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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II
MADISON, WISCONSIN
\\\\sonian Insti^;-
% \
SEP 22 j i ' )
A %\ 8Si\ J
I9IO
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Fourth supplementary list of parasitic fungi of Wis¬
consin, . . . J. J. Davis , 739
The vegetation of Twin island (with plates LXII-
LXIII), .... Ruth Marshall , 773
Flora of Racine and Kenosha counties, Wisconsin: A
list of fern and seed plants growing without cultiva¬
tion, ... Samuel C. Wadmond , 798
The harrowing of hell in liturgical drama,
Karl Young , 889
John of Salisbury’s attitude towards the classics,
A. C . Krey , 948
An unregarded factor in lake temperatures (with plates
LXIY-LXY), . . Edward A. Birge, 989
On the evidence for temperature seiches (with plate
LXYI), . . . Edwawd A. Birge , 1005
Xotes on Cladocera IY, (with plates LXYII-LXXI),
Edward A. Birge , 1017
A revision of the Xorth American species of cyclops
(with plates LXXII-LXXXI), C. Dwight Marsh, 1067
Studies on the Tremellineae of Wisconsin (with plates
LXXXIII-LXXXIY) , Edward M. Gilbert, 1136
/
IT
Table of Contents.
Spore formation in Geoglossum Glabrum Pers. (with
plates LXXXV-LXXXYII),
Hallie D. M. J olivette,
Some contributions to the life history and cytology of
the smuts (with plates LXXXVIII-XCV),
Benjamin F. Lutman,
The radioactivity of some spring waters at Madison,
Wisconsin, . . . Herman Schlundt,
Description of a new species of Eubranchipus from Wis¬
consin, with some observations on its reaction to
light (with plate XOVI), Samuel J. Holmes,
Some European biological stations (with plates XCVII-
C), . . . . Chancey Juday ,
The gravimetric determination of Tellurium,
Victor Lenher and A. W. Homberger ,
An operculated gastropod from the Niagara formation
of Wisconsin (with plate Cl), Edgar E. Teller,
Some factors in the progress of scientific research : The
president’s address, 1909, Louis Kahlenberg,
Some personal recollections of Abraham Lincoln,
John W. Hoyt ,
List of officers and members of the Academy,
Proceedings of the Academy,
Report of the Secretary, .....
Treasurer’s Statement, .....
Reports of the Exchange Committee,
Page
1171
1191
1245
a
1254
1257
1278
1285
1289
1305
i
1310
1341
1362
1363
1364
TRANSACTIONS
(Vol. XVI, Part II, Nos. 1-6.)
INDEX.
Page
Birge, E. A. — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures . 989
- On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches . 1005
- Notes on Ciadocera . 1017
Davis, J. J. — Fourth Supplementary List of Parasitic Fungi of
Wisconsin . 739
Gilbert, E. M. — Tremellineae of Wisconsin . 1136
Holmes, S. J. — Description of a New Species of Eubranchipus from
Wisconsin . 1254
Hoyt, John W. — Some Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln. . 1305
Jollivette, H. M _ Spore-Formation in Geoglossum Glabrum Pers... 1171
Juday, Chancey — Some European Biological Stations . 1257
Homsberger, A. V., and Lenher. See Lenher . 1278
Kahlenberg, Louis. — Some Factors in the Progress of Scientific
Research . 1289
Krey, A. C. — John of Salisbury’s Attitude Towards the Classics _ 948
Lenher, V., and Homsberger, A. V. The Gravimetric Determina¬
tion of Tellurium . 1278
Lutman, B. F. — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts . 1191
Marsh, C. D. — A Revision of the North American Species of Cyclops. . 1067
Marshall, Ruth. — The Vegetation of Twin Island . 773
Schlundt, Herman. — The Radioactivity of Some Spring Waters at
Madison, Wisconsin . 1245
Teller, Edgar E — An Operculated Gastropod from the Niagara
Formation of Wisconsin . 1285
Wadmond, Samuel C. — A List of the Fern and Seed Plants Grow¬
ing without Cultivation — Flora of Kenosha and Racine Counties,
Wisconsin . 798
Young, Karl.— The Harrowing of Hell in Liturgical Drama . 889
TRANSACTIONS
mm
OF THE
F -
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II, NO. 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS.'
S Tfesi
n'.a > V; -
RiPI®
Transactions, Yol. -XVI, Pa rt II, No. 1.
Page
Fourth Supplementary List of Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin,
J.J. Davis, 739
SiSSSI
i w&w
■ '
The Vegetation of Twin Island -(With two plates) . .
i lit i t h Marshall, 7 73
M
i ^
m
Ar
Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties, Wisconsin: A List
.
Of Fern and Seed Plants Growing without Cultivation,
SamveJ C. Wadmnnd 798;
FOURTH SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF PARASITIC
FUNGI OF WISCONSIN.
J. J. DAVIS.
In 1884 Doctor William Trelease, at that time holding the
professorship of botany in the University of Wisconsin, pre¬
pared a Preliminary List of the Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin,
which was published in the Transactions of the Wisconsin
Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, vol. VI (1884). Sup¬
plementary lists, prepared by the writer, were issued through
the same publication, in vols. IX (1893), XI (1897), and
XIY (1903.) Of these this list is a continuation. Lite
them it consists of a list of additional hosts, a list of additional
species and an index to the hosts mentioned. The numbers
attached to the entries in the first are those under which the
species were first reported in these lists while those of the
second are serial and consecutive to those of the preceding lists.
Unless otherwise indicated it is to be understood that the
specimens upon which the entries are based are in my her¬
barium and that when the name of the collector is not given
(in parenthesis) that the compiler is also the collector.
I wish to tender my thanks to those who have assisted in the
preparation of the list and especially to Prof. Robert A. Harper
and the botanical staff of the University of Wisconsin for
services and material kindly given, Dr. J. C. Arthur and Mr.
F. D. Kern of Purdue University for determination of the
Uredinales , and Dr. G. P. Clinton of the Connecticut Agri¬
cultural Experiment Station for similar service in the
TJstilag inales.
The names proposed by Dr. Arthur, pycnia (O) aecia (I)
uredinia (II) and telia (III) have been used for the forms of
the Uredineae.
740 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
It hardly needs saying that mnch work is yet to be done
before the parasitic fungus flora of Wisconsin can be set forth
with any approach to completeness.
Racine, Wisconsin,
November, 1907.
Revised and augmented April, 1909. No attempt, how¬
ever, has been made to revise the nomenclature of the hosts
which corresponds therefore, for the most part, with that of
the preceding lists.
Correction Slip for No. 26.
This should not be referred to Peronospora lophanthi Farl.
It differs in the larger and more loosely branched conidiophores
and the oval conidia 30 — 36X20 microns.
r
i
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
741
ADDITIONAL HOSTS
A list of Fungi that have been recorded in previous Wis¬
consin lists but not as growing on the hosts here given.
4. Albugo candidus (Pers.) 0. Kuntze.
Oospores in leaves of Lepidium Virginicum L. Eau
Claire.
5. Albugo tragopogonis (Pers.) S. F. Gray.
On Senecio aureus L. Radisson.
10. Plasmopara halsteuii (Farl.) Berl. & DeToni.
On Bidens cermia L. Dousman.
On Erigeron annuus Pers. Racine.
13. Plasmopara entospora (Roze & Cornu) Schroet.
On Aster puniceus L. and Solidago rigida L. Racine.
14. Plasmopara pygmaea (Ung.) Schroet.
On Anemone Pennsylvania L. Kenosha county.
22. Peronospora calotheca D. By.
On Galium Aparine L. Racine and Kenosha county.
26. Peronospora lophanthi Farl.
On Draco cephalum parviflorum Nutt. Gordon.
34. Uncinula circinata C. & P.
On Acer dasycarpum Ehrh. Racine.
37. JVIlCROSPHAERA DIFFUSA C. & P.
On Desmodium paniculatum DC. Kenosha county.
281. Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr.
On Mitella diphylla L. Racine. Collected but once
and in small quantity on this host. On Rhus
glabra L. Waupaca.
45. — var. fuliginea (Schlect) Salm.
On Plantago major L. Racine.
48. ErYSIPHE CICHORACEARUM DC.
On Plantago major L. and P. Rugelii Dcsne. Racine.
0)n Parietaria Pennsylvania Muhl. Sullivan;
Heliopsis scabra Dunal, Kenosha; Dahlia (Cult.)
Racine. Kelsey reports this species on Dahlia
742 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
while Tracy reports E. communis. (Wallr.)
Schlect.
49. Erysiphe polygoni DC.
On Caltha palustris L. Sullivan and Dousman;
Polygonum aviculare L. Racine.
64. Epichloe typhina (Pers.) Tul.
On Asprella Hysirix Willd. Racine.
65. ScLEROTIUM CLAVUS DC.
On Secale cereale L. Dousman.
67. Claviceps sp. indet.
Sclerotia on Oryzopsis melanocarpa Muhl. Somers.
78. Didymaria didyma (Eng.) Pound.
On Ranunculus Pennsylvanicus L. Barron.
80. RamULARIA PLANTAGimS E. & M.
On Plantago cordata Lam. Kenosha county. Spots
larger; conidia sometimes 50 x 5 microns and
triseptate.
91. Cercosporella can a (Pass.) Sace.
On Erigeron Philadelphicus L. Racine.
96. Cercospora racemosa E. & M.
On Ambrosia trifida Li Madison. As stated by
Ellis ■& Everhart (Journal of Mycology 1, 55)
this is doubtfully distinct from Cercospora fer-
ruginea Fckl. to which specimens on Compositae
have been referred.
124. Cyeindrosporium padi Karst.
On Prunus Virginiana L. and Prunus Cerasus L.
(Cult.) Racine. On Prunus Pennsylvania
L. f. State Line.
128. Septoria ribis Desm.
On Ribes triste Pall. Radisson.
JJ30. Septoria erigerontis B. & C.
On Erigeron annuus Pers. and E. Philadelphicus L.
Racine. On Erigeron strigosus Muhl. Gordon.
136. Septoria astragali Desm.
On Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook. Adams county.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 743
140. Septoria gramiintum Desm.
On Panicum depauperatum Muhl. Madison. (Com.
Harper. )
141. Septoria rubi West.
On Bubus parviflorus Nutt. Mellen and Ashland.
152. Uromyces trifoeii (A. & S.) t
IJredinia on 'Trifolium hybridum L. Pacine.
178. Puccinia polygoni-amphibii Pers.
Uredinia and telia on Polygonum Virginianum L.
Pacine. I have found the rust on this host at
but one station hut it was abundant there.
190. PuccmiA punctata Lk. ( Puccinia galii Pers.)
Aecia on Galium asprellum Michx. Douglas County;
Uredinia on the same host. Padisson. I have
collected the aecia on Galium Aparine L. in small
quantity in a moist thicket near Racine hut the
specimens have failed to reach the herbarium.
200. Puccinia graminis Pers.
Uredinia and telia on Agropyrum caninum R. & S.,
Waupaca and on A. repens L. Kenosha county.
Uredinia on Secale cereale L. (cult.) Dousman.
Telia on Elymus Canadensis L. and E. striatus
Willd. Pacine.
203. In a paper on North American Pose Rusts published in.
Torreya 9? 2 , Feb. 1909, Prof. J. C. Arthur includes
southern Wisconsin in the range of Phragmidium ■
rasae-setigerce Diet, and Phragmidium rosae-ar-
lcansanw Diet, which are segregates from the
Phragmidium subcortidium ;(Schrank) of the*
Preliminary List. Two other species presum¬
ably occur in Wisconsin on cultivated roses.
209. Melampsora bigelowii Thuem.
(;M. salicis-capreae[ Prelim. List; M. farinosa 2nd
Suppl. List.)
Aecia on Larix Americana Michx. Wind Lake (Kern
& Davis.)
215. Pucciniastrum pyrolae (Pers.) Diet.
Uredinia on Pyrola rotundifolia L. Gordon.
744 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
217. Hyalopsora polypodii (DC.) Magn.
( Uredo polypodii (P.) Preliminary List.) On Cys-
topteris bulbifera Bernli. Wisconsin fide North
American Flora 7 , 2, 113.
219. Puccinia pustulata (M. A. Curtis.) Arth.
Dr. Arthur has shown by cultures that Aecidium
pustulatum M. A. Curtis is the aecial stage of a
rust to which he gives the above name and which
develops its further stages on Andropogon. As
this Aecidium is abundant about Eacine while I
have not seen the one on Pentstemon I infer that
the uredinia and telia that I have collected in
this vicinity on Andropogon furcatus Muhl. and
A. scoparius Michx. belong to this species.
229. Puccinia impatientis (Schw.) Arth.
Uredinia and telia on Elymus Virginicus L. re¬
ferred to Puccinia rubigo vera (DC.) Wint. in
the supplementary list is to be placed here, Dr.
Arthur having shown that it is genetically con¬
nected with Aecidium impatientis Schw.
245. Gymnosporangium davisii Kern.
Telia on Juniperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh.
Wind Lake. In the Preliminary List under this
number spermogonia collected at La Crosse on
Pyrus arbutifolia L. by Pammel were doubt¬
fully referred to Poestelia transf ormans Ell. I
have collected the pycnia on Pyrus melanocarpa
(Michx.) WiTd. at Sullivan and Waupaca as
well as at Wind Lake. The aecia are of slow
growth and seem not to have been collected in
Wisconsin as yet. The demonstration of the con¬
nection of the stages on the juniper and the
choke berry was made by Mr. F. D. Kern of
Purdue university using Wisconsin material for
inoculation.
251. UsTILAGO SPERMOPHORA B. & C.
On Eragrostis reptans Kees. Eacine. •
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 745
260. Entyloma australe Speg.
On Physalis pubescens L. Racine.
263. Entyloma thalictri Schroet.
On Thalictrum revolutum DC. Racine.
269. Synchytrium aureum Schroet,
On leaves and petioles of Pedicularis Canadensis L.
Racine ; on Prenanthes alba L. Kenosha county.
Only three small leaves of the former and one
leaf of the latter were found bearing this fungus.
The affected portions of the leaves of Pedicularis
are curled and tinged with purple. The Pre¬
nanthes leaf is not distorted or stained but the
galls are more prominent, especially on the midrib.
On both the spots are yellow, the resting spores
almost black, globose and lying rather loosely in
the galls. My measurements on the former were
160-175, on the latter 110-155 microns.
270. Urophlyctis pluriannulata (B. & C.) Farl.
( Synchytrium pluriannulatum (B. & C.) Earl. Suppl.
List. )
On leaves and petioles of Zizia aurea Koch. Kenosha
county.
276. Erysiphe galeopsidis DC.
On Chelone glabra L. Kenosha county.
279. Microsphaera alni (DC.) Wint. var. vaccotii Salm.
On Vaccinium Canadense Kalm. State Line.
Here also should perhaps be placed specimens on
Kalmia glauca Ait. collected at State Line.
Although taken in October and the asci and
spores are well developed there are no branching
tips to the appendages.
293. Ascochyta pisi Lib.
On leaves of Vicia americana Muhl. Clinton Junc¬
tion and Racine.
4-celled sporules are not uncommon in these specimens
the lateral septa being formed later than the
median one.
746 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
303. Cercospora microsora Sacc,
On tilia etjropaea L. (cult.) Madison.
304. Cercospora Montana Speg.
On Epilobium angustifolium L. Eagle River.
In Annales Mycologici 6, 3, 214, Otto Jaap gives the
synonymy of this species giving preference to the
name Ramularia punctiformis (Schlecht.) v.
Hoehn. and considering Ramularia chamaenerii
Rostrup on Epilobium ( Chamaenerion ) lati-
folium distinct. I have not access to specimens
or to a description of Rostrup’ s species and have
not observed that American specimens on Epi¬
lobium ( Chamaenerion ) augustifolium are dis¬
tinct.
$12. In the Supplementary List the name Cercospora
punctoidea Ell. & Holway was used for a fungus
collected at Racine on Galium trifidum Ait. but a
description apparently was never published. It
is perhaps better to include this in Cercospora
galii Ell. & Holway from which it differs in the
longer and more slender conidia (40 — 75 X
2 y2 — 3 microns).
315. Cercospora sequoiae E. & E.
On Juniperus communis L. var. alpina Gaud.
Wind Lake in early spring. Intermediate be¬
tween the type on Sequoia as described and the
var. juniperi E. & E. on Juniperus. Virginiana L.
which was the form recorded under this number.
In these specimens the hyphae are 40 — 80 X 3 — 4
microns and the conidia 25 — 45 X 3 — 4.
337. Glaeosporium canadense E. & E.
On Quercus rubra L. South Milwaukee. Edgerton
(Bot. Gaz. 45, 6, 378 et seq.) considers this
identical with the sycamore anthracnose Gloeo-
sporium nervisequum (Eckl.) Saec. of which
Gnomonia veneta (Sacc. & Speg.) Kleb. is the
ascigerous form.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 747
344. Gloeospokium ribis (Lib.) Desm. & Mont.
On Ribes triste Pall. La Pointe.
On Ribes vulgare Lam. (cult.) Kenosha.
On Ribes prostratum L’Her. Mellen. On the latter
host the conidi a are but little curved and mostly
20 — 24 microns long; probably the forma ribis
nigri americana of Saccardo. This is said to be
the conidial form of Drepanopeziza ribis Kleb.
359. Under the name Phyllosticta cruenta Pr. (properly (Pr.)
Kickx) specimens were reported on Uvularia
grandiflora Smith and Smilacina. The American
form on Smilacina with globose sporules has been
separated by Peck (Keport of the State Botanist,
1905, p. 26) under the name Phyllosticta pallidior.
This has also been collected at Waupaca on
Smilacina racemosa Desf. with the deeply col¬
ored border 1 — 1% mm wide. In specimens
from Adams county on Smilacina stellata Desf.
the colored border is less than 1 mm. wide and
the color is often reduced or even lacking from a
portion or sometimes all of the periphery of the
spot. The sporules are spherical, 10 microns in
diameter. The specimen on Uvularia seems dif¬
ferent from this forming elliptical to oblong
spots 1 — 3 cm long, pale brown above pale gray
beneath and without a colored border. The
pycnidia are amphigenous, globose, black, 70 — 100
microns in diameter and the sporules are elliptical
5 — 7 X 3 — 4 microns with a single vacuole. In
Farlow’s Host Index Phyllosticta uvularice Gal¬
loway is given under Uvularia grandiflora Smith.
Kot being able to find a description of this species
I appealed to Dr. Galloway who referred the mat¬
ter to Mrs. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. Prom her report I
quote as follows : “It is safe to write to Dr. Davis
that the description of his fungus does not fit
Phyllosticta uvularice as represented in our col-
748 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
lection. There is one small portion of a leaf that
was issued in Ell. & Ev. N. A. Fungi , 2153, but
I can find no description of the species. This
seemed strange to me until I have now carefully
examined the specimen and as I should hesitate
to call this a Phyllosticta it may be that Prof.
Ellis had been doubtful about it before publishing
the descriptions of all species of Phyllosticta is¬
sued up to August, 1900. The spores of this
material look to me like those of an immature
Sphaeropsis. The following is a fair descrip¬
tion of this specimen : Spots irregular, 2 — 7 mm,
alutaceous, margin darker and reddish brown;
pycnidia black, amphigenous, 30 — 35 microns;
spores 5y2 — 6 X 7 microns, irregular in outline
and in masses having a yellowish tinged’
I have labeled my specimen on Uvularia Phyllosticta
discincta n. sp. hut the material is meager to
stand as the type of a new species.
385. Ramularia rosea Feld.
The host of the Wisconsin fungus that has been re¬
ferred to this species appears to he Salix discolor
Muhl. rather than Salix rostrata Richards. In a
recent collection the conidia are 4 — 5 microns in
diameter.
387. Ramularia rufomaculans Pk.
On Polygonum cilinode Michx. with Septoria poly-
gonorum Desm. Radisson.
On Polygonum Hartwrightii Gray. Racine.
406. Septoria cerastii Rob. & Desm.
On Cerastium viscosum L. Racine.
407. Septoria cirsii Messl.
On Cnicus lanceolatus Hoffm. Dousman.
408. Septoria conspicua E. & M.
On Steironema lanceolatum Gray. Adams county.
Pycnidia and sporules smaller than in the typical
form on S. ciliatum Raf.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 749
450. Septoria solidagixicola Pk.
On Solidago arguta Ait. Racine. In this specimen
the sporules are 24 — 36 X 1% microns. Septoria
intermedia E. & E. on the same or a similar host
is probably not distinct from this.
480. Chrysomyxa cassandrae (Pk. & Cl.) Tranz.
( U redo cassandrae Pk. & Cl. suppl. List. Melamp -
soropsis cassandrae Arth.) Aecia ( Peridermium
consimile Arth. & Kern) on Picea Mariana Mill.
Oneida (Cheney) and Vilas counties, Waupaca
and Gordon. The two first mentioned collec¬
tions were reported as Peridermium decolorans.
Pk. in the 3d suppl. List which species, however,
has also been collected in Vilas county.
490. Lender this number in the supplementary list was reported
the collection in small quantity of Protomyces
macrosporus Ling, on Cicuta maculata L. and
reference was made to the fact that considerable
search had been made to find more of it but with¬
out success. Reexamination of the specimen
leads me to the conclusion that it is really
Cladochytrium maculare (Wallr.) on a scape of
Alisma Plantago L.
491. TuBURcmiA clixtoxiae Kom.
Collected in small quantity in Douglas County on
Streptopus roseus Michx. This fungus was in¬
cluded in the supplementary list under the name
Tuburcinia trientalis B. & Br. the host being given
as Smilacina. On reexamination however I am
constrained to believe that Streptopus roseus is
the host of that collection also. It is somewhat
curious that these two collections, with a time in¬
terval of 21 years, were made in the south eastern
and north western corners of the state.
492. Tuberculixa persicixa (Ditm.) Sacc.
On Lupinus perennis L. Adams county. This is the
only evidence that I have seen of the occurrence
of a rust on Lupinus in Wisconsin.
750 Wisconsin Academy df Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
503. Physaeospoba ambeosiae E. & E.
On Ambrosia artemisiae folia L. South Milwaukee.
527. Mofilia lifhabtiafa Sacc.
On young leaves of Crataegus, of Prunus serotina
Ehrh. and P. Yirginiana L. Racine and Kenosha
county. In Annates Mycologici, 6, 109 et seq.
1908, Mr. J. M. Reade gives some results of his
investigation of Korth American species of
Sclerotinia, the conidia of which are referred to
the form genus Monilia. The name used in the
2nd Suppl. List and given above was first applied
to conidia on Prunus Padus in Europe. Mr.
Reade considers the American forms distinct from
this and that the forms on Prunus serotina
Ehrh. and Prunus Yirginiana L. are distinct
from each other referring them to Sclerotinia
seaveri Rehm and Sclerotinia angustior Reade re¬
spectively. The forms on Crataegus are referred
to Sclerotinia johnsonii (E. & E.) Rehm. Mr.
Reade has kindly examined Wisconsin specimens.
531. Phyllosticta decidua E. & K.
On Monarda punctata L. Adams county.
On Eupatorium perfoliatum L. Dousman.
On E chinospermum Yirginicum Lehm. Racine.
On the latter host the spots have a black-brown border ;
the pycnidia are about 80 microns in diameter
and the sporules mostly 4 — 6 X 3 — 4.
On Aralia racemosa L. Mellen.
537. Septoeia bacieligeea Wint.
On Ambrosia trifida L. Specimens collected in
Kenosha county in September have sporules
30 — 50 X 2 microns, apparently continuous.
Possibly distinct.
542. Septoeia eumicis Ellis.
On Rumex altissimus Wood. Beloit. In this speci¬
men the spots are round to oval, light brown, con¬
centrically zoned about a lighter colored center
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin . 751
which is surrounded by a reddish brown border,
5 — 13 m\m in diameter; pycnidia dark brown or
black, 70 — 100 microns; sporules 20 — 33 X 2% —
3 1/2 microns. Perhaps distinct but it is more
likely that the differences are due to the thicker
leaves of this host.
549. PuccmiA dayi Clint.
On the upper leaves of Steironema lanceolatum Gray.
Adams county. Locally abundant. Spores quite
variable.
558. Cintractia caricis (Pers.) Magn.
On Car ex aurea Nutt. Pacine.
On Carex Pennsylvanica Lam. State Line and Gor¬
don. On Carex umbellata Schkuhr. Gordon.
573. Plasmopara ribicola Schroet.
On Ribes CynoSbati L. Mellen. This mildew has
also been observed at two stations on Madeleine
island in lake Superior on Ribes triste Pall, and
one of the gooseberries. The fungus appears to
have a more restricted southward range than have
some of its hosts.
586. Cercospora caricina Ell. & Dearn.
On Carex gracillima Schw. Padisson.
On Carex cephalmdea Dewey. Kenosha County.
Pending the collection of more and better ma¬
terial I refer here a specimen on Cyperus
H ought oni Torr. collected at Gordon.
595. Cercospora maianthemi Fckl.
The specimens referred to this species in the 3rd suppl.
list I now refer to Cercospora subsanguinea E. &
E. A specimen, somewhat over mature, collected
in Adams county in July, 1908, however is quite
different and I have referred it to Euckel’s species
although the mature hyphae are frequently
shorter (50 microns) and the conidia longer (80 —
100 microns) than indicated in the description
in the Sylloge Fungorum.
752 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
596a. Under this no. in the 3d Suppl. List a specimen was
referred to Cercospora pustula Cke. This was
an error as the fungus is the same as that given
in the Suppl. List under the name Gloeosporium
ampelopsidis E. & E. it having been referred by
the authors to Septogloeum as a section (Journal
of Mycology 5, 155) and is not distinct from
Septoria ampelopsidis Ellis, the perithecia being
frequently imperfect.
618. Ramularia virgaureae Thum.
On Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. Kenosha County.
647. Pucciniastrum arcticum (Lagerh.) Tranz. var*
americajVum Earl.
Under this number in the 3d supplementary list and
under the name Chrysomyxa albida Kuhn record
was made of a specimen from Vilas county on
Rubus strigosus Michx. On examination this
proves to be the Uredo stage of the Pucciniastrum.
Reference was also made to the report of Chryso¬
myxa albida Kuehn on Rubus occvdentalis L. in
Wisconsin by Tracy & Galloway in the Journal
of Mycology (4, 7, 62). The report was based on
specimens collected at Platteville and now in the
herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry in
Washington. The Curator of the herbarium,
Mrs. Flora W. Patterson, informs me that the
specimens were recently examined by Mr. E. D.
Kern and identified as above. I have also col¬
lected the uredinia on Rubus strigosus Michx. in
Adams county and Burlington and both uredinia
and telia on the same host at Racine and uredinia
on Rubus triflorus Richards, at Sullivan. In his
publication of this variety Dr. Farlow refers to a
specimen collected at Madison by W. Trelease.
This appears to be a common rust on the rasp¬
berries in Wisconsin but the uredinia have been
passed in the field as those of Phragmidium and
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
753
the inconspicuous telia escaped observation. I
know of no authentic Wisconsin specimens of
Chrysomyxa (Kuehneola) albida.
634. Pan aeolus epimyces Pk.
On Coprinus comatus F'r. fide Helen Sherman in
Journal of Mycology 11, 78, 168.
ADDITIONAL SPECIES.
An enumeration of species not recorded in previous Wiscon¬
sin lists.
662. Frankia alni (Wor.)
Forming tubercles on the roots of Alnus incana Willd.
Madison. (Prof. R. A. Harper.)
663. Frankia ceanothi Atk.
On roots of Ceanothus Americanus L. Madison.
(Mr. E. G. Artzberger.)
664. Synchytrium scirpi Davis.
On Scirpus atrovirens Muhl. Kenosha county and
Racine. Three stations are known to me where
this fungus occurs and sometimes rather abun¬
dantly.
665. Protom yces gravidus Davis.
On Bidens cemua L. and Bidens connata Muhl., Dous-
man ; on the same species and sparingly on Bidens
frondosa L., Racine ; on Bidens cemua L., Berry-
ville and Burlington; on Ambrosia trifida L. and
Ambrosia art emisiae folia L., Racine.
Before the description of this species was published
hut too late for the addition of a foot note I
found it at Racine on Ambrosia trifida L. and
soon after on A. art emisiae folia L. On the former
host it was abundant but confined to one station;
on the latter scarce but more widely distributed.
In the description, which was based on specimens
occurring on Bidens, the spores were stated to be
30 — 55 microns long. In my specimens on Am¬
brosia trifida L. they average about 60 microns
754 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
in the greater diameter. Peck stated that in his
collection on Ambrosia trifida L. they were 35 —
60 microns long. (35th Report, p. 138.) In my
first specimens on Ambrosia art emisiae folia L. the
spores were 55 — 80 microns long but a later col¬
lection on this host showed spores of about the size
of those on Bidens. This collection consisted of
a single gall on a plant growing in a roadside
ditch with infected Bidens. This was the only
instance in which I have seen the fungus on
both host genera at one station. Altogether the
range of spore length is from 30 — 80 microns
which is just the range given for the spores of
Protomyces macrosporus Ung. of Europe which
however appears to be confined to Umbelliferae
and to be unknown in America, the citation of
that species in my first supplementary list having
been based upon error as to both fungus and host.
Specimens on Bidens cernua L. growing in very
loose peaty soil have galls upon the roots also.
Recent authors place Protomyces in Hemias-
CINEAE.
Prof. E. W. Olive has kindly furnished the following list
of species of Empusa collected by him in the vicinity of Madi¬
son and specimens of which are in his collection.
666. Empusa Americana Thaxt.
On a blue bottle fiy. Madison. (Olive.)
667. Empusa aphidis Hoffman.
On various aphides. Madison. (Olive.)
668. Empusa cueicis A. Braun.
On Gliironomus sp. indet. Madison. (Olive.)
669. Empusa muscae Cohn.
On house flies. Madison. (Olive.)
670. Empusa rhizophora Thaxt.
On caddis flies. Madison. (Olive.)
671. Empusa sciarae Olive.
On Sciara sp. indet. Madison. (Olive.)
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 755
672. Phytophti-iora thalicri Wilson & Davis.
On Thalidrum revoiutum DC. Kenosha county and
Racine. This occurred through the summer and
fall. The conidia were germinating in specimens
collected in October, the globose hyaline zoospores
escaping through the apex of the conidium. Ap¬
parently with zoospore formation the conidium
changes- in shape from elliptical to ovate by rea¬
son of the distal portion becoming conical. This
has also been colected on Thalidrum dasycarpum
F. &. L. at Mellen which is about 25 miles from
Lake Superior and 300 miles from the other sta¬
tions. I have found this only in moist thickets.
673. Peronospora floerkeae Kellerm.
On FloerJeea proserpinacoides Willd. Collected by
Prof. E. W. D. Holway at St. Croix Falls at
about the same time that the type material was
collected in Ohio by Dr. Kellerman. That is the
only Wisconsin collection of which I have knowl¬
edge.
674. Taphria deformans (Berk.) Tub
On Prunus Persica Sieb. & Zucc. (cult.) Racine. This
name was used in the supplementary list (Ho.
274) for what is now considered to be a distinct
species.
674$. Taphria potentillae (Farl.) Johans.
On Potentilla arguta Ph. Kenosha. A recent col¬
lection not yet carefully examined.
675. Laboulbenia gyrinidearum Thaxt.
On Gyrinus sp. (?) Madison. (Prof. R. A. Harper.)
676. Hypomyces lateritius (Fr.) Tub
On Ladarius sp? Eagle Heights. (R. A. Harper.)
677. Hypomyces viridis (A. & S.) Sacc.
On (?) Eagle Heights (R. A. Harper) ; Brule, ( J. B.
Overton) .
2— S. A.
756 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
678. CORDYCEPS HERCULEA (Schw.) E. & E.
On larvae of Lachnosierna (?) Madison. (E. A.
Harper.) Prof. Harper informs me that this is
sometimes abundant at Madison. The determina¬
tion was made by Prof. Harper with the fresh
specimens.
678a. Keithia thujiista E. J. Durand ined.
On living leaver of Thuja occidentals L. Mellen.
Abundant in Oconto county.
679. ScLEROTimA tuberosa Fckl.
Growing from sclerotia attached to the rhizomes of
Anemone nemorosa L. Milwaukee (E. E. Brown ;
com. E. A. Harper).
680. Pseubopeziza MEDicAGims (Lib.) Sacc.
On Medicago sativa L. (cult.) Kenosha county.
681. Lophodermium pinastri (Schrad.) Chev.
On Firms Strohus L. Three Lakes.
On Pinus Banksiana Lambert. Gordon.
682. Phyllachora junci Eckl.
On J uncus tenuis Willd. Eacine.
Only immature material in which asci have not de¬
veloped has been collected.
683. Ascochyta clematibina Thum.
On Clematis Virginiana L. Kenosha county. I have
used the above name because there is in the Ellis
herbarium a specimen of what appears to be the
same fungus which is so labeled. I append my
notes on the Wisconsin specimens: Spots sub-
orbicular to irregular, brown, becoming cinereous
with a blackish brown border; pycnidia epiphy-
llous, prominent, hemispherical to globose, amber
colored to light brown or ochraceous, 100 — 125
microns in diameter ; sporules oblong, hyaline,
continuous, 2 — 4 nucleate, 10 — 15 X 3 microns
in germination becoming a third longer and twice
as thick and 1 — 3 septate. Wrinkling of the
cuticle sometimes gives the spots the appearance
of bearing radiating whitish fibrils.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
757
683a — var. thalictri n. var.
On Thalictrum dioicum L. Radisson.
Pycnidia smaller; sporules 8 — 10 X 2 — 3 microns.
683 b. Ascochyta ( ?) infuscans E. & E.
On Ranunculus abortivus L. Racine. This was
doubtfully referred to Ascochyta by the authors
because the sporules in the type material were
binucleate and it was thought probable that they
became uniseptate. The sporules of the Racine
specimens are 2 — 4 nucleate and when treated
with dilute iodine or methyl green-acetic acid so¬
lutions the cytoplasm is seen to be 1 — '3 divided
but there are no true septa. In germination the
sporules swell and become torose with one to
three constrictions and at these points constrictive
division begins. When germinating actively how¬
ever germ tubes are given off, usually at one or
both extremities, and the nuclei and cytoplasm
pass out of the sporules before the divisions are
completed. Some of the sporules, however, do
not form germ tubes but divide into 2 — 4 cells
which separate and some at least of these second¬
ary sporules, if the term is allowed, become uni¬
septate without constriction. The effects of this
parasite upon the host are serious, causing speedy
death of as much of the plant as is distal to the
point of attack and in moist weather such dying
portions are usually covered by a growth ( Botrytis
as I have seen it) that seems to inhibit the de¬
velopment of the pycnidia, so that it is only in
comparatively dry weather that I have been able
to get satisfactory specimens. Stems, branches
and petioles are attacked as well as leaves. In
June, 1908, I secured fresh mature material the
sporules having oozed out in cirri. These sporules
were quadrinucleate and germinated speedily in
slide cultures producing both terminal and lateral
germ tubes without the torose swelling.
758 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
683c. Ascochyta leonuri Ell. & Dearn.
On Lycopus sinuatus Ell. Kenosha county.
684. Cercospora avicularis Wint.
On Polygonum aviculare L. Racine.
On Polygonum erectum L. Adams county.
685. Cercospora ceanothi Kell. & Swingle.
On Ceanotlius ovatus Desf. Adams county.
686. Cercospora circumscissa Sacc.
On Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wind Lake.
687. Cercospora cypripedii Ell. & Dearn.
On Cypripediium pubescens Willd. ( ?) Waupaca. On
Cypripedium acaute Ait. Adams county.
688. Cercospora epigaeina sp. nov.
On red brown areas occupying the greater part of the
leaf; hyphal tufts hypophyllous, thickly and uni¬
formly effused over the affected areas; hyphae
densely tufted from a tubercular base, brownish
black, straight or the outer ones curved toward the
center of the fascicle, continuous, 20 — 30 X 3 — 4
microns ; conidia hyaline straight or somewhat
curved, tapering, pluriseptate, 60 — 100 X S'
microns.
On Epigaea repens L. Adams county, July 18, 1908.
689. Cercospora megalopotamica Speg.
On Bidens cernua L. Dousman. The specimens
which I have referred to this South American
species have the , following characters: Spots
definite, suborbicular, dark brown becoming arid
and whitish in the center, concentrically wrinkled,
paler and less definite beneath, 5 — 8 mm in
diameter; hyphae amphigenous in small tufts,
deep brown, septate, straight or somewhat flexuose '
and toothed 35 — 45 X 3 — 4 microns; conidia
hyaline, often somewhat curved, tapering upward,
pluriseptate, containing numerous conspicuous
nuclei or globose granules, 80 — 165 X 5 microns.
690. Cercospora mexispermi Ell. & Hoi.
On Menispernum Canadense L. Racine.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
759
691. Cercospora mississippiensis Tracy & Earle.
On Smilax hispUda Muhl. Racine. In these speci¬
mens the spots lack the pallid outer margin.
692. Cercospora subsanguinea E. & E.
On Maianthemum canadense Desf. Vilas county, Peli¬
can Lake and La Pointe. The two former speci¬
mens were erroneously recorded as Cercospora
maianthemi (Eckl.) Sacc. See No. 595 in this
list.
693. Cercospora viticola Sacc.
OnE itis riparia Michx. Racine.
694. Cylijstdrosporium betueae n. sp.
Spots subcircular, immarginate, cinnamon brown be¬
neath darker above, peripheral portion often green,
3—8 mm in diameter ; acervuli hypophyllous, pale
brown ; conidi a bacillary, straight or somewhat
curved, obtuse, 25 — 40 X 1% — 2 microns. On
leaves of Betula pumila L. Sullivan. July, 1906.
Possibly a form of Septoria betulae (Lib.) West,
but the sporogenous layer is disciform.
695. Cylixdrosporium circixans Wint.
On Sanguinariaa canadensis L. Adams county.
696. Cylixdrosporium clematidis E. & E.
On Clematis Virginiana L. Somers. Locally abun¬
dant. Exuded conidia forming a white powder
on the surface of the leaf or in cirri.
697. Cylixdrosporium ribis sp. nov.
Spots subcircular, lurid or tawny with a narrow dark
border, 2 — 6 mm in diameter; acervuli 30 — 50
microns in diameter; sporules discharged on the
upper surface of the leaf, curved, often attenuate
! ' upwards, 50 — 80 X 1% microns. On leaves of
Ribes triste Pall, and Ribes prostratum L’LIer.
La Pointe. On Ribes sp. indet. (gooseberry).'
Racine. July and August. This may prove to
be Septoria sibirica Thum. with undeveloped
; pycnidial wall.
760 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
698. Cylindrospobium tradescantiae Ell. & Kellerm.
On Tradescantia Virgiriica L. Racine. In these
specimens the areas affected by the fungus were
not purplish but yellow becoming brown. Some
of the conidia are 100 microns long.
699. Dilophospora alopecuri (Er.) Fr.
On G alamagrodis Cianadensis Beauv. Fide Dr. Ernst
A. Bessey in Journal of Mycology 12, 57. Ke¬
nosha county and Wind Lake.
700. Eusarium heterosporum Kees.
On ovaries and glumes of Glyceria fluitans R. Br. ac¬
companying sclerotia of Claviceps. Racine.
701. Gloeosporium betularum E. & M.
On Betula nigra L. La Crosse. (Jolivette.) To
this species I also refer a specimen on Betula
papyrifera Marsh, from Ashland. The smaller
acervuli are on spots or irregular brown areas,
.5 — 2 cm in diameter but the sporules are similar
although sometimes attaining a length of 16
microns.
702. Gloeosporium thalictri sp. nov.
Spots circular to oblong, brown, with a narrow dark
border, 5 — 10 mm in diameter ; acervuli hypophyl- *
lous, scattered, dark brown ; sporules elliptical
oblong, hyaline, 4 — 6 X 2 — 3 microns. Mellen,
^ July 14, 1908.
On Thalictrum dasycarpum Eisch. & Lall.
703. Graphium gracile Pk.
On Rubus strigosus Michx. Adams county.
704. Marssonina necans (E. & E.) Magn.
On Pteris aquilina L. Radisson. Magnus has pro¬
posed this generic name to replace Marsonia or
Marssonia preoccupied by reason of being at¬
tached to a genus of spermatophytes.
705. Marssonina violae (Pass.) Sacc.
On Viola sp. indet. La Pointe.
In the specimens which I have referred to this species
the sporules are usually curved or falcate and the
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin .
761
walls of the smaller extremity are thickened and
the rostrum becomes solid reminding one of the
apical portion of some Uromyces spores. This
gives somewhat the appearance of a septum at the
junction of the thickened portion with the body
of the sporule which is perhaps what Passerini
called an obscure extra median septum in his de¬
scription and which led Saccardo to transfer the
fungus from Gloeosporium to Mar sonia. As the
sporules are often 2 — 4 nucleate however it is
probable that they do become septate before
germination.
706. Phyllosticta apicalis n. sp.
Causing brown areas which occupy *4 to % of the
distal portion of the leaf extending further along
the midrib than the margins therefore somewhat
wedge shaped at base, immarginate ; pycnidia
numerous, amphigenous, dark brown or black,
opening by a wide aperture; sporules oblong to
oval, hyaline, continuous, 4 — 7 X 1 — 3 microns.
On Salix lucida Muhl. Dousman; July, ,4906.
707. Phyllosticta diervillae n. sp.
Spots irregular, frequently apical, brown with an in¬
definite yellowf border, 1 — 4 cm jin diameter;
pycnidia amphigenous, scattered, globose, rather
light brown, 80 — 410 microns; sporules hyaline,
oblong 3 — 5 X 1% — 2 microns. On leaves of
Dier villa trifida Moench. Gordon. July, 1907.
708. Phyllosticta iridis E. & M.
On Iris versicolor L. Kenosha county and Pacine.
Sporules 12 — 46 X 2 y2 — 3 y2 microns.
709. Phyllosticta mulgedii n. sp.
Spots irregular, dark brown, immarginate, 1 — 3 cm
in diameter; pycnidia epiphyllous, inconspicuous,
scattered, brown, globose, 75 — 100 microns;
sporules hyaline, elliptical to oblong and globose,
3 — 7 X 3 microns. The sporules are mostly bi-
guttulate and probably become septate before
762 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
germination. On leaves of Lactuca leucophaea
Gray. Racine. Sept. 1907.
710. Phyllosticta renouana Sacc. & Roum.
On Typha latifolia L. Snllivan.
I liave not seen an authentic specimen of this species.
The exuded sporules often resemble small drop¬
lets of water adhering to the leaf.
711. Phyllosticta syrihgae West.
I have referred to this species a fungus observed on
the leaves of two shrubs of Syringa vulgaris L.
in a door yard in Racine. The attack is made
at the apex of the leaf and spreads more rapidly
along the margins than the midrib. The pycnidia
are about 100 microns in diameter and the
sporules fusoid -oblong, biguttulate, 6 — 8 X 2% —
3 microns.
712. Phyllosticta trillii E. & E.
On leaves and calyces of Trillium cernuum L. Radis-
son. As this differs somewhat from the type
from the state of Washington, as described, I ap¬
pend my notes: Spots subcircular, brown be¬
coming paler in the center, .5 — 1 cm in diameter;
pycnidia epiphyllous, prominent, hemispherical,
black, 75 — 120 microns; sporules hyaline, fusoid,
straight or curved, often plurinucleate, cytoplasm
sometimes once divided, (1!2 — 20 X 3 microns
July.
713. Phyllosticta violae Desm.
On looking over some old specimens of Cercospora
granuliformis Ell. & Hal. on Viola palmata L.
var. cucullata Gray, collected at Racine a few of
the leaves were found to bear the Phyllosticta also.
714. Ramularia acteae E. & H.
On Actaea rubra Willd. La Pointe.
715. Ramularia paulula n. sp.
Spots definite, suborbicular, brown with a darker
margin 1 — 4 mm in diameter, often accompanied
by indeterminate yellow areas of the leaf ; hyphae
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
763
amphigenous, scattered, hyaline, nearly straight,
sometimes shouldered hy development of conidia
laterally, 20 — 40 X 3 — 5 microns; conidia hy¬
aline, catenulate, cylindrical, straight, nucleolate,
rarely uniseptate, 20 — 30 X 4 — 5 microns. On
leaves of Elodes Virginica Nutt. ;(. Hypericum
virginicum L.) Racine. Sept. 1907.
716. Ramuearia pratensis Sacc.
On Rumex verticillatus L. Racine. In these speci¬
mens the conidia are mostly 10 — 20 X 3 microns.
717. Ramularia serotina E. & E.
On Solidago serolina Ait. Radisson.
718. Ramulabia stolonifeba E. & E.
On Cornus sp. indet. Waupaca. On Cornus stolon-
ifera Michx. Racine. In these specimens the
spots are abundant on the leaves hut the conidia
are few. Conidia 8- — 12 X 1% microns con¬
nect with Ramularia angustissima Sacc.
719. Septoria atriplicis (West.) Eckl.
On Chenopodium album L, Waukesha.
720. Septoria bidentis Sacc.
I have referred to this species a somewhat immature
fungus collected on Bidens frovhdosa L. at Beloit
in May attacking the lower pair or pairs of leaves
with destructive effect.
721. Septoria bromi Sacc.
On Calamagrostis Canadensis Beauv. Kenosha
county.
722. Septoria calamagrostidis E. & E.
On Calamagrostis Canadensis Beauv. Pelican Lake.
723. Septoria dracocephali Thum.
A Septoria collected at Gordon on Draco cephalum
paviflorum Nutt. I have referred to this Si¬
berian species although the pycnidia (65 — 10 0
microns) are hypophyllous and the sporules 33 —
56 X ty^ — 3 microns.
764 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
724. Septoria galeopsidis West.
On Galeopsis Tetrahit L. State Line. Sporules
35 — 65 X 1% microns.
'725. Septoria gratiolae Sacc. & Speg.
On Gratiola Virginiana L. Radisson. This corre¬
sponds with the description of S. gratiolae E. &
M. which I assume is not distinct. This seems
hardly distinct from the fungus on Veronica ar-
vertsis L. referred to Septoria veronicae Desm. in
the supplementary list (No. 458) although there
is a slight difference in the size of the pycnidia
which are 65 microns in diameter on Gratiola
and 70 — 75 on Veronica.
'726. Septoria hyalina E. & E.
On Viola blanda Willd. Genoa Junction, Dousman,
Sullivan and Vilas county.
On Viola pubescens Ait. Racine.
727. Septoria lactucicola E. & M.
On Laduca Canadensis L. Raymond and Berryville,
'728. Septoria lycopersici Speg.
On Lycopersicum esculentum Mill, (cult.) Racine.
Some tomato growers consider the presence of
this fungus desirable because it hastens the ripen¬
ing of the fruit.
'729. Septoria lythrina Pk.
On Lythrum alatum Pursh. Union Grove. In this
collection the pycnidia are hypophyllous and the
sporules continuous but sometimes plurinucleate.
'730. Septoria nabali B. & C.
On Prenanthes alba L. Racine.
731. Septoria parietariae n. sp.
Spots suborbicular to irregular, immarginate, fulig¬
inous ; pycnidia epiphyllous but showing through
beneath, scattered, dark brown or black, globose,
opening by a round pore, 70 — 100 microns in
diameter ; sporules hyaline, bacillar^, straight or
slightly curved, 30 — 36 X 1 — 1% microns.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 765
On leaves of Parietaria Pennsylvania Muhl. Sulli¬
van. July 1906. This loooks so different from
any specimen on Urticaceae that I have seen that
I have thought it best to keep it separate. It is
not unlikely that specimens collected later in the
season would show paler spots.
732. Septoria sphaereleoides E. & K.
On Hypericum punctatum Lam. Adams county.
The specimens which I have referred to this
species because of the correspondence of the
sporules bear pycnidia only 50 — 70 microns in
diameter on oblong to angular spots which are
testaceous to fulvous in color and 5 — 15 X 3 — 5
mm in size.
733. Septoria xantiiii Desm.
On Xanthium Canadense Mill. Racine and Somers.
Pycnidia sometimes 120 microns in diameter.
734. Tubercueixa davisiana Sacc. & Trav.
On Salix cordata Muhl. Racine. In the summer of
1906 what appeared to be a Phytisma came
abundantly on the leaves of Salix cordata Muhl.
in a ravine near Racine and in every specimen
examined a hyphomycetous fungus occurred on
the lower surface of the leaves confined to the
areas bearing the ascomata. Specimens Were
sent to Prof. Saccardo for determination and
were described under the name given above.
Prof. Peck informs me that on looking over the
, specimens of Phytisma salicinum (Pers.) Fr. in
the herbarium of the State Museum at Albany
bT. Y. he found the same fungus on the leaves of
Salix cordata Muhl. and suggests the possibility
of the Phytisma being different from that ordi¬
narily found on willow leaves. Material was
wintered out doors but failed to mature and the
following season I was unable to find either Phy¬
tisma or Tuberculina where they were so abun¬
dant the year before.
766 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
735. Uromyces eleocharidis Arth.
On Eleocharis palustris R. Br. Racine. This was
reluctantly referred to Uromyces fund (Desm.)
Tnl. in the third supplementary list.
737. Uromyces sparganii C. & P.
On Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Madison.
(Harper, Olive & Davis.)
738. Puccinia apocrypta Ell. & Tracy.
On Asprella Hystrix Willd. Racine. This was re¬
ferred to Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. in
the supplementary list. I have made hut the
single collection.
739. Puccinia cryptotaeniae Pk.
On Cryptotaenia Canadensis DC. Racine. This was
abundant over a small area in the middle of a
dense thicket in 1905 hut I have not seen it
since.
740. Puccinia dulichii Syd.
Telia on leaves and sheaths of Dulichium arundina-
ceum 'Britton. Burlington.
741. Puccinia eatoniae Arth.
Uredinia and telia on Eatonia Pennsylvanica Gray.
Bayfield (Cheney) Racine. Referred to Puc¬
cinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. in the supple¬
mentary list. Dr. Arthur has shown that Aecid-
ium ranunculi Schw. (Preliminary List Ho. 236)
is the aecial stage of this rust.
742. Puccinia malvacearum Mont.
On Malva rotundifolia L. and Althaea rosea Cav.
(cult.) Racine. I first found this at Racine in
1904.
743. Puccinia milii Erikss.
Uredinia on Milium effusum L. Racine. Rare.
Uredinia and telia on Oryzopsis asperifolia Michx.
Vilas county. Apparently not common but us¬
ually attacking all the leaves of a tuft when pres¬
ent.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin .
767
744. PuccmiA obscura Schroet.
Uredinia, telia and mesospores on Luzula campestris
DC. Gordon.
745. Puccixia orbicula Pk.
Uredinia and telia collected in small quantity on
Prenanihes alba L. at La Pointe.
746. PuccmiA ornata Arth. & Hoi.
On Rumex sp. indet. Radisson.
747. PuccmiA phrymae (Hals.) Arth.
Aecia ( Aecidium phrymae Hals.) on Phryma Lepto-
stachya L. Madison (Harper) ; Uredinia and telia
on Carex longirostris Torr. Madison ( fide
Olive.) The genetic connection was demon¬
strated by Dr. Arthur at the suggestion of Dr.
Olive using Wisconsin material for inoculation.
(. Journal of Mycology 14, 93, 22.) I first ob¬
served the aecia in 1893 on the University campus
at Madison but too late in the season to secure
satisfactory specimens.
748. PuccmiA recedens Syd.
On Senecio aureus L. Raddison.
749. PuccmiA STIPAE Arth.
Uredinia and telia on Stipa spartea Trin. Racine.
Scarce.
750. Chrysomyxa pyrolae (DC.) Rostr.
Uredinia on Pyrola secunda L. Gordon.
754. Cronartium comptoniae Arth.
Uredinia on Myrica asplenifolia Endl. Gordon.
Collected several times but always in small quan¬
tity.
752. Cronartium quercus (Brondeau) Schroet.
Uredinia on Quercus alba L. Madison in October
(Denniston). Telia on Quercus velutina Lam.
or related species. Adams county. Abundant in
July. Globose galls on branches of Pinus
Banksiana Lambert in the same locality are
probably due to Peridermiuml cerebrum Pk. the
768 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
aecial stage of this rust hut the season was too far
advanced at the time of my visit to secure speci¬
mens.
754. Gymnosporangium clavipes C. & P.
(6r. germinate (Schw.) Kern.) Aecia ( Roestelia
aurantiaca Pk.) on Amelanckier sp. indet. Big
Bay (Cheney) Long Island (Cheney) La Pointe.
755. Melampsoridium betueae (Schum.) Arth.
Uredinia on Betula pumila L. Madison (Prof. B.
A. Harper & H. A. Pauly) and Burlington.
Aecia on Larix Americana Michx. Douglas
county.
756. Pheagmidittm occidentals Arth.
Aecia on Rubus parviflorus Hutt. La Pointe.
757. PlICCINIASTRUM POTENTILLAE Kom.
Uredinia on Potentilta tridenfata Ait. Gordon, La
Pointe and Adams county.
758. Uredinopsis atkinsonii Magn.
On Aspidium Thelypteris Swartz. Pacine, Wind
Lake and Kenosha county. This was given as
Gloeosporium phegopteridis Frank in the sup¬
plementary list and as Melampsora scolopendrii
(Fckl.) Farl. in the second supplementary list
together with related forms now considered
specifically distinct.
759. Uredinopsis osmundae Magn.
On Osmunda cinnamomea L. 0. Claytoniama L. and
0. regalis L. Yilas county. This was referred to
TJredinopsis scolopendrii (Fckl.) Diet, in the
third supplementary list.
760. ITredinopsis phegopteridis Arth.
On Phegopteris Dryopteris Fee. Yilas county. This
was placed with the preceding in the third sup¬
plementary list.
761. Aecidium ceanothi E. & K.
On Ceanothus ovatus Desf. Gordon.
762’. Caeoma abietis — canadensis Farl.
On Tsuga canadensis Carr. Mellen.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 769
763. Peridermium balsameum Pk.
On Abies balsamea Mill. This appears not to have
been noted in any of the Wisconsin lists. It
probably occurs throughout the range of the host
in the state.
764. Peridermium coloradense (Diet.) Arth. & Kern.
On Picea nigra Lk. Gordon.
765. Peridermium globosum Arth.
The type specimen was collected on Pinus Strobus L.
at Lone Rock by the late Prof. E. S. Golf and is
in the herbarium of Dr. J. C. Arthur.
766. Peridermium peckii Thum.
On Tsuga canadensis Carr. Mellon and Adams
county. This was found in abundance on the
edges of the bluffs at “the . dells.”
767. Cintractia suBmcLusA (Korn.) Magn.
On Car ex filiformis L. var. latifolia Boeckl., Car ex
lupulina Muhl. and Carex utriculata Boott. Ke¬
nosha county. A single station.
768. Entyloma crastophilum Sacc.
On Agrostis alba L. and Phleum pratense L. Racine.
769. Drocystis occulta (Wallr.) Rabh.
On Secale cereale L. (cult.) Racine. I have seen
this but twice and was barely able to find enough
for an herbarium specimen.
770. UsTILAGO LORENTZIANA Thum.
On Hordeum jubatum L. Madison. (Miss Jolivette.)
771. Ustilago violacea (Pers.) Eckl.
In anthers of Arenaria lateriflora L. Racine and
Kenosha county.
770 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
INDEX TO HOSTS.
Abies balsamea, 763.
Acer dasycarpum, 34.
Actaea rubra, 714.
Agropyrum caninum, 200.
Agropyrum repens, 200.
Agrostis alba, 768.
Alisma Plantago, 490.
Ain us incana, 662.
Althaea rosea, 742.
Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, 503, 665.
Ambrosia trifida, 96, 537, 665.
Amelanchier, 754.
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 596a.
Andropogon furcatus, 219.
Andropogon scoparius, 219.
Anemone nemorosa, 679.
Anemone Pennsylvanica, 14.
Aphides, 667.
Aralia racemosa, 531.
Arenaria lateriflora, 771.
Aspidium Thelypteris, 758.
Asprella Hyst'rix, 64, 738.
Aster puniceus, 13.
Betula nigra, 701.
Betula papyrifera, 701.
Betula pumila, 694, 755.
Bidens cernua, 10, 665, 689.
Bidens connata, 665.
Bidens frondosa 665, 720.
Bluebottle fly, 666.
Caddis flies, 670.
Calamagrostis Canadensis, 699, 721, 722.
Caltha palustris, 49.
Carex aurea, 558.
Carex cephaloidea, 586.
Carex filiformis latifolia, 767.
Carex gracillima, 586.
Carex longirostris, 747.
Carex lupulina, 767.
Carex Pennsylvanica, 558.
Carex umbellata, 558.
Carex utriculata 767.
Ceanothus Americanus, 663.
Ceanothus ovat’us, 685, 761.
Cerastium viscosum, 406.
Chelone glabra, 276.
Chenopodium album, 719.
Chironomus, 668.
Clematis Virginiana, 683, 696.
Cnicus lanceolatus, 407.
Comandra umbellata, 751.
Coprinus comatus, 634.
Cornus stolonifera, 718.
Crataegus, 527.
Cryptotaenia Canadensis, 739.
Cyperus Houghtoni, 586.
Cypripedium acaule, 687.
Cypripedium pubescens, 687.
Cystopteris bulbifera, 217.
Dahlia, 48.
Desmodium paniculatum, 37.
Diervilla trifida, 707.
Dracocephalum parviflorum, 26, 723.
Dulichium arundinaceum, 740.
Eatonia Pennsylvanica, 741.
Echinospermum Virginicum, 531.
Eleocharis palustris, 735.
Elodes Yirginica, 715.
Elymus> Canadensis, 200.
Elymus st’riatus, 200, 229.
Elymus Yirginicus, 229.
Epigaea repens, 688.
Epiiobium angustifolium, 304.
Eragrostis reptans, 251.
j-rigeron annuus, 10, 130.
Erigeron Philadelphicus, 91, 130.
Erigeron strigosus, 130.
Eupatorium perfoliatum, 531.
Floerkea proserpinacoides, 673.
Galeopsis Tetrahit, 724.
Galium Aparine, 22.
Galium asprellum, 190.
Galium trifidum, 312.
Glyceria fluitans, 700.
Gratiola Yirginiana, 725.
Gyrinus, 675.
Heliopsis scabra, 48.
Ilordeum jubatum, 770.
House flies, 669.
Hypericum punctatum, 732.
Hypericum virginicum, 715.
Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.
771
Iris versicolor, 708.
Juncus teinus, 682.
Juniperus communis alpina, 245, 315.
Juniperus Virginiana, 315.
Kalmia glauca, 279.
Lachnosterna, 678.
Lactarius, 676.
Lactuca Canadensis, 727.
Lactuca leucophaea, 709.
Larix Americana, 209, 755.
Lathyrus oehroleucus, 136.
Lepidium Yirginicum, 4.
Lupinus perennis, 492.
Luzula campestris, 744.
Lycopersicum esculentum, 728.
Lycopus sinuatus, 683c.
Ly thrum alatum, 729.
Maianthemum canadense, 595, 692.
Malva rotundifolia, 742.
Medicago sativa, 680.
Menispermum Canadense, 690.
Milium effusum, 743.
Mitella diphylla, 281.
Monarda punctata, 531.
Myrica asplenifolia, 751.
Oryzopsis asperifolia, 743.
Oryzopsis melanocarpa, 67.
Osmunda cinnamomea, 759.
Osmunda Claytoniana, 759.
Osmunda regalis, 759.
Panicum depauperatum, 140.
Parietaria Pennsylvanica, 48, 731.
Pedicularis Canadensis, 269.
Fhegopteris Dryopteris, 760.
Phleum pratense, 768.
Fhryma Leptost'achya, 747.
Physalis pubescens, 260.
Picea nigra, 480, 764.
Pinus Banksiana, 681, 752.
Pinus Strobus, 681, 765.
Plantago cordata, 80.
Plantago major, 45, 48.
Plantago Rugelii, 48.
Polygonum aviculare, 49, 684.
Polygonum cilinode, 387.
Folygonum erectum, 684.
Polygonum Hartwrightii, 387.
Polygonum Virginianum, 178.
Potentilla arguta, 674a.
Potentilla tridentata, 757.
Prenanthes alba, 269, 730, 745.
Prunus Cerasus, 124.
Prunus Pennsylvanica, 124.
Prunus Persica, 674.
Frunus serotina, 527, 686.
Prunus Virginiana, 124, 527.
Pt'eris aquilina, 704.
Pyrola rotundifolia, 215.
Pyrola secunda, 750.
Pyrus arbutifolia melanocarpa, 245.
Quercus alba, 752.
Quercus rubra, 337.
Quercus velutina, 752.
Ranunculus abortivus, 683b.
Ranunculus Pennsylvanicus, 78.
Rhus glabra, 281.
Ribes C’ynosbati, 573.
Ribes prostratum, 344, 697.
Ribes triste, 128, 344, 697.
Ribes vulgare, 344.
Rosa, 203.
Rubus accidentalis, 647.
Rubus parviflorus, 141, 756.
Rubus strigosus, 647, 703.
Rubus triflorus, 647.
Rumex altissimus, 542.
Rumex verticillatus, 716.
Rumex, 746.
Salix cordata, 734.
Salix discolor, 385.
Salix lucida, 706.
S'anguinaria canadensis, 695.
Sciara, 671.
Scirpus atrovirens, 664.
Secale cereale, 65, 200, 769.
Senecio aureus, 5 748.
Smilacina racemosa, 359.
Smilacina stellata, 359.
Smilacina, 359, 491.
Smilax hispida, 691.
Solidago arguta, 450.
Solidago rigida, 13.
Solidago serotina, 717.
Solidago ulmifolia, 618.
Sparganium eurycarpum, 737.
Steironema lanceolatum, 408, 549.
Stipa spartea, 749.
Streptopus roseus, 491.
Syringa vulgaris, 711.
Thalictrum dioicum, 683a.
Thalictrum dasycarpum, 672, 702.
Thalictrum revolutum, 263, 672.
Thuja occidentalis, 678a.
Tilia Europaea, 303.
Tradescantia Virginica, 698.
Trifolium hybridum, 152.
Trillium cernuum, 712.
3— S. A
772 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Tsuga canadensis, 762, 766.
Typha latifolia, 710.
TJvularia grandifiora, 359.
Yaccinium Canadense, 279.
Veronica arvensis, 725.
Vicia Americana, 293.
Viola blanda, 726.
Viola palmata cucullata, 713.
Viola pubescens, 726.
Viola, 705.
Vitis riparia, 693.
Xanthium Canadense, 733.
Zizia aurea, 270.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XYI Plate LXII.
Spooner
THE VEGETATION OF TWIN ISLAND.
RUTH MARSHALL.
This paper is an attempt to add a small contribution to the
floristic survey of northwestern Wisconsin with a superficial
study of zonation. The region studied was a small island in
Lake Spooner, Washburn County, two and one-half miles from
the village of Spooner. Field work was carried on during the
months of July and August, 1906. This work consisted in
the collection of specimens of all the seed plants and fern-
worts growing upon the island, the determination of their
distribution in formations, with quadrat and transect studies,
and the keeping of some general records of physical conditions.
The final identification of the species and the arrangement of
the field notes Was completed during the following college year
at the University of Nebraska.
Lake Spooner is a narrow, irregularly shaped lake, about
three miles long, extending diagonally from south-east to
north-west, with a maximum width of over one mile ; it is con¬
siderably narrowed in three places. It is fed by Mud Creek,
at the south-east end, where the water is filled with vegetation.
Yellow Liver, the outlet, starts from one side of the enlarged
northwestern end where there is an old mill-dam. The dam is
defective; this fact and the scarcity of rain in the middle of
the summer caused a fall of about eighteen inches in the sur¬
face of the lake during the time that it was under observation.
Lake Spooner finally drains into the St. Croix Liver. The
greatest depth of the lake is about thirty feet. It is of glacial
origin and its islands are drift.
The country about the lake was once covered with extensive
forests of white pine, now nearly all cut down. Here and
'774 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
there a few have been left, and some of the young or defective
trees still stand. There is a good showing of oak, maple, ash
and birch. Where clearings are made, the poplars are taking
posssession. The land is rapidly being brought under cultivation
as the farmer supersedes the lumberman. The surface of the
country is slightly rolling; the characteristic feature of the
topography is the great number of small lakes and pools. A
considerable portion of the land is swamp; in such places are
dense growths of tamarack. Lake Spooner has large swamp
areas leading from its northern and eastern shores. In these
marshes are found the cranberry, pitcher-plants, and several
orchids. In only two places are the shores moderately high,
rising some thirty feet from the water.
In the lower end of the lake are four islands. The first,
Porter’s Island, is high and has a fine group of white pines;
the next, Harper’s Island, the largest, is thickly covered with
underbrush and has several kinds of trees other than pine, while
part of the surface is low and swampy. Twin Islands lie in
the enlarged lower end, about half a mile from the outlet. The
two islands comprise an area of about seven and one-half
acres according to the government survey. This area is about
equally divided between the two islands and the connecting
marsh. The upper island was chosen for the study as it has
been less disturbed. So far as is known, it has not been occu¬
pied except for a period of six weeks in the summer of 1903,
when over-flow tents from the camp on the other island were
placed there. The owners, Mr. and Mrs. W. H. Lighty of
Madison, Wisconsin, have allowed the island to remain as far
as possible in the natural state. The undergrowth has been
much injured, however, in the last two years by rabbits, which
becoming abundant on the mainland, have crossed to the islands
on the ice in winter, and fed on the buds and bark.
The southeastern end of the island lies in a narrowed part
of the lake, about thirty meters from the nearest shore on one
side, the east, and half that distance from the other, to the
south. The island is oblong in form, about a hundred meters
in its greatest length, from east to west, and about thirty-five
meters in greatest width. On the south-east it runs to a
marsh
m
>
in
H
z
(/>
r
>
2
D
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI. Plate LXIII.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. 775
point, while the west end joins the marsh. The northeastern
portion is the highest, rising in one place rather abruptly
about three meters. From the center the land gradually rises
toward the north and east.
Three well defined plant formations occur; they are desig¬
nated as center, back strand, and strand. The center com¬
prises the greater part of the island; it supports trees, shrubs,,
and shadedoving herbaceous plants. The strand is a narrow
belt of varying width with an average width of perhaps one
meter, extending from the water’s edge to high-water mark,,
the latter point easily determined by a careful examination of
the shore-line. Owing to the fall of the surface of the water
already noted, the strand belt became gradually wider and the
new region was taken possession of in favorable places by
seedlings. Here, then, was plenty of light and moisture and
the number of plant individuals was very great. Between the
center and the strand a narrow intermediate belt was found
which constituted the back strand; the outer limit, the high-
water mark, was clear, but it passed on the other side rather
imperceptibly into the center. Hence many plants of the
center and strand occurred here also. Outside of the strand
in the shallow water there is a zone of variable width where
a few strictly aquatic plants grow. Besides these general re¬
gions, there were two others of special interest. One of these
is a large semicircular area of back strand, a sort of bay, on
the south shore, about fifteen meters deep ; the other is a much
smaller oblong area near the elevated eastern point where the
surface is devoid of trees and shrubs, and hence well exposed to*
the light.
TEMPERATURE RECORDS.
Temperature records were taken with a Fahrenheit ther¬
mometer each day (except Sunday) between the hours of
10 and IT o’clock a. m., of water, soil and air. The tempera-
lure of the surface of the water was taken just outside of the
zone of water plants, and again inside of this zone. At cer¬
tain stations the temperature of the soil of the south strand
776 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
was taken at a depth of six inches; of the soil of the south
Iback strand at a depth of one foot. The same holes were used
each time; they were covered carefully after each observation.
The temperature of the air was taken one meter from the
ground near the spot where the soil temperature of the back
strand was taken; and the temperature of the air one meter
from the surface at the same station in the center. Other rec¬
ords were kept for shorter periods at other points for com¬
parisons. General observations on the weather were also added
each day.
Water Temperatures. From June 30 to July 7 the open
water outside of the zone of vegetation varied from 67° to 70° ;
for the next five days (July 9 to 14) it remained between 70°
and 72° ; from July 15 to August 9, over three weeks, it kept
below 70°, the lowest record being 63°. From August 10 to
22 there came a rise again to a maximum of 78%° (except
for one day which registered Sl^0), and a minimum of 73°.
From August 23 to September 1 the temperature did not rise
again to 70°, nor did it fall below 63°. There was, then, a
gradual rise the first part of July, followed by a fall, then a
rise again to the maximum on August 20, and another fall in
the latter part of the month to a point below the early July
record.
The water inside of the zone of vegetation was usually from
■one to two degrees warmer than the water outside ; occasionally
the two records were the same.
The acidity of the water was tested with litmus paper when
temperature records were made. The first test, July 4,
showed that the water inside of the zone of water plants was
slightly alkaline, the water outside very faintly acid. From
then on, the open water gave no reaction except a rare trace of
alkali, while the inner water was occasionally so; but from
the last of July to the end of the season both waters gave evi¬
dences of alkalinity every day.
Soil Temperatures. The wet soil of the strand maintained
■a lower temperature than the water just outside of it and it
xesponded more slowly to changes in the air. For the first
'week in July it ranged from 56° to 59° Fahrenheit; it then
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. Ill
rose above 60° for a week, the maximum being 63°. During
the -first half of July, then, it was about 11° below the water.
During the latter half of July when the temperature of the
water remained at 1 1°, the back strand was below 62°, that is,
the difference between land and water was relatively less. For
the first part of August the temperature ranged between 58°
and 60°, and the difference between land and water was still
less. When the water reached the maximum, in the second
week of August, the land likewise rose in temperature, regis¬
tering between 67° and 72°, although not as rapidly as the
water. Then when the temperature of the water fell and re¬
mained below 72° for the rest of August, the land did not
fall below 60°. The land had a temperature a few degrees
higher at the end of August than at the beginning of July.
The lowest temperature recorded was 55°, the highest 72°.
Observations taken from the middle of July to September 1 at
another station a few feet away but about one meter nearer
the now receding water, showed a temperature almost uni¬
formly one degree higher.
The temperature of the soil of the back strand remained
always below that of the strand, except for one day; however,
the records were made for a greater depth, one foot. The
temperature showed a slight rise during July; it reached a
maximum of 56° at the time when the water reached its max¬
imum for the month. The temperature then remained close
to 56° until the second week of August when it reached a
maximum of 66°, when all other temperatures were highest,
and did not fall below 61° until the last two days of August.
For the last week it remained only about one degree below the
soil of the strand.
The temperature of the soil at the station in the center of the
island among trees and shrubs taken at the same depth as the
back strand temperatures, one foot, did not vary more than four
degrees from the latter. For a few days the soil of the center
reached this upper limit. In the first half of the summer, the
temperature remained much nearer that of the back strand
soil; occasionally it registered one to three degrees below it.
When the general rise occurred in the second week of July, the
778 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
temperature of the soil of the center reached 59° ; when the
maximum for the summer was reached in August, it rose to
69° one day. From then on it did not fall below 58°, but
still remained from one to four degrees below the back strand
temperature.
Air Temperatures. The temperature of the air of the back
strand one meter from the surface, showed many fluctuations.
It varied from 55° to 74° for the first half of July, reaching its
maximum with the soil and water, and almost reaching the
record of the latter, to fall suddenly two days later to 54°.
From then it ranged from 53° to 70°. When the summer
maximum was reached in mid- August it reached 81°, remain¬
ing one week above 70°. From then on the temperature was not
far from 65°. The temperature of the air at the center station
Was, with few exceptions, a little higher than that of the back
strand, never more than two degrees below. Through July it
ranged from 54° to 73°, reaching a July maximum with the
other station. From August 2 to August 30 it did not fall be¬
low 62° except for one day of showers when it fell to 59°. It
reached the maximum of 85° on August 20 when the water
close to the island reached its maximum of 84°. The air on the
main land at the same time was reported as being several de¬
grees higher.
A few other records were taken at other points on the island,
for comparisons, at the same time that quadrat studies were
being carried on. At one point about ten meters from the
south shore the temperature of the air one meter from the sur¬
face was recorded for one week (July 27 to August 4) at in¬
tervals of one hour during the morning. At mid-day there was
a range from 59° to 74°, from one to four degrees higher than
the readings at the main station earlier in the morning. The
lowest record was 55°, at nine o’clock; this was for one day, all
other days showing more than 60°. Also, the temperature of
the surface of the soil was taken near the same point for several
days during the last three weeks of August at intervals through¬
out the morning. The range was from 57° to 65° at nine
o’clock; and from 65° to 92° at one o’clock. The afternoon
record showed 91° at 3 :45. The temperature of the soil at the
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. 779
surface in the large semicircular area of back strand on the
south side at the foot of a small poplar was registered for a
week in mid- August. These records were not kept regularly;
hut on August 20, the day preceding the hottest day of the
summer for the region, the mercury at 10 :00 stood at 91%°'.
Other records for the first week of August show that the soil
surface temperature on the southwest back strand ranged from
58° at 9:00 to 92° at 1:00 o’clock. These shorter records
therefore go to show that the range of temperature would he
considerably greatest if records throughout the day were kept.
It will he noticed that the highest temperature was reached
in mid-August. Upon the south strand other conditions were
especially favorable for vegetation; the zone is here wide, and
the retreating water added nearly two meters to it during the
summer. Water is abundant and the exposure favorable for
light. The characteristic plants here were marigolds ( Bidens )
which flower in late summer.
A low soil temperature is a striking fact brought out by these
records, a temperature lower than that of the water. This may
be accounted for in part by the fact that the south channel is
shallow water and hence heats rapidly; but a more important
factor is the low temperature of the air. The last two weeks
of June, before records were taken, had been very cool days
with heavy rains. From then on the rainfall for two months
was slight, an almost unbroken record of clear days. On the
night of July 14, however, a heavy rain storm occurred and
all temperature records on the following day showed a decided
drop. Cloudy days and light rains came in late August; the
next heavy rain was not until September 1.
VEGETATION OF THE CENTER.
The center, the largest formation, presented the greatest
diversity of conditions and the largest number of species. The
area of the center comprises all of the island except the two
bordering narrow zones of back strand and strand. Its charac¬
teristic plants are trees and shrubs, the latter increasing in
number toward the outside and forming a fringe which runs
into the back strand zone. Toward the western end the surface
780 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
is lowest; here were found the American aspen ( Populus
tremuloides Michx.) and the speckled alder (Alnus incans (L.)
Wi'lld.) extending into the bordering zones; and a few Ameri¬
can linden ( Tilia americana L.). Then came several groups
of red maple ( Acer rubrum L.) with a few bur oaks ( Quercus
macrocarpa Michx. ), elms ( Ulmus americana L. and U. fulva
Michx. ), a few birches ( Betula paprifera Marsh, and B. luted
Michx.), the choke, black, and pin cherries ( Primus virginiana
L., P. serotina Ehrb., P. pennsylvanica L.) and a few shrubs
of ash ( Fraxinus sp.). On the gently rising eastern side the
dominant trees were black oak ( Quercus velutina Lam.), the
largest one about two feet in diameter a few inches from the
ground. A few large toothed aspens ( Populus grandidentata
Michx.) occurred, and one small stunted white pine ( Pinus
strobus L.).
Of the underbrush, the hazels ( Corylus americana Walt, and
C. rostrata Ait. ) were perhaps most characteristic ; on the lower
ground was hackberry (Celtic, crassifolia Lam.). The cornels
were well represented by two species, Cornus caudidissima
Marsh, and C. alternifolia L., the latter growing to the height
of small trees. The hawthorns showed three species (Crataegus
punctata Jacq., C. hiemalis Lang., and C. coccinea L; and there
was June-berry (Armlancher rotundifolia (Michx.) Roem.)
and one kind of willow (Salix sp.), all abundant. These
shrubs, however, had suffered much from the rabbits, as already
noted. Upon the extreme east flourished a few stag-horn sumac
(Rhus hirta (L.) Sudw.). To the south-fwest grew many
plants of the low blue-berry (Vaccinium pennsylvanicum Lam.)
but no fruit was ever found.
With the larger shrubs grew several woody climbers, Virginia
creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.) and frost
grape (Vitis cordifolia Michx.), reaching their greatest size to¬
ward the east. Bitter-sweet (Celastrus scandens L.) was rather
common, but the plants were small and there was no evidence
of flower or fruit. The bush honeysuckle (Diervilla diervilla
(X.) Mac M.) was rather abundant and flowered freely, on the
eastern side. There was hispid greenbier (Smilax hispida
Muhl.) but it was not in fruit. On the eastern point there
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. 781
■were great festoons of ground-nut (. Apios apios (L.) Mac M.) ;
it extended, too, over the back strand and strand at this place
■and was in full flower in August. A few small blackberries
(Rubus baileyanus Britton) were found on the west side but
not in flower or fruit. Here and on the south were two kinds
•of roses ( Rosa humilis Marsh, and R. sayi Schwein) ; only one
bloom was found. And lastly, to the south and west grew a
thick and well defined border of poison ivy ( Rhus radicans L.) ;
it never became large or vine-like, and only one cluster of berries
was found.
One small region deserves special mention. As has been
already stated, the north bank rises rather abruptly from the
strand to a height of nearly three meters, and here the .back
strand and strand run together. The slope, the shade, and the
abundance of water give the bank the appearance of the side of
a miniature dell. On the top grew a single example of the red-
berried elder ( Sambucus pubens Michx.) and the bristly goose¬
berry ( Ribes setosum Lindl.), the latter rare elsewhere. This
was the only place where yarrow ( Achillea millefolium L.) was
found in flower, and here was the only specimen of mullen
( Verbascum thapsus L.), a small plant. On the rocks grew
wild columbine ( Aquilegia canadensis L.) in full fruit. One
tiny plant of maiden hair fern ( Adiantum pedatum ) was found
here. And here also were a few small plants of the great
water dock ( Rumex brittannica L.) which had apparently
wandered in from the marsh where it grew luxuriously.
Vernal plants were not abundant in the center; this would
seem to be the result of the late season, made still later by the
fact that the lake surrounding this small island freezes to a
considerable depth in winter and keeps the spring temperature
low. The more open low western end gave more species of
early blooming plants; of these there were the wild spiknard
( Vagnera racemosa (L.) Morong), the hairy Solomon’s seal
( Solomonia biflora (Walt.) Britton), the sessile leaved bellwort
( Uvutaria sessilifolia L.), a few plants of the false lily-of-the
valley ( Unifolium canadense (Desf.) Greene), all in fruit,
one kind of violet ( Viola renifolia A. Gray (?)’), one species of
782 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
anemone ( Anemone quinque folia L. ( ?) ) and one small tril~
lium.
Another shade plant, although blooming in summer, was the-
wild sarsarparilla ( Aralia nudicaulis L.) which was abundant.
There may also be mentioned here a few plants of the round¬
leaved wintergreen ( Pyrola rotundifolia L.) ; thel last two
plants were abundant on the main land to the south. Ferns
were not well represented ; the most abundant was the common
brake ( Pteridium aquilina L.) whose leaves sometimes measured
two feet across. A few plants of the interrupted fern (Os-
munda claytoniana L.) occurred, hut the fruiting leaves had
not been produced.
The southeast open space. This small area in the center
formation presented so distinct a character as to deserve some
individual description. It is an oblong area, some ten meters
long and half as wide, on the high land near the south-east
point of the island, which for some reason was devoid of trees
and almost free from shrubs. Hence the soil was dry and open
to the sun. The place had been taken possession of by dry soil
composites, mints, and grasses, which were in dower in late
August. It is interesting to notice that several of these plants
as the snake-root ( Nabalus albus (L.) Hook.), were found in
other parts of the center hut were there unable to produce
dowers. On the northeast side of the island there had been
found several very small open spaces occupied by ant hills;
upon them grew grasses hut they were usually small plants not
in dower. On this large south-east open space, however, these
same grasses grew large and dowered abundantly, as the red-top
( Agrostis alba L.). In all, dve species of grasses were found
on this small area. One rush ( J uncus dichotomus Ell.), the
only one on the island, grew here in several examples. Golden
rod ( Solidago canadensis L.) and sun dower ( Helianthus hirsu-
tuS Raf.) were conspicuous, and were found also in other places
on the east side. Very characteristic mints were Koellia
verticellata (Michx.) Kuntze and bergamot ( Monarda fistulosa
L.), the latter found no where else. Here grew also a few
plants of evening primrose ( Onagra biennis (L.) Scop.)
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.
783
PLANTS OF THE CENTER.
.Asplenium felix-foemina (L.) Bernh.
Dryopteris tbelypteris (L.) A. Gray
Adiantum pedatum L.
Pteridium aquilina L.
Osmunda claytoniana L.
Equisetum arvense L.
Firms strobus L.
Smilax hispida Mubl.
Dioscorea villosa L.
Uvularia sessilifolia L.
Yagnera racemosa (L.) Morong
Unifolium canadense (Desf.) Greene
Salomonia biflora (Walt.) Britton
Trillium cernuum L. (?)
Juncus dicbotomus Ell.
Bromus ciliatus L.
Eestuca ovins L.
Agropyron tenerum Hook.
. Agrostis alba L.
Muhlenbergia racemosa (Micbx.) B. S. P.
Panicum filiculme Asbe.
Iris sp.
Aquilegia canadensis L.
.Anemone quinquefolia L. (?)
Tbalictrum polygamum Mubl.
Yiola renifolia A. Gray (?)
Populus grandidentata Micbx.
Populus tremuloides Micbx.
Salix sp.
Polygonum dumetorum L.
Bumex brittannica L.
Ulmus americana L.
Ulmus fulva Micbx.
■Celtis crassifolia Lam.
Tilia americana L.
.Apocynum androsaemifolium L.
784 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters..
Fraxinus americana L. (?)
Yaccinium pennsylvanicum Lara.
Pyrola rotundifolia L.
Yerbascum thapsus L.
Monarda fistulosa L.
Koellia verticellata (Micbx.) Kuntze
Lycopus americanus Muhl.
Lycopus communis Bicknell
Fragaria canadensis Michx.
Agrimonia mollis (T. and G.) Britton
Rosa bnmilis Marsh.
Rosa sayi Schwein.
Primus virginiana L.
Prunus serotina Ehrb.
Prunus pennsylvanica L.
Amelancher rotundifolia (Michx.) Roem.
Crataegus punctata Jacq.
Crataegus hiemalis Lang.
Crataegus coccinea L.
Rubus baileyanus Britton
Rubus strigosus Michx.
Ribes setosum Lindl.
Apios apios (L.) MacM.
Trifolium hybridum L.
Epilobium adencaulon Haussk.
Onagra biennis (L.) Scop.
Celastrus scandens L.
Yitis cor difolia Michx.
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.
Acer rubrum L.
Rhus hirta (L.) Sudw.
Rhus radicans L.
Quercus velutina Lam.
Quercus macrocarp a Michx.
Corylus americana Walt,
Corylus rostrata Ait.
Alnus incana (L.) Willd.
Betula paprifera Marsh.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. 785
Betula lutea Michx.
Aralia nudicaulis L.
Sanicula marylandica L.
Taenidia integerrima (L.) Drude
Cornns candidissima Marsh.
Cornus alternifolia L.
Galium horale L.
Galium triflorum Michx.
Diervilla diervilla (L.) MacM.
Sambucus puhens Michx.
Helianthus hirsutus Raf.
Solidago canadensis L.
Aster exiguus (Fernald.) Rydb.
Aster macrophyllus L.
Achillea millefolium L.
Habalus albus (L.) Hook.
VEGETATION OE THE STRAND.
In contrast with the center formation, the strand presented
less than half the number of species, but a much greater number
of individuals for a unit area. The smaller number of species
is partly accounted for by the much smaller area; hut in part
by the fact that, as this zone is subject to inundations of water
in the early part of the season, the number of woody plants will
he small and the number of herbaceous plants limited to those
species that can grow rapidly and mature in late summer and
fall. At this season conditions are most favorable for them,
as has been pointed out. On the south-west side of the island
where the strand is widest and runs into the marsh, this fact
was well illustrated by the great luxuriance in late August;
plants nearest the center grew rank and flowered, while the re¬
treating water was followed up by a dense growth of seedlings.
It was interesting to notice the very early stage at which many
of these tiny plants, marigolds and mints, began to bloom.
Among the larger herbaceous plants were found Joe-pye weed
(. Eupatorium purpureum L.), marsh St. John’s- wort ( Triade -
nmn virginicum (L.) Raf. ) , two knot-weeds ( Polygonum
amphibium L. and P. lapathifolium L.), two loosestrifes
786 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
(Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B. S. P., L. thysiftora L.)? and
water hemlock ( Cicuta bulbifera L.). Next to the water the
"broad-leaved arrow head ( Sagittaria latifolia Willd.) was
abundant. Sedges and grasses were Well represented in species
and individuals ; the most conspicuous of the former were the
bulrush ( Scirpus lacustris L.) and tall cotton grass ( Eriophorum
polystracbyon L.)? both very common toward the head of the
lake. The tall marsh grass ( Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd.)
grew to great height; and there were a few plants of the wild
rice ( Homalocenchrus lenticularis Michx.), also abundant in
the upper lake regions. Trees were represented only by the
speckled alder ( Alnus incana (L.) Willd.) and American aspen
( Populus tremuloides Michx.) ; these and two species of willows
grew where the strand zone was narrow and the soil coarser.
As one passes around the island to the south-east point the
strand zone becomes narrower and the soil sandy and the plants
of course are not as rich in numbers or in species. On the
north side the sandy wash produced three species in very small
numbers not found elsewhere on strand: the black night shade
( Solanumi nigrum L.), the great water-dock ( Rumex brittan-
nica L.), and the field horsetail ( Equisetum arvense L.)
PLANTS OF THE STBAND.
Equisetum arvense L.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd.
Typha latifolia L.
Scirpus lacustris L.
Eriophorum polystrachyon L.
Cyperus strigosus L.
Carex hystricina Muhl.
Car ex alata Ton.
Carex scop aria Schk.
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd.
Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.
Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (Willd.) B. S. P.
Homalocenchrus lenticularis Michx.
Panicum capillar e L.
Panicum crus-galli L.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.
Boripa obtusa (Butt.) Britton
Triadenum virginicum (L.) Baf.
Stellaria longifolia (Mubl.) Britton
Popnlus tremuloides Michx.
Salix linearifolia Bydb.
Salix sp.
Polygonum amphibium L.
Polygonum lapathifolium L.
Bumex brittannica L.
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B. S. P.
Solanum nigrum L.
Asclepias incarnata L.
Mimulus ringens L.
. Scutellaria galericulata L.
Scutellaria lateriflora L.
Lycopus americanus Mubl.
Lycopus communis Bicknell
Mentha canadensis L.
Fragaria canadensis Micbx.
Apios apios (L.) MacM.
Alnus incana (L.) Willd.
Cicuta bulbifera L.
Galium trifidum L.
Campanula aparinoides Pursh.
Bidens cernua L.
Eupatorium purpureum L.
- Erecbtites hieracifolia (L.) Baf.
Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Barst. (?)
VEGETATION OF THE BACK STRAND.
This intermediate zone is transitional, as might be expected;
of. some sixty species found upon it two-tbirds occur also on
strand or center, about an equal number for eacb. Plants
which need some shade and abundant moisture, but not a wet
soil, predominated. Of such, are the sensitive fern ( Onoclea
■sensibilis L.) and the spotted touch-me-not ( Irmpatiens biflora
Walt.). Several species like the tall marsh grass ( Spartina
4— S. A.
788 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
cynosuroides (L.) Willd.), knotweed ( Polygonum lapathi folium
L.), American wild mint ( Mentha canadensis L.) established
themselves here as well as on the strand; others, as the tall
meadow-rue ( Thalictrum polygamum Muhl. ) , hedge buckwheat
{Polygonum dumetorum L.) and aster {Aster exiguus (Fern-
aid.) Rydb.) were found on the center as well as the back
strand. A smaller number, six in all, had succeeded in main¬
taining themselves in all three formations ; these were the aspen
{Populus tremkdoides Michx.), the speckled alder {Alnus inr
cana (L.) Willd.), the marsh skull-cap {Scutellaria galericulata
L.), the cut-leaved water lioarhound {Ly copus americanus
Muhl.), the common bugle-weed {L. communis BicJcnell) and
the ground-nut {Apios apios (L.) MacM.). Woody plants
were more abundant than on the strand. A few small red
raspberries {Rubus strigosus Michx.) were found here but there
was no sign of fruiting. There were a few clover plants
(Trifolium repens L. and T. pretense L.), but they were not
in bloom; these like T. hybridum L. found on the southeast
open space of the center formation, may have come recently
from the south shore of the mainland and not yet fully estab¬
lished themselves. We may perhaps account in the same way
for the presence of a few very small thistles {Carduus lance-
olatus L. ( ?) ) and for the fire-weed {Erechtites hieracifolia
(L.) Raf.) of which there was a small but thrifty patch on the
south back strand. In this connection may be noted the pres¬
ence of a few tiny dandelion plants {Taraxacum taraxacum
(L.) Karst.) on the south strand. The three last named com¬
posites having a well developed pappus, may have succeeded
recently in crossing the narrow channel between the mainland
and the island and gained a foothold on the south side. Bidens
had a rank growth on the southwest back strand, where B .
cerrma L. of the strand gave way to B. comosa (A. Gray)
Wiegand and B. froudosa L.
This back strand zone, usually from one to two meters in
width, broadened out abruptly at the middle of the south shore
to form a semicircular area fifteen meters deep, distinctly
marked off from the higher ground surrounding it. It sup¬
ported rank growths of Muhlenbergia tenuiflora Willd.) B. S*
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.
789
P. and Car ex goodenovii L. Gay, though very few fruiting
plants were seen. In among the grasses and sedges the marsh
bellflower ( Campanula aparinoides (Pursh.) grew plentifully,
and here and there the wild mint ( Mentha canadensis L.).
Great numbers of violets ( Viola alsophila Greene (?) grew
beneath the latter plants. And there was found a patch of ad¬
der’s tongue (0 phioglossum vulgatum L.), the only one on the
island, all within a radius of perhaps two feet. A few asters
(Aster puniceus L.) were blooming abundantly, and Spiraea
salicifolia L. mingled with the border plants.
PLANTS OP THE BACK STRAND.
Opioglossum vulgatum L.
Asplenium felix-foemina (L.) Bernh.
Onoclea sensibilis L.
Dryopteris thelypteris (L.) A. Gray
Typha latifolia L.
Carex tuckermanni Dewey
Carex goodenovii J. Gay.
Carex alata Ton.
Carex leporina L.
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd.
Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.
Agrostis alba L.
Phleum pratense L.
Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (Willd.) B. S. P.
Thalictrum polygamum Muhl.
Viola alsophila Greene (?)
Stellaria (Alsine) longifolia (Muhl.) Britton
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Salix linearifolia Bydb.
Polygonum lapathifolium L.
Polygonum dumetorum L.
Polygonum sagittatum L.
Celtis crassifolia Lam.
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B. S. P.
Lysimachia thyrsiflora L.
790 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Asclepias incarnata L.
Jmpatiens biflora Walt.
Verbena strict a Vent.
Scutellaria galericnlata L.
Scutellaria lateriflora L.
Lycopus americanus Mubl.
Lycopus communis Bicknell
Mentha canadensis L.
Potentilla monspeliensis L.
Geum strictum Ait.
Spiraea salicifolia L.
Rosa sayi Schwein.
R.ubus strigosus Micbx.
Apios apios (L.) MacM.
Trifolium repens L.
Trifolium pretense L.
Epilobium coloratum Muhl.
Epilobium hirsutum L.
Onagra biennis (L.) Scop.
Vitis cor difolia Michx.
Ehus radicans L.
Alnus incana (L.) Willd.
Eicuta bulbifera L.
Cornus candidissima Marsh.
Galium triflorum Michx.
Galium trifidum L.
Galiuny asprellum Michx.
Campanula aparinoides Pursh.
Helianthus hirsutus Eaf.
Bidens comosa (A. Gray) Wiegand
Bidens frondosa L.
Solidago nemoralis Ait.
Aster exiguus (Fernald.) Eydb.
Aster puniceus L.
Eupatorium purpureum L.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Eaf.
Carduus lanceolatus L. (?)
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.
791
Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Rarst (?)
Anaphalis margaritaceae (L.) Benth. & Hook.
THE WATER ZONE.
Except upon the west end where the marsh joins it, the island
is surrounded by shallow water which supported a fringe of
aquatic plants. The most common Was Scirpus fluviatili's
(Torr.) Gray, which on the north side extended out five meters
from the shore; 8. lacustris grew around the eastern point and
north, hut was not as common as upon the borders of the other
island. At this point, in fact, was the widest and densest
fringe. Here was found the cat-tail ( Typha latifolia L.), com¬
mon on the marsh and on the border of Harper’s Island near
by, but in flower in only one or two cases here. Hear an old
landing were several plants of the yellow water-lily ( Nymphaea
advena Soland.) ; this, too, is common at Harper’s Island
whence it may have come. One very small plant was found
on the south side; this probably came from the marsh west of
it; none of these plants had flowered. Sagittaria latifolia
Willd. invaded the water from the strand. On the north side
among sedges grew the bur-reed ( Sparganium androcladum
(Engelm.) Morong.), and on a pebbly beach two large clumps
of willow ( Salix Unearifolia Rydb.) Lastly, there were two
large patches of pickerel weed ( Pontederia cor data L.) on the
south shore. Here and there near shore, especially on the south¬
west, there were dense growths of several small submerged
plants, as Philotria canadensis (Michx.) Britton. In early
July the water was fairly thick with the alga, Rivularia echin -
ulata.
PLANTS OF THE WATER.
Philotria canadensis (Michx.) Britton
Sagittaria latifolia Willd.
Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid.
Sparganium androcladum (Engelm.) Morong.
Typha latifolia L.
Pontederia cordata L.
792 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray
Scirpus lacustris L.
Hymphaea advena Soland.
Salix linearifolia Rydb.
COMPLETE LIST OF PLANTS.
(Identifications are based upon Britton’s Manual, tbe
sequence of orders being that of Dr. C. E. Bessey. c, center;
s, strand; b. s., back strand; w, water.)
Filicales
Opbioglossum vulgatum L., .Adder’s tongue,
Asplenium felix-foemina (L.) Bernh., Lady fern,
Onoclea sensibilis L., Sensitive fern,
Dryopteris thelypteris (L.) A. Gray, Marsh fern,
Adiantum pedatum L., Maidenhair fern,
Pteridium aquilina L., Common brake,
Osmunda claytoniana L., Clayton’s fern,
Equisetales
Equisetum arvense L., Field horsetail,
Finales
Pinus strobus L., White pine,
Apocarpales
Philotria canadensis (Michx.) Britton, Water weed,
Sagittaria latifolia Willd., Broad-leaved arrow-head,
Nudiflorales
Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid., Greater duckweed,
Sparganium androcladum (Engelm.) Morong., Branching
bur-reed,
Typha latifolia L., Broad-leafed cat-tail,
Coronates
Smilax hispida Muhl., Hispid greenbrier,
Dioscorea villosa L., Wild yarn-root,
IJvularia sessilifolia L., Sessile-leaved bell wort,
Yagnera racemosa (L.) Morong, Wild spiknard,
Hnifolium canadense (Desf.) Greene, False lily-of-the-val-
ley, > c.
