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| ARNOLD ARBORETUM

W~ & MAY 2 2 1989 VOLUME 77

Number 4

af Our nal of the December, 1987

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY ..SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

The Lindbergh Grants

1978-1987

“The Human Future depends on our ability

to combine the knowledge of science with

the wisdom of wildness.”

Awarded By

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund

Washington Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1898

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Ronald W. Manderscheid

President-Elect

James E. Spates

Secretary

Darlene V. Howard

Treasurer >

R. Clifton Bailey

Past President

Simon W. Strauss

Vice President (Membership Affairs)

Guy S. Hammer, II

Vice President (Administrative Affairs)

Armand B. Weiss

Vice President (Junior Academy Affairs)

Marylin F. Krupsaw

Vice President (Affiliate Affairs)

Joann Langton

Academy Members of the

Executive Committee

M. Sue Bogner

Robert H. McCracken

Affiliate Members of the

Executive Committee

George Abraham

Jo-Anne A. Jackson

BOARD OF AFFILIATED

SOCIETY REPRESENTATIVES

All delegates of affiliated

Societies (see inside rear cover)

EDITORS

Irving Gray

Joseph Neale

Lisa J. Gray, Managing Editor

ACADEMY OFFICE

1101 N. Highland St.

Arlington, Va. 22201

Telephone: (703) 527-4800

The Journal

This journal, the official organ of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences, publishes histor-

ical articles, critical reviews, and scholarly sci-

entific articles; proceedings of meetings of the

Academy and its Executive Committee; and

other items of interest to Academy members.

The Journal appears four times a year (March,

June, September, and December)—the De-

cember issue contains a directory of the Acad-

emy membership.

Subscription Rates

Members, fellows, and life members in good

standing receive the Journal without charge.

Subscriptions are available on a calendar year

basis only, payable in advance. Payment must

be made in U.S. currency at the following rates:

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FOPCIQN See 22.00

Single Copy Price... -- 7.50

Back Issues

Obtainable from the Academy office (address

at bottom of opposite column): Proceedings:

Vols. 1-13 (1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13

of the Proceedings and Vols. 1—40 of the Jour-

nal Journal: Back issues, volumes, and sets (Vols.

1-75 1911-1985) and all current issues.

Claims for Missing Numbers

Claims will not be allowed if received more than

60 days after date of mailing plus time normally

required for postal delivery and claim. No claims

will be allowed because of failure to notify the

Academy of a change in address.

Change of Address

Address changes should be sent promptly to

the Academy office. Such notification should

show both old and new addresses and zip num-

ber.

Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the

Washington Academy of Sciences, 1101 N. Highland St., Arlington, Va. 22201. Second

class postage paid at Arlington, Va. and additional mailing offices.

CONTENTS

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund: The First Decade—1978-1987: Reeve Lind-

Senge) TA Behe) ct tt ae 8 eee ee ee a ee oa

“Working with Charles Lindbergh” Reunion Lecture: Richard J. Bing,

PI tr Pee erat cacti ale cls hind eae e Aka wie ia leg iS, «whe

he Mindbergh Grant Recipients: 1978-1967. yay occas cept. 6 signs ne Kaas «

Paetccon Fonoravles Mentions; Moe) (ocr. riiane ce ten ea Se eee eens we

J. DONALD HUGHES: Human Ecology in History: The Search for a Sus-

tainable Balance Between Technology and Environment .................

DR. LARRY R. PARSONS: Microsprinkler Irrigation—A Way to Con-

Sem CMn Atet anu TOtect CLOMS, nia uct ss fee knees bles ce wees ee eae ete

DOUGLAS R. MACAYEAL, PhD: Antarctic Ice Volume and Global Sea

Beveruwal Piem alance SUFVIVG! 2 fe ccs cle kc bcc ca dace cern ca de's

ROBERT L. STAEHLE: Solar Sail Engineering Development: Interplane-

tary Transportation with Environmental Benefits ........................

GUHANAND RAJ, and SCOTT FARROW: Titanium Recycling .......

PAUL GEPTS: Wild Ancestors of Crop Plants—A Neglected Resource ...

PROF. C. WAYNE MARTIN: Natural Energy for Nitrogen Fixation .....

ROBERT PEARLMAN: The Maasai Mara Expeditions: Communicating

MO Iee EI ATIO CLC O UIUC. oss ive cca cae «tie w aie 6 6 Sie c Sleds a efa's ouepmge qn seein ss

PETER J. DISIMILE, PhD, and DAVID M. PAULE: Environmental Ben-

efits and Possible Applications of Excited Impinging Jets in the Jet Engine

et Ti Oc ead Sata ia yes ows hh slags © eine «daa Sasge lo ws 9 5

JONATHAN A. SANDOR: Soil Conservation and Redevelopment of Ag-

Mewiralemaces an tie Colca. Valley, Peru... oo iiss 6 ap syegreee weesgerrrqas +s

LOUIS H. AUNG, RAYMOND RENEAU, ANTHONY LOPEZ, and

CLARK W. NICKLOW: Utilization of Seafood Wastes as a Source of Nu-

RRR UMA Sy OTA PL CAAN VENT AMT OUS he chal a cae oy a Pues Ss) 5 + ay cbey 2k Sed ho sys # ter 408

THOMAS J. GOREAU: Deciphering Environmental Records From Car-

ibbean Corals: A Living History of Human Impact on the Tropics ........

DR. TIM W. CLARK: Restoring Balance Between the Endangered Black-

Footed Ferret and Human Use of the Great Plains and Intermountain

ers EMC Mes Mths Wie 4d) Siivces wd won @ aime muara wrelv weld a 6!

HANS A. SCHUESSLER: Utilizing Laser Spectroscopy to Determine Ra-

PIGACHviryateVe Silay NUCICAT WASLE 5.650.256. 15 ool lc es ok ee gb dee ences ee

109

wiz

116

126

130

155

141

145

149...

155

162

168

CONTENTS

BRIAN M. BOOM: The Panare Indians and Their Forest: Survival of a

Venezuelan Culture’ 2... <<< Bcc ea i ee ee

J. R. SENFT: Development of a Direct Solar Stirling Engine: Mechanical

Energy for Developing Countries ...... Fie, .@enee. te cee ree

CHARLES P. MASON: A Study on the Use of Cyanobacterin as an Herbi-

eide-for Crops... 6. sie eee ss oe bined ee ace

CHRISTINE CHITKO MAGUIRE: Incorporation of Tree Corridors for

Wildlife Movement in Timber Areas: Balancing Wood Production with Wild-

life-HabitaiManagement .....2....% 42: .vtieeee. . Seite oes. «at. "seo

S. L. HUNG, and L. D. PFEFFERLE: The Feasibility of Incinerating

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Catalytically Stabilized Thermal Combustor:

An Attractive Alternative to Current Methods of Organic Hazardous Wastes

PCIE AGIGI Ft ears eels eee ee es ee

MARK E. HAY, and J. EMMETT DUFFY: Marine Natural Products as

Ecologically Sound Agrochemicals and Cancer Drugs ....................

ANN MARIE FALLON: A Genetic Study of Insect Pest Control: A Basis

for Development of Safer Insecticides wi. «ciate tape ceameetast eee

NICHOLAS P. YENSEN, PhD, and SUSANA BOJORQUEZ DE YEN-

SEN, M.S.: Development of a Rare Halophyte Grain: Prospects for Recla-

mation of Salt-Ruined) Lands. 2. :..:1.../s5 pee ee A ee ca eee

MICHAEL J. BALICK: The Economic Utilization of the Babassu Palm: A

Conservation Strategy for Sustaining Tropical Forest Resources ...........

STEPHEN J. WINTER: The Evolution of Water Supplies on the Remote

Islands of Truk State: Preserving Tradition and the Environment .........

ROBERT S. KENNEDY: Educating the Slash-and-Burn Farmer on the Con-

servation of the Rain Forest: A Challenge in Intercultural Communica-

WO Miggrs ore doses 6 = igs ae Sitges Sods as aero a eee ee SERS a ak

ROBERT F. ANDERSON, and SHERRY L. SCHIFF: A Study of the

Short and Long-Term Capacity of Lakes to Naturally Neutralize Acid Rain:

An Optimum, Cost-Effective Strategy for the Reduction of Sulfur and Nitrogen

Oxide Emissions; intosthe Environment! .}4 44994. tina 1 ae

DANIEL L. PARDIECK: Restoration of Waters Contaminated with Per-

sistent Organic Compounds by Stimulating Natural Microbial Popula-

tions .....8A4. be lencguaheebesl. ban ate? .GR4A2 = Ae

VIRGINIA KNOWLDEN, Ed.D., R.N.: Human Care in Nursing: Is It Sur-

viving the High TechnolosywSettine? \. . 2 Ag yeas. CORY AS. . OL

KATHLEEN CRANE, PhD: Seafloor Mineral and Geothermal Resources:

A Video Tape Production to Educate High School Students on Rational Uti-

lization of. Deep-Sea/Resourcés (Project: HEAT) «isatsignts ..5 SEG nba

J. EDWARD SUNDERLAND, and ALEKSANDER B. BRANCIC: De-

veloping a Solar Energy System Using Seasonal Earth Thermal Storage (SETS)

at the Smithfield: Academy,(Hatfield, MA)) . s4: . ta. de0k .caetult. Gas. Sees

183

190

193

199

205

206

209

215

224

230

238

242

247

251

Dedication

To those who have led the search for BETTER BALANCE

Presidents of The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund

1976-1987

Dr. Serge A. Korff

Albert Fried, Jr.

Hon. Francis L. Kellogg

Hon. Elmer L. Andersen

Donald G. Padilla

Richard W. Brown, Photographer

Charles A. Lindbergh

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund:

The First Decade—1978-1987

Reeve Lindbergh Tripp

The Lindbergh Grants are the heart of The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund. As Vice

President and Chairman of the Grants and Awards Committee and a member of the

Lindbergh family, I think the grants are a perfect way to remember and honor my

father. These projects deal with activity, with life and with risk.

Each year, the Fund makes grants of up to $10,580—the cost of the “‘Spirit of St.

Louis”—to individuals whose projects reflect my father’s conviction, ‘““The Human

Future depends on our ability to combine the knowledge of science with the wisdom

of wildness.” Since the Program began in 1978, more than $1,600,000 in grants have

been awarded to 90 men and women from the U.S. and thirteen other countries; all

carry the central purpose of creatively resolving conflicts between technological growth

and conservation of our environment.

Formal applications are first screened by an independent, technical Review Panel,

which results in the recommendation of about thirty finalists. The Grants and Awards

Committee of the Fund Board of Directors then reviews the thirty and designates

those it feels best meets the appealing and unusual grant criteria. The final selection

THE CHARLES A. LINDBERGH FUND 4

of Lindbergh Grant Recipients and the new category of those deserving Honorable

Mention are made once each year by the Board of Directors.

Past Lindbergh Grant Recipients have come from the following fields of study:

Aeronautics

Astronautics

Aviation

Agriculture

Arts and Humanities

Biomedical Research

Conservation of Natural Resources

Health and Population Sciences

Intercultural Communication

Oceanography/ Water Resource Management

Waste Disposal Management

@® Wildlife Preservation

@® The Jonathan Lindbergh Brown Grant in Adaptive Technology or Biomedical

Research which seeks to redress imbalance between an individual and his or her

environment.

We believe that the Washington Academy of Science’s publication of this cross-

section of work will stimulate more publicity and create a wider public forum for the

work of the recipients.

My entire family wishes to thank The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund leaders, Board

of Directors and staff for their personal commitment to the Grants Program; Gen.

James H. Doolittle, Neil Armstrong and the Explorers Club for planting the original

seed of this international organization; the community of Little Falls, MN for opening

their homes and their hearts to host our first Grant Recipients Reunion; the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences for publishing the results of the work to date, and all

sponsors, contributors and volunteers over the past ten years who have enabled the

Fund to serve as an appropriate channel for the expression of my father’s ideas and

deepest convictions.

Grants & Awards Office Minneapolis Office

Gloria S. Perkins, Administrator Gene Bratsch, Executive Secretary

Drawer O Marlene White, Administrative

Summit, NJ 07901 Assistant

201-522-1392 708 South 3rd St. (#110)

Minneapolis, MN 55415

612-338-1703

Note: For further information regarding the Lindbergh Grants Program, please contact

Gloria S. Perkins, Editor of the Lindbergh Grants Publication, at the above address.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages vi—viii, December 1987

‘Working with Charles Lindbergh”

Richard J. Bing, M.D.

Huntington Medical Research Institutes, and Huntington Memorial Hospital, 100

Congress Street, Pasadena, California*

Fate and personality determine the course of a life’s event. Personality shifts the

vector of fate.

It was my interest in biology, tissue culture in particular, which brought me in

contact with Charles Lindbergh. As a medical student I had worked with Rhoda

Erdman in Berlin on tissue cultures and was impressed by the behavior of cells in

cultures. I believed that nature revealed its inner workings in cell division and cell

movements. Because of this interest I joined in 1934, at the age of 25, the Carlsberg

Institute for Biology in Copenhagen. When the World Congress for Cell Biology was

held in Copenhagen that year, both Charles Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel visited the

Institute.

When it was decided in Copenhagen that someone should learn the method for the

culture of whole organs, and I was chosen to go to the Rockefeller Institute in New

York City, I was overjoyed. Carrel arranged a Rockefeller grant and in 1934 I sailed

for New York to work with Carrel on the perfusion of whole organs. I was then 25

years old. My first close contact with Charles Lindbergh occurred on the trip to

America, when I stopped in England and visited the Lindberghs in Seven Oaks, Kent.

It is strange how one brief encounter can deeply engrave itself on ones memory. The

few hours spent with the Lindbergh’s made a deep impression on me, not because I

was “‘pre-programmed’’, but because I found a resonance for my youthful scientific

enthusiasm in Charles Lindbergh’s response to me and to my ideas. I learned then,

that he never made light of other people’s ideas, but respected originality and ideas

even from the young and inexperienced. Both Mrs. Lindbergh and Charles were

gracious enough to take me serious. I was even introduced to a super dog with superior

training. (Was its name Thor?), who had been taught to perform supercanine tricks.

At the Rockefeller Institute in Carrel’s department I began to work on “‘the pump”

as it was called. Carrel was a benign chief, he overlooked any weakness as long as

he could detect some strength. Thus, I, a complete novice, was privileged to be trained

in the perfusion of whole organs by Carrel’s staff and Carrel’s co-workers had also

worked with Lindbergh and were his friends. What is the ‘‘pump’’? It is a perfusion

system made out of glass, which permits sterile perfusion of individual organs such

as the thyroid gland, the pancreas or the kidney outside the body, and allows obser-

* Lecture presented at the first Lindbergh grant Recipients Reunion, Little Falls, Minnesota, June 20,

1987

RICHARD J. BING Vii

vations of the effects of different perfusion fluids on survival and biological behavior

of these organs. The ingenious part of this device was Lindbergh’s introduction of

floating glass valves, which separated individual chambers, through which the per-

fusion fluid coursed, exposing the organ to any desired perfusion pressure and rate.

This became important 40 years later when I became interested in the uptake of

cholesterol by the arterial wall. Sterility was maintained by sterile cotton plugs,

through which the gas mixture passed to exert its pressure on the perfusion fluid.

During my time at the Institute, Lindbergh was rarely present since the develop-

mental phase had terminated. I learned soon from my colleagues that the relationship

of Charles Lindbergh to his co-workers was one of his great attributes. He treated

them as equals as he treated me, the young physician, with consideration. This, I

have no doubt, was also one of the sources of his success in the building of the “Spirit

of St. Louis”. Whether it was the airplane mechanic in San Diego or the glass blower

at the Rockefeller Institute, he treated them as equal and with respect. He himself

had come up from the ranks and knew what it was to start at the bottom.

The idea of the pump was conceived by Charles Lindbergh who wanted to develop

an instrument which would make operations on the human heart possible. He asked

the crucial question, why a mechanical pump could not be devised for circulating

blood through the body during the period of operation on the heart? Why could one

not bypass the heart and operate on it by shunting the blood around it? This idea, in

the early 1930’s, represented a novel intellectual concept in open heart surgery; not

until 1953 was this feat accomplished by John H. Gibbon, Professor of Surgery at

Jefferson University in Philadelphia. His life and work are deserving of a special

chapter. During his surgical residency at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Gibbon

had to stand helplessly by while a patient with a pulmonary embolus died because

the operation on the heart or its blood vessels was not possible. For years afterwards,

Gibbon and his wife worked on the idea of the heart lung bypass, discouraged by

most, encouraged by few; he accomplished his goal, the building of a heart lung

machine, with the first successful operation on May 6, 1953.

It was Carrel who reorientated Lindbergh’s goal away from the idea of replacing

the heart in the body and creating a bypass. He did so for practical reasons: the

building of such a machine presented tremendous problems of oxygenation of blood;

because in order to operate on the heart emptied of blood the lung had to be bypassed

as well. Thus the perfusion system developed into a tool that fitted Carrel’s idea, his

wish to study the interplay between organ, blood and tissue fluid. An intellectual

disciple of Claude Bernard, Carrel was interested in the internal environment through

study of the interplay between tissue fluid and organ.

In retrospect, Charles Lindbergh’s original concept was much broader and of far

greater importance: to operate on a bloodless heart while the rest of the body was

supplied with blood.

Lindbergh’s approach to this as well as to the other problems was to me, a young

scientist, fascinating. I had grown up in European medical schools and laboratories

with the idea that there were excellent reasons for scientific hierarchy. Unquestionably

the professor knew more than the associate professor who was a wise man compared

to the assistant professor who knew slightly more than the instructor; the medical

student was not permitted to have original ideas. Unfortunately this system has also

survived in this country in some places. Lindbergh taught me otherwise, namely that

a fresh, from the ground approach can be more rewarding than to place just another

mosaic stone into an almost completed picture. It is important, and necessary to read

and familiarize oneself with the work of others prior to beginning any project, but to

be overwhelmed by the thought of others is detrimental to original thinking. A good

viii “WORKING WITH CHARLES LINDBERGH”

scientist sees the woods as well as the trees. An original thinker has the capacity for

simplicity of thought, of cutting through the plethora of verbage and to arrive at a

simple conclusion.

My relationship with Lindbergh grew after I had left the Rockefeller Institute.

When I joined Columbia University and the College of Physicians and Surgeons in

New York under Allen Whipple I worked again with the “pump”; my main goal was

to find an artificial fluid which, unlike blood, would not deteriorate during long

perfusion. I conceived an outlandish idea, the use of hemocyanin, the respiratory

pigment of the blood of horseshoe crabs and squids as a blood substitute. These

animals living in the ocean have evolved this copper containing pigment to carry

oxygen at relatively low temperatures. It was indeed a curious sight to see blue blood

streaming through a mammalian organ! Alas these organs had to be maintained at

relatively low temperatures, since both squid and horseshoe crab are cold blooded

animals. It was a good try! Lindbergh came quite often to the College of Physicians

and Surgeons to watch what I was doing.

I then went to Bellevue Hospital and hence to John Hopkins and my scientific

interest shifted and during the war we lost contact. I was in the army medical corps

and later at various university medical schools and it was not until I came to Pasadena

in 1969 that we saw each other again because I began to use the pump to study

cholesterol uptake by arteries.

When Lindbergh visited me here in Pasadena I took him to my laboratory; it was

for both of us a journey into the past. You see, the pump has a special audible rhythm,

as air enters and escapes the valves, not unlike the rhythmic idling of a locomotive.

Lindbergh on entering my lab listened to this rhythm of the past and both of us

thought of the early times at the Rockefeller Institute. Carrel, friend of both of us,

had gone and so had many others and for both of us the memory began to play its

nostalgic tunes. As Lindbergh wrote me then, “‘It is as if the time had fallen away

and we were both still working with Carrel at the Rockefeller Institute”. He stayed

with me while he visited our home and enchanted my then youngest teenage daughter,

(my wife had met him before). He gave a talk at our hospital staff meeting. When it

was time to take him to the airport, my rented car would not start. Lindbergh opened

the hood and juggled a few wires and the thing went off. This was our last meeting

but it had a special patina which only advancing age and past remembrance can give.

Since that time I have often reflected upon my work with him. I wondered what

made him, a flyer search for science, while I, a physician and scientist, became quite

a musician and composer. I do not know whether I have the answer, but in Lindbergh’s

case, the search for the secrets of life and its processes were a personal fulfillment.

As a flyer he was meticulous. Very little was left to chance, every possibility was

considered and taken into account. In his excursions into the field of biology it was

a search for the unknown, for the secrets of nature. Here a flight plan could be only

very tentative, because in the search for nature’s secrets one must often change ones

course. This approach intrigued Charles Lindbergh, because he was fascinated by the

poetry of life and by the mysteries of evolution. For me, a scientist devoted to music

this was easy to understand. I too am fascinated by the sublimation of biological

processes and of life into the world of art.

What a wonderful thing memory can be. It brings into harmony different cords and

emotions of the past. My work with Charles Lindbergh has become a treasured part

of my life.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages ix—xviii, December 1987

The Lindbergh Grant Recipients

1978-1987

1978

Warren Y. Brockelman, Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol Uni-

versity, Bangkok, Thailand. ‘‘Conservation of the Pileated Gibbon in Thailand”

Michael Huston, Dept. of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan

(Ann Arbor). ‘‘Nutrients and the Regeneration of Tropical Forests”’

Theodore I. Malinin, M.D., Director, Surgical Research Laboratories, University of

Miami (FL). ‘“‘Development of The Lindbergh Organ Perfusion Laboratory”

David C. Oren, Ph.D., Ornitologia Museu Paranse Emilio Geoldi, Belem, Brasil.

“Area Requirements for Species: A Problem For Conservation’”’

Donald C. Rundquist, Ph.D., Director, Remote Sensing Center, University of Ne-

braska (Lincoln) and Jeffrey S. Linden, Ph.D., Manager, Peterson & Associates,

Lincoln, NB. “Toward a Digital Classification of Wetlands in the Nebraska Sand Hills

Region Using Landsat MSS Data”

1979

Peter Brosius, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Hawaii (Honolulu). ‘““The Zam-

bales Negritos: Economic Responses to Deforestation”

Richard D. Gilson, Ph.D., Chairman, Dept. of Aviation, Ohio State University (Co-

lumbus). ““Development of a Prototype Device for Visual Flight Simulation”’

Noel Peyton Greis, Center for Environmental Studies, Princeton University (NJ).

“Drought Management in Eastern Rivers: A Case Study of Water Management in

the Delaware Basin”

Stephen Risch, Division of Biological Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. ‘‘Ef-

fect of Growing Corn, Beans, and Squash in Monocultures and Polycultures on Pop-

ulations of Pest Beetles: A Strategy for Pest Control in a Tropical Agroecosystem”’

George M. Woodwell, Ph.D., Director, Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological Lab-

oratories, Woods Hole, MA. ‘“Technology and Nature: A Lecture Series on Balance”’

(Refunded in 1981)

“Technology and Nature: The Search for the Balance”

Lectures in the Series

CONSERVATION COMES OF AGE Dr. S. Dillon Ripley

June 24, 1979 Secretary

The Smithsonian Institution

Washington, DC

x LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN A

CONSERVING SOCIETY

August 8, 1979

ADAPTING TO UNCERTAINTY IN

AN UNFORGIVING SOCIETY

July 16, 1980

SHOULD WE WORRY ABOUT THE

EXTINCTION OF OTHER SPECIES?

July 30, 1980

MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES IN

THE COASTAL ZONE:

June 24, 1981

CONSERVING WILDLIFE IN A

FRAGMENTED WORLD

July 8, 1981

MAN’S INTERFERENCE WITH THE

BIOSPHERE ON A GLOBAL

July 29, 1981

1980

Michael J. Balick, Ph.D., Asst. Curator, New York Botanical Garden (Bronx). ““Ba-

bassu: An Economically Important Native Amazonian Palm and Its Role in the

Dr. Frank Press

was Director of the Office

of Science and Technology

Policy and Science and Technology

Adviser to President Carter

Dr. C. S. Holling

Institute of Resource Ecology

University of British Columbia

Vancouver, Canada

Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich

Bing Professor of Population Studies

Department of Biological Sciences

Stanford University

Stanford, CA

Dr. Kenneth Mann

Director of the Marine Ecology

Laboratory

Bedford Institute of Oceanography

Dartmouth, Canada

and

Adjunct Professor of Biology

Dalhousie University

Halifax, Canada

Dr. Thomas E. Lovejoy

Vice President for Science

World Wildlife Fund

Washington, DC

Dr. Bert Bolin

Professor of Meteorology

University of Stockholm

Stockholm, Sweden

and

Director

International Meterological Institute

Stockholm, Sweden

Rational Exploitation of Tropical Forest Lands”’

Apisit Eiumnoh, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Soils, Kasetsart University, Bang-

kok, Thailand. “Effects of Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) Planting on Soil En-

vironments and Its Economics’’

Karl T. Weber, M.D., Asst. Prof. of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania (Phila-

delphia). ‘“The Influence of Pulsatile and Nonpulsatile Blood Flow on Autoregulatory

Behavior of the Coronary Circulation”

LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS xi

David Western, Ph.D., Resource Ecologist, New York Zoological Society (Nairobi,

Kenya). ‘““The Significance of Herbivore Migrations in the African Savannahs to Their

Conservation and to Livestock Development”’

Jerome L. Wright, Solar Sail Project Director, World Space Foundation, South Pas-

adena, CA. ‘“‘Development of a Prototype Solar Sail and Spar System”’

1981

Richard C. Brusca, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Biological Sciences, University

of Southern California, (Los Angeles). ““A Preliminary Study of Community Structure

and Food Web Complexity in a Rocky Intertidal Habitat in Costa Rica”

Marluce Fernandes de Lacerda, Chemical Engineer, State Foundation for Environ-

mental Engineering (FEEMA), Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. “Utilization of Slum Wastes

for Production of Biogas for Community Use”’

Robert S. O. Harding, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, University

of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia). ‘““Outamba-Kilimi: The Impact of a New National

Park in Sierra Leone on Shifting Agriculturists”’

Graham S. Hawkes, President, Deep Ocean Technologies Inc., Oakland, CA. “De-

velopment of a Lightweight Hull for Maximum Ocean Depths (Project Deep Rover)”

C. Wayne Martin, Ph.D., Professor of Engineering Mechanics, University of Nebraska

(Lincoln). ‘Nitrogen Fixation with Wind Energy”

Mario A. Rueda, Honorary Administrator of the Natural Park for the Gray Whale

in Laguna Ojo de Liebre, Mexico, B.C. a Sur, Mexico. ‘““‘Development of a Permanent

Refuge for the California Gray Whale in Baja, California”

George G. Soares, Jr., Ph.D., Institut National de la Recherce Agronomique,

LaMiniere, Guyancourt, France. ‘“Tolypocladium cylindrosprum, A Naturally Oc-

curring Pathogen of Mosquito Larvae with Potential for Use in Integrated Pest Man-

agement (IPM) of Human Diseases Vectors’’

1982

John Fryxell, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Animal Research & Conservation Center,

New York Zoological Society (Bronx). ““Remote Sensing and the Analysis of an

African Savanna Ecosystem in Southern Sudan’”’

James L. Luteyn, Ph.D., Curator of Botany, New York Botanical Garden (Bronx).

“The Establishment of Permanent Study Plots in Two Ecuadorean National Parks”

Roderick Nash, Ph.D., Professor of History and Environmental Studies, University

of California (Santa Barbara). ‘“‘Air Travel and Wilderness Preservation in Alaska’”’

Pamela Parker, Ph.D., Section of Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University. ““Local

Extinction and Sustained Co-Existence of Domestic and Native Fauna (Brookfield

Conservation Park, South Australia)”’

Lawrence R. Parsons, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, and James P. Syversten, Ph.D., Asst.

Professor, University of Florida Agricultural Research and Education Center (Lake

Alfred). “Low Volume Irrigation: A Way to Preserve the Balance Between Agri-

culture and Florida’s Unique Ecology”’

xii LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS

Bruce E. White, Consultant, Presidential (Philippines) Committee for the Conser-

vation of the Tamaraw, and Daniele Perrot-Maitre, Natural Resource Economist,

The Haribon Society, Manila, Philippines. ‘“‘Establishment of Socio-Economic Links

Between Traditional Upland Mangyan People and Efforts to Protect the Endangered

Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) in the Philippines”

Albert Mukasa Wilson, Student, Art Design Center College of Design, Pasadena,

CA. ‘Development of an Efficient African Charcoal Stove’ (Refunded in 1986)

1983

Jane H. Bock, Ph.D., Professor, Dept. of Biology, University of Colorado (Boulder)

and Co-Director, Appleton-Whittell Research Sanctuary, Elgin, AZ, and Carl S.

Bock, Ph.D., Co-Director, Appleton-Whittell Research Sanctuary. ‘““Re-Vegetation

of Southeastern Arizona Grasslands Using Native Grasses’’

Nicholas V. L. Brokaw, Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, Kenyon College, Gambier, OH.

‘Experimental Manipulation of Tree Population Dynamics in a Tropical Forest: To-

ward Sustained Yield Management”’

Tim W. Clark, Ph.D., Wildlife Research Institute, Victor, ID. ‘““The Meeteetse Black-

Footed Ferret Conservation Studies”’

Ricardo B. Jacquez, Ph.D., Dept. of Civil Engineering, New Mexico State University

(Las Cruces). ‘““Combining Nutrient Removal with Protein Synthesis Using a Water

Hyacinth-Freshwater Prawn Polyculture Wastewater Treatment Process’’

Aaron A. Jennings, Ph.D., Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Notre Dame

(IN). ‘““Regional Hazardous Waste Management Planning to Minimize Risk”

Gilberto Silva Lopez, Asst. Biologist, Centro de Investigaciones Biologicas, Uni-

versidad Veracruzana (Mexico). “‘Rainforest Exploitation in Mexico and Efforts to

Protect the Endangered Spider and Howler Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi and Alouatta

villosa).

David MacInnes, Ph.D., Chemistry Dept., Guilford College, Greensboro, NC.

“Lightweight Plastic Batteries”

Robert E. Ricklefs, Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, University of Pennsylvania (Philadel-

phia). ‘“Growth Performance of Sooty Tern Chicks: A Bio-Indicator for Tropical

Marine Fisheries”

Cindy K. Stupp, Dept. of Biology/Chemistry, Mount Senario College, Ladysmith,

WI. ‘“‘Removal of True Color From Paper Mill Effluent by a Biological Process”’

J. Edward Sunderland, Ph.D., Head, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, and Alek-

sandar B. Brancic, P.E., University of Massachusetts (Amherst). “Seasonal Earth

Thermal Storage System”’

1984

Robert F. Anderson, Ph.D., Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia

University (Palisades, NY). ‘“‘Neutralization of Acid Rain by Natural Processes in

Lake Sediments”’

LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS xiii

Richard J. Bing, M.D., Director, Experimental Cardiology & Scientific Development,

Huntington Medical Research Institute, Pasadena, CA. ““A New Perfusion System

for the Study of a Failing Heart Preparation and of TA-064, a New Inotropic Drug”’

Robert P. Brooks, Ph.D., Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University

(University Park). ““Restoration and Creation of Wetland and Aquatic Habitats for

Wildlife on Strip-Mined Lands in Pennsylvania”

Andrew G. Carey, Jr., Professor, College of Oceanography, Oregon State University

(Corvallis). “‘Ice Biota—An Important Polar Food Web Sensitive to Petroleum De-

velopment in the SW Beaufort Sea (Alaska): Meiofauna’”’

Richard S. Hanson, Ph.D., Director and Professor, Gray Freshwater Biological In-

stitute, Navarre, MN. “Engineering Bacteria to Solve Problems of Environmental

Importance’”’

Paul F. McDonagh, Ph.D., Dept. of Physiology, School of Medicine, Texas Tech

Health Sciences Center (Lubbock). ‘““Development of an Optimal Perfusate to Pre-

serve Transplantable Organs: Evaluation of Organ Function and Viability with Non-

Hazardous Tracers”’

Charles P. Mason, Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter,

MN. “The Use of Cyanobacterin as an Herbicide”’

Robert Pearlman, Robert Pearlman & Associates, New York, NY. “‘Learning How

the Maasai See”’

C. M. Pleass, Ph.D., College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware (Newark).

“The Use of Differential Laser Doppler in Pollution Ecology: A Statistical Study of

the Behavior of Microscopic Marine Organisms’”’

Walter B. Sikora, Ph.D., Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University

(Baton Rouge). ‘‘Assessing the Feasibility of Using Air Cushion Vehicles (Hovercraft)

for Oil and Gas Exploration and Drilling in Louisiana’s Coastal Wetlands”

Elliot J. Tramer, Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, University of Toledo (OH). ““Dredge Spoil

Enclosures: Design and Pumping Strategies to Optimize Benefits for Aquatic Birdlife”’

1985

Louis Aung, Ph.D., Professor, Dept. of Horticulture, Va. Polytechnic Institute

(Blacksburg). ‘‘Utilization of Seafood Wastes as a Source of Nutrients for Agricultural

Crop Production”

Richard J. Bing, M.D., Director, Experimental Cardiology & Scientific Development,

Huntington Medical Research Institute, Pasadena, CA. ‘“The Use of a Newly De-

veloped Perfusion System in the Study of the Reaction of Coronary Blood Vessels”’

Brian M. Boom, Ph.D., Asst. Curator, New York Botanical Garden (Bronx). (This

Lindbergh-Guggenheim Grant in Anthropology has been made possible by a grant

from the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation). ‘““The Panare Indians and Their

Forest: An Ethnoecological Inventory in Venezuelan Guayana’”’

John C. Emerick, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Environmental Sciences & En-

gineering Ecology, Colorado School of Mines (Golden). ‘““‘Development of an Envi-

ronmental Ethic in Engineering Undergraduates”

Xiv LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS

Ann M. Fallon, Ph.D., Asst. Professor of Microbiology, School of Osteopathic Med-

icine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (Piscataway). ‘“‘Genetic

Basis for Insecticide Resistance”’

Scott Farrow, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Engineering and Public Policy, Car-

negie-Mellon University (Pittsburgh). ‘““Recycling Scrap Titanium: Economic, Envi-

ronmental and National Security Impacts”

David A. Fernandez, President, Tres Rios Association, Taos, NM. “‘Acequia Water-

Use Traditions of Native Taos People as Model for Preserving Agricultural Land Base

and the Environment in Harmony with Expanding Urbanization and in Migration in

the Arid Southwest (US)”’

Fred S. Guthery, Associate Research Scientist, Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research

Institute, Texas A&I University (Kingsville). ““Effects of Short Duration Grazing on

Ground Feeding Birds”

Rhonda R. Janke, Graduate Student-Ph.D. Program, Agronomy Department, Cor-

nell University, Ithaca, NY. “Cultural Control of Weeds of Alfalfa”

Arun P. Kulkarni, Ph.D., Asst. Professor of Toxicology, Dept. of Environmental &

Industrial Health, University of Michigan (Ann Arbor). ““Human Placental ATPases:

A Potential Screen for Testing Transplacental Toxicity of Chemicals”’

Douglas R. MacAyeal, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Dept. of Geophysical Sciences, Uni-

versity of Chicago (IL). ‘“‘Antarctic Ice Mass Stability: An Investigation of the Con-

sequences of Increasing Atmospheric CO,”

James R. Senft, Ph.D., Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Mathematics & Computer Science,

University of Wisconsin (River Falls). “Investigation of the Potential of a Direct Solar

Stirling Engine”’

Mitchell J. Small, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Civil Engineering/Engineering & Public

Policy, Carnegie-Mellon University (Pittsburgh). ‘““Relationship Between Historical

Air Pollution and Tree Growth in Pittsburgh, PA”’

Kevin L. Sullivan, Wayzata, MN. First Recipient of The Jonathan Lindbergh Brown

Grant. This grant supports projects in adaptive technology or biomedical research

which seeks to redress imbalance between an individual and his or her environment.

Stephen J. Winter, Ph.D., Director, Water and Energy Research Institute, University

of Guam (Mangilao). ‘“‘Demonstration of Household Water and Energy Systems for

Use on Remote Tropical Islands’”’

1986

Peter J. Disimile, Ph.D., Professor, Dept. of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering

Mechanics, University of Cincinnati (OH). ‘‘Utilizing Impinging Jet Flows to Increase

Blade Cooling in Gas Turbine Engines: A New Technique to Reduce Consumption

and By-Products in Industry”’

C. Robert Feldmeth, Ph.D., Director and Professor, Natural Resources Analysis

Group, Joint Science Department, The Claremont Colleges (CA). ““Development of

a Fish Culture Using Brackish Agricultural Drainage Water”’

Larry L. Irwin, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Dept. of Zoology and Physiology, Uni-

versity of Wyoming (Laramie). “‘Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep Preservation and

Oil/Gas Development: Conflict Resolution Through Wildlife Habitat Improvement”’

LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS Xv

Robert S. Kennedy, Ph.D., Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology,

Washington State University (Pullman). “Conservation Education and Productive

Forest Farming in the Tropics: A Challenge in Intercultural Communication”

Christine S. Maguire, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Center for Environmental Science,

Unity College (ME). ““‘Development of Interconnecting Travel and Refuge Forest

Corridors for Wildlife After Clearcut Logging Within Managed Landscapes”

Lisa Pfefferle, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Yale Uni-

versity, New Haven, CT. “Catalytic Combustion of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Liquid

Toxic Wastes: Economic Motivation for Proper Disposal Techniques’”’

Jonathan A. Sandor, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Agronomy Department, Iowa State

University (Ames). (This Lindbergh-Guggenheim Grant in Anthropology has been

made possible by a grant from the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation) ‘‘Com-

parison of Soils in Ancient and Modern Peruvian Agricultural Terraces”’

Hans Schuessler, Professor, Department of Physics, Texas A&M University (College

Station). “‘Utilizing Laser Spectroscopy to Determine Plutonium Levels in Radioactive

Waste Management”’

Robert L. Staehle, President, and Mark Bergam, Solar Sail Project Director, World

Space Foundation, Pasadena, CA. “‘Solar Sail Project Engineering Development Mis-

sion”’

Susan Yensen, Teaching Assistant, Dept. of Food Science and Nutrition, University

of Arizona (Tucson), and Nicholas Yensen, Ph.D., President, Salt Weeds Inc. (Tuc-

son). “Utilization of a Rare Halophyte Grain and Forage for Returning Salt-Ruined

Farmland to Productivity”

1987

Henrik Balslev, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Botanical Institute, University Aarhus,

Risskov, Denmark. “‘Conservation of Attalea colenda, a Threatened, High- Yielding,

Oil Palm From Western Ecuador’”’

Kathleen Crane, Ph.D., Dept. of Geology and Geography, Hunter College (New

York, NY). (This Lindbergh/Noble project in Oceanography/Water Resource man-

agement has been made possible by a grant from the Edward John Noble Foundation,

Inc.) ‘“Seafloor Mineral and Geothermal Resources Video Tape Production to Pro-

mote the Education of High School Students’”’

Holly T. Dublin, World Wildlife Fund, Nairobi, Kenya. (This Lindbergh/Weyer-

haeuser project in Conservation has been made possible by a grant from the Carl A.

Weyerhaeuser Charitable Trusts) ‘Ecological Monitoring in the Mara Reserve: Bal-

ancing Local Needs, Agricultural Advances and the Preservation of a Natural Eco-

system”’

Paul Gepts, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Agronomy and Range Science, University of

California (Davis). “Biogeography of Genetic Diversity in Wild Common Beans

(Phaseolus vulgaris L.)”

Thomas J. Goreau, Dept. of Geological Sciences, University of Miami (Coral Gables).

(This Lindbergh/Newton project in Oceanography/Water Resource management has

been made possible by a grant from James D. and Eleanore F. Newton, Ft. Myers

Beach, Florida) “Deciphering Environmental Records From Caribbean Corals”

xvi LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS

Mark E. Hay, Ph.D., Asst. Professor, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of

North Carolina (Morehead City). (This Lindbergh/Lutheran Brotherhood project in

Agriculture has been made possible by a grant from The Lutheran Brotherhood)

‘Marine Natural Products as Ecologically-Sound Agrochemicals and Oncologic

Drugs”

J. Donald Hughes, Ph.D., Professor, Department of History, University of Denver

(CO). (This Lindbergh/Fried project in The Arts and Humanities has been made

possible by a grant from The Fried Foundation) ‘Human Ecology in History: The

Search of Mankind for a Sustainable Balance Between Technology and Environment’’

Virginia Knowlden, Ed.D., R.N., Saint Joseph College, West Hartford, CT. (This

Jonathan Lindbergh Brown Grant project in Adaptive Technology/Biomedical Re-

search has been made possible by contributions to the Jonathan Lindbergh Brown

Grant Endowment) “Caring in Nursing: Is It Surviving in High Technology Health

Care Settings?”

Mariella Leo, M.A., The Peruvian Association for Conservation of Nature -APECO-

(Peru). “Natural Resources Conservation and Management Workshop for Key Per-

sons and Teachers of the State of Amazonas-Peru”’

Daniel L. Pardieck, Dept. of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Arizona

(Tucson). ““Restoration of Waters Contaminated with Persistent Organic Compounds

by Stimulating Natural Microbial Populations”’

Allyn MacLean Stearman, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Dept. of Sociology and An-

thropology, University of Central Florida (Orlando). (This Lindbergh/Guggenheim

project in Anthropology has been made possible by a grant from The Harry Frank

Guggenheim Foundation) ““A Long-Term Study of Adaptation and Social Change in

Two Lowland Bolivian Foraging Societies: Strategies for Technological Innovation

and Rational Land Use”’

In 1987, The Board of Directors of The Charles A. Lindbergh made a special des-

ignated grant to:

Daniele Magda, Laboratoire IBEAS, Pau, France. “Colonization of Disturbed Hab-

itats by the Plant Species, Lathynus sylvestris, In Aid of Stabilization of Soil”

LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS xvii

Project DEEP ROVER: A complete description of this Lindbergh Grant can be found in The Journal

of the Washington Academy of Sciences: Vol. 76, No. 1, pp. 82-87.

