320 geologists, engineers, chemists, and other scientific

and technical employees, about 260 clerical employees, and 121 skilled

mechanics and workmen. By the proposed reduction in allotted space

the first two groups, aggregating 580 employees, must carry out their

official work in 44000 square feet of floor space, or about 20 per cent

less than that occupied by a similar corps of workers in the old crowded

and unsanitary quarters.

"Careful investigation gives convincing evidence that an average of at

least 150 square feet, or twice that allotted by the Public Buildings

Commission, is the minimum within which the employees of the Geo-

logical Survey can perform their official duties with proper regard for

efficiency and standards of work.

"It is stated that the reduction in allotted space is made in the in-

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS . 425

terest of economy. The members of the Geological Survey are entirely

willing to bear their due share of any burdens imposed by a program of

national economy, but they protest that the proposed reduction in

floor space and the resulting crowding will not be an economy but will

actually cause a loss in efficiency exceeding the saving.

"We respectfully request that the Public Buildings Commission re-

consider the allottment of space as it affects the Geological Survey."

NOTES

Messrs. H. A. Edson and W. W. Stockberger, of the Bureau of

Plant Industry; W. I. SwanTon, of the Reclamation Service; C. O.

Johns, of the Bureau of Chemistry; J. F. Meyer, of the Bureau of

Standards; O. S. AdAm, of the Coast and Geodetic Survey; and vSidney

F. Smith of the Patent Office are assisting the Congressional Joint Re-

classification Commission in the classification of the employees in the

Federal scientific bureaus.

The Bureau of Mines is to be divided into an Investigations Branch

and an Operations Branch, each with an assistant director in charge.

Under the Investigations Branch will come mineral technology, fuels,

mining, petroleum, and experiment stations. Under the Operations

Branch will be a chief clerk, a division of education and information,

the mine rescue work, and the Government fuel yards.

Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Institution, reports successful

observations of the solar eclipse on June 5 at La Paz, Bolivia.

Dr. Samuel Avery, formerly major in the Chemical Warfare Service

in Washington, has returned to the University of Nebraska.

Miss Eleanor F. Bliss, of the Geological Survey, and Miss A. F.

Jonas are spending three months surveying the crystalline rock area

of northeastern Maryland for the Maryland Geological Survey, correlat-

ing the Maryland classification and map units with those recognized

by these geologists and Miss Florence Bascom, in adjacent portions of

Pennsylvania.

Dr. William Bowie, chief of the Division of Geodesy of the Coast

and Geodetic vSurvey, received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science

from Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, on June 23.

Mr. Stephen C. Brown, registrar of the National Museum for over

forty years, died on July 11, 1919.

Mr. W. A. English, formerly a geologist of the Geological Survey

and now engaged in professional work in the oil and gas fields of Cal-

ifornia, has returned temporarily to Washington to complete a report for

the Survey.

Mr. Samuel W. Epstein, formerly in charge of the rubber laboratory

of the Bureau of Standards at Akron, Ohio, has been transferred to

Washington and placed in charge of chemical rubber investigations at

the Bureau.

426 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. J. G. Fairchild has been reinstated as assistant chemist in the

Geological Survey after seven years of chemical work in other govern-

ment bureaus and for private interests. During part of this time he

studied explosives for the arsenal at Dover, N. J., and more recently

nitrous gas problems for the Bureau of Soils.

Mr. R. Iv. Faris, Assistant Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey, has been nominated by the President as a civilian member of

the Mississippi River Commission, to succeed the late Homer P.

RiTTER.

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology,

left for the Mesa Verde in July to continue his work in the archeological

development of the Park.

Mr. Gerard Fowke, who has been conducting archeological field

work for the Bureau of American Ethnology in Missouri, has recently

sent to the National Museum a large collection of specimens from the

Miller Cave, Pulaski County, the largest and most significant collection

yet obtained from a Missouri cave.

Dr. Walter Hough has recently returned from the White Mountain

Apache Reservation, Arizona, where he conducted explorations for the

Bureau of American Ethnology in a group of large ruins west of Cibecue.

Mr. HoYT S. Gale, of the Geological Survey, who has spent several

months investigating the potash resources of Europe for the Depart-

ment of the Interior, has made a study of the deposits of Alsace and of

Spain, and will study those of Stassfurt, Germany, before returning to

the United States.

Capt. Herbert C. Graves, hydrographer in charge of coastal sur-

veys of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died suddenly in London on

July 26 at the 4ge of forty -nine. He had been abroad since June 12 as a

representative of the United States at the International Hydrographic

Conference, and was also one of the delegates from the American Sec-

tion of the proposed International Geophysical Union, which met in

Brussels in July. He was the Secretary of the Washington Society of

Engineers.

Dr. E. C. Harder has again taken up his work in the iron and steel

section of the Geological Survey, after spending four months on leave

of absence in geological investigations in Brazil for commercial in-

terests.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist of the Bureau of American Eth-

nology, returned to Washington in July, after extended field studies

among the Onondaga near Syracuse, New York, and the Mohawk,

Aaynga, and Onondaga on the Grand River Grant near Brantford,

Ontario.

Mr. J. C. HosTETTER has resigned from the Geophysical Laboratory

of the Carnegie Institution, to take up research and development work

for the Steuben Glass Works, of Corning, New York.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 427

Mr. F. B, Laney, who was detailed in 19 13 to the Bureau of Mines

for cooperative research on complex and refractory ores, has returned

to the Geological Survey where he will continue his research work on

the metalliferous ores. After five years at the Colorado, California,

Utah, and Pittsburgh stations of the Bureau of Mines, he took charge

of a government metallographic laboratory at Pittsburgh where he co-

operated with the Ordnance Department of the Army during 191 8 and

1919 in the microscopic examination of metals and alloys used in the

manufacture of ordnance.

Dr. Willis T. Lee has returned to the Geological Survey after six

months' leave of absence, during which he was head of the department

of geology and director of the School of Engineering Geology of the

University of Oklahoma.

Wesleyan University at its recent commencement conferred the degree

of Doctor of Science on Dr. F. B. UiTTELL, astronomer of the Naval

Observ^atory.

Mr. E. Russell Lloyd resigned on July 12 as geologist in charge of

petroleum resources in the Division of Mineral Resources of the Geo-

logical vSurvey. He is now geologist for the Ohio Cities Gas Company.

Mr. Francois E. Matthes, of the Geological Survey, gave a series

of lectures in Yosemite National Park during the month of July, under

the auspices of the university extension division of the University of

California. The subjects were as follows: July 8: Origin of the

Yosemite Valley, as indicated in the history of its waterfalls. July 9:

The highest ice flood in the Yosemite Valley. July 12: The origin of the

granite domes of Yosemite.

Mr. Carl W. Mitman has been appointed Curator of the Division

of Mechanical Technology in the Smithsonian Institution,

Mr. C. H. Ober of the Coast and Geodetic Survey has been granted

leave of absence to go with Dr. Alexander Rice's expedition to the

Amazon River.

Mr. Sidney Paige has resumed his duties at the Geological vSurvey

after six months' leave of absence spent in professional work in the

northern part of South America.

Mr. John L. Ridgway, chief of the section of illustrations of the

Geological Survey, has returned from a month's leave of absence spent

in a trip to the Pacific Coast.

Dr. Charles C. vScalione, formerly a lieutenant in the Research

Division of the Chemical Warfare Service, has been appointed assistant

catalytical chemist in the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory of the

Nitrate Division, Ordnance Department, at the American University.

Dr. H. L. Shantz, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has been ap-

pointed botanist with the expedition to South and Central Africa which

sailed from New York in July under the direction of Mr. Edmund

428 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Heller, of the American Museum of Natural History. Mr. Raven,

of the Smithsonian Institution, accompanied the expedition as naturalist

in charge of zoological and anthropological collections. The expedi-

tion will proceed from Cape Town to Victoria Falls, cross into the

Belgian Kongo, and then travel east to Lake Tanganyika, and will be

abroad for at least one year.

Mr. R. L. V. StraTTon, who enlisted from the Geological Survey to

serve as paymaster in the Navy during the war and was stationed at

the Virgin Islands for about eighteen months assisting the new American

government of the islands in various capacities, has joined with Ralph

W. Richards, formerly a geologist of the Survey, in an engineering

firm with offices in Washington. They will specialize on the evaluation

of oil and gas properties and the determination of income taxes on such

properties.

Dr. J. B. Umpleby, of the Geological Survey, has returned from Paris,

having been temporarily under the State Department assisting the

American delegation at the peace conference in mining matters.

Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, Mr. D. Dale Condit, and Dr. C. Wythe

Cooke, of the Geological Survey, have returned to Washington after

spending several months in a geologic reconnaissance of the Dominican

Republic for the Dominican Government. Mr. C. P. Ross, who was

also a member of the party, has remained a few weeks longer to make

special examinations of the water resources in the vicinity of Samana

Bay. Dr. Vaughan also visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and made ar-

rangements with the Haitian Government for a preliminary geological

survey of Haiti. At the request of the Navy Department he later made

geologic reconnaissances at various other points in the West Indies.

Mr. C. M. Weber, of Balabac, Philippine Islands, has donated to the

National Museum an unusually fine series of Philippine land shells,

including new forms.

Dr. R. C. Wells, of the Geological Survey, has returned from a visit

to the Marine Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington

at Tortugas, Florida, where he made a number of chemical determina-

tions on water collected directly from the sea.

Mr. Dean E. Winchester has returned to the Geological Survey

after a month's absence, during which he was engaged in a search for

mineral fuels on the island of Jamaica for private interests.

Mr. Robert H. Wood has returned to professional work in the oil

and gas fields of Oklahoma, after spending several months in Washington

completing reports left unfinished when he left the Geological Survey a

year ago.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 SEPTEMBER 19, 1919 No. 15

CHEMICAL CRYSTALLOGRAFUY.— Ammonium picrate and

potassium trithionate: optical dispersion and anomalous crys-

tal angles. HERBERT E. Merwin. Geophysical Laboratory.

The optical properties of these two compounds were obtained

in connection with certain researches on other subjects, and are

placed on record here for the benefit of other microscopists.

Ammonium Picrate. — The following observations were made on

four samples variously prepared : The crystals are orthorhombic ;

a sample recrystallized from water consisted of thin scales 1 1

(010) ; a sample not recrystallized contained slender prisms

elongated 1 1 c ; one recrystallized from ammonium hydrate con-

tained equant. grains. Measurements of two prisms corre-

sponded satisfactorily with previous measurements.^ Refrac-

tive indices observed microscopically were :a=i.5io,/3=i. 87© ,

7=1 .9I0 . The orientation is o; || c, ^ \\ a, 7 1| b for light wave-

lengths greater than 541 ju/x; and a 1| c, /3 jj b, 7 || a for shorter

wave-lengths. 2E for546/x/i = 19°, 578)U)u = 51°, 6oofxfx = 60°,

635/^^ = 7i°> 675)UM = 32°, 528MM = 33°, and 513/iM = 45°

to 55°-^-

The absorption from 700 /x/x to 500/i/x is a<0 = y. The

original crystals and those recrystallized from ammonium hy-

drate contained streaks which for 7 and |8 were much redder

than the main parts of the crystals. The streaks were optically

continuous with the rest of the crystal and showed no significant

differences in refraction.

^ See discussion and observations by H. Baumhauer, Zeits. Kryst.49: 125. 191 1.

2 Baumhauer found for Li and Na values of 80° (about) and 56°.

429

430

merwin: picrate and trithionate

From two natural prisms (no) A (oio) refractive index

measurements gave:

These values are in line with those of Baumhauer, and give (with

the orientation and 2K) data for calculating /3 and 7. That is,

/3' = ^ -f 21 to 22 per cent of (7 — (S). Therefore the follow-

ing dispersion:

TABLE I

Dispersion of Ammonium Picrate

Baumhauer's observations on potassium picrate show that it is

very like ammonium picrate. The wave-length for which it is

uniaxial is evidently shorter than for the ammonium salt. It

seems safe to infer that this wave-length is practically that of

the hehum green line 502, for which he obtained a single signal

when measuring the dispersion of /3 and 7.

Potassium Trithionate} — -Blades about i cm. long were ob-

tained by cooling a hot saturated solution to room temperature.

The prism angles of these blades were not normal, but as follows

(the dome angle was normal) : 7 crystals, 10 m faces, 23 / faces,

10 g faces.

/ A/ 39° o' — 39° 27' mean = 39° 13'

w A m 70 42 — 70 50 mean = 70 46

q A g 45 13—45 39 mean = 45 31

At the base of the blades there were numerous stubby crys-

tals, with normal angles. One of these gave the angles

°3i'

I A I =39'

w A m = 71 3

^ The crystals were prepared and tested by E. T. Ali^En.

pittier: origin o? chicle; 431

A second lot of 5 crystals made from a corresponding mother

liquor by evaporation at room temperature gave the following

angles which are normal:

The prisms of the rapidly-grown crystals represent thinner

wedges than normal, as if the tendency toward skeletal growth

parallel to the b axis had caused an actual lengthening of that

axis.

The optical dispersion (a and |S), of one crystal from each lot

was determined from natural faces (m), and several less accurate

determinations of refractive index made on crystals having

good / faces. No differences of refractive index greater than

±0.001 were found. Chemical tests do not indicate any solid

solution.

TABLE 2

Dispersion of Potassixtm Trithionate.

a 0 y

±0.0001 ±0.002

1.5805 1. 62 1

(1-5732) I. 612

I 5673

I • 5649

(1.5641) 1.602

1.5607

I -5591 1-596

2VNa measured 72° =*= 3°, with no noticeable dispersion.

The above indices make 2V = 70° =*= 1°.

BOTANY. — On the origin of chicle with descriptions of two new

species of Achras. H. Pittier, Bureau of Plant Industry.*

Many statements in cyclopedias, handbooks, and even special

treatises, considered as facts, are really the expression of mere

rumors collected by travellers and reproduced without the

necessary discrimination.

Thus we find in almost all the hterature of cacao, that this

product is the crop of a tree scientifically called Theobroma cacao

* Published with the authorization of the Secretary of Agriculture.

43- pittier: origin of chicle

L., whereas it is a fact that the larger portion of the cacao beans

seen in the world market proceeds from another species, Theo-

hroma leiocarpa, described fully fifty years ago by the Swiss

botanist Bemouilli.^

The general idea is also that the Central-American rubber

originates from a single species, Castilla elastica. In reality, as

far back as 1903,^ O. F. Cook called attention to the existence of

several distinct rubber-producing species of Castilla, of which he

pubhshed no less than four in 1905.^ In 19 10, the writer took

up the same subject and completed to a certain extent Cook's

work, with the addition of a few more species.^ Among other

things, he showed that Castilla elastica is a species with a very

limited area in the states of Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Michoa-

can, Central Mexico, and that most of the seeds used in build-

ing up the plantations of Ceylon and other countries in the East

and West Indies and South America, proceeded from the several

species scattered over Central America. Nevertheless, the notion

is generally maintained that Castilla rubber is the exclusive

product of Castilla elastica. Even the distorted name Castilloa,

with the addition of a superfluous vowel, passes stereotypically

from old publications to those of more recent date.

So far, the origin of another Tropical American product, the

chicle, has not been questioned. It was admitted everywhere

that Achras Zapota h-, an important fruit tree known as sapodilla

or naseberry in English, and in Spanish as zapotillo, chicozapote,

and nispero, was also the only producer of this substance, which

is the base of the American chewing gum and is also applied to

several other uses. On the authority of travellers like Morelet

and of other authors, I myself recorded that species as "abundant

in the lowlands of Tabasco and Chiapas and the western part

of Yucatan" (see footnote 4) as well as in Jamaica and parts

of Venezuela, without ever suspecting that I was contributing

to the further spreading of a fallacy.

1 In Denkschr. Schweiz. Naturforsch. Ges. 29: 1-15, pi. 1-7. 1869.

2 The culture of the Central- American rubber tree, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind.,

Bull. 49.

5 Science, n. ser. 18: 438. 1903-

^ Contr. U. S. Natl. Herb. 13: 247-279, pis. 22-43, figs. 45-54- 1910.

pittier: origin of chicle 433

My first doubts originated in Venezuela in 191 7, when a friend,

with a certain botanical knowledge acquired under the late Dr.

Ernst, reminded me of the fact that chide is one of the export

products of the Orinoco Valley, adding that he had seen one of

the trees from which the gum is extracted and did not believe

it to be Achras Zapota, but perhaps a Mimusops, not unlike the

pendare, the purvio, or the masarandu, from which the Vene-

zuelan balata gum is obtained.

At the time, however, I gave little .attention to the subject:

everybody said that the chicle was obtained from the

nispero tree and nispero, that is to say, Achras Zapota, it had to

be. But very recently, in May of the present year, on the oc-

casion of an official exploration of the region between the

rivers Motagua and Chamelecon in Guatemala and Honduras,

respectively, I came face to face with one of the so-called

ndsperos, which I could not, at first, recognize as a species

of Achras. The tree, nearly one meter in diameter at the base

and at least 35 meters high, was met on the first hills on the trail

from Los Amates to El Paraiso, beyond La Francia, in the Molhd

valley. At first sight, it had the appearance of a Mimusops, but

the numerous, freshly detached corollas which covered the soil

under the tree completely lacked the dorsal lobular appendages

which are characteristic of this genus. Of course, this indicated

a close relationship with Achras Zapota, except that the corollas

were rotate or almost so, while in the latter they are tubulose ;

but the fact that Achras has been so long considered as a mono-

typic genus helped on the moment to discard the idea of its be-

longing to this genus.

At the time the study of the floral details could not well

be pursued further, so I simply resolved to obtain more com-

plete materials, and meanwhile started on another line of in-

vestigation. I had with me no less than six monteros, i. e., woods-

men, some from Honduras, the others from Guatemala, and five

of them had worked at the extraction of chicle. On my asking

about the name of the tree, the unanimous answer was nispero;

all agreed, too, that the fruit was edible, like that of the chicoza-

pote; but when I asked whether this nispero and the chicozapote

434 pittier: origin of chicle

were identical, the opinion was divided, one of the men explain-

ing that there were several kinds {varias clases) of nisperos,

two of which were bled for the milk. These two grew wild in

the forest but the one cultivated near the houses for the fruit

was never tapped, nor used as timber. Of the former two, one

is met with on the valley flats and is better than the other, which

always grows on hills. On my asking in what the difference

consisted, I was told that the milk of the tree growing in lower

exposures needed one boiling only, while the other required two.

Just here, let me state that I know nothing about the technique

of the raw chicle preparation, and the expedition in question

was such a hurried one that I had no time to go deeper into the

subject than to obtain from other persons full confirmation of the

above data.

Further information tends to verify the above and to show

that chicle is really the product of several species, belonging

possibly to more than one genus, of the Sapotaceae. From

notes taken by G. N. Collins in his expedition to Yucatan and

Tabasco in 1913, it appears that there are differences in the chicle-

producing trees, both in the leaf and fruit characters and in the

quality of the gum. The trees growing above the 300-meter

contour line, although similar in every other way to those grow-

ing at lower altitudes, do not produce latex. We have seen that

in the Motagua Valley, the latex of trees on the hills is some-

what different from that of trees on the flats. Mr. Collins gives

also the information that the average yield is 9 pounds per tree,

and reaches up to 25 pounds. To show the importance of the

product, we may add here that Mr. Collins' informant exported

three million pounds of the gum during 191 2.

Another tree having a floral structure identical with that found in

Guatemala, and also described below, was discovered in the cal-

careous zone of the Chagres Valley in Panama. If we admit

that both species really belong to Achras, it becomes out of the

question to continue considering this genus as monotypic, and

since it is now increased to three members, there is no reason

why other species having so far escaped botanical collectors,

pittier: origin of chicle 435

may not exist in Colombia and Venezuela, the flora of which coun-

tries is very imperfectly known.

Lastly it appears from the "Notes on Useful Plants of Mexico,"

published by Dr. J. N. Rose,"^ as well as from the reports of the

Comision Catastral y de Estudio de los Recursos naturales del

Estado de Sinaloa (March, 19 19), that other Sapotaceae, such as

Calocarpum mammosum Pierre, Bumelia Palmeri Rose, and perhaps

certain species of Lucuma, are to be included among the chicle-

producing plants. Rose, however, emphasizes the importance

of Achras Zapota as the main source of the chewing gum, though he

adds also that the chicle extracted from Calocarpum mammosum

is the best gum for masticatory purposes. According to the

Comision Catastral de Sinaloa, chicle is obtained there from the

fruits of the bebelamas, which has just been mentioned under the

name of Bumelia Palmeri. This tree was also collected in Sinaloa

in 1 89 1 by Dr. Edward Palmer, and in 19 10 by Rose, Standley,

and Russell, but no mention is made of its properties, further

than the note by Palmer that children are very fond of the

berries.

That the wood of Achras Zapota is not generally used as

building material or for other purposes, mainly on account of

its being very scarce, is confirmed by reports obtained by me in

several Central and South American countries. This wood,

being heavy, fine grained, and hard, takes a beautiful polish.

But the tree is spared on account of its fruits; furthermore, it

seldom reaches adequate dimensions. Although there are trees

no less than 20 meters high, most of the height goes into the

crown; the trunk is rather short and only about 40 cm. in diam-

eter at most. Ernst*^ refers to its being employed in Venezuela

for making barrel staves, but there are other nisperos in that

country, and the same conclusion may have been drawn. The

wood of the nispero {Achras chicle) noticed by me in theMotagua

Valley is considered by the natives as incorruptible and may have

been used by the Mayas for the door lintels of their monuments.

In the rain forests of the Atlantic coast of Panama, I have

5 Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 5: 222. 1897-

^ La Exposicion nacional de Venezuela en 1883: p. 218. 1884.

436 pittier: origin of chicle

noticed that while most fallen trees are quickly reduced to mould,

the trunks of the balata-producing Mimusops, called also

nispero, would lie almost indefinitely, keeping in perfect condition.

From what has been explained so far, the following conclu-

sions can be drawn:

1. The nisperos of Central and South America include several

species of Achras, Mimusops, and other genera of the Sapotaceae,

so that the name does not necessarily correspond to Achras

Zapota.

2. The chicle of commerce is not extracted exclusively, if at

all, from the latter species, but mainly from other trees with the

same vernacular name.

3. The famous door lintels of the ruins of Yucatan were not

made from the wood of Achras Zapota, but more likely from one

of the other nisperos in the region.

4. The neotropical genus Achras is not monotypic. Besides

A. Zapota L., it includes up to the present, two more Central

American species, and others may come to light when the flora

of northern South America is thoroughly listed.

5 . Considering the importance of the product, a further, careful

investigation of the facts, in loco, that is to say, in the valleys

of the Motagua and Rio Dulce, in Peten, Yucatan, and Tabasco,

is necessary, and should cover the months of April, May and

June, so that specimens in flower and fruit, as well as wood

samples, could be procured.

Following are the descriptions of the two new species of Achras :

Achras Chicle Pittier, sp. no v.

A large, deciduous laticiferous tree, reaching a height of 25 m. and

over, with a basal diameter of 50 cm. and over, the trunk straight,

with a rugose or scaty bark, the crown high and elongate, the branchlets

thick and glabrous.

Leaves alternate, petiolate, coriaceous, congested on the new growth

at the end of the branchlets; petioles subterete, narrowly canaliculate,

puberulent, 2.5 to 3 cm. long; leaf -blades obovate-elliptic, long-cuneate

at the base, subacute at the apex, 12 to 20 cm. long, 4 to 7 cm. broad,

glabrous, dark green and dull above, light green and almost glaucescent

beneath; costa impressed above, very prominent beneath, the primary

veins numerous, parallel, inconspicuous. Stipules not seen.

Flowers very numerous, congested at the end of the branchlets, the

pedicels i .4 to 1.8 cm. long, puberulous; sepals 6 (3 + 3), those of the

pittier: origin of chicle 437

outer whorl imbricate, ovate, slightly connate at the base, rounded at

the apex, grayish pubescent without, glabrous and purplish within,

about 7 mm. long and 3 . 5 mm. broad, those of the inner whorl valvate,

oblong, obtuse at the apex, densely grayish pubescent without,

purplish and glabrous within, 7 mm. long and 2.5 to 3 mm. broad;

corolla rotate, 6-lobulate, glabrous, white, the tubular part i . 5 mm.

long, the lobes exappendiculate, ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, about 6

mm. long and 4 mm. broad; stamens and staminodes connate at the

base, inserted at the same height, 2 to 2 . 5 mm. from the base of the

corolla, the former slightly exserted, the filaments terete, attenuate,

about 5 mm. long, the anthers extrorse, dorsifixed ovate or ovate-

lanceolate, cordate at the base, obtuse, about 3 mm. long; staminodes

petaloid, ovate-acuminate, broad at the base, subacute, about 4.5 mm.

long, irregularly toothed or laciniate ; pistil 8 to 8 . 5 mm. long, substipitate,

the ovary globose-depressed, deeply sulcate, minutely fulvo-pubescent,

about I mm. high, 2 mm. in diameter, 7-, 8- or 9-celled, the cells uniovu-

late; style slender, slightly attenuate, about 7 mm. long, adpressed,

hairy at the base, glabrous higher, the apical stigmatic surface papillose,

minutely tuberculate.

Fruit globose-depressed, about 3.5 cm. long and 4 cm. in diameter,

the pedicel thick, about 2 cm. long. Skin brown-ferruginous, almost

smooth; mesocarp and dissepiments fleshy, succulent, with 4 to 6

seeds, more or less. Seeds large, compressed, ovate, slightly curved,

brownish and dull, 2 . 3 cm. long, i . 4 to 1.7 cm. broad, 6 to 7 mm. thick,

the margin smooth, slightly thickened, with a small, narrow, inconspicuous

cicatricula.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, collected in flower at Vega

Grande near Los Amates, Department Izabel, Guatemala, at about

200 meters above sea-level. May, 1919, by H. Pittier (no. 8537).

At first sight, this species reminds one of the Mimusops of the manil-

kara group, an impression that is not sustained by a closer examina-

tion of the corolla, in which the absence of dorsal appendages is in-

stantly noticed. This detail, added to the presence of six petaloid

staminodes, places this species among the Sideroxyleae rather than

among the Mimusopeae. Furthermore, the genus Achras seems to

be indicated by the hexamerous floral envelopes and androceum. But

the corolla is plainly rotate, with a very short tube (almost 4 times

shorter than the lobes) and not urceolate with the tube half as long

as the lobes; the margin of the lobes is entire and not sinuate, the de-

sign of the staminodes is quite distinct, the stamens and style are

exserted, and the ovary cells do not seem ever to be more than 9. If

the dorsal appendages of theCorolla were present, we would have a perfect

Mimusops, without them, but with the sepals distinctly biseriate, the

corolla tube very short, the ovary cells at the most 9, 1 felt reluctant at

first to place the tree under Achras. On the other hand, the fruit

438 pittieir: origin of chicle

and other characters indicate such a close relationship that I am con-

fident the decision to place the species in this genus will be sup-

ported by further study. It seems preferable to introduce a few-

slight modifications in the generic definition rather than to create

a new division in the already oversplit and somewhat confused order

Sapotaceae.

Achras calcicola Pittier sp. nov.

A deciduous, laticiferous tree, 15 to 25 meters high, often over i

meter in diameter at the base, the trunk usually straight, covered

with a 2 cm. thick, rimose bark, the crown reduced, depressed, the

branching divaricate; latex white; wood hard, reddish.

Leaves alternate, petiolate, congested at the end of the branchlets,

coriaceous, entirely glabrous; petioles terete, canaliculate, 2 to 3 cm.

long; leaf-blades obovate-oblong, cuneate-attenuate at the base, shortly

obtuse-acuminate at the apex, 8 to 18 cm. long, 3 to 6 cm. broad, dark

green and dull above, pale green beneath, the costa impressed on the

upper face, prominent beneath, the primary veins numerous and

inconspicuous.

Flowers numerous, pedicellate, congested at the base of the leaves

at the end of the branchlets ; pedicels more or less pubescent, about i

cm. long; sepals 6 (3 + 3), ovate or ovate-oblong, attenuate toward

the apex, the exterior ones 5 . 5 mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. broad, densely

fuzzy-pubescent without, the interior ones a little longer and narrower,

pubescent at the apex, ciliate on the margin; corolla white, broad

campanulate or almost rotate, glabrous, 6-lobulate, the tubular part

I mm. long, the lobes ovate-acute, 3.5 to 4 mm. long, imbricate, some-

times denticulate on the margin, exappendiculate ; stamens and stami-

nodes 6, connate at the base, inserted at the apex of the tube; stamens

as long as the corolla lobes, the filaments terete, apiculate, about 2 . 5

mm. long, the anthers extrorse, dorsifixed, emarginate at the base,

obtuse, about 3 mm. long; staminodes petaloid, ovate, bifid, about 4

mm. long, the margin irregularly denticulate; pistil 4.5 to 5 mm.

long, the ovary globose-depressed, more or less distinctly sulcate, 9-

celled, stiff-hairy; style obtuse, glabrous. Fruit not known.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 678503, collected in

flower, in the dry forests on Eocene limestone around Alhajuela, Chagres

Valley, Panama, May, 191 1, by H. Pittier (no. 3457).

This species differs from Achras Zapota h- in the acuminate leaves,

the smaller flowers, the broadly open corolla with short tube, the in-

sertion, size, and shape of the stamens, and the 9-celled ovary. It

shows more affinities with Achras Chicle, just described, but has smaller

flowers, the parts of which also differ in shape and size.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — The oil fields of Allen County, Kentucky. Eugene

Wesley Shaw and Kirtley F. Mather. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.

688. Pp. I20, pis. 36, figs. 10. 1919.

This report is designed to be purely geologic in nature, and the re-

connaissance field work included the determination of the general lay

of the rocks and details of structure in certain areas. The dips are

generally too low to be read by the clinometer. Few of the beds of

this region can be followed any considerable distance, though by means

of fossils the stratigraphic position of beds outcropping many miles

apart can be determined within a few feet. As the oil sand lies not

more than 200 feet below the valley bottoms, most of the drilling is done

with machines. There is no forrest of derricks but instead incon-

spicuous pumping jacks scattered through the woods and fields of a

somewhat hilly region.

The stratigraphy is described in detail. The pay sands occur in

the "Corniferous" limestone of Devonian age and the Silurian lime-stone.

The capacity and life of wells, and the origin, source, and mode of ac-

cumulation of the oil are discussed, favorable structures are shown and

suitable locations for drilling are suggested. Circumstantial evidence

points to the derivation of the oil from plant remains, particularly

spore cases of ferns and related plants. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — The Kantishna Region, Alaska. Stephen R. Capps.

U. S. Geol. Survey. Bull. 687. Pp. 112, pis. 17, figs. 6. 1919.

The Kantishna region lies between Fairbanks and Mt. McKinley

and west of the railroad from Seward to Fairbanks. The area described

includes about 4500 square miles. Geologic reconnaissance shows

four pre-Tertiary formations — Birch Creek schist, the Tatina and

Tonzano groups, and the Totatlanika schist. In none of these rocks

439

440 abstracts: geology

have fossils been found, and their differentiation and correlation is

based largely on lithologic and stratigraphic grounds. Younger forma-

tions consist of sands and gravels, shales, ligniticbeds of Tertiary age

and a great abundance and variety of Quaternary deposits. The pro-

ductive gold placer deposits of the district are all in the basins of the

streams that head in the Kantishna Hills. A large part of the gold of

the stream placer gravels was derived by erosion from the fissure quartz

veins that cut the Birch Creek schist. The veins which carry gold,

silver, and antimony have been prospected but the inaccessibility of

the region has prevented thejr development. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Some American cretaceous fish scales. T. D. A. Cock-

ERELL. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-1. Pp. 165-202, pi. 7.

1919.

Fish remains are extremely abundant in several Cretaceous formations

of the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains, but except in the Niobrara

formation of Kansas, a fish skeleton well enough preserved for descrip-

tion or identification is the greatest rarity. In the original descriptions

of both the Mowry and the Aspen shales of Wyoming the presence of

fish scales is mentioned as a characteristic feature.

Descriptions of scales without figures are unsatisfactory, especially

if they are to be largely used by stratigraphers who have no intimate

knowledge of lepidology. Consequently it has been considered neces-

sary to illustrate this paper fully, with enlarged figures, from photo-

graphs.

This discussion deals almost entirely with a marine fauna. So far

as known at present the Tertiary fishes mark a considerable advance

on or at least change from their Cretaceous predecessors. It ought

to be possible as a rule to distinguish a Cretaceous from a Tertiary de-

posit by means of a single well-preserved fish scale. The exceptions

will be found in those groups which range with little change from the

Cretaceous to the present day — the berycoids, clupeids, or hemiramphids.

Just as the Tertiary fishes mark an advance on the Mesozoic, so also

the later Cretaceous fishes present evidence of evolution and moderniza-

tion. This statement applies not only to the Upper as contrasted with

the Lower Cretaceous, but also, and rather markedly, to the Montana

group as contrasted with the Colorado group. Thus evidence is found

of a rather slow and gradual modernization of the fish fauna, the breaks

in the series corresponding with the geologic breaks and not being at-

tributable to any extraordinary migrations or sudden new develop-

abstracts: geology 441

ments. Scales of fishes from the Chico, cut oflf from the inland sea by

the western uplands, are all different from those in Rocky Mountain

deposits. The Chico has a veritable clupeid, but so far no genuine

clupeids have been found in the Benton, Niobrara, Pierre, or Fox

Hills. The inland waters seem to have lacked berycoids, which are so

characteristic of the European strata. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Structure and oil resources of the Simi Valley, Southern

California. W. S. W. Kew. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 691-M. Pp.

323-347. pl- 4. fig- I- 1919-

This report describes a small oil field about 32 miles northwest of

Los Angeles, in the Simi Valley, Ventura County. All the rocks within

the Simi Valley district are of sedimentary origin with the exception

of a few small areas of basic igneous rocks of Miocene age. The greater

part of the Simi Hills is composed of rocks of Chico (Upper Cretaceous)

age. In the Simi Valley district, as in other localities in California,

the Eocene comprises both the Martinez (lower Eocene) and the Tejon

(upper Eocene) formations. Although these divisions are elsewhere

separated by an unconformity, the series, consisting of 3,500 to 6,500

feet of conglomerates, sandstones, and shales of various types, here

appears to be homogeneous.

The Monterey group (Miocene), which in the Simi Valley district is

divided into the Vaqueros sandstone and Modelo formation, is one of

the most widespread series of rocks in California. The Fernando

formation is exposed in a series of irregular areas along a synclinal

region between the Santa Susana Mountains and the Simi and San

Fernando valleys. It lies with a marked unconformity on all the older

formations.

The structure, or attitude of the different strata in the Santa Susana

Mountains and Simi Valley js closely related to that of the California

Coast Range, which is characterized by a number of northwestward-

trending folds, broken by faulting. The Simi Valley oil district lies

in the midst of the westward-trending ridges of the Coast Ranges and

embraces a part of two large structural features, the Santa Susana

Mountains and the Simi Hills. In this region the dominant structure

is a result of compressive forces which acted from north to south at

the end of the Pliocene epoch. The principal structural feature in

the Simi district is the Santa Susana fault which follows closely the

foot of the steep southern front of the Santa Susana Mountains. The

Simi anticline is economically the most important structural feature

442 abstracts: geology

in the Simi region at the present time on account of its association

with the Simi oil field.

As the object of this paper is to make recommendations bearing on

both developed and possible new territory in the Simi Valley, the con-

ditions under which the oil occurs in the field situated on the flanks

of the Santa Susana Mountains and Oak Ridge are briefly reviewed.

The more productive wells according to the records appear to be

either along the axis of the anticline or immediately north of it.

R. W. Stone.

GKOIyOGY. — Anticlines in a part of the Musselshell Valley. C. F.

BowEN. U.S.Geol. Survey Bull. 691- F. pp. 185-209, pi. I. 1918.

Previous investigations had shown that the Musselshell Valley,

Montana, is an area in which the rocks have undergone considerable

folding. The work has demonstrated the existence within the area studied

of several well-developed anticlines and domes, which seem to offer

structurally favorable places for the accumulation of oil and gas. The

demonstration of the presence or absence of commercial accumulations

of these fluids in the folds has been less conclusive, owing largely to the

imdeveloped condition of the area.

. Sandstones that would serve as suitable reservoirs for the accumula-

tion of oil occur at several horizons, (i) Near the top of the Colorado

shale there is a transition zone of thin sandstones and sandy shale

beds. (2) About 1200 feet below the top of the Colorado. (3) About

250 to 300 feet lower in the section is another sandstone of similar

character, but much thinner and more distinctly conglomeratic.

(4) Associated with and underlying the Mowry shale member,

in the eastern part of the field, are several thin, finely conglomeratic

sandstones. (5) At the top of the Kootenai there is 40 to 50

feet of platy, rather fine grained sandstone in approximately the same

position as the Greybull sand of the Big Horn Basin, Wyoming.

(6) Near the base of the Kootenai there is another coarse, porous

sandstone of undetermined thickness.

The Eagle sandstone is not a likely source of oil or gas in most of

this area, for it has been removed from the crests of most of the anti-

clines, and thus any oil or gas that may have originally been stored in

it has had an opportunity to escape.

This report discusses the geology of the region as a whole, and also

suggests the most favorable places for future development.

R. W. Stone.

abstracts: geology 443

GEOLOGY. — Oil and gas geology of the Birch Creek-Sun River area,

Northwestern Montana. Eugene Stebinger. U. S. Geol. Survey-

Bull. 691-E. Pp. 149-184, pi. I, figs. 3. 1918.

The purpose of this paper is limited to a presentation of the field

evidence having a bearing on the oil and gas prospects of the area,

including a description of the broader features of the geology and

more detailed accounts of local structural features that seemed to be

possible sources of oil and gas.

All the formations in the Birch Creek-Sun River area are of sedi-

mentary origin. Exclusive of the surficial rocks the formations pre-

sent range in age from Carboniferous to probably lower Tertiary. Oil

and gas possibilities of promise seem to be confined to the Cretaceous

rocks. Earth stresses of intensity great enough to fold and tilt the

rocks appreciably from their originally horizontal attitude were de-

veloped in this region during Paleozoic or later time only after the end

of the Cretaceous period.

Summary descriptions of the geologic formations, arranged in their

proper sequence, are given.

It is believed that the sandstones in at least the upper part of the

Kootenai formation, closely associated with the overlying petroliferous

rocks in the lower part of the Colorado, offer a possibility of being pro-

ductive of oil or gas. The Colorado shale seems to be of first impor-

tance as a possible source of oil and gas in northwestern Montana and

according to present information is the only promising source known.

In the area here discussed the lower part of this shale was found to be

petroliferous in every extensive exposure in a belt extending about 35

miles from north to south across the area between Deep Creek and Sun

River. It contains bituminous shale, which yields oil on distillation,

and soft maltha or natural tar in crevices of fractured limestone, which

very probably is a residuunr from the evaporation of petroleum. The

evidence seems fairly conclusive that this shale offers a source for petro-

leum that may have accumulated in commercially valuable quanti-

ties either in the Colorado or in the sandy portions of the Kootenai

and Virgelle sandstone in immediate contact with it.

The area described in this report can be readily divided into two large

structural units which differ greatly in the degree to which the strata

have been deformed. A slightly curving line, in general parallel to

the mountain front, extending northward a distance of nearly 60 miles,

would mark a sharp transition from an area on the east in which the

444 abstracts: engineering

beds are rearly horizontal to an area on the west in which the rocks

have been severely compressed into folds and broken by faulting.

In the area of nearly horizontal rocks there are six large anticlines

whose structure is probably continuous in depth far enough to form

traps in sands in the Virgelle, Colorado, and Kootenai formations.

The belt of disturbed rocks in the Cretaceous and Tertiary (?) forma-

tions adjacent to the mountains in the Birch Creek-Sun River area

is a small part of a large structural province that extends northward

far beyond the Canadian boundary into Alberta, a distance exceeding

200 miles, and southward to the valley of Dearborn River.

R. W. Stone.

ENGINEERING. — Physical and chemical tests on the commercial

marbles of the United States. D. W. Kessler. Bur. Stand. Tech.

Paper No. 123. Pp. 54, pis. 7. 1919.

This paper is the first report of the Bureau of Standards in connec-

tion with an extensive cooperative program for investigating the build-

ing stones of the United States. The other government departments

participating in the work on different phases of this investigation are

the U. S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Mines and Bureau of Public

Roads.

This paper comprises the results of strength tests, water absorption,

porosity, specific gravity, freezing, thermal expansion, electrical con-

ductivity and chemical tests on 52 different types of marbles produced

in this country. The purpose of the work is to determine the relative

value of the different types for building purposes and other special

uses.

Compressive strength tests were made on specimens in the original

condition and on specimens after being soaked in water for two weeks.

The strength of the dry specimens gave values ranging from 7850 to

50205 lbs. per sq. in. As a rule the soaked specimens gave lower

compressive strengths than the dry, and in a few cases the loss due to

soaking was over 25 per cent.

Transverse and tensile strength tests are included and show the

strength of the specimens when broken perpendicular and parallel

to the bedding planes.

The freezing tests made for this report consisted in determining the

loss in weight and strength due to 30 freezings and thawings. While

these losses were considerable in most cases, some samples showed

practically no loss and occasionally a gain in strength was indicated.

abstracts: metallurgy 445

Hence it was decided that 30 freezings are not enough to give a trust-

worthy indication of the durabihty of such materials. An apparatus

has been installed which automatically shifts the specimens back and

forth between a cold chamber and warm chamber at certain intervals.

With the use of this apparatus, it is possible to make a great number

of freezings which will correspond to several years of exposure to the

weather. It is proposed to make extensive weathering tests with

this apparatus to determine more definitely the relative effect of frost

action on the different marbles as well as other types of building stones.

Electrical resistivity tests were made on a number of different types

to determine their relative value as insulators and resistivity under

different conditions of moisture. The results show a considerable

range of values indicating that there is a choice of marble for use in

switch boards and allied purposes.

Measurements of the thermal expansion made on a few samples of

marble in this investigation show that this material does not expand

at a uniform rate even at ordinary temperatures. As the tempera-

ture is increased the rate of expansion increases, hence it is not possi-

ble to state a coefficient of expansion for marble that will hold good for

any very great range of temperatures. Another peculiarity brought

out by these tests was the fact that marble when expanded by heating

does not contract to its original dimensions as the temperature is low-

ered, but retains a part of the increase permanently. A number of

successive heatings show the same effect, each adding an increment of

length to the specimen.

A few cases of warped marble slabs are illustrated and a discussion

is given of the causes which may be instrumental in bringing about

this warping.

METALLURGY. — Aluniinuin and its light alloys. Bur. Stand. Cir.

No. 76. Pp. 120. 1919.

This circular attempts to give all available information concerning

the physical and mechanical properties of aluminum and its light

alloys in summarized form. Commercial alloys are described and

compared. The corrosion and disintegration of aluminum and its

alloys are considered.

The endeavor has been made to reproduce only such data as have

passed critical scrutiny. Wherever possible, data and information have

been put into the form of tables and curves. A complete bibliography

and specifications for aluminum and its light alloys are given.

J. F. Meyer.

446 abstracts: metallurgy

METALLURGY. — The effect of rate of temperature change on the

transformations in an alloy steel. H. ScoTT. Bur. Stand. Sci.

Paper No. 335. Pp. 91-100, figs. 7. 1919.

Cooling curves taken on an air-hardening steel of the high speed

tool steel type show two critical points on cooling from 920° C, one

occurring at about 750° C. accompanied by the precipitation of the hard-

ening constituent, the carbide, and the other on fast cooling at about

400° C. under which condition the carbide remains in solution as

martensite. On cooling at intermediate rates both transformations

are observed and the constituents, troostite and martensite, are de-

tected by the microscope. A transformation is observed on the heat-

ing curves taken following a fast cooling which is manifested by an

evolution of heat ending at about 645° C. and which represents the

precipitation of the carbide held in solution by previous rapid cooling.

The resolution of the carbide under these conditions occurs at a tem-

perature some 10 to 15° C. higher than after a slow cooling.

The conclusions drawn support the twenty-year-old theory of Le

Chatelier that^martensite is a solid solution of carbide in alpha iron.

H. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

8 1 8th meeting

The 8 1 8th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1919,

President Humphreys in the chair; 58 persons present. The minutes

of the 817th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

The first paper was presented by Mr. Wm. Bowie on Mapping the

United States for military and civil needs. This paper was illustrated

by lantern slides.

The speaker covered the general phases of map making in the United

States and showed the steps that were taken in making the surveys

and the resulting map, in any area in which no control or maps existed.

No details were given in regard to the technical questions involved,

although there are many of great interest in connection with the work

in the field, in the drafting room, and in the map reproduction plant.

There are many uses to which maps can be put and, in general, there

is a map for each of the special uses. Some of the maps are very de-

tailed in character, showing the natural as well as the cultural features

and giving accurate contours to show the elevations and configura-

tion of the ground.

It was said by the speaker that about 40 per cent of the United States

has been topographically surveyed but that some of this area will

have to be resurveyed on account of the improvement in methods

and the more exacting demands of map users.

The question before the mapping bureaus to-day is the task involved

in making accurate contoured maps over the remaining 60 per cent of

the area of the country. Before this can be done efficiently, precise

leveling and primary triangulation must be carried into much of the

unmapped area. The early>completion of the map of the United States

would be of great military and civil benefit, as accurate maps are es-

sential from a military standpoint in the defense of the country, and

from a civil standpoint it is necessary to have them for the efficient

development of industries and commerce.

The speaker said that very accurate maps of large scale should be

made along the coasts of the United States for purposes of defense

in case of invasion. The war has proved that troops cannot operate

effectively without very accurate maps on which a great amount

of military detail connected with the movement of troops may be

shown. For artillery purposes the maps must be exceedingly accurate,

in order that long range firing may be effective.

447

448 proceedings: philosophical society

The speaker discussed the question of whether accurate maps can

be made from aeroplanes and expressed the opinion that undoubtedly

aeroplane photographs can be used in the revision of existing maps. In

many cases where the country is practically flat, aeroplane photographs

may be used for original surveys. It is probable that difficulty would

be experienced in making contour maps from aeroplane photographs.

This would be due to the difficulty of having the camera in a vertical

position at the time the photograph was taken and on account of the

condition which would make it impossible to do accurate contouring

when the contour interval is small. Undoubtedly the aeroplane will

have considerable use in surveying and at present several of the govern-

ment organizations engaged in mapping are investigating the subject

of surveying from aeroplanes.

Discussion. — Capt. Ellis spoke of the German and French maps

of eastern France. Mr. J. F. Hayford discussed the possibiHties of

mapping from aeroplane photographs. Mr. G. K. Burgess spoke of

the work of the French in constructing maps for Algeria and Morocco

from aerial photographs.

The second paper was by Mr. Oscar S. Adams on A study of map

projections in general and was also illustrated by lantern slides.

The difficulty encountered in map construction arises from the fact

that the earth's surface is ellipsoidal in shape and is consequently

non-developable, that is, it cannot be spread out in a plane without

some stretching, some tearing, or some folding. The determination

of a projection consists in fixing upon some system of lines in the plane

that will represent the meridians and parallels upon the earth. An

orderly arrangement of these lines, such as to give a one-to-one corre-

spondence between the points on the earth and those upon the plane,

is generally expressed in terms of some mathematical formula, and in

fact all projections in use can be so stated.

In studying projections there are four main things to be considered.

These four considerations are:

(i) The accuracy with which a projection represents the scale along

the meridians and parallels.

(2) The accuracy with which it represents areas.

(3) The accuracy with which it represents the shape of the features

of the area in question.

(4) The ease with which the projection can be constructed.

The scale of a map in any given direction at any point is the ratio

which a short distance measured upon the map bears to the correspond-

ing distance upon the surface of the earth.

The subject of map projections is generally treated under the follow-

ing subdivisions:

(a) Perspective or geometrical projections, (b) Conical projec-

tions, (c) Equivalent or equal area projections, (d) Conformal pro-

jections, (e) Azimuthal or zenithal projections.

These classes are not, however, mutually exclusive since a given

projection may belong to two or sometimes three of the classes.

proceedings: philosophical society 449

The subject of map projections is a very wide one and some of the

considerations have their roots extending far into the fertile soil of pure

mathematics. A careful working out of the results for any one pro-

jection forms a good exercise in the practical application of mathematical

knowledge.

Discussion. — This paper was discussed by Messrs. Sosman and Wm.

Bowie.

Adjournment took place at 9.53 p.m. and was followed by a social

hour.

819TH MEETING

The 819th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, May 10, 1919,

President Humphreys in the chair; 40 persons present.

The minutes of the 818th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

The first paper was presented by Mr. F. J. Schlink On the nature of

the inherent variability of measuring instruments.

This paper treats of those characteristics of the performance of an

indicating measuring instrument, on account of which the instrument

fails to give identical readings for repeated applications of the same

value of the quantity being measured. Variable errors introduce

serious difficulties, and the obtaining of a high degree of freedom from

variability in instrument operation, although it has not until very re-

cently been given any general or systematic consideration, is likely

to be very much more important than mere smallness of calibration

error. A means of defining the variability of measuring instruments,

either indicating or integrating, with respect to random observations

in caUbration, is illustrated, in which, the characteristics of the instru-

ment, as regards dispersion of readings, are set forth by reference to

*the surface defined by a family of probability curves.

The concepts of resilience and the cychc state with respect to instru-

ment operation are next introduced and it is shown by experimental

results on a typical indicating instrument of considerable mechanical

complexity that when once cyclic or regularized operation is set up,

the indications lie upon a hysteresis loop which, while defining a zone

of uncertainty or variance, is in itself definite and reproducible with

high precision, provided that the successive increments of the inde-

pendent variable are appHed aperiodically and in the absence of jarring

or vibration, in such manner as to avoid all overshooting of the final

reading. This method is directly apphcable only in the absence of

appreciable transient after-effects in the operation of the instrument.

The causes of instrumental hysteresis maybe either elastic or mechan-

istic; the nature and effect of the latter are illustrated and explained.

The type of calibration that would obtain in the absence of friction

has been determined by the study of instruments subjected to vigorous

jarring and the relation between cyclic and acyclic calibration was thus

made evident. An experiment was shown using a crude type of auto-

matic weighing scale which served to demonstrate the determinate

nature of the hysteretic lag in the un vibrated, aperiodic condition of

450 proceedings: philosophical society

operation, as well as the influence of jarring upon the nature and amount

of the lag.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

The paper was discussed by Messrs. C. A. Briggs and W. P. White.

The second paper was presented by Mr. R. L. Sanford on Magnetic

analysis.

This paper gives a definition of magnetic analysis and briefly dis-

cusses the scope of the subject.

It points out that a method which makes possible the testing of

steel and steel products without in any way injuring the product gives

promise of having very great commercial value.

The very strict correspondence between the magnetic and mechanical

properties may serve as the basis for such a non-destructive method of

inspecting steel products by comparison with tested samples which thus

constitute standards of quality.

The proper interpretation of the results of magnetic analysis re-

quires a full and complete knowledge of the correlations existing be-

tween magnetic and other properties of steel. Much remains to be

done along this line.

A number of applications of magnetic analysis that give promise of

practical value are described. Each type of problem requires an indi-

vidual solution and there are many types of problems.

It is not by any means to be claimed that magnetic analysis will

displace any of the present well established methods of metallography.

On the other hand, it bids fair to develop into a powerful tool in

the hands of the investigator as well as a rapid and accurate means

for the testing of steel and steel products.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides.

Discussion. — This paper was discussed by Messrs. White, Sosman,

C. A. Briggs, Dickinson, Crittenden, Herschel, and Agnew.

Adjournment took place at 9.50 p.m. and was followed by a social

hour.

S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

336TH MEETING

The 336th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, Wednesday eve-

ning, May 7, 1919, President Ulrich presiding, and 173 persons present.

Alfred H. Brooks: Some geologic problems relating to the war in

Europe.

At the outbreak of the war no provision had been made for the use

of geologists in any of the belligerent armies. So far as known the

British Expeditionary Force was the first to employ geologic officers

in determining water supply, and the Germans the first to recognize

the need of geologic knowledge in military mining. In the latter field

the British soon followed, and under the leadership of Lt. Col. T.

Edgeworth David carried the geologic work to a much higher degree

of refinement than did any of the other armies. Geologic staffs were

organized in both the British and German armies early in 19 16, and

probably at about the same time geology was given some recognition

in the Austrian Army. A geologic section was established in the

American Expeditionary Force in September, 191 7. There were no

geologic officers in the French Army during the entire war, though

some of the French engineers made use of the science.

The principal applications of geology to military problems are as

follows :

(i) The determination of water resources, both underground and

surface, at the front and along the line of communication.

(2) The determination of the physical character of soil, subsoil, and

bedrock and the presence or absence of underground water with rela-

tion to their effect on field works, including trenches, dugouts, and

mines.

(3) The distribution, occurrence, and quantity of road metal, ballast,

and material for concrete.

(4) The determination of the physical character of soil, and subsoil

during wet and dry seasons, with relation to its influence on the move-

ment of large bodies of troops and of artillery and tanks.

Practically all uses of geology fall within the above general classifica-

tion. It is evident that any engineering project involving extensive

excavation may call for geologic knowledge. It is evident too that the

sanitation of camps and cantonments must take cognizance of the un-

derground drainage conditions as well as of water supply and surface

formations. It has been found that certain geologic conditions by

furnishing good electric transmission favor the use of the listening de-

vices which were extensively used during the period of trench warfare.

It should be added that one of the important uses of geology in the

451

452 proceedings: geological society

American Expeditionary Force was the forecasting of the physical

conditions within the enemy's hnes.

337TH MEETING

The 337th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on Wednesday

evening, May 14, 191 9, President Ulrich presiding, and 58 persons

present.

Capt. Charles H. Lee: Experiences in supplying water to our army

at the front.

Drainage areas and general geology with special reference to pervious

and impervious rocks were described. The rivers are widely distributed

and in many areas springs are a very valuable source of water supply,

especially in Northeastern France where the American Expeditionary

Force was engaged. The most important are contact springs between

limestone and shale. The Paris Basin is an artesian basin, the water

being in greensand formations. Illustrations were shown of the various

methods used by the engineers to supply the troops with water,

including the construction of dams and concrete and wooden tanks,

and the transportation of water both by pipe lines, automobile trucks,

wagons, and, lastly, by small tanks on men's backs delivered directly

to the men in the trenches.

Kirk Bryan: Habits of thought of a geologist applied to military

problems.

The speaker related his experience as a private in the Intelligence

Section (G-2) of the 5th Army Corps, First American Army, during

the St. Mihiel and Argonne-Meuse operations extending from Septem-

ber 12 to November 11, 191 8. He referred to the demand for geologic

and physiographic information in active military operations and showed

examples of such work done under the disadvantageous conditions of

war. He pointed out that geologists have a mental limitation which

compels them to think along professional lines; they should on this

account be placed in such position in an army that this habit of thought

will be most useful. One of these places is in the Intelligence Section

where studies of the terrane are required and can be most readily cir-

culated.

These studies will be of two types: (i) general papers referring to

large areas in the theater of war and sent out from Army Headquarters

from time to time; (2) special local reports of enemy defensive areas or

of the zone of advance sent out from Army Corps Headquarters im-

mediately previous to an attack. These descriptions should be skil-

fully prepared on the basis of a genetic study of the physiography but

without technical language and accompanied by diagrams, profiles,

sketches and, when available, photographs. The object of the re-

ports is to stimulate the imagination and assist in the visualization

of the enemy country. Over this country troops must advance and

it is too much to expect that the officers of the time, largely drawn from

civilian life, should be adepts at the difficult art of visualization from

maps. For, however good the maps, visualization is a difficult mental

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 453

process even for trained men and accurate skilfully written descriptions

are a great aid.

Adolph KnopE: Present tendencies in geology: metalliferotts deposits.

The chief problems and tendencies at the present time in the study

of ore deposits are: (i) the reaction against undue dependence on the

microscope, whether it be the petrographic or the metallographic

microscope; (2) the determination of the influence of pressure and tem-

perature in producing the mineral facies of ore deposits, and as a corol-

lary, the zonal distribution of ore deposits around intrusive centers;

(3) the application of physical chemistry to the problems of ore deposi-

tion; (4) the reaction against the extreme acceptance of the doctrine

of the origin of ore deposits from magmatic waters; (5) the application

of physiography to economic geology, especially with reference to the

origin of gold, iron, manganese, and nickel deposits as related to the

development of peneplains; (6) the bringing of economic geology into

closer touch with economics and with the larger social policies of the

State; (7) the taking of inventories of the world's chief mineral resources;

and (8) the estimation of mineral reserves by improved methods, espe-

cially by applying the modern methods of statistical analysis. The war

and the problems arising from the war as to the international adjust-

ment of mineral supplies have particularly emphasized the need for

detailed information on the world's mineral resources, especially for

information of a quantitative character.

Ralph W. Stone, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS

Since the last report in this Journal^ Mr. Bacharach's bill (H. R.

7785) has been passed by the House of Representatives, and is now in

the hands of the Senate Committee on Finance.

The bill as now drawn provides an increase of 15 per cent in the ex-

isting duty on chemical glassware, 10 per cent on porcelain ware, 25

per cent on scientific instruments, 40 per cent on surgical and dental

instruments; removes optical glass from the free list and places thereon

a duty of 45 per cent; and repeals the existing "duty-free provision."

It was debated in the House (in session as Committee of the Whole) on

August I and 2. Mr. Bacharach presented the principal arguments

for the bill, emphasizing not only the "revenue," "infant industry," and

"cheap foreign labor" arguments which support all protective tariff

bills, but also the "key industry" and "foreign propaganda" arguments,

which are comparatively new in American tariff discussion. The latter

two arguments were scarcely referred to again during the debate. The

strongest future foreign competition, according to Mr. Bacharach, is

expected to come from Japan, not from Germany. Mr. MoorE, of

Ohio, also supported the bill on behalf of glass and porcelain manufac-

turers in his district. Mr. Griffin, of New York, opposed the bill, as-

serting that it was "the opening gun in the battle for a general increase

of the tariff." Mr. Kitchin, of North Carolina, also opposed it, argu-

ing in favor of a licensing system instead of a protective tariff. The

rest of the debate was essentially political. An amendment to insert

"watch crystals, 60 per cent ad valorem" went out on the point of order

that the bill related only to chemical and laboratory glassware. Three

Democratic amendments to restore existing rates were defeated;

likewise an amendment to retain the duty-free provision, in supporting

which Mr. Kitchin asserted that the repeal of the duty-free clause

would tax college students $900,000 yearly for the benefit of the manu-

facturers. The division on this amendment, as pointed out by Mr.

Kitchin, was on strictly party lines.

Mr. Taylor, of Colorado, introduced, on August 14, H. R. 8441:

"Authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to make investigations,

through the Bureau of Mines, of oil shale to determine the practica-

bility of its utilization as a commercial product." Referred to the

Committee on Appropriations. A similar bill was introduced in the

Senate on August 4 by Mr. King (S. 2722).

Mr. France, of Maryland, has introduced in the Senate a resolu-

1 This JouRNAi. 9: 421. 19 1 9.

454

SCIENTIFIC NOTBS AND NEWS 455

tion (S. J. Res. 91) "conveying the thanks of Congress to Dr. James

Harris Rogers, of Hyattsville, Maryland, the discoverer of under-

ground and underwater radio." An appropriation of $1,000 is pro-

vided for a suitable gold medal. Referred to the Committee on Naval

Affairs.

A message from the President on August 21 (H. Doc. 197) trans-

mitted an invitation from the Government of the French Republic to

that of the United States to send delegates to a proposed conference at

Paris on September 30, 191 9, "to consider questions relating to the re-

organization of the service of the exchange of meteorological informa-

tion," with a recommendation from the Secretary of Agriculture that

appropriation be made for two delegates to the conference. Referred

to the Committee on Appropriations of the Senate, and the Committee

on Agriculture of the House.

Hearings have been completed on the Patent Office reform bills.

NOTES

An Agricultural History Society has been organized in Washington

"to stimulate interest, promote study and facilitate publication of

researches in agricultural history." The officers are: President,

Rodney H. True, of the Bureau of Plant Industry; Vice-Presi-

dent, Wm. J. Trimble, of the North Dakota Agricultural College;

Secretary-Treasurer, Lyman Carrier, of the Bureau of Plant Industry;

Members of Executive Committee, R. W. Kelsey, of Haverford, Penn-

sylvania, and O. C. Stine, of the Office of Farm Management.

The Chemical Society of Washington (the local section of the Amer-

ican Chemical Society) held its summer excursion on August 15, going

by boat to the smokeless powder plant and the naval proving grounds

at Indian Head, Maryland.

The Division of Birds of the National Museum has recently ac-

quired by exchange from the American Museum of Natural History

665 bird skins from Colombia, forming a part of the material upon

which Dr. F. M. Chapman based his "Distribution of Bird-hfe in

Colombia," published in 19 17.

Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Institution, returned from

his expedition to South America on July 30.

Dr. D. G. Byers, of the University of Washington, Seattle, recently

a captain in the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington, has been

appointed chief of the division of chemistry of the Bureau of Soils.

The Division of Plants of the National Museum has received a col-

lection of about 1300 specimens from Colorado and New England, pre-

sented by Dr. S. F. Blake, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

Dr. F. G. CoTTRELL has been appointed assistant director of the

Bureau of Mines, in charge of the newly organized investigations

456 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

branch. The operations branch has been placed in charge of Mr.

F. J. Bailey, formerly chief clerk of the Bureau.

Dr. Abraham Jacobi, a non-resident member of the Academy, died

at his summer home at Bolton Landing, New York, on July lo, 1919,

in his ninetieth year. Dr. Jacobi was born at Hartum, Westfalen, Ger-

many, on May 6, 1830. He came to the United States in 1853, as a

result of his participation in the revolution of 1848. His sixty-six

years of active medical work in New York City, during which he lec-

tured and taught in several of the medical colleges of that city and con-

tributed voluminously to medical literature, earned him the title of

"the father and founder of American pediatrics." He had been a

member of the Academy since 1899.