Salomonia biflora (Walt.) Britton, Hairy Solomon’s seal, c.
b. s.
c; b. s.
b. s.
c; b. s.
c.
c.
c.
c; s.
c.
w.
s; w.
w.
S
w.
b. s. ; s ; w.
c.
c.
c.
c.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island. 793
Trillium cernuum L., Nodding wake-robin (?), c.
Pontederia cordata L., Pickerel- weed, w.
Calycinales
Juncus dichotomus Ell., Forked rusk, c.
Glumales
Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray, River bulrush, w.
Scirpus lacustris L., Great bulrush, s; w.
Eriophorum polystachyon L., Tall cotton-grass, s.
Cyperus strigosus L., Straw-colored cyperus, s.
Car ex hystricina Muhl., Porcupine sedge, s.
Carex tuckermanni Dewey, Tuckerman’s sedge, b. s.
Carex goodenovii J. Gay, Goodenough’s sedge, b. s.
Carex alata Ton., Rough-winged sedge, s; b. s.
Carex leporina L., Hare’s-foot sedge, b. s.
Carex scoparia Schk., Pointed broom sedge, s.
Bromus ciliatus L., Fringed brome-grass, c.
Festuca ovina L., Sheep’s fescus-grass, c.
Agropvron tenerum Hook., Slender wheat-grass, c.
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd., Tall marsh-grass, b. s; s.
Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv., Blue joint-
grass, b. s. ; s.
Agrostis alba L., Red top, c; b. s.
Phleum pratense L., Timothy, b. s.
Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (Willd.) B. S. P., Slender muhlen-
bergia, b. s. ; s.
Muhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) B. S. P., Marsh muhlen¬
bergia, c.
Homalocenchrus lenticularis Michx., Catch-fly grass, s.
Panicum capillare, Witch-grass, s.
Panicum filiculme Ashe, c.
Panicum crus-galli L., s.
Iridales
Iris sp. c.
Ranales
Nymphaea advena Soland., Large yellow pond lily, w.
Aquilegia canadensis L., Wild Columbine, c.
Anemone quinquefolia L., Wind-flower (?), c.
Thalictrum polygamum Muhl., Tall meadow-rue, b. s. ; c.
794 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Parietales
Roripa obtusa (Nutt.) Britton, Blunt-leaved water cress, s*
Triadenum virginicum (L.) Raf., Marsh St. John’s wort, s.
Viola alsophila Greene, Woodland white violet (f), b. s.
Viola renifolia A. Gray, Kidney-leaved violet ( ?), c.
Caryophyllales \
Stellaria (Alsine) longifolia (Muhl.) Britton, Long-leaved
stitchwort, b. s. ; s.
Populus grandidentata Michx., Large-toothed aspen, c.
Populus tremuloides Michx., American aspen, c ; b. s. ; s.
Salix linearifolia Rydb., Linear-leaved willow, b. s. ; s ; w.
Salix sp. s; c.
Polygonum amphibium L., Water persicaria, s.
Polygonum lapathifolium L., Dock-leaved persicaria (knot-
weed), b. s. ; &.
Polygonum dumetorum L., Hedge buckwheat, c; b. s.
Polygonum sagittatum L., Arrow-leaved tear-thumb, b. s.
Rumex brittannica L., Great water-dock, c; s.
Malvales
Ulmus americana L., White elm, c.
Ulmus fulva Michx., Slippery red elm, c.
Celtis crassifolia Lam., Hackberry, c; b. s.
Tilia americana L., Bass-wood, linden, c.
Primulales
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B. S. P., Bulb-bearing loose¬
strife, b, s. ; s.
Lysimachia thyrsiflora L., Spotted loosestrife, b. s.
Solanum nigrum L., Garden night-shade, s.
Gentianales
Asclepias incarnata L., Swamp milkweed, b. s. ; s.
Apocynum androsaemifolium L., Spreading dogbane, c.
Fraxinus americana L., White ash ( ?), c.
Impatiens biflora Walt., Spotted touch-me-not, b. s.
Pricales
Vaccinium pennsylvanicum Lam., Dwarf low bush blue¬
berry, c.
Pyrola rotundifolia L., Round-leaved wintergreen, c.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.
795-
b. s.
b. s. ; s_
b. s. ; s.
Personates
Verbascum thapsus L., Great mullen,
Minulus ringens L., Square-stemmed Monkey-flower,
Laminates
Verbena stricta Vent., Hoary vervain,
Scutellaria galericulata L., Marsh skull-cap,
Scutellaria lateriflora L., Mad dog skull-cap,
Monarda fistulosa L., Wild bergamot, c.
Koellia verticellata (Michx.) Kuntze, Torrey’s Mountain
mint, o.
Ly copus americanus Muhl., Cut leaved water hoar-
hound, c; b. s; s.
Ly copus communis Bicknell, Common bugle- weed, c ; b. s ; s.
Mentha canadensis L., American wild mint, b. s. ; s.
j Rosales
Fragaria canadensis Michx., Northern wild strawberry, c; s.
Geum strictum Ait., Yellow avens, b. s-
Potentilla monspeliensis L., Hough cinquefoil, b. s*
Agrimonia mollis (T. & G.) Britton, Soft agrimony, c.
Spiraea salicifolia L., Willow-leaved meadow-sweet, b. s.
Hosa humilis, Marsh., Low, pasture rose, c.
Hosa sayi Schwein., Prickly, pasture rose, c; b. s.
Prunus virginiana L., Choke-cherry, c.
Prunus serotina Ehrb., Wild black cherry, c.
Prunus pennsylvanica L., Wild red, pin cherry, c.
Amelancher rotundifolia (Michx.) Boem., Hound-leaved
June berry, c*
Crataegus punctata Jacq., Large fruited thorn, c.
Crataegus hiemalis Lang., c.
Crataegus coccinea L., Bed-haw, c*
Hubus baileyanus Britton, Bailey’s blackberry, c.
Bubus strigosus Michx., Wild red raspberry, b. s.
Bibes setosum Lindl., Bristly gooseberry, c.
Apios apios (L.) MacM., Ground-nut, c; b. s; s*
Trifolium hybridum L., Alsike, c.
Trifolium repens L., White clover, b. s.
Trifolium pretense L., Bed clover, b. s*
V
796 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Myrtales
Epilobinm adencaulon Haussk., Northern willow-herb, c.
Epilobium coloratum Muhl., Purple-leaved willow-herb, b. s.
Epilobium hirsutum L., Great hairy willow herb, b. s.
Onagra biennis (L.) Scop., Evening primrose, c; b. s.
Celastrales
Celastrus scandens L., Bittersweet, c.
Vitis cordifolia Michx., Frost grape, c; b. s.
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., Virginia creep¬
er, c.
Sapindales
Acer rubrum L., Red maple, c.
Rhus hirta (L.) Sudw., Staghorn sumac, c.
Rhus radicans L., Poison ivy, c; b. s.
Quercus velutina Lam., Black oak, c.
Quercus macrocar pa Michx., Bur oak, c.
Corylus americana Wait., Hazel nut, c.
Corvlus rostrata Ait., Beaked hazel nut, c.
Alnus incana (L.) Willd., Speckled alder, c; b. s; s.
Betula paprifera Marsh., Paper, canoe birch, c.
Betula lutea Michx., Yellow birch, c.
Umbellales
Aralia nudicaulis L., Wild sarsaparilla, c.
Sanicula marylandica L., Black snake-root, c.
Taenidia integerrima (L.,) Drude, Yellow pimpernel, c.
Cicuta bulbifera L., Bulb-bearing water hemlock, b. s; s.
Cornus candidissima Marsh., Panicled cornel, c; b. s.
Cornus alternifolia L., Alternate-leaved cornel, c.
Rubiales
Galium borale L., Northern bedstraw, c.
Galium triflorum Michx., Sweet-scented bedstraw, c; b. s.
Galium trifidum L., Cleavers, b. s; s.
Galium asprellum Michx., Rough bedstraw, b. s.
Diervilla diervilla (L.) MacM., Bush honey-suckle, c.
Sambucus pubens Michx., Red-berried elder, c.
Campanulales
Campanula aparinoides Pursh., Marsh bellflower, b. s.'; s.
Marshall — The Vegetation of Twin Island.-
797
’Aster ales
Helianthus hirsutus Baf., Stiff-haired sunflower, c; b. s.
Bidens cernua L., Smaller bur-marigold, s.
Bidens comosa (A. Grav) Wiegand, Leafy-bracted tick-
seed, b. s.
Bidens frondosa L., Black beggar s-ticks, b. s.
Solidago canadensis L., Canada goldenrod, c.
Solidago nemoralis Ait., Field goldenrod, b. s.
Aster exiguus (Fernald.) Bydb., Ciliated-leaved aster,
c; b. s.
Aster puniceus L., Bed-stalked aster, b. s.
Aster macropbyllus L., Large-leaved aster, c.
Achillea millefolium L., Yarrow, c.
Nabalus albus (L.) Hook., Battlesnake-root, c.
Eupatorium purpureum L., doe-pye weed, b. s. ; s.
Erecbtites hieracifolia (L.) Baf., fire weed, b. s; s.
Carduus lanceolatus L., Common bur thistle (?), b. s.
Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Barst., Dandelion, (?), b. s; s.
Anapbalis margaritaceae (L.) Bentli. & Hook., Pearly ever¬
lasting, b. s.
To Doctor Charles E. Bessey and Doctor Frederic E.
Clements who have generously given help and suggestions in
the preparation of this paper the author desires to express
her thanks.
The University of Nebraska,
June, 1907.
FLORA OF RACINE AND KENOSHA COUNTIES, WIS¬
CONSIN: A LIST OF THE FERN AND SEED PLANTS
GROWING WITHOUT CULTIVATION.
SAMUEL, C. WADMOND.
PREFACE.
So far as the writer is aware, there are but three lists of'
local Wisconsin Flora extant, one of Milwaukee County, a
second of Madison and vicinity, and a third of a part of Sauk
County. This list is submitted as a slight further contribu¬
tion to the data for a study of Wisconsin phytogeography.
It is to he hoped that these lists of local floras may ultimately
develop into a catalogue of the Wisconsin Flora, superseding
that of Swezey (1883) which is badly in need of revision and
gives localities for hut a few species.
Both counties are included in the list because collections
were as often made in one of them as the other, and both are
similar in topography and flora.
The two counties combine to form nearly a square in the
extreme southeast corner of the State, each side of the square
representing twenty-four miles ; the eastern side of the square
is irregular, representing the Lake Michigan boundary.
The altitude of the land above the level of Lake Michigan
varies somewhat. Along the Lake it ranges from a few feet
to forty feet, the level of Racine and Kenosha. In the western
part it ranges from 190 feet at Wind Lake to 260 feet at
Powers Lake, the latter point being 838 feet above sea level.
The drainage of the eastern half of Racine County is tribu¬
tary to Lake Michigan through Root River; of the western to
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 799
the Mississippi, through the Fox River, which crosses the area
from north to south near the western boundary, and empties
into the Illinois River. Except in the extreme eastern part,
the drainage of Kenosha County is almost entirely tributary
to the Mississippi through the Eox and Des Plaines Rivers,
Pike Creek being the only Lake Michigan tributary of any
importance and that confined to the northeast corner of the
county. At some points the elevation constituting the water¬
shed is so slight as to be scarcely perceptible; a notable ex¬
ample of this is to be found in the headwaters of the Des
Plaines. River, a tributary of the Illinois, and those of the
Root River, which flows into Lake Michigan. Both have their
rise in an extended marshy valley, so nearly level that it is
ofttimes difficult to determine which way the water flows.
Case (Wisconsin Geology and Physical Geography) calls at¬
tention to the fact that the rivers of the eastern half of the area
are peculiar in their tendency to run for considerable distances
parallel to the shore of Lake Michigan before finally entering
it, their courses being determined by a system of low moraines
of retrocession, lying between the great terminal moraine and
the Lake. Indeed, the Des Plaines River never breaks through
its bordering moraine, but continues southward into the Il¬
linois.
The U. S. Dept, of Agriculture Soil Survey of Racine
County, Wisconsin, issued October 28, 1907, is freely quoted
from in the following paragraphs on topography and soil forma¬
tion. Much the same conditions obtain for Kenosha as for
Racine County.
The western part of both counties presents the appearance
typical of a glaciated region. The terminal moraine of the
Michigan glacier entered Wisconsin from Illinois in the south¬
westerly part of Kenosha Co., and extended slightly west of
north to the vicinity of Burlington, Racine Co. At this pointi
it encountered a second lobe of the Michigan glacier, forming
an inter-lobate moraine, each glacier contributing material to
its formation, and thus accounting for the range of morainic
hills in the western parr of the counties, which have imparted
to this section a varied and attractive topography. Among the
800 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
hills and ridges are miniature lakes, swamps and kettle holes,,
conclusive evidence of the presence of the great ice sheet. East
of these hills and extending to Lake Michigan, the surface of
the counties varies from level to gently rolling.
The Soil Survey above quoted recognizes soils belonging to
three series : the light-colored drift soils belonging in the Miami
series, the dark;-colored drift soils belonging in the Marshall
series, and the glacial lacustrine deposits belonging in the
Clyde series. Twelve soil types are recognized and mapped.
The Marshall clay loam, occupying 33.8% of the land sur¬
face, is the predominating soil type of Racine Co., and is found
throughout the eastern two-thirds of the county. This soil is
derived primarily from glacial till which at some former time
was in a wet or swampy condition, thus favoring the growth
and decay of Water-loving vegetation and giving the soil its
high organic matter content.
The predominating soil in the western townships is the Miami
loam, occupying T9. 3% of the land surface of Racine Co. This
loam is a glacial till formed by the weathering of the till. The
drainage is very good, and on the ridges and steep slopes, where
it is excessive, the soil has been removed and the underlying
clay or gravel exposed.
The Miami gravel is found only in the western part of the
county, occurring as well-rounded hills and knolls, and also as
narrow, choppy ridges. It is especially in evidence around
Burlington. The surface soil is often lacking, the knolls or
ridges forming a huge heap of unsorted gravel and bowlders.
It is of glacial origin, and consists almost wholly of morainic
material.
Nearest Lake Michigan, and occupying the bluff rising 20 to
40 ft. above the surface, lies the Dunkirk fine sandy loam. It
is of course lacustrine in origin. Next farther back from the
Lake is the Clyde fine sandy loam, its origin being the same as
the Dunkirk. The fine sands composing these soils were de¬
posited upon the ancient lake floor at the same time, but the
material constituting the Clyde remained in a swampy condi¬
tion for a greater period and more organic matter was incor¬
porated with the soil.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 801
Still farther back from the Lake, is the Sioux sandy loam,
consisting of the sands and gravels which formed the beach lino
of Lake Michigan while it occupied its highest stage during
the Glacial period, and is about 20 ft. above the country lying
to the east of it, the former lake bed.
The Miami clay loam, representing 14.9% of the land sur¬
face of Racine Co. is the heaviest soil of the area. The largest
body of this soil forms a strip three miles wide at its widest
point and extending in a north- and-south direction just west
of Racine.
Besides the above, there are small alluvial deposits occupying
low areas along the Box and Root Rivers. In the vicinity of
Wind Lake some peat beds occur, and swampy and marshy
depressions in which a quantity of organic matter has accum¬
ulated are characteristic features of the area. 10.4% of the
land surface of Racine Co., representing thousands of acres,
is typical muck.
Both counties are underlain by the Niagara Limestone, which
is common to the Lake Michigan shore of Wisconsin. A mag¬
nesium limestone outcrops at Racine, and at Burlington there
is an exposure of thin bedded dolomite.
The woods of the territory bordering on the Lake are of the
mesophytic forest type, with its deep, rich humus and dense
shade. Hard maple, basswood and associated trees prevail.
These quickly give way, as one travels westward, to the hemi-
xerophytic oak and hickory forests with their lighter shade and
comparatively thin layer of humus. In consequence, distinct¬
ively mesophytic species are scarce or altogether wanting in
the westerly portion of the counties.
Near Gatlifl, in almost the center of Mt. Pleasant township,
Racine Co. is a typical bit of prairie flora reminding one of
an Iowan prairie. The beach of Lake Michigan and the few
tamarack swamps which still persist, also have their own dis¬
tinct floras.
The sequence of families followed in this list is essentially
the same as that of Engler & Pr ant-Is aN aturliche Pflanzen-
familienA The nomenclature is in general that of Gray’s
Manual, 6th Edition ; in some genera, however, in which many
802 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
changes and segregations have been made of late, such as Carex,
Panicum, and others, more recent treatment has been observed.
To indicate the degree of frequency as nearly as possible,
four adjectives are used; common, frequent, occasional, and
rare.
With one or two exceptions, we have followed the practice of
including in this list only such numbers as are supported by
herbarium specimens. All are in the writer’s herbarium ex¬
cept where otherwise noted. This strict rule excludes from
the list many species, now disappeared, which were noted by
Drs. Hoy and Davis years ago hut of which no specimens we:co
preserved.
Grateful acknowledgment is due Prof. M. L. Pernald of the
Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, who determined
doubtful Carices and rendered helpful assistance in other
groups. Most of all am I indebted to Dr. J. J. Davis of Pa*
cine, Wis., who extended me at all times free access to his
herbarium, and freely gave me the benefit of his knowledge of
the local flora gained from a score of years acquaintanceship
with it. Without his generous assistance this list would have
been much more meagre in numbers than it is.
The western and southern parts of the counties have been
covered only very superficially, and further search there should
yield quite a few additional numbers.
Delavan, Wisconsin, December, 1907.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 803
PTERIDOPHYTA. EERY PLANTS.
OPHiOGrLOSSACEiE. Adder’s Tongue Family.
1. Botrychium ternatum, Swartz, var. obliquum, Milde.
Grape-Fern.
Rare ; I have collected but two plants in the counties,
one in sandy soil by roadside, the other an open prarie.
2. Botrychium Virginianum, Swartz. Grape^Fern.
Frequent; rich, moist woods.
Filices. Fern Family.
3. Osmunda regalis, L. Royal Fern.
Rare; in tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
4. Osmunda Claytoniana, L. Interrupted Fern.
Rare; rich woods, Bishop Station and similar woods
near Wind Point, both bordering Lake Michigan.
5. Osmunda cinnamomea, L. Cinnamon Fern.
Probably extinct; a specimen in Dr. Davis’ herbarium
labeled “Lake Shore Road, Kenosha Co. June 17,
1879.”
6. Onoclea sensibilis, L. Sensitive Fern.
Frequent; wet meadows and swamp borders.
7. Onoclea Struthiopteris, Hoffman. Ostrich Fern.
Rare; moist, rich soil. The writer remembers but
one station in each county for this the largest of our
ferns.
8. Cystopteris bulbifera, Bernh. Bladder Fern.
Pare; on wet limestone faces, Horlicksville, Racine
Co., the only station.
9. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Brittle Fern.
Frequent; moist, grassy woods.
10. Aspidium acrostichoides, Swartz. Christmas Fern.
Rare; a few individuals collected on hillside near
Wind Point, Bacine Co., the only station.
11. Aspidium Thelypteris, Swartz. Marsh Shield Fern.
Occasional; swamps and low prairies.
5— S. A.
804 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
12. Aspidium cristatum, Swartz. Crested Shield Fern.
Occasional; wet woods and shaded swamps.
13. Aspidium spinulosum, Swartz. Spinulose Shield Fern.
Occasional ; low, swampy woods.
14. Phegopteris polypodioides, Fee. Beech Fern.
Extinct; a specimen in Dr. Davis’ herbarium labeled
“Dr. Hoy’s garden, August 4, 1879.” Probably trans
planted from Green’s Inlet, Kenosha Co., where it was
once abundant.
15. Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Fee. Broad Beech Fern.
Bare ; rich woods bordering Lake Michigan at Bishop
Station, Bacine Co., the only station now known. Years
ago it was abundant at Green’s Inlet with the preced¬
ing species.
16. Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fee. Oak Fern.
Extinct ; Dr. Davis’ herbarium contains a sheet la¬
beled “Green’s Inlet, Kenosha Co., Oct. ,15, 1878.” In
its time quite as common as the two preceding at this
station.
17. Asplenium Filix-foemina, Bernh. Lady Fern.
Occasional; woods and thickets.
18. Adiantum pedatum, L. Maidenhair Fern.
Frequent; rich woods.
19. Pteris aquilina, L. Brake.
Occasional ; dry woods and thickets.
20. Pellaea gracilis, Hook. Slender Cliff Brake.
Extinct; sheet in Dr. Davis’ herbarium labeled “Ba-
cine-Hoy” — no other data.
21. Polypodium vulgare, L. Polypody.
Extinct; in Dr. Davis’ herbarium from Horlicks-
ville, Wis. where it grew years ago on the limestone
cliffs.
Equisetace.e. Horse-Tail Family.
22. Equisetum arvense, L. The name Horse-tail is com¬
monly applied to all the species of this genus.
Common ; sandy soil, both moist and dry. Abundant
along railroad tracks.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 805
23. Equisetum svivaticum, L.
Rare; along small stream near North Point, Racine
Co. The only station.
24. Equisetum limosum, L. (E. fluviatile, L.)
Occasional ; shallow water and swamp borders.
25. Equisetum hyemale, L. Scouring Rush.
Frequent; shady hanks.
26. Equisetum variegatum, Schleich.
Rare ; wet banks of ravine % mile south of Racine
College. The only station.
SPERMATOPTIYTA. SEED PLANTS.
GYMNOSPERMS.
Conifers. Pine Family.
27. Larix Americana, Michx. Tamarack.
Rare; swamps and peat bogs. There is a large
stretch of tamarack at Wind Lake and another at Bur¬
lington ; elsewhere it seems to be confined to small areas.
28. Thuja occidontalis, L. Arbor Vitae.
Rare; growing on limestone ledges at Horlicksville
quarries — the only station.
29. Juniperus communis, L., var alpina, Gaud. Low Juniper.
Frequent ; rocky, sterile ground.
30. Juniperus Virginiana, L. Red Cedar.
Frequent in the western part of the counties; not
known from the eastern part ; dry hillsides.
ANGIOSPERMS.
MONOCOTYLEDONS .
Typhackus. Cat-tail Family.
31. Typha latifoiia, L. Cat-tail.
Common; ponds and marsh borders.
32. Sparganium eurycarpum, Engelm. Bur-reed.
Common ; borders of ponds and streams.
806 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Naiadace^e. Pondweed Family.
33. Potamogeton natans, L. The common name Pondweed
is applied to all the species.
Frequent; in shallow water border of streams and
in sluggish lakes.
34. Potamogeton perfoliatus, L., var. Pichardsonii, A. Ben¬
nett.
Frequent; same habitat as the preceding.
35. Potamogeton zoster aefolius Schum.
Frequent; same habitat as Po. 33. Pot named in
Swezey’s list.
36. Potamogeton pectinatus, L.
Frequent; same habitat as Po. 33.
37. Triglochin palustris, L. This and )the following are
commonly called Arrow-Grass.
Occasional; in wet sand, beach of Lake Michigan,
and moist depressions on the open prairie.
38. Triglochin maritima, L.
Pare; two individuals gotten on edge of sedge marsh
on Pacine prairie; the only station. Reported in
Swezey’s list as occurring at Pacine on authority of
Dr. Hoy.
Alismace.e. Water Plantain Family.
39. Alisma Plants go, L. Water Plantain.
Common ; shallow water of ditches and sluggish
streams.
40. Sagittaria latifolia, Willd. (S. variabilis, Engelm.)
Arrow-head.
Common; shallow water and borders of ponds and
streams. Extremely variable as to foliage. A form
with extremely narrow linear blades and basal lobes is
frequent. I
41. Sagittaria heterophylla, Pursh. (S. rigida, Pursh.)
Pare; occurring in company with the preceding at
Horlicksville, Pacine Co., though much less abundant
than the latter species; the only station.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 807
Hydrocharidace^e. Frog’s Bit Family.
42. Elodea Canadensis, Michx. Water-weed.
Frequent; ponds and slow streams.
Gramineje. Grass Family.
43. Andropogon scoparius, Miclix. Beard Grass.
Common: on prairie and along roadsides.
44. Andropogon f uicatus, Muhl. Beard Grass.
Common ; same habitat as the preceding.
45. Chrysopogon avenaceus, Benth. Indian Grass.
Occasional; same habitat as the preceding. A hand¬
some grass.
46. Panicum sanguinale, L. Crab Grass.
Common ; gardens, cultivated ground and waste places.
47. Panicum glabrum, Gaudin.
Occasional ; roadsides.
48. Panicum Crus-Galli, L. Barnyard Grass.
Common; cultivated and waste ground. Trouble¬
some as a weed.
49. Panicum macrocarpon Le Conte.
Frequent; rich woods. The “HI. Flora” given its
range as ‘Vermont to Hew York, Hew Jersey and Penna.
This record extends considerably its westward range,,
(Determined by Scribner.)
50. Panicum Lie'bergii, Scribner.
Common; low prairies.
51. Panicum unciphyllum, Trin. (P. pubescens of recent
authors, not Lamarck.)
Our commonest native Panicum. In all soils, and
exhibiting a large diversity of forms.
52. Panicum depauper atum, Muhl.
Occasional ; prairies.
53. Panicum virgatum, L.
Common ; along railroad tracks, on open prairie, and
in wood borders.
54. Panicum miliaceum, L. Millet.
Pare; sometimes found persisting along roadsides.
808 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
55. Panicum capilJare, L. Old-witch Grass.
Common ; a troublesome weed in cultivated fields and
waste ground. Varies largely in different situations.
56. Setaria glauca, Beauv. Pigeon Grass.
Common ; fields and waste ground.
57. Setaria viridis, Beauv. Green Poxtail Grass.
Common; same habitat as the preceding.
58.. Setaria Italica, Kunth. Italian Millet.
Common; roadsides and Waste places.
59. Cenchrus tribuloides, L. Hedgehog Grass; Bur Grass.
Occasional ; along railroad tracks and in sand of Lake
Michigan beach.
60. Zizania aquatica, L. Wild Rice; Indian Rice.
Common ; in swamps and lake and river borders.
61. Leer si a Virginica, Willd. Cut Grass; White Grass.
Occasional; wet woods.
62. Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. Rice Cut Grass.
Common; swamps and stream borders.
63. Phalaris arundinacea, L. Reed Canary Grass.
Frequent; low prairies.
64. Phalaris arundinacea, L., var. picta, Hort. Ribbon
Grass.
Rare; persisting as a roadside escape.
65. Phalaris Canariensis, L. Canary Grass.
Rare; waste grounds near dwellings.
66. Hierochloe borealis, R. & S. Holy Grass.
Occasional; moist meadows. A handsome grass with
its chestnut-colored spikelets.
67. Stipa spartea, Trim Porcupine Grass.
Common; prairies.
68. Oryzopsis asperifolia, Michx. Mountain Rice.
Rare; a single individual collected in rich woods,
Caledonia Township, Racine Co.
69. Oryzopsis melanocarpa, Muhl.
Rare; Dr. Davis has collected at Somers, Kenosha
Co., a few individuals of this species infected with
Sclerotium clavus, DC. (Ergot.)
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 809
70. Milium effusum, L. Millet Grass.
Rare; known from two stations, both in Caledonia
Township, in rich, low woods. A handsome species.
71. Muhlenbergia Mexicana, Trin.
Frequent; low meadows.
72. Muhlenbergia glomerata, Trin.
Frequent; wet prairies.
73. Muhlenbergia sylvatica, T. & G.
Rare ; a single station along Pike Creek near Somers,
Kenosha Co., fast becoming exterminated by pasturing.
74. Muhlenbergia diffusa, Schreb. Drop-seed Grass.
Rare; low woods within Racine city limits — the only
known station. Rot noted in Swezey’s list. Row
known to occur throughout the southern third of the
State.
75. Brachyelytrum aristatum, Beauv.
Common; rich woods and shaded banks.
76. Phleum pra tense, L. Timothy.
Common; everywhere in fields, meadows and road¬
sides. The scales are quite often modified into small
leaves, especially in autumnal forms.
77. Alopecurus geniculatus, L., var. aristulatus, Torr. Floating
Foxtaii.
Occasional ; in shallow water.
78. Sporobolus eryptandrus, A. Gray.
Rare; occurring only in sand, beach of Lake Michi¬
gan.
79. Cinna arundmacea, L. Wood Reed-Grass.
Occasioned; moist, swampy woods.
80. Agrostis alba, L., var. vulgaris, Thurb. Red Top.
Common; fields and meadows — cultivated for hay.
81. Agrostis scabra, Willd. Hair Grass.
Common; waste ground and dry fields.
82. Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauv. Blue-joint Grass.
Common ; wet meadows.
83. Desehampsia caespitosa, Beauv.
Rare; in shallow water of river border at Horlicks*
ville, Raciue Co., the only station.
810 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
84. Avena fatua, L. Wild Oat.
Occasional ; in fields, roadsides and waste places.
85. Arrlienatlierum avenaceum, Beany. Oat Grass.
Bare; occasionally persisting in fields.
86. Danthonia spieata, Beauv. Wild-oat Grass.
Common ; dry woods.
87. Spartina cynosuroides, Willd. Cord Grass.
Common; swamps and stream borders.
88. Boutelona raeemosa, Lag.
Bare; dry gravelly bills, Burlington, Bacine Co. Hot
seen elsewhere.
89. Phragmites communis, L. Beed.
Frequent; swamps and lake borders.
90. Eragrostis Pnrshii, Scbrad.
Frequent; along railroad tracks, roadsides and other
dry situations. An introduced grass becoming common
in the southern third of the State. Hot reported in
Swezey’s list.
91. Eragrostis major, Host.
Common; waste and cultivated ground. A hand¬
some species.
92. Eatonia Pennsylvania, Gray.
Occasional; low, sandy woods.
93. Koeleria cristata, Pers.
Frequent; prairies.
94. Dactylis glomerata, L. Orchard Grass.
Common ; roadsides, fields, and even thriving in sand
of Lake Michigan beach.
95. Poa annua, L. Low Spear Grass.
Common; waste and cultivated ground.
96. Poa compressa, L. Wire Grass; English Blue Grass.
Common; fields, waste places, thickets — in various
soils.
97. Poa pratensis, L. June Grass ; Kentucky Blue Grass.
Common; fields, meadows, woods, and even in wet
sand on beach of Lake Michigan, but a few feet from
the water’s edge.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 811
98. Poa trivialis, L. Rough Meadow Grass.
Pare ; sparingly established along roadsides.
99. Poa serotina, Ehrh. (P. flava, L.) False Red-top.
Common; low meadows.
100. Poa debilis, Torr.
Occasional; woods, Somers, Kenosha Co.
101. Glyceria nervata, Trin.
Common ; low meadows and swampy ground in woods.
102. Glyceria nervata, Trin., var. parviglumis, Scribn. & Mer¬
rill, (Bull. Div. of Agrostology, Circular FT o. 30,
March 8, 1901, Pg. 8).
Occasional; type specimen gotten by the writer in
rich, low woods, near the line road between Racine and
Kenosha Counties.
This variety is distinguished from the species by its
smaller and more lax flowered and narrower spikelets,.
and shorter and narrower flowering glumes.
103. Glyceria fluitans, R. Br.
Frequent; swamps and borders of sedge meadows.
104. Festuca elatior, L. Meadow Fescue.
Common; roadsides and meadows.
105. Festuca elatior, L., var. pratensis, Gray.
Common ; with the above.
T06. Festuca nutans, Wills.
Common; woods.
10Y. Bromus ciliatus, L. Brome Grass.
Occasional; woods.
108. Bromus ciliatus, L., var. purgans, Gray.
Frequent; more open situations than the preceding
and more common.
109. Bromus Kalmii, A. Gray. Wild Chess.
Common; The Ill. Flora gives as its habitat “woods
and thickets.” I find it only on the open prairie in
full sun.
110. Bromus secalinus, L. Cheat; Chess.
Rare; waste ground near grain fields. Kot a bad
weed with us.
812 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
111. Agropyron repens, Beauv. Couch Grass; Quitch Grass.
Common; roadsides, railroad tracks and meadows — a
troublesome weed.
112. Agropyron occidentale, Scribner.
Bare ; becoming established along roadsides. An
emigrant from the Great Plains and one of the most
important of the western grasses. Not in Swezey’s list.
113. Hordeum jubatum, L. Squirrel-tail Grass.
' Gommon ; along railroad tracks, roadsides and in
meadows. A weedy grass.
114. Elymus striatus, Willd. The species of this genus are
commonly called Wild Bye.
Common; wooded hillsides.
115. Elymus Viginicus, L.
Common; moist soil along streams.
116. Elymus Canadensis, L.
Common; in a variety of soils.
117. Elymus Canadensis, L., var. glaucifolius, Gray.
Occasional; with the preceding.
118. Elymus robustus, Scribner.
Bare ; roadsides and along railroad tracks. Ob¬
served only at Burlington, Bacine Co.
119. Asprella Hystrix, Willd. Bottle-brush Grass.
Common; woods.
CypejracExU. Sedge Family.
120. Cyperus diandrus var. castaneus, Torr.
Occasional ; low grounds and sand flats. A handsome
species.
121. Cyperus esculentus, L. Yellow Nut-Grass.
Occasional; roadsides and moist, sandy ground.
122. Cyperus erythrorhizos, Muhl.
Extinct; reported by Dr. Davis for Swezey’s list as
occurring at Bacine, and specimen in his herbarium so
labeled. Dr. Davis says that the plant gradually de¬
creased in numbers and finally disappeared altogether.
The writer has nowhere seen it in the counties.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 813
123. Cyperus strigosus, L.
Common; sand flats, river borders and other damp
situations.
124. Dulichium spathaceum, Pers.
Rare; gotten on border of swamp on edge of tam¬
arack, Wind Lake, Racine Co. Not seen elsewhere.
4'25. Eleocharis quadrangulata, R. Br. Spike-Rush is the
common name for all the species of this genus.
Rare ; Dr. Davis has kindly shared with me herbarium
specimens of this species collected in shallow water at
Powers Lake, Kenosha Co. Its occurrence here is of
especial interest, not only because of the addition of a
rare species to the known Wisconsin Flora, but be¬
cause of the further fact that this station is,' so far as
known, the most northerly on record.
126. Eleocharis obtusa, Schultes. (E. ovata, of recent man¬
uals)
Common ; everywhere in muddy places, banks of
streams and about ponds.
127. Eleocharis palustris, R. Br.
Frequent; shallow water and marshy ground. Less
common than the following.
128. Eleocharis palustris, R. Br., var. glaucescens, Gray.
Common; on wet sand flats of Lake Michigan and
marshy ground inland.
129. Eleocharis acicularis, R. Br.
Common; muddy borders of streams and ponds.
130. Eleocharis compressa, Sullivan t.
Extinct; noted in Swezey’s list as reported from
Milwaukee by Dr. Sherman. Dr. Davis’ herbarium
contains a specimen collected in moist sand north of
Racine harbor. Station now destroyed.
131. Scirpus pungens, Vahl.
Occasional; wet sand border of Lake Michigan and
inland lakes.
132. Scirpus lacustris, L. Great Bulrush.
Common ; shallow water of sloughs and river shores.
814 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
133. Scirpus fiuviatilis, Gray.
Frequent; sedge meadows.
134. Scirpus atrovirens, Muhl.
Common; swamps and wet meadows.
135. Scirpus lineatus, Michx.
Frequent; wet places.
136. Scirpus cyperinus, Kunth. Wool-Grass.
Common; swamps and wet meadows.
137. Eriophorum polystachyon, L. Cotton-Grass.
Frequent; boggy ground.
138. Bynchospora alba, Vahl. Beak Busk.
Bare; edge of tamarack. Wind Lake, Bacine Co. The
only known station.
1'39. Carex intumescens, Budge. Tbe names Sedge and
Slougb Grass are commonly applied to tbe
Carices.
Bare; observed for tbe first time tbe past summer in
white bircb woods near Wind Point, north of Bacine.
Bot known from elsewhere.
140. Carex lupulina, Muhl.
Common; in swales.
141. Carex lupuliformis, Sartwell.
Bare; in swales. Tbe character of tbe acbene is in¬
constant, and good authorities incline to tbe belief that
it should be considered merely a formal variety.
142. Carex rostrata, Stokes. (C. utriculata, var. minor,
Booth in Gray Man. ed. 6, 594)
Common; in swales and marshes, Fernald (Bho-
dora 3 :51, 1901) finds C. utriculata identical with the
European C. rostrata.
143. Carex rostrata, Stokes, var. utriculata, Bailey.
Common; in same situations as the foregoing, and
much like it except larger throughout.
144. Carex vesicaria, L. (C. monile, Tuck, in Gray, Man.
ed. 6, 594, in part. See Bhodora 3:53, 1901)
Bare ; in swales. A common Old World species ; less
common in America.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 815
145. Carex Tuckermani, Dewey.
Bare; collected in a low thicket at Ives, Racine Co.
Hot noted in Swezey’s state list. Prof. Cheney re¬
ports it from Oneida, Marathon and Portage Counties
and from Madison, Dane Co. The writer has gotten it
in Vilas and Douglas Counties. Apparently widely
distributed throughout the State.
146. Carex retrorsa, Schwein.
Common; swales and swamp borders.
147. Carex hystricina, Muhl.
Common; ditches, lake, river and swamp borders.
148. Carex comosa, Boott.
Rare; edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
Hot seen elsewhere.
149. Carex trichocarpa, Muhl.
Common; in swales.
150. Carex aristata, R. Br.
Common; in swales.
151. Carex riparia, Curtis.
Common ; swamps and wet meadows. A well-marked
sedge, readily distinguishable by its leathery perigynia
which become polished at maturity.
152. Carex lanuginosa, Michx. (C. filiformis, L., var. lati-
folia, Boeckl.)
Common ; low prairies and swale borders.
153. Carex fusca, All.
Common ; low prairies and swamp borders. A. hand¬
some sedge, the pale perigynia contrasting beautifully
with the brownish-red scales and staminate spikes.
154. Carex stricta, Lam.
Common; in swales.
155. Carex aquatilis, Wahl.
Occasional ; thriving in almost pure sand on the beach
of Lake Michigan at several stations in both counties.
Our plant is a stout, robust form, the var. elatior of
Babbington.
156. Carex Magellanica, Lam.
Rare; in sphagnum, tamarack swamp, Wind Lake,
Racine Co. The only station.
816 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
157. Carex virescens, Muhl.
Rare ; reported for Swezey’s list by Dr. Davis from
Racine as the only known Wisconsin station. The sta¬
tion is still undisturbed, along roadside at Berryville,
Kenosha Co.
158. Carex gracillima, Schwein.
Common ; rich, low woods. Hardly so graceful as
many of our sedges.
159. Carex longirostris, Torr.
Rare ; observed at two stations, only — one near
Somers, Kenosha Co., the other near Tabor, Racine Co.
Both in rich woods.
160. Carex grisea, Wahl.
Common; rich woods.
161. Carex granularis, Muhl.
Common; moist shaded banks and low prairies.
162. Carex Crawei, Dewey.
Occasional; moist, shaded banks and low prairies.
Associated with C. granularis,. to which it is closely re¬
lated.
163. Carex tetanica, Schk.
Occasional ; on moist shaded banks and in low
prairies.
164. Carex laxiflora, Lam., var. varians, Bailey.
Common; woods.
165. Carex laxiflora, Lam., var. striatula, Carey.
Rare ; collected but once in deep woods.
166. Carex aurea, ISTutt.
Rare; springy banks and wet meadows. A beautiful
little sedge, its golden fruit conspicuous at maturity.
167. Carex Richardsonii, R. Br.
Rare ; open prairie. A single station where the
plant grew sparingly.
168. Carex Pennsylvania, Lam.
Common; our commonest sedge, occurring in a va¬
riety of situations from open prairie to deep woods. In
the latter situations it is a plant of very different
aspect from the prairie form.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 817
169. Carex pubescens, Muhl.
Common ; moist woods.
170. Carex Jamesii, Schwein.
Hare; a single individual of this species handed me
by Dr. Davis who collected it in woods near Gatliff,
Racine Co. Rot reported in Swezey’s list. Probably
about its northern limit.
171. Carex polytrichoides, Willd.
Rare; in tamarack amongst cranberries, Wind Lake,
Racine Co. The only station.
172. Carex stipata, Muhl.
Common ; ditches, swamp and river borders.
173. Carex vulpinoidea, Michx.
Common ; low open ground and moist thickets.
1'74. Carex Sartwellii, Dewey.
Common; low prairies.
175. Carex tenella, Schk.
Rare; in cranberry bog, tamarack swamp, Wind Lake,
Racine Co. The only station.
176. Carex rosea, Schk.
Common; moist woods.
177. Carex rosea, Schk., var. radiata, Dewey.
Occasional ; with the type.
178. Carex sparganioides, Muhl.
Frequent; rich woods.
179. Carex cephaloidea, Dewey.
Common ; shady banks and low, moist woods.
180. Carex cephalophora, Muhl.
Common ; same habitat as the preceding and often
associated with it.
181. Carex interior, Bailey.
Common ; moist banks and low meadows. Our plant
has somewhat sharper scales than typical interior.
182. Carex tenuiflora, Wahl.
Rare ; in tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co. The
only station.
183. Carex Deweyana, Schwein.
Rare or extinct ; a specimen in the herbarium of Dr.
818 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Davis obtained in “Lake Shore woods, Racine Co.”
Rot observed by the writer.
184. Car ex tribuloides, Wahl.
Common; meadows.
185. Car ex tribuloides, Wahl., var. Bebbii, Bailey.
Common; swamps and low meadows.
186. Carex cristatella, Britton. (C. tribuloides, Wahl., var.
cristata, Bailey)
Frequent ; in meadows and along roadsides.
187. Carex straminea, Willd.
Common; along roadsides and in dry soil.
188. Carex festucacea, Willd. (C. straminea, Willd., var.
brevior, Dewey)
Occasional; open prairies.
Arace^e. Arum Family.
189. Arisaema triphyllum, Torr. Jack-in-the-Pulpit ; Indian
Turnip.
Common ; moist woods. Clustered berries beautiful
in autumn.
190. Arisaema Dracontium, Schott. Green Dragon; Dragon-
root.
Occasional; wet woods.
191. Symplocarpus foetidus, Salisb. Skunk Cabbage.
Frequent; wet soil, borders of streams and swamps.
Our earliest spiring bloomer.
192. Acorus Calamus, L. Sweet Flag.
Occasional; swamps and stream borders.
Lemnaceus. Duckweed Family.
193. Spirodela polyrrhiza, Schleid. Duckweed.
Common ; in quiet waters throughout. Given in
Swezey’s list as reported by W. A. Kellerman from
Winnebago Co. only. Occurs abundantly throughout the
state (Cheney).
194. Lemna trisulca, L. Duckweed.
Common ; with the preceding.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 819
195. Lenina minor, L. Duckweed.
Common; with the two preceding.
196. Wolffia Columbiana, Karst.
Extinct ; Dr. Davis has kindly shared with me her¬
barium material of this minute plant, collected by him
in 1886 in the Gas House Slough at foot of Center St.,
city of Racine. Station years ago destroyed by filling.
CommelinacEuE. Spiderwort Family.
197. Tradescantia Virginiana, L. SpiderWort.
Common; along railroad tracks, borders of woods,
roadsides.
PoNTEDERiACEiE. Pickerel-Weed Family.
198. Heteranthera graminea, Vahl. Water Star-Grass.
Rare ; on muddy shore of Root River, at Horlicksville,
Racine Co. Ours is a small form.
JuNCACEiE. Rush Family.
199. Juncus efiusus, L. The Junci are commonly known as
Rushes.
Extinct; a sheet in Dr. Davis’ herbarium labeled,
“Racine Harbor, 1880.” Station long since destroyed.
This rush, so common in the north, appears to be
wanting with us.
200. Juncus Balticus, Willd.
Occasional or frequent; a noble species growing in
dense clumps, often three feet high, in the wet sand
of Lake Michigan beach. It occurs also on Racine
prairie, but there it is dwarfed and inconspicuous. The
rootstocks are stout and beautifully varnished. Seeds
plum-colored.
201. Juncus bufonius, L.
Occasional ; wet sand of Lake Beach, and in abandoned
quarries at Horlicksville. A tiny species, five to six in¬
ches in height.
6— S. A.
820 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
202. J uncus Gerardi, Loisel.
Rare; a single station only (and that now destroyed),
in sand, Lake Michigan beach under willows. Both
Gray and the Ill. Flora say of this rush, “Of rare oc¬
currence about the Great Lakes.”
203. Juncus tenuis, Willd. Yard Rush.
Common, occupying a variety of situations ranging
from roadsides in hard, packed soil to low meadows.
Our commonest rush, and varies greatly accordingly as
environmental conditions are favorable or otherwise.
204. Juncus Dudleyi, Wiegand. (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 27 :
524, 1900)
Common; prairies. Well distinguished from J.
tenuis by its cartilaginous auricles, few-flowered in¬
florescence and shorter involucral bracts. (Verified by
Wiegand)
205. Juncus Richardsonianus, Schult. (J. alpinus, VahL, •
var. insignis, Fries)
Rare; reported in Swezey’s list from Manitowoc Co.
only, on authority of Th. A. Bruhin. Occurs at sev¬
eral points in wet sand on beach of Lake Michigan.
Also met with on the edge of limestone pits at the Hor-
licksville quarries. The station at which' this rush
grows in greatest profusion has been preserved without
molestation, and specimens collected by Dr. Davis in
1879 at this very station, were by Dr. Engelman pro¬
nounced this species ! Seeds hoarhound color.
206. Juncus nodosus, L.
Common ; wet sand of Lake Beach and wet situations
throughout.
207. Juncus Torreyi, Coville. (J. nodosus, L., var. mega-
cephalus, Torr.)
Frequent; wet sand of Lake Beach and low prairies
inland. FTot reported in any catalogue of Wisconsin
plants. Very distinct, and properly raised to specific
rank. Seeds cinnamon-colored.
208. Juncus Canadensis, J. Gay.
Occasional ; in swamps and low grass land. A robust
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 821
species, the latest flowering of our rushes. Seeds pep¬
per-colored.
209. Luzula campestris, DC. Wood Rush.
Frequent; woodlands. One of our earliest spring
flowers.
Liliaceje. Lily Family .
210. Tofieldia glutinosa, Willd.
Rare; a single station in low prairie, Gatliff, Racine
Co.
211. Uvularia grandiflora, Smith. Bellwort. *
Common; rich woods.
212. Allium tricoccum, Ait. Wild Leek.
Common; rich woods.
213. Allium cernuum, Roth. Nodding Wild Onion.
Common; prairies and along railroad tracks.
214. Allium Canadense, Kalm. Wild Garlic.
Occasional ; low woods.
215. Lilium Philadelphicum, L. Red Lily.
Frequent; wood borders and thickets.
216. Lilium Canadense, L. Canada Lily.
Frequent; meadows and fields.
217. Erythronium Americanum, Ker. Yellow Dog-tooth Vi¬
olet ; Adder’ s-tongue.
Common; moist woods and shaded banks.
218. Erythronium albidum, Nutt. White Dog-tooth Violet;
White Adder’s Tongue.
Common; same situations as and occurring with the
preceding.
219. Asparagus officinale, L. Garden Asparagus.
Occasional; escaped from cultivation and persisting.
220. Clintonia borealis, Raf.
Rare ; two stations known, both in rich woods border¬
ing on Lake Michigan in Racine Co. Formerly very
abundant at Green’s Inlet, Kenosha Co., also bordering
the Lake. Flowers not always umbelled!
221. Smilacina racemosa, Desf. This and the two following
species are commonly known as False Solomon’s
Seal.
822 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Common; woods and thickets, and frequently ventur¬
ing out into the open.
222. Smilacina stellata, Desf.
Common; in dryer soil and stronger sun than the
foregoing. Often found in abundance along railroad
tracks.
223. Maianthemum Canadense, Desf.
Common; woods in moist soil.
224. Streptopus roseus, Michx. Twisted-stalk.
Rare; known from but one station, — rich woods at
Bishop Station, Racine Co.
225. Polygonatum biilorum, Ell. Solomon’s Seal.
Frequent; woods, thickets, fence-rows.
226. Polygonatum giganteum, Dietrich. Solomon’s Seal.
Frequent; situations similar to the preceding.
227. Medeola Virginiana, L. Indian Cucumber Root.
Rare ; a single sheet of this species, collected by Prof.
Lannerd at Caledonia, Racine Co., summer of 1906, is
in the Racine High School herbarium. Hot met with
by the writer.
228. Trillium recurvatum, Beck. Purple Trillium or Wake-
robin.
Common: moist woods.
229. Trillium grandiflorum, Salisb. Large-flowered Trillium.
Common ; rich, mesophytic woods.
230. Trillium erectum, L. Hodding Trillium.
Occasional; rich woods. Our species is the old var.
declinatum, with white petals borne on a recurved
peduncle.
231. Trillium cernuum, L.
Rare; in rich woods at Bishop Station, Racine Co.,
the only known station. Close to the preceding species.
232. Smilax herbacea, L. Carrion-Flower.
Occasional ; thickets, fence-rows and river banks.
Much less common than the following species.
233. Smilax ecirrhata, Watson.
Common; the Ill. Flora gives its habitat as “Dry
soil.” I find it in rich or moist woods and shaded
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 823
banks. Not reported in Swezey’s list (though com¬
mon in the southern half of the State), doubtless be¬
cause mistaken for S. herbacea. The two are very un¬
like, however.
234. Smilax hispida, Muhl. Greenbrier.
Occasional to frequent ; thickets and along streams.
Reported for Swezey’s list by Davis from Racine.
Widely distributed throughout the State (Cheney).
Flowers sweetscented !
Amaryllidace^e. Amaryllis Family.
235. Hypoxis erecta, L.
Common; dry meadows and prairies.
Dioscoreace.e. Yam Family.
236. Dioscorea villosa, L. Wild Yam.
Occasional ; moist thickest s along streams.
Iridace.e. Iris Family.
237. Iris versicolor, L. Blue Flag.
Common; swamps and low meadows.
238. Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Mill. Blue-eyed Grass.
Common; moist grass-land.
OrchidacEuE. Orchis Family.
239. Cypripedium spectabile, Salisb. Showy Lady’s Slipper.
Rare; shaded bank near Somers, Kenosha Co. The
only surviving station known to the writer, the exact
whereabouts of which he is not anxious to divulge!
240. Cypripedium candidum, Willd. Small White Lady’s
Slipper.
Occasional to frequent ; in low prairies. The com¬
monest of our Ladies’ Slippers.
24ll Cypjripedium pubescens, Willd. Large Yellow Lady’s
Slipper.
Rare; rich woods.
242. Cypripedium parviflorum, Salisb. Small Yellow Lady’s
Slipper.
824 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Rare; wooded hillsides. Appears to intergrade with
the preceding and perhaps only a small form of it.
243. Orchis spectabilis, L. Showy Orchis.
Rare ; rich w’oods. I have seen but two plants of this
orchid during the last ten years. A disappearing
species, as indeed are all of the native orchids.
244. Habenaria Hookeri, Torr.
Rare; rich woods.
245. Habenaria hyperborea, R. Br. Green Orchis.
Occasional; low meadows and wet woods.
246. Habenaria bracteata, R. Br. Green Orchis.
Occasional ; rich woods.
247. Habenaria lacera, R. Br. Ragged Green Orchis.
Rare; in tamarack at Wind Lake, Racine Co., and
on hillside at Wind Point.
248. Habenaria leucophaea, Gray. White-fringed Orchis.
Occasional to frequent; moist prairies.
249. Habenaria psycodes, Gray. Purple-fringed Orchis.
Rare ; grassy swamps and wet meadows.
250. Spiranthes cernua, Richard. Lady’s Tresses.
Prequent; in wet grass-land.
251. Spiranthes gracilis, Bigelow. Lady’s Tresses.
Rare; low meadows.
252. Goody era pubescens, R. Br. Rattlesnake-Plantain.
Rare; on river bank abwe Horlicksville, Racine Co.
The only known station.
253. Corallorhiza multiflora, Nutt. Coral-root.
Occasional to rare; rather dry woodlands.
254. Aplectrum hiemale, Nutt. Adam-and-Eve.
Rare; low woods.
DICOTYLEDONS.
J u gland a ceje . Walnut Family.
255. Juglans nigra, L. Black Walnut.
Prequent; rich woods and borders of fields. In an
early day a very common tree along Pike’s Creek,
Kenosha Co., so common that it was cut for firewood.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 825
256. Jugland cinera, L. Butternut.
Frequent; woods. More abundant than the preced¬
ing.
257. Carya amara, Nutt. Bitter- nut; Pig-nut Hickory.
Frequent; moist woodland along streams.
258. Carya alba, Nutt. Shag-bark Hickory.
Common; woods throughout the area.
Salicaceje. Willow Family.
259. Populus alba, L. White Poplar.
Occasional; has spread from the root of older trees
and established itself along roadsides.
260. Populus balsamifera, L., var. candicans, Cray. Balm of
Gilead.
Bare; appears to have occasionally established itself
in spots where it hardly seems likely it was set out.
26^.1 Populus grandidentata, Michx. Larger Aspen.
Frequent; woods and thickets.
262. Populus tremuloides, Michx. Aspen.
Common; same habitat as the preceding.
263. Populus monilifera, Ait. Cottonwood.
Occasional ; woods and along streams. There are
some very large individuals of this, the greatest of the
poplars, near Somers, Kenosha Co.
264. Salix nigra, Marsh. Black Willow.
Frequent; along streams and swamp edges.
265. Salix amygdaloides, Anders.
Frequent; along the beach of Lake Michigan, and
borders* of streams inland.
266. Salix lucida, Muhl. Shining Willow.
Common; along streams and in moist thickets. A
beautiful species.
267. Salix alba, L., var. vitellina, Koch. Golden Osier.
Common; well introduced at many points in both
counties, generally in moist situations.
268. Salix purputea, L. Purple Willow.
Bare; sparingly established on beach of Lake Mich¬
igan within city limits of Bacine. Only staminate
trees seen.
826
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
269. Salix longifolia, Muhl.
Common; wet sand beach of Lake Michigan, and
along streams inland.
270. Salix rostrata, Richardson.
Common; both dry and moist soils.
271. Salix discolor, Muhl. Pussy Willow.
Common ; moist and wet ground everywhere, in
woods, thickets and along streams.
272. Salix petiolaris, J . E. Smith.
Rare; low meadows.
273. Salix cordata, Muhl.
Common; wet ground. A variable species.
274. Salix glaucophylia, Bebb.
Occasional to frequent , the Ill. Flora gives its habitat
as “Sand dunes, Lake Michigan." I find it inland on
low prairies more abundantly than near the Lake, and
even when found near the Lake it seems to affect wet
clayey soils, rather than sand. Occasionally I have
met with it along roadsides.
A handsome wiilow, its leaves dark green and shin¬
ing above, and white-glaucous beneath.
275. Salix Candida, Fluegge. Sage Willow.
Occasional ; in bogs, Wind Lake, and on Racine
prairie. A beautiful species.
276. Salix myrtilloides, L., var. pedicellaris, Anders.
Rare; bogs, Wind Lake, Racine Co., the only station.
The variety is not included in Swezey’s state list.
CuPULiFERiE. Oak Family.
277. Carpinus Caroliniana, Walk Iron- wood.
Frequent; thickets and open woods.
278. Ostrya Virginiana, Willd. Hop Hornbeam.
Frequent; same situations as the preceding.
279. Corylus Americana, Walt. Hazel-nut.
Common; thickets and woods in various soils.
280. Corylus rostrata, Ait. Beaked Hazel-nut.
Rare or extinct; leaves of this hazel in Hr. Davis
herbarium infected by a Septoria, collected near Hor-
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 827
licksville, Racine Co. Station now destroyed. Rot
seen elsewhere.
281. Betula papyrifera, Marshall. Paper Birch; Canoe Birch.
Frequent; along Lake Michigan and our larger rivers.
Wanting in the western part of our area.
282. Betula lutea, Michx. f. Yellow Birch.
Occasional; along streams and on the bluffs border¬
ing Lake Michigan.
(Interspersed with typical B. lutea and B. papyrifera
at Cedar Bend of Root River, Racine, are several puz¬
zling trees, with bark exfoliating but of a color inter¬
mediate between lutea and papyrifera, and bearing
peduncled catkins, which Dr. Rydberg suspects are of
hybrid origin, and might perhaps be designated as
Betula lutea X papyrifera.)
283. Betula pumila, L. Dwarf Birch.
Rare; known only from the tamarack, Wind Lake,
Racine Co.
284. Betula pumila, L., var. gland ulif era, Regel. (Am. Jour.
Sci. Vol. XIY, pg. 188)
Occasional; wet banks and bogs. This variety in its
long pubescence, suggests B. pumila ; but mixed with the
pubescence, and sometimes upon the leaves, are the
characteristic glandular atoms of B. glandulosa.
285. Alnus incana, Willd. Alder.
Common; forming extensive thickets along streams.
286. Fagus ferruginea, Ait. Beech.
Occasional ; along Lake Michigan and our larger
streams. Does not seem to thrive well in our latitude.
287. Quercus rubra, L. Red Oak.
Common ; occupying a great variety of soils and sit¬
uations. Leaves turn reddish-brown in autumn.
288. Quercus coccinea, Wang. Scarlet Oak.
Frequent; woodlands in both dry and moist soil.
Leaves turn a fine red in autumn.
289. Quercus velutina, Lam. (Q. coccinea, Wang., var. tinc-
toria, Gray.) Black Oak.
Occasional ; with the preceding. The squarrose,
828 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
densely puberulent, chestnut-colored scales of the acorn
cup in this species are characteristic, separating it from
Q. coccinea in which the scales are usually closely ap-
pressed.
290. Quercus ellipsoid alis, E. J. Hill. (Bot. Gaz. 27 : 05,
1899.)
Common; with the two preceding. This is doubtless
the oak which Dr. Lapham mistook for Q. palustris, and
on whose authority it has been accredited to the Wis¬
consin Flora these many years. It is a matter of much
doubt whether Q. palustris occurs in Wisconsin, Prof.
Cheney never having met with it in his work on the
trees of the State.
Q. ellipsoidalis resembles Q. palustris in that as the
branches often come low down, they are apt to die as
the trees grow older, and, breaking off a short distance
above their base, leave stubs along the trunk, so char¬
acteristic of Q. palustris. It is quite unlike the latter,
however, in the form and size of nut and acorn-cup. In
the form of its acorns it is nearest Q. coccinea, but un¬
like the latter, its leaves do not turn scarlet in autumn,
but rather a yellowish to pale brown.
291. Quercus alba, L. White Oak.
Common; woods and fields, in various soils.
292. Quercus macrocarpa, Michx. Burr Oak.
Common; forming the burr-oak openings, so common
in Southern Wisconsin.
293. Quercus bicolor, Willd. Swamp White Oak.
Rare ; a few trees still remain, about a half mile
north of Racine City limits.
294. Quercus Muhlenbergii, Engelm. Chestnut Oak.
Rare ; occurs on the little island and peninsula in
Brown’s Lake, near Burlington, Racine Co. The only
station.
U rti c a ceje . Nettle Family.
295. Ulmus Americana, L. American Elm.
Common; woods and along streams. One of our
handsomest trees.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 829
296. Ulmus fulva, Michx. Slippery Elm.
Frequent; woodlands and near streams in moist soil.
297. Celtis occidentals, L. Sugarberry; Hackberry.
Fare; a single individual of this species occurs on
12th St. near Mound Cemetery, Bacine, and is prob¬
ably native. Although known to us for several years,
we have never found it in flower or fruit.
298. Humulus Lupulus, L. Hop.
Occasional; thickets and stream borders.
299. Cannabis sativa, L. Hemp.
Occasional ; waste grounds.
300. Urtica dioica, L. Nettle.
Frequent; roadsides and waste ground.
301. IJrtica gracilis, Ait. Nettle.
Frequent; same situations as the preceding.
302. Laportea Canadensis, Gaud. Wood Nettle.
Common; moist woods in rich soil.
303. Pilea pumila, Gray. Clearweed.
Common ; moist shaded places in woods.
304. Boehmeria cylindrica, Willd. False Nettle.
Bare; woods near Caledonia, Bacine Co.
305. Boehmeria cylindrica, Willd., var. scabra, Porter.
Bare ; Dr. DaVis collected a Cercospora on this variety
at Powers Lake, Kenosha Co. Host-plant determined
by Dr. Small.
This find considerably extends the range given in the
Ill. Flora, -“Pa., N. J. and Southern N. Y.”
306. Parietaria Pennsylvania, Muhl. Pellitory.
Common in open woods at Burlington, Bacine Co.
Not known from the eastern part of the area.
S antal ACE'iE . Sandalwood Family.
307. Comandra umbellata, Nutt. Bastard Toad-flax.
Common; on open prairie.
Aristolochiaceje. Rirthwort Family.
308. Asarum reflexum, Bicknell. Wild Ginger.
Occasional; rich woods in both counties.
830 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
309. Asarum reflexum, var. ambiguum, Bicknell.
Occasional; with the type.
PoLYGONAGEiE. Buckwheat Family.
310. Bum ex Acetosella; L. Sheep Sorrel.
Common; everywhere in fields and waste ground.
Becoming a decided pest.
311'. Bumex verticillatus, L. Swamp Dock.
Frequent; low places in woods.
312. Bumex altissimus, Wood. Pale Dock.
Occasional; moist soil.
313. Bumex Patientia, L.
Bare; noted for the first time in summer of 1900 at
two stations, both within Bacine city limits. A large
robust species. Bot noted in Swezey’s list, likely be¬
cause the plant is of later introduction.
314. Bumex Britannica, L. Great Water Dock.
Frequent ; wet swamps and along streams.
315. Bumex crispus, L. Curled Dock.
Common; roadsides, fields and waste places.
316. Bumex obtusifolius, L. Bitter Dock.
Common ; waste places, wood borders, and fields. Of¬
ten growing with B. crispus.
317. Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench. Buckwheat.
Occasional; persistent in fields after cultivation.
318. Polygonum amphibium, L.
Occasional; ponds, swamps and low meadows.
319. Polygonum Hartwrightii, Gray.
Occasional; low meadows. Seldom flowers.
320. Polygonum Muhlenbergii, Watson.
Bare to occasional; banks of streams and ditches.
321. Polygonum lapathifolium, L.
Common; moist situations.
322. Polygonum Pennsylvanicum, L.
Occasional; low places.
323. Polygonum Persicaria, L. Lady’s Thumb.
Common; fields, gardens and waste places.
324. Polygonum hydropiperoides, Micbx. Smartweed; Water-
Pepper.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 831
Occasional; wet places.
325. Polygonum Hydropiper, L. Smartweed; Water-Pepper.
Common; low situations.
362. Polygonum acre, HBK. Water Smartweed.
Common; borders of ponds and swamps.
327. Polygonum orientale, L. Prince’s Feather.
Rare; persisting in grain fields and gardens.
328. Polygonum Yirginianum, L.
Rare ; low woods within Racine city limits — the only
station that the writer remembers of.
329. Polygonum aviculare, L. Doorweed; Knotweed.
Common; yards, waste places and roadsides.
330. Polygonum littorale, Link.
Rare; in sand, beach of Lake Michigan.
331. Polygonum erectum, L. Knotweed.
Common; roadsides and waste places.
332. Polygonum Convolvulus, L. Black Bindweed.
Common; fields and waste ground in all kinds of
soil.
333. Polygonum dumetorum, L., var. scandens, Gray. (P.
scandens, L.) Climbing False Buckwheat.
Rare; thicket near Gatliff, Racine Co. The only
station.
334. Polygonum sagittatum, L. Tear-Thumb.
Frequent; low, wet grounds.
C henopodi a ceu] . Goosefoot Family.
335. Chenopodium album, L. Pigweed; Lamb’s Quarters j
White Goosefoot.
Common; fields and waste ground throughout, A
well-known Weed.
336. Chenopodium album, L., var. viride, Moq.
Common; growing with and like the typical form
except the plant is brighter green.
337. Chenopodium glaucum, L. Oak-leaved Goosefoot,
Common; same situations as the preceding.
338. Chenopodium hybridum, L. Maple-leaved Goosefoot.
Common; roadsides and cultivated ground.
832 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
339. Chenopodium Botrys, L. Jerusalem Oak.
Occasional ; roadsides.
340. Cycloloma platyphyllum, Moq. Winged Pigweed.
Rare; in sand, beach of Lake Michigan at month of
Root River, Racine, and Pike’s Creek, Kenosha Co.
Kot noted in Swezey’s list. Cheney reports it from
near La Crosse and a single individual from Madison.
An emigrant from the Western Plains.
341. Atriplex patulum, L.
Common; roadsides and waste ground.
342. Atriplex patulum, L., var. hastatum, Cray. (A. hastata,
r.)
Occasional; same situations as the preceding. The
Ill. Flora reports this much more common than thu
foregoing. It is the reverse of this with us.
343. Corispermum hyssopifolium, L. Bug-seed.
Occasional to rare; in sand on Lake Michigan beach
in both counties. Young plants of this species and
Salsola Tragus closely resemble each other. Reported
in Swezey’s list by Dr. Davis from Racine. Cheney
finds it all along the south shore of Lake Superior in
Wisconsin, as well.
344. Salsola Tragus, L. Russian -Thistle.
Common; the Russian Thistle was first observed as
occurring sparingly in sand of Lake Michigan beach at
mouth of Root River, Racine, It is now very common
all along the lake beach in both counties and frequently
met with inland. Kot noted in Swezey’s list. Re¬
ported by Cheney from many points in the State.
Am aranthace.v . Amaranth Family.
345. Amaranthus retroflexus, L. Pigweed.
Common ; gardens, fields and waste places.
346. Amaranthus hybridus, L. Pigweed.
Occasional ; same situations as preceding.
347. Amaranthus hybridus, L., var. paniculatus, Uline & Bray.
Rare; with the type.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 833
348. Amaranthus blitoides, S. Wats.
Common ; railroad tracks and waste places. JSTot
noted in Swezey’s list, probably because of later in¬
troduction. Cheney reports common along many rail¬
way lines in the State. An emigrant from the Western
Plains. Easily distinguishable from A. albus by its
prostrate habit of growth and larger seeds.
349. Amaranthus graecizans, L. (A. albus, L.) Tumble
Weed.
Common; waste grounds and fields, more often in
sandy soil. In autumn the plant is uprooted and blown
about by the wind, whence its common name Tumble
Weed.
350. Acnida tuberculata, Moq. (A. tamariscina, Wood, var.
subnuda, S. Wats.) Water-Hemp.
Occasional ; low grounds. Presenting a large variety
of forms.
NyctaginacE/E. Four-o’clock Family.
351. Oxybaphus nyctagineus, Sweet.
Pare ; a few individuals observed along the C. M. &
St. P. right-of-way at Burlington, Pacine Co. Hot
seen elsewhere. Probably of recent introduction.
FicoiDEiE. Carpetweed Family.
352. Mollugo verticillata, L. Carpetweed.
Occasional ; cultivated grounds and waste places.
P ortul a c a cEiE . Purslane Family.
353. Claytonia Virginica, L. Spring Beauty.
Common; moist woods.
354. Portulaca oleracea, L. Purslane; “Pussley.”
Common; too-well known in gardens where it is a
very troublesome weed, difficult to eradicate.
Cary op ii ylla cel® . Pink Family.
355. Agrostemma Gfithago, L. (Lychnis Githago, Lam.)
Corn Cockle.
Pare ; occasionally seen in grain fields.
834 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
356. Silene stellata, Ait, Starry Campion.
Frequent; wooded banks.
357. Silene antirrhina, L. Sleepy Catchfly.
Occasional to frequent ; along roadsides, railroad
tracks and other xerophytic situations.
358. Silene noctiflora, L. Flight-flowering Catchfly.
Frequent ; in cultivated grounds and along roadsides.
Readily distinguished from the next following species
by the number of styles ; in other respects very similar.
359. Lychnis vespertina, Sibth.
Occasional ; same habitat as the preceding. Reported
for Swezey’s list from Racine by Dr. Davis. Row
known from many points throughout the State.
360. Saponaria officinalis, L. Bouncing Bet.
Frequent; along roadsides and about deserted dwell¬
ings.
361'. Stellaria media, Cyrill. Common Chickweed.
Common; everywhere in shaded situations, especially
about lawns and gardens.
362. Cerastium vulgatum, L. Mouse-ear Chickweed.
Common; in grass-land, lawns, etc.
363. Cerastium nutans, Raf.
Occasional; low woods.
364. Arenaria serpyllifolia, L. Thyme-leaved Sandwort.
Rare; abundant on gravelly hillside at Burlington,
Racine Co. Rot seen elsewhere.
365. Arenaria Michauxii, FCook. f.
Rare ; two plants gotten on gravelly knoll in company
with the preceding at Burlington. The only collection
of this species I have ever made in the area.
366. Arenaria lateriflora, L. Sandwort.
F requent to common ; woods.
Rymphaeagem]]. Water-Lily Family.
367. Brasenia peltata, Pursh. Water-shield.
Occasional; in lakes of western part of the area.
368. Ruphar advena, Ait. f. Spatter Dock; Yellow Pond
Lily.
Common; in stagnant waters and ponds.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 835
369. Nymphaea reniformis, DC. (Castalia tuberosa, Greene.)
White Water Lily; Pond Lily.
Common; lakes, ponds and slow streams throughout.
Not listed by Swezey. Occurring in many lakes
throughout the southern part of the State.
The Manuals make the character of the rootstock a
diagnostic feature as between this species and N.
odorata, and yet the odorata I find in Northern Wiscon¬
sin waters, with leaves decidedly purplish beneath and
fragrant flowers, has on the rootstock the characteristic
lateral tuberous-thickened branches of reniformis.
Ranunculaceje . Crowfoot Family.
370. Hydrastis Canadensis, L. Golden Seal; Orange-root.
Pare; rich woods. Observed at but three stations
within our limits, and then sparingly. Swezey ?s list re¬
ports it from Milwaukee and Pacine, only.
371. Caltha palustris, L. Marsh Marigold; incorrectly called
Cow-slips.
Common ; along streams and in wet meadows, lighting
the barren spring landscape with a glorious blaze of
color.
372. Coptis trifolia, Salisb. Gold-thread.
Pare; in sphagnum, tamarack swamp, Wind Lake*
Pacine Co.
373. Isopyrum biternatum, T. & G.
Frequent; moist woods. The thickened root-tubers of
this species are very characteristic.
374. Actaea spicata, L., var. rubra, Ait. (A. rubra, Willd.)
Bed Baneberry.
Occasional ; rich woods. A form with thickened
pedicels is sometimes met with, perhaps the result of
hybridization.
375. Actaea alba, Bigel. White Baneberry.
Frequent ; rich woods. With the preceding but more
common. Occasionally occurs with slender pedicels.
7— S. A.
836 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
376. Aquilegia Canadensis, L. Columbine.
Frequent; preferring rocky situations, such as crevi¬
ces in limestone, although occasionally found in rich
leaf mould.
377. Delphinium Consolida, L. Larkspur.
Dare; escaped from gardens and persisting.
378. Anemone cylindrica, A. Gray. Long-fruited Anemone.
Frequent; shaded banks. Easily distinguished from
the following by its more slender habit, and long, slim
head of fruit.
379. Anemone Yirginiana, L. Virginian Anemone.
Common; woods and shaded grounds.
380. Anemone Pennsylvania, L. Pennsylvanian Anemone.
Frequent; ditches and wet places.
381. Anemone quinquefolia, L. (A. nemorosa, L. of Manual)
Wind-flower; Wood Anemone.
Common; woodlands.
382. Hepatica triloba, Chaix. Hepatica; Mayflower; Liver-
leaf.
Dare; leaves of this species, infected with a Pro¬
tom yces, are in Dr. Davis’ herbarium, labeled, “Water-
town, Dacine Co., June 23, 1891.” Seems to be want¬
ing in the eastern part of the area.
383. Hepatica acutiloba, DC. Same common names as the
preceding.
Common; woodlands. Always occurring in shade.
384. Anemonella thalictroides, Spach. Due-Anemone.
Occasional; low, rich woods. Formerly abundant;
now more rarely met with.
385. Clematis Virginiana, L. Virgin’s Bower.
Occasional; river banks and thicket-borders.
386. Danunculus multifidus, Pursh. Yellow Water Crowfoot.
The names Buttercup or Crowfoot are popularly
applied to most of the species.
F requent ; shallow water in ditches and low prairies.
The var. terrestris appears to be simply an emersed form.
387. Danunculus rhomboideus, Goldie.
Common ; on prairies.
Wadm.ond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 837
388. Ranunculus abortivus, L. Small-flowered Crowfoot.
Common; moist, shaded situations in various soils.
389. Ranunculus sceleratus, L. Cursed Crowfoot.
Occasional; ditches and low fields.
390. Ranunculus recurvatus, Poir.
Occasional ; in woods and shades.
391. Ranunculus acris, L. Tall Buttercup.
Common; low meadows and pastures. I have seen
several pastures almost entirely abandoned to this weed.
The Buttercups are avoided by stock by reason of their
acrid qualities.
392. Ranunculus Pennsylvanicus, L. f. Bristly Crowfoot.
Occasional ; wet places.
393. Ranunculus repens, L. This and the following called
Creeping Buttercup.
Rare ; low, wet ground along C. M. & St. P. right-of-
way at 10th St, Racine. The only .station and prob¬
able introduced there.
394. Ranunculus septentrionalis, Poir.
Common; ditches, low woods and other moist situa¬
tions. Very near the preceding. Our commonest But¬
tercup.
395. Ranunculus septentrionalis, Poir., var. hispidus, T. & G.
Rare; near Tabor, in low woods, occurs an extremely
robust and hispid variety of septentrionalis, probably
R. repens, L., var. hispidus, Torr. & Gray of Wood,
and which it hardly seems should have been suppressed.
It is a striking form, well differentiated from the type
and Worthy of at least varietal rank. Included in
Swezey’s list.
396. Ranunculus fascicularis, Muhl. Early Buttercup.
Common ; banks, with or without shade. Our earliest
Buttercup, easily distinguishable by its fascicled root
system.
397. Ranunculus cireinatus, Sibth. White Water Crowfoot.
Common; ponds and slow waters.
398. Ranunculus Cymbalaria, Pursh. Seaside Crowfoot.
Rare; in tiny pools in crevices of the limestone bed
of Root River at Horlicksville, Racine Co., two miles
838 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
inland. The only station now known. Swezey’s list
says “Along Lake Michigan’7 and Dr. Davis used to get
it in wet sand on beach of Lake Michigan, north of Ra¬
cine Harbor, a station long since destroyed.
399. Thalictrum dioicum, L. Early Meadow Rue.
Common; woods and stream borders.
400. Thalictrum purpurascens, L. Purplish Meadow Rue.
Common ; same habitat as the preceding.
Berberidace.e. Barberry Family.
401. Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx. Blue Cohosh; Pa¬
poose Root.
Occasional ; rich woods.
402. Jeffersonia diphylla, Pers. Twin-leaf.
Rare; rich woods, Somers, Kenosha Co. The de¬
scriptions fail to do justice to the beauty of the Twin-
Leaf.
403. Podophyllum peltatum, L. May-apple; Mandrake.
Common; rich woods.
Occasionally develops a monstrous form in which the
dower, instead of appearing from between the two leaves
on a short, stout peduncle, is borne on the end of a long,
naked scape, 6 to 8 inches long, generally accompanied
by a single basal leaf. One of these sports, trans¬
planted to the wild-dower garden, reverted to the typical
form the following year, and has since shown no devia¬
tion from the normal.
Meinispermaceje. Moonseed Family.
404. Menispermum Canadense, L. Moonseed.
Occasional; banks of streams and thickets.
Pap aver ACEm . Poppy Family.
405. Sanguinaria Canadensis, L. Bloodroot.
Still common; in rich woodlands. t
406. Dicentra Cucullaria, DC. Dutchman’s Breeches.
Occasional to rare; formerly a common plant in rich
woods. How seldom met with.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 839
407. Adlumia cirrhosa, Raf. Alleghany Vine.
Rare; has persisted for several years on terrace of
Lake Bank at Racine, probably an escape from near-by
gardens.
408. Fumaria officinalis, L. Fumitory.
Rare ; well established in garden of my former Racine
home; nowhere else observed.
Crucifers. Mustard Family.
409. Lepidium Virginicum, L. Peppergrass.
Common; roadsides and fields.
410. Sisymbrium officinale, L. Hedge Mustard.
Common; abounding in fields, roadsides and waste
places. ;
411. Sisymbrium altissimum, L.
Rare ; well established along roadside between Racine
and Franksville in a small colony. One of the worst
weeds in the Northwest.
412. Cakile Americana, Nutt. Sea Rocket.
Frequent; but confined to sand of Lake Michigan
beach, in both counties.
413. Brassica nigra, Koch. Black Mustard.
Common ; in fields and waste places.
414. Brassica Sinapistrum, Boiss. Wild Mustard; Charlock.
Common ; widely distributed as a weed in grain fields
and waste places. j
415. Brassica campes.tris, L. Turnip.
Occasional ; in cultivated grounds, persisting some¬
times for a year or more.
416. Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. Yellow Rocket; Winter Cress.
Rare ; brookside, Erskine’s Woods, Racine. The
only station that I now recall.
417. Nasturtium palustre, DC. Marsh Cress.
Common; wet ditches.
418. Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. Water Cress.
Frequent; well established in brooks and ditches at
several stations.
840 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
419. Nasturtium Armoracia, Fries. Florse Radish.
F requent ; low ground and along streams. Rarely
perfecting fruit.
420. Cardamine Pennsylvania, Muhl. (C. hirsuta of Man. in
part.)
Occasional ; ditches and low, swampy woods.
421. Cardamine rhomboidea, DC. Spring Cress; Bitter Cress.
Frequent; wet meadows and swampy woods.
422. Cardamine rhomboidea, DC., var. purpurea, Torr. (C.
purpurea, Britton.)
Occasional ; blooms a couple of weeks earlier than the
preceding, and seems to prefer greater shade.
423. Dentaria laciniata, L. Tootbwort; Pepper-root.
Frequent to common; along stream-borders in rich
woods.
424. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moencb. Shepherd’s Purse.
Common; a troublesome weed, found almost every¬
where. Leaves vary greatly in form, being much more
dissected when plants grow in dry soil. Flowering from
March to December.
425. Camelina sativa, Crantz. False Flax.
Rare; a few individuals gotten in a flax field on
Racine Prairie. The only collection.
426. Arabis hirsuta, Scop. Hairy Rock Cress.
Rare ; in crevices of limestone at Horlicksville, Racine
Co. The only station.
427. Arabis laevigata, Poir. Smooth Rock Cress.
Frequent; woods and shaded, rocky hillsides.
428. Arabis Canadensis, L. Sicklepod.
Rare; a single plant, only, taken in woods near Mil-
man Road.
429. Berteroa incana, D. C.
Rare; in hog-pasture, Burlington, Racine Co. Not
seen elsewhere. An adventurer from Europe.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 841
Capparidaceee. Caper Family.
430. Polanisia graveolens, Raf.
Rare; gravelly shore of tamarack swamp at Burling¬
ton, Racine Co. The only collection.
S ARRACENiACEm . Pitcher Plant Family.
431. Sarracenia purpurea, L. Pitcher Plant.
Rare; peat hogs in tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
Also at Wilmot, Kenosha Co.
Droseraceas. Sundew Family.
432. Drosera rotundifolia, L. Sundew.
Rare; in sphagnum, tamarack swamp, Wind Lake,
Racine Co. The only station.
Crassulace/E. Orpine Family.
433. Sedum Telephium, L. Live-for-ever.
Occasional; roadsides.
434. Penthorum sedoides, L.
Common ; ditches and shaded places.
Saxifragace.e. Saxifrage Family.
435. Saxifraga Pennsylvanica, L. Saxifrage.
Occasional to frequent ; swamps and wet grassland.
436. Heuchera hispida, Pursh. Alum-root.
Common; prairies.
437. Mitella diphylla, L. Bishop’s Cap.
Rare; damp, shaded hillsides and low woods.
438. Parnassia Caroliniana, Michx. Grass-of -Parnassus.
Common; wet meadows.
439. Ribes Cynobasti, L. The first three numbers in this
genus are our Wild Gooseberries.
Common; thickets and woods.
440. Ribes gracile, Michx.
Common; woods, thickets and fence rows.
441. Ribes oxyacanthoides, L.
Frequent; same habitat as preceding.
842 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
442. Ribes floridum, L’Her. Black Currant.
Common ; low woods and thickets.
443. Ribes vulgare, Lam. (R. rubrum, most authors, not L.
See Rhodora, 9:1, 1907.) Red Currant.
Rare ; a small colony established in shade of limestone
cliff at Horlicksville, Racine Co. Naturalized from
Europe. This form is quite distinct from the native
Red Raspberry found in low coniferous forests and
mossy swamps of Northern Wisconsin.
444. Ribes aureum., Pursh. Golden Currant.
Rare; escaped from cultivation and established in a
few places.
Hamamelide.e. Witch-Hazel Family.
445. Hamamelis Virginiana, L. Witch-Hazel.
Common; in woods and thickets.
Rosacea. Rose Family.
446. Physocarpus opulifolius, Maxim. Ninebark.
Occasional; banks of streams.
447. Spiraea salicifolia, L. Meadow-Sweet.
Common ; low pastures and thickets.
448. Rubus strigosus, Michx. Red Raspberry.
Common; in thickets and along roadsides.
449. Rubus occidentals, L. Black Raspberry.
Common ; woods, roadsides and fence rows.
450. Rubus triflorus, Richard. Dwarf Raspberry.
Rare ; in tamarack, Wind Lake, and wet prairie under
willow and aspen, Gatliff, Racine Co.
451. Rubus villosus, Ait. Blackberry.
Common; borders of woods, thickets, fence rows.
452. Rubus hispidus, L. Running Swamp Blackberry.
Rare; roadside at Berryville, Kenosha Co., once a
rather moist situation, now dry.
453. Eragaria Virginiana, Mill. Wild Strawberry.
Common ; fields and wood borders.
454. Eragaria Americana, Britton. Wild Strawberry.-
Frequent ; woods, more often in thin soil.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 843
455. Potentilla arguta, Pursh.
Common; dry soil, in sun.
456. Potentilla argentea, L. Silvery Cinquefoil.
Frequent; dry, sandy soil.
457. Potentilla Norvegica, L. Norway Cinquefoil.
Common ; occurring as a weed in cultivated ground.
458. Potentilla fruticosa, L. Shrubby Conquefoil.
Rare; on edge of tamarack, Burlington, Racine Co.
Tbe only station.
459. Potentilla Anserina, L. Silver-weed.
Occasional ; on beach of Lake Michigan in both coun¬
ties and occasionally in dry, sandy soil inland.
460. Potentilla Canadensis, L. Five-Finger.
Common; fields, roadsides and woods.
461. Potentilla palustris, Scop. Marsh Five-Finger.
Rare; in edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, and at Eagle
Lake, Racine Co. Not seen elsewhere.
462. Geum triflorum, Pursh. Purple Avens.
Common; prairies.
463. Geum album, Gmel. White Avens.
Common; woods and thickets.
464. Geum Virginianum, L. White Avens.
Occasional ; in rather more open situations than the
foregoing, and much less common.
465. Geum macrophyllum, Willd. Yellow Avens.
F requent ; low grounds.
466. Geum strictum, Ait. Yellow Avens.
Occasional; same habitat as the preceding hut less
common.
467. Agrimonia hirsuta, Bicknell. Agrimony.
Common; woods and thickets.
468. Rosa hlanda, Ait. Early Wild Rose.
Common; hanks and fence rows.
469. Rosa Carolina, L. Swamp Rose.
Occasional ; low grounds.
470. Rosa humilis, Marsh. Dwarf Wild Rose.
Common ; fence rows and pastures in dry soil.
844 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
471. Rosa rubiginosa, L. Sweetbrier.
Rare ; well-established at a few points.
472. Pyrus Ioensis, Bailey. Wild Crab-apple.
Common ; in open woods.
473. Pyrus arbutifolia, L. f. Chokeberry.
Rare ; at Berry ville, Kenosha Co., the only known sta¬
tion, in a now dry but at one time probably a rather
moist situation.
Cheney has not met with the red choke-berry in Wis.
though accredited to Wisconsin in Swezey’s list. The
fruit is not at hand, but in my specimens the cyme and
lower leaf surfaces are densely tomentose, and I there¬
fore refer it to the above without very much doubt.
474. Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G. June-berry.
Common; wood borders.
475. Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G., var. (?) oblongifolia,
T. & G. (A. Botryapium, DC.)
Frequent; inclines to more open situations than the
preceding.
475. Crataegus punctata, Jacq. The species of this genus are
commonly called Thorn Apple.
Common; open woods, thickets and roadsides.
476. Cataegus coccinea, L.
Common; same habitat as preceding.
477. Crataegus coccinea, L., var. mollis, T. & G.
Common ; same habitat as preceding.
478. Crataegus tomentosa, L.
Common ; same habitat as the other thorn-apples.
(Besides the above, other forms occur that were for¬
merly called C. coccinea, L. They need further study
to determine their proper place in the now most extensive
treatment of this genus.)
479. Prunus Americana, Marsh. Wild Plum.
Common ; in woods and thickets.
480. Prunus nigra, Ait. Wild Plum.
Common ; quite as much so as the foregoing and
readily distinguishable from it. In similar situations.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 845
481. Prunus Pennsylvania, L. f. Wild Ped Cherry.
Common ; wood-borders and fence rows.
482. Prunus Virginiana, L. Choke Cherry.
Common; dry woods and thickets.
483. Prunus serotina, Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry.
Common; open woods.
LeguminoS/E. Pulse or Pea Family.
484. Cassia Chamaecrista, L. Sensitive Pea.
Pare ; on dry prairies.
485. Gleditschia triacanthos, L. Honey Locust.
Pare; escaped from cultivation and well established
in a few places.
486. Gymnocladus Canadensis, Lam. Kentucky Coffee Tree.
Pare; in the manuscript of a bulletin on the Trees of
Wisconsin, began by Prof. Cheney, but never completed,
is a reference to the occurrence of this species in the
neighborhood of Salem, Kenosha Co.
487. Baptisia leucophaea, Hutt. False Indigo.
Common; prairies.
488. Baptisia leucantha, T. & G. False Indigo.
Occasional to rare; edge of thickets.
489. Medicago saliva, L. Alfalfa.
Occasional; escaped from cultivation and established
along roadsides and in waste places.
490. Medicago lupulina, L. Black Medick.
Common; fields and roadsides.
491. Melilotus alba, Desv. White Sweet Clover.
Common; roadsides and waste places.
492. Melilotus officinalis, Lam. Yellow Sweet Clover.
Common; roadsides and waste ground. One of the
most desirable of our roadside “weeds.”
493. Trifolium procumbens, L. Low Hop Clover.
Occasional; in grassland.
494. Trifolium pratense, L. Ped Clover.
Common; everywhere, preferring rich, deep soil.
495. Trifolium hybridum, L. Alsike Clover.
Common; roadsides, lawns, meadows and cultivated
fields. Hot in Swezey’s list.
846 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
496. Trifolium repens, L. White Clover.
Common ; everywhere in lawns, fields and pastures.
497. Amorpha canescens, Pursh. Lead-plant.
Common; prairies.
498. Petalostemon candidus, Michx. White Prairie Clover.
Common; prairies.
499. Petalostemon violaceus, Michx. Violet Prairie Clover.
Frequent; prairies, often in company with the pre¬
ceding, hut less common.
500. Fobinia Pseudacacia, L. Locust-tree.
Occasional ; well established at a number of points in
the area.
501. Astragalus Canadensis, L. Milk Vetch.
Frequent; along railroad tracks and on open prairie.
502. Astragalus Cooperi, A. Gray. Milk Vetch.
Pare; edge of prairie thickets. Swezey’s list reports
this species from Milwaukee.
503. Desmodium acuminatum, DC. The species of this genus
are commonly called Tick-Trefoil.
Common; woods.
504. Desmodium Dillenii, Dari.
Pare; In the Milwaukee Public Museum herb, is a
plant of this species, collected by C. E. Monroe of Mil¬
waukee, at Yorkville, Pacine Co.
505. Desmodium Illinoense, Gray.
Pare; along C. M. & St. P. right-of-way at Burlington,
Pacine Co. Hot seen elsewhere.
506. Desmodium Canadense, DC.
Common ; low prairies.
507. Lespedeza capitata, Michx. Bush Clover.
Common ; prairies and roadsides.
508. Vicia Americana, Muhl. Wild Vetch.
Common ; shaded banks, sometimes in very dry soil.
509. Vicia Americana, Muhl., var. linearis, S. Wats.
Pare ; a sheet of this variety is in the herb, of the
Milwaukee Public Museum, collected by C. E. Monroe
in Pacine Co. Vo specific locality mentioned.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 847
510. Yicia Caroliniana, Walt. Wild Vetch.
Common; banks and thicket borders.
511. Lathyrus maritimus, Bigel. Beach Pea.
Bare ; known only from the beach of Lake Michigan,
both counties.
512. Lathyrus venosus, Muhl. Wild Sweet Pea.
Common ; shaded banks.
513. Lathyrus palustris, L.
Frequent; moist grounds.
5^14. Lathyrus ochroleucus, Hook.
Common ; hanks and hillsides.
515. Amphicarpaea Pitcheri, T. & G. Hog Peanut.
Common; low woods and thickets. Hot noted in
Swezey’s list. Gray gives its range as “Western H. Y.
to Ill., Mo., La., and Tex.” so that we must he well
toward its northern limit. Cheney reports it quite as
common in many parts of the State as A. monoica. I
have not seen the last-named species in our area.
516. Apios tuberosa, Moench. Ground-nut.
Bare; Hr. Havis in his First Supplementary list of
Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi, reports the collection of a
Cercospora on this host at Bacine. I have not seen the
plant in the area.
Gkraniace^e. Geranium Family.
517. Geranium maculatum, L. Wild Geranium; Cranesbill.
Common; woods.
518. Geranium Carolinianum, L.
Bare ; in dryer areas of tamarack, especially 'in recent
clearings, Wind Lake, Bacine Co.
519. Oxalis violacea, L. Violet Wood Sorrel.
Occasional; edge of woods, fence rows, etc.
520. Oxalis stricta, L. Yellow Wood Sorrel.
Common; a weed in gardens and cultivated grounds.
Linages. Flax Family.
521'. Linum usitatissimum, I. Common Flax.
Occasional ; escaped to roadsides.
848 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
522. Linum sulcatum, Riddell. Yellow Flax.
Rare ; prairies and dry, gravelly hillsides.
Rutaceje. Rue Family.
523. Xanthoxylum Americanum, Mill. Pricldy Ash.
Common ; wood borders.
524. Ptelea trifoliata, L. Hop-Tree.
Rare; thickets and stream borders.
P oly gal ACEiE . Milkwort Family.
525. Polygala verticillata, L. Milkwort.
Prequent; grassland, usually in dry soil.
526. Polygala sanguinea, L. Milkwort.
Common ; prairies.
527. Polygala Senega, L. Seneca Snakeroot.
Common; prairies. The Ill. Flora says of it, “In
rocky woods.” This is not so with us.
528. Polygala Senega, L., var. latifolia, T. & G.
Rare; wooded hank along Pike Creek, Somers, Ke¬
nosha Co. Hot known from any other station.
Euphorbiace;e. Spurge Family.
529. Acalypha Virginica, L. Three-seeded Mercury.
Rare; gotten in waste ground near Wind Lake, Ra¬
cine Co. Rot seen elsewhere.
530. Euphorbia polygonifolia, L. The name Spurge applies
to the entire genus.
Frequent; but only on beach of Lake Michigan, both
counties.
531. Euphorbia maculata, L.
Common ; waste places, mostly in sandy soil, through¬
out.
532. Euphorbia Preslii, Guss.
Frequent; along railroad tracks and in waste places,
in various soils.
533. Euphorbia corollata, L. Flowering Spurge.
Common ; prairies and roadsides.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 849
534. Euphorbia Cyparissias, L.
Occasional; along roadsides and in cemeteries.
C allitri chacece. Water Starwort Family.
535. Callitriche verna, L. Water Starwort.
Rare; in pool, Wind Lake, Racine Co. Rot gotten
elsewhere.
Limnanthaceje. False Mermaid Family.
536. Floerkea proserpinacoides, Willd. Raise Mermaid.
Rare; moist shaded places in both counties.
An a cardi a cee . Sumach Family.
537. Rhus typhina, L. (R. hirta, Sudw.) Staghorn Sumach.
Common ; along fence rows and streams, forming
considerable colonies.
538. Rhus glabra, L. Smooth Sumach.
Common ; same habitat as tl e preceding.
539. Rhus Vernix, L. (R. venenata, DC.) Poison Sumach.
Common; but only so on edge of tamarack at Wind
Lake, Racine Co. A single shrub is found along road¬
side near Wind Point. These two stations are the only
ones the writer knows of in the area. Very poisonous
to touch.
540. Rhus radicans, L. (R. Toxicodendron of American au¬
thors, in part, not L.) Poison Ivy.
Common; fence rows, wooded banks and meadows.
Poisonous to many persons.
R. Toxicodendron L., is a shrub of the Southern
States.
IlicinEuE. Holly Family.
541. Ilex verticillata, A. Gray. Black Alder ; Winterberry.
Rare ; sandy roadside at Berryville, Kenosha Co., and
edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co., the only sta¬
tions.
542. Remopanthes fascicularis, Raf. Mountain Holly.
Rare; edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
The only station.
850 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Gelastrace/e. Staff tree Family.
543. Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacq. Burning-bush.
Rare ; low thickets.
544. Celastrus scandens, L. Climbing Bittersweet.
Occasional; thickets and fence-rows. The showy
orange and red fruit very ornamental in autumn.
Sapindaceai:. Maple Family.
545. Staphylea trifolia, L. Bladder-nut.
Occasional; low thickets.
546. Acer saccharinum, L. (A. dasycarpum, Ehrh.) Silver
Maple.
Common; well-known in cultivation and well-estab¬
lished as an escape. There are some splendid specimens
of the Silver Maple along Upper Root River, though
these perhaps are not native.
The earliest dowering of our trees.
547. Acer rubrum, L. Red Maple.
Frequent; wet woods and low delds. The scarlet
foliage very conspicuous in autumn.
548. Acer saccharum, Marsh. (A. saccharinum, Wang.) Hard
Maple ; Sugar Maple.
Common; woods, throughout the eastern part of the
area.
A large well-known tree, whose sap ought to be the
main source of maple sugar!