Honorable Mention—This category of recognition carries full and deserving merit of

the work proposed, but due to a lack of funds available at the time of grants selection,

carries no monetary support. The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund wishes to bring public

attention to these exceptional individuals and their work so that prospective Sponsors

will accept this endorsement and take the opportunity to provide personal financial

support for continued work in ‘better balance.’ Contributions of all or a part of the

funding requested are enthusiastically solicited by The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund

and will be appropriately acknowledged.

1987

Martin T. Katzman, Program in Environmental Sciences, University of Texas at Dal-

las. “How Market Incentives Can Balance the Environmental Risks and Benefits of

High Technology: Lessons for Success.”” Requested Funding: $9,950

Ulrich Jorg Krull, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Mississauga,

Ontario, Canada. ‘“‘Artificial Chemoreception for Environmental and In-vivo Selective

Chemical Sensing and Contaminant Control.’”’ Requested Funding: $6,000

Natividad T. Nacianceno, Office of Research and Institutional Studies, University of

the City of Manila, Metro Manila, Philippines. ‘““An Alternative Solution to Problems

of Waste Disposal and Environmental Sanitation in the City of Manila, Philippines.”’

Requested Funding: $9,478

David Stock, Biology Department, Stetson University, DeLand, FL. ‘‘Radiation-

Damaged DNA Plasmids in Insect Cells: Potential Use of Radiation as an Alternative

to Chemical Insect Control.’’ Requested Funding: $10,580

XViii LINDBERGH GRANT RECIPIENTS

Michael S. Switzenbaum, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Massachu-

setts, Amherst. ““Anaerobic Treatment of Domestic Wastewater in Tropical Munic-

ipalities with Special Reference to South America.”’ Requested Funding: $7,200

Anitra Thorhaug, Greater Caribbean Energy & Environment Foundation, Inc.,

Miami, FL. ‘‘Testing the Balance Between an Oil Spill Clean-up Technology (Various

Disperseants) with Critical Fisheries Nursery Habitat Seagrass.’”’ Requested Funding:

$9 500

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 109-112, December 1987

Human Ecology in History: The

Search for a Sustainable Balance

Between Technology and

Environment

J. Donald Hughes

Department of History, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208

ABSTRACT

The project is a world environmental history that will focus on the relationships between

human beings and the natural environments that they inhabit. It will be an investigation

of how technological development, and attitudes toward nature, have affected treatment

of human habitats. The methodology adopted is that of environmental history, now a

recognized historical sub-discipline. Part of the project that has already been completed

and published, i.e. the relationship between human attitudes and practices affecting the

natural environment in the Mediterranean basin in ancient times. The environment suf-

fered severe damage in this period from processes such as deforestation, overgrazing, and

erosion in spite of the generally positive and respectful attitudes of the ancient peoples

toward nature. This can be explained by the rudimentary level of the understanding of

nature in general, and of ecological science in particular, along with a Greek philosophical

position that placed all natural entities in the service of mankind, and a policy of the

Roman government that ignored or discouraged research.

This project is a world environmental his-

tory that will focus on the relationships

between human beings and the natural

environments that they inhabit. It will be

an investigation of how technological de-

velopment, and attitudes toward nature,

have affected treatment of human habi-

tats. Because it will embrace the history

of humankind around the whole earth, it

109

must be an interpretive survey, and can-

not claim to be exhaustive. Within each

society and period discussed, it will at-

tempt to answer several questions. What

were the typical attitudes expressed to-

ward nature in literature, philosophy, re-

ligion, the materials of popular culture,

etc.? What knowledge did they have of

the workings of natural systems or the

110 J. DONALD HUGHES

principles of the science of ecology? What

was the ability of their technology to

make major changes in the environment?

Did they possess the social control nec-

essary to channel their environmental

impacts? What was the level of the pop-

ulation and how did this influence the

kind and extent of these impacts?

In order to achieve the balance we

seek, it is necessary to understand what

the past human experience of technolog-

ical growth and environmental change has

been. The problems of human ecology ex-

isted in one form or another in previous

periods. An historical study can make a

valuable contribution of perspective in

considering the ways in which human re-

lationships to the natural environment al-

tered their form and intensity through

time, as well as varying degrees of human

awareness of and understanding of the

processes involved. The natural world is

not just the background for human

events, but an active participant (actually

a numerous portion of the cast of partic-

ipants) that helps to shape, color, and di-

rect those events. This is not merely a

novel way of looking at history, but a rec-

ognition of the actual order of things, in

that human beings do in fact exist within

ecosystems. Environmental history can

arouse a shock of recognition: this is what

human beings have been doing in, with,

and to their world all along, and this is

what nature, in turn, has been doing to

them. Those who grasp this concept may

well find themselves transcending a nar-

row humanism in the sense of indifference

to the environment, and expanding their

conceptual limits to a new humanism that

recognizes and embraces the claims of all

life, including, alongside, and in relation-

ship to human beings.

As a_ newly-designated Lindbergh

Grant Recipient, yet to complete the pro-

posed research, I will here describe a part

of this project that I have already com-

pleted and published in my book, Ecology

in Ancient Civilizations. In 1817, inspired

by a description of the ruins of the Ra-

messeum in Egypt, Percy Bysshe Shelley

wrote the poem Oxymandias, which con-

tains these lines:

‘“‘And on the pedestal these words

appear: ‘My name is Ozymandias,

King of Kings: Look on my works,

ye Mighty, and despair! Nothing be-

side remains. Round the decay Of

that collossal wreck, boundless and

bare, The lone and level sands stretch

far away.”

Tourists who visit ancient ruins in the

Mediterranean area today are familiar

with the kind of scene Shelley described

in this poem, if their vision is broad

enough. Shattered statues and broken col-

umns of vanished societies stand inside

other ruins so vast we often do not see

them: the ruins of the natural environment

that these very civilizations depleted,

causing their own destruction in the proc-

ess.

The once-prosperous cities of Meso-

potamia are now mounds in the desert,

and the famous ‘Fertile Crescent” that

supported them is a shrunken remnant,

as revealed in photographs taken from

space. There is a close interconnection

between ruined cities and ruined land.

Their association with each other is not

an accident of history, but a pointed,

ironic lesson in ecological imbalance.

The lesson is ironic because we would

not have expected it to happen, given the

attitudes of ancient people toward nature.

The Greeks recognized mankind’s one-

ness with nature and worshipped nature

in the guise of gods who embodied aspects

of it, such as Zeus, who guarded moun-

tain tops, and Artemis, who protected

wild creatures. They preserved natural

areas, groves around springs in particular

being considered sacred to the gods, and

forbade hunting, fishing, cutting of trees,

and cultivation within the precincts. We

might call these sanctuaries the earliest

national parks. But they were isolated is-

lands in a denuded, eroded landscape.

The Romans had a genuine love of na-

ture, celebrating fields and forests in

HUMAN ECOLOGY IN HISTORY 111

Latin Literature, but the Romans treated

the actual landscape as a conquered prov-

ince. Evidently good attitudes alone were

not enough to maintain the balance of

human societies with nature. Ecologi-

cally, the road to hell was paved with

good—but inadequate—intentions.

The Greeks saw what was happening.

In the Critias, Plato vividly described

changes suffered by his homeland in two

generations, including deforestation, ero-

sion, and the drying up of springs. But

Plato’s constructive suggestions were ig-

nored, and the despoiling of the land went

on. Aristotle closely observed nature, but

placed the world within a rational frame-

work, assigning to minerals, plants, and

animals a highest purpose, which was the

service of mankind. His thought, author-

itative for centuries in the Arabic coun-

tries and Europe, helped justify the

cavalier use or misuse of nature according

to human whim.

Where the Greeks were philosophical

about the treatment of nature, the Ro-

mans were practical—but not consistently

so. While they parceled out forests and

rangelands to private syndicates for ex-

ploitation, they failed to see the possibil-

ities of advances in technology, and they

stifled research that might have enabled

them to understand nature better. Em-

perors supported orators but ignored or

persecuted researchers in the sciences,

theoretical or applied. Romans also failed

to use older knowledge they possessed.

Knowing from experience how to treat

land to guard its fertility, they neverthe-

less reacted to political and military crises

by using wasteful methods that failed to

support nature, and as a direct result na-

ture was unable to support the Romans.

Erosion, exhaustion of resources, debili-

tating pollution in several forms, diseases,

food shortages, and ruinous inflation re-

sulted and interacted with other forces to

assure that the Empire would disappear

or be changed beyond recognition. The

decline and fall of Rome had an ecological

dimension.

Thus our modern ecological crisis has

roots in ancient times. In order to achieve

the balance we seek, it is necessary to

understand what the past human experi-

ence of technological growth and envi-

ronment change has been. While it is the

purpose of my project to describe what

has happened rather than to offer rec-

ommendations, it is nonetheless likely

that we can learn from the ecological suc-

cesses and failures of earlier societies as

we look to the future.

We need to find ways to use our tech-

nological abilities to minimize the de-

structive impact of our civilization on the

natural environment, so that the balance

can be sustained. History is a warning and

a challenge to our attitudes, our ability to

understand, our technical competence,

and our willingness to make far-reaching

decisions.

My new study will expand the geo-

graphical field of concern from the Med-

iterranean basin to the world, and the

time frame from the ancient world to the

sweep of human history. When I wrote

Ecology in Ancient Civilizations and

American Indian Ecology, 1 became fa-

miliar with earlier societies and how they

handled technology in their habitats. Now

I will follow the same themes on down to

the present. My experience as editor of

Environmental Review introduced me to

environmental historians who work all

over the world. The Lindbergh Grant,

and a sabbatical, will help me travel to

places where I can find the materials for

historical research and become familiar

with the environments in which the his-

torical processes occurred. For example,

I plan to go to the Soviet Union in August

as part of a group that will meet with en-

vironmentalists and ecologists, and visit

ecological study centers and nature re-

serves. Much of the period of the grant

will be spent in libraries and research cen-

ters that have collections essential for this

subject.

I hope the book, when finished, will be

of value to people working in the fields

112 DR. LARRY R. PARSONS

of environmental studies, conservation,

land use, resource management, and eco-

logical science. I trust it may be useful in

college courses in any of these subjects.

But above all, I intend that it will be one

that anyone concerned about achieving a

balance between the preservation of our

natural environment and a sustainable

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 112-115, December 1987

technology will find readable and inter-

esting.

References Cited

J. Donald Hughes, Ecology in Ancient Civilizations.

Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico

Press, 1975.

J. Donald Hughes, American Indian Ecology. El

Paso, TX: Texas Western Press, 1983.

Microsprinkler Irrigation—A Way

to Conserve Water and Protect

Crops

Dr. Larry R. Parsons

University of Florida-IFAS, Citrus Research and Education Center,

Lake Alfred, FL 33850

ABSTRACT

Agricultural irrigation is one of the largest users of water in Florida. Because of Florida’s

sandy soils and irregular rainfall, agriculture needs water to optimize production. Mi-

crosprinkler irrigation offers a way to increase the irrigation efficiency for citrus, Florida’s

main economic crop. Instead of wetting the entire orchard floor as do higher volume

overhead systems, microsprinkler irrigation conserves water by wetting only the soil sur-

face under the tree. Compared to overhead sprinkler systems, it is estimated that properly

managed microirrigation systems can save 10% of the irrigation water needed for citrus.

This is estimated to be a potential savings of at least 6.5 billion gallon per year. Besides

increasing irrigation efficiency, microsprinkler irrigation can also provide partial frost

protection. By aiding in water conservation, microsprinkler irrigation helps maintain a

viable agricultural system in balance with the natural ecology of a rapidly growing state.

Florida is one of the most rapidly growing

states in the United States. Florida’s pop-

ulation has quadrupled between 1950 and

1987, and Florida will soon become the

fourth most populous state in the nation.

This rapid population growth has already

had an impact on Florida’s fragile ecology

of rivers, lakes, and wetlands.

Agriculture plays a major role in Flor-

ida’s economy. Next to tourism, agricul-

ture is the second largest generator of

income in the state. Florida produces

more citrus than any state in U.S. and is

a major producer of vegetables and or-

namental plants. Florida’s soils are gen-

erally sandy and will hold very little

MICROSPRINKLER IRRIGATION—A WAY TO CONSERVE 113

water. Even though Florida normally re-

ceives over 1200 mm of rain, these low

water holding soils make supplemental ir-

rigation necessary for optimum yields. On

an annual basis, most citrus groves in

Florida do not use much more water than

natural vegetation. However, during crit-

ical stages, erratic rainfall is not always

sufficient for optimum growth. Hence, ir-

rigation is needed during certain times of

the year. Much of the water that is not

used by the crop returns to the ground-

water.

Largely because of Florida’s low water

holding capacity soils and erratic rainfall,

agricultural irrigation is the largest user

of water in Florida. There are 624,492

acres of citrus in Florida, and it is the

state’s major economic crop. Until the

1970’s citrus was normally irrigated by

flood (seepage) or overhead sprinkler

irrigation. Permanent overhead irrigation

was 75 to 90% efficient, while flood and

volume gun irrigation was less efficient.

Microsprinkler irrigation is a relatively

new form of irrigation that shows promise

for conserving water. This form of irri-

gation was introduced into Florida in the

early 1970’s and has been found to be 90

to 95% efficient. By improving irrigation

water use efficiency, more water can be-

come available for Florida’s natural riv-

ers, lakes, wetlands, and ground water

supplies.

Microsprinklers are small plastic emit-

ters that deliver from about 5 to 26 gal/

hour (20 to 100 liters/hour). With citrus,

usually one microsprinkler emitter is used

per tree. Depending on the capacity of

the emitter and tree size, microsprinklers

water part or all of the area under the tree

canopy. This is where the majority of the

roots grow. With mature trees, relatively

little area outside the canopy zone re-

ceives water. Hence, microsprinklers can

conserve water by covering the area of

major root density, not 100% of the or-

chard floor.

The water saving advantages of mi-

crosprinklers are particularly apparent

with young trees that have limited root

systems. At a common spacing of 345

trees/ha (140 trees/acre), a 38 liter/hour

(10 gallon/hour) microsprinkler can irri-

gate trees well. With 3 applications of 2

hours each per week, microsprinklers

would use 8400 gallons week~! whereas

overhead sprinkler irrigation would use

20,000 to 27,000 gallons week~!. With

young trees, this means that microsprink-

lers could save 58 to 70% of the water

applied by overhead irrigation. With ma-

ture trees, properly managed micro-

sprinklers could save 10% of the water

used by overhead systems.

Total acreage of microsprinkler and

drip irrigation has increased rapidly since

1979 from 70,000 acres to over 200,000

acres to present. The normal annual

amount of irrigation water needed for cit-

rus is approximately 305 mm (12 inches)

which is usually required in the dry spring

and fall months. Because the citrus in-

dustry consists of both young and mature

groves, one can estimate that 200,000

acres of microirrigation systems can save

10 to 20% of the water used by overhead

or flood systems. This amounts to a po-

tential savings of 6.5 to 13 billion gallons

of water per year.

By using microirrigation, these several

billion gallons of water could be available

for other uses that would alleviate pres-

sures on lakes, rivers, wetlands, and

ground water recharge areas. At present,

irrigation scheduling programs are be-

ing refined to improve management of

microirrigation systems.'”

When properly managed, microsprink-

ler irrigation has advantages for conserv-

ing agricultural water use during the

growing season. Yet in winter, micro-

sprinkler irrigation has an additional ad-

vantage—frost protection. From grower

experience during a frost in 1977, it was

suggested that microsprinklers might pro-

vide some frost protection. However, as

late as 1980, it was debated if micro-

sprinkler irrigation would provide any

protection and a number of growers and

scientists remained sceptical.

An unusual series of four severe freezes

hit Florida between 1981 and 1985. These

freezes were unprecedented in the exten-

114 DR.

LARRY R. PARSONS

Fig. 1. Example of microsprinklers used for frost protection of young citrus trees.

siveness of the damage they caused. Over

223,000 acres of citrus were killed. The

only other comparable period was in

1894-85 and 1899 when several freezes

caused major damage to Florida citrus.

Freezes occurred in January, 1981, and

January, 1982. Two even more damaging

windy freezes came in December, 1983

and January, 1985. Since the turn of the

century, freezes had not hit Florida in this

unprecedented “‘back to back’? manner.

Total acreage dropped by 26% to 624,492

acres. Over 102 million boxes (4,196,680

million metric tons) of oranges were lost

between 1979-80 and 1984-85. Direct

economic losses were estimated to be over

2 billion dollars for the 1983 Christmas

freeze and 472 million dollars for the 1985

freeze. Other major indirect sociological

losses occurred such as unemployment of

pickers, truckers, and other citrus related

workers.

During these four freezes, the Univer-

sity of Florida initiated active research in-

vestigations into the effectiveness of

microsprinkler irrigation for citrus frost

protection. During that period, it was

found that microsprinkler irrigation could

indeed provide partial protection of

young and mature trees. Amount of

warming at different heights was deter-

mined,** effectiveness with young trees

was shown to be improved with tree

wraps° and covers,°’ and necessary pre-

cautions during windy freezes were

noted. An example of microsprinklers

used for frost protection of young trees is

shown in Fig. 1. Although microsprinkler

irrigation does not provide complete ma-

ture tree protection, it does provide par-

tial protection and is more affordable than

traditional oil heating. Because of its ef-

fectiveness and cost advantage, micros-

prinkler irrigation has become the most

MICROSPRINKLER IRRIGATION—A WAY TO CONSERVE 115

commonly used form of frost protection

in Florida citrus in just 5 years.

In conclusion, microsprinkler irrigation

is an improved form of irrigation that can

conserve water during spring, summer,

and fall and provide partial frost protec-

tion during the winter. Because of these

advantages, this form of irrigation contin-

ues to grow in popularity. By helping to

conserve water, microsprinkler irriga-

tion helps maintain a viable agricultural

enterprise in balance with the natural

ecology of a rapidly growing state.

References Cited

1. Parsons, L. R. 1987. Management of low volume

irrigation systems for citrus. Citrus Industry

68(5):5-12.

2. Smajstrla, A. G., D. S. Harrison and G. A.

Clark. 1985. Trickle irrigation scheduling. 1: Du-

rations of water applications. Univ. of Fla. Coop.

Ext. Serv. Bulletin 204.

. Buchanan, D. W., F. S. Davies and D. S. Har-

rison. 1982. High and low volume under-tree ir-

rigation for citrus cold protection. Proc. Fla.

State Hort. Soc. 95:23-26.

. Parsons, L. R., T. A. Wheaton, D. P. H. Tucker

and J. D. Whitney. 1982. Low volume micro-

sprinkler irrigation for citrus cold protection.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 95:20-23.

. Davies, F. S., L. K. Jackson and L. W. Rippetoe.

1984. Low volume irrigation and tree wraps for

cold protection of young Hamlin orange trees.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 97:25-27.

. Jackson, J. L., D. H. Ayers and L. R. Parsons.

1986. Performance of individual tree covers for

cold protection of young citrus. Proc. Fla. State

Hort. Soc. 99:18—23.

. Parsons, L. R., T. A. Wheaton and I. Stewart.

1985. Observations on the use of water and cov-

erings for cold protection during an advective

freeze. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 98:57—60.

. Parsons, L. R., B. S. Combs and D. P. H.

Tucker. 1985. Citrus freeze protection with mi-

crosprinkler irrigation during an advective freeze.

HortScience 20(6):1078-1080.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 116-118, December 1987

Antarctic Ice Volume and Global

Sea Level: Will Their Balance

Survive?

Douglas R. MacAyeal, Ph.D.

Associate Professor, Department of the Geophysical Sciences,

University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637

ABSTRACT

The Antarctic ice sheet is devoid of life and free of permanent human inhabitants. It

nevertheless plays a crucial role in the balance between mankind’s activity and the global

environment. Warming of the earth’s climate as a result of mankind’s inadvertent mod-

ification of atmospheric CO,-content (accomplished by the burning of fossil fuel and

through tropical deforestation) may release ice volume stored in the Antarctic ice reservoir.

This release could raise sea level world wide, by over 6 m (20 ft.) in several centuries and

prompt severe environmental stress as coastal populations retreat to new homelands.

Introduction: Geologic Perspective on

Global Change

The vast mantle of Antarctic continen-

tal ice differs from all other portions of

the earth’s surface in two respects: (i) it

is barren of indigenous life, and (ii) hu-

man populations on its surface are limited

by international treaty (and the extreme

conditions) to transient bands of scientists

and the occasional adventurer. It is thus

surprising to realize that Antarctic ice is

part of the ever-present competition be-

tween human activity and the environ-

ment. Our surprise, in fact, exemplifies

man’s far-reaching capacity to produce

unmediated change on a global scale.

The Antarctic ice sheet today, as in the

geologic past, serves as a natural regulator

of global sea level. When an imbalance

exists between snow accumulation on its

116

surface and glacial return flow at its sea-

ward margin, water is either extracted

from, or returned to, the world ocean.

Ice-volume fluctuations in the past have

been quite dramatic and have had a pro-

found effect on the coastal habitats of the

world. Eighteen thousand years ago, for

example, global ice volume of the great

ice age lowered global sea level by ap-

proximately 120 m (390 ft.). This low

stand created the land bridge between

Asia and North America that permitted

early man to enter the Western hemi-

sphere.

In the absence of man, future fluctua-

tions of the Antarctic ice reservoir would

proceed according to the slow pace dic-

tated by the earth’s orbital wobbles that

modulate the reception of solar energy.

Global ice volume would slowly increase

over the next 80,000 years until the earth

GLOBAL SEA LEVEL 117

becomes shrouded in an ice age similar to

that of the past. Rising levels of atmos-

pheric CO, produced by man’s use of fos-

sil fuel (oil, coal, and natural gas) and

tropical deforestation threaten to produce

a greenhouse warming of the global cli-

mate. In this circumstance, man’s activity

may upset the natural, slowly paced pro-

gression of the ice ages and threaten to

cause global sea level to suddenly rise.’

CO,-warming in the Antarctic is ex-

pected to be greater than in temperate or

tropical latitudes, in part, because of a

postulated ice-albeado feedback. This

feedback allows greater absorption of so-

lar energy as the highly reflective snow

cover is melted. Warming by as much as

6°C (12°F) could be expected by 2050

A.D. A possible consequence of this

warming is the collapse of the western half

of the Antarctic ice sheet that presently

rests on bedrock that is depressed below

sea level. If this collapse occurs, sea level

would rise by as much as 6 m (20 ft.).

While we do not know the likelihood

of such an ice-sheet collapse scenario, or

how rapidly sea level could rise, the con-

sequence of such a possibility mandate

continued research on Antarctic ice-sheet

stability. If sea level were to begin to rise

by the middle of the next century, one

could envision dramatic shifts of human

populations that currently live within 6 m

of sea level. Most of the heavily populated

regions of Florida, for example, would be

slowly inundated over a time period of 1

or 2 centuries (Figure 1). Initially, ill-

fated coastal engineering projects de-

signed to save real-estate investments

would undoubtedly disrupt marine ecol-

ogy and coastal sedimentation patterns.

As the sea eventually becomes irresista-

ble, population fall-back to higher ground

would disrupt the previously unpopu-

lated, agricultural habitats of the hinter-

land.

My role as a scientist, and the purpose

of the grant provided by The Charles A.

Lindbergh Fund, is to assess the impact

of CO,-warming on the Antarctic ice res-

ervoir. My ultimate objective is to provide

Fig. 1. Florida as it would exist after a hypothetical

sea-level rise of 6 m (20 ft.).

a forecast of global sea level rise in re-

sponse to possible ice sheet collapse.

Research Activities: Seeking the

Wisdom of Wildness

To forecast the future behavior of the

Antarctic ice sheet five steps must be

completed. First, one must identify the

fundamental physical laws that govern

balance between snow accumulation on

the ice-sheet surface (ice input) and dis-

charge by glacial flow into the ocean (ice

output). This ongoing task is the concern

of theoretical physicists, and is subject to

constant updates and improvements due

to interplay with the other three steps.

Second, the physical laws must be incor-

porated into a computer model that sim-

118 DOUGLAS R. MaAcAYEAL, Ph.D.

ulates Antarctic ice-sheet evolution under

prescribed climatic conditions. Third, the

model must be tested and improved by

comparison with observations of ice-sheet

drainage. These two steps are my prin-

cipal concern, and constitute the bulk of

my Ongoing research. Four, the simula-

tion model is run with CO,-warming as

prescribed input to produce a forecast of

ice-sheet behavior. Finally, the fifth and

last step is to assess the level of uncer-

tainty inherent in foreeasts of complex be-

havior.

Over the last four years I have focused

primarily on steps two and three by con-

structing and testing a model capable of

predicting change in parts of the Antarctic

ice sheet most sensitive to CO,-warming:

the Ross and Filchner/Ronne ice shelves.

This model was tested by comparison of

its prediction for current conditions with

glacial ice-flow measurements performed

by myself and a West German colleague

(Dr. Manfred A. Lange of the Alfred-

Wegener-Institut fir Polar- und Meeres-

forschung) during several Antarctic ex-

peditions over the past five years.”

While comparison between model and

field observations is providing insight into

the natural mechanisms that regulate ice-

sheet drainage, model performance is not

yet sufficiently accurate to proceed with

a forecast. Perhaps five to ten more years

of research by myself and colleagues will

be required before model performance

will be sufficiently tuned to be a reliable

forecast tool.

Conclusion: Implementation of Values

Perhaps the most difficult task for a sci-

entist is to be patient with the slow rhythm

of research. In this world of fast paced

events, it is tempting to circumvent many

of the quality-control steps in the forecast

of environmental impact for the sake of

a tantalizing headline. Fortunately, most

scientists working in this field realize that

such action would be disastrous: misin-

formed action can often lead to greater

environmental damage than uninformed

action. Quality in science thus depends in

part on the personal values which guide

each individual scientist.

Values guide scientists in other ways as

well: choosing research topics, selecting

appropriate methods, and disseminating

results. For me, exposure to people

brought together by the Charles A. Lind-

bergh Fund has helped to solidify my val-

ues (a process not required in most Ph.D.

programs) on the relationship between

science and mankind’s general struggle to

prosper on this limited planet. I have

learned through discussions with scien-

tists in other disciplines (who I would not

normally meet) and with supporters of

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund that we

have a great deal in common, and that

often, this common thread concerns the

perception and value of balance between

man and nature.

References Cited

1. Mercer, J. H. 1978. West Antarctic ice sheet and

CO, greenhouse effect: A threat of disaster. Na-

ture, 271: 321-325.

2. Lange, M. A. and D. R. MacAyeal. 1986. Nu-

merical models of the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf:

An assessment of reinterpreted ice thickness dis-

tributions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 91:

10,457-10,462.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 119-125, December 1987

Solar Sail Engineering

Development: Interplanetary

Transportation with

Environmental Benefits

Robert L. Staehle

President, World Space Foundation, Post Office Box Y, South

Pasadena, California 91030-1000

ABSTRACT

“For I dipp’d into the future, far as human eye could see,

Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be;

Saw the heavens fill with commerce, argosies of magic sails. . .

Alfred Lord Tennyson [1842]

”

Exploration of the Solar System and rational use of its resources for our expanding

civilization requires methods of space transportation which are low in cost, high in ca-

pability, modest in the amount of resources consumed by the transportation system itself,

and which have a long useful life. The solar sail is a space vehicle which is uniquely

outstanding in these areas. Rather than expendable propellants, a solar sail utilizes sunlight

reflected by a large, lightweight metallized plastic sheet as a means of propulsion.

The faint pressure of sunlight is adequate to propel a spacecraft made with modern

materials to and from a variety of destinations in the Solar System. Light pressure has

been utilized to stabilize and control the orientation of a few spacecraft, but none have

been built with the necessary configuration and controls to harness sunlight as a direct

force for primary propulsion and orbit change.

With assistance from The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory

and others, the World Space Foundation is preparing for the first orbital test of a solar

sail spacecraft. Preliminary designs have been completed, unique prototype hardware has

been fabricated and tested, and some flight hardware is in storage. Project plans have

been delayed by the loss of the Shace Shuttle Challenger and the resulting limitations of

launch vehicle capacity. Highest priority is now placed on arranging a launch agreement.

Many missions have been identified which are either enabled or significantly enhanced

through the use of solar sails. These include the exploration of several asteroids with a

single spacecraft, returning samples from Mercury’s surface, supporting expedition crews

on Mars, and perhaps even carrying high-level nuclear waste far beyond the reach of the

biosphere.

In addition to the engineering advantages inherent in their high performance, distinct

environmental advantages may accrue to the Earth’s atmosphere, the Van Allen radiation

belts, and even in interplanetary space, from the use of solar sails instead of certain

competing techniques. In addition, there is a certain appeal in a propulsion technique

which only reflects sunlight, rather than extracting large quantities of chemical propellants

from one environment where they are common and depositing them in another environ-

ment where they are rare.

119

120 ROBERT L. STAEHLE

Development of solar sailing represents an application of the concept of balance between

technological advancement in space propulsion and limiting humanity’s impact on poten-

tially fragile natural systems upon which our descendents may depend.

In 1979, the World Space Foundation

(WSF) established the Solar Sail Project

with the objective of developing solar sail-

ing as an advanced space propulsion tech-

nology.

Even with today’s most advanced tech-

nologies, moving from one orbit in space

to another requires massive quantities of

propellant. This propellant cannot be ob-

tained in space, and so must be brought

at great expense from the surface of the

Earth or another celestial body. Sunlight

however, is abundant in the inner Solar

System, and its energy can be harnessed

with a large, kite-like solar sail to move

scientific probes, expedition supplies, and

eventually even commercial cargo among

the planets and asteroids.

The WSF is constructing the first solar

sail spacecraft for testing in Earth orbit.

This working prototype of larger sails is

expected to pave the way for such mis-

sions as in-depth exploration of mutiple

asteroids with a single spacecraft, a close-

in observatory of the Sun’s polar regions,

logistical support for expedition crews

going to Mars, and others.

Light applies a very slight pressure on

any illuminated object. In 1924, Fridrikh

Tsander and Konstantin Tsiolkovskiy*

noted that in the vacuum of space, a large,

sail-like sheet of reflective material illu-

minated by the Sun could propel a space-

craft without propellant. Beginning in

1973, the U.S. National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA) sponsored

a full evaluation of solar sailing, confirm-

ing its feasibility and unique advantages.

All figures copyright World Space Foundation.

Reproduced with permission.

*It is almost certain that one of two men was the

inventor of solar sailing.

Budget pressures forced the Agency to

suspend development in 1977.

Prototype Design and Testing

Beginning in 1979, the Foundation’s

Engineering Mission spacecraft and its

subsystems have been designed. After

successful ground testing (Figure 1), a

full-size prototype sail was completed in

1983. A full-size sail may be unfurled

aboard the Space Shuttle in a final dress

rehearsal for the Engineering Develop-

ment Mission (Figure 2).

Engineering Development Mission

A fully-controllable solar sail space-

craft is targeted for launch into high Earth

orbit for an engineering demonstration.

Larger than a baseball diamond, the

Square sail may propel the spacecraft by

the Moon on its way to escaping the bonds

of Earth. Tests of attitude control, orbital

maneuvering, electrical charging and

ground control procedures will be valu-

able in designing solar sails of the future.

Asteroid Rendezvous Mission (ARM)

The most numerous bodies in the inner

Solar System, asteroids, have never been

visited. The EDM has been designed as

a prototype for the Asteroid Rendezvous

Mission, which, borne by a sail the size

of two football fields, could lead explo-

ration of near-Earth asteroids. Because

its sail will require no propellants, the As-

teroid Rendezvous spacecraft will be able

to move from one asteroid to another in

an open-ended survey. Rendezvous with

INTERPLANETARY TRANSPORTATION 121

Fig. 1. The first solar sail ever made was deployed in a ground test by the World Space Foundation

during 1981. Shown here is that half-scale prototype. Photo by Richard Dowling, Metavision.

a comet could also be added to the itin-

erary. Use of a solar sail allows one space-

craft to do a job which would require

many using conventional propulsion.

Clipper Ships of Space

Just as sailing vessels enabled early

maritime exploration and commerce, so-

lar sailing vessels which could be built in

space are uniquely suited to supporting

expedition crews at Mars, the asteroids,

and other destinations. Unfurling to

nearly two miles on a side, a single ‘‘solar

clipper” could carry about the same load

as an “‘eighteen-wheeler”’ truck (30 tons)

to Mars in four years, and return empty

in two. A fleet shuttling between here and

Mars could support the first permanent

outpost on Mars. Like gleaming beads on

an invisible string to Mars, the nearer clip-

per ships would be visible to the eye, with

those near Mars visible using a modest

telescope.

Nuclear Waste Disposal

Extensive stockpiles of nuclear waste

have been built up since development of

the first atomic weapons and the advent

of nuclear power. A small fraction of

these nuclear by-products termed “high

level wastes” are highly radioactive and

must be isolated from the biosphere for

100,000 years or more. While many meth-

ods of geologic disposal have been pro-

posed, there is some question in each case

of the permanency of isolation from

groundwater and other elements of the

biosphere. Space disposal has been pro-

posed by a number of means, all of which

require higher initial capital outlays than

terrestrial disposal. The distinct advan-

tage of space disposal, whether on the

Moon, an asteroid, ejection from the So-

122 ROBERT L. STAEHLE

Fig. 2. Full-size test sail after deployment from the cargo bay.

lar System, or incineration by the Sun it-

self, is that the opportunity for natural

reintroduction of significant quantities

into the biosphere is eliminated. While no

such proposal has been carried beyond

the conceptual stage, transport beyond

Earth orbit using Solar Sail Cargo Ves-

sels, such as those examined for support-

ing expeditions to Mars, offers an

opportunity for significant savings in

launch mass from Earth, rocket traffic

through the atmosphere, and risks asso-

ciated with vehicle loss during ascent.

Other Applications

Numerous other applications have

been proposed for solar sails. Sails offer

the possibility of placing significant sci-

entific payloads into orbit around Mer-

cury with a modest launch vehicle and

moderate flight time. Once in Mercury

orbit, such spacecraft could then thor-

oughly map the planet, or even carry a

lander which would go to the surface, pick

up rock samples, and return to the waiting

sail in orbit. The sail could then carry the

sample back to Earth for analysis.’ A sim-

ilar sail could carry a scientific instrument

package into close orbit around the Sun.

Using the sail, the plane of the orbit could

be slowly rotated, eventually taking the

spacecraft repeatedly over the Sun’s

poles. The solar poles cannot be seen

from Earth, but because of interactions

between the solar magnetic field and the

varying rotation rate of the Sun’s outer

layers, it may be expected that phenom-

ena unseen on the visible portion of the

Sun are waiting to be discovered. Sails

have been proposed for missions in the

other direction, i.e., for rapid escape from

the Solar System to measure the prop-

erties of interstellar space. Sails may also

INTERPLANETARY TRANSPORTATION 123

find commercial use in affording more

slots for communications spacecraft in

stationary orbits above the Earth.’ De-

scendants of solar sails propelled by mas-

sive orbiting banks of lasers or microwave

transmitters could even traverse the dis-

tance to the nearest stars within less than

a lifetime. Such laser (or maser) sails thus

become candidates to carry the first ten-

drils of human civilization into neighbor-

ing star systems, perhaps beginning their

journey within our own lifetime.*

The next fundamental step to be taken

on the path to comprehensive utilization

of sails in space is the test of a solar sail

in orbit. Just as the first sailing vessels

must have been something like a raft with

a skin or cloth erected on a tree branch,

and just as the distance covered during

the first flight of the Wright Flyer was less

than the length of modern airliners, the

first solar sail is likely to appear crude by

comparison with the vessels whose crea-

tion it fosters.

Future Plans

Shuttle Sail Deployment Experiment

(SSDE)

During initial SSDE design, it was de-

cided that disposal of the flight hardward

in orbit after completion of the experi-

ment resulted in the least overall cost to

the Project, reduced risk of hardware fail-

ure, and the best simulation of actual

EDM flight equipment. Consequently it

is not necessary to be concerned with

committing EDM equipment to the

SSDE. The EDM could fly on nearly any

launch vehicle, whereas the SSDE re-

quires the presence of a crew to be most

useful.

Preliminary design of the EDM is com-

plete, and the detailed design process has

been mapped out. Most detailed work is

“on hold” until a launch vehicle is se-

lected because the configuration may vary

depending on launch loads and how the

EDM package is attached to the booster

and other payloads. A solid propellant

upper stage motor (FW-5, manufactured

by United Technologies Chemical Sys-

tems Division and donated to the Foun-

dation by Hughes Aircraft Co.) will be

used if the selected launch vehicle places

the EDM in low Earth orbit. If a launch

is available to geosynchronous transfer

orbit or another high orbit, the FW-5 will

be released for use on another Founda-

tion mission.

The Foundation has enlisted the assist-

ance of the Radio Amateur Satellite Cor-

poration (AMSAT) for the provision of

certain communications and electrical

equipment, and for assistance in the es-

tablishment of a ground tracking net-

work. AMSAT has built and flown a

number of successful spacecraft. Optical

tracking may also be provided by amateur

astronomy groups, including France’s So-

ciété d’Astronomie Populaire. Pasadena

City College has provided valuable as-

sistance in test and fabrication of parts,

and will presumably be available once a

final hardware design is selected to match

a launch vehicle. Technische Universitat

Minchen has offered assistance with the

pre-deployment attitude control system.

In addition to The Lindbergh Fund, as-

sistance has been received from Califor-

nia Institute of Technology’s Jet

Propulsion Laboratory (spars, thermal

vacuum testing and control analysis), the

University of California’s California

Space Institute (spacecraft charging

study), the law firm of Silvestri and Mas-

sicot (negotiations and contracts), Mor-

ton Thiokol Corporation (solid rocket

motor handling), United Technologies

Corp./Chemical Systems Division (solid

rocket motor inspection), E. I. du Pont

de Nemours & Co. (Kapton for EDM

sail), as well as Solar Sail Project Sub-

scribers and Associates of the World

Space Foundation.

Preliminary work continues on consid-

ering applications for solar sails. The

Foundation co-sponsored The Case for

Mars III conference during July, 1987 in

124 ROBERT L.

Boulder, which continued the process of

defining how the first expeditions to land

people on Mars might be performed. So-

lar sails could play an important role in

such an expedition.*>®

As we stand gazing up at the stars or

contemplting the thousand million miles

to the outer planets, most people consider

space an indomitable and unthreatened

environment. The portion of space in

which we reside, referred to as our Solar

System, is in fact an environment existing

in a balance established over five billion

years of cosmic evolution.

Environmental destruction of newly-in-

habited frontiers has often resulted from

the simple lack of forethought on the part

of early settlers. Frequently a handful of

people speak for environmental aware-

ness and protection, but awareness of

space as a natural environment which

could be subjected to regrettable human

damage is not common in the field of

astronautics. Only recently has the prob-

lem or orbital debris been perceived by

space mission planners.’*’ Formulated in

1979, one of the twelve objectives which

guide World Space Foundation activities

is to, ““Encourage maintenance of space

in its natural state and preservation of

substantial undisturbed areas on celestial

bodies commensurate with carefully

planned exploration, resources utilization

and settlement activities.”

Conclusion

Solar sails are best suited for applica-

tions where multiple trips are to be made

between two or more locations with bulk

cargo having little sensitivity to trip time.

The situation is analogous to present-day

ocean shipping. Solar sails may make a

substantial contribution to exploration by

sending expedition supplies ahead of

Mars-bound explorers with reduced cost

and environmental impact at launch sites.

Numerous other applications have been

STAEHLE

described in the astronautics literature.

Nearly all of the applications noted can

be accelerated by the early test of a solar

sail spacecraft in Earth orbit. The World

Space Foundation’s Engineering Devel-

opment Mission has been designed for

just such a test, and is about as small as

a sail could be while still providing useful

day-to-day orbit changes which can be

measured to verify different maneuvers

and control techniques.

One mission class which could be aided

by solar sailing has particular environ-

mental and technological relevance; this

is the disposal of high-level nuclear

wastes. Space disposal is the only pro-

posed disposal method (besides trans-

mutation, which may require more energy

than was generated with the original nu-

clear fuel) which provides absolute assur-

ance of removing dangerous wastes from

the biosphere for the required period of

time. Space disposal draws this confi-

dence from celestial mechanics theory,

observation and practice over the past

three centuries. In comparison, geologic

disposal must rely on complex and still-

evolving theories of terrestrial processes.

Solar sails could provide transportation

for high-level nuclear wastes from Earth

orbit to whatever disposal sites might be

selected.

While not a universal space propulsion

technique, solar sailing does seem likely

to play a major role in some future space

transportation markets because of its eco-

nomic attractiveness. Because sails typi-

cally reduce the launch mass required to

take a given payload to a destination,

launch vehicle traffic through the atmos-

phere may be reduced. When compared

with several space propulsion techniques

requiring mass expulsion, solar sailing

compares favorably with regard to its

impact on the space environment. En-

vironmental impact in space is only a

dimly-perceived concept at this time, but

a historical perspective suggests that con-

siderable long-term regret can be avoided

INTERPLANETARY TRANSPORTATION

through near-term awareness of possible

environmental sensitivities of space itself.

Acknowledgments

Portions of this paper were edited from

prior publications with contributions from

World Space Foundation staffmembers

and consultants Chauncey W. Uphoff,

Jerome L. Wright, Richard E. Van Allen,

Robert J. Cesarone, Lori L. Paul, Kristan

R. Lattu and others.

The assistance of Solar Sail Project

sponsors named in the report, and of

Foundation Associates, staffmembers,

friends and consultants is gratefully ac-

knowledged.

References Cited

1. Wright, Jerome L. and J. R. French. 1987. Solar

sail missions to Mercury. Foundation Astronau-

tics Notebook 23: January.