Dr. J. A. LE Clerc resigned on August 31 from the Bureau of Chem-

istry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now with the Miner-

Hillard Milling Company of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.

Mr. J. J. Skinner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has been awarded

the Edward Longstreth Medal of Merit by the Franklin Institute of

Philadelphia, for his paper on "Soil Aldehydes."

Dr. J. E. Spurr has resigned from the Bureau of Mines, to become

editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal of New York.

Dr. Joseph B. Umpleby has resigned from the U. S. Geological

Survey to accept the position of Director of the School of Engineering

Geology of the University of Oklahoma, at Norman, Oklahoma.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 OCTOBER 4, 1919 No. 16

BOTANY. — The anay, a new edible-fruited relative of the avocado.

S. F. Blake, Bureau of Plant Industry.

One of the most interesting results of the explorations in

search of new and desirable avocados and related fruits, carried

on in Central America for several years past by Wilson Popenoe

of the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, is the discovery

of the anay. Guided by the reports of natives, Mr. Popenoe

first met with the species on September 23, 19 16, when two

trees were found at the entrance to the Finca El Compromiso,

half a mile from Mazatenango, Guatemala, at an elevation of

about 365 meters. Other trees were known to the natives in

the near-by forest, and were visited by them at the proper

season to secure the fruit. The two trees seen by Mr. Popenoe

had been left to provide shade for young coffee trees when the

forest was cleared. They were about 22 meters high, with the

tall and slender trunk bare of branches for a considerable dis-

tance, and an open rounded crown. On this occasion Mr.

Popenoe, being unable to find a native venturesome enough to

climb the trees, had to content himself with pieces of the bark

and with some of the fruits, which were lying in profusion on

the ground. He also secured leaves from sucker shoots at the

base of one tree, but comparison with specimens secured from

the same tree on a later trip shows that these belong to some

other plant.

The fruits of the anay, which ripen in August and September,

are very similar in external appearance to those of certain types

457

458 BLAKE: THE ANAY

of avocado {Per sea americana). They are lo to 15 cm. long,

ellipsoid-pyriform, sometimes curved, sometimes pointed at apex,

often with sharply defined neck, with the body slightly com-

pressed, and smooth, glossy, purplish black surface. The skin is

very thin and membranous, adhering closely to the firm, oily,

rather scanty flesh. This is divided into two zones of color,

equal in thickness, the outer pale green, the inner greenish

cream-color, both being more sharply defined than is ordinarily

the case in the cultivated avocado. The flesh has a rich, bland

flavor, like that of a very good avocado, but faintly sweetish.

The large, obovoid seed, with the pointed end toward the base

of the fruit, has a thick, almost fibrous, outer seed coat and a

membranous inner one closely including the cotyledons, but not

always reaching to their apex. The pubescent plumule lies im-

mediately at the base of the cotyledons, while in the avocado it

is located some distance above this point. The fruits fall while

still hard, ripening in two or three days, and germinating freely

on the ground beneath the parent tree. Most of the specimens

found by Mr. Popenoe had been attacked by insects, which

tunneled through the seeds.

The notes from which this description of the fruit has been

drawn up were made by Mr. Popenoe on his first visit to the

trees. On a later visit, on January 17, 191 7, a mozo was found

who ascended one of the trees by means of a near-by palm and

threw down branchlets with leaves, young fruit, and a very few

flowers. Study of these shows that the anay is not a Per sea,

as Mr. Popenoe at first supposed, but an undescribed species of

the genus Hufelandia, which is at once distinguished from the

avocado {Persea americana) and its near relatives by the fact

that the anthers are 2 -celled instead of 4-celled.

Since collecting the anay at Mazatenango, on the west coast

of Guatemala, Mr. Popenoe has found it at Chama, on the Rio

Chisoy in the Usumacinta basin in Alta Verapaz, northeastern

Guatemala, at an altitude of about 300 meters, although no

specimens were obtained. It is the belief of Mr. Popenoe that

the name of the old Maya settlement Anaite, farther north in

BLAKE: THE ANAY 459

the same valley near the ruins of Menche Tinamit and Yax-

chilan, has reference to the former abundance of the anay in the

same region.

The anay, both in the vicinity of Mazatenango and in the

Usumacinta Valley, grows in moist regions at an elevation of

only 300 to 365 meters. For this reason Mr. Popenoe believes

that it will not succeed in California, but that it may do well in

southern Florida. Young trees grown from seeds collected by

Mr. Popenoe are now cultivated in the Plant Introduction Gar-

den at Miami, under the Seed and Plant Introduction number

43432, and their future will be watched with much interest. In

its native haunts the species was reported by natives to flower

in May, but from the specimens collected by Mr. Popenoe it is

clear that the flowering season is December and January. The

fruit ripens in August and September.

As this species of Hujelandia is known throughout its range as

anay (pronounced a-ni,^ and as it is intended to bear the same

name on its introduction into culture in the United States, it

may be called

Hufelandia anay Blake, sp. nov.

Large tree, up to about 22 meters high, with thick, reddish brown

bark; branchlets stout, angulate, densely griseous or rufescent-puber-

ulous with sordid incurved hairs, at length glabrate; leaves alternate,

rather crowded toward the ends of the branches, the blades 13 to 20

cm. long, 7.5 to 10 cm. wide, oval, abruptly short-pointed (acumen

about I cm. long, obtuse), rounded to cuneate at base, chartaceous,

pinnate-veined with 10 to 14 pairs of lateral veins diverging at an

angle of about 70°, above green, sordid-puberulous along costa and

lateral veins, essentially glabrous on the slightly prominulous-reticu-

late surface, beneath glaucous, rather sparsely puberulous on the sur-

face with whitish hairs, more densely so on veins with sordid loose

hairs, with rather prominent secondary veins and obscure tertiaries;

petioles stout, sulcate, sordid-puberulous especially above, 2.5 to 3.5

cm. long; panicles axillary, sordid-puberulous, sparsely branched (at

least in fruit) and rather slender, 9 to 15 cm. long (including the 4

to 7 cm. long peduncle) ; pedicels in young fruit somewhat clavate,

about 3 mm. long; perianth sordid-pilosulous on both sides, 2.5 mm.

long, the segments subequal, oval, rounded at apex, 1.5 mm. wide;

perianth tube extremely short; stamens of series I oblong-elliptic, 1.9

^ The system of diacritical marks here used is that of Webster's Dictionary.

460

BLAKB: TUB ANAY

Fig. I . — Hufelandia anay. Leaf, fruit, and longitudinal section through fruit and

seed, showing plumule at base of seed, all nearly natural size; a, flower; b,

stamen of series I; c, stamen of series II; d, stamen of series III, seen from

dorsal side; e, staminode; /, ovary. Details about scale 10.

BLAKE: THE ANAY 46 1

mm. long, sordid-pilose on back and ciliate to upper level of anther

sacs, papillose above, the filaments about 0.4 mm. long, pilose down

middle inside, gradually widened into the 2 -celled anther, this narrowed

into an obtuse appendage about as long as the filament; those of series

II similar, 1.5 mm. long, the filaments 0.35 mm. long, pilose on both

sides, the 2-celled anther 0.65 mm. long, the triangular obtuse papil-

lose tip 0.5 mm. long; those of series III 2 mm. long, the filaments com-

paratively slender, i mm. long, pilose outside and down midline within,

bearing at base two globose sessile basally pilose glands slightly more than

half as long as the filament, the oval extrorsely 2-celled anther i mm.

long (including the 0.3 mm. long obtuse papillose appendage), papil-

lose-pilosulous on back; staminodes triangular, acuminate, 0.9 mm.

long, very shortly stipitate, pilose dorsally, glabrous inside; ovary sub-

globose, narrowed into and about equaling the stout style and obliquely

conical stigma; fruit ellipsoid-pyriform, glossy black, thin-skinned, 10

to 15 cm. long; seed very large, obovoid, with thick outer coat; embryo

at extreme base of cotyledons.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1011734, collected in

loamy soil of tropical forest at Finca Compromiso, Mazatenango,

Guatemala, at an altitude of about 365 meters, January 17, 191 7, by

Wilson Popenoe (no. 754).

Hufelandia anay is easily distinguished from the two species of the

genus previously described from Mexico and Central America, H.

mexicana Mez and H. costaricensis Mez Pittier, by the fact that

its leaves are glaucous beneath. From H. pendula (Swartz) Nees, of

the West Indies, which agrees in the glaucescence of its leaves, H. anay

differs in .its larger oval leaves persistently pubescent beneath, its larger

sordid-pilosulous flowers, and its much larger fruit.

A related species, collected on the Volcan de Poas in Costa Rica by

Mr. Henri Pittier some years ago, may also be described in this con-

nection. The native name of this tree is not known, nor is the nature

of its fruit.

Hufelandia ovalis Blake, sp.^nov.

Medium-sized tree; branchlets stoutish, subangulate, olive-brown,

cinereous-puberulous with appressed hairs, glabrate; leaves alternate,

the blades 5.5 to 8 cm. long, 3 to 4.7 cm. wide, oval, acutish or obtuse,

at base cuneate to rounded-cuneate, pinnate-veined with 6 to 7 pairs

of prominulous lateral veins, thick-pergamentaceous, above dull green

or slightly lucid, prominulous-reticulate, rather sparsely pilosulous

with loose whitish hairs, glabrescent at maturity, beneath glaucous,

finely prominulous-reticulate, pilosulous with loose, curved, whitish

hairs, along the veins more densely sordid-pilosulous; petioles stout,

flattish, sordid-pilosulous, 7 to 11 mm. long; peduncles axillary, loosely

sordid-pilosulous, 2.5 to 3.5 cm. long; panicles ovoid, dense, shorter

462 COBB AND BARTlvETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

than the leaves, sordidly tomentose-pilosulous, 1.8 to 2.5 cm. long,

1.5 to 3 cm. wide; pedicels i to 1.5 mm. long; perianth 2.5 m.m. long,

soon deciduous, sordidly pilosulous-tomentulose both sides, the tube

obscure, the segments subequal, oval, rounded at tip; stamens of

series I 2.2 mm. long, the stout filaments 0.8 mm. long, pilose on

back and down midline within, the 2 -celled ovate eciliate sparsely

papillose anthers i mm. long, the quadrate obtuse appendage 0.3

mm. long; those of series II similar, 2.4 mm. long (filament i mm.,

anther i.i mm., appendage 0.3 mm.); those of series III 2.2 mm. long,

the filaments slender, pilose, i mm. long, bearing at base 2 cordate-

globose short- stipitate glands essentially as long, the extrorsely 2 -celled

anther 0.8 mm. long, the thick truncate appendage 0.4 mm. long;

staminodes i.i mm. long, deltoid, acute, pilose on back and on the

short, broad stipe; ovary glabrous, globose-ovoid, 1.5 mm. long, nar-

rowed into the 0.5 mm. long style and oblique stigma.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 578438, collected on the

Volcan de Poas, Costa Rica, altitude 2300 meters, March 31, 1907,

by H. Pittier (no. 2040).

Hufelandia ovalis is related to H. anay and H. pendula. From the

former it may be easily distinguished by its much smaller, finely prom-

inulous-reticulate leaves, its longer filaments, and its larger floral glands.

From the latter it differs in its thicker more finely reticulate leaves,

its dense ovoid panicle, and its longer filaments.

GENETICS. — On Mendelian inheritance in crosses between

mass-mutating and non-mass -mutating strains of Oenothera

pratincola.^ Frieda Cobb and H. H. BartIvETT.

A former paper^ has dealt with the striking difference in muta-

bility between certain strains of Oenothera pratincola that are

morphologically identical. The strains in question were de-

rived from seeds of wild plants collected in 191 2 at Lexington,

Kentucky. Several of them, typified by the strain designated

as Lexington C, show only a moderate degree of mutability.

1 Papers from the Department of Botany of the University of Michigan, No. 160.

This paper is pubHshed as presented at the Pittsburgh (19 17) meeting of the Botan-

ical Society of America. It has been lying in manuscript since the fall of 191 7.

The data upon which it is based have since been greatly amplified. The new re-

sults are based upon much larger cultures and verify those here presented, but are

not yet ready for pubhcation. A preliminary abstract has appeared elsewhere.

(Proc. Mich. Acad. Sci. 1918: 151. 1919-)

- Bartlett, H. H. Mass mutation in Oenothera pratincola. Bot. Gaz. 60:

425-456. 1 915.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 463

They have given rise to a number of interesting mutations, one

of which, mut. nummularia, is especially conspicuous in the young

seedling stage because of its orbicular leaves, and was on that

account the first to receive intensive study. ^ In general, the

mutations of the relatively stable strains belong to two types,

(a) those that come true when self -pollinated and show matro-

cHnic inheritance in crosses with the specific type (e. g., mut.

nummularia) and, (b) those that split in every generation into

the mutational type and the specific type, regardless of whether

they are self -pollinated or polHnated by the specific type. The

latter are similar to Oenothera stenomeres mut. lasiopetala^ and to

certain mutations from Oenothera Lamarckiana described by

de Vries.^

A strain of Oenothera pratincola differing from all the rest has

been designated as Lexington B. It has given rise to some, but

not all, of the mutations thrown by the other strains, and in

addition it has produced in large numbers a series of character-

istic mutations having certain characters in common that are

not met with among the mutations of the other strains. These

characters are revoluteness of the leaves and the possession of a

peculiar subterminal filiform appendage on the lower surface

of the leaf, into which the midvein is diverted. All of the charac-

teristic mutations of the mass-mutant strain, Lexington E, come

true, whether self-polHnated or pollinated by the f. typica of

strain K. To be more precise, they come true in the sense that

they do not revert, in part of each generation, to f. typica, al-

though they may be very highly mutable, and give rise to other

members of the revolute-leaved series of mutations.

In brief, there are relatively stable strains of Oenothera pratin-

cola, such as Lexington C, which throw small numbers of flat-

leaved mutations belonging to several kinds, one of the most

' Bartlett, H. H. Additional evidence of mutation in Oenothera. Bot. Gaz.

59: 81-123. 1915.

* Bartlett, H. H. The mutations of Oenothera stenomeres. Amer. Journ.

Bot. 2: 100-109. 1915.

^ DE VriES, Hugo. New dimorphic mutants of the Oenotheras. Bot. Gaz. 62 :

249-280. 1916.

464 COBB AND BARTLBTT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

a

characteristic being mut. nummularia. There is also one highly

mutable (mass-mutant) strain, Lexington B, which gives rise in

large numbers to several kinds of revolute-leaved mutations,

produced by no other strain. The most notable of them is mut.

formosa. Lexington E also throws some of the flat-leaved muta-

tions which are more commonly met with in the other strains,

but mut. nummularia has never appeared among them.

All experiments thus far made with the revolute-leaved muta-

tions indicate that in crosses with f. typica of the same strain in-

heritance is matroclinic. Their behavior affords a parallel to

that of Oenothera Reynoldsii and its mutations.^ Because of

their markedly dissimilar mutation phenomena, it was suspected

that the rule of matroclinic inheritance might not hold in crosses

between strains C and E. In order to test this point, and also

to determine the effect of crossing on the mutability of the

strains, the following pollinations were made in 1915:

f. typica C X f. typica E (unsuccessful).

f. typical E X f. typica C (unsuccessful).

f. typica C X mut. formosa E (successful).

mut. formosa E X f. typica C (unsuccessful).

mut. latifolia C X nmt. foj-mosa E (unsuccessful).

mut. formosa E X mut. latifolia C (successful).

mut. gynocrates C X rrmt. formosa E (successful).

mut. formosa E X mut. gynocrates C (successful).

Unfortunately, as indicated above, several of the more im-

portant crosses were unsuccessfully attempted. An effort to

repeat them in 1916 failed because of unfavorable weather con-

ditions. No significance is attached to* the failures, since it is

believed that all of the forms are fertile inter se. Probably the

next repetition of the crosses, under favorable conditions, will re-

sult in a complete series. In any event the delay in rounding out

the experiment must be considerable, and since important re-

sults have aheady been obtained we have determined to present

the data at hand.

^ La Rue, Cari, D., and BartlETT, H. H. Matroclinic inheritance in mutation

crosses of Oenothera Reynoldsii. Amer. Joum. Bot. 4: 119-144. 1917.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 465

A NEW CASE OF MENDEUAN INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA.

Perhaps the most authentic case of MendeHan inheritance in

the group of the evening-primroses is that afforded by Oenothera

hrevistylis, which acts as a recessive in crosses with its parent

species, Oe. Lamarckiana, with other mutations from Oe.

Lamar ckiana, and even with unrelated species."** Another in-

stance is that of the dwarf mutation from Oe. gigas.'^ Both of these

cases have been discovered by de Vries. Heribert-Nilsson^° has

presented an elaborate MendeHan explanation of Oenothera

genetics which is chiefly remarkable for its failure to square with

the facts. It is based upon a supposed monohybrid segregation

in crosses between red- and white-nerved races of Oe. Lamarcki-

ana. He failed to find dominant homozygotes, and the evidence

of MendeHan behavior is anything but clear. Gates ^^ has argued

that Oenothera ruhricalyx acts as a MendeHan dominant in

crosses with Oe. ruhrinervis, but the question is in controversy

between Gates and ShulP- and cannot for the present be re-

garded as settled. It is obvious that the whole subject of Men-

deHan inheritance in Oenothera needs further investigation.

Our data deal with the crosses of mnt. formosa E, pollinated by

two of the flat-leaved mutations of the C strain. The former is

the most fertile and vigorous of the re volute-leaved mutations.

" DE Vries, Hugo. Die Mutations-Theorie. i: 223; 2: 151-179, 429.

* Davis, B. M. The segregation of Oenothera brevistylis from crosses with Oe.

Lamarckiana. Genetics 3: 501-533. 1918.

'■' DE Vries, Hugo. Oenothera gigas nanella, a MendeHan mutant. Bot. Gaz.

60: 337-345- 1915-

'" Heribert-Nilsson, N. Die Variabilitdt der Oenothera Lamarckiana und das

Problem der Mutation. Zeitschr. fiir ind. Abst. Vererb. 8: 89-231. 1912.

Heribert-Nilsson, N. Die Spaltungsercheinungen der Oenothera Lamarckiana.

Lunds Universitets Arsskrift. N. F., Avd. 2, 12: no. i. pp. 132. 1915.

'1 Gates, R. R. The mutation factor in evolution. London, 1915. (Gives

full references to the original papers dealing with Oenothera ruhricalyx.)

^^ Shull, G. H. a peculiar negative correlation in Oenothera hybrids. Journ.

Genet. 4: 83-102. 1914.

Gates, R. R. On the origin and behavior of Oenothera rubricalyx. Journ.

Genet. 4: 353-360. 1915.

Gates, R.R. On successive duplicate mutations. Biol. Bull. 29: 204-220. 1915.

466 COBB AND BARTlvETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

It has been described and figured elsewhere (see footnote 2).

The flat-leaved mutations of strain C were mut. latifolia and

mut. gynocrates. The former, not infrequently produced by

both strains C and E, gives dimorphic progenies containing mut.

latifolia and f. typica. It, also, has already been described and

figured. ^^ Mut. gynocrates comes true from seed. It is not

one of the better known mutations, but was used in the

experiments because it happened to be in flower when the

crosses were made, and seemed, in spite of its dwarf habit, to

be a form of considerable vigor.

Both mut. latifolia and mut. gynocrates have pollen that is

equivalent to that of the particular f . typica from which they are

derived. In view of the failure of the crosses in which the pollen

of f . typica C was used, it is especially important for the reader

to understand the basis for this conclusion, which is true not

only for these particular mutations, but for all others except

those that appear to be tetraploid or triploid. All the progenies

thus far grown from self-pollinated mut. latifolia have been di-

morphic, consisting of f. typica and mut. latifolia. The f. typica

from the dimorphic progenies breeds true, whereas the mutation

continues to split, in every generation. When mut. latifolia is

crossed with pollen of f . typica, the Fi generation is quite like that

resulting from self-pollination. Moreover, when pollen of the

mutation is used in crosses with f. typica or its other mutations,

nothing is obtained in the Fi or subsequent generations which

would not have resulted from self-pollination. Double reciprocal

crosses still further substantiate the identity of the pollen of

mut. latifolia with that of f. typica.

The same facts apply to mut. formosa, except that its progenies

do not contain f. typica. It shows the same matroclinic inheri-

tance in crosses with other forms belonging to the E strain. Cul-

ture records bearing out the conclusions that have been made

with regard to the equivalence of its pollen with that of f. typica

E and mut. latifolia E are given in table i. The records are in

1^ TuppER, W. W., and Bartlett, H. H. The relation of mutational characters to

cell size. Genetics 3: 93-106. 1918.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHKRITANCS IN OENOTHERA

467

part new, in part assembled from a former publication (see foot-

note 2). The points brought out are:

(a) The essential similarity of the progenies of mut. formosa,

when used as a seed parent, regardless of whether the pollen is

derived from f. typica, mut. latifolia, or mut. formosa.

(b) The failure of pollen from different sources to influence

the composition of progenies from the same f. typica seed-parent.

(c) The stability in the F2 generation of f . typica derived from

the cross f. typica X mut. formosa. It will indeed be observed

that mut. formosa occurs in the progeny, but in no greater num-

bers than one might expect as a result of mutation.

TABLE I

CuiyTURE Records Illustrating the Equivalence of the Pollen in f. typica,

MUT. latifolia, and mut. formosa, when these are All Derived from the

Strain of Oenothera pratincola Designated as Lexington E

^ Lex. E-5 -217 /v^zca. ^ hex. ^-5-229 typica. ^ Lex. 'E-5-206 formosa. '^ Lex.

E-5-199 formosa. ^ Lex. E-5-199-28 formosa. ^ Lex. E-5-199-58 formosa.

^ Lex. E-5-(229 typica X 206 formosa)--] typica. ^ Lex. E-36-41 latifolia.

For the pedigrees of all of these plants, consult Bot. Gaz. 60: 425-456. 1915-

In table 2 are presented the data in regard to the Fi genera-

tion of the crosses between strains K and C, with mut. formosa

as the pistillate parent. Further crosses are being made, but

468

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

TABLE 2

Fi Progenie of Crosses between Strains E and C, of which mut. formosa was

THE Pistillate Parent

^ Culture number of the individual of mut. formosa used in both crosses, Lexington

E-5-199-28.

Culture number of mut. latifolia, Lexington C-22-13-87; of mut. gynocrates.

Lex. C-52-2-13.

there is no doubt, from the evidence at hand, that the flatness of

the leaves in the C strain, but not in the E strain, acts as a

dominant in crosses with the revolute mutations, when the lat-

ter enter into the cross as the female parent. When mut. formosa

is pollinated by any form belonging to strain C, a diversified

progeny is obtained, but all of the individuals have flat leaves. It

will be seen by reference to table i that self -pollinated mut.

formosa itself gives a highly diversified progeny, consisting of

mut. formosa, mut. albicans, mut. revoluta, and mut. setacea.

The three latter are interpreted as secondary mutations from the

former. If one were to picture a progeny containing all of these

revolute-leaved mutations, with their leaves flattened out, but

with their other characters unaffected, the progeny of the cross

in question (mut. formosa E X any form of strain C) would be

partially depicted. Since f. typica is represented in such a

progeny, it is considered to be the equivalent of mut. formosa.

The other equivalents, or analogues, are not well known as yet,

since it has been impossible thus far to obtain seeds from them.

One of them, however, f. grisea, is assumed to be the equivalent

of mut. albicans or mut. revoluta, and another, f. dimorpha, the

most abundant of all, the equivalent of mut. setacea, Mut. setacea is

not only the most abundant of the revolute forms, as they occur

as secondary mutations in the progeny of mut. formosa, but it

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 469

also has a very distinctive habit that would enable it to be equated

with the corresponding flat-leaved form. Its lower stem leaves,

and the leaves of branches that do not bear inflorescences, are

very narrowly linear, and exceedingly small. The leaves and

leaf-like bracts of the upper portion of the stem, and of the in-

florescence-bearing branches, are two or three times as broad,

and much longer, giving an effect to the plants as though the

flowering branches were all bud-sports on a plant of an entirely

different sort. The dimorphic foliage of mut. setacea is well

represented in a former paper (see footnote 2). F. dimorpha has

exactly the same characteristic, the leaves being flat instead of

revolute, but showing the same well-marked dimorphism. Never-

theless, after having equated mut. formosa with f. typica, mut.

alhicans{}) with f. grisea, and mut. setacea with f. dimorpha,

there are still difficulties in the way of classifying the flat-leaved

hybrid progeny. Each form shows far more variation than is

customarily encountered in an Oenothera progeny.

In mut. formosa there is considerable variation in the develop-

ment of the leaf blade, in addition to the revoluteness. If a

leaf were flattened out, if would not be as broad as a correspond-

ing leaf of f. typica. Moreover it would show a markedly ir-

regular development of tissue. The flattening that takes place

as a result of hybridization with strain C leaves the weaker

plants with irregularly developed blades, although the stronger

plants are in every respect fine f. typica. The variation with re-

gard to blade development within each distinguishable form

renders the cultures difficult to classify. Some of the plants that

must be referred to f. typica, and that prove to act like f. typica

in heredity, are much smaller and weaker than is commonly the

case. It is generally when the plants are young that the imper-

fect development of leaf blades is obvious. As a plant becomes

older, the leaves of the new growth are successively more and

more normal, until at length it will pass a cursory examination

as typical in every way. The smaller and weaker plants often

bear branches as strong and robust as those of the best-developed

typica. In a number of cases these branches have been so strik-

470

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

ingly different from the rest of the plant as to look exactly like

bud sports. On the whole, it is impossible to draw any sharp

line between the various phases of f. typica, although in table 2

a wholly arbitrary division into "normal f. typica" and "defec-

tive f. typica" has been made. The variations appear to be

somatic, and highly subject to environmental conditions. Our

hypothesis is that the freely segregating factor for flatness, in-

troduced by the /S gamete of strain C, only suffices to insure

normal blade development under the most favorable environ-

mental conditions.

TABLE 3

Analysis of F2 Seedling Cultures Grown from Normal typica Parents Be-

longing TO THE Fi Progeny of the Cross mut. formosa E X mut. latifolia C,

(Lexington E-5-199-28 X C-22-13-87). As Shown in Table 4, all but

AN Insignificant Number of the Flat-Leaved Plants were t. typica,

and the Re volute- Leaved Ones were mut. formosa

Four plants of this culture were mut. nummular ia.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

471

TABLE 4

Analysis of F2 Cultures Grown to Maturity from the Same Parent Plants

AS THE Seedling Cltltures of Table 3

TABLE 5

Analysis of F2 Cultures Grown from Defective typica Parents Belonging

TO the Fi Progeny of the Cross mut. formosa E X mut. latifoUa C (Lex-

ington E-5-1 99-28 X C-22-13-87). In Sharp Contrast WITH the Normal

Progenies from Normal Parents (Recorded in Tables 3 and 4) the Pro-

geniesfrom Defective typica Plants Consist Largely of Defective

Plants. Normal Bud Sports on Defective Plants, However, Give Rise to

Normal Offspring Only

^ This one cidture was classified in the seedling stage, which fact probably accounts

for the failiure to distinguish the class designated as "defective mut. formosa." The

other cultures were all analyzed at maturity.

472 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

Tables 3 and 4 present the data showing segregation into f.

typica and mut. formosa in the F2 generation grown from four

self-polHnated /j'^'ca individuals of the cross mut. formosa ^X

mut. latijolia C. In table 3, which is based upon the classifica-

tion of seedlings, the only distinction is between flat-leaved indivi-

duals (mostly f. typica) and revolute-leaved {mostly rmxt. jormosa) .

The difference between the two types of leaves is perfectly clear in

very young seedlings, though the different revolute-leaved muta-

tions are not easily distinguished from one another, nor some of

the flat-leaved mutations from f. typica, when very young. The

cultures were too large to be carried to maturity as a whole, but

the seedling classification was verified by growing to maturity a

sufficiently large number of the plants.

Table 4, based upon the plants which were under observation

throughout the entire life cycle, shows that there was no signi-

ficant error in the classification of table 3. The revolute-leaved

plants were all correctly identified as mut. formosa, and among the

flat-leaved plants there was only a negligible proportion of muta-

tions. The ratio of flat to revolute conforms to the simple 3 : i

Mendelian ratio. The deviations from expectation are very

slight, and fall on both sides of the theoretical ratio. The total

progeny of each one of the four parents is in quite or almost as

good agreement with expectation as is the sum of all four pro-

genies. The total of 6,392 plants, from four parents, gives the

ratio 744 : 256, in unusually good accord with the expected ratio

750 : 250.

The reader will notice that the mean germination is only 41

per cent, and that although the germination of the several cul-

tures varies from 4 per cent to 84 per cent, the ratio is neverthe-

less not seriously disturbed. The probability is therefore great

that we are dealing with a case of simple Mendelian inheritance,

uncomplicated by selective elimination of zygotes. Incidentally,

the results should tend to reassure anyone who may have feared

that the work with Oenothera is in general unreliable, on account

of the low germinations frequently recorded.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 473

It has already been noted that some of the plants resulting

from the cross between strains E and C were characterized by-

defective leaf development, and that some defective typica indi-

viduals bore normal branches, which had every appearance of

being bud sports. In two such cases separate progenies were

grown from seeds of the normal and defective portions of the

same plant, with the very striking results summarized in table 5.

The progenies contain only normal plants if derived from seeds

borne on the normal bud sport, but if derived from seeds of the

defective part of the plant, they contain a considerable propor-

tion of plants classified as defective f. typica. The cultures are

large enough to afford conclusive evidence that whatever the

change may be that results in the production of normal from

defective f. typica, the change is one that may come about in

the somatic cells, and, once having come about, is permanent.

As a final proof of the Mendelian nature of the segregation in-

dicated by the 3 : i ratio in the F2 generation, F3 progenies

have been grown from a large number of self -pollinated normal

typica individuals, in order to demonstrate the existence of

homozygous and heterozygous dominants in the ratio i : 2 in

the F2 generation. The results are not included in this paper

for the reason that they are still being added to and it does not

seem desirable to publish only a portion of the data. However,

it may be stated that not only do the expected classes occur in

• the correct ratio in the F2 generation, but also that the heterozy-

gotes continue to split in the 3 : i ratio. The homozygotes of

both classes breed true.

Having established the non-Mendelian behavior of the charac-

ter-pair flatness vs. revoluteness within strain K, and having

shown that flatness when introduced into strain E by crossing

a revolute-leaved type of the latter with strain C, does act in a

Mendelian manner, it remains to indicate a possible explanation

of the phenomena,

THE HYPOTHESIS OF HETEROGAMETISM.

In accordance with the hypothesis of nonequivalent gametes,

which has been decidedly helpful in the interpretation of some

474 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

of the genetical peculiarities of Oenothera^^ (see also footnote 6),

the male gametes of all of the mutations concerned are

thought of as (3 gametes, and as exactly like the (3 gametes of the

particular f. typica from which each mutation was derived. It

has been assumed that the appearance of mutations showing

matroclinic inheritance in crosses with the parent form is due to

changes involving the a gametes, which bear various factors not

represented in the 0 gametes. Such mutations constitute the

greater number of those derived from Oenothera pratincola.

They appear as the result of some modification of the uncom-

pensated factors of the generally female a gametes, and therefore

breed true from the first. The generally male /S gametes of Oe.

pratincola have as yet given rise to no mutations that have been

detected, but de Vries^'' has found that one of the mutations of

Oenothera biennis (var. suljured) shows patroclinic inheritance

in crosses with its parent, and is therefore presumably such a

mutation. In the heterogametic species of Oenothera, muta-

tions involving the uncompensated factors of the a gametes

obviously cannot show Mendelian inheritance. If the a gametes

are female, inheritance must be matroclinic.

Since such a conception as that of a series of different muta-

tions, or even of different species, in which the differentiation

is brought about wholly by the female gamete, is justifiably

foreign to current thought, it may be well to restate some of

the grounds for its adoption.

It is a fundamental tenet of Mendelism that in homozygous

material the two homologues chromosomes of each pair are equiva-

lent and interchangeable. In heterozygous material one or more

chromosomes are modified, but still remain interchangeable with

their mates. If the uncompensated characters of the a gamete

were borne in one chromosome, the only essential difference that

would obtain between the conceptions of heterozygosis and of

heterogametism would concern the unequal distribution of a.

1^ Bartlett, H. H. The status of the Mutation Theory, with especial reference

to Oenothera. Amer. Nat. 50: 513—529. 1916.

1^ DE Vries, H. Gruppenweise Artbildung, p. 298.

COBB AND BARTI^ETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 475

and /3 gametes between the two sexes. In view of the very

large number of modifications occurring in the a gamete, how-

ever, it seems a more probable hypothesis that the uncom-

pensated characters are borne by a group of chromosomes, which

do not segregate freely, but pass together to one daughter cell

or the other at the reduction division. Certainly such a hypothe-

sis is useful in the interpretation of Oenothera genetics. The

phenomena of matroclinic inheritance are clearly orderly enough

in their own way, but are just as clearly non-Mendelian.

As Shull (see footnote ii) has said: "Fundamental difficulties

are encountered whenever attempts are made to apply to the

Oenotheras rules of genetic behavior which are readily demon-

strated in other groups of organisms. Equal confusion has

arisen by the application of genetic experiences with the Oeno-

theras to species in which typical Mendelian phenomena appear.

A hereditary mechanism must exist in Oenothera fundamentally

different from that which distributes the Mendelian unit-charac-

ters."

According to the hypothesis of nonequivalent gametes, the

Oenotheras should show Mendelian inheritance in cases where

the factors concerned are carried by both a and /3 gametes. In

case the factors are carried by only one kind of gamete, non-

Mendelian inheritance must be the rule. The a and (3 gametes

may be conceived of as due to the distribution to the daughter

cells at meiosis of a distinctly maternal or distinctly paternal

set of chromosomes. In other words, instead of a free segre-

gation of chromosomes taking place, one must assume that the

haploid set of chromosom^es is reconstituted, as far as the fac-

tors peculiar to a and (3 gametes are concerned, just as it entered

into the zygote at fertilization. As for the Mendelian charac-

ters, we assume that they are represented by factors carried in a

residue of freely segregating chromosomes.

The conception of heterogametism may be reduced to the

following series of propositions:

(i) In heterogametic species the zygote normally results from

the conjugation of unlike gametes (a and /S).

476 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

(2) The characteristic portion of each kind of gamete consists

of a group of chromosomes that remain in association at meiosis.

It is possible that the characteristic portion may consist of one

chromosome only.

(3) The a gametes, and probably the ^ gametes also, carry

factors in the characteristic portion that are not duplicated in

the homologous portion of the complimentary gamete.

(4) Aside from the chromosomes that determine a and &

gametes, the chromosomes of Oenothera are freely segregating,

and carry factors for Mendelian characters.

(5) The a gametes are usually female, but may be male; the &

gametes, on the contrary, are usually male, but sometimes female.

(6) Mutations occurring in the characteristic portion of either

a or /3 gametes do not make their appearance by Mendelian

segregation, and do not subsequently show Mendelian inheritance.

Our studies have led us to conclude that the difference be-

tween the mass-mutating and nonmass-mutating strains of

Oenothera pratincola lies in the freely segregating chromosomes.

In Lexington E the factor which determines leaf flatness is

associated with the characteristic portion of the a gamete. It is

not paired with a similar factor in the /3 gamete. In Lexington

C, on the contrary, there is a paired factor for flatness, associated

with one of the freely segregating pairs of chromosomes, and

therefore carried by both a and /S gametes. In Lexington B,

the mutative modification of the unpaired factor for flatness

results in the appearance of revolute-leaved mutations, which do

not come about as a result of Mendelian segregation. The latter

fact is proved by their enormous abundance in certain mass-

mutating lines, an abundance far in excess of any Mendelian

expectation, and by their matroclinic inheritance in crosses

with the parent form.

The several revolute-leaved mutations differ from f. typica

not only in the leaves, but in characters involving other organs

also, the degree of the difference depending upon the extent of

the mutative modification undergone by the a gamete. Whereas

the production of all of the revolute-leaved mutations involves

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

477

one modification in common, there are additional modifications

in the cases of all except mut. formosa which are peculiar to each

mutation.

If the a. gamete of Lexington C were to undergo exactly the

same modification that in Lexington E brings about the pro-

duction of a particular revolute-leaved mutation, the effect, as

far as revoluteness is concerned, would be nullified by the factor

pair for flatness in one of the pairs of freely segregating chromo-

somes. This factor pair has not yet become spontaneously

heterozygous, and consequently no other strain except Lexington

K has thrown revolute-leaved mutations.

Let a represent the nondissociating, characteristic portion of

the a gamete, bearing a factor for flatness, and susceptible of

mutative modification to a', in which the factor for flatness is in-

operative. Then using the usual Mendelian notation for the

freely segregating factor pair for flatness (FF = homozygous flat ;

ff = homozygous revolute) the constitution, phaenotype, and be-

havior of the various forms and hybrids involved in our ex-

periments would be as follows:

f. typica C, \

mut. latifolia C, \ a

mut. gynocrates C,

f. typica E,

mut. formosa E,

typica E X formosa E,

formosa E X typica E,

flat, and, with respect to this

jSFF, character, immutable.

typica C X formosa E, Fi, a/SFf,

typica C X formosa E, F2,

formosa E X latifolia C, Fi

formosa E X latifolia C, F2

a!|Sff, flat, mutable.

a'^E, revolute.

ajSff, flat, mutable.

a'jSff, revolute, breeding true with re-

spect to this character,

flat, segregating with respect to

mutability.

1 ajSFF, flat, immutable, breeding true.

2 a/SFf, flat, continuing the segregation

I of the Fi.

I a/Sff, flat, mutable, otherwise breeding

true.

a'/3Ff, flat, segregating with respect to

revoluteness.

[ la'jSFF, flat, non-segregating.

I 2a' ^Vi flat, continuing the segregation

oftheFi.

[ la'/Sff revolute, breeding true.

478 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

The actual behavior of the various cultures is very satisfac-

torily accounted for by means of this formulation. That the

revolute-leaved mutations breed true for revoluteness is shown in

table I. In the same table will be found the evidence that the

revolute-leaved mutations give matroclinic progenies when

crossed with the f. typica of the corresponding strain. It is the

prevalence of matroclinic inheritance in these mutation crosses

that makes a purely Mendelian explanation of their behavior

impossible, and that requires the conception of a and jS gametes.

The data in regard to matroclinic inheritance are in some respects

inadequate, and will be amplified as rapidly as possible.

The failure of Lexington C, and the other strains that resemble

it, to throw revolute-leaved mutations is attested by the accumu-

lated data for hundreds of cultures, aggregating many thousands

of plants. Since the evidence is negative, it would be idle to

assemble here the data supporting the conclusion that Lexing-

ton B is the only strain in which such mutations occur. The

data regarding the mutability of Lexington E are in part pub-

lished (see footnote 2).

According to the scheme above, one would expect the

cross typica C X mut. formosa to act in a manner quite differ-

ent from its reciprocal, which we have been considering. In-

stead of a Mendelian segregation of flat-leaved and revolute-

leaved plants in the F2 generation, one would expect only segre-

gation with regard to the capability of occasionally undergoing

the mutative change from flat to revolute. Segregation of this

ability would mean that revolute-leaved plants might appear in the

the F2 generation, but, if present, each one would be the result of

a separate, individual change ; they would not be due to the in-

heritance of a changed condition, as was the case in the revolute-

leaved recessives in the 3 : i segregation described.

Such a character, the capability of mutation, is not easy to

deal with, since it is impossible to be sure that a particular parent

might not show mutabiUty if more of its seeds were germinated.

The degree of mutability does not appear to show great uni-

formity from generation to generation, as may be seen by refer-

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

479

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480 COBB AND BARTlvETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

ence to an earlier paper (see footnote 2). Some progenies con-

tain many mutations, and mutability would therefore be de-

tected by growing relatively few individuals. Others, on the

contrary, contain very few, and a very large progeny indeed

would have to be grown in order to feel reasonably sure of the

non-mutability of the parent. The authors plan to gather

further data bearing on what we may term the "inheritance of

mutability" in these crosses between the strains of Oe. pratincola.

For the present we shall give only the data contained in Table 6.

As far as the results go they are in conformity with expectation.

The Fi progenies of crosses between any form of strain C and mut.

formosa E resemble the C parent, in that the leaves are all fiat.

In the F2 we may or may not detect mutations, since they may

occur only among one-quarter of the progeny, those having the

factorial composition a/3ff. It is of course always possible for

a gametes to undergo mutative modification to the condition de-

termining revoluteness, but the mutative modification, if it oc-

curs, is masked in plants carrying the factor F, either from one

or both parents {i. ^., in 3 out of 4 F2 plants). In case the plant

has the constitution a/SFF or o;/3 Ff it can never show revolute-

ness ; however the a gametes may become modified.

THE PRODUCTION OF MUT. NUMMUIvARIA.

One especially interesting fact is that strain E after having

been crossed with strain C gives rise to mut. nummularia. Un-

der ordinary circumstances it never does so. Similar phenomena

are sometimes viewed as due to metacliny. Metacliny, a term

first used by de Vries,^*^ may be explained in the terms of the

o;/3 hypothesis as follows: Although most female gametes are

a., and most male gametes are /3, there are exceptions to both

rules, so that occasionally identical zygotes result from reversed

fertilizations, the majority of the zygotes being of the constitu-

tion aQ, and only a few Qa. Cases of this sort have been de-

scribed by La Rue and Bartlett. Among the mutation crosses

of Oe. Reynoldsii. The production of mut. nummularia by

1' DE Vries, H. Gruppenweise Artbildung, pp. 308-310.

COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA 48 1

strain E, however, is not explainable by any such hypothesis.

We have shown that the reciprocal crosses between strains C and

E have a different factorial composition, and do not behave at

all alike. To view as due to metacliny the occurrence of mut.

nummularia in the cross E X C (see table 3) is inconsistent Avith

our explanation of the Mendelian behavior of the character-pair

flatness vs. revoluteness in the same crosses.

A logical explanation would appear to follow if we assume that

the round leaves of mut. nummularia, although brought about

by a change in the a group of chromosomes (or chromosome) of

the female gamete, can come to expression only in the presence

of the Mendelian factor F which can be introduced by the

male /S gamete of strain C. In other words, the round leaves

of nummularia are due to the modification of a, but can

reach expression only in the presence of the mendelian factor

F. Just as mut. formosa can attain expression only in

the absence of the factor F, and consequently never

occurs in pure strain C, of which the f. typica has the com-

position o;/3FF, so mut. nummularia attains expression only in

the presence of the same factor, and is consequently never thrown

by strain E, in which the f. typica has the composition o;/3ff. On

crossing the two strains, the a portion of the E gamete shows its

potentiality for producing mut. nummularia when factor F is

present; conversely the a portion of the C gamete shows its

potentiality for the production of revolute-leaved mutations when

the factor F is removed.

^ SUMMARY.

I. In Oenothera pratincola normal fertilization is assumed to

take place by the fusion of two kinds of gametes, which are

designated as a. and /3, respectively. Certain chromosomes of

the a. gametes carry character determiners which have no coun-

terparts in the /3 gametes. On account of this unbalanced con-

dition, mutations affecting uncompensated determiners appear

at once, and neither in origin nor subsequently in heredity do

they display Mendelian behavior.

482 COBB AND BARTLETT: INHERITANCE IN OENOTHERA

II. On the basis of the preceding assumption it can be under-

stood why the phenomenon known as mass-mutation should

occasionally occur. Mass-mutation is a term descriptive of the

origin of mutations in such inordinately large numbers that the

cultures show no resemblance to Mendelian segregation.

III. In Oenothera pratincola the only mutations which have

occurred through mass mutation are a series in which the leaves

are revolute instead of flat. These revolute-leaved mutations

have appeared in only one strain of the species, to the eye indis-

tinguishable from other strains.

IV. It has been discovered that the difference between the

mass-mutant and nonmass-mutant strains is that the latter

carry a Mendelian factor determining flatness, in addition to the

unbalanced determiner for flatness in the a. portion of the a

gamete. In the mass-mutating strain there is no Mendelian

factor for flatness. The constitutions of the zygotes are there-

fore a^ff and a/SFF, respectively, the former mutable with re-

gard to flatness, giving rise to revolute-leaved forms with the

constitution a'^E.

V. In Oenothera pratincola the a gametes are female. Recip-

rocal crosses are therefore unlike with regard to unbalanced

characters (those confined to the a portion of the a gamete),

being matroclinic in each case. Reciprocal crosses are alike as

far as Mendelian characters are concerned. Therefore:

a'/Sff X ajSFf — > a'^Vi, flat-leaved, and heterozygous

with regard to the Mendelian factor for flatness, segregating in

the F2 generation in the ratio i homozygous flat : 2 heterozygous

flat : I homozygous revolute.

a/SFF X a'/Sff — ^ o;/3Ff, flat-leaved, and heterozygous with

regard to capability for giving rise to mutable stocks, segregating

in the Fo generation in the ratio i homozygous dominant, flat,

immutable : 2 heterozygous, flat, like the Fi generation : i homo-

zygous recessive, flat only through the a determiner for flatness,

and therefore mutable with regard to revoluteness.

VI. The results not only afford one of the best examples of

Mendelism in Oenothera hitherto adduced, but likewise give an

MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 483

indication as to when Mendelian behavior, as opposed to matro-

cHny or patrocliny, is to be expected.

VII. The production of mut. nummularia, which is never

thrown by the strain which gives rise to revolute-leaved muta-

tions, is shown to be due to mutation in the a portion of the a

gamete, but nevertheless dependent for its expression upon the

presence of the Mendehan factor F for flatness. It may be re-

called that mut. nummularia shows matroclinic inheritance in

crosses with the parent form, the fact which proves the first

part of this proposition.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Some general notes on the Fox Indians.

Part I. Historical. Truman Michelson, Bureau of

American Ethnology.^

1 have assembled here a number of miscellaneous notes on

the Fox Indians. The inclusion of bibliographies is justified on

the score that recent writers seem to have been totally ignorant

of published sources of information on these Indians.

THE NATIVE NAME FOR "FOXES," AND SYNONYMY

The native name for "Foxes" is Me'ckwA'ki' Ag*"'^ which means

"Red- Earths." A good synonymy will be found at the end of

the article Fox in the Handbook of American Indians.^ To this

the following may be added: Meskwa'kihAgV Meckwa'kihAg'.^

Meckwa'kihAgV Meskwa"ki'AgV Meckwa'ki'Ag',^ Me'ckwA'ki-

Ag''*'.^ Musquaquas, ^° Musquakas,^^ Mesquakie,^^ Meskwakis,^^

' Printed with permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 MiCHELSON. Information, 1917.

' Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30.

* WiLWAM Jones. Fox Texts, passim.

^ Jones. Ibidem, passim. /

^ Jones. Ibidem: 10.7; misprint?

^ Jones. Handbook of American Indian Languages, Pt. 1:741,

* MiCHELSON. Current Anthropological Literature, 2: 22)^. |*"'

^ MiCHELSON. Information, 191 7.

^<' Annals of Iowa, 1870: 366.

" Ibidem, 363.

1^ Mesquakie Booster.

13 Iowa Journal of History and Politics, 4: 191.

i.« r

484 micheivSOn: notes on the fox Indians

me sga Id a ki,^^ mahsquakehake,^^ Mus-quak-kie, ^^ Mus-quak-

kie-uck,^'^ Mesh-kwa-ki-ha-gi,^^ Musquaukee," Muskwakiuk, ^^

Mskwakithak,2i Red Earth(s)," Red-Earths,-^ People of the Red

Earth, -^ Red-earth family, ^^ de la Terre-Rouge,^^ Wa-go-sha-

hugi,^' Fuchsindianer,^^ UtAgami'g,^^ Watagamie,^° Outhagamis,^^

Ottigaumis.^^

The Menominee synonym is the equivalent of the Ojibwa one

(vide supra), but the exact phonetics are uncertain ; the Winnebago

synonym means "foxes," but the exact phonetics are uncertain. ^^

In the vicinity of Tama, Iowa (their present location), they

are not known as "Foxes," but as "Meskwakies," "Mesquakies,"

"Tama Indians."^^

^* Native name spelt in the current syllabary.

1= A collection of Meskwaki Manuscripts, i.

'® J. Morse's Report to the Secretary of War, 122.

1^ Ibidem.

'* J. F. Steward. Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago, 1903.

" Ibidem.

2" F. Karsch-Haak, Das gleichgeschlechtliche Lehen der Naturvolker, i: 328.

2' Shawnee synonym collected by GaTschet, of the Bureau of American Eth-

nology, years ago.

22 Steward. Loc cit. passim; translation of la Potheril apud Blair, Indian

Tribes of the Upper Mississippi and Great Lakes Region. Vol. i: passim.

2^ Jones. Fox Texts, passim.

2* Steward. Loc. cit.

"^ Blair. Loc. cit.

^ La Potherie. Histoire de I'Amerique septentrionale. 1722.

2' Steward. Loc. cit.

28 F. Karsch-Haak. Loc. cit.

2' Jones. Handbook of American Indian Languages. Pt. i: 741. This is the

Ojibway synonym, meaning "People of the Other Shore" (Jones, Loc. cit. and

American Anthropologist, N. S. 6: 370), or "Those who live on the opposite side"

(Warren, History of the Ojibways: 33). Parkman's statement {Half-Century of

Conflict, i: Z33y footnote i) that "The name Outagamie is Algonkin for a fox. Hence

the French called the tribe Renards, and the Americans, Foxes," is echoed by Kel-

LOG, Wise. Hist. Soc. Proc. 1907: 142. This simply betrays ignorance of Algonkin

languages. See also my discussion of the early history of the Foxes. The absurd

blunder has been repeated by Steward, Op. cit. 79.

^^ Steward. Loc. cit.

^1 Beltrami. A Pilgrimage, 2: 169.

3" Map in J. Long's Voyages and Travels.

2' MiCHELSON. Information.

^* MiCHELSON. Information.

MICHBLSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 485

THE EARLY HISTORY OF FOX INDIANS

The general history of the Fox Indians is extremely well-

known.^^ I shall accordingly only try to clear up the beginning

of their history. First of all, the Outitchakouk are not the Foxes,

as is stated in the index to the Jesuit Relations (ed. Thwaites).^^

Now we are told: "The Outagamis are of two lineages; those of

one family call themselves Renards, and the others are of the

Red-earth family."^' Evidently something of this sort is to

be understood by the statement in the Jesuit Relations ,^^ "The

mission of St. marc to the Outagami, where are the ouagoussak,

Makoua, makoucoue, Mikissioua." For ouagoussousak simply

meahs "foxes. "^^ Whether or not a misunderstanding arose

by taking the name of a gens as the name of the tribe, ^° the fact

remains that some Indian tribes did and do call the Meskwakis

by the equivalents of "foxes." Now the Skenchiohronon of the

Jesuit Relations are not the Neuters as is commonly assumed, ^^

^^ A list of the more important papers dealing with this topic is as follows : Arti-

cles Fox and Sauk in Handbook of American Indians (Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30),

H. W. BeckwiTh, The Illinois and Indiana Indians, 146-162; Ward, Meskwakia,

Iowa Journ. Hist. Polit. 4: 179-189; Ward, The Meskwaki people of to-day, ibidem.,

190-219; Ferris, The Sauk and Foxes of Franklin and Osage Counties, Kans. State

Hist. Coll. 11: 333-395; Parkman, A half century of conflict, chapters xii and xiv;

J. F. Steward, Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago (1903); M. M. QuaifE, Chicago

and the Old Northwest (1913); S. S. Hebberd, Wisconsin under the Dominion of

France (1890); J. N. Davidson, Unnamed Wisconsin (1895); F. J. Turner, Indian

Trade in Wisconsin (in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Hist. Pol. Sci. 1891);

Kellog, The Fox Indians during the French Regime (Wise. State Hist. Soc. Proc.

1907: 142-188); Re(o)bok, The Last of the Mtis-qua-kies (reprinted in Iowa Hist.

Record 17: 305-335). Quite a few facts can be gleaned from A collection of Mesk-

waki Manuscripts, prepared by Cha ka ta ko si, published by the State Historical

Society of Iowa, 1907, but as no English translation accompanies the text, use of

it is confined to a few specialists or Meskwaki Indians.

^^ See the Handbook of American Indians under the article Atchakangouen.

3^ La PoTHERiE. Savage Allies of New France, apud Blair, Op. cit. i: 360.

38 Ed. Thwaites, 58: 41.

'' On the note, ibidem, 293, see various articles in the Handbook of American

Indians.

*" Jones, Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 6: 370; Handbook of American Indian Languages.

Pt. i: 741 ; apud Steward, Loc. cit. 79.

*i See the ed. of Thwaites, 8: 302.

486 michelson: notes on the fox Indians

but the Huron designation of the Meskwakies, as stated by-

Hewitt in the Handbook of American Indians. For Skenchioh-

ronon means "the Fox people," and the identification by Hewitt

rests also upon that made by Potier (circa 1750).^^ It should

be expressly noted that the Wyandot designation for the Mesk-

wakies, collected by Gatschet in 1881, namely, Skaxshurunu

"fox people," derived from skdxshu "the red fox," is more than

ample confirmatory evidence. Accordingly we know that Le

Jeune mentions the Fox Indians in the Relation of 1640/^ Now

since the Fox are cited in connection with the Sauk, Potawatomi,

Kickapoo, Winnebago, and Crane Miami we have every reason

to believe that their habitat at the time was in the vicinity of

the Green Bay region. For the identification of the Huattoeh-

ronon, Attistaehronon, Ontarahronon, Aoueatsiouaenhronon,

and Attochingochronon see the Handbook of American Indians.

[Hewitt's identifications are at least partially supported by

Potier.] Le Jeune adds "I have taken their names from a Huron

map that Father Paul Ragueneau sent me." It is not known

from whom Ragueneau obtained the map, though it is natural

to think of Nicolet in this connection, for Ragueneau had a

conference with Nicolet in the spring of 1641 near Three Rivers. ^'^

As is known, Jean Nicolet was in the vicinity of Green Bay in

1634. Le Jeune (op. cit. 231) locates the Potawatomi and Na-

tion of the Fork^° as being in the neighborhood of the Winne-

bago, and adds (p. 233) "I will say, by the way, that sieur Nico-

let, interpreter of the Algonquin and Huron languages for the

Gentlemen of new France, has given me the names of these

nations, which he himself has visited, for the most part in their

own country." Now if the Potawatomi and the Nation of the

Fork were in the neighborhood of the Winnebago in 1634, it is

highly probable that Sauk and Fox also were at least in that

general vicinity. There is no argumentum ex silentio, for Le

*^ Pilling. Bibliography of Iroquoian languages. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 6:

135, 136.

*^ ThwaiTEs' ed. of the Jesuit Relations, 18: 235.

^* Jesuit Relations, ed. Thwaites, 8: note 29, 9; 312.

^ Rasaouakoueton : see article Nassauaketon in the said Handbook.

michelson: notes on the; fox Indians 487

Jeune expressly says, "These are the names of a part of the

nations which are beyond the shores of the great river vSaint

Lawrence and of the great lakes of the Hurons on the North."

I think that the following extracts from the Jesuit Relation s'^'^

may clarify the situation: "the Ousaki, and other Tribes, — who,

driven from their own abode, the Lands towards the South, near

Missilimakinac, have sought refuge at the head of the bay;"

"the Poteouatami, the Ousaki, and the nation of the Fork also

live here, but as foreigners, driven by their fear of the Iroquois

from their own territories, which lie between the Lake of the

Hurons and that of the Ilinois." [Both extracts are from the

Relation of i67o-'7i.] It is not at all likely that the Sauk (Ou-

saki) would have remained in the lower Michigan peninsula to

face the enemy alone after the Potawatomi and the Nation of

the Fork had been driven out. We must rather assume a gen-

eral exodus at the same time, including the Fox (the intimate

relations of the Sauk and Fox are well known). Hence C. W.

Butterfield^^ is surely in error regarding the Sauks, and prob-

ably the Foxes when he states that they had not migrated from

the east at the time of Nicolet's great voyage. According to a

note in the Jesuit Relations^^ the Skenchiohronon [Foxes, not

Neuters] are indicated on (S.) Sanson's map (of 1656) by Squen-

guioron. As a matter of fact the map has Squenquioron, at the

end of Lake Erie. If this identification be correct, ^^ the map is

probably inaccurate; we have seen above, that in 1640 Le Jeune

cites the Fox in connection with the Suak, Potawatomi, Kick-

apoo, Winnebago, and Crane Miami which certainly points the

region of Green Bay as their habitat. Now the differences

between the language of the Sauks and Foxes, and Kickapoos

for that matter, are very small; and if the ancient home of the

Sauks was in the lower Michigan peninsula (vide supra), so was

^ Ed. Thwaitbs, 5S: 103 and 183, respectively.

^^ John Nicolet. Discovery of the Northwest, 64: i88i.

48 Ed. Thwaites, 8: 302.

4^ See the synonymy under the article Wyomingmthe: Handbook of American In-

dians for Beauchamp'6 conjecture regarding Scahentoarrhon.

488 michelson: notes on the fox Indians

that of the Foxes. If the Foxes had been driven out previously,

it is entirely possible small parties may have returned. But I

do not think the traditional statements of the Sauk, Fox, and

Ottawa,^'' locating the Foxes in the lower Michigan peninsula,

should be taken too seriously, for it may well refer to the later

raids, especially to the fight at Detroit. It would mean that

traditional history, going back practically 200 years, could be

relied upon. Similarly, traditional statements of the Foxes

having been driven up the Grand River from the Gulf of St.

Lawrence or having had their origin near Niagara Falls, '^^ are

to be rejected, because we know the history of the area under

discussion for a time anterior to 1634. The construction that

I place on the statements is that the wars with the Iroquois and

Neuters made a deep impression, and that the geography is

mixed; that the Foxes often went to Montreal, and even fought

at Lake George; it is likely some children may have been bom

on such trips, and they may have been told their birth-place,

and passed it on. Thus also is to be understood the well-known

statement of Black Hawk. The Rhode Island origin of the

Foxes'^ is too absurd to combat seriously. I may refer briefly

to Tailhan's discussion of the early home of the Foxes. -'^ His

argumentum ex silentio falls to the ground, for the Relation of

i657-'58 says distinctly "you will see the names of the principal

Nations,""^ not "all the Nations." Kellog's paper suffers from

a wrong identification of the Outitchakouk (vide supra) , ignorance

of the fact that the Skenchiohronon was a synonym of the Fox

Indians, and from too great reliance on traditional history.

The reference of Re(o)bok to Shea's article,*'^ crediting the latter

with stating that Nicolet met the Foxes in Wisconsin in 1634

5° Marston, apud Blair, 21: 146; A. Black Bird, Hist, of the Ottawa and Chip-

pewa Indians, 24.

" Forsyth, apud Blair, 2: 183-184; Grignon, Wise. Hist. Coll. 3: 265.

52 Atwater. Indians of the Northwest, 88; repeated by Green, The Mesquaki

Indians, Red Man 5: 47-52, 104-109; queried by Re(o)bok, loc. cit.

53 Blair. Vol. 2: 250, 251.

5* Jesuit Relations, ed. Thwaites, 44: 239.

55 Wise. Hist. See. Coll. 3: 124-138.

MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 489

is due to uncritical reading. Nicolet very likely met the Foxes

in Wisconsin, but Shea does not say so. He begins his history

of them in 1 666-1 667. Steward's discussion of the early his-

tory of the Foxes suffers from a wrong identification of the

Ouachegami"''*' with the (Outagami which shows his ignorance of

Algonquian languages), his failure to know that Skenchiohronon is

a synonym of Fox, and his too great reliance on traditional his-

tory; but it may be noted that he utilized the information con-

tained in La Potherie regarding the two lineages of the Outagami

which have been ignored by later writers.

The recent history of the Fox Indians can be readily followed

in the Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and local

newspapers. The Mesquakie Booster, a periodical devoted to

the present day interests of the Fox Indians, has recently dis-

continued.

POPUI.AT10N

In any attempt to determine the population of an Indian

tribe in previous times, we must take into account exaggerations,

either unintentional or intentional. The population of the Foxes

is concisely treated in the articles Fox and Sauk in the Hand-

hook of American Indians. The most reliable estimates of the

entire Fox population in early times are those of Pike (1805)

1750, Lewis and Clark (1806) 1200, Beltrami (May 29, 1823)

1600, Ann. d.l. Prop, de Foi (1830) 1500, Report of the Commis-

sioner of Indian Affairs (1837) 1600. Pike gives the number of

warriors as 400, Lewis and Clark as 300. It will be seen that,

roughly speaking, from their figures the total population is four

times the number of warriors. In this way an estimate may be

made for earlier times when only the warriors are listed. I now

give some estimates of the number of warriors :

1 666-1667 {Jesuit Relations) 1000 (gross exaggeration).

1 667-1 670 {Jesuit Relations), 400.

1 7 14 (Charlevoix), 500.

1761 (Wise. Hist. Soc. Coll. i: 32), 350.

1763 (Col. Dioc. N. Y. 10: 583), 320.

1777 (Houck, Spanish regime, i: 146), 300-350.

1783 (Mass. Hist. Coll. I. 10 I1809]: 123), 300.

5^ Article Wachegami in Handbook of American Indians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.

Bull. 30.

490 michelson: notes on the fox Indians

With the exception of the first estimate, we have a series

that is entirely reasonable. The struggle at the Butte des

Morts easily accounts for the decrease in population after 17 14.