549. Acer saccharum, Marsh., var. nigrum, Britton.
Frequent; same habitat as the preceding and inter¬
grading with it.
550. Regundo aceroides, Moench. Box Elder.
Occasional; often planted and well established as an
escape at a number of stations.
Balsaminace.e. Jewel-Weed Family.
551. Impatiens fulva, ETitt. Spotted Touch-me-not; Balsam;
Jewel-weed.
Common; moist places, usually in shade.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 851
552. Impatiens pallida, Nutt. Pale Touch-me-not; Balsam;
J ewel-weed.
Occasional; wet, shaded places. Less common than
the preceding.
Rhamnace.e. Buckthorn Family.
553. Rhamnus cathartica, L. Buckthorn.
Rare ; established as an escape at a few stations.
554. Rhamnus alnifolia, L’Her. Buckthorn.
Rare ; edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
555. Ceanothus Americanus, L. New Jersey Tea.
Common ; dry woodlands and roadsides.
Vitaceas. Vine Family.
556. Vitis bicolor, LeConte. (V. aestivalis of Gray Manual in
part)
Rare; a single plant collected — in leaf only — in rich
woods near Somers, Kenosha Co.
557. Vitis vulpina, L. (V. riparia of Gray Manual in part)
Wild Grape.
Common ; river bottoms, along fence-rows and streams.
558. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. Virginia Creeper;
Woodbine.
Common ; thickets and river banks. The crimson
foliage very ornamental in autumn.
TiLiACEiE. Linden Family.
559. Tilia Americana, L. Basswood.
Common; rich woods.
Malvaceae Mallow Family.
560. Malva rotundifolia, L. Mallow; “Cheeses.”
Common; an abundant weed in gardens and waste
places.
561. Malva moschata, L. Musk Mallow.
Rare; well established as an escape at a few stations.
562. Abutilon Avicennae, Gaertn. Velvet Leaf.
Common; waste places and cultivated fields.
8— S. A.
852 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
563. Hibiscus Trionum, L.
Rare ; well established for a distance of a quarter of
a mile along roadside near Yorkville, Racine Co.
Hypericagele. ‘St. John’s Wort Family.
564. Hypericum perforatum, L. The name St. John’s Wort is
applied to all the species of this genus and Elodes.
Frequent; fields and meadows.
565. Hypericum maculatum, Walt.
Frequent; boggy grounds.
566. Hypericum 'mutilum, L.
Occasional; low grounds.
567. Elodes campanulata, Pursh.
Rare ; Wet edges of tamarack swamp, Wind Lake, Ra¬
cine Co., and Powers Lake, Kenosha Co., the only sta¬
tions noted.
Cistaceuc. Rock Rose Family.
568. Lechea strict a, Leggett. Pinweed.
Rare; along C. M. & St. P. right-of-way at Burling¬
ton, Racine Co. The only station.
Vioeaceas. Violet Family.
569. Viola palmata, L. Hand-leaf Violet.
Rare; in meadow land near He Koven Avenue, Ra¬
cine. Hot seen elsewhere. Some forms of this species
are not easily distinguishable from V. pedatifida, G. Don.
570. Viola pedatifida, Don. Larkspur-leaved Violet.
Common; prairies. This species and V. pedata car¬
pet the prairies with a mass of color when in flower.
571. Viola obliqua, Hill.
Common; meadows and marshes. Varies greatly in
different habitats,
572. Viola sororia, Willd. Woolly Violet.
Common; woods and shaded roadsides.
573. Viola pedata, L. Bird-foot Violet.
Common; prairies. Readily distinguishable from V.
pedatafida even at some distance by its lighter blue
flowers.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 853
574. Viola blanda, Willd. Sweet White Violet.
Occasional ; swamps and low woods. Becoming rare.
575. Viola pubescens, Ait. Downy Yellow Violet.
Frequent ; dry woods. Much less common than the
preceding. Basal leaves usually wanting at flowering
time.
576. Viola scabriuscula, Schwein. (V. pubescens, Ait., var.
scabriuscula, T. & G.) Yellow Violet.
Common ; rich woods. Basal leaves usually present
at flowering time. Blooming earlier than V. pubescens.
577. Viola Labradorica, Schank. (V. canina, L., var. Muhlem-
bergii, Gray) Dog Violet.
Common ; moist rich wood sand thickets.
Thymeeeaceai:. Mezereum Family.
578. Dirca palustris, L. Moose-wood; Leather-wood.
Rare ; low thicket near Horlicksville, Racine Co. The
only station.
Elaeagnace.e. Oleaster Family.
579. Shepherdia Canadensis, Nutt.
Frequent; banks of streams.
LythracEuE. Loosestrife Family.
580. Decodon verticillatus, Ell. Swamp Loosestrife.
Rare ; Wind Lake, Norway Township, Racine Co.,,
and Powers Lake, Kenosha Co., the only stations which,
have been noted.
Swezey’s List reports it from the “Upper St. Croix
River” only. This species is widely distributed through¬
out the State though rather uncommon and local.
581'. Ly thrum alatum, Pursh. Loosestrife. , !
Common ; low, wet grounds.
Onagraceas. Evening Primrose Family.
582. Ludwigia palustris, Ell. Water Purslane.
Common; ditches and pond borders.
5'83. Ludwigia polycarpa, Short & Peter. Water Purslane.
Common ; same habitat as preceding.
854 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
584. Epilobium angustifolium, L. Eire^weed.
Occasional; in dry soil in full sun, or in woodland
where trees have recently been cut.
585. Epilobium lineare, Muhl. The species of this genus are
commonly called Willow-herb.
Occasional; bogs and wet prairies.
586. Epilobium coloratum, Muhl.
Occasional ; wet grounds.
587. Epilobium adenocaulon, Haussk.
Common; wet grounds. Oftener seen than the pre¬
ceding and closely allied to it.
588. OEnothera biennis, L. Evening Primrose.
Common ; fields and waste places.
589. OEnothera pumila, L.
Occasional ; prairies.
590. Circaea Lutetiana, L. Enchanter’s Nightshade.
Common; woods.
591. Circaea alpina, L. Enchanter’s Nightshade.
Pare; in springy soil in low woods near Wind Point,
Pacine Co. The only station.
Halorace.e. Water Milfoil Family.
592. Proserpinaca palustris, L. Mermaid-weed.
Erequent; ditches and pond borders.
593. Myriophyllum spicatum, L. Water Milfoil.
Common ; shallow waters.
Araliaceas. Ginseng Family.
594. Aralia spinosa, L. Hercules’ Club.
Pare; Cheney (Pharmaceutical Archives, Apl. 1899,
pg. 70) reports getting this species about ten miles west
of Kenosha, Kenosha Co. where it had evidently es¬
caped and established itself.
595. Aralia racemosa, L. Spikenard.
Common; rich woods.
596. Aralia nudicaulis, L. Wild Sarsaparilla.
Common; rich woods.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 855
597. Aralia quinquefolia, Decsne. & Planch. Ginseng.
Rare; Prof. Lannerd of the Racine High School has
kindly sent me a sheet of this now almost extinct
species, collected in rich woods north of Racine near
Caledonia. I have never seen the plant in the ■ area
although Dr. Davis has several times met a few indi¬
viduals.
598. Aralia trifolia, Decsne. & Planch. Ground-nut.
Common; rich woods.
Umbellifer;e. Parsley Family.
599. Daucus Carota, L. Wild Carrot.
Rare; escaped to roadsides and railway tracks, and
infrequently persisting in meadows.
600. Angelica atropurpurea, L.
Common ; low grounds.
601. Tiedemannia rigida, Coult. & Rose.
Rare; swampy ground.
602. Heracleum lanatum, Michx. Cow Parsnip.
Common; low grounds.
603. Pastinaca sativa, L. Parsnip.
Common; waste places.
604. Polytaenia Huttallii, DC.
Rare; Dr. Davis has kindly sent me a sheet of this
species, collected west of Racine on open prairie.
605. Eryngium yuccaefolium, L. Button Snakeroot.
Common ; prairies.
606. Sanicula Marylandica, L. Sanicle.
Common; rich woods.
607. Sanicula gregaria, Bicknell. Sanicle.
Common; woods. A well-marked species, easily dis¬
tinguishable from the preceding.
608. Pimpinella integerrima, A. Gray.
Erequent; along railroad tracks and roadsides in dry
soil.
609. Osmorrhiza brevistylis, DC. Sweet Cicely.
Common ; woods.
610. Osmorrhiza longistylis, DC. Sweet Cicely.
Common; woods. With the preceding.
856
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
611. Sium cicutaefolium, Gmel. Water Parsnip.
Frequent; swamp y places.
612. Zizia aurea, Koch. Golden Meadow Parsnip.
Common ; prairies.
613. Zizia cordata, DC.
Common; prairies. Often associated with the pre¬
ceding.
614. Carum Carui, L. Caraway.
Frequent; roadsides and cultivated grounds. Not
noted in Swezey’s list. Cheney reports it as intro¬
duced in some localities in the State.
615. Cicnta maculata, L. Water Hemlock.
Common; sloughs. Very poisonous in all its parts.
616. Cicnta bulbifera, L. Water Hemlock.
Occasional; sedge marshes and low meadow lands.
Quite as poisonous as the preceding but less common.
617. Cryptotaenia Canadensis, DC. Honewort.
Common; moist woods.
618. Berula angustifolia, Koch. Water Parsnip.
Pare ; a sheet of this species collected by C. E. Mon-
rpe of Milwaukee, is in the Herb, of the Milwaukee
Public Museum, labeled from “Mt. Pleasant Twnp.,
Kacine Co.” The writer has not seen the plant in the
area.
619. Erigenia bulbosa, Nutt. Harbinger-of-spring.
Pare; a small colony discovered in rich woods near
Somers, Kenosha Co. The only station.
Cornaceje. Dogwood Family.
620. Cornus circinata, L’Her. The names Dogwood and Cor¬
nel are applied to all the species of Cornus.
Common; open woods and thickets.
62,4. Cornus stolonifera, Michx. Red-Osier Dogwood.
Common; low woods and thickets.
622. Cornus paniculata, L’Her.
Common ; same habitat as the preceding.
623. Cornus alternifolia, L. f. •
Common; thickets, fence rows and wood borders.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 857
624. Ryssa sylvatica, Marsh. Sour Gum; Pepperidge.
Pare ; two individuals of this species, located within
a stone’s throw of the P. O. at Berryville, Kenosha Co.,
are the only trees of the kind known in the State, and
extend considerably its known northern range. They
were pointed out to me by the owner of the land who
stated that there were originally about a dozen of them
all told. By a singular coincidence, Prof. Cheney,
then working on the distribution of the Wisconsin For¬
est Trees, accidentally discovered these trees a few
weeks after my first visit to the locality!
ERiCACEiiE. Heath Family.
625. Pyrola elliptica, Nutt. Shin-leaf.
Rare; woods.
626. Pyrola rotundifolia, L., var. uliginosa, A. Gray. (P.
uliginosa, Torr.)
Rare; a few individuals of this species were gotten
in a little thicket on Racine Prairie near Gatliff, Ra¬
cine Co. The only known station.
627. Monotropa uniflora, L. Indian Pipe.
Occasional; deep, rich woods.
628. Andromeda polifolia, L.
Rare; bogs, edge of Wind Lake, Racine Co. The
only known station.
629. Cassandra calyculata, D. Don. Leather-leaf.
Rare; known to me only from bogs on edge of tarn:
arack, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
630. Gaultkeria procumbens, L. Wintergreen.
Probably extinct; Dr. Davis has shared with me
specimens of this species collected in both flower and
fruit, gotten in 1879 in bog near Wind Point, Racine
Co. Station long since drained and under cultivation!
631. Gaylussacia resinosa, Torr. & Gray. Huckleberry.
Rare; along roadside, Berryville, Kenosha Co. The
only station.
632. Yaccinium Canadense, Richards. Canada Blueberry.
Probably extinct ; a specimen in Dr. Davis’ herbarium
858 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
gotten in 1888, in tamarack, Norway Township, Racine
Co. No present station for it known.
633. V accininm Pennsylvanicum, Lam. Early Blueberry.
Probably extinct; a sheet in Dr. Davis’ herbarium
gotten in 1879 in the little bog noted for No. 630.
634. Y accinium macrocarpon, Ait. (Oxycoccus macrocarpus,
Pers.) Large Cranberry.
Pare; bogs, edge of tamarack, Wind Lake, Pacine
Co. The occurrence of the Large Cranberry in South¬
ern Wisconsin is of especial interest because this species
as limited by Eernald (Phodora, Dec. 1902, pg. 234)
is confined for the most part to the Atlantic Coastal
Plain ! The Cranberry of the sphagnum bogs of North¬
ern Wisconsin is Y. Oxycoccus, L., var. intermedium,
Gray, Syn. El. ii. pt. 1, ed. 2,396 (1886).
Primulac'B^e. Primrose Family.
635. Steironema ciliatum, Paf. This and the two following
numbers are commonly called Loosestrife.
Common; low grounds.
636. Steironema longifolium, A. Gray.
Common; moist prairies.
637. Lysimachia thyrsiflora, L.
Occasional ; swampy grounds.
638. Trientalis Americana, Pursh. Starflower.
Occasional ; deep woods.
639. Dodecatheon Meadia, L. Shooting-star.
Common; prairies.
Oleaceve. Olive Family.
640. Eraxinus Americana, L. White Ash.
Common; woods and roadsides in all soils.
641. Eraxinus nigra, Marsh. (E. sambucifolia, Lam.) Black
Ash.
Common ; moist woods, along banks of streams or
borders of swamps.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 859
Gentianaceje. Gentian Family.
642. Gentiana crinita, Froel. Fringed Gentian.
Fare ; the only station known to the writer is a shaded
hillside at Cedar Bend, Boot Biver, Bacine.
643. Gentiana serrata, Gunner. (G. detonsa, Bottb.) Lesser-
fringed Gentian.
Common; low prairies and springy banks. Often
found in flower late in October !
644. Gentiana quinqueflora, Lam., var. occidentalis, Gray.
Common; same habitat as the preceding.
645. Gentiana puberula, Michx.
Bare; prairies. Some years blooming in November!
646. Gentiana Andrewsii, Griseb. Closed Gentian.
Common; low prairies.
647. Gentiana alba, A. Gray. (G. flavida, A. Gray)
Bare ; wooded hillside near Somers, Kenosha Co.
The only station.
648. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. Buckbean.
Bare ; in bogs and swampy meadows.
Afocynace.e. Dogbane Family.
649. Apocynnm androsaemifolium, L. Dogbane.
Common ; fields and roadsides.
650. Apocynum cannabinum, L. Indian Hemp.
Common ; dry soil of fields and thickets.
As CLEPi ad ACE.E . Milkweed Family.
651. Asclepias tuberosa, L. Butterfly Weed; Pleurisy Boot.
Bare; roadsides and fields, in dry, sandy soil. I
have not seen this Milkweed in the vicinity of Bacine
for many years. At Burlington and other points in
the westerly part of the area, it is more commony seen.
652. Asclepias purpurascens, L.
Bare; a single specimen collected in woods near GaL
liff, Bacine Co.
653. Asclepias incarnata, L. Swamp Milkweed.
Common ; low, wet grounds.
860
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
654. Asclepias Sullivantii, Engelm.
Rare ; field bordering on De Koven Avenue and the
C. & R. W. R. R., Racine. The only station.
655. Asclepias phytollacoides, Pursh. Poke Milkweed.
Occasional ; rich woods.
656. Asclepias Cornuti, Dec. Common Milkweed.
Common; fields, roadsides, pastures and waste places.
657. Asclepias ovalifolia, Dec.
Common; prairies.
658. Asclepias verticillata, L. Whorled Milkweed.
Rare ; two individuals gotten on dry, gravelly hillside
at Burlington, Wis. Rot seen elsewhere.
659. Acerates viridiflora, Eaton. The species of this genus
are called Green Milkweed.
Rare; town of Yorkville, Racine Co. Coll, by C. E.
Monroe, and deposited in herb, of the Milwaukee Pub¬
lic Museum.
660. Acerates longifolia, Ell.
Common ; dry prairies.
661. Acerates lanuginosa, Dec.
Rare ; town of Yorkville, Racine Co. Coll, by C. E.
Monroe and preserved in the herb, of the Milwaukee
Public Museum.
Convolvulaceje . Morning Glory Family.
662. Convolvulus sepium, L. Wild Morning Glory; Bind¬
weed.
Common; fence rows, fields and thickets. A trouble¬
some weed.
663. Convolvulus arvensis, L. Bindweed.
Occasional ; same habitat as the preceding.
664. Cuscuta Gronovii, Willd. Dodder.
Common ; low grounds.
Polemoniaceve. Phlox Family.
665. Phlox pilosa, L. Phlox.
Common; prairies and open woods in dry soil.
Wctdmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 861
666. Phlox divaricate, L. Phlox; Wild Sweet William.
Common; woods, in more moist soil than the pre¬
ceding.
Hydrophyllaceje . 'Water-leaf Family.
• 667. Hydrophyllum Virginicum, L. Water-leaf.
Common; low woods.
Borraginace.e. Borage Family.
6b8. Cynoglossum officinale, L. Hound’s Tongue.
Common; fields and waste grounds.
669. Echinospermum Lappula, Lehm. Stickseed.
Common; waste grounds.
670. Echinospermum Virginicum, Lehm. Stickseed; Beggar’s
Lice.
Common; woods and thickets.
671. Myosotis laxa, Lehm. (M. palustris, Lam., vav laxa,
Gray) Forget-me-not.
Rare; muddy shore of Root River west of Herrick
Ave., Racine. The only station.
672. Lithospermum latifolium, Michx. Puccoon.
Rare; thicket near Somers, Kenosha Co. Hot seen
elsewhere.
673. Lithospermum canescens, Lehm. Hoary Puccoon.
Common ; prairies and dry, gravelly hillsides.
Verbena cele. Vervain Family.
674. Verbena urticifolia, L. White Vervain.
Common; waste grounds.
675. Verbena hastata, L. Blue Vervain.
Common; waste places.
676. Verbena bracteosa, Michx.
Occasional; on beach of Lake Michigan, and dry,
gravelly hillsides, Burlington, Racine Co.
677. Lippia lanceolata, Michx. Fog-fruit.
Rare; wet ditch near Tabor, Racine Co. The only
known station.
862 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Labiates. Mint Family.
678. Teucrium Canadense, L. Germander.
Common ; low grounds.
679. Scutellaria lateriflora, L. The species of this genus are
commonly called Skullcap.
680. Scutellaria versicolor, Futt.
Occasional ; woods and shaded hanks.
681. Scutellaria parvula, Michx.
Occasional ; dry hillsides and open prairie.
682. Scutellaria galericulata, L.
Common; wet places.
683. Lophanthus scrophulariaefolius, Benth. Giant Hyssop.
Common; woods.
684. Fepeta C atari a, L. Catnip.
Common; near dwellings and in waste places.
685. Fepeta Glechoma, Benth. Ground Ivy; Creeping
Charley.
Common ; shady places near dwellings.
686. Prunella vulgaris, L. (Brunella vulgaris, L.) Self Heal;
Heal All.
Common; woods and fields, in all soils.
687. Phyostegia Yirginiana, Benth. Palse Dragon’s Head.
Common; low, wet grounds.
688. Leonurus Cardiaca, L. Motherwort.
Frequent; roadsides and waste places.
689. Lamium amplexicaule, L. Dead Fettle.
Bare; in cultivated field, saindy soil, along Lake
Shore Bead just south of Bacine city limits. Hot seen
elsewhere.
690. Stachys palustris, L. This and the next number are
called Hedge Fettle.
Occasional; low grounds.
69 11. Stachys aspera, L.
Common; low grounds. More often met with than
S. palustris.
692. Monarda fistulosa, L. Wild Bergamot.
Common ; roadsides, wood borders and fence rows.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 863
693. Blephilia ciliata, Baf.
Common ; the Ill. Flora gives its habitat as “dry
woods and thickets.” With ns it occurs on prairies in
full sun.
694. Blephilia hirsuta, Benth.
Bare ; moist woods. Known from a few stations
only.
695. Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers. Pennyroyal.
Common ; dry woods and fields.
696. Calamintha Kuttallii, Gray.
Bare; springy hanks of Bavine % mi. south of Ba-
cine College. Kot known from any other station.
697. Pycnanthemum linifolium, Pursh. Mountain Mint.
Bare; a sheet of this species is in the herb, of the
Milwaukee Public Museum; collected by C. E. Mon¬
roe in town of Yorkville, Bacine Co.
698. Pycnanthemum lanceolatum, Pursh. Mountain Mint.
Common ; prairies and dry fields and thickets.
699. Lycopus Virginicus, L. Bugle-weed.
Common; low places.
700. Lycopus sinuatus, Ell. Water Horehound.
Common; moist, shady places.
701. Mentha viridis, L. Spearmint.
Common; low grounds.
702. Mentha Canadensis, L. Wild Mint.
Common; low grounds. Variable.
SolanacEu®. ' Nightshade Family.
703. Kicandra physaloides, Gaertn. Apple-of-Peru.
Bare; in garden of my former home at Bacine. Kot
seen otherwheres.
704. Physalis Virginiana, Mill. Ground Cherry.
Occasional; barren hillsides and other barren situa¬
tions.
705. Physalis heterophylla, Kees. Ground Cherry.
Common; along railroad tracks, in dry fields, etc.
706. Solanum nigrum, L. Black Kightshade.
Common ; shaded grounds and waste places.
864 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
707. Solanum Dulcamara, L. Bitter-sweet.
Common; in moist thickets. The controlling species
in a tamarack formation near Burlington, Bacine Co.
Appearing as if indigenous.
708. Lycium vulgare, Dunal. Matrimony Vine.
Rare; well established and persisting at one station,
cor. of Washington Ave. and 8th St., Racine.
S crophul ari a CEiE . Figwort Family.
709. Verbascum Thapsus, L. Mullein.
Common ; pastures, fields and roadsides.
710. Linaria vulgaris, Mill. Butter-and-Eggs.
Common; roadsides and fields.
711. Scrophularia Marylandica, L. Eigwort.
Common ; in woods and along roadsides in the easterly
part of the area; wanting in the westerly.
712. Scrophularia leporella, Bicknell. Eigwort.
Probably will be found to be common in the westerly
part of the area, as it is abundant in Walworth Co.,
adjoining on the west; found on wooded hillside on a
little peninsula jutting out into Brown’s Lake, Burling¬
ton, Racine Co.
A well marked species, wanting in the easterly ‘part
of the area, where occurs S. Marylandica. S. leporella
is the form found commonly in the northern part of. the
State, where S. Marylandica seems to be absent.
713. Chelone glabra, L. Turtle Head.
Common ; low, boggy grounds.
714. Pentstemon pubescens, Solander. Beard Tongue.
Rare; Dr. Davis (Suppl. List of Parasitic Eungi of
Wisconsin, Pg. 167) reports getting a Cercospora on
this host at Eagle Lake, Kansasville, Racine Co. Hot
known from otherwheres.
715. Mimulus ringens, L. Monkey Flower.
Common; wet places.
716. Ilysanthes riparia, Raf. False Pimpernel.
Rare; edge of muddy pool near Wind Lake, Racine
Co. Hot noted elsewhere.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 865
7 17. Veronica Anagallis, L. Water Speedwell.
Common ; in brooks, swamps and ditches.
718. Veronica scutellata, L.
Occasional ; swamp borders.
719. Veronica officinalis, L. Excepting the last number, the
various species of Veronica are popularly known
as Speedwells,
Common ; fields and dry woods.
720. Veronica serpyllifolia, L.
Common; fields and roadsides.
7211 Veronica peregrina, L.
Common; damp soil.
722. Veronica arvensis, L.
Occasional ; fields and open woods.
723. Veronica agrestis, L.
Rare; persisting in garden of my old home at Ra¬
cine.
724. Veronica Virginica, L. (Leptandra Virginica, Rutt.)
Culver’s Root.
Common ; borders of woods and thickets.
725. Gerardia grandiflora, Benth. Foxglove.
Occasional; wooded hillsides.
726. Gerardia purpurea, L.
Common ; low grounds and springy banks.
727. Gerardia purpurea, L., var. paupercula, Gray. (G. pauper-
cula, Britton)
Rare ; boggy ground, Wind Lake, Racine Co.
728. Gerardia tenuifolia, Vahl.
Common ; moist meadows and springy banks. Often
associated with G. purpurea.
729. Gerardia auriculata, Michx.
Rare; roadsides and prairies.
730. Castilleja coccinea, Spreng. Painted Cup.
Common; prairies.
731. Pedicularis lanceolata, Michx. Lousewort.
Common ; swampy grounds.
866 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
732. Pedicularis Canadensis, L. Lousewort.
Common; in a variety of situations, prairies, copses
and open woods.
LentirulariacEuE. Bladderwort Family.
733. Utricnlaria vu.caris, L. Bladderwort.
Common; slow streams and wet ditches.
OROBANCHACEiE. Broomrape Family .
734. Conopholis Americana, Wallr. Squaw Root; Cancer
Root.
Rare; collected once near Somers, Kenosha Co., and
a second time near Horlicksville, Racine Co., both times
by Dr. Davis, to whom I am indebted for my herbarium
specimens. Both collections in woods.
735. Epiphegus Virginiana, Bart. Beech Drops.
Rare ; on roots of the Beech, at two or three stations.
Phrymaceje. Lopseed Family.
736. Phryma Leptostachya, L. Lopseed.
Common; open woods and thickets.
Pl ant agin ACE/E. Plaintain Family.
737. Plantago major, L. Plantain.
Common; lawns, roadsides, waste places. A trouble¬
some weed.
738. Plantago Rugelii, Dec. Plantain.
Common; same situations as the preceding and quite
as common. Easily distinguished from P. major by
its more attenuate spikes, occasionally forked at the
tip, purple petiole and utricle circuinscissile much be¬
low the middle.
Kot noted in Swezey’s list.
739. Plantago lanceolata, L. Ribgrass.
Rare; has established itself along roadsides and in
meadows.
Kot noted in Swezey’s list.
740. Plantago cor data, Lam.
Occasional ; low ground in woods and along streams.
Wadmond — Flora of Lacine and Kenosha Counties. 867
Rubiacoe^e. Madder Family .
741. Cephalanthus occidentalism L. Button Bush.
Common ; low grounds and swains.
742. Mitchella repens, L. Partridge Beir/.
Bare; roadside at Berryville, Kenosha Co., where
persists a little colony. The only known station.
743. Galium Aparine, L. Cleavers; Goose-grass. This plant
is blessed with only 75 English names! The
name Bedstraw is commonly applied to all the
species of the genus.
Common; moist, shaded places.
744. Galium circaezans, Michx. Wild Liquorice.
Bare; Dr. Davis (Second Suppl. List of Parasitic
Pungi of Wisconsin, pg. 169) has a Septoria, on this
host, collected at Bacine; precise locality unknown.
745. Galium boreale, L.
Bare; along C. M. & St. P. right-of-way, Burlington,
Wis. The only station.
746. Galium triflorum, Michx. Sweet-scented Bedstraw.
Common; woods.
747. Galium tinctorium, L. (G. trifidum, L., var. latifolium,
Torr.)
Common ; damp woods, springy hanks and wet
meadows.
748. Galium trifidum, L.
Bare; edge of tamarack swamp, Wind Lake, Bacine
Co. The only station noted.
749. Galium concinnum, T. & G.
Erequent; woods.
750. Galium asprellum, Michx.
Erequent; damp, shaded places and springy banks.
Caprifoliacese. Honeysuckle Family.
751. Sambucus Canadensis, L. Black-berried Elder.
Common; borders of woods and along fence rows,
preferring moist soil.
9— S. A.
868 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
752. Sambucus racemosa, L. (S. pubens, Michx.) Red-berried
Elder.
Occasional; low, open ground.
753. Viburnum Opulus, L. High Cranberry.
Rare; the only station for this species that now oc¬
curs to me is the shaded bank of a ravine running back
from the Lake, a couple of miles south of Racine.
754. Viburnum acerifolium, L. Arrow-wood.
Erequent; woods.
755. Viburnum pubescens, Pursh. Arrow-wood.
Occasional to frequent; woods and roadside thickets.
Our plant is a giabrate form, and would be referable
to V. dentatum, L., were it not for its very short-
petioled leaves.
756. Viburnum Lentago, L. Sheep-berry; Nanny-berry.
Common; woods, thickets and fence rows.
757. Viburnum prunifolium, L. Black Haw.
Occasional; same habitat as preceding.
758. Triostemum perfoliatum, L. Eeverwort; Horse Gentian.
Erequent; woods.
759. Symphoricarpos racemosus, Michx. Snowberry.
Occasional ; dry and rocky banks.
760. Lonicera glauca, Hill. The members of this genus are
commonly called Honeysuckle.
Common; woods and banks.
761. Lonicera Sullivantii, A. Gray.
Common; same habitat as the preceding.
762. Lonicera oblongifolia, Hook.
Rare; in thickets on edge of tamarack, Wind Lake,,
Racine Co.
763. Lonicera Tatarica, L.
Erequent; escaped from cultivation and well estab¬
lished, on dry hillsides, thicket borders etc.
764. Diervilla trifida, Moench. Bush Honeysuckle.
Erequent; woods at Horlicksville, where the Niagara
Limestone is very near the surface.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 869
Valeri ana CEiE . Valerian Family.
765. Valeriana edulis, Nutt. Valerian.
Common ; low, wet prairies.
CucukbitaceJE. Gourd Family.
766. Echinocystis lobata, T. & G. Wild Balsam Apple.
Common; low grounds and banks of streams.
767. Sicyos angulatus, L. Bur Cucumber; Star Cucumber.
Common; same habitat as the preceding.
Campanulace^. Bellflower Family.
768. Campanula rotundifolia, L. Harebell.
Bare; on limestone faces, Horlicksville, and on dry
banks at Burlington, Bacine Co.
769. Campanula rapunculoides, L.
Erequent; reported from Bacine for Swezey’s list by
Davis. Well established along roadsides at many lo¬
calities.
770. Campanula aparinoides, Pursh. Marsh Harebell.
Frequent; grassy swamps.
771. Campanula Americana, L. Tall Harebell.
Common; woods and thickets.
772. Specularia perfoliata, A. DC. Venus’ Looking-glass.
Bare; Dr. Davis (Suppl. List of Parasitic Fungi of
Wis., pg. 170) reports collecting a Septoria on this
host at Kansasville, Bacine Co. I have never seen it
within the area.
Lobeliace.e. Lobelia Family.
773. Lobelia cardinalis, L. Cardinal Flower.
Occasional to rare; moist soil, in shade.
774. Lobelia syphilitica, L. Great Blue Lobelia.
Common; low grounds.
775. Lobelia spicata, Lam.
Common; prairies.
776. Lobelia inflata, L. Indian Tobacco.
Common ; dry woods.
870 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
777. Lobelia Kalmii, L.
Frequent ; springy banks and wet meadows.
Composites. Composite Family.
778. Cichorium Intybus, L. Chicory.
Occasional to frequent; roadsides, well established.
779. Krigia amplexicaulis, Nutt. (Cynthia Virginica, Don.)
Frequent; rich woods.
780. Tragopogon pratensis, L. Goat’s Beard.
Bare; well established in a few localities along road¬
sides and railways. Not included in Swezey’s list.
Cheney reports the collection of but one individual
of this species in the State !
781. Taraxacum officinale, Weber. Dandelion.
Common; everywhere, in all kinds of soil.
782. Sonchus arvensis, L. Field Sow Thistle.
Bare ; in pasture-land bordering on Asylum Ave., Ba-
cine. Not seen elsewhere.
783. Sonchus oleraceus, L. Sow Thistle.
Common; waste places.
784. Sonchus asper, All. Spiny Sow Thistle.
Common ; waste places.
785. Lactuca Scariola, L. Prickly Lettuce.
Common; fields and waste places. A weed of the
i worst character. Not reported in Swezey’s list.
; Cheney reports it as spreading over all the older por¬
tions of the State.
786. Lactuca Canadensis, L. Wild Lettuce.
Common ; roadsides and waste ground, in rich soil.
787. Lactuca leucophaea, A. Gray.
Common; borders of woods.
788. Hieracium Canadense, Michx. Hawkweed.
Common; dry woods and banks.
789. Hieracium scabrum, Michx.
Bare; dry woodlands.
790. Prenanthes alba, L. (Nabalus albus, Hook.) Battle-
snake Boot.
Common; wood-borders.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 871
791. Prenanthes racemosa, Michx. (Xabalus racemosus, DC.)
Common; springy banks and low prairies.
792. Ambrosia trifida, L. Ragweed.
Common; roadsides and waste places.
793. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, L. Ragweed.
Cfommon ; waste grounds, and otften in cultivated
fields.
794. Xanthium strumarium, L. Cocklebur.
Common; waste places inland.
795. Xanthium Canadense, Mill. Cocklebur.
Common; in sand beach of Lake Michigan, and
waste places inland.
796. Vernonia fasciculata, Michx. Ironweed.
Common ; low grounds.
797. Eupatorium maculatum, L. Joe-pye Weed.
Common; low ground.
798. Eupatorium purpureum, L. Joe-pye Weed.
Common ; low grounds. Well distinguished from the
preceding.
799. Eupatorium perfoliatum, L. Boneset.
Common; low ground and wet places.
800. Eupatorium ageratoides, L. f. White Snakeroot.
Common; rich wuods.
801. Kuhnia glutinosa, Ell. (K. eupatorioides, L., var., corym-
bulosa, T. & G.)
Common; dry hillsides about Burlington, Racine Co.
Xot known from the eastern part of the area.
802. Liatris cylindracea, Michx. The members of this genus
are called Blazing Star.
Rare ; dry banks and hillsides, Burlington, Racine Co.
Xot known from the eastern section.
803. Liatris scariosa, Willd.
Common; prairies in dry soil. The long strict ra¬
cemes of rose-purple flowers render this and the follow¬
ing species very prominent in the summer floral aspect.
804. Liatris spicata, Willd.
Common ; prairies, in wetter ground than the pre¬
ceding.
872
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
805. Solidago caesia, L. The name Golden Rod is commonly
applied to all the members of this extensive
genus.
Rare; woods.
806. Solidago latifolia, L.
Common ; woods and shaded hillsides.
807. Solidago hispida, Muhl. (S. bicolor, L., var. concolor, T.
& G.)
Rare ; in limestone soil, Horlicksville, Racine Co.
The only station known.
808. Solidago speciosa, Nutt.
Rare; for several years I have observed a single
clump of this species in grassland bordering on De
Koven Ave. and the C. & N. W. R. R., Racine. The
only known station.
809. Solidago patula, Muhl.
Rare; low ground bordering on a now almost extinct
tamarack swamp, Racine city limits. Not remembered
from any other station.
810. Solidago ulmifolia, Muhl.
Common; woods and sheltered roadsides.
811. Solidago juncea, Ait.
Common ; dry banks and prairies. Our earliest
Golden-Rod.
812. Solidago serotina, Ait.
Common; thickets and banks, both moist and dry.
813. Solidago Missouriensis, Nutt.
Rare; C. E. Monroe reports the collection of this
species in Mt. Pleasant Township, Racine Co. Pre¬
served in the Herb, of the Milwaukee Public Museunu
814. Solidago Canadense, L.
Common ; fence-rows and roadsides.
815. Solidago nemoralis, Ait.
Common ; dry sterile soil. The least of our Golden-
Rods but one of the most beautiful.
816. Solidago rigida, L.
Common ; prairies, dry banks and roadsides.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 873
817. Solidago Ohioensis, Riddell.
Common; low prairies, often associated with the fol¬
lowing species.
818. Solidago Riddellii, Frank.
Common ; low prairies.
819. Solidago lanceolata, L. (Euthamia graminifolia, Hutt.)
Common; moist, low grounds.
820. Boltonia asteroides, L’LIer.
Frequent; low, wet places.
821. Aster divaricatus, L. (A. corymbosus, Ait.) All of this
genns called Wild Aster.
Rare; Dr. Davis (Snppl. List of Parasitic Fungi of
Wise., p. 157 reports collecting this as the host of an
Erysiphe. The writer has not seen this Aster within
our area.
822. Aster macrophyllus, L.
Common ; woodlands.
823. Aster Shortii, Hook.
Frequent; dry banks and wood borders. A handsome
species.
A southern species finding its northern limits in
Southern Wisconsin, which extends somewhat the range
allotted to it in Gray’s Man. and the Ill. Flora.
824. Aster azureus, Lindl.
Common; prairies.
825. Aster cordifolius, L.
Rare; known to the writer from a single station only,,
fence^row in shade, Ives, Racine Co.
826. Aster Drummondii, Lindl.
Common; open woods and roadsides.
827. Aster sagittifolius, Willd.
Rare ; in thin soil underlain by limestone at Horlicks-
ville quarries, Racine Co. The only known station.
828. Aster Hovae-Angliae, L. Hew England Aster.
Common; moist grounds.
829. Aster amethystinus, Hutt.
Rare ; one colony known from pasture-land near De
Koven Ave., Racine. The only station.
874 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
830. Aster puniceus, L.
Common ; swamps, ditches and wet places.
831. Aster prenanthoides, Mnhl.
Rare; roadside, along 12th St., Racine. Rot seen
elsewhere.
832. Aster laevis, L.
Common; dry prairies and roadsides.
833. Aster longifolins, Lam.
Rare; swamps and moist woods.
834. Aster sericeus, Vent.
Rare; prairies and dry banks, Gatliff and Burlington,
Racine Co.
835. Aster ptarmicoides, T. & G.
Common; prairies.
836. Aster ptarmicoides, T. & G., var. lutescens, Gray.
Rare; a sheet in herb, of C. E. Monroe, Milwaukee,
Wis., collected on prairie near Gatliff, Racine Co. The
writer has never seen this yellow-flowered form.
837. Aster salicifolius, Lam.
Common ; low grounds.
838. Aster paniculatus, Lam.
Common; low grounds.
839. Aster Eaxoni, Porter.
Rare; I include this on the statement of C. E. Mon¬
roe of Milwaukee, who has specimens of this species in
his herbarium from Zion City, Ill., and says it un¬
doubtedly comes over the line into Kenosha Co., al¬
though he has no specimens from our area.
840. Aster diffusus, Ait. (A. later iflorus, Britton.)
Common; roadsides and wood-borders.
8^1'. Aster diffusus, Ait, (A. lateriflorus, Britton) var.
thyrsoideus, A. Gray.
Common; roadsides and shaded thickets.
842. Aster vimineus, Lam.
Dr. Davis (2nd Suppl. List Parasitic Fungi of Wise.,
pg. 169) reports a Septoria on this host, collected at
Racine.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 875'
843. Aster multiflorus, Ait.
Common ; fields and roadsides, in dry soil.
844. Aster commutatus, A. Gray (Syn. FI. 1 : Part 2, 185..
1884) (A. incanopilosus, Sheldon.)
C. E. Monroe, Milwaukee reports having this speci¬
men collected by him west of Corliss, Bacine Co., on C.
M. & St. P. right of way.
845. Aster angustus, T. & G. (Brachyactis angustus, Britton)
Frequent; waste places, introduced from the west and
spreading rapidly. First noted by Dr. Davis in sand
lots and wastes at month of Boot Biver, north of the
harbor. It has now entirely disappeared at this sta¬
tion, but is common along and near railway lines through¬
out the city. Has also taken possession of several
abandoned quarry workings in limestone pits at Hor-
licksville, at the Bapids of Boot Biver. Hot noted in
Swezey’s list.
846. Aster umbellatus, Mill. (Doellingeria umbellata, Bees.)
Common ; moist prairie thickets and low grounds.
847. Erigeron bellidifolius, Muhl. Bobin’s Plantain.
Occasional ; prairies and dry woods.
848. Erigeron Philadelphicus, L. Fleabane.
Common; fields and woods. Much commoner with
us than the preceding.
849. Erigeron annuus, Pers. Daisy Fleabane.
Common; fields and waste places.
850. Erigeron strigosus, Muhl. Daisy Fleabane.
Common; same habitat as preceding.
851. Erigeron Canadensis, L. (Leptilon Canadense, Britton)
Horseweed.
Common ; waste grounds and fields.
852. Antennaria neglecta, Greene. Lady’s Tobacco.
Common; dry hills.
853. Antennaria fallax, Greene. (Pittonia, iii. 321) Lady’s>
Tobacco.
Common ; dry hillsides and pastures.
876 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
854. Gnaphalium polycephalum, Michx. Everlasting; Cud¬
weed.
Common; dry fields and open woods.
855. Inula Helenium, L. Elecampane.
Rare ; collected once, only, in pasture, near Ives,
Racine Co.
856. Polymnia Canadensis, L. Leaf-cup.
Rare; hillsides in rich woods. Known from three
stations, one just west of Racine, the other two near
Somers, Kenosha Co.
In Swezey’s list reported from Milwaukee, only.
857. Silphium perfoliatum, L. Cup-plant.
Rare; known only from one station, that along banks
of Pike Creek near its mouth in Kenosha Co.
• 858. Silphium integrifolium, Michx.
Common; prairies.
>859. Silphium laciniatum, L. Compass-plant; Rosin-weed.
Common; prairies. Conspicuous on account of its
extreme size and large yellow flowers. Its laciniate
leaves are arranged with reference to morning and even¬
ing light.
• 860. Silphium terebinthinaceum, Jacq. Prairie Dock.
Common; prairies. Equally as conspicuous as the
foregoing.
2861. Parthenium integrifolium, L.
Common; prairies.
862. Heliopsis scabra, Dunal. Ox Eye.
Common ; low grounds and waste places,
:863. Rudbeckia hirta, L. Cone-fiower; Black-eyed Susan.
Common; fields and meadows throughout.
• 864. Rudbeckia laciniata, L. Tall Cone-Elower.
Common ; banks of streams and in moist places.
:865. Lepachys pinnata, T. & G. Cone-flower.
Common; prairies, roadsides and dry banks.
>866. Helianthus annuus, L. The name Sunflower is applied
commonly to all the members of this genus.
Common; escaped from cultivation and well-estab¬
lished in many localities.
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 877
■867. Helianthus scaberrimus, Ell.
Common; prairies and roadsides.
868. Helianthus rigidus, Desf.
Common; prairies. Mr. Fernald evidently considers
this distinct from the preceding, for in passing upon
some Sunflowers I had sent him, he called one H. rigidus
and the other H. scaberrimus !
869. Helianthus Occident alis, Riddell.
Common; prairies and dry hillsides.
870. Helianthus giganteus, L.
Dr. Davis’ herbarium contains a sheet which seems
referable to this species, collected at Racine in 1878.
871. Helianthus Maximiliani, Schrad. )
C. E. Monroe, Milwaukee, reports the collection of
this Sunflower in Mt. Pleasant Township, Racine Co.
Specimen in the herbarium of the Milwaukee Public
Museum.
872. Helianthus grosse-serratus, Martens.
Common; prairies and roadsides.
873. Helianthus decapetalus, L.
Rare; Dr. Davis has collected at Racine a Sunflower
which seems to belong here.
874. Helianthus strumosus, L., var. mollis, T. & G.
Common; dry banks and thickets.
875. Helianthus hirsutus, Raf.
Dr. Davis’ herbarium contains a sheet of this species
collected at Racine in 1879. The writer has never
seen within the area a Sunflower which he believed
could be referred here.
876. Helianthus tuberosus, L. Jerusalem Artichoke.
Common; dry ground and fence-rows.
877. Coreopsis palmata, Hutt.
Common; prairies and dry hillsides.
878. Bidens cernua, L. Bur Marigold.
Common; low, wet grounds.
879. Bidens connata, Muhl. Beggarticks; Sticktight.
Common ; moist and waste places.
878 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
880. Bidens frondosa, L. Beggarticks; Sticktight.
Common; in moist soil, often getting into fields.
881. Bidens trichosperma, Britton. (Coreopsis trichosperma,,
Michx.-
Bare; low grounds and wet meadows.
882. Bidens trichosperma, Britton, var. tenuiloba, Gray.
Bare; low meadow, Wind Lake, Bacine Co. The
only station.
883. Helenium autumnale, L. Sneezeweed.
Common; swamps and low grounds.
884. Helenium, tenuifolium, Butt.
Bare; a single plant collected along railroad right-
of-way at Bacine Jet. Probably a waif, as our area is
many miles north of its northern limits.
885. Achillea Millefolium, L. Yarrow; Milfoil.
Common ; fields and roadsides. The rose-colored
form occurs occasionally.
886. Anthemis Cotula, L. Mayweed
Common; in waste grounds, cultivator fields a rid
along roadsides.
88J. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. Ox eye Daisy,
Whiteweed.
Common; pastures, meadows and waste places. A
bad weed East ; not so much so with us.
888. Chrysanthemum Balsamita, L.
Bare; persisting for years along roadside west of
Berryville, Kenosha Co. The only station noted.
889. Tanacetum vulgare, L. Tansy.
Occasional ; roadsides.
890. Artemisia biennis, Willd. Wormwood.
E requent ; waste grounds.
891. Erechtites hieracifolia, Baf. Eireweed.
Occasional ; pastures and waste places.
892. Cacalia reniformis, Muhl. Great Indian Plantain.
Occasional or rare ; rich woods.
893. Cacalia tuberosa, Hutt. Tuberous Indian Plantain.
Common; prairies.'
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 879
-894. Senecio aureus, L. Golden Ragwort; Squaw-weed.
Occasional; rich woods.
895. Senecio aureus, L., var. gracilis, Britton.
Common; low prairies.
896. Senecio vulgaris, L. Groundsel.
Rare; persisting for years in garden of my old home
at Racine.
897. Arctium minus, Schk. Burdock.
Common; waste places.
898. Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. Bull Thistle.
Common; pastures, fields and open woods.
899. Cnicus altissimus, Willd. Tall Thistle.
Common; fields and open woods.
'900. Cnicus altissimus, Willd., var. discolor, Gray. (C. dis¬
color, Muhl.) Field Thistle.
Common; same habitat as preceding.
*901. Cnicus arvensis, Hoffm. Canada Thistle.
Common; cultivated fields, pastures and roadsides.
A bad weed, difficult to eradicate, but which our farmers
do not combat as they should.
880 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
INDEX.
Abutilon . 562
Acalypha . 529
Acer . 546-549
Acerates . 659-661
Achillea . * . 885
Acnida . 350
Acorns . 192
Actaea . 374, 375
Adam-and-EYe . 254
Adder’s Tongue . 217, 218
Adiantum . 18
Adlumia . 407
Agrimonia . 467
Agrimony . 467
Agropyron . Ill, 112
Agrostemma . 355
Agrostis . 80, SI
Alder . 285
Black . 541
Alfalfa . 489
Alisma . 39
Alleghany Vine . 407
Allium . 212-214
Alnus . 285
Alopecurus . 77
Alum-root . 436
Amaranthus . 345-349
Ambrosia . 792, 793
Amelanchier . 474 , 475
Amorpha . 497
Ampelopsis . 558
Amphicarpaea . 515
Andromeda . 628
Andropogon . 43, 44
Anemone . 378-381
Rue . 384
Wood . 381
Anemonella . 384
Angelica . 600
Antennaria . 852, 853
Anthemis . 886
Apios . 516
Aplectrum . 254
Apocynum . 649, 650
Apple, Balsam . 766
Crab . 472
May . 403
Thorn . 475-478
Apple-of-Peru . 703
Aquilegia . 376
Arabis . 426-428
Aralia . . 594-598
Arbor Vitae . 28
Arctium . 897
Arenaria . 364^366’
Arisaema . 189, 199
Arrhenatherum . 85
Arrow-grass . . . 37, 38
Arrow-head . . 40, 41
Arrow- wood . 754, 755
Artemisia . 899
Artichoke, Jerusalem . 876
Asarum . 308 , 309
Asclepias . 651-658
Ash . 640, 641
Prickly . 523
Asparagus . 219
Aspen . 261, 262
Aspidium . 10-13
Asplenium . 17
Asprella . 119
Aster . 821-845
amethystinus . 829
angustus . 845
azureus . 824
commutatus . 844
cordifolius . 825
corymbosus . 821
diffusus . 849-841
divaricatus . 821
Drummondii . 826
Faxoni . 839
incanopilus . 844
laevis . 832
lateriflorus . 840, 841
longifolius . 833
macrophyllus . 822
multiflorus . 843
New England . . 828
Novae-Angliae . 828
paniculatus . 838
prenanthoides . 831
ptarmicoides . 835, 836
puniceus . 830
sagittifolius . 827
salicifolius . 837
sericeus . ...834
Shortii . 823
umbellatus . 846
vimineus . 842
Astragalus . 501, 502
Atriplex . 341, 342
Avena . 84
Avens, Purple . 462
White . 463 , 464|
Yellow . . . . . 465 , 466
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 881
Balm of Gilead . 260
Balsam . 551, 552
Baneberry . 374, 375
Baptisia . 487 , 488
Barbarea . 416
Basswood . 559
Beard-tongue . 714
Bedstraw . . 743-750
Beecb . 286
Beecb Drops . 735
Beggar’s Lice . 670
Beggarticks . 879, 880
Bellwort . 211
Bergamot, Wild . 692
Berteroa . 429
Berula . 618
Betula . 281-284
Bidens . 878-882
Bindweed . 662, 663
Black . 332
Birch . 281-284
Bishop’s Cap . . 437
Bitternut . 257
Bitter-sweet . 707
Climbing . 544
Blackberry . 451, 452
Black-eyed-Susan . 862
Bladdernut . 545
Bladderwort . 733
Blazing Star . 802-804
Blephilia . 693, 694
Bloodroot . 405
Blueberry . 632 , 633
Blue-joint . 82
Boehmeria . 304, 305
Boltonia . 820
Boneset . 799
Botrychium . 1, 2
Bouncing Bet . 360
Bouteloua . 88
Box Elder . 550
Brachyactis . 845
Brachyelytrum . 75
Brake . 19
Cliff . 20
Brasenia . 367
Brassica . 413-415
Bromus . 107-110
Brunella . 686
Buckbean . 648
Buckthorn . 553, 554
Buckwheat . 317
Climbing False . 333
Bugle-weed . 699
Bugseed ' . 343
Bulrush . 132
Burdock . 897
Burning-bush . 543
Bur-reed . 32
Butter-and-Eggs . 710
Buttercup . 386-398
Butterfly-weed . 651
Butternut . 256
Button-bush . 741
Cabbage, Skunk . 191
Cacalia . 892, 893
Cakile . 412
Calamagrostis . 82
Calamintha . 696
Callitriche . 535
Caltha . 371
Camelina . 425-
Campanula . 768-771
Campion, Starry . 356
Cancer-root . 734
Cannabis . 299
Cap sell a . 424
Caraway . 6?4
Cardamine . 420-422"
Cardinal-flower . 773
Carex aquatilis . 155
aristata . 150
aurea . 166
cephaloidea . 179
cephalophora . 180
comosa . 148
Crawei . 162
cristatella . . 186
Deweyana . 183
festucacea . 188
filiformis . 152
fusca . 153
gracillima . 158
granularis . 161
grisea . 160
hystricina . 147
interior . 181
intumescens . 139
Jamesii . 170
lanuginosa . 152
laxiflora . 164, 165
longirostris . 159 -1
lupuliformis . 141
lupulina . 140
Magellanica . 156
monile . 144
Pennsylvanica . 168
polytrichoides . 171
pubeseens . 169
retrorsa . 146
Richardsoni . 167
riparia . 151
rosea . 176, 177
rostrata . 142, 143
Sartwellii . 174
sparganioides . 178
stipata . 172
straminea . 187, 188
stricta . 154
.882 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters,
tenella . 175
tenuiflora . 182
tetanica . 163
tribuloides . 184-186
trichocarpa . 149
Tuckermani . 145
utriculata . 112, 113
vesicaria . 144
yirescens . 157
vulpinoidea . 173
*Carpe tweed . 352
Carpinus . 277
-Carrion-flower . 232
'Carrot . 599
Carum . 614
Carya . 257, 258
^Cassandra . 629
Cassia . 484
Castalia . 369
Castilleja . 730
Catchfly, Night-flowering . 358
Sleepy . 357
Catnip . 684
Cat-tail . 31
Caulophyllum . 401
Ceanothus . 555
Cedar, Red . 30
Celastrus . 544
Celtis . 297
Cenchrus . 59
Cephalanthus . 741
Cerastium . 362, 363
Charlock . 414
Cheat . 110
Cheeses . 560
Chelone . 713
Chenopodium . 335-339
'Cherry, Black . 483
Choke . 482
Red . 481
Ground . 704, 705
Chess . 109-110
Chickweed . 361
Mouse-ear . 362
Chicory . 778
Chokeberry . 473
Chrysanthemum . 887 , 888
Chrysopogon . 45
C'ichorium . 778
Cicuta . . . 615, 616
Cinna . 79
Cinquefoil . 455-458
Circaea . 590, 591
Claytonia . 353
Clearweed . 303
Cleavers . 743
Clematis . 385
Clintonia . 220
Clover . 493-496
Bush . 507
Prairie . . . 498 , 499
Sweet . 491, 492
Cnicus . 898-901
Cockle, Corn . ‘355
Cocklebur . 794 , 795
Coffee-tree, Kentucky . 486
Cohosh, Blue . 401
Columbine . 376
Comandra . 307
Compass-plant . 859
Cone-flower . 863-865
Conopholis . 734
Convolvulus . 662, 663
C'optis . 372
Coral-root . 253
Corallorhiza . 253
Coreopsis . 877
Corispermum . 343
Cornel . 620^624
Cornus . 620-623
C’orylus . 279, 280
Cottonwood . 263
Cowslip . 371
Crab Apple . 472
Cranberry . 634
High . 753
Cranesbill . 517, 518
Crataegus . 475-478
Creeping Charley . 685
Cress, Bitter . 420-422
Marsh . 417
Rock . 426 , 427
Spring . 421, 422
Water . 418
Winter . 416
Crowfoot . 386-398
Crypto taenia . 617
Cucumber, Bur . 767
Star . 767
Cucumber-root, Indian . 227
Cudweed . 854
Culver’s Root . 724
Cup-plant . 857
Currant, Black . 442
Golden . 444
Red . 443
Cuscuta . 664
Cycloloma . 340
Cynoglossum . 668
Cynthia . 779
Cyperus . 120-123
Cypripedium . 239-242
Cystopteris . 8, 9
Dactylis . 94
Daisy, Ox-eye . 887
Dandelion . 781
Danthonia . 85
Daucus . 599
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 883
Dead-nettle . 689
Decodon . 580
Delphinium . 377
Dentaria . 423
Descliampsia . 83
Desmodium . 503-506
Dicentra . 408
Diervilla . . . 764
Dioscorea . 236
Dirca . 578
Dock . . 311-316
Prairie . 860
Spatter . 368
Dodder . 664
Dodecatheon . 639
Doellingeria . 846
Dogbane . 649
Dogwood . 620-623
Doorweed . 329
Dragon-head, False . 687
Dragon-root . 190
Drosera . 432
Duckweed . . 193-195
Dulichium . 124
Dutchman’s Breeches . 406
Eatonia . 92
Echinocystis . 766
Echinospermum . 669, 670
Elder . 751, 752
Box . 550
Elecampane . 855
Eleocharis . . 125-130
Elm . 295 , 296
Elodea . 42
Elodes . 567
Elymus . 114-118
Enchanter’s Nightshade . 590, 591
Epilobium . 584-587
Epiphegus . 735
Equisetum . 22-26
Eragrostis . 90, 91
Erechtites . 891
Erigenia . 619
Erigeron . 847-851
Eriophorum . 137
Eryngium . 605
Erythronium . 217, 218
Euonymus . 543
Eupatorium . 797-800
Euphorbia . 530^534
Euthamia . 819
Everlasting . 854
Fagopyrum . . 317
Fagus . 286
False Mermaid . 536
Fern, Beech . 14, 15
Bladder . 8
Christmas . 10
Cinnamon . 5
Grape . 1, 2
Interrupted . 4
Lady . 17
Maidenhair . 18
Oak . 16
Ostrich . 7
Royal . 3
Sensitive . 6
Shield . 11-13
Fescue . 104^106
Festuca . 104-106
Feverwort . 758
Figwort . 711, 712
Fire-weed . . 584, 891
Five-finger . 460-461
Flag, Blue . .237
Sweet . 192
Flax . 521, 522
False . 425
Fleabane . 848-850
Floerkea . 536
Fog-fruit . 677
Forget-me-not . 671
Foxtail . 57
Floating . 77
Foxglove . 725
Fragaria . 453, 454
Fraxinus . 640 , 641
Fumaria . 408
Fumitory . 408
Galium . 743-750
Garlic, Wild . 214
Gaultheria . 630
Gaylussacia . 631
Gentian . 642-647
Fringed . 642 , 643
Horse . 758
Gentiana . 642-647
Geranium . 517, 518
Gerardia . 725-729
Germander . 678
Geum . 462-466
Ginger, Wild . '... 308 , 309
Ginseng . 597
Gleditschia . 485
Glyceria . 101-103
Gnaphalium . 854
Goat’s Beard . 780
Golden-rod . 805-819
Golden Seal . 370
Gold-thread . 372
Goodyera . 252
Gooseberry . 439-441
Goosefoot . 335-338
Grape, Wild . 556 , 557
Grass .
Barnyard . 48
10— S. A
884 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters ,
Beard . . . 43, 44
Blue . . . 96, 97
Blue-eyed . 238
Blue-joint . 82
Bottle-brush . 119
Brome . 107, 108
Bur . 59
Canary . 63, 65
Cord . 87
Cotton . 137
Couch . Ill
Crab . 46
Cut . 61, 62
Drop-seed . 74
Fescue . 104-106
Foxtail . 57
Goose . 743
Hair . 81
Hedgehog . 59
Holy . 66
Indian . 45
June . 97
Meadow . 98
Fowl . 101-103
Millet . 70
Nut, Yellow . 121
Oat . 85
Oat, Wild . 86
Old-witch . 55
Orchard . 94
Pigeon . 56
Porcupine . 67
Quitch . Ill
Reed, Wood . 79
Ribbon . 64
Slough . 139-188
Spear . 95
Squirrel-tail . 113
Star, Water . 198
Yellow . 235
White . 61
Wire . 96
Wool . ....136
Grass-of-Parnassus . 438
Greenbrier . 234
Green-dragon . 190
Ground-nut . 516, 598
Groundsel . 896
Gum, Sour . 624
Gymnocladus . 486
Habenaria . 244-249
Hackberry . 297
Hamamelis . 445
Harbinger-of-spring . 619
Harebell . 768-771
Haw, Black '. . 757
Hawkweed . 788, 789
Hazel, Witch . 445
Hazelnut . 279 , 280
Heal-all . 686
Hedeoma . 695
Helenium . 883, 884
Helianthus . 866-876
Heliopsis . 862
Hemlock, Water . 615, 616
Hemp . 299
Indian . 650
Water . 350
Hepatica . 382, 383
Heracleum . 602
Hercules’ Club . 594
Heteranthera . 198
Heuchera . 436
Hibiscus . 563
Hickory . 257, 258
Hieracium . 788, 789
Hierochloe . 66
Holly, Mountain . 642
Honewort . 617
Honeysuckle . 760l-763
Bush . 764
Hop . 298
Hop-tree . 524
Hordeum . 113
Horehound, Water . 700
Hornbeam, Hop . 278
Horseradish . 419
Horse-tail . 22-25
Horseweed . 851
Hound’s-tongue . 668
Huckleberry . 631
Humulus . 298
Hydrastis . 370
Hydrophyllum . 667
Hypericum . 564-586
Hypoxis . 235
Hyssop, Giant . 683
Ilex . 541
Ilysanthes . 716
Impatiens . . . 551, 552
Indian-pipe . 627
Indian Turnip . 189
Indigo, False . 487, 488
Inula . 855
Iris . 237
Ironweed . 796
Iron-wood . 277
Isopyrum . 373
Ivy, Ground . 685
Poison . 540
Jack-in-the'-pulpit . 189
Jeffersonia . 402
Jewel- weed . 551, 552
Joe-Pye weed . / . 797, 798
Juglans . . 255, 256
Juncus . 199-208
June-berry . . 474 , 475
W admond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties . 885
Juniper . .
Juniperus .
Ivnotweed .
ICoeleria .
Krigia .
Kuhnia .
Lactuca . .'
Lady’s-slipper ..
Lady’s-thumb ...
Lady’s-tobacco .
Lady’s-tresses . .
Lamb’s Quarters
Lamium .
Laportea .
Larix .
Larkspur .
Lathyrus .
Lead-plant .
Leaf-cup .
Leather-leaf —
Leather-wood ...
Lechea .
Leek, Wild .
Leersia .
Lemna .
Leonurus .
Lepachys .
Lepidium .
Lespedeza .
Lettuce .
Prickly .
Liatris .
Lilium .
Lily, Canada _
Pond .
Red .
Water .
Linaria .
Linurn .
Lippia .
Liquorice, Wild
Lithospermum .
Live-for-ever _
Liver-leaf .
Lobelia .
Locust .
Honey .
Lonicera .
Loosestrife .
Swamp .
Lophanthus .
Lopseed .
Lousewort .
Ludwigia .
Luzula .
Lychnis .
Lycium . .
Lycopus ...
Lysimachia
Ly thrum ..
329, 331
. 93
_ 779
_ 801
. 785-787
..... 239-242
. 323
.... 852, 853
.... 250, 251
. 335
. 689
. 30 2
. 27
. 377
. 511-514
. 497
. 858
. 6vy
. 578
. 568
. 212
. 61, 62
.... 194, 195
. 688
. 865
. 400
. . 507
.... 786, 787
. 785
_ 802-804
... 215, 216
. 216
... 368, 369
. . 215
. . 369
. 710
... 521, 522
. 677
. . 744
.... 672, 673
. 433
.... 382, 383
. 773-777
. 500
. 485
. 760-763
581, 635-637
. 580
. 683
. . 736
.... 731, 732
..... 582 , 583
. . 209
... 355, 359
. 708
Maianthemum .
Maidenhair .
Mallow .
Malva . . —
Mandrake .
Maple .
Marigold, Bur .
Marsh .
Matrimony Vine .
May Apple ..., .
Mayflower .
Mayweed .
Meadow-sweet .
Medeola .
Medicago .
Medick .
Melilotus .
Menispermum .
Mentha .
Menyanthes .
Mercury, Three-seeded
Mermaid-weed . .
Milfoil . . .
Water .
Milium .
Milkweed . .
Green .
Milkwort .
Millet .
Italian .
Mimulus .
Mint .
Mountain .
Spear .
Mitchella .
Mi tel la .
Mollugo .
Monarda .
Monkey-flower .
Monotropa .
Moonseed . .
Moose-wood . . .
Morning Glory .
Motherwort .
Muhlenbergia .
Mullein .
Mustard .
Black . .
Hedge .
Myosotis .
Myriophyllum .
Nabalus .
Nanny-berry .
Nasturtium .
Negundo .
699, 700
.... 637
.... 581
. 223
. 18
560, 561
560, 561
. 403
..546-549
. 878
. 371
. 708
. 403
382, 383
. 886
. 447
. 227
489, 490
. 490
491', 492
. 404
701, 702
. 648
. 529
. 502
. 885
. 598
. 70
. 651-658
. 659-661
525, 526
. 54
. 58
. 715
. 702
697, 698
. 701
. 742
..... 437
. 352
. 692
. 715
. 627
. 404
. 578
. 662
. 688
.. 71, 74
. 709
. 414
. 413
. 410
. 671
. 593
790, 791
. 756
. 417-419
_ 550
886 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,
Nemopanthes .
Nepeta .
Nettle . ; _
Dead .
False .
Hedge . .
Wood .
Nicandra .
Nightshade ....
Enchanter’s .
Ninebark .
Nuphar .
Nymphaea _
Nyssa .
Oak .
Jerusalem ...,
Oat, Wild .
Oenothera .
Onion, Wild ..
Onoclea . .
Orange-root _
Orchis . .
Fringed .
Green .
Showy . .
Oryzopsis . .
Osier, Golden .,
Osmorrhiza —
Osmunda .
Ostrya .
Oxalis .
Ox-eye .
Oxybaphus -
Painted-cup ...
Panicum .
Papoose-root ..
Parietaria .
Parnassia .
Parsnip .
Cow .
Meadow .
Water .
Parthenium ...
Partridge-berry
Pastinaca .
Pea, Beach ...
Sensitive —
Sweet .
Peanut, Hog ..
Pedicularis _
Pellaea .
Pellitory .
Pennyroyal . . .
Penthorum ....
Pentstemon ...
Pepper, Water
Peppergrass ...
Pepperidge ....
. 542
684, 685
800, 301
. 689
304, 305
690, 691
. 302
. 70b
. 706
590, 591
. 446
. 368
. 369
. 624
. 289-2^4
. 339’
. 84
588, 589
. 213
.... 6, 7
. 370
. 243
248, 249
. 245-247
. 243
.. 68, 69
. 267
609, 610
. 3-5
. 278
519, 520
..... 862
. 351
. 730
... 46-55
. 401
. 306
. 438
. 603
. 602
. 612
611, 618
. 861
. 742
. 603
. 511
. 484
. 512
..... 515
731, 732
. 20
. 306
. 695
. 434
. 714
324, 325
. 409
. 624
Pepper-root .
Petalostemon ......
Phalaris .
Phegopteris . .
Phleum .
Phlox .
Phragmites .
Phryma . .
Physalis . .
Physocarpus . .
Physostegia .
Pignut .
Pigweed . .
Winged . .
Pilea . .
Pimpernel, False .
Pimpinella .
Pinweed .
Pitcher-plant .
Plantago .
Plantain .
Indian .
Rattlesnake .
Robin’s . .
Water .
Pleurisy-root .
Plum, Wild .
Poa .
Podophyllum .
Polanisia .
Polygala .
Polygonatum .
Polygonum . .
Polymnia .
Polypodium . .
Polypody . . .
Polytaenia .
Pondweed . .
Poplar, White —
Populus . .
Portulaca .
Potamogeton .
Potentilla .
Prenanthes .
Primrose, Evening
Prince’s Feather ..
Proserpinaca .
Prunella . .
Prunus .
Ptelea .
Pteris .
Puccoon .
Purslane .
Water . .
Pussley .
Pycnanthemum ....
Pyrola .
Pyrus .
Quercus .
. 423
. 498, 499
. 63-65
. 14-16
. 76
. 68>5, 665
. 89
. 736
. 704, 705
. 446
. . 687
. 257
335, 336, 345-347
. 340
. 303
. 716
. 608
. 568
. 431
. 737-740
. 737-740
. . 892, '893
. . 252
. 847
. 39
. 651
. 479, 480
. . 95-100
. 40 3
. 430
. . 525-528
. 225, 226
. 318-334
. 856
. 21
. 21
. . 604
. 33-30
. 259-263
. 354
... 33-36
. 455-461
790, 791
. 588
. 327
. 592
. 686
. 479-483
. 524
. 19
672, 673
. 354
582, 583
. 354
697, 698
625, 626
472, 473
, 287-294
Wadmond — Flora of Racine and Kenosha Counties. 887
Ragweed .
Ragwort .
Ranunculus ....
Raspberry .
Rattlesnake-root
Redtop .
False .
Reed .
..Bur .
Rhamnus .
Rhus . .
Rhynchospora .
Ribes .
Ribgrass . .
Rice, Indian ....
Mountain . .
Wild .
Robinia . .
Rocket, Sea .
Yellow . .
Rosa .
Rose . .
Rosin-weed . .
Rubus .
Rudbeckia .
Rue, Meadow ...
Rumex .
Rush .
Beak .
Scouring .
Spike .
Wood .
Yard .
Rye, Wild ......
Sagittaria .
St. John’s Wort
Salix .
Salsola .
Sambucus .
Sandwort .
Sanguinaria _
Sanicula .
Sanicle .
Saponaria .
Sarracenia .
Sarsaparilla _
Saxifraga . .
Saxifrage .
Scirpus .
Scrophularia ...
Scutellaria .
Sedge .
Sedum .
Self-heal . .
Seneeio . .
Sensitive Pea ...
Setaria .
Sheep-berry .
Shepherdia . .
792, 793
. 894
, 386-398
. 448-450
. 790
. 99
. 89
. 32
553, 554
. 537-540
. 138
. 439-444
. 739
. 500
. 412
. 416
. 468-471
. 468-471
. 859
. 448-452
862, 863
399, 400
. 310-316
. 199-208
. 138
. 25
. 125-130
. 209
. 203
. 114-118
.. 40, 41
..564-567
. 264-276
. 344
751, 752
. 364-366
. 405
606, 607
606, 607
. 360
. 431
. 596
. 435
. 435
. 131-136
711. 712
. 679^682
. 139-188
. 433
. 686
. 894-896
. 484
... 56-58
. 756
. 579
Shepherd’s Purse
Shin-leaf .
Shooting-star _
Sickle-pod .
Sicyos .
Silene .
Silphium .
Silver-weed .
Sisymbrium .
Sisyrinchium ....
Sium .
Skullcap .
Skunk-cabbage ...
Smartweed .
Smilacina .
Smilax .
Snakeroot .
Button .
Seneca .
White .
Sneezeweed .
Snowberry .
Solanum .
Solidago bicolor .
caesia .
Canadensis .
hispida .
juncea .
lanceolata .
latifolia .
Missouriensis ...
nemoralis .
Ohioensis .
patula . .
Riddellii .
rigida .
serotina . .
speciosa .
ulmifolia .
Solomon’s-seal ...
False . . .
Sonchus . .
Sorrel, Sheep -
Wood . . .
Sour-g-um .
Sparganium . .
Spartina . .
Spatterdock .
Spearmint . .
Specularia . .
Speedwell . .
Spiderwort . .
Spikenard . .
Spiraea .
Spiranthes . .
Spirodela . .
Sporobolus . .
Spring-beauty _
Spurge . .
Squaw-root . .
. 424
. 625
. 639
. 428
. 767
. 356-358
. 857-860
..... 459
410, 411
. 238
. 611
. .679-682
. 191
325, 326
221, 222
. 232-234
. 605
527, 528
. 800
. 883
. 759
706, 707
. 807
. 805
. 814
. 807
. 811
. 819
. 813
. 815
. 817
. 809
. 818
. 816
. 812
. 808
. 810
225, 226
. 221-223
. 782-784
. 310
519, 520
. 624
. 32
. 87
. 368
. 701
. 772
. 717-723
. 197
. 595
. 447
250, 251
. 193
. 78
. 353
. 530-534
. 734
888 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Squaw-weed .
Stachys . .
Staphylea . .
Starflower . <
Star-grass, Water .
Yellow . .
Starwort, Water
Steironema .
Stellaria .
Stickseed .
Stick-tight .
Stipa .
Strawberry, Wild
Streptopus .
Sugarberry .
Sumach .
Sundew .
Sunflower .
Susan, Black-eyed
Sweetbrier .
Sweet-cicely .
Sweet-flag .
Sweet William .
Symphoricarpus ...
Symplocarpus .
Tamarack .
Tanacetum .
Tansy .
Taraxacum .
Tea, New Jersey .
Tear-thumb .
Teucrium .
Thalictrum .
Thistle .
Bull .
Canada .
Russian .
Sow .
Thuja .
Tiedemannia .
Tilia .
Timothy .
Toad-flax, Bastard
Tobacco, Indian ..
Lady’s .
Tofieldia .
Tooth wort .
Touch-me-not .
Tradescantia .
Tragopogon .
Trefoil, Tick .
Trientalis .
Trifolium .
Triglochin .
Trillium .
Triostemum .
Tumbleweed .
Turnip .
Indian .
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II, NO. 2
Ifli
•^lftsonian Ins///
W,
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1909
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
Transactions, Vol. XVI, Part II, No. 2.
The Harrowing- of Hell in Liturgical Drama, Karl Young
John of Salisbury’s Attitude Towards the Classics, <
THE HARROWING OF HELL IN LITURGICAL DRAMA.
KARL YOUNG
University of Wisconsin.
The place of the story of the Harr owing of Hell in mediaeval
literature in general1 2 and in mediaeval vernacular drama in
particular3 * * * * 8 has been comprehensively reviewed, and in many
details exhaustively investigated. So far as mediaeval vernacu¬
lar drama is concerned, the attention to this theme has followed
inevitably upon the widespread diffusion of the Harrowing of
Hell story in mediaeval dramatic cycles. However, except for
a few scattered references and a few printed texts, the place of
this story in the liturgical drama that underlies the principal
vernacular developments has not yet been expounded.3 In the
1 See R. P. Wulcker, Das Evangelium Nieodemi in der abendldndischen
Literatur, Paderborn, 1872; J. Monnier, La Descente aux Enfers , Paris,
1905; W. H. Hulme, The Middle-English Harrowing of Hell and Gospel
of Nicodemus, London, 1908, pp. lx-lxx; E. K. Rand, Sermo de
Confusione Diaboli, in Modern Philology , Vol. II (1904), pp. 266-267.
2 See Monnier, pp. 211-245; Wulcker, pp. 60-95; W. Creizenach, Ge-
schichte des Neueren Dramas, Vol. I. Halle, 1893, pp. 108-361 passim ;
E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, Oxford, 1903, Vol. II, pp. 74-5;
W. Meyer, Fragmenta Burana, Berlin, 1901, pp. 61-64, 98-104. A study
of the place of the Harrowing of Hell theme in mediaeval drama is
expected from the hand of Professor W. H. Hulme. See Hulme, op.
cit., p. xxi, note 1.
8 On the Harrowing of Hell in liturgical drama see Chambers, Vol. II,
p. 20; Meyer, pp. 62-64; Creizenach, Vol. I, pp. 55-56; G. Milchsack,
Die lateinischen Osterfeiern, Wolfenbiittel, 1880, pp. 126-131; 135-136.
These writers have used the following printed sources: (1) Or do
Augustensis, 1487, printed by Milchsack, pp. 127-129 (cf. F. A.
Hoeynck, Geschichte der kirchlichen Liturgie des Bisthums Augsburg,
Augsburg, 1889, pp. 220-221) ; (2) Ordo Wirceburgensis, 1564, printed
by Milchsack, p. 135; (3) Bamberg Agenda, 1587, printed in Zeit -
890 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
following pages I venture to contribute to this phase of the
subject certain new texts, with certain observations as to their
significance.
Without attempting a review of the diffusion of the Harrow¬
ing of Hell story in dramatic literature, one may say that for
the mediaeval drama of Western Europe the source of this
story is the Evangelium Nicodemi. In its complete form this
monument is composed of two parts, the Acta Pilati and the
Descensus Christi ad Inferos , which were probably written at
different times, and in entire independence of each other. The
older of these two parts, the Descensus , assigned to the second
or third century, is the particular document with which we are
immediately concerned.* 1
The Descensus contains a lively and dramatic account of
Christ’s descent into Hades in the interval between the Cruci¬
fixion and the Resurrection, of his breaking down the gates of
hell, of his binding Satan, and of his releasing the souls of
the patriarchs from their long imprisonment. The most dra¬
matic part of the Descensus, and the part that shows its effect
most directly upon drama, is found in the following passage
from the Latin version:2
Et cum haec ad invicem loquerentur Satan princeps et inferus,
subito facta est vox ut tonitruum et spiritualis clamor: Tollite portas
schrift fur deutsches Alterthum, xxix, 247-250; (4) Sacerdotale Ro¬
mance Ecclesiae, 1560, printed in Zeit. f. d. Alterthum, xxix, 253-255.
To these may be added the Elevatio Crucis from Breviarium secundum
usum Hereford, Rouen, 1505, reprinted by W. H. Frere and L. E. G.
Brown, The Hereford Breviary (Henry Bradshaw Society), Vol. I,
London, 1904, pp. 324-325. This ceremony seems not to be found in
the earlier service books of Hereford. See id., p. ix.
1 For evidence on these matters connected with the Evangelium
Nicodemi see the article by Von Dobschiitz, Gospel of Nicodemus, in
Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. Ill, pp. 544-547 ; A. Harnack,
Geschichte der altohristlichen Litter cutur, Leipzig, 1893, Vol. I, pp. 21-
24; Rand, loc. cit., p. 262; Hulme, pp. lx ff.
2 Evangelium Nicodemi, Pars II, Cap. v-vi, C. Tischendorf, Evangelic
Apocrypha, Leipzig, 1876, pp. 397-400. Although Greek versions of
the Evangelium Nicodemi undoubtedly preceded the Latin versions,
the extant Latin MSS. are older and more authoritative than the ex¬
tant Greek MSS. See Von Dobschiitz, loc. cit., p. 545.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
891
principes vestras, et elevamini portae aeternales1, et introibit rex gloriae .
Haec audiens inferus dixit ad Satan principem: Recede a me et
exi de meis sedibus foras: si potens es praeliator, pugna adversum
regem gloriae . . . Haec autem audiens omnis multitudo sanc¬
torum cum voce increpationis dixerunt ad inferum: Aperi portas
tuas ut intret rex gloriae . . . Haec autem audientes omnes sancti
ab Esaia dixerunt ad inferum: Aperi portas tuas: nunc victus, iniirmus
et impotens eris. Et facta est vox magna ut tonitruum dicens:. Tol-
lite portas principes vestras, et elevamini portae infernales,1 et introibit
rex gloriae. Yidens inferus quia duabus vicibus haec clamaverunt,
quasi ignorans dicit: Quis est rex gloriae? Respondens David ad
inferum ait: Ista verba clamoris cognosco, quoniam ego eadem per
spiritum eius vaticinatus sum. Et nunc quae supra dixi dico tibi:
Dominus fortis et potens, dominus potens in praelio, ipse est rex
gloriae. Et ipse dominus de caelo in terris prospexit ut audiret gemi-
tus compeuitorum et ut solveret filios interemptorum. Et nunc, spur-
cissime et foetidissime infere, aperi portas tuas ut intret rex gloriae.
Haec dicente David ad inferum supervenit in forma hominis dominus
maiestatis, et aeternas tenebras illustravit et indissolubilia vincula
disrupit: et invictae virtutis auxilium visitavit nos sedentes in profun-
dis tenebris delictorum et in umbra mortis peccatorum . . . Tunc
rex gloriae maiestate sua conculcans mortem et comprehendens Satan
principem tradidit inferi potestati, et attraxit Adam ad suam claritatem.
Before we undertake to consider the direct relation of cer¬
tain parts of this dramatic passage to liturgical drama, we may
first notice their resemblance to similar passages in the Vulgate
and in the liturgy itself. The last four verses of Psalm xxiv
(xxiii) are the following:
7. Attollite portas, principes, vestras, et elevamini, portae aeternales,
et introibit rex gloriae.
8. Quis est iste rex gloriae? Dominus fortis et potens, Dominus
potens in praelio.
9. Attollite portas, principes, vestras, et elevamini, portae aeternales,
et introibit rex gloriae.
10. Quis est iste rex gloriae? Dominus virtu turn, ipse est rex gloriae.
That this passage from the psalm represents in some way
the source of the parallels in the Descensus there can he no
doubt.
But waiving this consideration for the moment, we may note
*As Tischendorf suggests (p. 397), aeternales and infernales have
apparently exchanged places in the MS.
892 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
that the effect of these dramatic passages, — whether from the
psalm or from the Descensus , or from both, — is seen in early
versions of the Liber Responsalis , where we find as the first
respond of Matins for the first Sunday of Advent the following
beautiful composition :
Res ponsorium: Aspiciens a longe ecce uideo Def potentiam uenientem
et nebulam totam terram tegentem. Ite obviam ei et dicite: Nuntia
nobis si tu es ipse, Qui regnaturus es in populo Israhel.
Versus: Quiqwe terrigene et filii hominum simul in unum, dives et
pauper. Ite.
Versus: Qui regis Israhel, intende, qui deducis uelut ouem Ioseph,
qui sedes super Cherubim. Nuntia.
Versus: Tollite portas, principes, uestras et eleuamini porte aeter-
nales, et introibit. Qui regna < turns >.1
Similarly, in the Graduate ( Liber Antiphonarius ) we find
the following as the Gradual of the Mass for Thursday in the
third week of Advent:
Resp. Tollite portas principes vestras, et elevamini, portae aeter-
nales, et introibit Rex gloriae.
Vers. Quis ascendet in montem Domini, aut quis stabit in loco
sancto ejus? Innocens manibus, et mundo corde.2
In the Processionale used in many churches north of the
Alps we again meet the familiar dramatic challenge under the
rubric of Palm Sunday. The rendering of this dialogue at the
church door after the processional hymn, Gloria , laus, et honor
has been sung is attested by the following evidence:
Hujus hymni <^i. e. Gloria laus^>, qui long© prolixior est in veteri
missali Albiensi et in Pictaviensi Pontificali ab annis circiter 800
exarato, quinque aut sex dumtaxat strophas dicimus, quibus finitis, olim
1 Antiphonarium HartJceri, saec. xi, St. Gall MS. 390-391, pp. 15-16,
published in photograph in Paleographie Musicale, Deuxieme Serie,
Tome I. Since Paleographic Musicale is not at present accessible to
me, my friend, H. W. L. Dana has very kindly copied for me the text
given above. P. Batiffol (History of the Roman Breviary, London,
1898, pp. 115-117) comments upon the dramatic splendor of this re¬
spond.
2 Migne, Pat. lat., Lxxviii, 643. On the Tollite portas formula in the
offertory of the Mass for the day preceding Christmas see P. Wag¬
ner, Origine et Developpement du Chant Liturgique, Tournai, 1904,
p. 113.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
893
episcopus, sive ille qui officio praeerat, portas percutiebat dicens: At-
tollite portas, principes, vestras, et elevamini, portae aeternales , et
introihit Rex gloriae; cui existentes in ecclesia reponebant: Quis est
iste Rex gloriae? Ad quos cum ille tertio dixisset: Attollite portas ,
similemque illi dedissent responsionem, ipse tandem clamabat: Domi-
nus virtutum, ipse est Rex gloriae. Tunc clausae aperiebantur valvae.
Ita fere legitur in missali Arelatensi, in Bituricensi, in Catalaunensi,
in Pictavensi, in missali canonicorum regularium monasterii de Aqua
viva in dioecesi Turonensi, in ordinario Rotomagensi, in Cenomanensi,
et Namnetensi, in Rituali S. Martini Turonensi et aliis quibusdam.
Apertis januis, cantor imponebat antiphonam: Ingrediente Domino /
So far as I know, it would be idle to try to establish a direct
relation between any of these three liturgical elements, — from
the Liber Bespomalis , the Graduate , and the Processionale, re¬
spectively, — and the Evangelium Nicodemi. Whatever echoes
from the Evangelium may have sounded in the ears of the
liturgists who first entered these formulas in the service-books
of the Church, those pious men must have used the psalm as
their direct model. The intention of each of these liturgical
pieces is to celebrate the entry of Christ into the world or into
Jerusalem, an intention entirely consonant to that of the psalm.1 2
1 E. Martene, Tractatus de antiqua Ecclesiae disCiplina, Lugduni, 1706,
pp. 195-196. Cf. id., pp. 206, 212, and E. Wiepen, Palmsonntagsprozes-
sion und Palmesel, Bonn, 1903.
2 Verses 7-10 of Psalm xxiv constitute a triumphal procession quite
separate in origin from the rest of the psalm. See B. Duhm, Die
Psalmen, Freiburg, 1899, p. 76; G. H. and A. von Ewald, Commentary
on the Psalms, Vol. I, London, 1880, pp. 79-80; C. A. Briggs, A Critical
and Exegetical Commentary on The Book of Psalms, Vol. I, New York,
1906, pp. 216-218. The question as to the ultimate relation of these
verses of the psalm to the parallels in the Evangelium Nicodeni is of
no great importance in the present' study. On this point my informa¬
tion is very inadequate. Hulme (op. cit., p. nxii) seems to imply that
the psalmist had definitely in mind as his model some version of the
Descent story, an implication not expressed by the commentators men¬
tioned above. The opinion of T. K. Cheyne (Origin and Religious
Contents of the Psalter, London, 1891, p. 223) is that “the highly dra¬
matic use of v. 7 in the apocryphal Descensus Christi can scarcely be
viewed as more than a poetical licence.” Chambers’s view is (Mediae¬
val Stage, Vol. II, p. 74) that “the narrative [i. e., of the Evangelium
894 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
None of these formulas is in any way associated with the no¬
tion of the descent to hell.
In the Ceremonial for the Dedication of a Church, the case
seems to he somewhat altered. The early adoption of the 'Tol¬
lite portas formula into the Rituale is shown in the following
passage from an Ordo Dedicationis of the ninth century:* 1
. . . Incipit pontifex aquam aspargere consecratam a foris se-
quendo feretro reliquiarum, cleroque canente antifonam Asperges me
Domine cum psalmo L™°, sed uno ex clericis in nova ecclesia clausis
hostiis quasi latent©. Nam pontifex circumit ecclesiam ab hostio in
partem aquilonarem prima vice usque iterum ad idem hostium; et
cum illic perventum fuerit pulsat hostium tribus vicibus, dicendo:
Tollite portas , prinCipes, vestras, et elevamini, portae aeternales, et
introibit Rex gloriae. Ille deintus respondens dicat: Quis est iste
rex gloriae? Iterum circumienda est ecclesia secunda vice sicut prius,
cum eadem antiphona et eodem psalmo, usquedum perveniatur ad
hostium, atque iterum pulsetur sicut prius eisdem verbis et idem re¬
spondent© deintus latente. Tunc tertio iterum circumienda est eodem
modo cum eodem cantu usque iterum ad hostium. Tunc dicenti ponti-
fici et pulsanti respondum est ei sicut prius: Quis est iste rex gloriae?
Pontifex respondeat: Dominus virtutum ipse est Rex gloriae.
Tunc aperientur hostia et canenda est antiphona Ambulate sancti
Deli, ingredimini in domum Domini, cum psalmo Laetatus sum in his
quae dicta sunt mihi, et cetera. Et ille qui prius fuerat intus quasi
fugiens egrediatur ad illud hostium foras, iterum ingressurus per
primum hostium vestitus vestimentis ecclesiasticis.
Although the text itself of the Dedicatio may seem in places
clearly to echo the words of the Psalm,2 and although the rite
certainly carries the intention of a triumphal entry “in domum
Domini,” the ceremonial contains clear suggestions also of
Christ’s entry into hell. The notion of the harrowing of hell
seems to he suggested in at least two ways: namely, by the
Nicodemi ] makes use of the Tollite portas passage from the twenty-
fourth Psalm.”
1 Printed from the Sacramentary of Drogo, Bishop of Metz (826-
855), by L. Duchesne, Christian Worship, Its Origin and Evolution,
translated by M. L. McClure, London, 1904, pp. 487-488. On the Dedi¬
catio Ecclesiae see J. Baudot, La Dedicace des Eglises, Paris, 1909.
2 The expression. Dominus virtutum, for example, seems to come
from the psalm. For the opinion that Psalm xxiv, 7-10 was itself a
formula of Dedication see Duhm, p. 76.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
895
cleric who, hidden within the church ( quasi latente), utters the
challenge, Quis est iste rex gloriae ?, and flees ( quasi fugiens )
when the doors are opened ; and by the subsequent purifying of
the building.
But since none of the liturgical pieces hitherto mentioned
ever had any connection with drama, in tracing the entrance
of the Descent theme into true liturgical drama we must seek
a new avenue of approach, an avenue that leads us at once
to a well-known series of dramatic offices connected with the
Sepulchrum of Eastertide.* 1 2 3 This series of dramatic offices
*An admirably clear account of the Easter Sepulchre is given by
Chambers, Mediaeval Stage, Vol. II, pp. 16-25. A later article, The
Easter Sepulchre, by the late Father Feasey, O. S. B , is found in the
Ecclesiastical Review (Philadelphia), 1905, pp. 337-356, 468-500.
Unfortunately Father Feasey seems not to have known Mr. Chambers’
indispensable book.
Both accounts seem, — perhaps inevitably, — to lack precision in the
following points:
(1) the origin of the Sepulchrum itself;
(2) the confusion of the false “sepulchre” of the reservation from
Thursday to Friday and the true sepulchrum of the burial from Fri¬
day to Easter;
\
(3) the attachment to the sepulchrum of the Quern quaeritis Visita¬
tion Office.
In another place I shall venture to add a modicum to the informa¬
tion on these points at present accessible to students of the drama.
In addition to the materials used by Chambers and by Feasey, one
may consult Moroni, Dizionario di Erudizione Storico-ecclesiastico
Vols. VIII, 293-4, LXIV, 81-90; J. — B. Thiers, Traite de VExposition
du S. Sacrement de Vautel, T. II, Avignon, 1777, pp. 175-192; C. Ro-
hault de Fleury, La Messe: Etudes archeologiques sur ses monuments,
8 Vols., Paris, 1883 ff., I, 107-109, 239, II, 57-78; H. A. Daniel, Codex
LUurgicue, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1847, p. 375; Travaux de VAcademie Im-
periale de Reims, xx (1854), p. 43; Annales Archeologiques, iv, 238,
241-2, 246-248; F. X. Kraus, Real-EncyTclopadie der christlichen Alter-
thiimer, Vol. I, pp. 39, 89-90; X. Barbier de Montault, Les Taber¬
nacles de la Renaissance d Rome, Arras, 1879, pp. 5-7; Revue de VArt
Chretien, 1887, p. 84; G. Diclich, Dizionario Sacro-Liturgico, Vol. IV,
Venice, 1836, pp. 7-9; J. Corblet, Histoire dogmatique, liturgique et
archeologique du Sacrement de VEuoharistie, 2 Vols., Paris, 1885-86,
I, 538, II, 92; J. Corblet, Essai historHque et liturgique sur les ciboires
896 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
comprises the following: (1) the Depositio Crucis , an office
which was performed usually just after the Mass of Good
Friday, and which centered in the placing within the sepul-
dirum of a crucifix, or of a Host, or of both of these; (2) the
Elevatio Crucis, consisting in the raising from the sepulchrum
of the “buried” object or objects, celebrated usually just be¬
fore Matins of Easter morning; and (3) the Visitatio Sepul-
chri, observed immediately after Easter Matins, in commemora¬
tion of the visit of the Maries to the empty sepulchre, — an of¬
fice that followed naturally, but not inevitably, upon the De¬
positio and the Elevatio. It was to the second of these offices
that the Tollite portas very naturally attached itself, and it is
primarily to the evolution of the Elevatio Crucis that we must
direct our subsequent attention.
In the following pages I present texts of the Elevatio il¬
lustrating both the simpler forms of the office in which there is
no trace of the Descent theme, and the more elaborate forms
in which the Tollite portas is a dominating element. Since no
real study of the Elevatio has yet been made, I am glad of this
modest opportunity for calling attention to this important of¬
fice. Of the Depositio I make no study in the present article.
For the sake of completeness I present such texts of the De¬
positio as are found in the manuscripts from which I print
texts of the Elevatio ", deferring for the moment a more special
study of the former office. Likewise, for the sake of complete¬
ness I shall offer a few texts of the Visitatio, hoping thus in a
measure to escape condemnation from those investigators who
have too often been exasperated by the printing of only one or
two of these closely related dramatic offices from a manuscript
that contains all three of them.
et la reserve de VEucharistie, Paris, 1858, pp. 14-15; La Civilitd Cat-
tolica, Serie XVI, Vol. VIII, 1896, pp. 598-9; Messager des Fideles,
1886-87, No. 2, pp. 66-7; H. Thurston, Easter Sepulchre, or Altar of
Repose, in The Month (1903), pp. 404-414; D. Rock, The Church of
Our Fathers, Vol. IV, London, 1904, pp. 278-9; One is surprised to
find no contribution to this subject in G. Cohen’s Histoire de la Mise
en Scene dans le Theatre religieux francais du Moyen Age, Paris, 1906,.
pp. 21-3.
Young — The Earrowing of Hell.
897'
I
The text of the Elevatio from MS. 387 of the Stiftsbibliothekr
St. Gall,1 2 may well come first, both because of its age and be¬
cause of its simplicity. It is to be observed, in the first place,,
that the office before us occupied the precise liturgical position,
at the end of Easter Matins, that was later given over to the
Visitatio Sepulchri , this latter ceremony being, almost cer¬
tainly, of later origin than either the Deposiiio or the Elevatio V
In the second place, one notes that although the act of elevation
itself seems to be accompanied by no precisely appropriate
liturgical text, this simple ceremony is followed immediately by
the singing of a respond, the general content of which is the
same as that of the Visitatio Sepulchri that later took this
position in the liturgy.3 Lastly, it appears that according to
the use of St. Gall in the eleventh century, the monks “buried”
in the SepulcWum the Corpus Domini alone, without the*
cross.4
< ELEVATIO CRUCIS>5
(p. 55) Eespomorium :6 Dum transisset sabbatum Maria,
Magdalena et Maria Iacobi et Salome emerunt aromata, ut
1 St. Gall, Stiftsbibliothek, MS. 387, p. 55, Breviarium Monasticum ,
Sangallense saec. xi, — described by G. Scherer, Verzeiohniss der Hand-
schriften der Stiftsbibliothelc von St. Gallen, Halle, 1875, pp. 131-132.
The attachment of this breviary to the monastery of St. Gall is clearly
shown by the Sanctorale (S. Gallus, pp. 31, 461; S. Otmarus pp. 33,.
512; S. Columbanus, p. 33).
2 This MS contains no Depositio for Good Friday, and no suggestion
of an Elevatio other than that printed herewith.
2 In another place I shall make certain observations on the import¬
ance of this text for the history of the “Quern quaeritis” Visitatio
Sepulchri.
4 That the St. Gall use changed in this matter is shown by St. Gall
MS. 448, Breviarium Sangallense saec. xv in., the pertinent parts of
which I have published elsewhere (See Publications of the Modern
Language Association, Vol. XXIV, 1909, pp. 319-321. Acording to-
St. Gall MS. 448 (p. 102) the Crux alone was “buried” on Good Friday.
5S. Gall, MS. 387, p. 55.
6 Third Respond of Easter Matins.
-898 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
uenientes unguerent Iesum, aeuia, aeuia. Versus: Et ualde
mane una sabbatorum neniunt ad monumentum, orto iam sole,
aeuia. Gloria.
SUBLATO IGITUR CORPORE DOmim DE MONUMENTO INCIP iat
cantor r esponsorium : Angelus domini descend^ < de celo et
accedens reuolu.it lapidem, et super eum sedit, et dixit mulieri-
bus: Xolite timer©, scio enim quia crucifixum queritis; iam
surrexit, uenite et uidete locum ubi positus erat dominus, aeuia.
versus : Angelus domini locutus est mulieribus dicens :
Quern queritis, an Ihesum queritis? Iam surrexit. > in-
TRANTIBUS AU tem IN CHORUm mciviat CANTOR ANTIPHtmum:
Surrexit Xpictus et illuxit populo suo, quern redemit sanguine
suo, aeuia.
versus: Haec est alma dies in qua spoliatur auernus.
Besurrexit homo Deus, exultate redempti.