125

Forward, R. L. 1981. Light-levitated geostation-

ary cylindrical orbits. J. Astronaut. Sci. 29. pp.

73-80.

. Matloff, G. L. and E. Mallove. 1981. Solar sail

starships: the clipper ships of the galaxy. J. Brit.

Interplanetary Soc. 34. pp. 371-380.

. Staehle, Robert L. 1982. An expedition to mars

employing shuttle-era systems, solar sail and

aerocapture. Journal of the British Interplanetary

Society 35: pp. 327-335.

. Staehle, R. L. 1986. Ein expedition zum Mars.

Die Sterne 62: pp. 84-96.

. Garvey, John M. and S. J. Pearson. 1987. A

Mars cargo delivery system based on advanced

solar sails and aerobraking. At: The Case for

Mars III, Boulder, Colorado July 22.

. Staehle, Robert L. 1985. Oribtal debris: bad

news .. . good news. Foundation News: World

Space Foundation, January.

. Wolfe, Malcolm G. et al. 1981. Space debris.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astro-

nautics (AIAA), New York.

. Reynolds, R. C., N. H. Fischer and D. S. Ed-

gecomb. 1982. A model for the evolution of the

on-orbit man-made debris population. 33rd In-

ternational Astronautical Federation Congress,

Preprint No. [AF-82-255.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 126-129, December 1987

Titanium Recycling

Guhanand Raj and Scott Farrow

Department of Engineering and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon

- University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213

ABSTRACT

Motivated by the apparently low recycling rate of obsolete titanium scrap, indicating a

social and technical system potentially out of balance, we assess the quantities of obsolete

titanium scrap recycled. A materials cycle model is constructed and after addressing the

inherent uncertainty of the equations in the model we conclude that the quantities of

obsolete titanium scrap recycled are greater than what is reported. This indicates the

recycling system may be in balance but that defense stockpiling activity based on the

lower reported numbers is likely to be out of balance.

We were concerned that the reported

small quantities of obsolete titanium scrap

recycled indicated a system that was out

of balance; a system that depended on

energy intensive primary production in-

stead of the more environmentally benign

process of recycling. We hypothesized

that the low reported quantity might be

due to the newness of the metal or due

to external factors such as pollution which

both producers and recyclers might ig-

nore.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates

that the quantity of obsolete titanium re-

cycled annually is between 100 and 400

tons per year.'* When compared to the

current consumption levels of titanium,

the apparent recycling rate for obsolete

titanium scrap is quite low, approximately

2 percent. This is of special significance

in the case of titanium, considered to be

a strategic metal because: (i) titanium is

a critical input in many sophisticated

aerospace applications, (ii) the short-term

lack of substitutes for titanium, and (iii)

because the U.S. relies heavily on imports

for the raw materials input.* The Federal

Emergency Management Agency there-

fore stockpiles both titanium metal as well

as rutile, the preferred ore from which to

extract titanium. Because recycling acts

like an internal flywheel in the materials

system and consequently reduces the

need for imports, an underestimate of the

quantities recycled could result in an un-

necessarily large and costly stockpile. The

cost of acquiring a ton of titanium for the

stockpile is approximately $11,000 which

at an interest rate of 10 percent translates

into an annual cost of $1,100 per addi-

tional ton stockpiled. Ensuring an optimal

level of recycling thus has broad policy

implications in addition to the trade offs

in energy use and environmental disrup-

tion between primary sources and recy-

cled sources of titanium.

One impediment to a high recycling

rate might be that titanium is a relatively

new metal, having been in use a little over

25 years. The market for obsolete scrap

is even newer and thus may not be op-

erating at a long term stable level. A sec-

126

TITANIUM RECYCLING 127

ond impediment might be due to external

effects, factors such as pollution which af-

fect parties other than the immediate

buyer and seller. Differential external

costs between primary production and re-

cycling could arise because recycling re-

quires less extraction of both ore and

energy resources (so there would be a dif-

ferrential externality if the amenity value

of wilderness is not considered) while less

pollution may be generated by the recy-

cling process itself.

These issues motivated us to deter-

mine: (i) how much obsolete scrap is

available, (ii) how much obsolete tita-

nium scrap is recycled, and (iii) what is

the “‘true’’ recycling rate? The true re-

cycling rate (the quantity recycled as a

ratio of available obsolete scrap) must be

distinguished from the apparent recycling

rate (quantity recycled as a ratio of cur-

rent consumption) which is often re-

ported. The true and apparent recycling

rates can be quite different in the case of

new materials like titanium whose con-

sumption has been changing over time

and where the product, such an airplane,

has a substantial product life.

In order to evaluate the true recycling

rate, we first estimated the availability of

obsolete scrap. We adopted a time de-

pendent systems approach to reflect the

interdependence of recycling on produc-

tion, fabrication and consumption. To

this end we constructed a materials cycle

model of the titanium industry.

1. The Titanium Materials Cycle

A materials cycle traces the path of ti-

tanium from its extraction to its disposal.

In the case of titanium, the important sub-

systems that interact to form the overall

materials cycle include the extractive sec-

tor, the manufacturing sector (facilities

that convert raw titanium into usable

products), end users (consumers of titan-

ium and its alloys), and the secondary sec-

tor (facilities that salvage, reuse, repro-

cess and dispose the waste generated by

end users).

The properties of titanium that make it

attractive to end users are its high specific

strength, exploited in aerospace applica-

tions, and its high corrosion resistance,

also of importance in chemical processing

applications.* The consumption of tita-

nium can be classified into:

@ Aerospace uses: in airframe struc-

tural components and jet engine

compressor blades. The restricted

number of users makes obsolete

scrap from these sources the least ex-

pensive to collect.

@ Industrial uses: in pressure vessels,

heat exchangers, etc. Such users are

more spread out geographically and

hence collection of obsolete scrap is

more expensive.

@ Alloying uses: principally as a deox-

idant and grain refiner in steels, and

as an alloying addition to aluminum

and magnesium. This use, as op-

posed by the others, is dissipative in

nature; because the titanium is dis-

persed in low concentrations (about

.1%) in other complex materials, it

is practically irrecoverable. There is

no recycling of such obsolete scrap

with the intention of recovering ti-

tanium.

Conceptually, of the total titanium

sponge available in a year (the porous ti-

tanium that is produced from ore), a por-

tion is made into ingots, a fraction of

which is subsequently made into products

for use in the aerospace sector and in the

chemical industry. So called new or

prompt scrap produced at the earlier

Stages is typically recycled at a high rate.

Obsolete scrap results when the final

products are retired at the end of their

useful life. In any given year, some of the

obsolete scrap generated is recycled, with

the rest leaking away from the system.°®

The physical system described can be rep-

resented by a series of equations each of

which quantitatively defines a processing

step or use.’

128 GUHANAND RAJ AND SCOTT FARROW

Table 1.—Predicted Obsolete Scrap Recycled.

Obsolete Scrap Recycled

Year (tons)

1985 1200

1986 1950

1987 2000

1988 1400

1989 2000

2. Model and Results

We developed two models of the tita-

nium system based on two sources of coef-

ficients for the equations in the materials

cycle. One source was from the published

literature. The second source was based

on responses to a survey of 45 experts in

the titanium industry. As the results from

each model were qualitatively similar we

focus below on the first of the models.

The most likely predictions of obsolete

scrap that would be recycled for the pe-

riod 1985-89 are summarized in Table 1.

These should be compared to the estimate

reported by the Bureau of Mines for 1985

of between 100 and 400 tons of obsolete

scrap recycled. Our estimates predict that

the supply of scrap will almost double

over the next five years.

We also investigated the effect of dif-

ferent coefficient values on the predicted

level of recycling, in part because the ex-

perts surveyed indicated a range of values

between .25 and .9 for the proportion of

obsolete scrap that is recycled. Predicta-

bly, certain coefficients were found to

have greater influence on the quantity re-

cycled than other coefficients. The results

of the sensitivity analysis, ranked in order

of the absolute value of their effect, are

presented in Table 2.

These results may be interpreted to

represent either the effect of inaccuracy

in the estimation of each parameter, or

alternatively, the effect of technological

advances in that field of processing. The

effect is quantified by the value of the

elasticity reported in column 3 of Table

2. The elasticity measure is the percentage

change in the quantity of obsolete scrap

recycled due to a one percent change in

the coefficient. We find that the product

lives have the largest elasticities and the

next largest factor is the recycling rate

itself.

The results of the model indicate that,

if recycling of domestic titanium scrap in

the aerospace and industrial product sec-

tors is taking place at the 80 percent level,

then the quantities of scrap recycled are

about six times higher than the estimates

of the Bureau of Mines. Given all the

simplifying assumptions of the model, and

the fact that the Bureau of Mines esti-

mates are constructed from surveys as

well, it may seem that the estimates are

sufficiently close. However, the difference

may be unacceptably high if the model

were to be used as a tool in policy making

decisions regarding primary and secon-

dary production, or with respect to stock-

piling. In particular, the difference be-

Table 2. Sensitivity of Results to Variations in Input Parameters.

Variable

Life of aerospace products

Life of industrial products

Fraction of obsolete scrap recycled

Exports of aerospace products

Leakage during ingot-making

Scrappage, aerospace fabrication

Ratio, aerospace ingot/total ingot

Scrappage, industrial fabrication

Base value Elasticity*

ait

>H6

20 years

*Percentage change in the amount of obsolete scrap recycled due to a one percent change in the coefficient

value.

TITANIUM RECYCLING 129

tween our estimates and those of the Bu-

reau of Mines can be said to imply the

following: if the quantity of obsolete scrap

is between 100 and 400 tons (the range

given by the Bureau of Mines) then the

rate of recycling would have to be be-

tween 7 and 27 percent for product lives

of twenty years. This contrasts with the

lowest estimate given by the experts in

our survey of 25 percent and the highest

estimate of 90 percent recycling of domes-

tic scrap from the aerospace and industrial

products sectors.

3. Conclusions

There is considerable uncertainty in the

values of how much obsolete titanium

scrap is available and how much is being

recycled. Elsewhere we investigate a

range of estimates instead of focusing on

the most likely case as here. In spite of the

inherent uncertainties, the results indicate

that the amount of obsolete scrap recycled

is likely to be quite higher than the figures

reported by the Bureau of Mines. This

suggests that the market for obsolete ti-

tanium scrap is not as immature as one

would be led to believe from the reported

quantities and implied recycling rates.

The interaction between social and tech-

nological systems seems to have led to a

reasonable balance between primary

sources and recycled sources of titanium.

However, the larger estimates of the

quantity of titanium recycled here indi-

cates that the policy for titanium stock-

piling may be out of balance; large

supplies available from recycling imply a

reduced role for the National Defense

Stockpile.

Acknowledgments

Appreciation is extended to Paul Wyn-

blatt for his comments and to the Charles

A. Lindbergh Fund for their support. A

second part of the funded study on the

use of the red mud waste from aluminum

processing as a secondary source of tita-

nium is not discussed here but is available

from the authors.

References Cited

1. Lynd, L. E. 1985. Titanium. Reprinted from:

Mineral Facts and Problems, 1985 Edition. U.S.

Bureau of Mines. pp. 1-21.

2. U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1985. Mineral Commodity

Summaries. pp. 166-167.

3. American Metal Market. 1986. Metal Statistics.

American Metal Market, Fairchild Publications,

New York. pp. 197-198.

4. American Society for Metals. 1985. Metals Hand-

book: Desk Edition. M. J. Donachie, Jr., ed.

Metals Park, Ohio. pp. 9.1-9.12.

5. Bever, M. B. 1977. Recycling in the Materials

System. Materials and Society. 1:167-176.

6. Bever, M. B. 1978. Systems Aspects of Materials

Recycling. Conservation and Recycling. 2: 1-17.

7. These equations and further detail can be found

in G. Raj, S. Farrow and P. Wynblatt. 1987. A

Materials System Model of Titanium Recycling.

mimeo. Department of Engineering and Public

Policy, Carnegie Mellon University. Pittsburgh,

PA.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 130-134, December 1987

Wild Ancestors of Crop Plants—

A Neglected Resource

Paul Gepts

Department of Agronomy and Range Science, University of

California, Davis, CA 95616

ABSTRACT

The wild ancestors from which our crop plants were domesticated 7,000 to 10,000 years

ago constitute an underutilized and threatened natural resource. Wild ancestors are easily

crossed with their cultivated descendants, and they contain significant levels of genetic

diversity of potential use in genetic improvement. They are threatened with genetic erosion

partly caused by the introduction of advanced cultivars which undermine their genetic

foundation. This situation calls for increased conservation efforts both in situ and ex situ,

thus establishing a balance between the conservation of a natural resource and its economic

use in crop improvement.

Introduction

Some 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, hu-

manity underwent one of the most sig-

nificant changes in its existence: hunters

and gatherers started growing crops and

herding animals. This new activity would

lead to a more sedentary lifestyle and

would increase food supply and thus allow

a significant portion of the population

to engage in activities other than food pro-

duction, such as industry and commerce.

The beginning of agriculture in a number

of independent areas (e.g., Fertile Cres-

cent of the Middle East, Mesoamerica,

and the South American Andes) was also

a prelude to the appearance of large

cities in these areas, such as Ur, Nineveh

(Middle East), La Venta, Tres Zapotes

(Mesoamerica), and Chavin de Huantar

(Andes).'”

Through deliberate cultivation, wild

plants have been subjected to selection

pressures which have led to marked

changes in their morphological, physio-

logical, and genetic constitution. Selec-

tion pressures resulted from planting and

harvesting practices, as well as the intro-

duction of plant materials into different

environments. For example, seed plant-

ing led to a reduction of seed dormancy

to achieve rapid and even germination.’

Certain modes of harvesting required a

suppression of natural mechanisms of

seed dispersal. Plants were therefore se-

lected with nonbrittle rachises as in cer-

eals (e.g., wild barley: Hordeum

spontaneum, wild maize: Zea mays ssp.

parviglumis) or nonshattering pods as in

legumes (e.g., wild common bean: Phas-

eolus vulgaris var. aborigenius and var.

mexicanus). It is this set of radical

130

WILD ANCESTORS OF CROP PLANTS 131

changes induced by cultivation in wild

plants which constitute plant domestica-

tion. The domestication process has led

to a symbiosis between humans and

plants: whereas humans have to rely on

plants for food and other uses, cultivated

plants have to rely on humans for their

continued existence and propagation.

Cultivated plants cannot survive in the

wild.

Since its inception at the beginning of

the 20th century, plant breeding has relied

primarily on the genetic diversity pro-

vided by cultivars. Little or no use has

been made of the wild ancestors of crop

plants. According to Harlan,’ this can be

attributed to several causes, among which

an inadequate taxonomy, insufficient col-

lections and rampant genetic erosion

within collections (see also further). Yet,

in recent years, interest in the wild rel-

atives has been on the rise, albeit timidly.

In the next paragraphs, I will outline

some of the advantages and disadvantages

of using wild crop relatives as a source of

genetic diversity, and will then discuss the

need for both in situ (on-site) and ex situ

(off-site) conservation approaches, with

particular reference to the common

bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).

Advantages of Wild Crop Relatives as a

Source of Genetic Diversity

There are two main advantages to the

use of wild relatives as a source of genetic

diversity. First, contrary to “truly” wild

species, wild crop relatives are conspecific

with the crop to which they gave rise. As

a consequence, they can be easily crossed

with cultivars and the progeny is viable

and fertile.* Gene transfer from wild rel-

atives to crop plant should therefore be

quite easy, unlike gene transfer between

different species which can be faced with

serious problems of viability, fertility, and

linkage blocks.°

The second advantage of wild relatives

is their store of genetic variability. Ex-

amples exist of genetic diversity for ag-

ronomic traits which has been transferred

successfully (or could be so) from wild

progenitors to crop derivatives.°*.’ Mod-

ern sugarcane cultivars incorporate ad-

ditional chromosomes from wild relatives

carrying resistance to virus and fungal dis-

eases. Wild relatives of tomato have con-

tributed genes for resistance to viruses,

fungi, bacteria, and nematodes. In com-

mon bean, Gentry® and Brucher’ mention

the existence of genes for resistance to

anthracnose, Fusarium sp., and bacterial

diseases in wild common bean. Van

Schoonhoven et al.'° have identified wild

common bean populations of Mexico

which have high levels of resistance against

seed weevils (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).

Resistance against this pest is found only

among wild beans and is correlated with

the presence of a protein in the seeds."

Wild relatives have also provided the

male-sterility inducing cytoplasms and

fertility-restorer genes needed for hybrid

seed productions in barley (Hordeum vul-

gare).'* The wild arundinaceum race

of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is photo-

synthetically more efficient at low light

intensities than cultivated sorghum.’

Diploid wild wheats have a_ higher

photosynthetic potential than cultivated

wheat.'*:> The nutritional value of oats

could be improved by transferring high

protein levels from wild to cultivated oats

(Avena sativa).'°

Through appropriate breeding

schemes, wild crop relatives can (and in

certain cases have indeed) been a source

of increased yields, for example in oats,’°

pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum)

(L.) Leeke:'’ and chickpea (Cicer arie-

tinum L.: 18).

Disadvantages to the Use of Wild Crop

Relatives as a Source of Genetic

Diversity

In spite of these obvious advantages,

little use has been made of the wild ances-

132

tors of crop plants. I would suggest here

that one of the major reasons for this is

the important morphological differences

separating the wild ancestors and culti-

vated progenies as a consequence of the

domestication process. Plant breeders

have been reluctant to use as progenitors

any material which would threaten to nul-

lify the long evolutionary process from

which our modern advanced cultivars

have emerged. Yet, traits separating wild

and cultivated types are usually controlled

by a limited number of genes or else are

highly heritable. For example, in common

bean, the difference between climbing

growth habit (characteristics of wild

beans) and bush growth habit (found in

cultivars) is coded by 3 major genes.”

Seed size is generally considered to be a

polygenic trait; however, Motto et al.”

have shown in wild x cultivated common

bean crosses that seed size has a high

heritability (approx. 0.8). These two ex-

amples indicate that it would require little

effort to recover a cultivated phenotype

in wild x cultivated crosses.

A second aspect hampering a substan-

tial use of wild relatives in genetic im-

provement is the limited availability of

wild forms in germ-plasm collections. The

Phaseolus world collection at the Centro

Internacional de Agricultura Tropical in

Colombia contains some 30,000 culti-

vated common bean accessions but less

than 1,000 wild common beans.”! The ac-

tual distribution area of wild common

beans is still being identified as shown by

recent findings of Nabhan” in Chihuahua

(Mexico; the northernmost accession of

wild P. vulgaris), of Gepts and De-

bouck;”* the first description of wild com-

mon beans in the Sierra Madre Oriental

of Mexico), and Brucher (9; the first de-

scriptions of wild common beans in Costa

Rica and Panama). Only recently are wild

Phaseolus vulgaris (and wild Phaseolus

species) being collected systematically

through the efforts of the International

Board of Plant Genetic Resources.”

Undoubtedly, the reduced presence of

wild forms in gene banks is related to

PAUL GEPTS

their perceived limited practical impor-

tance. However, wild crop relatives have

been found to harbor significant genetic

diversity and the breeding methodology

is available to transfer it to cultivated

types. In addition, genetic resources of

wild crop relatives (as well as of lan-

draces) are threatened by genetic ero-

sion.**6 Part of this genetic erosion is

paradoxically due to the introduction of

advanced cultivars, which therefore un-

dermine the very genetic foundation on

which they are based. More extensive

conservation efforts are needed, there-

fore, to fully utilize the potential of wild

crop relatives.

In situ and ex situ Conservation Efforts

Genetic conservation of wild crop rel-

atives can be achieved by in situ and ex

situ conservation efforts, both of which

have advantages. The advantages of ex

situ conservation (i.e., conservation in

cold storage in gene banks outside of the

natural ecosystem) are the immediate

availability to users, the potential for ex-

tensive evaluation, and a reduction of the

threat of gene losses due to pests and dis-

eases and destruction of the habitat. The

advantages of in situ conservation (i.e.,

conservation in the natural ecosystem)

are the continued adaptive evolution in

conjunction with pests and diseases and

the maintenance of the natural ecosystem

per se as a source of other products (for-

age, fiber, fuel), for watershed mainte-

nance, etc.*° Continued adaptive

evolution with pests is illustrated by wild

common beans and seed weevils in Mex-

ico. A study of weevils in wild bean pop-

ulations has revealed that weevils are

subject to a number of hyperparasites

which presumably may contribute to

some form of biological control of weevils

in these natural populations. The wild

bean-weevil-hyperparasite triangle could

become a model for pest management in

cultivated ecosystems.’’ Therefore, the

WILD ANCESTORS OF CROP PLANTS 133

hyperparasites of the seed weevils also

constitute a valuable genetic resource in

need of protection.

In the case of the common bean, con-

servation efforts, both in situ and ex situ,

represent a particular challenge as the

geographic distribution is quite large: it

extends from Chihuahua (Mexico) over

Central America into the Andes and ends

in northwestern Argentina (9, 27; and ref-

erences therein). In order to devise effi-

cient conservation strategies, an

understanding is needed of the biogeo-

graphic pattern of genetic diversity. This

understanding should help us identify

areas of high or unusual variability which

could become primary targets of conser-

vation efforts. Patterns of genetic diver-

sity are best analyzed using molecular or

biochemical markers, such as seed pro-

teins, isozymes, restriction fragment

length polymorphisms, as these markers

provide a good assessment of genetic sim-

ilarity of distinctiveness.”*”? This ap-

proach has already provided interesting

results in the case of the common bean.

Based on phaseolin seed protein diver-

sity, it has been possible to postulate mul-

tiple domestications along the

distribution area of wild beans: two major

ones (Mexico, southern Andes) and the

minor one (Colombia).*"*!

Conclusion

Wild relatives of crop plants have been

neglected as a source of genetic diversity,

in spite of the fact that useful traits have

been identified among them, and that

these can be transferred relatively easily

to the cultivated descendants. One reason

for the infrequent use of wild relatives is

their limited number in gene banks. A

more active conservation effort directed

towards these wild populations is needed,

especially in light of the threat of genetic

erosion, brought about in part by the in-

troduction of modern, high-yielding cul-

tivars. The identification of areas of high

or unusual genetic diversity in wild crop

relatives for in situ and ex situ conserva-

tion efforts will help maintain a balance

between technology and the environ-

ment, as advocated by C. Lindbergh:

these genetic resources will be preserved

for the future while at the same time being

made available for the breeding of im-

proved cultivars.

References Cited

1. Alcina, J. 1978. L’>Art Précolombien. Mazenod,

Paris.

2. Hawkes, J. G. 1983. The diversity of crop

plants. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA.

3. Harlan, J. R. 1984. Evaluation of wild species.

In: J. H. W. Holden, and J. T. Williams (eds.),

Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation and

Evaluation. Allen and Unwin, Boston.

4. Harlan, J. R., and J. M. J. de Wet. 1971. To-

wards a rational classification of cultivated

plants. Taxon 20:509-517.

5. Stebbins, G. L. 1958. The inviability, weakness,

and sterility of interspecific hybrids. Adv. Ge-

net. 9:147-215.

6. Harlan, J. R. 1976. Genetic resources in wild

relatives of crops. Crop Science 16:329-333.

7. Hawkes, J. G. 1977. The importance of wild

germplasm in plant breeding. Euphytica

26:615—621.

8. Gentry, H. S. 1969. Origin of the common bean,

Phaseolus vulgaris. Econ. Bot. 23:55-69.

9. Brucher, H. In press. The wild ancestor of com-

mon bean in South America. Jn: P. Gepts (ed.),

Genetic Resources of Phaseolus beans. Mar-

tinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

10. Van Schoonhoven, A., C. Cardona, and J.

Valor. 1983. Resistance to the bean weevil and

the Mexican bean weevil (Coleoptera: Bruchi-

dae) in noncultivated common bean accessions.

J. Econ. Entomol. 76:1255-1259.

11. Osborn, T. C., T. Blake, P. Gepts, and F. A.

Bliss. 1986. Bean arcelin. 2. Genetic variation,

inheritance, and linkage relationships of a novel

seed protein of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Theor.

Appl. Genet. 71:847-855.

12. Ahokas, H. 1979. Cytoplasmic male sterility in

barley. Acta Agric. Scan. 29:219-224.

13. Downes, R. W. 1971. Relationship between ev-

olutionary adaptation and gas exchange char-

acteristics of diverse Sorghum taxa. Aust. J.

Biol. Sci. 24:843-852.

14. Evans, L. T., and R. L. Dunstone. 1970. Some

physiological aspects of crop evolution in wheat.

Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 23:725—741.

15. Gaudillere, J. P. 1979. Caractéristiques pho-

tosynthétiques d’espéces appartenant aux gen-

134

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22%

2A.

24.

PAUL GEPTS

res Aegilops et Triticum. Ann. Amél. PI.

29:523-533.

Frey, K. J. 1976. Plant breeding in the seven-

ties: useful genes from wild plant species.

Egypt. J. Genet. Cytol. 5:460-482.

Bramel-Cox, P. J., D. J. Andrews, and K. J.

Frey. 1986. Exotic germplasm for improving

grain yield and growth rate in pearl millet. Crop

Sci. 26:687—790.

Jaiswal, H. K., B. D. Singh, A. K. Singh, and

R. M. Singh. 1986. Introgression of genes for

yield and yield traits from C. reticulatum into

C. arietinum. Intern. Chickpea Newsl. 14:5-8.

Norton, J. B. 1915. Inheritance of habit in the

common bean. Amer. Nat. 49:547-561.

Motto, M., G. P. Soussi, and F. Salamini. 1978.

Seed size inheritance in a cross between wild

and cultivated common beans (Phaselus vulgaris

L.). Genetica 49:31-36.

Hidalgo, R. In press. The Phaseolus world col-

lection. In: P. Gepts [ed.], Genetic Resources

of Phaseolus beans. Martinus Nijhoff, Dor-

drecht, The Netherlands.

Nabhan, G. P. 1985. Native crop diversity of

Aridoamercia: conservation of regional gene

pools. Econ. Bot. 39:387-—399.

Gepts, P., and D. G. Debouck. In press. Origin,

domestication, and evolution of the common

bean. In: A. V. Schoonhoven and O. Voysest

[eds.], Bean: Production and Improvement in

the Tropics. Centro Internacional de Agricul-

tura Tropical, Cali, Colombia.

Debouck, D. 1985. Trip report to Peru and Ar-

gentina. AGPG:IBPGR/85/123. International

Board of Plant Genetic Resources, Rome.

25:

26.

zie

28.

30.

31,

Debouck, D. 1986. Trip report—Phaseolus

germplasm collection in the Huasteca and sur-

rounding regions, Mexico. International Board

of Plant Genetic Resources, Rome.

Ingram, C. B., and J. T. Williams. 1984. Jn situ

conservation of wild relatives of crops. In: J. H.

W. Holden and J. T. Williams (eds.), Crop Ge-

netic Resources: Conservation and Evaluation.

Allen and Unwin, Boston. pp. 163-179.

Delgado Salinas, A., A. Bonet, and P. Gepts.

In press. The wild relative of the common bean

in Middle America. Jn: P. Gepts (ed.), Genetic

Resources of Phaseolus beans. Martinus

Nijhoff, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

Brown, A. H. D., and M. T. Clegg. 1983. Iso-

zyme assessment of plant genetic resources. Jn

M. C. Ratazzi, J. G. Scandalios, and G. S. Whitt

[eds.], Isozymes, Current Topics in Biological

and Medical Research, Vol. 11, Liss, New York:

pp. 205-295.

Frankel, O. H., and A. H. D. Brown. 1984.

Plant genetic resources: a critical appraisal. Jn:

J. H. W. Holden and J. T. Williams [eds.], Crop

Genetic Resources, Conservation and Evalua-

tion. Allen and Unwin, Boston. pp. 249-257.

Gepts, P. and F. A. Bliss. 1986. Phaseolin var-

lability among wild and cultivated common

beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) from Colombia.

Econ. Bot. 40:469-478.

Gepts, P., T. C. Osborn, K. Rashka, and F. A.

Bliss. 1986. Phaseolin-protein variability in wild

forms and landraces of the common bean (Phas-

eolus vulgaris): Evidence for multiple centers of

domestication. Econ. Bot. 40:451—468.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 135-140, December 1987

Natural Energy for Nitrogen

Fixation

C. Wayne Martin

Professor of Engineering Mechanics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,

Lincoln, NE 68588-0347

ABSTRACT

Nitrogen fertilizer is essential to continued high-level production of most cereal grains

which are major sources of food worldwide. During the energy crisis of the 1970’s, there

were shortages and prices increased rapidly. This situation could recur in the 1990’s, with

the most severe shortages in countries lacking indigenous gas supplies.

Wind turbines and photovoltaic cells are alternate sources of energy which can provide

power input to the electric arc process for nitrogen fixation. These systems provide an

Opportunity to use very sophisticated technology in a synergistic way that is totally in

harmony with the environment. The process uses only air, water and limestone. The

technology can be implemented at small scale, and there is no pollution.

Some results of operation of an arc reactor with a wind turbine and also by direct

connection to solar cells are described. It is shown that both are feasible. However,

research to improve the efficiency of the arc process is needed to make the systems more

economically attractive.

1. Introduction

Nitrogen fertilizer is essential to con-

tinued high-level production of corn and

most cereal grains, which are major

sources of food worldwide. In the United

States, nitrogen fertilizers account for

about 28% of the energy input to agri-

culture. It has been estimated that the

increased energy content of grains prod-

ucd is 2.76 times the energy input from

the fertilizers.

During the energy shortage in the

1970’s, companies which producd am-

monia (the most common nitrate fertil-

izer) from natural gas were, for a time,

unable to make new contracts for gas.

Supplies of ammonia were inadequate,

and price increased rapidly. Interest in

alternate energy sources and alternate

processes for fertilizer production became

intense. This situation could recur in the

1990’s, with the most severe shortages in

countries lacking indigenous gas supplies.

Among the most promising alternate

energy sources are wind turbines and pho-

tovoltaic cells. These sources share the

characteristic that energy supply is not

easily matched to demand. Some form of

energy storage is needed, e.g. batteries or

super-flywheels, if power is to be contin-

uously available, and storage becomes a

135

136 C. WAYNE MARTIN

significant part of system costs. Wind, in

most locations, has very high energy

peaks for short durations and significant

periods when little or no energy is avail-

able.

The electric arc process for nitrogen fix-

ation is interesting because the reactor has

a very low cost, but can absorb large

amounts of energy, and the product can

be stored indefinitely. It provides an al-

ternate use for a power source whose pri-

mary load is intermittent, e.g. irrigation

pumping. Also the arc reactor can be used

as a variable load to limit speed of the

wind turbine, probably at much less cost

than other methods of speed control such

as variable-pitch blades.

This system provides an opportunity to

use very sophisticated technology in a way

that is totally in harmony with the envi-

ronment. The process uses only air, water

and limestone or phosphate rock. It can

be decentralized and small scale. There is

no pollution.

This paper describes some results from

operation of the arc reactor by a wind

turbine and also by direct connection to

solar cells. It is shown that both modes of

operation are possible.

Research to improve efficiency of the

electric arc process is needed to make it

economically attractive under currently

forseeable economic conditions. Also,

more work is needed on speed control

algorithms for wind turbines with fixed

blade pitch.

2. The Arc Process for Nitrogen

Fixation

The electric arc process for nitrogen

fixation was first used commercially! in a

plant designed by Bradley and Lovejoy at

Niagara Falls in 1902. A small plant de-

signed by Birkeland and Eyde was built

in Norway in 1903. By 1930, this had

grown to be Norway’s greatest industry,”

but the Haber process!’ had lower costs,

SIDE VIEW high voltage electrode

nitric oxides+air out nD

ARC FURNACE DESIGN

Fig. 1. Kettering arc reactor.

and soon after replaced the electric arc

process.

Considerable research and experimen-

tation on the arc process was done during

the 1920’s. Among the most notable is a

series of 4 papers by Steinmetz.’ In 1927,

Colin and Tartar* reported that the best

yield they had found was 90g of nitric acid

per kwh, which corresponds to 48000 kwh

per metric ton of nitrogen captured, and

the highest equilibrium concentration ob-

served in closed-circuit experiments was

14.4% nitrogen oxide (NO).

Some investigators have argued that

formation of NO in the electric arc is a

purely thermal process, no different from

heating air with a flame. The equilibrium

concentration of NO in air ranges from

0.123 at 4000°K to nearly zero at room

temperature, and the rate of decompo-

sition is very high. Consequently, it is only

by very rapid cooling that the NO can be

retained at low temperatures. According

to Gilbert,” 4860 kwh/ton (of N) is re-

quired to heat O, and N, to 4000°K and

form NO. Since the equilibrium concen-

tration of NO in air is only 0.123 at

4000°K, an infinite cooling rate would re-

NATURAL ENERGY FOR NITROGEN FIXATION 137

VOLTAGE CURRENT CURVES

FOR ARC FURNACE

6 6

° ee

)

Ee °

: ae

fx]

2 base lines

< e

fx] KAAA

< 00 -500

ra)

oO -1000 -1000

[oa

0 0.1 02 03 0.4 0.5

TIME, sec

Fig. 2. Typical voltage and current records for the

arc reactor.

sult in 4860/0.123 = 39,512 kwh/ton. This

accounts for 82% of the 48000 kwh/ton

observed in laboratory experiments. If

thermal ionization is the only phenome-

non involved, there is little hope of

greatly improved yield.

Another view of the arc process is that

ionization is caused by electrical phenom-

ena in the arc and ions recombine ran-

domly so that, if gasses could be instantly

cooled, the fraction of NO would be

about 0.33 in air. However, after leaving

the arc, the NO decomposes at a rate

which decreases as temperature decreases.

Steinmetz? (p. 457) hypothesized that

yields of 33% NO could be obtained from

an arc operating at 1400°K. He also sug-

gested that the temperature of the arc de-

pends on the boiling point of the cathode

material.

A serious study of nitrogen fixation in

arcs, with modern instrumentation and

knowledge of plasmas might be very re-

warding. If concentrations of NO ap-

proaching 0.33 could be achieved at arc

temperatures around 1400°K, it should be

possible to reduce the energy required for

nitrogen fixation by the arc by a factor of

10. This could have great economic sig-

nificance.

Treharne and associates? at the Ketter-

ing Foundation began work on the electric

arc process in late 1974. Their interest was

in developing a “small scale’’ process

which could be used in less-developed

countries where a small amount of nitro-

gen could have a large impact on food

supply. An arc reactor designed at Ket-

tering was installed at the University of

Nebraska Field Laboratory in late 1979.

Operation of the reactor by utility power

and by photovoltaic power processed

through batteries and an inverter has been

described by Rein et al.,’ who found that

it required about 60,000 kwh to fix one

metric ton of nitrogen. A sketch of the

Kettering arc reactor is shown in Fig-

Ure

3. Direct Photovoltaic Power

The electric arc reactor at the Univer-

sity of Nebraska Field Laboratory has

been operated at power levels from about

0.7 kw to 5.3 kw by direct connection to

panels of photovoltaic cells. This system

is elegant in its simplicity. It involves no

batteries, no transformers, and no control

system. The voltage across the Kettering

arc reactor has the characteristic ‘‘saw-

tooth” pattern, shown in Figure 2, be-

cause the arc is blown down the tube by

a spiral stream of air; breaks off and reat-

taches near the electrode. Power drawn

by the arc varied by a factor of two at

frequencies of up to 10 hz, but caused no

perceptible problem in operation. Clouds

passing between the sun and the solar

panels caused power variations by a factor

of 5, but the arc continued to operate.

Data from these experiments were used

to develop equations describing the re-

lation between airflow rate, arc current

and arc voltage. By various connections,

it was possible to obtain open circuit volt-

ages of about 1000 or 1200 volts, and short

circuit currents of about 2, 4, 6 or 8 am-

peres. An additional parameter which

was varied was the amount of air flowing

138 C. WAYNE MARTIN

through the arc. Current from the solar

cells is self-limiting, and they can be di-

rectly connected to the arc reactor with-

out any control system or other current

limiting device.

Arc welding in space should be possible

with a similar system.

4. Wind Power

A computer simulation model of a wind

turbine and arc reactor was developed®”

which includes all essential features of the

system. Major components of the model

are: generations of wind velocity from

power spectra, wind-rotor interaction,

drive-train dynamics, electrical load of

the arc reactor, and an elementary control

system. Some conclusions from the sim-

ulation are:

WIND

TURBINE

EXPENDED

AIR, OUT

FERTILIZER

STORAGE

TANK

y_] TrANSFOnmen

ARC FURNACE

a HOT NOx+AIR => |

RECIRCULATING

PUMP

(a) The electric arc reactor can be op-

erated with fluctuating power of a

wind turbine.

(b) The arc reactor can act as a variable

load which controls speed of the

wind turbine so that variable blade

pitch is not required if a simple

feedback control system is in-

cluded.

can be induced by the “‘sawtooth”’

wave form of the arc load. An arc

reactor with constant arc length

would be much preferred for use

with wind turbines.

Predictions of the computer simulation

have been confirmed by successful oper-

ation of the arc reactor at the UNL Field

Laboratory with a wine turbine. A sche-

matic of this system is shown in Figure 3.

A typical record of power available from

the 18 ft-diameter wind turbine and power

consumed, is shown in Figure 4. The 3-

AIR PUMP

OS) <<

aaa

RAROAKA

7 of

COOLING AIR in4

OXIDATION

COLUMN

WATER

NO2+AlIR

LIMESTONE

te. hele id

<< Ca(NO3)2+WATER+AIR

Fig. 3. Wind powered nitrogen generator system.

NATURAL ENERGY FOR NITROGEN FIXATION 139

phase AC generator in the experimental

system is designed for 240 volts at 1800

rpm. It has a voltage control which makes

output voltage proportional to frequency.

The high-voltage transformer has surplus

inductance in its primary side, which lim-

its current. Arc current remained be-

tween 2.0 and 2.5 amperes for a wide

range of generator speeds.

The “‘available wind power” in Figure

4 is the total power in the airstream. The

average of the mechanical power in the

figure is 3.3 kw. Since the power coeffi-

cient of the wind turbine is about 0.3, the

curves are in good agreement. Rated

power output of the generator is 5 kw,

and its efficiency is not very good at the

low power output shown in the figure.

The experimental wind turbine is pro-

tected from rotor overspeed by a mech-

anism which is activated by fly-weights to

change blade pitch. A safety system is

POWER

+ AM=ZovV

Oy Nim ea) ie

4) 1 2 3 4 S

mechanical lea

needed to protect the turbine when the

electrical load is disconnected, even

though it is not necessary under normal

operating conditions.

Significant mechanical vibrations have

been observed under some conditions, as

predicted by the simulation. The funda-

mental frequency of the “‘sawtooth”’ volt-

age wave form of the arc may vary from

less than 1.0 Hz to at least 10 Hz, and it

contains strong harmonics at frequencies

at least 5 times the fundamental fre-

quency. Consequently, significant exci-

tation of mechanical vibration can occur

at frequencies ranging from less than 1.0

Hz to at least 50 Hz.

It appears that arc reactors for use with

wind turbines should be designed to have

an arc length which does not change rap-

idly with time. One possibility is to use a

magnetic field to spin the arc. This might

achieve the rapid arc movement which ap-

VERSUS TIME

available wind power

electrical power”

6 i 8 9 18 Vf 12

TIME, SECONDS

Fig. 4. Power-time curves with the electric arc in moderate winds.

140 C. WAYNE MARTIN

pears necessary for formation of NO,

while avoiding periodic fluctuations in arc

voltage which can excite mechanical vi-

brations.

5. Conclusions

The conclusions of this study are the

following: ji

1. The arc process for nitrogen fixation

can be operated with power from

direct connection to photovoltaic

cells or with power from a wind tur-

bine. Operation with power from

photovoltaic cells is remarkably sim-

ple. These systems are totally in

harmony with the environment. The

process uses only air, water and

limestone. There is no pollution.

2. Practical operation of the arc proc-

ess with power from a wind turbine

appears to require an arc reactor

with constant arc length. Some work

on voltage regulation and startup

controls is also needed.

3. An effort should be made to im-

prove yield of electrical processes

for nitrogen fixation, utilizing con-

temporary theory and experimental

capability.

4. More work on optimum design of

wind turbine systems should be

done, in anticipation of the next en-

ergy crisis.

6. Acknowledgements

The research described in this paper

was supported by USDA/SEA Grant No.

59-2311-0-2-035-0; by the Charles A.

Lindbergh Fund, Inc.; by the University

of Nebraska Research Council; and by the

University of Nebraska College of Engi-

neering. Thanks are due to M. K. Pratt,

B. K. Rein, N. W. Sullivan and Professor

A. R. Edison for assistance and advice.

References Cited

1. Ernst, F. A. 1928. Fixation of atmospheric nitro-

gen. Van Nostrand, New York.

2. Raestad, C. 1930. Norsk hydro 25 years old Dec.

2, 1930. Teknish Ukeblad Vol. 77 No. 48, Nov.

25, 1930, p. 552-557. Abstract in Engineering

Index.

3. Steinmetz, C. P. 1920. Theoretical Study of ni-

trogen fixation by the electric arc. Chemical and

Metallurgical Engineering. (Chemical Engineer-

ing) February 18-25; March 3 and 10.

4. Colin, P. G. and Tartar, H. V. 1927. A laboratory

study of nitrogen fixation by the high tension arc.

Jl. of Phys. Chem. Vol. 31, No. 10.

. Gilbert, R. E. Private communication.

. Treharne, R. W. 1978. A nitrogen fertilizer gen-

erator for farm use. Technical Note 1. Charles

F. Kettering Research Laboratory, Yellow

Springs, Ohio.

7. Rein, B. K., Sullivan, N. W. and Fischbach, P.

E. 1980. Nitrogen fertilizer from solar energy.

Paper No. 80-3545 presented at the Winter Meet-

ing of the American Society of Agricultural En-

gineers.

8. Martin, C. W. 1983. Nitrogen fixation with wind

energy. Final Report for USDA/SEA Grant No.