The estimates of Bouquet and Chauvignerie in 1764 and 1763, re-

spectively," and Buchanan^^ are too modest, as is that of Jno. Long

(about 1 780, published 1 79 1 ) . With the exception of Chauvignerie

(100), these range from 200-250. The statement of Charlevoix

that there were 3000 women in 17 14 is pure exaggeration. This

would make the number of women six times that of the men,

which does not accord with the proportions given by Pike and

Lewis and Clark. The extravagant figure of 3202 in 1819^'^ as

the total population must be considered as a deliberate inven-

tion. The figure of 2000 in 1822 (given by Marston and Morse)

is a simple exaggeration. The last separate enumeration of the

Foxes is in 1841, where 1600 is given. Here our real difficulties

begin. For by enumeration with the Sauks, we lose trace (for

a while at least) of the number of true Foxes. And what is

more, we are involved in the gross exaggerations in the enum-

erations of the Sauks. To make the matter clear, and at the

same time not to go into this at too great length as it is a side-

issue, it is necessary to state that the most reliable estimate of

the Sauks in the early days is that of Lewis and Clark, namely,

2000. That of Pike is 2850, that of the Ann. d. I. Prop, de Foi

(1830) is 2406. These are exaggerations of a comparatively

mild order; soon we see the wildest kind of guesses; in 18 19 we

get 3847, in 1822, 3000 and 4500, in 1823, 4800, which figure we

find again in 1837 and 1841, not counting the Missouri Sauks

(500, the percentage of Foxes among these cannot be determined,

but apparently was small). Drake in 1820 gives the combined

Sauk and Fox as about 3000 "one-fifth of whom may be war-

riors." The state of affairs can be seen by the remarks of

Marsh in 1834; we are told that the agent counted the combined

Sauk and Fox as 6400, but that others estimated the number

" Schoolcraft, 5: 554, 559.

^* Between 1 770-1 780, reported by HeckweIvDER-

59 Wise. Hist. Soc. Coll. 20.

MICHELSON: notes on the fox INDIANS 49 1

to be between 2000 and 2400, adding that he himself considered

2000 to be nearer the figure. Apparently the fact that the

population was exaggerated was gradually making headway in

officialdom, for, in the Report of the Commissioner of Indian

Affairs in 1838, this is taken into account and the Mississippi

Sauk population is given as 2100. But such is the attachment

for large figures, apparently to balance at least partially his

over-estimates of the Sauks, that the agent gives the reckless

figure of 2446 for the Foxes. Unfortunately officialdom could

not be contented with such modest figures for the Sauks, and in

1 84 1 we have the old exaggeration (vide supra). A wholesome

reaction came in the next year when a treaty for the removal

of the Sauks and Foxes from Iowa was effected, and from 1842

to 1845 the combined Sauk and Fox population is given as about

2300. An attempt at honesty was made in 1841 when in spite

of the erroneous separate enumeration of the Sauks, the com-

bined population of the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given

as 2300. It is to be borne in mind that in the same official

document the Fox population is given as 1600! Other exag-

gerations of the Sauk population are passed over, save that in

1826 Forsyth gives the number of warriors as 1000 and Keo-

cuck as 1200.*^° Summing up for the population prior to the

removal to Kansas, we may say that if we accept the figures of

Lewis and Clark, Drake, Marsh, and the report of the Com-

missioner of Indian Affairs for 1842, we have an orderly sequence,

such as may be readily accounted for (as by the Black Hawk

war, and natural causes) ; the acceptance of the larger figures

(and this applies especially to the Sauk) involves us in hopeless

meshes. From now, owing to the merging of the enumeration,

the situation is difficult. The removal of Indian tribes ordi-

^^ Wennebea (apud Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River

1823, compiled by William H. Keating, vol. i: p. 219) says, "upwards

of a thousand warriors . . . the real number of warriors of pure Sauk extraction

does not . . . exceed two hundred." The adoption of prisoners of war accounts

for the rest. Are we to understand something of this sort from Forsyth's and

Keocuck's figures?

492 michelson: notes on the fox Indians

narily involves a considerable loss in population ; but in 1 849

the combined Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given as 3000;

but it is officially known that one-half the Sauk and Fox of the

Missouri had joined them. In 1851 three hundred perished by

cholera; in 1852 three hundred died of smallpox. According to

the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1853 there

were 2173 Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi; in the report for 1857

'we learn the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi in 1853 was 1748:

but no explanation of the discrepancy is given. In 1857 the

population of the Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi is given as

1367, and those of the Missouri as 350. The probable inter-

pretation of this is that the Sauk and Fox of the Missouri who

had joined those of the Mississippi had rejoined their own body.

From this time on the population diminished slowly but surely;

and the details can be readily found in the reports of the Com-

missioner of Indian Affairs. What is more important to us is

that the Foxes (at least a majority of them) eventually left

Kansas for Iowa, where they purchased land. Their popula-

tion eventually reached to about 400 when an epidemic of small-

pox swept many away. To-day they are 350 in round numbers.

Officially they are cahed "Sauk and Fox;" but in language they

are Foxes; and also in ethnology. Even the government in its

treaties recognized the Foxes as distinct as late as 1859 so that

the much heralded amalgamation with the Sauks is shown to

be a myth. It may be noted that there are some Sauks among

"Sauk and Fox" near Tama, Iowa; and many others have Sauk

blood; still others have French, EngHsh Potawatomi, or Winne-

bago blood ; and some are hopeless mixtures. Briefly, I doubt if

there are still (19 18) any Foxes living who are absolutely free from

foreign mixture. Another point may here be taken up. Offi-

cially the number of full-blooded Indians is very high ; but this

is an exaggeration, as I know from personal field work. In

closing it may be said that there are some Foxes among the

"Sauk and Fox" (who are mainly Sauks) of Oklahoma, and

MICHEL-SON: notes on the fox INDIANS 493

others doubtless have Fox blood; but their proportion is un-

known.*'^

THE AIvIvEGED IROQUOIS ORIGIN OF THE EOXES

N. H. Winchell,*'- attempts to prove that the Foxes (Outa-

gami) were originally an Iroquoian people (thus repeating Smith's

old error) . The arguments adduced are so absurd that they would

not merit any attention were the paper not in a periodical of

high standing. The statement that the Foxes were almost

annihilated by the Ojibwa in 1777 simply shows that Winchell

could not have investigated the question of the Fox population

with any care; the figures given by Lewis and Clark, Pike, Ann.

d. Prop, de la Foi, Marston, and Forsyth, give the lie direct to

this imputation. "^^ The argument is that the Foxes being vir-

tually annihilated by the Ojibwa were absorbed by the Sauks,

and began to be transformed, language and all, and consequently

present linguistic investigations would be of little value unless

such an amalgamation were taken into consideration. The

question of annihilation has been dealt with above; as to absorp-

tion, undoubtedly many Foxes have Sauk blood, but Fox eth-

nology has remained distinct from Sauk ethnology in at least

certain respects. '^^ The linguistic point raised by Winchell can

readily be overthrown. The language spoken by the Foxes of

to-day is more archaic than that spoken by living Sauks, as I

have shown elsewhere ;''•' and it should be noted that Kickapoo

agrees with Fox in many of these differences. Hence the ques-

^^ Steward {Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago, 1903), discusses the Sauk and

Fox populations, and comes to the conclusion that they increased very rapidly

between 1805 and 1825. Had he carried his investigations further he would have

seen that the supposed increase in reality did not take place (vide supra). Turner

(loc. cit.) also touches on the Fox population in so far as he gives various early

estimates of the number of warriors, closing with 1762.

^- Proceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, 1910-1911: 181-

188.

^^ A similar error is to be found in the Handbook of American Indians under the

article "Foxes."

^^ For example, in social organization.

^^ Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 28.

494 michelson: notes on the fox Indians

tion of linguistic assimilation does not come up at all. The

argument that the Foxes were not Algonquians because "they

spoke a language which could not be understood by an Ottawa

interpreter," is positively ludicrous. What use would an Ottawa

interpreter be among the Sauk, Kickapoo, or Delaware? He

could undoubtedly understand isolated words, but not whole

sentences. But what does that prove? Simply that Sauk,

Kickapoo, and Delaware are too remotely related to Ottawa to

be mutually intelligible. In precisely the same way an English

speaking person would be useless as an interpreter among Ger-

mans unless he had studied and mastered their language. Al-

lowing for the sake of argument that Iroquoian pottery has been

found in Wisconsin in localities where the Foxes have dwelt

for a long period, that does not prove the Foxes were Iroquoian

in a linguistic sense, for it could easily be accounted for by

acculturation. What have wars on other Algonquian tribes to

do with the problem of whether or not the Foxes linguistically

were Algonquian or not? The English and Germans fought

against each other in the Great War. Nor have political alli-

ances anything to do with linguistic relationship; the Japanese

to-day are the allies of the English. As to the statement that

they were mound builders thus resembUng the Iroquois in con-

trast with all Algonquian tribes, which I doubt, what has a cul-

tural phenomenon to do with a linguistic one? Or what have

temperamental differences, a psychic phenomenon, to do with

a linguistic problem? Nothing. The alleged original home of

the Foxes in an Iroquois country is shown in the section dealing

with their history to be nothing more than a misunderstanding,

to put it mildly. In any case this has nothing to do with the

question whether or not the Foxes were originally Iroquoian in

a hnguistic sense. Thus all the arguments crumble down, one

by one.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The birds of the Tamhelan Islands, South China

Sea. Harry C. OberhoIvSER. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55:

129-143. 1919.

The Tambelan Islands lie in the southern part of the South China

Sea, about 100 miles west of Borneo. Dr. W. L. Abbott, who was the

first ornithologist to explore these islands, spent two weeks there from

August 3 to August 15, 1899, during which time he collected 53 birds,

representing 12 species. These, together with his field notes, bring

the number of avian species now known from these islands collectively

up to 22. A list of these, with critical notes on specimens obtained,

forms the present contribution. There are apparently few, if any,

endemic forms in these islands; and their affinities so far as birds are

concerned seem to be with the Anamba Islands which lie 150 miles

farther north, rather than with the nearer Bornean coast. The form

of Orthorhamphus magnirostris occurring in this region is apparently

without a name and is here called Orthorhamphus magnirostris scom-

mophorus. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— A^ote5 on birds collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott on Pulo

Taya, Berhala Strait, southeastern Sumatra. Harry C. ObER-

H01.SER. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 267-274. 1919.

The island of Taya is situated at the eastern end of Berhala Strait

about 30 miles north of the coast of Sumatra. Dr. W. L. Abbott

visited this island and the near-by Nyamok Islets from July 26 to July 28,

1899, and obtained a small collection of 30 specimens of birds representing

8 species. Two other species were seen but not obtained. Critical

notes here presented include the description of two new subspecies,

Lamprocorax panayensis richmondi and Cinnyris ornata microleuca,

both of which are apparently peculiar to this island. Of considerable

495

496 abstracts: ornithology

interest is a specimen of the rare pigeon commonly known as Columba

grisea (Bonaparte), which Dr. Richmond renamed Columha phasma,

but which has an eariier name in Columba argentina Bonaparte.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the wrens of the genus Nannus Billherg.

Harry C. Obbrholser. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 223-236,

1919.

The present investigation of the genus Nannus (ohm Anorthura)

concerns chiefly the American forms, but a few changes in Old World

races are noted. Altogether there are 36 forms in the genus, and al-

though some of these formerly stood as species, they are now con-

sidered subspecies of the European Nannus troglodytes. Birds from

middle Europe differ from the typical race of Norway and Sweden

and should be subspecifically separated as Nannus troglodytes sylvestris

(Brehm). The bird heretofore known as Troglodytes pallidus Hume

should now be called Nannus troglodytes tianschanicus (Sharpe). The

race described as Olbiorchilus fumigatus Clark from the Amur region

in eastern Siberia proves to be a good subspecies and should stand as

Nannus troglodytes amurensis (Clark). The bird named by Buturlin

Anorthura fumigata ussuriensis is apparently the same. The American

forms of this genus are now increased to 9 by the addition of the fol-

lowing three new subspecies: Nannus troglodytes kiskensis from Kiska

Island, Alaska; Nannus troglodytes tanagensis from Tanaga Island,

Alaska; and Nannus troglodytes petrophilus from Unalaska Island,

Alaska. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— 5^Vaf5 of a Washington City dooryard. Harry C.

Oberholser. Amer. Midi. Nat. 6: 1-13. 1919.

The observations here recorded were made in the built-up portion

of the City of Washington from May 5, 191 1, to May i, 19 18. The re-

sult again exemplifies the fact that there is ample opportunity for natural

history study even in the midst of a crowded city. The total number

of species herein recorded is 100, with notes on the dates of their occur-

rence. The largest number of these seen on any one day was 18.

Among these, the most interesting for their appearance in city dis-

tricts were probably Colinus virginianus virginianus, Porzana Carolina,

Bartramia longicauda, five species of the genus Hylocichla, and Loxia

curvirostra minor. H. C. O.

abstracts: ornithoIvOGy 497

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new seaside sparrow from Florida.

Arthur H. Howell. Auk 36: 86-87. January, 1919.

The discovery of a new species of bird in North America at the

present time is a scientific event of some importance, although the same

is not true of a subspecies. Explorations in southern Florida have

brought to light what is evidently an entirely new species of the genus

Tkryospiza. It differs so remarkably from all the other forms of the

genus that intergradation seems never likely to be found. It most

nearly resembles Thryospiza maritima sennetti of the coast of Texas,

from which, however, it differs conspicuously in its more sharply

streaked and more extensively white lower parts. In the general

character of its under parts, it is more like Thryospiza nigrescens of

eastern Florida, but the color of its upper surface is entirely different.

It is appropriately named Thryospiza mirahilis.

Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Bird records from the Sacramento Valley, Cali-

fornia. Alexander WetmorE. Condor 21: 73-74. 1919.

During the period between August 17 and October 17, 191 8, bird

observations were carried on in the Sacramento Valley, between Marys-

ville. Maxwell, and Tehama. Notes on 12 of the most interesting

species noted are presented here. The. northern limit of the range of

the following species in the interior of California is apparently extended

by these observations: Dendrocygna bicolor, Hydroprogne caspia im-

perator, Egretta thula thula, and Tyto alba pratincola.

Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Notes on the structure of the palate in the Icteridae.

Alexander Wetmore. Auk 36: 190-197. 1919.

The keel on the palate of the grackles of the genus Quiscalus is a

well-known character. Investigation shows it to be a projection de-

veloped as a fold in the horny sheathing of the palate. Its use, hitherto

unknown, has recently been ascertained by field observation. It is

now found to be of assistance in obtaining kernels from acorns by

cutting the shells, and has other similar fimctions. Several other

genera of Icteridae have indication of a similar projection on the pal-

ate. This is most prominent in Icterus gularis, although apparently

absent in all other species of the genus Icterus. In this species it is

498 abstracts: ornithology

well developed, knob-like, and almost as prominent as in Quiscalus.

It constitutes thus an excellent generic character, and necessitates the

segregation of Icterus gularis and its subspecies under the generic name

Andriopsar Cassin. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY.? — Descriptions of apparently new Colombiaji birds.

W. E. Clyde Todd. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 113-118. June

27, 1919.

A study of the South American collections in the Carnegie Museum

has resulted in the further discovery of 5 new species and 14 new sub-

species, all from Colombia, brief descriptions of which appear in this

paper. The species are: Myiobiiis semiflavus from El Tambor, San-

tander, Colombia; Grallaria alticola from Lagunillas, Boyaca; Venili-

ornis chocoensis from Malagita, Choco; Odontophorus variegatus from

La Pica, Santander; and Crypturus idoneus from Bonda, Santa Marta.

The subspecies are: Atlapetes semirufus majuscuhis from Pena Blanca,

Santander, Colombia; Phoenicothraupis rubica coccinea from La Colo-

rado, Boyaca; Cistothorus aequatorialis fulvescens from Paramo Guer-

rero, Santander; Leucolepis lawrencii assimilis from Sautata, Rio Atrato;

Leucolepis phaeocephalus propinquus from Jaraquiel, Bolivar; Meco-

cerctdus leucophrys notatus from Leonera (near Caldas) ; Platytriccus

albogularis neglectus from La Colorado, Boyaca; Pipra erythrocephala

flammiceps from El Tambor, Santander; Pipra velutina minuscula from

Quibdo, Rio Atrato; Hylopezus perspicillatus pallidior from El Tam-

bor, Santander; Leptasthenura andicola exterior from Lagunillas, Boyaca;

Deconychura typica minor from El Tambor, Santander; Celeus

innotatus degener from El Tambor, Santander; and Nonnula frontalis

pallescens from Fundacion, Santa Marta. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — The migration of North American birds. IX.

Crows. Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 21: 100-102. 1919.

The weU-known Corvus brachyrhynchos, as represented by five sub-

species, including Corvus brachyrhynchos caurinus, occupies the greater

part of the United States and Canada. It is resident except in the

northern part of its range, for which region the dates of its spring and

autumn migration are here given. The distribution of Corvus ossi-

fragus, the European Corvus frugilegiis, and the European Corvus cor-

nix, are also added as of interest in this connection.

H. C. O.

abstracts: ornithology 499

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new Conurus from the Andaman

Islands. Harry C. Oberholser. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32:

29-32. April II, 1919.

Examples of Conurus fasciatus from the Andaman Islands prove to

differ from the mainland birds in their larger size and paler coloration,

and are here separated as a new subspecies, Conurus fasciatus abbotti.

With this addition there are now five races of Conurus fasciatus.

H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Six new birds from Celebes and fava. J. H.

RiLrEY. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 93-96. May 20, 1919.

Three additional species and two subspecies from Celebes and one

subspecies from Java have been brought to light by further study of

the bird collections made by Mr. H. C. Raven. The species are:

Megalurus celebensis from Besoa, Celebes, the first of its genus to be

found in Celebes; Dicruropsis montana from Besoa, Celebes; and

Pachycephala pluviosa from Rano Rano, Celebes. The subspecies de-

scribed are: Excalfactoria chinensis palmeri from Daroe, Java; Anas

superciliosa percna from Koelawi, Celebes; and Zoster ops atrifrons surda

from Rano Lindoe, Celebes. Harry C. Oberholser.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new race of the western gull. Jon-

athan DwiGHT. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 11-13. February 14,

1919.

The western gull, Larus occidentalis , is found to be separable into a

northern and a southern subspecies. The latter, which differs from

the typical form of the coast of Oregon and Washington in its decidedly

darker mantle and reduction of gray area on the primaries, is here

named Larus occidentalis livens. It ranges from the coast of central

California south to both coasts of Lower California.

Harry C. Oberholser.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

33 8th meeting

The 338th meeting of the Society was held in the auditorium of the

Cosmos Club on Wednesday evening, May 28, 1919, at 8 p.m.

Informal Communications

Mr. LaForge spoke of a fairly wide-spread misapprehension of the

exact meaning of the words talus and shingle and the resultant in-

creasing tendency to use them incorrectly. Talus seems to be used to

some extent in the United States for the material which in reality

constitutes a talus. The word is synonymous with scree which is

commonly used in Great Britain. It means "a heap of coarse rock

waste at the foot of a cliff or a sheet of such waste on a slope below a

cliff," and its use should be confined to the heap or sheet and not

extended to the constituent material, which is rock waste.

There seems to be a rather general idea that shingle means gravel com-

posed chiefly of flattened pebbles which have been arranged by gravity,

waves, or currents so as to overlap like shingles on a roof. This is

entirely incorrect, as the word has no relation to the ordinary English

word shingle (originally shindle), but is derived from the same Germanic

or Norse root from which comes our common word sing, the h having

been introduced through corruption, and it refers to the peculiar sound

made by the material when trod upon or when rolled down the slope

of the beach by a receding wave.

This brings up the question regarding the origin of the sound, and,

therefore, regarding the essential or distinctive character of shingle.

The dictionaries and those text-books which define the word state that

it is "beach material coarser than ordinary gravel," but manifestly

such a definition is inadequate, as some "singing" beaches consist of

fine material and many beaches composed of coarse gravel do not

"sing." Apparently the subject has not been investigated experimen-

tally, but the number of field observations have led the speaker to the

following tentative hypothesis :

The production of a sound approximating a musical note requires

a certain degree of uniformity in the sound-making material and the

pitch of the sound depends on the dimensions of the material, and of

the resonating space, if there be any. To have such uniformity it is

therefore necessary that the pebbles be of approximately the same

size, hence the interstices will not be filled with finer material, as in

500

proceedings: geological society 501

ordinary gravel, and resonating space of approximately uniform "mesh"

will be provided. Field observation shows that it is also essential

that the pebbles be of fine-grained dense rock and smoothly rounded,

so that the rubbing of one upon another will tend to set up definite

vibrations rather than irregular jars, and shows further that the coarser

the material of a "singing" beach the lower the note produced. If

this suggested explanation be correct, shingle should be defined as

"beach material, coarser than sand, consisting of smoothl}^ rounded

pebbles of dense, fine-grained rock, of approximately the same size,

and hence not having the interstices filled with finer material, which

gives out a sound resembling a musical note, when trod upon or when

rolled about by waves."

Mr. Frank L. Hess said that tourmaline cobalt-bearing veins oc-

curring in the Blackbird region, Lemhi County, Idaho, are dense

black and occur in a dark, fine-grained, thin-bedded quartzite. The

cobalt is in many places difficult to see, but it shows up on crushing

and panning the rock. A polished section was exhibited showing a

mass of microscopic tourmaline crystals with clouds of included cobalt

minerals, mostly cobaltite.

Dr. H. M. Ami called attention to the fact that on the shores of the

Dead Sea in Palestine there are innumerable fresh water shells washed

up by the waves along with drift wood and other forms of vegetable

matter. The hypersahnity of the water precludes any form of life.

He surmises that these shells presumably are brought into the sea by

Jordan River, and calls attention to the fact that the presence of

freshwater shells in strata does not necessarily predicate that the water

in which the sediments were laid down was fresh.

Regular Program

E. W. Shaw: Present tendencies in Geology. III. Stratigraphy.

(This paper will be published later in this Journal.)

M. I. Goldman: General character, mode of occurrence, and origin

of glauconite.

The characters of the mineral were briefly reviewed, and it was

pointed out that there are a number of varieties in addition to the

common form in rounded, compound-polarizing grains. Some of these

seem to have been deposited epigenetically from solution, but the

speaker did not believe that there is good evidence for the deposition

of any of them from solution syngenetically. The importance of fur-

ther study, especially chemically, of the well defined, micaceous green

crystals sometimes found associated with the cryptocrystalline forms

of glauconite, and believed to be glauconite, was emphasized.

The chemical composition and mineralogical affinities were dis-

cussed. The potassium content, which averages around 7 per cent,

distinctly differentiates glauconite from the chlorites which it resem-

bles in many of its mineralogical characters, and the predominance of

502 PROCeSDINGS: GEOIvOGICAL SOCIETY

ferric over ferrous iron and the fact that glauconite seems to be an

orthosihcate points in the same direction. Then too, the molecule of

water which appears to be an essential part of its composition would

place it rather with the vermiculites than the chlorites. Allying it

with the chlorites, on the other hand, is the magnesia content which

seems to be pretty persistent. The chemical composition presents a

fundamental difficulty, however, since it is uncertain whether the

mineral is a definite crystalline substance or a colloform mixture.

Glauconite is a characteristic phase of certain terrigenous marine

sediments and very widely distributed around all the continents.

But it is rare in the delta type of terrigenous deposit on the one hand

and in pellagic deposits on the other. Concerning its mode of forma-

tion there is great uncertainty, but it seems to develop in small segre-

gated pellets of clay (generally i mm. or less diam.) when there is

organic matter present. The process assumed has been the reduction

of the sulfates of sea water to sulfides which form iron sulfide with

the iron present in the clay. This sulfide is believed to combine with

silica in the clay and the iron silicate thus formed to take up potassium

from the sea-water. The combination of iron sulfide with silica to

form a silicate has been brought about experimentally, but the reaction

was prevented by an excess of hydrogen sulfide. On the basis of the

facts summarized the speaker presented the hypothesis that glauconite

is one of three characteristic modes of occurrence of iron in marine

deposits, being an intermediate product between high organic content

and reducing conditions yielding the sulfide on the one hand, and low

organic content with oxidizing conditions producing the hydrous oxides

on the other.

Geologically, also, glauconite is a very widely distributed and com-

mon mineral, having been found in deposits of every period. It occurs

particularly characteristically, however, just above unconformities,

that is in transgressing (perhaps also in regressing) formations, and

preeminently in connection with the great transgression of the lower

part of the Upper Cretaceous. This stratigraphic position has not

been adequately explained. The frequent association of glauconite

and phosphate in both recent and ancient deposits is familiar, and

Murray has pointed out a relation, at least partial, of phosphate with

great extremes of surface temperatures of the ocean. Cayeux has

suggested that such instabilities of temperature might be produced by

extensive movements of the earth's crust and the same explanation

may be applicable, in part, to the geologic occurrence of glauconite.

G. R. Mansfield: General features of the glauconite marls of New

Jersey.

(This paper is to be published in Economic Geology.)

E. O. Ulrich: Paleozoic glauconite zones and suggestions as to their

origin. R. W. StonE, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The Chemical Society of Washington has secured permission from

Maj. Gen. WilHam L. Sibert for its members to visit the government

gas plant at Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Maryland, on a Saturday

about the middle of October. Others in the city who are interested

will be welcome. The chemists of Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Balti-

more will also visit the plant on the same day. Details of the arrange-

ments will be announced later.

Word has been received that Messrs. AllEn, FennER, and ZiES, of

the Geophysical Laboratory's party in Alaska, have arrived safely at

Kodiak with collections of gases and emanations from the fumaroles

of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. This is the first news of

the party since the National Geographic Society's expedition entered

the Valley in June.

Mr. Robert Anderson, a petroleum geologist formerly on the U. S.

Geological vSurvey, has returned from Stockholm, Sweden, where he

represented the Shipping Board for the past 6 months, and is about

to leave for London where he will have charge of geologic investigations

for Pearson and Sons.

Mr. George H. Ashley resigned from the U. S. Geological Survey

on September i, having been appointed State Geologist of Pennsyl-

vania.

Dr. Arthur F. Buddington of Brown University, recently in Wash-

ington with the Chemical Warfare Service, has joined the staff of the

Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Miss Eleonora F. Bliss, associate geologist on the U. S. Geological

Survey, is on leave of absence and is visiting her father. General Tas-

KER H. Buss, in Paris.

Messrs. L. C. Graton, Frank A. Herald, and J. H. Hance, formerly

geologists in the U. S. Geological Survey, are now engaged in expert

work in the income tax section of the Internal Revenue Division of the

Treasury Department.

Mr. H. E. Haring, recently in the Inspection Division of the Ord-

nance Department, has joined the staff of the Bureau of Standards,

where he will be engaged in electrochemical research.

Prof. A. S. Hitchcock, systematic agrostologist in the Bureau of

Plant Industry, left New York for British Guiana in September. He

expects to study the grasses of that country, and will return in about

four months. The work is being done in cooperation with the New

York Botanical Garden and the Gray Herbarium.

503

504 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the Smithsonian Institution, has been visit-

ing Camp Dix and Camp Devens for the purpose of classifying cer-

tain anthropometric measurements being made during the demobihza-

tion of the soldiers.

Mr. Prevost Hubbard resigned in July from the Bureau of Public

Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now chemical engineer

with the Asphalt Association, 15 Maiden Lane, New York City.

Mr. Paul D. V. Manning, formerly chemist with the Nitrate Divi-

sion of the Ordnance Department, at the Fixed Nitrogen Research

Laboratory, American University, is now electrometallurgist with the

Chile Exploration Company of New York City.

Mr. Louis N. Markovitz, who has been on leave of absence with

the Chemical Warfare Service at Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio, has

returned to his work at the Insecticide Laboratory of the Bureau of

Chemistry.

Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Mines,

has presented his resignation, to take effect November ist. He has en-

gaged offices for the American Chemical Society in the Mills Building

Annex. He will also do a limited amount of private consulting and

chemical engineering work.

Mr. E. W. Shaw, geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, who has

been cooperating with the Internal Revenue Office in determining the

income tax on oil and gas properties, is in Europe on a two months'

leave of absence doing consulting geologic work.

Dr. H. Ten Kate, the well-known anthropologist, who has been a

resident of Japan for the past twelve years, visited Washington in

August.

Prof. E. W. Washburn, recently acting chairman of the Division of

Chemistry and Chemical Technology of the National Research Council,

returned to the University of Illinois in September.

Mr. L. M. WhitmorE, formerly in charge of the chemical work on

leather at the Bureau of Standards, resigned in August to accept a

position in the Process Department of Leas and McVitty, Inc., tanners

of sole leather, at Salem, Virginia.

Mr. Charles W. Wright, a geologist formerly on the U. S. Geo-

logical Survey, who has been visiting in the United States for a month,

has returned to Sardinia and Rome, where he has offices as consulting

mining engineer.

Dr. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, of Cornell University, has joined the

staff of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution as

assistant physicist

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 OCTOBER 19, 19 19 No. 17

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.— r/i^ crystallography of morphine and

certain of its derivatives. Edgar T. Wherry and Elias

Yanovsky, Bureau of Chemistry.

Optical-crystallographic methods having proved to be of prac-

tical value in the identification of the cinchona alkaloids,^ atten-

tion was directed by the writers to another group of alkaloids,

namely, morphine and its derivatives, to ascertain if similar

methods could be applied there. Commercial samples were

purified (by the jilnior author) as described below, and crystal-

lographic measurements were made to establish their identity

with previously described material. On trying these substances

by the immersion method under the polarizing microscope it

was found that they dissolved so rapidly in every immersion

liquid approaching them in refractive index that their identifica-

tion by this method would be impracticable. It is probable

that some of their salts, such as the hydrochlorides, being less

readily soluble, would be' better adapted for optical-crystal-

lographic identification, and it is planned to prepare and study

these compounds, although the withdrawal of the junior author from

the Bureau of Chemistry has led to delay in carrying this out.

The results of the crystallographic measurements of the alkaloids

are, however, of considerable scientific interest, and this account

of them has accordingly been prepared.

^ Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 1063. 1918.

505

5o6 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES

MORPHINE MONOHYDRATE, C17H19NO3.H2O

Anhydrous morphine has apparently never been prepared in

well-cry stalHzed condition, but the monohydrate, which sep-

arates from all the usual solvents of this alkaloid, has been the

subject of several crystallographic investigations. Brooke^ de-

scribed crystals showing a pinacoid, prism, and dome, his angle

measurements, when transformed, yielding 4> prism — 63° 40'

and p dome = 42° 20'. Schabus^ measured crystals with a

pinacoid, a prism with 0 = 63° 27' and a dome over the pina-

coid with p = 24° 54'; he made the pinacoid and dome side- or

TABLE I. Angle Table for Morphine Monohydrate

Rhombic (Bisphenoidal); a:b:c = 0.499: i :o.927<^

Number Symbols Observed Calculated

letter G'd't Mill. Description <p p <p p

1 c o 001 Listed by Rammelsberg o°c

I Dominant form; cleavage 1 o / o / o / o

2 b 0°^ 010 < ,. . f o 00 90 00 o 00 90 00

'(^ direction J

3 m 00 1 10 The only prism form 63°3o' 90°oo' 63 "29' 90°oo

, , f Observed and taken as 1 0/0

4 ^ °V. 012 j the unit by Schabus / ° °° '' ''

j The best developed ter- 1 o / 0 / o , o

5 r 01 oil < . . > o 00 42°5o' o°oo' 42^50

"^ [ mination J

6 p I III Reported by Decharme 63 "29' 64°i7

°- The axial ratio given is the average of those obtained by the various investi-

gators of this substance. It is stated to but three decimal places because of the

wide variations which appear to exist. The angles of the crystals here measured

showed a maximum variation of ±20', and the probable error of the observed value

is about 5'.

brachy-forms. Lang^ estabhshed the optical orientation on crys-

tals with what appear to have been the same forms, but he took'

the pinacoid and dome as front or macro-forms. Decharme,^

without measuring any angles, observed a development of bi-

sphenoidal faces on crystals of two different habits.

2 Ann. Phil. (N. S. 6) 22: 118. 1823; discussed by Schabvs, Best. Krysf.-gest.

chetn. Lab. erz. Prod., Vienna, 1855, p. 74, and by Rammelsberg, Handb. Kryst.-

phys. Chem. II, 358. 1882.

3 Loc. cit.; abstract in Jahresb. 1854: 510, and in Rammelsberg, loc. cit.

* Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Vienna 31: 115. 1858.

* Ann. Chim. phys. (Ser. 3) 68: 160. 1863.

WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE) DERIVATIVES 507

The alkaloid liberated from a commercial sample of the hydro-

chloride was recrystallized from absolute methyl alcohol until

its specific rotation remained the same in two consecutive crys-

tallizations. The final value for a i% solution in methyl alco-

hol was [af^° = — i3i-7°- The usually recommended recrys-

tallization from amyl alcohol was found to be less satisfactory.

The crystals finally obtained from methyl alcohol, which at-

tained a diameter of about i mm., were measured on a Gold-

schmidt two-circle goniometer, with the results presented in

table I. The orientation adopted is that of Schabus, but the

steeper dome is taken as the unit form, giving a value dift'erent

from his for axis c.

The essential agreement between the measurements of pre-

ceding authors and those here reported indicates that morphine

normally crystallizes, as monohydrate, in a single form, there

being no evidence of polymorphism.

Partial optical descriptions of this substance have been pub-

lished by Lang,- by Kley'' and by Wright^ but there are con-

siderable discrepancies among their results. On examining our

material by the immersion method, using liquids made up

chiefly of a petroleum oil, in which the alkaloid is but slightly

soluble, the data of Lang and of Wright were confirmed for the

most part, and Kley's value for one refractive index could be

explained as a mean between the largest and smallest indices,

while his axial angle must be 2 V. The data obtained were:

Refractive indices [ d ] « = 1-580, 0 — 1.625, T = 1-645,

7 — <x = 0.065, a-11 =^ 0-005. Index i3 is usually shown length-

wise of the rods, and one of the other, or intermediate, values,

crosswise; the optic axial plane is perpendicular to the elongation

of the crystals; axial angle 2E is very large, approximately 125°;

sign — ; dispersion strong with 2Er>2Ev-

CODEINE, morphine; methyl ester, Ci8H2iN03

This alkaloid crystallizes in both anhydrous and hydrous forms.

The former was obtained from carbon disulfide solution and

* Loc. cit.

' Zeitschr. anal. Chem. 43: 164. 1904.

^ Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 1655. 1916.

508 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERWATlVES

described crystallographically by Arzruni.^ The forms ob-

serv^ed were front and side pinacoids, two prisms, front and side

domes, and right and rarely left sphenoids, the important angles

being, as transformed: ^no = 47^05' and pici = 28° 41', cor-

responding to a:h: c = 0.930:1 : 0.509.

It was found best to recrystallize this alkaloid from ethyl

acetate until the melting point became constant at 153° (Gri-

maux^"). Fine crystals 2 mm. in diameter were finally obtained,

which were measured, with the results shown in table 2.

TABLE 2. Angle Table for Codeine

Rhombic, bisphenoidal; a:h:c = 0.931:1:0.509°

Description

Narrow; often absent

Prominent form

One prism form

Another prism form

Small; often absent

Dominant terminal form

)Well developed, sphen-(

^ ^ ^ "^ ^ oidal, both + and —^

" As with morphine the measurements vary =e:2o', so axes are given to but three

places.

The form above described, which we have found to separate

also from absolute ether and methyl and ethyl alcohols, is evi-

dently the same as that described by Arzruni.

The marked solubiUty shown by this alkaloid has permitted

only rough measurements of the refractive indices as: a = 1.62,

iS = 1.63, 7 = 1.65, 7 — a. = 0.03. The axial angle 2E is

very large, about 125°; the sign + ; and the dispersion strong,

with 2Er> 2Ev These agree with the data of Arzruni.

CODEINE MONOHYDRATE, C18H21NO3.H2O

At least six different authors have studied this form of codeine ;

and their results have been tabulated and discussed by Hey-

drich.^^ The forms which have been observed are the base, a

prism with (p = 45° 50' to 46° 15'; two side domes with p =

5 Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. i: 302. 1877.

1" Ann. chim. phys. (Ser. 5) 27: 274. 1882.'

" Zeitschr. Kryst. Min. 48: 270. 1910.

WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE) DERIVATIVES 509

22° 35' to 22° 52' for one, and 39° 12' to 40° 02' for the other;

and a front dome with p = 40° 46' to 41° 04'. The prism and

the steeper side dome are taken as the unit forms. For the

present study crystals were grown from water and from hydrous

methyl alcohol, attaining a diameter of 2 mm. The results

were:

TABLE 3. Angle Table for Codeine Monohydrate

Rhombic; Probably Bisphenoidal; a:b:c — 0.960:1:0.830"

" The crystals were somewhat better in this case than in the two preceding ones,

and the maximum variation was but =fcio', but previous results have varied so

markedly that only three decimal places are used for the average axial ratios given.

The agreement between these results and the average of

those of previous authors is close.

Codeine monohydrate has been described optically by Kley,^^

by Heydrich^^ and by Wright. ^^ The measurements by the

first and last of these authors are admittedly only approximate,

because of the solubility, but Heydrich's measurements were

made by the prism method, and are more accurate. The im-

mersion method gave on our material roughly a = 1.54, /3 =

1.64, and 7 = 1.69, 7 — ■ a = 0.15; axial angle 2E very large,

around 130°; sign — ; and dispersion distinct, with 2Kr<2Ev.

CODETHYLINE, MORPHINE ETHYI. ESTER, MONOHYDRATE

C19H23NO3.H2O

The ethyl ester of morphine, the hydrochloride of which is

known commercially as dionin, has apparently never been meas-

ured crystallographically.

'2 Loc. cit.

1' Loc. cit.

1^ Loc. cit.

5IO

WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES

Some commercial dionin was dissolved in water, and ammonium

hydroxide added to precipitate the alkaloid. This was extracte d

TABLE 4. Angle Table for Codethyline Monohydrate

Rhombic, Probably Bisphenoidal; a:b:c = 1.454:1:0.789"

Observed

Calculated

" The maximum variation of

beyond the third decimal place.

= 20 — observed renders the axial ratios uncertain

by ether, and recrystallized from this solvent until the melting

point became constant at 83°.

Fig. I. — Codethyline

Fig. 2. — Heroine

The crystals obtained from ether containing a little water

reached a diameter of 5 mm., and were measured, with the re-

WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES

511

o°oo

90°oo

65°55

48°io

o°oo

90°oo

9o°oo

9 P

III

p

90°oo'

26°3o'

45 ±

29°07'

48=4=

Calculated

suits presented in table 3 and in Fig. i. The orientation

adopted is that which brings out the relationship between this

substance and the two previously described monohydrates.

The immersion method yielded the following approximate

data for these crystals: Refractive indices a = 1.55, /? = 1.58,

7 = 1.65, 7 — a = o.io; axial angle very large, about 125°;

sign +; dispersion distinct, with 2Er> 2Ev

HEROINE, DIACETYIv-MORPHINE, C21H23NO5 = Ci7Hi7NO(CH3COO)2

The commercial alkaloid was recrystallized until a product

with a constant melting point of 171-172° was obtained. (Var-

TABLE 5- AngIvE Table for Heroine

Rhombic, Bisphenoidal; a:b:c = 0.8952:1:0.497"

Observed

Description

Dominant form

Narrow, yet well marked

Narrow prism form

Dominant prism

Narrow but definite

Very small

Narrow, yet well marked

Small but defiinite

) Dominant terminal form; \ „o

\ both + and — ■ sphenoids ^

" The crystals of this alkaloid were more perfect than those of any of the others

and the maximum variation on angles was but ±5', the probable error of any one

measurement being =±=i'. This permits statement of the axial ratios to the fourth

place.

ious authors give from 169 to 173°.) It was found to crystalhze

well from ether, ethyl acetate, and methyl alcohol. No crys-

tallographic description of this substance could be found in the

literature, so four of the excellent crystals obtained from ethyl

acetate were submitted to measurement, with the results pre-

sented in table 5, and Fig. 2.

The crystals obtained from other solvents showed the more

prominent of these forms, and the angles agreed within half a

degree.

The optical properties obtained by the immersion method are

as follows: Refractive indices: a = 1.56, /S = 1.60, 7 = 1.6 1,

7 — a = 0.05 ; the maximum and minimum indices are usually

o 00

90°oo

65°54

48°io

o°oo

90°oo

90^00

36°45' 48°io

p

90°oo

26°28

44°53

29°o6

48°03

36°45

512 WHERRY AND YANOVSKY: MORPHINE DERIVATIVES

seen on the plate-like crystals; the optic axial plane being

parallel to the surfaces of the plates, no interference figure is visi-

ble in most cases, but when flakes are broken across and tilted

up, partial figures can be seen, the axial angle 2E being large,

about 110°; sign — ; and dispersion strong, with 2Er> 2Ev.

On comparing the axial ratios of these alkaloids, it is at once

seen that there are certain relationships among them, and it

seemed of interest to calculate and compare their topic axial

ratios. For this purpose their specific gravities were determined

approximately by suspension of clear crystals in mixtures of

sassafras oil and small amounts of bromoform, a combination

selected because it was found to attack the substances but slowly ;

and the gravity of the Hquid in each case was then measured

by a Westphal balance. The results are presented in table 6.

The topic axial relations exhibit certain interesting features,

and permit of determining in which direction in the crystals

substitutions or additions occur. Thus, comparing anhydrous

codeine with its monohydrate, it is seen that the addition of the

water takes place in the vertical direction, producing a 40 per

cent increase in axis 00 while x and lA both decrease about

15 per cent. Comparing the three monohydrates, of mor-

phine and of its methyl and ethyl esters, it comes out with

equal clearness that the CHo groups enter along the front-back

axis, for the value of x increases 50 per cent from morphine to its

methyl ester, and 40 per cent more from the methyl to the

SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 513

ethyl ester, the other two axes showing decreases of 15-20 per

cent in each case. Comparison of the diacetyl derivative with

morphine itself would show significant relations only if the an-

hydrous form of the latter were available; but on comparison

with anhydrous codeine, the monomethyl derivative, it is seen

that all three axes of the acetyl compound are about 10 per

cent longer than those of the methyl derivative, showing that

the acetyl groups produce their greatest increase in direction a,

but at the same time expand the structure somewhat in both of

the other directions. It is thus possible by this method to throw

some light on the positions of the chemical molecules in the

crystals of these substances.

GEOLOGY. — Present tendencies in geology: Sedimentation} Eu-

gene WesIvEy Shaw, U. S. Geological Survey.

Interest in sedimentation has both direct and indirect prac-

tical bearing. The economic value of this interest may lie for

the most part in the future, but should nevertheless be definite

and certain. We wish to know how geologic strata were formed.

The more we learn about processes and their results the more

we find there is to learn, and the more the field widens and

apparent complexity increases the more fascinating becomes the

subject.

The main needs felt are (i) a better understanding of the

deposits of past ages; (2) a wider knowledge and better under-

standing of the processes now in operation and of their results,

as seen in the distribution of sediments, and the form of deposi-

tional surfaces— submarine, sublacustrine, subfluvial, subaerial,

and subglacial; (3) the ability to apply our knowledge to economic

problems the solution of which may rest on the nature of ancient

strata and the processes of their deposition, or on similar data

concerning present-day deposits. It can be demonstrated that

knowledge of sedimentation may reduce the costs of finding the

mineral treasure of the sedimentary basins, of harbor improve-

ment, of fish culture, etc.

A knowledge of sedimentation involves a study of the processes

and immediate results of deposition; the source of sediment and

^ Presented before the Geological Society of Washington, May 28, 1919.

514 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION

its transportation; and the processes which modify strata and

their component materials after they are laid down. The term

sedimentation should cover these related matters, else another

term is needed, for it seems impracticable to isolate these three

branches of investigation.

The interpretation of a layer of sediment may involve the

examination of the parent rocks or organisms or solutions from

which it was derived and a study of the transporting agents that

brought it to its present position. It may be possible occasion-

ally to trace ancestry back through several generations of strata .

but the numbers of individuals in each preceding generation

usually show an increase more rapid than the usual biologic

ratio of 2, and one is soon lost in a maze which generally ob-

structs attempts to trace Uneage back to the ancestral igneous

and metamorphic rocks.

It is rather curious that although the problems of sedimenta-

tion are relatively simple, advances in the science, in the opinion

of some, have been of a slow and halting nature. The tempera-

tures and pressures involved in processes of sedimentation are

of a low order compared with those concerned in the study of

igneous rocks. One or more of the processes are everywhere in

operation; many of them can be reproduced in large part, some

with simple apparatus; and the deposits themselves are fully

exposed to view and ready for inspection and sampling.

Apparently there have been and will continue to be two gen-

eral ways of making progress in knowledge of sediments: One

is through contributions from geologists in general and paleon-

tologists in particular, who gather facts and formulate ideas in the

course of their other work. For example, A. C. Veatch observed

impressions of upright trees and, with the associated stratifica-

tion, interpreted a formation as made up of sand dunes. Ste-

phenson suggests that pebbles worn to disc or oval shapes indi-

cate wave action on a beach. Ulrich has outUned the general

conditions of deposition of various formations. The other

method is by special deductive or inductive field, laboratory or

closet studies of selected sediment problems. Up to date there

have been many contributions to the first class; to the second,

few.

SHAw: sedime;ntation 515

Notwithstanding the fact that advances have been made, there

is as yet no adequate systematic classification that is generally

acceptable. There is not even a satisfactory nomenclature.

There are many features of sedimentary deposits that are not

understood and are passed unexplained. Concretions, clay balls,

mud pebbles, quicksand, singing sand and a large number of

less common nameless features are famihar but not thoroughly

understood. There are also, for example, extremely interesting

problems concerning the development of beaches, the conditions

that control the amount of wave erosion which a subsiding land

undergoes, and so on. One may assume that wave erosion is

most vigorous at the seaward end of a peninsula that is bordered

by deep water. Yet the offshore slopes both at the south end

of the Florida peninsula and off the mouths of the Mississippi

are above average, whereas wave erosion is below the average.

At the mouths of the Mississippi the average offshore slope is

about 60 feet to the mile, yet houses built on piles whose tops

are 4 to 6 feet above sea level are reasonably safe even in a West

Indian hurricane.

Progress in deciphering the processes of sedimentation is

difficult ; the quantity of data and number of working hypotheses

to be borne in mind are legion. Lack of progress has been due

not only to neglect and oversight but to inherent difficulties.

A review of a piece of work in sedimentation is likely to call

forth the remark, "Fundamental problems are still unsolved."

Too much must not be expected from little expenditure of energy.

It is equally true that coordination of effort is necessary for the

best results.

We must admit that we can see only dimly the conditions under

which many of our most familiar formations were laid down.

We cannot yet write the equation for the reaction which in Na-

ture's laboratory produced the St. Peter sandstone. We can,

of course, write: a supply of sufficiently coarse-grained material

exposed at the surface -f suitable agents operating in the right

direction for its transportation + land of suitable surface con-

figuration and altitude + disposal by some means of aU other

freight carried by these agents -|- wind or some other work to

5l6 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION

round and frost the grains + a transgressing sea to redistribute

the sand without introducing any more mud than the formation

contains, and so on; but at the end we would still have a very-

poor idea of the conditions of deposition. Indeed if each known

element in the equation were fully understood and were repro-

duced we probably should not get another St. Peter sandstone,

and possibly the result would only remotely resemble it.

The Devonian black shale, the great coal beds with their

persistent thin partings, the wide-spread sandstones, such as

the Dakota and Berea, the oolites, the so-called "Lafayette

formation," and a great many others are still more or less mat-

ters of mystery. We are inclined to make remarks of satisfac-

tion such as that we were formerly misguided regarding a cer-

tain formation but that we know better now, — we understand

the conditions of its deposition; we used to think, for example,

that coal is a product of tropical climate; now we know that it

is formed under temperate or cool temperate conditions. But

is there not still a great gulf between the relatively small and

rarely smothered peat bogs upon which our assumed under-

standing of coal rests and those great expanses of peat swamp

which developed over a sinking and frequently flooded land?

It seems to me that after all, we know for most strata only

the main features of their conditions of deposition. We do not

know whether the surficial sand and gravel deposits of the

Atlantic Coastal Plain are mainly marine or mainly fluviatile, and

this, notwithstanding the fact that all are geologically recent

and some very recent formations. Various criteria become ob-

scure with age and in particular the related physiographic fea-

tures are gradually wiped out. Yet here in spite of youth and

more or less perfect preservation of several kinds of physio-

graphic features we are still groping in the dark, and are for-

tunate if we are able to avoid the pitfall of jumping at con-

clusions.

Vaughan^ says: "It is generally agreed that the soundest basis

for inferring the condition under which past sediments were

formed and deposited is to be obtained through a study of pres-

^ Unpublished memorandum to National Research Council.

SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 517

ent-day sediments and sedimentary processes and that as great

a diversity of phenomena as possible should be investigated."

In the report of the Petrologists' Club committee on sedimentary

rocks ^ it is stated that "The main object of petrologic descrip-

tions of sedimentary rocks is evidently the interpretation of

sedimentary records, though such descriptions should be useful

also for identification, classification, economic purposes, and

miscellaneous reference."

The need of carefully recorded descriptions of the physical

characteristics of ancient sediments is especially worthy of em-

phasis. We have as yet no adequate color scale and statements

concerning texture are usually only the crudest approximations.

In geologic field work the proportions of various sizes of grains

are rarely determined. The term "porosity" is used promiscu-

ously for "total volume of pores," for "size of pores" and for

' 'perviousness ' ' — entirely distinct concepts . Mineralogic or chem-

ical constitution is rarely determined in detail ;^ — our classic table

of average chemical composition of sedimentary rocks is, I be-

lieve, defective;^ and shape of grains in noted onl^ occasionally.

Methods of collecting specimens are much in need of stand-

ardization. Many samples represent a considerable thickness

of strata — from a few inches to a foot or more, — within which

more or less difference in conditions of deposition may occur.

The resulting complexity in the sample greatly reduces the value

of any mechanical analysis.

Though already recognized, the fact is still worth pondering

that the bulk of our knowledge of sedimentation has come more

or less inductively from the study of sedimentary rocks, condi-

tions of deposition being inferred from general principles of phys-

ics and chemistry. Studies of present-day agents, processes, and

kinds of deposits would furnish a much better foundation, though

admittedly such studies would not be complete, because the

conditions of deposition of most strata, particularly as to areal

extent and also in other respects, are not fully represented any-

where at present.

' Mimeographed report signed by M. I. Goldman, D. F. Hbwett, G, S. Rogers,

and E. W. Shaw.

* Shaw, E. W., Sulphur in rocks andin river waters. This Journal 5: 484. 1915.

5l8 SHAW: SEDIMJSNTATION

We sometimes feel that the general arrangement and distribu-

tion of deposits on lake and sea floors is fairly well known, yet

the only detailed areal survey of any considerable portion of

the sea floor — ^that made by Thoulet in the Gulf of Lyons —

leads to a map that no physiographer or stratigrapher could

have produced in advance.

Accurate surveys of selected areas of ocean and lake floor are

greatly needed; areas not far off shore are of especial interest

because of their economic bearing and because here there is

greatest variety in process and nature of deposit. Contributions

of this sort have already been made by Kindle for certain of the

Great Lakes and by Vaughan for waters off the coast of Florida.

Inductive work along the same line has been done by many

geologists, among the foremost of whom is that eminent geol-

ogist of Lehigh and Yale whose loss we are now feeling so keenly.

Experimental work has been done by a few, the most noteworthy

being perhaps that of Gilbert'' and Engels."

Not only is there need of increase in the knowledge of sedi-

ments but there is need of dissemination of the knowledge here-

tofore gained. Some of the discoveries already made are not

serving as they might. It has been shown that corals contribute

Httle to accumulation of sediments and yet some still speak of

coral islands and coral limestone in a way that indicates a mis-

conception. We speak of clastic, chemical, and organic depos-

its, forgetting that limestones are generally clastic: are com-

posed of fragments, now more or less extensively recrystallized,

that were transported on the average thousands if not tens of

thousands of feet. We interpret a great many sand lenses as

fossil beaches, forgetting that shore deposits are as a rule ephe-

meral.

Although the study of sediments has lagged behind other

branches of geology, real progress has been made in a number of

problems. It is worthy of note that most of this progress has been

made by men engaged primarily in other lines of science, by men

* Gilbert, G. K. The transportation of debris by running water. U. S. Geol. Sur-

vey, Prof. Paper 86. 19 14.

' Engels, H. Fluss-Strecken mil beweglicher Sohle. Zeits. fiir Bauwesen. 1905.

SHAW: SEDIMENTATION 519

who have either made valuable observations in connection with

other work or who have dropped their other work for a time while

they undertook a special study of sediments.

Especially noteworthy advances in the study of present-day

sediments have been made during the last decade or two. Mur-

ray and others have collected much information concerning the

great ocean deeps. Thoulet gave us a detailed map showing

the areal distribution of sediment over a portion of the sea floor.

Engels experimenting with an artificial stream analyzed pro-

cesses of alluviation. Gilbert deduced, from a series of experi-

ments, certain fundamental laws concerning fluviatile transporta-

tion of sand and gravel.

Barrell gave us a philosophical discussion of the conditions

and processes involved in the accumulation of Uttoral deposits.

Kindle has observed and recorded diagnostic features of various

kinds of deposits. Udden has presented the results of many

years of study of the mechanical constitution and peculiarities

of the main classes of sediments. Goldman has given us the

results of his investigations of sources of certain sediments and

the diagenesis of others.

Recently T. W. Vaughan has put into operation a plan for

coordinating the energies of those principally interested in sed-

iments, and in response to his request they have submitted

memoranda which have been transmitted to the National Re-

search Council. The main feeling behind the movement is ex-

pressed in Vaughan 's memorandum in the following words:

"As the factors entering into both the origin and deposition of

sediments are so diverse and so widely distributed it is imprac-

ticable for any one man, any small group of men, or any organiza-

tion whose activities are really limited to cover the field."

Some quotations from the replies will be of interest. Barrell,

obviously impelled mainly by his interest in earth history, says

by way of introduction to his ''Project J or a study oj sedimenta-

tion,'' dated January, 191 9:

"If the interpretation of the climatic and physiographic his-

tory of the earth, as based on the nature of the sedimentary

rocks, is to progress along Hues now opened up, it is neces-

520 SHAW: SEDIMENTATION

sary that comprehensive systematic studies of modem sed-

imentation be undertaken from this interpretative standpoint.

Such men as Lyell and De la Beche made a good beginning, but

the present problems of earth history were beyond their horizon,

and the older studies of sedimentation were, furthermore, gen-

eral in character and descriptive of the thing in itself rather than

of its significance. The idea of the necessity for criteria for the

discrimination of various climatic and physiographic controls in

the making of ancient sediments was until recently a point of

view not conceived."

Blackwelder says that because of his interest in the earth's

physical history and his experience with sedimentary rocks he

has been "especially impressed with the advantages to be gained

from painstaking study of the consolidated formations" and in

particular their lateral variations. He suggests "the exhaustive

study of individual types or type groups of sediments in both

modern and lithified state."

Kindle is especially interested in lake and sea bottom deposits,

in ripple marks, in migration of shores and transportation of

Uttoral deposits, etc. Steiger and Wells present an outline of

needed and practicable chemical and physico-chemical work.

Others have contributed valuable suggestions.

SUMMARY

Although to progress in the understanding of sediments is

somewhat difficult the need is real. Much can be accomplished

through coordination, through getting geologists of all lines to

give some attention to the subject, and through carefully con-

sidered and well executed special plans. Apparently the trend of

thought at the present time is in harmony with the needs. Some

assistance has already been rendered and more is planned by

speciaUsts in other lines. Physicists, chemists, biologists, and

others are ready to study marine deposition, the bottom loads

of rivers, cementation, dolomitization, problems connected with

the origin and accumulation of petroleum, and the geophysics

and geochemistry of the great sedimentary basins. Physiog-

raphers and climatologists will make their contributions.

micheIvSOn: fox Indians 521

It is hoped that a sediment laboratory may be equipped and

operated in the Geological Survey. In this laboratory many

kinds of petrologic investigation should be carried on. Mechan-

ical analyses of specimens of various present-day and ancient

deposits and studies of mineralogy, porosity, specific gravity,

and shape of grain will be undertaken. It is hoped also that a

useful collection of sediments and sedimentary rocks may be

built up, as was planned by Hayes, Lindgren and others. The

work should be pushed without extravagance but with vigor.

What contributions we may expect from field work on sedi-

ments now in process of accumulation is not definitely known,

but no doubt studies will be made of certain such deposits. In

the Florida Keys, for example, this may involve continued re-

search on the composition of sea water and the questions of

whether or not this water is saturated with carbonate of lime

and whether cementation of the shell and other fragments may

take place below sea level.

During the last decade there has, I believe, been some increase

of interest in the study of sediments. Although during the war

investigations were checked, there is at the present time, I hope,

and am inclined to believe, an increasing interest in the science

and a tendency toward cooperation which will lead to fruitful

investigations.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — Some general notes on the Fox Indians.

Part II: Phonetics, folklore and mythology.'^ Truman

MiCHELSON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

Fax PHONKTICS

I have elsewhere'^ briefly discussed the chief differences between

Jones' scheme of Fox phonetics and my own. There are a few

points that should be taken up here. The most important one

is that before an initial consonant of a following word a terminal

voiceless aspirated vowel of the preceding word becomes full-

sounding and loses its aspiration. As terminal voiceless aspirated

vowels are normally lost before initial vowels and diphthongs,

* Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

^ Intemat. Journ. Amer. Ling, i: 54.

52 2 . michelson: fox Indians

it will be seen that they are strictly only proper when a break

in sense occurs. Unfortunately it was not possible to teach

informants to dictate the words this way. It depended on the

length of words as to whether I could take more than one at a

time; and in this way the resulting texts contain mixed sentence-

phonetics. The choice therefore remains of printing texts with

these inconsistencies or making the phonetics uniform. It

seems correct to do the latter so far as sentence-phonetics are

concerned. In this normalization I have chosen the full-sound-

ing terminal vowels before initial consonants, save where the

sense indicates a pause; before initial vowels and diphthongs

terminal voiceless aspirated vowels are eliminated. In this

matter I have been guided not only by the fact that in this way

a truer picture of the language is presented, but also because

in so doing comphcated symbols are avoided: thus -m"*"^' is

eliminated in favor of -wa and -w, and so on. The elimination

of terminal voiceless aspirated vowels before initial vowels and

diphthongs is to a certain extent at least a question of tempo;

in actual Fox speech I have heard them even as full-sounding

in this position. The texts accordingly represent allegro tempo.

Even final full-sounding vowels are aspirated before an initial

sibilant. Another point may properly be brought up. Within

verbal complexes the elision of final i of one morphological

element before another such element beginning with a vowel or

diphthong, especially in "loose composition," is to a certain ex-

tent a matter of allegro or lento tempo. I have followed the

usage of the reciter of the texts. It may be noted that in the

current syllabary the Foxes are not consistent in writing or

omitting such a vowel; yet in "loose composition" the vowel

is written for the most part, and elided in intimate compounds.

It should be remarked that the Meskwakis themselves in

such cases very frequently separate the elements by periods.

The principal word accent is indicated by the acute ('). Fol-

lowing the recommendations of the committee of the American

Anthropological Association^ I have employed the symbols and

^Phonetic transcription of Indian Languages, Smiths. Misc. Coll. 66, No. 6: i.

michklson: fox Indians 523

general scheme of Dr. Jones in the matter of things phonetic

save where in my judgment they are inadequate.

The following table will show the phonetic elements of Fox

as I conceive them: —

Vowels and diphthong

Full-sounding :

a A e i 0 u

a d a e Id*

(e never occurs save terminally as a rhetorical lengthening of

e or i, and then has an i- vanish; 0 when a terminal rhetorical

lengthening similarly has a w- vanish; d is found only after w).

ai (only before y),

an (only in the exclamation 'au').

Voiceless and aspirated (terminally only) :

a" o' e' i' o'

Consonants

stops Spirants Affricatives Nasals Semi-vowels

Glottal «

Palatal k'k gg^ . . . . yV

Alveolar . . c c tc tc'^tc

Dental t t d s s . . n^

Labial P P b ... m^ w^

The sibilants 5 and c occur only initially; otherwise they

are replaced by 's and V, respectively. The spirant '^ after back

vowels is nearly intermediate in effect between a surd velar

spirant and our h; after front vowels the effect is more palatal.

It always occurs before initial vowels and ai. The stops g d h

are articulated with greater strength than in English; they never

occur initially; before terminally voiceless vowels g becomes g'^;

d and h (both of which are rare, especially the former) do not

occur in final syllables. Voiceless " '" -^' '•" are phonetic modifi-

cations oi n m y w, respectively, before terminal voiceless vowels.

The affricative '^tc occurs initially and medially save in final

syllables; "^tc occurs mostly in final syllables, though also in

medial ones. It may be noted that 'k H 'p He are given as a

series, because (outside of verbal compounds after 'a-, m-, kl-,

wl- where they are transformations oi k t p tc) they correspond

in Cree to a^sibilant followed by k t p tc. It may be added that

* a e i u are open; t 0 are close.

524 michelson; fox Indians

'p 't and 'tc never occur in terminal syllables nor initially. The

surd k t p tc are unaspirated; k p tc never occur in terminal

syllables.

To forestall hasty criticism it should be said that the differ-

ences in the quantity and quality of the vowels in such words

as 'I'w'' "he said," 'a'i'HcV "then he said;" 'ugima""^' "chief,"

'utdgimdmwdwAn^' "their chief;" pemipa'd''^''" "he runs by,"

pemipa'^owAg^^" "they run by," nepemipa""' "I run by,"

'd'pemi'pa'uHc^' "when he ran by;" w^m'"""' "man," ne'niwAJi'''

(obviative of the same), neniwA'g^*' "men;" ne'sAnAgi'^f"' "I

had difficulty with it," sAUAge'sl'^''" "he is incorrigible" are true

phonetic processes and are not merely due to mishearings. ^ I

have had abundant opportunity to test these again and again

to be sure that there was no error in apperception; and Mr.

J. P. Harrington (of the Bureau of American Ethnology) also

agrees that these differences are truly phonetic and not merely

auditory. The phonetic laws governing these shifts have not

been determined, but it is clear that the position of the accent

and the nature of the adjacent sounds are in a large measure

responsible for the phenomena. The influence of the last are

responsible for the different results seen in the contractions''' in

nekVciHd'g^'"^' "he made it for me," kekVcVto'n'' "I made it

for thee" as compared with kekVci'ta'wipen"'" "you made it

for us," kVci'tawd'""^' " he made it for him." It is in the

belief that some time it may be possible to enunciate phonetic

shifts with accuracy that certain apparent fluctuations have

been allowed to stand. Thus for example the fact that d never

occurs except after w, and never in penultimate syllables sug-

gests that it is a modification of a due to the influence of the

neighboring sounds, including following ones. The fact that a never

occurs in penultimate syllables though both a and a do,^ tends

to show a phonetic shift or shifts have taken place. Hence it

is well to be conservative in holding that cases where a and a

^ This will be shown in a future number of the International Journal of American

Linguistics.