Te Deum laudamus.1
II
The text of the Elevatio from Bodleian MS. Miscellaneous
Liturgical 2022 is conspicuously different from the text given
above, both in position and in ceremonial. It will be observed
that the present office is placed immediately before Easter
Matins, — the normal position for the Elevatio •. The advance
in ceremonial in this version is simple and obvious. A certain
interest attaches to the fact that the office includes the singing
of the respond, Angelus domini , the content of which is more
-appropriate to the Visitatio Sepulchri, which is found at the
end of Matins is this same manuscript.3 From the text below
it appears that the Crux alone is raised.
1 The rubric, In Mat utinis Laud ibus, follows immediately.
2 Oxford, Bodleian MS. Misc. Liturg. 202, fol. 71v-72r, — Breviarium
Monasticum of the 13th century, probably of Dominican use and from
South Germany. The MS. is described by W. H. Frere, Bibliotheca
Musico-Litupgica, Vol. I, London, 1901, No. 85. The MS. contains also
a Visitatio, but no Depositio.
3 Printed by C. Lange, Die lateinischen Osterfeiern, Munich, 1887,
pp. 81-2. A fresh text appears below.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
899
<ELEVATIO CRUCIS^1
(fol. 717) Ik- xocte aut em ad Matutixas2 surguxt
wnatres, atq ue MOXASTERium ixtraxtes clauduxt illud,
XEC ALIQUEm LAICORtim IXGREDI PerMITTUXT. TuXC STAXTES
FACIUXT ORACIOXES. DeIXDE MYRRAM 7 TYMIAMA ACCEXDUXT
7 AQmJM BEXEDICTAm ASPgrGUXT AC CRUCEm DE LOCO SEPUL¬
TURE ad Locum suum portaxt caxtaxtes nesponsorium :
Angelus d omirii. Ibi LiXTEAMma 7 lumixa dimittuxt.
PoSTEA CUSTOS IUBET AP67TRE (fol. 721 4') IAXUAS ATQUe SOXARE
MATUTmas. Post hec m choro mutua caritate se ixuicEm
OSCULAXTES DICUXT AXT iphonam : SuRREXIT. RESPOXDen£
Gaudeamus omnes.8
CVISITATIO SEPULCHRED
(fol. 72V) P OSt GtLoUa5 HUIt^S6 7 PatH ixcipiat caxtor re-
spoxs orium a capite 7 exeaxt de choro cum mag-xa REver-
EX CIA PORTAXTES CAXDELAS 1U MAXIBW5 ARDEXTES. ILLIS
•erGo 7 ORDixATim8 staxtibus tres presBiTen maioris persoxE
IXDUTI9 BOXIS CAPPIS CUm TURRIBULIS FUMIGAXTIBWS SUB TYPO
s anct&Rum MULiERum uaduxt ad SEPULCHRum. Ibi sedext
DUO DIACOXI DALMATICIS UESTITI SUB UICE ATiGSLOR'Um. PrES-
BiTen u ero loco MULiERum dicaxt10 ’huxc uersum :
1 Bodleian MS. Misc. Liturg. 202, fol. 71v-72l
2 Matins of Easter morning.
3 Followed immediately by the rubric, Deinde, Domine labia mea
aperies, 7 Deus in adiutor ium, — a rubric indicating the beginning of
Matins.
4 Bodleian MS. Misc. Liturg. 202, fol. 72v-73r, printed by Lange, pp.
81-2.
5 Lange, Gloriam.
6 Omitted by Lange. Refers to the third respond of Matins, which
immediately precedes.
7 Lange, vero.
8 Lange, ordinate.
9 MS., unditi.
10 Lange, dicunt.
900 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Quis revoluit1 nobis ab hostio lapidem quem tegere sacrum
cernimns sepulcbrum ?
Angcli uespondeant :
Quem queritis, o tremule mulieres, in hoc tumulo plorantes i
Mulieres :
lesum querimus2 3 nazarenum crucifixum.
Angcli :
Non est hie quem queritis, sed cito euntes nunciate discipulis
eius 7 Petro quia surrexit Iesus.
A ntiphona: Venite 7 uidete locum ubi positus erat dominus,,
aeuia, aeuia.
Tunc Petrws 7 IoHarmes currebatit ad SEPULcrwm:
Currebant duo simul 7 ille alius discipulus precucurrit cicius
Petro 7 uenit prior ad monumentum, aeuia.
Tunc SAcemoTES inttontes Locum sepultwe linteam^tP
INDE ACCIPIUNT4 7 PORTENT ANTE SE USQ U& AD MEDIUm
MONASTEEIUW, ILLUDQUd OMTIIBUS OSTENDENTES (fol. 73r)
DICANT HANC ANTIPHONAm :
Surrexit dominus de sepulchro qui pro nobis pependit in
ligno, aeuia.
Tunc cantor alte5 incipiat: Te Deum laudamus, et-
pop'UL'us : Kyr ie, campanis clare sonantibws. Post hec
NEQ ue HODIE NEQ UC IN TOTA ISTA EB DO MAD A6 7 in MaTUTINIS
Laudibus dicas, T)eus in adiut orium.
' *
III
MS. 279 of the Bibliotheque de F Arsenal, Paris, contains
an Elevatin'1 of which the ceremonial is somewhat more
elaborate than that of the offices given above, the Corpus
1 In the MS. the words, Quis revolu, without musical notation, pre¬
cede this sentence.
2 In the MS. the n of quenrimus is erased by the dot under it.
3 Lange, linteamina, which may well he right.
4 Lange, accipiant.
5 Omitted by Lange.
6 MS., ebdomoda.
7 Paris, Bibliotheque de 1’ Arsenal, MS. 279, fol. 200r-200v, a 13th
century breviary of the Collegiate Church of St. Sepulcre at Caen.
A description of the MS. is given by H. Martin, Catalogue des Manu-
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
901
Domini and the Crux being removed from the sepulchrum sep¬
arately. The office occupies its normal place, immediately be¬
fore Matins.
<ELEVATIO CRUCIS^* 1
(fol. 200r) Die sancto Pasche ad Mat utinas, clericis in
ECCLESIA CONGREGATIS YvisCOpuS UEL SaCERDOS CUM CLERO,
CEREIS, ET THURIBUL^S AD SEPULCHRUM ACCEDAT, QUO IN-
censato Corpus Domini inde sumptum cum reuerentia
SUPER ALTARE DEPONAT. ITEM EXTOLLAT CrUCEM DE SePUL-
chro, incipiat Antiphonam: Xpistus resurgens. Tunc
OMNES CUM GAUDIO ADORENT CrUCEM CANTANTES dA^AM
Antiphonam cum suo uersu, et sic cum magna ueneratione
DEPORTETUR CRUX AD LOCUM PRO VISUM. AnTIPHO/IA XpistUS
resurgens ex mortuis iam non moritur, mors illi ultra non
dominabitur, quod enim uiuit, uiuit Deo, alleluia, alleluia.
Versus : Dicant nunc Iudei quomodo milites custodientes sepul-
chrum perdiderunt regem ad lapidis positionem, quare non
seruabant petram iusticie; aut sepultum reddant aut resur-
gentem adorent2 nobiscum dicentes alleluia, alleluia. Versus :
Surrexit dominus de sepulchro. Oratio : Deus, qui pro nobis
filium tuum crucis patibulum subire uoluisti, ut inimici a
nobis expelleres potestatem, concede nobis fami;lis tuis ut
resurrectionis grafmm consequamur. Per eundem. Postea
STATIM (fol. 200V) INCIPIANTUR MATUTINE MORE COMMUNI,
FESTUM DUPLEX CUM QUATUOR CAPIS DE STALLO.3
IV
In MS. 253 of he Bibliotheque de la Ville at Rouen4 we
are fortunate in finding texts of the three related offices, — De¬
merits de la Bibliotheque de V Arsenal, Vol. I, Paris, 1885. The MS.
contains no Depositio and no Yisitatio.
1 Paris, Arsenal, MS. 279, fol. 200r-200v.
2 MS., adorant.
3 The rubric, Inuitatormm, follows immediately.
4 Rouen, Bibliotheque de la Ville, MS. 253 ( olim A. 53 S) , Agenda of the
14th century from the monastery of Fecamp, described in Catalogue
general des manuscrits des bibliotheque s de France , Vol. I, Paris, 1866.
902 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
positio , Elevatio , and Visitatio.1 Although the simple cere¬
monial of this Elevatio shows no important advance toward
drama, the text offers interesting variations from the three
texts of the Elevatio given above.
<DEPOSITIO CRUCIS>2
(fol. 44r) Postq^um3 oismes ADOBAucriXT cessat choeus-
A CAXTAXDO 7 PEOCEDOT AbBAS, 7 EEUESTITI AD OsUCIFIXUm,
ATQ ue POETAXT ILLUm IX SEPWLCHEWm EETEO ALTAEE AD HOG
HOXOEIFICE PfOPAEATUm, PrOCEDEXTIBUS SerUITOEIBttS ec-
olesi'E CUM THUEIBUXO 7 CAXDELABEIS DUOBUS. Et IX COL-
LOCAXDO ILLUM IBI IXCIPIT AbB&S P'OrCAXTAnDAW A CHOEO
ANTiRHonam: In pacem idipsum. Ixde eecedetis apposito
IXCEnSO pWmitus ixcipit poetaxdo a choeo cum uersu suo-
RespoNSORium : Sepulto domino. Ixtotm peecedut pre-
CEDEnTIBWS SCrUITOEIBUS AD AEMAEIUm IU xta ALTAEE Saudi
Saluatoe^s pro Domixico Coepoee supeR ipsum altaee af-
FEEEXDO; THUEIFICATQUU AbBOS ILLUD, DEIXDE AFFEET AI>
altaee ixciPiEns ps almum : Miserere mei, Dens, quod
CHOEUS, PSALMODIAT STATIM FLEXIS GEXIBWS IXCHOATIM.4
< ELEVATIO CRUCIS ET VISITATIO SEPULCHRI>5
(fol. 53v) Die sancfo Pasche axtequato pulsetue ad
Mat utinas levatue Ceucifixus ab Abbci/e 7 officiaeiis uxa
ac seruiTOEiBws 7 cLencis vcclesiR excitatis ad hoc a
SACEISTIS DE SePULCHEO IX LOCUM SUUm SlipeR ALTAEE SanctR
Teixitatis ix huxc mod um. Abbas EEUESTITUS in CAPA AC¬
CEDED AD SEPULCHE^m, TIIUEE PEIMIT^S APPOSITO IXCIPIT
7 ALII POrCAXTAXT6 CUM EO EOSpOXSOEIUM (fol. 54r) : Xpistus
resurgens, cum u ersu: Dicant nunc, ut ixfea peope. Item
1 The Visitatio has been published by Lange, pp. 36-37. A fresh
text is presented herewith.
2 Rouen MS. 253 (olim A. 538), fol. 44r.
3 The Adoratio Crucis of Good Friday immediately precedes this text.
4 The rubric, SabbaTo S ancto Pasche, follows immediately.
5 Rouen MS. 253 ( olim A. 538), fol. 53v-55l
6 MS. pereant, changed somewhat later to percantant.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
903’
y mnus: Consurgit Xpts^RS turn ulo, us que in finem. In-
TeriMQue portant Crucifixum s upes altare 7 inde leuatur
suFenus p er eosd em 7 statim intotm pulsantibrs duobrs
p&ruis signis DETeriAT Abbas orcj^ones 7 postea dicurtur
Mat utime usque ad Laudas. Yost1 TerciuM r esponsorium
TRES FSatreS IN SPECIE MULIERUM QUORU7R UNUS IN CAPA
RUBEA PORTET THURIBRLRM INTer DUOS ALIOS 7 CETeTI DUO EX.
UTROQRC LATCUE EIUS IN DALMATICIS CANDIDIS PORTENT UASA
IN MODWm PISSlDARUm STANTESQR6 IUX^ CANDELABRRm2 CAR-
TERT HWMU^gR3 ITA CORQReRERTES :
O Deus, quis reuoluet nobis lapidem ab ostio monumenti ?
Hinc procedart leiRte4 usque ad ostium iux.ta altare 7
unrs urates, in albis in specie angeli stans iuxta Sepul-
CHRRm RESPONDEAT :
Quem queritis in sepulchro, o Xpisticole?
MuLIERfiS5 AD ArGELUM \
Ihesum nazarenum crucifixum, o celicola.
Angelus :
Xon (fob 54v) est hie, surrexit sicut predixerat ; ite nunciate6'
quia surrexit dicentes.
Mulieres :7
Alleluia, resurrexit dominus.
Angelrs :
Alleluia, resurrexit dominus.
Mulieres ad poprlrm:
Alleluia, surrexit dominus.
Angelrs ad mulieres:
Venite 7 uidete locum ubi positus erat dominus, alleluia,,
alleluia.
MuLicRES AD POPRLRM I
1 Beginning with this word, the rest of this text has been printed by"
Lange, pp. 36-37.
2 Lange, candelabram.
3 Lange, humile.
4 Lange, lete.
5 Lange, mulier.
6 Lange, nuntiate.
7 Lange, mulier.
.904 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Surrexit dominus d© sepulchro qui pro nobis pependit in
digno, alleluia, alleluia, alleluia.
IrCIPIAT x^BB^S 7 CANTOR, DEIXefe CHORUS PCrCANTERT1 2
ymnum: Te Deum lau (fol. 55r) damus.
V
Munich MS. lat. 7691, 2 like the manuscript just considered,
..contains a Deposition an Elevaltio, and a Visitatio .3 The Eleva-
tio shows interesting differences both in content and in cere¬
monial from the texts given above.
<ELE VATIC* CRITCIS>4
(p. .119) In s&rcta nocte Pasce surgant fru^tes, et
LOTIS MANTBRS ET ACCCNSIS CANDELAS CUm SUWIMA RdVERERCIA
AC CEDAR T AD SePULCHRRTR DomWNI ET DICART IBI FSalmOS l
Domino , quid niRltiplicati, s me Gloria patri, et nsalmuM:
Miserere mei, Deus, miserere mei, quoRmm in te con -
fidit. Et postea, K yrie eleyson, Hpiste eleyson , Wyrie
eleyson, Dater noster. Versus: Exurge, Domine, adiuua
nos. Versus: Domino, Deus nirtntnm, coRuerte nos. Ver¬
sus: FoderuRt ma nus m eas et pedes m eos. Versus: Dom¬
ino, exaudi ovationem. Onatio : Da no bis, quesumus, D om-
me, locum sepultRre. Tertificata et ASPersA Ymagire
CrRciFixi, Dominus Prelates (p. 120) sumat ipsari YMAGiREm
UXA cum DUOBRS SENIOriBRS CUm SURIMA ReUERERCIA et
POrTENT AD CHORRm A Nte SUmMUm ALTArE CAXTARTES HUmiLI
ac medio cm uoce ANtiphonam: Vipistus resurge?is ex mortuis.
Versus: In resurrecione tua, X.piste, cum onationn: Deus,
1 Lange, percantet.
2 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 7691, an Ordo Breviarii of the
15th century from Indersdorf. A very inadequate description of the
MS. will be found in Catalogues codicum Latinorum Bibliothecae Re -
giae Monacensis.
3 As the result of a photographer’s error, I am not able to give the
text of the Depositio. The Visitatio has been published by Lange, pp.
107-108. I offer a new text herewith.
4 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, MS. lat. 7691, pp. 119-120.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
905
qui nos resuireccicmis dommice, et cetera. Quib^s finitis,
Dominus Yrei^ATus prion accedat ad YMAGiriEm Cn/ciFixi
EAm OSCULANDO, DeiXDE PeCANUS ET COmmumteU SeCUUDUM
ORDI/lEm. PoSTEA STATim PULSENTW TRORES1 AD Mat utinum.
<VISITATIO SEPULCHRI>2
(p. 120) Tercium r esponsorium3 -post GloWa Yatm re-
INCIPIT^ ET Time FIT VlSITACIO SePULCHRI TCIL^6R.4 CoN-
VE71TU MANEWTE IU CHORO, TRES PerSONE, (p. 121) P re-
CEDdNTIBt/S DUAB16S ACC6NSIS CANDELAS, CANTE71T AD SePUL-
cHRwm simuij u ersum:
Ihesu, nostra redempeio.
Et STATim subiu^gatit circumiEuxDO SEPWLGHR^m u ersum :
S ad ea mus.
Et STATim post u ersum:5
Qnis reuolu et nobis?
Tunc Axg^li SEDeNTES cum6 sepwlchro cantewt u ersum l
Qnem qneritis?
Iste Tres persoNE respondent u ersum:
Yhesum nazarennm.
Angeli :
IT on est hie.
Et SIC STATim SURGENTES DE LOCO OSTENDAmT SEPULCHRUm
esse UAcuum cAnTAnTEs u ersum :
Yenite et nidete,
^his word, trores, I prefer to print as it stands in the MS. Al¬
though the reading admits of no doubt, the expanding seems to me
perilous. I know of no word that meets the conditions. TurrHs,
trinion, trombator, tremor, etc. all combat either the contraction or
the context. In any case the word is unusual, the oft-recurring words
in this rubric being campana, classicum, tintinnabulum, and signaculum.
2 Munich Cod. lat, 7691, pp. 120-121. See Lange, pp. 107-108.
3 The third respond of Easter Matins.
4 Omitted by Lange.
8 Omitted by Lange.
6 Lange, in, — which gives, obviously, better sense.
2
906 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
OSTeXDEWTES HUMEfALE. PoSTEA SUBIUTlGAftT cirCUmEi/XDO1
SEPtuLCHRtm2 Tres persoxE versum:
Hew, hew!
Et ite bum versum:
Ad monumentum iienim us.
Et sic recede^t. Deixde chords caxtet ANtiphonam :
Currebaut duo simid.
Et duo uexietites ad SEPUECHRttm caxteu/t versum:
Cernitis, o socii,
texe^tes in mauibus suDARiu m posiTum ix Sepiclchro. Et
STATim suBiuTT/GiT chorygs Aistipfoonam :
Surrexit enim sic ut dixib
Qua fixita mciPiAnr hy duo:
Crist ist erstanden.
Et OMniA siGna pulsex™?* ECiAm circA altatia. Et p ostea
vrevAvus iticipiat CAXTicum:
Te Deum laudairms.3
VI
The Elevatio from Munich MS. lat. 55464 is valuable for
its completeness and fulness rather than for its novelty.
<DEPOSITIO CRITCIS>5
(fol. 147r) Officio Misse6 fixito 7 Sepulchro prePAR-
ATO 7 DECEXTer ORXATO, SIXT IXPrOMPTO tHa THURIBULA CUM
IXCEUSO THURB, MIRRA 7 THYMIAMATE 7 Q'U&TUOR CAXDELE IX-
cexse 7 POftTiFEX siue vresBytev, cum aeiis sAcerDOTruus 7
MimsTRis portawtes YMAGiXEm Crucifixi uersus Sepue-
cHRum lugubH uoce caxtewt hoc nesponsoriuM : Ecce
1 Lange, ineundo.
2 Omitted by Lange.
3 The rubric, Ad Laudes, follows immediately.
4 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 5546, Breviary of the 15th cen¬
tury from Diessen, fol. 150v-l52r. The Visitatio printed herewith has
already been inaccurately published by Lange, pp. 99-101. I present a>
new text herewith.
5 Munich Cod. lat. 5546, fol. 147e
c The MHssa Praesanctificatorum of Good Friday.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
907
quomocfo moritar iustus. Versus: In pace f actus est locus
ei US. Quo FINITO LOCE1W IN SEPULCHRUm 7 LINTHEAMMWBWS
7 sudario cooperiATur. Deinde eapis suppoNATur. Quo
Facto can taut submissa uoce r esponsoria cum uersiBt^ suis:
Sepulto domino; nesponsorium] : Kecessit pastor nosier.
Quibws finitis DicAT^r versus : In pace facte est , quo uersu
OMneS SEQWeNTES HORE CEAUDUnTUr.1
<ELEVATIO CRUCIS>2
(fol. 150v) In SanctA E'octe ANto MATUTiNum OomiNus
Yipiscopus siue preposiT^s cum senioribus quos AssuMerE
UOLUeriT CLAM SURGUftT 7 CUm MAGNA REUERE71CIA AC CEDANT
SEPULClIRUmi, SINTQWe ParATA tWa thuribula cum THURE,
MIRRA 7 THYMIAMATE, 7 STANDO CANT AWT P SOlmOS l Domine
quid multiplicati ; Ysalmum : Dorntoe probasti; P salmum;
Miserere ; 7 thtjrificant YMAGiNEm Crucifixi, suBLATAmQ'oe
DE SePUL (fol. 151r) CHRO SECUm PORTENT AD CHORUm ANTE
altare per uiAm cantando nesponsorium : Surrexit pastor.
Versus: Surrexit dominm Quilte finitis stawtes ante
ALTARE MUTUAQ^e CARITATE SE INUICEm OSCULAnTES DICAWT :
Surrexit dominos uere 7 apparuit Symoni Petro. Postea
DICUNT^r HEC ORae^ONES :
Omnipotent semp^eme Deus, qui bac sacratissima nocte
cum potencia tue maiestatis resurgents port as inferni eonfregisti
7 omnibus ibi detentis dexteram tue misericordie porrexisti
scilicet miserando diuti/us penis estuantis Gehenne cruciari
quos dudum ad ymaginem tuam iussisti creari, Te qneso ego
indignus 7 ultima pars creature, ut per graham tue miseri¬
cordie ac perfecte resurreccionis tue amor em necnon omnium
sanctorum animianm- qnas bac sacratissima nocte de penis in¬
ferni ad celestia regna perduxisti simnlqne per omne misterium
qnod in resurreccione tua celebrasti mihi indigno ac fragili
peccatori omnium peeeatorum meor um indulgenciam largiri
1 The rubric, Postea dicuntwr Vespere submissa uoce, follows immedi¬
ately.
2 Munich, Cod. lat. 5546, fol. 150v-152r.
908 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
digneris atq ue iram 7 furorem 7 indignacionem tue uindicte a
me repellas, ut auxilium consolacmnem proteccionem in omni¬
bus peccatis periculis ac infirmitatibus anime 7 corporis m ihi
concedas. Et sic ut corpus tue humanitatis quod ad tempus
pro nostra salute exuisti post triduum tue maiestatis potencia
resuscitasti ita corpus 7 cor meum ab omnibus uiciis emundare
digneris 7 auimam meam in futura resurreccione (fol. 151v)
beatorum spiritibus facias agregari.
In memoriam 7 laudem 7 gloriam resurreccionis tue
ympnum dicat t ibi omnis creatura tua, Domine, 7 ego quamuis
peccator 7 delinquents ympnum dico 7 gratias ago, uenera n-
damque crucem tuam adoro, sanctamque resurreccionem tuam
laudo 7 glorifico quia parte redemptus sum, idemque crucifixum
tuum laudo, 7 sepultum propter me magnifico, resurgentemque
adoro, 7 peto ut parte iu sanctam resurreccionem tuam me a
morte anime mee resuscitare digneris, amen.
Celi et terre couditor, quo morieute illuminata sunt tartara,
quo resurgente sanctorum multitudo gauisa est, quo asceudente
celorum exultauit caterua, precamur uirtutis tue excellenciam
ut directi in uia recta in illo teneamur brachio quo honorabiles
amici tui tecum gloriantur in excelsis.
Adesto, pie Pa^er, inuocacionibus nostris, 7 noli spernere
plasma tuum propter magmtudinem peccatorum nosfrorum,
s ed salua me indignum nimium peccaforem per gloriam 7
honorem sane^issime resurreccionis tue. Qui ui<uit> 7 reg
<nat>.
Domine Deus Tate r, propter lioc gaudium quod tu cum
sanc^issima anima tua et corpore in tua sancia resurreccione
uoluisti habere cum omnibus fidelibus tuis iustis 7 peccatforibus
uiuentibus 7 mortuis miserere m ihi sicut uis 7 scis necessitatem
anime 7 corporis, 7 da m ihi spacium penitencie 7 ne (fol. 152r)
ram comjpunccionem 7 ueram emendaeionem omnium pecca-
torum, 7 presta mihi, Ihesji Xpisfe, ut precium corporis 7
sanguinis tui in quo me in saneta cruce redemisti percipiam ad
salutem anime mee in nouissima bora, 7 qnod spiriiualem unc-
cionem spiri^ualis olei 7 salutaris cum omni affectu cordis 7
corporis percipiam, amen.
DEINDE COmPULSAcioNE SIGXORUm Fac^A, COnUEXIAnT OM*
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
909
ne s ad MATUTmum, 7 more solito DiCxiT poxtifex ueL
sacerdos : D online, labia mea ap eries.1
< VISIT ATIO SEPULCHRI > 2
(fol. 15 2 v) Post Gloria Pate iTerATur3 nesponsorium 4
a pnxcipio 7 omras clerks porTAXTES5 cereos accexsos
procEDiT ad uisiTAXDum SEPULCHRum. Dyacox^s uero Q ui
legat6 7 NvangeliuM (fol. I53r) acturi^s OFipiciuM. axgelP
PfeCEDAT SEDETQ^e8 IX DEXTerA PUrTE COOPerTltS STOEA CAX-
DIDA, AC TTBI CHORt/S C AX TARE I7TCIPIT :9
Maria Magdalena 7 altera Maria ferebant dilucnlo aromata
domumm qwerentes in monumento,
TRES TreSByteUI IXDUTI CAPPIS 7 CUm TOTIDEM THURIBULtS
FIGURAm Mt/EIERUm TEXE^TES 7 ixcErtsum10 PrOCEDUTlT uersus
SEPULCHRum 7 STAXTES CAXTAWT I
Qms reuolnet nobis ab bostio lapidem quern tegere sanctum
cerniums sepulcbrtm.
AxGeLt^s RespoxDiT:11
Quern queritis, o tremule nmEeres, in hoc tumulo gementes ?
Mulieres :
Thesum nazarenum crucifixum qtterinms.
Axgse^s :
'Non est bic quern q^eritis; s ed cito euntes nunciate dis-
ciptdis ei us 7 Petro qwa surrexit Iberns.
Et cum cEperiT caxtare AxGeLt/s: S ed cito euwtes,
Mulieres thurificetit SEPULCHRum 7 FESTiXAXTer redeaxt
uersus CHORwm, staxtes caxtatit :12
1 The formula for the opening of Matins.
2 Munich, Cod. lat, 5546, fol. 152v-153r. Printed by Lange, pp. 99-101.
3 Lange, cantatur.
4 The third respond of Easter Matins.
5 Lange, portans.
* Lange legerat.
7 MS. angls.
8 Lange, sedeatque.
9 Lange, ihceperit.
10 Lange, incenso.
“Lange, respondet.
“Lange, cantent.
910 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Ad monumeutum uenimus gementes angelum do-mini
sedentem uidimus 7 dicentem qma surrexit Ihesus.
Tuuc choeus inponat:1
Currebant duo simul 7 i,lle alius disciptdus precucurrit
cicius Petro 7 uenit prior ad monumeutum, alleinia.
Et cautoees quasi Pete us 7 lonannES cueeaut, precuEEAT
IoHannEs Peteo, 7 ita ueniuut ad MONUMEwrum 7 aufeeaut
EINTHE AMINA 7 SUDAEIUm IN QUIB US IUUOLUTA EEAT YmAGO
DomiNi 7 uerTENTEs se ad cHOEum ostendendo ea canteut :
Cernitis, o socii, ecce lintheamina 7 sudarium 7 corpus eius
non est in sepulchro inuentum, alleZma.
Choeus :
Surrexit enim sicut dixit dominns ; precedet uos in Galy-
leam, alleluia, ibi eum uidebitis alleluia, alleZma, alloinia.
Popnuus :
Christ ist erstanden.
Et ita clehus eedeat ad choeum, 7 Tunc poetifex incipiat :
Te Deum laudamus.
VII
Although the evidence from Agenda Ecclesiae Argentinensis
. . . Coloniae, 15902 is comparatively modem, it is
valuable, for it elucidates explicitly the origin of the Host that
was placed in the sepulchrum on Good Eriday. From the ex¬
tracts given below it appears that on Maundy Thursday three
Hosts were consecrated: one for the Mass of Thursday itself,
one for the Missa Praesandificatorum of Good Friday, and
one for the Depositio and Elevatio' of Good Friday and Easter
respectively. The Elevatio in this case is of especial interest
from the fact that in the antiphon, Cum rex gloriae , we find,
in a form suggestive of dialogue, the theme of the Harrow¬
ing of Hell.
1 Lange, imponat.
2 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Litrug. 4°. 13*. The text of the Visitatio
from this document has been very inaccurately indicated in a general
critical note by Lange, p. 50.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
911
<CONSECRATIO HOSTIARUM JN COENA DOMING1
(p. 214) Tres quoque hostiae consecrentur
hodie, una pro praesenti Missa, altera pro officio crastino,
tertia pro Sepulchre Domini. Sanguis autem penitus con-
sumatur. Denique paruae hostiae consecrandae hodie sunt,
et reseruandae in sequentem diem, pro communicandis.
<HOSTIA IN MISSA PRAES AH CTIFIC ATORUM > 2
. . . (p. 224) Tunc Presbyter intret sacrarium, vel
ubi positum fuerit Corpus Domini, quod pridie remansit.
Casula indutus illud deferat super altare, et calix preparetur
more solito, vino et aqua.
<DEPOSITIO HOSTIAE > 3
(p. 225) COMMUNIONE4 PERACTAj PROCEDAT
Sacekdos ad Sepulchrum, cum Coepoee Domini eeposito in
CORPORALI, UEL IN CALICE, UEL IN SACEATA PYXIDE. PrAE-
CEDANT ERGO MINISTRI CUM INCENSO I ET DUO PUEEI, CUM
CANDELIS CUM PEOCESSIONE, USQUE AD LOCUM SePULCRI, UBI
DEBET EECONDI CORPUS DOMINI, CANTANDO ReSPONSOEIUM I
Sicut ouis ad occisionem ductus est, et dum male tractaretur
non aperuit os suum. Traditus est ad mortem, ut vivificaret
populum suum. Versus: In pace fact us est locus eius, et
in Sion babitatio eius. AstiphonA : Caro mea requiescat in
spe. Sacerdote nectente fila, cantetue hec ANtiphonA:
Sepulto Domino, signature est monumentum, ponentes milites,
qui custo (p. 226) dierunt illud. Statim legantue Vespeeae
IN EODEm LOCO.
1 Agenda Ecclesiae Argentinensis . . . Coloniae, 1590 (Munich,
Staatsbibliothek, Liturg. 4o. 13*), p. 214.
2 Id., p. 224.
3 Id., pp. 225-226.
4 Communion of the Mass of the Presanctified of Good Friday.
912 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
<ELEVATIO HOSTIAE ET VISITATIO
SEPULCHRI > 1
(p. 251) Oedo visitandi Sepulcheum in die Sancto
Paschae.
SuMMO MANE ANTEQUAM PULSETUE AD MaTUTINAS CON-
VENIAT ClEEUS, ET QUI UOLUEEINT INTEAEE SEPULCHEUM
LAUENT MANUS SUAS, ET UENIANT ANTE PEINCIPALE ALTAEE
uel peope Sepulcheum, et legant septem Psalmos poeni-
tentiales. (p. 252) Quibus finitis, dicant: Kyrie elei¬
son. Christe eleison. Kyrie eleison. Pater noster. Et ne
nos inducas in tentationem. Peeces : Exurge Domine,
adiuua nos. Et redirue nos propter nomen tuiim. Exurge
gloria mea. Exurge psalterium et cithara. Exurgam dilu-
culo. Confitebor in populis, Domine. Domine exaudi orati-
onem meam. Et clamor meus ad te ueniat. Dominus vobis-
cum. Et cum spiritu tuo. Oremus. Oeatio : Exaudi
quaesumusj Domine, supplicum preces, et confitentium tibi
parce peccatis: ut pariter indulgentiam tribuas benignus et
pacem. Per Christum Dominum nostrum. Deinde dicant:
Confiteor Deo Patri, et Misereatur, et Indulgent, etc. Eacta
confessione^ uadant ad Sepulcheum dicendo ps almum:
Domine quid multiplicati. Sequetue Antiphon a, quam can-
tent sub silentio : Ego dormiui et somnum cepi, et exur-
rexi, quoniam Dominus suscepit me, alleluia, alleluia. Euouae.
Et tollentes inde Coepus Domini eedeant in ciioeum,
cantando submissa uoce an tiphonam i Cum rex gloriae
Christus infernum debellaturus intraret et chorus angelicus
ante faciem eius portas principum tolli praeciperet: sanctorum
populus, qui tenebatur in morte captiuus, uoce lachrymabili
qlamauerat: Aduenisti desiderabilis, quern expectabamus in
tenebris: ut educeres hac nocte uinculatos de claustris. Te
nostra uocabant suspiria : te larga requirebant lament a. Tu
factus es spes desperatis, magna consolatio in tormentis, Alle¬
luia. Quae consuetudo ubi fueeit, seevanda eeit. Et
STATIM CUM EEDIEEINT IN ChOEUM, OSTENSO SaCEAMENTO IN
1 Agenda Eccelsiae Argentinensis . . . Colortiae, 1590, pp. 251-
255.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell. 913-
ALTARI SICUT FIT IN MlSSA, DEINDE CANTENTUR MaTUTINAE..
Lecta autem tertia lectione, duo eliguntur qui vadant
ad Sepulchrum, induti cappis albis yel superpelliciis, et
SEDEANT TJNUS AD CAPUT, ALTER AD PEDES, EXPECT ANTES'
VISITATORES EIUSDEM SEPULCHRI. FlNITO AUTEM TERTIO
Responsorio, tres Sacerdotes, quibus hoc Cantor iniunx-
ERIT CAPPIS IN (p. 253) DUTI, SINGULI THURIBULUM CUM IN-
CENSO PLURIMO PORTANTES, AD SePULCHRUM PROCEDANT.
QUOS CAELICOLAE DUO SCILICET STANTES IN SEPULCHRO IN-
TERROGANT. VeRS.
Quern queritis in sepulchro, o Christicole ?
Respondent Christicolae, tres scilicet Sacerdotes:
Iesum FTazarenum crucifixum, o Caelicolae.
Item caelicolae. Vers.
Ron est hie, surrexit sicut praedixerat : ite, nunciate, quia,
surrexit de sepulchro.
Deinde Caelicolae levantes velamen Sepulchro supee-
POSITUM, DANT EIS SUDARIUM CANTANDO HANC ATttiphoUAM l
Yenite et videte locum ubi positus erat Dominus, alleluia,,
alleluia.
Accepto sudario redeant in chorum. Et tres in choro>
CANTENT VOCE SONORA HANC AnTIPHONAM I
Dicant nunc Iudei quomodo milites custodientes sepulchrum
perdiderunt regem ad lapidis positio (p. 254) nem : quare non
Servant petram iustitiae : ant sepultum reddant, aut resurgentem.
adorent, nobiscum dicentes alleluia, alleluia.
YeNIENTIBUS AUTEM SUPER CHORUM, VULTIBUS VERSIS A I>
CUERUM, ET STANTES IN SUPREMO GRADU ANTE MAIUS ALTARE,
EXPANSO INTER SE SUDARIO CANENTES ChRISTICOLAE ANTI¬
PHONAM :
Surrexit Dominus de sepulchro, qui pro nobis pependit in
ligno, alleluia.
Chorus cantet AwtiphonAM. :
Surrexit Christus, et illuxit populo suo, quern redemit"
sanguine suo, alleluia.
Christicolae cantent A^tiphonam :
Surrexit enim sicut dixit Dominus, et pracedet vos in
Galilae (p. 255) am, alleluia: ibi eum videbitis, alleluia, alle¬
luia, alleluia.
D14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Deinde Cantor prosequatur:
Te Deum laudamus.
Haec praescripta Visitatio Sepulchri obseryetur se¬
cundum CONSUBTUDINEM CUIUSLIBET EcCLESIAE.1
VIII
Codex Palat. lat. 448, in the Vatican Library,2 contains both
a Depositio and an Elevatio , but no Visitatio. The Elevatio
contains not only the antiphon, Cum rex gloriae, but also the
characteristic Harrowing of Hell antiphon, Tollite port as,
which points toward the growth of this theme in connection
with the Elevatio.
<DEPOSITIO CPITCIS>3
(fol. 51r) ComPLETA ComMUNIONE4 STATim DIG A UTUV
Vespc^e sub silentio sic ut uerB. Post Vesper as Sacotdos
Corpus Vommi in MunDissiMA theca diligentst REConniTum
portet ur ad Locum ad hoo preparATum ET in eo Qnasi SEP-
eliendo ponatur cum hoc r esponsorio : Ecce quomodo
moritnr iustus, et nemo porcipit corde ; uiri iusti tolluntur, et
nemo considerat; a facie iniqnitatis snblatus est iustus, et erit
in pace (fol. 51v) memoriam eius. Versus: In pace factus
est locus eius, et in Syon huMtacio eius. In recessu cantatur
hoc Responsorium : Sepulto domino, signatum est monu-
mentum uoluentes lapidem ad5 hostium monumenti, ponentes
milites qui custodirent illnd. Versus: He forte ueniant
discipudi eius et furentur eum et dicant plebi, surrexit !a
mortuis. Ponentes.
Ac ita usQiie in diem Torcium LuminA iii ibi iUGiTer
ARDENCIA CUm MAG- UU CAUTELA SERUETUR.
1 The rubric, Ad Aspersionem Aquae, follows.
2 Rome, Vatican, Cod. Palat. lat. 448, Rituale- Agendum Moguntinum
saeo. xv. The MS. is described by H. Ehrensberger, Libri Liturgici
Bibliothecae Apostolicae Vaticanae, Priburgi Brisgoviae, 1897
3 Vatican MS. Palat. lat. 448, fol. 5H-51Y
4 Communion of the Missa Praesanctificatorum.
5 MS. ab.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
915
<ELEVATIO CEECIS>1
(fol. 631') Hie NOTA Q uod IN' SACRA NOCTE PASCITALI
PROPE DIEM MaTUTINE PULSENT^r. Et CAMPANARIWS CUm
IPSO SACerDOTE AMBO PORTANTES INCENSUm CRUCE ET CANDELa
PTOCEDENTE EOS UISITAWT LOCUm UBI CRUX Dom^NI DEPOSITA
EST, ET IPSE SACeTDOS OSC^LAT STIGMATA CRUCIS ET THURIFICET
et ASPerGATwr aqua (fol. 63v) benedicta. Et sAceroos
TOLLEnS CRUCEm PROCEDE71S AD OSTIUm TEmPLI Q UO'd APTUm
est ad hoc cantatas suBMissA uoce Antiphonam: Tollite
portas, pnncipes, ues/ras et eleuaimm porte eternales, et
TRUDEtlS TER AD OSTIUm ET CA71TAT Ter ANTIPHONAM SUP rd
SCRIPTA<M>. HOC FACTO, SACERDOS CANTAT SUB SILERCIO
a ntiphonam hatic : Cum rex glone. Finita an tiphona,
SAcerDos deponat CRUCEm clam in arm ari u m ueL ad Locum
SIBI TVUC DEPUTATUm, ET TURC PULSANTUR MaTUTINE.
IX
Bodleian MS. Bawlinson Liturgical d. iv is a Processionale
of the fourteenth century from the Church of St. John the
Evangelist, Dublin.2 In the course of the Temporale one
finds at Eastertide a Depositio (fol. 68v-70r) and an Elevatio
(fol. 85v-86v), hut no Visitatio. The somewhat elaborate
ceremonial and the presence of both the Crux and the Corpus
Domini lend to these offices an unusual interest. In what
appears to he a supplement3 at the end of the Temporale , im¬
mediately before the Sanctorale, are found a second Elevatio
(fol. 127v-130r) and a Visitatio Sepvtlchri .4 The second
1 Vatican MS. Palat. lat. 448, fol. 63r-63v
2 The MS. is described by W. H. Prere, Bibliotheca Musico-Liturgica,
London, 1901, p. 107. Certain readings from this MS. that are de¬
fective in my photographs were re-established for me by my friend
Charlton Walker, Esq., of Oxford.
3 In my opinion the Temporale and the “Supplement’ were written
by the same hand. In any case, they were both written in the latter
half of the 14th century.
4 The Visitatio from this MS. has been published by Chambers (Vol.
II, pp. 315-318), with variants from MS. V. 3, 2, 10 in Archbishop
916 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Elevatio differs conspicuously from the first in containing an
extended dialogue concerning the Harrowing of Hell. Al¬
though this second Elevatio shows a marked advance' toward
a Harrowing of Hell play, in the absence of impersonation it
stops short of true drama.
<DEPOSITIO CRUCIS>1
(fol. 68v) Einitis Vesperis2 exuat Sac erdcs cAsuLAm 7
ASSUMEnS UNUm DE PreLATIS in S^peRPELLICIIS DISCALCIAR1
reponant Crucvm Tamer cum Corpote Dommico m Sep-
ulc ro iwcipiens ipse solus hoc r espomorium: Estimates
SUm, GENUFLECTENDO CUm SOCIO SUO, QUO INCEPTO STATIM
surgat. Simiviten FIAT in r esponsorio: Sepulto Domino.
Cuorus totum uesponsorium ptosequatur cum suo u ersu
GENUFLECTENDO Ter TOTUm TEMPUS USQ^C AD FINEm SmjICII
responsorii: (fol. 69r) Estimatus sum, cuoms prosE-
QuaTur Tesponsorium : Cum descendentibus in la cum, factus
sum sicut homo sine adiutorio, inter mortuos liber. Versus:
Posuerunt me in lacu inferiori in tenebrosis et in umbra
mortis. Factws. Dum TremctuM. responsorium cum suo
U ersu CANITUR, PreDICTI DUO SACdfDOTES THURIFICEU/T SEPUL-
CRUm, QUO FACTO 7 CLAUSO OSTIO, IUCIPIAT IDEm SACdfDOS
hoc sequels responsorium : Sepulto domino. Chot^s R e-
s^ondeat : Signatum est mlonumentum, uoluentes lapidem
ad ostium mo (fol. 69v) numenti, ponentes milites qui cus-
todirent illud. Versus : He forte ueniant disci puli eius 7
furentur eum et dicant plebi, surrexit a mortuis. Ponentes.
SAcemos ant iphonam: In pace. Chori(S PROSEouaruR :
In idipsum dormiam et requiescam. Sacctdos a ntiphonam :
Marsh”s Library, Dublin, another 14th century Processional from the
same church. I regret that I have not seen this latter MS. Sub¬
stantially all of the Visitatio from it is given in facsimile by W. H.
Frere, The Winchester Troper, London, 1894 (Henry Bradshaw So¬
ciety), Plate 26b. From this facsimile Professor J. M. Manly has
printed the Visitatio in his Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean Dramar
Yol. I, Boston, 1900, pp. xxii-xxvi.
1 Bodleian MS. Rawlinson Liturgical d. iv., fol. 68v-70l
2 Vespers of Good Friday.
Young— The Harrowing of Hell.
917
In pace factns est. Chords prosEQuaTUR: Locus eius et in
Syon habitacio eius. SAcerDos ant iphonam : Caro mea.
Chorus prosEQuaTUR : Requiescet in spe. An istas tees
Antiphonas genuflectent ur Bremcti duo sAcerDOTES con-
TINUE. HlIS FINITIS OEDINE (fol. 70r) NOW SOTTATO REIUDUAT
SAcerDos CASULAm 7 eodetw m odo quo accessit in pnNcrpio
seruicn cum diacowo 7 suBviacono 7 CETeris ministris ab-
sedat, metis prius ona/ioNiBus ad PLAciTum secrete ab
omniBus cum genuflection®, omniBus aliis ad LiBiTum
RECEDEUTIBUS. ExiNDE CONTINUE AEDEBIT UNUS CerEUS AD
minus Aixte SEPULCRum usQue ad Brocessionem que fit in
Resurreccione Dominica in die Pasche. Ita TaN turn
quod Dum Becdmus : Benedicts, canit ur 7 ce etra que se-
■CUNT ur IN SEQUgNTI NOCTE EXTINGUATUr. Sim^L^SR 7 EiX-
TINGUATur IN Ymilia PaSCS DUm BSNSDICITUr NOUUS IGNIS
USQU0 ACCEUDATUr Cereus Paschalis.1
<ELE VATIO CRUCIS>2
(fol. 85v) In die Pascs an te YLATutinum 7 an te cAm-
PANARUm PULSAcioNEm COUUEWIANT CLC7UCI AD ECCLeSIAM
DUO EXCELEEN CHORES PreSBITeri in SUpeBBKLviciis CUm CERO-
FERARlis3 7 THUflBULARWS 7 CLERO cirCUmSTANTE AD SePUL-
c rum accedaut 7 incensato Brin s SEPULcro cum maguci
UENer'AcioNE STATim p ost THuriFicAcioNEM videlicet GENU-
FLECTEUDO CORPUS Dom^NICUm PriuATim SUpeR ALTARE DE-
PON AUT, INTeriM ACCIPIENTES CrUCEm DE SEPULCrO, IUCIPIAT
excelleucior pnMAm AntiphonaAi : Xpis^us resurgens, cum
Qua eat Brocessio per osTium pf’esBiTern AusTraLE 7 per
MED^Um CHOn REGREDIEUS CUm PreD^C^A CrUCE DE SEPULCrO
AssumpTA iNTer duos SAcerDOTEs Brevictos supeu eor um
BmcHiA UEN er ABiLiTer par (fol. 86r) ata cum THuriBULARns
7 CEROFERARIIS PreCEDEUTIBUS AD UNUm ALTARE EX PaTTE
BORIALE, CHOrO SEQUeNTE BLablTV NO U UNITer EXCELLENcioRI-
bus precEDENTiBus ; CoRPorE uero Dommico supeu altare iw
lrThe rubric, Sabbafo in Vig ilia Pasce, follows immediately.
2 Bodleian MS. Rawlinson Liturg. d. iv., fol. 85v-86l
3 MS., ceroferariws.
918 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
PIXIDE DIMISSO SUB THESAUEAE.il CUSTODIA QUI ILEUD STATim
ix vremctA pixide ix tabeexacula depexdeat et tunc
PULSEXTUE OMXES CAMPAXE IX CLASSICUM. AxTIPHOXA l
Xpistus resurgens ex mortuis iam non moritur, mors illi ultra
non dominabitur quod enim uiuit, uiuit Deo, alleluya, alleluya.
Versus : Dicant nunc Iudei quomodo milites custodientes
sepulcrum perdiderunt regem ad lapidis posissionem, quare
non seruabant petram iusticie (fol. 86v), aut sepultum red-
dant aut resurgentem adorent1 nobiscum dicentes, cnorus
vicaT sic: Alleluya, alleluya. Fixita a ntiphona cum suis
u ersibus a toto CHoro nicaT excelle^cioe persoxA in ipsa
STAcioxE a xie altaee u ersiculum : Surrexit do minus de
sepulero. Hesponsio : Q ui pro nobis. Oremns. Or atio :
Deus qui pro\ nobis filium tuum crucis patibulum subire
uoluisti ut inimici a nobis expelleres potestatem, concede
nobis famulis tuis ut in resurreccionis ei us gaudiis semper
uiuamns. Per eundem Xpisinm. Xecn on cedat nee snbse-
qno-tur: Do minus uobiscum. Fixita oe atione OMnes cum
GUADIO GEXUFLECTAXT mideM. 7 IPSAM CmCEm ADOEEXT, IX-
phmis digxioees persoxE 7 seceete sixe nrocessione cuomM
inTEEXT. Hiis iTAQne gestis niscooperiAXTnr crncEs per
EccLesiAM et omnes ymagixes 7 iXTeriM puLSEXTnr2 3 cAm-
paxe ad Mat utinum moee solito.
<ELEVATIO CRUCIS ET VISIT ATIO SEPULCHRI>S
(fol. 127v) lx die Pasche a xie MATUTinAs 7 a xie cam-
PAXAEWm PULSAC^OXEm COnUEniAXT CLeriCI AD ECCLeSIAM EX-
tixctis p rius ommnus ECcnesiE (fol. 128r) LUMixAEiBns, ex-
CEPTIS EUMIXAEIBnS inFEA SEPULCmm ET MAGXO CEBEO
paschale. SiXGnui QUOQne cuenci 7 alii ceeeos EXTincTos
in MAXiBns DEFEEEnTEs inciPiAT caxtoe HAnc AntiphonaM :
Cum rex glorie, 7 percAnTETnr a choeo: Cum rex glorie
Xpistus infernum debellaturus intrasset et chorus angelicus
portas principum tolli preceperat sanctor um anime que tene-
bantur in morte captiue uoce lacrimabili clamauerunt :
1 MS., adorant.
2 MS., pulscentt/fT.
3 Bodleian MS. Rawlinson Liturgical d. iv., fol. 127v-132r.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell . 919'
Aduenisti desiderabilis, quern expectabamus in tenebris, ut
educeres hac nocte uinculatos de claustris; te nostra uocabant
(fol. 128v) suspiria, te larga requirebant lamentatu, factus es
spes desolatis, magna consolacio in tormentis. Et iHTeriM
DUO EXCELLENciOBES SAC erdoteS IK SUpeWWviciis CUM
thu vibulariis ad SEPULcrwm accedau-t 7 rmiTA a ntiphona
EXCELLE-wciOR persoxA inciPiAT AntiphonaM HUMILI UOCE
sic : Eleuamini porte etemales 7 introibit rex glorie.
Ch orus vrosvquaTvn uersuM : Quis est iste rex glorie ?
Dominus uirtutum, ipse est rex glorie. It£m idem sac erdos-
PAEum aecius inciPiAT AntiphonaM : Eleuamini. Cnorus
vrosvquaTur versum : Quis est iste rex glorie? Domtinus
fortis 7 potens dominws potens in prelio. Item idem sac erdos
Tercio alcius inciPiAT AntiphonaM : (fol. 129r) Eleuamini.
Chorus vrosvquaTur versum: Quis est iste rex glorie?
Dominus uirtutum, ipse est rex glorie. Tunc iucexsato Sep-
ULcro 7 APerTO ostio vrevicti sac erdotes ceeeos suos de.
lumixe inFEA Sepulctom accexdaxt,1 ex quinus cvven
cebei per ECCLesiAM iLLUMiNEnTnr. DEinDE vrenicti sac er-
dotes ELEUAftTES CrnCEM DE SEPULCrO 7 CosporE DoMmico-
supev, ALTAEe p rius deposito EXCELLEnciOB sac erdos mcipiET
AntiphonaM : DoMine abstraxisti ab inferis animam meam.
CHorns prosEQnoror vsalmum : Exaltabo te, domine, qui
suscepisti me, nee delectasti inimicos meos super me. Et
vost v^vmquemque versum eepetatw a cHoro akt iphonat
Domine abstraxisti, ut supra , 7 sic eiat EEPETicio QnousQne
SanctA Ceux a prenicfas sac erdotibus hokoeifice supev,
altaee appoxamt. Quibus vactis premcTi sAcerdotes ALTA
uoce mciPiAKT A'Nte altaee Hunc uersuM : Consurgens
Xp istus tumulo.2 CHorns prosEQnaTnr: Victor redit de
baratro tyrannuM trudens uinculo et reserans (fob 129 v) para-
disuM. Deiude vrenicii sac erdoteS vica^T versum: Ques-
uinus, auctor omniuM. CHorns prosEQMurnr: In boc pas-
chali gaudio ab omni mortis impetu tuum defende populum.
iTeM vrenicti sac erdotes: Gloria tibi, domine. Hie omnes
GEXUFLECTAMT 7 PULSEXTnr OMneS CAMPAKE ET CH OrUS
1 MS., accedart.
2 MS., timulo.
.920 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
pposequ/xtur : Qui surrexisti a mortuis cum patre et sancto
spiritu iu sempitema secula. Hus FimTis incipient p re-
mcti sac endotes AntiphonaM : Xpistus resurgens. Chopus
pposequutup : Ex mortuis. Cum qua Antiphona ^eat ppo-
-c essio per med ium cHon cum vremctA Ctuce de Sep ulcro
ASSumpTA iutct Eremctos duos sac erdotes s upe~R eo Rum
brachia UEwerABiuiTer perACTA cum thu uibulariis 7 cero-
f erariis pp6Cede<n>tibus ad aliquod altare Extra quotum,
CHOPO SEQUeNTE M&ITU NOR UNIT6P, EXCELLEUciORIBUS PPe-
•cedeutibus, Corpope uero Dommico supeR altare in pixide
dimisso. Quod quivEm iwieriM sacHsta in tab0pnacula
HONORABILIT6P REPONAUT. FlNITA ANTIPHONA CUm SUO
u ersu a toto chopo, mcaT priNCiPALis sac erdos in ipsa
STAcioNE couuersus ad altare Hunc u ersiculum: Surrexit
do minus de sepulcro. Or atio : Deus qui pro nobis filium.
EiniTA (mationE omnes genuflectart iBiDEm 7 ipsam
'CrucEm adorent (fol. 130r) inpppmis DicmioREs persoxE 7
SEcreTE s ixe Erocessione in quotum redeant. Hiis itaquo
gestis DiscooperiAUTur crucEs 7 ymagines per ecclesiaw. 7
mTeriM pulseutup CAmPANE more solito ad MATuimAS.
EiniTo1 iii r esponsorio cum suo versu 7 Olopia Po^ri
uenieut tres popsone in supenEEEEiceis 7 iw capis sencis2
“CAPITIBUS UELATIS QUaSI TRES MARIE QUUREUTES iHdSUM,3
SINGULE PORTAUTES PIXIDEm IN MANIBUS QUUSI AROMATIBUS,
QUARum4 prirna ad mGREssum chopi versus5 SEPULcrum Ere-
CEDAT6 per SE7 QUUSI LAMENTANDO DICAT *.
1 Chambers’ text begins at this point. I offer a new text of this
Officium SepulcJiri both for the sake of convenience to the investigator
and for the sake of a considerable number of instances in which my
reading of the MS. differs from that of Mr. Chambers. I append to
my text all variants from Archbishop Marsh’s MS. (facsimile by Frere,
plate 26b) and from Chambers’ text, except the variations in the spell¬
ing of the root of the word Christus. C=Chambers’ text; 0=Bodleian
MS. Rawlinson liturg. d. iv; M=Archbishop Marsh’s MS.
2 M begins here. M cericis.
3 M Xpm.
4 O qtmsi.
5 C M usque.
6 C M procedat.
7 M supplied in margin, in a later hand.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
921
Heu! pins pastor occiditur,
Quem nulla culpa infecit:
0 mors lugenda!
Yactoque modico inTeruALLo ioteet socwda MAnia con-
simili1 modo 7 dicat:
Heu! nequam gens Iudaica,
Quam dira frendet uesania,
Plebs execranda!
DEmDE tertia M&Ria cotisimili modo mcaT :2
Heu! uerus doctor obiit,
Qui uitam functis contulit:
O res plangenda!
Adhuc PAULuium pr o cederdo phma YLaria mcaT :3
Heu! misere cur contigit
Yidere mortem saluatoris?
Deiwde secwnDA Mama mcaT:41
(fol. 130v) Heu! consolacio nostra
Ut quid mortem sustinuit!
Turc tertia M aria:
Heu! redempcio nostra,
Ut quid taliter agere uoluit!
TuRC SE CORIUNGART 7 PrOCEDART AD GraDUm CH07I AIsT^e
ALTARE SIMRL5 DICERTES :
lam iam, ecce,6 iam properenms ad tumulum,
Unguentes7 Helecti8 corpus sanctissimum.
9Deirde pro cedant similiter propE SEPULCRum 7 phma
Maria mcaT Ter se :
Condumentis aromatum
Ungamas corpus sanctissimum
Quo preciosa.9
1 M simili.
2 M omitted.
3 M dicat hoc modo.
4 M omitted.
6M omitted.
6 O M esse.
TM ungentes.
8 M dilecti.
9-9M omitted, but a later hand has written on the upper margin of
3
922 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Tunc secunvA Maria vicaT per se:
Xardi uetet commixtio
Xe putrescat in tumulo* 1
Caro beata,
Deiwde tertia Maria2 DicaT per se :2
Sed nequimns boc patrare sine adiutorio;
Quisnam saxum hoc reuolnet3 (fol. 131r) a monumenti
ostio ?
Facto iwreruAEEO ANGeuas iu xto4 Sepulc rum apparuit5 eis
7 T>icaT hoc modo :
Quern queritis ad sepulcrum, o cristicole ?
DimDE ReSpONDEART TRES MaRIE, SIMiUL mCONT I6
Ibesum nazarenum crucifixum, o celicola.
Tunc ANGeLns dicet:7
Surrexit, non est bic? si cut dixit;
Venite et uidete locum ubi positus fuerat.
Deitide preDicte Marie Sepulc rum mTREnT 78 mcLiNANTES
se 7 prospiciEW-TES uNDiQ'ae mFRA9 SEPULcmm alta uoce
Quasi GAUDEnTES 7 ADMIRATiTES 7 PARWm A SEPULCrO10 RE-
CEDEnTES SIM^L nica'NT *.10
Alleluya ! resurrexit dominus !
Alleluya ! resurrexit dominus bodie !
Resurrexit potens, fortis, Xp istus, Filius Dei!
Deinde ANGeLttS ad eas :
Et euntes dicite discipulis eius et Petro quia surrexit.
the preceding page: Condimentis aromatum unguentes corpus semc-
tissimum quo preciosa.
1 O timulo.
2-2 M omitted.
3 M reuoluit.
4C nixus.
B M appariat.
8 C dicentes ; M omitted.
7 M dicat sic.
8 M omitted.
8C M intra.
io_i0 m recedentes dicawt simwl.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell . 923
(fol. 131v) In qua1 REuerTANT ad ANGeunM quasi maw-
DATum suum ad2 implewduto par are3 stm.wl dice^tes:2
Eya! pergamns propere
Mandatum hoc perficere. .
iNTeriM UEniANT AD inGRESSUm CHOfl DUE PerSONE NUDE
pedes, sub persoNis ABOstoBOBum lonannis 7 Petr^ mDUTE
alb^s siNe paruris cum tunicas, Quanum lonannBs amictos
TUNICA ALBA PALMAm in MANU GESTAnS, PETRUS UerO RUBEA
TUNICA inDUTnS CLAUES I U MANU FEREns;4 ET PreD^C^E
MULIERES DE SeP^LCRO REU erTEnTES 7 QUaSI DE CHOrO SIM^L
EXEUnTES D^CaT PHMA MARIA Per SE5 SEQUEN CIA < M > I6 7 8
Victime paschali laudes
Immolant Cristiani.
7 Agnus redemit oues;
Xpis/ns innocens Patri
Reconsiliauit peccatores.
8Mors et uita duello
Conflixere mirando :
Dux uite moTtuus9
Regnat uiuus.
Tunc obuiantes eis in me<Po cHori preDicP Discipnui iNTer-
ROGANTES SIM^L DieUNT I
Die nolns, Maria,
Quid uidisti in uia?
Tunc priMA Maria RespoNDET10 quasi monstrando:
Sepul (fol. 132r) crum Xpistfi uiuentis
Et gloriam nidi resurgentis.
*C quo.
2-2M implendum parate dicentes simul.
8 C M parate.
4 M deferens.
eM omits per se.
6 M sequenciam.
7M preceded by the rubric, seewnda Maria.
8 M preceded by the rubric, Tercia Maria.
9C O M mortuis. But in M a later hand in the margin seems to
have corrected to mortuus.
10 C M respondeat.
924 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Time secunda xMaria Res£>ONDET simii^iten monstrando i1
Angelicos testes,
Sudarium 7 liestes.
Time2 tertia M&Ria, rcs^ondeat :
Snrrexit Xpistus, spes nos£ra,
Precedet uos in Galileam.
Et sic precEDAwr3 simul ad osTium4 CHon; mTeriM4 cur-
RAnT DUO AD MOIUMEOTUm; UERUmPTameX ILLE DISCIPnDRS
Q uem DILIGrEBAT IHeSUC UE71IT pWoR AD MOXUMEnTUm IU xta
EtoNGELW: CuRREBATIT AU tem DUO SIMUL 7 IDLE ADI US
DISCIP'llL'RS PreCUCURRIT CIC IUS PeTRO ET UE71IT prioR AD
MoiUMEOTum, now Tames i/uttoiuit. Videtites Discipipli
vremcti 5 SEPuucRum UAcuum 7 nerms M arie credentes6
REUerTANT SE AD CHOfMM DICEXTES7 :
Credendum est magis soli Marie ueraci
Quam Iudeornm turbe fallaci.
Tunc AUDITA Xpisfa RESURRECCtONE, CMOrUS PrOSEQ^mir ALTA
UOCE Quasi GAUDEWTES 7 EXULT AnTES DICENTES *.8
Scimns Xpiston surrexisse
A mortuis uere.
Tu nobis, nictor Pex, miserere.
Qua FimTA, EXECUTOR OFFICII inCIPIAT :
Te Deum laudamns,
°7 sic RECEDAnT s&ncte MARie, APOSTOLI 7 Axgelus.9
X
Manuscript 169 in the Library of Uiversity College, Ox¬
ford, is described as a “Benedictine Ordinal of the Xuns of
^ M Maria respondeat quasi monstrando.
2 M omitted.
3 C procedant.
4-4 M chori 7 interim.
5 M omitted.
6 O credente.
7 M dicentes hoc modo.
8 M dicant.
®-9 M omitted.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell. 925
Barking, of the first decade of the XV th century.”1 Each of
the dramatic offices contained in this manuscript — Deposition
Elevatio , and Visitation — is of especial interest. The Depositio
given below approaches more nearly to drama than does any
other text of this office that I have seen. Although the rubric
Ibique in specie Joseph et Nichodemi de ligno deponentes
Ymaginem uulnera Crucifixi uino abluant et aqua is by no
means a certain indication of impersonation, it 'does point
definitely toward true drama.2 In the present manuscript the
Elevatio has been joined directly to the Visitatio to form a
more considerable dramatic office, unlike any other Easter of¬
fice with which I am acquainted.3 The enlarged dramatic of¬
fice takes the liturgical position usually occupied by the simple
Visitatio , — between the third respond and the Te Deum of
Easter Matins, — and contains the following elements: a rep¬
resentation of the Harrowing of Hell; a sufficiently regular
Elevatio ; a ceremony of confession and of vesting; a Planctus ;
a Visitatio containing the scene between the Maries and the
Angel, and the Christ scene, but no Apostle scene.4 The rep¬
resentation of the Harrowing of Hell contains what I take to
be genuine impersonation, and is the only example yet pub¬
lished, so far as I know, of a true dramatization of this theme
in true liturgical drama. This enlarged office is important,
also, in so far as it illustrates that process of amalgamation by
which dramatic cycles were formed both in the liturgical
language and in the vernacular.5 Lastly, the text below will
be welcomed as an important addition to the meagre materials
illustrating the development of liturgical drama in England.
Fortunately it is now no longer true that “the tenth-century
version of the Quern quaeritis from Winchester and the four-
1 W. H. Frere, Bibliotheca Musico-Liturgica, Vol. I, p. 149, where the
MS. is well described.
2 It seems to me likely that one may presently find texts of the
Depositio showing true dramatizations of this office. This particular
search seems hardly to have been begun.
3 A remote parallel from a Sacerdotale Romanum of the year 1560
is printed by Lange, pp. 40-42.
4 See Chambers, Vol. II, p. 32; Lange, p. 17.
6 See Chambers, II, 44, 52-56, 69 ff.
926 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
teentlr-century version from Dublin stand, at least for the
present, alone. V1 Fortunately, also, our new text can be dated
with considerable definiteness, for Katherine of Sutton, who
instituted this observance at Barking Nunnery, was Abbess
from 1363 to 1376.1 2
<DEPOSITIO CRUCIS>3
(p. 108) Cum4 aute m Saxcta Ceux Fuera?
ADOBATA, SACerDOTES DE LOCO PBEDicfo CbUCEM ELEUAXTES
ixcipiaxt a ntipkonam: Super omnia ligna, 7 chobo illo
SUBSEQUEXTE TOTAM COXCIXAXT. CAnTEICE IXCIPIEXTE,
DEFEBAXT CbUCEM AD MAGXUm ALTABE, IBIQUe IX SPECIE
IOSEPH 7 NlCHODEMI DE LIGXO DEPOXEXTES YMAGIXEm
uuLxerA Cbucifixi uixo abluaxt 7 aqua. Dum AUTEm hec
fiuxt coxcixat Coxuextus b esponsorium: Ecce quomocfo
moritur iustus, sacebdote ixcipiexte 7 caxteice bespoxd-
EXTE 7 CoXUEXTU SUCCIXEXTE. ~Post UULXemm ABLUCioXEM
cum CAXDELABBIS 7 TUBBIBULO DEFEBAXT ILLAM AD SePUL-
CBum has caxextes Antipkonas : In pace in idipsnm. Anti-
pkona : HuMtabit. A n\tipkona: Caro mea. CuMQue in
PBEDic^nM LOCUM TAPETUM PALLEO AUBlCnLABI Q UOque 7
LIXTHEIS XITIDISSIMIS DECEXTEB OBXATUm ILLAM CUm
BEUEBEXCIA LOCAUCriXT, CLAUDAT SACePDOS SEPULCBUm 7 IN-
cipiat b esponsorium: Sepulto domino. Et tuxc Abscissa
OFFEBAT CEBEUM, QUI IUGITEB ABDEAT AXTE SEPULCBUM, XEC
EXTIX GUATUB DOXEC YmAGO IX XOCTE PASCHE P Ost MATUTmdS
DE SePULCBO cum CEBEIS 7 THUBE 7 PTOCESSIOXE BESUMPTA,
SUO BEPOXATUE IX LOCO.
(p, 118) DE FESTIVITATE PASCHALI.5
Globiosa solexxitas DomixiCE Aesu<e>bexioxis cele-
BBETnr PBIXCIPALIS. IxPBIMIS PULSEXTltT DUE CAMPAXE
1 Chambers, II, 107.
2 See note on the text below.
3 Oxford, University College MS. 169, p. 108.
4 Preceded immediately by the Adoratio Crucis.
5 Oxford, University College MS. 169, pp. 118-127.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
927
QUE NO H QUIESCANT pWuSQU&M OmUIS CoNUENTUS CHORUm IN-
GREDIATUr. DeINDE BIMIS et BIMIS INTBr QUIUDECIM psaZmos
PULSATIS, AD ULTIMUm SONETUT CLASSICUM. Quo CESSANTE
sacerdos soLENNiTer incipiat : Domine, labia mea aperies, et
Deus, in adiutorinm meum intende. Tunc incipiatur a vi
Inuit atorium: AlleZma, XpisZuc bodie surrexit, et ab ileis
ALTerNA (p. 119) tim cantetur Ysalrrms : Venite, p ost
QUE m NON DICATRf YMPN US, S'Oi d STATIM INCIPIAT ABBaZlSSA
Antiphonam : Ego sum qui sum. Ps almus: Beatus uir.
A ntiphona: Postulaui: Ps almus: Quare fremuerunt. A n-
tiphona: Ego dormiui. Hrnlmus: Domine, quid multipli-
cati. Versus: Surroxit XpisZnc. EuaNGELmm : Maria
Magdalena.1 2 Primam LecZionoM legat PHorissa; sECUNDAm,
QUE FUeriT SENIOR IN ORDINE ; TOrCIAM, ABSCISSA. Pg-
sponsorium: Anlgelus Domini. ~Responsorium<: Angelas
Domini. Hesponsorium : Dum transisseZ. Ad unu<m>
quodque Responsorium dicat ur, Gloria PaZri, et THURiFicENTnr
altaria atquo Conueutus. Post uiTiMum Hesponsorium
uero concinatur ProsA: Ortum predestinacio, et post
prosAM rein ciPiATnr Hesponsorium : Dum transisseZ.
Xo ta quod secnnDUM antiquum coNSUETUDiNEm ECCLesiAS-
TICAM PeSUR<R>EXIO Dom^NICA CELEBRATA FUIT ANTE
MATUTmUS, et ANTE ALIQUUM CAMPANE PULSAcionEM IN die
PaSCHE, ET Q UaM. RORURORUm CONCURSUS TEmPORIBUS ILEIS
UIDEBATUr DEUOCioNE FRIGESSERE, ET TORPOR HUMANUS MAX>
IME ACCRESCENS, UEN'grABILIS DomiNA3 KATgriNA DE SuTTONE,3
TUNC PASTORALIS CURE GERENS UICEM, DESIDERANS DicZuM TOR-
POREM PENITU5 EXSTIRPARE et FIDELIUm DEUOciONEM AD TAM
CELEB <R> EM CEEEBRAcioNEM MAGIS EXCITARE, UNANIMI CON-
SOTLORUm CONSENSU INSTITUIT UT STATIM POST iii. RespOUr
sorium MATUTiNARum die- Pasche fieret DomfmicE Pesur-
<R> EXIONIS CELEBRACIO, et HOC MODO STATUETUr PrOCESSIO.
iNPriMis eat DomiNA AbbczZissa cum toto Conuentu et
QUIBUSDAM SACOrDOTIBUS et CLERICIS CAPIS INDUTIS, QUOLIBET
1 MS., magdelane.
2 MS. has dna twice.
3 Abbess of Barking, 1363-1376. See W. Dugdale, Monasticon Angli-
canum, Yol. I, London, 1846, p. 437.
928 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
SAoerooTE et cuerico PALMAm et cANDELAm extincta m manu
DEFERENTE1 INTREWT CAPELLAm Staftcfe MARIE MAGDALENE,
FIGURANTES ATlimAS SanctOTLUm PATRUm A T$te (p. 1'20)
ADUENTUm X.-pistl AD INFEROS DESCENDENTES, et CLAUDANT
s ibi osTiijm dicte capelle. Deinde superuENiENs saco/dos
EBDOma^RIUS AD D^C^AM CAPELEAM APPROPIANS ALBA IN-
DUTUS et CAPA CUm DUOBWS DIACONIS^ UNO CRUCEM DEFERENTE
cum uexillo Dom^Nico DESUPer pendente, ALTero cum t ur-
RIBULO MANU SUA BAIULANTE, et ALUS SACOrDOTIBWS et CL er-
icis cum duob us pueris cerEos deferentibt/s ad osTium
mctE capelle incipiens ter h«nc Antiphonam : Tollite
portas. Qui quidem sAcerDos REpresENTABiT persoNAM
Xvistl AD inFEROS DESCENSURAM et PORTAS INFERNI DIRUP-
TURAm; et PREDICT A A^Tiphona UNAQUAQ ue UICE IN ALT^ORI
UOCE IN CIPIATtM*, QUA m CLOriCI TOCIENS EANDBM REPETANT,
et AD QUaMQUaM IN CEPCiOTlEM PULSET CUm CRUCE AD PRE-
lyictuM OSTIUm, FIGURANS DIRUPCIONEM PORTAR^m INFERNI,
et TerciA pulsac^one osTium APeriAT. Deinde iNGREDiAT^r
ILLE CUM MINISTRIS SUIS. iNTOriM INCIPIAT QUIDAM SACOrDOS
in capella EXisTENTE Antiphonam: A porta inferi, quglm.
subinferat cantrix cum toto Conuentu i Erue, Domine,
et cetera. Deinde extrahet sacerdos EBDom&daRius OM/ies
ESSENTES IN CAPELLA PREDrC^A, et INTOriM INCIPIAT SACOrDOS
Antiphonam: Domme abstraxisti, et cantrix suBSEQmnw :
Ab inferis. Trine omwes exeant de capella, id est, de
limbo patrum, et cantent sac6tdotes et CLerici Antiphonam :
Cum rex glorie, procEssiONALiTer p er mediu m chori ad
SEPULCRUm PORTANTES SINGULI PALMAM et CANDELAM, DE-
SIGNANTES UICTORIAM DE HOSTE RECUPgrATAM, SUBSEQUENTIBWS
DomiNA Abbg^issa, Priorissa et toto Conuetitu SICUT SUNT
PRIORES.
Et cum ad SEPULCRUm peruENeriNT, sAcerDos (p. 121)
EBDomac&Mmjs $EPULCRum thurificet et intret Sepulcrum
in cipiendo u ersum: Consurgit. Deinde subsequat^^ can¬
trix: Vpistuc tumulo.2 Versus: Omms auctor. Versus:
Gloria tibi, Domme, et intotm asportabit Corpus DomiNi-
1 MS., deferentem.
2 MS., timulo.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell. 929
cum de Sepulcro incipiendo a ntiphonam : Xp^us re-
SUrgetlSj CORAM ALTARI, UERSO UULTU AD POPWEWM, tenendo
Corpus Dom&NicuM in manibws suis inclusum cristaelo.
Deinde subiungat cantrix : Ex mortuis, et cum Diet a anH-
phona eaciant procEssiONEM ad aetare SanctD Trinitatis
cum SOLENNI APPARATU, UIDELICET CUm TWRIBULIS et COrEIS.
Conuentws sEQimTUR cantando vr evict am Antiphonam cum
u ersu: Dicant nunc, et uersicuvo1 : Dicite in neicionihus.
Or atio : Dens q ui pro notws Filium tuum. Yt hec procES-
sio figuratut per hoc quo JLjyiduc procEDiT vost resur-
< R > EXIONEM IN GaEIEEAM, SEQUENTIB2/S DISCIPULIS.
QuiB^S PerACTIS^ PrOCEDANT TRES SORORES A Do-m^NA Ab-
BATISSA PrOELECTE, ET NIGRIS UESTIBtiS IN CAPELLA BeATE
Marie Magdalene exute, nitidissimis superPELLicus in-
DUANTW NIUEIS UEEIS A DOWMNA AbBU^ISSA CAPITIBWS EARWm
superposms. Sic icitur prepARATE et in manibws ampuelas
TENENTES ARGENTEAS DICANT : ConfiteOT, AD AbBU^ISSAM, et
AB EA ABSOLUTE, in LOCO STATUTO CUm CANDELABRIS CON-
sistant. Tunc illa que sPEciEm preTENDiT Marie Magda¬
lene canat Hunc uersum : Quondam Dei. Quo einito,
secwDA que. MARiAm Iacobi proFiGURAT AETerum T&espON-
deat uersuM : AppropinqtMms ergo, sola. Tercia Maria
uicem optinens Saeomee TerciuM canat uersuM : Licet
mihi nobiscum ire. Yost hec cHORwm incedentes flebiei
uoce et submissa hos p&riTer can ant uersus : Heu nobis
internas men (p. 122) tes, Hiis persists finitis, Magda¬
lena sola dicat Hunc uersum : Heu misere. Iacobi re¬
spondeat: Heu consolacio nostra. Salome: Heu redemp-
eio Israel. QuARTum uero uersum OMwes simul concinawt
sic: lam iam ecce. Tunc Marie exeuntes a chcro simul
dicawt : Eya, quis reuoluet. Cum AUTEm uenc?tnt ad
SEPUECRUm, CEOriCt^ ALBA STOEA INDUTt^S SEDEAT ANTE SeP-
ULCRUm IDDIUS ANGOEI GEREUS FIGURAM QUI AB OSTIO MONU*
menti eapidem reuoeuit et super eum sedit, qui dicat illis :
Quemi queritis in sepulcro, o cristicole ? Bespondeant Muli-
eres : Thesum X azarenum querinms. Angolas uero subin-
ferat: Hon est bic, surrexit. Cvmque raxeriT : Venite et
MS., uersiculus.
930 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
uidete, ixgrediaxtrt Sepulcruri et deosculextrt Locum
ubi positus erat crucifixus. Maria u ero Magdalexe IX-
T6riM ACCIPIAT SUDARIUm QUOD FUCrAT SUPer CAPUT EIUS et
SECUm DEFERAT. TuXC ALIUS CLeriCUS IX SPeC^E ALTeriUS
AXGELI in SePULCRO RESIDEXS DICAT AD MAGDALEXAm I
Mulier, quid ploras ? Illa au tem subiurgat : Quia tulerunt
Dominum meum. Deixde duo AxGeui simul coxcixextes
dicaxt Mulieribus: Quid queritis uiuentem cum mortuis,
et cetera. Tunc ille de resur<r>exc^oxe Do mini adhuc
DUBITAXTES PLAXGEXDO Dic&XT AD IXUICEm I HeU dolor, et
cMera. PostEA Maria Magdalexe suspiraxdo coxcixat1 :
Te suspiro, et cetera.
Tunc IX SIXISTRA ParTE ALTARIS APPAREAT PerSOXA, DICEXS
illi : Mulier, quid ploras ? Quern queris ? Illa uero
putaxs Eum esse oRTOLAxum respoxdeat : Domine, si tu
sustulisti eum, et cetera. PersoxA subiuxgat : Maria !
Tunc ILLA AGXOSCEXS EUM PEDIBUS EIUS PrOSTERXATUr DICERS I
Raboni! PersoxA (p. 123) auteri se subtrahexs dicat:
Xoli me tangere, et cetera. Cum PersoxA disp aru eriT,
Maria GAUDium suum coxsociabus communicET uoce leta-
buxda hos coxcixexdo uersus : Gratulari et letari, et
cetera. Quibus fixitis, PersoxA ix dextera parTE altaris
twb us simul occurrat mulieribus dicexs : Auete, nolite
timere, et cetera. Tuxc ille humi prostrate texeaxt
PEDES EIUS et DEOSCULEXTUR. QUO FACTO, ALTCrXIS MODULA-
cioniBus hos uersus decaxtext, Maria Magdalexe ixcip-
iexte: Ihesuc ille Xazarenus, et cetera. Fixitis hiis
uersiBus, tuxc Marie staxtes super gradus a xfe altare
uerTEXTEs se ad populum caxaxt hoc iiespoiwsorium : Alle¬
luia, surrexit Dominus de sepulcro, choro eis respoxdexte.
Fixitis hiis, sAcerDOTES et cLenci ix figuram DisciPULORum
Xpisfa procEDAXT dicextes : O gens dira. Tuxc uxus il-
LORum accedat et meat Marie Magdalexe: Die2 nobis,
Maria, et cetera. Illa Au'fem RespqxDEAT : Sepulcrum
Xpisft. Angelicos testes. Digito ixdicet locum ubi ax-
GeLRS SEDEBAT, et SUDARIUm PreBEAT ILLIS AD DEOSCULAUDUm,
1 MS., concinant.
2 MS., dixit.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
931
Hunc adioientes uersuM : Surrexift jTLpistuc , spes nosfaa.
Tung subiunga <n>t ur a discipul^ et a choro hii ultimi
uersus : Gredendum est, et Scimus Vpistum. BostsA in-
cipiat Magdalena: Xpistfus resurgens, cleeo et choro
POLITER SUCCINENTE. HlIS ITAQne PerACTIS, SOLENNITeP DE-
cantetw a sAcerDOTE incipiente xmnus: Te Deum laud-
m us. Et int6pim -pr evict's sAcerDOTEs in capellam pro-
PRIIS UESTIBnS REINDUENTES CUm CANDELABRIS Per CHOR Um
TmNSEUNTES ORANDI QiROtiA SEPULCRUm ADEANT, et IBI
BREUEm osationeM eaciant. Tunc redeant in stac^onem
suAm usQne Abscissa (p. 124) eas iubeat exire ad quies-
CENDUm.
In Laudibus QuiNQne Antiphons canantur sic: Angelns
enim Domini, et ester a. GapUusum.: Yratres, expurgate
uetus. Quo finitOj non vicitus, ut mos est, r esponsorium
neq ue ympnuS; s ed statim p ost proNunciAC^oneM CAPituSI
dicant scolares paruum uersicuLum sic : Surrexit Domi-
vut de sepulcro. Ad Benedidus, A ntiphona: Et ualde
mane. Hie thurificent sacerdotes duo CoNUENTum.
Or atio : Dens q ui hodierna die. BeNenicAMns vicitus cum
Anselm a a Pascha usq ue ad PESTiviTATEm Sands Trini-
TATIS, IN PRINCIPALI et IN DUPLICI SOLENNITATE, et IN FEST-
IUITATIBUS QITE CUM SEQUEnCIA TENENTW. CUM AUTEm
CERUITEICES B6N6DICCtONEM ACCIPeriNT, FIAT ComMEmOr-
ncio de Beata Maria cum a ntiphona: Paradisi porta, et
<ju m GsoriA Patsi. Versus : Aue Maria. Or atio: Prosit
nobis semper, omnipotent Pater. Et si festivitas ALicuins
■sandi EUENeriT, nulla fiat de eo comMEmomcio. Per
totam svvoMadam vicitus hic y mnus i Te lucis anctor
personent. A ntiphona : Angelns enim Do mini. Ps almus :
Beati inmacula, ti, usQne Bsydmum : Legem pone. CapL
tusuM.: Pegi seemor um. Versus: Exurge DomAie. Bic-
itus in dextro choro Osatio i Omnipotent sempiterne Dens
qui dedisti.
Missa de Beata Maria in die Pascha cANETnr iNTer
Prim Am ad alt are Saudi Pauli.
Missa capitalis, Besur<r>exi, DicATnr in capella Beate
Marie, quo vicitus Salue, et ad hanc MissAm commnm-
932 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
CEXTt^r OBEDIEXCIARIE, SCOLARES IUUEXCULE, DEBILES Q UOqUO
et IXFIRME.
Ad Tertiam OMnes coxueriaxt. Y mnus: Chorus noue.
A ntiphona: ExTro, autem. Ps almus: Legem pone, usque,
Porcio. QabUula et OnatioivEs sicut in Cap^lari
dexotaxtut. Y ersus : Sjurrexit Dominus.
Tost BexeDiccioxEM Aque CAXAT^r, A ntiphona: Vidi
aquam. Versus : Confitemini Domino, et cum Glotia
Pato. Et iXTeriM pre p are Tur ptocessio modo et ordixe
quo in (p. 125) die Natalis Domixi, ad quam omwes eaxt
PALLIATE. Tost ORDIXATAM U Cro PrOCESSIOXEM, SEX SORORES
A PRESEXTRICE PRIMO IX MEDIO CHORO COXSISTEXTES SOLEX-
xrrer decaxtext: Salue festa dies, totum sic: uersuM Ab-
Ba^ISSA IXCIPIAT et CHORUS EUXDEM FOSt ILLAM1 RECAXTET.
Cum caxtwces dixerixt u ersum: Ecce renascentis, eat p ro-
cessio circa ECCLesiAM et caxtNces ix medio. CumQue IX
REuerTEXDo UExmxT ix capellam BeaTE Marie, u hi AUDI-
AXT SerMOXEM; et P ost SerMOXEm, AbB^ISSA IXCIPIAT Rer-
sponsorium : Xpistus resurgens, ad ixTROiTum.
Qua fixita, Magxa Missa ixcipiatur a sex. Officium:
Resur<r>exi, et ad Kyrie foils bonitatis p er totam ebdom adam
nicitun Kyrie, per uersus. Gloria in excelsis per quatuor
dies. Gr aduale: Hec dies, caxatwp a trib us. Alletfma.
Versus: Pascha nostrum, caxatur ab Abbo^issa, PWorissa,
Presextrice et SuccextWce, atq ue ex sexioribws Seq^x-
tia: Eulgens precla^a. Tost Eu anGelium incitur: Credo
in unum, et iXTeriM thurificet diacoxus CoxuEXTum, et
S'WBDIACOX'WS DEFERAT TEXTUM UTRIQ^e CHORO AD DEOSCU-
LAXDum. Ad hoxc Missam communic^Tur OMties qui ad
aliam dfissAM xor FuerAXT communicATi. OFFeR torium:
Terra tremuit. Co mmunio : Pascha nostrum. Missa au tem
soLEXxiTer celebrata, soxetw cLASSicum. No ta q uot>
quatuor mnnus Pasche, Pextecostes, Dedicac^oxis Ec-
CLesiE, Assumpctonis Be^TE Marie, et Eestiuitatis BeaTE
Ethelburge, et QUiXQi/e dieb^s Natalis Domini, et omwi
PnXCIPALI FESTIUITATE PULSETW CLASSICUm VOSt MlSSE CE~
LEBRAcionEM.
1 MS., illas.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell. 933
Ad Sextam ymnms : Qua m deuorarat improb us. A nti-
phona : Pre timore autem (p. 126) Ysalmus : Porcio mea,
usQue ad Defecit. Versus: Surrexit Do minus uere.
PlXITA Sexta, EANT 1ST DORMITORIUM, et IXDE IX REFEC-
TORium. Lectrix uero eegat EXPOSicionEM EuaxG-ELii,
Maria Magdalene. Yost REFECcionEM autem et QUAtiauum
ACcionSM IN EXEUXDO DE REFECTORIO SOLEXXITer COXCIXEXT
u ersum: Hec est dies, PresEXTRicE ixcipiexte modo quo
predA^um est die Xataeis Domin. Yost hec eaxt ad
MerroiAXAm.
Cumq ue puLSAuenxT campane, mcituR Hoxa. Y mnus:
Ipsum canendo. A ntiphona: Cito ennltes. Ysalmus: De¬
fecit. Versus: Grauisi sunt. PerACTA EToxa, eaxt in
XAUEM ECCLeSIE, et AUDIAXT SERMOXEM USQUe AD SOXITUm
V esperapum.
Ad Vespera:, Antiphona: Aliena. Ymlmus : Laudato
pueri. Ymlmus : Laudate Dominion, omnes gentes. Ymlmus :
Land ate Do minum quoniam bonus. Ymlmus : Lauda,
Iernsalem. Q)APixulum : Xpisfris resnrgens. Yesponsorium :
Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro, coxcixaTur a quotuor.
Ympxus no n mcitun ad Vesper as mis quatuor diebus, s ed
Seq ueNcia: Yictime paschali. Versus: Pascba nostrum.
Antiphonait Et re^pSioientes.. Ysalmus: Magnij^eat. Oru
tio : Dens qui hodierna die. Hulla fiat comMEmorocio
hiis quatuor diebrs post V esperas, s ed statim post Bexe-
DICAMnS EAT PrOCESSIO CIRCA FOXTEM IX XAUI CUM CAXDE-
LABRIS et CRUCE ATQYie TURRIBULO, AbBO^ISSA IXCIPIEXTE R0-
sponsorium: Sedit angelus, et PresEXTRicE. Ysalmus:
Laudate pueri. Quartuor caxaxt uersuM ix medio xaui,
*sic : Crucifixum. SuquaTur uersiculus : Surr exit Dominns
de sepulcro. Or atio : Dens qui hodierna die pier nnigenitum.1
Ix exeuxdo de xaui, Abbu^issa ixcipiat r esponsorium:
X.pistus resurgens, et PresEXTrix. Ysalmus : In exitu
Israel. 2 Ad iXTROiTum mcitun versus : Dicite in nacionibns.
O patio: Deus qui pra nobis filium t uum.2 Versus: Dicant
nunc, xox oicitun hiis quatuor diebus, s ed Yvnia
written in the lower margin, by the same hand.
2_2 written in lower margin, by same hand.
934 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
quinta et sexta et /SAbbuto e esponsoAium : Xpisius re-
surgens mcituR cu m u ersu: Dicant nunc, ad procESSiONEm
AD ALTABE ReSUB <B>EXIONIS DomtNI. XoTA Q UOd OM.ni
Sabbuto usQne Pentecosten eat ptocessio (p. 127) ad p re-
victuM. aetaee cu m nesponsorio : Xpistfus resurgens, s ed
versus : Dicant nunc, non mcituR in Sabb&tis usQne ad
Pentecosten.
Finitis Vesvens, eant in eefectoeio cenabe. Ab hoct
Avtem DIE USQne AD FESTIUITATEm $ANCTE TbINITATIS LEGATnr
Augustinus de Resub <b>exione Dommi ad couuAcioNEs.
Xota quod per totaw ebdom adam Pasche in Laudib^s dica-
Tnr versus de Resue <e>exionb iNTer Peeces ANte P salmum :
Domine exaudi; et simiviver ad Sextam et ad Nonam; s ed
caueat ur ne versus qui DiciTnr p ost CapUuvum vicatuv ad
PrecES eandem hoeam. Et NOTANDum Quov versus sac er-
dot < ae > es Non vicuntuv, per totam VBvoAtadam nisi ad
PnMA?n et ad CoMPLETOBium, et ita fiat in ebdomada
Pentecostis.1
XI
Codex latinus 23037 in the Staatsbibliothek at Munich con¬
tains as its chief article a Breviarium Monasticum of the
twelfth century of the use of the monastery of Prufening.2
In the text below we have one of the few" examples hitherto
made known of a Visitatio Sepulchri attached to the monastic
type of Easter Matins.3 I publish this text in the present ser¬
ies, however, not primarily for the sake of the Visitatio , but
1 The rubric, Feria secunda, follows immediately.
2 For information as to the provenience of this MS. I am indebted
to my friend, The Reverend Father Dom G. M. Beyssoc, O. S. B., and
to The Reverend Father Clemens Blume, S. J. The official description
of the MS. in Catalogus Cocticum Latinorum Bibliothecae Mowacensis,
Tomus II, Pars IV, Monachii, 1881, p. 52, is almost worthless. For ex¬
ample, the document is described as a “Missale.” My attention was
first called to this MS. by Dom Beyssac, whose kindness to me in this
matter, as in innumerable others, has been immeasurable.
3 See my brief note on this detail in Publications of the Modern
Language Association, Vol. XXIV (1909), p. 310.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
935
more especially because the first eight lections of Matins are
taken from a Sermo Eusebii Episcopi on the Harrowing of
Hell.1
In the present article I am not prepared to discuss the
possible relations of Sermons on the Harrowing of Hell to
plays on the same subject either in the vernacular or in liturgi¬
cal Latin. In our present meagre information concerning the
Harrowing of Hell theme in liturgical drama there is no evi¬
dence of the influence of sermons. The present text with
its juxtaposition of Harrowing of Hell sermon and Quern
quaeritis dramatic office may, perhaps, be an advance toward
such evidence. The possible influence of sermons in the de¬
velopment of vernacular plays on the Harrowing of Hell has
not yet been definitely studied. A most adequate stimulus
for such a study was provided several years ago by Professor
Hand in his well-known and indispensable article, Sermo de
Confusione Diaboli.2 When this study shall finally be under¬
taken, the modest text presented below may be of some serv¬
ice.3
1 On the identity of this Eusebius, and on the relation of his sermon
or sermons to the Evangelium Nicodemi, see Rand, in Modern Philol¬
ogy, Vol. II (1904), pp. 262-3. For further references see Hulme, p.
Lxiii. The text given below should be compared with Sermo clx, De
Pascha, “consarcinatus ex Gregorii et Eusebii sententiis” (printed by
Migne, Pat. lat., xxxix, 2059-2061), with which it agrees in part lit¬
erally. The version represented by Munich Cod. lat. 23037 is evi¬
dently the “homilia . . . Eusebii . . . longe prolixior” men¬
tioned by Migne, loc. cit., col. 2060, note 2. I have no knowledge as to
the relation of my text to the two sermons of Eusebius printed by
Migne, Pat. Graeca, Lxxxvi, col. 383 et seq. and nxii, col. 721 et seq.r
which are represented by the Latin translation published by Rand,
loc. cit., pp. 270-278. On the relation of the sermons of Eusebius to
the Evangelium Nicodemi see also Migne, Pat. Graeca, Lxxxvi, col. 411-
414.
2 Modern Philology, Vol. II (1904), pp. 261-278.
3 The study of the relation of sermons to drama was begun bril¬
liantly and fruitfully by Sepet in his Les Prophetes du Christ ( BihMo -
theque de VEcole des Chartes, Vols. xxviii, xxix, and xxxviii).
The relation of sermons to plays on the Passion has been studied by
Keppler (Historisches Jahrhuch, iii, 285-315, and iv, 161-188). The
936 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
<CURSUS IN DIE PASCHAE>1
<In I Vesperis>
(fol. 175V, col. 1) Super psalmos ferrulcs: Aeuia, aeuia,
aenia. P salmus: Confiteant ur, cum eel iquis. Versus: In
resurrectione tua, Xp iste. Celum <et terra letentur>.
< Antiphona ad Magnificat > : Vesper e autem sabbati,
que lncescit in prima sabbati, uenit Maria Magdalena et altera
Maria uidere sepulchrum, aeuia. lost Peixemcamus, de
Sancto • iGeo<egio> Antiphona : Qni manet in, ueL Anti¬
phona: Iste sanctus. <De> Michahele <antiphona> :
Michahel arch angelus, cum Alleluia. <De> louannB
Bapt ista Antiphona : Iustum deduxit. Pet ri et Pauli
<antiphona> : Si manseritis. De Apos^olis <anti-
phona> : Alleluia, ego sum. <De> Steph ano Anti¬
phona: Iustus autem. De ALartyniBus <antiphona> :
Eulgebunt. i. <De> Martino < antiphona > : Amauit.
<De> Benedict < antiphona > : Beatus uir q ui in via.
De Cari'FESSORiB^ Antiphona: Sancti et iusti. De Vimm-
ibus < antipiiona> : Prudentes, cum Alleluia.
<Ad Matutinum.>
iNuiTa/ormm : Aeuia, aeuia, aeuia.
In Primp Nocturno. Antiphona: Ego sum qui sum, et
consilium meum non est cum impiis, sed in lege Domini
uoluntas mea est, aeuia. P salmus: Beatus uir. P salmus:
Quare frem<uerunt>. P salmus: Cum inuoc<arem>.
relations of sermons to vernacular drama in Italy is discussed by V.
Bartholomaeis, Ricerche Abruzzesi, in Bulletino deTV Istituto Storico
Jtaliano , no. 8, 1889, pp. 137-159. See also pp. 82, 101. Cook’s two
articles (Journal of Germanic Philology, iv, 421-451, and v, 62-64)
on the dramatic element in patristic literature seem to have proved
nothing definitely concerning the immediate sources of mediaeval
drama. References for further investigation are furnished by Rand,
p. 268, and by Huhne, loc. cit., p. Lxiii.
1 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, cod. lat. 23037, fol. 175v-178r. To aid in¬
vestigators I present the entire cursus of Easter.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
937
P salmus: Domine, Dominus noster. P salmus: Conserua
me. Y salmus : Det^s, Deits mens,, respice. Versus: Quern
queris mulier ? Viuen<tem cum mortuis>.
Sermo Eusebii J&viscopi.
< Lectio i.>
Exulta celum, et in leticia ?esto terra. Iste dies uobis
amplms ex sepulchro radiauit quam de sole refulsit. Ouet in-
fernus, qma uita ad se descendente a sua impietate resolutus
est ; gaudeat, quia, in sedibt^s suis descendente domino uisitatus
est. Exultet homo Adam, quia ignotam lucem post secida
longa uidit, et inter profunde noctis caligines suffocate tene-
bris respirauit. O pulchra lux, que de can (fol. 175V, col. 2)
dido celi fastigio promiscuisti, et prefluenta purpurea sedentes
in tenebris et umbra mortis subita claritate uestisti.