59-2311-0-2-035-0.

9. Martin, C. W. and Heber, A. J. 1983. Solar pow-

ered nitrogen fixation. In Alternate energy

sources VI. Vol. 1, T. N. Veziroglu, Ed., Hem-

isphere Publishing Co.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 141-145, December 1987

“Communicating with an

Endangered Culture: The Maasai

Mara Expeditions”

Robert Pearlman

President, Voyager Press, Box 3356, Noroton Station, Darien,

Connecticut 06820

ABSTRACT

“Each day that we camped made the jungle more real and, at the same time, civiliza-

tion stranger, until I understood the Maasai questioning our values.’’(Charles A.

Lindbergh, Autobiography of Values, page 381)

The Maasai are on a collision course with modern society in Kenya. Their land has

been slowly and systematically eroded by tourism under the guise of nationalizing game

reserves and by various land management schemes that are, in theory, designed to benefit

the Maasai population as a whole, but in reality benefit only a small number of politically

astute individuals.

Maasailand once covered virtually all of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Today, their

nomadic lifestyle is restricted to an ever decreasing area of southern Kenya and northern

Tanzania. Consequently, the Maasai are tenaciously holding on to a way of life against

all odds. They are a nomadic people who do not feel compelled to assimilate or absorb

external cultures. Hopefully, it is not too late to preserve the culture and identity of the

Maasai people. By studying their language, nomenclature and color preferences we can

learn how the Maasai see, feel, think and communicate—on their own terms. By devel-

oping empathy with and for the Maasai culture we can better understand the problems

they face and we can look for solutions wihtin a Maasai frame of reference. For the only

chance the Maasai have for survival is to learn, once again, to control their own destiny.

The Maasai Mara Expeditions

The Maasai Mara Expeditions were

conceived as a means of producing an in-

tercultural communications handbook

about the Massai. Named for the lan-

guage they speak, Maa, a distinct and un-

written African tongue, the Maasai of

Kenya still live much as they did thou-

141

sands of years ago. Today, communi-

cations with the 300,000 inhabitants of

Maasailand is frequently diffused and

misinterpreted because the Maa language

and cultural frame of references are to-

tally ignored.

A failure to communicate with the

Maasai was first brought to my attention

by Thane Riney who, at the time, was

142 ROBERT PEARLMAN

Chief of Wildlife and Forestry in Africa

for the Food and Agricultural Organiza-

tion of the United Nations (FAO). Mr.

Riney recognized that English and Maa-

sai, lacking a common frame of reference,

lost a great deal through translation in yet

a third language, Swahili. Even two re-

fined languages such as English and Rus-

sian can be difficult to translate. For

example, the phrase “‘out of sight, out of

mind” translated from English to Russian

and immediately back into English trans-

lates as “invisible maniac’. And we have

a great deal in common with the Russians

compared with a total lack of knowledge

of the Maa language and Maasai attitudes

and perceptions. Therefore, it should

come as no surprise that FAO projects

encompassing health, education and wel-

fare, programs for legislating land, pro-

grams for increasing crop yields and

improving cattle range land—all failed,

wasting enormous amounts of time, en-

ergy and financial resources.

The specific aim of the Maasai Mara

Expeditions is to develop a communi-

cations handbook that defines Maasai

words, graphics, symbols, color associa-

tions and preferences. In the execution of

communications materials for Maasai

projects in the past, the use and impor-

tance of color has been overlooked en-

tirely. If we want a positive reaction to

our communications efforts, knowing

which colors produce a positive effect is

extremely important. That this is true is

evident and easily substantiated by the

millions of dollars spent by manufacturers

and advertising agencies researching

product and package design. We know a

great deal about how people or groups of

people react to color. For example,

Americans rank the following colors in

order of preference; (1) blue, (2) red, (3)

green, (4) white, (5) pink, (6) purple, (7)

orange, (8) yellow. Cooler colors are pre-

ferred by people in cooler climates,

warmer shades are preferred in the

warmer parts of the country. More im-

portantly, colors are not used only for aes-

thetic reasons; they are loaded with

meaning. Color communicats, suggests,

COMMUNICATING WITH AN ENDANGERED CULTURE 143

evokes associations—and therefore cre-

ates feelings and brings back memories.

We also know that color is emotional,

not rational, and the appeal is largely sub-

conscious. There also seems to be a col-

lective subconscious and, as a

consequence, all individuals belonging to

the same culture seem to react in a similar

way when exposed to color. For example,

black and orange have become traditional

colors for Halloween just as red and green

have become traditional colors for Christ-

mas. Additionally, color creates very def-

inite psychological feelings. Medically, it

has been found that red can effect blood

pressure and respiration. Blue, on the

other hand, is a psychological sedative.

Yellow produces the sensation of sunlight

and warmth, yet the slightest change in

yellow will render it warm or cold, sooth-

ing or irritating. Our color research with

the Maasai found that black, a negative

color in the west, ranked first as it rep-

resented the sky before it rains, which

translates into abundant water for their

cattle.

Other areas of visual comprehension

that need to be explored include magnifi-

cation, perspective and foreshortening.

These visual phenomena, along with the

mental concept of anticipation, are all

relative abstractions in a literal culture.

Maasai Mara Expedition I was spon-

sored by The Explorers Club and funded

by Discover Magazine. Conducted in

March, 1982, two tented base camps were

established in the Maasai Mara Game Re-

serve and in the Loita Hills near the Tan-

zania border. The research team

consisted of six participants and six camp

crew. Research was, for the most part, de-

ductive, starting with a specific premise

and arriving at a logical conclusion. Expe-

dition members systematically photo-

graphed the color and graphic design of

beaded jewelry and clothing, documented

color preferences and associations in re-

lationship to culture and environment,

photographed cattle branding, recorded

oral traditions and collected material cul-

ture for future references.

Maasai Mara Expedition II was spon-

sored by The Explorers Club and funded

by Discover Magazine and Rolex Watch

USA. Conducted in January, 1983, a sin-

gle base camp was established on the

Mara River within the Maasai Mara

Game Reserve. The project team con-

sisted of four participants, eight camp

crew and six film crew. Expeditions mem-

bers systematically photographed color

and graphics in beaded jewelry, docu-

mented color associations and recorded

nomenclature of common objects. Ad-

ditionally, due to a government ban on

the importation of beads and on the for-

mation of warrior manyattas (camps), no

material culture was collected and the

Maasai warrior camps have been forced

into hiding in the deep bush country. Our

objective was to locate a secret Maasai

warrior camp, perhaps the last manyatta

in Maasailand, and document the tenacity

of a proud people holding on to a way of

life against all odds. British television pro-

duced a half hour, prime time network

documentary of the expedition for world-

wide distribution. This film has since been

aired in the United States on the Discov-

ery Channel. It is hoped that public

awareness of the Maasai plight will reduce

government pressure.

Massai Mara Expedition III was funded

entirely by The Lindbergh Fund. Con-

ducted in December, 1984 and January,

1985, by two of the original team mem-

bers, a series of interviews were arranged

and recorded to balance our predisposed

point-of-view in favor of the Maasai. In

addition to interviewing businessmen,

politicians, and Maasai Game Wardens,

funding allowed us to continue photog-

raphy of material culture and illustrations

of common objects for a dictionary of

Maa nomenclature.

Maasai Mara Expedition IV will be con-

ducted in October and November, 1987

to review the final manuscript for accu-

racy and to incorporate the current state-

of-affairs to Maasailand. Manuscript will

be ready for publication in the spring of

1988.

144 ROBERT PEARLMAN

A brief review of previously published

material on the Maasai falls into a number

of different categories including histori-

cal, autobiographical, ecological, ethnol-

ogy and social anthropology.

One of the earliest and most interesting

accounts is Joseph Thomson’s ““Through

Maasai Land’’. Published by E. F. Loftus

as part of the Early Travellers in East Af-

rica series. Joseph Thomson was the first

white “European” to enter Maasailand in

January, 1883 and reported in great detail

on the trials and tribulations of exploring

unkown territory and his first encounters

with the Maasai, establishing notions of

Savage primitivism for the next twenty

years. Autobiographical works written

through the early part of this century and

up through the present day tell quite a

different story. ““Barefoot over the Ser-

engetti” and “‘Waters of the Sanjan”’ by

David Read, “African Saga’”’ by Mirella

Ricciardi and ‘“‘Maasai”’ by Sonia Bleeker

all speak of the friendly, honest, intelli-

gent nature of a proud and independent

people.

It would be fair to say that ninety per-

cent of all books publishd on the Maasai

are somewhat repetitive, beginning with

Gunther’s “Inside Africa” and ending

with the latest tourist guidebook. These

books range from a modest review of cul-

tural highlights, such as ““Kenya Past and

Present” published by the Kenya Mu-

seum Society, to expensive ‘‘coffee table”’

books with magnificent color plates, such

as ‘“‘Maasai” by Carol Beckwith and Te-

pilit Ole Saitoti. Other visual presenta-

tions of the Maasai culture include

‘Vanishing Africa’ by Leni Riefenstahl,

‘Africa, A Continent Revealed” by Rene

Gordon, ‘“‘Massai”’ by Salvadori and Fed-

ders, ‘““Maasai the Magnificent” by Ada

Wincza (a private edition of 500 copies).

“The Maasai” by S. S. Sankan, and “The

Herd & Spear’ by Solomon Ole Saibull.

These books are quite beautiful to look

at and are comprehensive regarding the

daily lifestyle and cultural traditions of the

Maasai.

‘‘Maasai Grammer’’ by Tucker and

Mpaayei, ““Maa”’ and “Maasai Mara” by

Fr. Frans Mol, ““Rangeland Management

and Ecology in East Africa” by D. J. Pratt

and M. D. Gwynne, and “The Lonely

African” by Colin Turnbull, though con-

cerned with the Maasai in contemporary

society to a much greater degree, still fail

to offer any solutions.

If solutions are not found soon, the

Maasai will be increasingly disenfran-

chised and alienated from Kenyan society

by the end of the century. It is startling

to realize that two percent of the world’s

population are nomadic peoples, yet they

inhabit nearly fifty percent of the avail-

able land surface. They are the most ne-

glected group where international

assistance and health services are con-

cerned, partially due to the extremely low

density of their numbers in the vast areas

through which they roam. Often their cul-

tures and values are little or not at all

known to us, necessitating new ap-

proaches to communication. Nomadism is

the consequence of long historical adap-

tation by groups to particular climatic and

ecological circumstances. Technological

progress in Kenya is creating pressure on

the natural environment, the vast area of

Maasailand, and the Maasai themselves

are forced into the matrix. Nomads forced

to leave their natural environment and

their tribal, migratory lifestyle to settle

into community life results in decultura-

tion, establishment of slum existence and

severe psycho-social disturbance. They

will tend still to rely to some extent on

their traditional principles, so that

intercultural projects must win local co-

operation of the tribe.

One of the most celebrated peoples of

Africa, for centuries the Maasai have

roamed the land and ignored the national

boundaries that sprung up around them.

But today, they are finding themselves

increasingly restricted and misunderstood

by the modern Africa that now encircles

them. The Maasai Mara Expeditions is a

completely original investigation dealing

IMPINGING JETS IN THE JET ENGINE INDUSTRY 145

with the Maasai point-of-view; their per-

ception and frame of reference in regard

to language, color and graphics. In the

end, the preservation of the Maasai’s nat-

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 145-148, December 1987

ural environment depends not on know-

ing how to speak to them, but rather, in

learning how to listen.

Environmental Benefits

and Possible Applications

of Excited Impinging Jets in the

Jet Engine Industry

Peter J. Disimile, Ph.D. and David M. Paule

Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Mail

Location 70, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0070

ABSTRACT

The development of advanced heat transfer techniques is of significant importance to

the environment and the growing jet engine industry as the impetus towards reductions

in aircraft fuel consumption and by-product pollutants present in aircraft exhaust. By

studying how the application of excited flow fields can change the cooling characteristics

of a jet engine turbine blade, it may be possible to optimize cooling techniques which will

allow gas turbine engines to be operated at higher temperatures. In experiments conducted

by the authors, a curved plate (used to simulate the inner leading edge of a blade) was

subjected to a jet flow field with an induced periodic disturbance. This disturbed flow

was found to be less efficient at cooling the blade than that of an unexcited field. Through

interaction with the jet engine industry, there will be an opportunity to develop new

research programs investigating the suppression of any harmonic disturbances in the

impinging jet cooling techniques presently used in modern day aircraft engines. If new

methods of blade cooling can be developed which allow engines to operate at higher

temperatures (and thereby consume less fuel), it will be possible to positively effect both

industry and environment through the production of more cost efficient yet less polluting

aircraft. (Figure 1)

A major problem facing the gas turbine

industry involves developing a way to

increase fuel efficiency by allowing the

production engine to operate at higher

temperatures. Present metallurgical lim-

itations restrict the operating tempera-

tures to approximately 1,300°C. For this

reason, an increase in gas temperatures

146 PETER J. DISIMILE, PH.D. AND DAVID M. PAULE

Fig. 1. A Gates 35/36 Learjet, typically used for corporate executive transport. This is an example of

the type of aircraft which would benefit from the development of more efficient engine cooling techniques.

require the development, optimization,

and implementation of more effective

heat transfer techniques.

Turbine blade cooling is often accom-

plished through the use of a jet flow im-

pinging on the blade’s inner leading edge

(Figure 2). The air used for cooling is bled

off of the engine’s compressor. This air,

by the very nature of its origin, is not

acoustically stable. In certain cases,

acoustics will enhance heat transfer by

strengthening vorticies in the flow field.

In other instances, excitation will sup-

press turbulence and flow field vortices,

thus reducing heat transfer. In the latter

case, overall engine performance is re-

duced.

For this experiment, a curved plate

mounted in a thermally insulated box

(Figure 3) was subjected to an impinge-

ment jet emanating from a rectangular

nozzle mounted at an adjustable height.

Upstream of the nozzle was a settling

chamber containing a 25 cm speaker

which provided harmonic excitation to

the flow field. The plate temperatures

were measured by thermocouples using a

computer controlled data acquisition fa-

cility. When the flow field was excited,

plate temperatures were found to increase

by as much as 10%. To understand this,

One must examine the structure of the

flow field itself.

As a jet of air exits a nozzle, it sheds a

train of vorticies from each nozzle lip

which advect downstream before even-

tually breaking up into a fully turbulent

jet flow. When excited, these vorticies co-

alesce, or “roll-up” into large discrete

structures. Since these structures are gen-

erated in pairs, there exists a high induced

velocity field between them which, un-

der ordinary circumstances, would be

expected to enhance heat transfer.

However, it is believed that, due to the

confined fluid field within the curvature

of the plate, these vorticies re-entrain the

already warmed air. Since a smaller tem-

IMPINGING JETS IN THE JET ENGINE INDUSTRY 147

LEADING

EDGE

TRAILING

ig ose: ete EDGE

BLADE COOLING CHAMBER

Fig. 2. Turbine blade cooling process.

perature difference exists between the

blade and the plate, less heat is trans-

ferred from the blade, and the cooling

efficiency of the jet is reduced.'*74>-°”

It would appear that these preliminary

tests warrant a more comprehensive study

of excitation effects. By working with the

jet-engine industry, we plan to acquire

experimental data on the frequency and

amplitudes of periodic disturbances pres-

ent in modern gas turbine engines. These

conditions will then be reproduced in the

present experimental facility to determine

if it is possible to squelch the dominant

frequencies and optimize heat transfer.

As heat transfer is increased, the amount

of air spent from the compressor is re-

duced. This reduction, in turn, increases

—+———————— AIR SUPPLY LINE

CHAMBER WALL

SPEAKER SUPPORT

CUTAWAY VIEW OF PLENUM

Fig. 3. A Typical Jet Engine.

the overall fuel efficiency of the engine.

By raising efficiency, the average fuel

consumption is reduced, as is the over-all

pollution emitted by the engine.

In the long run, it is hoped that, by

developing and optimizing systems which

reduce flow field disturbances, a signifi-

cant contribution can be made towards

increasing turbine performance. By pur-

suing the study and reconceptualization

of such mechanisms as impinging jet cool-

ing, we may ultimately and positively ef-

fect the quality of life on Earth through

more efficient use of its natural resources

and enhancement of the atmosphere and

environment.

Acknowledgement

The author’s wish to acknowledge Rob-

ert Annan for his assistance in the devel-

opment of the blade cooling research

facility.

References Cited

1. Gardon, R. and Cobonque, ‘Heat Transfer Be-

tween a Flat Plate and Jets of Air Impinging on

it,” 1961, International Heat Transfer Confer-

ence, Part II, pg. 454.

2. Metzgher, D. E., Yamashita, T., and Jenkins,

G.W., “Impingement Cooling on Concave sur-

faces with Lines of Circular Air Jets,” Journal of

Engineering for Power, Trans. A.S.M.E., Series

H, Vol. 91, No. 3, July 1969, p. 149, January,

1969.

3. Tabakoff, W. and Clevenger, W., ‘Gas Turbine

Blade Heat Transfer Augmentation by Impinge-

148

ment of Air Jets Having Various Configura-

tions,” Journal of Engineering Power, 94, 51-60,

(1972).

. Nevins, R. G., and Ball, H. D., ‘““Heat Transfer

Between a Flat Plate and a Pulsating Impinging

Jet,” 1961, International Heat Transfer Confer-

ence, Part II, p. 510.

. Hrycak, P., ““Heat Transfer from a Row of Im-

pinging Jets to Concave Cylindrical Surfaces,”

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,

Vol. 24, No. 3, p. 407, March 1981.

PETER J. DISIMILE, PH.D. AND DAVID M. PAULE

6. Kawaike, K., Kobayashi, N., and Ikequchi, T.,

“Effects of New Blade Cooling System with Min-

imized Gas Temperature Dilution on Gas Tur-

bine Performance,” Journal of Engineering for

Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. 106, No. 4, p. 756,

October 1984.

. NASA Technical Paper 2322, Yeh, F. C., and

Stepka, F. S., ““Review and Status of Heat Trans-

fer Technology for Internal Passages of Air-

Cooled Turbine Blades,’’ Lewis Research Cen-

ter, 1984.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 149-154, December 1987

Soil Conservation and

Redevelopment of Agricultural

Terraces in the Colca Valley, Peru

Jonathan A. Sandor

Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011

ABSTRACT

Ancient farming sites offer an opportunity to learn about the long-term effects of

agriculture on soils and landscapes. An understanding of these effects is essential in the

search to balance intensive agricultural land use with the conservation of soil resources.

In this study, soils terraced and farmed for at least 1500 years in the Andes of southern

Peru were investigated to evaluate their productivity and to observe soils cultivated over

a long time period. While over half of the agricultural terraces are abandoned, many are

still in use. The government of Peru is interested in redeveloping abandoned terraces to

increase food production for a growing population. Field and laboratory research suggests

that soils in both presently cultivated and abandoned terraces have physical and chemical

properties favorable for agriculture. Properties indicative of good tilth and fertility in

topsoils include: thick loamy topsoils, granular structure and abundant macropores,

slightly acid to neutral pH, and relatively high amounts of organic matter and nutrients

such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These data suggest that traditional management practices

in the region support a sustainable agricultural system that is well-adapted to the moun-

tainous environment and that the potential productivity of abandoned terraces is high.

Introduction

This study of soils in ancient agricul-

tural terraces in Peru has focused on two

problems relating to agricultural land use

and soil conservation. The first problem

involves the long-term effect of agricul-

ture on soil. While much research has

been directed toward evaluating the rel-

atively recent effects of agricultural prac-

tices on soils, less is known about the

effects of agriculture on soils after cen-

turies of use.'* The Colca Valley provides

an excellent opportunity to study soils cul-

tivated during the past 1500 years or

more.

A second concern in this study is the

abandonment of over half of the tradi-

tional agricultural terraces in Peru, most

of which were built before the Spanish

conquest.** In the Andes and other

Mountainous regions, agricultural ter-

races are an important source of arable

land. Mountain terracing, involving the

construction of nearly level fields upslope

of a series of stepped walls built across

hillslopes, creates stable fields in terrain

otherwise unsuitable for farming because

149

150 JONATHAN A. SANDOR

of steep slopes and shallow soils (Fig. 1).

It is estimated that terraced fields consti-

tute one million of the 2.6 million hectares

of cultivated land in Peru. The extensive

disuse of terraces thus constitutes a sig-

nificant loss of farmland at a time of in-

creased need for food production with

rising population, and at a time when

many rural people are losing self-suffi-

ciency by migrating to overcrowded cities.

This situation has prompted the Peruvian

government and certain U.S. government

agencies to become interested in restoring

abandoned terraces and associated irri-

gation systems.° Information about the

current and potential productivity of ter-

raced soils would help to provide a basis

for redevelopment of abandoned ter-

races.

Both problems addressed in this study

relate closely to Lindbergh’s concept of a

balance between technological growth

and conservation of natural resources.

First, many who are involved with agri-

cultural and environmental sciences are

increasingly aware of the need for agri-

cultural systems that are not only highly

productive, but that also conserve, rather

than degrade, soils and other natural re-

sources.’ Knowledge about traditional

agricultural systems and a longer time

perspective on the effects of agriculture

on soils may help in the search for a bal-

ance between the intensifying land use

accompanying modern agricultural

technology and the need for resource con-

servation. Because soil is essentially a

non-renewable resource on a human time

scale, monitoring soil changes induced by

cultivation, cropping, and other agricul-

tural practices is an integral part of the

effort to conserve soil.

Second, agricultural terraces of the An-

des and other regions themselves com-

prise a valuable resource with a long

history. Many who have observed these

terraces recognize the extraordinary en-

gineering and agricultural skills involved

in their creation and use. In essence, ex-

tensively terraced areas such as the Colca

Valley represent agroecosystems well-

adapted to a mountainous environment

Fig. 1. Agricultural terraces in the Colca Valley, Peru. Abandoned agricultural terraces in foreground.

REDEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL TERRACES IN PERU 151

(Fig. 1). This research suggests that both

presently used and abandoned terraced

soils in the Colca Valley are agricultur-

ally excellent because of careful terrace

construction and good soil management

practices. Redevelopment of abandoned

terraces represents a sound way to in-

crease agricultural production without en-

vironmental degradation.

Methodology

This study, begun in 1984, involved

both field and laboratory phases. Field-

work consisted of describing®’ and sam-

pling soil profiles in a variety of geo-

morphic settings to characterize the range

of cultivated and natural soils. Data on

uncultivated soils gave information on se-

lection of sites for agricultural terracing

and also provided a reference against

which soil changes resulting from agri-

cultural practices could be assessed. Also,

many samples from 0 to 15-cm depth were

collected along transects in presently cul-

tivated terraces, abandoned terraces, and

uncultivated areas to characterize topsoils

more intensively. Volcanic rock and or-

ganic deposits were sampled to develop a

chronology of natural soil development

and the history of agricultural soils.

Stream water samples were collected to

examine the possible long-term effects of

irrigation water on the soils. A general

soil/surficial geology map of part of the

Colca Valley was also prepared.

Laboratory analyses relevant to eval-

uating the productivity, fertility, and

other properties of the soils were also con-

ducted. Properties measured to assess

tilth, water retention, water movement,

and aeration include texture, bulk den-

sity, and available water capacity. Prop-

erties measured to assess soil fertility

include organic carbon, total nitrogen, to-

tal phosphorus, availability of selected

nutrients (e.g., phosphorus), carbonate,

pH, cation exchange capacity and ex-

changeable bases, and mineralogy. De-

tails and references for sample prepar-

ation and analyses of these properties

are given elsewhere.*” Methods for analy-

ses reported in Table 1 include: soil texture

(pipette method), bulk density (clod me-

thod), total nitrogen (semimicro Kjeldahl

method), and pH (1:1 soil to water, glass

electrode). Chemical analyses of irri-

gation water, acidified in the field to less

than pH 2, were determined by the Uni-

versity of Minnesota Analytical Research

Laboratory using ICP. Radiocarbon

dating was done by Beta Analytic, Inc.

and potassium/argon dating was done by

the Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry

at the University of Arizona.

Results

Information gathered to date about

natural and terraced soils in the Colca

Valley is summarized in this section.

Please refer to Sandor®” for a more de-

tailed presentation.

A perspective on the relatively rapid

and profound soil changes resulting from

agriculture can be gained by considering

that many of these soils had been forming

naturally for thousands of years before

agriculture and human existence in the

semiarid region. During that time, sub-

soils layers with accumulations of clay,

silica, and carbonate developed in stable

landscape positions. Dark-colored, or-

ganic matter-rich topsoils were mostly less

than 0.5 meter thick. Volcanic rocks un-

derlying a moderately developed soil

within the main Colca Valley was dated

in this study by the potassium/argon

method at 172,000 + 14,000 years. This

means that many of the natural soils were

several hundred thousand years to per-

haps several million years old before they

were farmed.

Soils in the Colca Valley have been

greatly changed from their natural state

by agriculture, especially their upper lay-

ers. The long history and continuity of soil

use is indicated by radiocarbon dates and

152 JONATHAN A. SANDOR

Table 1.—Summary of laboratory data for 1986 soil samples (0-15 cm depth) collected along transects

at 5 meter intervals in the Colca Valley, Peru.

Number

Transect of

type samples Sand Silt

STAC PS CIES

Cultivated

Agricultural

Terraces 34 42(6) 37(3)

Abandoned

Agricultural

Terraces oF ae 42(4) 40(5)

Uncultivated

Areas 30 47(6) 32(5)

LSDoos 3 2

Bulk Total

Clay density pH Nitrogen

“nati Mg m* eke

20(1) 1.33(0.10) 6.4(0.2) 1.72(0.22)

19(3) 1.35(0.10) 6.7(0.4) 1.57(0.51)

21(5) 1.38(0.09) 722(0.5) 1.17(0.30)

1.5 0.05 0.2 0.18

Notes: 1. Data are means with standard deviations in parentheses.

2. Samples from two cultivated and abandoned terrace transects, and three uncultivated area

transects, are combined in this table.

3. LSDoos = Least significant difference at the 0.05 level.

archaeological evidence which show ter-

race agriculture continuing from over

1500 years ago to the present day.*” Soil

changes are most pronounced in topsoils

and include: thickening, texture changes,

distinctive soil structure and pores, irreg-

ular trends of organic matter and other

chemical properties with depth, decreases

in pH, and increases in nitrogen and phos-

phorus. In several properties (clay and silt

content, pH, total nitrogen), cultivated

soils are more uniform than topsoils in

abandoned terraces or uncultivated areas

(Table 1). Subsoils beneath terraced

surfaces have generally remained intact,

although there is evidence for their

chemical alteration by downward move-

ment of ions in solution. The specific

changes in soil physical and chemical

properties discussed below are largely the

result of agricultural practices such as ter-

racing, cultivation, fertilization, and irri-

gation. These soil properties are impor-

tant determinants of soil productivity.

Probably the most visible soil physical

change is topsoil thickness increase, rang-

ing from 0.3 to 1.3 meters, brought about

by terrace construction.’ Also, a compar-

ison of topsoils from cultivated terraces,

abandoned terraces, and uncultivated

areas indicates a modest increase in silt

and a corresponding decrease in sand in

terraced soils (Table 1). This is likely the

result of particle-size sorting during the

accumulation of sediment upslope of

terrace walls. Terraced topsoils have

distinctive structure and pores. The

compound structure is medium suban-

gular blocky parting to fine subangular

blocky and granular.* Macropores, often

tubular in shape, are abundant, as are

earthworms in presently cultivated soils.

The favorable tilth exhibited by these soils

is further shown by moderate bulk den-

sity, which tends to be lower in terraced

vs. uncultivated topsoils (Table 1).

Several soil chemical properties have

also been transformed by agricultural

practices. Organic matter and total nitro-

gen (Table 1) contents of terraced topsoils

are generally high, but often are irregular

with depth,’ probably because of periodic

additions of dung and other amendments

(e.g., ash from burned vegetation) added

to the soils over the long duration of ag-

ricultural use. Similar buried organic mat-

ter-rich layers were reported in Andean

agricultural terraces by Wright’’ and Kee-

REDEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL TERRACES IN PERU 153

ley.'' High concentrations of phosphorus

occur in presently cultivated and aban-

doned terrace soils.” These high phospho-

rus levels reflect residual accumulation

from long-term fertilization. This study

has also documented significant move-

ment of agricultural phosphorus into sub-

soils, notable because soil phosphorus is

usually considered relatively immobile.”

These data add a longer time perspective

to research on modern U.S. agricultural

soils which indicates phosphorus move-

ment in association with manure additions

(e.g., Tisdale et al.'’). The pH of terraced

topsoils is usually slightly acid to neutral,

a range generally considered optimal for

nutrient uptake by plants. The transect

data reveals a trend of decreasing pH

from uncultivated soils to soils in aban-

doned and cultivated terraces (Table 1).

A possible reason for this is increased ni-

trification in terraced soils with higher or-

ganic matter contents. Leaching of soils

by irrigation water may also play a role

in pH decrease; however, irrigation water

also adds significant quantities of bases

such as calclum, magnesium, sodium, and

potassium to terraced soils.

Discussion

While much work remains to be done

on the issues of restoration of abandoned

terraces and soil changes caused by ag-

riculture, progress has been made on both

problems in this study. The emerging pic-

ture is that topsoils in both cultivated and

abandoned agricultural terraces seem to

be agriculturally excellent in most re-

spects. In terms of physical condition, the

granular structure, friable consistence,

abundant macropores, earthworm activ-

ity, and extensive root permeation indi-

cate good soil tilth.? The structure and

porosity result in favorable permeability

and aeration, and the moderate bulk

densities show that the soils have not been

compacted from tillage. These features

combine with the loam texture and thick

topsoil to produce a high available water

capacity. Relatively high organic matter

levels also promote aggregate stability

and good tilth. Soil retained behind ter-

race walls provides a deep rooting me-

dium. Soils in the terraces, even those on

steep slopes, are generally stable, except

in some landslide areas. Factors such as

careful construction and close spacing of

terrace walls, as well as subsoil properties

that seem to favor low erodibility (e.g.,

silica cementation is one possibility being

explored), may contribute to the soil sta-

bility. Both cultivated and abandoned ter-

raced soils seem generally fertile, having

received additions of organic fertilizers

over a long time period. The majority of

soils have levels of organic matter and the

macronutrient nitrogen comparable to

fertile soils in the Midwest U.S. These

relatively high organic matter levels,

dominance of smectitic clays, and slightly

acid to neutral pH, indicate high cation

exchange capacities and base saturation

percentages. The soils are generally rich

in total and available phosphorus.

This study suggests that soil is not a

limiting factor with regard to the poten-

tial for redeveloping abandoned agricul-

tural terraces in the region. Why, then, is

terrace redevelopment such a difficult

undertaking? Treacy,> who has worked

closely with farmers in the study area,

identified several social and economic

barriers to terrace reconstruction. These

include problems of land ownership,

water rights, labor relations, and securing

new markets for new production. Until

progress is made on these issues, terrace

restoration projects such as that begun in

the study area in 1986° will have difficulty

making headway. Even so, these initial

efforts that are fraught with difficulties

may open possibilities for future success.

In terms of this study, basic data about

the soil resources in the agricultural ter-

races are being made available to govern-

ment agencies of Peru and the U.S.

involved in terrace reconstruction. Fur-

ther testing of initial results and research

into questions about phosphorus, soil sta-

154

bility, and indigenous soil knowledge in

the Colca Valley are continuing.

Agricultural practices over the past

1500 years or more have clearly altered

the soils of the Colca Valley. Most of

these changes are interpreted as having a

beneficial effect in terms of soil produc-

tivity, in contrast to the degradation in-

curred by many modern or some other

prehistoric agricultural soils.* These ter-

raced soils are similar in some respects to

plaggen soils in Europe and elsewhere,

which have been built up over centuries

of use by additions of amendents.® Re-

searchers striving today for agricultural

systems that maintain soil quality as well

as production can look to the Colca Valley

terraces as an example of sustainable ag-

riculture. Traditional management prac-

tices in the region such as terracing,

fertilization, crop rotation/fallowing, and

low-impact tillage form the basis of an

agricultural system that conserves soil and

is well-adapted to its mountainous envi-

ronment.

Acknowledgments

Deepest thanks to the many people

who have helped with this study, partic-

ularly to my graduate student, Neal Eash,

for his work in the field and laboratory.

I especially acknowledge the support of

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund, Inc. and

The Harry Frank Guggenheim Founda-

tion.

References Cited

1. Follett, R. F. and B. A. Stewart (ed.). 1985.

Soil erosion and crop productivity. American

Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

2. Sandor, J. A., P. L. Gersper, and J. W. Hawley.

1986a. Soils at prehistoric agricultural terracing

10.

12:

14:

JONATHAN A. SANDOR

sites in New Mexico: I. Site placement and soil

morphology and classification. II. Organic mat-

ter and bulk density changes. III. Phosphorus,

selected micronutrients, and pH. Soil Sci. Soc.

Am. J. 50:166-180.

. Denevan, W. M. 1986. Introduction: The Rio

Colca abandoned terrace project. In: W. M. De-

nevan (ed.) The cultural ecology, archaeology,

and history of terracing and terrace abandon-

ment in the Colca Valley of southern Peru.

Technical report to the National Science Foun-

dation and National Geographic Society, De-

partment of Geography, University of Wis-

consin, Madison. pp. 8—46.

. Donkin, R. A. 1979. Agricultural terracing in

the aboriginal New World. University of Ari-

zona Press, Tucson.

. Treacy, J. M. In press. Building and rebuilding

agricultural terraces in the Colca Valley, Peru.

Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers

Yearbook, 1987.

. Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy. USDA-

SCS Agricultural Handbook 436. U.S. Govern-

ment Printing Office, Washington, DC.

. USDA-Soil Conservation Service. 1981. Soil

survey manual (draft). Chapter 4. USDA-SCS,

Washington, DC.

. Sandor, J. A. 1986b. Report on soils of agri-

cultural terraces in the Colca Valley, Peru. See

reference for Denevan, 1986. pp. 235-275.

. Sandor, J. A. In press. Initial investigation of

soils in agricultural terraces in the Colca Valley,

Peru. In: W. M. Denevan, K. Mathewson, and

G. Knapp (ed.) Prehispanic agricultural fields

in the Andean region. British Archaeological

Reports, International Series, Oxford.

Wright, A. C. S. 1963. The soil process and the

evolution of agriculture in northern Chile. Pa-

cific Viewpoint 4:65-—74.

Keeley, H. C. M. 1985. Soils of prehispanic

terrace systenis in the Cusichaca Valley, Peru.

In: I. S. Farrington (ed.) Prehistoric intensive

agriculture in the tropics. British Archaeologi-

cal Reports, International Series 232, Oxford.

pp. 547-568.

Eidt, R. S. 1984. Advances in abandoned set-

tlement analysis: Application to prehistoric an-

throsols in Colombia, South America. The

Center for Latin America, University of Wis-

consin, Milwaukee.

Tisdale, S. L., W. L. Nelson, and J. D. Beaton.

1985. Soil fertility and fertilizers. 4th ed. Mac-

millan Publishing Co., NY.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 155-161, December 1987

Utilization of Seafood Wastes as a

Source of Nutrients for

Agricultural Crops

Louis H. Aung, Raymond Reneau, Anthony Lopez

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,

Virginia 24061

and

Clark W. Nicklow

University of Massachusetts, Waltham, Massachusetts 02154

ABSTRACT

The U.S. Seafood industry generates large quantities of wastes and an acceptable

solution to dispose of the wastes within the boundary of federal and state laws is urgently

needed. The prohibition of indiscriminate dumping of the wastes into oceans, streams,

and lands has placed a severe burden on the industry and threatened its survival. The

proposed plan to use the wastes as a source of nutrients for agricultural crops fertilization

will lessen environmental contamination and confer upon the wastes an economic value

when used as a fertilizer. Such usages would help (a) to preserve the health and integrity

of the seafood industry and the cleanliness of our environment, and (b) to provide a better

understanding of the biological and chemical relatedness between marine and plant or-

ganisms.

Introduction

The practice of using seafood as a

source of nutrients for crop growing is an

ancient one. A popular Thanksgiving

story relates how the early American In-

Correspondence should be sent to: Dr. Louis H.

Aung, Department of Horticulture, Virginia Poly-

technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,

VA 24061.

155

dians put a fish in each “hill of corne”

and saved the Plymouth Colony from

starvation by teaching the Pilgrims to do

likewise. Although the authenticity of

such a practice and the origin of the

idea of utilizing fish as a fertilizer are un-

certain,’ it is generally recognized that

seafood contains nutritional qualities ben-

eficial for crop growth. The general per-

ceived beneficial aspects of seafood on

crop growth, however, are based upon

casual observations rather than method-

ological experimentation. Such percep-

156 LOUIS H. AUNG, ET AL.

tions of the desirable usefulness of

seafood on crops can perhaps be readily

appreciated when one considers the

chemical composition and ingredients

present in such materials. Both organic

and inorganic substances necessary for

crop growth are present in varying

amounts and kinds in seafood. Despite

the ancient practice of using seafood and

its byproducts for manuring crops, a

proper scientific understanding of the real

value and biochemical action and prop-

erties of seafood on plant growth is still

to be sought.

The literature pertaining to seafood

and its byproducts on plant growth is rel-

atively scarce because few scientific in-

vestigations have been conducted on the

subject. However, interest is gradually

growing because ecological (environmen-

tal), economic, and legal concerns dic-

tated attention to dealing with the sea-

food wastes problem.’ The U.S. seafood

industry generates a large quantity of

wastes. Thus, the disposal of the wastes

posed a major problem for the industry

and for preserving the cleanliness of the

natural environment.

In the past, animal scientists have used

seafood byproducts in feed rations to en-

hance body weight gain of farm livestock.

Recently, Mudge® showed that fish solu-

bles could serve as a source of nutrients

for certain species of insects. Crab wastes

have been composted and dehydrated for

disposal and have been used as a fertil-

izer.* In Louisiana, crawfish waste has

been shown to be an effective source of

calcium for neutralizing soil acidity in the

growth of Bermuda grass.° Fertilization

of corn grown for silage use in Idaho with

partially dried Rainbow Trout (Salmo

gairdneri) fish manure wastes indicated

increased yield.° Interest in the utilization

of seafood wastes for crop production is

also gaining interest outside the U.S.

Thus, Christensen’ reported the use of

fish pond sediments for cropping of maize

and mungbean in Asia. Since the gener-

ation of wastes is associated with the ex-

istence and activities of Homo sapiens, it

is not surprising that the problem of sea-

food wastes is not delimited by national

boundaries but is global in scope. In this

paper, pertinent past and recent infor-

mation concerned with the utilization and

action of seafood wastes and byproducts

on plant growth are presented and dis-

cussed.

Approach

The realization of the complex com-

ponents present in seafood wastes dic-

tated that our initial approach to the

problem should be relatively manageable

and straight forward. As a first step in

dissecting the problem, it was decided to

determine simply whether or not agricul-

tural crop plants could be grown using the

processed seafood wastes under con-

trolled defined conditions. In many ex-

periments conducted, a sand culture

technique® using purified or sea sand was

used for determining the action of seafood

wastes on crop growth. Measurements of

plant growth responses and the determi-

nation of mineral composition of useful

parts of crop plants were made to assess

the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the

seafood wastes. In some recent experi-

ments, the chemical changes in the crop

growing medium were also determined.

After several years of investigations, the

studies were expanded to experiments un-

der field environments involving scientists

from different states. The results of these

efforts were summarized in a Virginia Ex-

periment Station Research publication.’

In these studies, similar basal rates of the

processed seafood wastes were followed

to allow comparison between different lo-

cations.

Concentrated liquid fish fertilizer was

used for plant fertilization. The manufac-

ture, sources, and chemical composition

of the seafood products are detailed in a

previous report.’ To give an idea of the

fertilizer value of the seafood wastes

based upon a macronutrient, 1 ml of

SEAFOOD WASTES AS NUTRIENTS FOR CROPS 157

concentrated liquid fish when dissolved

in 1.0 liter of water contains an equiva-

lent of 60 mg of nitrogen. The nitrogen is

mainly in the organic form. Crop plants

were fertilized with various rates of the

diluted fish solutions applied to the grow-

ing medium at intervals. Crab meal was

purchased from a commercial source

and used as a pulverized dehydrated ma-

terial. It was incorporated and mixed thor-

oughly with sand at the start of the exper-

iments. Each g of pulverized crab meal

contained 6.5 m.e. calcium in addition to

other organic and inorganic substances.*

At different growth intervals, leachates

were collected for pH and nitrogen de-

terminations. Inorganic nitrogen in the

filtered (Whatman No. 1 paper) leachates

was determined colorimetrically follow-

ing extraction with 2N KCl."° The cal-

cium and other mineral contents were

determined by atomic absorption spec-

trophotometry."! In all cases, crop growth

and yields, and in some cases, chemical

composition were used to gauge the in-

fluences of the seafood materials as nu-

trients on crop performance. Overall, the

approach in these investigations of the

past decade was to objectively ascertain

the general efficacy and usefulness of sea-

food wastes and byproducts as a nutrient

source for crop production and to gain an

understanding of how the seafood mate-

rials alter plant behavior.

Observations and Results

The impression gained from both con-

trolled greenhouse and field experiments

involving a wide selection of food and

nonfood crops investigated was that sea-

food and its byproducts have beneficial

effects on plant growth. Depending upon

the kinds of crops and the purposes for

which they were grown, the effectiveness

of the seafood nutrients varies. But by

being attentive to a proper selection of

crop plant and fertilization with dilute

moderate concentrations of the seafood

materials, most tested crop plants have

shown beneficial responses. Plants grown

in pots benefited more from seafood nu-

trients that field-grown crops. Generally,

the fertilized plants showed a darker

green coloration, thicker and smaller fo-

liage, and a sturdy growth form (Fig. 1A).

In flowering and fruiting plants, the sea-

food materials delayed these processes

and the life span of the crops was ex-

tended (Fig. 1B).