^ See this Journal, 9: 333.

^ Neither does it occur before 'k, 't, 'p, 'tc, '5, 'c. Where Jones records a in such

cases I hear a. Similarly I hear a for a, and a' for '^.

miche;i^son: fox Indians 525

apparently interchange medially are merely mishearings. The

limitations of the positions of certain consonants (see above)

likely enough are in part due to phonetic shifts; some are cer-

tainly due to these. The evidence of cognate dialects favors

the view, but this is not the proper place to discuss this aspect

in detail. In conclusion it may be noted that ck, 'ck are the

only true consonantal clusters in the language. The cluster st

is found in English loan-word 'i'stakinA'n"'' "stockings."^ Ac-

cording to WilHam Jones stc occurs in an exclamation.

POX FOLKLORE AND MYTHOLOGY

The time for a final discussion of Fox folklore and mythology

is hardly ripe. For comparative purposes the data are too

meager. We are practically without any Sauk material; the

Kickapoo published (Jones) and unpublished (Michelson) col-

lections are inadequate; the published Potawatomi material is

negligible, and that unpublished (Skinner, Michelson) is prob-

ably insufficient; the unpublished^ material of Peoria folklore

and mythology (Gatschet, Michelson) is adequate ; the published

Cree, Algonkin, and Ottawa collections are deficient; the pub-

lished Menominee material is adequate; the published and un-

published (Jones) material of Ojibwa folklore and mythology is

extremely extensive; and so is that of Fox, especially the un-

published portion (Michelson). So that even a comparative

study of the folklore and mythology of only Central Algonkins

would be very one-sided. When the inadequate published data

from such Siouan tribes as the Iowa, Winnebago, and Osage are

taken into account, it will .be seen that a truly comprehensive

study of Fox folklore and mythology is, for the present, quite

out of the question. Happily there is plenty of unpubHshed

Winnebago material (Radin), and possibly Iowa (Skinner), so

that in the near future conditions may be distinctly improved.

At the present time the only adequate collections of Siouan

folklore and mythology are from the Assiniboine, Crow, and

Omaha ; the published material of the Sioux proper is insufficient.

^ Also in a couple of other loan-words.

' See now Michelson, Joum. Amer. Folk-Lore 30: 493-495.

526 micheivSOn: pox Indians

The late Professor Chamberlain ^° undertook a brief com-

parative study of the myth of the culture-hero among Central

Algonquian tribes, but the Sauk and Fox material available at

that time seems to have escaped him; and it must be said in

justice to him that it was not readily accessible. The paper by

the late J. Owen Dorsey/^ should be read in connection with

Professor Chamberlain's article. Some years later Professor

Dixon ^- published a comparative study of the mythology of

Central and Eastern Algonkins. As he was able to use the Fox

collections of Jones, his paper is of importance to us. Unfor-

tunately his sources are not given, nor are the mythologies of

the plains Indians used in his study. Nevertheless this article

is very useful as a stepping-stone. The essential points which

Dixon seeks to establish as regards Fox folklore and mythology

are: (i) Fox has one set of non-culture-hero incidents with

Menominee, and another with Cree-Ojibwa; (2) Fox shares with

Ojibwa but few such incidents in common with the Eastern

group, though both, especially Ojibwa, have a number of such

incidents with this group; (3) Fox has a number of elements

which are typically Iroquoian; (4) Fox and Potawatomi form a

special group among the Central Algonquian tribes. Additional

material, published and unpublished, since 1909, shows that

these theses will have to be somewhat modified. I have gone

over Barbeau's Huron and Wyandot Mythology and find that

with one possible exception Fox has not a single incident in

common with Huron-Wyandot which is not shared with some

other Central Algonquian tribe. And my unpublished Pota-

watomi material, which, though inadequate, is far greater in

extent than that published, tends to show that the fourth thesis

is wrong. Fox folklore and mythology is treated but incidentally

by Dr. Radin in his Literary aspects of North American myth-

ology, but it should be stated that on page 8 he has confused

the Fox and Menominee versions of the cycle of the death of

the culture-hero's younger brother. The general subject of the

1" Joum. Amer. Folklore 4: 193-213.

" Ibidem 5: 293-304, "Nanibozhu in Siouan Mythology."

'* Ibidem 22: 1-9 [Jan.-March, 1909].

michelson: fox Indians 527

mythology and folk tales of North American Indians is treated

by Boas.^^

I have spoken above of my unpublished collection of Fox

folklore and mythology. This consists of several thousand

manuscript pages written out by Indians themselves. It should

be mentioned that even the stories previously published by

Jones have an entirely distinct literary style in this collection.

I presume this is due to the difference in the method of collect-

ing the material. However, it must not be assumed that all

my Fox myths and tales are of a single style. Indeed, on the

basis of style alone it would be possible to refer many to their

respective authors. For example, informant A is extremely pro-

lix, and fond of detail ; informant B is brief, but lugs in the rolling-

skull episode on every possible occasion ; informant A is a skillful

narrator and the tale runs along smoothly and with artistic

effect; informant C is unusually awkward; though his tale may

contain every incident in the corresponding story of informant

A, nevertheless there are distinct breaks in the narrative, and so

his tale could not be printed without patching up these portions,

however valuable it might be for linguistic purposes or for a

control of the myths and tales of others. A question I hope to

take up at a future date is the choice of words and phrases among

different informants.

As to the contents of the above collection. A large percent-

age of the myths and tales in Jones' Fox Texts has been dupU-

cated; almost all of these occur with rather greater detail than

in his collection; numerous other myths and tales, among them

the Cosmic Myth, about 1,200 manuscript pages, of the type

represented in his collection naturally have also been collected:

the distinguishing features of my collection are the more numer-

ous animal tales ; many stories clearly of European origin ; origin-

legends of gentes; ritualistic origin-myths. I have previously

pointed out some of the European cycles. ^^ To these may be

added a fox cycle of considerable length and another called

"Tiger;" and it may be noted that Cosmic Myth (the story of

Me'sA'kAmigo'kwaw"") has an enormous number of incidents

'^ Joum. Amer. Folklore 27: 374-410.

" Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699.

528 michelson: fox Indians

that are patently European. The French-Canadian coUections

by Barbeau in the Journal of American Folklore make it prob-

able that Ca'kana'''' is not a corruption of Jacques le but rather

of Jacquelin. Skinner's statement^^ that "the Central Algonkin

as a whole have not absorbed much folklore that is European"

is not justified by the facts of Fox or Peoria tales. I have made

a brief study of Fox ritualistic origin myths. ^^ The essential

point is that thus far this particular type of ritualistic origin

myths is unique owing to the profusion of information con-

tained in them. The value of these myths for strictly ethnolog-

ical studies has also been emphasized.

As said above, the time is not yet ripe for a final discussion

of Fox folklore and mythology. Nevertheless an opinion based

on the present materials ma}'' be of some value. Disregarding

the origin-legends of gentes and ritualistic origin-myths^'' for the

lack of comparative material, it is clear that Fox folklore and

mythology is composed of woodland, plains, and European

elements. ^^ The plains elements are firmly established by the

distribution of the tales corresponding to the Fox story of how

the culture-hero (Wi'sA'ka'A') rolls himself downhill to catch

turkeys, and the tale of his eating the artichoke ; correspondents

to the former occur among the Skidi Pawnee, Caddo, Biloxi,

AHbamu, and Ojibwa (ducks secondarily) ; to the latter among

the Menominee, Eastern Dakota, Assiniboine, Crow, Pawnee,

Skidi Pawnee, Arikara, and Wichita. The occurrence of cor-

respondents to the Fox story of the beaver and culture-hero

among the Peoria, Ponca, and Shoshoni also points to the plains

as a center of distribution. If I have emphasized the occurrence

of plains-elements in Fox folklore and mythology, it is because

hitherto the stress has been on the woodland-elements. From

the materials available it would seem as if Kickapoo folklore

and mythology on the whole are closest to those of Fox, and

that Ojibwa folklore and mythology are rather remotely con-

nected therewith.

^ Joum. Amer. Folklore 27: 100.

^^ This Journal 6 : 209-2 1 1 . 1916. \

" The native term for such as refer to the festivals of the gentes is klgdnowi'dte'

sd'kdgAti"''' (plural -AWAg^'').

^* Compare Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEOLOGY. — Oxidized zinc ores of Leadville, Colo. G. F. Loughlin.

U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 68i. Pp. 91, pis. 8, figs. 7.

1918.

Although deposits of oxidized zinc ores at Leadville, Colo., had been

exposed in mine workings for many years previously, it was not until

19 10 that their character and extent began to be realized. Since that

year large quantities have been mined annually. Bulletin 681 begins

with a review of early accounts of zinc carbonate and silicate and of

the recent discovery of the ore bodies. It then describes in detail the

oxidized zinc ore minerals and minerals associated with them, the

varieties of ore, their range in metal content, their distribution and

extent, and their genesis. G. F. L.

GEOLOGY.— r/z^ evaporation and concentration of waters associated

with petroleum and natural gas. R. Van A. Mills and R. C.

Wells. U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 693. Pp. 104,

pis. 4, figs 5. 1919.

The widely observed association of saline waters with petroleum and

natural gas is ascribed by the authors, at least in many cases, to deep-

seated concentration brought about by evaporation into moving and

expanding gas. During this concentration there is a definite order of

change in the relative proportions of the dissolved constituents in the

waters. Carbon dioxide and other gases are lost from solution. Cal-

cium, magnesium, and iron separate from solution as carbonates, and,

under favorable conditions, sodium chloride separates, — a process illus-

trated in the "salting up" of gas wells.

In discussing these changes the authors present evidence based on

field studies as well as laboratory determinations, including the results

of examinations of the rock specimens, analyses of the waters, the

determination of the solubility of salt in solutions carrying calcium

chloride, the vapor pressure of water in illuminating gas, and a resum^

of the initial gas pressures in several gas fields. Elaborate compar-

529

530 abstracts: ge;oi.ogy

isons are also given between the deep-seated Appalachian brines, sea

water, and surface waters, intended to show the probable changes that

have taken place in the oil and gas field waters. In short, the com-

plete history of the waters is sketched, as nearly as it is possible to do

so, from the time of their inclusion in the sediments to the present.

Effects likely to be caused by changes in temperature and pressure

such as it is reasonable to suppose may have affected the strata are

pointed out.

Some practical applications of the principles and discussion are

given. It is suggested that analyses of the waters in or near oil and

gas fields may throw light not only on the location of the more valu-

able fluids, but also on the probable reactions and precipitations that

might ensue when the different waters are allowed to mix either in the

wells or in the strata. Careful consideration should also be given to

the movements and rearrangements that the oil, gas, and water under-

go incident to extraction. R. C. W.

GEOLOGY. — Relations of Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic forma-

tions of southwestern Montana and adjacent parts of Wyoming.

D. Dale Condit. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-F. 19 18.

Pp. 111-121, pis. 5, fig. I.

This paper presents evidence found in southwestern Montana con-

cerning the great Jurassic base-leveling and its bearing on the solution

of certain stratigraphic problems involving late Paleozoic, Triassic,

and Jurassic formations, and sets forth the relations of those formations

to beds in western Wyoming. The conclusions briefly summarized

are as follows:

Prior to the encroachment of the sea from the northwest in late

Jurassic time prolonged erosion and base-leveling occurred over much

of the Rocky Mountain region. From Idaho State line near Yellow-

stone National Park northward to the vicinity of Helena the erosion

surface thus produced truncates beds of Triassic and Carboniferous

age, through a stratigraphic range of about 1,000 feet.

The Quadrant quartzite at the type locality in the northwestern

part of Yellowstone Park is approximately equivalent to the Amsden

and Tensleep formations in Wyoming. The Park City (Pennsylvan-

ian and Permian), Dinwoody (Lower Triassic), and Chugwater (largely

Triassic) of the Wyoming section are in part represented by the Teton

formation of Yellowstone Park. The quartzitic cherty basal beds of

the Teton, containing the phosphate rock, are equivalent to the Phos-

abstracts: geology 531

phoria formation of Idaho, which corresponds to the upper part of the

Park City formation. In western Montana north of latitude 45° 30'

the overlying Triassic shaly limestone and red shale were removed by

the Jurassic erosion and the Ellis formation (Upper Jurassic) rests on

the partly eroded Phosphoria formation. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY.— Ceo/og^y of northeastern Montana. Arthur J. Collier.

U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120-B. Pp. 17-39, pis. 6, figs. 5.

1918.

Describes a large thinly settled region in northeast Montana which

is part of the Great Plains. The topography is discussed and forma-

tions from Cambrian to Jurassic exposed in Little Rocky Mountains

are described briefly. The Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary form-

ations are described more fully, and the geologic structure is explained.

Drainage diversion due to the invasion of ice during the glacial epoch

forms an interesting conclusion of the report. R. W. StonE.

GEOLOGY. — A contribution to the geology of northeastern Texas and

southern Oklahoma. Lloyd William Stephenson. U. S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 120-H. Pp. 129-163, pis. 14. 1918.

This paper sets forth the present state of knowledge in the areal

mapping, in the interpretation of structure, and in correlation, and

indicates certain mappable units and structural features that have not

heretofore been recognized in the region in central and northeastern

Texas and southern Oklahoma known as the Black and Grand prai-

ries. The area lies near the northwestern border of the Gulf Coastal

Plain in northeastern Texas and southern Oklahoma, and is a dis-

sected coastal-plain upland ranging in altitude from about 530 feet

in the southeast to 850 feet in places in the northwest. The drain-

ageways of the area present many good examples of consequent, sub-

sequent, obsequent and perhaps other classes of streams.

The area is underlain throughout its extent by strata of Cretaceous

age, which rest upon a buried, moderately smooth basement com-

posed of ancient rocks. The tilted peneplained surface of the base-

ment rocks dips to the south from the northern boundary at rates

estimated to range in different places from 50 to 70 feet or more to the

mile, and to the southeast from the western boundary at rates prob-

ably ranging from 40 to 50 feet to the mile.

The basement rocks are separated from the overlying Cretaceous

deposits by an unconformity representing a long interval of geologic

time, including at least the Triassic and Jurassic periods and prob-

ably a considerable part of the Lower Cretaceous epoch.

532 abstracts: geology

The Cretaceous deposits are divisible into two great series, a lower,

the Comanche series, which appears at the surface about the flanks

of the Preston anticline in the northwestern part of the area and has

an estimated thickness of 800 to 1,000 feet, and an upper, the Gulf

series, which has an estimated thickness of at least 3,000 feet and the

outcrop of which covers considerably more than half the area. Each

of these series is separable into subordinate divisions. The Gulf series

is unconformably overlain by strata of Eocene age which appear at

the southeast in a relatively small part of the area. In general the

strike of the strata is parallel to the inner margin of the Coastal Plain,

and the dip is coastward from this margin at rates ranging from 30

feet or less to 80 feet or more to the mile. A considerable departure

from the prevailing regularity in strike and dip occurs in the north-

western and central parts of the area, in connection with the Preston

anticline.

The Cretaceous deposits consist of sand, shaly clay, calcareous shaly

clay, limestone, and chalk. Pleistocene alluvial terrace deposits largely

conceal the Cretaceous formations in a broad area.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Geology and ore deposits of the Yerington district, Nevada.

Adolph Knopf. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 114. Pp. 68,

pis. 5, figs. 12. 1918.

The Yerington district in western Nevada is, next to Ely, the most

productive copper district in the State. The oldest rocks of the dis-

trict consist of andesites, keratophyres, and limestone, with subor-

dinate shale, quartzite, and gypsum, all of Triassic age. They were

intruded in post-Triassic time, probably early in the Cretaceous, by

granodiorite, which was followed by quartz monzonite. These intru-

sions intensely metamorphosed the rocks they invaded and converted

large areas of them into lime-silicate rocks. After this metamorphism

the region was cut by numerous dikes of quartz monzonite porphyry.

Faulting then ensued, and along the faults ore-forming solutions

rose and produced the copper deposits to which the district owes its

economic importance.

The Tertiary rocks, resting with marked unconformity on the Meso-

zoic group, are chiefly volcanic and are at least 7,000 feet thick. They

fall into three major groups which are separated by two well-marked

unconformities. The lowest subdivision consists of quartz latite,

rhyolite, and andesite breccia; and it is probably the correlative of the

Esmeralda formation of Upper Miocene age. The middle subdi-

ABSTRACTS: ZOOGEJOGRAPHY 533

vision consists of andesite flows resting in places on the eroded edges

of the rhyoUtes. The uppermost subdivision consists of subangular

conglomerate overlain by basalt.

The principal ore bodies consist of pyrite and chalcopyrite in a gangue

of pyroxene, garnet, and epidote. They are replacement deposits

of limestone developed along fault zones and are of the contact-meta-

morphic type. The primary ore is essentially unenriched by later

sulphides. The average tenor of the ore mined has ranged from 2 . 75

to 6 per cent of copper. A. K.

ANTHROPOLOGY. — The Maya Indians of southern Yucatan and

northern British Honduras. Thomas W. F. Gann. Bull. Amer.

Ethnol. 64. Pp. 146, pis. 28, text figs. 84. 1918.

The Maya Indians will always be noteworthy as those who attained

the highest cultural development in America, or at least in North

America. A study of the living representatives of that race or of

their antiquities is therefore doubly welcome and in the present bulle-

tin we have both; Part i being devoted to the "Customs, Ceremonies,

and Mode of Life" of the modern Maya and Part 2 to "Mound Ex-

cavation in the Eastern Maya Area." The former, covering 36 pages,

considers the habitat, personal characteristics — including the material

culture — and the social characteristics^including religion; the latter

contains a short description of the ancient inhabitants of the region as

revealed by studies of the mounds and objects found in them, but the

larger part of the section, and of the work itself, 84 pages, is devoted

to the archeological remains themselves. J. R. Swanton.

«

ZOOGEOGRAPHY.— Lt> zone investigations in Wyoming. MerriTT

Gary. N. Amer. Fauna 42: 1-95, pis. 15, figs. 17. 1918.

This bulletin embodies the results of many years' exploration in Wy-

oming by the author and other members of the Biological Survey.

These investigations serve to emphasize the diversified character of the

physiography of Wyoming. Its chief characteristics are its many

mountain ranges, vast, open rolling plains, and deep-cut valleys due

to the numerous streams. The cHmate of the State is mainly arid,

the rainfall from 10 to 20 inches, with warm summers and cold win-

ters. As a consequence of these physiographic conditions the life

2ones of the State show remarkable diversity. Of the seven trans-

534 abstracts: zoogeography

continental life areas all but two occur in Wyoming; and their interre-

lationships are, as would be expected, greatly complicated. These five

zones with a few of their characteristic species are as follows:

The Upper Austral Zone (represented here by its western arid sub-

division, the Upper Sonoran), which occupies most of the valleys and

lower plains, is the home of the broad-leaved cotton wood, juniper,

salt bush and yucca; of such mammals as Eutamias minimus pictus,

Citellus tridecemlineatus parvus, Lepus californicus melanotis, and of

such breeding birds as Zenaidura macroura marginella, Tyrannus

vociferans, Passerina amoena, and Icteria virens longicauda.

The Transition Zone, which embraces the high plains, the basal

slopes of the mountains, and all the foot-hills except the highest, and

covers fully half the State, is characterized by yellow pine, narrow-

leaved Cottonwood, and sage brush; such mammals as Odocoileus vir-

ginianus macrourus, Sciurus hudsonicus dakotensis, Neotoma cinerea

cinerea, and Lepus townsendi campanius; and such breeding birds as

Centrocercus urophasianus , Cryptoglaux acadica acadica, Empidonax

wrightii, Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, and Hylocichla fusescens sali-

cicola.

The Canadian Zone, which covers the middle mountain slopes and the

highest foot-hill ranges, is the boreal forest belt of spruce, fir, lodge-

pole pine, and aspen ; and is furthermore delimited by such mammals as

Alces americanus shirasi, Glaucomys sahrinus bangsi, Phenacomys oro-

philus, Evotomys gapperi galei, and Lepus americanus americanus;

and such birds as Charitonetta arbeola, Nuttallornis borealis, Melospiza

lincolnii lincolnii, and Sitta canadensis.

The Hudsonian Zone, which is a narrow belt covering the timber line

region, is marked chiefly by the white-barked pine, dwarfed spruce and

fir; together with such mammals as Ovis canadensis canadensis, Eu-

tamias oreocetes, and Ochotona uinta; and such birds as Nucifraga Colum-

biana and Pinicola enucleator montana.

The Arctic- Alpine Zone, which occupies the mountain crests and the

portion of the peaks above timberline, is a treeless area, the vegetation

of which is limited to low bushes and other humble plants like Dryas

octopetala and Poa arctica, and is the home of such breeding birds as

Lagopus leucurus altipetens, Leucosticte australis, Leucosticte atrata,

and Anthus spinoletta rubescens.

Under each of these zones detailed lists of mammals, breeding birds,

and plants are given, and a further list showing the distribution of all

the conspicuous trees and shrubs of Wyoming which are of importance

in delineating the life zones is also added.

Harry C. Oberholser.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

MATTERS OP SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS'

Mr. Fess has re-introduced his bill for a national university, which

failed of final action in the Sixty-fifth Congress. ^ The present bill

is H. R. 9353: "To create a national university at the seat of the

Federal Government." The institution, to be known as the "National

University of the United States," is to be governed by a board of trus-

tees, consisting of the U. S. Commissioner of Education and twelve

appointed members; the acts of the board are subject to approval by

an advisory council, consisting of one representative (usually the presi-

dent of the State University) from each State. No student is to be

admitted unless he shall have obtained the degree of master of science

or master of arts from an institution of recognized standing. No

academic degrees are to be conferred. An initial appropriation of

$500,000 is provided. The bill was referred to the Committee on Edu-

cation.

A fact of interest to the scientific public is that the "Army reorganiza-

tion bill" (S. 2715, Mr. Wads worth; and H. R. 8287, Mr. Kahn)

makes no mention of the Chemical Warfare Service. In his letter

accompanying the bill, Secretary of War Baker suggests that the

Chemical Warfare Service be made a part of the Engineer Corps. The

proposal to abolish the Service as a distinct unit, comparable with the

Tank Corps, is being vigorously opposed by the Council of the Amer-

ican Chemical Society.

Warnings issued by the Public Health Service in September that a

recurrence of the 191 8 pandemic of influenza was probable in the autumn

months of 1919, stirred renewed interest in the various bills and resolu-

tions providing for investigations of that disease, but no final action had

been taken at the time of this report, although Mr. Harding's S. J.

Res. '76 was reported in the Senate on October i.

On September 3, Mr. McKellar introduced S. 2920: "To enable

the Secretary of Agriculture to carry out investigations of the causes

and means of prevention of fires and dust explosions in industrial plants."

The bill provides $100,000 for such investigations. Referred to the

Committee on Agriculture and Forestry.

A plan for private development, under Federal concessions, of the

platinum resources of Alaska is contained in H. R. 8988: "To incor-

porate the United States Platinum Corporation and to aid in the de-

velopment of the mineral resources of Alaska, and for other purposes,"

introduced on September 3 by Mr. O'Connell (by request). The

proposed Corporation would have a capital stock not to exceed $50,000,-

000; would be exempt from Federal taxation; would be empowered to

receive concessions and leases of government-owned platinum sands

in Alaska; would pay a royalty of one-eighth of its net products; and

would furnish $100,000 for the maintenance of five "U. S. Govern-

ment Commissioners of Platinum and its Allied Industries," whose

duties are not defined in the bill. Referred to the Committee on Pub-

lic Lands.

1 Preceding report : This Journai, 9:454. 1919.

- See This Journal 8: 76. 191 8.

536 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

No action was taken on the invitation of the French Government'

to send delegates to a meteorological conference in Paris on September

30, and the United States was, therefore, not officially represented.

NOTES

The proposed American Meteorological Society, formal organiza-

tion of which is suggested for action in connection with the next meet-

ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, is

expected to have a large Washington membership, drawn from the

staff of the Weather Bureau and from among the meteorologists of the

Army and Navy. It is suggested that the Monthly Weather Review

be made the medium for publishing meteorological and climatological

articles, while a monthly leaflet published by the Society would con-

tain news, announcements, notes, and queries.

Mr. L. B. Aldrich of the Astrophysical Observatory reports from the

Smithsonian Station on Mt. Wilson, California, the successful opera-

tion of a new instrument for measuring the loss of heat of the earth to

space at night.

Prof. AivFRED F. Barker, Professor of Textile Industries at the

University of Leeds, England, visited Washington in September to

study the work being done in the Division of Textiles of the National

Museum.

Dr. C. Bonne and his wife, Mrs. C. Bonne -Wepster, of Surinam

(Dutch Guiana), students of South American mosquitoes, are spending

two months at the National Museum in the study of the mosquito

collection.

Mr. R. Y. Ferner, formerly with the Bureau of Standards, has re-

signed his position as assistant purchasing officer in the Emergency

Fleet Corporation, where he had charge of the purchase of navigational

outfits, and has opened an office in the Maryland Building, Washington,

for the supplying of technical information and service to manufacturers

and others.

Brig. Gen. Charles F. Lee, of the British Royal Air Force, who

lectured before the Academy in March, 191 8, on "Aviation and the

War," was killed in an aeroplane accident in England on September 2.

Mr. Paul C. Standley, of the Division of Plants, U. S. National

Museum, has returned from a collecting trip through Glacier National

Park, Montana. Data were secured for a handbook of the plants of

the Park, to be issued by the National Park Service for the use of tour-

ists. About four thousand herbarium specimens were collected.

3 This Journal 9: 455. 1919-

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 NOVEMBER 4, 19 19 No. 18

PHYSICS. — The spectral photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite

as a function of the applied voltage. W. W. CoblENTZ

and H. KahlER, Bureau of Standards.

In a previous investigation it was observed that the spectral

photoelectric sensitivity of molybdenite is confined practically

within three spectral bands, the maxima of which are separated

by equal intervals, when plotted in terms of frequency instead

of wave lengths.

The present investigation was undertaken in order to test the

validity of this frequency relation, using for the purpose a quartz

prism which gave twice the dispersion formerly obtained with a

fluorite prism. The sample of molybdenite was soldered to

copper wire terminals, and operated in an evacuated chamber

as in previous work. The photoelectric substance, the dry

battery and the d'Arsonval galvanometer were connected in

series. The deflection caused by the small dark current was

overcome by rotating th^ suspension head of the galvanometer.

The results obtained with this apparatus appear to verify

the previous observations, indicating that the frequency max-

ima of photoelectrical sensitivity are separated by equal intervals,

which decrease with temperature; the arbitrary wave-number

being w = 40 at 25 °C. and w = 30 at — i75°C.

A new voltage phenomenon. — A photo-negative action (re-

sistance increase) has been observed in certain samples of sele-

nium,^ when exposed to the total radiation from an incandescent

1 RiES, Phys. Zeits. 9: 569. 1908. Brown, Phys. Rev. 33: i. 191 1.

537

538 COBLENTZ AND KAHLER : PHOTOELECTRIC SENSITIVITY

lamp. A similar spectral photo-negative response was observed

in some samples of stibnite,- when exposed to radiations of wave-

lengths less than X = 0.657 M- But heretofore no one appears

to have observed that, for wave-lengths less than about 0.65 n,

the nature of the photoelectric response depends upon the voltage

applied to the substance under test.

We have found in some samples of molybdenite that, for the

visible spectrum extending to about X = 0.647 M, the electric

response is photo-positive or photo-negative, depending upon

the voltage applied to the terminals of the receiver. For wave-

lengths greater than X = 0.647 M the photoelectric response was

observed to be photo-positive whatever the applied voltage.

The region of transition in the spectrum, in which the action

changes from photo-negative to photo-positive, is very narrow

— less than 9 AU.

The critical voltage is very small, as may be inferred from the

fact that an increase of 1.3 volts (additional dry cell) changed a

positive-negative galvanometer deflection of ± i cm. into a

purely negative deflection of — 24 to — 26 cm., which is the

photo-negative response under discussion.

There seem to be two contending forces acting. The one which

causes the photo-positive respons:^ acts quickly and prevails on

low voltage. The photo-negative action builds up more slowly

and is predominant on high voltages. As a result of these two

forces, for certain applied voltages, on exposing the molybdenite

receiver to light of wave-lengths less than 0.647 M. the galvanom-

eter deflection is first positive, then decreases in value (and

may even become negative) when, on shutting off the light

stimulus, there is a further deflection in the negative direction,

after which the deflection returns to the original zero scale read-

ing.

For example, using the wave-length X = 0.5876 /j. as a light

stimulus, and applying a potential of 10 volts, the galvanometer

deflection was almost entirely positive. On 20 volts the de-

flection was partly positive and partly negative. On 29 volts

the positive response was almost eliminated, and the negative

2 Elliot, Phys. Rev. 5: 62. 191 5.

FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA 539

response prevailed. On 33 volts the galvanometer deflection

was entirely negative and eight times as large as the observed

maximum purely positive deflection for 10 volts. In another

test, at a slightly lower temperature ( — i04°C.), which raises

the critical voltage, changing from 35.6 volts to 37 volts trans-

formed the positive-negative deflection of =*= ^ tnm. into a nega-

tive deflection of — 230 mm.

These tests were carried out at — ioo°C. to — i78°C. It

is of interest to note that the photo-positive action is the same as

a resistance decrease caused by a rise in temperature of the

material, while the photo-negative action is similar to the build-

ing up of a counter-electromotive force (the electrolytic action),

previously observed in silver sulfide. An equal-energy spectrum

was used for the radiation stimulus and if this phenomenon

were the result of heating and of electrolytic action, then the

photo-positive response should occur in the short wave-lengths

where the absorption is greatest, and the photo-negative re-

sponse should occur in the long wave-lengths where the photo-

electric activity is the greatest. This is just the reverse of what

has been observed.

No explanation of this phenomenon is attempted at this

time. Even if it is "only a gas effect," "electrolytic action"

or "surface charge," it is unique in being selective as to the wave-

length of the exciting radiation and in being photo-positive or

photo-negative, depending upon the applied voltage. It there-

fore requires further investigation.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — Tlte oxidation of lava by steam. J.

B. Ferguson, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington.

Crystals of olivine and other iron-bearing minerals are found

associated with glass in the normal Kilauean lava, and some

years ago the question arose as to whether their presence might

be taken as evidence bearing upon the probable water content

of the volcanic exhalations. Preliminary experiments^ made

1 Day, a. L., and Shepherd, E. S., Water and volcanic activity. Bull. Geol. vSoc.

Amer. 24: 602. 1913. Smithsonian Report for 1913, 302 (Publication 2286).

540 FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA

at that time by the writer indicated that the lava was not ap-

preciably attacked by water vapor at temperatures in the neigh-

borhood of iooo°C. and that the presence in the lava of so much

iron in the ferrous condition was not at variance with the water

content of the emanations observed by Day and Shepherd.^

These experimental results, obtained in 191 2 and 1913, are now

presented as a matter of record.

Most of the writers who have speculated upon the role that

water plays in the chemical reactions which take place in the

volcanic vent during an eruption have based much of their

speculation upon the equation'

3FeO + H2O Z^ Fe304 + H2 + 15400 cal.

This equation must not be taken too literally, because recent

investigations^ have indicated that the action of steam upon a

ferrous iron oxide at high temperatures gives rise to a "mag-

netite" of variable composition. The actual composition ob-

tained is dependent upon the temperature.^

An analysis of a fresh flow of Kilauean lava" shows 9.28 per

cent FeO and 1.92 per cent Fe203. The ratio of ferrous to ferric

iron in this rock is much greater than the ratio in magnetite

(1:2) and, were we deaUng with the pure iron oxides only,

this fact might be used as an argument against the presence of

a preponderance of water vapor in the gas phase. The lava,

however, does not contain ferrous oxide as a separate phase.

The ferrous iron exists mainly in the silicate minerals and the

glass, together with a little in the traces of magnetite which are

probably present, although microscopic examination does not

show appreciable amounts of Fe304. The equations which would

2 Day and Shepherd, Loc. cit. Shepherd, E. S., Bull. Hawaiian Volcano Obs.

7 (July). 1919.

* Chamberlin, R. T., Carnegie Publication No. io6: 66. 1903. R. A.

Daly, Igneous rocks and their origin, p. 272. 1914. Von Wolff, Vulkanisnius,

I, p. 116. 1914.

^ Htlpert, S., and Beyer, J., Ber. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 44: 1618. 1911.

* The whole problem of the various oxides of iron is an exceedingly difficult one

to study experimentally and much yet remains to be done before the problem can

be considered satisfactorily solved.

* Ferguson, J. B., Am. Journ. Sci. 37: 400. Analysis B. 1914.

FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA 54I

represent the reaction between water and the ferrous iron in the

silicates might be quite different in character from the equation

given for the pure oxides, and an assumption of analogous be-

havior in these cases appears to be a somewhat risky matter.^

Indeed, Thaddeef's^ results upon the oxidation of olivine by

ignition in air indicate that the oxides are much more easily

oxidized than is the ferrous iron of the olivine. He found that

only two-thirds of the iron present in this silicate could be oxi-

dized by such ignition, whereas it is common knowledge that

ferrous oxide would be readily changed to ferric oxide under

similar treatment.^

My results qualitatively confirm the observations of Thad-

deef in this respect and were carried out as follows:

Materials. — A piece of lava from the crater floor of Kilauea

was crushed in a hardened steel mortar and the part that passed

the twenty but not the forty mesh sieve (0.38-0.86 mm.) and

also the part that passed the two hundred mesh sieve (less than

0.074 mm.) were used.

The nitrogen was made from sodium nitrite, or by removal

of oxygen from air by copper, and was passed through the usual

purifying and drying train.

Apparatus and procedure. — The furnace was a platinum-

wound resistance furnace of the type usually employed in this

laboratory. The temperatures were determined by means of a

platinum-platinrhodium thermoelement and a suitable potentiom-

eter set-up. A long porcelain tube was placed in the furnace

so that it projected twenty or thirty cm. out of the furnace at

one end and five or six cm. at the other. The charge was placed

in a platinum boat in the porcelain tube, and the boat had at-

tached to it a stiff platinum wire which enabled one to insert the

boat into the hot portion of the tube or to withdraw it into the

colder portion at will.

^ Such an assumption appears to have been made by Brun, who states that water

vapor du-ectly oxidizes the ferrous siHcate to magnetite. His statement is not con-

firmed by analyses of the soHd products after reaction with water, but rests on the

change in color of the rock and the presence of hydrogen, together with CO and CO2,

in the gases evolved. Arch. sci. phys. nat. 41: 404. 1916.

8 ThaddeEF, K. Z., Kryst. 26: 77. 1896.

9 SosMAN, R. B., and HosTETTER, J. C, Joiu-n. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 820. 1916.

542 i^Erguson: oxidation of lava

For the steam experiments the steam-generating apparatus

was attached to that end of the porcelain tube which projected

5-6 cm. from the furnace. This apparatus consisted of a boiler

and pre-heater. The latter also acted as a trap for liquid water.

The boiler had two valves so that the water in it could be boiled

for some time to expel all oxygen before an experiment was

started. The rest of the apparatus was so arranged that it

could be initially swept out with pure nitrogen and then, after the

steam had been shut off at the close of an experiment, could be

again filled with nitrogen. The water that condensed in the cold

portion of the porcelain tube was wiped out before the boat was

withdrawn. During the wiping-out process and the cooling of

the charge an atmosphere of pure nitrogen was maintained.

Typical experiment. — Five grams of lava powder were placed

in the platinum boat and the boat placed in the cold end of the

porcelain tube. Nitrogen was then admitted to the apparatus

and all the air swept out. The boat was then pushed into the

hot portion of the porcelain tube. The nitrogen was partly

shut off and steam admitted. When a good flow of steam was

obtained through the furnace the nitrogen was entirely shut off.

The porcelain tube was so tilted that the water condensing in

the colder portion of the tube, after passing the hot zone, would

drain away from the furnace. After the experiment had run for

the desired time the steam was gradually replaced by nitrogen.

The liquid water in the end of the porcelain tube was wiped out

(a good flow of nitrogen prevented the access of air during this

operation) and then the boat was withdrawn to the cold portion of

the tube and, when cold, removed. A part of the charge was ana-

lyzed for ferrous iron by the modified Pratt method as used by

Washington. ^° Calcium phosphate as recommended by Gage

was used to aid in the determination of the end points in the

permanganate titration. ^^ It should be noted that if any of the

reducing gases present in the rock dissolved when the rock

sample was brought into solution, they would be titrated and

would appear as ferrous iron.

1° Washington, H. S., The chemical analysis oj rocks, 2d Ed., p. 136-138. 1910;

3d Ed., p. 186-190. 1919.

" Journ. Amer. Chem. See. 31: 381-385. 1909.

FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA

543

TABLE I

ResuIvTs of Experiments with a Kilauean Lava in Contact with Nitrogen

AND Steam

Exp.

No.

Initial

FeO

Final

FeO

Ga

Fineness

Time of of

Percent-

content content

per inch

Remarks

in FeO

^ Top of charge.

2 Bottom of charge.

544 FERGUSON: OXIDATION OF LAVA

The results obtained in the experiments at atmospheric pres-

sure and at a low pressure of nitrogen are given in table i.

In addition, the results of two miscellaneous experiments are

given below.

( 1 9) Some of the lava powder was heated in a platinum crucible

in air over a Meker burner for two hours. The ferrous iron

content was then found to be 1.94 per cent.

(20) Some of the oxidized product obtained in experiment

(19) was heated in a partial vacuum (o.i mm. of nitrogen) for

4 hours at iioo°C. The ferrous iron value was then found to

have been raised from 1.94 to 3.90 per cent. A duplicate analy-

sis gave 3.87 per cent.

Discussion. — The results given in table i show that after

heating there is a decrease in the ferrous iron content of the rock

amounting, in terms of the ferrous iron originally present, to

4-9 per cent for the coarse powder and 11-16 per cent for the

fine powder. The variations within each group are not trace-

able in any way to the gas phase present. In fact the steam

appears to have acted like an inert gas.^^

Just what is the complete cause of the decrease noted is some-

what of a question. A certain apparent decrease in the ferrous

iron content might be expected from the loss of the reducing

gases which are liberated upon heating the lava, and some de-

crease might also arise from the taking up of some iron by the

platinum boat.^^ An actual decrease would occur if part of the

ferrous iron were oxidized by adsorbed gases. These effects,

would, however, be expected to be small.

The decrease in ferrous iron must therefore be ascribed mainly

to some reaction within the lava sample itself. The magnetite

which formed when the lava crystallized^'* was probably the last

^2 It cannot be argued that the gas reacted only with the surface material and

did not penetrate the charge, for experiment (15) shows that samples from the bottom

and top of the charge contain exactly the same amoimt of ferrous iron. Also it can

hardly be argued that there was a surface attack upon the lava grains since the re-

sults with both fine and coarse materials show the same independence of the gas

phase, and the same final ferrous iron content.

'' SosMAN, R. B., and Hostetter, J. C, This Joltrnal. 5: 293. 1915.

^* After an experiment the material was found completely crystallized, although

originally containing much glass.

Ferguson: oxidation of lava 545

material to dissolve during the decomposition of the sample

with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, and if the formation of this

mineral were at the expense of the oxygen in the remainder of

the lava, the analytical results would probably not indicate this

but would rather show merely less ferrous iron. The mechanism

of such a reaction within the lava with the formation of magnetite

can only be speculated upon. Sosman^^ has suggested the possi-

biUty of the presence of iron (Fe) in solution in the glass or min-

erals after this reaction. Another possible reaction would be

the formation of a lower oxide of titanium than the Ti02 usually

reported.

The fact that both the fine and coarse material, although

of shghtly dififerent initial ferrous iron content, contain prac-

tically the same percentages after treatment is probably trace-

able to the larger percentage of glass and smaller percentage of

Fe304 in the fine material.

Whatever the cause of the small decrease in ferrous iron, and

of the variations therein, the experiments leave no doubt that

considerable ferrous iron, when in silicate combinations, can

exist in the presence of water vapor at high temperatures.

The vacuum experiment (No. 20) with the oxidized material

shows clearly the ease with which oxygen can be removed from

such materials and indicates that due regard must be given to

this phenomenon not only in the study of the chemistry of lavas,

but also in the interpretation of the results obtained in experi-

ments in which gases are pumped from rocks at high tempera-

tures.

The data given in this article are of a qualitative rather than

a quantitative character, and are not to be regarded as final data

on the reactions of water vapor with iron-bearing silicates.

The complete story cannot be obtained by experiments on so

complex a material as a natural lava, but must be learned by

experiments with simple siHcates of known composition. These

results are presented here, however, on account of their current

interest and in the absence of any fundamental data on the re-

actions concerned.

IB Private communication; see also this Journal. 7: 58. 1917

546 HITCHCOCK: Mexican grass

The microscopic examination of the samples was made by

H. K. Merwin of this Laboratory,

RECAPITULATION

Under certain conditions steam is capable of oxidizing iron and

its lower oxides to magnetite, Fe304, or to ferric oxide, FcoOs.

This fact has often been quoted as an indication of the probable

oxidizing action of steam upon lava during volcanic activity.

In this paper this reasoning from analogy is subjected to the

light of recent investigations and found wanting. In addition,

some experimental results are given which confirm the view that

the ferrous iron is not thus oxidized, and indicate that the pres-

ence of much ferrous iron in the lava and much steam in the

volcanic emanations of Kilauea are two facts which are in full

accord. Several miscellaneous experiments are also reported

which show that in the experimental study of the chemistry of

the lavas careful attention must be paid to the character of the

gas phase in contact with the lava if results of value are to be

obtained. The bearing of these experiments upon the interpre-

tation of the results obtained by pumping gases from rocks at

high temperatures need only be mentioned.

BOTANY. — History of the Mexican grass, Ixophorus unisetus.

A. S. Hitchcock, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In 1 791 Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian botanist accompany-

ing Malaspina on an exploring expedition to the Pacific coast

of America, visited Mexico, stopping at San Bias and Acapulco.

From the latter place he visited the interior of the country.

His collections were sent to Prague and were examined by the

botanists J. S. Presl and C. B. Presl, who finally published an

account of a few famihes, including the grasses,^ under the title,

Reliquiae Haenkeanae. In this work 15 genera and about 250

species of grasses were described as new. They came from the

western coast of South America, Panama, Mexico, Monterey

(California), Nootka Sound (Vancouver Island), and the Philip-

pine and Marianne Islands. Some of the species, supposed to

be new, proved to be the same as others previously described,

1 Presl, Rel. Haenk. i: 207-349, pi. 37-48. 1830.

HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 547

but a large number are still maintained as valid. The plants

were deposited at the Bohemian Museum but, when the German

University was established, the collections were divided, a part

going to each institution. In 1907 the writer found a part of

the Haenke grasses at the Bohemian Museum and a part at the

German University. The labels on the specimens are meager,

usually merely a single word, such as Mexico, Panama, Acapulco,

and sometimes even this lacking. There is not always an agree-

ment between the label on the specimen and the locality as

published by Presl, and in a few cases there is evidence that the

labels have been misplaced.

The grass under consideration was described as Urochloa

uniseta. The genus Urochloa was based upon Urochloa pani-

coides,^ a species of Panicum from lie de France (Mauritius),

referred to later in this article. This species has the spikelets

in one-sided spikelike racemes with one or two slender stiff hairs

on the pedicel below the spikelets. In Presl's species the spike-

lets are in similar one-sided spikes and are subtended by bristles,

a single one below each spikelet, these bristles being, however,

sterile branchlets instead of hairs or trichomes as in Urochloa

panicoides. The locality of U. uniseta as published is merely

Mexico. The type specimen, at the German University, is

labeled, "Urochloa uniseta Pr. Mexico, H." It is the upper part

of a culm bearing three leaves and a panicle of about 20 spikes.

In 1834 Trinius, in revising the section Setaria of the genus

Panicum, remarked that Presl's Urochloa uniseta, which ap-

parently he had not seen, probably belonged in Setaria and named

it Panicum unisetum.

In 1862 Schlechtendahl revised Setaria and its allies and es-

tablished the genus Ixophorus, basing it upon Urochloa uniseta

Presl. He also mentioned a specimen collected by Schiede,

which he called I. schiedeana. This species is not described,

the author merely saying that it is more delicate and the bristles

are thinner and longer.

In 1886 Fournier, who wrote an account of the grasses of Mex-

ico, described a new species of Setaria, which he called 5. cirrhosa,

2 Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 52. pi. 11. fig. i. 1812.

548 HITCHCOCK: Mexican grass

based upon a specimen (No. 387) collected at San Agustin

(Oaxaca) by Liebmann, a Danish botanist, who made extensive

collections in Mexico (Vera Cruz and Oaxaca). The type speci-

men of this species was kindly sent for examination by the

Director of the Botanical Museum at Copenhagen. It proves

to be the same as Ixophorus unisetus. The specimen bears, in

Fournier's handwriting, the name Panicum cirrhosum Fourn. n.

sp., a name which, in pubUcation, he changed to Setaria cirrhosa.

The species just mentioned is the fifth species of Setaria in

Fournier's account. His sixth is Setaria uniseta, based upon

Urochloa uniseta Presl. As number seven he hsts without de-

scription Setaria schiedeana, based on Ixophorus schiedeanus

Schlecht., stating that he has not seen this and that Schlechten-

dahl does not describe it, thus inflicting on the botanist another

nomen nudum.

Thus the species remained until 1893, when several manu-

script descriptions of Dr. George Vasey were pubHshed after

his death. Under the name Panicum (Ptychophyllum) palmeri

Vasey is published a new species based on a specimen collected by

Dr. K. Palmer at Tequila, JaUsco, in 1886. Vasey remarked

that this is near Setaria cirrhosa Fourn. Vasey referred this

to the section Ptychophyllum of Panicum because of the single

bristle below the spikelets, because of the inflorescence, which

resembles that of P. sulcatum, and perhaps because of the rather

broad blades.

In 1895 Dr. J. N. Rose published an account of the plants col-

lected in Mexico by Dr. E. Palmer in 1890 and 1891. Among

the grasses is a new species credited to Dr. Vasey, Panicum

{Ptychophyllum) pringlei. The specimens mentioned are Pr ingle

2047 and 2423, and Palmer 1256 in 1891. All are small forms

of Ixophorus unisetus. Because of the specific name and be-

cause Dr. Vasey has written the name upon Pringle 2423, this

specimen is the type.

In 1896 Beal published the same species as new under the name

Panicum schiedeanum "Trin. ex. Steud. Nom. Ed. 2, 2: 263

(1841). P. Pringlei Vasey in ed.," basing it on Pringle's No.

2423 from Jahsco, which is the type of Panicum pringlei. Beal

HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 549

uses the name P. schiedeanum because it appears on the printed

labels of the plants distributed by Pringle (No. 2423). The

citation given by Beal, however, is a nomen nudum (a name

without description or citation of a synonym). A specimen in

the Trinius Herbarium labeled Panicum schiedeanum is a species

of Paspalum. Beal gives Panicum palmeri Vasey on a succeeding

page as a distinct species.

In 1897 Scribner revised the genus Ixophorus, describing

I. unisetus, I. pringlei Scribn. ''{Panicum schiedeanum Beal,

not Trin.)," and I. pringlei var. minor Scribn.

The descriptions of the forms do not differ except in the size

of the vegetative parts, the specimens assigned to I. pringlei

being smaller, the blades shorter and narrower, and the spikes

fewer and shorter. The variety is a still more depauperate form,

with blades only i to 3 inches long {Palmer 1256 in 1891 from

CoHma, Mexico).

Finally, in 1900, Scribner and Merrill, in their revision of the

genus Chaetochloa (Setaria), listed among the excluded species

Setaria cirrhosa Fourn. (see above), which they refer to Panicum

as P. cirrhosum. In this they depended upon Fournier's de-

scription as they had not seen the single collection cited by him.

The above account of the nomenclatorial history of a little-

known species is instructive as showing how variable are the

judgments of different botanists, or of the same botanist at

different times, when working with inadequate material. The

single species has been described under five different specific

names and has been referred to four genera. Fournier had not

seen Presl's specimen and American authors had not seen Four-

nier's nor Presl's specimens. Only recently has there been

sufficient material to confirm the judgment that all the forms

belong to one species.

A peculiarity of the sterile palea is worthy of note. At first

the margins, wide and thin, overlap and inclose the three large

anthers of the sterile or lower floret. At maturity the margins

expand and spread around the sterile lemma, appearing wingHke

and papery. This expansion appears to be rather sudden as it is

observed only in specimens with fruiting spikelets.

550 HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS

Ixophorus unisetus is cultivated in Costa Rica as a forage grass

under the name of Honduras grass (Zacate de Honduras).

The synonymy of the species and a Hst of the specimens in

the National Herbarium follow:

Ixophorus unisetus (Presl) Schlecht.

Urochloa uniseta Presl, Rel. Haenk. i: 319. 1830.

Panicum unisetum, Trin. Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci,

Nat. i: 217. 1834.

Ixophorus unisetus Schlecht., Linnaea 31: 421. 1862.

Ixophorus schiedeanus Schlecht. Linnaea 31: 421. 1862.

Setaria schiedeana Fourn., Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot.

3: 505. 1885.

Setaria uniseta Fourn., Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 506.

1885.

Setaria cirrhosa Fourn., Mex. PI. 2: 43. 1886.

Panicum palmeriYasey, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb, i: 281. 1893

Panicum pringlei Vasey, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb, i: 363

1895-

Panicum schiedeanum Trin., Beal, Grasses N. Amer. 2: 119

1886.

Ixophorus pringlei Scribn., U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost

Bull. 4: 6. pi. 2. 1897.

Ixophorus pringlei minor Scribn. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost

Bull. 4: 7. 1897.

Panicum cirrhosum Scribn. & Merr., U. S. Dept. Agr. Div

Agrost. Bull. 21: 40. 1900.

DISTRIBUTION

San Luis Potosi: Rascon, Pur pus 5425.

Tepic: Acaponeta, Rose 14253.

Jalisco: Tequila, Palmer 372 in 1886. Valley of the Rio

Grande de Santiago, Pringle 2423. Near Guadalajara, Pringle

2047.

Morelos: Trimenta, Orcutt 4407. Valley of Cuantla, Pringle

8493. Cuernavaca, Hitchcock 6821, 6841.

Colima: Cohma, Palmer 141 in 1897, 1256 in 1891. Alzada,

Hitchcock 7070, 7091. Jala, Hitchcock 7007.

Guerrero: Iguala, Hitchcock 6695. Balsas, Hitchcock 6805.

HITCHCOCK: MEXICAN GRASS 551

GuaTEmaIvA: Patulul, Heyde & Lux 6401.

Salvador: San Salvador, Renson 301, 362. Sonsonate, Hitch-

cock 8977.

Nicaragua: Corinto, Hitchcock 8614. Realejo, Hitchcock

8750.

Costa Rica: Guadelupe, Tonduz 14480 (cultivated).

In a preceding paragraph it was stated that the genus Urochloa,

to which Ixophorus unisetus was first referred, was based upon a

single species, U. panicoides Beauv. (1812). A few years later

(18 1 6) Poiret described the same species as Panicum javanicum.

In 1 82 1 Trinius, in an article entitled Agrostographische Beyirdge,*

published an allied species from the East Indies, as Panicum

helopus. Later authors confused the two species and Hooker

in his Flora of British India unites them under the name P.

javanicum. This author, who is much given to placing under

one name several allied species, makes the following statement

under P. javanicum: "Kunth (Revis. Gram. i. 206) says,

under Urochloa panicoides, that he has examined in Desfontaine's

Herbarium the type of Poiret's P. javanicum, and identified it,

which he cites as a syn. of Urochloa panicoides, but his figure

of which again quite accords with a narrow-leaved form of P.

helopus, Trin. This requires the adoption of the name javanicum

(by misprint japonicum in Kunth Revis.) for the species. Bent-

ham, on the other hand {Fl. Austral., vii 477), says that Munro

has seen an authentic specimen of javanicum, and that it is quite

distinct from P. helopus. I have no means of verifying either

authority." The original description of P. javanicum states that

the spikelets are glabrous; the original description of P. helopus

states that the spikelets are hirsute. Beauvois's figure, accom-

panying the original description of Urochloa panicoides, shows the

spikelets to be glabrous. Thus one can easily distinguish the

two species without consulting the evidence of which Hooker

speaks.

The species with glabrous spikelets should be known as Pani-

cum panicoides (Beauv.) Hitchc. {Urochloa panicoides Beauv.

Ess. Agrost. 52. pi. II. fig. I. 181 2; Panictim javanicum

Poir. in Lam. Encycl. Suppl. 4: 274. 18 16).

3 Spreng. Neu. Rntd. 2: 84. 1821.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — General theory of polyconic projections. Oscar S. Adams.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Spec. Publ. 57. Pp. 174. pi. i.

figs. 48. 1919.

In this publication an attempt has been made to give a fairly com-

plete treatment of the various systems of projection in which the

parallels are represented by a group of non-concentric circles with the

centers of these circles all lying upon a straight line. The number of

such systems is unlimited; the aim has been, therefore, to give a de-

velopment of the projections that are most frequently met with in

practice. Some attention, however, is given to more general theoretical

considerations in order to illustrate the way in which particular prop-

erties can be attained in a given projection by the introduction of ana-

lytical conditions in the mathematical definition of the projection.

In the treatment of any particular projection, the development is

given first from the standpoint of the simpler geometrical or analytical

principles upon which it is based, and later the same results are deduced

from the more general principles that may be found to apply to the

projection under consideration. This method of attack is found more

rigidly applied in the case of the conformal polyconic projections than

in the treatment of any other class in the polyconic group. The com-

paratively simple geometrical or analytical development is first given

and this is followed by a development of the results by the employment

of functions of a complex variable in accordance with the principles

demonstrated by Gauss and Lagrange,

A full mathematical treatment of the ordinary or the American

polyconic projection is given in the latter part of the volume. No

adequate development of this has ever before been given in one volume

in an American publication. Information in regard to it has been

largely confined to articles in the various annual reports of the Super-

intendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the result has

been that it was difficult to get copies of the articles on account of the

exhaustion of the supply of the reports in which the articles were found.

552

abstracts: botany 553

This volume will, therefore, serve to meet the requirements of those

who wish to have information with regard to the mathematical prin-

ciples underlying this projection, which has always been extensively

used in America. O. S. A.

PHYSICS. — Some optical and photoelectrical properties of molybdenite.

W. W. CoBLENTz and H. KahlER. Bur. Stand. Sci. Paper 338.

Pp. 51. 1919.

This paper gives data on the transmissivity and the reflectivity of

molybdenite; also data upon its change in electrical conductivity,

when exposed to thermal radiations of wave-lengths extending from

the ultra-violet into the extreme infra-red. The efifect of temperature,

humidity, intensity of the exciting light, etc., upon the photoelectrical

sensitivity of molybdenite were investigated.

It was found that: (i) samples of molybdenite obtained from vari-

ous localities differ greatly in sensitivity; (2) there are maxima of sen-

sitivity in the region of 0.73 ix, 0.85 /x, 1.08 /x, and 1.8 /x; (3) there is no

simple law governing the variation in the photoelectric response with

variation in intensity of the radiation stimulus; (4) the increase in

photoelectric cmrent with increase in intensity of the incident radiation

is greatest for infra-red rays. It is greatest for low intensities of the

exciting light and it is greatest on the long wave-length side of the

maximum; (5) the photoelectric sensitivity increases with decrease in

temperature. At 70 °C. the bands at 1.02 fx and 1.8 /x have practically

disappeared. On the other hand, at liquid air temperatm-es, the

greatest change in electrical conductivity is produced by radiations

of wave-lengths between 0.8 fj, and 0.9 ix.

Unlike selenium, molybdenite appears unique in being photoelec-

trically sensitive to infra-red rays, extending to about 3 ix. W. W. C.

BOTANY. — Flora of the District of Columbia and vicinity. A. S.

Hitchcock and Paul C. Standley, with the assistance of the

botanists of Washington. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 21. Pp. 329.

pis. 42. fig. I. 1919.

The area included by the Flora is approximately a circle of 15 miles

radius, with the Capitol as the center. The formal list includes all

indigenous plants and all introduced ones that have become established.

All the species admitted to the Ust are based upon specimens in the

District Flora Herbarium, which has been segregated from the main

collection of the National Herbarium. Species reported but which are

554 abstracts: ornithology

not supported by specimens are mentioned in notes. All the species

mentioned in Ward's Flora (the standard list of the region up to the

present) and its Supplements have been accounted for, even though

they cannot now be verified by specimens, some in synonymy and some

as being errors of identification. There are formally listed 646 genera

and 1630 species, and many more are mentioned in notes as being waifs.

There are two keys to families, one based mainly upon vegetative char-

acters, the other mainly upon floral characters. There are also keys

to genera and to the species. Under each species is mentioned the com-

mon name, the habitat, the distribution in the District, the flowering

period and the general distribution. An introduction gives a brief

history of botanical activity in the District and a short account of the

geologic and ecologic features of the region. The work concludes

with a Glossary and Index and is accompanied by 42 plates giving 57

halftones, some illustrating the ecologic features of the flora, others

several of the interesting species. A. S. H.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Washington region. (February and March, 1918.)

Harry C. Oberholser. Bird Lore 20: 231-32. 1918.

February and March are usually the least favorable months for bird

observations about Washington. In the year 191 7, however, these

months were notable for the many ducks which frequented the Potomac

River. Two species, Marila americana and Spatula clypeata, both

of which are rare about Washington, particularly in the spring, were

observed in March. Furthermore, Nettion carolinense and Aristonetta

valisineria remained later than ever before. Notwithstanding the

very severe winter a number of early migrants appeared considerably

ahead of their schedule; Fulica americana on March 9, earlier than any

previous record. Some species, such as Regulus satrapa, N annus

hiemalis hiemalis, and Sitta canadensis canadensis have been unusually

scarce; others, such as Passerella iliaca, at times more than commonly

numerous. H. C. O.

ORNlTHOhOGY.— Notes on North American birds. VII. Harry

C. OberholsER. Auk 36: 81-85. January, 19 19.

An investigation of the American Nettion carolinense shows that this

bird is clearly a distinct species and not a subspecies of the European

Nettion crecca. On the other hand. Circus hudsonius (Linnaeus) proves

to intergrade individually with Circus cyaneus of Europe, and should,

therefore, stand as Circus cyaneus hudsonius (Linnaeus). The gray

abstracts: ornithology 555

sea eagles from eastern Asia prove to be subspecifically different from

the European Haliaeetus alhicilla and should be called Haliaeetus

alhicilla brooksi Hume. The birds of this species occurring on the

Aleutian Islands belong, of course, to this race, and Haliaeetus alhicilla

brooksi is thus added to the North American list. The American bird

now called Larus brachyrhynchus proves to be only subspecifically dif-

ferent from Larus canus of Europe, and its name, therefore, should be

Larus canus brachyrhynchus. Although Corvus caurinus Baird has

been commonly considered a distinct species, there is apparently nothing

in either size or color to warrant its status as other than a subspecies.

It, therefore, should hereafter be called Corvus brachyrhynchus caurinus

Baird. The golden warbler commonly known as Dendroica bryanti

castaneiceps Ridgway proves now to be a subspecies of Dendroica

erithachorides Baird, since Dendroica bryanti is found to intergrade with

the latter. Its name, therefore, should be Dendroica erithachorides

castaneiceps Ridgway. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— M«/aMc?a ornithologica. V. Harry C. Oberhol-

SER. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 7-8. Feb. 14, 1919.

The woodpecker now known as lyngipicus auritus (Eyton) has an

earlier name, and should therefore be known as Yungipicus moluccensis

(Gmelin). The names of four other woodpeckers are preoccupied and

they, therefore, require changing as follows: lyngipicus pygmaeus

(Vigors) becomes Yungipicus mitchellii (Malherbe) ; Dendropicos

minutus (Temminck) is here renamed Dendropicos elachus. Campethera

punctata (Valenciennes) will now stand as Campethera punctuligera

(Wagler) ; and Gecinus striolatus (Blyth) becomes Picus xanthopygius

(Bonaparte). H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY.— MMtowda ' orw?Y/io/ogica. VI. Harry C. Ober-

HOLSER. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32: 21-22. Apr. 11, 19 19.

The changes in the names of birds on account of preoccupation or

overlooked earlier names here made concern five species. The bird

commonly known as Francolinus chinensis (Miiller) must now stand as

Francolinus pintadeanus (Scopoli) ; Totanus maculatus (Tunstall) be-

comes Totanus erythropus (Pallas) ; Cuculus canorus minor Brehm

is named Cuculus canorus bangsi; Monasa nigra (Miiller) becomes

Monasa atra (Boddaert) ; and Alcedo grandis Blyth is now to be called

Alcedo megalia, nom. nov. H. C. O.

556 abstracts: ornithoi^ogy

ORNITHOLOGY. — A review of the plover genus Ochthodromus Reich-

enbach and its nearest allies. Harry C. Oberholser. Trans.

Wis. Acad. Sci. 19: Pt. i. 511-523. Dec, 1918.

The present study originated in the desire to determine the proper

generic name for the plover commonly known as Ochthodromus wilsonius

(Ord). It resulted in an examination of not only all the species com-

monly referred to the genus Ochthodromus, but some of other genera as

well. The eleven species concerned are found to represent the following

seven genera: Eupoda Brandt, Pernettyva Mathews, Pluviorhynchus

Bonaparte, Pagoa Mathews, Pagolla Mathews, Cirrepidesmus

Bonaparte, and Charadrius Linnaeus. The synonymy of each of

these genera, together with its detailed characters and a discussion of its

relationships and nomenclature forms the main portion of this paper.