P espqnsorium: Maria Magdalena et altera Maria ibant
diluculo ad monumentum. Iesum quern queritis, non est hie,
surrexit sicut locutus est: Precedet uos in Gralilea<m> ; ibi
eum uidebitis, aeuia, aeuia. Versus: Cito euntes, dicite
discipulis eius et Petro, quia surrexit dominus. Precedet.
< Lectio ii.>
Confestim igitur eterna nox inferorum Xp isto descendente
resplenduit, siluit stridor ill© lugentium, dirupta cecidere
uincula damnatoi mm, attonite obstipuere mentes tortor um ;
omnis simul officina impia contremuit cum X.pistum repente
in suis sedilms uidit. Mox igitur ferruginei ianitores de¬
scendente Vpisto talia inter se ceci umbrosa silentia metu in-
cubante suhmurmurant. Quisnam est, inquiunt, iste terribilis
et niueo splendore coruscus ? O numquam talem nosier ex-
cepit tartarus, nunqmmi in nostram cauema m talem euomuit
mundus.
Hesponsorium : Surgens Idsus, dominus rooster stans in
medio discipulorum suorum dixit, Pax uobis, aeuia. Gauisi
sunt discipuli uiso domino, aeuia. Versus: Surrexit dom¬
inus de sepulchro, qui pro nobis pependit in ligno. Ae<uia>.
4
938 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
< Lectio iii. >
Inuasor est iste, n on debitor; effractor est, n on precator; iu-
dicem uidemws, non supplicem. Pugnare uenit, non suc-
cumbere; eripere, non manere. Ubinam putatis soeii (fol.
I76r, col. 1) nos^ri ac ianitores dormierunt, cum iste debel-
lator nostra claustra uexabat? Iste si reus esset, audax non
esset. Si eum aliqua delicta fuscarent numquam fulgore suo
nos/ras dissiparet tenebras. Sed si Dews est, cur buc uenit?
Si homo est, quid presumit? Si Dews est, quid in sepulcbro
facit? Si homo, quare captiuos soluit? Hum quidnam iste
cum auctore nostro pactum composuit? An forte et ipsum
aggressus uicit, et sic ad nostra regna transmit? Certe mor-
tuus erat, certe uictus erat. Illusus est preliator nosier in
mundo, nescit quam hie stragem procurauerit in inferno.
Hesponsorium : Congratulamini miebi omnes qui diligitis
dominium, quia quern querebam apparuit miebi, et dum
Herein ad monumentum, uidi dominum meum, aeuia. Versus:
Tulerunt dominum meum, et nescio ubi posuerunt eum. Si
tu sustulisti eum, dicito miebi. Et dum f<lerem>.
< Lectio iv.>
0 crux ilia fallens gaudia nostra et parturiens damna nostra !
Per lignum ditati sumws, per lignum euertimur. Perit po-
testas ilia' cunctis semper popwlis formidata. Hullus sub cede
nostra captiuus palpitauit, en qwod gemendum est et insultat.
Husquam antiqui fletus, nulli iam resonant eiulatus turpidum
specus obmutuit. Putasne iste sine nostro exitio redit ? Hemo
umquam ad nos uiuus intrauit, nemo sic audax fuit, nemo sic
carnifices terruit. Hunquam in hoc biatu nigra semper fuli-
gine ceco iocundum lumen apparuit. An forte sol e mundo
migrauit? Sed nec celum nobis astraqwe apparent, et tamew
infernus lucet. Quid agimus ? Quo conuertimur ? De-
fendere contra istum cruentas domos et obtinere nostre (fol.
I76r, col. 2) cauerne custodias iam non ualemus.
~Responsorium: Virtute magna reddebant apostoli testi¬
monium resurrectionis Iesu Xpisti Domini nostri, aeuia, aeuia.
Young — The Earrowing of Hell. 939
Versus: In omnem terram exiuit sonus eorum, et in fines
orbis terre uerba eorum, aeuia. < Testimonium >.
Ix Secundo IS \octurno.
A ntipjibona : Postulaui patrem meum, aeuia, dedit micbi
gentes, aeuia, in hereditatem, aeuia. D salmus: Domini est
terra. Y salmus: Dominus illuminatio. P salmus: Exalt-
abo te. P salmus: Beatus qui intelligit. P salmus: Hotus
in Iudea. P salmus: Domino, Deus s<alutis>. Versus:
Tulerunt dominum meum.
< Lectio v.>
Male lustrati sumus, tantam lucem obtenebrare nequimus,
oppranere tanta uirtute preditum new ualemus. 'Nostra quo-
q ue colla urgueri conspicimus, et de nostro insuper nunc in-
teritu formidamus. Qmd nobis et celof Plagis nos recentior-
ibws iusta ultione ferimur. Hocte nostra contenti sumus, am
tris nostris occulimur. Quare radiis prodimur ? Quare
uiolentia disturbamur ? Quare in nostris sedibus captiuamur ?
P esponsorium : Tulerunt dominum meum, et nescio ubi
posuerunt eum. Ait illi angelus, nobi fiere, Maria, surrexit
sicut dixit, precedet uos in Galileam, ibi eum uidebitis, aeuia,.
aeuia. Versus: Cito euntes, dicite discipulis eius et Petro
quia surrexit dominus. Precedet.
<Lectio vi.>
Mox igitur Xp istuc in ipsos crudeles penarum ministros
aciem dirigit, atqwe inplacabiles turmas framea diuina con-
cidit. Pramunt diri sub tariaro carnifices, et rabidiores
adactis stridoribus contabescunt. Ipsa (\u\oc\we antra ferrei
cubilis mirantur, et fortes a fortiore ©tends nexibus conligan-
tur. Hoc dominus ipse promiserat dicens: Xemo intrat
domum fortis et uasa eius diripiet, nisi prius alligauerit
fortem et sic uasa eius diripiet. Tristes igitur mox lugentesqtte
(fol. 1Y6V, col. I1) diuturno squalore turbe popidiqi/e uexati con-
currunt, et redemptoris no*s/ri uestigiis prouoluuntitr. Ecce
940 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
aposfolica dicta probantur, ut in nomine Ibesu omne genu
flectatnr celestium, terrestrium, et infernorum.
Hesponsorium: Expurgate uetus fermentum, ut sitis noua
conspersio, etenim pascba nostrum immolatus est Xpistus,
itaque epulemur in domino, aeuia. Versus : Non in fer-
mento malicie et nequitie, sed in azimis sinceritatis et ueritatis.
Itaque.
< Lectio vii.>
Mox igitur captiue anime de custodiis relaxate tartareis
proruunt regi secuiorum, mestaque supplicjatione deplorant.
Venisti tandem, clementissime Ibesu, succurre iam et parce
fessis. Nunc Xp^uc seuas extingue minas, iamque miser-
andos resolue gemitus. Eedemisti uiuos cruce tua, eripe
mortuos morte tua. Pari nobiscum labe ipse mundus in-
terierat, ad aduentum tuum omnis creatura pendebat. Tibi
nostra tormenta suspirabant, te semper infernos iste psallebat.
L)um bic es, absolue reos, dum ascender is, defende tuos. Tu
solus caput draconis comminuere potuisti, tu portas creas et
uectos ferreos ualuisti conterere. Pateat quesumus precanti-
bus ianua, lux n on desit pi a ; et si redis ad corpus, maiestate
tua n on priuetur infernus.
Hesponsorium: Ecce uicit leo de tribu Iuda, radix Dauid
aperire librum et soluere septem signacula eius, aeuia, aeuia,
aeuia. Versus: Et unus de senioribus dixit mibi, ne fleueris,
dignus est agnus qui occisus est accipere potestatem et forti-
tudinem. Ae<uia>.
< Lectio viii.>
Post auditas itaque preces, post compositas leges, post ter-
rores dimer (fob 176V, col. 2) sos in fossa alte uoraginis, rex
nosier bodie de inferis laureatus triumphator exiuit. Xec can-
didatum officium defuit, sed leta cum prmcipe suo omnis beator-
um toga processit, sic ut in euangelio scriptum est, quia resur-
gente domino multa corpora sanctorum qui dormierant surrex-
erunt, et exeuntes de monumentis post resurrectionem eius uen-
erunt in s&nc^am ciuitatem, et apparuerant multis. Pepedat
igitur ad stadium suum triumpbator iterum uiuus, ut nouerit
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
941
omnis mundus, quia rediit ab inferis Vipistue. Glorientur ergo
credentes, plaudant manibus omnes gentes, quia rex nosier in.
sectdo triumph auit, et in inferis uicit.
Hesponsorium : Isti sunt agni nouelli qui annuntiauerunt,
aeuia, modo uenerunt ad fontem repleti sunt claritate, aeuia,
aeuia. Versus : In omnem terram exiuit sonus eorum, et in
tines orbis terre uerba eorum. Modo.
<In Tertio Eocturno>.
Ad Canti'cioti A ntiphona: Ego dormiui et somnum cepi et
exsurrexi, quoniam dominus suscepit me, aeuia, aeuia.
CANTi<mm: Quis est iste.
Versus : ISToIi tlere, Maria. <Responsio> : Kesurre <xi>.
< Lectio ix.>
<Euangelium secundum > Sanctum MARCum.
In illo tempore, Maria Magdalenae et Maria Iacobi et
Salome emerunt aromata, ut uenientes unguerent Ihosiun. Et
ualde mane una sabbatorum ueniunt ad monumentum, orto iam
sole; et dicebant ad inuicem, Quis reuoluet nobis lapidem ab
ostio monumenti ? Et respicientes uiderunt reuolutum
iapidem, erat quippe magnus ualde. Et introeuntes in monu¬
mentum uiderunt iuuenem sedentem in dextris coopertum
stola Candida, et obstupuerunt. Qui dicit illis, Eolite ex-
pauescere, Thesum queritis Hazarenum crucifixum; surrexit,
non est hie; ecce locus (fol. l77r, col. 1) ubi posuerunt eum.
Sed ite, dicite discipulis eius et Petro, quia precedet uos in
Galileam, ibi eum uidebitis sicut dixit uobis.
Omelia B eati Geegorii.
Audistis, fratres kamsimi, quod, sancte mulieres que domi¬
nion secute fuerant cum aromatibus ad monumentum uenerunt,
et ei quern uiuentem dilexerant, et iam mortuo studio human-
itatis obsecuntiir. Sed res gesta aliquid in sanc^a ecclosia
signat gerendum. Sic quippe necesse est ut audiamns que
facta sunt, quatinns cogitemus etiam que nobis sunt ex eorum
942 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
imitation© facienda. Et nos ergo , in eo qui est mortuus
credentes, si odore uirtutum referti cumJ opinione bonorum
operum dominion qnerim us, ad monumentum pro fee to ill ius
cum aromatibus nenimns.
Nesponsorium : Surrexit pastor bonus, qui posuit animam
suam pro ouibus suis et pro suo grege mori dignatus est, aeuia,
aeuia, aeuia. Versus: Surrexit dominus de sepulcro qui pro
nobis pependit in ligno. Aeuia.
< Lectio x.>
Ille autem mulieres angeilos uident que cum 'aromatibus
uenerunt, quia uidelicet ille mentes supernos ciues aspiciunt,
que cum uirtutum odorib^s ad domiimm -per sanda, desideria
proflciscuntur. Uotandum uero nobis est quidnam sit quod in
dextris sedere angolas cernitur. Quidnamqite per sinistram
nisi uita presens, quid uero per dexteram nisi perpetua uita
signatur. Unde scriptum est, Leua eius sub capite meo et
dextera illius amplexabitur me. Quia igitur redemptor uoster
iam presentis uite corruptionem transierat, recte angelus qui
nuntiare perennem ei^s uitam uenerat in dextera sedebat. Qui
stola Candida coopertus apparuit, (fol. l77r, col. 2) quia fes-
tiuitatis nos^re gaudia nunciauit.
Nesponsorium : Angelus domini descendit de celo, et ac-
cedens reuoluit lapidem et super eum sedit, et dixit mulieribus,
Uolite timere, scio enim quia crucifixum queritis, iam surrexit,
uenite et uidete locum ubi positus erat dominus, aeuia.
Versus : Angelus domini locutus est mulieribus dicens, Quern
queritis, an Iesum queritis? Iam surr<exit>.
< Lectio xi.>
Candor etenim uestis splendorem nostro denuntiat solemni-
tatis. 'Nostro dicamus, an sue? Sed ut fateamur uerius, et
sue dicamus et nostro. Ilia quippe redemptoris nosfri resur-
rectio et nostra festiuitas fuit quia nos ad immortalitatem re-
duxit, et angelomm festiuitas extitit, quia nos reuocando ad
celestia eorum numerum impleuit. In sua ergo ac nostra
festiuitate angelus albis uestitus apparuit, quia, dum nos per
Young — The Harrowing of Hell.
943
resurrectionem dominicam ad superna reducimur, celestis
patrie damna reparantu-r.
Hesponsorium : Angelus domini locutus est mulieribus
dicens, Quem queritis, an Iesum queritis ? Iam surrexit,
uenite et uidete, aeuia, aenia. Versus: Ecce precedet nos in
Galileam, ibi eum uidebitis sicnt dixit nobis. Ve<nite>.
< Lectio xii.>
Sed qnid uenientes feminas affatur audiamus? Uolite ex-
pauescere, ac si aperte dicat. Paneant illi qni n on amant
adnentnm supemorum ciuium, pertimescant, qni carnalibus
desideriis pressi, ad eor um se soeietatem pertingere posse
desperant. Vos antem cnr pertimescitis qne uestros concines
nidetis ? Unde et Matheus, angelmn apparuisse describens ait,
Erat aspecte eins sicnt fnlgnr, et nestimenta eins Candida
sicnt nix. In ful (fol. 177V, col. ,1) gnre etenim terror timoris
est, in nine antem blandimentum candoris. Qma uerO' omnipo¬
tent T)eu& et terribilis est peccatoribns et bland^s instis recte
testis resurrections eius, angelus, et in fnlgnr e uultus et in can-
dore habitus demonstmtur.
E esponsorium: Dum transisset sabbatum, Maria Magda¬
lena et Maria Iacobi et Salome emerunt aromata, nt uenientes
nnguerent Iesum, aenia, aeuia. Versus. Et nalde mane una
sabbatorum neniunt ad monumentum, orto iam sole. Ut ueni¬
entes.
Ordo ad Visitandum Sepulchrum.
Duodecimo resp onsorio finito uisitat ur Sepulchrum.
Visit ATnr hoc m odo. Tres TuesBytem siye diaconi aebis
CAPPISQti<3 INDUTI, CAPITA HUMERALIBUS UELATA HABENTES,
SINGULIQ^e SINGULA CUW INCENSO THURIBULA IN MANIBUS
PORT ANTES PEDETEMPTIM PTOCEDUNT AD SEPULCHRU<M>
Dowwni, cantantes submissa uoce a ntiphonam : Quis
renoluet nobis ab hostio lapidem quem tegere sanctum cernimns
sepulchrum? Qua finita, duo diaconi induti dalmaticis,
UELATIS SIMILITer CAPITIBUS, SEDENT INFRA SEPULCHRUm,
QUIQ^ie STATim QUASI UICE ANGCLORUm ILLOS TRES AD IMITA-
TIONEm MULIERUm UENIENTES ITA COmPELLANT A ntiphonam:
944 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Quem queritis in sepulchm, o Xpicticole ? Econt ra isti :
Iesum nazarenum crucifixum, o celicole. EcoNTm illi: Xon
est hie, surrexit sicut predixerat; ite, nuntiate quia surrexit de
sepulchro. Tunc isti intrant Sepulchrum,1 illis cantanti-
bus: Venite et uidete locum ubi positus erat doming aeuia,
aeuia. Thurificant Locum ubi crux posita erat, sicq ue
TOLLENTES PANNUM INTRA SE EXPANSUM SIMUL ETIAM GE-
STANTES THURIBULA ET CANTANTES MEDIOCRI UOCE I Di (fol.
177v, col. 2) cant nunc Iudei quomodo milites custodientes
sepulchrum perdiderunt regem ad lapidis positionem, quare
non seruabant petram iusticie; 2aut sepultum reddant2 aut res-
Uirgentejm adorent nobiscum dicentes aeuia, 'aeuia. Regre-
DiUNmr p er aliam uiAm, et finita a ntiphona ante introi-
TUm CHORI, INTRANT TACENTES ET SUP6f GRADUM SCmC^UARIl
ASSISTENTES, UERSA FACIE IN CHORUM ET ELEUATO LINTIIEO
precELSA uoce intonant Antiphonam : Surrexit enim sicut
dixit dominus, precedet uos in Galileam, aeuia, ibi eum uide-
bitis, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia.
Ad Laudes.
A ntiphona : Angelus autem domini descendit de celo et
accedens reuoluit lapidem et sedebat super eum, aeuia, aeuia.
A ntiphona: Et ecce terre motus f actus est magnus, angelus
autem domini descendit de celo, aeuia. A ntiphona : Erat
autem aspectus eius sicut fulgur, uestimenta ei us Candida sicut
nix, aeuia. A ntiphona : Pre timore autem eius exterriti
sunt custodes et facti sunt uelut mortui, aeuia. A ntiphona:
Respondens autem angelus dixit mulieribus, Xolite timere,3
scio enim quod Jhesum queritis, aeuia.4 In Eu angelio Anti -
1 MS., sepulcrhum.
2-2 Supplied from left hand margin.
3 MS., timore.
4 Although there is no mark of ommission or of reference, the follow¬
ing may be supplied here from the left margin:
<;Responsio brevis <s\. urrexit Xpis£wc et illuxit populo suo,
aeuia, aeuia.
<; Versus >: Quem redemit sanguine suo. s.
<Versus;>: Resurrexit dominus.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
945
phona: Et nalde mane una sabbatorum ueniunt ad monu-
mentum, orto iam sole, aeuia.
Ad PHmam.
A ntiphona: Surgens Ihestts mane prima sabbati apparuit
primo Marie Magdalene, de qua eiecerat septem daemonia,
aeuia.
Ad iii.
A ntiphona: Et dicebant ad inuicem, Quis reuoluet nobis
lapidem ub ostio monumenti, aeuia, aeuia. . Versus : In resur-
rectione tua, Xptsfe. <Responsio> : C<elum>.
Ad vi.
Antiphona : Et respicientes uiderunt reuolutum lapidem,
erat quippe magnus ualde, aeuia.
Versus: Surrexit dominus uere. <Responsio> : Et
appar<uit Symoni>.
Ad viiii.
Antiphona : Xolite expauescere, Ihesum nazarenum queri-
tis crucifixum ; non est hie, surrexit, aeuia.
Versus: Surrexit dominus de sepulchro. <Responsio:
Qui pro nobis pependit in ligno>.
I x ii VESPens.
Antiphona super PsALmos1 Antiphona : Aeuia, aeuia,
aeuia, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia. P salmus: Dixit
dominos, et idem per totam epd omadam. Hesponsio :
Mane nobiscum, domine, aeuia, aeuia. Versus: Quoniam
aduesperascit et inclinata est iam dies. Versus: Gauisi
sunt discipuli.
1 In the MS. at this point occurs the following antiphon: Antiphona:
Iheswm quem qweritis. This antiphon is perhaps given here to re¬
mind the cantor of the melody for the antiphon that follows imediately.
946 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
(fob I78r, col. 1) In Eu armelio Antiphona: Surrexit enim,
ut supra. Ad Vroc^sionem : Xpistus resurgens ex mortals iam
non moritur, mors ill! ultra non dominabitur quod enim uiuit,
uiuit Deo, aeuia, aeuia. Unde supra, Antiphona : Aeuia, lapis
reuolutus est ab ostio monumenti, quia surrexit dominus, aeuia,
aeuia. Antiphona : Post passionem domini f actus est con-
uentus, quia non est inuentum corpus in monumento; lapis
sustinuit perpetuam uitam, monumentum reddidit celestem
margaritam, aeuia. Antiphona : Venite et uidete locum ubi
positus erat dominus, aeuia, aeuia. Antiphona : Ibesum qui
crucifixus est queritis, aeuia ; non est bic, surrexit enim sicut
dixit uobis, aeuia. Antiphona: Surrexit dominus de sepul-
cbro qui pro nobis pependit in ligno, aeuia. Antiphona :
Ihesum quern queritis, non est bic s ed surrexit; recordamini
qualiter locutus est uobis dum adbuc in Galilea esset , aeuia.
Antiphona: Scio quod Ihesum queritis crucifixum, surrexit,
aeuia. Antiphona: Cito euntes dicite disci pulis quia sur¬
rexit dominus, aeuia. Antiphona: Et recordate sunt uer^
borum eius, et regresse sunt a monumento, nuntiauerunt bee
omnia illis undecim et ceteris omnibus, aeuia. Antiphona:
Surrexit dominus de sepulcbro, qui pro nobis pependit in ligno,
aeuia, aeuia, aeuia. Antiphona: Surrexit Xp^us et illuxit
populo suo quern redemit sanguine suo, aeuia, <Antipbona> :
Ite, nuntiate fratribus meis, aeuia, ut eant in Gralileam, ibi
me uidebunt, aeuia, aeuia, aeuia. Antiphona: In Galilea
Ihesum uidebitis sicut dixit uobis, aeuia. Antiphona : Aeuia,
quern queris mulier, aeuia, uiuentem cum mortuis, aeuial,
aeuia. Antiphona: Aeuia, noli Here Maria, aeuia, resur-
rexit dominus, aeuia, aeuia. Antiphona : Ego sum Alpha
et £}, primus et nouissimus, et stella matutina ; ego clauis
Dauid, aeuia.1
In connection witb a series of texts so grouped as to il¬
lustrate, however imperfectly, tbe development of tbe Harrow¬
ing of Hell, or Descent, tbeme in liturgical drama one would
lrrhe cursus for Easter Monday follows immediately, under the
rubric, Ferta. ii.
Young — The Harrowing of Hell .
947
gladly summarize this chapter of dramatic origins in some
•definite fashion. At present, however, such a summary is, I
think, impossible, for it would presume something like a com¬
plete collection of the dramatic liturgical texts bearing upon
this subject, — a collection that has as yet scarcely been be¬
gun. From the meagre materials now accessible one would
infer that the Descent theme developed into true liturgical
drama at a comparatively late date. The earliest true liturgi¬
cal play on this subject as yet published (printed above from
University College MS. 169), arising from the period 1363-
1376, is antedated by a very considerable development of the
theme in vernacular drama, and one is tempted to conclude
that in this instance liturgical drama may be an adaptation
from vernacular drama. But at the present moment such a
conclusion would be hazardous, for it is more than likely that
when a really thorough-going search shall be made, earlier
liturgical plays on this subject will be discovered, and that the
vernacular plays concerning the Descent, like the vernacular
plays of Christmas, of Epiphany, and of Easter will be found
to rest upon a firm basis of liturgical drama.
JOHN OF SALISBURY’S KNOWLEDGE OF THE
CLASSICS.
A. C. KREY.
INTRODUCTION.
By most students of Medieval History, John of Salisbury
is remembered — if at all — by the legend that he lost his arm
in trying to ward off the fatal blow which fell on Thomas a
Becket. Very few, indeed, know him for any other distinc¬
tion. He has, however, a more certain claim to our attention
as the greatest classicist of the Middle Ages. Nor is this all.
Were he merely a sedentary classicist — a scholar of the cloister
or the school — he might arouse only a limited interest. But
John is more than that. A man interested primarily in the
world politics of his time, he stands forth as the great partisan
of the classics against the rising tendencies toward a more
“practical” and speedy system of education.
This may sotand unusually familiar. It is not so long
since the classics were routed from their dictatorial position
in modern educational systems by the more “practical” courses
and the teachers of Latin and Greek are far from accepting
their defeat. Every person who goes on in higher education,
to-day, is forced to settle for himself the problem of whether
a liberal or a “practical” education is the best preparation for
the rather fatuous struggle of life. It is therefore decidedly
interesting to find John of Salisbury battling with almost the
same problem eight centuries ago. It is still more surprising
to discover that almost every argument urged in favor of a
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 949
liberal education to-day was employed by bim then. Not only
does be figbt with tbe weapons of a modern humanist but,
wbat is more astonishing, he bases his fight upon a knowledge
of the ancient writers such as is possessed by comparatively
few men to-day, as will be demonstrated in the present paper.
The only safe basis for determining what classical authors
he really knew, lies in the quotations, direct and indirect,
which he makes from those authors. To credit him, however,
with a personal knowledge of every writer whom he quotes
would be even more erroneous than such a test could be to¬
day, for the man of the Middle Ages did not have our system
of teaching grammar but had to rely for his training in this
subject upon Donatus, Priscian, Nonius Marcellus and
Servius. These grammarians treated the subject by quoting
passages from classical authors in illustration of each point.
When it is remembered that all instruction was in Latin and
that for want of extensive libraries, grammar was very much
emphasized, it will at once be apparent that very many of the
quotations made by medieval writers found their origin in
these grammars. Priscian alone quotes over ten thousand
lines from ancient authors. Though these quotations were
usually of single lines, yet a skillful teacher might be able to
combine them and supply the missing words. That John had
studied these works like every other medieval student, cannot,
of course, be doubted.
Furthermore, John had also a thorough knowledge of the
works of St. Augustine, Jerome, Isidore, Lactantius, Martianus
Capella, Macrobius and Boethius. These works, too, were an
integral part of the education of every scholar of those times,
and John’s frequent references to them show clearly that he
was no exception. These writers had used the ancient authors
very extensively and a student could obtain an almost endless
fund of quotations from them alone without consulting any of
the authors themselves.
Mere quotation, therefore, cannot be considered as conclusive
evidence that John had certain authors. If, however, he
makes frequent and long quotations from such authors ; if his
quotations adhere more closely to the original texts than do
950 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
those of intermediate sources; and if he not only quotes hut
shows great familiarity with the works of an ancient writer,,
it is usually safe to conclude that he had read that authoi.
Furthermore, if the works in question were current in John’s
day; if they were used as text-hooks in the schools, this con¬
clusion would be materially strengthened. Lastly, if he
makes such statements as “in . . . legisse memini” or
“noster auctor” or if the work of an author is mentioned in
John’s will as a gift to some library, he can reasonably be
credited with having had the work.
Whether or not John gets his quotations from one of these
common intermediate sources must be determined by a com¬
parison of the passages in which such quotations occur. The
accuracy of the comparisons made for this essay is unfortunately
but unavoidably marred by the circumstance that the only ac¬
cessible edition of John’s works is contained in Migne’s
colossal work which was so hurriedly put together that in
questions of close textual criticism it is sometimes impossible
to decide whether a variation is due to John or to the editor.
In determining his familiarity with an author there are to be
considered the freeness of quotation, the general similarity in
the treatment of subject matter and his comments, or his criti¬
cisms of the author.
The problem in the case of John, however, is further compli¬
cated by the great number of his quotations from the clas¬
sics — one thousand would be a very conservative estimate —
very few of which can be found in the grammars and other
standard books of that time. It is necessary, therefore, to as¬
certain his attitude toward the study of the classics, i. e.
whether or not he was the kind of man who would go to the
original for quotations. Then arises the question of whether
or not it was possible at that time for him to have had access
to so many classical works and lastly, on the basis of his quota¬
tions, what works he seems to have read. The first chapter
accordingly will consider his attitude toward the study of the
classics.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics.
951
CHAPTER I.
ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE CLASSICS.
John of Salisbury, the great exponent of the classics in an
age which was turning to practical studies, lived at a time
when the Church was still the great, if not the sole educator of
western Europe. The first Crusade had taken place, bringing
with it greater prosperity and power to the Church than it had
ever before enjoyed. The settlement of the investiture struggle
at Worms had proclaimed the practical supremacy of the Popes,
while the more peaceful conditions in the West were reflected
in an increasing devotion to learning. It is not surprising
then, that the studious activities of the age have won for it the
fame of a great renaissance, the so-called Renaissance of the
twelfth century. Peace, prosperity and leisure were wide¬
spread. Latin was the universal language of scholars, and the
Church, in practically unquestioned supremacy, was in a po¬
sition not only to tolerate learning hut even to encourage it so
long as it was not absolutely antagonistic to its teachings. The
revival of the liberal, the classical studies, came therefore as a
not unnatural result of existing conditions and it was amidst
these conditions that John was born and educated.
Born in the village of Salisbury in England between the
years 1115-1120, he seems from the very beginning to have
been gifted with an unusual amount of hard, English common-
sense. The oft-told story of how he refused to be a party to
the magic exhibitions of his teacher well illustrates this trait
of J ohn’s character, and his later education was not of a kind to
diminish it. At a comparatively early age he went to the con¬
tinent to carry on his studies and Paris was his first stopping
place. There at the feet of the great Abelard he spent one
year, learning his Aristotle in a way that was new and bold?
and it was a source of great regret to John that he could be with
952 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Abelard only a year. Notwithstanding this regret, however,
John did not permit it to stand in the way of his learning the
other side of the great philosophic controversy of the age. He
studied with Robert of Melun and Alberic, the leaders of the
Nominalist school and from William of Conches he gained what
so many brilliant men of his time had failed to acquire— a
knowledge of Plato, from the Timaeus which William had had
for the first time translated. Then he went to Chartres which
was at that time the center of the classical studies, and there for
three years he reviewed his grammar, not only learning but
also teaching the subject under the standards of this great
school. Here, too, he had the advantage of studying rhetoric
from its recognized master, Bernard, the head of the school,
and his praise of the subject and its teacher have been often re¬
peated. But John was not content even with this comprehen¬
sive knowledge. His keen mind felt the need of further study
and accordingly, he went back to Paris. Here, he studied
logic and spent two years in the pursuit of theology, the sine qua
non of the medieval scholar. Law and medicine he also culti¬
vated and the statement that he was the best read scholar of
his age seems hardly an exaggeration.1
Yet his education was not confined to schools and teachers.
-He numbered among his personal friends not only the great
scholars of his time but also the great statesmen. It was upon
the recommendation of Bernard of Clairvaux that he became
secretary to Theobald, the Archbishop of Canterbury. In this
post which he retained under Thomas a Becket, he was thrown
into contact with the greatest political movements of his time.
Twelve times, he relates in his Polycraticus, he journeyed across
the Alps on business for Thomas, for Henry II, and for his
personal friends. He also made journeys through Prance on
his own account. So well was he liked by Pope Adrian that
that worthy made him dine at the papal table and treated him
as a guest whenever he came to Rome. On one occasion, it is
related, Adrian kept him two months and only with the greatest
reluctance finally consented to let him depart.2 With Adrian’s
1 Schaarschmidt, Johannes Saresheriensis, pp. 1-81.
2 Migne, pp. 622-626. Schaarschmidt, pp. 31-32.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 953
successor, Alexander III, an almost equal intimacy was enjoyed
by John. Thus, acquainted with all classes of men from the
highest in the Church and politics to the humble Monks and
clerks, he was peculiarly well qualified to criticize the world
about him. A scholar by nature, to whom leisure without let¬
ters was death in life,1 , he was fortunately in a position to
gratify his desires to the full. The activities of the world
passed, as it were, before his eyes, and that cool common-sense
wdiich had enabled him to delight in the teachings of Abelard,
and yet not be carried away by them ; which made him pleasing
alike to Bernard and to Abelard, and which had in his boyhood
repelled the magical leanings of his teacher, now served him as
a guide in contemplating those activities. He saw their vani¬
ties and their weaknesses, and to trace these down to their
origins, to find the arguments for and against them, and to show
what their results had been, with a view toward determining
what they would be, had long been his desire. A period of en¬
forced idleness, due to a temporary estrangement with Henry
II, gave him his opportunity and by the year 1159 while Thomas
was still with the King before the walls of Toulouse, John pub¬
lished the Polycraticus, a compendium of his reflections and re¬
searches “De Hugiis Curialibus et Yestigiis Philosophorum.”
This he dedicated to his friend and patron, the Archbishop to
whom he owed so much.
The chief importance of this work is that it is a calm, critical
picture of the great activities of the time, made by one who was
in the midst of it all, yet sufficiently aloof to have a clear view.
It depicts the great struggle in philosophy and criticizes those
who pursue Aristotle to the exclusion of all else. It gives quo¬
tations from the whole Organon of Aristotle and represents a
wider knowledge of the great Peripatetic than was general at
that time, yet, it ranks Plato as the first philosopher. John
repeatedly enrolls himself with the Academicians “as Augustine
was and as Cicero had been in his later years.” He views
pathetically the progress of those who were year in, year out,
engaged in inextricably winding themselves up in the labyrinth
1 Migne, 199, 388, “quia otium sine litteris mors est, et vivi hominis
sepultura.”
5
' 954 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
of fine-spun logic without beginning or end, without a purpose
in life, and he notes with pity the fact that men who were spend¬
ing their whole lives in this fruitless occupation were neverthe¬
less consoled with the conceit of their fine distinctions and
biting personalities. John himself had studied logic, and his
Metalogicus is as effective a polemic as the writings of men
who were giving their lives to dialectics. He was however
too level headed to make that the object of his life. These
dialecticians were opposing the study of the classics as a
waste of time and it is against them that John pointed his
keenest criticism.1
During his life scholasticism was becoming more and more
in vogue. Born and educated in a time when the classics were
largely studied John had made them an integral part of him¬
self. He had studied theology at the end of his early education
and in his opinion excellence in theology required a thorough
knowledge of the classics. To him the early Christian writing
and doctrines of the Church were not the sole authority ; but the
great danger which he feared was that the authority of the
classics might prejudice the pure reason as embodied in theology
and Christian ethics. This attitude, his training, especially
at Chartres, had taught him as the most natural one and, there¬
fore, when these scholastics, these misguided dialecticians, as¬
sailed the classics as a waste of time, he looked upon their at¬
tacks as the height of folly, and he fought them with all the
powers of his wide learning.2
1 This is treated more fully on pp. 955-963.
2Migne, pp. 658-62. John’s statement that the classics should not he
detrimental to the authority of pure reason has been treated by Poole:
pp. 219-220.
“He is speaking now of the study of the Classics, and warns us so to
read them that authority do not prejudice to reason. Authority here is
that of the masters of antiquity, and reason is the mental faculty con¬
sidered as educated and enlightened by Christianity. The typical op¬
posites have for the moment changed places; and the change is highly
indicative of the regard in which the classics could now be 'held even
by men the correctness of whose religious character was no less assured
than was that, let us say, of the arch-enemy of learning, the champion
of a ‘rustic’ faith, Saint Peter Damiani, a century earlier.
“The classical and anti-Cornifician atmosphere of the School of
Chartres is described by Clerval in his ‘Les ficoles de Chartres au
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 955
Nor was John alone or the first in this struggle. When he
was still acquiring his education this movement had already
begun. The towns were growing rich, France and Eng¬
land were thriving and wealth was becoming a commod¬
ity. The money fever had begun to affect the schools,
and students were in a hurry to get an education and go out to
gather in the golden harvest. A good classical education ' occu¬
pied too much time. They must find a quicker method and
dialectics offered itself, to them as a royal road to power. With,
this knowledge of dialectics they could solve every problem,
and make the most difficult subject clear in the briefest space of
time. Such were the inducements held out to prospective
students by the teachers. They assailed the classics as a waste
of time not justified by results and the students, lured on by
Ihese sirens of dialectics, heeded not the safe haven of
the classical schools. These, then, had to struggle for their very
existence and they were not slow to meet the enemy. Theodoric,
one of the masters of Chartres, was already, in the middle of
the century, engaged in writing polemical essays against these
enemies of the classics— these Gornificians as he called them—
and John after a practical experience of eleven years together
with the advantage of broad training, took up the fight where
his great teacher had left it.1
In a long but extremely significant passage John describes
these “get-learning-quick” promoters. He describes not only
their methods but also the character of the struggle and his own
Moyen — Age,’ pp. 223-4. ‘Telle etait aussi la pensee de Thierry, dans
son prologue de l’Eptateuchon. Dans cette assemblee des sept arts,
reunie pour la culture de l’humanite, la Grammaire s’avance la pre-
mieere, comme une matrone au visage et a l’attitude severe. Elle con-
voque les enfants et leur inculque l’art de bien ecrire et de bien parler’;
elle traduit convenablement les langues et reclame comme son bien
propre l’explication de tous les auteurs: tout ce qui se dit releve de son
autorite. Sa blancheur venerable lui tient pres de ses disciples d’argu-
mentation. Jean de Salisbury a fait son metalogique pour venger
l’importance des belleslettres. En un mot, comme l’a ramarque juste-
ment R. L. Poole, c’est la marque particuliere de l’ecole de Chartres:
elle cultive specialement les humanites, et dans ce but, cherche ses
modeles jusque dans l’antiquite pai’enne.”
1 Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres, pp. 164-224.
956 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
attitude toward them. “They err and they err shamefully
who think that philosophy consists of mere words. They err
as much, who think virtue words, as those who think that chips
of wood make a grove; for the commendation of virtue lies in
deeds and virtue is the inseparable companion of wisdom.
Wherefore it is clear that those who cling to words alone, prefer
to appear, ralher than be, wise men. They wander around the
highways, they wear away the thresholds of more learned men,
propound questions and purposely confuse their words so as to
convey almost any meaning, more ready to err than to examine
any difficulty that may arise. Yet they fear, these debasers,
not lovers of wisdom, to show their own ignorance and that
which they do not know, they prefer not to know through a
perverted sense of shame, especially if there are others present
to whom those things are known.
“Their arrogance is unendurable. They speak on the spur of
the moment on any subject; they judge everybody; others they
find fault with, themselves they extol, boasting that they have
discovered for the first time matter which was trite among the
ancients and by the witness of books has been brought through
many ages to our own time. Words are heaped on words so
that they are often less known for weight and more for multi¬
tude than for any difficulty of subject matter. When one of
them has so concealed his meaning that no one understands him
he thinks that he deserves a place at the head of all philosophers
and often he who knows the least propounds the most questions
— questions which Pythagoras himself could not have answered.
The same material he revolves over and over again, never chang¬
ing, but ever winding about in the same circle. As you listen
at a distance you wonder whether a third Cato has fallen from
the Heavens, for whoever the man he conveys the same impres¬
sion. If you inquire after his profession or his art, it is ‘Gram¬
maticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes, augur, schaenobates,
medicus, magus, omnia novitd And more famous by far than
the hungry Greek, he would upon request go into the very
Heavens, and more wise than Daedalus he would transport you
unharmed through the void whithersoever you wished.
“But should you go to find out what authors mean in their
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 957
writings; should you inquire about and discuss literature, be
will assail you for your rashness and will tell you that you are
more stupid than the ass of Arcadia. You are duller than lead
if you ask him to explain a passage, and if you insist, you are
advised to flee, for literature is pernicious and it is deadly in its
effects. Beware lest ye be the serpent that eats up the world
all the days of his life. You must be making sport or telling
stories, or perhaps you are deceived.
“He who is the more verbose appears the more learned. He
cares not whence or why or about what he is delivering opinions
nor does he care about what anyone else propounds, so long as
he is speaking. Nor does any one of these folk state for what
reason he is debating, provided he can give not the true force
but the mere shadow of the subject. What is true or what is
false, what is probable or what is not probable, is looked for in
vain, for the image of probability is prefixed to everything.
State what you wish, something like it is taken up instead, for
what holds in one thing, whether you will or not, they main¬
tain holds in another that is like it. Yet it is clear that what is
like the truth, is not necessarily true and what seems to bo
false is not always false ; but if you attempt to disclose the real
difference between two propositions that seem alike, they tell
you that you are speaking nonsense. They will either prevent
you with their shouting or will laugh at you for doing needless
work since, they say, there must be some differences between all
like things but that these things ought rightly to be called not
like but the same things. To teach why this is not the case is
considered by them not only frivolous but truly most laughable..
They tell you that they have come to hear the Peripatetic and
not to listen to Hermagoras ; yet they are like the Peripatetics
only in their circumambulations and circumlocutions and not
in any careful investigation of their subject matter.
“However, if this deception is practiced for the purpose of
gaining a supply of eloquence and if in likeness unlikenesses
are looked for, it is a praiseworthy practice and one for which
I could not easily mention a substitute that would be more
profitable for youth, provided they did not allow their faculties
to be clouded by the endlessness of fallacies. Nothing is more
958 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
useful, nothing is more suitable for a youth in acquiring glory
and wealth than the eloquence best to be gained, where there is
an abundance of material for the mind and a ready supply of
words for the tongue.
“To pour forth words, on the other hand, when the matter
is not understood, is pardonable in a fool, but not in a teacher or
a scholar. Yet you will see many of this kind, who spend the
whole live-long day in one long harangue, saying nothing at all
or very little. You are tired out from listening and they, unless
they are too verbose, from talking ; yet whither they are tending
or what they are trying to say, you cannot ascertain. You
think they are ending but they have just begun. If you stay to
see where they are going to come out ; if you try to recollect
what they have woven together there will occur to you the lines —
‘Velut aegri somnia, vanas
Fingentis species, ut nec pes, nec caput uni
Feddatur formae’ —
You think that their brains are affected and that they cannot
hold their tongues for want of the power of reason : you imagine
that they have suffered continuous sleepless nights and their
reason has therefore become dulled, giving rise to melancholy.
If, however, you should on this account, be moved by a sense of
pity for them and should urge them to moderation, they would
be incensed and all the opprobiums which one man can heap
upon another they would pile upon you. They rail alike at
those who pity them as at those who deride them, and no one,
be he friend or foe, can escape from their vituperation. Once
you have begun with them you must of necessity bear with
them to the end or you will sustain the evils of their insolent
tongues. Stop therefore unless you wish to be defiled by a
sordid mouth : the more foul matter is disturbed the greater the
stench that arises therefrom, and as you sit there and ponder,
the saying of that far-sighted man inevitably occurs to your
mind —
‘Vesanum tetigisse timent, fugiuntque poetam
Qui sapiunt, agitant pueri, incautique sequunturd
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 959
“Though among those who live by themselves or lead a seri¬
ous life, a man of this kind would most truly seem useless, yet
amidst a crowd which delights in anything that affords material
for hilarity and joyful jokes, he is very fit, for he is the best
instrument for raising laughter, being more efficacious in this
than a pantomime. To escape his poison you must lend patience
to your ears and remain with the crazy man who spares no one
and if perchance, you wish him to desist, beseech him most
kindly to put more thought into his teaching and disputation,
and to make up for this increase of thought by a decrease in the
number of words.
“He who tempers words i with knowledge and who suits his
discussions to opportune occasions possesses the most temperate
law of all eloquence and abundance of words gain praise from
him alone in whom truth joins with virtue and kind words
with all duties. To make many statements and make them
falsely is a characteristic of a dealer in feminine fineries and of
a man who has no regards for his reputation, for he gains thereby
only the hatred and contempt of all serious-minded men. The
spirit of wisdom is authority for the statement that he who
speaks sophistically is odious ; nevertheless a man must under¬
stand how to pierce these importuning sophisms, for without a
knowledge of them he would proceed to the examination of
truth and knowledge like an untried soldier who marches, un¬
armed, against an able and experienced enemy. It may be
permissible, occasionally, for him who is acquiring training in
disputation to make false statements, just as it is for a recruit
to practice sportive battle among civilians. Where on the other
hand, it is the intention of the disputants to enter upon a sober
philosophical discussion, they lay aside all sophisms and if by
chance, any do occur on either side, they are assailed by wise
men just as in a state malignant treachery or trickery is coerced
when it is shown in a fight between different parties.
“But the ability to temper words with knowledge, discussion
with the opportunity of time, and to argue prudently any fal¬
lacies that may arise, is not to be acquired in a few days nor is
it an easy task. Wherefore very many that strive after it go
away again and, preferring the smallest fragment of philosophy’s
960 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
garb, they glory among the untaught as if everything lay within
their jurisdiction, for as someone has said (his name has dis¬
appeared from the fragment which remains of him).
‘Gartio quisque duas postquam scit j unger e partes
Sic stat, sic loquitur velut omnes noverit artes.?
“On genera and species these men bring forth a new theory
which had escaped the notice of Boethius, which the learned
Plato did not know, and one which they claim by some happy
lot to have, just recently, discovered in the secrets of Aristotle.
They are prepared to solve the old question in the labors of
which the world has already grown old ; in which more time has
been consumed than the house of the Caesars spent in acquiring
and ruling the empire of the world, and in which more money
has been squandered than Croesus had with all his riches. This
has occupied the attention of many men for so long a time that
they have spent their whole lives in seeking this one thing, and
have discovered neither it nor anything else. Perhaps this is
due to the fact that what alone can be discovered does not satisfy
their curiosity, for just as in the shadow of any body the sub¬
stance of solidarity is sought for in vain, so in those matters of
theory which, though universally conceived of, can not be
universal, the substance of existing solidarity is never found.
To waste a life-time in these pursuits is an occupation for a man
who has nothing to do or for one who does not mind laboring in
vain. These things are, indeed, like mists of fleeting clouds;
the more eagerly they are sought after the more quickly they
disappear. Over this question they labor in many ways and
with a variety of expression; and though they use words with
entire indifference as to their meaning yet somehow they manage
to find various opinions and to leave abundant material for dis¬
putations to contentious men.
“Thence it is that, having selected the sensible and other
singulars since these things alone are said to exist, they ar¬
range them in a graduated order by which they fix the most
general and the most special into singulars themselves. There
are some who in the manner of mathematicians abstract the
forms and apply to them what is said about the universals.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 961
Others discuss the perceptions (intellectus) and maintain that
these are to he considered with the names of universals. There
were also some who said that words themselves were genera
and species but their theory has already been exploded and it
has disappeared with its author. There are still, however,
those who follow in his footsteps and who though ashamed to
acknowledge the author of his opinion, still cling to names alone
and ascribe to speech what they have substracted from facts and
theories — •
Magno se judice quisque tuetur —
and from the words of the founders who indifferently placed
names for things and things for names, each constructed his own
opinion or error. Thence sprang up germs for many wordy
battles and everyone collected, wherever he could, matter to
prove his heresies. From genera and species they never depart
but apply them wherever speech is possible. You suddenly
wonder whether you have found that poetic painter who knew
how to compare a cypress to everything that necessity demanded.
Thus does Fufus trifle in FTaevia from which, as ‘Coquus’ testi¬
fied, necessity averted him —
Quidquid agit Fufus, nihil est nisi Yaevia Fufo
Si gaudet, si flet, si tacet, hanc loquitur.
Coenat, popinat, poscit, negat, immitit, una est
Naevia, si non sit FTaevia, mutus erit.
“That subject matter appears more suitable for philosophic
discussion in which there is a freer license for manufacturing
what you wish, and there is less certitude on account of the
difficulty of the subject or ignorance of those who judge. Often
as the cautious soldier more easily guards the rough and nar¬
row crossways to check the enemy, so any difficult questions
which they may stir up from the Scripture or from reason or
anything else that is proposed they treat with such in¬
dustry that they seem mere incidents. If you cannot satisfy
them that there is no one who can explain all the questions that
are asked by the uneducated, they straightway wink their eyes,
distort their faces, beat their breasts, shout, leap and transfigure
themselves with gestures which would seem foolish in a pan-
962 Wisconsin . Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
tomime. You cannot make yourself understood to them un¬
less you answer them in their own words and say the things
which they are accustomed to hear. Though they may he too
scrupulous to speak upon the questions which you propound yet
they are entirely ignorant of the solutions. In one thing, how¬
ever, they look out for their own interests more cautiously, for
they put everything into their purses so these may be filled
thereby ; yet every one of them is satisfied with one little word
of wisdom even though that word be hidden in a multitude of
fallacies.
“I do not consider those more fitted for a philosophical dis¬
cussion, however, who hang a long oration onto every little
word as if a speech has to be delivered to the people upon every
question that was asked of them. It is a rule if any problem
is brought forth that he who answers more or less than what is
asked, is ignorant of the true line of disputation. So also when
any one is to be taught, only those things ought to be mentioned
■which offer assistance to the solution. Wherefore it is clear that
those who read everything in a single incident and when only
one thing is sought try to explain everything, do not possess
the formula for correct teaching. Either they do not know
what the correct mode of teaching is or perchance they are try¬
ing to earn more money by misrepresenting their obligation and
as Cicero says, they show not what the subject calls for but
everything that they can.
“Therefore, those who fill the Porphyry with all the parts of
philosophy, befog the minds of those who are being introduced
to the study and spoil their memory, and the pupil who ought
to be given an introduction they load down with so great a
weight that he considers the burden which he has undertaken
unbearable. I should perhaps grant that the books of the
Scriptures, everyone of whose smallest particles is full of
Divine sacrament ought to be read with great weight because
the treasure of the Holy Spirit, by whose indication they were
written can never be exhausted. Though the externals of the
letters may be suited to one sense entirely yet within it are con¬
cealed numberless mysteries. By the same reason allegory
builds up faith, while tropology builds up character in various
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 963
ways. Anagogy tends, again and again, to endow literature
not only with words but also with substance. In the liberal
arts, however, where the meaning consists of the signification
of the words he, who is not content with the sense of the words
as they stand, seems to me to be either woefully mistaken or
else to wish to lead his hearers from an understanding of the
truth. Surely, I would consider Porphyriolus a fool if he
had written so that his meaning could not be understood unless
Aristotle, Plato and Plotinus were first read through. Anyone
that was preparing me for any subject could introduce me with
such a compendium, but I, indeed, would follow him who ex¬
plained the literature as is patent on the surface and taught me,
so to speak, the historical sense.”1
Such is John’s description of an important phase of the
scholastic movement, and the fact that modern criticism has
arrived at the same conclusion — less graphically expressed per¬
haps, yet the same — speaks well for John’s surpassing insight.
Hot content with preaching their own narrow doctrines, these
dialecticians assailed the classical education and, as it seems, at¬
tacked John himself. He answered them not only in their
personal charges but also in behalf of the classics. This answer
is embodied in the four books of the Metalogicus, as perfect an
example of a controversial essay as the best which his opponents
could produce and one that illustrates well John’s doctrine that
logic and dialectics should be a means to an end, not an end in
themselves.
In the Metalogicus, after a liberal supply of personal abuse
for his opponents, John takes up a serious defense of the clas¬
sics. At the end of the first book he gives a brief account of
the movement which has assailed the old system of the gram¬
mar and rhetoric schools and states his position in the matter.
“It is not of the same man to serve alike letters and carnal vices !
To the form of this maxim my instructors in grammar, William
of Conches and Richard, surnamed the Bishop, now archdeacon
in Constance, a man famed for his temperate life and teaching,
ever instructed their students. Later, however, instead of this
opinion some men used this to bear prejudice to truth and men
1 Migne, pp. 662-666.
964 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
preferred to seem rather than to be philosophers and the pro¬
fessors of the arts began to promise that they would transmit to
their hearers the whole of philosophy in a shorter time than two
or three years. Overcome by the rush of the untrained multi¬
tude they gave way and as a result less time and care were
devoted to the study of grammar. Thus it happens that those
who profess all arts, liberal as well as mechanical, do not even
know the first art, without which a person proceeds in vain te
the rest. However, though the other studies make for learning,
this one by a singular privilege is said to make a person liberally
educated. Romulus, indeed, called this ‘literataram’ but Varre
called it ‘literationem’ and its professor or asserter ‘liter ator.*
The ancient man, however, was called a ‘literator’ as that say¬
ing of Catullus shows —
‘Munus dat tibi Sylla litter ator.’
Whence it is probable that the despiser of grammar is not only
not a grammarian (literator) but ought not even to be spoken
of as a liberally educated man (literatus).”1
Thus the struggle with the classics was a very natural result
of existing conditions. The arguments used against the old
education in grammar and rhetoric were that these subjects
taught as they were, from pagan sources, were detrimental to
Christianity; that these subjects as taught were a waste of time;
that eloquence, the object of these studies, could not be acquired,
but was allotted to each individual by nature ; and that wisdom,
the aim of every learned man, was lessened proportionately as
he studied grammar.2
The first objection was the eternal question of the Middle
Ages in regard to the study of the classics and if it were accepted
it would condemn this study without appeal. But John does
not accept it. That he is only too conscious of the question is
plainly apparent from the constant contrast of the terms “Gen-
tilis auctor” and “Christianus auctor” in all of his works. It
was evidently a question to which he had devoted not a little
thought and throughout his Polycraticus and Metalogicus,
he aims to reconcile the study of the pagan authors with
Christianity. The ingenuity with which he carries out this
1 Migne, pp. 856.
2 Migne, pp. -825-856.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 965
aim is remarkable. In the Polycraticus in a chapter entitled
’“Omnes Scriptnras esse legendas” he argues “Omnes tamen,
•Scripturas legendas esse probabile est, nisi sint reprobatae lec-
tionis, cum omnia non modo quae scripta, sed etiam quae facta
sunt ad utilitatem, licet eis abutatur interdum, institute cre-
dantur.”1 This he proves by an interpretation of the Divine
•command “Crescite et multiplicamini et replete ter ram” and
then under cover of this entirely acceptable doctrine he cleverly
introduces a defense of the study of the classics with the words :
“Vix autem invenietur scriptum, in quo si non in sensu vel in
verbis, non reperiatur aliquid, quod prudens lector emittit.
Caeterum libri catholici tutius leguntur et cautius; et gentiles
'simplicioribus periculorius patent; sed in utrisque exerceri
fidelioribus ingeniis utilissimum est.”2
There is objectionable matter in all writings, even the Scrip¬
tures, but that is no reason for condemning them entirely. The
prudent reader can gather much that is useful from them. If
you find anything at variance with the Christian faith lay it
to the customs of age in which the writer lived and do not
cast him aside on that account. Such in brief is the attitude
of John and he carries out this attitude in practice. He reads
the authors himself but in quoting them he strives to use only
those passages wherein very little pagan theology is contained.
If, however, he must use such a passage, he does so with ex-
purgatorial freedom,3 or uses some Christian writer on the
subject.4
1 Migne, p. 658.
2 Migne, p. 659.
3 This is well illustrated in his use of Plutarch: “Nam, deducta super-
stitione, gentilium fidelis est in sententiis, in verbis luculentus et in
sacrario morum tantus arbiter, ut facile praeceptorem Trajani possis
agnoscere. Si quid autem aupud eum a fide dissentit, aut moribus tem-
pori potius, quam vire ascribatur,” p. 539. Another example is: — “Earn
usquequaque nititur evacuare Plutarchus et ex praemissis quatuor
locis, natturae, officii, morum, conditionis, totius reverentiae manare
credit originem. Superstitionis tamen hoc infidelium more exsequitur.
Unde nonnulas sententias ejus, sensu et sermone catholice curavi in-
"serere.
4 It is for this reason John says that he takes his quotations on the
Roman Emperors from Orosius instead of from the great pagan ac¬
counts, though they give fuller descriptions, p. 788.
966 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
This is John’s own private opinion in favor of this study.
In his Metalogicus, under stress of battle, he does not even con¬
ceive the possibility of grammar coming into conflict with
Christianity. It is the Cornificians who are contravening the
true teaching, for they are opposing eloquence by which alone
man is able to make use of that power of reason which God has
given to man in distinction from beasts. By doing away with
eloquence they are ever widening the gulf between man and
God, for man is then as low as the beasts.1
Firmly entrenched behind this bold assertion of right he
proceeds to overthrow the other objections. He refutes the
fatalistic doctrine that eloquence is a gift of nature, not to be
acquired by cultivation by citing two classic examples, Socrates
and Bufus Scaurus who overcame the obstacles of nature by
earnest endeavor.2 Though nature may endow one person with
more ability than another, yet without training that gift is
naught and this training can only be truly obtained in the old-
style grammar schools. Their practical value lies in the fact
that they alone can give the student a complete mastery of the
art of writing and reading both poetry and prose. The ability
to use figures of speech, to understand the structure of a sentence
and to master the mechanics of composition are to be acquired
nowhere else, and yet, these are not the only benefits to be derived
from a study of the classics.3 Men must study to become poets
and it is still a celebrated fact that poetry is the cradle of phil¬
osophy. This training, however, does more than make poets:
“Disciplinas liberales tantae utilitatis esse tradit antiquitas, ut
quicunque eas plene norint libros omnes, et quaeeunque Scripta
sunt, possunt intelligere etiam sine doctore” — 4 it places a man
in a position to understand wdiatever has been written, without
the need of a teacher. The contention that a “grammaticus”
confines himself to his books, stories or poems, is far from the
truth, the real aim of the classics is to seek and transmit “in-
formationem virtutis quae facit virum bonum”5 and that this is
1 Migne, p. 824-7.
2Migne, p. 836.
3 Migne. p. 836-838.
4 Migne, p. 852.
5 Ibid.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 967
John’s aim is constantly impressed on his readers by the way
in which he uses his quotations, especially in history. He
chooses those passages which offer an example or lesson that
will he of moral service to his own time.
After all, however, results afford the best criterion by which
to judge any question. What these opponents of the classics
have accomplished by their new method of instruction is ex¬
pressed in the words : “Alii . . . monachorum aut
clericorum claustrum ingressi sunt. Alii, autem, suum in
philosophia intuentes defectum, Salernum vel ad Montempes-
sulam profecti, facti sunt clientuli medicorum et repente quales
philosophi, tales in momento medici eruperunt,”1 and “Uihil
stultum, nisi paupertatis angustias et solas opes ducunt esse
fructum sapientiae.”2 Moved by sordid motives these men led
equally sordid lives, for their education gave them no higher
aim in life than the accumulation of money. In a passage
whose effect would be greatly lost by translation, John contrasts
with this the man trained in the classics. This man has been
taught to seek out and spread the knowledge of virtiie, for —
Caeterum operationem cultumque virtutis, scientia naturaliter
praecedit; noque enim virtus currit in incertum aut in pugna,
quam exercet cum vitiis aerem verberat,
‘Sed videt quo tendit, et in quod dirigit arcum :
He c passim corvos sequitur festaque lutoque.’
At lectio, doctrina, et meditatio scientiam pariunt. IJnde
constat quod grammatica, quae istorum fundamentum est et
radix, quodammodo sementem jacit quasi in sulcis naturae,
gratia tarnen praeeunte; quae, si ei cooperatrix quoque gratia
adfuerit, in solidae virtutis robur coalescit et crescit multiplic-
iter, ut boni operis fructum faciat, unde boni viri et nominatur,
et sunt. Sola tarnen gratia, quae et velle bonum et perficere
operatur, virum bonum facit et prae caeteris omnibus recte
scribendi et recte loquendi, quibus datum est, facultatem im-
pertitur, artesque ministrat varias et cum se indigentibus
benique offert, contemni non debet. Si enim contemnitur, juste
1 Ibid, p. 830.
2 Ibid, p. 831.
'968 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
recedit, nec contemptori relinquitur conquestionis locus.”1 In.
this passage John has summed up his arguments for the study
of the classics. He has shown how this study works hand in
hand with the Divine Grace in making a man good, and thereby
has left his opponents no ground on which to base any conten¬
tion. Continuing in this strain he repeats his motto: “Hon
•est enim ejusdem hominis, litteris et carnalibus vitiis inservire”
a motto which would do honor to any humanist of later ages.
He ends his defense of the subject with a quotation from
Quintilian on the praise of grammar. “Haec est igitur liber-
alium artium prima, necessaria pueris, jucunda senibus, dulcis
secretorum comes ; et quae sola, in omni studiorum genere, plus
habet operis, quam ostentationis.”2
Such is the attitude of John of Salisbury toward the study
of the classics. They should not be an end in themselves but
“ad haec non modo pedum aut temporum ibi ratio habenda est,
sed aetatum, locorum , temporum, aliorumque, quae sigillatum
referre ad praesentem attinet ; cum omnia a naturae officina
proveniant.” To study the past for the purpose of understand¬
ing and guiding the present became that cool, critical,
contemplative mind, and the lines at the opening of the Poli-
craticus “Me curialibus nugiis paulisper ademi, illud volvens
in animo, quia otium sine litteris mors est, et vivi hominis
sepultura,” show that John loved his letters as well, and prob¬
ably quite as sincerely, as the humanists of the later Renais¬
sance. It will be the aim of the remainder of this paper to
show that he had not only an opportunity to satisfy his de¬
sire and love for the classics but that he also took advantage of
this opportunity.
1 Migne, p. 853.
2 Migne, p. 856.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics.
969
CHAPTER II.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE CLASSICAL AUTHORS AS SHOWN BY HIS
QUOTATIONS.
That there was a classical revival in the twelfth century has
become a generally recognized fact, but to what extent the
scholars of that time were acquainted with the originals is not
so well known. Sandy s has traced the survival of certain au¬
thors in special localities and in his enumeration of extant
manuscripts the significant fact appears that an unusual num¬
ber of them were copied in the twelfth and early thirteenth
centuries.1 The general use of classical writers at this time is
shown by several contemporary documents which describe the
curricula of the schools. The most noteworthy is the so-called
.Dictionarius of John de Garland which is a work of the later
twelfth and not of the thirteenth century.2 The manuscript-
gives an exposition of the subjects and authors which are studied
in the schools, prescribing the parts of a work which ought or
ought not to be read.3 The great list of classical authors is
certainly surprising but the work shows in addition that whole
and not merely parts of them were used. The heptateuchon of
Theodore4 of Chartres is a similar document which treats par¬
ticularly of the curriculum of Chartres and it serves materially
to confirm the general prevalence of classical studies. The will
of John5 6 of Salisbury likewise enumerates a partial list of the
books which he left to the library at Chartres and it contains
1 A History of Classical Scholarship from the Sixth Century, B. C.
See also Teuffel and Schwabe, and Norden: Die AntiJce Kunstprosa.
2 Through the kindness of Dr. L. J. Paetow of Wisconsin, who has
possession of a copy of this manuscript, the writer is enabled to present
these facts.
3 Among the classical authors mentioned are Statius, Virgil, Juvenal,
Horace, Ovid, Sallust, Cicero, Martial, Petronius, Symmachus, Suetonius,
Livy and Seneca.
4 Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres au Moyen Age, pp. 220-248.
5 Migne, Intro, p. xii.
6
970 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
a number of ancient works. In view of this general survival
of the classics; in view of John’s character, his travels, his
friends, and his humanistic leanings, one would naturally ex¬
pect to find in him an extensive knowledge of the classics.
Of the authors whom he quotes, Virgil is, of course, the
foremost, as he was with preceding writers.* To John, Virgil
is the world philosopher — “procedat tibi poeta Mantuanus, qui,
sub imagine fabularum, totius philosophiae exprimit veri-
tatem”* 1 and the Aeneid the book of life — ” Virgilius in libro
quo totius philosophiae rimatur arcana.”2 The conception of
the Aeneid as held by the school of Chartres, John enlarges
with great detail. The first book with its story of the ship
wreck3 symbolizes the trials of sturdy child-hood; the second
book illustrates the development and frank curiosity of boy¬
hood; the third, the errors of youth; the fourth pictures illicit
love; the fifth shows manhood, fully developed, beginning to
verge toward old age, while in the sixth old age with failing
powers is awaiting impending death. This does not mean,
however, that John knew only the first six books of the Aeneid.
On the contrary some of his longest quotations are taken from
the later books.
The Georgies and Eclogues are equally well known to him.
In the first, especially, he finds many lessons for his own genera¬
tion, and a very notable instance of this is the passage wherein
he quotes sixty-seven lines from the fourth Georgic, introduc¬
ing the quotation with the words “Poetarum doctissimus Maro
ut civilem vitam ab apibus mutuetur”4 and concluding with the
comment “Pepublicae omnes auctores percurrere, rerum pub-
licarum revolve historias, vita civilis tibi rectius et elegantius
nus quam occuret. Essentque procul dubio beatae civitates, si
hanc sibi vivendi praescriberent formam.”5 Such lessons he
* The detailed consideration of John’s use of each author has been
omitted from this paper. This material may he had by reference to the
original thesis in the library of the University of Wisconsin.
1 Migne, p. 621.
2 Migne, p. 430.
s Ibid, pp. 620-2.
4 Ibid, pp. 619-20.
s Migne, p. 620.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics.
971
draws too from the Eclogues, and he ranks the wisdom of the
rural shepherd as far superior to that of the men of his own
time — “Unde apud Virgilium compos sui pastor, et sapientibus
et viris nostri temporis doctior, ait” adding a quotation from
the Eclogues. These are hut instances of the constant use
which he makes of these works. The whole Polycraticus fairly
teems with Virgilian allusions and expressions.
Next to Virgil, Lucan occupies the second place in the af¬
fections of John for the ancient epics. This writer, whose
Pharsalia Otto of Freising is said to have carried as a diversion
on his journey to Pome, was a general favorite with the
scholars of the twelfth century. The Pharsalia, John relates,
was used along with the Aeneid as a text hook full of ethical
teachings, hut he does not rank Lucan with Virgil.1 On the
contrary, he accepts Quintilian’s estimate of him “Immit enim
poeta doctissimus; si tamen poeta dicendus est, qui vera nar-
ratione rerum ad historicos magis accedit * * * ” and
calls him “poeta gravissimus” and “Mathematicus”2 but his
many and long quotations from this work show that he ap¬
preciated it none the less.
Statius, the other popular epic poet of the time is not so great
a favorite with John, for he quotes him only ten times.
These quotations, however, are taken from all the hooks of the
Thebais and as but few of them can be found in the mediaeval
text-books it would seem that the Thebes, at least, was not en¬
tirely unknown to John. His familiar use of titles like “apud
Statium,” “Papinius” and “Photinus,” in introducing quota¬
tions from this source indicates that he knew Statius quite
well.3
That other much discussed poet, Ovid, who so greatly shocked
some of the more orthodox and aged scholars of the Middle
Ages, was treated by John as an ethical teacher. With the
ultra-fastidious condemnation of this writer, John is not all
^igne, p. 854.
2 Ibid, p. 441.
3 Ennius and Accius, however, who are also quoted, were probably not
known to John for the quotations from both of these can be traced back
directly to other sources.
972 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
in sympathy. There is undoubtedly much in Ovid that is to
be condemned, he says, but there is also much that is good and
for that reason Ovid ought to be read by the educated.1 His
quotations from Ovid are taken from all of the better known
works of the poet. Though those from Metamorphoses and
the Fasti are longer and more numerous, the Ars Amatoria,
Pemedia Amoris, Tristia, Heroides, Amores and the Epistulae
ex Ponto are by no means neglected. The line from the Amores
“Hitimur in vetitum semper” — is an especial favorite. Al¬
though John made use of Ovid as a moralist, he was not blind
to his immorality. He condemns Ovid as the poet who filled
not only the City but the whole world with his lascivious
amours and taught the bashful and troubled suitor how to ap¬
proach his maiden.2 He also characterizes Ovid as the poet who
excelled3 all others in “levitatem versificandi.” John’s criti¬
cism of Ovid was very modern.
There are poets, however, who are thought of essentially as
moralists. Of these, that great favorite, Horace, deserves first
attention. For him John has great respect: “Consonat ei, si
Lyricum conticenti lyra dignaris audire, Flaccus, aut si mavis,
Horatius.”4 He speaks of Horace as the poet who excelled in
the varieties of metres but his usual title is “Ethicus.”5 The
Epistles, especially the Ars Poetica, are most frequently quoted
though John’s familiarity with the Satires is equally extensive.
In several places he has adapted whole satires, as for instance
in his description of the feast of “Hasidienus.”6 John’s de¬
scription of Horace as the lyrical poet has led Manitius to
credit him with a knowledge of the Odes also. True, in one
or two places he seems to echo them as in his use of “atavis
editus” and “dulce est desipere in loco.” Furthermore, the
Odes were known in John’s day in northern France; but it
would seem that John probably would have quoted them more
often had he really known them at first hand. These expres-
1 Migne, pp. 714-5.
2 Migne, p. 498.
3 Ibid, p. 484.
4 Ibid, p. 656.
5 Ibid, p. 484.
6 Ibid, pp. 736-8.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 973
sions, as Schaarschmidt has pointed out, had probably become
familiar quotations and they are entirely insufficient to serve
as a basis for a definite assertion of his familiarity with the
Odes.
Under the title “Ethici” Juvenal and Persius are also quoted.
They were special favorites with John. He takes more than
eighty direct quotations from them. He confesses his weak¬
ness for them in several places but it is significant that he
does not distinguish between the two.1 Ho where does he men¬
tion Persius by name, nor does he designate him by any dis¬
tinctive title though his possession of both of them is quite
certain. This peculiarity may be explained by the theory that
the two satirists were published, then as now, in the same
edition, and that the name of the second may have been lost.2
From the frequency and accuracy of his quotations, however, it
seems certain that he not only read the works of these writers
but had them before him as he wrote.
Another satirist of the Homan world, whom John uses ex¬
tensively is Petronius. The satires, like those of the writers
just mentioned, are freely culled from and in one place he has
copied word for word the whole story of the woman of Ephesus
which covers two of the large pages in Migne’s text. The ac¬
curacy of this quotation, coupled with the fact that the text
was in general use can scarcely leave doubt as to his possession
of the work. With respect to the “Cena Trimalchionis,” which
he also cites, there is not so much certainty. This work was
very rare, the only manuscript of that time now extant having
been discovered in Dalmatia. Still, the relative accuracy of
his citations is such that there can be no doubt as to their
source. He had probably read the work on one of his journeys
and remembered it vividly enough to cite from it, for he could
not have obtained his material in such shape from any inter¬
mediate source.
Martial’s Epigrammata must be considered with the works
of the Satirists as one of the sources upon which John drew
in his criticism of existing vanities. This writer whom for
1 Migne, p. 596, et passim.
2 Migne, p. 596, et passim.
974 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
some reason lie has nick-named “Coquus” frequently thinks
as John thinks “Sic Martialis, sic et ego; malens sic nngari
quam ad formam Ganymedis leporis agitare” — 1 and though the
quotations are comparatively few, they are exceedingly precious,
since in only one of the nineteen lines quoted is there any dis¬
tinct variation from the text.
On the other hand, Terence is the only play-writer of an¬
tiquity with whom John exhibits any marked familiarity. In
the “Eunuch” he delights especially because of its commentary
on life — “Comici forte contemnis Eunuehum sed in Eunucho
fere omnium vitam expressit.”2 Its happy touches on the fol¬
lies of mankind meet with his heartfelt approval: “Ju-
cundus est enim comicus, et aptus qui se nugis nostris fre¬
quenter immisceat.” The Andria, too, is drawn upon for its
lessons : “Quae vero ad gratiarn sine invidia via expeditissima
sit, senex docet in Andria, dum filium omnibus obsequi,
neminem laedere refert.”3 The “Adelphi” is quoted only
once, and as no other allusion is made to it and as this quota¬
tion can be traced to other sources, it is probable that John had
not read the work. His mention of “miles gloriosus” can¬
not be construed as a mention of the play of Plautus by that
name.
There are several renowned writers of ancient times not gen¬
erally known in his day whom John quotes. These are
Cato, Plautus, Yarro and Catullus. The quotations from Cato
and Yarro can all be traced to other mediaeval sources. With
Plautus it is the same, for although the characters “Man-
drogerus,” “Querolus” and “Sycophans” are used constantly in
the Polycraticus, this does not prove that he had read the plays.
These characters were used as types by Christian writers from
the days of Augustine. Furthermore there are no direct quo¬
tations from the plays. It is, then, safe to say that he had not
read them. There is only one quotation from Catullus and that
is evidently taken from Martianus Capella. With none of these
writers does he exhibit any direct familiarity.
1 Migne, p. 825.
2 Ibid, p. 482.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 975
Of the prose writers, Cicero, Quintilian and Seneca are used
most frequently. That oft-quoted passage from the Entheticus
“Orbis nil habuit mains Cicerone Latinus” shows in what great
esteem John held this writer. Cicero is constantly quoted in
almost every one of John’s works and is ranked with the great
fathers of the Church as the soundest authority on any sub¬
ject he touches. To be “as Augustine was and as Cicero had
been in his later years — an Academician”1 was his boast, and
his similarity to this great writer is not confined to philosophy
alone. So pure is his style and so much nearer to Cicero’s
than that of any of his contemporaries that the German scholars
have justly considered it as modelled upon Cicero. A close
inspection of John’s writings reveals his wide knowledge of
this author, who excels all others in “copiam dicendi.” The
so-called Ciceronian work “Ad Herrenium,” the “de Partitione
Oratoria” and the “de Inventione Rhetorica” were, of course,
text-books at Chartres and had been known to John as such.
He owned copies of the “De Officiis” and the “De Oratore,”
and bequeathed them to the library at Chartres. It is there¬
fore perfectly natural that he should quote from these very
frequently. In his letters especially, but in all his works he
cites the “ad Eamiliares,” and the frequency and accuracy of
his quotations show that he probably obtained them directly
from the original, which was well known at the time. The
Tusculan Disputations and the Hew Academy are, of course,
the works upon which he bases his statement that Cicero was
an Academician in his latter years.2 These works are con¬
stantly cited upon philosophical questions, and the extent of the
familiarity seems to demonstrate the use of the originals. The
same charm which the “De Amicitia” has for modern readers
attracted John. He uses Laelius and Scipio for their views
on friendship as devoutly as the most enthusiastic freshman.
With the “Orator” and the “de Hatura Deorum” also he ap¬
pears quite familiar. Both works were well known in the Mid¬
dle Ages, especially the latter, which :was used by St. Augustine
in the interpretation of the Scriptures. John’s quotations
1 Migne, p. 388, et passim.
2 Migne, p. 388, et passim.
976 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
from them are, however, very few. The “De Senectute” is al¬
luded to once or twice hut in a way that suggests that the
quotations from this work were obtained from other sources.
The “De Fato,” the “Paradoxa Stoicorum” and the “de Divina-
tione” were quite well known in John’s day, but he uses them
in such a vague way that it is impossible to give him credit
for them through want of evidence. Schaarschmidt has ascribed
a knowledge of all of these works to him but as John only men¬
tions them a single time and then only in an indirect man¬
ner such a statement cannot he justified. Of course it may
well he that John does not quote everything which he has read,
just as he may not know at first hand every work from which
he quotes. Still his allusions to these works could have
been made from any number of other sources, and his refer¬
ences to them do not enable the writer to credit him with a
knowledge of the works themselves.
His familiarity with Quintilian is more certain than with
some of Cicero’s works. At the end of a letter to an obscure
monk named Azo he expressly says, “Mihi autem nihil precor
nisi ut Quintilianum quern petii scriptum et emendatum mit-
tas”1 and that he here refers to the “Tnstitutiones Oratoriae”
his numerous long quotations bear ample witness. John’s edu¬
cational system, as described in the Metalogicus, is based al¬
most entirely upon Quintilian. He supports' almost every
point which he makes with a quotation from this writer. As
against the Cornificians’ use of Seneca as an authority against
the liberal arts John cites Quintilian’s description of Seneca.
His final statement of the value of grammar is made in the
words of Quintilian. These are but instances of his vital
intimacy with the Institutions. The “Declamationes” are
cited but not so conclusively. Still, since they were well known
at Chartres and through France and England, it is probable
that he had read them, though the quotations themselves would
not establish this.
With the works of Seneca he seems to have been thoroughly
conversant. He knew that there were two great Senecas and
he makes it clear that it is the Younger from whom he quotes:
1 Migne, p. 313.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 977
“Unde illud apnd Senecam (alienum tandem).”3 Aristotle was
explained to the beginner at that time by the interpretation of
Seneca’s “de dementia” and “de Beneficiis,” and that John
was once such a beginner is shown by his quotations from these
works. The “de Ira” and the Dialogues are also frequently
drawn upon while the “Quaestiones Haturales” and the Letters
are thoroughly ransacked. There is no allusion to the Trag¬
edies. In the list of the works of Seneca which John says
ought to he read, all those mentioned occur, with the strange
exception of the Tragedies. He owned a copy of the “Quaes¬
tiones Uaturales” and constantly quotes from it, especially in
the Metalogicus. He was so familiar with Seneca that when
the Cornificians cited him in support of the futility of the
liberal education he was not only able to show that Seneca
was not opposed to the study of grammar hut that he was a
writer who ought to be studied as well as for his style as for
his great moral teachings. John found his own language in¬
adequate to express his appreciation of Seneca and drew upon
Quintilian. He regarded Seneca as almost Christian in senti¬
ment:1 2 “Rationi Hebraeorum consentit Senecae definitio, esti
ille aliud senserit.”
The great historians of antiquity do not occupy so high a
place in his regard. The passage in which he quotes Orosius
in preference to the greater writers because they are too pagan,
has already been cited3 and in this he was quite consistent
with himself and his age. In his eyes the great value of an¬
tiquity lay in the moral examples and teachings which it af¬
forded. He did not quote passages merely for the sake of
quoting them. They must he brief and pointed and long de¬
scriptions of men and events tilled with pagan thought were of
little use for his purposes. To he sure, he read some of them.
Tor an educated man there was much of value in these his¬
tories hut it would not be proper to quote long passages from
them in a work that was to he extensively read. Accordingly
only short, significant sentences are used in direct quotation,
1 Migne, p. 875.
2 Migne, p. 925.
3 See above, p. 965.
978 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
though several stories are gleaned from them. These are re¬
lated in John’s own words, as a rule, though statements of the
source frequently appear.
There are very many passages from Suetonius, especially
from his poetry and there are four from Sallust. Two of the
latter can be traced to other sources but one from the Jugurtha
and one from the Catiline cannot be accounted for except on
the assumption of John’s knowledge of the texts. As these were
current at the time and as John seems to be quite familiar with
Sallust,1 it is probable that he knew both of these works. The
third Decade of Livy which was often used in this time, seems
also to have been known by John and though he quotes Julius
Floras directly on the Punic wars yet his familiarity with
the subject, his reference to Livy, as ;‘scriptor belli Punici Titus
Livius refert,”2 and his use of material which could only have
been obtained from the original, make it altogether probable
that he had read at least a part of Livy.
John speaks also of Tacitus and Quintus Curtius as his¬
torians who give full descriptions of certain events, but his own
works give no hint that he knew more than the names of these
two. Naturally, he is more familiar with the epitomists and
anecdotic historians. His use of these writers is aptly described
by Schaarschmidt : “diese Autoren werden formlich geplun-
dert.”3 It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that if the
fourth book of the Strategematica of Frontinus or the fourth
book of the Facta et Dicta Memorabilia were lost they could be
restored from the Policraticus. His quotations from them are
not confined to these two books. The De He Militari of Ve-
getius and the Epitoma of Justin are used almost as extensively.
Julius Floras is quoted only twice but both passages are fairly
long and quite accurate, so that he probably had the work.
He apparently read the natural histories of the Elder
Pliny which were so commonly used at that time in Northern
France as an encyclopedia. He says: “memor hominum, quos
in libro Naturalis Historiae apud Plinium didici”4 and the
1 Migne, p. 500. “Crispo historicorum inter Latinos Postissimo.”
2 Migne, p. 495.
3 Schaarschmidt, p. 90.
4 Migne, p. 576.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 979
quotation which follows this could hardly have been taken
except from the original.
Aulus Gellius is the source of many quotations and the “At-
ticae JSToctes” is often mentioned. John had evidently read the
work since he states “In Atticis Hoctibus legisse memini”* 1 2 and
the length and accuracy of his quotations quite corroborate this
statement.
Three writers whom John quotes in hut a single passage are
Publilius Syrus, Serenus Sammonicus, and Solinus. His
quotations, however, are so long and accurate that he could
hardly have obtained them from mediaeval sources and it is
reasonable to conclude that he had used the works in whole or
in part. It is true that they were not very generally known
and that he mentions Publilius Syrus calling him Publilius
Clodius. On the other hand, the appreciative description seems
to show that he was acquainted with this author. Five lines
are quoted from the medical verses of Serenus Sammonicus and
as this writer was coming into use about this time John probably
obtained the quotation from the original. The same holds true
of Solinus.
Of the later Latin writers Appolinaris Sidonius, Dionysius
Cato, Apuleius, Avienus, Macrobius and Claudianus can be
credited to John without hesitation/ Eutropius is not so cer¬
tain. Of the four quotations from this writer in the Polycrati-
cus, two can he traced directly to other sources while the others
are too short to afford convincing evidence that John had the
work. Schaarschmidt has attempted to prove that John was
familiar with this writer by saying that he quotes him once
without mentioning his name, hut the passage in question is a
word for word quotation from Orosius. On the other hand,
John possessed this work before his death since he bequeathed
it to Chartres.2 Schaarschmidt may, therefore, he correct, even
though the evidence he adduces is had.*
2 Migne, p. 525.
1 Schaarschmidt, p. -
2 Migne, Introduction, p. xii.
* Besides these writers who furnished John with most of this quota¬
tions, he introduces material which cannot be traced to any known
Latin sources. Scholars, for the last fifty years, have been trying to
980 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
CONCLUSION.
Was John of Salisbury a humanist? Can he be considered
a precursor of the later Renaissance? Schaarschmidt holds
that he can be so considered. Voigt, on the other hand, claims
that John did not have that “feeling for the Greek,” “that de¬
sire to live over again the ancient days” — and therefore was
not truly imbued with the humanistic spirit. Before passing
a final judgment, however, the circumstances under which he
wrote ought to he noted.
His three great works, the Polycraticus, Entheticus and
Metalogicus were all finished about the same time — 1159. He
was not master of a school, nor a librarian. His school days
had ended eleven years before and, ever since, he had been en¬
gaged in looking after the confidential affairs of his superiors.
The composition of these works, therefore, was entirely the
occupation of his leisure moments. His temporary estrange¬
ment with Henry gave him an unusual amount of time so that
he was able not only to finish his Polycraticus and Entheticus,
upon which he had been working for some time, but also to
write the Metalogicus in answer to the opponents of the classics.
It is, perhaps, unfortunate that John did not sing his own
praises, that he did not proclaim himself as the only and or¬
iginal exponent of the true appreciation of the classics. In his
early training at Chartres there had been impressed upon him
the maxim that indulgence in vices could not exist where the
love for letters held sway. He states, himself, that this love
for letters meant more especially love for the classical works.
Therefore when he took up his pen against the Cornificians, it
solve this vexatious problem on the basis that he knew no Greek. But
while these quotations cannot be traced to Latin sources, they can
almost all of them be traced to later Greek writers. However the ques¬
tion need not be discussed here. Wolfflin, Reifferscheid, Schaarschmidt
and Manitius have worried over the “lost Latin authors” quite suffi¬
ciently. See Pliilologie, 1861', pp. 12-26. Schaarschmidt, pp. 103-108,
and PTiilologus, vol. 47, pp. 566-7. Whether or not John knew any
Greek is discussed by Schaarschmidt, pp. 108-124; Poole, pp. 124-130;
Clerval, p. 232.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics. 981
was not to preach a new doctrine, but to defend a principle
which had become thoroughly ingrained in his very being.
That “feeling for the Greek” is a rather vague term, John
appreciated the fact that Greek philosophers were the source
of all philosophy. It was on this account that he had John
the Saracen translating Greek philosophy for him. He loved
Virgil and considered the Aeneid the hook of life hut he did
not forget to state that the ideas of this work were but an
adaptation of a greater poet, Homer. If the feeling for Greek
means an abandonment to pure aesthetic interests, then John
was not a humanist.
John was an Englishman and a practical man. In him the
purely aesthetic was distinctly subordinated to the ethical.
The classics were primarily of use for the “inform ationem veri-
tatis et virtutis.” They must serve some useful end for his own
time, hut in using them he proceeded far ahead of his own
time. He saw that even the Scriptures could be clarified by
an appeal to antecedent philosophy and life, and he used them
for this purpose as much as he did the writings of the Fathers.
The truth must be found at the source of things, and it was to
the sources that he was going when he had a Greek philos¬
opher translated for him.
There was another side to his love for the classics. His
“otium sine litteris mors est” is indeed a revelation. How
much appreciation — True appreciation — does this imply ? That
he appreciated style in a writer, his comment on the writing of
Bernard of Chartres and his own pure style hear witness. But
did he find enjoyment in the study of the classics? This ques¬
tion can only he answered by another — why did he so stren¬
uously advocate them as an occupation for leisure ? Why “non
ejusdem hominis est carnalibus vitiis et litteris inservire” and
why does he urge the people to a study of the classic letters ?
Petrarch, “'the great and first humanist,” was content, accord¬
ing to tradition, to die with a copy of Homer, of which he
understood hardly a word, at his head. If John had had a
copy of Homer, he might have had it well translated and let
the beautiful teachings of this work become general. His in¬
terests were primarily philosophical and his most busy moments
982 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
were none too busy for him to devote a little time to searching
into the truths of philosophy. What an interesting picture
that letter of his to John the Saracen presents. It is
the fourth year of his exile, the third of his banishment from
England, yet amid all the harrowing negotiations with Thomas
a Becket, with the Pope and the Lords of Europe, he finds
time to look over and correct the translation of Dionysius
which the Saracen had sent to him and he asks him to finish it
so that he can enjoy the full teachings of the work. Such was
John’s appreciation.
He lived in a time which was none too favorable to the
classics; when the narrow religious bigotry was not yet dis¬
pelled as it is today, nor as it was a century and a half later
in Italy. He was trying to reconcile the study of the classics
with the teachings of religion — to make them serve a useful
purpose in furthering those teachings just as today there is a
movement to reconcile the discoveries of science with religion —
to bring them to the support of Christianity.
John was indeed a humanist when humanism was not in
vogue^ — when to uphold the classics meant to invite not mere
silent indifference but the cutting sneers and jeers of a hostile
public. Yet he did so willingly. Hot even the charge which
is brought so often against the advocates of Latin and Greek
to-day — that they uphold the classics because it is their occupa¬
tion — can be preferred against him. His occupation was po¬
litical and diplomatic — his leisure, alone, could he give to this
subject. Unaffected, therefore, by hope of any material gain,
actuated only by the sincere motive of “informationem veritatis
et virtutis,” he went out of his way to champion the cause of
the liberal arts. If he had come two or three centuries later
he might have been considered one of the greatest leaders in
the history of scholarship. Coming when he did, he has suf¬
fered the fate of other great men who have had vociferous
successors.
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics.
983
A tabular statement of John’s classical knowledge will serve
to summarize these conclusions:
I. The classical writings which, according to the evidence
presented, can be credited to John’s knowledge.
Aulus Gellius — AToctes Atticae.
Cicero — Ad Herennium, De Partitione Oratoria De In-
ventione Rhetorica, De Oratore, De Officiis, Tuscu-
lani Disputationes, Rova Aca demica, Ad Pamiliares,
De Amicitia.
F rontinus — Str ategematica.
Horatius — Sermones et Epistulae.
J uvenal — Satyrae.
Lucanus — Pharsalia.
Martial — Epigrammata.
0 vidius — Metamorphoses, Fasti, Amores, Ars Amatoria,
Remedia Amoris, Epistulae ex-Ponto.
Persius — S atyrae.
Petronius — Satyrae, Cena Trimalchionis.
Plinius — Historiae Raturales.
Quintilianus — Institutiones Oratoriae.
Sallustius — Catilina, Jugurtha.
Seneca — De dementia, De Beneficiis, Quaestiones Rat-
urales, Epistulae et Dialogi.
Statius — Thebais.
Suetonius — Caesares.
Publilius Syrus.
Terentius — Eunuchus et Andria.
Valerius Maximus — Memorabilia.
V iRGriL — Aeneid, Georgica, Eclogues.
II. Classical writings which John quotes and which cannot
be credited to his knowledge for want of sufficient evidence.
Accius.
Cato.
Catullus.
Cicero — De Fato, De Divinatione, De Senectute, De
TTatura Deorum, Orator, Orationes, Paradoxa Stoi-
corum.
984 Wiscomin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
CuBTIUS.
Ennius.
Hobatius — Carmina.
O vidius — Tristia, Heroides.
Caecilius Plinius — Epistulae et Panegyricus.
Sallustius — Historiae.
Tacitus.
Tebentius — Adelphi.
Vabbo.
Livius.
III. Later Latin writers who can be ascribed to John's
knowledge.
Apoelinabis Sidonius
Apuleius
Claudianus
Donatus
Dionysius Cato
Euteopius
J USTINUS
Julius Elobus
Maceolius
Mabtianus Capella
Nonius Maecellus
Pbiscian
Seeenus Sammonicus
Sebvius
SoLINUS
Yegetius
Krey — John of Salisbury and the Classics.
985
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
m
OF
M-
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART Il| NO. 3
Ntof Iftuse
J**— lining m j
X
MADISON, | WISCONSIN
1909
TABLE OB CONTEXTS.
_
Transactions, Voi,. XVI, Part II, No. -3.
Page
An Fnregarded Factor in Lake .Temperatures (With two
plates), ... . . K. A. Birr/e, 989
On the Evidence for Temperature Seiclles (With one plate),
- - 7 K. A. Bit/ffe, . 1005
Notes on Clatdocera, IV (With live plates), E. A. Birge',' 1017
A- Revision of the N ortli American Species of Cyclops’ (With
;ten plates) . , . . . C. Dwight y[ui sji, 1067
S- Civ
M
AN UNREGARDED FACTOR IN LAKE TEMPER¬
ATURES.
EDWARD A. BIRGE.
[Notes from the Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey. V.]
In this paper I wish to call attention to one of the factors
regulating the distribution of heat in lakes, which seems to
have been overlooked hitherto. It is well understood that the
heat of the sun is delivered almost wholly to the surface strata
of a lake; most of it to the upper meter. This heat is distrib¬
uted from the surface to the lower strata by various agencies.
Chief of these is the wind, which mixes the warmer surface
water with the cooler water below. The efficiency of the wind
as a distributing agent is opposed and limited by the thermal
resistance to mixture offered by the decreased density of the
warmed surface water. I wish to point out that the effective¬
ness of this thermal resistance increases as the temperature of
the water, which the wind is trying to mix, departs from the
temperature of maximum density and decreases as the tempera¬
ture approaches 4°. A given temperature difference causes
a thermal resistance which varies according to the position of
that difference on the scale of the thermometer. This vari¬
ability aids to explain many of the phenomena associated with
the distribution of heat.
It is a well known fact that the density of water is at a
maximum at 4°, and that it decreases as the water is cooled be¬
low or warmed above that temperature. This fact lies at the
990 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
foundation of all considerations on the distribution of heat in
lakes. It is an equally well known fact that the decrease in
density corresponding to one degree increase of temperature
is not constant but increases as the temperature departs from
4°, either toward 0° or toward a higher temperature. Gen¬
eral references to this fact have been made by writers on lake
temperatures, but no one called especial attention to it, so far
as I am aware, until Groll (’05) showed its application in the
production of convection currents. I desire to apply the same
fact in the reverse direction and to show its relation to the
thermal resistance offered by the warmer upper strata of the
lake to the distribution through its mass of the heat received
by its surface. Convection currents are far less important
agents for distributing heat than are mechanical currents
caused by wind. Indeed, it would be difficult to show that
convection currents have any such efficiency in carrying heat
as to make them worth serious consideration. Currents caused
by wind do more work in equalizing temperatures and in carry¬
ing heat to the deeper strata than do all other agencies com¬
bined. Any factor which seriously modifies or limits their
action has corresponding importance in the temperature changes
of a lake.
The following table corresponds in part to that given by
Groll (’05, p. 48). Column II shows the density of water
from 0° to 30°, as given by Landolt and Bomstein.* The
numbers show also the weight of a liter of water at the tem¬
perature stated. Thus a liter weighs 1.000000 kg. at 4° ; at
10° it weighs 0.999727 kg. or 999,727 mg. The numbers in
columns III- VI do not stand opposite the numbers of, column
II but are opposite the spaces between these numbers. Each
represents the result of a change of temperature in a unit
volume of water, corresponding to the degrees in column I im¬
mediately above and below the number in question; or it re¬
lates to a column of water whose surfaces have the temperatures
immediately above or below.
* Physicalische chemische Tabelien, 3rd ed., 1905, p. 37.
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures. 991
Column III shows the differences between the successive
numbers of column II and indicates the change in density
caused by a temperature change of 1°. The significant figures
also show the difference in weight, in milligrams, between a
992 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
liter of water at any given temperature and at a temperature
one degree lower. Thus, a liter of water at 10° weighs 81
mg. less than one at 9° ; at 25° a liter is 252 mg. lighter than
at 24°. These numbers, therefore, express the differences in
density and weight which for a temperature difference of 1°,
(1) enable a layer of water to set up convection currents if
it lies above a warmer stratum, and (2) which enable a
stratum of water, warmer above and cooler below, to resist
mixture attempted by mechanical agencies.
It is evident that the differences shown in column III for
a rise or fall of one degree become greater as the temperature
rises above or sinks below 4°. From this fact it follows that
a given mass of water — Say, a cubic decimeter — which has
been cooled one degree below the temperature of the water
beneath it, will act with greater energy in setting up convection
currents in proportion as the initial temperature was distant
from 4°. It also follows that a column of water of unit area
and height whose upper surface has a temperature one degree
higher than its lower surface, will offer a thermal resistance
to mixture greater in proportion as the average rises above
4° ; it being assumed that the temperature gradient in the
column is uniform.
Hor is this difference a small one, as may be seen from col¬
umn IV. In this column the convection capacity (if I may
coin an equivalent for the German word Auftrieb), and the
thermal resistance to mixture corresponding to the temperature
difference of one degree at 4°-3° or 4°-5°, is taken as unity
and the relative value is given for the same difference at higher
and lower temperatures. At 10° its value is more than ten
times as great as at 4° ; at 15° it has increased eighteenfold; at
20° more than twenty-five fold; and at 30° it is more than
thirty-seven times larger than at 4°.
Grolks paper (p. 48) expresses this fact in relation to con¬
vection by stating the number of liters of water which would
be needed to make a mass that weighs 1 kg. less than the
same mass of water one degree cooler. Such a mass of water
is necessary at the given temperature to secure “1 kg. Auf-
Birge—An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures . 993
trieb.” The number of liters stated is the reciprocal of the
numbers in column III. I have repeated his results in col
umn VI; the numbers being slightly changed as the values
for density are not quite the same as those employed by
Groll.
In order to give a similar picture of the thermal resistance,
I have stated in column V the amount of work in decimals
of a erg, which would be required to mix a column of water
1 sq. cm. in area, 1 m. high, in which the temperature gradient
is uniform and whose upper and lower surfaces differ in
temperature by 1°.
The formulas from which these results have been computed
have been worked out and furnished to me by Dr. H. C. Wolff
of the department of mathematics, University of Wisconsin,
whose valuable assistance I wish to acknowledge with thanks.
The work done against gravity in mixing a column of water
whose density varies with the depth, so that it shall become one
of uniform density is
(1) W (ergs) = A f(z) [ z — ^r] dz
where A is the area of the cross-section of the column in sq.
cm., C the height of the column in cm. and f (z) the function
expressing the density in terms of z, the distance from the top'
of the column. The density of water at 4°C. is to be taken as
unity.
If f(z) is a rational integral function of the second degree
(1) reduces to the simple form
AC's
(2) W (ergs) =; — [D2 — DJ
where Dx and D2 are respectively the density of the lower and up¬
per strata of the column. This condition is satisfied when the
temperature gradient is uniform and when the relation between
the density (D) and the temperature (T) is of the form
B=aT2+/?T+y where a P and y are constants. If the tempera-
atures at the surfaces of a column are assumed to be full degrees
994 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
centigrade, the density can be taken directly from the table and
the ergs computed from the equation given above. If A=1 sq.
cm. C=100 cm. and and D2 are two of the numbers in column
II, then the number of ergs is 833 times the difference between
X)2 and Di. These results are shown in column V.