Plants can grow to fruition (from seed

to seed) by being provided only with

diluted liquid fish solution. However, if

calcium is inadequate in the growing me-

dium, particularly for crops requiring a

relatively high supply of the element,

growth will be hindered and deficiency

symptoms will develop. For examples,

when crops like lettuce or tomato were

grown in a sand culture medium contain-

ing less than 0.01% calcium and fertilized

with liquid fish solutions, the seedlings

grew poorly (Fig. 2B) and developed

characteristic marginal tip burn of the

leaves and died within a short period of

time (Fig. 2D, 2F). In media which con-

tained adequate calcium or were aug-

mented with varying rates of crab meal to

provide calcium, the seedlings grew nor-

mally and exhibited a healthy dark-green

foliage (Fig. 2A, 2C, 2E). The most vig-

orous plant growth was seen when a mod-

erate concentration of liquid fish fertiliza-

tion was supplemented with moderate to

high rates of crab meal in the growing

medium.

Fertilization of plants with a combina-

tion of liquid fish and crab meal was su-

perior to either product used by itself

alone. When only fish product was used,

the pHs of the sand medium leachates

were between 3.5—4.7 varying with the

concentrations of the liquid fish used for

fertilization. Thus, unless the growing

media were buffered or provided with ad-

equate calcium, plant growth responses

will not be favorable. However, when

crab meal ranging between 0.2—0.6% (by

weight) was incorporated into the sand

growing medium, the pHs of the medium

LOUIS H. AUNG, ET AL.

158

Fig. 1. Plant growth responses to liquid fish fertilization. A: from left to right—Hoagland nutrient solution,

casein hydrolysate, low, medium, and high concentrations of liquid fish. Note the vigor and darker foliage

of the corn plants fertilized with the fish wastes; B: from left to right—tap water, low and high rates of

liquid fish, and Hoagland nutrient solution. Note the sturdy growth form, darker foliage, and delay in

senescence of the pea plants fertilized with the fish wastes.

SEAFOOD WASTES AS NUTRIENTS FOR CROPS 159

Fig. 2. Plant growth responses to seafood wastes.

A = Healthy vigorous tomato plants fertilized with

liquid fish and crab meal; B = Stunted and poorly

developed tomato plants fertilized with liquid fish

alone in a calcium-deficient medium; C = Normal

healthy tomato seedling grown with liquid fish in a

sand medium containing crab meal as a calcium

source; D = Necrotic and shrinking tomato seedling

grown in a medium lacking calcium; E = Healthy

lettuce seedling fertilized with liquid fish and crab

meal; and F = Necrotic and poorly developed let-

tuce seedling grown with liquid fish in a medium

lacking calcium.

were increased to above 6.5. These pHs

are conducive to plant growth. Therefore,

it is important to bear in mind when con-

templating the use of seafood wastes and

byproducts for commercial applications

to ascertain the pH and calcium status of

the growing media for a selected crop in

order to obtain the desired results. Dis-

regard of such factors will surely reap dis-

appointments and unprofitable results.

When crab meal was incorporated into

a sand medium and kept moist with dis-

tilled water and then sampled for calcium

at 3-14 days intervals over a period of 4

months, it was found that over 200—400

parts per million of calcium were detected

in the samples. The release of calcium

from the crab meal followed a fluctuating

up and down wavelike pattern over the

sampling period. The wavelike pattern of

calcium release into the sand medium ap-

pears to be due to a differential rate of

disintegration of varying particle sizes of

the crab shells. Presumably, the released

calcium following incubation was avail-

able for plant growth. The presumption

was supported by the fact that plants fer-

tilized with a complete nutrient solution

of inorganic salts lacking calcium but with

crab meal added to the growing medium

grew vigorously and showed no calcium

deficiency symptoms. Furthermore, the

content of calcium in plant tissues was

similar to the calcium content in plant tis-

sues of plants fertilized with a complete

inorganic nutrient solution. Calcium

being an essential element for maintain-

ing the growth and health of plants and

animals, it is not surprising that crab meal

which provided calcium should exert a de-

cisive influence on the growth and devel-

opment of crop plants.

The chemical composition of seafood

and its byproducts varies and thus some

adjustment must be made in order to ob-

tain the desired results with a crop. It

seems best to use seafood materials as a

supplementary source of nutrients. While

seafood materials contain all the inor-

ganic and organic substances essential for

plant growth, they may not provide a bal-

160 LOUIS H. AUNG, ET AL.

anced source of nutrients for all crop plant

species. Some degree of tailoring must be

made. It is desirable to maintain a pH of

5.5—6.5 for most crops and adequate cal-

cium in the growing medium of plants for

best results when using seafood materials

as nutrients.

Certain food crops like lettuce and to-

mato are predominantly grown and con-

sumed to provide essential minerals in the

human diets. Thus, particular attention

was given to determining the mineral

composition of these two crops grown un-

der greenhouse and field conditions. The

phosphorus and calcium contents of

greenhouse-grown lettuce fertilized with

seafood nutrients compared favorably

with field-grown lettuce. However, the

potassium and iron contents of the green-

house-grown lettuce were only a fraction

that of the field-grown lettuce. In tomato,

although phosphorus content of green-

house-grown fruits was higher than field-

grown fruits, the potassium and calcium

contents were lower than the field-grown

fruits. In general, the mineral composi-

tion results indicated that the seafood nu-

trients are available for uptake and

utilization by crop plants.

Discussion

The investigations carried out to ascer-

tain the nutritional influences of seafood

and its byproducts on the growth of crop

plants over the past 10 years have clearly

shown that the processed seafood mate-

rials have beneficial effects on plant

growth. It is heartening to know that from

three perspectives, namely, (a) from a bi-

ological viewpoint a plant can grow and

complete its life cycle provided only with

nutrients derived from seafood materials

alone, (b) from an economic viewpoint

the seafood wastes now appear to have a

dollar value and (c) from an ecological

viewpoint, judicious fractional usages of

the seafood materials as a fertilizer will

help to lessen the contamination of the

natural environment by massive indis-

criminate dumpings of the unused sea-

food wastes onto land and sea. The

realization that such nutrient-rich seafood

and its byproducts can have a healthful

and growth-stimulatory action on agri-

cultural crops should serve as an impetus

to continue research studies in order to

provide the essential information for the

profitable commercial uses by interested

individuals. It is unfortunate, however,

that the prevailing N-P-K mentality for

crop fertilization is given so much cre-

dence that new ventures to explore crop

fertilization are readily dismissed without

due examination. It seems that the animal

nutritionists are far ahead of the crop nu-

tritionists in their approach to livestock

feeding. The animal nutritionists have

formulated and used different kinds of

feed rations for livestock. The challenge

to the crop nutritionists is to think beyond

N-P-K and come up with similar feed for-

mulae tailor made for crop growth and

nutrition. The new technology may be

many years into the future, but the first

step will need to be a readjustment of an

N-P-K only mentality and approach for

crop fertilization. As mentioned previ-

ously,’ an approach for understanding

how fish hydrolysates affect plant growth

was to formulate mixtures of various or-

ganic and inorganic components known

to be present for testing and comparing

to the complete seafood materials. Such

an approach may lead to discovering cer-

tain formulations which may be better

suited for growing plants and for provid-

ing a basis for reformulating or refining

the original material for agricultural crop

fertilization and marketing. Perhaps, it

may be useful to house a functional re-

search unit to investigate marine fertil-

izers and bioregulators for plant and

animal feeds under the established insti-

tutes like the Scripps Institute of Ocean-

ography at La Jolla or Woods Hole

Oceanographic Institute. Alternatively, a

bold entrepreneur with unlimited venture

capital could initiate a Biotechnological

Marine-Agriculture Center which in time

SEAFOOD WASTES AS NUTRIENTS FOR CROPS 161

will yield dividends and save mankind

from pollution and starvation.

The ancient practice of using seafood

wastes and byproducts for agricultural

crops fell into disfavor with the advent of

the availability of commercial inorganic

fertilizers. The N-P-K mentality is so en-

trenched in modern practice and teaching

of crop fertilization that even considering

the complex components of organic and

inorganic substances present in seafood

materials, the liquified seafood materials

are constrained to be manufactured and

marketed under labels of N-P-K. Such a

view is unrealistic and impedes progress

toward a better understanding of plant

nutrition. Considering the gradual ero-

sion of our crop lands and steady deple-

tion of soil nutrients, the demands for

more efficient and innovative methods of

agricultural production and nutrients-rich

food crops for animals and human con-

sumption, new approaches and materials

for fertilization are needed.

A primary objective when these studies

were begun was to determine the general

efficacy of the seafood wastes on crop

growth. As it turns out, the results re-

vealed that in addition to plant growth

stimulation by the seafood nutrients, re-

productive development, and plant aging

were delayed. These intriguing observa-

tions are unexplained at present. The

composition of seafood materials is com-

plex,’’ and we lack the biochemical and

physiological understanding of the single

and combined actions of the different sea-

food components on metabolic processes.

For these reasons, no satisfactory expla-

nation is possible at this time concerning

the action of seafood materials on plant

reproductive development and aging.

These observations remain areas for fur-

ther investigations. Such studies can yield

significant results for understanding how

seafood components affect plant growth

and development and agricultural pro-

ductivity.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mrs. Joyce Shelton for typing

the manuscript; The Charles A. Lind-

bergh Fund, Inc. for partial financial

grant support of this work; and H. Wil-

liams, W. Seaward, L. Oosterhuis, and A.

Perfater for technical assistance.

References Cited

1. Ceci, L. 1975. Fish fertilizer: a native North

American practice? Science 188:26-—30.

2. Otwell, S. W. 1981. Seafood waste management

in the 1980’s. Florida Sea Grant Rept. 40:1-365.

3. Mudge, D. A. 1984. Responses of four preda-

ceous insects to fish soluble nutrients with em-

phasis on Coccinella transversoguttata Fal-

derman. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Master of

Science Thesis, Washington State University,

Pullman, Washington.

4. Cathcart, T. P., F. W. Wheaton, R. B.

Brinsfield, D. W. Lipton, I. E. Strand and D.

G. Swartz. 1984. Compositing blue crab proc-

essing waste. Univ. Maryland Sea Grant Publ.

84-01:1-123.

5. Desselle, L. J. 1980. The value of crawfish waste

as a live source and soil amendment. Louisiana

Sta. Univ. Sea Grant Rep. 80-023:77-84.

6. Smith, J. H. 1985. Fertilizing agricultural land

with rainbow trout manure for growing silage

corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 49:131-134.

7. Christensen, M. S. 1985. Influence of fish pond

sediments on yields of maize and mungbean

(Phaseolus aureus). Trop Agric. (Trinidad)

62:115-120.

8. Hewitt, E. J. 1966. Sand and water culture

methods used in the study of plant nutrition.

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau Technical

Commun. No. 22, Farnham Royal, Buckes,

WSK:

9. Aung, L. H., G. J. Flick, G. R. Buss, H. S.

Aycock, R. F. Keefer, R. Singh, D. M. Bran-

don, J. L. Griffin, C. H. Hovermale and C. A.

Stutte. 1984. Growth responses of crop plants

to fish soluble nutrients fertilization. Va. Agr.

Exp. Sta. Bull. 84-9:1-80.

10. Keeney, D. R. and D. W. Nelson. 1982. Nitro-

gen-inorganic forms. In: Methods of Soil Anal-

ysis. A. L. Page, R. H. Miller and D. R.

Keeney, eds. American Society of Agronomy,

Inc., Madison, Wisconsin. pp. 643-689.

11. Aung, L. H., J. B. Hubbard and G. J. Flick.

1983. Mineral composition of vegetable crops

fertilized with fish soluble nutrients. J. Agric.

Food Chem. 31:1259-1262.

12. Soares, J., D. Miller, S. Cuppett and P. Bauers-

feld. 1973. A review of the chemical and nutri-

tive properties of condensed fish solubles. Fish

Bull. 71:255-265.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 162-167, December 1987

Deciphering Environmental

Records From Caribbean Corals:

A Living History of Human

Impact on the Tropics

Thomas J. Goreau

Dept. of Geological Sciences, University of Miami, Coral Gables,

FL 33124

ABSTRACT

Corals may provide the best existing long term records of tropical climate changes and

of human impact on the tropical environment, once we learn how to decode the infor-

mation recorded in their skeletons. A program monitoring growth rates of the major

Caribbean reef building coral, Montastrea annularis, will provide data needed to calibrate

and interpret data obtainable from very old corals, and to determine the major environ-

mental factors associated with current success or failure of coral reefs in different areas.

Corals as Environmental Recorders

Corals, the natural world’s greatest ar-

chitects, are unique among marine orga-

nisms in their slow, continuous growth,

steadily building wave resistant limestone

skeletons beneath a very thin layer of

flesh. X-Ray examination of the skeleton

of some species reveals a pattern of dense

annual bands, whose thickness varies

from year to year, just like tree rings. For

example, the coral (Figure 1), Montastrea

annularis, collected by the author and Dr.

Peter Goreau near a river mouth in West-

ern Jamaica in 1986 and X-Rayed by Dr.

Richard Dodge, shows a large decline in

growth over the past few years. This is

probably the result of intensified erosion

following recent slash and burn agricul-

ture in previously unfarmed swampland

(Goreau, et al., in preparation).

Corals are animals with specialized

stinging cells on their tentacles for catch-

ing minute planktonic animals but they

also depend heavily on symbiotic algae

living within their cells.' These algae leak

a large proportion of their photosynthetic

production to their animal hosts, whose

metabolic wastes, in turn, provide the al-

gae with much of their “food”. Coral

reefs have extremely high metabolism,”*

as much per unit area as a tropical rain

forest, though produced by far less living

biomass. Corals are unable to store food

162

163

HUMAN IMPACT ON THE TROPICS

, 1986. Growth rates have slowed

1Ca

Jamai

ing near river mouth

Fig. 1. X-Radiograph of coral grow

markedly in recent years. Photograph by R. E. Dodge.

164 THOMAS J.

for very long, so growth rates are sensitive

to short term variations in climate and

factors affecting availability of food and

light.

Montastrea annularis skeletons are

known to contain high resolution in-

formation as variations in skeletal den-

sity,*°°78 fluorescence’? (Goreau et al.,

in prep.), naturally occuring stable iso-

topes of carbon and oxygen,'''*? the ra-

tios of trace metals such as magnesium,

strontium, lead, zifc, and copper to cal-

cium,''* and natural and artificially pro-

duced radioactive elements.'° While these

variations can be measured they cannot

now be interpreted in terms of environ-

mental variations as few corals have been

studied in areas where suitable environ-

mental data'® were available. Corals

clearly have a unique and detailed story

to tell, but it’s recounting awaits a ‘““Ro-

setta Stone” permitting translation of the

encoded message. Simultaneous monitor-

ing of growth rates of the major Carib-

bean reef-building coral, Montastrea

annularis, across its range, will provide a

calibration of this record.

Because some corals may grow for

thousands of years, they possess valuable

long term climate records from the trop-

ical oceans. Such information is important

because global atmospheric and oceanic

heat transport largely depends on how

warm the tropical surface ocean gets, so

the winds and currents which affect tem-

peratures and rainfall in temperate re-

gions are very sensitive to variations in

tropical ocean temperatures.'’ The deep

sea sedimentary record cannot provide

climate information on the required time

scale because feeding of mud ingesting

deep sea clams and worms alters it se-

verely.'* Long-term marine climate rec-

ords from the tropics are largely patchily

located, away from reefs, and less than

20 years old.'’ If they can be correctly

interpreted, corals could significantly im-

prove weather forecast reliability based

on tropical sea surface temperatures re-

corded by satellites.

GOREAU

Corals are very sensitive to excessive

runoff and siltation from clearance of

coastal forests or drainage of swamps.

Coastal development in the form of

dredging, beach alteration, fishing, boat

traffic, tar balls, sewage, all have negative

impacts on coral reefs. Many tropical

beach resorts located near lush coral

growth now front dead reefs, whose skel-

etons are covered with waving mats of

filamentous or fleshy algae, housing a

greatly reduced diversity of organisms.

These reefs have often been pushed over

the brink by increased freshwater and

sediment flows to the sea, by eutrophi-

cation caused by nutrients from raw sew-

age and cesspit runoff, by overharvesting

of major algae eating fish and inverte-

brates, or by natural events like hurri-

canes, epidemics, etc.”

Research Plan

The study will focus on Montastrea an-

nularis, a species with one of the widest

environmental ranges of any Caribbean

coral species. The most important Atlan-

tic reef building coral, it grows from the

surface to nearly 200 feet, dominating reef

framework construction except in the

shallowest and deepest waters or where

there has been intense recent disturb-

ance.”” They often grow in large hemi-

spherical masses in shallower water and

form a clear annual dense skeletal band

in October-November in Jamaica. This

time lies between water temperature ex-

tremes but appears to coincide with an-

nual release of coral larvae (N. I. Goreau

& J. Battey, pers. comm.), which is ap-

parently cued by some more subtle fea-

ture of the environment than temperature

extremes. Controversy has existed about

time and cause of dense band formation,

largely because corals have generally not

been studied in the field year round. One

purpose of this project is to resolve this

controversy by determining if the dense

HUMAN IMPACT ON THE TROPICS 165

band forms at the same time across the

Caribbean, or if it is timed to take ad-

vantage of local conditions favorable to

survivorship of larvae (such as nutrients

or food supplied by breaking internal

wave amplification as suggested by

Giese.”! Coral larvae contain symbiotic al-

gae, but their survival appears to depend

on early catching of food prey after set-

tling.””

We will monitor growth rates on a year-

round basis using non-destructive tech-

niques. Two inch long, non-corrosive

stainless steel nails, scored at regular in-

tervals, will be used as growth monitors.

These are nailed into the coral just like a

nail is driven into the side of a tree. As

the coral grows up and around the nail

the height of its surface is read off at in-

tervals, allowing the extnesion rate versus

time to be determined. Following an in-

itial evaluation currently underway at the

Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, Ja-

maica, growth monitors will be deployed

across the Caribbean at sites regularly

visited by cooperating researchers from

Caribbean Marine Laboratories or by

members of local dive clubs.

After one to two years of replicate

growth measurements have been ob-

tained at each site, some corals will be

sampled using a small hand-held under-

water pneumatic drill, which will take a

core about one inch long and three

fourths of an inch across. The extracted

core will be replaced by a concrete plug

of the same dimensions to ensure that

boring organisms do not settle in the cav-

ity and undermine or damage the coral.°

Cores will be sliced into sections, X-

rayed, examined for ultraviolet fluores-

cence, and cut into segments correspond-

ing to around one month’s growth, which

will be analysed for stable isotopes and

trace metals.

At selected sites coral tissue samples

will be taken periodically, fixed and

stained with histochemical dyes to reveal

the state of tissue reproductive develop-

ment to determine in more detail rela-

tionships between coral reproduction?

and formation of the dense skeletal band.

Cooperation and Conservation in

the Caribbean

This project is collaborative, not indi-

vidual, and its success will rely on marine

scientists and divers across the Caribbean

who will donate their time to take growth

readings and to obtain and mail coral

cores. The project will provide the re-

quired equipment (calibrated stainless

steel nails, chemical tissue fixatives,

underwater pneumatic corers, mailing

costs) but has no support for travel, salar-

ies, or overhead.

Among the many individuals who have

already agreed to participate in the pro-

gram, or who have previously indicated

interest in such a project, are: Dr. Carlos

Goenaga, Universidad de Puerto Rico

who will be in charge of histochemical

studies; Dr. Richard Dodge, Nova Uni-

versity, Florida, who will handle X-Ray

measurements; Dr. Peter Goreau, Mid-

dlebury College, Vermont, who will work

on ultraviolet fluorescence; Dr. Brian La-

pointe, Harbor Branch Foundation, ac-

tive in research in the Florida Keys and

the Belize Barrier Reef; Dr. Jeremy

Woodley, Discovery Bay Marine Labo-

ratory, Jamaica; Dr. Tom Sleeter, Ber-

muda Biological Station; Dr. Francisco

Giraldes, Museo Nacional de Santo Dom-

ingo, Republica Dominicana; Dr. Dennis

Hubbard, West Indies Laboratory, St.

Croix; Dr. Jeremy Jackson, Smithsonian

Tropical Institution, Panama; Dr. Allan

Smith, Eastern Caribbean Natural Area

Management Program, St. Lucia; Dr.

Wayne Hunte, Bellairs Marine Labora-

tory, Barbados; Dr. Richard Laydoo, In-

stitute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad and

Tobago; Dr. Raymond Hayes, Howard

University, Washington D.C., active in

the Cayman Islands; and the Sub Aqua

Clubs in Jamaica and St. Lucia. We will

166

actively seek participation from all other

diving individuals willing to adopt a coral

and monitor its growth. The result will be

a picture of the health of this species

across its range.

This project wil be conducted concur-

rently with some independent but rele-

vant research programs:

1) Dr. Peter Goreau will document

changes in coral reefs over the past 35

years in Jamaica, by rephotographing

sites photographed by the late Thomas F.

Goreau from 1950 till 1970.

2) Fishermen often degrade the entire

ecosystem by overharvesting fish or kill-

ing corals to grace tourist’s coffee tables.

Relief from unsustainable overharvesting

can only come when intensive mariculture

techniques provide satisfactory economic

returns from small areas. Recent work in

Jamaica with Dr. Brian Lapointe, Cy

Macfarlane, Stefan Goreau, and others

(in prep.) has verified that back-reef com-

munities around underground springs in

Jamaica are ideal sites for intensive mar-

iculture of economically valuable sea-

weeds and fish.” If fishermen find it in

their interest to become sea farmers,

rather than hunters, the reef can continue

sheltering the most productive, diverse,

and beautiful of marine ecosystems, pro-

tecting coasts from storm waves, and pro-

viding a living monitor of the health of

tropical coastal ecosystems and of forces

driving global weather patterns and cli-

mate change.

References Cited

1. Goreau, T. F., N. I. Goreau, & T. J. Goreau.

1979. Corals and coral reefs, Scientific Ameri-

can, 241:124-136.

2. Kinsey, D. W. 1983. Short term indicators of

gross material flux in coral reefs, in J. T. Baker,

R. M. Carter, P. W. Sammarco, & K. P. Stark

(Eds.), Proc. Inaugural Great Barrier Reef Con-

ference, James Cook University Press, Towns-

ville, Queensland, Australia.

3. Kinsey, D. W. 1985. Ecological energetics—pri-

mary production in open flow systems, in M.

M. Littler & D. S. Littler (Eds.), Handbook of

phycological methods: ecological methods for

macroalgae, Cambridge University Press.

10.

12.

13.

14.

16.

17.

18.

19.

THOMAS J. GOREAU

. Dodge, R. E., & J. Thomson. 1974. The natural

radiochemical and growth records in contem-

porary hermatypic corals from the Atlantic and

Caribbean, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 23:313-—322.

. Dodge, R. E., & G. W. Brass. 1984. Skeletal

extension, density, and calcification of the reef

coral Montastrea annularis: St. Croix, U.S. Vir-

gin Island, Bull. Mar. Sci., 34:288—307

. Hudson, J. H. 1981. Growth rates in Montastrea

annularis: a record of environmental change in

Key Largo Coral Reef Marine Sanctuary, Flor-

ida, Bull. Mar. Sci., 31:444-459.

. Hudson, J. H., E. A. Shinn, R. B. Halley, &

B. Lidz. 1976. Sclerochronology: a tool for in-

terpreting past environments, Geology, 4:361-

. Huston, M. 1985. Variation in coral growth

rates with depth at Discovery Bay, Jamaica,

Coral Reefs, 4:19-25.

. Weber, J. N., E. W. White, & P. H. Weber.

1975. Correlation of density banding in reef

coral skeletons with environmental parameters:

the basis for interpretation of chronological rec-

ords preserved in the coralla of corals, J. Pa-

leobiol., 1:137-149.

Teal, L. H. 1986. Growth patterns and fluores-

cent banding in the hermatypic coral Montastrea

annularis, Jamaica, West Indies, Thesis, Geol-

ogy Dept., Middlebury College, Vermont.

Goreau, T. J. 1977. Coral skeletal chemistry:

physiological and environmental regulation of

stable isotopes and trace metals in Montastrea

annularis, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B: 196:291-

315:

Emiliani, C. E., J. H. Hudson, B. Lidz, E. A.

Shinn, & R. Y. George. 1978. Oxygen and car-

bon isotope growth record in a reef coral from

the Florida Keys and a deep sea coral from the

Blake Plateau, Science, 202:627-—629.

Fairbanks, R. G., & R. E. Dodge. 1979. Annual

periodicity of the 0-18/0-16 and C-13/C-12 ra-

tios in the coral Montastrea annularis, Geochim.

Cosmochim. Acta. 43:1009-1020.

Dodge, R. E., & T. R. Gilbert. 1984. Chro-

nology of lead pollution contained in banded

coral skeletons, Mar. Biol., 82:9-13.

Moore, W. S., & S. Krishnaswamy. 1974. Cor-

relation of X-Radiography revealed banding in

corals with radiometric growth rates, Proc. Intl.

Coral Reef Symp., 2:269-—276.

Porter, J. W., & J. Woodley. 1985. The mari-

time weather of Jamaica: its effects on annual

carbon budgets in the massive reef building

coral Montastrea annularis, Proc. Intl. Coral

Reef Symp., 5: in press.

Hastenrath, S. 1985. Climate and circulation in

the tropics, Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht.

Goreau, T. J. 1980. Frequency sensitivity of the

deep sea climatic record, Nature, 287:620-—622.

Kenchington, R. 1985. Coral reef ecosystems:

a sustainable resource, Nature & Resources,

21:18-—27.

20.

zi.

HUMAN IMPACT ON THE TROPICS

Goreau, T. F., & J. Wells. 1967. The shallow

water scleractinia of Jamaica: revised list of spe-

cies and their vertical distribution range, Bull.

Mar. Sci., 17:442-—453.

Giese, G. S. 1983. The relationship between

coastal seiches in Puerto Rico and tide-gener-

ated internal solitary waves, Proc. Assoc. Island

Marine Labs. Caribbean, 17:17.

. Goreau, N. I., T. J. Goreau, & R. L. Hayes.

1981. Settling, survivorship, and spatial aggre-

gation in planulae and juveniles of the coral

Porites porites (Pallas), Bull. Mar. Sci., 31:424-

435.

23.

24.

2D:

167

Szmant-Froelich, A. 1985. The effect of colony

size on the reproductive ability of the Caribbean

coral Montastrea annularis, Proc. Intl. Coral

Reef. Symp., 5: in press.

Szmant-Froelich, A. in press, Reproductive

ecology of Caribbean reef corals, Coral Reefs.

Goreau, T. J., P. D. Goreau, S. H. Goreau, A.

H. Macfarlane, P. V. Devi Prasad, B. LaPointe,

& J. H. Ryther. 1986. Jamaican back reef

springs: some aspects of their ecology and mar-

iculture potential, Proc. Assoc. Island Marine

Labs. Caribbean, 19: in press.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 168-173, December 1987

Restoring Balance Between the

Endangered Black-Footed Ferret

(Mustela nigripes) and Human

Use of the Great Plains and

Intermountain West

Dr. Tim W. Clark

President, Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705,

Jackson, WY 83001

ABSTRACT

The ferret is our most endangered mammal. Conservation work has focused on restoring

the species to healthy numbers in many secure populations. Ferrets were directly and

indirectly reduced from a 100 million acre range in about 1910 to less than 7,000 acres

by 1981 (99.9+% reduction) by habitat loss and possibly other factors. Recent work

(1981-1986) near Meeteetse, Wyoming, the site of the only known wild population, and

searches elsewhere for more ferrets are described. The small Meeteetse population (peak

number 129 in 1984) suffered a catastrophic die-off in 1985 from disease. The last 18

ferrets were taken into captivity for breeding. In 1987, two litters were born. Several sites

to return ferrets to the wild are being prepared. There is every reason to believe ferrets

will eventually be recovered, thus restoring the balance between this species and human

uses of the Great Plains and the intermountain West.

Introduction

Discovery of the small black-footed fer-

ret (Mustela nigripes) (Figure 1) popula-

tion near Meeteetse, Wyoming, in late

September, 1981, brought the prospect

that this critically endangered mammal

could be recovered and restored to

healthy numbers. By late 1983, there was

almost a promise of a successful conser-

vation story, a textbook case, for a species

feared extinct was rediscovered, to be fol-

168

lowed by very careful conservation re-

search, successful captive breeding, and

finally the progeny reintroduced to the

wild in several secure preserves.’ First,

however, captive breeding was delayed.

Next, the wild Meeteetse population was

decimated in 1985. In 1985, 1986, and

1987, the last 18 wild ferrets were cap-

tured and serve as the nuclear breeding

population for recovery of the species.

The fate of the species now depends on

the few captive ferrets.°

RESTORING BALANCE BETWEEN THE FERRET AND HUMAN USE 169

Ferret History and Searches

Ferrets formerly occupied all or parts

of 12 states and 2 Canadian provinces and

became the unintended victim of habitat

loss as prairie dogs, their chief food

source, were destroyed by wholesale poi-

soning which began in the 1880’s and con-

tinues to the present. Not only were

ferrets killed directly, but fragmentation

of their habitat made survivors more sus-

ceptible to random catastrophes, such as

accidents, disease, and so on, that accel-

erated extinction. The ferret’s historic

range included over 100 million acres, but

by the late 1940’s not a single ferret could

be found. Only one small population was

ever studied between the time the species

was first described by John Audubon and

John Bachman in 1851 and discovery of

the Meeteetse ferrets in 1981. In 1964, a

ferret family was found in southcentral

South Dakota and over the next 11 years,

10 other litters and about 90 different in-

dividuals were found. After 1974, no fer-

rets could be located. A captive breeding

program came too late, using the last 9

ferrets seen there. The captive rearing

program provided much needed infor-

mation, however, on how to house and

breed ferrets. It also demonstrated that

ferrets are susceptible to canine distemper

when several ferrets died of the disease.

The South Dakota field studies and lab-

oratory efforts provided the badly needed

outline of ferret life history for the first

time. With the apparent extinction of the

South Dakota Ferret population, many

people and agencies feared the species ex-

tinct. As a result, efforts to locate more

ferrets nearby came to a standstill over

the next 7 years.

Despite this, my colleagues and I never

gave up hope of finding ferrets and con-

tinued looking year after year. When the

first Meeteetse ferret turned up, killed by

a ranch dog in a rancher’s front yard, both

the rancher and state officials invited me

to visit. Also involved were several state

and federal agencies, all charged under

Photo: Doug Brown

Fig. 1. Black-footed ferret peering out of prairie dog hole at night. This same endangered species appears

on a U.S. Postal Service .22 cent stamp currently in circulation.

170 TIM W. CLARK

various laws with saving ferrets and their

habitats and other endangered species—

Wyoming Game and Fish Department,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of

Land Management, and U.S. Forest Serv-

ice. Several ranchers were also involved.

Besides this set of organizations, my in-

dependent studies were endorsed and

supported by Wildlife Preservation Trust

International, New York Zoological So-

ciety (Wildlife Conservation Interna-

tional), World Wildlife Fund-U.S.,

National Geographic Society, Charles A.

Lindbergh Fund, The Nature Conser-

vancy, National Wildlife Federation, Chi-

cago Zoological Society, and others. My

colleagues and I volunteered all of our

time over the next 4.5 years while these

conservation organizations covered field

expenses. Our field work on ferrets was

conducted year-round, through cold win-

ter days and long summer nights, between

1981 and 1986.

Saving Ferrets: A Plan

My vision of ferret conservation and

recovery in 1981 was straightforward. Be-

cause the ferret was recognized both na-

tionally and internationally as a critically

endangered species, and because so many

universities, conservation organizations,

state and federal agencies, and local peo-

ple were interested and available, I ex-

pected that a large range of resources—

financial, personnel, experience, infor-

mation, and facilities—would be avail-

able to maximize chances of saving

ferrets. The talent available included na-

tional and international expertise in pop-

ulation genetics, management of small

populations, experienced field research-

ers; extant land and wildlife laws, policies

(Endangered Species Act), and various

programs; and well-tested breeding facil-

ities, with extensive support staffs, at sev-

eral major zoos and research facilities.

This was all that was needed.

The first step in ferret conservation, as

I saw it, was to acquire key information

about the “‘health” of the Meeteetse fer-

ret population and to continue searching

for other ferrets near Meeteetse and in

other areas and states using new survey

techniques we would develop at Mee-

teetse. Learning about the Meeteetse fer-

rets would require a sensitive research

program. All the methods my colleagues

and I proposed were indirect and did not

require handling ferrets. Ideally, the

Meeteetse ferret population would show

a “surplus” of young early each fall after

only 2 or at most 3 years, and our study

plans reflected this. The surplus ferrets

could be captured each fall, used in

several captive breeding programs using

existing facilities, experience, and

personnel, and the offspring could be re-

introduced to the wild throughout their

former range, thereby establishing many

secure, self-sustaining wild populations.

Under this scenario, ferrets could be well

on the road to full recovery in 5+ years

from the date they were first located. In

the meantime, searches for more ferrets

and for reintroduction sites would accel-

erate species recovery. Simultaneously,

all the necessary active management pro-

tection of the wild Meeteetse ferrets (and

any other ferret populations found) would

be forthcoming, including disease moni-

toring, possible predator control, and

land protection. My colleagues and I went

to the field work right away, attempting

to do our part for ferret conservation.

My recovery model had two major

goals: conservation of the Meeteetse fer-

rets and their habitat and recovery of the

species. My plan addressed several basic

questions, first determining the health of

the Meeteetse ferrets, accompanied by

goals, specific objectives, timetables, and

expected results. I believed all along that

the Meeteetse ferrets held the key to re-

covery of the species. A close working

relationship based on trust with ranchers

of the Meeteetse region and with other

interested parties was essential. In 1981

and again in 1982, I outlined a plan

RESTORING BALANCE BETWEEN THE FERRET AND HUMAN USE 171

whereby the various organizations and re-

search efforts could be woven into a co-

operative, well-integrated program to

meet this conservation task. It was de-

signed so that ferrets as well as all the

organizations, agencies, and individuals

would “win.”

Studying the Meeteetse Ferrets

We learned many details of ferret be-

havior and ecology. The ferrets were, in

fact, producing a “‘surplus”’ of young each

year, captive breeding facilities were

available, and sites to return ferrets to the

wild were located. Ever since the 1870’s,

ferrets had been known to associate with

prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.); ferrets eat

prairie dogs and use their burrows for

shelter and sites to rear young. At Mee-

teetse we found ferrets on 37 white-tailed

prairie dog colonies totalling about 8,000

acres in over 100 square miles. The largest

colony of 3,500 acres contained two-thirds

of all the ferrets. Clumped around this

large colony within 3 miles were 10 other

large colonies. Nearly all the ferrets were

found in this dense clump of colonies

about a township in size. Beyond these

37 colonies, prairie dogs were scarce for

miles. It was obvious that the 37 colonies

were an “‘island”’ of ferret habitat, beyond

which dispersing ferrets stood little

chance of survival. This meant there was

little chance that ferrets would ever re-

colonize those prairie dog colonies 30+

miles away by themselves. Indeed, we re-

peatedly searched, but never found fer-

rets outside the 37-colony “‘island.”’ The

Meeteetse ferrets occurred at about 1 fer-

ret/125 acres of prairie dogs. Snow track-

ing ferrets over 250 times in the first 3

winters revealed much new information.

It also tested our field rigor as we worked

and slept out at 43 degrees below zero.

We found that individuals remain within

certain areas and may be active every

night or inactive up to 6 days. The “‘av-

erage” ferret may investigate about 65

prairie dog holes in 1 mile of travel each

night. In the breeding season in February

and March, ferrets may travel over 5 miles

per night “checking things out”’ and mak-

ing many characteristic marks and scrapes

in the snow. Within the 37 colonies, 15

ferrets were observed to travel between

individual colonies. These 37 colonies

were equally owned by private ranchers,

the state of Wyoming, and the U.S. gov-

ernment (Bureau of Land Management).

In all, we saw at least 275 different fer-

rets. Between 1982 and 1985, we found

68 litters averaging 3.3 young. The pop-

ulation was comprised of about 67% ju-

veniles and 33% adults each August. Sex

ratios showed 1 male:1 female for juve-

niles and 0.4 male: 1 female in adults. Fer-

ret numbers varied dramatically, with the

seasons and years. Our best data was from

the single large colony; it showed 37 fer-

rets in summer 1982, 46 in 1983, 65 in

1984, and 16 in 1985, all early August

counts. Data from the total ferret area

(keeping in mind that the 1982 count was

incomplete) showed 61 ferrets in 1982, 88

in 1983, 129 in 1984, and 58 in 1985, again

early August counts. In September and

October of 1984 and 1985, a mark/recap-

ture estimate of population size was made

cooperatively by us, U.S. Fish and Wild-

life Service, and Wyoming Game and Fish

Department. It showed 128 + 25 ferrets

in 1984 and 31 + 8 in 1985. A “back’’

estimate to 1983 showed 113 + 60 ferrets

present, more than our spotlighting count

of 88. Ferrets seem to disappear in large

numbers from the fall of one year to

spring breeding of the next year. We es-

timated annual losses of 67 + % of the to-

tal population. Juvenile losses were

highest, around 85%, whereas adult

losses were estimated to be about 50%.

Predation from owls, hawks, eagles, coy-

otes, and badgers, and losses from acci-

dents and dispersal seemed to account for

the huge annual ferret mortality. This

meant to us and some of our associates

in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service that

a “surplus” of Meeteetse ferrets existed

to begin captive breeding. A few of the

172 TIM W. CLARK

ferrets that were lost from natural causes

each fall and winter could be removed for

captive rearing programs. In fact, in De-

cember, 1983, we outlined a captive

breeding program, described its compo-

nents, and encouraged governmental im-

plementation of the plan.* Several captive

breeding facilities were available and

waiting for ferrets. Captive breeding was

not undertaken, however.

A tragic picture of the wild ferret pop-

ulation emerged in-1985. By early July,

1985, our initial counts showed the ferret

population was much lower than in pre-

vious years, especially given its large size

of 129 the previous fall. Intensive spot-

light surveys were immediately under-

taken to find ferrets. At this time a

volunteer for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service discovered sylvatic plague in the

ferrets’ prey—prairie dogs. Plague has

been known to destroy 95+ % of prairie

dog populations in days or weeks. Our

concern for the ferrets and the prairie

dogs on which they depend sharply in-

creased. Intensive surveys conducted

largely by us and the U.S. Fish and Wild-

life Service showed 58 ferrets (13 litters)

in 1985 as compared to 129 ferrets (25

litters) at the same time in 1984. Many of

these ferrets were seen only once, unlike

our observations in past years when fer-

rets, once located, could be repeatedly

located night after night. Mark/recapture

population estimates showed only 31 + 8

ferrets on September 10, 16 + 5 on Oc-

tober 9, and 6 + 4 on November 1, 1985.

Thus, we can document the loss of about

150 ferrets between Fall, 1984 and Fall,

1985. During July to September, ferrets

were dying at about one every 2-3 days.

The probable cause was later diagnosed

as canine distemper, always present in na-

ture, and probably brought in by skunks,

racoons, foxes, coyotes, or badgers in

June, 1985 or before.

Between September 12 and October

11, 1985, 6 ferrets were live-captured

from Meeteetse and placed in a Wyoming

Game and Fish Department facility. On

October 22, canine distemper was diag-

nosed when one of the captive ferrets died

and another showed symptoms. All 6 fer-

rets were housed in the same room, and

because distemper can be spread through

the air, all 6 ferrets eventually died. Hous-

ing rare animals like this is contrary to

standard quarantine procedures. Be-

tween October 25 and November 2, an-

other 6 ferrets out of the dozen estimated

to remain in the wild were caught, taken

to Laramie, housed individually, and sur-

vive to the present. Five of these may be

very closely related (first and second gen-

eration). No young were produced in cap-

tivity in 1986.

The 1986 Meeteetse summer surveys

showed that 4 adults survived. Fortu-

nately, two were females with litters (5

young each). Twelve of these were relo-

cated and captured between August, 1986

and February, 1987. Thus, the captive

population was expanded to 18. In 1987,

2 litters were born in captivity, 1 with 6

young and the other with 2 (1 of which

later died). As of early summer 1987, the

fate of this rare species will turn on the

success of the captive population.

Searches for more wild ferrets continue,

and sites to reintroduce ferrets back to

the wild have been located and are being

prepared. Despite the setbacks and com-

plexity of the ferret recovery effort, there

is every reason to believe that it will ul-

timately be a success.

Much Meeteetse data has been pub-

lished in various scientific journals, gov-

ernment bulletins, monographs, and

other outlets.°*”* In all, about 40 papers

detail ferret ecology, behavior, and con-

servation options. Other reports have

been submitted for publication and

should appear in print this year.

References Cited

1. Clark, T. W. 1984. Strategies in endangered spe-

cies conservation: a research view of the ongoing

black-footed ferret conservation studies. Jn:

Symposium on Issues in Technology and Man-

agement of Impacted Western Wildlife. Steam-

boat Springs, CO, Nov., 1982, pp. 145-154.

RESTORING BALANCE BETWEEN THE FERRET AND HUMAN USE

. Clark, T. W. 1984. Biological, sociological, and

organizational challenges to endangered species

conservation: the black-footed ferret case. Hu-

man Dimensions in Wildlife Newsletter 3:10-15.

. Clark, T. W. 1985. The Meeteetse black-footed

ferret conservation studies. National Geographic

Research, Spring:299-302.

. Richardson, L., T. W. Clark, S. C. Forrest,

and T. M. Campbell III. 1986. Black-footed

ferret recovery: a discussion of some options and

considerations. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:169-

184.

. Clark, T. W. 1986. Some guidelines for manage-

ment of the black-footed ferret. Great Basin Nat.

Mem. 8:160-168.