The chief changes from the conclusions of the latest reviser of the group

are as follows: The generic name Eupoda Brandt is used in place of

Eupodella Mathews; the current genus Podasocys Coues is found to be

inseparable from Eupoda, and its only species should, therefore, now

stand as Eupoda montana; the subgenus Pernettyva Mathews, instituted

as a subgenus for Charadrius falklandicus Latham, is raised to a fuU

genus and includes Ochthodromus bicinctus (Jar dine and Selby); the

generic name Pagolla Mathews should replace Ochthodromus Reichen-

bach because preoccupied by Ochthedromus LeConte, and its only

species, therefore, becomes Pagolla wilsonia (Ord). H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of a new subspecies of Piranga hepatica

Swainson. Harry C. Oberholser. Auk 36: 74-80. January,

1919.

The original description of Piranga hepatica was based on a specimen

from the State of Hidalgo, Mexico, and the typical race of the species

is, therefore, that from central Mexico. Birds from more northern

localities now prove to be subspecifically different in their larger size

and darker coloration. They form, therefore, an additional new sub-

species, Piranga hepatica oreophasma, which ranges from western

Jalisco, Mexico, north to central western Texas and northwestern

Arizona. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Description of an interesting new Junco from Lower

California. Harry C. Oberholser. Condor 21: 1 19-120.

June 6, 1 91 9.

The form of the genus Junco inhabiting the Hanson Laguna Moun-

tains in northern Lower CaUfomia is of considerable interest, since it

abstracts: ornithoIvOGY 557

forms the connecting link between Junco oreganus thurberi of California,

and Junco oreganus townsendi of the San Pedro Martir Mountains in

Lower California, and indicates that the latter is, without doubt, a

subspecies. Confined as it is to this single group of mountains and

possessed of sufficiently distinctive characters, it is found to be sub-

specifically distinct from all the other known forms of the genus and

is, therefore, named Junco oreganus pontilis. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — Fourth annual list of proposed changes in the

A.O. U. check list of North American birds. Harry C. Obe;rholser.

Auk 36: 266-273. 1919.

The Fourth Annual list of proposed additions and changes made for

zoological reasons in the names of North American birds includes

everything pertinent up to December 31, 19 18, inclusive. The total

number of additions and changes amount to 51, the additions being 26

subspecies, 2 species, i subgenus, and i genus. The rejections and

eliminations from the list total 19, of which the eliminations of subspecies

amount to 5, species 2, and genera 2. This leaves a net gain of 21 species

and subspecies. H. C. O.

ORNITHOLOGY. — A revision of the subspecies of the white-collared

kingfisher, Sauropatis chloris (Boddaert). Harry C. Oberholser.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 351-395. 1919.

Birds allied to Sauropatis chloris present a difficult problem to the

systematist, chiefly because of the great amount of variation, sexual,

seasonal, and individual, in both size and color. They seem to rep-

resent a genus distinct from Halcyon, in which group they have usually

been placed. Most of them are subspecies of Sauropatis chloris, al-

though a number now thus regarded have heretofore been considered

distinct species. As here understood the species Satiropatis chloris

ranges from the Philippine Islands, India, and Abyssinia, south to

Java and northern Australia, and east to the Fiji Islands. The number

of subspecies here recognized is 24, and it is interesting to note that of

these only six, including three found in Australia, are continental in

distribution. Each is treated more or less at length, and in most cases,

with the addition of tables of measurements. The following new sub-

species are described: Sauropatis chloris palmeri from Java; Sauropatis

chloris azela from Engano Island, western Sumatra; Sauropatis chloris

chloroptera from Simalur Island, western Sumatra; Sauropatis chloris

amphiryta from Nias Island, western Sumatra; and Sauropatis chloris

hyperpontia from Vat6 Island in the New Hebrides group. H. C. O.

558 abstracts: chemical technology

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.— r/i^ identification of "stones' in

glass. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass No. 4.) N. L.

BowEN. Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. i: 594-605. Sept. 1918.

The petrographic microscope is a convenient and efficient instru-

ment for the determination of the nature and origin of "stones" or

crystalline particles occurring in glass. Stones are divided into four

classes: (i) pot stones, (2) batch stones, (3) crown drops, (4) devitri-

fication stones. These classes have distinctive features of structure and

texture that are revealed by the microscope. Moreover, the crystalline

phases contained in stones can be identified by a determination of their

optical properties. The results of a study of stones by these methods

are given in this paper. N. L- B.

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY.— 7/z& condition of arsenic in glass and

its role in glass-making. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical

Glass No. 6.) E- T. AllEn and E. G. ZiES. Journ. Amer. Cer-

amic Soc. i: 787-790. Nov., 1918.

Analyses show that in all the glasses tested, both plate and optical

glasses, the major part of the arsenic present exists in the pentavalent

state, but nevertheless a portion exists in the trivalent state. It ap-

pears that arsenic trioxide is oxidized at a low temperature and the

product formed is stable enough to remain until a high temperature

is reached and the glass becomes fluid, when it slowly dissociates into

oxygen and arsenic trioxide, both of which aid in the fining. E. T. A.

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. — Constitution and microstnicture of silica

brick and changes involved through repeated burnings at high

temperature. Herbert InslEy and A. A. KlEin. Bur. Stand.

Tech. Paper 124. Pp.31, pis. 10. 1919.

The investigation involves a petrographic microscopic study of test

cubes and commercial silica brick, some of which had received repeated

burnings by use in ki]ns. Quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite are the

main constituents. Small amounts of pseudowollastonite and glass

are present. Long burning at temperatures slightly less than i470°C.

causes the formation of a large percentage of tridymite. Cristobalite

characterizes higher burned brick. Quartz first inverts to cristobalite

in the fine grained ground mass and along cracks caused by shattering

on heating, and then to tridymite if the temperature does not exceed

i470°C. The Hme added in grinding aids more as a flux than as a

bond. Most of the cementing action in the burned product comes

from the interlocking of the quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite crystals.

H. I.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

1 3 6th meeting

The 136th regular meeting of the Botanical Society of Washington

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8 p. m., Tuesday,

May 6, 1919, forty-three members and two guests being present. The

program consisted of the folloAving papers:

Agricultural explorations of Frank N. Meyer (with lantern) : David G.

Fairchild. The speaker gave a brief account of the life and work of Mr.

Meyer, illustrating his talk by lantern slides made from pictures taken by

the explorer in China and other parts of Asia. Meyer was a Hollander by

birth and spent his childhood among the gardens of Amsterdam, rising

through his own talents to be the assistant of Hugo de Vries. His

passion for travel took him on foot across the Alps and into Italy to

see the orange groves and vineyards of the Mediterranean and later led

him to explore America and northern Mexico on foot. His first expe-

dition in the years 1905-8 was into North China, Manchuria, and

northern Korea; his second, in 1909-11, through the Caucasus, Russian

Turkestan, Chinese Turkestan, and Siberia; his third, in 191 2-15,

through northwestern China into the Kansu Province to the borders

of Tibet, and his last expedition in search of plants began in 191 6 when

he went in quest of the wild pear forests in the region of Jehol, north

of Peking, and the region around Ichang. He was caught at Ichang

by the revolution and for many months was unable to escape. The

confinement and uncertainty with regard to the great war, together

with an attack of illness, had by this time combined to bring on a re-

currence of a former attack of what amounted to nervous prostration,

and before he could reach the encouraging companionship of people

of his own class he was drowned in the Yangtze River near the town of

Wu Hu, thirty miles north of Nanking. He has sent in hundreds of

shipments of living cuttings and thousands of sacks filled with seeds

of the useful plants of the countries through which he traveled, which

are growing successfully in American fields and orchards, and has ren-

dered great service to our horticulture by showing us what the Chinese

have done to improve their native fruits.

Agrictiltural explorations in Guatemala (with lantern) : W11.SON

PoPENOE The avocado is being planted commercially in California

559

560 proceedings: botanical society

and Florida, and its cultivation seems likely to become important in

those States. In order that this new industry may be built upon solid

foundations the Department of Agriculture, through the Office of

Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, has undertaken to conduct an

exploration of those parts of tropical America where avocados are

grown, for the purpose of obtaining the best available varieties as well

as information regarding the requirements of the tree. The work in

Guatemala, which extended over sixteen months in 1916 and 19 17,

resulted in the introduction of about 25 new and promising sorts.

The avocado is the principal fruit tree of the Guatemalan highlands,

and ranks alongside the banana as a source of human food. The

Guatemalan Indians use it largely in the place of meat. The tree is

found in Guatemala at all elevations between sea-level and 8500 feet,

at which latter altitude severe frosts occur. It is significant that

avocados are grown in regions which are considered too cold for the

orange, the latter fruit not being found above 7500 feet.

In addition to avocados, numerous other plants were obtained and

introduced into the United States. These include several varieties of

the chayote, a promising new vegetable for the South; the large-fruited

Guatemalan haw, Crataegus stipiilosa; the Central American cherry,

Prunns salicifolia; choice varieties of the cherimoya for cultivation in

California; a beautiful dwarf Chamaedorea which gives promise of

being valuable as a house plant; two new dahlias, one a double-flowered

tree dahlia which has been named D. maxonii, and the other a smaller

plant, considered by W. E. Safford, who has named it D. popenovii

to be one of the ancestors of the cultivated race of cactus dahlias; the

beautiful blue-flowered Guatemalan lignum-vitae, Guaiacum gtiate-

malense, which promises to do well in Florida; a new blue-flowered

Salvia; and the little-known ilama, Annona diver sifolia, a fruit which

resembles the cherimoya and deserves to be cultivated in all tropical

countries.

Carbon monoxide, a respiration product of Nereocystis luetkeana:

Seth C. Langdon and W. R. GailEy (by invitation). The data con-

tained in this paper were obtained at Puget Sound Marine Station in an

investigation to determine if the carbon monoxide present in the pneu-

matocysts of the giant Pacific Coast kelp was an intermediate step in

photosynthesis or a respiratory product. It was found that carbon

monoxide was formed only when oxygen was present in the gas. The

carbon monoxide was produced just as readily in the dark as in the

light, hence its formation is related to respiration rather than to anabolic

processes.

special meeting

The Botanical Society of Washington met at the Cosmos Club at

8 p.m., July I, 1919, in special session in honor of Dr. A. D.Cotton,

Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England, Pathologist to the Board of

Agriculture and Fisheries of England and Wales; Dr. Geo. H. Pethy-

BRiDGE, Economic Botanist to the Department of Agriculture and Tech-

PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 561

nical Instruction of Ireland; and Dr. H. M. Quanjer, Plant Patholo-

gist of the Institute for Phytopathology at Wageningen, Holland.

In response to an informal welcome by the President of the Society,

Dr. Karl F. KellErman, Dr. Cotton told the Society of the condition

of botanical work in England and the effect of the war on the universi-

ties and the research laboratories. While serious losses to the personnel

have come through the war, economic work has been stimulated. A

research institute and an institute of applied botany have been es-

tablished at Rothamsted. The British Mycological Society is more and

more recognizing plant pathology. IS

Dr. Pethybridge explained that the war had stimulated a great

development of food production in Ireland and that it had brought

a recognition of the value of economic biological work. There is a

small but active group of men in Ireland interested in natural history.

Dr. Quanjer called attention to the fact that Holland is a small

country, being only about one-one hundred and sixtieth of the United

States, yet it has produced in the past and present a goodly number

of botanists and has several well-developed university departments of

botany. After referring briefly to the botanical work of Lotsy, Oude-

mann, De Vries, Beyerinck, Treub, Ritzema Bos, Wakker, Van Hall,

and others, he discussed the difficult group of plant diseases which in-

cludes mosaic of tobacco, leaf-roll and mosaic of potato, the Sereh

disease of sugar cane, a dwarfing of a Japanese mulberry, and an in-

fectious mosaic of the ornamental Abutilon. These diseases, he said,

are probably due to ultra-microscopic organisms.

Chas. E. Chambliss, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS^

The Finance Committee of the Senate, which has had before it the

bill for a tariff on scientific supplies (H. R. 7785), decided on October

3 to postpone all revenue and tariff matters until after the treaty of

peace had been acted upon.

During the hearings on the bill the Tariff Commission prepared a

report entitled Information concerning scientific instruments, which

has been recently published. The report brings together a large num-

ber of opinions and arguments concerning the tariff on scientific sup-

plies, received from various sections of the Bureau of Standards, from

manufacturers of instruments of all kinds, and from universities and

organizations.

Two distinct questions are involved: (i) Should Congress repeal

the privilege, now granted to institutions of learning, of importing

supplies free of duty? (2) Should the present rates be increased and

imported articles now on the free list be taxed?

The opinions quoted are not analyzed in the report, but the following

brief outline will indicate that those interested are still far from being

in agreement. (Definite recommendations only are counted.)

(i) Of eleven university professors quoted, one favors and ten

oppose repeal of the duty-free clause. Of twelve opinions from the

Bureau of Standards, five favor and seven oppose repeal. Of seven

manufacturers quoted on this subject six favor and one opposes repeal.

The Council of the American Chemical Society is quoted in favor of

repeal of the duty-free clause, "for a reasonable period of years, at

least."

(2) Opinions on the subject of the imposition and increase of tariff

rates on scientific supplies are quoted as follows: Ten manufacturers,

all in favor of higher tariff; eleven sections of the Bureau of Standards,

seven in favor and four against. The Commission believes that "the

extremely diverse nature of the products falling under such a general

designation as 'scientific instruments' renders general statements

concerning the entire group of little value for the purpose of deciding

on any rates of duty related to the competitive conditions which affect

individual instruments."

The report also discusses in a general way the status of the domestic

industry, imports and exports, tariff history, competitive conditions,

and war developments.

A conference of campaign committees, delegates from affiliated

engineering, architects', and constructors' societies, and other interested

parties, is planned for some time in November, to give active support

to the Jones-Reavis bill for a National Department of Public Works.

^ Preceding report : This Journal. 9:535. 1919-

=i62

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 563

On October 6 Mr. France, chairman of the Senate Committee on

Public Health and National Quarantine, asked unanimous consent to

consider S. J- Res. 76, providing for an investigation of the cause and

methods of prevention of influenza and allied diseases. Mr. Smoot

objected, and no action was taken on the resolution.

The Senate resolution concerning the Botanic Garden (S. Res. 165)

was taken from the table on August 23 and referred to the Committee

on the Librar}^ together with the report of the Fine Arts Commission.

This report recommends the acquisition of 400 acres on Mount Hamil-

ton, in the northeastern quarter of the District, as a site for "an ade-

quate national botanic garden and arboretum." It will be recalled

that the earliest scientific society in the District of Columbia, the

Columbian Institute, organized in 1816, was the founder of the Botanic

Garden, which was afterwards turned over to the Federal Government

but still occupies its original grounds at the western base of Capitol

Hill.

NOTES

The United States Geological Survey is about to supervise extensive

topographic mapping in the West Indies. The Republics of Santo

Domingo and Haiti have made appropriations sufficient to complete

the surveys of their countries and have requested the Geological Sur-

vey to take charge of the work and to furnish the technical personnel.

It is probable that Porto Rico and the Republic of Cuba will take simi-

lar action. In order to provide for the administration of this work a

Division of West Indian Surveys has been created in the Topographic

Branch. Lieut. Col. Glenn vS. Smith has been relieved from his duties

in connection with military surveys and has been designated as Topo-

graphic Engineer in Charge of the new division. Field work in the

Dominican Republic has already been started with an organization of

five parties having a force of approximately sixty men which will be

gradually increased to ten parties as the work progresses. It is ex-

pected that the survey of this Republic will be completed within four

years.

The glass work and the chemical part of the cement investigation

work of the Bureau of Standards, which has been located for several

years at the U. vS. Arsenal buildings at 40th and Butler Streets, Pitts-

burgh, Pennsylvania, has been transferred to Washington. Mr. P. H.

Bates, director of the Pittsburgh branch, is now located in the new

Industrial Building of the Bureau. Mr. A. V. Bleininger, chief

ceramic chemist of the Bureau, will move to Washington in the near

future.

The following educational courses are being given at the Bureau of

Standards this winter: ^4. Advanced theoretical mechanics, W. S.

Gorton; B. Harmonic functions, D. R. Harper; C. Introduction to

mathematical physics, L. B. Tuckerman; D. Thermodynamics, h. H.

Adams; E. Colloidal chemistry, W. D. Bancroft. Dr. C. W. Kanolt

is chairman of the committee in charge.

564 SCIENTIPIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. John Boyle, Jr., assistant examiner in the Patent Office, has

resigned his position and will open an office in Washington for the prac-

tice of patent law.

Dr. F. C. Brown, formerly associate professor of physics at the

University of Iowa, has been appointed technical assistant to the director

of the Bureau of Standards. During the war he was commissioned

major in the Ordnance Department of the Army, and was engaged in

research on problems of aircraft armament.

Mr. E. R. Clark, of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned to

accept a position with the Standard Textile Products Company of New

York City.

Mr. John B. Ferguson has presented his resignation from the Geo-

physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, to be in

effect November i, and has accepted a research position with the

Western Electric Company in New York City.

Messrs. A. N. Finn and L. J. Gurevich, of the Bureau of Standards,

have resigned to accept positions as Chief of the Technical Section of the

Development Department, and Research Metallurgist, respectively,

with the Hydraulic Pressed Steel Company of Cleveland, Ohio.

Dr. H. D. GiBBS, of the Bureau of Chemistry, has resigned to take

up work with E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, of Wilmington,

Delaware.

Mr. H. D. Holler has resigned from the Bureau of Standards and

is now at the Parlin Laboratory of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Com-

pany, of Wilmington, Delaware.

Mr. F. J. Katz has been granted leave of absence from the Mineral

Resources division of the U. S. Geological Survey in order to accept an

appointment as Expert Special Agent in charge of Mines and Quarries

for the Bureau of the Census. This arrangement is to insure close and

effective cooperation between the two bureaus in the Fourteenth

Census.

Mr. Willis T. Lee, geologist of the Geological Survey, will be absent

from Washington until February, 1920, in order to deliver a course of

lectures at Yale University.

Mr. Richard B. Moore, until recently stationed at the Bureau of

Mines' experiment station at Golden, Colorado, has been appointed

chief chemist of the Bureau, to succeed Dr. C. L. Parsons, resigned.

Mr. J. G. Riley, formerly with the Bureau of Chemistry, and re-

cently Captain in the Sanitary Corps, is now in the laboratory of the

Bureau of Internal Revenue, Treasury Department.

Mr. F. J. Schlink, a member of the staff of the Bureau of Standards

since 1913, and for the past two years technical assistant to the Di-

rector, has resigned to carry on physical research for the Firestone Tire

and Rubber Company of Akron, Ohio. Mr. Schlink recently received

an award of the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute

for his invention of an improved type of weighing scale.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 NOVEMBER 19, 1919 No. 19

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— 7/^^ nature of the forces between

atoms in solids.''- Ralph W. G. Wyckoff, Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

The study of the arrangement of the atoms within a crystal-

line body and especially of variations in these arrangements

with changes in the physical conditions of the soHd, such as tem-

perature and pressure, when taken in connection with the

knowledge which has been accumulating concerning the nature

of the atom, should give considerable information concerning

the kinds of forces operating between atoms and between molecules.

With this in mind the determination of the structures of a number

of typical compounds was undertaken by the author about two

years ago in the chemical laboratory of Cornell University.

It seems possible to arrange all crystalline solids in a number

of groups according to the nature of the forces between their

atoms. The general outhne of such a classification is presented

in this discussion. Because of the numerous speculations which

have been introduced into recent discussions of the structure of

the atom, it has seemed advisable to present the point of view

which has served as a basis for this classification. The first

part of this paper is given up to such a presentation.

J. J. Thomson,^ G. N. Lewis, ^ and W. Kossel'* have applied the

present knowledge of the structure of the atom to a consideration

of the nature of the forces of chemical combination. In develop-

ing the following discussion extensive use was made of the first

' This paper was written in February, 1919, but was still in manuscript when

Langmuir's paper on a similar subject appeared (June, 1919).

2 J. J. Thomson, The forces between atoms and chemical affinity. Phil. Mag.

(6) 27: 757-789. 1914-

3 G. N. Lewis, The atom and the molecule. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 762-

785. 1916.

* W. KossEL, Ueber Molekiilbildung als Frage des Atombaus. Ann. d. Physik

(4) 49: 229-362. 1916.

565

566 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

of these papers. Recently I. Langmuir^ has extended the theory

of G. N. Lewis and has also tried to obtain from purely chemical

considerations information about the more intimate structure

of the atom. A. L. Parson^ has applied his "magneton" theory

of the atom to an explanation of chemical forces.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The "nucleus atom." — An accurate relation has been shown

to exist between the wave lengths of the X-rays characteristic

of the various elements and their order numbers in the periodic

table.' This relation was discovered after the importance of

this order number, known as the "atomic number," had already

been urged. ^ Its bearing on the structure of the atom will be

seen from the following facts.

If alpha particles are shot at a substance, a certain number

of them will suffer a large change in direction. The "scatter-

ing" (change in direction) actually observed in the case of the

various elements is that which would be expected if the atom

possessed at its center a minute positively charged nucleus.^

Experiments indicate that this charge has a magnitude Ne,

where e is the charge on the electron and N is the atomic num-

ber. ^° Further, a study of the disintegration products of ura-

nium and thorium shows clearly the variation of the chemical

properties with variations in the nuclear charge. ^^ These facts

^ I. Langmuir, The arrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules. Journ.

Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 868-934. I9i9-

^ A. L. Parson, A magneton theory of the structure of the atom. Smithsonian

Misc. Coll. 65: No. II (Publication No. 2371). 1915.

' H. G. J. MosELEY, Phil. Mag. (6) 27: 703-713. 1914. If N is the order num-

ber of the elements, beginning with hydrogen as one, helium as two, lithium as three,

etc. ; V the frequency of the corresponding lines in the X-ray spectra ; A a constant

which is the same for all elements; and b a similar constant having a value less

than unity, then

!> = A{N—by-.

^ A. VAN DEN Broek, Physik. Zeits. 14: 32-41. 1913.

^ E. Rutherford, Phil. Mag. (6) 21: 669-688. 191 1; etc.

1" H. Geiger, Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 83: 492. 1910.

'1 F. SoDDY. The chemistry of the radio-elements . II. The radio-elements and the per-

iodic law, p. 2. 1914. The loss of an alpha particle (doubly positive helium-

atom) decreases the nuclear charge by two units producing an element placed two

positions to the left in the periodic table. The loss of a beta particle (an electron)

produces a shift of one unit in the opposite direction.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 567

are most simply explained by considering the atom to be pos-

sessed of a very small nucleus carrying a positive charge equal

to its atomic number. That the electron is a constituent of all

matter can no longer be doubted. Then, since the atom as a

whole is electrically neutral, enough electrons to neutralize the

nuclear charge must be arranged about the central nucleus.^

Thus the hydrogen atom is a small positive nucleus bearing a

single positive charge and accompanied by a single electron;

the helium atom is a doubly charged nucleus accompanied by

two electrons; and so forth.

Loosely-bound electrons. — Some of the electrons in an atom

may be expected to be more tightly bound than others. Close

to the positively charged nucleus the electrical forces (and pre-

sumably also the magnetic forces) should be much stronger than

farther away from the nucleus. Consequently those electrons

which are close to the center of the atom will be held with greater

force than the more distant electrons.

There are numerous indications'- that the atoms do contain

a small number of more or less weakly bound electrons. The

application of the electron theory to the dispersion of radiation

indicates the existence of such electrons. By using the relations

which have been developed for the theory of dispersion it is pos-

sible to calculate roughly the number of dispersing systems in

each molecule. If such a calculation is carried out for quartz,

for instance, it is found that each molecule possesses three to

four, probably four, "dispersion electrons." These calculations

must be inexact, however, because the proper application of the

expressions used requires a knowledge of all the vibrating sys-

tems in the molecule. Experimental difficulties, especially in

the extreme ultra-violet, make this impossible.

Studies upon the absorption of light and the optical proper-

ties of metals furnish similar results. Metallic conduction is

assumed to be due to electrons which possess a certain amount

of freedom of movement. Then there are those electrons which,

as is well known, can be Hberated by hght and heat; these also

^2 Campbell. Modern electrical theory.

568 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in solids

must be rather weakly bound. The positive rays are atoms

which have lost a few electrons. Perhaps the strongest evidence,

at any rate from the point of view of the chemist, that atoms

possess a small number of loosely held electrons is furnished by

the phenomenon of electrolytic dissociation. Since the mag-

nitude of the electrical charges concerned is the same as that

of the charge on the electron, the conclusion can hardly be

avoided that a few electrons are involved. It is the natural

thing to identify them with the "dispersion electrons" already

mentioned. These outside rather weakly bound electrons are

the ones involved in chemical changes.

Arrangement of electrons. — No real information is available

concerning the exact arrangement of the electrons in an atom.

These electrons must either be in motion about the nucleus

(the revolving-electron type) or else they must be held in equil-

ibrium positions about the center (the stationary-electron type).

There are serious difficulties in the way of either arrangement.^^

Since the loosely bound electrons are the only ones involved in

chemical reactions, the exact arrangement of the inner elec-

trons is a matter of secondary importance to the chemist, at

least for the present. ^^

From the standpoint of the chemist the stationary-electron

atom seems simpler because its qualitative application is easier.

This application can be made with either type of atom, however,

and in the present state of our knowledge one is quite justified

in imagining and using for chemical purposes whichever type of

'^ It may be of interest to chemists to restate the most obvious of these objec-

tions. If the electrons are in revolution about the nucleus and if light is an electro-

magnetic phenomenon, as it is firmly believed to be, then a continuous radiation

of energy from the atom as a result of this motion would be expected. In a com-

paratively short time the atom would "run down," disintegrate. This may or

may not be a fallacious argument. On the other hand, in the case of the station-

ary-electron atom, unless a hitherto unknown force of repulsion is assumed, it is

hard to see why the negatively charged electrons do not fall into the positively

charged nucleus and become neutralized.

^* Also since chemical changes affect only the outside electrons, it is quite clear

that chemical facts can present only the most indirect information concerning the

inside electrons of an atom.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 569

atom model meets his fancy (always remembering that his par-

ticular type of atom is only a convenience).^^

Arrangement of outside electrons. — -Although we are unable at

the present time to determine the general arrangement of the

electrons within the atom, the facts of chemistry furnish consider-

'^ It has been found convenient to picture an atom, the inner electrons of which

are in rapid revolution, the outer electrons of which might be held in positions of

equilibrium between the atoms in a molecule.

Langmuir (see notes, p. 566) has suggested an ingenious arrangement for the

electrons in a stationary model. The examples of the application of his model,

however, to chemical compounds are those which would be equally well satisfied

by any type of atom of the kind described above. As already stated, chemical

facts, simply because they involve only the outside electrons, cannot give direct

information concerning the arrangement of the inner electrons. The stationary-

and revolving-electron atoms might differ from one another in the nature of the

electrical fields surrounding the atom. The electrical fields about the revolving-

electron atom would be expected to be quite uniform while those about the other

type might be clustered in patches. In the Stark atom (Prinz. d. Atomdynamik,

III) the "positive electrification" was grouped in patches and electrons took up

equilibrium positions about these patches. It is not evident whether a definite

choice between the two atom types can ever be made upon these grounds.

Langmuir has lu-ged that the existence of charcoals and similar porous sub-

stances having the form of solids of large apparent volume, where each atom of

carbon (taking charcoal to be specific) is surrounded by fewer than four carbon

atoms, is a proof that the electrons are stationary within the atom. This does not

necessarily follow. In a structiue of this sort the valence bonds which were linked

up with other atoms in the formation of wood are, in the charcoal, partly or com-

pletely saturated by holding adsorbed gas (as will be seen later, adsorbed gas is

probably held to charcoal and similar substances by primary valence bonds). As

indicated by Bohr (Phil. Mag. (6) 26: 857. 1916) and discussed by Kossel {op.

cit.) the four outside electrons in a revolving-electron atom in the case of carbon

would be expected to place themselves, if possible, at the corners of a tetrahedron.

As a consequence of these facts the large apparent volume of charcoal is not a

proof of the inherently directed natiue of the valence bonds of carbon. Many

sulfides of large apparent volume are known which, when heated to a certain tem-

perature, will suffer a rather sudden change in shape (and apparent volume), i. e.,

they crumble. This quite possibly is due to the loss of adsorbed gas.

These objections are lu^ged, not as proofs that the electrons are not stationary,

but simply as showing that the evidence in favor of their stationary nature is not

conclusive. The experiments of Hull (cited by Langmuir, op. cit. p. 869) are

inconclusive. As S. Nishikawa has pointed out, the effects which led Hull to

believe that electrons occupy definite positions in the crystal lattice are in some

cases similar to those effects which would be expected to result from the thermal

agitation of the atoms in the crystal. The best way to determine whether or not

the effect is real would be to make the X-ray studies at a point where the specific

heat is very small. The author hopes to make such a study in the near future.

570 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

able information concerning the outermost ones. As we pass along

the periodic table horizontally from left to right, each atom differs

from the one preceding it in carrying a nuclear charge greater

by one and hence in possessing one more electron.^" It is seen

that with simple atoms (short series of the periodic table) the.

general characteristics of an atom repeat themselves after the

addition of eight electrons: lithium and sodium are similar.

With the long periods eighteen electrons (thirty-two in the last

complete series) must be added before there is a complete repeti-

tion of properties. Three elements, those in the eighth group,

exhibit a similar valence, so that there are really only twice

eight kinds of valence (valence groups). There is, however, a

partial repetition in the long periods after eight valence groups

have been passed over. The sub-group elements show a valence

similar to that of the primary elements: copper, silver and gold

resemble the alkalies.

Radio-active phenomena and more especially the whole sub-

ject of electrochemistry emphasize the intimate connection

between valence and the electron. The alkalies ionize losing

one electron, the alkaline earths lose two; the elements of the

oxygen group tend to acquire two, the halogens one; and so on.

In 1904 Abegg'*^ pointed out that the sum of what we choose to

call the maximum positive and negative valences of an element

is always equal to eight. Eight is the number involved in the

recurrence of properties.

All of this seems to point clearly to some sort of repetition of

the configuration of the outside electrons characteristic of the

atom after the addition of eight outside electrons. ^^ The repeti-

tion of properties is so striking that one is forced to the conclu-

sion that when a certain definite number of electrons has been

added to the outside of the atom, the force fields about the

atom, except those resulting from the unneutralized charges

upon the nucleus, become practically negligible. If hydrogen

is the simplest element, this definite number of electrons in the

case of the very simple elements (first short period of the table)

is two. For the other simple elements it is eight. The heavier

^' R. Abegg. Zeits. anorg. Chem. 39: 330. 1904.

" See references 2, 3, and 6, on page 565.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

571

elements require twice eight additions to "close" the atomic

fields effectively. Then an atom of an alkali metal has one

outside electron, an alkaline earth two, and so on until we reach

the halogen with seven outside electrons and the next inert gas

with eight outside electrons, starting a new group. ^^

Tendency to form clusters of eight. — The fact that oxygen with

six outside electrons and chlorine with seven are negatively bl-

and mono-valent, respectively, points to the existence of a ten-

dency to form clusters of eight electrons. ^^ In other words, in

'8 The simple elements would probably be represented as follows (if hydrogen is

the simplest element and helium comes next) :

Electron Arrangement

1 electron

2 electrons forming a "closed cluster" of

two

3 electrons:

inside cluster of two,

one outside electron

4 electrons:

inside cluster of two,

two outside electrons

5 electrons:

• inside cluster of two,

three outside electrons

9 electrons:

inside cluster of two,

seven outside electrons

10 electrons:

inside cluster of two,

"closed cluster" of eight

1 1 electrons :

inside cluster of two,

inside cluster of eight

one outside electron

Recently Debye (Physik. Zeits. 18: 276. 1917), Vegard (Ber. deutsch. phys. Ges.

19: 328. 1917), and Kroo (Physik. Zeits. 19: 297. 1918) have tried to explain

the K-series lines in the X-ray spectra of elements as due to an inside ring of three

or four electrons. If this innermost ring preserves its character when we pass to

the more complex atom, and if there are not one or two very light elements, as

yet undiscovered, it is highly probable that this inside ring contains two electrons.

" A. Lr. Parson, op. cit.

572 wyckoff: forces between atoms in solids

addition to the force holding the normal number of electrons

to the nucleus, there is a force which causes the atoms to tend

to add electrons beyond the number equal to the positive charge

on the nucleus.

The force responsible for this tendency to form eights may

be mainly an electrostatic attraction between positive and

negative charges. This has been mentioned by Langmuir:'-''

"According to ordinary potential theory, electrons uniformly

distributed throughout a spherical shell should exert no forces

on electrons inside the shell, but should repel those outside the

shell as though the electrons in the shell were concentrated at

the center. On the other hand, an electron in the spherical

shell itself is repelled by the others in the shell as if one-half

of the other electrons were removed altogether, while the sec-

ond half were concentrated at the center. Thus, let us consider

a carbon atom (A^ = 6) which has taken up 4 extra electrons

and has completed its octet. An electron in the outside shell

is thus attracted by the nucleus which has 6 positive charges,

is repelled by the two electrons in the first shell as though they

were concentrated at the center, and is repelled by the 8 elec-

trons in the outside shell as if 4 of them were concentrated at

the center. The repulsion of the electrons is thus only just

able to neutralize the attraction by the nucleus, notwithstanding

the fact that the whole atom has an excess of 4 negative charges."

In the case of an oxygen atom (A^ = 8) which has acquired two

electrons to complete its cluster of eight electrons, an electron

in this outer cluster is attracted by the positive charge of eight

units and is repelled by the equivalent of a negative charge of

six units (by the two inner electrons and by the outer eight as

if four were concentrated at the center). There is thus a strong

extra attraction holding these additional electrons to the neutral

oxygen atom. Fluorine would hold a single extra electron still

more strongly.'-^

2° Op. cit., p. 909.

21 This discussion considered only the case where the electrons were distributed

uniformly throughout a shell. A similar state of affairs will exist if the inside

electrons are in revolution.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS 573

We can thus account for the existence of a tendency to add

electrons beyond the number numerically equal to the charge

on the nucleus but we are unable to state why electrons will

add on to the atom to form clusters of eight rather than seven

or nine or some other number-- and why the formation of the

cluster of eight results in such a great condensation of the fields

of force about the atom. For our purposes the recognition of

this tendency is all that is necessary.

Chemical valence. — Valence, then, might be defined simply as

the tendency for the electrical (and probably also the magnetic) '^

fields to condense together to the greatest possible extent with

the possession of an outside cluster of eight (also sometimes a

cluster of two and sometimes a cluster of twice eight) electrons.

The repetition of properties after the addition of eight elec-

trons and the existence of a tendency to add electrons with

the formation of clusters of eight were recognized by J. J. Thom-

son;- they underlie the application of the "magneton" atom of

A. L. Parson*^ and the "cubical atom" of G. N. Lewis ;-^ and they

form the basis of what Langmuir' has chosen to call "the octet

theory of valence," which is simply the application of this un-

deniable tendency to the representation of chemical compounds.-^

Doublets. — Two electrical charges of opposite sign form a

dotiblet, the moment of which with respect to an outside point

(roughly, the effect of which upon an outside point) increases

as the distance apart of the poles becomes greater.'-^ Such doub-

2^ Langtnuir's idea of cells suggests an explanation of this, but it must be borne

in mind that his work only gives a possible geometrical arrangement of points of

one kind about a point of a diffe^-ent kind and does not discuss how such a system

could be physically stable. If the only forces of attraction and repulsion acting

are those with which we are now familiar, such an atom model is unstable. As

long as this theory is used simply as a convenient aid in picturing the atom it may

prove useful to the chemist, but as yet no evidence has been presented to show

that this model represents the actual arrangement of the electrons in the atom.

^3 As was earlier implied, these various discussions are not setting up new the-

ories of valence but are indicating the explanation which the knowledge of the

structure of the atom has to offer of the facts of valence as we have learned them.

^^ A doublet of this sort can be conveniently pictured. The fields of force between

two electrical charges can be represented by lines (really tubes of force) passing

from one to the other. The number of the lines serves as a measure of the intensity

of the field. If the two charges are close together, the lines of force are for^the

574 W^CKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

lets will exist within an atom possessing electrons and a pos-

itively charged nucleus.^' The formation of the clusters of eight

electrons so condenses together the lines of force about the atom

that their moments with respect to other atoms are nearly negligible.

Where the outside loosely bound electrons are concerned, the

fields about the doublets become of the utmost importance in

determining the chemical and physical properties of bodies.

Magnetic fields of the atom. — This discussion has taken no

account of the magnetic fields about the atom. That atoms

are possessed of fields of their own is shown by the effect of large

outside fields upon the spectrum lines, — the Zeeman effect —

and by various other lines of evidence. ^"^ It is probable that a

detailed discussion of these magnetic effects would remove many

of the difficulties arising from the application of such a theory

as the present one. Certainly such a discussion must accom-

pany any entirely general or quantitative theory. The "mag-

neton" theory of A. L. Parson^ is an attempt in this direction.

Contradictions to some of the most commonly accepted ideas

(such as the point-electron and the Rutherford type of atom)

which Parson's theory presents make it simpler to neglect, at

present, consideration of magnetic phenomena. It is probable

that the magnetic forces influence in a marked degree the in-

tensity of bonding between atoms but that their consideration

will not introduce any new kinds of linkage.

Forces between atoms. — Conditions of equilibrium require the

action of forces of attraction and repulsion. Uncertainties con-

cerning the size of the atom make themselves felt in a considera-

tion of the forces of repulsion . We find that the distance be-

tween the atoms in a solid ^^ is of the order io~^cm. The actual

most part concentrated in the small space between the charges, so that the in-

tensity of the field at any point (m) at a distance from both charges is slight. In

other words, the moment of the doublet with respect to the point is small. If

the separation of the charges is greater, the field will be more spread out, more

lines of force will pass through m, and the moment of this new doublet with respect

to m is much greater.

2* J. J. Thomson, op. cit.

2« See W. J. Humphreys. Science, N. S. 46: 273-279. 1917.

2" W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure, Chap. VII.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 575

size of the atom may be very small compared with this distance.

Atoms in a solid would then be held apart by some repulsive

force, the intensity of which must decrease rapidly from the

origin. Concerning its possible nature we have no inkling.

Presumably the heat vibrations would aid this force. But the

diameter of the atom, meaning the diameter of the outermost

ring of electrons, may be comparable with the distance apart of the

atoms. The tightly drawn-in fields about the closed groups of

electrons make the atom, except for a few valency electrons,

behave like an elastic solid, so that two atoms can interpenetrate

only to an extent involving these outside electrons. This effect,

together with the thermal agitation, is quite sufficient to explain

the ordinary phenomena observed. The assumption of a fur-

ther repulsive force, essential to the other theory, does not

seem necessary. The view that the atoms are held apart simply

as the result of their own impenetrability and their thermal

vibration will therefore be used.

The influences of which we are aware that affect the combina-

tion of atoms one with another are then :

1. The electrostatic attraction between positively charged

nuclei and negatively charged electrons.

2. The large condensation and drawing in of the fields of force

which accompany the formation of certain clusters of electrons

(two, eight or twice eight). The result of (i) and (2) is an ap-

parent tendency to form clusters of electrons.

3 . The thermal agitation of the atoms (and probably in certain

cases groups of atoms acting together) which acts as a force of

repulsion.

4. The magnetic fields (our ideas of which are at present of

an indefinite nature).

Exterior structure of the elements. — An alkali metal results

when the total number of electrons needed to form the "closed

clusters," including the outermost "closed cluster," is i less

than that required to neutralize the nuclear charge, i. e., there

is one outside or "left-over" electron. The closed cluster in

the case of lithium contains fewer electrons than eight, pre-

sumably two. So few electrons can hardly be expected to draw

576 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

in very completely the fields about the atom. With sodium,

possessing a single cluster of eight electrons, the fields are more

condensed. Where clusters of twice-eight electrons are effec-

tive (potassium, rubidium, caesium) the outside fields become of

little importance. This suggests an explanation for the marked

difference in properties exhibited by the transition elements of

a group. As the atom gets larger the detachable electrons be-

come farther removed from the nucleus and consequently less

tightly bound. Elements of the sub-group have a single cluster

of eight so that, although they resemble the alkalies in having

a single outside electron, the forces about the atom which tend

to enmesh and hold the electron are very much greater.

The atoms of the other groups will be similarly constituted.

Those of the second group possess two outside electrons, the

third three, and so on, up through the eighth group.

For the eighth group the theory is not so simple. In this

group there is a single cluster of eight electrons and no outside

electrons. The atom is quite complex, however, and a single

cluster of eight electrons is unable to close the fields completely.

As a result the atom possesses considerable reactivity. The

facts of chemistry show that, perhaps on account of the vigor

of these forces, two and sometimes three of these electrons can

be detached. The existence of three similar elements in this

group is conveniently explained by the assumption that at this

point, when the two additional electrons are added, rearrange-

ments of the internal rings are more stable than the addition

of an outside electron. ^^

The character of the rare-earth elements could be explained

by an assumption like the last one, namely, that when this point

in the periodic series is reached, the stable arrangements, for a

number of successive increases in the nuclear charge, result

2* The system is seen to be tending towards a more stable condition with each

readjustment. The outside fields become more and more drawn in and the elec-

trons become less loosely bound. This is shown by the transition in properties

from iron, Fe" (less stable) and Fe"' (more stable), through cobalt, Co'" (less

stable) and Co" (more stable), to nickel, Ni" only.

The assumption made by Langmuir that ten electrons are necessary to form

the first half of the larger closed groups is about as satisfactory. In the absence

of any real information upon the subject either can be used.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 577

from a rearrangement of the electrons among the interior rings

rather than from the addition of electrons to the atom surface.

But this assumption, in common with every other yet made

regarding the arrangement of the electrons in the eighth-group

and rare-earth metals, is not very satisfactory as a description

of the real arrangement of the electrons in these atoms.

The behavior of hydrogen is interesting. In water solution

of many of its compounds it behaves as if strongly "electro-

positive." This would indicate that it lost an electron with

great readiness. But in most of its properties hydrogen acts

like an element which holds on to electrons with great tenacity:

its salts with weak anions are much less dissociated than the

corresponding alkali salts; it occupies a position quite low in

the electromotive series table; many of its compounds are vol-

atile, and its diatomic molecule is very stable. This apparently

anomalous behavior of many hydrogen compounds follows di-

rectly from the structure of its atom. As long as hydrogen pos-

sesses a single electron, it holds on to it energetically and tends

to acquire another to close its fields; if the electron is removed,

the only force exerted by the atom is due to the attraction of its

single positive charge.

THE STRUCTURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS, PARTICULARLY SOLIDS

Polar and non-polar compounds. — All chemical compounds

may be considered as included within the following extremes,

compounds the constituent atoms of which are electrically

1. Charged,

2. Neutral.

If the atoms are charged, the compound is "polar;" if neu-

tral, it is what is now called a "non-polar" compound.-^

In a polar compound the tendency of the electronegative atom

to complete a cluster of eight is so much greater than the attrac-

tion of the positive nucleus of the electropositive atom for the

outside electrons that the electronegative atom is able to remove

them completely.

29 W. C. Bray and G. E- K. Branch. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 35: 1440-1447.

1913-

578 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in solids

A non-polar compound is held together by the entangling of

the fields of force about the constituent atoms. No electron

transfer occurs. Each atom may be considered as drawing

electrons from another in the endeavor to complete a stable

group. In such a union as this, one unit of valence is equivalent

to two "free" chemical "links," that is, one chemical "bond" in

the compound. ^° Such a non-polar compound would of course

have to be formed between atoms which held their electrons

with about equal intensity.

All gradations between these two extremes probably occur

where the bonding electrons, taking up positions between the

two atoms, may be thought of as belonging to both. Most

compounds, especially in the vapor state, must lie in this inter-

mediate class. A given compound is not necessarily polar or

non-polar in all its states of aggregation; it may shift from one

class toward the other. In the solid and liquid states the close

proximity of other atoms has a strong influence upon the prop-

erties of a molecule.^^

States of aggregation. — When the total attractive forces be-

tween the units (molecules) of a substance is less than the repel-

lent forces of thermal agitation, the molecules will part from

one another and the substance is said to be in the gaseous state.

The less the attractive force compared with the thermal agitation,

the more "perfect" will be the gas. A liquid results when these

residual fields (stray doublet fields) just exceed the effects of

the heat vibrations. When the fields become relatively very

large and the atoms are able to take up definite positions, the

substance solidifies. Of greatest importance in causing the

8" J. J. Thomson (op. cit.) has indicated this fact. Using the idea of Faraday

tubes of force, as he does, we would say that unless a cluster of eight is formed

the valency electron, to be fixed in position, requires that it shall have tubes of

force running to two atoms, one other besides the one to which it belongs. This

will be quite evident when typical cases, chlorine and methane, have been con-

sidered.

2 1 When molecules approach one another, there will be an interlocking of their

stray fields. A certain weakening of the fields of the molecule itself will result.

With doublets of large moment, where the separation of the charges is great, the

fields will be spread out and the interlocking may be of marked effect upon the

molecule.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 579

individual molecules to stick together are the electrical doublets.

The greater their moments the more important will be their

effect upon neighboring atoms. Consequently polar compounds

tend to be strongly aggregated. Nearly all such compounds

are solids at ordinary temperatures. The lower the temper-

ature the less the repulsion and the more the particles cling

together. At a sufficiently low temperature, the absolute zero,

a substance possessing even the smallest outside fields would

be a solid simply because the heat motion of the atoms, and

consequently their repulsion, vanishes.

The effect of the intensity of combination is complicated.

If the bonding forces in the gas molecule of a particular com-

pound are so large and the residual forces so small that the

molecule remains a definite entity in the liquid and solid states,

it will in general be true that the greater the bonding forces,

the more bound-in will be the fields and the less will be the

degree of condensation. If, on the other hand, we have a com-

pound in which the molecule as we ordinarily understand it

disappears in the condensed states, and the entire portion under

consideration appears as one large molecule, it would seem to

be true that the more intense the bonding the more condensed

is the system.

Formation of molecules in non-polar substances. — At room tem-

perature the molecule of chlorine is diatomic. The chlorine

atom possesses seven outside electrons and the tendency to pick

up one more and close the cluster is considerably greater than

the repellent eft'ect of the heat vibrations. The molecule can

be represented somewhat as follows:^-

:®r®:

• • « •

'- There is a certain interest and importance attached to the representation of com-

pounds by the use of graphical formulas. The conventions in common use do not

indicate the nature of the forces between atoms. The representation, by G. N.

Lewis (op. cit.), of the distribution of the outside electrons between the atoms in

chemical compounds is a distinct advance in the writing of graphical formulas.

But his method has certain disadvantages. It is often tedious and, moreover,

unless considerable space is devoted to the formula, it does not show the positions

580 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

each atom striving to claim an electron from the other.

This arrangement will quite completely close the fields about

the molecule as a whole and the diatomic chlorine molecule

(CI2) will possess relatively little residual affinity. As the

temperature is raised the increased energy results (i) in a

larger vibration of the atoms within the molecule, and (2)

more especially in the increased violence of the motion

of the molecule as a whole. Thus there will come a time

when some of the molecules will be traveling with so great

a speed that the violence of their collisions will be suffi-

cient to cause the splitting of the molecule. At this point we

begin to have monatomic chlorine. The number of simpler

molecules increases faster than the increase in temperature at a

rate depending upon the importance of factor (i). The ampli-

tudes of the atomic vibrations depend in an inverse ratio upon

their weights and the intensity of the bonding. It is to be ex-

pected that the dissociation of a weak compound under the

influence of heat will proceed at a faster rate than when the

union is strong. Increase in temperature raises the reactivity

because with larger intra-molecular vibrations the fields of force

of the electrons. The pictures used by Lewis and adopted by Langmuir give, as

representations of space models, a truer idea of the actual state of affairs within

compounds, but, by reason of their complexity, are not in most cases sufficiently

useful to be practicable.

It has been found useful to designate the mode of combination, where this added

information is of value, by the following modifications of the ordinary chemical

"bonds." The passage of an electron from one atom to another is shown by a

full-pointed arrow. Caesium chloride, in which the chlorine atom has captured

the outside electron of the caesium atom, is Cs > CI. The holding of an elec-

tron in an equilibrium position between two atoms, as in bromine vapor where

each bromine atom of the bromine molecule is striving to acquire one electron

from the other bromine atom, can be indicated by a half -pointed arrow pointing

in the direction of the displacement of the electron (as, Br ^ Br). If it is of

advantage to know the approximate amount of this displacement, which serves

of course as a measure of the doublet fields set up, this can be done by cutting the

arrow with a dash at the approximate position of the electron. Thus .4 1 ^ B

would mean that B was drawing one of ^'s electrons with a pull sufficient to

displace it to a position half the way towards B.

The diagrams given in the text are a combination of this method of representa-

tion with the idea of showing the distribution of all the outside electrons.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 58 1

are gradually becoming more opened up and hence more readily

broken up by other atoms.

As the temperature is lowered, if the pressure is made suffi-

ciently high, that is, if as many molecules are furnished within

a definite space as could possibly be needed, the tendency of

the molecules to stick together will approach in value the tearing-

apart tendency of the heat motion. The critical temperature

is the point where these opposing tendencies are equal. At no

higher temperature can the gas be liquefied; at all lower tem-

peratures the substance can be condensed. As the temperature

of the liquid is lowered the motion of the molecule becomes less

and less till at a certain point the residual forces of attraction

(stray fields) become able to hold the molecules in definite posi-

tions. This happens at the melting point. According to this

view solid chlorine consists of molecules held together by stray

fields. Valency forces are involved in holding the atoms together

in the molecule. ^^

Methane is a substance of the same type. A molecule of

methane may be represented thus :

© ■

®"©."(H)

\1

®

It has a normal dielectric constant and presumably does not

possess any doublets of large moment.- This indicates that

the tendencies of either carbon or hydrogen to acquire electrons

33 It is possible that with the close proximity of other atoms, both the ingoing

and the outgoing unions will not remain directed towards the same atom. In

that case each atom would be linked by primary valence with two atoms, each of

which would be linked with other atoms and so on throughout the mass. With

this state of affairs the molecule as ordinarily understood would lose its identity.

The smallest unit, aside from the atoms themselves, becomes the entire mass.

This is a possible structure for solid chlorine. There is at present no evidence in

its favor. If this second view is correct the vapor subliming from the solid ought

possibly to contain an appreciable number of monatomic molecules.

582 fwYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS

to complete the clusters are not nearly so great as the tenacity

with which hydrogen and carbon retain electrons. The elec-

trons consequently are not appreciably displaced from their

equilibrium positions. The stray fields are relatively small and

the gas liquefies at a rather low temperature. The chemical

molecules preserve their identity in the liquid and solid states,

being held to one another by the relatively slight secondary

attraction.

Carbon compounds in general are characterized by great

stability, due to the intensity with which carbon clings to its

electrons, and by the smallness of the residual attractions pos-

sessed by the molecules of such compounds. In passing hor-

izontally along the periodic table, when carbon is reached the

tendency to add electrons with the formation of a stable cluster

is not as yet so great that carbon is able to capture electrons

from other atoms, and consequently there are no doublets of

large moment. The properties of organic compounds in general

force the conclusion that in the solid and liquid states the chem-

ical molecule remains just as definite an entity as in the vapor.

Practically all but the simplest compounds are solids or liquids,

in spite of the weakness of the residual forces, because such large

molecules require a considerable amount of heat energy to pro-

duce even a small displacement.^^ Certain kinds of organic

compounds, such as the alcohols, acids, and nitro- and nitrile-

compounds, are more associated than would be expected. This

is due to their possessing doublets of considerable moment.^

Formation of molecules in polar substances. — With compounds

of the polar type the mechanism is quite different. The ten-

dency of chlorine to acquire one electron is so great and the

holding power of sodium for the one outside electron is so weak

that in a molecule of sodium chloride vapor the electron may

be considered to have gone over most of the way to the chlorine.

A molecule of sodium chloride vapor may be represented thus:

®^:©

^^ Information from the specific heats and from the variations in the specific

heat with temperature should be of interest in this connection.

wyckoff: forces between atoms in solids 583

A doublet of very large moment exists in this molecule and

sodium chloride vapor would be expected only at an elevated

temperature. In the solid and liquid states each sodium atom

(except those upon the surface), positively charged by the loss

of an electron, is surrounded by several chlorine atoms, all

negatively charged.^'' These other chlorine ions, each posses-

sing a pull upon the sodium ion, will more or less completely

tear apart the fields which in the gaseous state bind the sodium

atom to one particular chlorine atom. Sodium chloride be-

comes a body of ions held together mainly by the electrostatic

forces of attraction between opposite charges. A cross-section

of a crystal of sodium chloride would appear thus :^^

e © e e e e 0

0 © © © 0 © 0

MT «f*K>

The gaseous molecule disappears quite completely. A study

of the effect of a sodium chloride crystal upon X-rays leads to

belief in such a structure. ^^

Concerning the liquid state of sodium chloride we know prac-

tically nothing. It would seem most reasonable to assume a

structure similar to that possessed by the solid, with the added

fact of mobility; that is,^ an agglomeration of an equal number

of positive and negative ions. When such a solid sublimes, ions

should appear in the space above. ^^ In general all crystals made

up of strongly electropositive and electronegative elements are

^ Sodium chloride possesses absorption bands in the extreme infra-red which are

produced by charged particles of atomic mass.

^^ This structiure for sodium chloride and similar crystals has been suggested by

Stark, Prinz. d. Atomdynamik, III. p. 193.

'^ W. H. and W. L. Bragg. X-rays and crystal structure.

*8 The chemical molecule is in certain cases a natural consequence of the belief

in atoms. It is not, however, in aU cases a necessary consequence. If we are to

imagine two or three atoms, each with a certain tendency to react, coming together.

584 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

of this type. Sodium nitrate and calcium carbonate^^ are exam-

ples. In these cases the nitrate and carbonate ions act as single

units. Three factors are of importance in determining the

crystal form of such substances :

1. The stable arrangement of points in space which corre-

spond in charge and number with the ions of the substance.

2. The number and arrangement of the atoms making up the

ions.

3. The volumes of the ions.

The sodium chloride arrangement is the simplest possible

for the grouping of an equal number of positive and negative

particles of about equal volume. Sodium nitrate and calcium

carbonate have the same structure as sodium chloride, the

nitrate and carbonate ions replacing the chlorine ions.

Valency compounds. — Magnetite (Fe^Fe'^o O4) is an example

of another general type of compound. In a crystal of magnetite

each divalent iron atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms,

each trivalent iron atom by six oxygen atoms, and each oxygen

it is natural to suppose that they will combine together to form a definite whole — ■

the molecule. This is what happens in the case of gases. The first actual evidence

to show the existence of molecules came from the study of gases. This evidence

is furnished by the Gay-Lussac Law of Volumes. The splendid success of the

kinetic theory in describing the behavior of gases pointed in the same direction.

When gas molecules had been shown to exist, a tendency to apply the idea of mole-

cules to solids and liquids as well made its appearance. The extension of the gas

laws to the case of dilute solutions showed that in this case the material of the

dissolved substance is distributed throughout the solvent in a molecular condition,

that is, as single atoms or as groups of a few atoms together. Only in these two

cases, gases and dilute solutions, have we stue evidence of the existence of molecules.

Certain observations upon solutions of solids in solids would seem to indicate for

them a structure similar to that possessed by liquid solutions. The abnormal

behavior of some pure liquids finds its simplest explanation in the assumption of

a molecular structure. Because of this certainty of the existence of the molecule

in gases and in solutions, and because with organic solids and liquids it is quite im-

possible to imagine any other than a molecular composition, chemists in general

seem to have felt justified in concluding that all matter is molecular in structure.

It is important to note that this conclusion is only an inference, in no way justified

by experimental evidence, and that the recent evidence which has appeared, tend-

ing to show that certain kinds of solids and liquids are not made up in such a way

that each piece consists of a large number of chemical molecules, is merely de-

stroying some generally-held opinions and is not in any way contradictory to our

previously acquired knowledge.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOUDS 585

atom by four iron atoms. ^'■* The diamond, carborundum, certain

oxides and sulfides, and presumably nitrides and carbides, are

compounds of this kind. The elements which go to make these

substances are not strongly electropositive or electronegative, so

that no actual electron transfer takes place. Completely closed

groups are not formed and each valence unit corresponds to two

bonds. The atoms in such a crystal are held together by valency

forces. The chemical molecule does not appear; the entire crys-

tal behaves as a single chemical individual.

It is improbable that liquids of this sort can ^xist. Certainly

such compounds cannot be vaporized without undergoing pro-

found changes. It is possible that at elevated temperatures the

electronegative element may be able to relieve the other of

electrons. Such a substance, when existing in the liquid state,

would belong to the class previously described, the polar type

of compounds.

Metals belong to the polar type. Just as the close proximity

of other atoms in the case of sodium chloride is sufficient to

break up the fields binding one particular sodium atom and one

particular chlorine atom, so in the metallic state the presence

of other atoms breaks up the fields holding certain electrons to

the metal ion. A metal may be considered as a compound of

metal ion and electrons entirely similar to a liquid of the polar

type, which is a compound of metal ion and negative ion. The

peculiar properties characteristic of metals are due to the fact

that the electrons as a result of their minute size are readily

able to pass between the atoms. This mobility makes the mech-

anism within the metal resemble that within a fused electrolyte.

The atoms in intermetallic compounds, which presumably exist

as such only in the solid state, are held together by the same

forces that hold metal ions together in the pure metal. If a

certain grouping of atoms offers an especially marked condensa-

tion and drawing-in of the fields of force, that grouping will

appear as one of these compounds.

Classification of crystalline solids. — -The crystalline state fur-

nishes the greatest condensation of the fields about the indi-

»» W. H. Bragg. Phil. Mag. (6) 30: 305. 1915. S. Nishikawa. Proc. Tokyo

Math. Phys. Soc. 8: 199. 1915.

586 WYCKOFF: forcks betweien atoms in solids

vidual particles (atoms or molecules, depending upon the type

of solid)/*' Three limiting types of crystalline solids may be

said to exist:

1. Molecule- forming compounds. — ^The atoms are held together

in molecules by valency forces. The molecules, in turn, are

held together in the solid by relatively weak stray fields. Com-

pounds giving soHds of this nature do not possess large doublets.

2. Polar compounds. — ^The atoms are held together by electro-

static attractions. The chemical molecule has disappeared.

3. Valency compounds. — The atoms are held together by val-

ency forces. The molecule is the entire crystal.

Combinations of these classes and all transition stages be-

tween them are found. In sodium nitrate the nitrogen and

oxygen atoms are held together by valency forces to form the

nitrate ion. The combination between the sodium and the

nitrate group is polar. The silver and mercury (mercurous and

mercuric) halides are probably midway between (i) and (2).

In a crystal of silver iodide, because of the vigor with which

silver clings to the one electron, the electron may be considered

as placed part way between the silver and the iodine atoms.

The molecules of silver iodide are held together partly by the

stray fields and partly by the fields of the doublet of relatively

small moment.

A brief discussion of certain phenomena which illustrate the

application of this point of view will now be given. Some of

these subjects have been considered already from similar points

of view.^^ They are given again either because they are especially

helpful to an understanding of the previous discussion or because

of their importance in the consideration of the structure of solids.

Dissociating Solvents. — ^The hydrides of the electronegative

elements furnish the strongest dissociating solvents. Methane

has been dealt with in detail. The fields of its molecule are quite

*" If the substance is cooled very rapidly it may be impossible for the particles

to arrange themselves in an orderly fashion. The solid is then amorphous.

*^ E. C. C. Baly. Jom-n. Amer. Chem. Soc. 37: 979-993. 1915; also papers in

Trans. Chem. Soc. London. I. Langmuir. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 38: 2221-

2295. 1916; 39: 1848-1906. 1917; 40: 1361-1403. 1918. W. D. Harkins, E.

C. H. Davies and G. L. Clark. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 39: 541-596. 1917.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 587

thoroughly saturated. With ammonia the tendency for nitrogen

to acquire electrons is so much greater than the ability of the

hydrogen to hold them that the electron of hydrogen is dis-

placed quite a distance towards the nitrogen atom. Doublets

of very considerable moment are thus set up within the ammonia

molecule and are of large effect upon other atoms or molecules

nearby. In water, doublets of still greater moment are to be

distinguished on account of the more pronounced tendency of

oxygen to acquire electrons. In hydrogen fluoride the single

doublet is of even greater moment.

In the water molecule each of the two doublets is of shghtly

greater moment than each of the three in ammonia. However,

the fields about the molecule of water are much more important

than those about the ammonia molecule largely because of the

comparative simpUcity of the former. The hydrogen atoms

in ammonia must lie in three different directions; the water

molecule requires at most two directions, and probably both

hydrogens would be in a line (the symmetrical arrangement).

Consequently the turning of the water molecule in, order that

it may exert its maximum effect is much simpler a process than

the corresponding process for ammonia.^ Concerning the fields

about hydrogen fluoride there is relatively little information.

The molecule is not much simpler than the molecule of water;

the single doublet does not possess a very much greater moment

than either of the doublets of the water molecule.

The fields about the water molecule seem to be the strongest

of those considered. In liquid water the combination between

two molecules due to the interlocking of these doublet fields

draws in the fields so that those about the "dihydrol" molecule

are much lessened. The dihydrol is a fairly stable compound.

Such a liquid, in which combination with itself is possible, is

said to be "associated." The fields are intense enough and

sufficiently localized to make possible combination between two,

occasionally more, molecules but not strong enough to cause

sohdification. Organic acids associate by reason of the intensity

of the combinations between the — COOH groups of different

molecules, and alcohols because of the association of — OH groups.

588 WYCKOFF: forces between atoms in souds

Adsorption ^"^ — There will be fields of force upon the surfaces

of all solids and all liquids. The molecules of the gas surround-

ing the solid likewise possess stray fields of greater or less im-

portance. One of two things will happen to those gas mole-

cules which strike the surface of the solid (or liquid) .

1. If the molecule is moving so fast that its energ}^ exceeds

that necessary to hold together the two fields, it will be reflected

from the surface with a loss in energy depending upon the stray

forces.