If it is desired to compute the thermal resistance directly
from the temperatures observed, the following formulas will
yield approximate results. An empirical relation between the
density and temperature of water at temperatures above 4° is
<3)
D = 1
93 (T — 4)1-983
10*
A very close approximation to this is
14) 1V =1 — r)T2-3Q66T + 47
which gives as an approximate value for work
(5) W (ergs) = ^ |t» - 3J (T, - T,).
.Below are given the differences between D and D1', showing
the degree of approximation reached by formula (4).
4°
5°,
10°
15°,
20°.
25°.
30°,
ir
D
D-D
1.00000
0.99998
0.99971
0.99914
0.99827
0.99710
0.99563
1.00000
0.99999
0.99973
0.99913
0 99824
0.99707
0.99567
+0.00000
+0.00001
+0.00002
—0.00001
—0.00003
—0.00003
+0.00004
The values of W, as computed by formula 5 differ in the third
decimal place from those derived directly from the tables of
density and computed according to formula 2.
Formula 5 also shows that the approximate value of the
work done in mixing a column of water is proportional to the
temperature gradient • — ^ provided that the mean tem¬
perature, Tm, remains constant. That is to say, if the tem¬
perature gradient of a stratum of water is uniform and the
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures. 995
average temperature remains the same, the thermal resistance
will rise and fall in proportion to the difference in temperature
between the upper and lower surfaces. If, under these con¬
ditions, the temperatures of the surfaces are 11° and 8° re¬
spectively, the resistance will be three times as great as if
they were 10° and 9° ; the average temperature being the same
in both cases hut the gradient being steeper in the first example.
If the temperature gradient is not a uniform one, then the
temperature, T, is not a linear function of z. In such cases
f(z) |z — can be plotted and the value of W found by
means ofv a planimeter.
The fact that the thermal resistance to mixture increases as
the temperature rises has important and wide applications.
First, it has much influence on the rapid distribution of heat
through the lake in the spring as compared with its slow pene¬
tration later in the season. Even in our deepest Wisconsin
lakes, like Green Lake (72 m.) the temperature of the bottom
water goes up to 5°, or even 6°. So, too, the water at all
depths of the lake acquires heat most rapidly in spring and
early summer. A lake of considerable depth gains little heat
after the first of July. Its gains are greatest in April, May,
and the early part of June. Yet the surface receives more
calories during July and August than during the earlier months.
This rapid gain and distribution of heat in spring has forced
some students of lake temperatures to conclude that the water
is more diathermous in spring than in summer. So Ule (’01,
p. 126) says that from the rapid gains of heat in spring we
must draw the conclusion that the diathermancy becomes less
.in the course of the summer. This may or may not be the
case, but it never happens to a degree which makes any not¬
able difference; since in all lakes and at all times the upper
meter of water receives most of the heat.
But the wind and the currents derived from its influence
are mixing agencies which become less efficient as the lake
warms, if equal temperature gradients are assumed. At 10°
they are 10 times less efficient than at 5° ; only one-third as
efficient as at 6° ; and less than one-half as efficient as at 7°.
996 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
When the temperature rises to 15° the resistance is nearly
doubled as compared with 10°, and the efficiency of the dis¬
tributing agents is correspondingly reduced. It is not surpris¬
ing, therefore, that the distributing agents can work very ef¬
fectively during the spring and carry the heat received by the
surface to considerable depths. It is not surprising also that
during the spring they can distribute this heat so rapidly as
to prevent the surface temperature from rising so fast as to
offer considerable resistance to their action; while they lose a
great part of their power as the season advances.
There are, of course, other factors which work in the same
direction, aiding to increase the efficiency of the forces which
distribute heat in the early part of the season and checking
this distribution as the summer advances. Students of lake
temperature, however, have felt that these forces were not ade-
quate to explain the observed facts. I believe that if the in¬
creased thermal resistance is also taken into account the
phenomena will find a full explanation.
A second point where this principle finds important appli¬
cation is at the thermocline. Ho one fact in lake temperatures
so arouses surprise in the mind of the student as does the ease
with which the thermocline can be disturbed and the difficulty
with which it can be permanently displaced. Violent winds
in summer may raise or depress its surface by several meters
in the larger inland lakes, yet it returns to its old position
with barely a trace of change. In Lake Mendota the ther¬
mocline may be reduced to a temperature amplitude of 2°, or
less in late September or October, and may lie within a meter
or two of the bottom. This position it may retain for days,
if not for weeks, unless an unusually vigorous wind upsets
it. Ho such slight difference of temperature would, or does,
persist in the spring. The reason is that the temperatures
in the spring are in the region of 6° or 8°, while in the fall
they lie at 12° or 14°, and therefore offer much more resist¬
ance to mixture.
At the junction of thermocline and epilimnion the fall of
temperature is rapid. A decline of 4° or 5° in a meter is
not uncommon and this is from a high temperature, 20°,
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures. 997
or more. The thermal resistance to mixture is, therefore, very
great and it is increased by the processes which tend to cause
mixture. When the wind sets up currents in the epilimnion
and blows it to the leeward side of the lake, the accumulating
mass of warm water presses the cooler hypolimnion downward
and outward. The first effect of this process is to condense the
isotherms at the very point where the influences tending to
cause mixture are greatest. A decline of temperature amount¬
ing to 8° or 10° in a meter is thus often produced. In this
way is developed a resistance to mixture several hundred times
as great as any that is possible in April, or early May, and
this lies exactly at the place where it is most effective in pre¬
venting mixture. Thus we may explain the fact that the ther-
mocline is but little affected in summer, even by violent and
long continued winds.
During early and midsummer the temperature of the epilim¬
nion is not uniform but the surface is always somewhat warmer
than the stratum immediately above the thermocline. Since
the temperature of the surface at this time is high — from 22°
to 25°, or even more — a small temperature difference between
the surface and the strata below presents a very great resist¬
ance to mixture. This is an important factor among those
which keep the thermocline at a practically constant average
position during several weeks in summer.
It is obvious that no fair comparison can be made between
the ability of the wind to mix the water in summer and that
which it may have in late autumn or winter after the surface
has fallen below 4°. Many writers have found it hard to be¬
lieve that the wind is able to mix the water of a lake from
top to bottom during the process of cooling below 4°. Richter,
for example, (?97, p. 49) finds it necessary to reject the wind
as the agent in effecting this cooling, because the wind is
not able to disturb the thermocline in summer. He is forced
to set up a rather complex theory to account for the fall of
temperature in deep water below 4°, and one which is not
satisfactory to himself. In a similar way Ule (?01, p. 124)
neglects the wind in discussing this process while Groll (’05,
p> 54) rejects it for lakes of considerable depth. Yet the re-
998 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
sistance to mixture at temperatures below 4° is so small that
we need not be surprised that the whole mass of water is
readily cooled by circulation to 3°, or even 2°. On the other
hand, the rapid increase of resistance to mixture per degree
as zero is neared indicates one reason why the temperature
curve of inverse stratification is never a straight line, and
why, even in larger lakes and at the moderate depth of 20 m.
to 25 m., bottom temperatures are rarely so low as 1°. I
ought to add that Wedderburn (’09) seems to understand this
relation very fully. His paper was received just as this is
going to press.
Thus many of the facts of lake temperature find an easy
explanation when the principle is accepted that the thermal re¬
sistance to mixture increases as the temperature departs from 4°.
I have called especial attention to its bearing on those problems
for which students of limnology have found only a partial
solution. Among these are the rapid warming of the lake in
spring and early summer; or stated in a different way, the
rapid descent of the isotherms as the lake begins to warm, as
compared with the slow penetration later in the season of iso¬
therms representing higher temperatures. Similar problems
are the cooling of the lake below 4° ; the position, persistence,
and stability of the thermocline in spite of disturbance by
violent winds. In all of these and other cases which involve
the work of the agents for distributing heat, the fact must be
considered that a limit is always set to the efficiency of these
agents by the thermal resistance to mixture. Water is so
nearly a perfect fluid that if its temperature could rise with¬
out a change of density the distributing agents in any lake
would quickly distribute the warmer surface strata through
the whole mass of the water. The most effective means of
limiting this distribution is the rapid increase of the rate of
decline of density as the temperature rises.
In this discussion it has been assumed that water is a per¬
fect fluid. This is not the case; water is viscous and its vis¬
cosity is not without influence on the ability of the wind to
mix it. If a lake were composed of a perfect fluid, thermal
resistance would be the only force opposing mixture. In a
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures. 999
lake filled with a very viscous fluid, like glycerine, viscosity
would be far more effective than thermal resistance in opposing
mixture.
The amount of the viscosity of water at temperatures be¬
tween 0° and 30° may be seen from the following table.
Table of viscosity, from Landolt and Bornstein.
From this it appears that water has sufficient viscosity to
offer some resistance to the action of the wind which attempts
to move the particles on each other and thus to mix them. It
appears also that the viscosity is very small, but that it is
greater at low temperatures and that it increases at a rate
which rises as the temperature falls.
Viscosity offers a hindrance to mixture which cannot be
stated in terms of ergs. It has been impossible to ■ find a
quantitative relation between thermal resistance and viscosity
so as to ascertain exactly how much the increase of the latter
at low temperature would affect the influence of the wind. Yet
it seems clear that it does not have a great influence. The
present question is one of the relative influence of viscosity
at different temperatures, and viscosity plainly increases far
more slowly at low temperatures than thermal resistance dimin¬
ishes.
If we attempt to mix in a unit of time a column of water,
the area of whose base is 1 sq. cm. and whose height is 1 m.,
viscosity will offer a resistance to be overcome. From the
table given above it appears that this resistance is about twice
as great at 4° as at 30°. The thermal resistance to mixture
for a temperature difference of 1° decreases 37.5 times if the
average temperature falls from 30°' to 4°.- Between 10° and
4° the thermal resistance decreases over ten times, while the
1000 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
viscosity increases by less than 20%, or less than 1-50 as much.
Thus it appears that the decline of the thermal resistance is
far more rapid in water than is the increase of viscosity, and
the increased ratio of decline as the temperature nears 4° is
much greater than the ratio of increase of viscosity.
It is impossible to say how much must be added to the num¬
bers in column V if it is desired to express by them not only
the work done against gravity but also that against viscosity
in mixing a unit column of water in a unit of time. But it
is clear that the addition, whatever it may be, cannot be more
than doubled between 30° and 4°.
This is not the place for a complete discussion of the various
factors aiding or opposing the distribution of the surface water
through the lake, but it may be pointed out that since the in¬
fluence of the wind will vary as the square of its velocity, the
greater amount of wind in the spring will more than compen¬
sate for any increase in viscosity. The average velocity of the
wind in Madison in July is about 8.3 miles per hour and in
April 11.6 miles. The ratio of the squares of these numbers is
about as 1 to 2, showing that the mixing power of the wind in
April is about twice as great as in midsummer.
Literature Cited.
Groll, ?05 : Der Oeschinensee. Max Groll. J ahresber. der
Geog. Gesellschaft von Bern , xix: pp. 1-78; 7 figs. ; 2
maps.
Richter, ?07 : Seestudien. E. Richter. Geog. Abhld . heraus -
gegeben vqn Prof. A. Penck in Wien., vi, H. 2 : pp. 1-72 ;
pi. I-II. Wien, 1897.
Ule, ?01 : Der Wurmsee ( St arnberger see ) in Oberbayern.
Eine Limnologische Studie. Willi Ule. Wissenschaft.
Verojfentlich. des Vereins fur Erdkunde zu Leipzig ,
v : pp. i-vi, (T-212; pi. 5; figs. 15 and atlas of 8 plates.
Leipzig, 1901.
Wedderburn, ?09 : Temperature Observations in Loch Garry
(Invernessshire) . With Rotes on Currents and Seiches^
E. M. Wedderburn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xxxix,
pt. ii: pp. 98-128; figs. 1-6. Edinburgh, 1909.
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures. 1001
PLATE LXIY.
1002 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OP PLATE LXIV.
Plate LXIV, from Groll, ’05, represents the change of density in
water due to rise of temperature and gives in graphic form the facts
of column III, p. 991. The degrees are given at the bottom of the plate
and the loss of weight, in grams per liter for each rise of 1, is platted
on the vertical scale. The ordinates show the difference in weight be¬
tween a liter of water at any given temperature and at 4°.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate LXIV.
TEMP 0° 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 1 1° 1 2° 1 3° 14° 1 5° 16° 1 7C!8° !9°20o 2 1° 22°23° 24°25°26° 27°Z802903Q°
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
15
i.O
0.5
0
.
Birge — An Unregarded Factor in Lake Temperatures.
1003
PLATE LXV.
1004 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXV.
In plate LXV the facts of column IV, p. 991, are shown graphically.
The numbers at the bottom of the plate give the temperatures of the
upper and lower surfaces of a column of water having unit area and
height. Ordinates express the relative thermal resistance to mixture,
that at 3°-4° and at 5°-4° being taken as unity.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI. i
Plate LXV
ON THE EVIDENCE FOR TEMPERATURE SEICHES.
EDWARD A. BIRGE.
[Notes from the Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey. VI.]
The term temperature seiche was introduced by Watson (’04)
in discussing certain periodic oscillations of temperature in
the deep water of Loch Ness. He thought that these oscilla¬
tions show that the isotherms of the lower water “are swinging
as a whole about a transverse central axis.7’ His explanation
conceived a swinging of the hypolimnion*, as if the thermo-
oline were the upper surface of water in a trough, above which
floated a layer of lighter oil, representing the epilimnion.
In 1907 Wedderburn (707 a) reported experiments on a trough
thus arranged, showing the possibility of a seiche, such as that
postulated by Watson. Watson computed the period of a
seiche in the hypolimnion of Loch Ness and found that it agreed
with the observed period of the oscillations of temperature.
His paper reported only the temperatures found at the depth
of 200 feet, where the maximum oscillations occurred, and no
profitable criticism of his theory could be made until the whole
series of temperature records was published. This was done
* I employ two new words in this paper, which seem convenient in
writing of the temperature and other phenomena of lakes. These terms
are epilimnion, for the upper warm layer of water which develops in the
lake in summer, and hypolimnion, for the lower colder water. These
two parts of the lake differ widely in their temperature changes, as well
as in their chemical and biological phenomena. It seems advisable,
therefore, to assign definite names to them. The word thermocline, first
used by me in 1897, is the equivalent of Richter’s term Sprung schicht,
or the discontinuity layer of Wedderburn. It lies at the top of the hypo¬
limnion.
2— S. & A.— 3
1006 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
by Wedderburn (’07), who printed all of the observations and
also (pp. 420-427) repeated the theory in more detail. The
next year Wedderburn (’08) recapitulated the theory and says
that after the epilimnion has been established the variations of
temperature in the lower water are “principally due to the
temperature seiche.” Our ideas regarding the change of tem¬
perature in the hypolimnion will be greatly changed — or rather
revolutionized — by this theory, if it is correct. An examina¬
tion of the evidence for it is, therefore, not out of place.
Wedderburn’s paper of 1907 is by far the most complete
one on this subject and my remarks are based mainly upon it.
It does not appear that the observations of 1903, which were
employed by Watson, can be profitably discussed in detail,
since they were taken at intervals of about twelve hours — morn¬
ing and afternoon — and so give no detailed picture of the
movements of the water or of the wind. Wedderburn, how¬
ever, gives an admirable series of temperatures, taken in Loch
Ness in 1904, chiefly from a yacht anchored near Fort Augus¬
tus at the southwest end of the lake. Besides very numerous
series of temperatures, taken at less frequent intervals, observa¬
tions were made every two hours, day and night, from Aug.
1 to Aug. 24. I do not know any similarly complete series of
lake temperatures from any other source. It is from this
series that Wedderburn draws his chief illustrations of seiches,
and to this I shall refer.
In discussing the question of temperature seiches it should
be said that no one doubts the presence of oscillations “in the
lower layer independent of movements progressing in the up¬
per layer” (Wedderburn, ’07, p. 422), or of temperature chan¬
ges resulting from them. These have been frequently observed ;
they are always going on and are very numerous and complex.
The undecided questions are (1) whether there are present in
the hypolimnion stationary waves, series of pendular move¬
ments of the whole mass of this water, and (2), if so, what
are the extent and importance of such movements. It is plain
that there is no general or a priori reason why such temperature
seiches should not exist; on the contrary, they might be ex¬
pected to be present. The action of the wind, depressing the
Birge — On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches. 1007
hypolimnion on the lee side of the lake and raising it on the
windward side, furnishes the conditions for starting a seiche.
But as the wind declines or ceases and the liypolimnion swings
hack toward its former position, does it continue its movement,
rising above the normal at the lee side of the lake, and then
falling so as to start a series of pendular oscillations ? Or is
the return so slow and the hypolimnion so loaded by the
epilimnion that movement practically ceases when the iso¬
therms have returned to the horizontal position ? If the first
question is answered in the affirmative, then what are the
extent and influence of such pendular oscillations? These
questions are to be answered on the basis of observation. If
periodic movements of considerable magnitude can be shown
which, started by the wind, are thenceforward independent of
the wind and of the movements of the epilimnion, then the
case is proved.
I must confess that I find the evidence adduced by the Loch
Hess observers insufficient to prove their case. Heither Watson
nor Wedderburn seems to have carefully discriminated move¬
ments directly associated with wind from those which are pos¬
sibly independent of it. All movements of the surface of the
hypolimnion are apparently referred to indiscriminately as
seiches. Even the greatest temperature changes are listed as.
seiches, which, if they were such, would involve a vertical
swing of the water amounting to 200 feet, or more. An ampli¬
tude of 100 feet is said by Wedderburn to be quite ordinary.
Many of the movements in July, 1904, as well as all of those'
of August, seem to be regarded as seiches. Certainly there'
must have been some movements which were correlated with,
the wind, and it would seem that Watson and Wedderburn
should analyze the complex movements of temperature in and!
below the thermocline and should point out which are due to
seiches and which are of other types. Yet no attempt is made
to do this and I cannot see that either author furnishes any
criterion by which to discriminate temperature changes due
to a seiche from those due to other movements of the hypolim¬
nion.
1008 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
It should also be noted that the position of the yacht, (Fig.
1) where the temperatures were taken, was singularly well
adapted to show movements of the water caused by wind and
ill adapted for recording seiches. It lay close to the shore,
about 300 yards from the southwest end of the lake and in
300 feet of water. The main lake extended, like a broad
river, for 20 miles to the northeast. Every northeast wind
must fill this end of the lake with warm surface water, and
' Fig. 1. Sketch map of the south-west
end of Loch Ness, showing posi¬
tion of yacht used as observing
station. Scale, 1 . 5"=1 mile.
every southwest wind must blow it out again. The yacht lay
so close to the shore that the underwater movements induced
by wind must readily affect the temperatures. Every student
of lake temperatures will also notice the fact that the yacht
lay at one side of the outlet of the small bay that forms a
pocket at the end of the lake. Any wind that pushed the
water at all obliquely against the southeastern shore would
fill this pocket and thence the warm water would gradually
work out toward the yacht, moving up toward the northern
shore.
The observations of August, 1904, are far more valuable
in this discussion than all of the others combined, since they
were taken at frequent intervals day and night ; the thermocline
was present; and the force and direction of the wind were re-
Birge — On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches. 1009
corded. I shall, therefore use these in my discussion, espe¬
cially as Wedderburn’s illustrations are almost wholly taken
from them.
The diagram of temperature movements which Wedderburn
gives (?07, p. 421) is not easily read. I have, therefore,
platted on a different scheme and a larger scale his observa¬
tions from noon of Aug. 14 to noon of Aug. 21, (Plate LXVI).
This period includes three of the five major movements of
the thermocline which came in August, and also includes the
swing that looks to me most nearly as I suppose a great seiche
would appear. The rise of temperature in the hypolimnion,
shown in the center of the diagram (Aug. 17), is that chosen
for special illustration and discussion by Wedderburn. It
seems to me plain that this great swing of the isotherms was
not a seiche, as defined by Watson. Examination of the dia¬
gram will show that during Aug. 16 the wind was constantly
from the southwest, off shore, and the isotherms steadily rose
as the warmer surface water was blown away, until in the
afternoon the epilimnion practically disappeared. At 4 a.
m. of Aug. 17 the wind shifted to east and then to north¬
east and blew from that quarter for nearly 20 hours. Under its
influence the warm surface water returned to fill the end of
the lake, crowding down the hypolimnion. After some ten
hours of this wind, the filling extended out to the yacht and
caused a sudden and great rise of temperature. Then as the
northeast wind dropped and was followed by calms and south¬
west breezes, the displaced hypolimnion swung back toward
its normal position and the isotherms rose with it. This is
my reading of the movement, nor can I see ground for a differ¬
ent interpretation. It is certainly clear that the movement
was by no means independent of conditions in the epilimnion
but, on the contrary, was directly associated with changes of
wind which must shift the epilimnion and so tend to cause
the movement of temperature in the hypolimnion. These
forces also seem wholly adequate to effect it and there is no
need of supposing a seiche in order to explain it,
If this temperature change was caused by an on-shore wind,
it is obvious that the sudden downward sweep of the isotherms.
1010 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
corresponding to the great change of temperature in the deeper
water, does not represent a corresponding and equally, rapid
vertical movement of the water, or indeed any considerable
vertical movement at all. If this and similar temperature
changes are due to seiches, then the vertical movements of the
isotherms, as platted on the diagram, represent equally well
the vertical movements of the water. Wedderburn does not
hesitate to accept this result. He assigns an occasional ampli¬
tude of 200 feet to the temperature seiche (’07, p. 426) and
thinks that an amplitude of 100 feet is nothing out of the
ordinary. He also states (’07, p. 422) that on August 17
the temperature rose 8.3° F. in 15 minutes at a depth of 100
feet. This change, if due to the lowering of the surface of
the thermocline, means a movement of at least 50 feet in the
same time, and in the course of the general temperature move¬
ment of this day there would have been a depression of the
thermocline amounting to over 100 feet during two hours. I
find it difficult to believe in such great movements of the hv-
polimnion. They are so large and so rapid that they should
cause serious disturbances at the surface of the water, which
have never been observed. But if the explanation of these
temperature changes, which I ’ have given above, is accepted,
no such violent and rapid movements of the liypolimnion need
be assumed. As the space between the yacht and the shore
was gradually filled with warm water, forced to the end of
the lake by the wind, the colder water was crowded downward
and outward. The front of this growing mass of warm water
gradually moved out into the lake as new additions were made
to it, and when it reached the observing station the thermone-
ter recorded a very sudden and great rise of temperature, which
however, involved no corresponding movement of the water
but only a comparatively small displacement, chiefly lateral.
The complex phenomena, cansed by wind, with their re¬
sulting temperature changes, cannot be readily analyzed from
observations made at a single point, but before we can ac¬
cept temperature seiches a's their cause, there must be ob¬
servations sufficient in number and position to exclude other
and more easily received explanations.
Birge — On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches. 1011
In like manner may be seen that all of the considerable
rises of temperature in the deeper water of Loch Hess during
August were preceded or accompanied by a northeast or on¬
shore wind. The relation is plain in the movement of Aug.
15, as is shown on the diagram. The similar movement of
the isotherms on the night of Aug. 22-23 coincided with an
on-shore wind. The same is true of the movements on Aug.
11 and the night of Aug. 19-20, although they need separate
discussion. The decline of temperature at a depth of 50 feet
on Aug. 8, referred to as a seiche by Wedderburn (’07, p.
422) was accompanied by southwest or off-shore wind and by
a fall of surface temperature certainly due to this wind. The
similar drop of temperature at 50 feet on Aug. 14, also re¬
ferred to by Wedderburn, coincided with a shift of wind from
northeast to southwest and the temperature rose again when
the wind turned, at 10 p. m., to the northeast. Thus every
considerable shift of temperature in and below the thermocline
during August was precisely that which might have been pre¬
dicted as probably resulting from the meteorological changes;
the position of the observing station and the direction of the
wind being known. So far from the evidence showing that
these major oscillations are independent of changes in the
epilimnion, they coincide with such changes and with mete¬
orological forces directly adapted to cause them.
I do not mean to say that we are able thus to account for
every chang'e of temperature at every depth in this series of
observations. We are ignorant of the underwater currents in
Loch Hess, and of the minor effects of the winds; and their
major effects are matters of inference rather than of observa¬
tion. We know that these effects are numerous and complex.
When a mass of warm water is once established at the lee end
of a lake it often shifts and moves about in an irregular and
quite incalculable fashion. It is acted upon by numerous
forces, each quantitatively unknown, including not only wind
currents but convection currents, as well as underwater cur¬
rents set up in the past, and the numerous and doubtful inter¬
actions between this warm mass and the cold outer water
crowding in upon it. But if seiches are to be asserted as the
1012 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
main factor in temperature changes in the hypolimnion, the
temperature phenomena must he clearly analyzed and it must
be shown which of them are due to the immediate influence
of wind, which to irregular movements of the hypolimnion,
and which to stationary waves or seiches.
There remain to he considered the movement of midnight
Aug. 19-20 and also that of Aug. 11, which though of smaller
amount is a similar case and open to similar explanation.
Wedderburn does not refer to these movements of the isotherms,
although they appear more like temperature seiches than any
of the other swings of temperature in August. This is es¬
pecially clear in the movement of Aug. 19-20. Reference
to the diagram will show that on Aug. 19 a northeast
wind began at 2 a. m. and caused a slight hut obvious
descent of the isotherms at 6 and 8 a. m. After 10 a. m.
there was little, or no wind recorded during the day; at 8 p.
m. it was northeast again, followed by light southwest breezes
and calm during the night. Between 6 and 8 p. m. began a
rapid descent of the isotherms, culminating at midnight. They
remained about stationary during four hours, or more, then
swung back to their former position, and later, on Aug. 22,
to a still higher level under the influence of a southwest wind.
In this case there is plainly an on-shore wind associated
with the rise of deep water temperatures. It is plain also that
the rise is greater than would have been expected from the
amount of wind and that it came later than in the other oases.
Thus the descent of the isotherms seems not wholly but to
some degree independent of the movements of the epilimnion
and their rise is practically independent of the wind. It is
also to he noted that the 45° isotherm began to move
downward some four hours before the 50° isotherm. The
question is not one of association of these movements with an
on-shore wind, hut of the adequacy of the wind to produce so
great a swing of the isotherms, which, with a much smaller
amount of wind than on Aug. 17, is a swing of the same gen¬
eral order of magnitude as that.
I believe that this movement was a secondary effect of that
of Aug. 17 and that it was directly caused by underwater cur-
Birge — On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches . 1013
rents set up by the northeast wind of Aug. 19 and which con¬
tinued to move slowly after the wind died away. It must be
remembered that conditions on Aug. 19 were very different
from those on Aug. 17. When the northeast wind began on
the former date, the southwest wind, extending through the
preceding twenty-four hours, had blown all of the warm water
from the southern end of the lake. Several hours and much
wind were, therefore, necessary to bring it back. But on Aug.
18 there was little wind; a large mass of warm water remained
at the yacht and there was doubtless much more in-shore. It
required, therefore, only a small amount of northeast wind to
put the deeplying warm water into motion again. I suppose
that the mass of warm water, accumulated by the wind of
Aug. 17, moved out to the observing station, causing the rise of
temperature before midnight of Aug. 19-20, and then was
either crowded back or pushed past the station, causing the
fall of temperature in the early morning of Aug. 20. I am
very glad to admit that this movement looks like a temperature
seiche, but the evidence that it is such is by no means complete,
or even adequate. We do not know how much warm water lay
in the southwest end of the lake on Aug. 19, nor do we know
the extent or shape of the mass. We do not know that there
was any corresponding movement of temperature in a reverse
direction on Aug. 19-20 at the other end of the lake, or indeed
that there was any movement of temperature at all. So far
as the facts at hand give evidence, there is no reason which
requires us to conclude that the disturbance of Aug. 19 was a
different kind of phenomenon from that of Aug. 15, 17, or 22 ;
in each of which not only is the qualitative relation to the wind
distinctly marked but the quantitative relation seems adequate.
Thus after a review of the clearest evidence for temperature
seiches, adduced by Wedderburn, I am forced to give my vote
for the Scotch verdict of “not proven”. I am quite ready to
accept seiches of any period or amplitude that can be proved,
but I cannot see that we ought to accept seiches of 200 feet
amplitude, or even of any amplitude, on the evidence presented.
It is unfortunate for the establishment of the seiche theory
that Loch Hess is so long. The period of its oscillation, about
1014 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
two days, is so great that it must be difficult to find considerable
movements which are not interfered with by the changes of
weather and it is correspondingly difficult to eliminate the pos¬
sible effects of wind. Still further, the fact that even in
August the epilimnion may practically disappear, as it did on
Aug. 16, adds to the difficulties of analysis of observations.
A smaller lake of similar shape with an oscillation period of a
few hours and with a much warmer epilimnion would offer far
better opportunities for settling the question of the presence of
temperature seiches, of their magnitude, if present, and of
their importance in the temperature changes of the hypolim-
nion. Loch Ness, of course, lias an advantage over a smaller
lake in possessing a hypolimnion of enormous mass, so great
that the loading due to the epilimnion may well be inadequate
to damp the temperature seiches, if such are started.
If I may hazard a doubtful opinion, I would say that
I believe that such seiches may be found to exist. I believe
also that in most lakes they will be of small extent and of small
influence upon the temperature. Great and rapid changes of
temperature in the hypolimnion are due mainly to definite move¬
ments of its water, directly caused by the shifting of the
epilimnion under the action of the wind. Minor changes and
the slow rise of temperature in the hypolimnion seem to be
caused chiefly by the irregular currents which result from the
major movements and which may persist long after their direct
cause has disappeared.
Literature Referred To.
Watson ’04: Movements of the Waters of Loch Ness, as in¬
dicated by Temperature Observations. E. R. Watson.
Geog. Jour., xxiv: pp. 430-437; Figs. 1-3. London,
1904.
Wedderburn ?07 : The Temperature of the Freshwater Lochs
of Scotland, with special reference to Loch Ness. With
Appendix containing Observations made in Loch Ness
by Members of the Scottish Lake Survey. E. M. Wed¬
derburn. i Trans. Roy. Soc . Edinb., xlv, pt. ii: pp. 407-
489 ; Figs. 1-15. Edinburgh, 1907.
Birge — On the Evidence for Temperature Seiches: 1015
Wedderburn ’07a: An experimental Investigation of the
Temperature Changes occurring in Fresh-Water Lochs.
E. M. Wedderburn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb ., xxviii, pt.
i ; pp. 2-20 ; figs. 1-14. Edinburgh, 1908. (Issued sep¬
arately, Dec. 1907.)
Wedderburn ’08: Notes on the Temperature of the Water
in Loch Ness. E. M. Wedderburn. Geog. Jour., xxxi:
pp. 41, 52-56 ; figs. 1-3. London, 1908.
1016 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVI.
This plate shows the movement of temperature in Loch Ness,
Aug. 14-21, 1904. In the heading of the diagram, the first line gives
the hour of the day; N represents noon, M, midnight. The second line
gives the direction of the wind and the third gives its force. Temper¬
atures are recorded in Fahrenheit degrees and depths in feet. The
data are taken from Wedderburn ’07, pp. 472-474. In this paper the
temperatures are recorded for intervals of 25 feet. From these data
the position of the full degrees has been platted, assuming a uniform
temperature gradient in each 25-foot stratum. These points are in¬
dicated by small circles, and the successive positions of each degree
are connected by straight lines. The lines representing 45°, 50°, 55°
are made heavier than the others.
Thus the diagram represents the movements of the isotherms in
the water, as influenced by sun, wind, and currents.
225
'
cV ! ; I./.’IA,-
ivy .in I
a i s-M Mi A' .
a
<5 !WC
SMri
it ;
TiTc{3a .
" T^3 ;i - .
. V,?-' - ■;>' / 'y -r:' ■' N,
. - !/■.*. V ' -\ . . -
■ •• ■ •• - ■--- • ' j' . ;>•/ •• ;• • - - . .
■
■;.y .
X:
' .
00 -i
NOTES ON CLADOCERA. IV.
EDWARD A. BIRGE.
I have recently sent to the press a brief synopsis of the
known Cladocera of the United States, for a forthcoming work
on fresh-water biology by Professor H. B. Ward. In the
course of preparing this synopsis it was necessary to settle,
provisionally at least, several questions of nomenclature, one of
which is more fully discussed here. It seemed also advisable
to include in the synopsis several species hitherto undescribed.
I publish, therefore, the following notes in order that the mat¬
ters in question may appear in a scientific journal and in
more complete form than is possible under the conditions of
extreme brevity imposed by the limits of a general work.
Type specimens of all new species described are preserved
in the collections of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey at Madison.
1. Pseudo sida bident at a Herrick.
Plate LXVII, figs. 1-9 ; Plate LXVIII, fig. 1.
In 1903 I visited the southern part of the United States,
collecting entomostraca ; being especially desirous to clear up
the confusion which exists with regard to the genus Pseudosida
Note. — The former papers of this series have been published as fol¬
lows:
Notes on Cladocera. Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. 4, pp. 77-110, pi. I,
II. Madison, 1878.
List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wisconsin. Trans.
Wis. Acad., Vol. 8, pp. 379-398, pi. XIII. Madison, 1891.
Notes on Cladocera. III. Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. 9, pp. 275-318,
pi. X-XIII. Madison, 1893.
My stock of separates of these papers has been distributed.
\ ) ■
1018 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
and hoping to find specimens both of bidentata and tridentata ;
to be able to describe them more carefully than had been done
by Herrick and to discriminate them accurately. Hear Hew
Orleans I found numerous representatives of the form which
I readily identified with Herrick’s P. bidentata and which is
described later. Hothing was found which corresponds to
P . tridenta, as Herrick calls it. In seeking information
which should aid me in working up my material, I applied to
Professor C. Judson Herrick of Denison University, Ohio,
and through his kindness I received all of the notes and draw¬
ings left by his brother, the late Professor C. L. Herrick, re¬
garding entomostraca, and also such few specimens as re¬
mained of his collection. I have, therefore, all of the original
notes regarding these species. The specimens were of no
value. It appears that Professor Herrick was not in the
habit of keeping a collection of the species which he described
and all of the entomostraca which had been preserved at
Denison University were destroyed some years ago in a fire.
The note-books, however, contain the original sketches from
which the drawings were made that Herrick gave in the
original descriptions of P. bidentata and tridentata. The first
note-book contains numerous sketches of P. bidentata. The
sketches are not dated and only a few words of description
are given. It is apparent that they were made from living
or fresh material during a journey which Herrick took
through the southern states, probably not later than 1882,
as species drawn in the note-book are described by him in a
paper published in 1883. The note-book contains the sketch,
which forms the basis of plate K, fig. 9, in Herrick’s paper
of 1884. In the published figure the antennules, the antenna^
and postabdomen are put in from the sketches on adjoining
pages. In the separate drawing of the antennule, which is
given on this plate, Herrick has unfortunately used one of the
poorest of the sketches which he made, so that it is plain that
he never compared his sketches with preserved specimens. In
a. sketch of the animal seen from the dorsal side Herrick shows
cue antennule very well, giving the characteristic curve, (See
PI. LX VII, fig. 2) and also the peculiar form of the base at
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1019
its junction with the flagellum. Of this sketch, however, he
made no use, hut the published figure shows the position of the
olfactory setae, which is important in characterizing the genus.
There is no difficulty in identifying the specimens belonging
to this species from Herrick’s plate and description of 1884.
I found no specimen of P. tridenta or tridentata; but some
light, though unfortunately not as much as could be wished,,
has been thrown on the subject by Stingelin’s discovery (’06)
of two poorly preserved specimens from Paraguay, which seem
to belong to the species. Stingelin is undoubtedly correct in
stating that Herrick in his Pseudosida tridentata had a dif¬
ferent species from that which he had formerly described un¬
der the name hidentata. The drawings of this species are
contained in a different note-book, also undated, but labeled
“Later Gulf of Mexico, etc.” The sketches do not contain
any drawing of the species as seen from the side. In this
particular Stingelin’s remark is instructive, that the species,
unlike P. szalayi , does not naturally lie on its side when
placed under the microscope. I found that P. hidentata , like
Bida, and unlike Latonopsis , does lie on its side. Herrick
gives no sketches which tvould aid in the identification of the
form, more than the published drawings do. The only im¬
portant difference between the sketches and the published
drawings lies in the antennule, which in the engraving (’87,
PI. Ill, fig. 3) shows a gradually tapering connection between
the basal part and flagellum. This is not present in the sketch
and is no doubt an error made in copying the sketch. The
postabdomen is also broader and blunter in the sketches than
in plate III, fig. 4. Mr. E. Foster of Hew Orleans has sug¬
gested to me that possibly Herrick had before him Latonopsis
fascicnlata Daday — a form which Mr. Foster has found at Hew
Orleans and which- 1 have also found in other localities in the
south. So far as most of the details of structure are concerned,
this is not improbable; but the outline of the animal, as seen
from above, does not suggest Latonopsis , nor is the postabdomen
similar. Future investigation will be necessary to decide with
reference to the form represented by P. tridentata. It may
well be that the species which Herrick had is the same as that
1020 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
described by Stingelin (’06) and regarded by liim as identical
with Herrick’s species. This conclusion is probable, especially
in view of the close relation between the fauna of the southern
United States and that of South America, but it is not certain.
Herrick’s sketch of the antenna of P. tridentata is very care¬
fully drawn, apparently with the aid of a camera lucida. It
shows that the 3- jointed ramus is two-thirds as long as the
other and bears five nearly equal setae. In Stingelin’s draw¬
ing this branch is much shorter and bears four setae of very
different size, like those of P. bidentata. Ho emphasis should
be laid on the difference in number of setae. There is full
warrant for Stingelin’s remark (’06, p. 4, footnote) on the dif¬
ficulty in determining the number of antennary setae. Those
of the 3-jointed ramus, especially, break off very easily and
leave no trace. Daday (’04, p. JL'l ; ’05, p. 218) makes the
possession of four setae on this branch of the antennae a char¬
acteristic of his genus Parasida, while Herrick assigns five
setae to his species P. bidentata. My specimens confirm Her¬
rick’s statement; but the setae are of very different size and
one or more are often absent. Probably not more than 20%
of the 100 or more individuals of P. bidentata that I have
examined possessed 5 setae. Their number, therefore, can¬
not well be used as a differential specific or generic character.
Since Herrick’s papers are indispensable to any student of
American entomostraca it may not be out of place to say a
few words regarding his manner of work, as shown by com¬
paring his note-books with his published papers. Probably no
modern writer on entomostraca has done so much good work in
a way so exasperating as has Herrick. He collected and de¬
scribed widely ; he had a good eye for the general situation ;
and is usually right in his statements, as far as they go. But
his descriptions are uncritical and often so incomplete that they
tell little about the species. It is usually easy, however, to
recognize his species when they are rediscovered, as was the
case with P. bidentata. The note-books which I have show
clearly his method of work and also the source of the vague
and unsatisfactory nature of many of his figures and descrip¬
tions. He made many sketches while on his collecting trips
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1021
through the South, employing living or freshly collected ma¬
terial. He did not ordinarily employ a camera lucida, nor
did he take exact measurements. The sketches rarely bear
date or locality and very few notes, only a word here and there.
From these sketches he prepared his descriptions and his final
drawings, which last were often tracings from the sketches.
He does not seem to have preserved his specimens for study
at home. At any rate, there are no figures of southern Clado¬
cera in his papers of 1884 or 1887 which are not based on the
sketches of the note-books and the published figures do not
show any facts that the note-books do not contain. There is
no evidence that the sketches were corrected by dissections
made later on preserved material, but there is every reason to
believe that these field sketches were all he had when writing
his papers. I believe that the same statement may be made
regarding the rest of the Crustacea in these papers but I have
not traced out the originals of all of the very numerous figures.
So far as I have examined them they are all in the note-books.
In preparing his paper of 1887 Herrick does not seem to have
taken the trouble to consult his earlier note-book, as this would
have shown him at once that he had before him another species
than his P. bidentata.
There is some confusion regarding the generic name of P.
bidentata. In attempting to clear it up a statement of the
facts is necessary. In 1884 Herrick established the genus
Pseudosida on specimens found by him at Mobile, Ala. (’84,
p. 20; PI. K, fig. 9), to which he gave also the specific name
bidentata. In 1887, as a result of later studies, he changed
the name of the species to trident ata (’84, p. 3), and ac¬
companied the new description with new figures (’87, PL III,
figs. 2-5). The specific name was erroneously printed e< tri¬
dental3 in this paper. In 1895 Herrick and Turner repeated
lire last description, including the misprint (’95, p. 147), to¬
gether with some remarks from the description of 1884, and
giving on plates XXXVI and L the figures of the papers of
1884 and 1887. Ho animals belonging to either species or
to this genus were seen for more than a decade after 1887.
In 1898 Haday (’98, p. 64) described P. szalayi, a bidentata
3— S. & A.— 3
1022 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
form, from Ceylon. In 1904 Stingelin (’04) reported the
same species from Siam and Sumatra. It is, therefore, widely
distributed in the eastern tropics.
In .1901 Daday described P. papuana (’01, p. 42) from
Hew Guinea. This is a tridentata form. In 1904 Daday es¬
tablished the genus Parasida (’04, p. 11) for those species in¬
cluded under the genus Pseudosida, in which the olfactory
setae are not placed at the end of the basal part of the
antennule ; he leaves in the genus Pseudosida of Herrick
those species in which the sense hairs are placed at the
end of the basal part and in which the antennule resembles in
general that of Latonopsis. The next year he described frojn
Paraguay two species which belong to his genus Parasida , P.
ramosa and P. variabilis (’05, p. 218-220).
In 1906 Stingelin (’06, p. 2) called attention for the first
time to the fact that Herrick in his two papers had before him
not, as he supposed, representatives of the same species but
two different forms. Stingelin, therefore, concludes that the
specific name tridentata is not to be rejected as a synonym but
is to be retained and applied to a species whose antennule has
in general the Latonopsis form.
These are the facts regarding the genera Pseudosida and
Parasida and they seem to warrant the following conclusions :
1. Herrick’s genus Pseudosida 1884 was a monotypical
genus, properly founded, and can be readily identified by
means of his figures and description. In particular, the posi¬
tion of the olfactory setae on the antennule is perfectly clear
from his figure (’84, PI. K, fig. 9,), although described in his
text merely as “lateral” (’84, p. 20).
2. Herrick was wrong in supposing that his form tridenta
1887 was co-specific with bidentata 1884; and even if he sup¬
posed this to be the case he had no right to attempt to change
the specific name. This is always contrary to rules of nomen¬
clature. In this particular case, no reason existed for de¬
siring the change. Herrick’s earlier sketches were carefully
made and, as a matter of fact, showed the claws of the postab¬
domen correctly. There was no reason to assume that they
were wrong, especially as any comparison of the earlier and
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1023
later sketches would have shown that other differences, notably
in the antennule, existed between the forms under comparison.
3. Ho change was made in the situation by Herrick’s error
of 1887. His P. bidentata 1884 remains a monotypical genus.
4. Daday in establishing his genus Parasida overlooked Her¬
rick’s paper of 1884, and supposed that Pseudosida was origin¬
ally proposed for species having an antennule like Latonopds.
Writing of his Parasida he says: (’05, p. 218) “Die erste
Art dieser Gattung hat E. v. Daday unter dem Hamen Pseu¬
dosida szalayi 1898 aus Ceylon beschrieben.” He thus ignores
the fact that P. bidentata Herrick 1884 is the first species and
the type of the genus Pseudosida. Parasida , therefore, be¬
comes a synonym for Pseudosida and if the tridenta forms
are regarded as belonging to a distinct genus, a new name must
be found for it.
5. The question of the specific name tridenta or, correctly,
iridentata Herrick 1887 offers more difficulty; but it need not
be discussed until the form which Herrick had before him is
determined beyond question. If Stingelin’s species (’06)
proves identical there is only the question whether the species
tridentata belongs to him or to Herrick.
Description of P. bidentata.
Female: The general form, as seen from the side, recalls
Sida in some respects and Latonopsis in others. The form of
the large head especially resembles the former genus; as there
is a rostrum which usually lies close to the valves; though as
the head is movable the beak may be at some distance from
them, even when the animal is alive and under no pressure.
Compare plate LXVII, figs. 1 and 4 both drawn with camera
lucida from living specimens, lying free on a slide without
cover-glass. In preserved specimens the contraction of the
powerful antennary muscles draws the head dorsad and gives
it a wholly unnatural position and distorts the general outline.
Daday’s figure of P. variabilis' (’05, PI. XIV, fig. 9), which
might be drawn from my alcoholic specimens of P. bidentata ,
may be compared with the figures of living specimens in this
1024 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
paper. The presence of wrinkles on the back of the head, as
■seen in Daday’s figure and in my figure 1, is evidence that the
head has been raised. The rostrum is broader and blunter
than that of Sida but otherwise closely resembles it. The gen¬
eral form of the body is oval, especially in older specimens,
whose dorsal margin is considerably arched. The cervical
notch is present, but there are no cervical glands. The valves
are thin and marked only by granulations ; the anterior margin
is concave, with a well marked infero-anterior angle; the ven¬
tral margin rounds over into the posterior ; the posterior mar¬
gin is’ convex below with a concavity at the dorsal part, just
below the sharp supero-posterior angle. The anterior and
ventral margins are fringed with long, thin setae set far apart ;
these are especially long at the infero-anterior angle; they ex-
ttend to the posterior end of the ventral margin; but there is
no cluster of long spines there as in Latona.
Appendages: The antennules (plate LXVII, fig. 2) are at¬
tached on each side of the rostrum, and are borne on small
elevations. The basal part is about as long as the ventral mar¬
gin of the head ; somewhat curved ; thicker in the middle than
at either end. The distal end is truncate and produced on each
side into minute sharp projections, almost spine-like. There is
a very long, flexible flagellum, much longer than the basal part,
covered sparsely with long, fine, straggling hairs. The ol¬
factory setae are sessile, or nearly so, on the side of the base
a little distal to the middle.
The antenna is large and powerful. The basal joint bears
two large, short, thorn-like spines, a basal and a distal ; it
has the usual sense seta between the bases of the rami. The
rami are 2- and 3- jointed; the setae are q 9 the
two terminal setae of the dorsal ramus are much longer than
the others; that on the second joint of the ventral ramus is
even longer and may measure 1.0 mm. in an animal whose
total length of about (1'.53 mm. ; one of the 4 setae on the
terminal joint is nearly as long, two of the others are much
less than half as long and are proportionally slender, the
fourth is still smaller, not as long as the basal joint of the
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1025
largest. This seta is lost in nearly 80% of the specimens which
I have seen, and one or both of the two other small ones are
often gone, as well as the terminal joint of the larger ones.
The feet, labrum, mandibles, and maxillae present nothing
unusual in their structure. The sixth foot has a branchial
sac.
The posfabdomen (PI. LXVII, tigs. 3, 6) is in general con¬
ical. It bears 11-15 clusters of lancet-shaped spines, 2-5 in a
cluster. If there are two or three they stand nearly parallel;
if 4 or 5 they diverge. There are besides numerous clusters
of tine hairs. The terminal claws are long, curved, with two
long basal spines and a third, very small one, proximal to
them ; they are denticulate and have spinules on the convex
side. The postabdomen has no median projection like that of
P. szalayi. The abdominal setae are long, 2- jointed, plumose
and borne on distinct, widely separated papillae.
The shell gland (PI. LX VIII, fig. 1) has three loops, dorsal,,
ventral, and posterior. The posterior loop is large and open,
and of a form which might serve as a beginning to the extreme
development found in Latonopsis australis.
The intestine is straight, with a small median forward pro¬
jection. The eye is large, oval; it lies on the ventral side
of the head, with a short optic nerve. The macula nigra is.
small and oval.
The color is yellowish, semi-transparent. The length of the'
female is T. 8-2.0 mm.; male, about 0.9 mm.
The male resembles the young female. The antennul.es-
(PI. LXVII, fig. 9) are very long, often two- thirds the length
of the animal; curved; the fiagellum and base firmly united,,
the former bearing a row of very fine setae along the distal
half. There is a slender process on the base near the attach¬
ment to the head, extending toward the median plane. The
copulatory organs (PL LXVII, fig. 5) are simple, long, cylindri¬
cal, as in Latona. The endopodite of the first foot is modified
into a clasping apparatus, more complex than in any other oi
the Sididae. The tip is bent over into a strong, curved, mov¬
able claw (PI. LXVII, figs. 7, 8) serrate on the inside. A lit¬
tle way distal from the attachment of the claw there is a large^
1026 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
semi-ellipsoidal enlargement or bulb, densely covered with short
hairs, and against which the tip of the claw shuts. In the
hollow of the clasping apparatus thus formed and arising from
the enlargement of the base is a rather large, transparent,
tapering seta, very delicate in structure and apparently sen¬
sory in function. This clasping apparatus may be regarded as
a development of that found in Sida. (See Lilljeborg, ?00,
p. 26) ; or it resembles even more closely that of L. fascicu-
lata as described later in this paper. Sida (Lilljeborg, PL
II, fig. 3) shows a clasping structure with an enlarged and
hairy bulb at the base and a hollow between hook and base;
the hook is blunt and finger-like. In Latonopsis (PI. LXVII,
figs. 6,7) the hook is a claw, which bends over against the basal
part without leaving a hollow. In L. fasciculata the basal
part is enlarged and hairy but does not have the hollow found
in Pseudosida. Along the inner side of the clasper and pro¬
jecting beyond it is a long, tapering, thin-walled, rather soft
extension of the terminal part of the endopodite (PL LXVII,
fig. 7). This has near its base several long two- jointed setae
like those on the edge of the endopodite and forming part of
that series. This structure, which I suppose is chiefly sensory
in function, is quite like the corresponding part of the male foot
in both species of Latonopsis. Daday, in describing P. var¬
iabilis (’05, p. 223) calls this organ “eine machtige sichel-
fformige Kralle”, but in my specimens it is certainly not a claw ;
on the contrary, it is thin-walled and filled with soft material
which shrinks away from the wall in preserved specimens.
Daday also refers to what I have called a sense-seta inside the
claspers as “ein kraftiger Dorn”. These two small differences
in the thickness of walls of parts of the male clasping appara¬
tus are the only tangible differences that I can find between
Daday’s description and figures of P. variabilis and my speci¬
mens of P. bidentata. I, therefore, with some hesitation, re¬
gard the two species as identical. If not so, variabilis can
have hardly more than varietal rank. The genus Pseudosida
is a tropical one, as is evidenced by its presence in Ceylon,
Siam, Sumatra, and South America. Its presence on the
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1027
southern coast of the United States is another case of the ex¬
tension into that region of South American forms.
From this description the following account may be given
of Pseudosida.
Genus. Pseudosida , Herrick 1884.
General form much like Sida , but head more depressed and
rounded and dorsum more arched. Ho fornix or cervical
glands. Head with rostrum wider and less pointed than that
of Sida, but having much the same form and position. Cer¬
vical sinus present. Antennules inserted or elevations on
side of rostrum; basal part very long, stout, curved; olfactory
setae sessile or on finger-like projection on posterior side,
nearer insertion than distal end. Distal end notched, and
from it arises a very long, slender, flexible flagellum, longer
than basal part, sparsely provided with long, fine hairs. An¬
tenna stout, much like Latonopsis, base with two stout, short,
curved, thorn-like spines, and usual sense-setae; dorsal ramus
2- jointed, ventral 3- jointed. Setae ~ of various
lengths; the longest is that on the second joint of the ven¬
tral ramus, which may equal % of the total length of the
animal, but is often broken*. The terminal joint has one
very large seta; others much smaller and one or more often
lost. Spines -Q^ 1 > those of dorsal ramus large and some¬
what hooked at the tip; that on second joint of ventral ramus
large. Valves elliptical; posterior margin rounded over into
ventral; anterior margin concave and joins ventral in a well
marked angle. Free margin fringed with long, movable setae,
much less developed than in Latona and not especially elon¬
gated at inf ero-p osteal angle. Post-abdomen large, with long
abdominal setae on separate papillae. Claws, large, stout,
curved, with two long basal spines and a very small one prox-
* Dr. Von Daday has been so kind as to send me a specimen of
P. szalayi, which shows that the inequality of the antennary setae of
that species is quite as marked as in P. Mdentata. The specimen is not
that of a full grown animal, and the longest set equals 70% of the total
length of the head and valves.
1028 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
imal to them ; claws denticulate, both inside and outside. Anal
spines about 14 clusters of 2-5 diverging spines. Many clusters
of fine spinules. Eye on ventral side of head with short optic
nerve; macula nigra minute. Intestine with small median
coecnm.
Shell gland has on the whole the daphnid form ; the poster¬
ior loop is rounded and open.
Antennule of male long, slender; curved flagellum and base
firmly united into one piece; row of spinules along distal part.
Olfactory setae on small papilla or sessile; stout spine-like
projection near base, extending toward middle line. Simple,
cylindrical copulatory organs, as in Latona. First foot with
complex grasping apparatus.
The following key will show the relations of the species
of Pseudosida.
A. Bidentata forms.
1. Olfactory setae borne on finger-shaped elevation. P. ram-
osa Daday.
Daday (’05, p. 218) Paraguay; Stingelin (’06, p. 187)
Paraguay.
1*. Olfactory setae sessile on antennule or, at most, borne on
small elevation.
2. Postabdomen with median projection on dorsal
side near apex. P. szalayi Daday.
Daday (’98, p. 64) Ceylon; Stingelin (’04, p.
336) Siam, Sumatra.
2*. Ho median projection on postabdomen. P. biden¬
tata Herrick.
Herrick (’84, p. 20) Southern United States;
Daday (P. variabilis, ’05, p. 220) Paraguay.
B. Tridentata forms.
1. P. tridenta Herrick (’87, p. 33; ’95, p. 147) Southern
United States; P. tridentata Stingelin (’06, p. 2)
Paraguay.
2. P. papuana Daday (’01, p. 42) Hew Guinea.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1029
The descriptions of these two species are still too imperfect
to permit differentiation. Very probably they should be as¬
signed to a new genus.
2. Latona parviremis sp. nov.
Plate L XVIII, fig. 5 ; Plate LXIX, figs. 1-3.
The common species of Latona in northern Wisconsin and
Michigan is not L. setifera , although that species occurs there
not infrequently. Far more abundant is a new and very dis¬
tinct form of the genus which I have called L. parviremis.
This species shows characters which serve to connect Latona
and Latonopsis, and in the possession of one structure — the
hepatic coeca — it is unique among the Sididae.
Description of female: The length rarely exceeds 1.8 mm.-
2.0 mm., though it may reach 2.5 mm., excluding the setae at
the infero-posteal angle; the height of a mature specimen is
about 0.6 mm. In general form and structure it closely re¬
sembles L. setifera but is relatively less broad and fiat. The
appendix foliaceus on the ventral side of the head is well
developed though shorter than in L. setifera. Many observers
must have noticed — though I have not seen the fact recorded —
that the organ is concave on its ventral surface and forms a
sort of trough or scoop with bottom up (PI. LXIX, fig. 3).
It apparently serves to direct the current of food-bringing water
in the proper direction. A small fornix is present and also
a thin lamina over the bases of the mandibles; the last best
seen from above.
The valves are granulated and otherwise unmarked. Xo
traces have been seen of the villosity sometimes found in L.
setifera or of the brilliant colors which that species sometimes
shows. The valves have the form characteristic of the genus,
though the posterior margin is not so oblique to the axis of
the body as in L. setifera. Compare PI. LXIX, fig. 1 with
Lilljeborg, (’00, Pl. IV, fig. 12). The ventral and posterior
margins are closely set with long, slender, plumose setae. At
the infero-posteal angle is a cluster, about 6 in maximum num¬
ber, of very long setae, often quite equalling the length of the
1030 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
valves. These axe normally spread out laterally something
like the ribs of a fan, and doubtless aid in supporting the
animal as it lies on the loose debris of the bottom. The full
number is rarely found, and many specimens have lost all of
them. At the base of this cluster of setae the shell is pro¬
duced into a short, blunt spine, which extends beyond the
elevations to which the setae are attached. This apparently
serves to stiffen the valve at this point. The posterior margin
has a row of minute close-set spinules which do not project
beyond its edge.
The abdominal setae are moderately long, 2- jointed, plumose,
and borne on distinct and widely separated papillae. The
postabdomen is conical, bearing 9-15 small, lateral, anal
spines, larger toward the distal end of the row. The terminal
claws are long, finely serrate, with two long basal spines.
The form of the antennule is between that of Latona and La-
tonopsis , more nearly approaching the latter genus. There is
a short, stout, straight basal part and a long flagellum united
with it and forming a continuation of the base. The flagel¬
lum is covered with long, fine, straggling hairs much less
closely set than in L. setifera. The antennules shows no angle
at junction of base and flagellum. The latter structure is
somewhat stouter than in Latonopsis. The olfactory setae
are on the distal end and posterior side of the base.
The antennae have a large, stout basal joint, like that of
L . setifera. It bears a stout, conical spine or thorn at the
base and a similar structure on the outer side of the distal
end. It has also a stout spine and a slender, plumose sense-
hair on the distal end between the insertion of the rami. The
dorsal ramus is 2-jointed and has a lateral setigerous expan¬
sion of the proximal joint; but this is much smaller than that
of L. setifera, bearing only 5-6 setae. From this character
comes the specific name, parviremis. The setae are ~ 8 ^ ■
The ventral ramus has a long seta on the second joint and one
of the 4 terminal setae is much larger than the others. The
inequality is greater than in L. setifera, but not equal to that
of Latonopsis or Pseudosida. American specimens of L. seti-
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1031
fera show a distinct though small inequality in the length of
the setae, instead of. the uniformity shown in the figures of
iSars and Lilljeborg.
The feet closely resemble those of L. setifera except that the
sixth pair has the branchial sac.
The intestine is remarkable for having a pair of large
hepatic coeca, which extend ventrally from the point of at¬
tachment to the intestine toward the place of insertion of the
antennule. When seen from the side they conceal the middle
part of the brain. It appears that this position is accommodated
to the very large antennary muscles and perhaps gives us a
hint that the development of these muscles in the Sididae is
the cause of the absence of the coeca in the rest of the family.
L. parviremis is the only member of the Sididae that possesses
these organs. The shell gland (PI. LXVIII, fig. 5) closely re¬
sembles that of L. setifera ; having a dorsal and a ventral loop
but hardly a trace of the posterior loop. The eye is oval, as
seen from the side, with numerous lenses, set at top of the
head, and with a long optic nerve; the macula nigra is small,
oval. The heart is elongated, like that of L. setifera.
The male in general resembles the young female. The an¬
tennule (PI. LXIX, fig. 2) has the form of that structure in
the male Latonopsis. It is very long; the base and the long
•curved flagellum are firmly united; the distal half of the
flagellum has a row of short, fine setae ; the olfactory setae are
borne on the side of the basal part. There is an appendix
ciliata as in L. setifera; this is long, slender, and plumose or
ciliate. In this respect it is unlike the smooth projection
which occupies a similar jtlace on the antennule of Latonopsis.
The first foot resembles that of the female, having no hook
or other clasping organ. There are two simple, cylindrical,
•copulatory organs.
L. parviremis is widely distributed in northern Wisconsin
and Michigan, having been found in numerous lakes and
ponds of that region. I found it first in 1897 in a small pond
on the shore of Lake Superior, and it has constantly appeared
in collections made since that time. It has never been seen
from the central and southern part of Wisconsin, or in collec-
1032 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
tions mad© south of the lake region of the states named. It
has also been found in Maine by Mr. A. A. Doolittle. It in¬
habits the weedy or marshy margins of the lakes and is some¬
times very abundant, though usually appearing as single in¬
dividuals in a catch. In the autumn of 1903 I found it very
abundant in a small opening in the edge of a marsh which
borders part of Lake Kawaguesaga at Minocqua. In this and
several succeeding years, it was regularly present there, and
the males appeared in October. This particular opening was
only a few yards in diameter, lying between small projections
of the shore of the marsh. One could just enter it with a row¬
boat and move about within it. The margin was bordered
with grass and sedge and the shallow, weedy water at the edge,
only a few inches deep, contained very numerous specimens of
this species; as well as many other forms usually rare, like
Lathonura. Adjacent and apparently exactly similar openings
in the marsh, separated from this by a few yards only, con¬
tained merely the species of Cladocera common in the region.
In later years this little area has been invaded by the pickerel-
weed ( Pontederia ) which grows abundantly at the edge
of the water; and with the entrance of this plant and the con¬
sequent change of biological conditions all the unusual forms
of Cladocera have wholly disappeared from the locality or
become very rare.
It is plain that this species serves to bridge the space between
Latona and Latonopsis. The form of the antennule is that
of Latonopsis , both in males and females. The lateral expan¬
sion of the antenna, so characteristic for Latona, is small in
this species and moreover is indicated in the antennae of
Latonopsis serricauda Sars and fasciculata Daday. The other
characteristic Latona features are the appendix foliaceus on
the ventral side of the head, the form of the shell gland, and
the absence of the claspers on the first foot of the male. All
these L. parviremis has, yet it may well be doubted whether
it might not have been put into the genus Latonopsis had that
genus been discovered before Latona and if Latona were still
unknown. But there is no sufficient reason for uniting the
two genera, as is indicated by the fact that, if this were done,.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1033
it would be at once necessary to divide the new genus into
two sections corresponding to the two forms which were
united.
The discovery of this species makes it necessary to define
again the genus Latona , as well as the two main species. The
.genus has had, besides the long known species L. setifera (0.
F. Mueller) only the very closely allied form L. groenlandica
Wesenberg-Lund, differing chiefly in the shape of the appen¬
dix foliaceus , which is more elongated in the arctic form.
This is perhaps entitled to rank only as a variety. The pres¬
ence of the hepatic coeca in L. parviremis requires us to omit
from the diagnosis of the family Sididae the statement that
these structures are absent. See Lilljeborg, ?00, p. 15 ; Sars,
’65, p. 21.
Genus. Latona Straus.
Body flattened. Head broad and blunt, rounded in front;
‘small cervical sinus. Rostrum absent; the ventral surface of
the head prolonged backward into a broad leaf-like expansion,
somewhat tongue-shaped as viewed laterally, concave on its
ventral surface. Fornices present but small; a thin lamella
extends on each side from head to valves, projecting over
base of antennae and mandibles. Antennules inserted on sides
of ventral surface of head, well forward ; their insertion
partly covered by small fornix. Antennules stout and long,
the shape differing in the two species. Antennae with very
stout but not long basal joint ; dorsal ramus 2'- jointed, its
proximal joint with lateral expansion; ventral ramus 3-jointed.
Valves sub-quadrangular; dorsal region flattened and nearly
straight; posterior margin oblique to axis of body and convex.
The whole free edge — anterior, ventral, and posterior — thickly
set with long, movable, ciliated setae, each borne on a separate
papilla. At the blunt point formed by junction of ventral
and posterior margins is a cluster of very long setae, the
longest often quite as long as the valves ; these are frequently
lost, leaving only the papillae to which they were attached.
Valves not reticulated. Postabdomen stout, conical, covered
by the valves, with small anal spines. Abdominal setae stout,
1034 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
moderately long, set on small papillae placed widely apart.
Claws with large base, somewhat curved, with 2 basal spines
and denticulate. Eye of, moderate size, near dorsum of head;
optic nerve very long, macula nigra present.
Simple copulatory organs in male. First foot without
hook, resembling female.
On the whole, this genus seems to he northern in its habitat.
Latonopsis is more abundant in southern and tropical regions,
though by no means confined to them, while Pseudosida seems
to belong to warm countries exclusively.
Species.
1. L. setifera (0. E. Muller)
Antennule with very short, stout basal part, large flagellum
set on at an angle and appearing as continuation of base so
that the antennule is angulated. Olfactory setae on posterior
side of base, very small. Flagellum thickly set with long
slender hairs. Expansion of basal joint of dorsal ramus of
antenna very large. Setae about 11 ~~ ^ 0f somewhat un-
equal length. Spines 5^y~5’ that on ventral ramus large.
Intestine with small anterior prolongation. Sixth foot with¬
out branchial sac. Antennule of male similar in general to
that of female, but with a ciliated sensory seta on inner side
of basal part. Color yellow, not transparent. The old fe¬
male often has brilliant colors in late summer.
Length of female, 2. 0-3.0 mm.; male, about 1.5 mm.
In ponds and lakes among weeds in shallow water; widely
distributed but not very abundant anywhere. Males appear
in August or September.
This species has been found in northern Europe, including
Russia and Austria. It is said to he absent from France
and southern Europe. In the United States it has not been
found as yet on the Pacific coast, hut is present in all other
regions. I have specimens from Baton Rouge, Louisiana, so
that it extends to the Gulf coast.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1035
2. L. parviremis Birge.
Antennule not angulated; basal part longer than in L. seti-
fera , flagellum more slender, hairs not so close set and shorter;
the whole organ much as in Lwtonopsis. Expansion of antenna
small. Setae about - 5 - ■■ the terminal setae of dor-
0—1 — 4
sal ramus longer than others; that of second joint of ventral
ramus and one of those on terminal joint are also long. Spines
that of ventral ramus large. Intestine with two
hepatic coeca, which extend downward toward the inser¬
tion of antennules. Leaf-like expansion on ventral side of
head smaller than in L. setifera , and body less flattened.
Sixth pair of feet with branchial sac. Antennule of male
long and slender, with row of spinules along distal part, as in
male of other Sididae, but with ciliated sensory seta on in¬
side near base. Color yellow.
Length of female 1.8-2. 5 mm.; male 1.0-1. 5 mm.
In margin of lakes and ponds among weeds. The com*
mon species in northern Wisconsin and Michigan. Collected
by Mr. A. A. Doolittle in Maine. The range of the species
probably extends over the northern United States, at least
as far west as the Rocky Mountains.
3. Latonopsis fasciculata Daday.
Plate LX VIII, figs. 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10.
This species has been found in Louisiana and Texas. I
have received numerous specimens, both females and males,
from Audubon Park, Xew Orleans, though the kindness of
Mr. E. Foster of that city, to whom I am indebted for many
courtesies and for much assistance.
In structure the female very closely resembles L. serricauda
Sars (’01. p. 6), differing only in the point which caused
Daday to make it a new species, viz. : the possession of clusters
of spines on the postabdomen instead of the usual row of
single spines common in the Sididae. In this feature L. fas -
ciculata closely resembles P. bidentata. It may also be noted
1036 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
that, like L. serricauda, the antenna shows distinct traces of
a lateral lobe on the basal joint of the 2-jointed ramus, ap¬
proaching Latona in this detail of structure.
The shell gland has never been described and I give a figure
of it (PL LX VIII, fig. 3). It has the usual three loops, hut
the posterior loop shows no trace of the great elongation so char¬
acteristic for L. australis and related species. On the contrary,
the posterior loop is small, much crowded, and does not in the
least recall that of the earlier described species. The shell
gland of Pseudosida resembles a starting point for that of
L. australis more than does that of L. fasciculata. The rela¬
tionship between Pseudosida and Latonopsis thus appears to
be close and intricate, L. fasciculata approaching Pseudosida in
the structure of postabdomen and first foot of male; while L.
australis has a shell gland which looks like an extreme develop¬
ment of that of Pseudosida.
The male shows no very extraordinary characters. The an-
tennule (PI. LX VIII, fig. 2) has the regular form, long, curved,
with a row of fine spinules on the distal part of the flagellum.
There is no appendix ciliata or similar projection on the base.
The whole structure is proportionally smaller than in Pseudo¬
sida. The copulatory organs (fig. 10) are simple, cylindri¬
cal, as in L. occidentalis. The first leg has a very interest¬
ing structure and for comparison I give a figure of the
foot of L. occidentalis as well as L. fasciculata (figs. 6, 7,
11). Their general form is similar, differing chiefly in the
number and relative length of the long, plumose setae of the
expodite. The claspers, in general alike, show noteworthy
differences in detail. In L. occidentalis the slender process
of the endopodite is bent at the tip into a movable claw which
shuts against the stem. In L. fasciculata the basal part of
the process, against which the claw shuts, is swollen and cov¬
ered with fine hairs. The whole structure, therefore, shows
the beginning of a form of clasper which could easily be con¬
verted into the complex structure of Pseudosida. In both
species there is present alongside of the clasper the tapering
sensory process of the endopodite.
The species of Latonopsis divide into two groups. One sec-
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1037
tion contains L. australis Sars, L. occidentalis Birge, and L.
breviremis Daday. These agree in having a shell gland with
enormously long posterior loop and simple anal spines on the
post abdomen. The other section contains L. serricauda Sars
and L. fasciculata Daday, characterized by a serrate crest on
the postabdomen, anal spines in clusters, and a shell gland
without large posterior loop. It seems also to be true that the
antennule in the fasciculata group has a relatively shorter and
stouter flagellum than that of the australis group. See PI.
LXVIII, figs. 8, 9.
4. Wlassicsia Jcinistinensis sp. nov.
PI. LXIX, figs. 4-8 ; PI. LXX, figs. 1-9 ; PI. LXXI, figs. 1, 2.
Some years ago I received from Dr. C. Dwight Marsh a
bottle containing a collection made in a marsh at Kinistino,
Manitoba, Canada, and dated July, 1902. Among other
Cladocera were found numerous specimens of a new species
of the genus Wlassicsia Daday. Both males and females
were present and two females bore ephippia. Among the
numerous other Cladocera present were D. pulex, 8. vetulus,
C. reticulata, Macrothrix rosea, Pseudalona latissima, Alonella
excisa.
The genus Wlassicsia was founded in 1903 by Daday (’03,
p. 66) for a Macrothricid which he found in the region of
Lake Balaton, Hungary, and which he named TP. pannonica.
The Canadian specimens belong to a closely related but ap¬
parently distinct species.
The general form of the female (PI. LXX, fig. 1), as seen
from the side is oval, more nearly resembling that of Latho-
nura than any other member of the family. Like Lathonura
it has a small crest along the dorsal margin of the valves.
Where the dorsal and posterior margins join there is a small
notch, above which there is sometimes a rounded projection,
hardly to be called a spine. The valves are marked by very
fine vertical striae, which unite to form delicate meshes.
These are too fine to show on a drawing unless much more
4— S. & A.— 3
1038 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
enlarged than any here given. The ventral margin bears
numerous stont, rather short spines and spinules.
The head is not large; the fornices are of moderate size and
continued to the end of the head ; the rostrum hardly exists.
There is a small cervical gland, hut no cervical sinus.
The antennules are freely movable, cylindrical, slightly
curved, beset with transverse rows of very tine short hairs.
They have a basal sense hair and the olfactory setae are of
moderate length and unequal.
The antennae are about as large as in Lathonura. The
setae are ° ~ ° ~ 1 the proximal seta of the ventral ra¬
mus is stiff, but not stout; the others are sparsely plumose, 2-
jointed. The spines are °~1 ~ - ~ all small.
The labrum has a pair of small, conical elevations near the
base; then a very large, characteristic, triangular or conical
elevation, and beyond this a small, rounded lobe, extending
backward and overlying the small and delicate terminal lobe.
In the presence of the two small elevations at the base and the
large median elevation Wlassicsia resembles Grimaldina and
Bunops. The large projection and most of the rest of the
labrum are filled with an opaque granular substance, perhaps
glandular. (PI. LXIX, fig. 4, e, e' e")
There are five pairs of feet. I give figures and descrip¬
tions of them. I do this partly because my specimens differ
in details from the figures given for W. pannonica by Daday,
and partly because there seems to be some difference of opinion
among authors as to the comparative morphology of the ap¬
pendages, especially the first and second pairs.
The first foot (PL LXIX, figs. 5, 6; PI. LXX, fig. 2) is by
far the largest and is bent at an angle. The protopodite and
endopodite are beset with clusters of short hairs. The exo-
podite (d, PI. LXIX, fig. 6) bears one long two-jointed seta and
a second seta on the outer side, much smaller, delicate and
plumose. The function of this last is apparently sensory.
The endopodite has two main parts: the outer branch (e)
and the inner branch (e' e"). The former is closely
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1039
united with the exopodite and hears three unequal setae.
The inner branch is much larger and shows two lobes;
the outer (e') has four setae, of various type, on its edge;
or rather, they do not stand exactly on the edge but
alternately more to the anterior and posterior faces. The in¬
nermost lobe (e") has three long setae on its edge and three
more on the inner margin; the proximal seta of the last set
turns toward the body. (See PL LXXI, fig. 1.) Besides
these there are two small setae on the inner face of the
endopodite; one lies just about at the junction of the two
lobes of the inner branch, and is sometimes very short, as shown
in PL LXIX, fig. 5 ; in other specimens the outer joint is
longer and plumose. The other seta is smaller and is placed
close to the insertion of the three lateral setae of the innermost
lobe. There is no maxillary process. A small oval branchial
sac (ep) is present, in which respect this species differs from
TP. pannonica.
The various interpretations of the first foot are as follows.
In order to give in brief space a conspectus of opinion I have
employed the notation of my figures and have indicated to
which part of the typical appendage each is assigned by vari¬
ous authors. Thus in Iheringula , Sars assigns to the maxil¬
lary process the parts which I have marked e, e' e", and called
endopodite. I do not employ in the table the lettering used
by the authors mentioned, but there will be no difficulty m
understanding their figures, if these are referred to. I make
no mention of epipodite, or gill-sac, as there is no difference'
of judgment regarding this part.
In the second foot (Pi. LXX, fig. 3) the exopodite (d) is a
thin, transparent lamella, bearing a long, slender seta and
1040 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
having two finger-like lobes at the end. The endopodite is a
broad, short plate, which is divided into three lobes. The
outer lobe is the outer branch of the first foot (e) ; it bears
three setae or claws. The outermost of these is far longer
than any other seta on this foot or the two succeeding; another
is short, weak, and borne on the posterior face of the lobe.
The second lobe has three 2-jointed setae on its face and three
on its edge; the terminal joints of the last named have a comb¬
like structure. The outer lobe has on the edge four setae like
those on the middle lobe but smaller. The maxillary process
is large. It has four finger-like projections on the end, some
or all of which are tipped with fine plumose setae; on its face
is a short plumose seta, possibly sensory, and above this a
row of four long, two- jointed setae, whose outer joints are
plumose. The branchial sac (ep) is large, oval in form.
There is more difference of opinion regarding the morphol¬
ogy of the parts of the second foot, as the following table will
show:
Lilljeborg interprets the appendage of Drepamihrix (p. 370,
PI. LVII, fig. 7) and Acantholeberis (p. 377, PI. LVIII, fig.
7) in the same way as Streblocerus. The same may be said
of the appendages of the Chydoridae.
Prom the two tables it will be seen that the differences of
opinion, with one exception, relate to the proper point of divi¬
sion between exopodite and endopodite. The exception is Sars,
who, in discussing Iheringula (’00), assigned to the maxillary
process of the first foot all that has been called endopodite
and also gave the two inner lobes of the endopodite of the
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1041
second foot to the same part While he says nothing further
in the matter, he seems to have abandoned this view when he
described Saycia (’04) and it need not be discussed further
than to say that the first foot of OphryoxUs bears a structure
which is very plainly the maxillary process (see Lilljeborg),
and that this structure is as plainly lacking in other Macro-
thricidae. There is, therefore, no reason to homologize the
whole of the endopodite with the maxillary process. The ques¬
tion of the relation of endopodite and exopodite appears to
be more difficult and indeed Lilljeborg has plainly varied in
his interpretation of these parts in different genera. In re¬
spect to the third foot there seems to be no difference of judg¬
ment. The exopodite of that appendage is so large and dis~
tinct that no room for donbt is left. If the second foot of
Acantholeberis is compared with the third, as they are figured
in Lilljeborg, (PI. LYIII) there will be equally little doubt that
the part there lettered d is the same as the exopodite of the third
foot. It is also plain that the smaller structure which I have let¬
tered d in Wlassicsia, is also the exopodite ; or that it is present in
Ophryoxus and Macrothrix , though still more reduced. This
can be seen from Lilljeborg’ s figures.
If the part that I have called the first lobe of the endopodite,
e, be followed through in the same way, there will be just as
little doubt of its homologies. The large claw of the third
foot, mounted on e, obviously belongs to the endopodite. This
claw is clearly the same as that on e of the second foot, and
this in turn represents the same structure as that which I have
marked e in the first foot. In the first foot, one would be in¬
clined to associate d and e in the exopodite were it not for the
relations in the feet that lie behind. But a comparison of
the series quite plainly forbids such an interpretation. If an
additional reason were needed it might be added that in the
Sididae, where the exopodite of the first foot is much developed,
the clasper of the male is derived from the outer branch of
the endopodite and not from the exopodite. This is an ad¬
ditional reason for assigning to the endopodite the large hook
of the first foot of the male Wlassicsia.
1042 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
The third foot (PL LXX, figs. 4, 5) has a large exopodite,
a thin, somewhat quadrate plate. It bears five large, plumose
setae, three on the end and two on the side, of which one
bends up and curves around the branchial sac. The endopo-
dite has three lobes. The outer one has two setae, of which
the outer is rather to be called a claw, on its end, and one on
the posterior face. The middle lobe has one seta on its edge
and two or perhaps three on its face; while the inner lobe is
much broader and has eight setae, four on the edge and four
on the face. All of those on the face form a row of eight
setae, extending across the endopodite, nearly evenly spaced
and with little reference to the lobes in their arrangement.
The maxillary process is well developed. It is bent over so
as to form a sort of scoop-shaped structure, concave forward
and with finger- or hornlike projections. There are four
long, 2- jointed setae on it as in the second foot; there is also
a small, recurved, hairy seta on the face of the maxillary
process, evidently the same as that which is so large in the
fourth foot. The branchial sac is larger than in the second
foot and of much the same shape.
The fourth foot (PI. LXX, figs. 6, 7) is essentially like the
third but smaller and with fewer setae. The exopodite has
the same structure and the same number of setae; but these
are much shorter than on the third foot, except that which
bends around the branchial sac. The outer lobe of the en¬
dopodite carries a clawdike seta ; the middle lobe has one ;
and the outer lobe two setae. These are 2-jointed, with a
thick base and a short second joint, carrying long, close-set
hairs ; the whole structure having the appearance of a brush.
On the posterior face of the endopodite are five setae; one of
which apparently belongs to the outer and one to the middle
lobe and three to the inner lobe. The maxillary process is
much reduced. Its main part is a large, densely plumose,
geniculate seta. The branchial sac is large and oval.
The fifth foot (PI. LXXI, fig. 1) is very different from the
preceding ; next to the first, it is the largest of the series. As I
understand the appendage, there is a large exopodite, bearing
one long recurved seta which bends around the branchial sac.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1043
The remainder of the exopodite is a plate with two (Daday
finds three) small projections on the ventral edge. These are
apparently the rudiments of the other setae of the exopodite.
The endopodite consists chiefly of a long, curved, plumose
seta. A second, much smaller seta arises from the inner face
of the base of this, and close to the insertion of the second
seta is a small projection. I have not been able to find any
part of the maxillary process, though it may possibly be pres¬
ent. The branchial sac is very large and is oval in form,
as in the preceding feet. Daday finds it heart-shaped in W.
pannanica.
This foot closely resembles the corresponding appendage of
Bunops and in most particulars that of Grimaldina.
My interpretation of the morphology of this appendage is
not that of all authors; nor are their judgments wholly con¬
sistent with themselves; as may be seen by following the ac¬
count of the fifth foot in the various genera of Cladocera, as
given by Lund and Lilljeborg. All agree that the large, re^
curved seta belongs to exopodite. There is wide divergence
as to whether the plate- to which this seta is attached is ex¬
opodite, or whether it is endopodite or maxillary process. If
the fifth appendage of Bosmina is studied and compared with
that of Wlassicsia (see Lund ?71, PI. IX, fig. 15; Lilljeborg
700, PL XXXVIII, fig. 14) it will be difficult to reach any
other conclusion than that which I give.
There is a well developed abdominal process of rather irregu¬
lar form. The abdominal setae are long, 2- jointed, sparsely
plumose on the outer joint. The piostabdomen (PI. LXX1,
fig. 2) is large, broad, with a thin dorsal edge, and is bilobed.
The pro-anal lobe has numerous small spines along its dorsal
edge, giving it a serrate appearance near the abdominal setae.
The anal lobe has numerous clusters of fine hairs. The ter¬
minal claws (PI. LXX, fig. 8) are small, relatively stout,
denticulate, and have a small basal spine.
The intestine has no convolutions, and bears two hepatic
coeca. (PI. LXIX, fig. 4) The eye is large, with abundant
pigment and few lenses. The ocellus is rather small, quadrate
as seen from the side.
1044 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
In the ephippial female (PL LXX, fig. 9) there is developed
on the valves a densely reticulated ephippium, not unlike that
of Iheringula. There are two ephippial eggs but in the speci¬
mens these were not deposited in the ephippium, nor were
any cells for them seen. Perhaps they are placed in a circu¬
lar chamber, as in Iheringula.
The male (PI. LXIX, fig. 8) is about 0.4 mm. long. It has
a large antennule; the projections of the labrum are little
developed; the vas deferens opens in front of the terminal
claws. The first foot (PI. LXIX, fig. 7) has a large hook,
which hears a spine on its inner curve and which is toothed at
the end.
Prom this account of the animal the following generic de¬
scription may he given, modified from Daday.
Genus. Wlassicsia Daday.
Porm oval or sub-quadrangular, not compressed. Valves
with small dorsal crest, setae on ventral margin ; marked by
fine, transverse striae, forming delicate reticulation with
meshes whose long axis is transverse. Head large, rounded
as seen from side; no cervical sinus; small cervical gland;
rostrum practically obsolete. Pornices moderate, extending to
end of rostrum. Labrum with a pair of processes at the base ;
a large triangular projection further back; and beyond this
another rounded lobe, which extends backward over small,
delicate terminal lobe. Antennules freely movable, long, slen¬
der; with basal sense hair; olfactory setae short, unequal.
Antennae moderate; setae ° y 0 ~ 1 the proximal seta
of ventral branch stiff but not very stout. Pive pairs feet.
Abdominal process present. Postabdomen large, bilobed. Ter¬
minal claws small, curved, with one very small basal spine.
Intestine not convoluted, with two hepatic coeca. Eye large
with abundant pigment and few lenses. Ocellus small, quad¬
rate. Large,, closely reticulated ephippium, with two eggs.
Male with large antennule; small processes on labrum; hook
on first foot.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1045
Species.
1. Sub-quadrate in form. Ho branchial sac on first foot.
Length 0.6-1. 3 mm. W. pannonica Daday. Hungary.
2. Oval in form. First foot with branchial sac. Length,
female 0.8 mm. ; male 0.4 mm. W. kinistinensis Birge.
Canada.
Wlassicsia, like all genera of the Macrothricidae, shows
rather complicated relations to other members of the family.
Its closest affinities are with Grimaldina and Bunops , and in
some ways it represents the simpler form from which these
genera depart. Grimaldina has developed the enormous post¬
abdomen, while Bunops is much compressed and has a large
dorsal crest. Apart from general resemblances, the agreement
is particularly close in the structure of the labrum and the
feet, in which respects the three genera agree more closely
with each other than any of them agree with any other genus.
5. Odontalona , a new genus of Chydorina.
General form that of Alona. Post-abdomen long, slender;
with numerous marginal denticles, ending in a group of very
large denticles at angle of post-abdomen. Lateral fascicles
present. Terminal claw with one large basal spine, attached
some way distal to base of claw.
This genus (which is possibly rather a sub-genus) is pro¬
posed for two species, Alona tenuicaudis Sars, and for an¬
other species first found by Daday in material from Paraguay
and which he assigned (erroneously, as I believe) to Sars?
species. The name is based on the large denticles of the post-
abdomen.
0. longicaudis sp. nov.
PI. LXXI, figs. 3, 4, 7.
The form is on the whole that of Alona , though recalling
also that of Euryalona. The head is not noticeably small, the
rostrum reaching nearly to the ventral margin of the valves.
1046 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The rostrum is not acute. The antennules are slender hut do
not reach the end of the rostrum ; the olfactory setae are equal.
The valves are not inflated in antero- ventral region. They
have markings concentric with ventral and posterior margins;
one such being usually visible. In most specimens the valves
are otherwise unmarked. In one specimen, however, are vis¬
ible longitudinal striations like those of Leydigia , and in an¬
other (from South America) can he seen reticulations like
those sometimes seen in Alona. The entire ventral margin
hears rather long, thick-set setae. The labrum has a rounded
angle behind. The post-abdomen is very long, slender, nar¬
rowed toward apex. It bears about 16 marginal denticles;
all of them long, except those nearest the anus; and the apex
of the post-abdomen bears two which are far larger than any
others. The last and largest one is serrate on its concave
margin. Next anterior to these come three denticles, which
are somewhat smaller than those proximal to them. From
this point the series gradually diminishes in size toward the
anus. Lateral fascicles of very fine spinules are present. The
terminal claw is notably long, and rather straight. Its basal
part is thicker for about one-third of the length of the claw,
and the single long basal spine is inserted at this point. Da-
day’s figure (’05, PI. XV, fig. 13) shows that the basal part
is denticulated, but no such structure can be found in my
specimens, though it would be expected. The first foot has
no specially developed hook or claw. The eye is small, larger
than the ocellus, which is nearer the eye than the apex of
rostrum.
Color yellow-brown. Length of female 0.54-0.62 mm.
Male unknown.
Some dozen specimens of this species were found by me in
collections made among water hyacinths in Lake Charles, La.,
in October, 1903. I have also found exactly similar speci¬
mens in collections from Demerara, South America, made by
Mr. E. T. Owen in 1901. It is co-specific with a Paraguayan
form described by Daday (’05, p. 178) as belonging to Sars’
species A. tenuicaudis, and which Daday assigns to Euryalona.
I believe that the specific identification is incorrect. At any
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1047
rate, the species differs widely from the American form, which
I have identified with A. tenuicaudis and which occurs in
Lake Charles, as well as elsewhere in the United States. I
give figures of the post-abdomen of a specimen taken from
the same collection as the Odontalona figured. (PI. LXXI,
figs. 5, 6.) The differences are obvious. 0. tenuicaudis has
a cluster of 3 or 4 long, marginal denticles at the apex of the
post- abdomen, and all the rest are very small. 0. longicaudis
has but two large denticles and those of the rest of the row are
good sized. The post-abdomen is much longer and narrower
than in 0 . tenuicaudis , although that species differs consider¬
ably in this respect. In Lilljeborg’s figure (’00, PI. LXVIII,
figs. 4, 5) it is much longer than in that of P. E. Mueller (’68,
PI. Ill, fig. 2) and this in turn is longer than in the figure of
Matile (’90, PI. IV, fig. 33). All of our specimens in America
seem to be nearer to the form shown by Matile than to any of
the others, although shorter and broader than any figured by
European authors. The post-abdomen of northern specimens is
longer than those from the south. In all cases the form and
attachment of the basal spine of the terminal claw are char¬
acteristic for the species (PI. LXXI, fig. 6), and in this re¬
spect 0. tenuicaudis differs from all other Chydorina. The
structure of this region in 0. longicaudis is also unique but
decidedly different from 0. tenuicaudis. The labrum of 0.
tenuicaudis has the regular Alona form, while in 0. longicaudis
it is more nearly angled behind.
It is not easy to settle the generic relations of this species.
It is certainly very close to 0. tenuicaudis and that species
must go into the same genus. Xo one before Daday thought
of separating 0. tenuicaudis from Alona. The color and gen¬
eral habit of the new form strongly recall Euryalona, and I
assigned it at first to that genus without hesitation. This is
the opinion of Daday. Yet careful study convinced me that
this position could not be given to it; since it lacks almost
every character used by Sars to characterize the genus Eury¬
alona (’01, p. 80). The head is not noticeably small; the
valves are not tumid and gaping in front; the setae are not
restricted to the middle of the ventral margin; the first foot
1048 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
has no strong foot in the female; the terminal claw has no-
secondary denticle in the middle. Still other features are
wanting if 0. tenuicaudis is also drawn into comparison. If
these species are to be placed in Euryalona there are left
practically no characters to separate that genus from Alona.
This is another of those cases, numerous in this region of
the Chydorina, where it is hard to determine the generic posi¬
tion of a species, not because of our ignorance so much as be¬
cause of the close and conflicting inter-relationships of specie^
The new form cannot be placed in Alona, nor can it be sep¬
arated from A. tenuicaudis , and I see no other solution hut to
make a new genus for the two species. It is possible that a
reviser of the group might prefer to make this a sub-genus;
but I believe it is as well distinguished as several other genera
of Chydorina.
This species is not included in my list of species, referred
to in the first paragraph of this paper; and in the same list 0.
tenuicaudis is placed under Alona. When that list was pre¬
pared I had not carefully studied all of my southern material.
6. Note on the Genus Alonella.
The genus Alonella was proposed by G. O. Sars in T861
(’62, p. 288) for the form described by him a little earlier
in the year as Alona pygmaea and which had been still earlier
described by Baird as Acroperus nanus. To the same genus
Sars assigned Lynceus rostratus Koch and L. excisus Fischer;
to these L. exiguus Lilljeborg must necessarily he added. The
judgment of later writers has varied with respect to the genus
thus established. Kurz (’73) accepts it in full. P. E. Muel¬
ler (’67), Hellich (’77), Daday (’88) place A. rostrata in
the genus Alona and the rest in Pleuroxus. Lilljeborg (’00)
places A. rostrata in his genus Lynceus {—Alona), although
with doubt, and the others in Alonella as also does Stenroos
(’95). Stingelin (’04) places A. excisa in Alonella and Daday
(’05) does the same thing. In 1888 Sars added to the genus
two species originally described by King as belonging to Aloria.
These were A. Jcarua and diaphnnaj constituting a very dis-
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1049
tinct section of the genus. He added later (’01) the species
lineolata, sculpta (— globulosa Daday) and dentifera. These
are accepted by Daday (’05) as belonging to Alonella.
Daday (’05) placed A. mstrata in the genus Leptorhynchus
Herrick, a genus established for the form Alona (LLarpor-
hynchus ) falcata. He added a new species L. dentifer , which
is closely related to A. nana. This change seems to make for
confusion rather than order. Leptorhynchus falcatus (G. O.
Sars) with its peculiar form, extremely long rostrum, and its
unique postabdomen, is very different from either of the
species with which Daday seeks to unite it. It appears to be
as well defined a genus as any of the other monotypical genera
of Chydorina, such as Graptoleberis.
This sketch, which does not pretend to be exhaustive, shows
that on the one hand authors have recognized the difficulty of
limiting and defining a genus Alonella , to which to assign the
species in question, and on the other hand have found it hard
to place these species in other genera or to separate them from
each other. It seems to have been largely a matter of per¬
sonal choice and of convenience whether these species shall
be doubtfully attached to other genera, or doubtfully put to¬
gether in a single genus, but on the whole the tendency has
been to follow Sars in recognizing a genus Alonella as an as¬
semblage of forms, widely differing, yet so interrelated as to
be inseparable; closely related to other genera yet not readily
included in them. In my synopsis of the Cladocera of the
United States, I have chosen the latter alternative. I recog¬
nize that the genus is not such in any proper sense. The spe¬
cies included in it have so few common peculiarities that no
good definition can be framed. It may be divided into three
subgenera, as follows:
a. Alonella proper. Rostrum long, slender, recurved; al¬
ways much exceeding antennules. Postabdomen with mar¬
ginal denticles only; claws with one basal spine. A. rostrata
(Koch) ; A. nana (Baird) ; A. dadayi Birge (= Leptorhynchus
dentifer Daday). The specific name of the last species must be
changed from that given by Daday if it is to be included in
Alonella; as dentifera was already employed by Sars:
1050 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts-, and Letters.
b. Paralonella. Rostrum short, hardly exceeding anten-
nules. Post abdomen with very small marginal denticles,
usually with, but rarely without, lateral fascicles, which if
present ar© larger than the marginals; claws with one basal
spine. A. karua (King) ; A. diapkana (King) ; A. dentifera
Sars; A. globulosa Daday; ( —sculpta Sars) ; A. Imeolata Sars.
Related to these, but with better developed postabdominal den-
tices is A. punctata Daday, whose striation recalls A. nana. In
general form these approach Alona.
c. Pleuroxalonella. Rostrum exceeding antennules but not
recurved. Postabdomen with marginal denticles only; claws
with two basal spines. General form of body and postabdo¬
men Pleuroxus-like. A. excisa (Koch) ; A. exigua Lilljeborg;
A. cklathratula Sars; A. breviceps Stingelin.
There remains one species which does not fit into any of
these subgenera: A. nitidula Sars. In general form this
closely resembles a Ckyidorus of the barroisi group ; but the
postabdomen is quite different and of the Alonella type.
I do not offer this arrangement as satisfactory, yet I can
see nothing better at present. Some might prefer to make
independent genera instead of subgenera out of these .three
groups. But the interrelations of the various species are so
close that I see little or no advantage in so doing, at any rate
until the whole family is carefully revised; when this is done
the systematic arrangement is pretty sure to be changed from
that here indicated or from any as yet proposed.
All students of the Cladocera know that the genera of the
Chydorina are very unsatisfactory. This has always been
true, and as the number of known species increases the dis¬
satisfaction becomes more acute. Two policies have been tried
in order to better things: By one, a large section of the
family was included in one genus, with numerous subgenera.
This was tried by Herrick (?84), who united under Lynceus
the genera Alona, Alonella, and Pleuroxus. If the plan were
tried again Ckyidorus (which Herrick doubtfully separated)
would have to be included, as the barroisi forms connect im¬
mediately with Pleuroxus. This plan has been before stu¬
dents for twenty-five years and no one has followed it; so it
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1051
plainly does not promise any improvement. The other tend¬
ency is best represented by Sars: that of multiplying small
genera for those species which seem to be only doubtfully
assignable to the older and larger genera.
Whatever may be done in future we are, I think, compelled
to recognize the following facts at present: 1
1. The species of Chydorina are readily distinguishable.
They seldom intergrade and are not very variable. The genera
are in many cases ill-defined and in some cases seem to be
indefinable.
2. In the center of the family is a large assemblage of
species, clearly enough distinguished specifically; but which
it is impossible to place in well-marked and easily separable
genera. There are certain centers around which many of
these species may be grouped. Such are Alona, Pleuroxus,
CJvydorus ; the last two hardly separable. But when these
groups of species have been taken from the assemblage there
remains a number of species not assignable to any of these
genera, though obviously related to one or more of them; re¬
lated also to each other, though without many definable char¬
acters in common. These species may, for the sake of con¬
venience, be included in the genus Alonella.