173

Clark, T. W., T. M. Campbell III, M. H. Schroe-

der, and L. Richardson. 1984. Handbook of

methods for locating black-footed ferrets. Wyo-

ming Bureau of Land Management, Cheyenne,

Wildlife Tech. Bull. No. 1. 55 pp.

Forrest, S. C., T. W. Clark, L. Richardson, and

T. M. Campbell Ill. 1985. Black-footed ferret

habitat: some management and reintroduction

considerations. Wyoming Bureau of Land Man-

agement, Cheyenne, Wildlife Tech. Bull. No.

2:1—49.

. Groves, C. R., and T. W. Clark. 1986. Deter-

mining minimum population size for recovery of

the black-footed ferret. Great Basin Nat. Mem.

8:150-159.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 174-177, December 1987

Utilizing Laser Spectroscopy to

Determine Radioactivity Levels in

Nuclear Waste

Hans A. Schuessler

Department of Physics, Texas A&M University, College Station,

TX 77843

ABSTRACT

The recently developed technique of fast beam laser spectroscopy is being applied to

the detection of trace amounts of long-lived radioactive elements in nuclear waste and

eventually in the environment. As nuclear energy generation is proliferated and nuclear

tests continue, the task to reduce the risks of radiation pollution must be accomplished

by isotope selective evaluation of radioactive test samples. This will help to achieve a

better balance between the nuclear industries and the preservation of our environment.

Introduction

The detection of radioactive elements

in the environment and in nuclear waste

requires sensitive detection methods to

determine the amount and spatial distri-

bution of the radioactive pollution. This

need and also the development of even

more refined measurement techniques for

safeguarding nuclear materials have for

several years been recognized by the U.S.

Department of Energy and the Interna-

tional Atomic Energy Agency. While

high standards of nuclear safeguarding

have so far been achieved, reliable mon-

itoring of the long-lived radioactive

isotopes of, for instance, plutonium,

uranium, yttrium, and promethium re-

mains inadequate. This is due to the dif-

ficult detection of the minute amounts of

these isotopes present in nuclear waste

and in the environment. By comparison,

174

the short-lived isotopes are easy to ob-

serve due to their high radioactivity. With

nuclear fission being an important power

source and with the growth of nuclear in-

dustries, radioactive pollution may be

caused by weapons tests, nuclear acci-

dents, and leakage from nuclear power

plants and nuclear industries. Table I lists

the main fission products with half-lives

longer than days. To these isotopes the

long-lived isotopes of uranium, *°U, with

a half-life of 7 x 10% years, and of plu-

tonium, ~°Pu, with a half-life of 2 x 104

years, should be added, since these ele-

ments are the major nuclear fuels and

therefore the starting points in the fission

cycle.

It should be pointed out that significant

progress is being made in the field of ra-

dioactive waste management, in particu-

lar in developing safe systems for the

disposal of high-level, long-lived nuclear

LASER SPECTROSCOPY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RADIOACTIVITY 175

Table I. Compilation of major fission products.

Only isotopes with half-lives longer than days (d)

and years (a) are listed.

Fission

Element Isotope Half-Life —_yield [%]

krypton 85 Kr 10a 12

rubidium BT Rb 6k 10" a 3

strontium 89 Sr Sid 5

strontium 90 Sr 28 d 6

yttrium 91 Y 59d 6

zirconium 95 Zr 63 d 6

ruthenium 103 Ru 40d 3

ruthenium 106 Ru la 0.5

iodine 129 I 1x10" 4a 1

iodine 136 1 8d 3

cesium 135*€s 3 x 10°a 6

cesium 136 Cs 13 d 6

cesium 137 Cs 27 a 6

barium 140 Ba 13 d 6

cerium 144 Ce 33' d 6

cerium 144 Ce 290 d 6

promethium 147 Pm 2.6a 2.6

wastes in deep geological formations and

under the seabed. Here again levels of

long-lived radioactive isotopes must be

monitored with emphasis being placed

also on the migration properties of these

isotopes. It is important that a good de-

tection method be both element and iso-

tope specific and therefore free from

isobaric interferences. In this way the

LASER

BEAM

QUADRUPOLE

aie

BENDING

CAPACITOR

measured isotopic composition of the de-

tected radioactive isotope will give infor-

mation about its origin. Taking plutonium

as an example, the present detection

methods! are still inadequate and are

based on a-spectroscopy (detection limit

~4 x 10° atoms), neutron activation anal-

ysis (detection limit ~4 x 10!' atoms),

and mass spectrometry (detection limit

1 xX 10° atoms). The most commonly used

method is a-spectroscopy where presently

long counting times must be used and

where isotopic selectivity is far from being

complete. Neutron activation is not iso-

tope selective and is comparatively insen-

sitive. Mass spectroscopy techniques are

only mass number specific but not ele-

ment specific.

In contrast the various shortcomings

listed are not present at all or only occur

to a lower degree when laser methods,

such as resonance ionization spectros-

copy’ or collinear fast beam laser spectros-

copy,’* are employed.

Principle of the Detection Method

During the past year we have con-

structed an apparatus at Texas A&M Uni-

FARADAY DEFLECTOR

QUADRUPOLE

4—PLATE

TRIPLET DETECTOR

BENDING

CAPACITOR

Fig. 1. Collinear fast beam laser spectroscopy apparatus.

176 HANS A. SCHUESSLER

versity (TAMU) which is based on

collinear fast beam laser spectroscopy and

which is dedicated to the detection of the

long-lived radioactive isotopes with half-

lives longer than one hour. Most of the

elements in Table I, and possibly also plu-

tonium and uranium, can be detected iso-

tope specifically with this apparatus. The

arrangement is similar to an apparatus

which we have set up at Brookhaven Na-

tional Laboratory on-line to the High Flux

Beam Reactor and the TRISTAN mass

separator. There we study short-lived iso-

topes with half-lives from seconds to

hours. The main difference is that the

TAMU apparatus has a set of disposable

ion sources which can be quickly loaded

with radioactive samples through a lock

without breaking the vacuum. In addi-

tion, one of the ion sources is of novel

design and is based on ion storage? prin-

ciples. The minute radioactive sample is

first loaded onto a rhenium filament, then

evaporated, ionized and stored. Once

enough ions have been accumulated in the

stored ion source, they are extracted with

high efficiency to form an ion beam which

can be studied.

A description of the principle of the

methods follows. Fig. 1 depicts the ap-

paratus. A tunable single mode dye laser

and an ion beam are merged collinearly

and the fluorescent light is detected at

838

COUNTS/100mMms

- 6000 39.2

-2804

resonance. The spectra obtained are Dop-

pler-free since longitudinal cooling of the

ion beam is effected by velocity bunching.

A sensitivity of about 10° ions/sec. in the

beam has been obtained. Fig. 2 demon-

strates this in a registration curve ob-

tained with our apparatus at Brookhaven

for radioactive barium ions at subpico

ampere beam currents. It took only a

few minutes to produce the signals.

The unique feature of laser spectroscopy

yielding unambiguously the amounts of

the various isotopes present in the sample

is evident from the height of the various

peaks belonging to different isotopes.

With this information is is possible to de-

termine the origin of the sample under

investigation, whether it was produced,

for instance, as fallout from nuclear weap-

ons tests, by leakage from nuclear power

plants or from naturally occurring radio-

activity.

Future Developments

Each element listed in Table 1, and also

plutonium and uranium require the de-

velopment of a specific laser excitation

and detection scheme. Our first candi-

dates after barium are krypton and ura-

nium. We are also planning to add a

3588 678.4 998.0 (V)

Fig. 2. Fluorescence signals versus the post acceleration voltage. The different isotopes “’'“Ba were

Doppler shifted into resonance at a fixed laser wavelength of 614.3 nm.

LASER SPECTROSCOPY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RADIOACTIVITY 177

charge exchange chamber to the appa-

ratus to convert the fast ion beam into a

fast atom beam. This will be effected by

using a heat pipe type oven region con-

taining an alkali vapor and will enhance

the versatility of our system since not only

ions but also atoms, which have their

spectra in a different optical region, can

be investigated. Other important tasks re-

maining to be done are:

®@ preparation of test samples for stan-

dardization and to compare collinear

fast beam laser spectroscopy with

other methods

@ safe handling of plutonium contam-

inations

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by the Charles

A. Lindbergh Fund, the U.S. Depart-

ment of Energy, and the Center of Energy

and Mineral Resources of Texas A&M

University.

References Cited

1. Peuser, P., H. Gabelmann, M. Lerch, B. Sohn-

ius, N. Trautmann, M. Weber, G. Herrmann, H.

O. Denschlag, W. Ruster and J. Bonn. 1981.

Methods of Low-Level Counting and Spectro-

metry, International Atomic Energy Agency,

IAEA-SM-252/40:257-—267.

2. Hurst, G. S., and M. G. Payne. 1984. Invited

papers from the Second International Sympos-

ium on Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy and

its Applications, Conference Series Number 71,

The Institute of Physics, Bristol and Boston:1-

262,

3. Kaufman, S. L. 1976. High-Resolution Laser

Spectroscopy in Fast Beams. Opt. Comm.

17:309.

4. Wing, W. H., G. A. Ruff, W. E. Lamb, Jr. and

J. J. Spezewski. 1976. Observation of the In-

frared Spectrum of the Hydrogen Molecular Ion

HD*. Phys. Rev. Lett. 36:1488-1490.

5. Dehmelt, H. G. 1967. Radiofrequency Spec-

troscopy of Stored Ions. Adv. Atom. and Mol.

Phys. 3:53-154.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 178-182, December 1987

The Panare Indians and Their

Forest: Survival of a Venezuelan

Culture

Brian M. Boom

The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458

ABSTRACT

Results are presented for an ethnobotanical study of the Panare Indians, an indigenous

Carib-speaking group of the Guayana Highland region in southern Venezuela. A total of

373 species of angiosperms are accounted for based on nearly five months of intensive

collecting and interviewing in the Panare village of Corozal. Of this total, 110 species

(30%) are recorded as being utilized by the Panare. These species were grouped into

utilization categories, revealing that the Panare had indicated 63 species as sources of

food, 35 species used in construction and crafts, 18 species as medicinals, and 12 species

used commercially; some species occurred in more than one category. The role of these

useful plants in the Panare culture is discussed. This documentation of the heavy de-

pendance that the Panare have on the plants of their environment provides solid arguments

for the conservation of tropical forests and further emphasizes the need for additional

ethnobotanical work to better understand the balance between indigenous peoples and

plants in the tropics.

Introduction

Indigenous peoples have a prodigious

knowledge of the environment. The study

of this knowledge is an important way to

search for new foods, drugs, and other

products of potential value for Western

society. By categorizing this knowledge

we gain insights as to how indigenous

groups have harmoniously interacted with

their surroundings for millennia. Such

studies produce strong arguments, based

on ethnoscientific data, for tropical forest

conservation.

178

There is an urgent need for studies on

indigenous peoples in the tropics due to

ever increasing threats to the cultural in-

tegrity of these groups from development,

mining, and agricultural concerns. The

precarious situation of the Panare, a

Carib-speaking group in southern Vene-

zuela, and the prospects for the loss of

much of the Panare’s knowledge about

plants in the near future, provided the

impetus for the present study. The Panare

had not previously been the subjects of

an ethnobotanical study, but anthro-

pological contributions have been made

SURVIVAL OF THE PANARE INDIANS AND THEIR FOREST

recently.!?° These works provide infor-

mation on the history and current status

of the Panare.

Setting and Methods

Fieldwork was conducted in Corozal,

Venezuela (6° 55'N, 66° 30’W). The ter-

rain ranges from the Orinoco floodplains

to the west at about 90 m elevation to the

mountains to the east at about 500 m ele-

vation. Granitic outcrops are abundant

throughout. The average annual rainfall

in the region is about 2400 mm. There is

a dry season from about Dec—May.

General plant collections were made

and these shown to informants to deter-

mine names and possible uses. Two forest

inventories were also conducted in order

to quantify Panare plant use; this aspect

is discussed elsewhere.’ Here, useful

plants are considered in the context of the

following categories: food, construction

and crafts, medicinal, and commercial.

Results and Discussion

During the course of the project, 373

species of plants were collected. Of these,

110 species (30% of the total) were in-

dicated by informants as being useful. In

order to discuss these species here, I have

grouped them into the above mentioned

categories. The Panare indicated 63

species that provide food, 35 in the con-

struction and crafts area, 18 used as

medicinals, and 12 used in commerce.

Food Plants

Of the 63 species of food plants, 15 of

these are cultivated. Three of these are

trees and are grown in dooryard gardens:

cashew, Anacardium occidentale, mango,

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae), and

papaya, Carica papaya (Caricaceae). In

the agricultural fields, usually located sev-

eral km from the village, most of the food

179

crops are grown. There are six species

of tuber crops; of these manioc, Manihot

esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) is the most

important. The other tuber crops are

sweet potato, Ipomoea batatus (Convol-

vulaceae), yams, Dioscorea alata and

D. trifida (Dioscoreaceae), and yautia,

Xanthosoma sagittifollum and X. viola-

ceum (Araceae). The only grain culti-

vated, maize, Zea mays (Poaceae) is

nearly as important to the Panare as is

manioc. Sweet eating bananas, Musa x

paradisiaca (Musaceae) are commonly

cultivated. Two species of cucurbits are

grown: melon, Cucumis melo and Cucur-

bita moschata (Cucurbitaceae), but nei-

ther is especially important. Other minor

food crops include peanut, Arachis hy-

pogaea (Leguminosae) and pepper, Cap-

sicum frutescens (Solanaceae).

Although 48 of the total of 63 species

of food plants are collected from the for-

est, they actually comprise only a small

fraction of the caloric intake of the Pa-

nare. In most cases, the foods collected

from the forest are done on an oppor-

tunistic basis. Several are important

enough to warrent specific mention.

These species, which produce large

and/or abundant fruits, include Astro-

caryum aculeatum, Mauritia flexuosa,

Maximiliana maripa, Syagrus_ orino-

censis (Arecaceae), several species of

Inga (Leguminosae), Spondias mombin

(Anacardiaceae), two unidentified species

of Sapotaceae, Genipa americana

(Rubiaceae), Parahancornia oblongata

(Apocynaceae), and Parinari excelsa

(Chrysobalanaceae).

Construction & Crafts Plants

In this category, 35 species are in-

cluded. Several species of trees are useful

in constructing dwelling frameworks due

to their hard, durable wood: Tapirira ve-

lutinifolia (Anacardiaceae), Casearia ul-

mifolia (Flacourtiaceae), Hymenolobium

flavum and Machaerium sp. (Legumino-

sae), Luehea candida (Tiliaceae),

Amaioua corymbosa (Rubiaceae), and an

180 BRIAN M. BOOM

unidentified species of Myrtaceae. The

roof of dweelings is thatched almost ex-

clusively with the leaves of Mauritia flex-

uosa (Arecaceae). The dwelling is lashed

together with any of a number of lianas

(woody climbers): Anemopaegma kar-

stenii, Arrabidaea inaequalis, Cydista ae-

quinoctialis, Melloa quadrivalis, and

Paragonia pyramidata (Bignoniaceae),

and Serjania rhombea (Sapindaceae).

Traditionally, the Panare only made

undecorated, utilitarian burden baskets

woven from the leaves of Maximiliana

maripa (Arecaceae). Strips of thin, fi-

brous bark are used to form the tumpline

(head strap) for these baskets; the barks

come from Lecythis corrugata subsp. ro-

sea (Lecythidaceae), and Cochlospermum

orinocense and C. vitifolium (Bixaceae).

The practice of weaving decorative bas-

kets was introduced to the Panare some

years ago by a missionary. The mission-

ary, who had learned the technique him-

self from the Ye’kuana Indians, a group

living to the southeast of Panare territory,

sought to provide the Panare with a way

to earn cash. The western Panare have

taken up commercial basketry in a major

way and their work surpasses that of the

Yu’kuana in its design complexity. Bas-

kets are woven exclusively of the split

stems of a large mountain herb, [schno-

siphon arouma (Marantaceae). These

pieces are soaked in water until soft and

then either used directly or dyed red or

black. The red coloring comes from the

stem exudates of at least two common

trees: Swartzia laevicarpa (Leguminosae)

and Byrsonima crassifolia (Malpighi-

aceae). The black coloring comes from

the bark of Casearia silvestris (Flacourti-

aceae), a common tree in gallery forests

on the savanna. Handles are made of a

piece of fibrous bark from Rollinia

exsucca (Annonaceae) or Cochlosper-

mum spp. (Bixaceae).

The Panare grow cotton, Gossypium

barbadense (Malvaceae) from which they

produce cloth for clothing and ham-

mocks. Red, black, and purple dyes are

used for coloring cloth and/or decorating

bodies. Red is certainly the Panare’s fa-

vorite color. Loincloths and hammocks

are dyed red and their bodies are fre-

quently decorated with red. The source

of this red is the seed coat of achiote, Bixa

orellana (Bixaceae), a widely cultivated

shrub of cultural significance for many in-

digenous groups. A black color for mak-

ing geometric designs on the skin is

obtained from fruits of the widespread

tree Genipa americana (Rubiaceae). A

purple dye, for coloring skin, cloth, or

sometimes decorative baskets, is obtained

from the leaves of Picramnia spruceana

(Simaroubaceae). Another purplish dye

is obtained from the mature fruits of an

herb, Renealmia aromatica (Zingibera-

ceae); this is used for dyeing cloth.

Two species were recorded as providing

poisons for hunting or fishing. Strychnos

toxifera (Loganiaceae), a woody vine of

mountain forests, is the source of curare.

The bark of this vine is scraped off, and

boiled in water until a black, dried cake

is remaining. This is pulverized and stored

until needed in hunting; blowgun darts

are tipped with the curare. A small herb,

Piper piscatorum (Piperaceae), is the

source of a fish poison; the method of

using it was not specified.

Three species are used in making neck-

laces. Abrus precatorius and Pachyrrhizus

sp. (Leguminosae) and Coix lacryma-jobi

(Poaceae) provide seeds that are strung

together. Two other miscellaneous uses in

the “‘Construction & Crafts” category are

the small shrub, Turnera sp. (Turnera-

ceae), the leafy branches of which are tied

together to make a crude broom, and

Crotalaria pilosa (Leguminosae), the

dried fruits of which are used as rattles.

Medicinal Plants

Little specific information was obtained

about medicinal plants. Only 18 species

were indicated as such, and then only with

vague explanations of methods of treat-

ment, dosage, etc. One explanation for

the paucity of information obtained lies

in the fact that, traditionally, a shaman

SURVIVAL OF THE PANARE INDIANS AND THEIR FOREST 181

would be responsible for knowing about

medical and magic plants; apparently, the

average Panare did not have specific

knowledge about such things. There are

very few Panare shamen still living and

there are not any in Corozal. Thus, the

few species I did record as being medic-

inals are probably among the more com-

mon and generally known among the

Panare pharmacopoeia. This listing must

be regarded as only a beginning in this

area; a separate ethnomedicinal study

should be conducted with a shaman in the

near future.

Several species were indicated as being

of some medicinal value, but no infor-

mation beyond that was obtained: Tabe-

buia rosea (Bignoniaceae), Sclerolobium

sp., Senna silvestris (Leguminosae),

Chaunochiton angustifolium (Olacaceae),

and two unidentified species of Melasto-

mataceae. Decoctions of leaves from two

species are used as medicinal bath: Cli-

demia novemnervia (Melastomataceae)

and Siparuna guianensis (Monimiaceae).

A poultice for aching muscles is made

from Phthirusa retroflexa (Loranthaceae)

or Piper marginatum (Piperaceae). Ta-

bebuia serratifolia (Bignoniaceae) is used

to cure stomachaches. Roupala montana

(Proteaceae) is used to treat head ail-

ments. A decoction of Psychotria colorata

(Rubiaceae) is drunk as a remedy for

coughing. Leaves of Piper piscatorum (Pi-

peraceae) are chewed (perhaps as a stim-

ulant?). Borreria capitata (Rubiaceae) is

used to treat cuts and wounds. Likewise,

resinous exudates of Copaifera sp. and

Swartzia laevicarpa (Leguminosae) are

applied to cuts in the skin. Finally, Si-

marouba amara is used to treat snake-

bites.

Commercial Plants

Several of the species discussed in the

“Construction & Crafts” section are also

among the 12 used in commerce. Neck-

laces strung with seeds of Coix lacryma-

jobi, Abrus precatorius, and Pachyrrhizus

sp. are sold to tourists and traders. Bas-

kets woven from I[schnosiphon arouma

stems, with handles of Rollinia exsucca

and Cochlospermum vitifolium barks, and

painted with red, black, and purple dyes

from Swartzia laevicarpa, Byrsonima

crassifolia, Casearia sylvestris, and Pi-

cramnia spruceana, are sold. Another

important commercial activity is the

collection of seeds of a mountain forest

tree, Dipteryx punctata (Leguminosae);

seeds are sold for extraction of coumarin,

a fragrant compound used in the manu-

facture of perfume, soap, etc. A minor

source of cash comes from the sale of na-

tive plants, such as Chrysothemis dichroa

(Gesneriaceae), for use as ornamentals.

Summary

I have shown that the Corozal Panare

use at least 30% of the plants in their

environment. This number would no

doubt increase if more time were spent

collecting in the area, especially in the

company of a shaman; this is particularly

true with respect to medicinal plants.

Scarcely any useful plants are gathered

from the savanna habitat; traditional Pa-

nare culture depends on the mountain for-

est for plant resources. As acculturation

increases, the knowledge of plants among

the Panare will decrease and will even-

tually be lost forever. The need for more

ethnobotanical studies of indigenous

groups in the neotropics is obvious if we

are to catalogue these peoples’ knowledge

of the plant world and understand their

perceptions of balance between the needs

of man and the “needs” of the natural

environment.

Acknowledgments

Appreciation is extended to the Charles

A. Lindbergh Fund and the Harry Frank

Guggenheim Foundation for a generous

grant that financed this research. Collab-

oration in Venezuela from the Herbario

182 BRIAN M. BOOM

Nacional, the Herbario Ovalles, and the

Herbario Universitario is gratefully ac-

knowledged. The field help of Margot

Grillo and Sondra Wentzel, and the ex-

pertise of linguist Marie-Claude Muller is

much appreciated. This paper is dedi-

cated to the Panare.

References Cited

. Dumont, J.-P. 1976. Under the rainbow: nature

and supernature among the Panare Indians. Aus-

tin and London, Univ. of Texas Press.

. 1978. The headman and I: ambiguity and

ambivalance in the fieldworking experience.

Austin and London, Univ. of Texas Press.

. Henley, P. 1982. The Panare. Tradition and

change on the Amazonian frontier. New Haven

and London, Yale Univ. Press.

. Boom, B. M. In press. Useful plants of the Pan-

are of the Venezuelan Guayana. Adv. Econ. Bot.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 183-189, December 1987

Introduction

Development of a Direct Solar

Stirling Engine: Mechanical

Energy for Developing Countries

J. R. Senft

University of Wisconsin, River Falls, Wisconsin 54022

ABSTRACT

Solar energy is a source of energy which works in total harmony with the natural

environment. The energy form most needed by the human community for carrying out

everyday tasks is mechanical. Therefore the problem of converting solar energy to me-

chanical energy is an important one to consider. Approaches to this problem, heretofore,

have been largely based upon high power focusing and tracking systems. Such systems

tend to be too expensive for small-scale use in developing countries where the need for

mechanical power is great and where preserving the balance of nature is essential. This

paper provides an overview of a project supported by The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund

to investigate the potential of operating a Stirling engine from direct unfocused or mod-

erately concentrated solar energy. A small Ringbom Stirling engine was designed and

constructed to test solar operation and collect operating data. Scaling equations were

derived for use in the analytic design of the engine. It is hoped that the data and experience

obtained from this project will serve as a useful first step toward the development of

larger practical size engines in the near future.

particularly acute in arid developing

countries where sunshine is abundant,

The Stirling engine is a closed cycle

engine which can be activated by any

external heat source. With an envi-

ronmentally clean heat source, the Stir-

ling has the potential to provide useful

mechanical power without sacrificing en-

vironmental quality. The optimal heat

source with respect to preserving natural

balances is the sun. A Stirling operating

on solar energy would operate on the

cleanest and most renewable of ‘‘fuels”’

in genuine harmony with nature. More-

over, the need for small power plants is

183

combustible fuels are scarce, and envi-

ronmental balances are delicate. There-

fore scientific studies aimed at eventually

realizing practical low cost small solar

power plants for domestic and agricul-

tural uses are well worthwhile.

The idea of running Stirling engines on

solar energy is neither new nor unex-

plored. Indeed it dates back to 1872 with

the pioneering work of John Ericsson?

and work continues to the present.'’ How-

ever all of the Solar/Stirling concepts

prior to this Lindbergh project utilized

184

GRAPHITE

PISTON

7S ae NZL

TIITTIIT AIT X Vite

\ a i @ “|

J. R. SENFT

FLYWHEEL

CRANKDISC

? CONNECTING

ROD

oe GLASS

eee CYLINDER

GRAPHITE

PISTON

LOCKING COLLAR

AW COLD PLATE

(WHIT HMHREBITIEES 0S SET

AS Ry

PLEXIGLAS Na NS SEE NN

en \ N IDI SITET N Posssissstasersnatastetetatensnseaeaegh \

REGENERATOR

Fig. 1. Sectional view of the project engine.

high power focusing devices paired with

high temperature engines. These focusing

systems typically require high precision in

fabrication, permanent installation, and

continuous tracking of the sun as it moves

through the day. These requirements

make such units suitable only for large

scale use in industrialized countries.

Prior work by Kolin’? and Senft®

showed that it is possible to operate Stir-

HOT PLATE

GUIDE ROD

ling engines from relatively low temper-

ature heat sources. This opened-up for

the first time the possibility of using such

engines with unfocused or moderately

concentrated solar energy. This would

eliminate the need for high precision

collectors, continuous tracking devices,

and high temperature tolerant engine

materials. This in turn could make the

solar-to-mechanical conversion process

MECHANICAL ENERGY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 185

practical with inexpensive small scale

units.

From a scientific point of view, what

was most needed at that point was data

on the temperatures and power output

that could be achieved by a Stirling engine

operating on direct or mildly concen-

trated sunlight. A small testbed engine

was designed and constructed to collect

this data and evaluate various collector

and engine concepts. Although itself too

small and rudimentary for practical use,

this first engine would provide the data

and initial experience necessary to assess

its practical potential and map out future

research and development directions.

This paper summarizes the project and its

results in a general way. More detailed

information on the topics covered here

can be found in references 8-10.

Engine Design

A Ringbom engine is a Stirling engine

with a conventional crank operated piston

and a gas-driven free displacer. The Ring-

bom type of Stirling engine was chosen

for this project because it offers a number

of advantages for low temperature solar

operation. A sectional view of the project

engine is shown in Figure 1.

Engine design began with the choice of

overall size. This was an important deci-

sion since it would affect construction cost

and time, testability, and adaptability to

changing experimental requirements.

Scaling equations were developed from

earlier theoretical work.*°”’ It was found

that two Ringboms having the same ratios

of rod area, swept volume, dead space

and temperature, and having the same

mean pressure, have stable speed limits

in the ratio

where

= overdriven speed limit

> ¢€

displacer area

M, = displacer mass

L = half displacer stroke.

This equation was extremely useful in

rapidly calculating basic engine compo-

nent geometry for several overall size

ranges and selecting the most suitable size

for the project engine. The specifications

chosen for the engine were

132 cm?

A, = piston area = 8.31 cm?

A = displacer area =

Ag = displacer rod area = 0.713 cm?

L = half displacer stroke = 1.50 cm

L, = half piston stroke = .523 cm

Vp = dead volume = 14.5 cm?

Mp = displacer mass = 6.0 g.

Because the peak operating tempera-

ture of the engine would be below 100 C,

the engine was fabricated largely from

aluminum and plastics. Standard ready-

made parts were used for the pistons and

cylinders, bearings, seals, and fasteners.

Solar Tests

The hot end of the engine incorporates

a flat plate collector. The hot plate of the

engine is the solar absorber. It was given

a layer of Thurmalox solar-absorptive

coating and a cover window of 3mm thick

plexiglas was fitted over the blackened

plate with an air space of 6mm and sealed

around the periphery.

Mounted on a tilting stand, the engine

was operated outdoors and temperatures

of the engine hot and cold plates and

speeds of the engine shaft were measured

and recorded under various loads. These

temperatures and speeds were the central

“unknowns” that motivated this project.

186 J. R. SENFT

L Conical

7 Reflector

Engine

Absorber

Plate

Fig. 2. Conical reflector geometry.

The engine functioned very well with

this simple flat plate collector as an in-

teresting demonstrator of solar-to-me-

chanical energy conversion. However,

engine power was limited by the low tem-

perature differentials obtained across the

engine plates. The measured AT across

the plates was typically 20°C. To produce

practical amounts of power at this tem-

perature differential the engine would

have to be of enormous proportions.

Therefore, modifications were carried out

to increase the AT across the engine.

A deep finned cooler plate was fitted

on the cold side of the engine to decrease

its operating temperature. To increase the

temperature of the hot plate of the en-

gine, a conical reflector was fitted. Figure

2 shows the principle of the conical re-

flector. The engine absorber plate re-

ceives solar energy directly through the

central portion of the cone plus an addi-

tional amount is intercepted and reflected

onto the plate by the surface of the cone.

Since the conical reflector in this appli-

cation does not focus to a point or to a

line, it does not require a continuous

tracking device; manual repositioning of

the reflector every hour or two would suf-

fice to keep the engine operating near full

capacity. For the same reasons, the con-

ical reflector does not require a high de-

gree of precision in its manufacture.

Furthermore, it can be inexpensively roll-

formed from sheet material. Thus the

conical reflector is ideal for inexpensive

small scale engine units.

Figure 3 shows the project engine with

a conical reflector fitted. The cone pic-

tured is a full once-reflecting cone with

an apex angle of 60 degrees. It was made

very inexpensively from cardboard tag

stock covered with 3M brand ECP-244

solar reflecting film. This film has an ad-

vertised reflectivity of 86%. After cutting

the required sector from the sheet ma-

terial, it was rolled into shape and the

seam glued. Two stiffening rings cut from

thick poster board were glued to the out-

side surface of the cone to maintain cir-

cularity. The stiffening rings are visible in

Figure 3 and the lower one serves as a

clamping flange to secure the cone to the

engine with spring clips.

The ideal concentration factor for a 60

degree full cone is 4. The following equa-

tion can be used to obtain an estimate of

its actual performance on the engine:

E = Inr(a + 4 bcos (1 + cos ))

where

E = power absorbed by engine plate

I = solar flux intensity

r = radius of engine plate

o = cone apex angle

and where a and b are factors between 0

and 1 to account for losses in transmission

through the collector window, in energy

absorption by the plate, and in reflection

from the surface of the cone. This equa-

tion with conservative estimates for a and

b showed that the 60 degree cone should

MECHANICAL ENERGY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 187

Fig. 3. The engine fitted with a 60 degree conical reflector and finned cooler plate.

have an actual energy concentration fac-

tor of 3 over the flat plate collector alone,

which would represent a considerable im-

provement in engine performance. Now

this calculation is based upon the axis of

the cone pointing directly at the sun. My

colleague Dr. D. Leake calculated the

concentration factor as a function of ray

entry angle. The results show that per-

formance does not rapidly decrease with

aiming error. For the 60 degree cone, the

unit can perform above 85% of peak for

one hour, and above 70% of peak for two

hours. Thus the cone appears to be quite

practical for applications without requir-

ing a continuous tracking device.

The 60 degree cone worked very well

in the test program. The details of these

tests can be found in references 8 and 10.

The net result of the conical reflector and

the finned cooler plate was to increase

engine power by a factor of about seven.

Power Measurements

Engine power measurements were

made in the laboratory. The strategy

adopted was to duplicate in the lab the

engine temperatures and speeds meas-

ured outdoors. Since these conditions

could be held constant in the lab, meas-

uring engine power was more reliable and

convenient than in the ever changing con-

ditions outdoors.

Figure 4 shows the setup used to meas-

ure engine power. The engine is in the

center mounted on a stand. Heating the

engine from below is an electric heater.

Power to the heater is controlled by the

variable transformer partially visible on

the far left of the photo. To the immediate

left of the engine is a dual probe ther-

mocouple thermometer used to monitor

the temperatures of the hot and cold

plates of the engine. A small fan not

188 J. R. SENFT

Fig. 4. The laboratory setup for measuring engine

power.

shown was used to control the tempera-

ture of the engine cold plate.

Speed of the engine was measured by

counting revolutions electronically over a

time period of 30 seconds measured by a

hand held stopwatch. To count the rev-

olutions, a magnet was secured to the en-

gine flywheel positioned to close a reed

switch once per revolution. This switch

was wired into a T1-30 calculator in place

of its “SUM” key. In practice, the cal-

culator memory is cleared and a “1” is

entered into the working register. At the

same instant that the stopwatch is started,

the reed switch circuit is connected to the

calculator by depressing a manual switch

seen on the bench alongside the calcula-

tor. Each time the flywheel magnet swings

past and closes the reed switch, one unit

is added to the calculator memory. At the

end of 30 seconds, the counting circuit

switch is opened. The calculator memory

100 200 300 400 500 RPM

Fig. 5. Power vs. speed curve for the engine.

is recalled and multiplied by 2 to show the

engine speed in revolutions per minute.

This proved to be a very convenient and

accurate way to measure engine speed.

Engine torque was measured by an arm

on the shaft acting on the pan of a balance

seen on the right in Figure 4. The grip of

the torque arm on the engine shaft is ad-

justable over a wide range. The arm of

course was in a level position when bal-

ance readings were taken, and the balance

was “‘zeroed”’ to compensate for the lev-

eling block on the left pan. This torque

measuring method turned out to be very

stable.

Figure 5 shows a typical power/speed

curve measured from the engine. Peak

power was 0.252 Watt at 270 rpm. The

temperatures corresponded to those typ-

ically recorded in bright sunlight with the

conical reflector and finned cooler plate

in place on the engine.

Conclusion

The project demonstrated that a Stir-

ling engine can be designed to operate

from direct unfocused solar energy and

provided initial experience and data taken

under actual operating conditions. The

data collected is perhaps the most impor-

tant direct result of the project since

measurements of engine power, speed

and temperatures are essential to guide

further development. Indeed, the data

clearly show that further work on the en-

gine to increase specific power by a factor

of four to eight is necessary in order to

realize reasonably small engines capable

of doing useful work. Ways to accomplish

this include the following: improving the

performance of the collector plate, re-

ducing conduction losses through the en-

gine, using a conical reflector having a

greater concentration factor, adding in-

ternal heat exchangers to increase engine

speed, and pressurizing to increase cyclic

work. It is felt that a judicious combina-

tion of these ideas could ultimately lead

MECHANICAL ENERGY FOR

to low-cost solar engines having a power

output of two or three hundred Watts.

Such engines could be of great benefit for

household use in remote undeveloped lo-

cations.

References Cited

1. Kolin, Ivo. /sothermal Stirling Cycle Engine.

University of Zagreb, 1983.

2. Kolin, Ivo. ““Low temperature difference Stir-

ling engine.” Proc. 19th Intersociety Energy

Conversion Engineering Conference Paper

#849029, 1984.

3. Ross, A. Stirling Cycle Engines, 2nd Ed., Solar

Engines, Phoenix, 1981.

4. Senft, J. R. “The hybrid Stirling engine.” Proc.

16th IECEC Paper #819785, 1981.

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 189

10.

IGE

. Senft, J. R. “First order analysis of Ringbom

engine operation.” Proc. 18th IECEC Paper

#839125, 1983.

. Senft, J. R. “A low temperature difference

Ringbom Stirling demonstration engine.” Proc.

19th IECEC Paper #849126, 1984.

. Senft, J. R. ““A mathematical model for Ring-

bom engine operation.” Jour. of Engineering

for Gas Turbines and Power Vol. 107, p. 590-

S95; Wulys 1985.

. Senft, J. R. “Investigation of the potential of a

direct solar Stirling engine.”’ Final Report to the

Charles A. Lindbergh Fund, 1986.

. Senft, J. R. ““Ringbom engine design.” Proc.

3rd International Stirling Engine Conference

Rome, 1986.

Senft, J. R. “A solar Ringbom Stirling engine.”’

Proc. 21st IECEC Paper #869112, 1986.

Wells, D., et al. “Stirling engines for solar

power generation in the 50 to 500 kW range.”’

Proc. 17th IECEC Paper #829290, 1982.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 190-192, December 1987

A Study on the Use of

Cyanobacterin as an Herbicide

for Crops

Charles P. Mason

Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minnesota 56082

ABSTRACT

Cyanobacterin an antibiotic secreted by the cyanobacterium, Scytonema hofmanni has

been studied as a potential herbicide for terrestrial plants. Since the compound is natural,

it is assumed at this point that it is biodegradable, certainly a positive aspect of the

compound. If it becomes possible to utilize cyanobacterin as a herbicide on earth without

damage to existing ecology, its impact will be to provide a balance between technological

progress in controlling undesirable plant growth and the preservation of our natural

environment.

Excretion of organic substances by

algae suggest that these compounds

are abundant and of ecological signifi-

cance.'* Most of these substances are pro-

duced by marine flora, principally the red

and brown algae.’ Some antibiotic sub-

stances have been reported in freshwater

chlorophytes and may also occur in the

cyanobacteria.* It has been suggested that

some of these may have allelopathic ef-

fects and thus play a role in the species

succession noted in freshwater?’ and

marine’ ecosystems. Except for the mam-

malian neurotoxin, anatoxin A from An-

abaena flos-aquae,®* antibiotic substances

from freshwater cyanobacteria have not

been isolated or characterized. In 1982,

I’ reported on the occurrence of an an-

tibiotic in the freshwater cyanobacterium

Scytonema hofmanni. Prior to this pub-

lication during the summers of 1978, 1979,

1980, and 1981, I worked full-time at the

Freshwater Biological Institute in Na-

190

varre, Minnesota. This prestigious labo-

ratory of the University of Minnesota

hired me to work on the toxins secreted

by blue-green algae. Occasionally these

algae bloom in Minnesota lakes and cause

the death of dogs, ducks, geese, horses

and cows, to name a few examples. Early

in my discussion with University scien-

tists, I realized that the algae were prob-

ably not secreting a chemical to harm

vertebrates but that these compounds

were being released to influence the

growth of organisms around them.

I set up some petri dishes with algae

combinations growing in them. One alga

was streaked across the dish and another

was streaked across the alga at right an-

gles to it. The close association of the al-

gae indicated how compatible they were.

Most algae grew together but when Scy-

tonema hofmanni was used it prevented

the growth of other algae. I had dis-

covered an alga that secretes a toxin or

CYANOBACTERIN FOR CROPS 191

antibiotic. The antiobiotic, named

cyanobacterin, has a molecular weight of

430, an empirical formula of C,;H,,;0,C1

and contains a 4-lactone and a chlorinated

aromatic nucleus.

Using my Lindbergh grant I wanted

to test the antibiotic, cyanobacterin on

higher plants to see what the effects would

be.

Recent studies on Euglena indicate that

the antibiotic acts on photosynthetic

membranes. This means that the anti-

biotic may be a potential herbicide. If the

compound does act as a herbicide, it will

be one of the few natural compounds that

does. Natural compounds are usually

biodegradable, decomposing in the en-

vironment without harmful effects on

other organisms. Before this new natural

antibiotic can be applied to the environ-

ment in any way, its effect on seed plants

must be determined.

Cultures of Lemna (3 species) corn,

curled dock, wild buckwheat, wild oats,

and green foxtail plants were treated with

cyanobacterin.’? In Lemna an aquatic spe-

cies cyanobacterin was added to the cul-

ture medium and growth measured by

counting plants. Cyanobacterin was

sprayed on the seedlings of the land

plants. Dry weights of plants were ob-

tained 15 days after treatment. The results

show that cyanobacterin does inhibit

plant growth. In Lemna concentration of

1.0 pg per ml is toxic. Cyanobacterin

added to the soil had no effect but in green

foxtail and wild oats 50% of plants af-

fected, curled dock, 65%; wild buck-

wheat, 75%; corn and pea 100% were

killed. Variations were probably due to

the slightly different doses received.

The antibiotic from Scytonema _ hof-

manni kills some plants but not all. In

other words the chemical will probably be

specific for certain plant species, killing

some but not affecting others. Exact con-

clusions are difficult to predict at this

point, but the concentration of the anti-

biotic tested would seem to be very im-

portant because most plant species

respond to specific concentrations of

chemicals. Low concentrations may not

affect a plant but an optimum or high con-

centration is needed. One of the major

goals of this research is to determine the

optimum concentration of antibiotic

needed to kill a certain plant.

Seeds of straight neck summer squash,

zucinni, butternut squash, wheat, bean,

sunflower, rye, corn, and cucumber were

soaked for 15 minutes in 5 wM cyano-

bacterin. Preliminary results showed that

presoaking the seeds in cyanobacterin

speeded up the germination rate of the

seeds compared to controls. This is not

surprising since some herbicides such as

2,4D also act as growth promotors.

It has already been mentioned that cy-

anobacterin effects the thyllacoid mem-

branes of Euglena. The mode of action of

the antibiotic is to interfer with electron

transport"! in photosynthesis. This is sim-

ilar to herbicides such as 3-(3,4-dichlo-

ropheny) 1, 1 dimethyl urea (DCMU).

Cyanobacterin appears to inhibit electron

transport in photosystem II at a site dif-

ferent from that of DCMU.”

The total synthesis and x-ray structure

of cyanobacterin has been determined.”

At the present time analogs of cyanobac-

terin are being synthesized and studied by

comparing their mode of action to cyano-

bacterin.

On the original chromatogram from

which cyanobacterin was isolated there

are several other active antibiotics which

have not been studied to any great extent.

The occurrences of these other antibiotics

demonstrates that organisms such as Scy-

tonema hofmanni do not rely on one an-

tibiotic chemical for their survival but may

possess a whole range of antibiotic chem-

icals to reduce competition from neigh-

boring and competing organisms.