2. Otherwise it will condense and be held upon the surface.

The molecule may by reason of collisions from other molecules

acquire enough energy to enable it again to leave the surface.

The average life and the number of atoms upon the surface at

any one time will depend upon the balance set up between these

opposing tendencies. As a result of the condensation (adsorp-

tion) a new surface, really one of the adsorbed substance, is

produced.

From this point of view adsorption is seen to depend upon the

following factors :

1. The adsorbed substance. The greater the outside fields of

the molecules, the higher will be the adsorption.

2. The adsorbing substance. Solids of the valency and polar

(electrolyte) types should have large surface fields and should

adsorb strongly. Those solids, the particles of which are held

together by stray fields only (the organic type), will adsorb to

only a slight extent if at all.

Solubility. — Solubility results from the entangling of the fields

of force of the solute and solvent. The process is influenced by:

I. The intensity of the residual forces of the solvent. When

these forces are large, the degree of association of the liquid will

furnish a rough measure of the forces. With weaker non-

associating liquids the boiling point, combined with the weight

of the molecule, gives the desired information.

2. The intensity of the residual forces of the solute. The vari-

ous kinds and degrees of these have been discussed under a con-

sideration of various typical solids.

*2 I. Langmuir. Phys. Rev. 8: 149-176. 1916; Journ. Amer. Chera. Soc. 40:

1361-1403. 1918.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 589

It seems possible to state as a general rule that strong sol-

vents (i. e., those possessed of large external forces) dissolve

strong solutes, while weak solvents dissolve weak solutes. Weak

solutes are not usually markedly soluble in strong solvents nor

is the reverse case true. Water dissolves electrolytes; carbon

disulfide and benzene dissolve organic compounds; but electro-

lytes are not appreciably soluble in carbon disulfide or benzene,

while water dissolves only those organic compounds which are

possessed of large fields — the acids, alcohols, sugars and the like.

Solubility results, in fact, from a chemical reaction between

solvent and solute. In order that marked solution can take

place, it is necessary that the stray fields about the solvent and

the dissolving substance shall each be strong enough to "open

up" and make reactive the condensed systems of the other. A

certain solubility can be considered to exist in all cases unless

the temperature is carried too low. The ordinary tendency for

the solute to "vaporize" into the liquid will be enhanced to an

extent depending upon the added stray fields of the solvent.

The solubility of molecular compounds in non-associated

liquids is perfectly straightforward. There will always be some

solubility, increasing in amount as the solvent fields, which in

such liquids are already pretty well opened up, become of in-

creasing importance compared with those of the solute. In

order that a substance may be strongly soluble in an associating

liquid, it must possess fields great enough more or less to break

up this association. Two types of solids have strong outside

fields: valency compounds and electrolytes. The fields upon

the surface of valency Solids are due to the tendency of the

surface atoms to complete their clusters of eight electrons. Ex-

cept directly upon the surface, a valency compound is very

thoroughly saturated. The surface atoms will be able to com-

bine with the solvent molecules, but little action will result be-

cause of the much greater force within the solid material. Ad-

sorption, rather than solution, results from this reaction. Elec-

trolytes possess doublets of large moments which are able to

open up to a large degree the fields of the solvent. The extent

of the solution of an electrolyte depends upon

590 WYCKOFF: FORCKS BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

1. The degree of association of the solvent (which might be

taken as a measure of the potential reactivity),

2. The moments of the doublets within the solid,

3. The stray fields within the solid.

In solids possessing multiply-charged ions the increase in the

intensity of the binding fields would, where a condensing together

of the fields is possible, be greater than the increase in the mo-

ments of the doublets. There would thus be a smaller tendency

to dissolve. This tendency to condense together, which would

ordinarily be found occurring with a double bonding, depends

upon both the number and arrangement of the atoms within

the solid. Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble in water

while sodium nitrate, ^^ possessing the same structural arrange-

ment, dissolves readily. If the ion possesses about it con-

siderable fields, it may be able to form with the molecules of

the solvent more or less short-lived compounds.

This point of view suggests for ionization a mechanism some-

what different from that usually accepted. A salt does not

usually become ionized at the moment of solution; it is already

ionized in the solid state. When a crystal of sodium chloride

is added to water, ions, not molecules, are torn from the solid

by the process of solution. These ions may, and will when there

are enough of them present, combine temporarily to form sodium

chloride molecules. The process of solution and ionization is

not molecule — > molecule — > ions, but ions — >■ ions — >

solid solution solution solid solution

molecule.

solution

Molecular Complexes. — Molecular complexes are formed by

the interaction of the stray fields of simple compounds. Molec-

ular compounds are formed when two molecules hold together.

Complex ions result from the entangling of a simple ion by the

fields of a "neutral" molecule.

Hydrates are typical solid molecular compounds. In order

that such a compound shall be formed, it is essential that both

^' The fact that the carbonate group, being a weak anion, is unable to draw the

extra calcium electrons near to it with the production of the large doublets present

in sodium nitrate is also of influence in reducing the solubility.

WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS 59I

constituents shall be possessed of fairly large outside fields. In

compounds where the binding electrons are held between the

electropositive and electronegative portions, the fields are more

condensed together and more stable than those of the extreme

electrolytes. Complexes formed by them are more stable than

those involving ionizing substances. The conditions for stability

of a hydrate can be shown by an example. In a solution of zinc

sulfate the zinc ions, and probably to a lesser extent the sulfate

ions, will be combined with varying numbers of water molecules,

that is, probably some ions will be anhydrous, some will have

one water molecule attached, etc. As the concentration of the

solution is increased, some of the zinc ions will hold to sulfate

ions forming hydrated as well as non-hydrated zinc sulfate

molecules. The non-hydrated molecule of zinc sulfate by rea-

son of the large doublet it contains will tend to become hydrated.

There will therefore be in the solution molecules of different

degrees of hydration which will in turn tend to acquire more

water molecules and also to associate together. When con-

centration has progressed far enough, this associating tendency

will outweigh the reverse action. That particular hydrate will

continue to grow which offers the greatest condensation of the

forces involved. This will be usually the highest hydrate within

which the forces are great enough to overcome the disrupting

effect of thermal agitation.

Complex ions. — Complex ions result from the interaction be-

tween the fields of a neutral molecule and an ion. The ion becomes

imbedded within- the fields of the neutral part. A molecule, in

order to form the neutral part of a complex ion, must have the

following requisites :

1. It must have fields strong enough to hold the ion.

2. The attractions within the molecule must be such that it

is not dissociated into ions either as a solid or upon solution.

Such molecules are furnished by compounds of a type inter-

mediate between the molecule-forming and the polar classes,

where the electron is held so strongly by the electropositive

element that it can pass only part of the way over to the negative

atom. The complex formed by the addition of potassium cyanide

592 WYCKOFF: FORCES BETWEEN ATOMS IN SOLIDS

to silver cyanide is typical. Silver cyanide possesses a structure

similar to silver iodide. The cyanide ion is less strongly negative

than the iodide ion, the electron is nearer the silver atom and

consequently the doublet is of less moment. The fields within

the silver cyanide molecule are quite intense. When the solid

is placed in a solution of potassium cyanide, the cyanide ions

will become by collision imbedded within these drawn-in fields

between the silver atom and the cyanide radical. This addi-

tional cyanide ion will so increase the resulting doublet fields

that the water molecules are able to cause solution by reason of

the interaction of their fields with those of the new silver cyanide

anion in the solid.

In future papers it is planned to discuss in detail the informa-

tion which X-ray determinations of the structure of crystals,

infra-red spectra measurements, and specific heat measurements

offer concerning the nature of the forces between the atoms in

solids, and to present the results of X-ray studies of various

typical crystals.

SUMMARY

1. The structure of the atom, as we now know it, is discussed

with reference to the nature of the forces operating between

atoms, and it is emphasized that only the arrangement of the

outside electrons has a bearing on the phenomena usually in-

cluded under the term "chemistry." The arrangement of the

inner electrons cannot be deduced from chemical data alone.

The outstanding fact is the tendency, still unexplained, to form

"closed clusters" of eight or twice-eight electrons.

2. Several typical compounds are considered with reference

to the nature of the forces producing them. All compounds lie

between the two extremes of "polar" and "non-polar" com-

pounds. A simplified method of representing the type of com-

bination in a given compound is suggested.

3. Solid substances are classified, according to the nature of

the forces of combination, into molecule-forming, polar, and

valency compounds.

4. The phenomena of adsorption, solubility, ionization in solu-

tion, formation of complex ions, and molecular complexes are

discussed from this point of view.

MICHELSON : FOX INDIANS 593

ANTHROPOLOGY. — -Some general notes on the Fox Indians.''-

Part III: Bibliography. Truman Michelson, Bureau of

American Ethnology,

LINGUISTICS.^

Boas, Franz. The Indian languages of Canada. Annual Archaeological Report

1905: 88-106. Toronto. 1906.

The description of Algonquin (94, 95) is based essentially on Jones' first paper.

Flom, George T. Syllabus of vowel and consonantal sounds, in Meskwaki Indian.

1906. Published by the State Historical Society of Iowa.

Known to me only by the remarks on p. vi of .4 collection of Meskwaki Manuscripts and in

the list of names of Meskwaki Indians in the lo^i'a Journal of History and Politics. April, 1906.

The title may therefore not be absolutely accurate. To judge from the orthography of the

Indian names, the phonetic scheme is deficient. Apparently the author was unacquainted

with the work of William Jones.

Jones, William. Some principles of Algonquian word-formation. Amer. Anthrop.

n. ser. 6: 369-411. 1904.

The first scientific paper on the Fox language.

Jones, William. A71 Algonquin syllabary. Boas Anniversary Volume: 88-93.

1906.

Explains the principles of a number of Fox syllabaries. Only the first one described is in

current use. At least two others not described by Jones exist; however, their mechanism is

on the same lines.

Jones, William. Fox texts. Publ. Amer. Ethnol. Soc. i: 1907.

Gives a description of Fox phonetics as he conceives them, and numerous texts.

Jones, William. Algonquian (Fox) (revised by Truman Michelson). Handbook

American Indian Languages. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 40, Part i: 735-

873. 1911. .

Michelson, Truman. 0?i the future of the independent mode tn Fox. Amer. An-

throp. n. ser. 13: 171, 172. 1911.

Michelson, Truman. Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algon-

quian Tribes. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 28: 22i-29ob. 1912.

Michelson, Truman. Note on the Fox negative particle of the conjunctive mode in

Fox. Amer. Anthrop. n. ser. 15: 364. 1913.

Michelson, Truman. Contributions to Algonquian grammar. Amer. Anthrop. n.

ser. 15: 470-476. 1913.

Michelson, Truman. Algonquian linguistic miscellany. Joum. Wash. Acad. vSci.

4: 402-409. 1 9 14.

Michelson, Truman. The so-called stems of Algonquian verbal complexes. XIX

Internat. Cong. Americanists: 541-544. 191 7.

Michelson, Truman. Notes on Algonquian languages. Intern. Journ. Amer.

Lang, i: 50-57. 1917.

Michelson, Truman. Two proto-Algonquian phonetic shifts. Journ. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 9: 333-334- - I9i9-

Michelson, Truman. Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics,

folklore afid mythology. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9:521-528. 1919.

See 521-525. There are some unfortunate misprints, which are corrected in an errata sheet

preceding the index.

Ward, Duren J. H. The Meskwaki people of to-day. Iowa Journ. Hist. Pol. 4: 190-

219. 1906.

Gives the more current syllabary; also the phonetic elements of the Fox language as he con-

ceives it. The priority of this paper or Jones' second one is unknown. The phonetic scheme

is better regarding vowels than consonants. It is deficient in important respects. The philo-

sophic tendencies are those of Gobineau, on which see Boas, Mind of Primitive Man, Chap. V

(1911) and Michelson, Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7: 234. 1917.

' Pubhshed with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-

tion.

2 The vocabularies, etc., contained in the works of early writers, such as Mars-

ton, Forsyth, Galland, Fulton, and Busby, are passed over, for the words are so

badly recorded as to be utterly useless.

594 michelson: fox Indians

Weld, Laenas G. ; Rich, Joseph W. ; Flom, George T. Prefatory note. Coll.

Meskwaki Manuscripts, Publ. State Hist. Soc. Iowa. 1907: v-vii.

Remarks on the alphabet employed by Cha ka ta ko si (ordinarily known as "Chuck") in

volume; various remarks on the phonetic elements of Fox. Not of much value. The

fact that j is used for the ch sound does not point to French influence as is stated: j in French

has the value of z in azure; while j in the "Manuscripts" certainly for the most part has the

phonetic value of dtc. It is more likely that the j is a reflection of English j, heard in a slightly

faulty manner. The alphabet is certainly not in common use among the Foxes; and I suspect

Chuck invented it. The Indian texts contained in the volume can be used by the specialist.

folklore; and mythology

Blair, Emma Helen. Indian Tribes of the Upper Missisipi Valley and the Great

Lakes Region. 2: 142-145. 1912.

The volume contains Marston's letter to Rev. Dr. Jediah Morse, dated November, 1820;

originally printed in the latter's report to the Secretary of War, dated November, 1821,

printed at New Haven, 1822. The supposed historic statement that the Shawnees were

descended from the Sauk nation by a (Sauk or Fox?) chief, is nothing more than a (Sauk or

Fox?) variant of the "Bear-foot Sulkers," on which see Jones, Fox Texts: 30, 31. To-day the

Shawnee tell it of the Kickapoo and vice versa (Michelson, information).

Busby, AlliE B. Two summers among the Musquakies. i886.

Contains extract from Isaac Galland's Chronicles, etc. See below.

Fulton, A. R. [Initials stand for?] The Red Men of Iowa. 1882.

Contains extract from Isaac Galland's Chronicles, etc. See below.

Galland, Isaac. Chronicles of Northamerican savages. 1835.

Complete copies are apparently impossible to obtain. Has important information on the

gentes and tribal dual division. Part of this cannot be substantiated to-day. Portions re-

printed in Annals of Iowa, 1869, under the title of Indian Tribes of Ike West (especially 347-

366), also in Fulton's The Red Men of Iowa, 1882 (131-134), also in Busby's Two summers

among the Musquakies, 1886 (52-63).

Jones, William. Episodes in the culture-hero myth of the Sauks and Foxes. Joum.

Amer. Folk-Lore 15: 225-239. 1901.

Jones, William. Fox texts. 1907.

Most important of all publications on the subject.

Jones, William. Notes on the Fox Indians. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 24: 209-237.

1911.

Contains much matter supplementary to his Fox Texts.

Marsh, Cutting. Letter to Rev. David Greene, dated March 25, 1835. Printed

in Wise. Hist. Coll. 15: 104-155. 1900.

Traditions regarding the Me-shaum (phonetically mt'cami^i'"), We-sah-kah (Wi'sA'ka'^",

the culture-hero), the death of his brother, the flood, etc. See pp. 130-134. Most of the

information given can be substantiated to-day. The parts of the letter appurtenant to Fox

ethnology, folklore and mythology have been reprinted in the appendix to M. R. Harring-

ton's Sacred bundles of the Sac and Fox Indians (1914).

Marston, Major M. Letter to Rev. Dr. Morse. 1820. Printed in Morse's Re-

port to the Secretary of War, 1822.

See p. 122 for a supposed historic statement which is nothing more than legendary: vide

supra under Blair.

Michelson, Truman. Notes on the folklore and mythology of the Fox Indians.

Amer. Anthrop., n. ser. 15: 699, 700. 1913.

Points out that Fox folklore and mythology consists of native woodland and plains as well as

European elements.

Michelson, Truman. Ritualistic origin myths of the Fox Indians. Journ. Wash.

Acad. Sci. 6:209-211. 1916.

Michelson, Truman. Some general notes on the Fox Indians. Part II: Phonetics,

folklore and mythology. Joiu-n. Wash. Acad. Sci. 9: 521-528. 1919.

General discussion of Fox folklore and mythology.

Owen, Mary Alicia. Folklore of the Musquakie Indians of North America. 1904.

See the review by Michelson in Curr. Anthrop. Lit. 2: 233-237. 1913.

Steward, John Fletcher. Lost Maramech and earliest Chicago. 1903.

A num'aer of stories are scattered throughout the text. 57-59: Bull Head and Elk; Wa-sa-ri

misprint for Wa-sa-si, or a corruption of some sort; phonetically wA'se'si'^". Michelson

has a variant of this in his unpublished collection. 59-62: Wi-sa-ka and the Dancing Ducks;

variant to Jones' Fox Texts, 278-289; a Sauk version collected by Michelson agrees in part

quite closely with tale collected by Steward. 62-65: They who went in pursuit of the Bear;

variant to Jones' Fox Texts, 70-75. 345-351; Wa-pa-sai-ya; variant to Jones' Fox Texts,

8-31, and his Notes on the Fox Indians, 231-233; two unpublished versions collected by Michel-

son agree more closely with those of Jones than with that of Steward.

michelson: fox Indians 595

ethnology

Armstrong, Perry A. The Sauks and the Black Hawk War. 1887.

Quite a bit of Sauk ethnology may be gleaned from this. Marred by the statement (13)

that with the "Sauks, like all other Indian nations, the gens ran in the female line" — which

is an absurdity, and is not only opposed to the information given by the Sauk Indians of to-

day, but is in direct contradiction to the testimony of Morgan (1877) and Forsyth (1827;

see Blair, infra). Evidently the author was under the influence of Morgan's general theories

as was McGee {Atner. Anthrop. 1898: 89).

Atwater, Caleb. The Indians of the northwest. 1850.

See especially pp. 72, 76, 81, 87, 93, 104, 105, 106, 107, 115, 123, 129, 130, 132, 175. The

time referred to is 1829.

Beltrami, Giucomo C. A pilgrimage, etc. 1828.

vSee his letter dated May 24, 1823, in vol. 2.

Blair, Emma Helen. The hidian tribes of the Upper Missisipi Valley and the

Great Lakes Region. 191 2.

Vol. 2 contains Major Marston's letter to Jediah Morse, dated November, 1820; originally

printed in the latter's report to the Secretary of War, dated 1821, printed 1822; and Thomas

Forsyth's "Account of the Manners and Customs of the Sauk and Fox nations of Indian

Traditions," a report to General Clark dated St. Louis, January 15, 1827. These two are

the best accounts of Fox ethnology. Forsyth's "Account" is printed here for the first time.

Busby, AlliE B. Two summers among the Musquakies. 1886.

Besides containing extract from Galland (see infra), also gives lists of gentes, dances, mar-

riage ceremonies, description of some ceremonials, burial customs; clothing, etc. These are

the observations of a former school-teacher, and are interspersed with more or less interesting

gossip. The ethnological observations for the most part can be substantiated; on some

matters {e. g., the "Mule Dance") the author is hopelessly in the dark as to the real im-

port.

Carver, Jonathan. Three years travel, etc. 1796.

Though published in 1796, refers to thirty years previously, in round numbers. See 30, 31,

145, 170, 219, 230.

Catlin, George. Illustrations of the manners, customs, and condition of the North

American Indians. 1841.

See vol. 2: 207-217. There are other editions. Important. Good for certain dances,

clothing, and ethnological facts.

Fulton, A. R. The Red Men of Iowa. 1882.

See Chapters VIII and XXIII especially. Contains an extract from Galland, historical and

ethnological notes. Needless to say, the translation of Mus-qua-kie "the man with the yel-

low badge or emblem" and of Sau-kie "the man with the red badge or emblem" should be

reversed, and even then the renditions are not accurate; Mus-qua-kie means "Red-Earths;"

and Sau-kie is often taken (though mistakenly) to mean "Yellow-Earth." [The last really

means "They who came forth." Once given "Red-Earths," "Yellow-Earths" would be

a popular etymology, though not correct — witness medial -g-, not -'k-, in the native des-

ignation.]

Galland, Isaac. Chronicles of the Northamerican savages. 1835.

Contains an account of the gentes, but it is not certain whether the list is for the Sauks or

Foxes. The dual division is based on some misunderstanding. Complete copies are appar-

ently not now to be had. Portions reprinted in Annals of Iowa, 1869: 194 et seq.; see espe-

cially 347-366; also in the popular books of Busby and Fulton.

Harrington, M. R. Sacred bundles of the Sac and Fox Indians.

University Museum Anthrop. Publ. 4, no. 2, 1914. See review by Michelson, Am. Anthrop.,

n. ser., 17: 576-577, by vSkinner, ibidem, 577-579. Gives a sketch of Sac and Fox culture;

detailed description of sacred packs; exquisite photogravures. Besides the references to

sacred packs given by Michelson, loc. cit., the following are in order: Armstrong: 37; Bel-

trami, 2: 159; Keating (see infra), 2: 229; Rep. Comm. Ind. Affairs, 1851:66. As long as

Skinner gives a reference to a presumably Ottawa pack, attention may be called to Ann.

Prop. Foi, 4:481. The Potawatomi term for sacred pack is the phonetic correspondent

to the Ottawa pindikossan of Perrot [Michelson] , as is evidently the Ojibwa pindjigossan

(taken from Baraga); Cree kaskipit^gan (from Lacombe) stands by itself; Sauk, Kickapoo,

Shawnee all have phonetic equivalents to Fox mi'cam™i" (Michelson, information).

Hodge, Frederick Webb. Handbook of American Indians. 1907, 1910. Bur.

Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30.

See articles Fox, Sauk. Full bibliographies at end.

Jones, William. The Algonkin Manitou. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 18: 183-190.

1905.

Best exposition of the fundamentals of Fox religion.

Jones, William. Fox texts. 1907.

Contains incidental ethnological notes.

Jones, William. Mortuary observances and the adoption rites of the Algonquin

Foxes of Iowa. Congres International des Americanists, XV': 263-277. 1907.

Jones, William. Notes on the Fox Indians. Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 24: 209,

et seq. 191 1.

Various ethnological notes interspersed with folk tales. Rules governing membership in

tribal dual division wrongly given.

596 michelson: fox Indians

Keating, William H. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter's River —

in the year 1823. 1824.

See vol. 1 . Though primarily concerned with Sauk ethnology, nevertheless should be con-

sulted.

Lahonxan, Armand L. de. New voyages to North America. 1703.

See 2: 85.

Long, John. Voyages and travels of an Indian interpreter and trader. 1791.

See p. 151.

McKenney and Hall. History of the Indian tribes of North America. 1854.

Especially good for Fox costumes; contains other valuable facts.

Marsh, Cutting. Letter to Rev. David Greene, dated March 25, 1835. Printed

in Wise. Hist. Coll. 15: 1900.

Reprinted as far as concerns Fox ethnology, etc., in Harrington's Sacred bundles. Information

on the whole, good.

Michelson, Truman. Notes on the social organization of the Fox Indians. Amer.

Anthrop. n. ser. 15: 691-693. 1913.

It is possible that the information given may have to be modified in some details, but not

the rules given governing membership in the tribal dual division; and the general proposi-

tion that the dual division is for ceremonial as well as for athletic purposes stands.

Michelson, Truman. Terms of relationship and social organization. Proc. Nat.

Acad. Sci. 2: 297-300. 1916.

General discussion of terms of relationship; and Algonquian ones in particular. Discussion

of the Fox system is incidental.

Morgan, Lewis H. Systems of consanguinity, etc. 1871.

The "Sauk and Fox" system is from Sauk informants; some schedules are faulty; the Sauk

and the Fox systems are identical (Michelson, information).

Morgan, Lewis H. Ancient society, i^tj.

Gives list of gentes, but whether Sauk or Fox is unknown. The two tribes, though legally

consolidated, are distinct ethnologically and linguistically.

Owen, Mary Alicia. Folk-lore of the Musquakie Indians of North America. 1904.

The ethnological data are untrustworthy: see the review by Michelson, Curr. .Anthrop. Lit.

2:233-237; that of "A. F. C. and I. C. C." in Journ. .-imer. Folk-Lore 18: 144-146 is a bare

enumeration of the contents of the volume without any attempt at criticism.

Patterson, J. B. Autobiography of Black-Hawk. 1882.

Has data on Sauk ethnology and so is of value.

Pike, Zebulon Montgomery. An expedition, etc. (ed. Coues). 1895.

.See 338, 339.

Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

For facts beyond population and statistics see reps, for 1851; 66; 1896: 162; 1897: 148; 1898;

161, 166, 171; 1901: 240. As a whole reliable.

INSTITUTIONS AT WHICH THERE ARE FOX ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS

American Museum of Natural History. Collector: William Jones.

Cambridge University Museum of Archeology and Ethnology. Collector: Miss

Owen.

Davenport Academy of Sciences. Collector: Truman Michelson.

Field Museum of Natural History. Collectors: William Jones, Truman Michel-

son, and one or two others.

Museum fiir Volkerkunde (Berlin). Collector: Truman Michelson.

One sacred pack.

Museum of the American Indian. Collectors, M. R. Harrington, Truman

Michelson

United States National Museum. Collector: Truman Michelson.

Sacred packs only.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — Grid system for progressive maps in the United States.

William Bowie and Oscar S. Adams. U. S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey, Special Publ. 59. Pp. 227, figs. 6. 1919.

This publication contains tables, with the description of "their use,

which make it possible to construct a "grid" on any map in the United

States, similar to the grids used on military maps in Europe during

the war. The basis for the grid system in the United States is the poly-

conic projection. The polyconic projection lines cannot be used to advan-

tage in military operations where it is necessary to compute quickly

the distance and direction between two points, but by means of a plane

coordinate system, the relation between any two or more points can

be obtained easily by the solution of right-angled triangles. The

values in the tables in this publication are the plane coordinates for

the intersections of 5 -minute parallels and meridians. The country

is divided into seven zones and any coordinate can be used for each

of the seven zones by merely shifting the longitude by 8 °. It was imprac-

ticable to have a single zone for the whole country, because of its wide

extension in longitude. The zones in the United States extend in a

north and south direction and are 9° in width. Each zone overlaps

the contiguous zones by i °. This makes it possible to avoid a com-

plete break in the plane coordinates at the margins of the zones. The

grid lines of two zones can be used on the maps in the overlapping

areas and thus provide a connection between them.

The origin for each zone is outside of the United States and is to

the southwest of each zone. By having the origin in this location

all of the coordinates within the zone are positive. The X-coordinates

increase to the eastward and the Y-coordinates to the northward.

A careful study was made of the various projections in general use

597

598 abstracts: physics

before deciding on the one to be used as the basis for the grid tables.

The Lambert projection, which was used in France, was not apphcable

to the United States because of the great range in latitude in this

country.

The publication contains examples of the transformation of the

geographic to grid coordinates and the reverse. While the tables were

computed especially for use in the construction of military maps in

the United States, it is possible that the system may sometime be used

on maps for civil purposes. W. B.

PHYSICS. — Specific heat determination at higher temperatures. Wal-

ter P. White. Amer. Journ. Sci. 47: 44-59. January, 1919.

This paper deals with the experimental technic of specific heat

determination at temperatures up to 1400° by the "method of mix-

tures," and continues some earlier presentations. Detailed modifica-

tions in furnaces and in methods of transferring to the calorimeter are

described. The heat losses attending the dropping of hot bodies into

water proved to be surprisingly large; their prevention is probably

advisable in accurate work, perhaps by the use of aneroid calorimeters.

W. P. W.

PHYSICS.— r/i^ determination of the compressibility of solids at high

pressures. L. H. Adams, E. D. Williamson, and John Johnston.

Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 12-42. January, 19 19.

This paper describes a method by means of which the volume-

change under pressure of a solid may be determined with an accuracy

of about one part in 10,000 of the original volume of the solid.

Results are presented for the metals gold, copper, silver, aluminum,

zinc, tin, cadmium, lead, and bismuth; for the alloys brass and tin-

bismuth eutectic; and for sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, and

silica, both crystalline and amorphous. The pressure range was 2,000

and 12,000 megabars (i megabar = 0.987 atm.). The P — AF graphs

which show the relation between volume-change and pressure were

found to be nearly straight lines; however, the more compressible

metals exhibit a slight but unmistakable curvature such that the

graphs are concave toward the pressure axis. From this curvature a

rough estimate was obtained of the change of compressibility between

o and 10,000 megabars of all the solids examined (except gold, copper,

silver, aluminum, and brass, for which the compressibility is inde-

pendent of pressure within the error of experiment). L. H. A.

abstracts: analytical chemistry 599

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z^ thermal dissociation of sulfur di-

oxide. J. B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 69-72.

January, 19 19.

The degree of dissociation and the equilibrium constants for the

dissociation of sulfur dioxide have been calculated from the equilibrium

measurements of the reduction of sulfur dioxide by carbon monoxide

and the dissociation of carbon dioxide, and the results of these calcu-

lations for a number of temperatures and pressures are given in this

paper. The values obtained confirm the experimental results which

indicated that the dissociation was too slight to be directly studied by

the present available methods. J. B. F.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— A contribution to the methods of glass

analysis, with special reference to boric acid and the two oxides of

arsenic. E- T. AllEn and E. G. ZiES. (Geophysical Lab. Papers

on Optical Glass, No. 5.) Journ. Amer. Ceramic Soc. i: 739-

786. Nov., 1918.

Arsenic. An accurate method for the separation and determination

of both trivalent and pentavalent arsenic in glasses is described. The

separation depends on the volatilization of the trivalent arsenic as

AsFa when the glass is heated with hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids,

while the pentavalent arsenic remains in the residue. The procedures

described for arsenic in glasses are generally applicable to substances

in which the arsenic can be transformed into sulfide without loss, and

are highly accurate. A comparison of the iodometric method and the

magnesium pyroarsenate method for arsenic in glasses is made. The

former has the advantage in accuracy, and also in speed except where

occasional determinations are called for.

Boric Acid. For the determination of boric acid we have found

that Chapin's method is very reliable and yields highly accurate re-

sults. It has been shown that in order to obtain very acciurate results

a "blank" must be made and the value applied as a correction to the

amount of boric acid found. The correction is small and for ordinary

work can be neglected. The accuracy of the method is very appre-

ciably affected by relatively large amounts of arsenious acid but not by

arsenic acid. Relatively large amounts of fluorides appreciably affect

the accuracy of the determination but do not seriously impair its use-

fulness for ordinary work.

Other Determinations. Experience with the following cases in glass

6oo abstracts: geology

analysis is detailed: (i) The determination of the minute quantities

of iron in optical glass; (2) the separation and determination of zinc;

(3) the separation and determination of lead and barium occurring

together; (4) the separation of calcium or barium from relatively large

quantities of aluminum occurring with almost no iron; (5) the determi-

nation of those elements in boric acid glasses with which the boric acid

interferes. Attention is called to the universal presence of hygroscopic

moisture in powdered glass samples. Some data by E. S. vShepherd on

gases in glass are given. E- T. A.

GEOLOGY. — Salt resources of the United States. W. C. PhalEn.

U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 669. Pp. 284, pis. 17, figs. 16. 1919.

This bulletin describes the geology of the salt deposits of the United

States, discussing separately by States the position and extent of

deposits, and the stratigraphy and structure of the region, and gives

a bibliography for each State. It also gives theories of origin and

formation of salt deposits ; the chemical composition of saline materials ;

and statistics of the production of salt in the United States from 1880

to 191 7. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Clays and shales of Minnesota. Frank F. Grout. U.

S. Geol. Survey Bull. 678. Pp. 251, pis. 16, figs. 38. 1919.

This bulletin comprises a discussion of the distribution, origin, prop-

erties, classification, and adaptability of the clays and shales of Minne-

sota. An attempt has been made to test all the more important de-

posits with sufficient exactness to determine for what purposes they

may be used. The general character of each geologic formation and

the character of the clay products made from it by the several methods

of manufacture are set forth. Deposits suitable for common brick

are abundant and widely distributed in many accessible localities in

the eastern part of the State. The red laminated clay of the eastern

counties makes good red brick and may be used as a slip glaze for semi-

refractory ware. R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — The Anvik-Andreafski region, Alaska. George L. Har-

rington. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 683. Pp. 69, pis. 7. 1918.

The Anvik-Andreafski region as described in this report embraces

the territory west and north of the lower Yukon River between Anvik

and Andreafski rivers and an extensive area of low-lying country im-

mediately contiguous to the Yukon on its east and south sides.

abstracts: geology 6oi

Greenstones of a rather wide range in composition and origin make

up a large proportion of the metamorphic rocks. Closely associated

with the greenstones are slates, quartzites, and conglomerates and

many intermediate rock types. The greenstones appear to have suf-

fered the most intense changes, but secondary structure has developed

in the sediments also. Undeformed acidic dikes cut both the green-

stones and the sediments. It is tentatively assumed that the green-

stones, including the tuffs and some conglomerates which occur with

them, are of late Paleozoic age and that the sedimentary rocks are the

metamorphosed equivalents of the Cretaceous beds found elsewhere

in this region.

Cretaceous rocks were found on Anvik and Andreafski rivers and

probably occupy much of the intervening area. More or less closely

associated with the Cretaceous rocks in the northern and eastern parts

of the region are a series of tuffs and flows of intermediate basic types.

Some of the flows appear to be intercalated with the Cretaceous sedi-

ments. In the southern part of the region are a number of dacitic

porphyry dikes of late Cretaceous or post-Cretaceous age.

No sediments of known Tertiary age were found in the area, but at

somewhat widely separated points vesicular lavas occur as undeformed

horizontal flows which are either late Tertiary or early Quaternary.

Quaternary deposits are found throughout the region.

At the beginning of the Quaternary period the surface stood at a

somewhat higher elevation than now, and the base-level of erosion

was lower, so that many of the streams were able to carve deeper

valleys in bedrock than those they now occupy. It appears likely

that the stream systems had become well established and a fairly

mature topography had been developed. At some time in this stage

of erosion there was an extravasation of basaltic lava which materially

altered the courses of sonic of the larger streams, possibly including

the Yukon itself or its predecessor.

The report concludes with a discussion of the mineral resources of

the region. R. W. Stone.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETlEvS

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF MANAGERS

At the meeting of the Board of Managers on April 30, 1919, the

special committee on distribution of the Proceedings reported that 50

reserve sets had been wrapped, and arrangements had been made for

the distribution of the greater part of the remaining complete sets.

At the meeting of the Board on May 26, 1919, the following commit-

tees were authorized and appointed: Committee to present to the

Congressional commission on reclassification of government employees

the desirability of enlisting the aid of the National Research Council:

P. G. Agnew and W. J. Humphreys; committee to prepare information

concerning scientific and technical positions in the government bureaus,

for the assistance of the Reclassification Commission: F. L. Ransome,

F. V. CoviLLE, E. B. Rosa, C. S. Scoeield, R. B. Sosman, W. T.

Swingle.

At the meeting of the Board on June 30, 191 9, the membership of

the Academy in the American Metric Association was continued, and

problems of reclassification, salaries, and retirement were discussed.

At the meeting of the Board on October 27, 1919, a committee con-

sisting of Paul Bartsch, F. V. Coville, and F. L. Ransome was

requested to make a report concerning the relation of the Shaw Aquatic

Gardens to the proposed engineering improvements along Anacostia

River.

The following persons have become members of the Academy since

the last report in the Journal:

Mr. Oscar S. Adams, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,

D. C.

Dr. Arthur Chaden Baker, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Herbert Spencer Barber, National Museum, Washington,

D. C.

Dr. Charles Franklin Brooks, U. S. Weather Bureau, Washing-

ton, D. C.

Mr. Albert Franklin Burgess, Bureau of Entomology, Melrose

Highlands, Massachusetts.

Mr. Otis Fisher Black, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Theodore Chapin, U. S. Geological Survey, Anchorage, Alaska.

Mr. Arthur J. Ellis, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Henry C. Fuller, Institute of Industrial Research, Washing-

ton, D. C.

602

proceedings: Washington academy of sciences 603

Mr. Louis J. Gillespie, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. R. B. Harvey, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Oliver Baker Hopkins, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C.

Mr. James A. Hyslop, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. James T. JardinE, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Neil M. Judd, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Dr. Lyman Frederic KeblER, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Dr. George Richard Lyman, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. S. C. Mason, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Dr. Everett Franklin Phillips, Bureau of Entomology, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Fred J. Pritchard, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Arthur W. Sampson, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C.

Mr. E. Ralph Sasscer, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Joshua J. Skinner, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Robert B . Sosman, Corresponding Secretary.

134TH meeting

The 134th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Chem-

ical Society of Washington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

the evening of Thursday, March 27, 191 9. Dr. Arthur L. Day,

Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington, and Vice-President of the Corning Glass Works, Corning, New

York, delivered an address on Optical glass. The lecturer outlined

the position of the United States with respect to supplies of optical

glass both in 19 14, when imJDorts from Europe began to be interrupted,

and in 191 7, when the United States entered the war. The danger

from American dependence on European supplies had been recognized

before 191 7 and some progress had been made in this country in the

manufacture of optical glass; but the situation was unsatisfactory,

because the prospect that the supply would increase with sufficient

rapidity to keep pace with the demands of the American Army seemed

remote. Intensive efforts to stimulate the production of the one plant

that was then producing glass in appreciable quantity, and the

bringing into production of two additional commercial plants in the

latter part of 191 7, had by November, 191 8, solved the problem of an

adequate supply. At the same time laboratory and plant research

had secured improved raw materials and had gotten at the many diffi-

6o4 proceedings: Washington academy oe sciences

culties with manufacturing processes, so that the quality also had been

brought up to a high standard. The lecturer showed lantern slides

illustrating the various processes used in manufacturing optical glass,

together with curves indicating the rapid increase in American pro-

duction in 1917 and 1918.

135TH meeting

The 135th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Friday, April 4, 1919, the occasion

being an address by Lieut. Col. Byron C. Goss, U. S. A., Chief Gas

Officer, Second Army, A. E. F., entitled Gas warfare at the front. The

lecture was devoted principally to the military features of gas offense

and defense, as experienced by the American Army in 191 8. At this

stage of the war reliance was placed mainly on gas shell, and the gas

cloud, which was the method by which gas warfare was introduced in

1915, was very little used. The use of toxic shell may be divided into

three periods. From May, 191 5 to July, 191 6 only lachrymatory shell

were used. Phosgene and chlorpicrin shell, intended to produce cas-

ualties, came into increased use from July, i9i6toJuly, 191 7. With

the latter date began the use of the so-called "mustard gas." The

tactical handling of gas shell depends on the object to be accomplished,

whether the production of casualties or the neutralization of troops.

Details of tactics and of shell design were ably discussed by the lec-

turer and were illustrated with lantern slides. The lecture closed with

the presentation of some new moving pictures showing the use of

thermit bombs and smoke clouds and the handling of gas shell by

American artillery at the front in the autumn of 191 8.

136TH MEETING

The 136th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club, the evening of Thursday, May 15, 1919. An

address was delivered by Prof. John C. Merriam, Acting Chairman

of the National Research Council, entitled Cave hunting in California.

The discovery of prehistoric stone implements supposed to be from

the auriferous gravels of California aroused interest some years ago

in the question whether man was present on the West Coast during

Pliocene or Pleistocene time. The lecturer outlined his early studies

of the problem through the examination of auriferous gravels, river

terrace gravels, and caves, illustrating the story with many lantern

slides of California caves. Among the localities where significant

material was obtained were Mercer's Cave in Calaveras County, Haw-

ver's Cave and the Robbers' Cave in the American River valley, and

Potter Creek Cave and Sarnwel Cave on the McCloud River. Many

new species of extinct Pleistocene animals were found in the course of

the explorations, but no absolutely certain evidence has been discovered

of the existence of man in California before the present epoch. The

lecture was discussed by several members of the Academy.

William R. Maxon, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS OF NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEER-

ING SOCIETIES

American Association for the Advancement of Science. St.

Louis, Missouri, December 29-31, 191 9. Chicago, Illinois, December,

1920.

National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D. C, April, 1920.

American Ceramic Society. Hotel Walton, Philadelphia, Penn-

sylvania, February 23-26, 1920.

American Chemical Society. St. Louis, Missouri, April 13-16,

1920. Chicago, Illinois, September, 1920.

American Physical Society. Chicago, Illinois, November

28-29, 1919.

Geological Society of America. Boston, Massachusetts, Decem-

ber 29-31, 1919.

American Society of Zoologists. St. Louis, Missouri, December

29-31, 1919.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers. New York City,

February 18-20, 1920. Annual Convention, June 22-25, 1920; place

not yet decided upon.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers. New York City,

December 2-5, 1919. St. Louis, Missouri, probably May, 1920.

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.

New York City, February 16-20, 1920.

National Electric Light Association. Pasadena, California,

May 18, 1920.

THE MAP-MAKING CONFERENCE

On July I, 191 9, the Engineering Council addressed a letter to the

President of the United States suggesting that a conference of the

map-making bureaus of the Federal government be called in order to

make plans for cooperation and for expediting the completion of the

topographic map of the United States. On August 27 the President

referred the matter to the Secretary of War and requested that a con-

ference be called.

The conference was held on September 15-29, and the following

fourteen map-making organizations of the Federal government were

represented: U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. Geological Survey,

General Land Office, Topographic Branch of the Post-Office Depart-

ment, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Reclamation Service, Bureau of Public

Roads, Bureau of Indian Affairs, International (Canadian) Boundary

Commission, Forest Service, U. S. Hydrographic Office, and the fol-

lowing organizations from the U. S. Army: Corps of Engineers, Mis-

sissippi River Commission, and U. S. Lake Survey. Ten national

scientific and engineering societies were also represented.

605

6o6 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The conference reached the general conclusion "that there is little

actual duplication of effort materially affecting the progress of map-

ping the United States. The U. S. Geological Survey is charged with

the preparation of a topographic map of the United States, which,

with certain minor modifications, will adequately meet the needs for

a general utility map. The work of that bureau is progressing as

rapidly as the available funds will permit. Approximately one- third

of the area of the continental United States, exclusive of Alaska, is

now covered by satisfactory maps of this class. The U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, in addition to its other work, is engaged in the execu-

tion of the primary control in the interior of our country. A basic

horizontal and vertical control which will permanently establish some

geographic position and elevation within about 50 miles of any point

in the United States has been approximately 50 per cent completed.

Close cooperation exists between the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey

and the U. S. Geological Survey so that there is no duplication in

carrying out the work necessary for the standard topographic map."

The report also shows that certain map needs of various other bureaus

are met by the standard topographic map of the Geological Survey.

In addition, they all require certain special maps, some of which demand

more detailed surveys than those necessary for the standard map,

and others of which require the collection of entirely different kinds

of data. Some of the organizations concerned (for instance, the Inter-

national Boundary Commission) are conducting specialized surveys,

and while they would be benefited in some degree by the early comple-

tion of the standard map in the areas in which they operate, still this

map would not obviate the need of the special surveys. The work of

the Hydrographic Office is entirely outside the continental limits of

the United States.

The conference adopted the following recommendation: "It is

recommended that the present procedure be continued, under which

the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey executes the primary control of

the area of the United States and U. S. Geological Survey prepares,

publishes, and distributes the standard topographic map and that

Congress be asked to make larger appropriations for these purposes

in order that the complete map may be available at an early date.

***** It is further recommended that this general project be

approved and placed before Congress with the request that Congress

adopt the project for execution by successive annual appropriations

for these two bureaus. Under this general plan it is assumed that a

large number of States will continue to cooperate in topographic map-

ping by making specific appropriations for that work."

The conference also recommended: (i) that a permanent Board of

Sur\^eys and Maps be appointed to act as an advisory body; (2) that

a central information office be established, preferably in the U. S. Geo-

logical Survey, but under the general supervision of the Board of

Surveys and Maps; (3) that the copyright laws be so amended as to

provide that a copy of every map presented for copyright be trans-

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 607

mitted to the information office; (4) that all Government agencies be

instructed to comply with requests for data from the Board; (5) that

surveys by agencies other than the Geological Survey be made to

conform to the specifications of the standard topographic map; (6)

that the Coast and Geodetic Survey be given general supervision of

the final adjustment of all important control data; (7) that maps be

issued as soon as possible after the field work has been completed;

and (8) that the program of the Interdepartmental Committee on

Aerial Surv^eying be approved.

It is estimated that the work of primary control can be completed

by 1933 at a cost of $6,305,000, and that the topographic map can be

completed within the same period for $40,490,000 (including coopera-

tive appropriations by States).

NOTES

Mr. C. H. BiRDSEYE has been appointed Chief Topographic Engineer

of the U. S. Geological Survey, to succeed Mr. R. B. MarshaIvL, who

recently resigned as Chief Geographer. Mr. Birdseye was formerly

chief of one of the divisions of topographic mapping and during the

War served in France as Lieutenant Colonel of the Coast Artillery.

Mr. Marshall will remain a member of the Survey, being enrolled as a

topographic engineer on a per diem status, and will thus be available

for occasional service.

Prof. M. A. CarlETon has resigned his position as cerealist with the

U. S. Department of Agriculture, and is now engaged in special field

investigations for the U. S. Grain Corporation, with headquarters at

42 Broadway, New York City.

Dr. Henry A. Christian, Dean of the Harvard Medical School,

came to Washington on November i as chairman of the Division of

Medical Sciences of the National Research Council.

Mr. D. Dale Condit has resigned from the Geological Survey, and

Mr. Ralph W. Howell is on a year's leave of absence, to accept posi-

tions as petroleum geologists with Pearson and Sons. They sailed

for England about the middle of October.

Mr. R. W. Frey, formerly with the leather and paper laboratory of

the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, has re-

signed to accept a position in the chemical department of John H.

Heald & Co., Inc., manufacturers of tanning and dye-wood extracts

at Lynchburg, Va.

Dr. Albert Mann has resigned from the Department of Agriculture

to accept an appointment as Research Associate of the Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington. The change was made so as to enable him to

give his entire time to his work on the diatoms. He will have his office

and laboratory at the National Museum.

6o8 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prof. A. A. MiCHELSON, of the University of Chicago, who was until

recently engaged in research for the Navy Department at the Bureau

of Standards, has been appointed Research Associate at the Mount

Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for the

year ending July, 1920.

Mr. Bert Russell, first assistant examiner in the Patent Office,

and secretary of the Patent Office Society, has resigned in order to de-

vote his attention to chemi co-legal work with the firm of Prindle,

Wright & Small, of New York City.

Mr. C. E. SiEBENTHAL, geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, will

spend a large part of his time this winter in the Internal Revenue division

of the Treasury Department assisting in the adjustment of the income-

tax valuation of mining properties.

Prof, C. A. Skinner, formerly head of the Physics Department at

the University of Nebraska, has recently come to Washington as chief

of the Division of Optics of the Bureau of Standards.

Dr. M. W. Travers, formerly of the Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore, India, and connected during the war with the manufacture

of chemical glass in England, visited Washington in October.

Dr. L. B, TucKERMAN, formerly professor of Theoretical Physics at

the University of Nebraska, has recently joined the Engineering Ma-

terials Division of the Bureau of Standards.

Dr. P. V. Wells, of the Bureau of Standards, is on leave of absence

and is spending a year in the laboratory of Prof. Perrin in Paris.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 DECEMBER 4, 1919 No. 20

PHYSICS. — The relation between birefringence and stress in

various types of glass. L. H. Adams and E. D. WiIvIvIam-

SON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington.

When a rigid body is subjected to stress there are produced

changes in refractive index which are related to the direction of

stress and to the vibration directions of the entering light. Iso-

tropic substances such as glass then become birefracting. It

is evident that birefringence may serve as a measure of strain

and, consequently, of stress; indeed this method is commonly

used for the determination of internal stress in glass, and is of

especial importance in the examination of optical glass, which

for use in lenses and prisms must be well annealed.

While it is common practice to speak of strain in glass in

terms of birefringence, little is known concerning the absolute

magnitude of the stresses or strains involved,^ and, as a part

of the general problem of glass annealing, definite information

concerning the relation of birefringence to stress was required.

Accordingly in this paper we present the results of some measure-

ments of the birefringence due to loading of nine kinds of op-

tical glass. A brief review of the optical effect of stress is also

given.

EXPERIMENTAIv METHOD AND RESULTS

Blocks of each kind of glass measuring about 2 by 3 by 3 cm.

were prepared. The faces were made as nearly plane parallel

1 The only observations known to us are those by Pockels with reference to several

glasses, some of which were flint glasses, while the others were unusual alumino-

borates. See page 615 and 620.

609

6io

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

as possible, two opposite faces being polished and the other

four faces left with a finely ground surface. Each block was in

turn subjected to compression in a Riehle vertical testing ma-

chine, and a beam of light polarized by a nicol prism was passed

through the block, the plane of polarization of the light being

at 45° to the direction of pressure. The blocks of glass when

loaded showed a certain amount of double refraction which

Fig. I.

Diagrammatic representation of apparatus for measuring birefringence of glass

under load. Pressure is transmitted to the block of glass G through the hardened

steel blocks A A and B B. Light from the lamp 5 is polarized by the nicol prism

N, passes through the glass, the lens L, the graduated quartz wedge W, the eyepiece

E and the analyzing nicol iVj. The nicols are crossed and the axis of thrust makes an

angle of 45 ° with the vibration direction of the light entering the block G.

could be detected by the use of polarized light, and could be

measured by determining the optical path difference^ according

- If two rays of light travel with velocities Va and Vb through the distance /, we

Vb lla Na Xft

have - = ~ = t; = — > >^a and tib being the corresponding refractive indices,

Va Hb Nb Xo

Xa and \b the wave-lengths, and Na and Nb the total numbers of waves. More-

/ ftal

over, Na = — = — m which Xi is the wave-length corresponding to w = i . Simi-

Xa Xi

flbl

larly Nb = — and

Xi

Na— Nb ==

(lla nb)l

The product tial or 7ibl, respectively, is called the "optical path;" (wo — nb)l is

the "optical path-difference" and is the quantity which we measure. Obviously

the birefringence iia — iib may be obtained by dividing the optical path-difference

by the geometrical length of path.

ADAMS AND WIIvI/IAMSON : BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

6ll

to standard methods.^ The optical system for measuring the

birefringence consisted of a petrographic microscope supported

at the proper angle on one post of the testing machine and in

such a position that the block of glass G was between the nicol

A'^ (Fig. i) and the low-power lens L. A graduated quartz

wedge, W, was in the focal plane of an eyepiece, E, on which was

mounted a cap nicol, N-2..

Upon illuminating the system with light from an ordinary

incandescent lamp, S, the wedge W- — which was placed with its

Fig. 2.

Diagram to show arrangement for determining the uniformity of loading. The

block of glass G is illuminated by light from S which passes through the diffusing

screen D and is reflected from the sheet of glass R. The thrust is applied to the glass

in a direction at 45 ° to the plane of polarization of the light, and the interference

colors produced by loading are observed through the analyzing nicol N.

longest dimension in a horizontal position — was observed

through the eyepiece and nicol. When the analyzer was placed

so that the nicols were crossed, a series of colored lines extended

across the field in a vertical direction, and the position of the

central black Une with respect to the graduations on the wedge

determined the birefringence of the specimen. One division on

our wedge represented lo mm retardation and no difficulty was

experienced in reading to V2 division or 5 /xju, which was about i

percent of the maximum observed birefringence. The load

' For example, see F. E- Wright, The methods of petrographic-microscopic research.

Carnegie Inst. Wash., Publ. 158, Chap. III. 191 1.

6l2

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

could be read to o.i kg. or better — a higher degree of precision

than is necessary, since readings to within 5 kg. would corre-

spond in accuracy to the readings of the wedge.

The first results obtained were irregular and generally unsatis-

factory. This was found to be due to the fact that the load

was not applied uniformly. In seeking to remedy this defect

we found that the problem of loading a block of glass evenly

up to a pressure of a few hundred kg. per sq. cm. offers unex-

pected experimental difficulties and requires the greatest pos-

sible amount of care and patience. Fortunately birefringence

serves not only for the quantitatiA^e measurement of stress but

also for the qualitative examination of the uniformity of stress.

TABLE I

Chemical Composition and Optical Properties of the Various Glasses

Kind of glass

Ordinary Crown

Borosilicate Crown. . .

Light Barium Crown ,

Heavy Barium Crown

Barium Flint

Light Flint

Medium Flint

Heavy Flint

Extra Heavy Flint.

Si02

73

67

47

40

46

54

45

42

28

To detect unevenness of loading a polarizer of large aperture is

required. A convenient arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. Light

from the lamp 5" is diffused by the translucent screen D (of

ground glass or tracing cloth) and polarized by reflection from

the sheet of plate glass R which is painted black on the back.

The vibration direction of the beam of light, as with- the previous

arrangement, is inclined 45° to the direction of pressure. The

interference colors are observed through the nicol prism A^, no

lens being required. If the block of glass G be uniformly loaded

it appears in the field of view to be of a certain uniform color

ADAMS AND WIIvLIAMSON : BIRKFRINGENCE; AND STRESS

613

on the Newton scale, the color depending on the amount of

birefringence present, but if the load be uneven the color will

vary from place to place in bands or streaks or irregular blotches.

After numerous unsuccessful attempts to secure uniform

stress throughout the blocks of glass, the following method was

found to be satisfactory. The thrust was applied through two

hardened steel blocks {A, A in Fig. i) the curved surfaces of

which were in contact with the curved surfaces of the blocks

B, B. The adjacent surfaces of steel and glass were ground so

as to be as nearly plane as possible and were then ground together

with very fine emery. Above and below the block of glass was

placed a piece of thin drawing paper. With this arrangement

we were able to load the glass uniformly up to a pressure of 200

kg. per sq. cm., which was sufficient for the purpose.

TABLE 2

Birefringence Produced in Glass by a Thrust of i Kg. per Sq. Cm.

Kind of glass

Ordinary Crown

Borosilicate Crown. . .

Light Barium Crown.

Heavy Barium Crown,

Barium Flint

Light Flint

Medium Flint

Heavy Flint -. . ,

Extra Heavy Flint. . . ,

—h X 10~ D/W.

Birefringence due to

1 kg. per sq. cm.

-2.57 X 10-7

-2.85 X 10-7

-2.81 X 10-7

-2 .15 X 10"'

-3 .10 X lO'"'

-3 .20 X 10"'

-3.13 X io~^

-2 .67 X IO~"

-I .22 X IO~'

Modulus of

rigidity.

R

0.28 X 10^

0.29 X 10^

0.30 X 10^

0.29 X 10^

0.26 X lo^

0.24 X 10*

0.22 X 10^

0.22 X 10*

0.20 X 10^

Table i shows the chemical composition and optical properties

of the glasses used, and in table 2 are given the results of our

measurements. If W is the load applied to the block of glass

by the testing machine and D the corresponding optical path-

difference as determined by the graduated quartz wedge, the

ratio D/W was found to be constant for each specimen to within

the limit of accuracy of the measurements. This result is in

accord with the observation by Brewster^ in 181 4 that the

* Brewster, Phil. Trans. 1814, 1815, 1816.

6l4 ADAMS AND WILUAMSON : BIREFRINGENCE; AND STRESS

optical effect produced is proportional to the amount of the

stress.

The ratio TD/W , however, is not independent of the dimen-

sions of the block, but it is readily seen that W lah is the pressure

and that D la is the path difference (6 and a are the dimensions

of the block measured transversely to the direction of thrust,

a being in the direction of the beam of light (see Fig. i)). More-

over, the ratio

Bla bD

or

W/ab W

is the birefringence produced by unit pressure and is de-

pendent only on the nature of the glass. It is interesting

to note that only one dimension of the block needs to be mea-

sured. The second column of table 2 gives for each kind of

glass the weighted mean value of D/W in mm per kg., and in

the third column are values of b, the width of the block in cm.,

i. e., the length of an edge perpendicular both to the direction

of thrust and the direction of the beam of light. The quantity

bD/W as shown in the fourth column is then the birefringence

produced by a pressure of i kg. per sq. cm. For reasons which will

appear later it may be useful to know the rigidity and compres-

sibility of each of the various kinds of glass. In the last two

columns of table 2 are given the rigidity and compressibility

calculated according to the method described by Hovestadt,^

except for ordinary crown glass, the compressibility of which

we measured by a method already described.*'' These calcu-

lated elastic constants are of course only approximate values,

but are probably sufficiently accurate for our present purpose.

All of the results in the fourth column lie between 2.57 X

io~^ and 3.20 X 10 ~^ except for two comparatively uncommon

glasses. It is a curious and unexpected circumstance that for

the more generally used optical glasses a given stress should

produce so nearly the same amount of birefringence. The heavy

* H. HovESTADT, Jena glass. Transl. by J. D. and A. EvERETT. London, 1902;

pp. 155-160, 185-193.

\ * L. H. Adams, E. D. Williamson and J. Johnston. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.

41: 12-42. 1919.

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

615

barium crown, containing 43 per cent barium oxide (BaO), and

to a still greater extent the extra heavy flint, containing 69 per

cent lead oxide (PbO), show a much smaller ratio of birefrin-

gence to stress. The variation of this ratio with lead content in

the flint glass has been investigated by Pockels,^ who has ex-

pressed his results in a form very different from the one we have

used. Before comparing his results with ours it is therefore

necessary to give a short discussion of the principles involved. ^

THE

BY

ELEMENTARY THEORY OF OPTICAL EFFECTS PRODUCED

STRESS

Since the stress at any point in a solid may be resolved into

three components at right angles to each other, it is sufficient

Fis. 3-

Drawing to accompany elementary discussion of optical effects of stress. The

thrust P is applied in the direction 0 Y. The ray of light enters the cube of glass in

the direction OX, becomes elliptically polarized and is treated as two rays vibrating,

respectively, in the directions OY and OZ. Ordinarily the ray vibrating along OY

travels with the higher velocity, that is, ordinary glass under uni-directional com-

pression behaves like an optically negative uniaxial crystal.

to consider what happens to light passing through a cube of

glass subjected to forces normal to its faces. In Fig. 3 let OX,

OY, OZ represent the coordinate axes, and consider a beam of

Hght passing through the cube in a direction parallel to OX.

Now if the glass be acted upon by a vertical thrust {i. e., parallel

to OY) the cube will be compressed in that direction and ex-

^ F. PocKELS. Ann. Phys. (4) 7: 745. 1902.

6l6 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

tended along OX and OZ. The velocity of the beam of light

will be altered and in general the wave will be split into two wave

fronts proceeding with different velocities and polarized in direc-

tions at right angles^ to each other. Moreover, a ray of polar-

ized light after passing through the block of glass in a direction

normal to the surface will remain a single ray but will be found

to be elliptically polarized and may best be treated as the re-

^iltant of two rays vibrating, respectively, along OY and OZ

and differing in phase^ by a certain amount. The compressed

block of glass thus behaves as a uniaxial crystal whose optic

axis is parallel to OF.

Now a thrust in the direction OZ will produce an effect

similar to that in the direction OY, for the cube will be com-

pressed in the direction OZ and extended along OY , but a thrust

parallel to OX will produce no phase difference of the rays

vibrating along OY and OZ since the cube is extended the same

amount in these two directions.

It is evident, therefore, that when a beam of light passes

through a block of strained glass the velocity of the Ught (and

hence the refractive index of the glass) depends on (i) the direc-

tion of vibration of the light, and (2) the dilatations in those

directions perpendicular to the path of the beam of light.

THE GENERALIZED EQUATIONS

The equations used by Neumann ^° for expressing the influence

of elastic deformation on the propagation of light are as follows :

•Vx = V -[- qXx + pyy + pZz (Ia)

Vy = V -{- px^ -f qyy + pz.^ (Ib)

Vz = V + pXjc + pyy + qzz (ic)

* A ray of light by reflection from a polished surface becomes partially or completely

polarized. The plane of polarization is arbitrarily defined as the plane containing

the incident and reflected rays, and the direction of vibration is usually taken as

the normal to the plane of polarization. The vibration direction so defined is the

direction of the electric vibrations of the electromagnetic disturbances and is per-

pendicular to the magnetic vibrations.

^ In the actual measurement of birefringence the beam of polarized light is usually

arranged to vibrate in a direction at 45° from OF or OZ. The phase difference

obviously may be expressed as a path difference by taking account of the wave

length of the light.

1' F. NEtnviANN. Ann. Phys. 54: 1841.

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON! BIR^IfRINGENCE; AND STRESS 617

in which x^, jy, and z~_ are dilatations in the three directions

parallel to the three principal axes, v is the velocity of light in

the unstressed material, and Vx> Vy, and v. are the velocities of

light waves whose vibrations are parallel to the three axes.

p and q are coefficients which are to be determined by experiment.

If n is the refractive index of the unstressed medium and Ux,

fly, and n^ are the refractive indices for light vibrating in the three

principal directions, then nv = n^Vx = nyVy = n-v^ and from

Equation (ia)

Vx - V n - fix q p

= - Xx +- iyy + 2,). (2)

V ■ fix V V

Referring again to Fig. 3, it is obvious that a thrust, P, acting

on the block in the direction OY will produce the three prin-

cipal dilatations :

X, = aP/E

yy= - P/E

Z, = aP/E

E being Young's modulus and a Poisson's ratio. Substituting

in Equation (2) we have

fix - n P p /Pa\q P r p ^1 r \

= -(i - a) - -(-E^r = ^ (i - 0-)" ~ ^~ ]■ (3a)

^ V \E /v E {_ V vJ

E

Similarly it can be shown that

fly — n P ( p

2(T

fly E

'- + 2) (3.)

V v/

and

= fc^.)^-4 (3.)

EL V VJ

^3

When the coefficients p and q have once been determined,

these three equations may be used for calculating the effect of

a thrust, P, in the direction OY (Fig. 3) on the three indices of

refraction fix, fiy, and n^ corresponding to light vibrating in the

directions OX, OY, and OZ. The changes in refractive index

for a given thrust, P, depend on the elasticity constants E and

p q

a, and the coefficients — and - which are characteristic of the

V V

given material and can be determined experimentally.

6l8 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

The change n,^ is the same as that of n^ (for a thrust along

OY) so that no birefringence is observed for a ray of hght pass-

ing through the block in the direction OY, but the velocity of

a ray in the direction of the triple arrow {i. e., along OX) de-

pends on the direction of vibration, that is, rix is different from

H:, and fly — n^, by definition, is the birefringence.^^

Since ordinarily n^ and Uy do not differ from n by more than

one part in looo, we may put with a maximum error of a small

fraction of one per cent ,

riy — n Wz — n Uy - n,^

Uy yir, n

refore by subtracting Equations (33) and (3c) we obtain

fly — n, P (q p^

= ^c + .)(? - n (4)

n

This equation may be put in slightly different form by making

use of the identity

E

^ ^ 2(1 + ^)

R being the modulus of rigidity. Substituting this value of R

in Equation (4), we have

Uy — W-

5^G - f)- (5)

n

From Equations (4) and (5) it is evident that the birefringence

is proportional to the difference of the two coefficients p and q.