3. A second and smaller group of species can be distin¬
guished, more readily divisible into genera; perhaps because
fewer species are known. This is the Alonopsis group, contain¬
ing that genus with Eury alona, Pseudalona , Acroperus, and
as its extreme type, Camptocercus. These, as the names of
some indicate, are related to Alona in the larger group.
4. Several genera, each with one or a very few species, are
also related to Alona but are developed in different directions
from that taken by the preceding group. Such are Graptole-
beris, Leydigiopsis , Leydigia, and Leptorhynchus.
5. Several genera, each also with one or few species, are
marked by the development of a number of characteristics to
such a degree that they are far removed from the central
group. These are Anchistropus, which seems related to Chy-
dorus; Dwihevedia, Monospilus and Dadaya, which seem to
look toward Alona.
1052 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
7. Note on Pleuroxus hamulus Birge and Alonella dadayi ,
sp. nov.
P. hamatus.
This species was first described by me in 1878. It appears
that the specific name hamatus was first used by Baird in 1835
as the specific name for a species of Pleuroxus (See Baird ’50,
p. 136) which proved to be founded on a male of some other
species. The name, therefore, cannot be used again for a
species of Pleuroxus and in place of it I substitute the name
Pleuroxus hamulatus. The characters of the species remain
unchanged.
A. dadayi sp. nov.
The shape is oval-rotund. The valves are strongly reticulated
all over; the infero-posterior angle is rounded, with several
minute teeth. The rostrum is long, pointed, recurved. The
keel of the labrum is acuminate behind and with one projection
on the ventral margin. The post-abdomen is short and wide;
the pre-anal angle strongly marked, as in Chydorus; with numer¬
ous small denticles ; apex rounded. Claws with one basal spine*
Male with usual characters.
The color is yellow to brown, often opaque. The length of the
female is 0.25 — 0.3 mm. ; male about 0.2 mm.
This species is identical with Leptorhynchus dentifer Daday.
The reasons demanding a change of name are given above, p.
1049. For figures see Daday ?05, pi. X, figs. 18-23.
8. List of Southern Species new to the United States.
In 1903 I visited the southern United States collecting
Cladocera, chiefly in Louisiana and Texas. The following
species, new to the United States, appeared in my collections,
of which I hope to publish later a more complete account.
Birge — Notes on Claclocera.
1053
Reported also from
South America.
South America.
Asia. Africa, Australia,
South America.
Asia, Africa, Australia,
South America.
South America.
Africa, South America.
South America.
South America.
South America.
Australia, Asia, South
America.
Australia, Africa, South
America.
South America.
South America.
South America.
South America.
Asia.
Asia, South America.
Asia, Africa, South Amer¬
ica.
Sout > America.
South America.
^Almost certainly identical with M. alabamensis Herrick.
In all cases “Asia” means Ceylon, Siam, Sumatra, or oilier
part of tropical Asia. All of these species, therefore, belong
to tropical or subtropical waters. To the list may be added
Pseudosida bident at a, which is apparently identical with
Parasida variabilis Daday. It appears, therefore, that 21
tropical species of Cladocera are found along our southern
coast, only one of which extends its range to the north, so far
as now known. All but one of these species are found in
South America, and this will probably be discovered there;
since it would be singular if this should prove to be present in
the United States and Ceylon and not in South America.
No doubt a more complete study of southern Cladocera will
show many more forms common to this country and South
America.
5— S. & A.— 3
1054 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Literature Cited.
Baird 7 50. The Natural History of the British Entomostraca.
W. Baird. Bay Society; London, 1850.
Birge ’78: Notes on Cladocera. E. A. Birge. Trans. Wis.
Acad. Sciences , iv. Madison, 1878.
Daday ’88. Crustacea Cladocera Eaunae Hungaricae. E.
von Daday. Budapest, ^888.
Daday ’98. Mikroskopische Suesswasserthiere aus Ceylon.
E. von Daday. Termeszet. Fiisetek , xxi. Budapest,
1898.
Daday ’01. Mikroskopische Suesswasserthiere aus Neu-
Guinea. E. von Daday. Termeszet Fiizeteh , xxiv.
Budapest, 1901.
Daday ’03. Mikroskopische Suesswasserthiere aus der Um-
gebung des Balaton. E. von Daday. Zool. Jahrbucher ;
Abt. fur Systematik, xix. Jena, 1903.
Daday ’04. Ein neues Cladoceren-Genus der Eamilie Sididae.
E. von Daday. Rovartani lopoh. xi. Budapest, 1904.
Daday ’05. Untersuchungen ueber die Suesswasser-Mikro-
fauna Paraguays. E. von Daday. Zoologica, Heft JJ.
Stuttgart, 1905.
Hellich ’77 : Die Cladoceren Boehmens. B. Hellich. Arch.
f. d. Landesdutchforschung Boehmen's. Prag, 1877.
Herrick ’83 : Heterogenetic Development in Diaptomus.
C. L. Herrick. American Naturalist, xviii. Philadel¬
phia, 1883.
Herrick ’84. A final Beport on the Crustacea of Minnesota.
C. L. Herrick. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn.,
xii. Annual Beport. Minneapolis, 1884.
Herrick ’87. Contribution to the Fauna of the Gulf of Mex¬
ico and the South. Mem. Denism Scieni. Assoc., i,
No. 1. Granville, 1887.
Herrick and Turner ’95. Synopsis of the Entomostraca of
Minnesota. C. L. Herrick, C. H. Turner. Second Re¬
port of the State Zoologist. St. Paul, 1895.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1055
Kurz ’74: Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. W. Kurz. Sitzber,.
d. k. k. Akad. in Wien., 68. Wien, 1874.
Lilljeborg ’00. Cladocera Sueciae. W. Lilljeborg. Upsala,,
1900.
Lund ’71. Bidrag til Cladocerernes Morphoiogi og Syste¬
matic L. Lund. Naturhist. Tidskrift , vii. Copen¬
hagen, ,1871.
Matile ’90. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau.
P. Matile. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat., Moscou, 1890.
Merrill ’93. The Structure and Affinities of Bunops scuti-
frons Birge. H. B. Merrill. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. ix.
Madison, 1893.
Mueller, ’68 : Danmarks Cladocera. P. E. Mueller. Natur¬
hist. Tidskrift, v. Copenhagen, 1868.
Sars ’62. Fortsaettelse af hans Foredrag, over de i Chris¬
tiania Omegn forekommende Cladocerer. G. O. Sars.
. Forliandl. V idens. Selskabet i Christiania ; Aar 1861,,
Christiania, 1862.
Sars ’65. Gorges Ferskvandskrebsdyr : I. Cladocera Cen-
opoda. Christiania, 1865.
Sars ’88. Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera, raised
from dried Mud. G. O. Sars. Christ. Videns. Selsk.
Forhandl., Christiania, 1888.
Sars ’00. Description of Jheringula paulensis ; a new generic-
Type of Macrothricidae from Brazil. G. O. Sars. Arch.,
for Math, og Naturvid., xxii. Christiania, 1900.
Sars 704. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fresh-
Water Entomostraca of South America. Part I.
Cladocera. G. O. Sars. Arch, for Math, og Naturvid.,
xxiii. Christiania, 1901.
Sars ’04. On a remarkable new Chydorid, Saycia orbicularis.
G. O. Sars. Arch, for Math, og Naturvid., xxvi.
Christiania, 1904.
Stenroos ’97. Zur Kenntniss der Crustaceen-Fauna von Rus-
sisch-Karelien. Cladocera, Calanidae. K. E. Stenroos.
A eta Soc. pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, xv. Helsingfors,,
1897.
1056 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Stingelin ?04. Untersuchungen ueber die Cladocerenfauna
von Hinterindien, Sumatra, and Java. T. Stingelin.
Zool. Jahrbucher ; Abt. fur Syst., xxi. Jena, 1904.
Stingelin ?06. Cladoceren aus Paraguay. T. Stingelin.
Ann. Biol. Lacus., i. Bruxelles, 1906.
Zoological Laboratory ,
University of Wisconsin.
September, 1909.
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
PLATE LXVIL
1058 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVII.
1. Pseudosicla bidentata. Enlarged 35 diameters. From drawing
by Mr. E. Foster of New Orleans.
2. Pseudosida bidentata. Antennule. Enlarged 75 diameters.
3. Pseudosida bidentata. Apex of abdomen and base of claw. En¬
larged 500 diameters.
4. Pseudosida bidentata. Old female with head in natural position.
Enlarged 25 diameters.
5. Pseudosida bidentata. Post-abdomen of male. Enlarged 100
diameters.
6. Pseudosida bidentata. Post-abdomen of female. Enlarged 75
diameters. Anal spines enlarged 500 diameters.
7, 8. Pseudosida bidentata. Clasper from first foot of male. Enlarged
500 diameters.
9. Pseudosida bidentata. Antennule of male. Enlarged 100 di¬
ameters.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate LX VII.
E O. COCKAYNE. BOSTO
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
PLATE LXVIII.
1060 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXVIII.
1. Pseudosida bidentata. Shell gland. Enlarged 100 diameters.
2. Latonopsis fasciculata. Male antennule. Enlarged 100 diameters.
3. Latonopsis fasciculata. Shell gland. Enlarged 100 diameters.
5. Latona parviremis. Shell gland. Enlarged 100 diameters.
4. Latonopsis fasciculata. Post-abdomen of female. Enlarged 75
diameters. Anal spines. Enlarged 500 diameters.
6. Latonopsis ocdidentalis. First foot of male. Enlarged 300 di¬
ameters.
7. Latonopsis fasciculata. First foot of male. Enlarged 300 di¬
ameters.
8. Latonopsis occidentalis. Antennule of female. Enlarged 100 di¬
ameters.
9. Latonopsis fasciculata. Antennule of female. Enlarged 100 di¬
ameters.
10. Latonopsis fasciculata. Post-abdomen of male. Enlarged 100 di¬
ameters.
11. Latonopsis occidentalis. Tip of first foot of male. Enlarged 300
diameters.
In figures of shell gland; d, dorsal loop; p, posterior loop; v, ventral
loop.
Plate LXV1II.
Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XVI.
E. O. COCKAYNE. BOSTON
Birge — Notes on Claclocera.
1061
PLATE LXIX.
1062
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXIX.
1. Latona parviremis. Enlarged 30 diameters.
2. Latona parviremis . Antennule of male. Enlarged 100 diameters.
3. Latona parviremis . Cross section of head. Enlarged 120 diameters.
ap, appendix foliaceus; b, brain; c, hepatic coeca; oe, oesophagus.
4. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. Head of female. Enlarged 150 diam. e,
e', e", elevations on labrum.
5. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. First foot from inside. Enlarged 150
diam.
6. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. First foot from outside. Enlarged 150
diam. d, exopodite; e, outer branch of endopodite.
7. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. First foot of male. Enlarged 200 diam.
d and e as in fig. 6.
8. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. Male. Enlarged 80 diameters.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI,
Plate LX IX,
Birge — Notes on Cladocera
PLATE LXX.
1064 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXX.
In all figures of feet: d, exopodite; e, outer branch of endopodite;
e', outer lobe of inner branch of endopodite; e", inner lobe of inner
branch of endopodite; ep, branchial sac or epipodite; mx, maxillary
process ; a, protopodite.
Female. Enlarged 60 diameters.
1. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
2. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
3. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
4. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
5. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
6. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
7. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
8. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
9. Wlassicsia kinistinensis.
diameters.
First foot from outside. Enlarged 150
Second foot from behind. Enlarged 280
Third foot from behind. Enlarged 200
Third foot from before. Enlarged 250
Fourth foot from behind. Enlarged 200
Fourth foot from before. Enlarged 250
Caudal claw. Enlarged 500 diameters.
Female with ephippium. Enlarged '65
Plate LXX.
Trans, Wig. Acad., Vol. XVI.
E. O. COCKAYNE. BOSTON
Birge — Notes on Cladocera.
1065
PLATE LXXI.
1066
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXI.
1. Wlassicsia Jcinistinensis. Feet from inside. Enlarged 200 di¬
ameters. This figure shows the feet in their natural position,
as seen from the median plane of the animal. The line oft
upper side of figure is the cut membrane of the ventral wall of
the body. 1, 1, posterior part of labrum; 1, first foot; 2, second
foot. The number lies on the maxillary process; the rest of
the foot is concealed except the large recurved claw of the
endopodite. 3, third foot; 4, fourth foot. The recurved seta
lies vertically below the number; the edge of the endopodite
can be seen with its setae foreshortened. 5, fifth foot; a,
protopodite, d, d, exopodite, e, endopodite, ep, branchial sac.
It will be noted that in the natural position the setiferous
edges of the 2, 3, and 4 feet are turned toward each other and
toward the median plane of the body.
2. Wlassicsia kinistinensis. Post-abdomen. Enlarged 150 diameters.
3. Odontalona longicaudis. Apex of post-abdomen. Enlarged 500 di¬
ameters.
4. Odontalona longicaudis. Female. Enlarged 70 diameters.
5. Odontalona tenuicaudis. Post-abdomen. Enlarged 200 diameters.
6. Odontalona tenuicaudis. Apex of post-abdomen. Enlarged 500 dP
ameters.
7. Odontalona longicaudis. Post-abdomen. Enlarged 150 diameters.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate LX XI.
E O. COCKAYNE. BOSTON
A REVISION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES
OF CYCLOPS.
C. DWIGHT MARSH.
As collections are made more and more widely from all
parts of the world and as these collections are studied more
thoroughly, it becomes increasingly evident not only that the
genus of Cyclops is distributed over the whole world, hut that
individual species have an exceedingly wide distribution.
Many of the species which have been described as peculiar to
America have been clearly shown either to be identical with
species in Europe or merely varieties of those species. Little
by little it has been necessary to reduce to synonyms the
names which have been proposed for American species. It
can not yet be said that all American species are identical
with those in Europe, but it is very evident that most of
them are. Most of the species of Cyclops have wide limits of
variation, and it is these variations which, at a time when the
knowledge of the entomostraca was imperfect, lead to the intro¬
duction of many new names for species which we now know
are only varieties.
This leads to a great deal of confusion when students of
anatomy or plankton, who may have no particular interest in
a systematic knowledge of Entomostraca, attempt to name
the species which they are studying. So great is this con¬
fusion that many students of plankton do not attempt to use
specific names, but simply describe the distribution of
“Cyclops/’ This is extremely unfortunate, for the species of
Cyclops have very different habits and a discussion of plank-
1068 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
ton with all the species of this genus grouped together has very
little value so far as Entomostraca are concerned. It may be
a matter of doubt whether the general student of Zoology is
ever likely to determine the species of Copepoda easily, as
special training is almost necessary for such work. But, even
if one had patience and a willingness to do the necessary work,
authoritative publications have not been available. Probably
the majority of students of North American Entomostraca refer
to Herrick and Turner’s work because it is more comprehensive
than any other work published. This is now, however, pretty
thoroughly out of date, and it is very aggravating to a student
to feel that his book of reference is unreliable.
A much more accurate paper is that of E. B. Forbes (Forbes
’97) and it seems to me that the real value of this paper has
never been recognized. It is now ten years since Forbes’s
paper was published and additions have been made to our
knowledge of the genus, and facts which lead to a reconsidera¬
tion of some of his statements.
It has seemed to the author that the time has come when a
paper which would accurately present our knowledge of the
genus today, would be of real assistance to those students who
have anything to do with Entomostraca. There is really very
little to add that is new from the standpoint of the species
maker, only one new species is suggested, but it is worth while
to know what it is best to call the old species which have been
recognized under different names.
In preparing this paper we have accepted the work of
Schmeil as authoritative for European species. Sometime it is
to be hoped that equally thorough work can be done for our
American species, but it does not seem wise to undertake it at
present. Our knowledge of the distribution of species in
America has been very much enriched in the past few years,
but nothing like thorough work has been done. The present
paper is based on collections made from the northern Canadian
provinces to Mexico and the West Indies, and from the At¬
lantic to the Pacific, but vastly the most complete collections
have been made in the Mississippi Valley.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1069
It will be noticed, doubtless, that the sub-generic names that
have been adopted by some authors have not been recognized.
The species of Cyclops certainly fall into certain groups, but it
is the feeling of the author that our knowledge of the relation¬
ships of the species in these groups is not yet sufficiently wide to
warrant the formality of fixed sub-generic names. I must con¬
fess to a dislike of multiplying names in systematic work, and
do not enjoy sub-generic names under any circumstances, pre¬
ferring to avoid them when practicable. The number of species
in the genus Cyclops is not very large, and the addition of sub¬
divisions in our present state of knowledge is distasteful to me.
A considerable number of figures has been used to illustrate
the paper, enough, it is hoped, to make clear the diagnoses.
The synopsis is not published as a final production. Ho one
appreciates better than the author how much work re¬
mains to be done on these forms. On the other hand the
paper is the result of accumulations of material covering many
years. A large number of slides have been made from these
collections, and while the work is confessedly incomplete, it is
perhaps due to others who are interested in these animals to
make some of the results available for use. The systematic
study of entomostraca is, at best, a very laborious process, and
it is hoped that this brief paper may help in lightening the
labors of others who may wish to use specific names for the
Cyclopidae.
The key is based on the characteristics of mature females
and includes only those species which are recognized members
of the American fauna.
6— S. & A.— 3
1070 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
KEY TO SPECIES OF CYCLOPS FOUND IN NORTH AMERICA.
Antennae composed of 17 segments
Fifth foot composed of one segment, armed with one spine and
two long setae, — a large species of dark color, ater
Fifth foot composed of two segments,
Second segment of fifth foot armed with seta and short
spine viridis
Second segment of fifth foot armed with two setae,
The second segment of the fifth foot is elongate, its length
as much as twice its width, the seta of the inner
distal angle spine-like, less than one half the length
of the outer seta, bicuspidatus
The second segment of the fifth foot is shorter, length
less than twice its width, armed with two nearly
equal setae,
The seventeenth antennal segment is armed with a
serrate hyaline plate, LeucJcarti
The seventeenth antennal segment is not armed with
a hyaline plate, tenuis
The second segment of the fifth foot is armed with three
setae
The twelfth antennal segment has a sensory club, the
egg-sacs stand out from the abdomen, the hyaline
plate of the seventeenth antennal segment is ser¬
rate, or smooth, albidus
The twelfth antennal segment has a sensory hair, the
egg-sacs lie close to the abdomen, the hyaline plate
of the seventeenth antennal segment is deeply
notched, fuscus
Antennae composed of sixteen segments, fifth foot of three seg¬
ments, modestus
Antennae composed of twelve segments, fifth foot of one segment.
Fifth foot armed with three setae, rami of swimming feet of
Furca of variable length, armed externally with a row of
spines, found almost everywhere. serrulatus
Furca short, without spinous armature, a small limnetic
species, prasinus
Fifth foot armed with one seta, rami of swimming feet of
two segments, varicans
Antennae composed of eleven segments,
Rami of swimming feet composed of three segments, phaleratus
Rami of swimming feet composed of two segments, bicolor
Antennae composed of eight segments, Jimbriatus
Antennae composed of six segments, aeguoreu*
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1071
CYCLOPS ATER Herrick:.
Plate, LXXII. figs. 1 to 6 and 9.
1882. Cyclops ater Herrick, p. 228, pi. Ill, figs. 9-12.
1884. “ “ 44 p. 145, pi. Q, figs. 9-12.
1887. “ “ 44 p. 14.
1895. “ 44 Herrick and Turner, p. 89, pi. VI, figs. 11-12.
1895. 4 4 44 Marsh, p. 13, pi. VI, figs. 1-4 and 6-12.
1897. 44 44 Forbes, p. 49, pi. XIV, pi. XV, figs 1-3.
1909. 44 44 Byrnes, p. 5, pi. I, figs. 1 to 6.
A large species, conspicuous both on account of its size and
its brilliant colors. The cephalothorax is oval and very broad.
The length and breadth of the first segment are about equals
and this segment comprises more than two-thirds the entire
length of the cephalothorax. The 'cephalothorax is nearly
three times the length of the abdomen, exclusive of the furcal
rami.
The first abdominal segment is short and stout and very lit¬
tle enlarged at its anterior end. The succeeding segments are
nearly equal in length, each being about one-third the length
of the first segment. The posterior margin of the last seg¬
ment is armed with small spines.
The furcal rami are about twice as long as wide. Herrick
has a figure in which the furcal rami are ciliated on the inner
margin. I do not find the cilia in my specimens, and Forbes
(Forbes ’97) states that they are not ciliate. The lateral
spine is situated near the end. Of the terminal setae, the
outer is slightly shorter than the inner, the second is about
twice as long as the outer, and the third about three times as
long.
The first antennae are 17-segmented and reach nearly
the full length of the cephalothorax. The twelfth segment has
a sensory club, and the sixteenth and seventeenth segments
have a lateral hyaline lamella with an entire edge. This
lamella, in the seventeenth segment projects as a blunt process
beyond the end of the segment.
The spinous armature on the terminal segments of the:
1072 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
exopodites of the swimming feet is represented by the formula
3, 4, 4, 3.
The fifth foot is composed of one segment and is armed
with a stout serrate spine and two long setae.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in plate
LXXII, fig. 5.
Average length of the female 1.77 mm. This is the size of
my specimens. Herrick gives 2.1 mm. as the average length
and Forbes 1.77 mm. to 2.88 mm.
The deep blue of the ordinary coloration is very marked.
This color is most pronounced in the appendages and caudal
setae and in the posterior margins of the segments of the
cephalo thorax. Sometimes the cephalothorax is of a deep red
or brown.
Herrick’s description was written from specimens collected
in Mud lake, Hennepin Co., Minn. He afterwards stated that
it was found from Alabama to Minnesota, and more abund¬
antly towards the south. Reighard collected it in Lake St.
Clair. I have obtained it from Round lake, Twenty-sixth lake,
Intermediate lake and Susan lake in Michigan, and from Rush
lake, Catfish lake, and Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin. Forbes
reports it from the shallow lakes near Havana, Ill. These are
the only recorded localities. It appears to be a rather rare
form. 1 : '! | ! f
CYCLOPS VIRIDIS J urine.
Plate LXXII, figs. 7 and 8. Plate LXXIV, figs. 1 and 2. Plate LXXIX,
figs. 6 and 7.
1820.
1851.
1857a.
1857b.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1870.
1870.
1872.
1872.
1875.
1876a.
Monoculus quadricornis var. viridis Jurine, p. 46, pi. Ill, fig. 1.
Cyclops viridis Fischer, p. 412, pi. IX, figs. 1-11.
“ brevicornis Claus, p. 32, pi. Ill, figs. 12-17.
“ gigas Claus, p. 207, pi. XI, figs. 1-5.
“ brevicornis Claus, p. 99, pi. IV, fig. 11.
“ gig as Claus, p. 100.
“ brevicornis Lubbock, p. 200.
“ “ Heller, p. 71.
“ Clausii Heller, p. 73, pi. I, figs. 1 and 2.
“ Clausii Fric, p. 220, fig. 13.
“ gigas Fric, p. 220, fig. 14.
“ viridis , Uljanin, p. 30, pi. VII, figs. 3-9.
“ brevicornis Hoek, p. 13, pi. I, figs. 5 and 6.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1073
1878.
1880.
1880.
1882.
1882.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1888.
1890.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1893.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1898.
1898.
1901.
1901.
1903.
1903.
1903.
1905.
1905.
Cyclops gigas Brady, p. 105, pi, XX, figs. 1-16.
“ viridis Rehberg, p. 540.
“ gigas Rehberg, p. 541.
“ ingens Herrick, p. 228, pi. IY, figs. 1-8.
“ parcus Herrick, p. 229, pi. YI, figs. 12-15.
“ insectus Forbes, p. 649, pi. IX, fig 6.
“ viridis Cragin, p. 3, pi. IY, figs. 8-16.
“ uniangulatus Cragin, p. 6, pi. IY, fig. 17.
“ viridis Herrick, p. 145.
“ parcus Herrick, p. 148, pi. R, fig. 22.
“ brevispinosus Herrick, p. 148, pi. S, figs. 7-11.
“ uniangulatus Herrick, p. 149.
“ insectus Herrick, p. 152, pi. U, fig. 9.
“ viridis Daday, p. 214.
“ “ Yosseler, p. 196, pi. IY, figs. 11-14.
“ “ Sostaric, p. 64, pi. I, fig. 7.
“ “ Thallwitz, p. 79.
“ “ Lande, p. 44, pi. XIX, figs. 117-124, pi. XX, fig. 125.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 29.
“ “ Richard, p. 226, pi. VI, fig. 4.
“ “ Brady, p. 17, pi. Y, figs. 6-10.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 97, pi. VIII, figs. 12-14.
“ americanus Marsh, p. 202, pi. IY, figs. 8-10.
“ brevispinosus Marsh, p. 204, pi. IY, figs. 11 and 12.
“ parcus Marsh, p. 208, pi. IY, fig. 16, pi. Y, fig. 1.
“ viridis Herrick and Turner, p. 90, pi. XIY.
“ americanus Herrick and Turner, p. 91, pi. XIY.
“ ingens Herrick and Turner, p. 92.
“ parcus Herrick and Turner, p. 93, pi. XX, figs. 12-15, ph
XXI, fig. 22, pi. XXIII, fig. 8, pi.. XXXIV, figs. 1-8.
“ brevispinosus Herrick and Turner, p. 95, pi. XXIII, figs.
1-4, pi. XXIY, figs. 7-12.
“ uniangulatus Herrick and Turner, p. 96.
“ brevispinosus Marsh, p. 14, pi. VII, fig. 12.
“ parcus Marsh, p. 15.
“ viridis Forbes, p. 37, pi. X, figs. 1-3.
“ var. brevispinosus Forbes, p. 41, pi. XI, figs. 1 and 2.
“ “ var. insectus Forbes, p. 41, pi. XI, figs. 3-6.
“ “ Steuer, p. 6.
“ “ Matile, p. 128, pi. II, figs. 15 and 16.
“ “ Scourfield, p. 324.
“ americanus Brewer, p. 132.
“ gigas Lilljeborg, p. 5, pi. I, figs. 1-5.
“ viridis Lilljeborg, p. 8, pi. I, figs. 6-11.
“ “ Graeter, p. 523, pi. 15. fig. 6.
“ “ Scourfield, p. 534.
“ parcus Byrnes, p. 152.
“ “ Jensen, p. 118.
“ “ var. insectus Pearse, p. 150.
.1074 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
1909. Cy Jop: americanus Byrnes, p. 13, pi. V, figs. 1-3.
1909. “ parcus Byrnes, p. 14, pi. VI, figs. 1-8, pi, X, figs. 1-3.
1909. “ brevispinosus Byrnes, p. 16, pi. VII, figs. 1-9.
1909. “ ingens Byrnes, p. 22, pi. VIII, figs. 1-4.
Cophalo thorax oval, its breadth rather more than one-
half its length. The cephalothorax is about twice as long as
the abdomen exclusive of the tfurcal rami. Each cephalo¬
thoracic segment projects beyond the one following it.
The anterior part of the first abdominal segment is larger
than the posterior, but this difference is not so marked as in
some other species. The posterior margins of all the ab¬
dominal segments except the last are serrate, — the last seg¬
ment is armed with small spines; this armature of the ab¬
dominal segments is more marked in the immature forms.
The fureal rami are very variable in length. They may be
scarcely longer than the last abdominal segment or they may
be four times as long. In some varieties the rami are ciliate
on the inner margins. The lateral seta of the furca is com¬
monly well towards the distal end, varying in position from
two-thirds to four-fifths the length of the ramus. Of the
terminal armature of the furca, the outermost is very variable ;
it may be a slender plumose seta, or it may be a short, blunt
spine. It is never, however, very much elongated.
The first antennae are 17-segmented and reach to or a lit¬
tle beyond the posterior margin of the first cephalothoracic
segment. The twelfth segment has a club-shaped sense hair.
The spinous armament of the terminal segments of the
exopodites of the swimming feet may be 2, 3, 3, 3, or 3, 4, 4, 4.
The terminal segment of the endopodite of the fourth foot
may have exteriorly either a seta or a spine.
The fifth foot, Plate LXXII, figs. 7 and 8 consists of two seg¬
ments. The first segment is broad, its breadth ordinarily
equalling or exceeding its length; on its inner distal segment
it bears a long plumose seta. The second segment is of about
the same length as the first segment, while its width is one-
half or less than that of the first segment; on its distal end
near the outer margin is a long plumose seta, at the inne*
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1075
angle on the distal end is a small, lanceolate spine; in some
varieties this spine is separated from the segment by a joint,
while in others, this joint does not appear.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in the figure,
Plate LXXIV, fig. 2.
It varies greatly in size. The common American varieties
are 1.25 to 1.5 in length. It may reach, however, as much as
5 mm.
Cyclops viridis seems to be universally distributed in the
northern hemisphere.
Cyclops viridis var. ingens , Herrick.
This variety, which is also mentioned by E. B. Eorbes, is
distinguished by three features, first its greater size, sec¬
ond by the fact that the spine of the second segment of the
fifth foot is not separated from the segment by a joint, and
third by the ciliated internal margins of the furca. It cor¬
responds, doubtless to the gigas of Claus. Inasmuch, how¬
ever, as so good an authority as Schmeil considers that gigas
differs from typical viridis only in size, it seems to me wise
to retain Herrick’s name for the American variety.
Ingens occurs in pools.
Cyclops viridis var. brevispinosus Herrick.
Brevispinosus is rather elongate in form, the furcal rami
are long and slender, and the terminal appendage at the outer
angles of the furcal rami is a short thick spine, Plate LXXIX,
fig. 7, shaped much like the blade of a knife. The formula
for the spines of the terminal segments of the exopodites of
the swimming feet is 3, 4, 4, 4. The terminal segment of the
endopodite of the fourth foot has a spine on its outer margin.
Brevispinosus is most common in larger bodies of water
where it frequently has a limnetic habitat. It is by no
means confined to large bodies of water, however, as it is
found in many of the smaller lakes of Wisconsin and Michi¬
gan.
1076 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Cyclops viridis var. parens Herrick.
Parcus has the second segment of the fifth foot with the
spine separated by a joint. The formula for the spines of
the terminal segments of the exopodites of the swimming feet
is 2, 3, 3, 3, the terminal segment of the endopodite of the
fourth foot is armed with a seta. The outer terminal appendage
of the furca is a short seta.
Parcus is most common in shallow bodies of water. It does
not appear to have a very wide distribution.
Cyclops viridis var. americanus Marsh.
Americanus has the furcal rami of varying length, the outer
terminal appendage a short seta. -(Plate LXXIX, fig. 6.)
The spine of the second segment of the fifth foot is sep¬
arated by a joint. The terminal segments of the exopodites
of the swimming feet have as the formula of the spines
3, 4, 4, 4. The terminal segment of the endopodite of the
fourth foot has externally a seta.
Americanus is the most abundant variety of viridis in
American waters, being found almost universally especially
in the smaller bodies of water. This is the form which E. B.
Forbes calls insectus , reviving the name proposed by S. A.
Forbes, but never so described as to make it possible to
identify the form. It is evident that in this case americanus
has the rights of priority, as it was possible to recognize in-
sectus only after the publication by E. B. Forbes in 1897,
and he recognizes the identity of the two forms.
Discussion of viridis.
The first to recognize clearly the identity of the forms which
are here grouped under the common specific name of viridis
was E. B. Forbes, and the synonomy which I have adopted
does not differ materially from that proposed by him. I
agree with him that all the varieties distinguished above
merge the one into the other with no clear cut dividing line.
This is my impression from the study of my somewhat ex¬
tensive collections from nearly all sections of Horth America.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1077
The work of Miss Lehmann (Lehmann J03) proved this in
regard to the distinctions between brevispinosus and amerir
canus. And jet I am inclined to put much more stress than
does Forbes on the varietal distinctions. While we can find
connecting forms, if we look for them, jet it is true that col¬
lections from anj locality are apt to contain onlj one varietj
in abundance. It is true that one can find the blunt furcal
spine of brevispinosus merging bj insensible stages into a
seta, but it is also true that we can make collections in which
practicallj all the individuals have the blunt spine. These
same individuals will have, correlated with the blunt spine,
elongated furcal rami, a formula for the spines of the terminal
segments of the exopodites of the swimming feet represented
bj 3, 4, 4, 4, and a spine on the external margin of the
terminal segment of the endopodite of the fourth swimming
feet. One maj find brevispinosus forms with a seta on the ex¬
ternal margin of the terminal segment of the endopodite of the
fourth swimming foot, hut this is hj no means common. So
when one finds parcus forms he is not likelj to find other forms
mingled with it. So with the americanus. There are grades
connecting this with the other varieties, hut in anj given col¬
lection where americanus is found, nearlj all will be tjpical
americanus.
It is true that the armature of the swimming feet maj
varj, hut variation is not so common, in mj experience, as
would be inferred from the statements of Forbes. I have even
found a form in which the right and left fourth feet in the
same individual had a different spinous armature, but this is
so unusual, that it maj he considered, in all probability, as
the result of some mutilation.
I have sometimes thought that we might well consider these
varieties as distinct species, and that the intermediate forms
were the result of hjbridizing. Whether this is true or not
could onlj he determined bj a course of breeding, and it is
likelj to be a long time before we shall know the pedigrees of
the species of Cyclops. Meantime students who must discuss
these forms as elements in the plankton, and who, perhaps,
have no interest in the taxonomic side of the question, must
1078 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
have some means of designating the forms, ~and it makes little
difference to them whether they are called species or varieties.
This is my excuse for proposing the use of these varietal
names.
The European type of viridis does not have the spine of
the second segment of the fifth foot separated by a joint, has
for the spine formula of the terminal segment of the exopodite
of the swimming feet 2, 3, 3, 3, and has the internal margin
of the furcal rami ciliate. There are, among the European
forms, however, all the variations noted in the American
forms. The typical form is vastly the more common in
Europe, while in America americanus is the most widely dis¬
tributed variety, ingens and parcus being comparatively rare.
CYCLOPS BICUSPIDATUS Claus.
Plate LXXIII, figs. 1-11; Plate LXXIX, fig. 11.
1857a.
1863.
1863.
1870.
1872.
1875.
1876a.
1880.
1880a.
1882.
1882.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1886.
1888.
1890.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
Cyclops bicuspidatus Claus, p. 209, pi. XI, figs. 6 and 7.
“ “ “ , p. 101.
“ pulchellus Sars, p. 246.
“ bicuspidatus Heller, p. 71.
“ “ Fric, p. 221, fig. 16.
“ odessanus Schmankewitsch.
“ bicuspidatus Hoek, p. 17, pi. I, figs. 7-11.
“ pulchellus Rehberg, p. 543.
“ helgolandicus Rehberg, p. 64, pi. IY, fig. 5.
pulchellus Vejdowsky, p. 63, pi. VII, figs. 11 and 12.
“ Thomasi Forbes, p. 649, pi. IX, figs. 10, 11 and 16.
“ navus Herrick, p. 229, pi. Y, figs. 6-13, 15-17.
“ gigas G. M. Thompson, p. 96, pi. IX, figs. 8-10.
“ pectinatus Herrick, p. 499. pi. VII, figs. 25 and 28.
“ Thomasi Cragin, p. 3, pi. Ill, figs. 1-13.
“ “ Herrick, p. 151, pi. U, figs. 4, 5, 7 and 8.
“ navus Herrick, p. 152.
“ pulchellus Daday, p. 220.
“ Entzii Daday, p..221, pi. I, figs. 1-6.
“ pulchellus Yosseler, p. 194, pi. Y, figs. 19-29.
“ “ Sostaric, p. 66, pi. I, figs. 8 and 9.
“ “ Lande, p. 50, pi. XXI, figs. 146-155.
“ “ Thallwitz, p. 79.
“ Thomasi Forbes, p. 707, pi. II, fig. 8.
“ “ Brady, p. 14, pi. YI, figs. 1-4.
“ bicuspidatus Schmeil, p. 27.
“ “ Richard, p. 229, pi. YI, fig. 6.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 75, pi. II, figs. 1-3.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1079
1892.
.1893.
1893.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1897.
1898.
1898.
1901.
1903.
1909.
Cyclops pulchellus Lande, p. 161.
“ “ Marsh, p. 207, pi. IY, figs. 18 and 19.
“ minnilus Forbes, p. 247.
“ serratus Forbes, p. 247.
“ pulchellus Herrick and Turner, p. 101, pi. XXVII, figs. 4
and 5, pi. XXVIII, figs. 5-8.
“ pulchellus var. navus Herrick and Turner, p. 102.
“ • minnilus Herrick and Turner, p. 103.
“ Forbesi Herrick and Turner, p. 104.
“ pulchellus Marsh, p. 15, pi. VII, fig. 14.
“ bicuspidatus Forbes E. B., p. 44, pi. XII, figs. 1-4.
“ bicuspidatus Steuer, p. 5, pi. Ill, fig. 1.
“ pulchellus Brewer, p. 133.
“ navus Brewer, p. 132.
“ bicuspidatus Lilljeborg, p. 11, pi. I, figs. 12-17, pi. II, fig. 1.
“ “ Graeter, p. 528, pi. XV, figs. 23 and 32.
“ bicuspidatus Byrnes, p. 25, pi. X, figs. 4-7.
The cephalothorax is elongate oval, its length being con¬
siderably more than twice its breadth. Seen from above the
lateral angles of the segments back of the first are somewhat
extended backward. The cephalothorax is rather more than
twice as long as the abdomen exclusive of the furcal rami.
The first abdominal segment is only slightly narrower than
the last cephalothoracic segment, and its anterior part is con¬
siderably wider than the posterior. The first abdominal seg¬
ment about equals in length the three following. The posterior
margins of the abdominal segments are more or less clearly
marked with serrations, with the exception of the last seg¬
ment which is armed with small spines.
The furcal rami (PI. LXXIII, figs. 3, 7 and 8, pi. LXXIX,
fig. 11) vary greatly in their length. The length may exceed
little more than twice the breadth, or it may reach to six or eight
times the breadth. The inner margins of the rami are ordi¬
narily ciliate, although this is not an invariable characteristic.
At about one-quarter of the distance from the proximal end is
a row of small spines on the lateral margin. These spine®
are almost invariably present on the forms with elongated
furcal rami but are not found on those with the very short
rami. The lateral seta, which is • surrounded with minute
spines, is placed at about two-thirds of the length of the ramus.
Of the terminal setae, only the inner ones are elongated.
1080 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters
The antennae consist of 17 segments. Richard (Richard
1891) and Steuer (Steuer ’97) have shown that the number of
antennal segments varies in the European forms, but I have not
found this to be true in my American collections. The anten¬
nae vary somewhat in length, reaching about to the end of the
first cephalothoracic segment, but they may fall short of this
length or exceed it. The twelfth segment bears a sensory club.
The setae arming the segments are rather short.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the swim¬
ming feet is 2, 3, 3, 3.
The fifth foot (PI. LXXIII, figs. 10 and 11) consists of two
segments. The breadth and length of the first segment are
about equal; it bears on its outer distal angle an elongate plu¬
mose seta. The second segment is commonly twice as long as
broad, but it may be still more slender; on its outer distal
angle it bears an elongate and plumose seta, on its inner distal
angle it bears a spine like seta which is less than half the
length of the outer seta. This inner seta may be serrate as
in the European forms, but neither the serration of this seta
nor the plumose character of the other setae is very commonly
seen in our American forms. The outer seta is borne upon
a process of the segment, the outer margin of the segment
being longer than the inner.
The size is somewhat variable, the American forms, ap¬
parently, being smaller than those found in Europe. The fe¬
male is commonly about 1.1 mm. in length but may be not
more than .95 mm.
C. bicuspidatus is found in all our northern states north of
the Ohio river, and has been collected as far north as the
Saskatchewan.
Generally speaking those found as limnetic forms have an
elongated form, while those in shallow bodies of water and
pools are shorter. Herrick’s navus (PI. LXXIX, fig. 11) is an
example of this short form. There is no doubt that navus is
simply a variety of bicuspidatus for I can verify the state¬
ment of Forbes that all intermediate forms can be found.
Bicuspidatus is the common limnetic form of the Great Lakes,,
and in its elongated form is common in other deep lakes*.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops . 1081
although it is not confined to them. I have already discussed
(Marsh 1903) its occurrence in Wisconsin lakes. It seems to
prefer cold water, and my work in Wisconsin seemed to show
that it might be considered as preeminently a winter form.
Miss Pratt (Pratt 1898) finds it a winter form in Lake
Bassenthwaite in England. I have found it in small bodies
of water in Indiana in the winter, while in the cold lakes of
the Pocky Mountains it is a summer form.
Birge and Juday, in a recent paper (Birge and Juday
1908) have noted an interesting fact in the life history of C *
bicuspidatus. In certain of the Wisconsin Lakes, in the sum¬
mer season it is found in large numbers in a resting stage
enclosed in a cocoon, hatching out in the fall. The authors
find themselves unable to correlate this cocoon stage with
either changes of temperature or oxygen content of the water.
It would seem to us from our knowledge of the habits of the
species, that it is probable that temperature will be found to
be the controlling cause of this encystation.
CYCLOPS LEUCKARTI Claus.
Plate LXXIY, figs. 4-11; Plate LXXV, figs. 1-3.
1857. Cyclops
1863.
1863.
1874.
1875.
1876a.
1876b.
1880.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1890.
1890.
Leuckarti Claus, p. 35, pi. I, fig. 4, pi. II, figs. 13 and 14.
“ Sars, p. 239.
“ Claus, p. 101.
simplex Poggenpol, p. 70, pi. XV, figs. 1-3.
tenuicornis Uljanin, p. 30, pi. IX, figs. 12 and 13.
Leeuwenhoekii Hoek, p. 19, pi. Ill, figs. 1-12.
Leeuwenhoekii Hoek, p. 132, pi. VII, figs. 1-12.
simplex Rehberg, p. 542.
“ Herrick, p. 150.
oithonoides Herrick, p. 150, pi. S, figs. 2-6.
Leuckarti Herrick, p. 146.
“ Daday, p. 218.
simplex Daday, p. 236.
pectinatus Daday, p. 223, pi. I, figs. 7-13.
simplex Vosseler, p. 193, pi. IV, figs. 15-17.
“ Herrick, p. 17, pi. VII, fig. 1, a-j.
“ Thallwitz, p. 79.
“ Lande, p. 55, pi. XVI, figs. 42-45, pi. XVII, figs.
46-50,
1082 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1897.
1897,
1897.
1898.
1900.
1901.
1903.
1905.
1909.
Cyclops Leuckarti Schmeil, p. 25.
“ “ Richard, p. 230, pi. VI, fig. 20.
“ edax Forbes, p. 709, pi. Ill, fig. 15, pi. IY. figs. 1-20.
“ Scourfeldi Brady, p. 10, pi. IV, figs. 1-8.
“ Leuckarti Schmeil, p. 57, pi. Ill, figs. 1-8.
“ simplex Lande, p. 161.
“ Leuckarti Marsh, p. 209, pi. IY, fig. 17, pi. V. figs. 2-6.
“ Leuckarti Herrick and Turner, p. 96, pi. XVI, figs. 1-11, pL.
XVIII, fig. 1, a-j, pi. XXIV, figs. 2-6.
“ Leuckarti Marsh, p. 15, pi. VII, fig. 15.
“ Leuckarti Forbes, p. 31, pi. VIII, figs. 1-3.
“ edax Forbes, p. 33, pi. IX, fig. 1-3.
“ Leuckarti Scott, p. 322, pi. IX, figs. 23-25.
“ “ Steuer, p. 32.
“ “ Brewer, p. 131.
“ “ Burckhardt, p. 640.
“ “ Lilljeborg, p. 35, pi. II, figs. 28-29.
“ Graeter, p. 509, pi. 15, figs. 26 and 30.
“ “ Van Douwe, p. 681.
“ pulchellus Byrnes, p. 24, pi. X, figs. 1-3.
A conspicuously slender species. The length of the cephalo-
thorax compares with that of the abdomen as 7 to 4. The'
breadth of the cephalothorax is about one-half its length. The
elongated oval form of the cephalothorax is a characteristic pe¬
culiarity of this species. The segments of the cephalothorax.
do not project markedly on the sides.
The abdomen (PI. LXXIV, fig. 3) is slender. The first seg¬
ment is equal in length to the remaining segments, and its an¬
terior end is only slightly larger than the posterior. The suc¬
ceeding segments are all of about the same length. The last
segment is armed posteriorly with a row of spines.
The furcal rami equal in length the two preceding segments-
Generally the inner margins are ciliated, although this is not
always the case. The lateral seta is so situated as to divide
the furca in the ratio of three to two. The terminal seta©
vary in their length; of the four, the inner is more than twice
as long as the outer, the outer is commonly not far from the
length of the furca.
The first antennae are 17-segmented and reach to the fourth
cephalothoracic segment. The twelfth segment bears a sensory
club. Upon the sixteenth and seventeenth segments is a
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1083
lateral hyaline lamella. The lamella on the seventeenth seg¬
ment is serrate on its margin, and has besides either a single
deep depression near its distal end, or four or five snch de¬
pressions. The figure (PI. LXXIV, fig. 10) shows a common
form. I do not find, in our American forms the spines spoken
of by Schmeil on the antennal segments.
The segments of the second antenna (PI. LXXV, fig. 3) are
elongated. The lower margin of the second segment of the
outer maxillipede always has a number of shallow depressions,
giving it a more or less crenulated appearance. This appear¬
ance is described by the German authors under the term ge-
perlte. While, in some of our forms, this term could he prop¬
erly applied, more frequently crenulated would describe the ap¬
pearance more accurately. The figures (PI. LXXIV, figs. 4,
5, 6) show the extreme forms as they occur in America. In one
(PI. LXXIV, fig. 4) this appearance is confined to only a small
part of the margin, hut is there very distinct, while in the other
(PL LXXIV, fig. 6) it is not so marked but extends through
the greater part of the length of the margin. PI. LXXIV, fig.
5 shows another form intermediate between the others.
The second segment of the inner maxillipede has on its
anterior margin a number of scattered and rather long setae
(PI. LXXIV, fig. 11). This seems to he a constant character¬
istic of this species; I think it was first mentioned by Brady
(Brady 1891) in his description of Scourfeldi. It is not men¬
tioned by Schmeil hut it is shown in his figure of the inner max¬
illipede.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the ex-
opodites of the swimming feet is represented by the formula,
2, 3, 3, 3. The membrane connecting the feet of the fourth
pair is armed on the posterior border with two blunt spines.
(PI. LXXV, fig. 1.) Each segment of the rami is armed on
the distal border with a row of spines.
The fifth feet (PI. LXXIV, figs. 8, 9) are two-segmented.
The first segment is short and broad and bears upon its distal
outer angle a plumose seta; this seta is ordinarily long as in
PI. LXXIV, fig. 9, but sometimes it is quite short, as in PI.
LXXIV, fig. 8. The second segment bears a long plumose seta
1084 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
on its distal end, and an almost equally long one on its inner
side. This appendage of the inner side is spoken of by Schmeil
as a spine, but in most of our specimens it would more properly
be called a seta. There is a good deal of variability in the
form and proportions of the fifth feet as shown in the figures
of the plate.
The egg sacs are carried at a marked angle from the abdo¬
men.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in PI.
LXXIV, fig. 7. Average length of females is about 1.14 mm.
This is a truly cosmopolitan species, being found in nearly
all parts of the world. In India it is reported as found not
only in fresh water but in brackish ponds. (Annandale 1907.)
The synonomy of this species prior to 1891 has been dis¬
cussed by Schmeil and there is no reason to dissent from his
conclusions.
As pointed out by me in an earlier publication (Marsh ’92)
it appeared from Forbes’s original description of edax, that
the only reason for separating it from Leuckarti was the ab¬
sence of hyaline membranes on the 16th and 17th antennal
segments. E. B. Forbes (Forbes ’97) redescribes the species.
He states that the hyaline membranes are present on the 16th
and 17th segments.
He makes the following points of difference between edax
and Leuckarti :
1st. The hyaline membrane of edax has several deep inden¬
tations, Leuckarti but one.
2nd. In edax the 16th and 17th antennal segments are equal,
in Leuckarti the (l'6th is a fourth longer.
3rd. The crenulations of the second segment of the outer
maxillipedes are less marked.
4th. The abdominal stylets are more divergent in edax.
5th. In edax the surfaces of attachment of the setae of the
terminal segment are parallel, in Leuckarti the surface of at¬
tachment of the proximal seta is at an angle of about forty-
five degrees with the long axis of the segment, instead of at
right angles. In edax the distal segment is broader.
6th. Other differences which can only be recognized by a
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1085
long series of measurements, but such “that one well acquainted
with these species can distinguish them at a glance.”
In regard to these points of difference, I can only say that
none of them seem to me of more than varietal value. In
regard to the indentations in the hyaline membrane of the
last antennal segment, I find both forms in the same collection
with every reason to think that they grade the one into the
other. I have found, in my collections, the form with a
single indentation the more abundant.
Burckhardt (Burckhardt 1900, p. 640) recognizing this
possibility of variation, states that in his specimens, the outer
three-fourths of the membrane was uniformly indented.
I have already discussed the variations in the crenulations
of the second segment of the outer maxillipede. There is great
variation in this characteristic.
The other points of difference are minor things, differences
which one would expect within species limits. The sixth
point of difference, of course, can hardly be taken seriously, for
differences which can not be accurately defined should not be
used in the diagnosis of a species. Without doubt, if we are
to recognize the differences on which E. B. Forbes distin¬
guishes edax we should have to use the name of LeeuwenhoeJcii
Hoek, which has prior standing.
The figures in Brady’s plate (Brady ’91) make it evident
that Scourfeldi is the same as Leuclcarti.
It seems probable that pulchellus of Miss Byrnes (Byrnes
1909) is Leuclcarti.
Cyclops Tenuis sp. nov.
Plate LXXV, figs. 4-9 ; Plate LXXIX, fig. 5.
A long slender species. The cephalothorax is oval, its
length being more than twice its breadth; it is twice as long
as the abdomen exclusive of the furcal rami. The segments
of the cephalothorax do not project at their posterior angles.
The anterior end of the first abdominal segment (PL LXXY,
fig. 5) is somewhat larger than the posterior end; this segment
is less in length than the three following.
7 — S. & A. — 3
1086 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
The furcal rami are rather slender, nearly equalling in
length the last two abdominal segments. The lateral seta is
at about one-half the length of the ramus. Of the terminal
setae, the outer is short, while the inner one is rather un¬
usually long.
The first antennae (PI. LXXV, fig. 7) are long, exceeding the
second cephalothorax segment. The antenna is composed of
seventeen segments, the twelfth hearing a sensory club. The
terminal segments of the antenna have no special armature.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the exo-
podites of the swimming feet is 2, 3, 3, 3.
The fifth foot consists of two segments. The length of the
first segment is rather less than twice its breadth; it bears on
the outer distal angle a long seta. The second segment is
twice as long as broad ; on its outer distal angle it bears a seta ;
on its inner distal angle, but set back a little from the end, it
bears a slender serrate spine or seta ; this inner spine nearly
equals in length the outer seta.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in the figure
(PI. LXXY, fig. 9).
The females are about 1.1 mm. in length.
This was found in Calabasas, in southern Arizona.
C. tenuis resembles, in its form, C. Leuclcarti , but differs in
the form of the fifth feet, in the lack of armature on the an¬
tennal segments, and of crenulatons on the outer maxillipede,
and in the form of the receptaculum seminis.
It seems to be most nearly related to the European oitho-
noides. I at first thought it should be a variety of that species.
The difference in the form of the fifth foot, however, with the
lack of antennal armature and the somewhat different re¬
ceptaculum seminis have led me to consider it a new species.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1087
1820.
1841.
1850.
1857.
1857.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1870.
1872.
1874.
1875.
1876a.
1876b.
1878.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1890.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1991.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1897.
1898.
1901.
1901.
1903.
CYCLOPS ALBIDUS Jukine.
Plate LXXVI, figs. 1-9.
Monoculus quadricornis albidus Jurine, pp. 44 and 47, pi. II, figs..
10 and 11, pi. Ill, fig. 24.
Cyclops annulicornis Koch, H. 21, pi. YI.
“ quadricornis var. b Baird, p. 202, pi. XXI Y, fig. 4.
“ tenuicornis Claus, p. 31, pi. Ill, figs. 1-11.
“ pennatus Claus, p. 35, pi. Ill, figs. 12-17.
“ tenuicornis Claus, p. 99, pi. I, fig. 3, pi II, fig. 17, pi. IY,
fig. 5.
“ tenuicornis Sars, p. 242.
“ annulicornis Sars, p. 243.
“ tenuicornis Lubbock, p. 202.
“ tenuicornis Heller, p. 71.
“ tenuicornis Pric, p. 219, fig. 12.
“ Clausii Poggenpol, p. 70, pi. XY, figs. 4-14.
“ signatus Uijanin, p. 29, pi. IX, figs. 6-11, pi. XI, fig. 8.
“ tenuicornis Hoek, p. 12.
“ tenuicornis Hoek, p. 130.
“ tenuicornis Brady, p. 102, pi. XYIII, figs. 1-10.
tenuicornis Herrick, p. 227, pi. YI, figs. 1-11 and 20, pi. Y,,
fig. 14.
“ tenuicornis Cragin, p. 3, pi. II, figs. 1-14.
“ signatus var. fasciacornis Cragin, p. 2, pi. II, fig. 15.
“ tenuicornis var. a Herrick, p. 153, pi. Q4, figs. 1-7.
“ tenuicornis Daday, p. 211.
“ tenuicornis Yosseler, p. 189, pi. IY, figs. 6-10.
“ tenuicornis Claus, var. distinctus Richard, p. 162.
“ tenuicornis Claus, var. annulicornis , Richard, p. 61.
“ albidus Sostaric, pi. I, figs. 3, 4 and 12.
“ tenuicornis Thallwitz, p. 79.
“ tenuicornis Lande, p. 36, pi. XYI, figs. 22-32.
“ gyrinus Forbes, p. 707, pi. II, fig. 9, pi. Ill, fig. 14.
“ albidus Schmeil, p. 23.
“ annulicornis and tenuicornis Richard, p. 224-226.
“ albidus Schmeil, p. 128, pi. I, figs. 8~14b, pi. IY, fig. 157
“ tenuicornis Lande, p. 156.
“ gracilicornis Lande, p. 158.
p signatus Marsh, p. 211, pi. Y, figs. 7-9.
“ signatus var. tenuicornis Herrick and Turner, p. 106, pL
XY, figs. 5-7, pi. XX, figs. 1-7, pi. XXXIII, figs. 1 and 2.
“ albidus Marsh, p. 17, pi. YI, figs. 8-10.
“ “ Forbes, p. 47, pi. XIII.
“ tenuicornis Matile, p. 121, pi. II, figs. 4 and 5.
“ signatus Brewer, p. 129.
“ albidus Lilljeborg, p. 49, pi. Ill, figs. 21, 22.
“ distinctus Lilljeborg, p. 47, pi. Ill, figs. 16-20..
“ Graeter, p. 481, pi. 15, fig. 8.
1088 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
1905. Cyclops albidus Pearse, p. 150, pi. XIV, figs. 11 and 13.
1906. “ distinctus Brady, p. 697.
1909. “ signatus var. annulicornis Byrnes, p. 10, p. IV, figs. 1-6.
1909. “ mrido-signatus Byrnes, p. 23, pi. IX, figs. 1-8.
A rather large species. The cephalothorax is oval in form,
but the tapering at the posterior end is not so pronounced as
in some species. The length and breadth compare as about
5 to 3. The cephalothorax is a little more than twice as long
as the abdomen exclusive of the furcal rami. The projection
of the posterior angles of the segments is not very marked.
The dorsal surface of the fifth segment is more or less clearly
marked with four rows of small spines.
The first abdominal segment (PL LXXVI, fig. 5) is not
markedly larger at its anterior end; this first segment is some¬
what longer than the sum of the three following. The last ab¬
dominal segment has a row of spines on its posterior margin.
The furcal rami are about twice as long as wide. The in¬
ner margins of the furcal rami are not usually armed with
cilia; sometimes, however, they are present. I have found
this condition in specimens collected in Michigan and in some
collected in Colorado. The lateral seta is situated near the
end of the furca. Of the four apical setae, the outer is very
short, not much exceeding in length the ramus; the inner
is about three times the length of the outer.
The first antennae are composed of seventeen segments, and
reach about the full length of the cephalothorax. The last
three segments (PL LXXYI, fig. 8) bear a hyaline plate, which
in the last segment may be finely serrate on the margin. In oc¬
casional specimens this hyaline plate may he seen in some
of the preceding segments, and in exceptional cases may be
traced the whole length of the antenna, being represented in
most of the segments by a row of small spines. Occasionally,
too, the eighth, ninth, tenth, twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth
segments may have a row of spines on the posterior border as
in C. fuscus. The twelfth segment has a long seta and a club-
shaped sensory seta. The first two segments may have ir¬
regular rows of spines. In exceptional cases, there may he
rows of spinules on the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh segments.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1089
In the second antenna, the inner margins of the first two
segments are usually setose. The third segment is short, but
little exceeding the second in length. (PI. LXXVI, fig. 7.)
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the ex-
opodites of the swimming feet is 4, 4, 4, 3.
The distal seta on the inner margin of the endopodite of
the fourth foot is rudimentary, being represented by a small
spine ; very rarely there is a short seta in this place ; I have
never found a seta of full length. (Pi. LXXVI, figs. 1, 3.)
The fifth foot is of two segments (Pi. LXXVI, fig. 6). The
first segment is longer than wide. It has a patch of spines on
the inner margin near the base, and a few spines about midway
of its inner margin which may extend over part of the surface
of the segment in a curved line. The distal margin is armed
with small spines. On its distal outer angle is a long seta.
The length of the second segment about equals the breadth of
the first. It bears a long median seta and two stout serrate
setae, one at each distal angle; the inner of these lateral setae
is the longer.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in the figure,
(PI. LXXVI, fig. 9).
The egg sacs of the female stand out from the abdomen al¬
most at right angles.
The females measure upwards of 1.5 mm.
Cyclops albidus is universally distributed in Xorth America.
It belongs to the litoral rather than to the limnetic fauna.
Under C. fuscus there is a brief discussion of the distinguish¬
ing points between these two species.
C. annulicornis Sars, C. tenuicarnis var. distinctus Richard,
and C. gracillicornis Lande are doubtless identical, and the
names have been given to separate a form supposed to be in¬
termediate between albicllus and fuscus. Brady (1906) and Lill-
jeborg (1901) make a distinct species using the name distinc¬
tus of Richard. Nothing has appeared in our American co-
pepod fauna which seems to need a distinct species name, and
I am inclined to agree with Schmeil that there is no good
reason for separating this form from albidus. Accordingly I
have placed them in the synonomy.
1090 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
From the description it is impossible to establish the identity
of virido-signatus of Miss Byrnes, but it would seem that this
is probably a larval form of either albidus or fuscus with the
•chances in favor of albidus.
CYCLOPS FUSCUS Jurine.
Plate LXXVII, figs. 1-7.
The cepbalotborax is oval, narrowing decidedly toward the
posterior end. Its width is rather more than one-half its
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops . 1091
length and the cephalothorax compares in length with the ab¬
domen as seven to four. The posterior angles of the segments
of the cephalothorax are not especially prominent. The first
segment is about three-fourths of the length of the whole
cephalothorax.
The first abdominal segment (PI. LXXVII, fig. 1) is only
slightly enlarged at its proximal end. Its length is rather less
than the combined length of the three following segments. The
last segment is armed on its posterior border with small spines.
The furcal rami are twice as long as wide, and ciliated on
their internal margins. The lateral seta is near the distal
end. Of the four terminal setae both the outer and the inner
are elongated. The inner is seldom more than twice the
length of the outer. All the terminal setae are strongly plu¬
mose.
The first antennae are composed of seventeen segments, and
reach to the end of the cephalothorax. The twelfth segment
bears a sensory hair. The eighth, ninth, tenth, twelfth, thir¬
teenth and fourteenth segments have rows of large spines on
their posterior borders (PI. LXXVII, fig. 3). The last three
antennal segments bear a lateral hyaline plate (PI. LXXVII,
fig. 4). In the last segment this hyaline plate is deeply notched
on the first two-thirds of the segment, having four especially
deep notches. The latter third of the plate is finely serrate. As
in alhidus these hyaline plates in some cases extend back upon
the preceding segments. I find, as does Schmeil, contrary to
the statement of Vosseler, that the indentations in the mem¬
brane of the last segment do not disappear in mounted speci¬
mens, but remain permanently like other cuticular structures.
In the second antennae, the inner margins of the first three
segments are setose. The second segment is short and the
third very long as compared with the corresponding structures
in alhidus. (PI. LXXVII, fig. 5.)
The spinous armature of the swimming feet is 4, 4, 4, 3.
This is as I have found it in all my American specimens.
Schmeil gives it 3, 4, 4, 3. Vosseler gives it, however, as I
have found it.
A structure not mentioned by any of the European authors
1092 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
is found on the third segment of the endopodite of the fourth
foot. The larger of the two terminal spines is armed on its-
inner margin with long irregular teeth instead of the short
spines as is customary. (PI. LXXVII, fig. 2.)
This feature I have found constant in specimens from the
northern states, hut it is absent in most of those that I have
examined from the southern states.
The structure of the fifth foot is like that of albidus.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in the
figure, Plate LXXVII, fig. G.
The egg sacs of the female hang close to the abdomen.
The female measures 3 to 4 mm. in length, according to
Schmeil. American specimens are smaller, being little over
half of this length.
This species is found widely distributed in the northern
continents, although nowhere very abundantly. In the U. S.
Herrick found it in Minnesota. Later I reported it from
Wisconsin and Michigan. E. B. Eorbes adds localities in Il¬
linois and Massachusetts. Pearse reported it from Nebraska.
I have found it also in collections from Arkansas and Louisi¬
ana, and it is probable that it is universally distributed.
As will be seen from the literature of the subject, albidus
and fuscus have been confused with each other until Schmeil
made the clear distinction between the two species. By the
difference in size, the darker color of fuscus , and the different
habit of the egg-sacs the two are easily distinguished at a
glance. In albidus the egg-sacs stand out from the abdomen,
while in fuscus they cling close to it. In albidus there is a
sensory club on the twelfth antennal segment, while in fuscus
that segment bears a sensory hair. In albidus the hyaline
plate of the last antennal segment is finely serrate; in fuscus
it is deeply notched. In albidus the third segment of the sec¬
ond antenna is short; in fuscus this segment is long. In albi -
dus the distal seta on the inner margin of the third segment of
the endopodite of the fourth foot is rudimentary. In fuscus
this seta is of the usual size, and commonly the large terminal
spine of this segment is armed with long irregular teeth on its
outer margin. In albidus the inner margins of the f ureal
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1093
rami are usually without cilia ; in fuscus they are thickly beset
with cilia.
CYCLOPS MODESTUS Herrick.
Plate LXXVIII, Figs. 1-4.
1883. Cyclops modestus Herrick, p. 500.
1884. “ “ “ p. 154, pi. R, figs. 1-5.
1887. “ “ “ p. 14.
1893. “ “ Marsh, p. 213, pi. Y, figs. 10-13.
1893. “ capilliferus Forbes, p. 248, pi. XL, figs. 14-17, pi. XLI,
fig. 18.
1895. “ modestus Herrick and Turner, p. 108, pi. XXI, figs. 1-5.
1895. “• capilliferus Herrick and Turner, p. 109, pi. VI, fig. 13, pi.
XXVIII, figs. 1-4.
1909. “ modestus Byrnes, p. 26, pi. XI, figs. 4 and 5.
A rather stout species. Cephalothorax broadly oval, its
breadth exceeding one-half its length. The cephalothorax is
considerably more than twice as long as the adbomen exclusive
of the furcal rami. The first segment comprises nearly two-
thirds of the length of the cephalothorax. The posterior lateral
angles of the segments project very little.
The abdomen (PI. LXXVIII, fig. 4) is very slender and
tapers little posteriorly. The first segment equals in length the
rest of the abdomen exclusive of the furcal rami ; it is wider at
the anterior end, and the lateral prominences are each armed
with a minute spine. The second and third segments are about
equal in length, while the fourth is shorter. The abdominal
segments are ciliate on their posterior borders.
The furcal rami are rather slender. They are about two
and one-half times as long as the last abdominal segment. The
inner margins are ciliate. The lateral seta is situated at about
one-half the length of the ramus, and the ramus is peculiarly
excavated backward from the seta. Of the terminal setae,
the outer is short and plumose, and the inner is rather long,
being three times the length of the outer.
The antennae (PI. LXXVIII, fig. 2) are sixteen segmented.
Herrick states that he has seen individuals “of a similar form”
with seventeen segments. They reach, in the female, to the
1094 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
middle or end of the second cephalothoracic segment. The
setae of the antennal appendages are unusually long.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the exo-
podites of the swimming feet is 4, 4, 3, 3. This is an un¬
unusual armature.
The fifth foot (PI. LXXVIII, fig. 3) is three segmented.
The first segment is short and without armature. The second
segment is nearly square and bears a seta on its outer distal
angle. The third segment is narrower, longer than wide and
hears two apical setae. Frequently the outer of these setae is
bent over the inner.
Length of the females 1.2 to 1.25 mm.
This was first described by Herrick from Alabama, and he
afterwards reported finding it in Minnesota. I found it in
two localities in Wisconsin and Forbes reports it from Wyom¬
ing, and states that it is an uncommon species in the north
central states. I have received specimens from R. A. Spaeth
collected at Haverford, Pennyslvania, and from C. F. Baker
collected at Auburn, Alabama.
CYPLOPS SERRULATUS Fischer.
Plate LXXVIIL, Figs. 5-9, Plate LXXIX, Figs. 4 and 8.
1851.
1853.
1857.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1870.
1872.
1875.
1876a.
1878.
1878.
1880.
1882.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
Cyclops serrulatus Fischer, p. 423, pi. X, figs. 22, 23, 26-31.
“ “ Lilljeborg, p. 158, pi. XY, fig. 12.
“ “ Claus, p. 36, pi. I, figs. 1-3.
“ “ “ p. 101, pi. I, figs. 1 and 2, pi. IY, fig. 12,
pi. XI, fig. 3.
“ “ Sars, p. 254.
“ “ Lubbock, p. 197.
“ “ Heller, p. 72.
“ “ Fric, p. 222, fig. 18.
“ “ Uljanin, p. 34, pi. VIII, figs. 1-8.
“ “ Hoek, p. 22.
“ “ Brady, p. 109, pi. XXII, figs. 1-6.
“ “ var. montanus Brady, p. 110, pi. XXII, figs. 7-14.
“ agilis Rehberg, p. 545.
“ “ Forbes, p. 649.
“ serrulatus Herrick, p. 230, pi. V, figs. 1-5, pi. VII, fig. 10.
“ “ G. M. Thompson, p. 96, pi. XI, figs. 19-22.
“ pectinifer Cragin, p. 6, pi. IY, figs. 1-7.
“ serrulatus Herrick, p. 157, pi. 0, figs. 17-19.
“ “ var. elegans , Herrick, p. 158.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1095
1885.
1886.
1890.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1893.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1898.
1901.
1901.
1901.
1901.
1901.
1991.
1903.
1903.
1905.
1906.
1909.
Cyclops agilis Daday, p. 240.
44 64 Yoseler, p. 190, pi. Y, figs. 29-31.
44 44 Thallwitz, p. 79.
4 4 4 4 Lande, p. 60, pi. XVII, fig. 69, pi. XVIII, figs. 70-80.
44 serrulatus Brady, p. 18, pi. VII, fig. 1.
44 agilis Forbes, p. 710.
44 serrulatus Richard, p. 234, pi. VI, fig. 19.
4 4 4 4 Schmeil, p. 29.
4 4 4 4 DeGuerne & Richard, p. 11.
4 4 4 4 Schmeil, p. 141, pi. V, figs. 6-12.
44 agilis Lande, p. 164.
44 serrulatus Marsh, p. 215, pi. VI, figs. 2-5.
4 4 4 4 Richard, p. 8.
4 4 4 4 Scott, p. 73.
44 Herrick and Turner, p. Ill, pi. XV, figs. 8-11, pi.
XIX, figs. 2-5, pi. XXVI, fig. 10, pi. XXIX, figs.
17-19.
4 4 4 4 Marsh, p. 19.
“ 44 Forbes, p. 54, pi. XVII, pi. XVIII, figs. 1-3.
4 4 4 4 Steuer, p. 34.
4 4 4 4 Matile, p. 131, pi. II, figs. 18 and 19.
4 4 4 4 Brewer, p. 134.
4 4 4 4 Lilljeborg, p. 81, pi. V, figs. 1-6.
44 macruroides Lilljeborg, p. 85, pi. V, figs. 7-11.
44 varius Lilljeborg, p. 87, pi. V, figs. 12-15, pi. VI, figs, 1-9.
4 4 4 4 var. speratus , Lilljeborg, p. 88, pi. V, figs. 12-15.
4 4 4 4 4 4 proximus, Lilljeborg, p. 89, pi. VI, figs. 1-4.
44 “ brachyurus, Lilljeborg, p. 90, pi. VI, figs. 5-9.
4 4 4 4 Graeter, p. 489, pi. XV, figs. 6, 9, 17 and 19.
4 4 4 4 var. denticulata Graeter, p. 491.
4 4 4 4 Jensen, p. 120.
4 4 4 4 Brady, p. 698.
44 serrulatus Byrnes, p. 27, pi. XII, figs. 1-5.
Cephalothorax (PI. LXXIX, fig. 8) elliptical rather than
oval, its breadth more than half its length. The segments do
not noticeably project over the following ones. The cephalo¬
thorax is more than twice as long as the abdomen exclusive of
the furcal segments.
The first abdominal segment is enlarged at the anterior end.
The second, third and fourth segments are about equal in
length. The last segment is bordered posteriorly by a row of
spines, and the preceding segments are commonly dentate on
their posterior borders.
The furcal rami vary greatly in length. At one extreme we
have the short stout form, perhaps one and a half times as long aa
1096 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
the last abdominal segment, and at the other extreme the slender
form in which the furca may be three times as long as the last
abdominal segment. The form shown in the plate, (PL
LXXVIII, fig. 7) may be considered typical while the figure in
plate LXXVIII, fig. 6 is of the slender form. The outer mar¬
gin of the furca is bordered by a row of short spines. These are
not present in the male, and while always present in the female,,
are very variable in size. It was noted by DeGuerne and
Kichard (?92) that the specimens collected at Bufisque showed
these spines much less clearly than did the European speci¬
mens. Brady (Brady T906) also states that the serrulations
in the Xew Zealand specimens are less marked than in those
in Europe. There is much variability even in the same gen¬
eral region. These short spines are commonly much more
prominent at the distal end of the furca. The lateral seta is
at the end of the furca. Of the terminal setae the outer is
short, sometimes spine-like, and, in the specimens with a short
furca, commonly stands at nearly right angles with the furca.
The second and third setae are prolonged; the third is rather
less than twice as long as the second and only slightly exceeds
the combined length of the abdomen and furca. The fourth
seta is slender and weak, seldom much exceeding the first in
length, and sometimes is shorter.
The first antennae are twelve-segmented and reach to the
third segment, or sometimes nearly to the fourth ; their length
is quite variable. The last three segments (PI. LXXVIII, fig.
5) hear an inconspicuous hyaline membrane. Some of the
European authors say that these hyaline membranes are some¬
times finely dentate, though commonly with entire margins.
This dentation has never been noticed in American specimens.
The spinous armature of the terminal segment of the exopo-
dites of the swimming feet is 3, 4, 4, 3.
The fifth foot (PL LXXVIII, fig. 8) is composed of a single
segment. It is armed on its inner distal angle with a stout
spine with serrate edges, and on its outer distal angle with a
slender seta. Midway between these, on a prominent base is
a long slender seta, considerable exceeding in length the outer
seta.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops . 1097
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in the figure,
(PL LXXVIII, fig. 9).
The egg-sacs are elongate and stand out from the abdomen.
The number of eggs is variable.
The size is variable, commonly running between .8 and 1.25
mm., but greater extremes are not unusual.
The species has been found so widely distributed that it
may be considered cosmopolitan.
It is convenient to use the varietal names montanus Brady
and elegans Herrick in speaking of the extreme forms. Mon¬
tanus is small, dark colored with short and stout furca, and
with few eggs in the egg sacs. Elegans is larger, slender, with
long and slender furcae, and numerous eggs in the egg sacs.
As indicated by me in a former publication (Marsh ’92) mon¬
tanus is more common in pools and elegans in lakes. Elegans
may be considered as limnetic and montanus as litoral. There
are exceptions to this distribution, however, for elegans may
be found in shallow waters, and in collections in the southern
states it is not unusual to find both forms in the same col¬
lection.
CYCLOPS PRASINCJS Fischer.
Plate LXXVIII, figs. 1, 2, 3 and 10.
1860.
1871.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1895.
Cyclops prasinus Fischer, p. 652, pi. XX, figs. 19-26a.
“ longicornis Yernet, p. 44, fig. 3.
“ fluviatilis Herrick, p. 231, pi. VIII, figs. 1-9.
“ magnoctavus Cragin, p. 5, pi. II, figs. 14-23.
“ fluviatilis Herrick, p. 159, pi. Q5, figs. 1-9.
“ pentagonus Yosseler, p. 191, pi. Y, figs. 32-37, pi. YI, figs.
11 and 12.
“ pentagonus var. vichy ensis Richard, p. 162.
“ fluviatilis Herrick, p. 15.
“ prasinus Richard, p. 65.
“ magnoctavus Brady, p. 19, figs. 1-4.
“ pentagonus Schmeil, p. 31.
“ “ Blanchard & Richard, p. 515.
“ “ Richard, p. 233, pi. YI, fig. 8.
“ prasinus Schmeil, p. 150, pi. Y, figs. 1-5.
“ fluviatilis Marsh, p. 214, pi. V, figs. 14 and 15, pi. VI, fig. 1.
“ fluviatilis Marsh, p. 18.
“ fluviatilis Herrick and Turner, p. 114, pi. XXYI, figs. 1-8,
pi. XXX, figs. 1.
1098 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
1897. Cyclops prasinus Forbes, p. 57, pi. XIX, figs.l and 2, pi. XX, figs.
1 and 2.
1898. “ fluviatilis Brewer, p. 135.
1903. “ prasinus Graeter, p. 486, pi. 15, figs. 3 and 4.
1909. “ fluviatilis Byrnes, p.'28, pi. XY, figs. 1 and 2.
A small slender species. Its breadth exceeds one-half its
length, and its length is rather more than twice the length of
the abdomen exclnsive of the fnrcal rami. The first segment
is two-thirds the length of the entire cephalothorax. The last
segment has a row of very fine hairs.
The first abdominal segment (PI. LXXIX, fig. 1) is very
slightly enlarged at its anterior end and the whole abdomen-
tapers gradually to the end of the furca.
The furca is short, being about one and a half times the length
of the last abdominal segment. The lateral seta is situated at
about the middle. Of the terminal setae the outer and inner are
short and slender, the inner being the longer. The second
and third are produced, the third being much the longer.
The first antennae (PL LXXIX, fig. 2) are composed of
twelve segments and reach to the end of the third cephalothor¬
acic segment. The last three segments bear a very minute hya¬
line membrane. The antennae are bent in a way that is pe¬
culiar to this species.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the
exopodites of the swimming feet are 3, 4, 3, 3.
The fifth foot (PL LXXIX, fig. 10) is composed of one seg¬
ment. It bears at the inner distal angle a slender spine, on
the outer distal angle a seta, and between, on a conical base,,
an elongated seta.
The egg-sacs lie close to the abdomen.
The females average about .48 mm. in length. This is con¬
siderably smaller than the sizes given for the European speci¬
mens.
This species is widely distributed in Europe and has been
reported from the Azores (Richard 1896), Ceylon (Daday ?98)
and Calcutta (Gurney 1906 and ,1907). It is known to occur
in America from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic and as
far south as Mexico. Its characteristic habitat is lakes rather
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops .
1099
than pools. It is one of the common species in the limnetic
regions of the Great Lakes.
1888.
1851.
1858.
1857.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1872.
1874.
1874.
1875.
1878.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1887
1888.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1897.
1901.
1903.
1909.
CYCLOPS PHALERATUS Koch.
Plate LXXIX, fig. 9; plate LXXX, figs 1-6.
Cyclops phaleratus Koch, H 21, pi. IX.
“ canthocarpoides Fischer, p. 426, pi. X, figs. 24, 25, 32-38.
“ “ Lilljeborg, p. 208.
“ “ Claus, p. 37, pi. I, figs. 6-10.
“ “ Claus, p. 102, pi. IY, figs. 1-4.
“ “ Lubbock, p. 202.
“ phaleratus Sars, p. 255.
“ canthocarpoides Fric, p. 223, fig. 19.
“ lascivus Poggenpol, p. 72, pi. XY, figs. 22-24, pi. XYI, figs.
7 and 8.
“ Fischeri Poggenpol, p. 73, pi. XY, fig. 28, pi. XVI, figs.
12-15.
“ phaleratus Uljanin, p. 38, pi. IX, figs. 1-5.
“ “ Brady, p. 116, pi. XXIII, figs. 7-13.
“ adolescens Herrick, p. 231, pi. YI, figs. 15-20.
“ perarmatus Cragin, p. 7, pi. I, figs. 9-18.
“ phaleratus Herrick, p. 161, pi. R, figs. 6-10.
“ “ Daday, p. 252.
“ “ Herrick, p. 14, pi. YII, figs. 2, a-d.
“ “ Sostaric, p. 74, pi. II, figs. 21-22.
“ “ Lande, p. 75, pi. XX, figs. 126-136.
“ “ Brady, p. 25, pi. IX, fig. 2.
“ “ Richard, p. 238, pi. YI, fig. 12.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 36.
“ “ Lande, p. 171.
“ “ • Schmeil, p. 170, pi. VIII, figs. 1-11.
“ “ Marsh, p. 216, pi. YI, figs. 6 and 7.
“ “ Herrick, and Turner, p. 120, pi. XVII, figs. 1-7,
pi. XVIII, figs. 2-2d, pi. XIX, fig. 1, pi. XXI,
figs. 6-10.
“ “ Marsh, p. 19.
“ “ Forbes, p. 59, pi. XX, fig. 3.
“ “ Lilljeborg, p. 105, pi. VI. figs. 20-21.
“ “ Graeter, p. 499.
“ “ Byrnes, p. 31, pi. XY, figs. 1-9.
The cephalothorax (Pl. LXXX, fig. 1) is elliptical; its
breadth is two thirds of its length. The first segment comprises
nearly one-half of its length. The fifth segment is armed pos¬
teriorly with a row of spines.
1100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
The abdomen is broad (PI. LXXX, fig. 6), its first seg¬
ment being only slightly smaller than the last cephalothoracic
segment. Schmeil states that the second and third segments of
the female and the second, third and fourth of the male are
serrate on their posterior borders. I find some variations in
these serrations in our forms.
The furcal rami are short, broad and tapering. They are
armed upon their surfaces with rows of spines. The lateral
setae are well towards the end, with spines at their bases.
Of the terminal armature, the outer is a broad, stout spine,
the inner a slender, short seta. The median setae are long
and stout. The inner margins of the rami are ciliate.
The first antennae (PI. LXXX, fig. 3) reach beyond the
middle of the first cephalothoracic segment and, in American
specimens are commonly composed of eleven segments. Herrick
and Forbes claim to have collected mature specimens with ten
segmented antennae. The eighth segment has a sensory hair.
The second antenna (PI. LXXX, fig. 4) is short and broad.
Besides the rows of small spines on the surface of the second
segment, there is upon the anterior margin a row of curved tooth
like spines. Hear the end of the second segment is a stout
spine, and a similar spine is located near the end of the third
segment.
The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the
exopodites of the swimming feet is 3, 4, 4, 3. The outer mar¬
gins of the segments of the feet are armed with stout spines,
and the first basal segment is armed posteriorly with a row
of small spines.
The fifth feet (PI. LXXIX, fig. 9) are widely separated from
each other and each consists of a broad plate armed with three
stout setae.
The form of the receptaculum seminis is shown in Plate
LXXX, fig. 5.
The egg-sacs lie rather close to the abdomen.
Length of female about 1.2 mm. according to Schmeil, but
American forms average somewhat smaller.
Cyclops phaleratus occurs in shallow lakes and stagnant
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops . 1101
pools, and is world wide in its distribution, although not abun¬
dant anywhere.
The question of the identity of our form with that of Europe
has been discussed by Schmeil, and I think we must agree
with his conclusion. Really the only reason for separating
our form is the fact that it ordinarily has eleven segments in
the antenna. If we recognize this as a specific difference we
feho'uld call the American form perarmatus Cragin.
CYCLOPS VARICANS Saks.
1862. Cyclops varicans Sars, p. 252.
1875.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
orientalis Uljanin, pp. 33-34, pi. VII, figs. 10 and 11; pi. X,
figs. 8-13; pi. XI, figs. 1 and 2.
varicans Lande, p. 64, pi. XVIII, figs. 81-90.
Schmeil, p. 33.
Lande, p. 164.
Schmeil, p. 116, pi. VI, figs. 1-5.
Richard, p. 8.
Herrick, p. 116, pi. XIX, figs. 12-13; pi. XXX,
1895.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1901.
1903.
1905.
1906.
1909.
figs. 2-8.
“ Richard, p. 1.
“ Forbes, pp. 63-64.
“ Matile, p. 130, pi. II, fig. 17.
“ Scott, p. 322, pi. IX, figs. 26-28.
“ Lilljeborg, p. 72, pi. IV, figs. 23, 24.
“ Graeter, p. 528, pi. XV, figs. 22, 25.
“ Van Douwe, p. 682.
“ Pearse, p. 249.
bicolor Byrnes, p. 29, pi. XIII, figs. 1-5.
This is a species of world wide distribution, and it would
be expected in our American fauna. I have never found it in
any of the collections that have come under my observation.
It is mentioned by Herrick, E. B. Forbes and Pearse as being
found in America. Herrick states that he found it but once.
His figures are not exact, but he gives twelve segments in the
antenna of the female which should distinguish it from the
closely related form bicolor . Forbes speaks of it as fairly
common in America, but he gives neither description nor figures.
Pearse states that he found it on Nantucket Island, but he
too, gives neither description nor figures.
8 — S. & A. — 3
1102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
The bicolor of Miss Byrnes has antennae of twelve segments
and must be considered as varicans.
Because of the very close resemblance of this species to
bicolor one cannot help being a little skeptical in regard to
some of these recorded occurrences, in spite of the fact that it
might be expected to be a member of the American copepod
fauna.
CYCLOPS BICOLOR Saks.
Plate LXXX, figs. 7-9: Plate LXXXI, figs. 1 and 2.
1863.
1880.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1888.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1895.
1901.
1903.
Cyclops bicolor Sars, p. 253.
“ “ Rehberg, p. 547.
“ “ Herrick, p. 160, pi. R, fig. 12.
“ “ Daday, p. 246.
“ brevisetosus Daday, p. 255, pi. Ill, figs. 3, 5 and 10.
“ diaphanus Herrick, p. 16, pi. VII, figs. 3 a-e.
“ bicolor Lande, p. 67, pi. XVIII, figs. 91-98.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 34.
“ ” Schmeil, p. 118, pi. VI. figs. 6-13.
“ “ Lande, p. 165.
“ “ Marsh, p. 217.
“ “ Herrick, p. 118, pi. XVIII, figs. 3-3e, pi. XXI, fig. 12.
“ Marsh, p. 20.
“ “ Lilljeborg, p. 78, pi. IV, figs. 27 and 28.
“ “ Graeter, p. 533, pi. 15, figs. 34-36.
Cephalothorax oval, its breadth being slightly more than one-
half its length. The first segment comprises considerably more
than one half of the cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is
rather more than twice as long as the abdomen exclusive of
the f ureal rami. The fifth cephalothoracic segment bears
upon each side a long seta.
The first abdominal segment (Plate LXXXI, fig. 1) is
somewhat enlarged anteriorly and equals in length the re¬
mainder of the abdomen exclusive of the furcal rami. The last
segment is armed with small spines on the ventral surface and
is coarsely dentate on the dorsal surface.
The furcal rami do not equal the length of the last two
abdominal segments. The lateral seta is at about three-fourths
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1103
of its length. The first and fourth of the terminal seta are
short and slender, the inner exceeding the length of the outer.
The antennae (Plate LXXXI, fig. 2) have eleven segments,
the third and seventh being the longer.
The swimming feet (Plate LXXX, figs. 7 and 8) are com¬
posed of two segments. The spinous armature of the terminal
segments is 3, 4, 4, 3.
The fifth foot (Plate LXXX, fig. 9) consists of a single seg¬
ment. It is slender and hears at the tip a single seta.
Average length of mature females .5mm.
Cyclops bicolor occurs in stagnant pools, and is widely dis¬
tributed, although nowhere common.
I have notes of a mature female with antennae of ten seg¬
ments. In this female the egg sacs contained only four or
five eggs each while the more ordinary number is from fifteen
to twenty.
This species, as described, does not correspond perfectly to
the diagnosis of bicolor as given by Schmeil. There is a dif¬
ference in the form of the fifth cephalothoracic segment and
in the proportions of the furea.
There is, apparently some variation in the position of the
fifth foot on the last cephalothoracic segment, and in some
individuals, it resembles somewhat rubellus of Lilljeborg.
The characters of the swimming feet, however, as given by
Lilljeborg make a clear cut distinction between rubellus and
bicolor. One might consider the American form a distinct
species. The differences are slight, however, and besides are,
for the most part, differences in structures which vary in
other species, so that it seems to me better to consider our
form as a variety of the European species. It may be added
that because of its comparative rarity, a large number of in¬
dividuals have not been studied, and a larger amount of ma¬
terial may show a closer relationship to the European form
than now appears.
1104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
C. FIMBRIATUS Fischer.
1853.
1863.
1870.
1872.
1875.
1878.
1880.
1880.
1882.
1882.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1886.
1888.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1895.
1897.
1901.
1903.
1909.
Plate LXXXI, figs. 3-7.
Cyclops Jimbriatus Fischer, p. 94, pi. Ill, figs. 19-28 and 30.
“ crassicornis Sars, p. 256.
“ Gredleri Heller, p. 74, pi. I, figs. 3 and 4.
“ pauper Fric, p. 223, fig. 20.
crassicornis Uljanin, p. 39, pi. VIII, figs. 9-16, pi. XII, fig. 1.
crassicornis Brady, p. 118, pi. XXIII, figs. 1-6.
Poppei Rehberg, p. 550, pi. 6, figs 9-11.
jimbriatus Rehberg, p. 548, pi. VI, figs. 7 and 8.
“ “ Vejdowsky, p. 63, pi. VII, figs. 9, 10 and 13.
crassicornis Herrick, p. 232, pi. IV, figs. 9-14.
“ jimbriatus Herrick, p. 162, pi. R, fig. 11.
“ “ Daday, p. 262.
“ margoi Daday, p. 264, pi. Ill, figs. 20-25.
jimbriatus Vosseler, p. 192, pi. VI, figs. 4-8.
crassicornis Sostaric, p. 75, pi. II, figs. 23 and 24.
‘ jimbriatus Lande, p. 79, pi. XXI, figs. 166-169.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 35.
“ “ Brady, p. 25, pi. IX, fig. 1.
“ “ Richard, p. 238, pi. VII, figs. 13 and 14.
“ “ Schmeil, p. 161, pi. VII, figs. 8-13.
“ “ Lande, p. 173.
“ “ Marsh, p. 218, pi. VI, figs. 8 and 9.
“ “ Herrick, p 121, pi. XVII, figs. 8 and 9, pi. XXI,
fig. 11, pi. XXV, figs. 9-14.
Steuer, p. 7.
Lilljeborg, p. 94, pi. VI, figs. 12-14.
Graeter, p. 503, pi. 15, fig. 1.
Byrnes, p. 33, pi. XV, figs. 3-7.
Cephalothorax (Plate LXXXI, fig. 3) oval, its breadth being
a little more than two- thirds of its length. The cephalothorax
is about one and seven tenths as long as the abdomen ex¬
clusive of the furcal rami. Each segment of the cephalo¬
thorax projects somewhat over the succeeding segment.
The last cephalothoracic segment is armed laterally with
rather long hairs.
The anterior part of the first abdominal segment is some¬
what larger than the posterior part. The last segments are
armed posteriorly with spines.
The furcal rami (PI. LXXXI, fig. 6) are commonly slender,
slightly curved in outline, and with their outer extremities
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1105
widely separated. Schmeil says that the length nearly equals
the last three segments. In our forms this is rarely the case,
the length being more generally equal to the last two and a
half of the third, or about three times the length of the last
segment. In some cases the rami are shorter yet, as in some
specimens collected in the Saskatchewan. The lateral seta is
situated, at about two-thirds the length of the furca on the
dorsal surface. A row of spines extends from the outer
margin of the furca, on the dorsal surface opposite the -seta,,
curving nearly to the center of the furca, and then nearly to
the proximal end of the furca. Of the apical setae, the outer
is spine like and short, the inner is slender and somewhat
longer than the outer ; the longest of the two middle ones nearly
equals in length the cephalothorax.
The first antennae (PI. LXXXI, fig. 2) of the female are
composed of eight segments, are about two-thirds as long as the
first cephalothoracic segment, and in repose lie nearly at right
angles with the long axis of the animal. The fourth segment
is the longest, and the fifth hears a sensory seta. The setae
with which the antennal segments are armed, are, for the most
part, long and stout. The segments near the base are quite
stout, the first two being four times as wide as the terminal
segment.
The external margins of the segments of the swimming feet
(PI. LXXXI, fig. 5) are armed with short, stout spines. The
spinous armature of the terminal segments of the exopodites of
the swimming feet is represented by the formula, 3, 4, 4, 3.
The fifth foot (PI. LXXXI, fig. 4) consists of a single seg¬
ment, and is armed with one spine and two setae.
The egg-sacs, pi. LXXXI, fig. 3, lie alongside the abdomen,
and contain only a small number of eggs.
The length of mature females varies from .7 mm. to .84 mm.
This is somewhat smaller than the figures given by Schmeil
for the European forms.
Cyclops fimbriatus is not a common species, but is cosmopol¬
itan in its distribution.
The synonomy is given before the description, and no ex-
1106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
planations are required as it has been thoroughly discussed
elsewhere.
CYCLOPS AEQUOREUS Fischer.
1853. Cyclops magniceps Lilljeborg.
1860. “ aequoreus Fischer, p. 654, pi. XX, figs. 26-29.
1863. “ “ Claus, p. 103.
1868. “ “ Brady, p. 128, pi. IV, figs. 9-16.
1878. “ “ Brady, p. 119, pi. XIX, figs. 8-10; pi. XXI, figs.
10-17.
1883. “ Dumasti Joly, p. 120, figs. 1-8.
1883. “ aequoreus G. M. Thompson, p. 97, pi. XI, figs. 16-18.
1888. “ Dumasti Richard, p. 67.
1891. “ aequoreus Blanchard and Richard, p. 515.
1891. “ “ Brady, p. 26, pi. X, fig. 1.
1892. “ “ Lande, p. 173.
1893. Hemicy clops aequoreus Claus, p. 348, pi. Ill, figs. 11-17.
1893. Cyclops aequoreus Scott, p. 74.
1895. “ “ Herrick, p. 122, pi. XXIII, fig. 5.
1895. “ “ Scott, p. 33.
1901. “ “ Lilljeborg, p. 102, pi. VI, figs. 17-19.
Cyclops aequoreus was first recognized in our fauna by Her¬
rick. It is an inhabitant of brackish water. It has never
appeared in any of my collections, but Mr. E. Foster tells
me that he has collected it in Lake Ponchartrain and connect¬
ing waters. It seems likely that further collections in brack¬
ish waters will show that this is not an uncommon form. It
is readily recognized hv the six segmented antennae of the
female and the peculiar form of the fifth foot.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1107
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
This bibliography includes only those papers of systematic
importance in regard to the species treated of, and which
have been quoted in this report.
Annandale, M.
1907. The fauna of brackish ponds at Port Canning,
Lower Bengal. Part I. Redords of Ind.
Mus. Vol. I, Part I, pp. 35-43.
Baird, W.
1850. Hatural history of the British Entomostraca. Ray
Soc. Lond.
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1108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
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Claus, C.
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Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1109
Douwe, C. van.
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1110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Gurney, E.
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1882. Cyclopidae of Minn, with notes on other copepods.
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Minn. pp. 221-233.
1884. A final report on the Crustacea of Minn, included
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1905. Faunistik Fortegnelse over de danske Ferksvands-
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turh. Foren i Kbhvn. T9 05.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1111
Joly 1ST.
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1820. Histoire des Monocles qui se trouvent aux en¬
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1835-41. Deutschlands Crustaceen, Myriapoden und
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Lande, A.
1890. Materyjaly do Fauny Skorupiakow Widlonogich
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1903. Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops hrevis -
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1863. Hotes on some new or little known species of fresh¬
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XXIV.
Marsh, C. D.
1893. On the Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Central Wis¬
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1112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
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Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1113
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'Sars, G. 0.
1863. Oversigt af de indenlandsko Ferksvandscopepoder
Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Chris¬
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iSchmeil, O.
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1114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
1897. The imvertebrate fauna of the inland waters of
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Scott, Thomas and Andrew.
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1898. The entomostraca of Epping Forest, with some gen¬
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1888. Prilog poznavanju faune slatkovodnih korepnjaka
Hrvatske Rad jugoslavenske akademije znan-
osti i umjetnosti XCII, pp. 103?214.
Abbreviated translation in Steuer, 1899.
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Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1115
Thomson, G. M.
1883. On the New Zealand Copepoda. Trans, and Proc.
New Zealand Inst. Yol. XV, pp. 93-116.
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1875. Crustaceen von Turkestan. Schriften d. Ge-
sellsch. y. Freunden der Naturwissensch. zu
Moskau. Bd. XI, pp. 22-41.
Yejdowsky, F.
1882. Tierische Organismen in den Brunnengewassern
von Prag.
Yosseler, J.
1886. Die freilebenden Copepoden Wiirttembergs und
angrenzender Gegenden. Jahresh. des Yereins
f. vaterl. Naturkunde in Wiirtteberg. 22 JaFrg.
pp. 167-204.
1116
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Fig. 1. Cyclops
Fig. 2. Cyclops
Fig. 3. Cyclops
Fig. 4. Cyclops
male
Fig. 5. Cyclops
Fig. 6. Cyclops
Fig. 7. Cyclops
Fig. 8. Cyclops
Fig. 9. Cyclops
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXII.
ater ; fourth swimming foot (x 120).
ater; abdomen of female (x 103).
ater; fifth foot (x 340).
ater ; eleventh to fourteenth antennal segments of fe-
(x 425).
ater ; receptaculum seminis (x 321).
ater; antennule of female (x 103).
viridis var. americanus; fifth foot (x 340).
viridis var. parcus; fifth foot (x 340).
ater; last three segments of female antenna (x 212).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XVI.