References Cited

1. Fogg, G. E. 1966. The extracellular products of

algae. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev., 4:195-

212:

2. Hellebust, J. A. 1974. Extracellular products.

In: Algae Physiology and Biochemistry. W. D.

192

CHARLES P. MASON

P. Stewart ed., University of California Press.

Berkeley, pp. 838-863.

. Hornsey, I. S. and D. Hide. 1985. The produc-

tion of antimicrobiol compounds by British ma-

rine algae. IV. Variation of antimicrobial

activity with algae generation. Br. Phycol. J.

20:21-25.

. Moore, R. E. 1977. Toxins from blue-green al-

gae. Bioscience 27:797-802.

. Keating, K. I. 1977. Allelopathic influence on

blue-green bloom sequence in a eutrophic lake.

Science 196:885-—887.

. Keating, K. I. 1978. Blue-green algal inhibition

of diatom growth: transition from mesotrophic

to eutrophic community structure. Science

199:971-973.

. Chan, A. T., R. O. Andersen, M. O. Blane and

P. O. Harrison. 1980. Algal plating as a tool for

investigating allelopathy among marine mi-

croalgae. Marine Biology 59:7-13.

. Gorham, P. R. and W. W. Carmichael. 1980.

Toxic Substances from freshwater algae. Prog.

Wat. Tech. 12:189-198.

10.

EL.

13.

Mason, C. P., K. R. Edwards, R. E. Carlson,

J. Pignatello, F. K. Gleason and J. M. Wood.

1982. Isolation of cholorine-containing anti-

biotic from the freshwater cyanobacterium Scy-

tonema hofmanni. Science 215:400-—402.

Gleason, F. K. and D. E. Case. 1986. Activity

of the natural algicide, cyanobacterin on an-

giosperms. Plant Physiol. 80:834-—837.

Gleason, F. K. and J. L. Paulson. 1984. Site of

action of the natural algicide, cyanobacterin, in

blue-green alga, Synechococcus sp. Arch. Mi-

crobiol. 138:273-277.

Gleason, F. K., D. E. Case, K. D. Sipprell and

T. S. Magnuson. 1986. Effect of the natural al-

gicide, cyanobacterin, on a herbicide resistant

mutant of Anacystis nidulans R2. Plant Science

46:5—10.

Jong, T., P. G. Willard and J. P. Porwoll. 1984.

Total synthesis and x-ray structure determina-

tion of Cyanobacterin. J. Org. Chem. 49:735-—

736.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 193-199, December 1987

Incorporation of Tree Corridors

for Wildlife Movement in Timber

Areas: Balancing Wood

Production with Wildlife Habitat

Management

Christine Chitko Maguire*

Center of Environmental Sciences, Unity College, Quaker Hill Road,

Unity, Maine 04988

ABSTRACT

Tree corridors, approximately 80 m in width, in a fragmented forest/clearcut landscape

in northern Maine were evaluated relative to their use by small mammals and ungulates.

Responses of wildlife to the landscape mosaic were species specific. Corridors were not

perceived any differently than the unbroken forest by small mammals; ungulates, however,

used corridors more often than the forest or clearcuts. It is concluded that the incorporation

of tree corridors for wildlife use in timber areas offers a means of balancing wood pro-

duction with wildlife habitat management.

Introduction

The future undoubtedly will bring an

increased demand for forest products.

One direct result of this demand will be

intensified timber harvesting combined

with wildlife habitat modifications. As the

urgency to maximize natural resource

outputs intensifies, creative approaches

to managing wildlife in harmony with

other resources will need to be devel-

oped.’

*Current address: 22724 102nd Avenue S.E.,

Woodinville, WA 98072.

Landscapes on which timber manage-

ment is practiced typically consist of a

mosaic of remnant forest patches sur-

rounded by a matrix of earlier succes-

sional communities. Animal species di-

versity often decreases in these forest “‘is-

lands” due to hindered movement across

the mosaic coupled with greater rates of

extinction over immigration.” Preston°

suggested that decreased species diversity

might be prevented by leaving intercon-

necting corridors of undisturbed forest

habitat between forest patches. In addi-

tion to travel routes, corridors may pro-

vide food resources and protection as well

as permanent habitat for some species.

193

194 CHRISTINE CHITKO MAGUIRE

Despite these promising expectations,

the implementation and analysis of large

scale forest corridors for wildlife use in

areas managed primarily for timber are

conspicuously lacking. It was the purpose

of this research to evaluate the role that

tree corridors play in a fragmented forest

landscape relative to their use by selected

wildlife species.

Methods

Study Site

The study was conducted in a mature

spruce-fir (Picea rubens and Abies bal-

semea) forest in northern Maine on In-

ternational Paper Company land near

Clayton Lake (T11 R12) between 8 June

and 11 August 1986. The landcape mosaic

consisted of three major habitat compo-

nents: clearcuts, forest, and tree corridors

(Fig. 1). Five grouped clearcuts ranging

in size from 60 to 200 ha (x = 115 ha)

and in age from two to six years consti-

tuted the central body of the area. Clear-

cuts were surrounded by more or less

continuous forest heavily damaged by

spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumifer-

ana). Interspersed among the clearcuts

and linked with the forest was a series of

tree corridors averaging approximately 80

m in width. Shrub and herb density and

diversity varied considerably between and

within the major habitat groups owing to

differing ages and degree of spruce bud-

worm damage.

Animal Sampling

Small mammals were live trapped for

33 days, for blocks of eight or nine days,

by means of 450 5.1 x 6.4 xX 16.5 cm

collapsible Sherman live traps. Traps

were positioned across all habitats in the

SE section of the study site (Figs. 1 & 2).

Fifteen 5 x 6 trap grids were established

with traps set at 10 m spacing (Fig. 1).

Three grids were positioned in the cor-

ridor and also in the forest, with 50 m

spacing between grids within the same

habitat. An additional six grids were lo-

cated in the clearcuts on either side of the

corridor grids and continuous with them.

The three remaining grids were set in the

clearcut adjacent to, and continuous with,

the forest grids. This trap layout resulted

in a total of 270, 90 and 90 traps set in

clearcuts, the forest and corridor, respec-

tively.

Significant bear damage to traps oc-

curred during the study resulting in the

reduction of available traps as the study

progressed. Traps were repaired and re-

placed when possible. The resulting total

number of trap nights for the clearcuts,

forest and corridor were 7234, 2294 and

2338, respectively.

Traps were baited with either peanut

butter or vegetable shortening and sup-

plied with cotton for insulation and nest-

ing material. Traps were monitored once

daily when in use and closed during pe-

riods of non-use. Captured mice and voles

were ear tagged; shrews, however, were

not tagged because of anticipated high

trap mortality.

Moose (Alces alces) and whitetail deer

(Odocoileus virginianus) presence was

monitored with 86 3.7 x 22.1 m fecal

plots (29 in clearcuts, 30 in corridors, 27

in the forest) randomly dispersed in the

three major habitats across the entire

study site. Fecal plots were surveyed in

May and June 1986, and number of

encountered fecal piles and the defecating

species were recorded.

Statistical Analysis

In the preliminary analyses presented

here, all data were grouped by habitat,

and mammal habitat use evaluated by chi-

square analysis. To analyze for differ-

ences in ungulate fecal piles per habitat,

moose and deer data were combined into

PRESERVING WILDLIFE MOVEMENT IN WOOD PRODUCTION AREAS 195

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the clearcut/corridor/forest mosaic study site near Clayton Lake

(T11 R12), Maine. Clearcuts are denoted by stippled areas, and forests and corridors by non-stippled

areas. The approximate locations of 15 5 x 6 Sherman trap grids for small mammal censusing are indicated

by darkened circles.

one group due to small sample sizes for

separate species.

Results

Small Mammals

Three species of small mammals were

captured in sufficient abundance to allow

for habitat use analysis. The boreal red-

back vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) was

the most abundant small mammal, with

132 total captures. Voles were not dis-

tributed evenly across the landscape (p <

0.001), with captures occurring most fre-

quently in forested habitats and least fre-

quently in clearcuts (Fig. 3). Capture

success in the forest was similar to capture

success in the corridor (p = 0.55).

The masked shrew (Sorex cinereus),

with 111 captures, was the second most

frequently captured small mammal.

Shrews were found in approximately the

same proportion (p = 0.37) in each of the

three habitats (Fig. 3).

The deer mouse (Peromyscus manicu-

latus) was captured 100 trap nights and

was concentrated in clearcuts (p < 0.001).

Occupation of the corridor and forest

was extremely low for this species

(Fig. 3).

Ungulates

Ungulate fecal pile deposition was not

uniform among the three habitats (p =

0.03). Defecation occurred more fre-

quently in corridors than in either clear-

196 CHRISTINE CHITKO MAGUIRE

Fig. 2. Aerial perspective of the SE section of the study site with a view to the NE. Small mammal

trapping effort was restricted to this area. Refer to Fig. 1 for location of traps.

cuts or the forest. The forest was the least

used habitat in the landscape mosaic.

Discussion

Responses of animals to a landscape

mosaic, and to tree corridors in particular,

are species specific. The predominant bo-

real redback vole presence in the corridor

and forest suggest a dependency of this

species on features of the forested envi-

ronment. Redback voles rely heavily on

ectomycorrhizal fungi, symbiotes of trees,

aS a nutritional source,* but this food

source is largely lacking in clearcuts.° In

addition, redback voles have a high water

turnover rate® and may require the moist

soil and litter conditions of forested areas

to maintain an adequate water balance.’

The masked shrew was distributed

evenly throughout the landscape, sug-

gesting that its major environmental re-

quirements were available in each of the

three habitats. Iverson et al.® described

this shrew as a “‘nonselective”’ species be-

cause of its tolerance for a broad variety

of habitat types. In addition, it does not

appear to be influenced by vegetation

type, amount of cover or availability of

food.’ Within this landscape unit, there-

fore, masked shrews are relatively ubiqui-

tous insectivores.

Deer mice, conversely, were almost en-

tirely restricted to clearcuts. Although

some consider the deer mouse a ubiqui-

tous species, Getz’ determined that large

clearcuts provide favorable conditions for

deer mice, possibly due to increased food

supplies. The deer mouse is also an op-

portunist, and it is possible that deer mice

concentrated in the clearcut areas because

of reduced competition from other spe-

cies there. There is good indication that

the deer mouse is a relatively non-ag-

PRESERVING WILDLIFE MOVEMENT IN WOOD PRODUCTION AREAS 197

2.0

CAPTURE SUCCESS

SES

O aS

CC CO FO

CLE THRIONOMYS

GAPPERI

a Pe

CC CO FO

SOREX

CINEREUS

CC CO FO

PEROMYSCUS

MANICULATUS

Fig. 3. Percent capture success of the three most frequently captured small mammal species. Clearcut,

corridor and forest habitats are denotd by CC, CO and FO, respectively. Numbers above bars represent

actual number of captures. Total trap nights per habitat were not uniform; refer to text for details.

gressive species,’ and thus may be a poor

competitor against more aggressive spe-

cies, such as voles. It is hypothesized that

high vole activity moderated deer mouse

levels in the forested areas.

Although all three small mammal spe-

cies showed a pronounced species specific

response to the landscape mosaic, corri-

dors appeared to be treated as an exten-

sion of the forest and not as a separate

landscape entity. This response is likely

due to the small home ranges of these

animals relative to corridor size. Thus, an

interspersion of tree corridors in forest

management areas can help maintain spe-

cies diversity by facilitating dispersion of

small mammals.

Ungulate response to tree corridors dif-

fered from that of small mammals. If one

assumes that the rate of ungulate fecal

deposition is constant over time and be-

tween habitat types, then moose and deer

spent maximum time in corridors and

minimum time in forests. It is commonly

recognized that patch clearcutting in-

creases edge habitat, which is preferred

by deer due to proximity of forage (clear-

cuts) and cover (forests).'’ Timber re-

198 CHRISTINE CHITKO MAGUIRE

moval also enhances habitat for ungulates

by reverting the area to an earlier seral

vegetation stage, with resulting better for-

age.'* There is a limitation, however, to

the distance deer will venture into a clear-

cut. Hanley’ found the greatest deer hab-

itat use in clearcuts directly adjacent to

the forest.

Since corridors were used more often

than clearcuts, corridors may provide

more advantages to deer and moose than

clearcuts. It is hypothesized that corridors

not only provide cover and food prox-

imity, but also maximal edge; corridors

may be perceived as habitat composed

completely of edge. Thus food is easily

available from all points within the cor-

ridor, not just along the clearcut/forest

interface, as in forests, while cover re-

mains readily attainable. Corridors ap-

pear, then, to be superior ungulate

habitat in timber harvest areas.

In summary, animals do not necessarily

perceive a landscape mosaic in the same

manner that it is perceived by man, the

primary determinant of the habitat pat-

terns. To evaluate the impact of land-

scapes On numerous species, then,

environmental patchiness must be viewed

on various levels of scale. Wiens"* defines

the patch structure of an environment as

“that which is recognized by or relevant

to the organism under consideration.”

Thus patchiness is ““organism-defined.”’ It

would seem, then, that a mixture of patch

sizes, composition, and arrangements are

necessary for maintenance of a diverse

fauna in managed forest landscapes. It is

hoped that in the future, the wildlife com-

ponent of the forest resource will not be

overlooked in efforts to maximize wood

production and minimize harvesting

costs, and that efforts will be made to

incorporate wildlife habitat management

with timber management practices.

Acknowledgments

Diane Borden, Doug Maguire and Jay

Matteson are sincerely thanked for their

numerous hours in the field under very

wet, hot and “‘buggy” conditions. Inter-

national Paper Co., through the efforts of

Tom Eubanks and Mike Macedo, pro-

vided accommodations at the research

site and all forms of logistical help. The

Charles A. Lindbergh Fund was the ma-

jor source of financing for this project,

and I gratefully acknowledge those as-

sociated with the Fund for their unwav-

ering support and hopeful belief in

“corridors.”’

References Cited

1. Allaire, P. N. 1984, Coordination of nongame

management with other land uses. In: Manage-

ment of Nongame Species & Ecological Com-

munities. Proc. of aSymp. W. C. McComb, ed.,

Univ. of Kentucky, Lexington, pp. 159-162.

2. Burgess, R. L. and D. M. Sharpe, ed. 1981.

Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated

Landscapes. Ecological Studies 41. Springer-

Verlag, New York. 310 pp.

3. Preston, F. W. 1962. The canonical distribution

of commoness and rarity: Part II. Ecology 43:

410-431.

4. Merritt, J. F. and J. M. Merritt. 1978. Popu-

lation ecology and energy relationships of Cleth-

rionomys gapperi in Colorado subalpine forest.

J. Mamm. 59: 576-598.

5. Maser, C., J. M. Trappe and R. A. Nussbaum.

1978. Fungal-small mammal interrelationships

with emphasis on Oregon coniferous forests.

Ecology 59: 799-809.

6. Lovejoy, D. A. 1975. The effect of logging on

small mammal populations in New England

northern hardwoods. Univ. Conn. Occas. Pa-

pers, Biol. Sci. Ser. 2(17): 269-291.

7. Getz, L. L. 1968. Influence of water balance

and microclimate on the local distribution of the

red-backed vole and white-footed mouse. Ecol-

ogy 49: 276-286.

8. Iverson, S. I., R. W. Seabloom and J. M. Hna-

tiuk. 1967. Small-mammal distribution across

the prairie-forest transition of Minnesota and

North Dakota. Amer. Midl. Nat. 78: 188-197.

9. Wrigley, R. E., J. E. Bubois and H. W. R.

Copland. 1979. Habitat, abundance, and dis-

tribution of six species of shrews in Manitoba.

J. Mamm. 60: 505-520.

10. Fitch, J. H. 1963. A comparative behavioral

study of Peromyscus leucopus and Peromyscus

maniculatus. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 66: 160-

164.

11. Thomas J. W., H. Black, Jr., R. J. Scherzinger,

and R. J. Pedersen. 1979. Deer and elk. In:

Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests: The Blue

INCINERATING CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS—AN ALTERNATIVE 199

Mountains of Oregon and Washington. J. W. 13. Hanley, T. A. 1983. Black-tailed deer, elk, and

Thomas, ed., USDA For. Serv. Agric. Handb. forest edge in a western Cascades watershed. J.

553, pp. 104-127. Wildl. Manage. 47: 237-242.

12. Resler, R. A. 1972. Clearcutting: Beneficial as- 14. Wiens, J. A. 1976. Population responses to

pects for wildlife resources. J. Soil and Water patchy environments. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7:

Conserv. 27: 250-259. 81-120.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 199-204, December 1987

The Feasibility of Incinerating

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the

Catalytically Stabilized Thermal

Combustor: An Attractive

Alternative to Current Methods of

Organic Hazardous Wastes

Incineration

S. L. Hung and L. D. Pfefferle

Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven,

CT 06520

ABSTRACT

The catalytically stabilized thermal (CST) combustor has many properties that make it

a promising means of coping with the problems associated with the incineration of chlor-

inated hydrocarbons (CHC). The lean stability limits of various mixtures of Methyl Chlo-

ride/Ethane wee studied under a variety of operating conditions in a platinum coated

honeycombed ceramic monolith. Pre-heating the inlet air and the addition of hydrogen

were both found to decrease the minimum operating temperature of the burner needed

to maintain stable combustion. At all steady state operating conditions, no CO was found

above the detectable limit of 100 ppm and no hydrocarbons or CHC were found above

the detectable limit of 0.1 ppm. This corresponds to a total fuel destruction efficiency of

at least 99.9998%. The results of this study are promising and justify further work to

develop the CST combustor as an attractive alternative to current methods of organic

hazardous wastes incineration.

The safe disposal of chlorinated hy- lenges facing the chemical industry.

drocarbons (CHC) and other toxic or- Current incinerators offer relatively com-

ganic chemicals is one of the greatest chal- plete destruction, but require large vol-

200

umes to achieve an acceptable

conversion. An attractive alternative is

the use of the catalytically stabilized ther-

mal (CST) combustor. The size of an ef-

ficient CST burner can be much smaller

(and even mobile), enabling economic

(and more complete) on-site destruction

of toxic wastes.

The CST combustor has many features

that make it a promising burner design

for the incineration of CHC and other

organic wastes: (1) It utilizes heteroge-

neous catalytic reactions to help initiate

and stabilize gas phase reactions. (2) It

has the ability to burn very lean fuel mix-

tures and reduce the amounts of CO,

NOx and other combustion by-products

emitted. (3) It can operate as a near

“plug-flow” reactor requiring a relatively

small volume to achieve high conversion

rates. Amore complete description on the

CST combustor can be found elsewhere.°

CHC fuels are much harder to burn and

have a higher tendency to soot than their

hydrocarbon counterparts.’ This is be-

caue the Cl radicals “‘scavenge”’ the re-

action mixture for H radicals, reducing

the amount of H available for important

combustion propagation reactions. The

presence of chlorine in the mixture ex-

S. L. HUNG AND L. D. PFEFFERLE

tends the flame front, causing the heat

release from the flame to be extended and

making the flame much more difficult to

stabilize. Also, the extended reaction

front increases the probability that partial

combustion products will be emitted.

An important advantage of the CST

burner is its ability to operate as a near

“plug flow” reactor. This is very different

from typical incinerators that use back-

mixing to help stabilize the combustion

process and to achieve high heat release

rates. Back-mixing, however, inherently

results in a wide residence time distribu-

tion (Figure 1, 1A). Because such incin-

erators produce a wide residence time

distribution, a large volume reaction

chamber is required to insure that the res-

idence time is adequate for the required

conversion.

The volume of the incinerator can be

reduced without compromising efficiency

by operating the combustor as a plug flow

reactor. Because the catalyst in the CST

combustor can help stabilize the flame,

backmixing is not required and a tubular

flow pattern may be used. Ideally, all fluid

elements entering a plug flow tubular

type reactor will move down the tube in

an undistrubed “plug” and there is no

Insulating

Fuel Inlets

Packed Bed

Mixing Chamber

and Stainless

Steel Wool

SAceerae

Ceramic Blanket

ease: .

Thermocouples

FRERTERAT

fp LULULLCLES:

——_.

—

———

—

————

— z Combustion

——

—

_—

—

SEN == Products

VLLLLLEDEL DDD AO

Insulating

Honeycombed

Mixing Screens Catalyst Monoliths

Coated

Honeycombed

Monolith

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

Fig.: 1.

INCINERATING CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS—AN ALTERNATIVE 201

“distribution”’ of residence times (Figure

1B). In real tubular reactors, however,

there will be some degree of dispersion

(Figure 1C). It should be noted that even

if a “plug” flow is not approximated in

the tubular reactor, the tubular geometry

will still make the minimum residence

time easier to control and reduces the vol-

ume of the burner.

We have no knowledge of any previous

work done to evaluate the CST combustor

W(t)

for the destruction of CHC fuels, al-

though the catalytic oxidation of CHC

fuels have been reported at tempera-

tures below 500 C.**° These oxidation re-

actors, however, do not utilize gas phase

reactions to achieve high conversion

rates. The purpose of this preliminary

study is to determine the lean stability

limits for CHC combustion in a CST

burner. Also, the completeness of the

combustion reactions must be found to

tavg

TIME

FIGURE 1A: WELL-STIRRED (MIXED) REACTOR RESIDENCE TIME

===

——— ge

———-

W(t)

tavg

TIME

FIGURE IB: IDEAL PLUG FLOW TUBULAR REACTOR RESIDENCE TIME

W(t)

tavg

TIME

FIGURE IC: REAL TUBULAR REACTOR RESIDENCE TIME

202 S. L. HUNG AND L. D. PFEFFERLE

determine if the CST combustor is indeed

a practical advancement for CHC incin-

eration.

Methodology and Results

Methyl chloride was used as the test

CHC with ethane used as an auxiliary

fuel. A schematic diagram of the exper-

imental apparatus is shown in Figure 2.

Air and fuel(s) are thoroughly mixed in

a packed bed chamber before passing into

the catalytic bed. Both the upstream and

downstream ends of the catalytic bed are

radiation shielded and insulated using ce-

ramic monoliths. The 10.2 cm long down-

stream insulating monolith also increases

the residence time of the combustion

gases in the high temperature environ-

ment.

The combustor wall temperature is

monitored using thermocouples placed

every 1.2 cm in the axial direction. Com-

bustion exhaust samples are taken using

a water cooled sampling probe and are

analyzed using a gas chromatograph

equipped with flame ionization and ther-

mal conductivity detectors.

The catalyst bed was made using ce-

ramic cordierite (2MgO, 2AI1,03, 5SiO;)

monoliths coated with alumina followed

by a platinum loading of 5.0 kg/m’. The

monoliths have small square open chan-

nels with the cross-section in a square ho-

neycombed configuration (cell density =

31 cells/cm*). The primary advantage of

this geometry is that the parallel channels

allow the gases to pass through the com-

bustion zone in an approximate plug flow

FLOW DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

Air Primary Secondary

Fuel Fuel

(Ethane) (Methy! Chloride)

Air Dryer

Air Filter

Flowmeter Flowmeter Flowmeter

Electric

Heater

Mixing Chamber

Pressure Probe

Catalytic Bed ns ee Probes

(Reaction Chamber)

Exhaust

(Type B thermocouples) ————> Computer Data Acquisition

——>

Bos Gas Sampling Probe

Connected to GC Equipped

and Integrator

| with TCD, FID, and PID

Fig. 2.

INCINERATING CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS—AN ALTERNATIVE 203

fashion. The catalytic bed length was 2.5

cm.

The total flowrate is characterized us-

ing the reference inlet velocity. This is the

calculated average velocity of the un-

reacted inlet gases through the catalytic

0.50

0.48

Minimum Stable Equivalence Ratio

0.36

0.0 0.1

0.2

bed and was maintained at 97 cm/sec. The

total fuel to air ratio is specified using the

equivalence ratio, defined to be the ratio

of the fuel actually used to the stoichio-

metric amount of fuel needed for com-

plete combustion. The equivalence ratio

@ Only Ethane used,

no preheating used

O with preheating

20% hydrogen in fuel

mixture, no preheating used

Dashed lines indicate the

same series of runs

0.3 0.4 0.5

Xuc (Fuel Fraction of Methyl Chloride)

Fig. 3.

204 S. L. HUNG AND L. D. PFEFFERLE

of chlorinated feeds is calculated by as-

suming that all the Cl and H will form

HCl if both are present. Any “‘extra’”’ Cl

and H will form Cl, and HCl, respectively.

Although this is not based on the ther-

modynamically favorable products, it is

useful as an heuristic aid.

The results so far have been very prom-

ising. CO, a good indicator of incomplete

combustion, was below our detectable

limit of 100 ppm in all steady state runs.

Total hydrocarbons(and CHC) were be-

low our detectable limits of about 0.1 ppm

corresponding to a total fuel destruction

efficiency (DE) of at least 99.9998% and

a DE of CHC of at least 99.998%.

The first set of runs found the lean sta-

bility limit of the burner using unpre-

heated air and a small amount of CH;Cl

(X=0.177) added to a predominately

ethane fuel mixture. Cl hindered the com-

bustion enough to require a higher equiv-

alence ratio (higher temperature) to

maintain stability. The temperature re-

quired even at the minimum total equiv-

alence ratio (0.42) was high (above 1550

K) and near the upper temperature limit

of the catalyst and catalyst support.

The inlet air was preheated by 100 K

in the second series of runs reducing the

minimum equivalence ratio needed from

0.42 to 0.38. Preheating allowed the min-

imum stable operating temperature to be

decreased by reducing the total fuel

needed to maintain stability. A Ch;Cl fuel

fraction of 0.30 was stabilized at a tem-

perature of 1510 K at an overall equiva-

lence ratio of approximately 0.45.

The last series of runs tested the effect

of adding a fixed amount of hydrogen (ap-

prox. 10%) to the fuel mixture. This de-

creased the minimum stable operating

temperature 60-100 K (and the minimum

stable total equivalence ratio from 0.42 to

0.39) (See Figure 3).

Summary

Some of the more significant observa-

tions are; (1) CO and total hydrocarbons

(and CHC) were below detectable limits.

This is a remarkable achievement for an

unoptimized initial combustor. (2) The

presence of Cl did not deactivate the ca-

talyst. (3) Preheating improves combus-

tor stability, allowing it to operate at a

lower temperature and a higher fraction

of CHC be used. (4) Hydrogen can extend

the extinction limits of the burner.

Future work will focus on optimizing

burner performance by preheating and

operation with higher temperature cata-

lysts. The effect of the H/Cl ratio will be

studied by using different chlorinated

fuels.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. W. C. Pfef-

ferle for his guidance, Corning Glass

Works for the cordierite monoliths and the

Charles Lindbergh Fund for the financial

support.

References Cited

1. Bose and Senkan. Comb. Sci. and Tech., v.35,

-1983.

2. Palazzolo, Jamgochian, Steinmetz and Lewis.

EPA600/2-86-079.

3. Pfefferle, W. C. and L. D. Pfefferle. Prog. En-

ergy Comb. Sci., v.12, 1986.

. Sageghi. Environ. Prot. Eng., v.2, n.1, 1976.

. Weldon and Senkan. Comb. Sci. and Tech., v.47,

1986.

Nn &

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Page 205, December 1987

Marine Natural Products As

Ecologically Sound Agrochemicals

and Cancer Drugs

Mark E. Hay and J. Emmett Duffy

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine

Sciences, Morehead City, North Carolina 28557

ABSTRACT

Charles Lindbergh’s warning regarding the need to balance technological innovation

with the preservation of, and respect for, wildness most often makes us think of the

potential dangers of high technology: nuclear war, the escape of biologically engineered

organisms, and other such modern day problems. However, nothing in man’s history has

more dramatically affected wildness and the global environment than farming. The advent

of agriculture resulted in huge tracts of diverse forest communities being converted into

largely monospecific stands of a few crops (primarily grains such as corn, wheat, and rice).

As these crops increased in abundance, they became increasingly susceptible to insect

pests since these pests could more easily find and consume the crop species when it was

not surrounded by the more complex forest vegetation. Controlling these crop pests is

one of the major problems of today’s agriculture and the wide-spread use of synthetic

pesticides has created significant problems for man’s health and for the world’s environ-

ment. With support from the Lindbergh Fund, we are investigating the possibility of using

marine natural products as ecologically sound agrochemicals and as potential anticancer

agents.

The impact of insect pests on agriculture is staggering. In most cases the primary means

of combating this threat has been the large-scale application of synthetic insecticides.

Unfortunately many of these compounds are generalized toxins and are highly resistant

to degradation, resulting in environmental accumulation of chemicals that are dangerous

to both man and numerous beneficial organisms. What is needed are pesticides that are

biodegradable and that target the specific pest without affecting other unrelated organisms.

Natural products from marine algae show promise in both respects. Many are small organic

molecules that are presumably more easily degraded than larger synthetic ones like DDT.

Additionally, our recent work in the Caribbean has discovered several seaweed compounds

that deter feeding by small arthropods (amphipod crustaceans) that are closely related to

terrestrial insects. However, these compounds have no affect on feeding by vertebrates

(fishes). Such compounds have potential as insect-specific pesticides.

Our laboratory uses a combination of field and laboratory feeding tests coupled with

various chemical analyses to identify those seaweeds most likely to possess unique chem-

icals with herbivore-specific antifeedant properties. These natural products are then pur-

ified and structurally elucidated by collaborating natural products chemists at Scripps

Institution of Oceanography. These purified compounds are retested against various ma-

rine herbivores, against terrestrial insects, and against human cancer cells. The terrestrial

insect tests and the anticancer tests are conducted by collaborators at the University of

Arizona and the National Cancer Institute.

Although we are in the very early stages of this work, it has already produced several

valuable leads that we hope will eventually further The Lindbergh Fund’s goal of balancing

technological advancement with the preservation of environmental quality.

205

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 206-208, December 1987

A Genetic Study of Insect Pest

Control: A Basis for Development

of Safer Insecticides

Ann Marie Fallon*

Dept. of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of

Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, School of Osteopathic

Medicine, 675 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854

ABSTRACT

Since the introduction of DDT in the mid-1940’s, synthetic organic insecticides have

played a major role in the control of insect pests of medical and agricultural importance.

Continued use of pesticides, however, has resulted in the appearance of resistant strains

whose control requires the introduction of increased levels of insecticides into the envi-

ronment. An understanding of the genetic events involved in insecticide resistance would

contribute to 1) the more effective use of available insecticides, 2) the development of

new, safer insecticides with reduced environmental toxicity, and 3) the exploitation of

genetic methods for eradication or reduction of insect populations.

The ability to control insect pests us-

ing various chemical agents has led to ma-

jor advances in agricultural productivity

and in the control of insect-borne diseases

of man and domesticated animals. On the

order of a dozen major classes of chemical

insecticides, including arsenicals, cya-

nide, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organo-

phosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids

have been, or presently are in use for con-

trol of pest insects.

The earliest control agents were simple

inorganic chemicals such as arsenic deriv-

atives, cyanide, and lime sulfur, which

were in use primarily during the mid to

* After December 21, 1987, Dept. of Entomology,

University of Minnesota, 1980 Folwell Avenue, St.

Paul, MN 55108.

206

late 19th century. Resistance to these

types of insecticides was first described for

the San Jose scale insect in 1908, and over

the next 38 years, eleven additional spe-

cies were shown to have developed re-

sistance to one or more of these simple

chemical control agents.'

The introduction of the synthetic or-

ganic insecticide, DDT (dichlorodiphen-

yltrichloroethane), in the mid 1940’s

marked the beginning of ‘“‘“modern” insect

control. Initially, chemicals such as DDT

and other chlorinated hydrocarbons ap-

peared to represent a major technological

advance in insect control. For example,

in the 1950’s, extensive use of DDT re-

duced active transmission of malaria by

about 5-fold and by 1966, an all time low

of 40,000 cases was reported in India.’

DEVELOPMENT OF SAFER INSECTICIDES

Success in the control of insect-borne dis-

ease, however, was short-lived, due to the

relatively rapid appearance of insecticide-

resistant strains of mosquitoes. By 1978,

the annual number of cases of malaria in

India had risen to 5.8 million.’

The rapid appearance of insecticide-re-

sistant strains in response to DDT was

largely unanticipated. Similarly, the long-

term impact of pesticide residues on the

environment did not become apparent

until several years after the use of organic

pesticides became widespread. These de-

velopments, together with the increasing

cost of producing new, more toxic com-

pounds for control of resistant species,

have prompted a new emphasis on alter-

natives to chemical control of insect pests,

including the exploitation of insect para-

sites or predators, and control by micro-

organisms including bacteria, protozoa,

fungi and viruses, as well as the use of

insect growth regulators to disrupt normal

developmental and reproductive proc-

esses. Although these approaches have

shown considerable promise, they are

generally not as effective as chemical in-

secticides, and are unlikely to meet the

needs of the agricultural industry in the

immediate future. In spite of their envi-

ronmental impact, chemical insecticides

will remain prominent in insect control in

the foreseeable future.

Continued application of insecticides

has resulted in the appearance of over

447 resistant species of insects and mites.

Insect populations with full susceptibility

to control agents are rare today, and re-

sistance constitutes a serious obstacle to

the efforts of many countries to increase

agricultural productivity and control vec-

tor-borne diseases.’ Two major resis-

tance mechanisms have been identified in

insects: 1) decreased sensitivity of the

insecticide target site and 2) increased

capacity for detoxication of the insecti-

cide. Both mechanisms have the same net

effect: more chemical must be applied

to achieve satisfactory levels of control.

The appearance of insecticide-resistant

strains appears to involve normal genetic

207

and physiological processes, which

evolved independently of the introduc-

tion of pesticides into the environment.

A major challenge today lies in identify-

ing the molecular bases for these adaptive

processes, so that more effective control

strategies can be developed. Modest goals

of such research include developing the

ability to detect genetic changes leading

to resistance early, before resistance be-

comes established at the population level.

Early detection would facilitate effective

use of existing control agents as well as

minimize the environmental effects of in-

appropriately applied chemicals.

Recently, scientists have begun to iden-

tify genetic changes that contribute to

insecticide resistance. Target site altera-

tions, for example, have been defined for

the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, a key

element in nerve transmission whose ac-

tivity is inhibited by organophosphorous

and carbamate insecticides. Individual in-

sects in which a genetic event results in

the production of altered enzyme have a

selective advantage for survival and re-

production in the presence of these par-

ticular insecticides.

Increased levels of detoxifying en-

zymes, including esterases, oridases, glu-

tathione transferases, and dehydrochlor-

inases, has been shown to be an important

resistance mechanism in several different

species including mosquitoes.* An impor-

tant genetic mechanism that can result in

overproduction of detoxifying enzymes is

gene amplification, in which extra copies

of the genetic information coding for the

detoxifying enzyme accumulate in the ge-

netic material, and are passed on to future

generations.

We have been interested in developing

a cell culture model system for investi-

gating gene amplification in the mosquito,

Aedes albopictus. Cultured cells were se-

lected for resistance to the antifolate

agent methotrexate,° and resistant cells

were shown to produce excess amounts

of the target enzyme, dihydrofolate re-

ductase. These cells were then used as

starting material for purification of di-

208 ANN MARIE FALLON

hydrofolate reductase.° The N-terminal

amino acids of the purified enzyme were

microsequenced, and from the amino acid

sequence, the corresponding DNA se-

quence was deduced. The DNA sequence

has been synthesized chemically, and

used to identify DNA sequences contain-

ing the dihydrofolate reductase gene from

a library of mosquito genetic information.

This approach has enabled us to begin

to analyze at a molecular level the de-

tailed structure of an amplified insect

gene. We hope to use the information that

can result from these studies to analyze

the early events accompanying the de-

velopment of resistance, and the stability

of resistance in the absence of selective

pressure. We anticipate that these studies

will lead to a more balanced approach to

the use of synthetic organic chemicals for

insect control.

References Cited

. Forgash, A. J. 1984. History, evolution, and con-

sequences of insecticide resistance. Pestic.

Biochem. Physiol. 22, 178-186.

. Busvine, J. R. 1978. Curent problems in the con-

trol of mosquitoes. Nature 273, 604-607.

. Georghiou, G. P. 1986. The magnitude of the

resistance problem. In: Pesticide Resistance:

Strategies and Tactics for Management. National

Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

. Mouches, C., M. Magnin, J.-B. Berge, M. de

Silvestri, V. Beyssat, N. Pasteur, and G. P. Geor-

ghiou. 1987. Overproduction of detoxifying es-

terases in organophosphate-resistant Culex

mosquitoes and their presence in other insects.

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 84, 2113-2116.

. Fallon, A. M. 1984. Methotrexate resistance in

cultured mosquito cells. Insect Biochem. 14, 697-

704.

. Johnston, A. M., and A. M. Fallon. 1987. N-

terminal amino acid sequence analysis of dihy-

drofolate reductase from methotrexate-resistant

mosquito cells. Arch. Biochem. Physiol. 5, 57-

69.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 209-214, December 1987

Development of a Rare Halophyte

Grain: Prospects For Reclamation

of Salt-Ruined Lands

Nicholas P. Yensen, PhD

SALT WEEDS, 727 N. 9th Ave., Tucson, Arizona 85705

Susana Bojorquez de Yensen, M.S.

Dept. of Food Science & Nutrition, The University of Arizona,

Tucson, Arizona 85716

ABSTRACT

It has been a dream of humankind to find a crop to grow on the billions of acres of

salt-ruined lands. Meanwhile, the destruction of coastal salt-tolerant plant species threat-

ens to turn this dream into a nightmare. The development of salt-loving crops (Distichlis

spp.) from a nearly extinct variety demonstrates the urgency of protecting virgin saline

habitats. These salt-loving plants have the potential for land reclamation, forage, lawns,

and for allowing many Third World and arid nations to feed themselves.

Food and extinction of species are the

foci of two problems of global imbalance:

1) the destruction of agricultural lands

which is out of balance with the human

need for food, and 2) the extinction of the

earth’s flora which is out of balance with

the human need of that flora.

This project deals specifically with de-

struction of coastal floras. It is difficult to

estimate world wide how much has been

lost or will be lost as humankind continues

to wreak havoc along the world’s irre-

placable narrow strip of coastal vegeta-

tion where many habitats contain unique

varieties.

There is a perceived need and obliga-

tion of scientists to inform the leaders of

our societies about the long-term eco-

nomic value of these wild plants to hu-

mankind. This project provides an

example of a wild plant, recently thought

extinct due to humans, that may have

an unprecedented benefit for humans.

Through this ‘“‘extinct” plant, the project

considers how the salting of the world’s

agricultural lands (Figure 1) can be

brought into balance with the World’s

need for food.

It has been suggested that humankind’s

irrigation projects have salinized the

earth’s surface so that there are no longer

virgin areas left.' Worldwide there are

nearly 4 billion acres* that are too saline

for conventional crops. By comparison,

209

210 NICHOLAS P. YENSEN, PHD AND SUSANA BOJORQUEZ DE YENSEN, M.S.

Fig. 1. Salinization of a wheat field.

only 2 billion acres are irrigated, and as

much as one third’ may have significantly

reduced productivity due to salt.

The technology that created the grain

glut has allowed the Developed Countries

to get by with far fewer acres ... and

crops. . . human sustenance hangs in bal-

ance by a mere three crops (wheat, rice,

and corn).

Most of the salt problems, however,

occur in the arid Third World countries,

which cannot feed themselves. Still, the

United States is not immune to salt prob-

lems; witness the San Jouaquin Valley and

many of the western states. Further, some

meterorologists believe the Midwest will

become much drier and saltier to the ex-

tent that the United States may become

an importer of grain. While it is being

debated as to whether this will happen,

the United States continues to lose

200,000—300,000 acres per year due to

salt.*

The current global state of affairs lead

Bronowski to state, “I guess the single

most important biological contribution to

world peace will be to produce plants

which grow effectively in quite salty

water.”

It is becoming better known that some

wild plants do grow effectively in quite

salty water.>*’ True halophytes or salt-

loving plants begin to optimize produc-

tivity at a salt level where conventional

crops are no longer effective.

Given the existence of salt-loving

plants, where in the world does one go to

find a halophyte crop and how is it de-

veloped? Through two grants from the

Rockefeller Foundation to the University

of Arizona’s Environmental Research

Lab we searched the globe. What to look

for? Because the principle human suste-

nance crops are all grains, it might be-

hoove us to look for a grain halophyte.

We learned that the Indians may have

had a halophyte grain . . . a variety of the

genus Distichlis. Due to human interven-

tion, however, it was thought extinct.*”

We also learned that the Indians used

RECLAMATION OF SALT-RUINED LANDS 211

reed rafts similar to those of Egypt and

Bolivia to collect the grain which was then

stored in thatched granary baskets and

that the grain was highly esteemed by the

Indians. The legends and history of this

grain have many aspects in common with

wild rice.

Aerial reconnaissance flights along

with continued ground exploration suc-

ceeded in locating a few extant patches.

The yields observed, however, were quite

low, about 10 pounds/acre. And, when

the University’s test plot only yielded the

equivalent of about 1 pound/acre, work

on the grain was abondoned with due

cause.

The project, however, continued in our

backyard and we returned to the field.

With the aid of the Tinker Foundation we

continued exploring for additional germ-

plasm.

Meanwhile, growth studies at various

salt levels were able to definitively dem-

onstrate for the first time that this grain

plant is a true halophyte.'° When the sal-

inity was increased to that of sea water

however, the _ substantially reduced

growth, typical of other halophytes, veri-

fied the inappropriateness of destroying

the worlds coasts for sea water-irrigated

farms.

Many valuable wild halophytes occur

where the advent of sea water agriculture

might destroy them. There are only

20,000 miles of desert coastline, much of

which is rocky and not suitable for agri-

culture and many areas are encroached

upon by marinas and other coastal de-

velopments. Inland, however, there are

6,000,000 square miles of salty land. It

would be indeed sad to see coastal halo-

phyte crops developed only to have them

replace what remains of our wild and rich

library of halophyte species. Fortunately,

virtually all of the potential halophyte

crop species studied to date grow better

at the lower salt levels such as those found

in salty agricultural areas. Conveniently,

agricultural areas already have irrigation

systems, equipment, and people in place.