Conversely, p and q can not be determined by measurements of

birefringence alone, but if in addition to the birefringence we

measure the absolute retardation of a ray of Hght vibrating,

say, in the direction OY, both p and q will be uniquely deter-

mined.

Suppose now that instead of a thrust we apply to the block

of glass a hydrostatic pressure, P' . In order to obtain a rela-

tion connecting the coefficients p and q with the hydrostatic

pressure P' , it is obvious from considerations of symmetry that

" In the case^of a uniaxial crystal, birefringence is usually expressed as w^ — n^,

which is identical with ny — its, the direction Y being the direction of the optic

axis.

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS 619

it is sufficient to add the three Equations, (3^), (3b), and (3c).

n — fix . n — fix

Then, since is approximately equal to , we have

= ^(2 - 4(7)- + - (i - 20-)- =

fi E V E V

|'(. - ..)(^^ + ?) (6) ■

E \ V v/

E

By putting — r = K, in which K is the modulus of vol-

3(1 - 2(t)

ume-elasticity,^^ the equation becomes

Wv - n

- a? * !)

n 2,K^

which expresses in terms of known or measurable quantities

the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the index of refraction, which

of course under these conditions remains independent of the

plane of polarization of the light.

COMPARISON WITH POCKBL'S RESULTS

The optical effects of stress on several kinds of glass have

been studied by Pockels,^^ who loaded rectangular plates of

the glasses and measured with a Jamin interferometer the abso-

lute retardation of a ray of light vibrating parallel to the direc-

tion of pressure. He also measured the birefringence with a

Babinet compensator and from the two series of measurements

P q .

calculated the values of - and - . His results are shown in table

V V

3. The first column describes the glass, the second gives its

number in Winkelmann's list;^^ in the third and fourth columns

are the elastic constants of the glass; the index of refraction n

is shown in the sixth column, and the percentage of lead oxide

in the seventh. In the next two columns are the results of

P Q

Pockels' determination of - and -, the coefficients which occur

V V

12 I /K = 13, the compressibility at constant temperature.

13 F. Pockels. Ann. Phys. (4) 7: 745. 1902.

" Compare HovESTAdT, op. cit., p. 146.

620

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON : BIRE^FRINGBNCE AND STRESS

in Equations (i) to (7) of this paper. Substituting these values

in Equation (4) we have calculated the birefringence fiy - n^

caused by a thrust of i kg. per sq. cm. and have placed the values

obtained by this calculation in the last column of table 3.

We are now able to make a comparison between our results

and those of Pockels. The first three glasses in table 3 are

unusual alumino-borates, but the remaining four form a series

of flint glasses with lead content varying over a wide range.

In Fig. 4, for the sake of comparison, our results for the flint

TABLE 3

Results of Pockels' Measurements on Optical Effects op Stress

Kind of glass

a

3.6

o

Sodium Alumino

borate

Lead Alumino

borate

Lead Alumino

borate

Light Flint

Heavy Flint. . . .

Extra Heavy Flint

Heaviest Flint. .

42

21

47

26

3Z

20

Birefrin-

gence due

to 1 kg.

per sq. cm.

calc. from

Equation

(4)

—4.32

-2 .76

—3.78

—2.93

2 .61

— 1.38

I .92

glass and also those of Pockels have been plotted with PbO

content as abscissa and birefringence due to i kg. per sq. cm.

as ordinate.

By inspection of Fig. 4 it may be seen that Pockels' results

for the flint glasses on the whole agree very well with ours. It

should be noted, however, that the content of PbO does not com-

pletely determine the character of the glass and that therefore

certain small discrepancies between Pockels' results and ours as

indicated by Fig. 4 may not have a real existence.

It is interesting to note that ordinarily q is less than p. When

this is the case the birefringence «„ — w^ by Equation (5) is

negative. But for the heaviest flint (PbO = 80 per cent) in-

ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

621

vestigated by Pockels (see table 3) g is greater than p and there-

fore this glass when acted upon by a thrust shows positive

double refraction. ^^ Since the next flint glass in the series

(PbO = 67.5 per cent) exhibits negative birefringence, it is evi-

dent that there must be some intermediate flint glass for which

the birefringence would be zero and which therefore would re-

main isotropic under the influence of any elastic deformation.

In attempting to make such a glass the composition 74.6 per

cent PbO, 23.6 per cent Si02, 0.6 per cent (KoO -|- Na20) was

l-saej 0x1 ds fsr CenT

Fig. 4.

Graphical representation of the results for the flint glasses. The abscissa is %

PbO and the ordinate is the birefringence caused by a thrust of i kg./cm^.

tried by Pockels, and was found to give positive birefringence

of 0.2 X 10 ~^. This datum has also been plotted in Fig. 4,

from which it can be seen that a glass containing about 74.0

per cent PbO would, no matter how poorly annealed, show no

birefringence.

APPLICATION TO PROBLEMS DEALING WITH GLASS

As an example of the way in which the results given in this

paper may be used, suppose that a sheet of ordinary crown

glass be observed between crossed nicols and illuminated with

white light, and suppose that in looking through 10 cm. of the

sheet the interference color in a certain part of the cross-section

is seen to be a red of the first order. In order to ascertain the

15 It should be remembered that in Equations (3), (4) and (5), P is a thrust. If

P be a tension most glasses will show positive double refraction.

622 ADAMS AND WILLIAMSON: BIREFRINGENCE AND STRESS

internal stress corresponding to the observed color we find, by

referring to a chart^'' showing Newton's color scale in terms of

optical path-difference, that a first-order red corresponds to a

retardation of about 530 mm or 530 X 10 ~^ cm. The birefrin-

gence then is the path-difference per unit of length, that is,

530 X io~^

= 53 X 10 ~^ Now, according to table 2, a bi-

refringence of 2.57 X io~^ corresponds in ordinary crown glass

to a (uni-directional) pressure of i kg. per sq. cm. Hence the

53 X io~^

observed birefringence corresponds to a stress of , =

2.57 X 10-^

20.6 kg. per sq. cm. or 300 lb. per sq. in.^^

In conclusion, we shall note the change in refractive index

produced (i) by a hydrostatic pressure of 1000 kg. per sq. cm.

acting on a block of light flint glass; and (2) by a uni-directional

P <7

pressure of 1000 kg. per sq. cm. According to table 3, - and -

are, for light flint glass, respectively, 0.306 and 0.213 J ^ is 0.61 X

10"^ kg. per sq. cm.; a is 0.222; and n is 1.57. Substituting these

values in Equation (6) we have

10^^(1 -o.444)(o.6i2 +0.213)1.57

n^ — n = An = ; z = 0.00118,

0.61 X 10*^

The index of refraction is thus increased 0.0012 by a pressure

(hydrostatic) of 1000 kg. per sq. cm., and this change in index is

independent of the plane of polarization of the light. On the

other hand, for the case of a uni-directional pressure, we use

Equations (3b) and (3c), and suppose that, as in Fig. 3, the

pressure is exerted along OY, and that the ray of light travels

along OX. Then

Hy — n = Aw„ =

1.57 X 1000

— - — ^(0.213 - 0.444 X 0.306) = 0.00020

0.61 X 10^

^^ See, for example, the chart in J. P. Iddings, Rock Minerals (191 1) ; or N. H. WiN-

CHELL, Optical Mineralogy (1909).

'' We have observed, in poorly annealed glass, stresses very much higher than

300 lb. per sq. in. By taking into account the sign of path-difference in polarized

light, it is easy to show that the stress in the center of a slab of unannealed glass

consists of a tension in all directions parallel to the large surface of the slab.

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODERMS 623

and

n = AUy =

1.57 X 1000

(0.306 X 0.778 - 0.213 X 0.222) = 0.00049.

0.61 X 10*^

That is, a thrust of looo kg. per sq. cm. changes the refractive

index 0.00049 for a ray vibrating perpendicular to the axis of

pressure and only 0.00020 for a ray vibrating in the direction

of the thrust.

SUMMARY

Glass when stressed becomes doubly refracting as shown by

its behavior in polarized light. This principle has often been

made use of in the detection and measurement of strain in glass,

but little has been known of the quantitative relation between

stress and birefringence. In this paper we have presented the

results obtained by loading blocks of glass in a testing machine

and measuring the concomitant birefringence. For all of the

glasses which we studied except the heaviest flint, a thrust of

one kg. per sq. cm. produces a birefringence of 2 to 3 X 10 ~'^;

or, in other words, a path-difference of 2 to 3 n/x per cm. thick-

ness of glass.

Our results show satisfactory agreement with those of Pockels

for the flint glasses.

ZOOGEOGRAPHY. — Discontinuous distribution among the echi-

noderms. Austin H. Clark, U. S. National Museum.

While discontinuous distribution among terrestrial and fresh-

water animals has received a considerable amount of attention,

the same phenomenon among marine types has not been so

widely noticed.

The following apparently anomalous ranges are occupied by

the genera of brittle-stars, starfishes and urchins listed ; there are

no similar cases among the crinoids; and the holothurians, on

account of the relatively unsatisfactory state of our present

knowledge, have been omitted.

1. Warmer parts of the eastern and western Atlantic; Mexico

to Chile: Narcissia, Arbacia.

2. Both coasts of tropical America: Encope, Mellita.

624 CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODERMS

3. Caribbean Sea and the western coast of Central America:

Hemipholis, Ophiocryptus, Ophiozona.

4. Caribbean Sea and the Galapagos Islands (probably in

reality the same as the preceding) : Sigsbeia.

5. Peru to southern California (some only in part): Astro-

caneum, Diopederma, Gymnophiura, Platasterias, Nidorellia, Am-

phiaster, Paulia (Galapagos Islands also), Pharia, Phataria,

GaenocentroUis (Galapagos Islands also), Tetrapygus.

6. Caribbean Sea and eastern Atlantic, the Hawaiian Islands,

southern Japan and the Kei Islands: Caenopedina.

7. Western coast of Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, Australia,

Tasmania, Lord Howe Island, the Mediterranean Sea and the

adjacent parts of the Atlantic: Centrostephanus.

8. Southern and Lower California, southern Japan and south-

ern Australia : Heliocidaris.

9. Caribbean Sea and the Hawaiian Islands: Podocidaris.

10. Caribbean Sea and southern Australia: Ophioprium.

11. Southern California and New Zealand: Ophiopteris.

In view of the past intercommunication between the Carib-

bean Sea and the Pacific the similarity of certain elements of

the Caribbean fauna and of that of the western coast of tropical

America is not surprising; the latter, however, includes a very

considerable number of genera which occur nowhere else, to-

gether with a few species of characteristic Indo-Malayan types,

such as Mithrodia, Acanthaster, Anthenea, Leiaster, Astropyga, etc.,

which are not represented in the Caribbean Sea.

A significantly large number of genera, including well-known

and conspicuous littoral types, inhabit a more or less extensive

portion of the following anomalous range: Mediterranean Sea,

Caribbean Sea, southern Australia and New Zealand, southern

Japan, the Hawaiian Islands, and the western coast of tropical

America.

This discontinuous range, though indicated by very diverse

types and only in part by each, nevertheless must be considered

a zoogeographic unit. Its outstanding feature is the fact that it

represents the extreme outer limits of a tropical and subtropical

faunal region the center of which is the Indo-Malayan region.

CLARK: DISTRIBUTION OF ECHINODKRMS 625

The types inhabiting it, that is to say, occurring only on the

extreme periphery of the Indo- Pacific faunal area (of which the

Mediterranean Sea was at one time a part), may be considered,

therefore, as reHcs of a previous fauna at one time characteristic

of the central Indo-Malayan region, from which they have

now been extirpated through the competition of younger and more

efficient types.

The same facts are brought out equally well in many other

groups of marine animals, and are also reflected in a modified

way in the terrestrial faunas.

In the faunas of the colder seas all intergradations are found

between types which are quite unique and types differing little or

not at all from others in the Indo-Malayan region, and this inter-

gradation is complete enough so that we are justified in con-

sidering the fauna of the colder waters as similarly ultimately

derived from the (past or present) fauna of the East Indian

region largely through the intermediary of deep water forms.

Some of these genera of the colder waters, as Astriclypeus and

Glyptocidaris, are extraordinarily restricted in their distribution

and rare, while others are abundant and widely spread.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — General instructions for precise and secondary traverse.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Special Publ. 58 (serial iii).

Pp. 48, figs. 5. 1919.

The instructions are designed for the highest class of traverse, equal

in accuracy to primary triangulation, and for secondary traverse com-

parable in accuracy with secondary triangulation. R. L. F.

APPARATUS. — A furnace temperature regulator. Walter P. White

and Leason H. Adams. Phys. Rev. 14: 44-48. July, 1919.

By making the heating coil of an electric furnace one arm of a wheat-

stone bridge, and combining this with a galvanometer regulator, thus

keeping constant the resistance of the coil, we can, regardless of varia-

tions in the current-supply, and with no attention, maintain constant

the temperature of furnaces not too directly influenced by the tempera-

ture of the room, or where the surrounding air is kept constant. The

power available in this regulator is relatively very great; nothing has

to be inserted within the furnace cavity, and the lag is practically

nothing; the regulator is often nearly at its best under conditions most

unfavorable to other regulators. It has held a small furnace for hours

constant to 0.1° at temperatures from 500° to i4oo°C.

W. P. W.

PHYSICS. — Temperature distribution in solids during heating or cooling.

E. D. Williamson and L. H. Adams. Phys. Rev. 14: 99-114.

August, 1919. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on Optical Glass, No. 11.)

In deciding on the best methods of carrying out various operations

in the manufacture of optical glass, it was found necessary to have some

idea of the temperature gradients in the pieces during heat treatment.

626

abstracts: physics 627

While great precision in absolute magnitudes is generally of minor im-

portance in such cases, the only way to gain insight into the question

of the variation of the temperature differences with the shape and di-

mensions of the blocks and the method of heating is actually to work

out numerical cases.

Equations have been derived for the temperature distribution in

solids of several typical shapes, the solids being heated or cooled ac-

cording to one of two methods, viz., the surface of the body (i) is con-

tinuously heated (or cooled) at a uniform rate; or (2) experiences a

sudden change to a higher or lower constant temperature. With these

equations a number of calculations have been made and the results of

the computations are presented in tabular form and, in certain cases,

are also shown graphically. By the use of these tables and graphs it

is a comparatively simple matter to determine the temperatures within

solids of a large variety of shapes when, as is commonly the case, they

are heated or cooled according to one of the methods mentioned above.

The equations given are in convenient form for calculation and for

showing a number of interesting qualitative relations between the tem-

perature gradients in various solids, and they will probably prove useful

in connection with the determination of specific heat and thermal con-

ductivity by dynamic methods.

While the main interest at the time was in the application to glass

manufacture, the equations are perfectly general, as are also the qualita-

tive deductions made. B. D. W.

PHYSICS. — Silicate specific heats. Second series. Walter P. White.

Amer. Journ. Sci. 47; 1-43. Jan., 1919.

Specific heats of various forms of silica and silicates were determined

for upper temperatures from 100° to 1400°. The method was by drop-

ing from furnaces into calorimeters. Two new methods are described

for determining true or atomic heats from interval heats. On the whole,

the general temperature variation of the specific heats is one depending

mainly on the value of v, the atomic vibration period, for oxygen in

combination. Several forms of silica, whose expansion is very small,

and which therefore practically give values of specific heat at constant

volume, Cv, show that Cv for high temperatures appears to exceed

the theoretical value 5.96. Glasses show, in the main, a specific heat

only slightly above the corresponding crystal forms, but with a tendency

to increase at some rather high temperature. In several sets of poly-

morphic forms with sluggish inversions there were differences of about

628 abstracts: inorganic chemistry

2 per cent between the two forms, but none of these forms showed

any' variation in specific heat near the inversion temperature. In

quartz, below the a-/3 inversion at 575°, the heat absorption is greater

than can be accounted for even by the abnormal expansion. If such

absorption, unusual change of volume, and change of crystal properties

are each or all together the sign of a change of state, then quartz under-

goes a gradual change of state over an interval of 400° below what is

commonly called its a-^ inversion. Quartz and probably other forms

of silica exhibit what appear to be two kinds of inversion, due to dif-

ferent mechanisms. Some of these facts militate against certain hypothe-

ses which make polymorphism the resultant of polymeric or isomeric

changes in the solid. W. P. W.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/j^ hydrated ferric oxides. Hugen

PosNjAK and H. E. Merwin. Amer. Journ. Sci. 47: 311-348.

May, 1 919.

Microscopic and chemical studies show that no series of hydrates

of ferric oxide exists among the natural minerals. The only existing

hydrate is ferric oxide monohydrate. This substance occurs in nature

in two polymorphic forms — goethite and lepidocrocite — and in an

"amorphous" condition — limonite. The two crystallized forms are

contrasted as follows:

Goethite. — Orthorhombic, a : b : c = 0.91 : i : 0.602; density (grams

per cc.) 4.28 ±0.01; a = 2.26, /3 = 2.394, 7 = 2.400; streak, dull

orange-yellow; pleochroism faint. When crystallized in dense aggre-

gates of thin blades and fibers inclosing much adsorbed and capillary

water, it has commonly been called limonite; however, sufficient proof

is now given to show that such crystallized material is really goethite.

Lepidocrocite. — Orthorhombic, a : b : c = 0.43 : i : 0.64; density,

4.09 ± 0.04; a = 1.94, /3 = 2.20, 7 = 2.51; streak, dull orange; pleo-

chroism very strong.

The name limonite is retained for material which appears to be

essentially isotropic ferric oxide monohydrate with adsorbed and capil-

lary water. However, this substance should not be considered a dis-

tinct form of ferric oxide monohydrate, as the real nature of such

"amorphous" substances is still uncertain.

The fibrous mineral turgite is variable in composition, and considerable

evidence is given that it probably represents solid solutions of goethite

with hematite, together with inclosed and adsorbed water.

The genetic conditions of the hydrated ferric oxides and the stability

relation of the two monohydrates are unknown.

abstracts: inorganic chemistry 629

No definitely crystallized synthetic hydrated ferric oxide has up to

the present been prepared. However, it seems certain that only two

distinct types of "amorphous" hydrated ferric oxide exist, one yellow

and the other reddish brown. The yellow is apparently essentially

ferric-oxide monohydrate, while the reddish brown substance may hold

its water in either a dissolved or an adsorbed condition (or both).

Thus the synthetic and the natural hydrated ferric oxides exhibit,

chemically, great similarity. H. E- M.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z<? ternary system CaO-MgO-SiOi.

J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.

5: 16-18. 1919. (Preliminary.) Amer. Journ. Sci. 48: 81-123.

Aug., 1919.

The crystalline phases which are definite compounds and which ap-

pear as primary phases are as follows: Lime; magnesia; silica (tri-

dymite and cristobalite) ; cc-CaO.vSiO-i (pseudowollastonite) ; 3Ca0.2Si02;

a- and /3-2CaO.Si02; MgO.Si02 (clino-enstatite) ; 2MgO.Si02

(forsterite) ; CaO.Mg0.2Si02 (diopside); 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02; and

2CaO.Mg0.2Si02. The melting point of 2CaO.MgO.2Si.O2 is 1458°

± 5°C. and the decomposition temperature of 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02

is 1365° =1= 5°C. In addition to these, crystals representing several

solid solutions also appear as primary phases. The solid solutions are:

I. A complete series with clino-enstatite and diopside as end members,

generally known as pyroxenes. 2. The pseudowollastonite solid solu-

tions. 3. The wollastonite solid solutions. 4. The 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02

solid solutions. 5. Certain members of the monticellite (CaO.MgO.-

Si02) solid solutions. Monticellite itself probably decomposes at

too low a temperature to ever occur as a primary phase.

The temperature-concentration relations of the liquids which may

be in equilibrium with each of these phases have been thoroughly

investigated where necessary, by means of the quenching method, and

the results obtained have been correlated with the existing data on the

remainder of the ternary system. The compounds 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02

and 2CaO.Mg0.2Si02 (akermanite) have not been prepared previously.

Attempts to prepare a compound of the formula 8Ca0.4Mg0.9Si02

(Schaller's akermanite) gave negative results. The monticellite solid

solutions and the compound akermanite are discussed at length but

the wollastonite and the 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 solid solutions are only

briefly mentioned as they are made the subject of a subsequent paper.

630 abstracts: analytical chemistry

Experiments were made on the tridymite-cristobalite inversion tem-

perature, which was found for this system to be below i500°C., in ap-

proximate agreement with Fenner's original value of 1470°.

J. B. F.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.— Wollastonite {CaOSiO^) and related

solid solutions in the ternary system lime^nagnesia-silica. J. B.

Ferguson and H. B. Merwin. Amer. Journ. vSci. 48: 165-189.

September, 19 19.

The study of the ternary system CaO-MgO-SiOo brought to light

many perplexing liquidus relations for which there was no adequate ex-

planation. An investigation of the solidus relations was therefore

started in order to clear up the doubtful points, and the results of this

investigation are given in this paper. The salient features of these

results are: (i) A confirmation of the earlier work in regard to the

wollastoni-te-diopside solid solutions, wollastonite taking up a maximum

of 17 per cent of diopside. (2) The existence of solid solutions of pseudo-

wollastonite and diopside containing as a maximum about 16 percent

of diopside. (3) The finding of the new compound, 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02.

(4) The existence of solid solutions of akermanite (or perhaps of an

unstable compound, 3CaO.Mg0.3Si02) in wollastonite and pseudo-

wollastonite. The wollastonite solutions extend to a composition con-

taining between 60 and 70 per cent of akermanite, while the pseudo-

wollastonite solutions extend to a composition containing about 23 per

cent of the same compound. (5) The presence of an area of solid solu-

tion which includes the wollastonite-diopside, the wollastonite-aker-

manite, and the wollastonite-5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 solid solutions.

In addition to the results just mentioned, which suffice to clear up the

liquidus relations in question, as thorough an investigation as the nature

of the problem and the available methods of attack would permit was

carried out upon the solid solutions of silica and 3Ca0.2Si02 in calcium

metasilicate and upon the inversion and decomposition temperatures

of all the various solid solutions. A general discussion of these results

with diagram and models, is given. J. B. F.

ANALYTICAL CYLUMISTRY .—Electrometric titrations, with special

reference to the determination of ferrous and ferric iron. J. C. Hos-

tetter and H. S. Roberts. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 41: 1337-

1357. September, 1919.

The advantages of the electrometric method for titrating, oxidizing,

and reducing reactions may be summarized as follows: (i) This

abstracts: geology 631

method permits the use of potassium dichromate with its numerous

advantages. (2) The reduction of the solution with electrometric con-

trol eliminates the removal of excess reducing agent, which must be done

with the usual methods of reduction. (3) Conditions, such as acidity,

need not be controlled, except within very wide limits, and hydro-

chloric, sulfuric, or hydrofluoric acid, or mixtures of these, may all

be used. In contrast to these wide limits, compare the narrow acid

limits (1.5 to 2.5 per cent by volume of H2SO4) within which the re-

duction with SO2 or H2S must be carried out and the precautions which

must be taken in a permanganate titration in the presence of either

chlorides or fluorides. (4) The sensitivity and accuracy of the method

make possible (a) the determination of a few tenths of a milligram of

tin, chromium, ferrous or ferric iron, and probably many other elements,

in the presence of large quantities of some other element, and (b) the

determination of blanks involved in some of the ordinary determinations

by reducing or oxidizing agents. (5) The time within which a determi-

nation can be carried out is greatly shortened. The content of ferrous

and ferric iron in a silicate, for instance, can be determined in from

15 to 30 minutes. (6) The precision attainable is comparable to the

best of the ordinary volumetric determinations. J. C. H.

ANALYTICAI, CHEMISTRY.— E/^c/nca/ apparatus for use in electro-

metric titration. Howard S. Roberts. Journ. Amer. Chem.

Soc. 41: 1358-1362. September, 1919.

A description of simplified and inexpensive apparatus for use in the

titration of salts by the electrometric method. The potentiometer

consists of a sliding rheostat with attached scale. Several forms of

galvanometer may be used. H. S. R.

GEOLOGY. — Upper Cretaceous floras of the eastern gulf region in

Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia. Edward Wilber

Berry. U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 112: 7-172. pis. 33,

figs. 12. 1919.

Besides describing the floras, the author discusses in detail the dis-

tribution, lithologic character, stratigraphic relations, and local sec-

tions of the Tuscaloosa, Eutaw, and Ripley formations, and Selma

chalk. As the bulk of the flora is from the Tuscaloosa formation and

the representation of the Eutaw and Ripley floras is too meager to

throw any considerable light upon their correlation or the physical

conditions accompanying deposition, this contribution is devoted prin-

632 abstracts: geology

cipally to the elucidation of the Tuscaloosa flora, which, as described

in the systematic chapter, embraces 151 species. The present treatment

is conservative, as a considerable number of additional forms repre-

sented in the collections by incomplete material have been left un-

characterized. _ R. W. StonE.

GEOLOGY. — Water-power investigations and mining developments in

southeastern Alaska. G. H. Canfield, Theodore Chapin, and

R. M. OvERBECK. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 692-B. Pp. 94

(43-136), pis. 2. 1919.

Contents :

1. Water -power investigations in southeastern Alaska. George

H. Canfield.

2. Mining developments in the Ketchikan district. Theodore

Chapin.

3. Geology and mineral resources of the west coast oj Chichagof Island..

R. M. OvERBECK.

1. Consists of gaging station records.

2. A brief note on mining in Ketchikan district in 19 17.

3. The complex geology of the west coast of Chichagof Island is the

result largely of extensive intrusion, which has metamorphosed the

rocks cut by the intrusive bodies and has complicated their structure.

The geology of the island is discussed under the following heads: (i)

Undifferentiated metamorphic rocks; (2) graywacke; (3) igneous rocks ;.

(4) development of the topographic features. The rocks of the un-

differentiated metamorphic series are sheared conglomerate, limestone,

argillite, tuff, flow rock, and intrusive rock, and several types of schist.

No determinable fossils were found in these rocks; and although the

rocks constituting this series may be of different ages, they are probably

older than Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous. The graywacke series con-

sists of graywacke, of some slaty and argillaceous beds, and of a little

greenstone. The igneous rocks are both intrusive rocks and flow rocks.

Granite, quartz diorite, diorite, alaskite, aplite, hornblende gabbro,.

norite, greenstone, and possibly some andesite, are the types of rocks

represented. Quaternary deposits are practically absent, but the re-

sults of the action of the ice are remarkably well shown by the topo-

graphic features. Mines and prospects of gold, copper and nickel are

described. • R. W. StonE.

abstracts: geology 633

GEOLOGY. — Mining and mineral deposits in the Cook Inlet-Susitna

region, Alaska. Stephen R. Capps, J. B. Mertie, Jr., and G. C.

Martin. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 692-D. Pp. 106 (177-282),

pis. 3, figs. 4. 1919.

Contents :

1. Gold lode mining in the Willow Creek district. Stephen R. Capps.

2. Mineral resources of the western Talkeetna Mountains. Stephen

R. Capps.

3. Mineral resources of the upper Chulitna region. Stephen R.

Capps.

4. Platinum-hearing gold placers of the Kahiltna Valley. J. B.

Mertie, Jr.

5. Chromite deposits in Alaska. J. B. Mertie, Jr.

6. Geologic problems at the Matanuska coal mines. G. C. Martin.

1. Quartz lodes in the Willow Creek district, Alaska, where mining

has been done since 1908, have yielded more than $1,600,000 in gold

and silver and are still being worked profitably. The character of the

deposits and the work done in the district in 191 7 are described.

2. The western Talkeetna Mountains have long been considered a

promising field for the prospector, but the only productive part of it

thus far is the Willow Creek district. The construction of lines of

Government railroads to the region has made information concerning

the region especially timely and valuable. A sketch map of the region

is given and its geography and geology as well as the vegetation, game,

and routes of travel, are described.

3. The mineral prospects in the upper Chulitna region lie 15 to 30

miles southwest of Broad Pass and include both gold lodes and gold

placers. For several yearg work has been done on lode claims in this

remote region, which will be made more easily accessible by the Gov-

ernment railroads. The bulletin includes a sketch map of the region

and a description of its geography, geology, vegetation, and game

animals, and details of the claims and prospects.

4. Mr. Mertie gives a geologic sketch map of the Kahiltna Valley,

describes its geography and geology, and presents an account of its

mineral resources, which includes descriptions of the placers on many

creeks. Though gold is the only mineral thus far recovered in com-

mercial quantities the placers have yielded small quantities of other

valuable minerals, which include platinum and ores of tin and tungsten.

5. The chromite deposits of present interest in Alaska are at the

634 abstracts: geology

southwest end of Kenai Peninsula. A description of the deposit now

mined and a map showing its location are given in the bulletin.

6. The results of studies of the strata and of the structure in the

Matanuska coal field, Alaska, made in 191 7, are reported. The paper

includes sections showing the character, relations, and thickness of the

beds of rock and coal at many localities, as well as a graphic section

showing a tentative correlation of certain coal beds between places

specified. G. C. M.

GEOLOGY. — Sulphur deposits and beach placers of southwestern Alaska.

A. G. Maddren. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 692-E. Pp. 37

(283-319), pis. 2, figs. 6. 1919.

Sulphur deposits: Sulphur-bearing deposits at three localities in

southwestern Alaska — in the crater of Makushin Volcano on Unalaska

Island, on Akun Island, and near Stepovak Bay on the Alaska Penin-

sula, are of the volcanic type termed solfataras— that is, they are surface

deposits formed by sublimation from hot sulphurous volcanic vapors.

They are situated in the belt of active and quiescent volcanoes that

extends throughout the Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutian Islands, and

Japan.

Makushin Volcano, about 6,000 feet in altitude, is in the northern

part of Unalaska Island, about 12 miles west of Dutch Harbor. The

floor of the crater is 300 to 500 feet below the higher crags of the rim,

but the floor of the basin is exposed only in an area of 20 to 30 acres,

where the sulphur deposits occur. Except in this bare area the basin

is occupied by glacial ice and snow. It is evident that the main solfa-

taric area is kept bare by subterranean heat. As a whole the sulphur-

bearing deposit is earthy and appears to be composed chiefly of siliceous

residual products of rock decomposition that have resulted from the

highly corrosive chemical action of the hot solfataric vapors on the

basalt. The richer deposits of sulphur occur within 2 feet of the sur-

face, but there is also more or less finely divided sulphur disseminated

to a depth of at least 16 feet. The commercial bodies of sulphur in this

deposit are clearly surficial. The percentage of sulphur at the surface

does not indicate that rich deposits exist at depth, as is usually believed

by the optimistic prospector.

The sulphur at Akun Island deposit occurs chiefly in the form of

crystalline incrustations one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch thick

on the walls of narrow crevices and small cavities in the porous earthy

surface zone.

abstracts: geology 635

The sulphur-bearing rock near Stepovak Bay consists of porous

volcanic breccia that contains compact crystalline sulphur in veins

one-eighth to one-fourth inch thick.

Beach placers: The rocks of Kodiak Island and the neighboring

islands consist chiefly of slates and graywackes, which are cut by

numerous but for the most part small intrusive masses, partly granitic.

Schists that probably underlie the slates and graywackes are present

along the northwestern part of the island, and small areas of poorly

consolidated Tertiary sediments are reported to lie along the south-

eastern flanks of the island. Quaternary sediments that consist of

ground moraine overlain by glacial outwash gravels and recessional

moraines occupy the floors of all the larger valleys and form a con-

siderable belt of coastal plain along the west coast.

All the gold-placer deposits so far discovered on Kodiak Island are

confined to the present ocean beaches and practically no valuable

placer concentrations have been found in any of the present stream

gravels. The evidence presented by the topographic development of

Kodiak Island shows that postglacial wave erosion and concentration

along the shores of the island, especially along the shores composed of

unconsolidated fluvioglacial sediments, is the most active agency

favorable to the formation of placer deposits.

Earthquakes of considerable violence are known to occur frequently

in this part of Alaska, and they may accelerate erosion, especially in

tracts of unconsolidated sediments such as the coastal plain here con-

sidered, where steep escarpments facihtate the delivery of loosened

material upon a beach where it may be directly attacked by heavy

surf. However, storms of unusual intensity or duration are the chief

factors in concentrating the loose beach deposits and forming the

temporary segregations of placer sands.

The chief minerals that make up the heavy concentrates of the beach

comprise magnetite, pyrite, chromite, gold, and a Httle platinum.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Mining in Fairbanks, Ruby, Hot Springs, and Tolstoi

Districts, Alaska. Theodore Chapin and George L. Harring-

ton. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 692-F. Pp. 31 (321-351). pl- i.

fig. I. 1919.

The Fairbanks district, in the Yukon basin, has produced over

$70,000,000 in gold and has been a source of considerable silver, lead,

tungsten, and antimony Mr. Chapin gives an account of the opera-

636 abstracts: geology

tions at the gold and the silver-lead lodes and at the tungsten deposits

in 1917.

A molybdenite-bearing quartz vein on Healy River, Alaska, which

has been traced by shallow openings for the length of three claims,

is the subject of a brief note.

The Hot Springs district, in Alaska, has produced more than $6,000,-

000 in placer gold, as well as some silver and tin. Mr. Chapin describes

the occurrence of tin ore in the district, and gives an account of the

mining operations there in 191 7. Stream tin has been found in gold

placers in the Ruby district at several places, but not in quantities large

enough to pay for mining it except as an accessory to the gold.

The Tolstoi district, Lower Yukon basin, includes an area about 12

miles wide by 20 miles long, which lies on the flanks of Mount Hurst

in the basin of Tolstoi River, on the branches of which placers that yield

gold and platinum have been worked for several years. The topography,

geology, climate, vegetation, and animal life of the district, the pro-

ducing placers, and the economic factors that affect mining are de-

scribed by Mr. Harrington. G. C. M.

GEOLOGY. — Mineral resources of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. George

L. Harrington. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 692-G. Pp. 48

(353-400), pi. I. 1 91 9.

Stream tin has been found in many streams in Alaska, and lodes of

cassiterite have been prospected and mined at several places in Alaska.

An account of the tin deposits and tin mining in Seward Peninsula is

given.

The graphite deposits of Seward Peninsula have been known for many

years, but gold has so long been the most valuable mineral mined there

that other minerals have not been much considered by the miner.

The location of the deposits and the work that has been done on them

are sketched.

The search for the sources of the placer gold found in the streams of

Alaska has been a part of the work of the geologists who have been

studying and mapping the topography and geology of the Territory.

The author describes the geology and mineral resources of the Kowalik

and Koyuk region, stating the means of communication, timber, coal,

and sources of water supply, gives detailed descriptions of the gold and

platinum placers, and makes suggestions as to the original sources of

the metals. G. C. M.

abstracts: geology 637

GEOLOGY. — A reconnaissance of the Pine Creek District, Idaho. Ed-

ward L. Jones, Jr. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 710-A. Pp. 36,

pi. I. 1919.

The Pine Creek district, Idaho, lies immediately west and south of

the Wardner district of the Coeur d'Alene region. The Pine Creek

drainage basin is underlain chiefly by sedimentary rocks of Algonkian

age, termed the Belt series. These rocks are intruded by small black

dikes, mainly along fault's. Deposits of well-rounded gravel of Tertiary

age cap many of the low hills adjacent to Coeur d'Alene River. Ex-

tensive faulting has occurred in the Pine Creek district; all these faults

are of the normal type.

The ore deposits of the Pine Creek district are metasomatic fissure

veins and fissure fillings, with gradations between the two types. The

veins that show metasomatic replacement are best developed in shear

zones along major faults; the fissure fillings are best developed along

minor faults or in zones of moderate shearing. The veins are chiefly

valuable for their zinc, lead, silver, and antimony content, though some

contain also gold and copper. These veins are probably best classified

on the basis of their dominant metal or mineral content, into zinc-lead,

antimony, and siderite veins.

The best examples of the metasomatic fissure veins are those of the

zinc -lead type. The most valuable ore is a fine-grained aggregate of

sphalerite and galena in which there are commonly fragments of un-

replaced wall rocks. Pyrrhotite accompanies the ore and in places is

the chief mineral. Chalcopyrite is usually present in small amounts.

The antimony veins differ markedly from the other veins of the dis-

trict in mineral composition. The principal metallic sulphide is stib-

nite. Pyrite is a common constituent of these veins, and here and

there they contain sphalerite.

Manganiferous siderite veins occur in the southern part of the Pine

Creek basin. These veins are simple fissure fillings. No important

ore bodies have yet been developed in any of them.

The primary sulphide minerals of the Pine Creek district are galena,

sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, stibnite, and

arsenopyrite. The minerals that resulted from the oxidation of the

sulphides are cerusite, malachite, massicot, pyromorphite, and chal-

cocite.

Mines and prospects are described. R. W. Stone.

638 abstracts: entomology

GEOLOGY. — The Farnham anticline, Carbon County, Utah. Frank

R. Clark. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 711-A. Pp. 13, pis. 2, fig.

I. 1919.

The Farnham anticline is in the south-central part of Carbon County,

Utah. The surface strata involved in the anticline are the Mancos

shale, the Dakota sandstone, and the McElmo formation.

The anticline is a small uplift in a broad, gently northward-dipping

monocline which was developed in the movement that produced the

San Rafael Swell and Uinta Basin folds. It is about 3 miles long by

three-quarters of a mile wide. The dip of the rocks affected by the

anticline rarely exceeds 10° except adjacent to faults, where it ranges

from 25 ° to 85 °. Several faults cut the surface strata of the anticline

and trend roughly parallel to the axis of the fold.

The Farnham anticline is structurally favorable for the accumulation

of oil and gas, and the nearest exposures of Triassic and Pennsylvanian

rocks contain oil seeps. These conditions appear to warrant one or

more test holes of this fold, and locations for test holes are suggested.

This paper concludes with a review of oil and gas prospecting in Utah.

R. W. Stone.

GEOLOGY. — Oil shale in western Montana, southeastern Idaho, and

adjacent parts of Wyoming and Utah. D. Dale Condit. U. S.

Geol. Survey, Bull. 711-B. Pp. 26 (15-40), pi. i, figs. 2. 1919.

In the Dillon-Dell area, Montana, where the Phosphoria oil shale is

at its best, the richest beds of 3 feet or more in thickness yield 25 to 30

gallons of oil to the ton. The phosphate beds associated with the shale

are thinner and contain considerably less phosphorus pentoxide than

those mined near Montpelier, Idaho, and those known to occur in the

Melrose and Garrison fields of Montana. Samples of the shales asso-

ciated with the high-grade phosphate rock in the southeastern Idaho

area yielded on distillation little more than a trace of oil.

R. W. Stone.

ENTOMOLOGY. — The parasitic actdeata, a study in evolution. Wil-

liam Morton Wheeler. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 58: 1-49.

1919.

After summarizing the various types of parasitism in the hymen-

opterous insects known as Aculeata (excepting the Scoliids and Mutil-

lids), and presenting an interesting hypothesis as to how parasitism

arose, the author summarizes his conclusions as follows:

abstracts: entomology 639

1. "We may distinguish two intergrading types of parasitism among

insects. One of these is true parasitism and is represented by the

lice, fleas, Mallophaga, many Diptera (Oestridae, Pupipara) and some

Hemiptera, which live on mammals and birds and do not destroy their

hosts. The other is parasitoidism, which is really a refinement of

predatism and is eminently characteristic of large sections of the Hy-

menoptera and Diptera (Tachinidae) . It leads sooner or later to the

death of the host. The difference between the two types is largely due

to differences in the size and vigor of the hosts."

2. "Parasitoids are of tw^o classes, one of which is best represented

by the so-called Parasitica among the Hymenoptera and the Tachinidae

among the Diptera, which have no genetic relationship with their hosts.

The other class of parasitoids is represented by the Aculeates which

have sprung directly from their host species (intraspecific parasitoids),

though they may subsequently acquire hosts among other species of the

same genus or of other genera and may in turn be the ancestors of para-

sitic species."

3. "The derivation of all the existing Aculeata from primitive in-

sectivorous wasp-like ancestors may account for the retention of a

rather uniform pattern of behavior among the parasitic species. The

parasites, both among the solitary wasps and the solitary bees, behave

in a very similar manner, though the former are reared on insect prey,

the latter on pollen and honey.* * * "

4. "The origin of parasitism among the Aculeata may be attributed

to urgency of oviposition and temporary or local dearth of the supply

of provisions for the offspring."

5. "In all the different forms of parasitism among the Aculeata,

there are traces of the primitive predatism or parasitoidism from which

it arose, although in some of the social parasites this is represented only

by the aggressive or conciliatory intrusion of the recently fecundated

female into the host colony.* * * "

6. "Although many cases of parasitism are known to occur among the

Aculeata, and although many others will doubtless be discovered in the

future, nevertheless the total number must be small in comparison with

the thousands of nonparasitic species. Contemplation of such a series

as we find among the ants, beginning with Formica sanguinea, which

is an abundant, vigorous and aggressive species, and ending with Aner-

gates airatulus, a small, sporadic, and apparently evanescent species,

without workers and with wingless, nymphoid males, suggests that

parasitism among the Aculeates tends to such extreme specialization

640 abstracts: ceramic chemistry

("degeneration") as to lead to extinction. If we possessed a knowledge

of the whole evolution of the Aculeate group, we should probably find

that the total number of parasitic species which it produced during the

ages was very great, but that the vast majority of them, after reach-

ing the Anergates or a similarly specialized, or degenerate stage, lingered

on precariously for a time and then disappeared."

The paper is completed with a list of the literature examined.

S. A. ROHWER.

CERAMIC CHEMISTRY.— Devitrification of glass. N. L. Bowen.

Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 2: 261-278. April, 1919. (Geophysical

Lab. Papers on Optical Glass, No. 9.)

Devitrification of glass is the result of the tendency of the glass to

reach the stable crystalline condition and takes place whenever the glass

is held for a sufficiently long period of time within the range of tem-

perature where its crystallizing power is great. The various forms of

devitrification in glass are discussed from this point of view and sug-

gestions are made as to the principles that must be borne in mind in

deciding upon modifications of procedure or changes in composition

that have as their object the avoidance of devitrification. Specific

examples of the devitrification of optical glasses are given, together with

identification of the crystalline phases separating. N. L. B.

CERAMIC CHEMISTRY.— r/z^ volatilization of iron from optical

glass pots by chlorine at high temperatures. J. C. HosTETTER,

H. S. Roberts and J. B. Ferguson. Journ. Amer. Ceram.

Soc. 2: 356-372. May, 1919. (Geophysical Lab. Papers on

Optical Glass, No. 12.)

Of all the ordinary impurities found in optical glass, iron exerts the

greatest influence on transmission. The iron-content of the glass arises

from pots used as containers during melting as well as from the raw

materials. Tlie content of iron in the glass and, therefore, its trans-

mission, would be considerably improved if the iron could be removed

from the pot- walls before use. Chlorine appeared to be a suitable

agent for this purpose, and experiments demonstrated the fact that

approximately 80 per cent of the iron could be extracted from the in-

terior of the clay pots and volatilized by the action of chlorine at tem-

peratures easily secured in a pot-arch or glass-melting furnace. I^arge-

scale experiments were carried out and conditions developed for remov-

ing more iron from the bottom of the pot, where the most corrosion

abstracts: radiotelegraphy 641

takes place, than from the side-walls. Glass melted in these pots

showed, in all cases but one, less iron than that made in untreated pots.

In the exception noted above, however, more iron was found in the

glass made in the treated pot, and it was shown that, although the iron

had been volatilized from the pot, more than usual pot corrosion had

taken place during melting. The success of the method, then, depends

on whether a dense surface can be made in such pots when the iron has

been removed, as, for instance, by burning under different conditions

from that obtaining during the course of these experiments. With

some types of pots the method would undoubtedly be successful, even

with the usual burning schedules. The possible application to the re-

moval of iron from grog, clay, and other ceramic products is indicated.

J. C. H.

RADIOTElvEGRAPHY. — Principles of radio transmission and re-

ception with antenna and coil aerials. J. H. Dellinger. Proc.

Amer. Electr. Eng. 38: 1095-1150. 1919.

Coil aerials are coming to replace the large antennas in radio work.

The advantage of the coil aerial as a direction finder, interference pre-

venter, reducer of strays, and submarine aerial, make it important to

know how effective such an aerial is as a transmitting and receiving

device in comparison with the ordinary antenna. In this article the

mathematical theory is presented and, as a result, the answer

to this question is obtained. Experiments have verified the conclu-

sions reached, and the formulas which are obtained are a valuable aid

in the design of an aerial to fit any kind of radio station.

It is found that the coil aerial is particularly desirable for communica-

tion on short wave lengths-. A coil aerial is as powerful as an antenna

only when its dimensions approach those of the antenna. For other

reasons, however, a small coil aerial is in many cases as effective as a

large antenna. It is shown that an advantageous type of radio aerial

is a condenser consisting of two large metal plates. This type of aerial

has many of the advantages of the coil aerial. The fundamental

principles of design of aerials are given in the paper. On the basis of

this work the actual functioning of any type of radio aerial can be de-

termined either from measurements made upon the aerials or from ac-

tual transmission experiments. J. H. D.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

vSOCIETIEvS

PHILOSOPHICAI. SOCIETY

820TH MEETING

The 820th meeting was held at the Cosmos Chib, May 24, 19 19,

with President Humphreys in the chair and 34 persons present. The

minutes of the 819th meeting were read in abstract and approved.

The first paper, by Messrs. H. E. Curtis and R. C. Duncan, on

Measurements of short time intervals, was presented by Mr. Duncan.

Early in the war, at the request of the Navy Department, the Bureau

of Standards undertook the investigation of certain factors which had

to do with the firing of the 14-inch Naval guns. It was desired to

measure a number of time intervals into which the total firing time

of the gun may be divided and also to study the motion of the gun as a

function of time. Both of these problems required the measurement

of short time intervals with considerable accuracy.

The General Electric oscillograph was chosen as the apparatus for

recording the events which were to be studied. A special timing

system was installed in the oscillograph, which ruled on the film an

equal interval time scale, consisting of sharp lines running across the

film. By means of a proper optical system, light from the arc used

to illuminate the mirrors of the oscillograph was caused to fall on the

film after passing through a narrow slot, which was open only for very

short times at regular intervals. This slot was made by fastening a

slotted aluminum vane on each prong of a tuning fork and adjusting

the vanes so that when the fork is at rest the slots will allow the light

to pass through. As the fork vibrates, these slots are opened twice

each vibration. A 500-cycle fork is used to rule the film in thousandths

of a second, while the 50-cycle fork rules the film in hundredths of a

second.

Considerable trouble was experienced in driving the 500-cycle fork

at sufficient amplitude. Satisfactory results, however, were finally

obtained by driving 500-cycle forks by means of a loo-cycle master

fork. In this way the electro-magnets of the 500-cycle forks were

energized once every five vibrations and by careful tuning it has been

possible to get a double amplitude of nearly 2 mm. This is important,

as the sharpness of the timing lines depends upon the amplitude of the

fork vibrations. In order to eliminate any possible errors due to the

master fork, a relay is so arranged that as the exposure is made the

642

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 643

driving current is broken and the timing forks, therefore, vibrate

freely. A similar set-up consisting of 50-cycle forks and a 50-cycle

master fork is used to rule slow-moving films into hundredths of a

second.

An examination of the timing line records indicates that the lines are

not equidistant, every alternate interval being slightly wider than

the intervening ones. This is due to the fact that the vanes are not

properly adjusted. As it was found almost impossible to adjust them

exactly these errors are eliminated by interpolating between every

other line. It is only necessary^ to do this when extreme accuracy is

desired.

Further examination of the records indicates that the time exposure

is extremely short, certainly not greater than 0.000 01 second. Even

when the film is moving at a speed of 1500 cm. per second the lines are

quite sharp.

In order to test the accuracy which could be obtained in the de-

termination of time intervals, one film was exposed on each of two

oscillographs simultaneously. One recording galvanometer on each

oscillograph was put in series with a current interrupted by a tuning

fork. By examining the two films, it was possible to identify the

individual interruptions. Measurements were then made on both

films to determine the time intervals between certain vibration rates

of the two circuits. The time intervals measured on the two films

varied in every case by less than 0.000 01 second.

It therefore seems that this method makes it possible to measure

intervals of thousandths of a second to better than one per cent, while

intervals from o.i to 0.2 second can be measured with an accuracy

of about 0.0 1 per cent.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by

Messrs. Silsbee and Beal.

The second paper was by Mr. A. F. Beal, on Comparison of invar

with steel as shown by the rates of high grade watches.

For watches such as the Bureau of Standards is testing for use as

chronometers by the United States Shipping Board, where they are

mounted so as to remain horizontal at all times, the compensation for

changes of temperature is the only important known cause of variation

that is not entirely within the control of the adjuster. Uniformity of

rate for different temperatures depends upon the physical constants of

the balance wheel and hairspring, and perfect compensation has been

unobtainable with the customary steel hairspring and brass-steel

balance wheel. If, in the balance wheel, invar be substituted for steel,

a combination can be obtained which will show rates that are practically

constant over large ranges of temperature.

During 191 7 and 19 18, the Bureau of Standards tested the watches

supplied on two purchase orders placed by the United States Shipping

Board with two American manufacturers of high grade watches.

Those supplied on one of these orders (for 200 watches) had brass-

644 PROCEEDINGS: philosophical society

steel balance wheels and the watches were constructed from new de-

signs in only a few months. Those submitted on the other order (for

250 watches) had brass-invar balance wheels and had been carefully

developed during about five years or more. The mean of the middle

temperature errors (difference of daily rate at 20 °C. from the mean

of the daily rates at 35 °C. and 5°C.) for the 200 accepted watches

with brass-steel balance wheels was 2.25 seconds, while for the 250

accepted watches with brass-invar balance wheels the mean was 0.24

second, thereby showing that invar will permit much better tem-

perature compensation than will steel.

Following the end of the acceptance tests of these watches they were

checked up each week until they were sent to the ships ; the mean weekly

temperatures were also observed. The rates of 30 watches with brass-

invar balance wheels and 32 watches with brass-steel balance wheels

were carefull}^ corrected for the observed changes of temperature.

Based upon observations for 18 weeks the mean of the probable errors

of forecasting the mean daily rate for the ensuing week was 0.277

second for the brass-invar watches and 0.260 second for the brass-

steel.

It was noticed that occasionally the watches with brass-invar balance

wheels showed sudden permanent changes of rate corresponding to

permanent changes in the inertia of the balance wheels. These

occasionally amounted to 10 seconds in the mean daily rate. Follow-

ing a jump of this character, the rate of a watch usually would remain

practically constant at its new value. Most of the watches did not

show any pronounced changes. In computing the above probable

errors, there was not used any watch which showed an important

change of rate. These erratic performances were not observed for the

watches with brass-steel balance wheels.

The conclusion is that invar, when substituted for steel in balance

wheels, will permit practically perfect temperature compensation,

and will show good stability of rate; occasionally, however, sudden

permanent changes of rate throw a shadow of doubt over the ad-

visability of this substitution. This conclusion is in agreement with

statements made by employees of certain watch manufacturers who

have experimented on this subject, and with the reports on the stability

of invar for other purposes.

The paper was illustrated by lantern slides. It was discussed by

Messrs. R. Y. Ferner, C. A. Briggs, and W. P. White.

Adjournment took place at 10.10 and was followed by a social hour.

S. J. Mauchly, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

MATTERS OF SCIENTIFIC INTEREST IN CONGRESS^

The first of the bills commented upon in this column to become law

is H. R. 6810, the National Prohibition Act. At the time of the last

report on this bilP it was before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary,

which reported the bill with numerous amendments on August 18

(Report 151). The bill was debated in the Senate on September 4

and 5, and the section providing for tax-free pure alcohol for scientific

purposes was modified in several respects, among which was the sub-

stitution of the words "for scientific purposes, or for the use of any

hospital" in place of the words "for the use of any scientific university

or college of learning, any laboratory for use exclusively in scientific

research, or any hospital not conducted for profit."

The amended bill was passed by the Senate on September 5, and as

the House disagreed to many of the amendments, was sent to con-

ference on September 9. As modified by the conferees it was passed

by the Senate on October 8 and the House on October 10, but was

vetoed by the President on October 27 on account of the inclusion of

war-time prohibition provisions. The House and Senate promptly

re-enacted the bill over the veto and it became Public Law 66 on

October 28.

The provision for tax-free alcohol for scientific work, as finally

adopted, is as follows:

(Part of Title III, Section 11): "Alcohol may be withdrawn, under

regulations, from any industrial plant or bonded warehouse tax free

by the United States or any governmental agency thereof, or by the

several States and Territories or any municipal subdivision thereof

or by the District of Columbia, or for the use of any scientific university

or college of learning, any laboratory for use exclusively in scientific

research, or for use in any hospital or sanatorium."

The First Deficiency Act for 1920 (H. R. 9205), which was signed

by the President on November 4 as Public Law 73, carries appropria-

tions for the Bureau of Standards of $250,000 for industrial research,

$25,000 for the study of safety standards, and $50,000 for standardization

work on instruments, machinery, and equipment.

A bill "to authorize the President of the United States to arrange

and participate in an international conference to consider questions

relating to international communication" was introduced in October,

in the Senate by Mr. Lodge (S. 3172) and in the House by Mr. Rogers

(H. R. 9822). The House bill was passed on October 22, with one

amendment, providing for confirmation of the delegates by the Senate.

1 Preceding report: This Journai^ 9: 562. 1919.

- This JouRNAi. 9: 423. 1919.

645

646 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

It is now before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Among

the questions to be considered are problems of wireless wave-lengths

and of vessel-to-shore communication.

The Patent Office legislation, before the House Committee on

Patents, was divided several weeks ago so that the bills proposing an

independent patent and trade-mark department and a court of patent

appeals were to be further considered by a subcommittee, while another

subcommittee was to consider salaries in the Patent Office.

Dr. C. ly. Alsberg, chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, appeared

in October before the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry,

to testify concerning the properties and uses of saccharin. The Com-

mittee had under consideration S. Res. 209, authorizing an investiga-

tion and report on "the present status of saccharin under departmental

regulations and the feasibility of its wider use in the United States

for the relief of the present sugar shortage."

Hearings were held on Mr. Myers' anti-vivisection bilP (S. 1258)

on November 1-4, before a subcommittee of the Senate Committee on

the Judiciary. Representatives of various anti-vivisection organiza-

tions spoke in favor of the bill. The bill was opposed by Drs. W. H.

Welch, Simon Feexner, C. W. Stiles, W. B. Cannon, Reid Hunt,

J. B. Nichols, and many others, representing the medical profession

of the District of Columbia and the country at large, as well as the

Army and Navy and the Federal bureaus. "A pubhc meeting to

arouse feeling favorable to the bill" was held at the Public Library

on October 31.

The need of research on methods for the fixation of atmospheric

nitrogen is recognized in H. R. 10329 (Mr. ICahn, November i): "A

bill to provide further for the national defense; to establish a self-

sustaining Federal agency for the manufacture, production, and de-

velopment of the products of atmospheric nitrogen for miUtary, experi-

mental, and other purposes; to provide research laboratories and

experimental plants for the development of fixed-nitrogen production;

and for other purposes."

The bill provides for the organization of the "United States Fixed

Nitrogen Corporation," with a preferred capital stock of $12,500,000,

to be subscribed by the United States. Control is placed in a board

of directors appointed by the Secretary of War. The Corporation is

given power to acquire and operate U. S. Nitrate Plants Nos. i and 2

(at Sheffield and Muscle Shoals, Alabama) together with accessory

plants, including the fixed nitrogen research laboratory now located

at the American University in Washington; and to act as agent of the

President in completing and operating the hydroelectric power plant

at Muscle Shoals, as specified in the National Defense Act of June 3,

191 6, but free from the limitations and restrictions imposed by that

act. The bill was referred to the Committee on Mihtary Affairs.

3 This Journal 9: 422. 1919-

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 647

NOTES

The property at 1201 Sixteenth Street, now leased and occupied by

the National Research Council, has been purchased by the National

Educational Association.

The Governor of the Territory of Hawaii has requested the Geological

Survey to make a geological examination of the territory with reference

to its ground-water resources. Field work will probably be started in

January by O. E. Meinzer, W. O. Clark, and L. F. Noble.

The Coast and Geodetic steamer Hydrographer, while surveying the

Florida Reefs, was caught in the hurricane of September 9. The cables

fouled those of the Tuscarora, and, in order to save both vessels, the

officers and men of the Hydrographer had to be transferred to the

Tuscarora; the cables were then slipped by mate Straube and the

Hydrographer was blown across the channel on to the shoals. The

vessel was floated later and hauled out at Key West for examination.

The Secretary of Commerce has sent a letter to Commander G. C.

MaTTIson and the men of the Hydrographer, commending their skill in

salvaging the vessel without outside assistance.

Dr. Horace G. Byers, formerly of the University of Washington,

who was recently appointed chemist in charge of soil investigations

in the Bureau of Soils, has accepted the position of head of the depart-

ment of chemistry at Cooper Union Institute, New York City.

Mr. W. J. Cotton has resigned from the Color Laboratory of the

Bureau of Chemistry to accept a position with the National Aniline

and Chemical Company, of Buffalo, New York.

Lieutenant Colonel Coert DuBois, District Forester at San Fran-

cisco, California, has resigned from the U. S. Forest Service and entered

the Consular Service. Colonel DuBois had been a member of the

Forest Service since 1900.

Mr. Chester G. Gilbert resigned from the Smithsonian Institution

on October i, to accept a position on the staff of Arthur D. Little,

Inc., of Cambridge, Massachusetts. This organization has opened a

Washington office in the Munsey Building, with Mr. Gilbert in charge.

Mr. F. W. Glading, of the Bureau of Standards, has resigned to

become Industrial Engineer for the Baldwin Locomotive Works, at

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka has been made an honorary member of the

Association Liegois pour I'fitude et I'Enseignment des Sciences Anthro-

pologiques, at Li^ge, Belgium.

Dr. GrinnELL Jones, chemist to the Tariff Commission, has re-

turned to Harvard University but is still retained in an advisory capacity

by the Commission.

648 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. D. J. KeIvIvY, first assistant examiner in Division 31 of the Patent

Office, died on July 24, 1919. He had been connected with the Patent

Office since 1880, and had become an authority on the development

of the mineral oil industry.

Dr. G. F. LouGHLiN, of the Geological Survey, is giving a course

of lectures on metalliferous geology at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, temporarily filling the place of Professor WaldEmar

LiNDGREN.

Mr. H. A. Nelson, formerly of the Bureau of Standards, is now

with the New Jersey Zinc Company.

Mr. C. G. QuiLLiAN, of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, has

laid out a speed-trial course for the use of aircraft in the vicinity of

Rockaway Beach, Long Island, at the request of the Navy Depart-

ment.

Dr. L,. W. Stephenson, of the Geological Survey, has been granted

a six months' leave of absence in the early part of 1920, in order to do

stratigraphic work for one of the oil companies in the Tampico oil

field, Mexico.

-^^*'<»^

JOURNAL ^^ ,^^,.

OF THE v^^ ^

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 9 DECEMBER 19, 191 9 No. 21

ZOOLOGY. — The Philippine Island landshells of the genus

Platyraphe.^ Paul Bartsch, U. S. National Museum.

Demands for identification of Philippine Island land mollusks

have made it necessary to subject a number of groups to a thor-

ough revision. Of these the genus Platyraphe seems to have

been very poorly understood by writers in the past, and mem-

bers belonging to this genus have been indiscriminately placed

with Platyraphe or Eucy dolus and Pseudocyclophorus. It is not

at all surprising that this should have been the case, for the true

characters of the group seem to have so far been overlooked,

and the superficial characters in many instances resemble char-

acters presented by members of the other two genera.

Members of the genus Platyraphe can, however, always be

distinguished by the possession of a slender tube in the angle of

junction between the outer lip and the parietal wall, on the inside

of the aperture ; that is, on the inside of the posterior angle of the

aperture. This tube begins a little behind the peristome where

it is punctured and extends back for a variable distance in dif-

ferent species, terminating in a second puncture. It is evidently

used as a breathing siphon when the animal is withdrawn and

the shell sealed by the operculum.

Additional new material is arriving so frequently from un-

explored regions of the Islands that it does not seem advisable

at the present time to publish a monograph upon this group.

I am, therefore, retaining the manuscript, which is being added

to as the material arrives, and for the present offer a simple

key, which it is believed will be of assistance to collectors in

identifying their material.

' Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

649

650 bartsch: Philippine; landsheivLS

Key to the subgenera of Platy raphe

Last opercular turn covered with a sohd fused deposit.

Platyraphina new subgenus

Type Platyraphe (Platyraphina) caianduanensis Bartsch

Last opercular turn not covered with a sohd fused deposit.

Last opercular turn provided with obliquely placed imbricating

scales Platyraphida new subgenus

Type Platyraphe {Platyraphida) anthopoma Mollendorff

Last opercular turn not provided with obliquely placed

imbricating scales.

Operculum with the inner edge of the whorls upturned

to form a thickened lamella. . . .Platyraphe Mollendorff

Type Platyraphe {Platyraphe) coptoloma Mollendorff

Operculum with the inner edge of the whorls not up-

turned to form a thickened lamella

Platyraphella new subgenus

Type Platyraphe {Platyraphella) malihagoana Bartsch

Key to the species and subspecies of the genus Platyraphe

Last opercular turn covered with a solid fused deposit

PLATYRAPHINA

Spiral sculpture present on last turn.

Greater diameter more than 17 mm catanduanensis

Greater diameter less than 9 mm calayanensis

Spiral sculpture absent on last turn mamillaia

Last opercular turn not covered with a solid fused deposit

Last opercular turn provided with obliquely placed imbricating

scales PLATYRAPHIDA

Greater diameter more than 14 mm.

Spire depressed anthoponia

Spire elevated media

Greater diameter less than 14 mm.