Thus the more favorable economics of

growing halophyte crops in salty farm

land is more likely to protect the wild salt

marshes and swamps than human ideals.

With 4 billion acres of salt-ruined land

to work with, we found no difficulty in

steering away from coastal fields and with

the help of local farmers prepared test

plots in salinized agricultural areas. We

learned to direct seed into salty soil. After

a number of trials, we gained sufficient

rudimentary knowledge to grow the halo-

phyte grain on salt-ruined soil. Two years

were required to establish the first fields

and obtain a harvest of grain.

Selected varieties of the grain resemble

wheat much as wild rice resembles rice.

So, following the nomenclature of the

Minnesotans, the term ‘““‘WildWheat” was

coined and trademarked.

Remarkably, WildWheat grain grown

even in full-strength sea water is not salty.

The total ash content is less than wheat

or barley.'° The plant excretes the salt via

salt glands, keeping the grain and tissues

low in salt-content. Thus, even the foilage

can be grazed by cattle without ill ef-

fects:

Nutritionally, WildWheat grain is ex-

cellent and unique. For instance, ordinary

wheat and other cereals have phytates

which bind to the essential minerals ren-

dering them unavailable as nutrients.

WildWheat grain has relatively low

amounts of this anti-nutritional factor.’

It is, however, high in bran and fiber. The

relative amount of bran is high, exceeding

40% by weight.’ The fiber is also very

high, nearly three times that of wheat.'*

The grain protein has a good balance

of the essential amino acids, twice the

adult recommended daily allowance

(RDA) in most cases. Interestingly, it is

possible to make muffins even though

there seems to be an absence of gluten.

While this may be a boon to those allergic

to this wheat protein, the bottom line is,

“How does it taste?”’

A single-blind sensory evaluation study

(taste panel) compared whole wheat

honey muffins with muffins made using

25%, 50%, 75% and 100% WildWheat

212. NICHOLAS P. YENSEN, PHD AND SUSANA BOJORQUEZ DE YENSEN,

flour. In flavor, little significant differ-

ence was found. There was a tendency,

however, for “‘white-bread eaters’’ to pre-

fer whole wheat and for “‘dark-bread eat-

ers” to prefer WildWheat grain muffins.

The overall acceptability results were sim-

ilar, but with a tendency to prefer a mix-

ture. (Figure,2). ‘The, potential

acceptability problems associated with

eating habits and customs is abrogated by

these studies.

An integral aspect of the WildWheat

grain introduction strategy is to introduce

the nutritious food as a gourmet item. The

economic success of WildWheat grain as

a gourmet food could have an important

benefit. It may facilitate a quicker ac-

ceptance by other peoples and nations if

the food is recognized to be of gourmet

quality. It should be noted that consid-

erable genetic variation occurs suggesting

that it may be possible to breed for cul-

EVALUATION

“lo

Ny,

GUE

WildWheat

M.S.

turally adjusted flavors, textures, colors

and/or protein quality.

With the aid of the Mexican govern-

ment, the University of Sonora and the

University of Arizona, in depth studies

are being conducted on the nutritional

characteristics of different varieties with

regard to protein and starch properties.

By selection we have already found

high-yielding varieties which have been

hybridized with other varieties. And we

have observed a ten-fold increase in yield

or about where ordinary wheat was in the

1930s. Six plant patents are pending.

There are now numerous test plots for

studying the agricultural aspects of Wild-

Wheat grain (Figure 3). For instance,

it has the ability to build the top soil.

As a perennial, a field may never need

to be plowed or planted again. Ferti-

lizer and chemical amendments may not

be necessary. A number of investigators

meke)

Grain

Fig. 2. Overall acceptability evaluation (taste panel) of whole wheat honey muffins and mixtures with

25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% whole WildWheat grain flour. Open columns for occasional consumers of

dark breads and hashed columns for frequent consumers of dark breads.

RECLAMATION OF SALT-RUINED LANDS 213

Ne Va Ua TT “yu,

bY Myyypypy yyy

Yi : 4

Fig. 3. Agricultural test plots with WildWheat grain plants grown in salinity of 11,000 parts per million

salt (approximately 1/3 sea water).

from other universities are also working

with us on various aspects of this unusual

grain.

The recent expansion of activity in this

project would have been impossible with-

out The Charles A. Lindbergh Grant. In

addition, it indirectly made possible the

1986 harvest of over 1000 pounds. It oc-

curred to us that this might be enough

grain to conduct test marketing. A Tucson

company, Engineering and Research As-

sociates, is helping to coordinate this.

Three Tucson restaurants* have begun to

serve the grain and Nieman-Marcus has

offered a very limited amount for sale.

WildWheat grain is being “‘born” much

as wild rice was “‘born” 50 years ago in

Charles Lindbergh’s home state.'° But the

*The Arizona Inn, In Cahoots Restaurant, and the

Rincon Market (Tucson).

potential of WildWheat grain may go far

beyond that of wild rice. WildWheat grain

and forage has the potential for reclaim-

ing vast areas of salt-ruined land, stabi-

lizing soil from wind and water erosion,

providing pasturage, and helping the

Third World to feed itself. WildWheat

grain’s greatest potential, however, may

be as a classic example of what humans

stand to gain from the wild condition

through a balanced use and development

of technology.

References Cited

1. Sommers, G. F. 1980. Salinity and Production

of Food Crops: a problem from antiquity, a chal-

lenge for the future. The Second College of Arts

and Science Distinguished Faculty Lecture,

University of Delaware, 29 pp.

2. Myers, N. 1982. Plants that are worth their salt.

Manchester Guardian, 4 March, p. 22.

214

NICHOLAS P. YENSEN, PHD AND SUSANA BOJORQUEZ DE YENSEN, M.S.

. Epstein, E., J. D. Norlyn, D. W. Rush, R. W.

Kingsbury, D. B. Kelly, G. A. Cunningham,

A. F. Wrona. 1980. Saline Culture of Crops: a

genetic approach. Sci. 210:399-404.

. Yensen, N. P., M. R. Fontes, E. P. Glenn, and

R. S. Gelger. 1981. New Salt Tolerant Crops

for the Sonoran Desert. Desert Plants 3(3):111-

118.

. Boyko, H. 1966. Salinity and Aridity: new ap-

proaches to old problems. Junk Publ., The Ha-

gue, 408 pp.

. Chapman, V. J. 1974. Salt Marshes and Salt

Deserts of the World. J. Cramer, Satz. 498

Pp.

. Barrett-Lennard, E. G., C. V. Malcolm, W. R.

Stern, and S. M. Wilkins, editors. 1986. Forage

and Fuel Production from Salt Affected Waste-

land. Reclamation and Revegetation Research,

Elsevier, vol. 5.

. Felger, R. S. 1979. Ancient Crops for the

Twenty-first Century. In: New Agricultural

Crops (G. A. Riche, ed). AAAS Selected Sym-

posium 38:5-20.

. Felger, R. S. and C. Mota-Urbina. 1982. Halo-

phytes: new sources of nutrition. In: Biosaline

10.

th,

£2.

13.

14.

15:

Research: a look to the future (A. San Pietro,

ed.). Plenum, New York, pp. 473-477.

Yensen, N. P., S. B. Yensen, and C. W. Weber.

1987. A Review of Distichl is spp. for Produc-

tion and Nutritional Values. In: Arid Lands:

Today and Tomorrow. Proceedings of Confer-

ence; Office of Arid Lands, The University of

Arizona.

Gonzales, M. H. and M. Gonzales-Elguezabal.

1979. Plantas Nativas Importantes del Norte,

Zacate Salado Distichlis spicata L. (Greene).

Pastizales, mayo-junio, 10(3):9.

American Association of Cereal Chemists.

1986. New Grain. In: Cereal Foods World, p.

S17:

Per. comm. O. L. Vindiola, Kansas St. Univ.,

Manhattan.

Yensen, S. B. and C. W. Weber. 1986. Com-

position of Distichlis palmeri grain, a Saltgrass.

J. Food Sci. 51(4):1089-1090.

Oelke, E. A. 1975. Wild Rice Domestication as

a Model. In: Seed-bearing Halophytes as Food

Plants: Proceedings of a Conference, (G. F.

Sommers, ed.) NOAA accession No. 75061105,

NTIS, pp. 47-61.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 215-223, December 1987

The Economic Utilization of the

Babassu Palm: A Conservation

Strategy For Sustaining Tropical

Forest Resources

Michael J. Balick

Institute of Economic Botany, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx,

New York 10458

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses progress on research towards the improvement of the utilization

of the babassu palm ( Orbignya phalerata) since a Lindbergh Grant was provided in 1980.

The palm is a wild species occurring on some 200,000 Km? in Brazil, where it is harvested

for oil and charcoal production. The palm is especially prolific on degraded sites that have

been cleared of forest and thus helps to stabilize the ecosystem. Improvement in its

utilization and introduction elsewhere will provide short and long term benefits and help

conserve and exploit tropical forest resources in a biologically sound way.

Introduction

The babassu palm covers a vast area of

Brazil and Bolivia, but is most abundant

in the Brazilian states of Maranhao, Piaui

and Goias. In Brazil alone, some 200,000

km’ is covered by stands of Babassu

palms. The palm is an important resource

to the livelihood of ca. two million people

who harvest its fruits for oil and charcoal

production. In fact, the babassu palm oil

industry is said to be the largest oilseed

industry based solely on the harvest of a

wild plant.

The babassu palm grows in areas that

have been cleared of forest and often is

found in high density stands on so-called

degraded sites otherwise unsuited for con-

ventional agriculture (Fig. 1). As a source

215

of food and protein-rich meal (the press-

cake remains after oil extraction) it is a

valuable resource for human and animal

nutrition, in a region of the world where

these commodities are often in short sup-

ply. In addition, the endocarp (‘‘shell’’)

that remains after extracting the kernels

is converted into charcoal for use in the

home and in industry. Charcoal from ba-

bassu has a higher energy content and

lower sulfur than many mineral coals.

The challenge was to begin a program

to better understand utilization of the ba-

bassu palm, so that it could be used more

effectively in the regions where it is na-

tive, and be useful in other areas of the

tropics where food and energy are in short

supply. With this objective, a project was

supported in 1980 by The Charles A.

216 MICHAEL J. BALICK

thn. 4

Fig. 1. Stand of babassu palm in Maranhao, Brazil.

Lindbergh Fund, to work towards a more

rational utilization of the babassu palm.

Clearly, domesticating and distributing a

tree with many valuable products which

could grow in less than ideal conditions

would be an effective way of helping to

meet people’s expanding needs while pre-

serving and improving the environment.

In the years that followed, collaborative

efforts beteween U.S. and Brazilian, Co-

lombian, Mexican, Bolivian, and Hon-

duran scientists have led to the

development of a network of researchers

investigating the babassu palm resource.

These studies have focused on many dif-

ferent facets of the palm and its environ-

ment, primarily along two different lines:

domesticating the palm for use in plan-

tations either within or outside of the na-

tive range and developing techniques for

managing native stands of palms to im-

prove yields.

Subsequent support was received from

a number of sources, including the U.S.

Agency for International Development,

U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Consortium for

the Study of Man’s Relationship with the

Global Environment, National Science

Foundation, Inter-American Foundation,

Scott Paper Company, Joyce Mertz-Gil-

more Foundation, Pittsburgh Foundation

and Brazil’s Conselho Nacional de De-

senvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnoldgico

(CNPq). In addition, responsibility for

the cost of the germplasm bank and na-

tional research program on babassu in

Brazil was borne by the Centro Nacional

de Recursos Genéticos/Empresa Brasi-

leira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria (CEN-

ARGEN/EMBRAPA) in Brasilia.

Working as a multinational consortium, a

great deal of knowledge about the ba-

bassu resource has been obtained. Studies

of this kind, by definition, take decades

to complete and thanks to the support of

many individuals and foundations, this ef-

fort will be continuing into the future.

It is the intent of this paper to sum-

marize research on babassu that has oc-

curred since 1980, when the new initiative

SUSTAINING TROPICAL

TROPICAL AMERICA

EN oS sal me

‘

FORESTS

Fig. 2. Germplasm collecting sites from eight expeditions during 1981-1987.

began. Research lines are presented be-

low as individual sections, with a brief

explanation of the activities.

I. Fieldwork/Germplasm Collection

Expeditions to study the babassu and

related palms in their native habitat and

to collect germplasm were carried out in

a number of locations, as indicated in Fig-

ure 2. Germplasm expeditions were as

follows:

1981: Brazil (Para, Goias, Piaui,

Maranhao) November-—

December.

1982;

1983:

1984:

1986:

1987:

Bolivia (Beni, Santa Cruz)

July-August.

Mexico (Nayarit, Quintana

Roo) March.

Brazil (Maranhao, Goias)

August-September

Colombia (Buenaventura,

Tumaco Region) July.

Brazil (Goias, Minas

Gerais) October.

Brazil (Bahia, Piaui, Goias,

Minas Gerais) January—

February.

Honduras (Atlantida,

Comayagua, Colon); Belize

(Cayo) July.

Genetic material that was collected has

been distributed to a number of locations.

218

Chief among these is the CENARGEN

germplasm banks in Piaui and Maranhao,

Brazil. Herbarium specimens have been

sent to a number of institutions for study

by specialists. CENARGEN has pro-

duced a computer inventory of all mate-

rial collected or received as a result of

these expeditions.

II. Nursery Trials

Because babassu is a wild species, little

was known about its germination and re-

quirements in the nursery. Time required

for germination was up to one year, and

this had to be reduced to shorten the

amount of time the plants spent in the

nursery. Research by Claudio U. B. Pin-

heiro and José Mario F. Frazao success-

fully resulted in obtaining germination of

| NUTS |

COLLECTION

GERMPLASM

PROCESSING,

DRYING AND

| RESEARCH |

O GERMPLASM

CHARACTERI -

ZATION

STOCKING OF

NUTS

EXTRACTION OF

KERNELS aie

GERMPLASM

EVALUATION

ANALYSIS

TISSUE CUL-

TURE

OPREPARATION

DESCRIPTORS

NUTRITION

PESTS AND

DISEASES

eet ye ee | i RSA BAR

: EXTRACTION OF + ;--s, , PLANTING IN

KERNELS | ~~ ! GERMINATORS

Se | —

“

A®™

| KERNELS |

PREPARATION OF

GERMINATORS

PLANTING IN

GERMINATORS

™

MICHAEL J. BALICK

babassu in a matter of days. The tech-

nique involves removing kernels from the

fruits, scratching the surface of the seed

with a razor near the embryo (scarifica-

tion), dipping the seed in fungicide and

planting it in moist vermiculite. In this

way, seeds are able to be transplanted to

plastic bags filled with soil within a few

months, and grow in the nursery for 6-

12 months before being set out in the

field. The overall strategy for germplasm

banking and characterization is outlined

in Fig. 3, kindly provided by Drs. Lidio

Coradin and Eduardo Lleras of CEN-

ARGEN.

Tissue culture is another way to prop-

agate plants, and a project at CENAR-

GEN, led by Isabel Coria Cabral was

undertaken with this objective. Results

obtained from this work indicate that

plantlets will form from excised babassu

embryos cultures in vitro. Ongoing work

FIELD [PHASE

| SEEDLINGS | | “a

sO} @ “a al

it +» SSeS

i DECEMBER

“i

< JANUARY

ts i PLANTING IN

x3 $

| PRE-NURSERY FEBRUARY

Rew eww ww own =

fs,

ts MARCH

APRIL

MAY

JUNE

ee JULY

PLANTING IN

PRE-NURSERY

:! AUGUST

PLANTING IN

FIELD

‘

PREPARATION OF ~

SACKS Ht

‘

SEPTEMBER

OCTOBER

NOVEMBER

DECEMBER

JANUARY

Fig. 3. Flow diagram of activities involved in the conservation of babassu germplasm. Black: flow of

material; open: flow of research data; dotted: alternate flow of material.

SUSTAINING TROPICAL FORESTS 219

hfe

tips yy

fe 07 Z

yy sy ly jy

Tl Vy zy

Wy, Uy,

Fig. 4. The type tree of xAttabignya minarum. Reproduced from Brittonia 39(1)28. 1987.

220 MICHAEL J. BALICK

with this species and other Neotropical

palms at Twyford Laboratories, Glaston-

bury, England, is seeking to develop cry-

ogenic storage techniques. The results of

this work will provide alternative means

for germplasm preservation and transport

of the babassu palm.

III. Taxonomic Studies

At the initiation of this study, at least

ten scientific names in the genus Orbignya

were associated with babassu. An essen-

tial precursor to improvement of a plant

is a knowledge of its identity and rela-

tionships with closely-linked species. The

true identify for the babassu palm has

been determined to be Orbignya phaler-

ata Mart. Three hybrid complexes were

discovered to exist, involving the closely

related Maximiliana and Attalea. A new

hybrid genus xAttabignya Balick, Ander-

son and Medeiros-Costa was discovered

and described from the Municipality of

Santa Fe, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Fig. 4).

The palm, xAttabignya minarum Balick,

Anderson and Medeiros-Costa, is the re-

sult of the hybridization of the rare Or-

bignya oleifera Burret with Attalea

compta Mart. Other hybrid complexes in-

volve a cross between Orbignya phalerata

and O. eichleri Drude,' as well as a cross

between Maximiliana maripa (Correa da

Serra) Drude and Orbignya phalerata.

This latter palm is known as Markleya

dahlgreniana Bondar.

The discovery that natural hybridiza-

tion occurs at a prolific rate in the babassu

complex is most significant, for it opens

up many avenues for the improvement of

the palm. The natural hybrids exhibit

many characteristics advantageous to uti-

lization, such as increased fruit yield,

lower stature, and hybrid vigor. Further-

more, studies of the populations of one

of the hybrid complexes by Medeiros-

Table 1.—Subsistence uses of babassu fruits, leaves and stems*

Subsistence uses of babassu fruits.

Kernels

Snack nut

Milk stewing meat and fish

beverage

Liquid endosperm treatment of sties and bleeding

beverage

Oil cooking

soapmaking

burning in lamps

condensed gases and tar from burning used to alleviate toothache

Residues animal feed

substitute or filler for coffee

shrimp bait

Larvae food for people

fish bait

Husks

Charcoal primary source of fuel for cooking

Smoke insect repellant

smoking rubber

Anesthetic

Handicrafts pencil holders, keychains, figurines

Mesocarp

Animal feed

Flour

chocolate-like beverage

substitute for manioc flour and former staple among Indian tribes

medicine for gastrointestinal complaints

Hunting attractant for rodents

SUSTAINING TROPICAL FORESTS 221

Table 1.—(Cont’d.)

Subsistence uses of babassu leaves.

twine, torches, whisks, bird cages, hunting blinds, animal traps

Fibers

Baskets storage and transport

Mats doors, windows, rugs, grain-drying

Fans ventilating fires

Sieves sifting manioc flour and rice

Others

Construction materials

Thatch roofing and walls

Laths support for clay-packed walls

frames for windows

Rails

Agricultural uses

fencing to protect agricultural plots from animals and delimit hunting zones

Leaves burned in shifting cultivation plots to promote nutrient recycling and pest control

Rachis used for crop stakes and building raised planters

Living leaves in pastures provide shade for livestock and feed during dry periods

Medicine

Liquid expressed from rachis used as antiseptic and styptic

Subsistence uses of babassu stems.

Construction

Bridges

Foundations

Benches

Palm heart

Food for people

Feed for animals

Ripening agent for banana

Sap (collected from stump of felled palms)

Fermented drink

Attraction of beetle larvae that are eaten or used as fish bait

Mulch/planting medium (obtained from decayed stems)

Salt (made from ash of burned stems)

*From: May et al., 1985

Costa et al.” have identified morphotypes

within the hybrid swarm. The taxonomy

of the babassu complex is summarized in

a forthcoming paper by Anderson and

Balick.°

IV. Ecology

A major study of the ecology of the

babassu palm was carried out by Anthony

B. Anderson, currently of the Museu Par-

aense Emilio Goeldi in Belém, Brazil as

his doctoral dissertation research.* While

it is impossible to describe all the results

of his research in this section, the topics

covered include taxonomy and phyto-

geography, reproductive biology, estab-

lishment growth and productivity,

population structure and dynamics, im-

plications for management, and five ap-

pendices on various relevant subjects.

V. Economics

To get a better idea of the economics

of the babassu industry, the Institute of

Economic Botany of The New York Bo-

tanical Garden commissioned a field

222 MICHAEL J. BALICK

study by a group of business consultants.

The objective was to identify possible

ways in which wild babassu stands, and

existing farming systems that incorporate

babassu as an element can increase eco-

nomic viability. Four sectors of the ba-

bassu industry were identified: peasants,

merchants, landowners and oilseed press-

ers. Together, the estimated gross annual

““value-added”’ by the industry in Brazil

is US $150,000,000. Total industrial pro-

duction in 1984 was estimated at 120,000

MT of oil and 90,000 MT of presscake.

Production of charcoal for industrial use

in 1983 was estimated at 15,000 MT; the

bulk of the product is used for domestic

fuel use.°

VI. Socioeconomics

The socioeconomic aspect of this re-

source has been addressed by Peter H.

May, presently at the Ford Foundation in

Brazil, who carried out fieldwork in

Northeastern Brazil during 1983-1984.

His doctoral thesis, entitled ““A Modern

Tragedy of the Non-Commons: Agro-In-

dustrial Change and Equity in Brazil’s Ba-

bassu Palm Zone,’’ was recently

published by Cornell University.° Chap-

ter headings include: Babassu: subsidy

from nature and problem resource; prop-

erty rights and the tragedy of the non-

commons; the babassu zone; history and

character; structural change in babassu

zone agriculture; babassu in peasant

farming systems of Maranhao; landown-

ers’ decisions and the non-commons trag-

edy; the rise and decline of the babassu

oil industry; technical innovation in ba-

bassu fruit processing; alternative devel-

opment paths for the babassu industry;

and conclusions and policy recommen-

dations. There are many social factors

that must be considered if progress is to

be made on the utilization of babassu.

VII. Agroforestry

Because of the multiple uses of babassu

(Table 1) this palm has great potential for

expanded use in agroforestry systems.

May et al.’ discussed the current use of

the palm in agroforestry systems in North-

eastern Brazil, where the palm provides

cash income, fuel, fiber, edible oil, and

food to a large number of tenant farm

households. Based on studies of rural

families in four municipalities in Maran-

hao, he found that use of palms for thatch

was practiced in 86% of all households,

for basketry in 85% of all households, for

charcoal in 83% of all households; for

“milk” (a beverage from babassu) in 69%

of all households, for oil in 71% of all

households and palm heart (palmito) in

22% of all households. The two agrofor-

estry systems documented in this study

were palm-pasture and palm-shifting cul-

tivation. The second system utilized crops

such as rice, maize, cassava and a number

of bean species. Other vegetable crops

also were found to be grown. This agro-

forestry system was judged to be sustain-

able, especially in the less fertile areas

where farmers have few alternatives for

cultivation.

Prospects for the Future

Work on the improved utilization of ba-

bassu palms continues. Funding from a

variety of agencies mentioned at the be-

ginning of this paper has allowed a num-

ber of projects to be undertaken. Interest

will continue to be relatively high in the

search for alternative plant species for use

in less fertile or degraded environments.

Activities such as the workshop on ba-

bassu held in March, 1986 in Teresina,

Brazil has helped to stimulate interna-

tional interest in this palm. The weak-

nesses in this informal research “‘net-

work” are a lack of long-term reliable

funding and institutional instability inso-

far as priorities and programs are con-

SUSTAINING TROPICAL FORESTS 223

cerned. Nevertheless, this long-term

project to improve babassu has demon-

strated that multinational scientific efforts

to identify and utilize plant species to

strike a better balance between technol-

ogy and the environment can result in

many benefits, both immediate and in the

future. As tropical ecosystems are in-

creasingly degraded, species such as the

babassu palm can provide a stabilizing

factor to help conserve and exploit trop-

ical forest resources in a biologically

sound way.

References Cited

1. Balick, M. J., C. U. B. Pinheiro and A. B. An-

derson. 1987. Hybridization in the babassu palm

complex I. Orbignya phalerata x O. eichleri. Am.

Journ. Bot. 74:1013-1032.

2. Medeiros-Costa, J. T., A. M. de Campos

Mendes and J. L. de Castro Brito. 1985. Mor-

fodiagnose de Orbignya teixeirana Bondar (Pal-

mae-Cocosoideae) nos estados do Piaui e

Maranhao. Pesquisa em Andamento (EM-

BRAPA/UEPAE de Teresina) No 39:1-5. Off-

set.

. Anderson, A. B. and M. J. Balick. 1988. Tax-

onomy of the babassu palm complex. Syst. Bot.

In press.

. Anderson, A. B. 1983. The biology of Orbignya

martiana (Palmae), a tropical dry forest domi-

nant in Brazil. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Flor-

ida.

. Pick, P. J., J. M. F. Frazao, W. P. Mason, P. H.

May, and W. Milfont, Jr. 1985. Babassu ( Orbig-

nya species): gradual disappearance vs. slow met-

amorphosis to integrated agribusiness. A report

prepared for The New York Botanical Garden

Institute of Economic Botany. January. Offset.

. May. P. H. 1986. A modern tragedy of the non-

commons: Agro-industrial change and equity in

Brazil’s babassu palm zone. Latin American

Studies Program, Dissertation Series, No. 91.

Cornell University, Ithaca.

, A. B. Anderson, J. M. F. Frazao and

M. J. Balick. 1985. Babassu palm in the agro-

forestry systems in Brazil’s mid-north region.

Agroforestry Systems 3:275-—295.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 224-229, December 1987

The Evolution of Water Supplies

on the Remote Islands of Truk

State: Preserving Tradition and

the Environment

Stephen J. Winter

General Manager, Appropriate Technology Enterprises, P. O. Box

607, Truk, F. S. M. 96942

ABSTRACT

Truk State is located in the tropical western Pacific area known as Micronesia. In the

more remote islands of the State, traditions are stronger and the environment is more

pristine. Prior to 1980, water supplies were poor in both quantity and quality. Recent

improvements revolve around the concept of using rainwater for consumptive purposes

and groundwater for non-consumptive purposes. Low cost wells and rainwater storage

tanks, both made of ferrocement, have been developed. The use of solar power to operate

pumps has greatly increased the convenience of using groundwater. In general, the ap-

plication of appropriate technology has resulted in both an increase in standard of living

and an improvement in hygiene. This has been accomplished with no loss of valuable

traditions or adverse environmental impac

Truk State is one of four states in the

Federated States of Micronesia (FSM).

The FSM was formerly part of the U.S.

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a

U.N. trust set up at the end of WWII. It

is now an independent nation freely as-

sociated with the U.S. The FSM is located

in the Caroline Islands which, in turn, are

part of the very large group of islands

known as Micronesia. Truk State consists

of all the islands in Truk Atoll itself (here-

after referred to as Truk), the Mortlock

Islands to the south, the Hall Islands to

the north, and a number of other atolls

to the west. The only high volcanic islands

USE

224

in Truk State are located within the la-

goon of Truk Atoll. All the other islands

in the State are low and coralline and are

generally situated on the reefs defining

the various atolls.

Truk State is approximately 400 miles

east to west and 700 miles north to south.

Truk is located roughly in the center of

the State. Its lagoon is about 40 miles in

diameter with the largest high island in it

being only a few miles wide. Outside of

Truk, there are around a dozen other in-

habited atolls in the State. These atolls

are located from around 50 to 200 miles

from Truk. Their lagoons vary in diam-

EVOLUTION OF WATER SUPPLY ON REMOTE ISLANDS 225

eter from around 5 to 50 miles. The typ-

ical atoll island has a land mass that is

only a fraction of a square mile.

Almost all governmental activity takes

place on Moen Island, one of the high

islands in Truk lagoon. Although Moen

is by no means a metropolis, it has regular

jet service, some paved roads, a reason-

able variety of stores, and, in some parts,

conventional utilities (water, power, and

sewer). None of the other islands in Truk

State have yet experienced any of this de-

velopment, although the other islands

within Truk lagoon have ready access to

some of these amenities as small boat

transportation to and from Moen is pos-

sible and, indeed, very common.

In contrast, the islands outside of Truk

lagoon are quite isolated. They can be

reached only by government “‘field trip

ship” (approximately once every 2 to 3

months) or by occasional fishing boats. In

many respects, life on these islands is

much the same as it always has been. Cul-

tural practices, dress, diet, etc. are all

more traditional than elsewhere in the

State. Also, the environment of these is-

lands is generally the most pristine.

The typical reaction of the “‘outsider”’

when visiting one of these remote islands

is that every effort should be made to

keep all this intact. The residents refer to

this as the ‘“‘zoo theory.”’ They are, of

course, correct as it is for them alone to

decide on the fate of their traditions and

environment. Many residents of these re-

mote islands are well-traveled and well-

educated. They have experienced the

conveniences of western society—and

have seen some of its uglier aspects. The

dilemma that these leaders know they

must resolve is: how to choose from the

various avenues of development that are

open to them in such a way that valuable

traditional practices and environmental

resources are not destroyed. A specific

area to which this dilemma applies is the

development of atoll island water sup-

plies.

There are only two sources of water on

atoll islands: rainwater and groundwater.

Surface water does not exist because rain

percolates so rapidly into the sandy soils.

Prior to around 1980, neither of these

sources was developed in a manner that

insured water of adequate quantity and

quality. Wells were often nothing more

that open pits dug to the easily-reached

water table. Some rainwater was caught

from the few corrugated tin roofs that

were available and usually stored in open

55 gallon drums. The net result of using

these water sources, coupled with ques-

tionable methods of disposing of human

waste (the beach), gave rise to a situation

very favorable to the development and

transmission of gastrointestinal and other

diseases.

Not surprisingly, in 1982, Truk State

experienced a cholera epidemic. Some

people have regarded this epidemic as “‘a

blessing in disguise’ as it led to major

improvements in rural water supplies and

sanitation. In the area of water supply,

techniques were developed for the con-

struction of a low cost ferrocement rain-

water tank. The newly formed Rural

Sanitation Program (RSP) conducted

training programs on the village level and

made efforts to supply materials for tank

construction to at least one home owner

in every cluster of homes. Some owners

of thatched roof homes even went to the

expense of building a permanent home so

that they would be eligible to receive a

tank! A low cost well (Figure 1) was also

developed for self-help construction

(1,2). This well utilized a small submers-

ible marine bilge pump driven “‘at the will

of the sun” by a single solar module. An

important criterion in both the design of

the tank and the well was that, given the

construction materials, they could be con-

structed and maintained on the local

level. It is believed that the introduction

of these improved water sources contrib-

uted significantly to the end of the cholera

epidemic and, more generally, to an over-

all decrease in gastrointestinal disease in

Truk State.

An important concept embodied in the

RSP water supply projects is that rain-

226 STEPHEN J. WINTER

LEIS IOI STB

Fig. 1. A household solar well. The solar panel located on top of the pole drives a small submersible

pump located within the well casing. The well is sealed to prevent entry of surface contaminants.

water and groundwater should be used

conjunctively; a dual water system is de-

sirable. The generally higher quality rain-

water from catchment and storage

systems should be reserved for consump-

tive activities (drinking and cooking) ex-

cept during periods when tanks are full or

overflowing. The use of rainwater for only

consumptive activities does not deplete

the storage of a properly sized tank. The

generally lower quality ground water

should be used for non-consumptive ac-

tivities (bathing, washing clothes, and toi-

let flushing). Atoll groundwater tables are

not lowered if water is only dipped or

pumped slowly (a few gpm) from wells.

At worst, during periods of low rainfall,

wells become slightly brackish. This gen-

erally has no adverse affect on non-con-

sumptive activities. The application of

this concept ensures that water from the

appropriate source will always be avail-

able. Using solar power to pump ground-

water takes this concept one step further.

When it is raining, rainwater systems

function and solar systems do not. When

it is sunny, solar systems function and

rainwater systems do not. With the help

of the environment, these complimentary

systems function automatically.

Recognizing the success of the Truk

RSP ferrocement tank building program

and the validity of the foregoing concept,

the U.S Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) recently funded a project

that led to the development of a ferroce-

ment well (3). The well (Figure 2), es-

sentially a series of interlocking cylinders,

is, like the tank, simple to construct,

cheap, and labor intensive. It is suitable

for hand dipping of water or for use with

a low-yield hand or electric (including so-

lar) pump. This construction technique

has already been adopted by the United

Nations Development Program for use in

its Integrated Atoll Development Project

EVOLUTION OF WATER SUPPLY ON REMOTE ISLANDS 227

Fig. 2. A ferrocement well. Water may be dipped from this type of well or a hand or small electric

(including solar) pump can be used.

on Maloelap Atoll in the Marshall Is-

lands. Like the RSP tank construction

technique, it is expected to have wide ap-

plication throughout Micronesia.

The Charles A. Lindbergh Fund pro-

vided support for a project to put all this

together (4). This project called for the

installation of improved water and power

supply systems in a remote tropical island

home (Figure 3). The object was to dem-

onstrate that a more comfortable and

healthy lifestyle is possible and that it can

be achieved in a manner that has no neg-

ative on-site environmental impact. The

project utilized solar power and included

a water supply system with the following

features:

1. two sources (groundwater and rain-

water)

2. filtered and sterilized drinking water

3. pressurized water at the kitchen tap.

4. water piped to an outhouse for

flushing

5. water piped to a bathing and clothes

washing area

6. a back-up well equipped with a hand

pump

On the balance, the project was suc-

cessful; it certainly was a valuable learn-

ing tool. The local family living in the

home enjoys what is probably the best

water supply system in all of Micronesia.

Also, the setting of the home is idyllic.

However, there have been problems with

the system (corrosion of wire connec-

tions, pump failures), many of which were

beyond the ability of the homeowner to

repair. Only because the principal inves-

tigator is now a resident of Truk are the

demonstration systems still functioning.

Most important, however, is that the

project has led to further refinements in

228 STEPHEN J. WINTER

Fig. 3. The Lindbergh project demonstration house. In the foreground is the enclosure for washing

clothes and bathing. It is followed by the water sealed toilet and two tanks, one for rainwater and one for

groundwater.

the answer to the dilemma facing remote

island leaders in so far as the development

of appropriate water supplies is con-

cerned.

The most recent effort in the evolution

of water supplies in the remote island of

Truk State has still not been completely

evaluated, but holds promise of being a

major step forward (5). Funded by the

U.S. Department of Energy, this project

again built on previous ones. It involved

the pumping of groundwater to centrally

located tanks (built of ferrocement) and

distribution of the water by gravity to fau-

cets conveniently located throughout a

village. Solar power was again used to

operate the pumps, automatically com-

plimenting the household rainwater

catchment and storage systems installed

by the RSP. The pump that was used is a

positive displacement unit of the type

tested on the previous Lindbergh project;

the well casings are the ferrocement cyl-

inders developed in the previous EPA

project. It is evident that a system is

evolving that is, indeed, utilizing the most

successful aspects of previous water sup-

ply schemes in Truk State.

This particular project took place on

Onary Island in Namonwito Atoll located

around 100 miles northwest of Truk. Ac-

cess to fresh groundwater is particularly

difficult as the (only) village (population

approximately 125) is located on a very

narrow part of the island. Consequently,

existing wells are located up to 1/2 mile

away in order to get to a wider area where

the fresh water lens is thicker. A common

sight is women pushing wheelbarrows

full of clothing to a distant well for wash-

ing. The new wells were located roughly

in the same area as the existing ones.

Needless to say, the women had a right

to dance when the first test brought

EVOLUTION OF WATER SUPPLY ON REMOTE ISLANDS 229

water from 1/2 mile away to the heart of

the village! Onary may be the only island

in Truk State (except the site of the Lind-

bergh project) that has a 24-hour water

supply.

What will be the final outcome of this

evolutionary process? Like any engineer-

ing design, it will go on and on. What I

think can be said at this point, however,

is that we have achieved something that

works, a Spirit of St. Louis; it is not yet

a Boeing 747. People are living healthier

and happier lives because of improved

water supply systems in Truk State. No

valuable traditions have been sacrificed

and the environment remains intact.

References Cited

. Winter, S. J.,. L. D. McCleary, and R. D. Wat-

ters. 1983. The WERI Well on Truk: A solar

photovoltaic pumping project. Univ. of Guam,

WERI, Tech. Rept. No. 49. ii + 16 pp.

. Winter, S. J. and L. D. McCleary. 1984. Some

improvements in the design of the WERI Well.

Univ. of Guam, WERI, Tech. Rept. No. 54. v

+ 29 pp.

. Winter, S. J. 1986. The development of a fer-

rocement well for use in rural areas of Micro-

nesia. A.T.E., Tech. Rept. No. 3. vi + 11 pp.

. Winter, S. J. 1986. A demonstration home for

water and energy systems on remote tropical is-

lands. A.T.E., Tech. Rept. No. 2. vi + 25 pp.

. Winter, S. J. In prep. Solar pumping of ground-

water for atoll island water supplies. A.T.E.,

Tech. Rept. No. 4.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 77, Number 4, Pages 230-237, December 1987

Educating the Slash-and-Burn

Farmer on the Conservation of the

Rain Forest: A Challenge in

Intercultural Communication

Robert S. Kennedy

Curator of Vertebrate Zoology, Cincinnati Museum of Natural

History, 1720 Gilbert Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202

Annabelle E. Plantilla, Maria Beatriz A. Reyes, George V. Banez,

and Anna Joy Conlu

Research Associates, The Haribon Foundation for the Conservation

of Natural Resources

ABSTRACT

The rapid depletion of the rain forests of the world has been attributed primarily to

the indiscriminate use of this resource and to the lack of awareness of the forests’ potential

as a renewable resource and as new sources of products. In view of this problem, we have

produced 16 educational modules designed to introduce forest conservation concepts to

school children and forest farmers in the Philippines. Our objective is to have these

modules printed and used throughout the public and private school systems during a

special week designated as “‘National Conservation Week.”’ The module for forest farmers

will be distributed through the local barangay governments.

Introduction

Today, in the tropical countries of the

world, there are an estimated 200 million

slash-and-burn farmers (or forest farm-

ers) who clear some 160,000 square kil-

ometers of tropical forest per year, an

area roughly one and one half times the

size of Pennsylvania.’ Because of their

primitive methods of cutting tropical for-

ests, burning the felled timber, and plant-

ing crops for three or four years until the

nutrients have leached from the soil and

they must begin the slash-and-burn cycle

over again, forest farmers are considered

to be the greatest threat to the world’s

tropical forests. Before the advent of

modern medicine and the population ex-

plosion of the past several decades, pri-

mitive forest farmers lived in a balanced

state with their environment. Indeed,

many plants and animals that required

clearings and early second growth forest

for their habitat benefited by the farmers’

presence. Recently, the traditional forest

farmers have been joined by large num-

230

EDUCATING THE SLASH-AND-BURN FARMER 231

bers of subsistance farmers who, for lack

of land elsewhere, move into the forest

lands to farm.

Most forest farmers are unaware that

they are systematically destroying one of

the earth’s oldest and most complex eco-

systems and that their actions not only

reduce the supply of renewable resources

available but destabilize water cycles,

leading to depletion of ground water, the

erosion and eventual siltation of water

courses, and the increased periodicity of

floods and droughts. Living from day to

day with seemingly no alternative way of

survival, the idea of conservation Is as for-

eign to the forest farmers as many of their

cultural practices are to us.

If the tropical forests of the world are

to survive for the benefit of all human-

kind, forest farming methods as they now

exist must be changed. Forest farmers

must be introduced to the need to con-

serve the tropical forests. They must be

introduced to new ways of utilizing exist-

ing cleared land that will enable them to

live on that land indefinitely. And they

must be introduced to ways of utilizing

the resources of tropical forests without

destroying them.

The objective of this project was to de-

velop a pilot educational program in the

Philippines aimed at introducing forest

conservation concepts to school children

and to forest farmers. It seeks to educate

these people so that they understand the

importance of the forest as a renewable

resource and as a storehouse of useful

products for them to use. We hope that

the Philippine Government will be able

to accommodate the implementation of

this project through the private and public

schools and through the local barangay

governments during an officially recog-

nized National Conservation Week. We

envision that the successful implementa-

tion of this project will change people’s

perspectives toward the rain forest, help

improve their standard of living, will re-

duce the rate of deforestation, increase

the utilization of forest products, and en-

sure the continued existence of most of

the plants and animals of the Philippines.

Methods

From 17 July to 7 August, 1986, Ken-

nedy, visited the Philippines to coordinate

the program with the Haribon Founda-

tion for the Conservation of Natural Re-

sources, a non-profit conservation society

dedicated to the wise use of the natural

resources of the Philippines. Dr. Celso

Roque, President of Haribon, agreed to

be Co-Director of the project. Haribon’s

Acting Director, Ariel Almendral (later

replaced by Julian Tongson, the new Di-

rector of Haribon), became the overall

coordinating officer in the Philippines.

Three Filipino professionals, George

V. Banez, Annabelle E. Plantilla, and

Maria Beatriz A. Reyes (George Banez

left the project after two months to accept

a scholarship to attend school in Japan;

he was replaced by Anna Joy Conlu, one

of the top original applicants), were hired

by Haribon to produce lesson plans for

teachers and educational materials for

students for five one-hour intensive les-

sons or modules at different levels of un-

derstanding for the following groups:

GroupI School children, Grades 1

to 3

Group II School children, Grades 4

to 6

Group III High school students

A single module was produced for for-

est farmers that will introduce them to

new technologies for farming and alter-

native methods of earning a living from

the land, as well as to the general theme

of rain forest conservation outlined in the

school modules.

The entire program consists of three

phases, two for development of the ma-

terials and the third for implementing the

program. Phase I, presented here, was