Last nuclear turn with strong axial riblets minor

Last nuclear turn with feeble axial riblets montalhana

Last opercular turn not provided with obliquely placed imbricat-

ing scales.

Operculum with the inner edge of the whorls upturned to form

a thickened lamella PLATYRAPHE

Last whorl disjunct at the aperture in adult shells.

Spiral lirations strongly developed on the last whorl.

Peristome decidedly expanded coptoloma

Peristome not expanded.

Greater diameter more than 6 mm.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 8 princessana

BARTSCH: PHILIPPINE LANDSHEJLLS 65 1

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second whorl

not 8.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 10 busuangensis

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl not 10.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 12 balabakensis

Greater diameter less than 6 mm.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 12 ulugana

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl not 12.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second whorl

9-

Greater diameter more than 5 mm leytensis

Greater diameter less than 5 mm guimarasensis

Spiral lirations not strongly developed on the last whorl.

Spiral lirations only feebly developed on the last whorl.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second whorl

16 gradata

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second whorl

not 16.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 12 toledoana

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second whorl

not 12.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 8 businensis

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl not 8.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 7 negrosensis

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl not 7.

Strong spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 6.

Spiral lirations on the umbilical wall of the

last whorl well marked mindanensis

Spiral lirations on the umbilical wall of the

last whorl obsolete buriasensis

Spiral lirations not feebly developed on the last whorl.

Spiral lirations absent on the last whorl.

Incremental sculpture very strong.

Incremental sculpture consisting of rough riblike

elements and fine threads between them . . surigaoana

652 bartsch: Philippine; IvAndshblls

Incremental sculpture consisting of rough riblike

elements only.

Greater diameter more than 13 mm.

Inner edge of opercular turns decidedly free,

forming a strong lamella cehuensis

Inner edge of opercular turns not decidedly

free nor forming a strong lamella . . . anacampta

Greater diameter less than 1 1 mm samarensis

Incremental sculpture not very strong balukensis

Last whorl not disjunct at the aperture in adult shells.

Last whorl strongly spirally lirate.

Spiral lirations absent on the anterior third of the

whorls.

Greater diameter more than 13 mm mucronata

Greater diameter less than 13 mm.

Greater diameter more than 10 mm.

Shell finely spirally lirate cagayanica

Shell coarsely spirally lirate vincentensis

Greater diameter less than 8 mm palauiensis

Spiral lirations not absent on the anterior third of the whorl.

Shell planorboid.

Spiral sculpture present at the summit of the whorls.

Nepionic whorls dark.

Greater diameter more than 10 mm lateplicata

Greater diameter less than 9 mm stenostoma

Nepionic whorls light sibuyanensis

Spiral sculpture absent at the summit of the whorls .

lubangensis

Shell not planorboid.

Spiral lirations feeble on the upper surface of the last

fourth turn.

Spire depressed.

Spiral lirations on the base of last whorl strong

jordana

Spiral lirations on the base of last whorl feeble

toppingi

Spire not depressed but rather elevated.

Axial sculpture very coarse sarangamensis

Axial sculpture not coarse pahnasensis

Spiral lirations not feeble on the upper surface of

the last fourth turn.

Spiral lirations obsolete on the upper surface of the

last fourth turn.

Greater diameter more than 10 mm.

Strong spiral lirations on the next to the last

whorl 5 paghilaoensis

Strong spiral lirations on the next to the last

whorl not 5.

BARTSCH: PHILIPPINE LANDSHELLS 653

Strong spiral lirations on the next to the

last whorl 6 pusilla

Strong spiral lirations on the next to the last

whorl not 6.

Strong spiral lirations on the next to the

last whorl 12 bonahaoana

Greater diameter less than 9 mm.

Spiral opercular lamella remarkably broad. bulusana

Spiral opercular lamella not remarkably broad.

Spiral lirations at the end of the second

whorl 8.

Spiral lirations strong on the first half of

the last turn halanacana

Spiral lirations feeble on the first half of

the last turn iicaoensis

Spiral lirations at the end of the second

turn not 8.

Spiral lirations at the end of the second

turn 7 masbatensis

Spiral lirations at the end of the second

turn not 7.

Spiral lirations at the end of the second

turn 5 marindviquensis

Operculum with the inner edge of the whorls not uptui^ned to

form a thickened lamella. PLATYRAPHELLA

Umbilicus almost closed.

Strong riblike axial sculpture distantly spaced .... malibagoana

Strong riblike axial sculpture not distantly spaced globula

Umbilicus not almost closed.

Umbilicus narrow.

Greater diameter more than 12 mm.

Axial sculpture of base very rough plebeia

Axial sculpture of base not very rough camarinana

Greater diameter less than 10 mm cmzana

Umbilicus broad. .

vSpire well elevated.

Greater diameter more than 12 mm expansilabris

Greater diameter less than 1 1 mm.

Peristome broadly expanded calamianensis

Peristome not broadly expanded bakuitana

Spire depressed substriata

654

BARTSCH: PHILIPPINE IvANDSHELLS

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

599TH MEETING

The 599th regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on October 18, 191 9;

called to order at 8.30 p.m. by Vice-President N. Holuster. Thirty-

six persons were present.

The following informal communications were presented:

R. W. ShufeldT: Exhibition of a young specimen of the wood tortoise

[Clemmys insculpta (Le Conte)] secured recently near Bennings, in

the District of Columbia. An adult animal was shown for comparison.

Wm. Palmer: Further remarks upon the occurrence of the wood

tortoise in the District of Columbia. Three were reported from the

Eastern Branch, one from Plummers Island and another from a marshy

spot below Plummers Island. One taken by E. A. Preble is now in

the District Collection in the National Museum. Three young tor-

toises of this species were taken from the stomach of a copperhead

killed by F. C. Craighead.

P. Bartsch: Note on the extraordinary tameness of red-breasted

nuthatches observed on Mt. Monadnock, New Hampshire.

The regular program consisted of three communications.

J. S. Outsell: Use of selective screens in studies of oyster larvae.

Mr. Outsell stated that in studies of larval oysters the Bureau of Fish-

eries has developed a method of collecting material from a power boat,

by means of a pump having a capacity of several gallons a minute.

The water thus secured is strained through a screen made of bolting

silk. Catches are made in desired localities, placed in suitable con-

tainers, and transferred to the laboratory. There the material is

passed through a series of six wire-gauze screens of graduated fineness.

Much undesired material is removed by the two upper screens that are

coarse enough to permit the passage of the oyster larvae. The four

remaining screens automatically separate the larvae according to size.

Dail}^ studies of the condition of the segregated larvae make it possible

to foretell the time when the larvae will set. As the method of col-

lection is quantitative, it is possible also to show where the larvae are

drifted by tidal currents and thus to indicate the location of the culch

when the proper time arrives. Discussion by Dr. P. Bartsch followed.

656 1/

proceedings: biological society 657

T. S. Palmer: The discoverer of the toothed birds of Kansas. Dr.

Palmer presented a brief account of the life of Prof. Benjamin Frank-

lin MuDGE, former State Geologist of Kansas. Prof. Mudge was born

at Orrington, Maine, August 11, 181 7, and died at Manhattan, Kansas,

Nov. 21, 1879. He came to Kansas about the beginning of the Civil

War and was elected State Geologist in 1864. In 1865 he was ap-

pointed Professor of Natural Sciences in the State Agricultural College

at Manhattan. The last five years of his life were spent in collecting

fossils for Prof. O. C. Marsh. During the summer of 1872 Prof.

Mudge discovered in the Niobrara beds of the Solomon River the re-

mains of Ichthyornis dispar, the first known Cretaceous bird belonging

to the group that had teeth in sockets. Four years later at Fort Mc-

Kinney, Texas, he discovered another species now known as Ichthyornis

lentus. Only five other species of this genus are now recognized. Prof.

Mudge has been described as a "Prince of collectors in the West,"

and Prof. LesquerEaux referred to him in 1871 as "the only truly

scientific Geologist west of the Mississippi River." Discussion by

J. W. GiDLEY, A. Wetmore and R. W. Shufeldt followed.

Paul Bartsch: Results in Cerion breeding. Dr. Bartsch gave an

interesting account of experiments in transplanting landshells of the

genus Cerion from Andros Island in the Bahamas to certain of the

Florida Keys. A complete report of the results obtained is now in

press and will be published shortly by the Carnegie Institution of

Washington. Discussion by H. C. Oberholser and A. Wetmore

followed.

Alexander Wetmore, Recording Secretary pro tern.

600TH meeting

The 6ooth regular meeting of the Biological Society of Washington

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, on November

I, 191 9; called to order at 8.10 p.m. by President H. M. Smith. Fifty-

five persons were present.

On recommendation of the council the following were elected to

membership: Federated JVIalay States Museum, Kuala Lumpur,

F. M. S.; Ellsworth Killip, U. S. National Museum.

It was announced that the Council had resolved to tender a vote of

thanks to Dr. M. W. Lyon, Jr., in recognition of his faithful and un-

tiring service as Recording Secretary. This action of the Council

was confirmed, and unanimously endorsed by the members present.

Under heading of book notices and general notes the following were

communicated :

Dr. H. M. Smith read an announcement of the unveiling of a monu-

ment at Arlington Cemetery, dedicated to the memory of Surgeon

General George Miller Sternberg. Gen. Sternberg was President

of the Society in 1895 and 1896.

Dr. T. S. Palmer gave notice of the meeting of the American Or-

nithologists' Union to be held in New York City, November 11 to 13,

658 proceedings: biological society

inclusive. Dr. Palmer continued with an account of a visit to the

New York City Marble Cemetery, where he saw the grave of Dr.

David Hosack. Dr. Hosack, a physician, came to this country from

Scotland in 1794, and was instrumental in founding the first Botanical

Garden in America, in 1801. Dr. Palmer also announced that re-

cently, in Philadelphia, he had examined a slate over the grave of

Rafinesque, a site that previously had been unmarked. A suitable

tablet has now been installed through the generosity of Messrs. Hand,

Mercer and Rhoads.

Dr. C. W. Stiles remarked that he had recently seen the grave of

E. A. de Schweinitz in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Stiles

also announced that recently two manatees {Trichechus manaUis Linn.)

had appeared in Wrightsville Sound, eight miles from Wilmington,

N. C, a northern record for this mammal. One of these manatees had

been captured and was now on exhibition in Wilmington.

Dr. H. M. Smith exhibited a recent publication by Dr. R. E. Coker

on The fresh water mussels and the nmssel industry of the United States,

published in the bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. This paper was

excellently illustrated and embodied a most thorough and compre-

hensive treatise on the subject. Dr. Smith also announced that the

steamer Albatross had sailed for a cruise along the South Atlantic and

Gulf coasts as far as Yucatan. The vessel has been refitted recently

with greatly improved apparatus. He also remarked that a recent

communication from the agent of the Bureau of Fisheries on St. George

Island, Alaska, announced the finding of a dead specimen of the bearded

hair seal [Erignathus harhatus (Erxleben)] on the beach. The animal

measured 93 inches long and appeared to be very old.

Rear Admiral Baird exhibited an interesting collection of sea-weeds

made thirty years ago by Mrs. Baird under the instruction of the elder

Verrill.

The regular program was introduced by the President, Dr. H. M.

Smith, who stated that the present meeting was to be celebrated as the

sixth meeting-centenary of the Society. The Biological Society was

founded on December 3, 1880, with 44 founders and original members.

With 35 of these the speaker had had personal acquaintance. The

custom had arisen of setting aside each hundredth meeting of the

Society as a commemorative meeting, of which the present was the

sixth. The first commemorative meeting (one hundredth meeting)

had taken place on November 27, 1886, with Dr. G. Brown Goode

in the chair, and the fifth on October 19, 191 2, at Plummers Island,

Maryland, where the Society had been entertained by the Washington

Biologists' Field Club.

The Secretary then read a letter from Dr. F. A. Lucas congratulating

the Society upon the occasion and regretting his inability to be present.

Dr. L. O. Howard presented a paper entitled Early days of the So-

ciety. The speaker remarked that in 1880, at the time of the formation

of the Biological Society, Boston w-^ considered the scientific center of

proceedings: biological society 659

the United States and the present-day concentration of scientific

workers in Washington was just beginning. The first meeting of the

Society was held in the home of an entomologist, C. V. RilEy, and the

first paper presented was by an ichthyologist, T. H. Bean. A number

of incidents of early days were related, among which was one of the

attendance on May 8, 1897, of Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant

Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Roosevelt came to discuss a recent com-

munication by Dr. Merriam on the classification of mammals. In

closing, Dr. Howard remarked that with the increased number of special-

ists other bodies had .been organized as ofi"shoots from the parent

Biological Society and that more of these were coming in the future.

All were united, however, in desiring long life and prosperity to the

original organization.

The second paper, by Dr. W. H. Dall, was entitled Reminiscences.

Dr. Dall related that in 1880, in company with T. H. Bean, he was

engaged on a survey of the Alaskan coast in the vessel Yukon. He

returned to Washington December 31, 1880, and was elected to mem-

bership in the Biological Society in January, 1 88 1 . The first paper read

at a meeting of the Society was by T. H. Bean on results obtained on

this voyage of the Yukon, while the second was a presentation of Ward's

Flora of the District of Columbia. Other incidents of great interest

regarding the early days of the Society were given and the speaker

closed by remarking that in his opinion no other society had contributed

more toward the advancement of the study of biology in North America.

Dr. T. S. Palmer continued the regular program with a discussion of

The ''Proceedings.'' The speaker stated that with the current year

the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington will have com-

pleted thirty-two volumes that have averaged from one hundred to two

hundred pages each. The series now has covered approximately five

thousand pages. The first six volumes include addresses made before

the Society as well as other matter. The character of the publication

was then changed to its present form, a series of brochures comprising

short papers and brief notes that deal with new and original contribu-

tions in systematic zoology and botany; while one brochure, published

at the close of each year, gives a brief synopsis of the regular meetings

of the Society. The Proceedings have attained such importance

that workers in systematic biology find it essential to have the set avail-

able for reference.

Discussion of these three papers followed, by H. M. Smith, M. B.

Waite, W. p. Hay, and David White.

Alexander Wetmore, Recording Secretary pro tern.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Arthur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, Car-

negie Institution of Washington, gave the public lecture at the annual

meeting of the trustees of the Institution in Washington, on December

II, 191 9. The subject of the lecture was "The War Work of the

Geophysical Laboratory."

Rear Admiral James Milton Flint, U. S. N. (Retired), a charter

member of the Academy, died at his home in Washington on November

21, 19 19, in his eighty-second year. Admiral Flint was born at Hills-

borough, New Hampshire, February 7, 1838. He entered the United

States Navy as assistant surgeon in 1862, and became medical director

of the Navy in 1897, retiring from the service in 1900. During his ser-

vice with the Navy he was connected at various periods with the U. S.

Fish Commission (i 884-1 887), and with the Smithsonian Institution

and National Museum, as curator of the Division of Medicine.

Mr. William M. Hall, assistant forester in the Forest Service, re-

signed on November 24 after twenty years of forestry work. He has

become a partner in an enterprise established in Chicago to handle land

exchanges.

Major Henry LEE Higginson, one of the trustees of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington, died at Boston, Massachusetts, on November

14, 1919, in his eighty-fifth year.

Mr. C. H. KiDWELL has been appointed chief of the Quality-of- Water

Division of the Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey, as

successor to Mr. A. A. Chambers, resigned.

Dr. Otto Klotz, Director of the Dominion Observatory, Ottawa,

has been appointed the representative of Canada on the "Committee

on Magnetic Surveys, Charts and Secular Variation" of the International

Geodetic and Geophysical Union, recently formed at Brussels.

Mr. E. C. McKelvy, of the Chemical Division of the Bureau of

Standards, died at Emergency Hospital on November 29, 19 19, in his

thirty-sixth year. His death resulted from burns received on the after-

noon of November 28, from an explosion of amm.onia-condensing ap-

paratus containing petroleum ether cooled by liquid air. Mr. McKelvy

was born at Upper Sandusky, Ohio, May 9, 1884. Lie joined the staff

of the Bureau in July, 1907, and was chief of the physico-chemical

section of the Chemistry Division at the time of his death. Llis work

for several years past had been on the physical constants of ammonia

and other substances used in commercial refrigeration. He was a

member of the Academy and one of the associate editors of its Journal;

had been secretary of the Chemical Society since 1915; and was a

member of the Philosophical vSociety.

660

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 66 1

Dr. James Dudley Morgan, one of the early members of the Acad-

emy, died at his home at Chevy Chase, Maryland, on November 21,

1919, in his fifty-eighth year. Dr. Morgan was born in Washington

July 5, 1862. He spent most of his life in the practice of medicine in

Washington, being connected at the same time with the Medical School

of George Washington University, Garfield Hospital, and Emergency

Hospital. In addition to his memberships in the medical societies,

he was a member of the Columbia Historical Society, of which he was

president from 1909 to 191 6, and became a member of the Academy

in 1903.

Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,

has been elected an associate member of the Academic des Sciences,

Paris.

Mr. Ferdinand Westdahl, hydrographic and geodetic engineer in

the Coast and Geodetic Survey, died at San Francisco, California, on

October 25, 191 9, in his seventy-seventh year. Mr. Westdahl was born

at Wisby, Sweden, January 20, 1843. He entered the Survey as an

aid in 1867, having been employed previously by the V/estern Union

Telegraph Company, Russian extension, as first mate of the bark

GoLen Gate. At that time he had served on board sailing ships in

every capacity from boy to ordinary seaman, able seaman, second and

first mate, and sailing master. He was the oldest ofiicer and next to

the oldest in point of service in the Survey. His work was chiefly

in hydrography along the Pacific Coast, in Alaska, and in the Philippine

Islands.

662

ERRATA

P. 357, Hne 26

P. 433, line 16

P. 523, Une 13

P. 523, Hne 15

P. 523, Hne 24

P. 523, Hne 7 f

affricative tc

P. 524, Hne 6:

P. 524, Hne 23: V'or kekVci'ta'wipen""' read kekVciia'wipen"'"

P. 524, last Hne footnote ^: For

hear a for a, and ""' for °. read hear -a for -a, and -^' for -".

P. 535, Hne 28: For Res. '76 read Res. 76

VOLUME Vni, 1918

P. 108, line 10: For Medical Corps read

P. 471, line 6 from bottom: For

trajections read

P. 475, line 16: For plant read

P. 478, lines 12 and 15, and p. 479,

lines 4, 15 and 16: For sight read

P. 509, last line: For Section read

P. 693, second column, line 4: After 251 add

VOLUME VI, 1916

P. 226, line 2: For 17th read

VOLUME V, 19 15

P. 183, last paragraph, line i : For i6th read

P. 390, line 6: For 40° i' read

VOLUME IV, 19 14

P. 556, line 7 of table : For prism 1 10 read

VOLUME III, 1913

P. 226, Hne 5: For p^, p2, pn read

Medical Reserve

Corps

trajectories

plane

site

Service

292, 369,

1 8th

17th

44° I'

GIG

Vpl, Vp2, ^Pn

Xr,

P. 229, line i: Add after word "weight :"(or weight - in (2))

P. 229, line 4:

For by the least square method read

P. 231, line I : For Xi, oc^, Xn, read

P. 231, Hne 2: For (5) read

P. 231, Hne 3: For {x) read

from (3)

X\, X2, Xn

P. 178, line I : For 175

VOLUME II, 1912

read

(2)'

176

L i

INDEX TO VOLUME IX

An * denotes an abstract of a published paper. A t denotes an abstract of a piper presented

before the Academy or an afiSIiated Society. A § indicates an item published under the head

Scientific Notes and News.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Biological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 175, 205, 234, 287, 355, 418, 656.

Botanical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 143, 415, 559.

Entomological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 22, 81, 148, 206, 357, 416.

Geological Society of Washington. Proceedings: 107, 288, 382, 451, 500.

Philosophical Society of Washington. Proceedings: 20, 140, 267, 349, 447, 642.

Washington Academy of Sciences. Proceedings and Notes: 81, 107, 204, 234,

267, 344, 602.

Washington Society of Engineers. Proceedings: no.

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbot, C. G. fEclipse party, obser-

vations of the Smithsonian, June 8,

1918. 21.

Adams, Elliot Q. Crystallography

and optical properties of the photo-

graphic sensitizing dye, pinaverdol.

396.

Crystals, classification of mimetic.

153-

Adams, L. H. fAnnealing of glass.

351-

— ■ — *Compressibility of solids, deter-

mination of. 598.

*Fiirnace temperature regulator.

626.

Mustard "gas," some physical

constants of. 30.

Relation between birefringence

and stress in several types of glass.

609.

*Temperature distribution in sol-

ids during heating or cooling. 626.

Adams, Oscar S. *Grid system for pro-

gressive maps in the United States.

597-

fMap projections in general,

study of. 448.

— — *Polyconic projections, general

theory of. 552.

Allard, H. a. *Mosaic disease of to-

bacco, effects of salts, acids, germ-

icides, etc., upon virus causing.

173-

Allen, E. T. *Glass analysis, contri-

bution to the methods of. 599.

*Glass, condition of arsenic in,

and its role in glass making. 558.

Anderson, Rudolph Martin. Zoologi-

cal exploration in the western Arc-

tic, recent. 312, t356.

Atwood, Wallace W. *Landslides and

glacial deposits, relation of, to

reservoir sites in San Juan Moun-

tains, Colorado. 316.

663

c^

y/-7

664

AUTHOR INDEX

Austin, L. W. Calculation of antenna

capacity. 393.

Radiotelegraphy, quantitative ex-

periments with coil antennas in.

355-

Bailey, Florence Merriam. *Birds

of Glacier National Park. 321.

Bailey, Vernon. fMaximilian, Prince

of Wied, on Upper Missouri in 1833.

419.

fSkunk cabbage, the western.

178.

Baker, A. C. flntermediates in the

Aphididae and their relation to al-

ternate hosts. 287.

Ball, Carleton R. *Naming wheat

varieties. 172.

Bartlett, H. H. Mendelian inheri-

tance in crosses between mass-mu-

tating and non mass-mutating

strains of Oenothera pratincola.

462.

BarTsch, Paul. fCerion breeding, re-

sults in. 657.

— - — Philippine Island landshells of

the genus Platyraphe. 649.

fRed-breasted nuthatches, tame-

ness of. 656.

fSpecies, what kind of characters

distinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? 236.

Bastin, Edson S. *Ores at Tonopah,

Nevada, genesis of the. 317.

Bates, Frederick. *Baume scale for

sugar solutions, new. 169.

Bauer, L. A. fEclipse, solar, of June

8, 1918, results of magnetic ob-

servation diu'ing. 22.

fMagnetic elliptic homoeoid, the

field of a uniformly, and applica-

tions. 267.

Beal, a. F. fComparison of invar

with steel as shown by the rates of

high grade watches. 643.

Beal, F. E. L. *Swallows, food habits

of. 51.

Bearce, H. W. *Baume scale for sugar

solutions, new. 169.

Berry, E. W. fPaleontology, present

tendencies in. 382.

*Upper Cretaceous floras of the

eastern gulf region in Tennessee,

Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia.

631.

Bichowsky, F. Russell v. *Color of

inorganic compounds, the. 78.

Manganese in the periodic sys-

tem, the place of. 103.

*Planck radiation law, necessary

physical assumptions underlying

proof of. 18.

Sulfur crystal, an unusual. 126.

Blake, S. F. Anay, the, a new edible-

fruited relative of the avocado. 457.

— — Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants

used for poisoning fish, revision of.

241.

— — ■ fSpecies, what kind of characters

distinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? 237.

Boas, Franz. *Kutenai tales. 106.

Bowen, C. F. * Anticlines in a part of

the Musselshell Valley. 442.

Bowen, N. L. *Glass, devitrification of.

640.

*Glass, identification of "stones"

in. 558.

Bowie, William. *Grid system for

progressive maps in the United

States. 597.

fMapping the United States for

military and civil needs. 447.

Boyce, J. C. fAirplane construction,

defects in wood in relation to. 146.

Bragg, J. G. *Piers, large brick, com-

pressive strength of. 409.

Britton, N. L. *Cactaceae, descrip-

tions and illustrations of plants of

the Cactus Family. 408.

Brooks, Alfred H. fGeologic prob-

lems relating to the war in Ein-opc.

451-

Brooks, Charles. *Apple scald. 378.

Bryan, Kirk. fGeologist, habits of

thought of a, apjilied to military

problems. 452.

AUTHOR INDEX

665

BuRCHEivL, E. F. tManganese-ore de-

posits of Cuba. 385.

Burgess, George K. *Tin, conserva-

tion of, in bearing metal, bronzes,

and solders. 341.

■ Science and the after-war period.

57-

Burns, Keivin. *Neon, measurements

of wave-lengths in the spectrum of.

170.

Byars, L. p. *Wheat, a serious eel-

worm or nematode disease of . 174.

Canfield, G. H. * Water-power in-

vestigations in southeastern Alaska.

632.

Capps, Stephen R. *Gold lode mining

in the Willow Creek district, Alaska .

633-

*Kantishna Region, Alaska, the.

439-

*Mineral resources of the upper

Chulitna region. 633.

*Mineral resoitrces of the western

Talkeetna Mountains. 633.

Carrier, Lyman. fMitchell, Dr. John,

early naturalist and historian. 176.

Cary, Merritt. *Life-zone investiga-

tion in Wyoming. 533.

Casey, Thomas L. *Coleoptera, me-

moirs on the. VIII. 79.

Caudell, a. N. fSpecies, what kind

of characters distinguish, from a

subdivision of a species? 237.

— ■ — ■ fZoraptera, notes on. 418.

Chamberlain, Alexander -Francis.

*Kutenai tales. 106.

Chapin, Theodore. *Alaska, mining

developments in the Ketchikan dis-

trict. 632.

*Alaska, mining in Fairbanks,

Ruby, Hot Springs, and Tolstoi

Districts. 635.

*Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alas-

ka, the [geology of]. 320.

*Stratigraphy of Gravina and

Revillagigedo islands, Alaska,

structure and. 49.

Chase, Agnes. fOil-grasses and their

uses in perfumery. 356.

Clark, Austin H. Discontinuous dis-

tribution among the echinoderms.

623.

— ■ — Holopus, the systematic position

of the crinoid genus. 136.

Clark, Frank R. Famham anticline.

Carbon County, Utah. 638.

*Geology of the Lost Creek coal

field, Morgan County, Utah. 318.

Clark, J. Allen. *Wheat varieties,

naming. 172.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. *Gen-

eral instructions for precise and sec-

ondary traverse. 626.

Cobb, Frieda. Mendelian inheritance

in crosses between mass-mutating

and non mass-mutating strains of

Oenothera pratincola. 462.

CoBLENTz, W. W. *Photoelectric prop-

erties of molybdenite. 553.

Photoelectric sensitivity of mo-

lybdenite, the spectral. 537.

— — ■ *Quartz mercury vapor lamps,

the decrease in ultra-violet and total

radiation with usage of. 169.

CocKERELL, T. p. A. *Cretaceous fish

scales, some American. 440.

CoE, H. S. *Rhizoctonia in lawns and

pastures. 329.

CoLLEY, Reginald H. *Cronartium

ribicola, parasitism, morphology and

cytology of. 377.

Collier, Arthur J. *Coal south of

Mancos, Montezuma County, Colo-

rado. 318.

— ■ — *Geology of northeastern Mon-

tana. 531.

■ *Nesson anticline, Williams,

North Dakota, the. 49.

Collins, G. N. Maize, intolerance of,

to self-fertilization. 309.

CoNDiT, D. Dale. *Oil shale in west-

em Montana, southeastern Idaho,

and adjacent parts of A\'yoming

and Utah. 638.

*Paleozoic, late, and early Meso-

zoic formations of southwestern

Montana aiid adjacent Wyoming.

530.

666

AUTHOR INDEX

Cook, O. F. Evolution through normal

diversity. 192.

Maya farms, the size of. 11.

CooLEY, J. S. *Apple scald. 378.

CORBETT, L. C. tLight, artificial, plant

responses under. 148.

Crampton, G. C. fZoraptera, phylog-

eny of. 418.

CuRTiN, Jeremiah. *Seneca fiction,

legends and myths. 340.

Curtis, Heber D. Spiral nebulae,

modern theories of the. 217.

Curtis, H. L. fMeasurements of short

time intervals. 642.

CusHMAN, Joseph Augustine. Lower

cretaceous age of the limestones

underlying Florida. 70.

*Pliocene Foraminifera of the

Coastal Plain of the United States.

328.

CuSHMAN, R. A. *Idiogastra, new sub-

order of Hymenoptera with notes

on miniature stages of Oryssus.

327-

Dall, William H. Tertiary fossils

from the Pribilof Islands, i.

fReminiscences [of the Biological

Society]. 659.

Day, Arthur L. fOptical glass. 603.

Bearing, Charles T. fMuscadine

grapes, producing self- fertile. 147.

Bellinger, J. H. *Principles of radio

transmission and reception with an-

tenna and coil aerials. 641.

Buncan, R. C. fMeasurements of

short time intervals. 642.

BUNKLEY, W. A. *Toluol recovery.

203-.

BwiGHT, Jonathan. *Gu11, description

of a new race of western. 499.

Ely, Charles R. *Gracilariidae, re-

vision of North American, from

standpoint of venation. 327.

Fairchild, D. G. jMeyer, Frank N.,

agricultural explorations of. 559.

Fenner, C. N. *Optical glass, effect

of certain impurities in causing

milkiness in. 172.

Ferguson, John B. *Cristobalite and

tridymite, melting points of. 103.

— ■ — *Equilibrium between carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur di-

oxide, and free sulfur, the. 79.

*Magnesia, note on the sintering

of. 139-

*Optical glass, effect of certain

impurities in causing milkiness in.

172.

*Optical glass, volatilization of

iron from pots [used for], by

chlorine at high temperatures. 640.

Oxidation of lava by steam. 539.

*Sintering of magnesia, note on

the. 139.

*Sulfur dioxide, thermal dissocia-

tion of. 599.

*Temperature uniformity in an

electric furnace. 80.

■ *Ternary system lime-magnesia-

silica. 629.

*Tridymite and cristobalite,

melting points of. 103.

*Wollastonite and related solid

solutions in the ternary system lime-

magnesia-silica. 630.

Ferguson, S. P. fMeteorological phe-

nomena of solar eclipse of June 8,

1918. 20.

Fisher, D. F. *Apple scald. 378.

Gahan, a. B. fSawfly, the black grain-

stem, of Europe in the United States.

416.

Gailey, W. R. Carbon monoxide, a

respiration product of Nereocystis

luetkeana. 560.

Galloway, Beverly T. *Phytopatho-

logical problems in their relation to

foreign seed and plant introduction.

198.

Gann, Thomas W. F. *Maya Indians

of southern Yucatan and northern

British Honduras. 533.

George, G. D. fRust, black-stem, and

the barberry. 416.

Gibson, Edmund H. flnsect prob-

lems, some war-camp. 357.

AUTHOR INDEX

667

Gibson, K. S. *Ultra-violet and vis-

ible transmission of eye-protecting

glasses. 380.

GiDLEY, James William. fCanid, no-

tice of a large, from the Cumberland

cave deposits. 287.

Foot, primitive mammalian, sig-

nificance of divergence of first digit

in. 273.

Goldman, M. I. fGlauconite, general

character, mode of occurrence and

origin of. 501.

Goss, Byron F. t^as warfare at the

front. 604.

Greene, Charles T. *Diptera, con-

tribution to the biologj^ of North

American. 328.

Gregg, W. R. fTrans-Atlantic flight

from meteorologists' point of view.

353-

Griggs, Robert F. fKatmai and the

Ten Thousand Smokes. 347.

Grout, Frank F. *Clays and shales

of Minnesota. 600.

GuTsell, J. S. fUse of selective screens

in the study of oyster larvae. 656.

Hammond, J. C. fObservations of solar

eclipse of June 8, 1918, by Naval

Observatory Eclipse Expedition. 20.

Hancock, E. T. *Geology and oil and

gas prospects of the Lake Basin

field, Montana. 50.

Hanna, G. Dallas. fAvifauna of

Pribilof Islands, Alaska, additions

to, including species new tb North

America. 176.

*Birds, summer, of St. Matthew

Island Bird Reservation. 327.

Harrington, George L. *Anvik-

Andreafski region, Alaska. 600.

*Fairbanks, Ruby, Hot vSprings,

and Tolstoi Districts, Alaska,

mining in. 635.

*Seward Peninsula, Alaska, min-

eral resources of. 636.

Harvey, Rodney B. ^Pythium debar y-

anum on potato tuber, physiological

study of. 415.

HaTBcOck, Bernard D. *Tiles, hol-

low building, tests of. 343.

Hawkins, Lon A. ^Pythium debary^

anum on the potato tuber, physio»

logical study of. 415.

Heikes, V. C. *Geology and ore de-

posits of the Tintic mining district,

Utah. 316.

Henry, J. H. fHot spell of August,

1918, the. 140.

Hess, F. L. fPhenocrysts in granitic

intrusions. 294.

Hewett, D. F. fManganese deposits.

386.

HEViriTT, J. N. B. *Seneca fiction,

legends and mjrths. 340.

HiDNERT, Peter. *Molybdenum, pre-

liminary determination of thermal

expansion of. 341.

Hitchcock, A. S. *Flora of the Dis-

trict of Columbia and vicinity. 553.

fHawaiian Islands, botanical trip

to. 204.

Ixophorus unisetus, history of the

Mexican grass. 546.

Lasiacis, a peculiar species of. 35 .

tLong's Peak, Colorado, notes on

botany of. 55.

*Mexico, a botanical trip to.

285.

fSpecies, what kind of characters

distinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? 234.

HoLLisTER, N. *African, East, mam-

mals in the United States National

Museum. 50, 343.

— — fSpecies, what kind of characters

distinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? 235.

Honaman, R. K. Conductivity of in-

sulating materials at high tempera-

tures, methods of measuring. 252.

HosTETTER, J. C. Apparatus for grow-

ing crystals under controlled con-

ditions. 85.

— - — *Electrometric titrations, with

special reference to the determina-

tion of ferrous and ferric iron. 630.

668

AUTHOR INDEX

HoSTKTTER, J. C. *Optical glass, vol-

atilization of iron from pots [used

for], by chlorine at high temper-

at'ires. 640.

Howard, L. O. fEarly days of the

Biological Society of Washington.

658.

Howell, Arthur H. *Sparrow, a new-

seaside, from Florida. 497.

Hutchinson, R. H. fLice in clothing,

experiments with steam disinfec-

tion in destroying. 418.

Insley, Herbert. *Silica brick, con-

stitution and microscopic structure

of. 558.

Jackson, Hartley H. T. *Napaeoza-

pus, the Wisconsin. 201.

Johnston, John. *Compressibility of

solids, determination of. 598.

Jones, E. L. fManganese deposits of

Colorado River desert region. 384.

*Pine Creek District, Idaho,

reconnaissance of. 637.

XahlER, H. Photoelectric sensitivity of

molybdenite, the spectral. 537.

*Quartz mercury vapor lamps,

the decrease in ultra-violet and total

radiation with usage of. 169.

Kalmbach, E. R. *Crow, and its re-

lation to man, the. 52.

Kaufman, C. H. \Cortinanus, the

genus. 415.

Kearney, Thomas J. *Cotton, Egyp-

tian, study of hybrids in. 199.

Kellerman, Karl F. fEradication of

citrus canker. 143.

Kempton, J. H. Maize, the ancestry

of. 3-

Kendall, William C. Species, what

kind of characters distinguish, from

its subdivisions? 187.

Kessler, D. W. *Marbles of the

United States, physical and chem-

ical tests on the commercial. 444.

Kew, W. S. W. *Oil resources, struc-

ture and, of Simi Valley, southern

California. 441.

Kimball, Herbert H. fMeteorological

phenomena of solar eclipse of June

8, 1918. 20.

Kirk, Edwin. *Inyo Range, stratig-

raphy of. 414.

fPaleozoic glaciation in south-

eastern Alaska. 107.

Knopf, Adolph. *Geology and ore de-

posits of the Yerington district,

Nevada. 532.

*Inyo Range and eastern slope

of southern vSierra Nevada, Cali-

fornia, geologic reconnaissance of.

414.

Metalliferous deposits. 453.

Knowlton, F. H. Fossil maize, de-

scription of a new species from Peru.

134-

KoTiNSKY, Jacob, flnsect evolution,

fundamental factors of. 358.

Kozu, S. *Augite from Stromboli.

104.

La Forge, Frederick B. f'Singing"

beach. 500.

Laney, Francis B. *Ores at Tonopah,

Nevada, genesis of the. 317.

Langdon, Seth C. Carbon monoxide,

a respiration product of Nereocystis

luelkeana. 560.

Le ClERC, J. A. *Potato flour and

potato bread. 285.

Lee, Charles H. fWater, experience

in supplying, to our army at the

front. 452.

Lee, H. Atherton. *Citrus-canker,

susceptibility of rutaceous plants

to. 376.

Leffingwell, Ernest deK. *Alaska,

Canning River region, northern.

375-

LiNDGREN, Waldemar. *Geology and

ore deposits of the Tintic mining

district, Utah. 316.

LiTTlEHALES, G. W. *Altitude, azi-

muth, hour angle. 232.

*Altitude of a celestial body when

horizon is not visible, instrumental

means to enable navigators to ob-

serve. 231.

*Chart as a means of finding

geographical position by observa-

tions of celestial bodies in aerial and

marine navigation. 233.

AUTHOR INDEX

669

Long, M. B. *Quartz mercury vapor

lamps, the decrease in ultra-violet

and total radiation with usage of.

169.

LoTKA, Alfred J. *Birth-rate and

death-rate, relation between, and

rational basis of empirical formula

for mean length of life. 53.

Epidemiology, contribution to

quantitative. 73.

LoUGHLiN, G. F. *Geology and ore de-

posits of the Tintic mining district,

Utah. 316.

*Lamprophyre dikes near Santa-

quin and Mt. Nebo, Utah. 228.

*Zinc ores, oxidized, of Leadville,

Colorado. 529.

Lyon, M. W., Jr. flrifluenza. 55.

flsohemagglutinin groups of men.

178.

Maddren, a. G. *Sulphnr deposits

and ! each placers of southwestern

Alaska. 631.

Mann, W. M. fSolomon Islands, notes

on. 149.

Marsh, C. DwighT. ■\Asclepias gali-

oides, a poisonous milkweed. 415.

Martin, G. C. *GeoIoi;ic problems at

the Matanu.ska coal mines. 0.3^.

*Nenana coal field, Alaska, the.

320.

Marvin, C. F. f Aircraft, flight of, and

deflective influence of the earth's

rotation. 354.

Mather, Kirtley F. *Oil fields of

Allen County, Kentucky. 439.

Matthes, F. E. fTopographic maps,

relief shading of. 293.

Mauchly, S. J. tSolar eclipse of

June 8, 1918, some results of atmos-

pheric-electric observations made

during the. 269.

McAtee, W. L. *Birds, attracting to

public and semipublic places. 322.

*Birds, how to attract in East

Central States. 411.

*District of Columbia, sketch of

natural history of, with indexed

map. 374.

McAtee, W. L. *Ducks, mallard, food

habits of the. 410.

fPoisonous sumachs, Rhus poison-

ing and remedies therefor. 177.

McBride, R. S. *To1uo1 recovery.

203.

McIndoo, N. E. fOlfactory sense of

lepidopterous larvae, the. 149.

McNicholas, H. J. *Eye-protective

glasses, ultra-violet and visible

transmission of. 380.

Meggers, W. F. *Neon, measurements

of wave-lengths in the spectrum of.

170.

fPhotography of the red and

infra-red solar spectrum. 140.

Meinzer, O. E. fGround-water, quan-

titative methods for measuring.

293-

Merriam, John C. fCave hunting in

California. 604.

Merrill, P. W. *Neon, measurements

of wave-lengths in the spectrum of.

170.

Mertie, J. B., Jr. *Chromite deposits

in Alaska. 633.

*Platinum-l earing gold placers

of the Kahiltna Valley. 633.

— — fRepeated stream piracy in the

Tolovana and Hess River basins,

Alaska. 109.

Merwin, Herbert E. Ammonium pic-

rate and potassium trithionate: op-

tical dispersion and anomalous crys-

tal angles. 429.

— ■ — ■ Bucher cyanide process for fixa-

tion of nitrogen. 28.

*Cristobalite and tridymite, the

melting points of. 103.

*Hydrated ferric o.\ides. 628.

• — — ■ flron-hydroxide minerals, the.

108.

*Ternary system MgO-AlaOs-

Si02. 46.

*Ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02.

629.

*Wollastonite and related solid

solutions in the ternary system

CaO-MgO-Si02. 630.

670

AUTHOR INDEX

MiCHELSON, A. A. *Optical conditions

accompanying the striae which ap-

pear in optical glass. 341.

MiCHELSON, Truman. Fox Indians:

Part I, Historical, 483; Part II,

Phonetics, folklore and mythology,

521; Part III, Bibliography, 593.

Proto-Algonquin phonetic shifts,

two. 333.

MiLivER, John M. *Electrical oscilla-

tions in antennas and inductance

coils. 171.

Mills, R. van A. *Petroleum and nat-

ural gas, evaporation and concen-

tration of waters associated with.

529-

Miser, Hugh D. *Asphalt deposits

and oil conditions in southwestern

Arkansas. 104.

fManganese deposits of the Bates-

ville district, Arkansas. 384.

MoFFiTT, Fred H. *Chitina Valley,

Alaska, the upper [geology of].

320.

Morey, George W. *Chemical equil-

ibrium, laws of. 47.

*Pressure-temperature curves in

mono variant systems. 48.

*Solubility and fusion at high

temperatures and pressures. 47.

MoulTon, F. R. fStars, duration of.

346-

Murlin, John R. fFood-efficiency in

the United States army. 347.

Nelson, E. W. ^Dallia pectoralis,

Alaska's most remarkable fish. 178.

Norton, J. B. fAsters, new and easy

way of recognizing the local. 175.

Norton, J. B. S. fGermination of im-

mature seeds. 146.

Oberholser, Harry C. *A. O. U.

checklist of North American birds,

fourth annual list of proposed

changes in. 557.

*Bam swallows, migration of.

201.

— ■ — *Birds, notes on North American:

V, 51; VI. 324; VII, 554.

Oberholser, Harry C. Bucerotidae, a

new genus of . 167.

*Conurus, description of a new,

from Andaman. 499.

*Crows, migration of. 498.

* Cyanolaemus clemenciae, new

subspecies of. 326.

Grandalidae, a new family of tur-

dine Passeriformes. 405.

*Iole, description of a new, from

Anamba Island. 411.

*Junco from Lower California,

an interesting new. 556.

*Lanius, description of a new,

from Lower California. 326.

*Larus hyperboreus, the subspecies

of. 409.

*Martins; migration of. 201.

*Migration of North American

birds: II. Scarlet and Louisiana

tanagers, 325; III. Summer and

hepatic tanagers, martins and barn

swallows, 201 ; IV. Waxwings and

Phainopepla, 412; V. Shrikes, 409;

VI. Horned larks, 321; IX. Crows,

498.

— — ■ — • *Mutanda ornithologica : IV,

325; V, VI, 555.

— ■ — *Nannus, notes on wrens of the

genus. 496.

*OrchUus, status of the genus.

412.

*Piranga hepatica, new subspecies

of. 556.

— - — • *Ochthodromus, plover genus, and

its nearest allies. 556.

*Puffinus, notes on the genus.

202.

*Ravens, the common, of North

America. 201.

*Sauropatis Moris, revision of

subspecies of the while-collared

kingfisher. 557.

tSpecies, what kind of characters

distinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? 235.

Spizixidae, a new family of pyc-

nonotine Passeriformes. 14.

AUTHOR INDEX

671

ObERHOlsER, Harry C. *Subspecific

intergradation in vertebrate zoology,

the criterion of. 200.

— • — *vSumatra, birds collected by W.

L. Abbott on Pulo Taya. 495.

*Swan Lake, Nicollet County,

Minnesota, as breeding ground for

water- fowl. 19.

*Tambelan Islands, south China

Sea, birds of. 495.

*Tanagers, scarlet and Louisiana,

migration of. 325.

- *Tanagers, summer and hepatic,

migration of. 201.

*Toxastoma redivivtim, revision of

races of. 19.

*Washington city dooryard, birds

of. 496.

*Washington region [Bird obser-

vations], 554; [October-November,

191 7], 325; [Winter bird records],

413-

*Waterfowl, Swan Lake, Nicollet

County, Minnesota, as breeding

ground for. 19.

*Wrens of the genus Nannus,

notes on. 496.

*Zo6logy, vertebrate, criterion of

subspecific intergradation in. 200.

OvERBECK, R. M. *Geology and min-

eral resources of west coast of

Chichagof Island, Alaska. 632.

Palmer, Harold S. *New graphic

method for determining the depth

and thickness of strata and the pro-

jection of dip. 228.

Palmer, T. S. fBison, number of, in

North America. 356.

^Rhinochitus jubatus. 356.

tThe discoverer of the toothed

birds of Kansas. 657.

jThe Proceedings [of the Biolog-

ical Society]. 659.

Palmer, William. fOccurrence of the

wood tortoise. 656.

Pardee, J. T. *Geology and mineral

deposits of the Colville Indian Res-

ervation, Washington. 315.

Pardee, J. T. *Manganese deposits in

Madison County, Montana. 48.

— — fManganese deposits of the north-

western States. 385.

Peters. C. G. Interferometer, use of

the, in measurement of small or

differential dilatations. 281.

PhalEn, W. C. *Salt resources of the

United States. 600.

Pierce, W. DwighT. *Medical ento-

mology a vital factor in prosecution

of the war. 106.

*Rhina and Magdalis, the case of

the genera. 201.

*Strepsipteras, comparative

morphology of order, with records

and descriptions of insects. 105.

Piper, C. V. *Rhizoctonia in lawns and

pastures. 329.

PiTTiER, H. Chicle, origin of, with de-

scriptions of two new species of

Achras. 431.

POPENOE, Wilson. fGuatemala, agri-

cultural explorations in. 559.

POSNJAK, EuGEN. Bucher cyanide pro-

cess for fixation of nitrogen. 28.

*Hydrated ferric oxides. 628.

*Iron-hydroxide minerals. 108.

Power, Frederick B. *Odorous prin-

ciples of plants, distribution and

characters of. 379.

PtTRDUE, A. H. *Asphalt deposits and

oil conditions in southwestern Ar-

kansas. 104.

Rankin, G. A. *Ternary system MgO-

AhOa-SiOj, the. 46.

Rawdon, Henry S. *Steel, the micro-

scopical features of "flaky." 286.

Reinicker, C. E. *To1uo1 recovery.

203-

Riley, J. H. *Birds, annotated cata-

logue of collections made by Cop-

ley Amory, Jr., in Siberia. 326.

— — *Birds, six new, from Celebes and

Java. 499.

*Bullfinch, new, from China. 19.

*Celebes, two new genera and

eight new birds from. 413.

672

AUTHOR INDEX

Roberts, Howard S. *Electrical ap-

paratus for use in electrometric

titration. 631.

■ *Electrometric titrations, with

special reference to the determina-

tion of ferrous and ferric iron. 630.

*Optical glass, volatilization of

iron from ■ pots [used for], by

chlorine at high temperatures. 640.

Rogers, G. S. fSalt domes of the Gulf

Coast, origin of the. 291.

ROHWER, S. A. *Idiogastra, new sub-

order of Hymenoptera, with notes

on immature stages of Oryssus. 327.

Rose, J. N. *Cactaceae, descriptions

and illustrations of. 408.

fEcuador, botanical explorations

in. 205.

Ross, Donald W. *Silica refractories.

381.

RowLEE, W. W. Ochroma, synopsis of

the genus, with descriptions of new

species. 157.

Safford, W. E. Dahlia, notes on the

genus, with descriptions of two

new, from Guatemala. 364.

fParadise Key and the surround-

ing Everglades, vegetation of. 205.

vSanford, R. L. t^iagnetic analysis.

450.

Sasscer, E. R. jHydrocyanic acid gas

and its use in the control of insects.

82.

ScHAD, Lloyd W. *Molybdenum, pre-

liminary determination of thermal

expansion of. 341.

ScHALLER, Waldemar T. Plancheite

and shattuckite, copper silicates. 131.

ScHLiNK, F. J. Indicating instruments,

determinateness of the hysteresis of.

38.

• treasuring instruments, on the

nature of inherent variability of.

449-

vScHULTz, Alfred Reginald. *Geo-

logic reconnaissance for phosphate

and coal in southeastern Idaho and

western Wyoming. 319.

Scott, H. *Steel alloy, effect of rate of

temperatiu-e change on the trans-

formations in a. 446.

Shaw, Eugene Wesley. *Oil fields of

Allen County, Kentucky. 439.

fSalt domes, stratigraphy of the

Gulf Coastal Plain as related to.

289.

— — Sedimentation. 513.

ShufeldT, R. W. ^Sarracenia pur-

purea. 177.

fWood tortoise, exhibition of a

young specimen of. 656.

SiLSBEE, F. B. Conductivity of insu-

lating materials at high tempera-

tures, methods of measuring. 252,

352.

Skillman, Edward. *Tiles, hollow

building, tests of. 343.

Snodgrass, R. E. tinsects, fruit, notes

and exhibition of water-color draw-

ings of. 23.

Snyder, Thomas Elliott. *Ternite

castes, phylogenetic origin of. 229.

SOMERS, R. E. Clays, microscopic ex-

amination of. 113.

SosMAN, Robert B. fFumaroles, tem-

perature inversions in the, of Valley

of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska.

292.

§Matters of scientific interest in

the Sixty-Sixth Congress. 42 1 , 454,

535. 562, 645.

— ■ — • fVolcanic explosions. 296.

StandlEy, Paul C. *Flora of the Dis-

trict of Columbia and vicinity.

553-

Stebinger, Eugene. '''Oil and gas

geology of the Birch Creek — Sun

River area, Montana. 443.

Stephenson, Lloyd William. *Geol-

ogy of northeastern Texas and

southern Oklahoma. 531.

Stose, G. W. fManganese deposits of

the Appalachian Valley of Virginia

and Tennessee. 383.

— — fTravertine from Rock Creek

Park, District of Columbia. 292.

AUTHOR INDEX

673

S,WANTON, W. I. §United States Gov-

ernment publications, guide to. 24.

SwARTH, H. S. *Passerella iliaca, three

new subspecies of. 412.

Tayi<or, Walter P. ]Cervus roose-

velti. 355.

fCooper's scientific investigations

on the Pacific Coast. 419.

Thompson, Caroline Burling. *Leu-

cotermes flavipes, common termite,

origin of castes of. 139.

*Termite castes, phylogenetic ori-

gin of. 229.

TiSDALE, W. H. *Physoderma disease

of corn. 378.

Todd, W. E. Clyde. *Birds, descrip-

tions of new Colombian. 498.

Tool, A. Q. fOptical glasses in the an-

nealing range, some characteristics

of. 349-

True, R. H. jBernardin de Saint-

Pierre as a plant ecologist. 288.

tPotash-containing marl of the

eastern United States. 146.

TuTTON, Alfred E. H. X-ray analysis

and assignment of crystals to sym-

metry classes. 94.

Ulrich, E. O. fPaleozoic oscillations,

newly discovered instances of early.

297.

Valasek, J. fOptical glasses in the an-

nealing range, some characteristics

of. 349-

Van Orstrand, C. E. jTemperature of

some deep wells in the U.S. " 382 .

Vinall, H. N. tSorghums, effect of

temperature and other meteorologi-

cal factors on growth of. 145.

Walcott, Charles R. *Trilobites, ap-

pendages of. 229.

Washington, Henry S. *Augite from

Stromboli. 104.

*Clays, calculation of the ra-

tional analysis of. 171.

*Italian leucitic lavas as a source

of potash. 104.

*Volcano, representation of, on

an Italian renaissance medal. 105.

Wells, P. V. f'Physical" vs. "chem-

ical" forces. 361.

• — ■ — ■ Trigonometric computation for-

mulae for meridian rays. 181.

Wells, Walton G. *Cotton, Egyp-

tian, study of hybrids in. 199.

Wetmore, Alexander. *Bird records

from Sacramento Valley, California.

497-

— - — ■ *Birds observed near Minco, cen-

tral Oklahoma. 202.

• — ■ — *Bittern, little yellow, new sub-

species of, from Philippine Islands.

321.

*Duck sickness in Utah. 323.

*Icteridae, structure of palate in

the. 497.

*Kitchen-midden deposits in St.

Thomas and St. Croix, bones of

birds collected in, by Theodoor de

Booy. 322.

— *Nyctibnis, anatomy of, with

notes on allied birds. 411.

fPelican, brown, notes on. 419.

— — '\Rynchops niger, pupils of eyes

of. 356.

Wheeler, William Morton. *The

parasitic aculeata, a study in evo-

lution. 638.

Wherry, Edgar T. Acidity and al-

kalinity, the statement of, with

special reference to soils. 305.

Crystallography and optical

properties of the photographic sen-

sitizing dye, pinaverdol. 396.

fCrystallography, some practical

applications of. 383.

Crystals, classification of mimetic.

153-

Morphine and certain of its de-

rivatives, crystallography of. 505.

Tutton's discussion of the assign-

ment of crystals to symmetry

classes, reply to Dr. 99.

White, Walter p. *Calorimeter de-

sign, thermal leakage and. 80.

*Calorimeter efficiency, points re-

garding. 106.

674

SUBJECT INDEX

White, Walter P. *Calorimetric lag.

46.

*Calorimetric methods and de-

vices. 106.

*Calorimetric precision, the con-

ditions of. 103.

*Fnrnace temperature regulator.

626.

*Heat convection in air and New-

ton's law of cooling. 17.

*Sil cate specific heats. vSecond

series. 627.

fSolids, change of state in. 351.

- *Specific heat of platinum at high

temperature, the. 17.

*Specific heats at high tempera-

tures, general character of. 46.

*Specific heat determination at

higher temperatures. 598.

*Temperature distribution in sol-

ids during heating or cooling. 626.

*Thermal leakage and calorim-

eter design. 80.

Williamson, Erskine D. *Chemical

equilibrium, laws of. 47.

*Compressibility of solids, de-

termination of. 598.

Mustard "gas," some physical

constants of. 30.

Williamson, Erskine D. Optical glass,

strains due to tem-^ erature gradients

with special reference to. 209.

*Pressure-temperature curves in

monovariant systems. 48.

Relation of birefringence and

stress in several types of glass. 609.

■ fTemperature and strain dis-

tribution in glass. 349.

Wilson, Edwin Bidwell. Rotations

in hyperspace, note on. 25.

Winchester, D. E. fBituminous shale,

contorted, of Green River formation

in northwestern Colorado. 295.

Woodward, R. W. *Tin, conservation

of, in bearing metals, bronzes and

solders. 341.

Wyckoff, Ralph W. G. Nature of the

forces between atoms in solids.

565.

Yanovsky, Elias. Morphine and cer-

tain of its derivatives, crystallog-

raphy of. 505.

ZiES, E. G. *Glass, condition of ar-

senic in, and its role in glass-making.

558.

*Glass analysis, contribution to

the methods of. 599.

SUBJECT INDEX

Agriculture. fAvocado, the. Wilson

PoPENOE. 559-

*Crow and its relation to man, the.

E. R. Kalmbach. 52.

Maya farms, the size of. O. F. Cook.

II.

tMeyer, Frank N., agricultural ex-

plorations of. D. G. Fairchild.

559-

tSorghums, effect of temperature and

other meteorological factors on

growth of. H. N. Vinall. i45-

Agronomy. *Wheat varieties, naming.

C. R. Ball and J. Allen Clark.

172.

Analytical Chemistry. *Electrical ap-

paratus for use in electrometric

titrations. H. S. Roberts. 631.

*Electrometric titrations, with special

reference to the determination of

ferrous and ferric iron. J. C. Hos-

tetter and H. S. Roberts. 630.

*Glass analysis, contribution to the

methods of. E- T. Allen and E.

G. ZiES. 599.

SUBJECT INDEX

675

Anthropology. Archeological note, a sec-

ond. Truman Michelson. 138.

fCave hunting in California. J. C.

Merriam. 604.

Fox Indians, general notes on. Tru-

man MiCHELSON. Part I. Histor-

ical, 483; Part II. Phonetics, folk-

lore and mythology, 521; Part

III. Bibliography, 593.

flsohemagglutinin groups of men.

M. W. Lyon, Jr. 178.

*Kutenai Tales. Franz Boas and Al-

exander Francis Chamberlain.

106.

Maya farms, the size of. O. F. Cook.

II.

*Maya Indians of southern Yucatan

and northern British Honduras.

Thomas W. F. Gann. 533.

Proto-Algonquin phonetic shifts, two.

Truman Michelson. :i23-

*Seneca fiction, legends and myths.

Jeremiah Curtin and J. N. B.

Hewitt. 340.

Apparatus. *Calorimeter design, ther-

mal leakage and. Walter P.

White. 80.

*Calorimeter efficiency, some points

regarding. Walter P. White.

106.

*Calorimetric methods and devices.

Walter P. White. 106.

Crystals, apparatus for growing, under

controlled conditions. J. C. Hos-

TETTER. 85.

*Fumace temperatiu-e regulator. W.

P. White and L. H. Adams. 626.

*Temperature uniformity in an elec-

tric furnace. JohnB. Ferguson.[8o.

*Thermal leakage and calorimeter de-

sign. Walter P. White. 80.

Astronomy. fSolar eclipse of June 8, 1918,

observations of, by Naval Observ-

atory Eclipse Expedition. J. C.

Hammond. 20.

fSolar eclipse of June 8, 19 18, obser-

vations of Smithsonian party. C.

G. Abbot. 21.

tSolar eclipse of June 8, 1918, results

of atmospheric-electric observations

made during. S. J. Mauchly.

269.

tSolar eclipse of June 8, 1918, results

of magnetic observations during.

L. A. Bauer. 22.

Spiral nebulae, modern theories of the.

Heber D. Curtis. 217.

fStars, duration of. F. R. Moulton.

346.

Aviation. fDeflective influence of

earth's rotation, flight of aircraft

and. C. F. Marvin. 354.

fTrans-Atlantic flight from meter-

ologist's point of view. W. R.

Gregg. 353.

Biology. fCooper's scientific investiga-

tions on the Pacific Coast. Walter

P. Taylor. 419.

*District of Columbia, sketch of nat-

ural history of, with indexed map.

W. L- McAtee. 374.

fMitchell, Dr. John, early nattualist

and historian. Lyman Carrier.

176.

fOyster larvae, use of selective screens

in study of. J. S. GuTshELL. 656.

fSpecies, what kind of characters dis-

tinguish, from a subdivision of a

species? Paul Bartsch, S. F.

Blake, A. N. Caudell, A. S.

Hitchcock, N. Hollister, Harry

C. Oberholser, 234; William C.

Kendall, 187.

Botany. Achras, two new species of.

H. PiTTiER. 431.

Anay, the, a new edible-fruited rela-

tive of the avocado. S. F. Blake.

457-

\Asclepias galioides, a poisonous milk-

weed. C. D WIGHT Marsh. 415.

fAsters, new and easy way to recognize

the local. J. B. Norton. 175.

fAvocado, the. Wilson Popenoe. 559.

Balsa woods. W. W. RowLEE. 161.

fBemardin de Saint-Pierre as a plant

ecologist. R. H. True. 288.

676

SUBJECT INDEX

*Cactaceae, descriptions and illustra-

tions of. N. L. Brixton and J. N.

Rose. 408.

Carbon monoxide, a respiration prod-

uct of Nereocystis luetkeana. Seth

C. Langdon and W. R. GailEy.

560.

Chicle, origin of, with descriptions of

two new species of Achras. H.

PiTTiER. 431.

Dahlia, notes on the genus, with de-

scriptions of two new species from

Guatemala. W. E. Safford. 364.

tEcuador, botanical explorations in.

J. N. Rose. 205.

*Flora of the District of Columbia

and vicinity, A. S. Hitchcock and

Paul C. Standley. 553.

fGermination of immature seeds. J.

B. S. Norton. 146.

fGrasses, oil, and their uses in per-

fumery. Agnes Chase. 356.

fGuatemala, agricultural explorations

in. Wilson Popknoe. 559.

fHawaiian Islands, botanical trip to.

A. S. Hitchcock. 204.

Ichthyomethia, a genus of plants used

for poisoning fash. S. F. Blake.

241.

Ixophorus unisetus, history of the

Mexican grass. A. S. Hitchcock.

546-

Lasiacis, a peculiar species of. A. S.

Hitchcock. 35.

fLong's Peak, Colorado, notes on the

botany of. A. S. Hitchcock. 55.

Maize, ancestry of. J. K. Kempton.

2.

Maize, evolution of, critical review of

Paul Weatherwax on. J. H. Kemp-

ton. 3.

Maize, intolerance of, to self-fertiliza-

tion. G. N. Collins. 309.

fMeyer, Frank N., agricultural ex-

plorations of. D. G. Fairchild.

559-

*Mexico, botanical trip to. A. S.

Hitchcock. 285.

Ochroma, synopsis of the genus, with

descriptions of new species. W. W.

ROWLEE. 157-

fParadise Key and the surrounding

Everglades, vegetation of. W. E.

Safford. 205.

fPoisonous sumachs, Rhus poisoning

and remedies therefor, account of.

W. L. McAtee. 177.

1[Sarracemia purpurea. R. W. Shu-

FELDT. 177.

Self-fertilization, intolerance of maize

to. G. N. Collins. 309.

fSkunk cabbage, western. Vernon

Bailey. 178.

*Wheat varieties, naming. CarlE-

TON R. Ball and J. Allen Clark.

172.

Cartography. fProjections, map, in gen-

eral, study of. Oscar S. Adams.

448.

fRelief shading of topographic maps.

F. E. Matthes. 293.

fUnited States, mapping the, for

military and civil needs. William

Bowie. 447.

Ceramic Chemistry. *Clays, calcula-

tion of the rational analysis of.

Henry S. Washington. 171.

*Optical glass, effect of certain im-

purities in causing milkiness in.

C. N. Fenner and J. B. Ferguson.

172.