Plate LXXII.
Marsh — North American, Species of Cyclops.
PLATE LXXIII.
1117
9” S . & A. — 3
1118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters <
i
Fig. 1. Cyclops
Fig. 2. Cyclops
Fig. 3. Cyclops
Fig. 4. Cyclops
Fig. 5. Cyclops
Fig. 6. Cyclops
Fig. 7. Cyclops
Fig. 8. Cyclops
Fig. 9. Cyclops
Fig. 10. Cyclops
Fig. 11. Cyclops
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXIII.
bicuspidatus ; first antenna of female (x 212).
bicuspidatus; second antenna of female.
bicuspidatus ; furca of female (x 340).
bicuspidatus ; mandible (x 340).
bicuspidatus; outer maxillipede (x 212).
bicuspidatus; fourth swimming foot (x 212).
bicuspidatus var.; abdomen of female (x 103).
bicuspidatus; abdomen of female (x 103).
bicuspidatus; labrum (x 475).
bicuspidatus; fifth foot (x 475).
bicuspidatus; fifth foot (x 475).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XVI.
Plate LiXXIII.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1119
PLATE LXXIV.
1120
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXIV.
Fig. 1. Cyclops viridis var. parcus; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 2. Cyclops viridis var. americanus ; receptaculum seminis (x
212).
Fig. 3. Cyclops Leuckarti; abdomen of female (x 103).
Fig. 4. Cyclops LeucJcarti; second segment of outer maxilliped (x
212).
Fig. 5. Cyclops Leuckarti; second segment of outer maxilliped (x
212).
Fig. 6. Cyclops Leuckarti ; second segment of outer maxilliped (x
212).
Fig. 7. Cyclops Leuckarti; receptaculum seminis (x 165).
Fig. 8. Cyclops Leuckarti ; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 9. Cyclops Leuckarti ; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 10. Cyclops Leuckarti ; terminal segment of female antenna (x
340).
Fig. 11. Cyclops Leuckarti ; inner maxilliped (x 212).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XYI.
Plate LXXIV.
1121
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
.
PLATE LXXY.
2122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXV.
Fig. 1. Cyclops Leuckarti ; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 2. Cyclops Leuckarti ; twelfth to fifteenth antennal segments of
female (x 300).
Fig. 3. Cyclops Leuckarti; second antenna (x 212).
Fig. 4. Cyclops tenuis ; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 5. Cyclops tenuis; abdomen of female (x 212).
Fig. 6. Cyclops tenuis; labrum (x 475).
Fig. 7. Cyclops tenuis; antenna of female (x 120).
Fig. 8. Cyclops tenuis; cephalothorax and abdomen of female (x 70).
Fig. 9. Cyclops tenuis; receptaculum seminis (x 212).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XYI.
Plate LXXY.
1123
\
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
PLATE LXXYI.
1.124
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXVI.
Fig. 1. Cyclops albidus; terminal segment of endopodite of fourth foot
(x 340).
Fig. 2. Cyclops albidus; eleventh to fourteenth segments of antenna of
female (x 212).
Fig. 3. Cyclops albidus; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 4. Cyclops albidus; inner maxillipede (x 162).
Fig. 5. Cyclops albidus; abdomen of female (x 103).
Fig. 6. Cyclops albidus; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 7. Cyclops albidus; second antenna (x 212).
Fig. 8. Cyclops albidus; sixteenth and seventeenth segments of an¬
tenna of female (x 216).
Fig. 9. Cyclops albidus; receptaculum seminis (x 212).
Trans . Wis. Acad Vol. XV I .
Plate LXXVI.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1125
V
PLATE LXXVII,
1126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXVII.
Fig. 1. Cyclops fuscus; abdomen of female (x 103).
Fig. 2. Cyclops fuscus; terminal segment of endopodite of fourth, foot
(x 212).
Fig. 3. Cyclops fuscus; segments eight to fourteen of antenna of fe¬
male (x 214).
Fig. 4. Cyclops fuscus; segments fifteen to seventeen of antenna of fe¬
male (x 212).
Fig. 5. Cyclops fuscus; second antenna (x 212).
Fig. 6. Cyclops fuscus; receptaculum seminis (x 168).
Fig. 7. Cyclops fuscus; first segment of antenna of female (x 212).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate Lxxyri.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1127
PLATE LXXVIII.
1128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
T
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXVIII.
Fig. 1. Cyclops modestus; female (x 103).
Fig. 2. Cyclops modestus; first antenna of female (x 212).
Fig., 3. Cyclops modestus; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 4. Cyclops modestus; abdomen of female (x 212).
Fig. 5. Cyclops serrulatus; fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth seg¬
ments of antenna of female (x 340).
Fig. 6. Cyclops serrulatus ; abdomen of female, slender form var. ele -
gans (x 103).
Fig. 7. Cyclops serrulatus ; abdomen of female, most common form
(x 103).
Fig. 8. Cyclops serrulatus; fifth foot (x 475).
Fig. 9. Cyclops serrulatus; receptaculum seminis (x 212).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate LXXVIII.
Marsh — North Americm Species of Cyclops. 1129
-
PLATE LXXIX.
1130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,
EXPLXANATION OF PLATE LXXIX.
Fig. 1. Cyclops prasinus; abdomen of female (x 212).
Fig. 2. Cyclops prasinus; first antenna of female (x 212).
Fig. 3. Cyclops prasinus; fourth foot (x 340).
Fig. 4. Cyclops serrulatus; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 5. Cyclops tenuis; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 6. Cyclops viridis var. americanus; abdomen of female (x 103) .
Fig. 7. Cyclops viridis var. br&vispinosus ; abdomen of female (x
103).
Fig. 8. Cyclops serrulatus; female (x 103).
Fig. 9. Cyclops pihaleratus; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 10. Cyclops prasinus; fifth foot (x 475).
Fig. 11. Cyclops bicuspidatus var. navus; abdomen of female (x 103}
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XVI.
Plate LXXIX.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops.
1131
PLATE LXXX.
1132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXX.
Fig. 1. Cyclops phaleratus; female (x 58).
Fig. 2. Cyclops phaleratus; fourth foot (x 212).
Fig. 3. Cyclops phaleratus ; antenna of female (x 212).
Fig. 4. Cyclops phaleratus; second antenna of female (x
Fig. 5. Cyclops phaleratus; receptaculum seminis (x 212).
Fig. 6. Cyclops phaleratus; abdomen of male (x 103).
Fig. 7. Cyclops bicolor; second foot (x 340).
Fig. 8. Cyclops bicolor ; fourth foot (x 340).
Fig. 9. Cyclops bicolor; fifth foot (x 340).
340)
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XVI.
Plate LXXX.
Marsh — North American Species of Cyclops. 1133
PLATE LXXXI
1134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXI.
t
Fig. 1. Cyclops bicolor; abdomen of female, dorsal surface (x 300).
Fig. 2. Cyclops bicolor; first antenna of female (x 340).
Fig. 3. Cyclops fimbriatus; female (x 72).
Fig. 4. Cyclops fimbriatus; fifth foot (x 340).
Fig. 5. Cyclops fimbriatus; fourth foot (x 348).
Fig. 6. Cyclops fimbriatus; furca (x 348).
Fig. 7. Cyclops fimbriatus; antenna of female (x 300).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XVI.
Plate LXXX1
INDEX OF SPECIES.
Cyclops adolescem, 1099.
“ aequoreus, 1106.
“ agilis, 1094.
“ albidus, 1087.
“ americanus, 1073.
“ annulicornis, 1087.
“ ater , 1071.
“ bicolor, 1101, 1102.
“ bicuspidatus, 1078.
“ brevicornis, 1072.
“ brcvisetosus, 1102.
“ brevispinosus, 1073.
“ canthocarpoides, 1099.
“ capilliferus, 1093.
“ Clausii, 1072, 1087.
“ coronatus, 1090.
*•' crassicornis, 1104.
“ diaphanus, 1102.
“ distinctus, 1087.
“ Dumasti, 1106.
“ edax, 1082.
“ Entzii, 1078.
“ fimbriatus, 1104.
Fischeri, 1099.
“ fluviatilis, 1097.
“ Forbcsi, 1079.
“ gigas , 1072, 1078.
“ gracilicornis, 1087.
“ Qredlcri, 1104.
“ gyrinus, 1087.
“ Tielgolandicus, 1078.
“ ingens, 1073.
“ insectus, 1073.
“ lascivus, 1099.
“ Leeuwenhoekii, 1081.
“ Leuekarti, 1081.
“ longicornis, 1097.
“ macruroides, 1095.
“ magniceps, 1106.
magnoctavus, 1097.
“ margoi, 1104.
“ minnilus, 1079'.
modestus, 1093.
Cyclops navus, 1078.
“ odessanus, 1078.
“ oithonoides, 1081, 1087.'
“ orientali, 1101.
“ parcus, 1073.
“ pauper , 1104.
“ pectinatus, 1078, 1081.
“ pectinifer, 1094.
“ pentagonus, 1097.
“ perarmatus, 1099.
“ phaleratus, 1099.
“ Poppei, 1104.
“ prasinus, 1097.
“ pulchellus, 1078, 1082.
“ quadricornis var. b, 1087.
“ quadricornis var. c, 1090.
“ Scourfeldi, 1082.
“ serratus, 1079.
“ serrulatus, 1094.
“ serrulatus var. elegans, 1094.
“ serrulatus v montanus, 1094.
“ signatus, 1087, 1090.
“ signatus v ar. annulicornis, 1088 .
“ signatus var. coronatus, 1090,
“ signatus var. fasciacorni&fl 087.
“ simplex, 1081.
“ tenuis, 1085.
“ tenuicornis, 1081, 1090.
Thomasi, 1078.
“ uniangulatus, 1073.
“ varicans, 1101.
“ varius, 1095.
“ varius var. brachyurus, 1095.
“ varius var. denticulata, 1095.
“ varius var. proximus, 1095.
“ varius var. speratus, 1095.
“ viridis, 1072.
“ viridis var. americanus, 1076.
“ viridis var. brevispinosus 1075.
viridis var. ingens, 1075.
“ viridis var. parcus, 1076.
“ virido-signatus, 1088.
Hemicyclops aequoreus, 1106.
Monoculus quadricornis albidus, 1087.
Monoculus quadricornis fuscus, 1090.
Monoculus quadricornis var. viridis, 1072.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE ' ,
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF ' _ '' . . ' .
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II, NO. 4
\ ¥ ; v : - ■ ' ( '
r .• ' * *V- s > i
MADISON, WISCONSIN.
1910
:•/ cyATA'.’ ' ■ ' " ; •
CONTENTS
Page
Studies on the tremellineae of Wisconsin (with three
plates),. . . . 'Edward M. Gilbert , 1136
Spore formation in Geoglossum Glabrum Pers. (with
three plates), ... Hallie D. M. J olivette, 1171
Some contributions to the life history and cytology of
the smuts (with eight plates), .
Benjamin F. Lutman, 1191
THe annual half -volume of the Transactions is issued by the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters in six num¬
bers, under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.
The price of this part is 50 cents.
STUDIES ON THE TREMELLINEAE OF WISCONSIN.
E. M. Gilbert.
The Tremellineae have so far been little studied in any of the
Mississippi V alley States. In the following list I have brought
together the material collected by myself and others in Wiscon¬
sin as a preliminary contribution to our knowledge of the species
of this region. The list is of course far from complete and
without a doubt many additions to it may be expected in the
near future. The identification of the species is especially diffi¬
cult, but it is a necessary preliminary to a further physiological
and cytological study of the group. The classification used is
based upon that of Eries as somewhat rearranged by Winter.
Fries’s technical description of the group is as follows: “En¬
tire fungus homogenous, gelatinous, collapsing when dry, re¬
gaining its form when moistened, traversed internally by
branched hyphae which terminate in basidia at the periphery;
basidia variable in form, elongate or fusoid ; transversely septate
or continuous, undivided or with the apex forked, or sub-globose
and cruciately divided and bearing two or four sterigmata;
spores hyaline, globose, ovoid or kidney shaped, continuous or
septate, often becoming variously septate on germination and
producing sporidiola (conidia) of various forms.
The basidia which of course are the characteristic feature of
the group, are, as is well known, of several quite distinct types.
In Auricularia , the basidia are essentially like the promy¬
celium of a rust. They are transversely septate, each cell
producing near or at its apex a single sterigma. A second type
occurs in Dacrymces and Guepinia where the basidium is more
1138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
or less cylindrical and forked at the apex, each branch ending in
a sterigma bearing a single spore. A third type occurs in
Tremella where the basidinm at first appeals as. a sub globose or
pear shaped body terminating a hypha. This oval cell divides
into four by longitudinal septa placed at right angles to each
other. Each of these cells produces an apical sterigma bearing
a spore. The spores are always hyaline or colorless, and this is
the only family included among the basidiomycetes in which
some of the species are regarded as having septate spores.
The spores in most cases, according to Brefeld produce in
germinating characteristic secondary spores, sporidioles. Bre¬
feld has also shown that the production of these conidia is not
at all uncommon among various members of the family. In
tremella lutescens for example, these are produced on peculiar
branches in the substratum of the carpophore, while in Guepinia
they are produced on the side opposite the hymenium.
The Tremellineae are also characterized by their more or less
gelatinous consistency. In Tremella the main genus, the sub¬
stance is in some species so tender as to lose its form and almost
deliquesce on being handled, while such forms as Auricularia,
have a coriaceous texture and many of them retain their shape
even when dry. This peculiarity is due to the fact that the ex¬
ternal portion of the walls of the very much interwoven hyphae
are diffident, forming a soft quaking mass when moist but hard
and horny when dry, but again becoming softened upon being
moistened.
In some forms such as Lacrymyc.es, the hymenium may cover
the entire exposed surface of the fungus while in the higher
forms it is often confined to a portion only of the surface and in
some this portion has a tendency to turn away from the light.
The group was early observed but the evanescent and fluctuat¬
ing character of the forms made it impossible for any of the
earlier authors to group them satisfactorily.
Vaillant (1), Micheli (2), Dillenius (3), and Gleditsch (5),
all mention the Tremellineae in their classifications, but it is a
matter of uncertainty after all whether any of their identifica¬
tions can be recognized now.
Gilbert — 'Tremellce of Wisconsin.
11'39
Linnaeus in bis Species Plantarum (8) names seven species
for the group of which only one is now included in it.
Schaeffer (14) does not mention the group as such, hut in his
group Elvella. he describes a form seemingly a tremella, pos¬
sibly Tr. sarcoides. This form and a. few others described by
him seem to be tremellas, but their specific identity is not to be
determined with certainty.
Persoon (23) iii his Synopsis Fungorum may be said to be
the first to make a fairly practicable classification of the group.
He includes the Tremellineae in his second class of Fungi
( Gymnocarpii ) and the fifth order, the Hymenothecii which he
divides into six suborders the last of wdiich the Helv'elloidei, in¬
clude Spathularia, Leotia, Helvetia , Morchella , Tremella,
Peziza , Ascobohis, Ilelotium, Stilbum and Aegemta.
Persoon is the first to exclude all aquatic forms and in this he
is far in advance of his contemporaries, who all included Nostoc
forms with the Tremellas , but on the other hand, his inclusion
of the group with Lie ascomycetous genera noted shows how
little he had on which to base a natural classification. In his
Mycologia Eurcpaea (33a), he rearranges and modifies his
earlier grouping. The Tremellas are here put in the second or¬
der and co-equal with My coderma , Thelephora and Clavaria.
He separates the Auricularias from the Tremellas and puts
them into a genus by themselves. The descriptions are still
very meager, but he gives more references to the literature of
the group. Ho figures are given.
Albertini et Schweinitz (28), base their classification upon the
earlier work of Persoon, and describe additional varieties of cer¬
tain of Persoon’s species. The descriptions are, however, frag¬
mentary and their figure of a Tremella , (Tr. saligna nobis Tab.
IX. f. 7) is. of no value for identification.
Bulliard (30), makes the Glav arias and Tremellas the second
of his four orders of Fungi, but errs in including some aquatic
forms with them.
Bulliard’s colored figures of many of the forms are most ex¬
cellent. Tremella mesenteriformis (Tr. frondosa Fr.) is in¬
finitely more easily identified from his figures than from the
1140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
descriptions given by Fries. Our specimens correspond both in
structure and color very closely to those figured by Bulliard.
There seems to me to have been no adequate reason why Fries
should not have retained the name mesenteriformis for the
forms to which he gave the name frondosa. Our specimens are
strikingly characterized by the name mesenteriformis.
His figure of Tr. deliquescens is a fairly good picture of our
Wisconsin specimens of Dacrymyces deliquescens and the same
may be said of his figure of Tr. glandulosa as representing our
Exidia glandulosa (Bulliard) Fr.
Bulliard’s Tr. cerebrina (Tr. albida, Huds.) if not so tall
would fairly well represent the forms found here which I have
identified as Exidia albida Bref. The figure of Tr. auricula
Judae is also very good for our specimens. His figure of Tr.
mesenteriformis var. violacea, (Tr. foliacea-violacea Fr.) looks
much more like smaller, denser forms which I have included
with Tr. frondosa Fr., than like the forms I have included un¬
der Tr. foliacea var. purpurascens which are still much more
compact and have thicker folds. They more nearly resemble
light colored forms which I have included under Tr. frondosa ,
(though doubtless the same as those identified by Fries as Tr.
lutescens Pers.).
Here again Bulliard’s conception of the specific delimination
of the main species which he calls Tr. mesenterica seems much
better than that of Fries.
In the Sy sterna Mycologicum (30) of the elder Fries, we find
the classification which has been used as the basis for all later
work. We find the Tremellas for the first time brought to¬
gether in these genera ; Tremella , Exidia , Femsjonia , Hirneola,
Naematelia , Guepinia and Dacrymyces.
Later authors have largely accepted these genera as Fries de¬
limited them. It is to be noted, however, that even in this later
work the Caloceras, are not included among the Tremellineae.
The American students of the fungi have done little with the
Tremellineae , but the commoner speoies have been reported in
most of the local floras which deal with fungi. It is most un¬
fortunate that- in most cases, neither specimens nor figures of
Gilbert— T.remellce of Wisconsin. 1T41
the forms collected by Schweinitz (34) are available for study.
It is to be- remembered that the group was imperfectly underv
stood at that time, and it seems doubtful whether the Schwein-
itzian species will be identifiable in many cases.
Tulasne, (53) studied further the internal structure of the-
carpophore and the hymenium, and it is to him that We are in¬
debted for the earliest data as to the germination of the spores.
His figures have been widely copied. He figures Tr. mesem
terica , Ex. spiculosa , Tr. violacea , and D. deliquescens in his
first papers (53), and in his second series (62) he figures fur¬
ther Guepinia peziza and gives three sketches of Tr. cerasi and
one of Pilacre.
Paulet et Leveille (54a) give a few colored figures, but they
are difficult to identify. Their figure of Tremellodon may pos¬
sibly be our species gelatinosum. Their Tr. mesent erica, Mur¬
ray. PI. Ill, fig. 5 can hardly be a tremella. Their Tr. hyd~
noides Jacquin PL III, fig. 6-7 is probably our Tremellodon
gelatinosum. Their Tr. undulata PL CLXXXYI, fig. 3, they
identify with Tr. mesenterica Pers. They also figure Tr. sar-
coides Pr. Pl. CLXXXVIL fig. 5.
Gillet (68) gives excellent colored figures of Tr. mesenterica
Pers. and Tr. lutescens Petz. They represent, however, much
larger forms than any I have found in Wisconsin.
Winter (90) reproduces for the most part Tulasne’ s figures
for the types of the genera. A good proportion of the species
reported from America are described in Winter’s flora.
Brefeld, (91) spent years of careful study on the germina¬
tion of the spores and the formation of the mycellia and conidia
of the group, and his work has since been authoritative on these
points. Brefeld makes the Tremellineae of Pries and De Bary
the basis of his group of Protobasidiomycetes , but includes
Dacrymyces with the Autobasidiomycetes. Still in my opinion
the similarity of their fruiting bodies in form and consistency
and their evident relationship to the other members of the group
are sufficient justification for keeping Dacrymyces with the
Tremellineae.
Bresadola, (110) gives a colored figure of Tr. foliacea Pers.
1142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Tab. 209, Fig. I, which, however, is very much like forms I
have included with Tr. frondosa and very much more leaf like
and larger than the forms of foliacea found by me.
Moller, (118) accepts Bref eld’s classification and adds to the
group, as a result of his work on tropical forms, a large number
of new genera. His figures of Tr. fuciformis well represent
our specimens of this species. His figure of Tr. undulata, how¬
ever, is very much like loose, open forms of what I have called
Tr. frondosa.
Arthur (136) has proposed to use the name Tremella for the
Gymn csp orangia, but it remains to be seen whether a name so
well established in its present usage can be thus transferred.
Atkinson’s (142) figure of Tr. frondosa is a good representa¬
tion of forms which I have found here. He describes the speci¬
mens as pinkish yellow in color, but our forms are purplish to
deep wine color. Our yellowish forms are much more compact,
relatively taller, and much smaller. Atkinson’s figure of Tr.
fuciformis is also a fair representation of the coarser, bulkier,
forms found here which I shall follow F arlow in identifying as
Tr. reticulata (Berk) Farlow. Atkinson (150) describes the
basidia of Thelephora Schweinitzii as of the Tremella type and
proposes to make for it the new genus Tremellodendron to in¬
clude also Thelephora pallida Bres.
Thelephora Schweinitzii is a very common fungus in this
region. It frequently shows a yellowish incrusting hvmenial
layer about the base with the basidia of a Sebacina or Exidiop-
sis. Whether this hvmenium does not belong to a parasitic
Exidiopsis form is a question which in my opinion needs fur¬
ther investigation. For the present I have not included this
form with the Tremellineae. In this connection Ceraoea verni-
cosa Cragin, must also be further studied. This is reported as
forming incrusting masses on immature specimens of Poly-
porus.
Massee (160), makes a curious statement that he has not
been able to find a true septum in the sense of a plate separating
the substance of the apex of the basidium in Tremella, but con¬
siders that the cross marking present at the apex of the basidium
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin. 1143
is simply due to tlie first bulging out of the stout bases of the
four sterigmata. This off-hand and careless method of disput¬
ing facts, established by so many earlier authors and which as I
have myself observed can be confirmed with the greatest readi¬
ness, is very surprising.
My collections were made in the region of Madison, Blair and
Lake Superior, from 1906 to 1909. Considerable material, al¬
ready in the herbarium of the University of Wisconsin was also
available.
With the list of the species, I have included rather copious
notes since the forms are so variable and evanescent that their
identification is a matter of great difficulty. The technical
descriptions of genera and species are largely those of Fries as
modified by Winter.
Lists of Species by States.
I find the number of Tremeliineae reported from the United
States is small and from a number of states I do not find any at
all in the literature that I have examined.
The following lists are the most complete I have found :
Farlow (80) Mass.
Dacrymyces stillatus Fr.
Calocera cornea Fr.
Exidia glandulosa Fr.
Guepinia spatliularia Fr.
Tremella aurantia Schw.
Tremella foliacea Pers.
Farlow (86) Yt.
Tremella aurantia Schw.
Calocera, viscosa (S) Peck.
Hirneola auricula- Judae (L.) Berk.
Bundy (67) Y/is.
Tremella albida Huds.
Tremella fimbriata Pers.
Tremella lutescens Fr.
Tremella mesenterica Retz.
Dacrymyces stillatus Nee'S.
Exidia glandulosa Fr.
Auricularia mesenterica Bull.
1144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Johnson (77a) Minn.
Tremella fimbriata Pers.
” frondosa Pr.
” foliaceu Pers.
” lutescens Fr.
” mesenterica Retz.
” vesicaria Bull.
” albida Huds.
” intumescens Sow.
” indecorata Somm.
” tubercularia Berk.
” torta Willd.
” epigaea B & Br.
Exidia glandulosa Fr.
Hirrneola Auricularia-Judae Berk.
Dacrymyces stillatus Nees.
Morgan (119) Ohio.
Tremella foliacea Pers.
lutescens Fr.
” mesenterica Retz.
” intumescens Sow.
” vesicaria Bull.
” i albida Huds.
Exidia truncata Fr.
glandulosa Fr.
Naematelia nucleata Fr.
Guepinia spathularia Schw.
” elegans B & C.
” peziza Tul.
Dacrymyces fragiformis Nees.
deliquescens Bull.
stillatus Nees.
chrysocomus Bull.
pellucidus Schw.
Hirneola aur.-Judae Linn.
” auriformis Schw.
Calocera palmata Schum.
” cornea Batsch.
” stricta Fr.
Herbst (133) Pa.
Tremella lutescens Fr.
” mesenterica Retz.
” vesicaria Bull.
” viotacea.
Gilbert — Tremella of Wisconsin.
1T45
Exidia glandulosa Fr.
Hirneola aur.-Judae Berk.
Guepinia spathularia Schw.
By far the most complete list of the Tremellineae for any
state is that by Peck for New York. Peck figures \Tr. myce-
tophila and 'Tr. stipitata. He has recognized only seven of the
species of Tremella reported by Schw. and none of these are
Schweinitz’ new species. Of the Exidias Peck lists three ; one
of which is a Schweinitizian species. Peck describes three new
species of Dacrymyces bnt finds none of the new species of
Schw. Peck lists three species of Naematelia , one of them
new; N. atrata. Of Ditiola he lists the common species D .
radicata. Peck has three species of Calocera, one species of
Pilacre and three of Guepinia. It is of interest to note the
large number of Schweinitzian new species which Peck has
failed to find.
Peck’s complete list is as follows :
Calocera cornea Fr. Vol. 24-82.
” palmata Schum. Vol. 24-82.
” viscosa. Vol. 24-82.
Dacrymyces tortus Fr. Vol. 22-88.
” stillatus Fr. Vol. 22-88.
” fmgiformis Nees. Vol. 27-101.
” conglohatus Peck. Vol. 32-37.
Ditiola radicata Fr. Vol. 27-101.
” conformis Karst. Vol. 43-70.
Exidia auricula- Judae Fr. Vol. 22-88.
” glandulosa Fr. Vol. 22-88.
” truncata Fr. Vol. 22-88.
” cinnaharina B & C. Vol. 22-88.
” repanda Fr. Vol. 24-83.
Guepinia spathuiaria Fr. Vol. 24-80.
” helvelloides D. C. Vol. 29-45.
” peziza Tul. Vol. 31-39.
Naematelia nucleata Fr. Vol. 24-83.
” atrata Peck. Vol. 24-83.
” cerehriformis Ellis. Vol. 30-49.
Pilacre faginea Fr. Vol. 26-79.
Tremella aurantia Schw. Vol. 22-88.
” mesenterica Re+z. Vol. 22-88.
1146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
” sarcoides With. Vol. 22-88.
” foliacea Pers. Vol. 24-80.
” albida Iiuds. Vol. 25-83.
colorata Peck. Vol. 25-83.
” frondosa Fr. Vol. 26-72.
” enata B & B. Vol. 27-100.
” stipitata Peck. Vol. 27-100.
” vesicaria Bull. Vol. 28-53.
” rmycetophila Peck. Vol. 28-53.
” intumescens Sow. Vol. 30-49.
lutescens Pers. Vol. 31-39.
” subcarnosa Peck. Vol. 32-36.
” epigea B. & Br. Vol. 34-43.
” subochracea Peck. Vol. 34-43.
” pinicola Peck. Vol. 39-44.
Tremeleineae of Wisconsin.
Auricidaria — Cartilaginous, gelatinous, soft, tremulous,
when wet, but not distended with jelly, when dry, coriacious,
horny, reviving again when moistened but scarcely swelling.
Hymenium of basidia longitudinally four parted, spores con¬
tinuous, oblong, curved.
Auricularia sambucina Martins (Flora erlang, p. 459).
Tremella Auricula- J udae Linn. Sp. 1625. p. 1.
Peziza Auricula Linne (Syst. veg. Ed. XY. p. 1018).
Merulius Auricula Roth (Tentanem florae Germ. I, p. 535).
Exidia Auricula- J udae Fries (Systema. II, p. 221).
Hirneola Aunculae-Judae Berk. (Outlines p. 289).
Hirneola Auricula-J udae Fries (Hym. Eur. p. 695).
Auriculana sambucina Bref. (Enters. VII. t. IY, f. 3-9).
1. Auricidaria auricula — Judae Linn. Sp. 1625. PI. I. fig. 1.
Carpophore cartilaginous-gelatinous, soft and tremelloid when
moist, cup shaped, rigid when dry, reviving when moist. Ba¬
sidia rod shaped, or fusoid, transversely septate, cells each bear¬
ing a single monosporous sterigma ; spores oblong, curved. Ily-
menium venoso-plicate : pileus greyish olive brown, minutely
tomentose, spores 20-25^ by 7-9/g Carpophore up to 12 cm. in
diameter. Common.
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin.
11*47
Specimens have been found differing somewhat in the color
of the pileus and also in size of the spores. Many are very light
brown when moistened and dry down to a much darker brown.
Quite often they are found growing in tufts but usually singly
scattered along the length of the branches of oaks and other de¬
ciduous trees.
2. Var. ? PI. 1. Pig. 2: A form with very much the same
general shape as above, but about half the size, having a deep
rich wine colored upper surface and an almost black velvety un¬
der surface and the whole very much thickened throughout. I
was unable to secure spores from this form and so cannot say
positively whether it is a new variety, although I feel confident
that it is not an immature form of the common Jews ear.
Pound on decaying branches of oak. Madison.
Tachaphantium Bref. (Unters. VII p. 18)
3. Tachaphantium sp ? Figs. 3-4. This is a form which
seems to belong in Brefelds genus Tachaphantium but I find no
species to which it can be assigned. It may be described as
follows: Small, % cm. by 1/3 cm. of a crystalline yellowish
appearance when moist and shrinking only slightly upon drying.
Stipe about % the diameter of the upper portion and slightly
darker in color. The hvmenial layer is rounded hemispherical
and glistening powdery. Basidia like those of Auricularia
Auricula- ju da e and spores of about the same shape but slightly
smaller. On decaying stump of larch. Madison.
Exidia. Pries (Systema II. p. 220).
Fungus distended with jelly, tremulous, somewhat marginate,
papillose; a colored gelatinous stratum encloses the basidia the
sterignata of which are erumpent only at the apex; spores,
curved.'
4. Exidia glandulosa Buliiard. PI. Pigs. 5-6.
Flattened, thick, gelatinous, becoming blackish, disc, covered
with minute papillae, below greyish and subtomentose ; spores
r eh if or m 12 x 14/x by 4 x 5.
This form is found forming very irregular patches on decay¬
ing stems and branches of many of our more common deciduous
1148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
trees, the patches varying in size from 3 cm to 20 cm in di¬
ameter. When moistened they have a dirty blackish color and
the papillae are very prominent; when fully mature it dries
down to a hard shining black mass, forming a thin crust and
now shows nothing of its previous form.
Most of the specimens collected have been found on hickory,
although specimens have also been found on elm, poplar, and
cherry. Common, Madison and vicinity.
5. Exidia saccharina fries Systema II p. 225.
Ulocolla saccharina Bref. (Unters. VII p. 95).
Ulocolla saccharina Massee (Fungus Flora p. 59).
TJlocolla saccharina Sacc. (Syl. Fung. VI p. 777).
Tuberculose, effused, thick, gyrose and undulate, fulvous,
cinnamon, here and there papillose, spores reniform 10-12/*
by 5-5/*. Conidia, equal in size to the spores.
Brefeld gives the following description of this species:
Carpophore convex, pulvinate, gyrose, cerebriform, gelatin¬
ous, basidia, globose, soon longitudinally or obliquely cruciately
partite, sterigmata elongated, thick ; spores for a long time con¬
tinuous, then once septate, reniform, each locule on germination
giving origin to a very short promycelium, bearing at its apex
a crown of straight, rod-like sporidiola.
Specimens in collection in such poor condition that the identi¬
fication is doubtful. On fallen pine trunk, Madison.
6. Exidia albida (Huds.) Bref. Fig. 7.
Tremella albida Huds. (Flora anglica II. p. 565.)
Tremella hyalina Pers. (Myc. Eur. I. p. 105.)
Tremella albida Fr. (Hym. Eur. p. 691.)
Tremella albida Engl. Bot. t. 2117.)
Tremella albida Kickx (Flora p. 102.)
Tremella albida Winter (Krypt. Flora p. 287.)
Tremella cerebrina alba Bull. (Champ, t. 386.)
Hard (158) gives a figure of this form.
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin. 1149
Gelatinous, expanded, undulate, white, becoming brownish
with age and pruinose with the white spores. Spores oblong,
slightly curved, apiculus at end 12-14/* long and 5-7/* in
diam.
The form found in great abundance with us, and which
answers very well to this description is one of the largest and
most beautiful of the group. I have found it making a creamy
white mass covering a log in patches 30 cm. and more in length
by 10-15 cm. in width and reaching a height of from 3-6 cm.
Woods near Blue Mounds, Wis.
7. Tremella lutescens Pers. Pig. 8.
Tremella lutescens Pers. (Syn. p. 622.)
Tremella mesenteriformis Bull. (Champ, t. 406 Band D.)
Very soft and gelatinous, lobes crowded, entire, undulately
gyrose, pale then, yellowish, spores sub-globose 12-16/*, conidia
1.5-2/* diam.
Tremella lutescens and mesenterica, are in many instances
very much alike, but can be distinguished by the fact that mes¬
enterica becomes paler as it grows older while lutescens be¬
comes more yellowish. Tr. lutescens is not as firm as Tr.
mesenterica as a usual thing, but specimens may be found of
lutescens which dry down into quite a firm mass retaining the
folds to the last.
Mesenterica is more brainlike in its folds and lutescens more
mesentery like.
Common Madison and vicinity.
8. Tremella mesenterica Betz. Pig. 9-10.
Elvella mesenterica Schaef. (Ic. Pung. taf. 168.)
Tremella ckrysocoma Bull. (Champ, taf. 174.)
Tremella auriformis Hofim. Veg. Crypt. I p. 51.)
Gelatinous but firm, bright orange yellow, variously con¬
torted; lobes short, smooth, pruinose with the white spores at
maturity ; spores broadly elliptical 6-9/* diameter, conidia
1-1.5/*.
1150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Found usually on dead poplar, and varies greatly in form but
is usually distinguishable by its bright orange color, and dries
down into irregular patches which become more transparent and
watery in appearance. Specimens vary in size from 1 cm to 4
cm across and 1-2 cm in height.
Common, Madison and vicinity.
0. Tremella foliacea Pers. Fig. 11.
Tremella succina Pers. (Myc. Eur. I. p. ,1*01.)
Tremella ferniginea (Engl. Bot. taf. 1452.)
Tremella mesenieriformis Bull. (Champ, tab. 406 A.)
Tremella violascens Alb. et Schw. (Sonsp. Fung. p. 305.)
Tufted and much lobed and waved, segments thin, springing
from a plicate base; color variable, diaphanous, pinkish cinna¬
mon, rarely deep hrown or even violet; spores reniform 10-12
by 5-6/x; conidi a like spores. Substance soft gelatinous, at
first rounded but gradually becoming very irregular.
It is to be noted that this differs from the true tremellas as
arranged by Brefeld in that the spores are different in shape
and the conidia much larger. This species with Tr. saccharina
is so variable in color and in appearance at various times that
there is no doubt in my mind that these two forms with Tre¬
mella frondosa are often mistaken for one another.
Specimens are found on many large trees reaching in di¬
ameter from 2-1 0 cm and from 2-5 cm in height. The form is
described as being thin hut that is not always the case as some
specimens have the lobes quite thickened. Many of the speci¬
mens approach more nearly the variety violescens of Alb. et
Schw. in being smaller, thicker and of a general purplish red
and even violet color.
This form is more often found on oak, alder and birch.
Common. I do not think that the term foliacea can be re¬
garded as descriptive since a specimen is rarely found which
can be said to be foliaceous in appearance.
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin,
115 1
10. Tremella Frondosa Fr. Figs. 12-13-14.
Tremella frondosa Fries (Systema II p. 212.)
Tremella mesenieriformis Bull. (Champ, t. 499, f. T.)
Tremella quercina Pollin. (PI. nov. p. 31.)
Tremella undulata Hoffm. (Veg. Crypt. I t. 7, f. 1.)
Naematelia Bonorden (Handb. Myk. p. 152.)
Gelatinous, tufted, large ; lobes undulate and contorted,
smooth, (not corrugated) ; base firmer, plicate ; pale pinkish
yellow; spores sub-globose, apiculate, 7-9/*.
The above description is hardly adequate in that it does not
make enough allowance for the variations in this the finest of
all Tremellas. Its color variation is more marked than that of
other Tremellas. I have found specimens of a beautiful yellow
untinged by any other color, again specimens are found with a
pinkish tinge to yellow, some vinaceous pink and others creamy
buff ; still others are a rich wine color running almost into a
reddish brown.
The yellow forms are nearly always smaller, but this may be
because I have found them on smaller branches. One deep
wine colored specimen formed a massive tuft at least 25 cm in
length and at least 10-12 cm high. Tremella frondosa seems
to prefer the oak although found on other trees.
The various types of frondosa dry doAvn in many cases re¬
taining their shape, but becoming very much smaller and of a
hard, tough consistency. The term frondosa is no more descrip¬
tion for this form than the term foliacea for the last as very
few if any forms are frondose in nature.
Hot very common.
11. Tremella — species undetermined Fig. 15.
Small, soft, cartilaginous-gelatinous, irregularly ear shaped,
pure white when wet, turning to a light yellow color and shrink¬
ing greatly when dry. Hymenial layer on both surfaces, spores
ovoid, small; carpophore when expanded from 1.5-2. 5 cm.
Few specimens found on oak, Blue Mounds; Wis.
1152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .
12. Tremella reticulata (Berk) Farlow, notes on Fungi,
Bhodora, ’08, p. 10.
Tremella fuciformis Berk. (Outl.) Berkeley’s description is
too brief to be of value. Atkinson has described and figured
what be identifies as Tr. fuciformis Berk, as follows: “This is
a very beautiful white tremella growing in woods on leaf mold
close to the ground. It forms a large white tubercular mass
resting on the ground, from the upper surface of which numer¬
ous stout, short, white processes arise which branch a few times
in a dichotomous manner.”
This description agrees very well with what is perhaps the
commonest form of our specimens. Our forms are, however,
quite variable as to size, degree of branching and character of
the tips. They may be thrown roughly into the following
groups :
Form a. fig. 17. This is the typical and most abundant form
and it agrees well with the description given by Atkinson. The
masses are 10-15 cm. in diameter and nearly or quite as high.
The flesh is very soft, and the parts are more or less hollow.
The basidia are like those of the genus, globose, sunk in the sub¬
stance of the plant, and terminate with four long slender sterig-
mata which rise to the surface and bear the spores. The spores
are nearly ovoid, but inequilateral and somewhat reniform, con¬
tinuous 7-9 by 5-6/a.
Atkinson says the fungus is not very common, but I have
found this form rather common about Madison and Blue
Mounds.
Form b. Figs. 19-20-21 show what seem to me to be more
complex forms, but still having the essential characteristics of
the type.
These specimens were found in the same localities as form a.
It is to be noted that these forms branch repeatedly and that the
branches or nearly all of them seem to end in very short fimbri¬
ate tips. They do not show any of the yellowish or brownish
color sometimes found in mature specimens of form a. All the
specimens are of a rich creamy whiteness. These forms seem
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin. 1153
to be most like those described by Farlow. Common in tbe
woods of Madison and vicinity.
Form c. fig. 22 forms an urn like mass on old stems of
bracken. It bas a gelatinous-cartilaginous consistency with
basidia deeply imbedded in the substance and of the typical
tremella type. The fungus was attached to the stipe of the
fern at the base but was free at the top forming a distinct cup.
Its color was a pure white much clearer than that of form a.
It was unbranched and entire except for a few large wave like
folds. The whole had a diameter of about 3 cm and a height
of about 5 cm. Spores were white, oblong. Found in dense
woods, Blair, Wis., August, 1906.
Form d, fig. 18. Pure white, club shaped, much thickened
at the top and plicate folded, partly hollow, stipe slightly yel¬
lowish in color, 2 cm by 4 cm. Found on ground in dense
woods. Hymenial layer over entire surface and basidia of the
ordinary tremella type. I have been unable to secure any
spores of this form. It was thought at first to be a young stage
of Form a, but the fact that the basidia were found over its en¬
tire surface seems to indicate that the plant had reached its ma¬
ture form. A single specimen from Madison.
Farlow reports the interesting fact that Corticium tremel-
linum B. and Bav. and Cort. tremelliituin var. reticulatum are
not corticiums but Tremellas and that the latter is a distinct
species Tr. reticulata (Berk) Farl. Farlow believes that At¬
kinson’s specimens belong also with Tr. reticulata and that Tr.
fuciformis from South America and the West Indies, is a dis¬
tinct species. Specimens in our collections seem to agree well
with both Atkinson’s and Moller’s figures. The fungus is cer¬
tainly quite variable in form. It is to be noted that our forms
are found on the ground as well as those of Atkinson. The
South American forms are reported on rotten wood and Far-
low’s specimens were found growing over the ground and fallen
branches. The spreading habit referred to by Farlow and men¬
tioned in the note appended to the description by Berkeley is
not characteristic of our Wisconsin forms which are even when
2— S. & A.
1154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
quite rankly developed rather definitely limited plants with a
tendency to a narrowed base.
Naematelia — Firm, fleshy nucleus enclosed by a thick gela¬
tinous stratum, fibrous floceose within, the whole surface covered
with hymenium.
13. Naematelia encephala (Wild) Fr. (Syst. Myc. II p. 227.)
Subsessile, pulvinate, variously plicate and contorted, firm;
pale flesh color; nucleus large, white; spores pear shaped,
15-18/a. Fungus 1 to 3 cm in diameter and 1 cm high.
Hare. The only typical specimen that I have seen was found
by E. 0. Dodge of Algoma, Wis. ' It is much larger than the
one described by Fries and not so distinctly flesh colored, hut
there seems to he no question as to its identity. Hot reported
before for this country.
14. Naematelia nucleata Schw: Fig. 27.
This form I have found on dead branches of oak, poplar and
elm. At first it forms a clear transparent body sessile or al¬
most so as the stipe is hidden by the mass of the fungus which is
much flattened out on the sub-stratum. As soon as the fungus
begins to dry the so-called nucleus or central body is plainly
seen and the fungus takes on a reddish tinge and dries down in¬
to a reddish brown film in the center of which is the hard white
nucleus which does not seem to have been affected by the drying
out of the fungus.
Specimens of a Naematelia were found on birch which dif¬
fered from the one just described in that they had a slight pink-
ish color from the first and formed a darker brownish crust
when completely dried out. The nuclei were the same in both
cases.
Common. Apparently not before reported for this country.
15 Tremellodon gelatinosum (Scop.) Pers. Fig. 35.
TLydnum gelatinosum Scop. (Flora earn. II p. 472.)
Hydnum gelatinosum (Flora dannica taf. 717.)
Hydnum gelatinosum Cooke (Handbook p. 289.)
Gelatinous, tremelloid, dimidiate or fan shaped, 3-10 cm
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin. 1155
across, thick, expanded behind into lateral thick, stem-like base,,
pileus brownish with opalescent shades, very minutely granu¬
lar ; hymenium watery grey ; teeth stout, acute, whitish ; spores
sub-globose 7-8/* diam.
This is the only true tremelloid fungus having spines and it
has been classed for some time along with the Hydnums but
Engler and Prantl place it where it doubtless belongs, among
the Tremellineae, though its outward appearance would indi¬
cate that it belongs with the Hydnums.
Ho specimens have been found at Madison, but specimens
have been received from the pine woods of Northern Wisconsin.
The form described as Tremella mycetophila Pk. (H. Y.
Eep. Hat. Hist. 28 p. 53.) and Exobasidium mycetopJiila (Pk.)
Burt. (B. T. C. XXVIII p. 283) is fairly common in Wiscon¬
sin and is so strangely developed at times that the entire body
of the Collybia is completely hidden by the fungus. I am in¬
clined to regard this fungus as in need of still further study for
the determination of its proper relationship.
16. Sebacina incrust ans (Tul.) Bref. Pig. 36-37.
Sebacina incrustans (Tul.) Ann. Sc. Hat. 1872 t. X f.
6-10.
Sebacina incrustans Bref. (Unters. VII p. 103.)
Thelephora sebacea Pers. (Synops. p. 577.)
Merasma serratum Pers. (Comment, p. 106.)
Corticium incrustans Pers. (Observ. I p. 39.)
Thelephora incrustans Pers. (Synops. p. 577.)
Whitish at first, fleshy, soft, then becoming rigid, incrusting ;
form very variable; hymenium collapsing when dry and often
tinged with cinnamon brown; spores sub-globose, spinulose,
vinous 6-10/*, basidia tetra-sporous.
Pound on stumps, twigs and forming irregular growths in
patches of grass. White, soft and fleshy when growing. 3-5
cm in diameter and about the same in height.
The researches of Tulasne and Brefeld have put this form
among the Tremellineae where it belongs, removing it from the
Thelephoreae where it has been put by many investigators.
Bare.
1156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , Sind Letters.
Dacrymces. ]STees.
Gelatinous, roundish or irregular, convex ; basal portion
often root like and entering the matrix. Basidia forked, end¬
ing in two tapering sterigmata, terminated by a single spore cy¬
lindrical in shape and often septate.
17. Dacrymces deliquescens (Bull.) Fig. 23.
Dacrymyces deliquescens (Bull. Champ, p. 218.3
Dacrymyces deliquescens Duby (Bot. Gal. II p. 729.)
Tremella deliquescens Bull. (Champ, p. 219.)
Tremella deliquescens Grevillea V p. 88.)
Tremella lacrymalis Pers. (Synops. p. 628.)
Dacrymyces tortus Fries (Elench. II p. 36.)
‘ Calloria delinquescens Fries (Summa Veg. p. 359.)
Septocolla adpressa Bonorden (Handb. p. 152.)
Gelatinous, roundish or irregular, convex, gyrose, yellow, hya¬
line, basal portion rootlike and entering the matrix; spores cy¬
lindrical, obtuse, curved, 3 septate, 15-17/* by 6-7/*.
Found in winter and early spring in greatest abundance,
though often found during the summer months. Usually
found on pine wood, small 1-2 cm. in diameter. Quite often
found deliquesced into a small viscid almost transparent mass.
Dries to a yellow brown.
18. Dacrymyces deliquescens. Yar. ? Fig. 24.
This is a form which answers to the description of D. de¬
liquescens in color and in the fact that it deliquesces, but which
is found on the wood of deciduous trees and grows to the size of
1-1% cm. Found in dense deep woods during July and
August. Madison and vicinity.
19. Dacrymyces (new species) ? Figs. 25-26-28.
Gelatinous, irregular, forming tufts of a rich golden yellow
color, usually 3-6 together separate at top but united at base,
each from 2-3 cm. across, and of a height of from 2-3 cm. The
rich hymenium covers the entire upper half and the spores form
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin. IJL'57
a ring of a rich yellow color around the base of the fungus when
dry. The fungus changes only slightly in color while drying,
becoming slightly brownish. When dry the fungus becomes
very irregular, sometimes prostrate and sometimes remaining
erect. Spores golden orange 16-22 by 5-8/*. Found in various
localities in the state on decaying logs of larch.
Calocera. Fries.
Gelatinous-cartilaginous, horny when dry, vertical, sub-cylin¬
drical, simple or branched, viscid, without a distinct stem.
Hymenium covering every part of the carpophore, basidia
terete, apex furcate or bilobed, each lobe bearing a single one-
spored sterigma. Spores oblong, curved, septate., on germina¬
tion and producing heads of ellipsoid sporidiola.
20. Calocera cornea Batsch. Fig. 32.
Clavaria cornea Batsch (Elenchus Cont. I tig. 161.)
Clavaria aculeiformis Bull. (Champ, t. 463.)
Tufted, rooted, clubs smooth, viscid, subulate, simple or
slightly branched, orange or paler yellow at times, several con¬
nate at base ; spores cylindrical-oblong 7-8 by 5/*. Carpophore
1-2 cm., one specimen 3-4 cm. high. On stumps and trunks
of oak.
21. Calocera cornea var. ? Fig. 33-34.
Color same as calocera cornea except that it is a lighter yel¬
low; carpophore much shorter and thicker. Grows in closely
compacted tufts and the tips are seldom branched. Rare speci¬
mens on oak. Blair and Madison, Wis.
1158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
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123. Mac Bride, T. H. : Saprophytic Fungi of E. Iowa. Bull.
Lab. Hat. Hist. Univ. Iowa. III. 1895.
1 24. Danegard, P. A. : Memoire sur la Reproduction sexuelle
des Basidiomycetes. Le Botaniste. 1895.
125. Underwood, L. M. : Additions to published lists of Indiana
Cryptogams. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1896.
126. Underwood, L. M. : Mycology in the Southern States.
Garden and Forest. IX. 1896.
127. Ellis and Everhart: Hew Species of Fungi from various
localities. Bull. Torrev Bot. Club. 1897.
«/
128. Preliminary list of Alabama Fungi. Bull. Ala. Agr.
Exp. St a. 1897.
129. Henning, P. : Die in die Gewacbschausen des Berlin
Botaniscben, Gartens beobacbten Pilze. Verb.
Brandenburg. 1898.
130. Longyear, B. O. : Preliminary list of certain families of
Saprophytic Fungi of Michigan. Rep. Mich. Bd. of
Agr. 1899.
131. Karsten, P. A. : Finlands Basidsvampar. 1899.
132. Underwood, L. M. : Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms.
1899.
,133. Herbst, W. : Fungal Flora of the Lehigh Valley. 1899.
134. Burt, E. A. : Key to the Genera of Basidiomycetes of Ver¬
mont. 1899.
135. Harper, R. A. : Huclear phenomena in certain stages in
the development of the Smuts. Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci. Vol. XII. 1899.
J'36. Arthur, J. C. : Tremella, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 1900.
137. Curtis, C. C. : Turgidity in mycelia. Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club. 1900.
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin.
1165
138. McKenna, M. C. : Fungi parasitic upon Fungi. Thesis,
B. A. degree, University of Wisconsin. 1900.
139. Mcllvaine, Charles: One Thousand American Fungi.
1900.
140. Michael, Edmund: Fiihrer fur Pilzkunde. 1900.
141. Engler, A. and Prantl, K. : Die Xaturlichen Pflanzen-
familien. 1900.
142. Atkinson, G. F. : Studies of American Fungi. 1901.
143. Burt, E. A. : Tremella mycetophila. Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club. 1901.
144. Strassburger, E. : Lehrbuch der Botanik. 1902,
145. Petri, L. : La formazioni della Spore nell Hydnangium
Carneum. Xuovo Giornale Botanique Italione.
1902.
146. Harper, R. A. : Binucleate cells in certain Hymenomy-
cetes. Bot. Gaz. Vol. XXXIII. 1902.
147. Morgan, A. P. : A Xew Genus of Fungi. Journal Myc¬
ology. 1902.
T48. Burt, E. A. : Some ILymenomycetous Fungi of South
America. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. XXIX. 1902.
149. Longyear, B. O. : Xotes on Michigan Saprophytic Fungi.
Mich. Acad. Sci. III. 1902.
150. Atkinson, G. F. : Preliminary notes on Two Xew Genera
of Basidiomycetes. Journ. Myc. VIII. 1902.
151. Ferguson, Margaret C. : A preliminary study of the Ger¬
mination of the Spores of A. campestris and other
Basidiomycetes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 16 and Sci¬
ence. XY. 1902.
152. Longyear, B. O. : Michigan Mushrooms. Mich. Agr. Exp.
Stat. Rep. 208. 1903.
153. Rehm, IT. : Betrage zur Pilz Flora von Sud Amerika.
Hedwigia. XLIY. 1904.
154. Blackman, Y. H. : On the Fertilization, Alternation of
Generations and General Cytology of the Uredineae.
Xew Phytologist. III. 1904.
155. Xichols, Susie Percival: Binucleated cells in Some Basid¬
iomycetes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. XY. 1904.
156. Freeman, E. M. : Minnesota Plant Diseases. 1905.
1166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
157. White, E. A. : Preliminary Report of the Hymeniales of
Conn. Conn. Geol. and Eat. Hist. Survey. Bull III.
1905.
158. Hard, M. E. : The Mushroom — edible and otherwise, its
habits and its time of growth. 1906.
159. Massee, George : Textbook of Fungi. 1906.
160. Lyman, George R. : Culture studies on Polymorphism of
Hymenomycetes. Proc. of Boston Soc. Eat. HisL
Yol. XXXIII. 1907.
161. Earlow, W. G. : Rhodora Eotes on Eungi. 1908.
162. Hone, Daisy S. : Minn. Bot. Studies. Yol. IY, part 1.
1909.
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin.
1167
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Photographs were in almost every instance made from freshly col¬
lected material. The photos of Tr. fuciforms figs. 19, 20 and 21 were
made from alcoholic specimens in the collection of the University of
Wisconsin. All are life size with the exception of fig. 14, Tr. frondosa
which is only one-fourth thd actual size, and fig. 35, Tremellodon gelat-
inosum which is two and one-half times the actual size.
1168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXII.
Fig. 1. Hirneola auricula Judae. Large specimen from dead oak, rich,
brownish color, showing the upper surface, with faint wave-like
folds which become more prominent upon drying.
Fig. 2. Cluster of form described as Aur. var.? This was found to be
very numerous on dead branches of oak and was much thicker
in proportion to size than fig. 1, and was rich deep wine color.
Fig. 3-4. Tachaphantium Bref. fig. 3 side view showing the elevation
of fungus above substratum, and fig. 4 view of upper surface
showing the form of the fungus. The figure of course does not
bring out the clear glistening surface of this beautiful little
fungus.
Fig. 5-6 show typical forms of Ex. glandulosa the first being on poplar
where it spreads out quite considerably and the second on oak
where it is much more compact. It is impossible to bring out
the minute papillae which project in large numbers from the
upper surface.
Fig. 7. A young and very small specimen of Ex. albida. The fungus
grows in height and at the same time spreads out to cover large
portions of the dead stems of basswood.
Fig. 8. Tr. lutescens. Not a perfect specimen in that it does not show
the two types of folds so common to this form.
Figs. 9-10. Tr. mesentertca. The first being a very compact form grow¬
ing from a break in oak bark while the other shows a more
spreading type.
Fig. 11. Tr. foliacea. Small forms of this fungus found on stem of
alder. Does not show the foliaceous nature described by many
observers.
Fig. 12. Tr. frondosa. A brownish form found on dead elm, quite
fleshy and soft as compared with the more firm and erect spec¬
imens of fig. 14. A very small specimen.
Fig. 13. Tr. -frondosa. A form characterized by the very thin folds.
This was quite firm and changed only slightly upon drying. It
was wine colored and the surface was not glistening as in the
form just described.
Fig. 14. Tr. frondosa. Reduced three-fourths. The right lower portion
was exposed by removing the bark of the oak upon which it
grew and was a very dark brown and shows the compressed
folds while the left upper portion shows the fully developed
fungus which- was of a beautiful glistening brown, with a tinge
of wine color in the lower portion.
Fig. 15. Tr. sp.? A specimen of a beautiful form which in earlier
stages and when fully moistened is rich creamy white, but
changes to a beautiful yellow, darker at the base and gradually
becoming paler toward the outer edge.
TRANS.
IS. ACAD. VOL.
PLATE LXXXII
GILBERT: —
TREMELL1NEAE
Gilbert — Tremellce of Wisconsin .
1169
PLATE LXXXII.
3 — S. & A.
1170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXIII.
Fig. 17. Tr. fuciformis. The typical form of the species as described by
Atkinson. Somewhat reduced, but specimens have been found
2 to 3 times as large. The whole fungus is a rich creamy white
turning slightly yellowish with age.
Fig. 18. Tr. fuciformis. Club shaped form found on ground and de¬
scribed as form d.
Figs. 19, 20, 21. Tr. fuciformis. Much branched type described as form
b. The figures show the variation in the branching and in the
tips.
Fig. 22. Tr. fuciformis. Form c.
Fig. 23. Dacrymyces sp.? A small form found on larch and cedar.
Yellowish color, slightly tinged with brown when mature.
Fig. 24. Dacrymyces deliquescens var.?
Figs. 25-26 and fig. 28 of Plate I. Dacrymyces sp. found on larch
in almost every instance. Possibly the form described as D.
chrysocomus by many collectors.
Fig. 27. Naematelia nucleata. Mature form, no nuclei showing.
Fig. 29. Tr. species? Rich brownish color, almost sessile with lower
surface much darker than upper and in some specimens seem¬
ingly roughened with minute papillae.
Fig. 30. Tr. species.? Rich glistening greyish black, with upper sur¬
face broken by papillae of rather large size. Stipe central, very
thick and short. Basidia of the typical tremella type, very large
and lying deep in sub-stratum.
Fig. 31. Tr. species? Fungus of 4-5 large lobes of a glistening dull
yellow: the entire substance almost crystalline in appearance
when broken open. Quite firm when fresh but very soon soften¬
ing and almost deliquescing.
Fig. 32. Calocera cornea. Shows a type which is quite common. The
fungus at once divides into several finger like branches, but in
some other respects is not typical.
Fig. 33-34. Calocera cornea var.? Tufted types but the branches do
not radiate. The fungus may form a mass several inches in
length and only half an inch in width.
Fig. 35. Tremellodon gelatinosum, two and one-half times actual size.
Typical of all specimens in collection. The whole had a pale
greyish blue color and in parts was almost transparent.
Fig. 36-37. Sebacina incrustans.
TRANS.
IS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE LXXXIII
GILBERT : —
TREMELLINEAE
H
'*4'
■
\
TRANS. WIS. ACAD VOL. XVI
PLATE LXXX1V
GILBERT: —
TREMELLINEAE
SPORE FORMATION IN GEOGLOSUM GLABRUM PERS.
HALLY D. M. JOLIVETTE.
The method of delimitation of the ascospores in free cell for¬
mation has been found to he remarkably uniform in all the
asci which have so far been carefully studied. We have here
a problem of cell division, in which the protoplasm of the ascus
or mother-cell, is separated into the protoplasm of the spores, —
the spore-plasm, — and the enveloping epiplasm in which they
are embedded.
De Bary (10) as early as 1863 observed in certain species of
Peziza, Helvetia and Morchella that the eight nuclei of the as¬
cus at the close of the third division come to lie about equidistant
from each other. Ultimately each nucleus becomes surrounded
by a mass of protoplasm, which, as he noted in living material,
is distinguished from the remainder of the protoplasm by its
greater transparency. These portions are the young spores and
they soon become invested with cell membranes. De Bary gave
the name epiplasm to the portion of the protoplasm not included
in the spores.
An essential feature in the process of spore delimitation, as
described by Harper (25), is the transformation of the aster by
the folding back of its rays to form an ellipsoidal cell plate.
This implies an activity of the rays comparable, as Harper has
shown, to that of cilia, and it is interesting to note the accumu¬
lation of evidence of resemblance between astral rays and cilia.
It is generally agreed that, the axile threads of spermatozoa and
the cilia of atherozoids arise from a centrosome or a centro-
some-like blepharoplast. The same is true for the cilia of the
swarmspores of Yaucheria and perhaps of Oedogonium.
1172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
Meves (32) has further described and figured in the divisions
of the spermatocytes of Pygaera bucephala , one of the Lepidop-
tera, a system of astral rays about a center at either pole of the
spindle, a number of which extend into the pseudopodia which
arise from the surface of the cell at this stage. Running out
from each of the centers, are also two cilia in the primary
spermatocyte and one in the secondary spermatocyte, which are
plainly nothing but thicker and longer rays of the polar asters.
At the close of the second division the radial pseudopodia with
the exception of one disappear. This one contains the axile
thread of the future sperm, which again is not to be distin¬
guished from the cilia and astral rays. The axile thread ex¬
tends beyond the tip of the pseudopod for some distance. Meves
himself regards cilia and rays alike as for the most part out¬
growths from the centers.
The details of the process of ascospore formation as described
by Harper (23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28) and in the papers of Gruil-
liermond, (20) Maire (30), and Faull (13), dealing with this
subject, have been recently summarized by Sands (37) and
others.
Berlese (3) figures a beaked nucleus attached to the plasma-
membrane of the spore of Wuber brumale and agrees with
Harper as to the general method of spore formation.
Sands (37) describes the bending backward of the astral rays
of the third division figure and their fusion to form the plasma
membrane of the spore very much as described by Harper (25).
She criticizes Faulks interpretation of certain of his own figures
and suggests that those with the beaked nucleus with its aster
within the plasma membrane of the spore, which Faull (13) re¬
gards as conclusive evidence that the rays take no part in form¬
ing the spore membrane, may be explained as polar views of
spore formation by astral rays.
Fraser (15, 16), as a result of her observations of spore for¬
mation in Humaria rutilans , Peziza vesiculosa , and Otidea
aurantia , holds to the view that the spore is delimited by astral
rays. These rays, she maintains, are not of the nature of cilia
as suggested by Harper (25) but are currents set up in the
neighborhood of the centrosome as it pushes into the dense cyto-
Jolivette — Spore Formation. 1173
plasm near the pole. According to the hypothesis that the
centrosome is the seat of fermentative activities, as suggested by
Harper (25 page 274) Fraser (16) holds that the centrosome
as it pushes outward through the cytoplasm at the end of the
third division might be regarded as constantly generating a fer¬
ment. This ferment would flow back in the wake of the centro¬
some and would produce a chemical change in the area through
which it was distributed. Its effect would be* limited in certain
directions by the presence of vacuoles and the ascus wall.
Fraser (16) concludes that, whether the changes which take
place in the cytoplasm are or are not due to enzyme activity, the
main factor in the delimitation of the spore is an alteration in
the cytoplasm originating at the centrosome and essentially simi¬
lar in character to that which produces the aster.
The asci in Geoglossum glabrum Pers. have been found to be
very favorable material for the study of spore formation and the
following description is based on an extended study of the asci
of this species. The material was fixed in the field in Flem¬
ing’s weak and Fleming’s medium solutions. The sections
were cut five microns thick and stained with the triple stain. A
large number of stages in spore formation can of course be ob¬
tained from a single ascocarp. I shall not now describe the
formation of the ascus but proceed at once to the stages of nu¬
clear division and spore formation. When about mature the
ascus is of the ordinary type but the wall at the apex is a con¬
spicuous lens shaped mass. In the one-nucleated stage the nu¬
cleus usually lies near one side of the ascus and about forty to
fifty microns from the top. The cytoplasm is rather dense in
the wall layer surrounding the nucleus while that in the re¬
mainder of the ascus, is greatly vacuolated consisting largely of
strands running in from the periphery in various directions and
often to the mass about the nucleus. The denser spore plasm at
this stage does not fill the complete cross section of the ascus in
the neighborhood of the nucleus as it does in so many other
forms.
While in this position the nucleus divides. Examples of the
equatorial plate stages are comparatively abundant. Figure 1
1174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
represents a longitudinal section through the ascus at this stage.
The spindle runs parallel with the long axis of the ascus and
is very near the plasma membrane. The chromosomes are
rather small and scattered along the spindle. The number of
the chromosomes appears to be eight. The spindle is long and
narrow, the fibres being attached at the poles to broad central
bodies so that the poles of the spindle are very broad in compari¬
son with its diameter. The astral rays are strongly developed
in this stage. The portions of the fibres near the central body
stain almost as deeply as the central body itself does so that the
latter is not easily distinguished from the fibres.
Figure 2 represents the same stage as figure 1. Here the
ascus has been cut somewhat obliquely through the side contain¬
ing the spindle and parallel with the spindle which runs at an
oblique angle to the long axis. The spindle is not so near the
plasma membrane as it is in figure 1. The cytoplasm is con¬
spicuously more dense in the vicinity of the spindle and becomes
more vacuolate as the distance from the spindle increases. The
spindle and astral rays appear very similar to those described for
figure 1, being very distinct in both cases. The chromosome
number again appears to he eight. In the cytoplasm are two
large red-staining bodies, one to the right, the other above the
spindle. The former appears as if it might be the remnant of
the nucleole.
At the close of this division the fibres disappear and the
daughter nuclei round up. These nuclei are much smaller than
the primary nucleus. When in the resting condition, they are
to be found near the lower edge of the mass of spore plasm
which now fills entirely the tip of the ascus. This spore plasm
now shows a finely reticulated structure. Below the nuclei
there appear to be a few rays running into the cytoplasm, but
this condition is probably due to an irregular streaming of the
cytoplasm since these rays are not oriented on a centrosome as
are the kinoplasmic fibres of the division figures and since
furthermore the rays often pass into the strands of cytoplasm
which run down into the lower portions of the ascus.
The spindles in the second division are similar to those of
J olivette — Spore Formation.
1175
the first with the exception that the central bodies appear to be
more flattened. The asters are also well developed here. They
disappear at the close of the anaphase stage. When the four
daughter nuclei are completely reconstructed, they are to be
found near the lower part of the dense mass of spore plasm oc¬
cupying the upper portion of the ascus. They are so arranged
that in longitudinal sections of the ascus only two can be seen in
one plane. As you focus down below these two, the other two
come into view so that a cross section through the ascus in the
region of the nuclei shows all four in one plane. Of course
in some cases their position may vary more or less. The spore
plasm here as during the second division is finely reticulated.
Figures 3 and 4 show the equatorial plate stage of the third
division and were drawn from one section of an ascus but in
different planes. The spindle is narrow with a broad distinct
center at each end. The polar asters are extraordinarily well
developed. The fibres are very long and distinct and they run
out into the cytoplasm in all directions, some of them appearing
to terminate in the plasma membrane. The fibres of the polar
aster are longer than those of the central spindle. In these
figures 3 and 4 there is a great deal of variation as regards the
course of the fibres although in all cases they are extremely well
developed. The fibres from the centers to the left in figure 3
bend away from the plasma membrane, while those to the right
for the greater part run towards the plasma membrane. The
astral rays of the center nearest the tip of the ascus extend out
in all directions, many of them running as far as the plasma
membrane. In figure 4 the rays of the aster nearest the base of
the ascus run to the edge of the spore plasm. The fibres of the
aster nearest the tip spread out in all directions and could be
traced to a considerable distance from their origin. In the two
remaining asters most of the rays appear to end in the plasma
membrane. The fibres in all these asters are extremely numer¬
ous, as can be seen from the figures. It is a conspicuous fact at
this stage that the spindles are so arranged that the asters inter¬
fere as little as possible with each other. This condition is
general at this stage. In the particular ascus here described the
1176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .
spindles in figure 3 run almost at right angles to those in figure
4 so that the four spindles form a four sided figure. The
chromosomes are very small in this stage. In the late anaphase
the chromosomes appears to he massed against the central bodies.
The spindles elongate and the fibres of the spindle gradually dis¬
appear, while those of the polar aster become even more pro¬
nounced than during division, so that a section through the as-
cus shows the large conspicuous red staining centers with the
astral rays streaming out in all directions very prominently.
The chromosomes are somewhat obscured by the centers.
A little later the nuclear membrane forms around the chromo¬
somes and the nucleus becomes beaked. The nucleus at this
time is still very small. The contents stain very densely. Sub¬
sequently the nucleus grows considerably and then the chro¬
matin and the nucleole can easily be distinguished. The astral
rays develop still further. Figure 5 shows a longitudinal sec¬
tion of the ascus after the new daughter nuclei have reached a
considerable size. The beak is conspicuous. None of the cen¬
tral bodies are turned toward the center of the ascus, but they
lie irregularly arranged in the cytoplasm, as can be seen from
the figure in which the beaks of the nuclei extend either toward
the base, the apex or sides of the ascus. The cytoplasm is still
of the same consistency as in the division stages. The asters
are still larger. The rays of each aster extend out until they
meet each other. This is especially conspicuous in figure 6.
The fibres are distinct and those of one aster can easily be traced
until they meet those of another. The cytoplasm is somewhat
more darkly stained in the zone where the fibres meet. One
might at first glance believe that the spores were already de¬
limited. In poorly stained sections where the asters are indis¬
tinct and the fibres cannot be traced very far from the centers it
might appear that the spores are delimited by this zone formed
by the meeting of the astral rays. But on careful observation
it is plainly seen that this apparently limiting layer is nothing
else than the region in which the rays of the different asters
meet. These stages are comparatively frequent in my material
and could very easily be mistaken for stages of spore delimita¬
tion. That the delimitation has not even yet begun is quite
J olivette — Spore Formation. 1177
plain from the stages which follow. Figure 7 shows another
section through the same ascus from which figure 6 was drawn
and shows the same conditions.
A longitudinal section through another ascus at the same
stage as that just described is shown in figure 8. Only two
nuclei were in the plane in which the figure was drawn. In
one the beak points toward the apex, in the other towards the
base of the ascus. The zones in which the asters come in con¬
tact are very obvious.
This zone shows also very clearly in the oblique section, (fig¬
ure 9). Figure TO represents a cross section of the ascus at this
period. At a the center is lacking, the rays having been cut
across immediately below it. A small part of the central body
is shown at b. The nucleus at point c was cut through in the
neighborhood of the nucleole. The effect produced by the rays
resembles closely that in the longitudinal section. We see thus
that there may be an apparent differentiation of regions in the
spore plasm at this early stage which have nothing to do with
the spore outlines to be formed later. We may call these
regions of the meeting of the rays the interastral zones.
The rays now begin to bend down over the nuclei to cut out
the spores. Figure 11. represents the ascus when the rays are
just beginning to turn back. The plasma membrane of the as¬
cus is pulled in slightly near the central body. We see conspic¬
uously here the curving in of the rays at their ends. They lie
very close to the plasma membrane for a considerable distance
if they have not actually fused with it. The rays curve in and
delimit the spore at points a and b. At these points, if the
plasma membrane of the ascus entered into the formation of
the plasma membrane of the spore, we would expect to see the
plasma just outside the spore rounded up against the spore mem¬
brane — due to surface tension. This, however, is not the case.
The cytoplasm runs out to rather sharp points at a and b.
There is no indication of a rounding up due to change in sur¬
face tension caused by a break in the ascus membrane. The
fact that the spore plasm is not rounded up against the forming
spore membrane at these points suggests that the ascus mem-
1178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
brane extends entirely around the spore plasm independently of
the forming spore membranes.
In later stages the fibres continue their growth backward and
around the nucleus and delimit the spore. In figure 12 the
membrane is not yet completed. The membrane of the spore
can be plainly seen near the central body before that at the
opposite end is visible. The spore near the tip of the ascus has
been cut across at some distance from the center where the rays
have not yet fused to form the membrane. The cut ends of the
rays show plainly as a darker region. At this time the beaks of
the nuclei still point in all directions in the ascus.
Figure 13 is a little later stage in which the spore is com¬
pletely delimited. Some of the fibres of the plasma membrane
as well as some inside the spore could still be distinguished.
The nuclei and the centers are still connected with the spore
membranes. The figure shows the beaks of the nuclei pointing
in various directions as in the earlier stages just described. Ho
membranes such as Faull described could be seen on the epi-
plasm adjacent to the spore membrane.
The beaks of the nuclei which up to the time when the spore
membrane is completely formed were pointing in all directions
in the ascus all come now to point in the same direction — toward
the base of the ascus (figure 14) so that the central body in all
cases is found on the inner end of the spore. That the mem¬
brane of the spore was formed independently of the ascus mem¬
brane is further proved by the facts shown in this figure
since the spores have changed their position and the plasma
membrane is wholly intact and not torn in places as we would
expect to find it if it entered into the formation of the spore
membrane.
The spores now begin to elongate (figure 15) and come to lie
more nearly side by side. They are found about fifteen to
twenty microns from the tip of the ascus. The epiplasm is still
finely reticulated and occupies for the most part the portion of
the ascus between the spores and the apex. The center is at the
part of the spore pointing toward the base of the ascus. It is
still connected with the plasma membrane. The structure of the
J olivette — Spore Formation.
1179
nucleus with its beak connected with the central body is still to
be made out. The nuclei are considerably longer than broad in
this stage. The nucleole is distinct. The chromatin is scat¬
tered in small masses in the nuclear cavity. The traces o£ the
fibres have not entirely disappeared at this stage.
The spores now become pointed at the end toward the base of
the ascus (figure 16). It is apparent that this condition is due
to growth. The persistence of the central body and nucleus in
their position at the inner end of the spore would seem to indi¬
cate that they may be concerned in the growth of the spore at
this point. The spores at this time lie side by side resembling
in form a bunch of cigars. Although this growth process has
taken a comparatively long time, which is shown by the numer¬
ous different stages that can easily be found, the nucleus is still
beaked and the central body is in contact with the spore mem¬
brane. The astral rays have entirely disappeared by this time.
The epiplasm is still in the same condition as before. Finally,
however, after the spore has reached a considerable length the
nucleus with the central body is drawn back from the wall.
Figure 17 was drawn from a cross section of the ascus which
cuts through the spores in the region of the nuclei after the
latter have moved back to the middle of the spores. The cyto¬
plasm here appears a little more coarsely reticulated than in the
earlier stages. The nucleus is usually slightly elongated in the
long axis of the spore at this time, becoming more spherical in
shape a little later.
The spores increase in length, the cytoplasm takes on a
spongy appearance, the nuclei divide karyokinetically and cross
walls are put in so that the spores become several celled. The
walls of the spores become thicker. The spores now vary in
length and are less regularly arranged than they were at an
earlier stage, although they still occupy the distal end of the
ascus.
General Discussion.
As described above the polar asters of the third division in
the ascus of Geoglossum glabrum Pers. grow until they
come into contact with each other and form a definite region,
1180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
which I have called the inter astral zone. The persistence and
growth of the polar rays after the disappearance of the spindle
is unquestionable in Geoglossum. The centers are distinct and
for the most part lie near the plasma-membrane of the ascus and
widely separated from each other. There is, however, no regu¬
larity in their orientation as has already been noted. The
growth of the fibres continues and the asters thus come into con¬
tact with each other. The practically radial arrangement oi
the fibres is conspicuous up to the interastral zone (figures 5,
6, 7, 8, 9 and 10). In this zone there is a break. The cyto¬
plasm in this region stains slightly darker and is very conspicu¬
ous, thus appearing to divide the cytoplasmic mass into definite
portions which, however, have nothing whatever to do with the
spores which are to be cut out later.
The interastral zone has nothing whatever to do with the
future boundary of the spore. When the fibres begin to curve
about the nucleus, the ends of the fibres, which up to this time
formed the interastral zone, change their position and bend in
toward the nucleus. The rays soon begin to fuse in the neigh¬
borhood of the central body (figure 12). At this stage when
the aster is cut across at some distance from the central body
and beyond the region where the rays have already fused, the
cut ends of the numerous fibres form a dense circular region as
has already been described and shown in figure 12, a.
In a slightly later stage these rays fuse to complete the for¬
mation of the plasma membrane already started near the center
(figure 13).
USTot all of the rays of the aster enter into the formation of the
plasma membrane of the spore. Some of them remain inside
the membrane and ultimately fade out in the cytoplasm of the
spore. This condition Harper has already described and
figured. It is entirely different from that figured by Faull. It
appears plainly from my figures that the number of the rays en¬
closed in the spore is much smaller than that of the entire polar
aster shown in the figures of stages previous to that of the com¬
pletion of the spore membrane. My figures 13, 14, 15 and 16
in Geoglossum do not correspond at all to Faulks figures 27, 28,
J olivette — Spore Formation.
1181
29, 34 and 35 Plate 8. Perhaps as Sands suggests Fanil has
drawn polar views oif these stages and interpreted them wrongly.
Further in the early stages in the formation of the membrane
the astral fibres of which it is composed can be distinctly made
out. This same condition has been figured by Harper.
There can he no question that the central body in all these
stages is in contact with, or a part of the plasma membrane of
the spore. Fault agrees that the delimitation of the spore be¬
gins at the center and proceeds backward.
My figures show that the central body stays in contact with
the plasma membrane during a comparatively long period, i. e.,
while the spore changes the direction of its axis of growth, its
position in the ascus and its shape. The nucleus with its cen¬
tral body which at the time of the delimitation may he pointing
in any direction comes to point toward the base of the ascus.
The length of the spore is considerably increased and the end
nearest the base of the ascus is drawn out into a blunt point.
The spores have come to lie side by side in the ascus resembling
in their arrangement and shape a hunch of cigars. The numer¬
ous stages in this process that can be found show that this con¬
nection between the central body and the membrane obtains for
a proportionately long time. At the time when the nucleus
with its central body is drawn back from the plasma membrane
into the spore the fibres are no longer visible. That the nu¬
cleus with the central body has taken an extremely active part
not only in the formation of the spore membrane but in the
changes of the position and shape of the spore is evident from
these figures, and all these phenomena here are in harmony with
the theory that the membrane was formed out of the fibres.
The plasma membrane of the ascus in Geoglossum does not
enter into the formation of the spore membrane as can be seen
from my figures (figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17). Al¬
though it is impossible in some cases to trace the plasma mem¬
brane of the ascus entirely past the spores during the formation
of their membranes the evidence is in favor of the complete in¬
dependence of the two membranes. If the ascus membrane was
broken at any point the epiplasm at that point would tend to
1182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
round up due to surface tension. But the ascus membrane*
where it is impossible to trace it past the spores, can be seen to
thin out gradually to a delicate film on either side of the spore
(fig. 11, point b). In some cases these films on either side of
the spore can he traced almost to the point of union of the two.
If the ascus membrane was cut into during the formation of the
spore membrane these edges could not maintain themselves hut
would necessarily draw hack and round off. In still other cases
the ascus membrane with a thin layer of epiplasm can just
barely be traced outside the spore membrane.
A further proof of the formation of the spore membrane in¬
dependently of the ascus membrane is that, in all stages where
the spores are completely delimited and have started to change
their position, the ascus membrane is still entire. Figures 13,.
14, 15, 16 and 17 showing completely delimited spores show no
cases of incomplete ascus membranes.
In Geoglossum glabrum Pers. the nuclei with their central
bodies do not always point toward the median line of the ascus.
The axes of the spindles of the third division show no tendency
to lie in the transverse axes of the ascus; they may lie at any
angle. Figures 3 and 4, examples of this stage, show this
plainly. In this case two of the spindles are practically at right
angles to the other two. The arrangement appears to be such
that the asters interfere very little with each other. Accord¬
ingly the nucleus with its central body may point toward the'
distal or proximal end of the ascus or at almost any angle with
the wall. Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 afford striking examples of
this condition. The nuclei are not arranged regularly with
their beaks at right angles to the ascus wall but are pointed in
almost any direction except toward the center of the ascus.
In these stages the interastral zones are quite conspicuous as
described and it is quite possible Faull (13) took this zone for a
limiting layer of the spores. As noted above, in poorly stained
preparations where the asters were not well differentiated the
interastral zone might at first glance appear to be a limiting
layer. Such preparations may have misled Faull (13). The
meeting of the fibres in the zones above described might be in-
Jolivette — Spore Formation.
1183
terpreted as having some such general appearance as Faull (13)
ascribes to bis limiting layer. Such stages as F aull shows in his
figure 21 (PL 8) in my preparations showed an inter astral
zone. In a slightly later stage, when the fibres have increased
in length and just before they begin to bend downward toward
the nucleus, the interastral zone is still more pronounced, and
this later stage Faull (13) probably took for his limiting layer.
Faulks misinterpretation of the stages when the interastral zone
is present may also account for the large number of prepara¬
tions that he found showing what he calls the limiting layer.
Sands (37) in her paper on nuclear structure and spore-for¬
mation in Microsphaeri alni points out that Fault’s figures (figs.
27, 28, 29, 34 and 35 pi. 8) of the young completely delimited
spore with a beaked nucleus and an aster whose rays end in the
plasma membrane may have been drawn from polar views of the
spore. This possibility with the facts described above indicate'
that Faulks contention that the astral rays have nothing to do
with the delimitation of the spores is not in accord with the
facts shown by his own preparations.
In his study of Peziza Stevensoniana Harper (23) observed
that at the close of the third division of the nucleus of the as-
cus each of the eight nuclei was surrounded by a rounded plasma
mass, which is densest near the nucleus and gradually becomes
less dense as the distance from the nucleus increases. This con¬
dition is represented in his Figure 23. There can he little
doubt both from the description and figure that this is the stage
where the asters are in contact and that the hounding zones sep¬
arating the masses about the eight nuclei are the interastral zones
described above. The asci of Peziza Stevensoniana are not
favorable for the differentiation of the asters at this stage.
There can he no question from the figures described above for
Geoglossum that the rays actually bend in toward the nucleus
just before they form, the spore membrane. There is a com¬
paratively long period after the third division when the polar
rays run out radially from the central bodies and meet in the
interastral zone after the central spindles have entirely disap¬
peared (figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and TO). The nuclei have become re-
1184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
constructed and have increased considerably in size. The long
beaks on the nuclei are very distinct. The centers at this stage
are as near the plasma membrane as at a later stage when the
rays are bent downward, some of them appearing to be very
near. Figure 11 shows the fibres when they are just begin¬
ning to bend toward the nucleus. Here some of the centers are
very near the wall and the rays have still to curve about the nu¬
cleus. The series of stages here makes it evident that in Geo-
glossum the rays must bend downward through the cytoplasm
and that they are not, as Fraser (16) has suggested, bent back¬
ward over the nucleus as the central body pushes its way out¬
ward through the cytoplasm at the end of the third division.
Harper’s (25) hypothesis, that the movement of the astral
rays in free cell formation can be compared to that of cilia, re¬
ceives strong support from the conditions found in Geoglossum.
The rays here move through the cytoplasm in toward the nucleus
when there is no indication of the movement of the central
bodies outward.
That the movement of the astral rays should resemble that of
cilia is quite in harmony with the phenomena found in the de¬
velopment of cilia and flagella in other cases. In the for¬
mation of the antherozoids in the ferns and cycads the cilia are
formed inside of the cell by growth outward from the blepharo-
plast, and only later do they make their way through the plasma
membrane to function as motile organs.
As noted above we have a further striking example of the
similarity between cilia and rays of the polar aster in the case
of the spermatocytes of Pygaera bucephala as described by
Meves (32). His figures suggest a very close resemblance be¬
tween the astral rays and the cilia or flagella. According to
Meves both the cilia and astral rays grow out from the
centers. The ray, which runs out to the very tip of the pseu¬
dopod can be imagined to grow longer and longer while the
pseudopod becomes thinner and thinner until only the ray can
be made out when we have a cilium. At the close of the second
division but one pseudopod remains and that one contains the
axile thread of the sperm. The appearance here is strikingly
J olivette — Spore Formation .
1185
like that in the lesser pseudopodia. Here we have an example
of the origin of rajs and cilia by growth from a common
center. The strong resemblance in appearance of the two as
well as the numerous stages of transition point to a strong simi¬
larity between the polar rays and the cilia, and this is further
confirmed by the generally accepted origin of the axile thread
of the flagella of the spermatozoa from the centrosome in
amphibia and othet animals.
******* *
This work was done at the suggestion of Dr. R. A. Harper to
whom I am indebted for many valuable suggestions and criti¬
cisms.
4 — 3. & A.
1186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Allen, C. E. : The early stages of the spindle formation in
the pollen mother cells of Larix. Ann. Bot. XVII:
281-311, 1903.
2. - Huclear division in the pollen mother cells of Lilium
canadense. Ann. Bot. XIX: 189-258, 1905.
3. Berlese, A. X. : Studi citologici sni Funghi. Revista di
Patalogia Vegetale. Anno VII Fasicolo II, P 1: 143-
152, 1898.
4. Blackman, V. H. : On the fertilization, alternation of
generations and general cytology of the Uredineae.
Ann. Bot. XVIII: 323-373, 1904.
5. Christman, A. H. : Sexual Reproduction in the Rusts.
Bot, Gaz. XXXIX : 267-275, 1905.
6. Dangeard, P. A. : La Reproduction sexuelle des Ascomy-
cetes. Le Botaniste 4: 21-58, 1894-1895.
7. - - La Truffe. Le Botaniste 4: 63-87, 1894-1895.
8. - Recherches sur le development du perithece chez les
Ascomycetes. Le Botaniste, 9e ser. 1904.
9. - L’Origine du perithece chez les Ascomycetes. Le
Botaniste 10 ser. 1907.
10. He Bary: fiber die Fruchtentwicklung der Ascomyceten.
11. Herschau, M. V. : Beitrage zur pflanzlichen Mitose, Cen-
tren und Blepharoplasten. Jahr. f. Wiss. Bot. Bd. 46.
Pp. 103-118, 1908.
12. Hurand, E. J. : The Geoglossaceae of Horth America An-
nales Mycologici 6: 378, 1908.
13. Faull, J. H. : Development of the ascus and spore forma*
tion in the Ascomycetes. Proc. Boston Soc. of Hat.
Hist. XXXII: 77-114, 1905.
14. Fraser, H. C. I.: On the Sexuality and Development of
the Ascocarp in Lachnea stercorea Pers. Ann. of Bot.
XXI : 349-360, 1907.
- Contributions to the Cytology of Humaria rutilans
(Fries). Ann. Bot. XXII: 35-55, 1908.
15,
J olivette — Spore Formation*
1187
16. - and Welsford, E. J. : Further Contributions to the
Cytology of the Ascomycetes. Ann. of Bot. XXII:
465-477, 1908.
17. Guilliermond, A. : Contributions a ketude de kepiplasme
des Ascomycetes et recherches sur les corpuscles meta-
chromatiques des champignons. Annales Mycologici
1: 201-215, 1903.
1(8. - 1 Contributions a l’etude de la formation des asqueS
et de kepiplasme des Ascomycetes. Bev. Gen. de Bot.
16: 49-65, 1904.
19. - Sur les karyokinese chez les Ascomycetes. Bev. Gen.
de Bot, 16 : 129-143, 1904.
20. - Bemarques sur la karyokinese des Ascomycetes.
Annales Mycologici, III: 343-361, 1905.
£1. - A propos de k origin's des levures. Annales Myco¬
logici 5: 49-69, 1907.
22. - La Question de la sexualite chez les Ascomycetes et
les recents Travaux (1898-1906) sur ce groupe de cham¬
pignons. Bev. Gen. de Bot. XX: 364-378, 1908.
23. Harper, B. A. : Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung
und Sporenbildung im Ascus. Ber. d. d. bot. Ges.
XIII: (67-82), 1895.
24. - Die Entwickelung des Peritheciumus bei Sphaeroth-
eca castagnei. Ber. d. d. bot. Ges. XIII: 475-480,
1895.
25. - Kerntheilung und freie Zellbildung im Ascus.
Jahrb. f. wiss Bot, XXX: 249-284, 1897.
26. - Cell Division in Sporangia and Asci. Ann. Bot.
XIII, 476-524, 1899.
27. - Sexual reproduction in Pyronema confluens and the
Morphology of the ascocarp. Ann. Bot. XIV : 321-400,
1900.
28. - Sexual reproduction and the organization of the
nucleus in certain mildews. Carnegie Inst, of Washing¬
ton. Pub. 37, 1905.
29. Maire, B. : Bemarques sur la cytologxe de quelques As-
comycetes. C. B. de la Soc. de Biol. IV : 86, 1904.
1188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
30. - Recherches cytologiques sur quelques Ascomycetes.
Annales Mycologici. Ill: (1'23-154, 1905.
31. Marquette, W. : Manifestations of polarity in plant cells
which apparently are without centrosomes. Beiheften
zum Bot. Centralblatt : Bd. XXI: 281-303, 1907.
32. Meves, Eriedr. : Ueber den von v. la Yalette St. George
entdeekten Xehenkern (Mitochrondrienkorper,) der
Samenzellen. Arch. f. mik. Anat. und Entwickelungs-
geschichte. 56: 553, 1900.
33. - u. v. Korff Zur Kenntniss der Zelltheilung bei Myri-
opoden. Arch. f. M. A. II. Entwickelungsgeschichte.
59 : 481, 1901.
34. Overton, J. B. : liber Beductiontheilung in den Pollen-
mutterzellen einiger Dikotylen. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 42 :
121-151, 1906.
35. - The Morphology of the ascocarp and spore forma¬
tion in the many spored asci of Thecotheus Pelletieri.
Bot. Gaz. 42 : 450-492, 1906.
36. Olive, E. W. The Morphology of Monascus purpureus.
Bot. Gaz. 39 : 50-60, 1905.
37. Sands, M. C. : Xuclear structure and spore formation in
Microsphaera alni. Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sci., Arts and
Letters Yol. XY : 733-752.
38. Yuillemin, Paul. Les basis actuelles de la systematique
en myaologie. Progress. Rei Botanicae. 2: 1-170,
1907.
Jolivette — Spore Formation.
1189
PLATES LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXY.
1190
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
All figures were drawn writh the aid of the Camera lucida and with
the 1-16 Leitz objective, ocular 4 and tube length 17 cm. The drawings
were made with a magnification of about 1975 diameters and are
reduced somewhat in reproduction.
Figs. 1, 2. Longitudinal sections through ascus. Equatorial plate stage
of first division of the nucleus.
Figs. 3, 4. Spindles of third division. Both figures drawn from the
same ascus but in different planes.
Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8. Longitudinal section through the ascus at stage of
interastral zones.
Fig. 9. Oblique section through the ascus showing interastral zones.
Fig. 10. Cross section throug ascus showing interastral zones.
Fig. 11. Longitudinal section through ascus when rays are just be¬
ginning to curve downward about the nucleus.
Fig. 12. Longitudinal section through ascus when fibres are fused near
the central j3ody.
Fig. 13. Longitudinal section of ascus. Spores completely delimited.
Centers still pointing in all directions.
Fig. 14. Spores little later. Centers all pointing downward.
Fig. 15. Spores partly elongated.
Fig. 16. Spores much elongated. Centers still attached.
Fig. 17. Cross section of elongated spores after nucleus is drawn back
to center of ascus.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE LXXXV
JQLIVETTE : —
GEOGLOSSUM
COCKAYNE,
BOSTON
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE LXXXVI
7
JOLIVETTE : —
GEOGLOSSUM
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
I
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE LXXXVII
15
17
JOLIVETTE : —
GEOGLOSSUM
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts . 1191
SOME CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LIFE HISTORY AND
CYTOLOGY OF THE SMUTS.
B. F. LUTMAN.
Our knowledge of the smuts, in spite of their economic and
theoretical importance and the immense amount of work that
has been done on them, is deficient at many very critical points
in their life history. There is much evidence to show as Bro-
feld (6) has especially argued that they form the lowest group
of those fungi that have a basidium. The nuclear phenomena
in the two higher groups, the Uredineae and the Basidiomy-
cetes, have received a great deal of attention recently both as to
the cells of the mycelium and as to the nuclear behavior in spore
formation and germination while little has been done on the
Ustilagineae.
The later investigations of the rusts and Basidiomycetes have
lead to the general conclusion that they have typically, binucle-
ated cells during a large part of their life-histories and that this
binucleated condition is terminated in the teleutospore or basid¬
ium by the fusion of the two nuclei. Neither the origin of the
binucleated condition of the cells nor the length of the uninucle-
ated phase is the same in the Uredineae and Basidiomycetes.
In the Ustilagineae Dangeard’s descriptions of spore forma¬
tion (12) show that in its early stages the spore is binucleated
but later becomes uninucleated by the fusion of the two nuclei.
This observation of the binucleated condition of the young spore
is of the utmost importance and must be confirmed on as many
forms as possible. Uo successful attempt has been made to go
back of the spore to find the number of nuclei in the mycelial
cells. All that we have in the literature concerning the num-
1192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ber of nuclei in the cells of tbe mycelium is scattering and frag¬
mentary.
The earlier papers on the smuts described, of course, only the
external features of the mycelium and of spore-formation and
germination. Prevost (33) in 1807 by germinating the spores
of Tilletia Caries was able for the first time to recognize with¬
out a doubt that this disease of wheat was due to a vegetable
parasite. He was able also to observe the germination of the
spores of Ustilago Carbo from oats. His work was confirmed
by Cor da and Tulasne (39-40) who by using his methods were
able to germinate the spores of additional species. Tulasne
published his results in quite an extensive monograph of the
group which covered not only classification but also many points
in the life history of a number of species.
Fischer von Waldheim (41) described and figured spore for¬
mation and the external appearance of the mycelium in a num¬
ber of species of Ustilago, Tilletia, and in one species of So-
rosporium. Winter (42) figured the mycelium and spore for¬
mation in Geminella Delastrina and Urocystis Colchici as well
as in several species of Ustilago. Cornu (11) in 1883 des¬
cribed the structure of the sori and spore formation of Doas-
sansia Alismatis and D. Farlowii, and in 1892 Setchell (38)
monographed the genus Doassansia adding many new points as
to their spore-formation and life-history.
Some of the more recent work especially that of a semi-popu¬
lar nature contains descriptions of the mycelium and spore-for¬
mation of some of the species that are destructive to cultivated
plants. Miss Knowles (26) has shown the mycelium and spore-
formation of the corn smut in her paper on the abnormal struc¬
tures produced by it. Clinton (10) worked out the life-history
and spore-formation in Cintractia Sorghi-vulgaris of the broom-
corn.
On account of the ease with which the spores germinate this
was one of the earliest facts observed in the life-history of the
smuts. Prevost (33), Cornu (11), Tulasne (39-40), De Bary
(14), Fischer von Waldheim (41) and a great number of recent
investigators have germinated the spores until now we know this
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1193
stage of development in nearly all the forms. Brefeld (4 & 6)
in particular has paid attention to spore-germination and the
saprophytic growth of these forms in various media and has des¬
cribed and figured the germination of 56 Ustilagos, 4 Tilletias,
4 ITroeystis, 4 Doassansias, and 4 Tolyposporiums in 20 plates
containing over 50 figures. This work stands as a monument
of industry and thoroughness. He has also described (5) the
methods of infection and figured the beginnings of the parasitic
mycelium of the oat, corn and sorghum smut.
Apparently the first cytological work that was done on the
group was that of Fiscli (16) and Schniitz (37). Schmitz
described the mycelial cells of U. longissima as multinucleated
and stated that when spore formation takes place the hyphae
break up into segments each containing a single nucleus. The
spores are formed from these segments and are uninucleated.
Fisch investigated species of Tilletia, ITroeystis, and IJstilago.
He found a single nucleus in the spore but multinucleated cells
in the mycelium. He states that the conidia become multi¬
nucleated before they cause infection.
Hangeard (12) was the next to study the group in its cytologi¬
cal phases and it is to him that we owe practically all that we
know concerning nuclear behavior in the formation and germi¬
nation of the spores.
Dangeard’s (12) first work was a description of spore-forma¬
tion or germination in the following species: Ustilago Trago-
pogi, H. Carbo, IT. violacea, Hoassansia Alismatis, Entyloma
Glaucii, ITrocystis Violae, and Tilletia Caries.
He finds that the spores of, IT. Tragopogi arise as short ter¬
minal branches of the mycelium, which, by rounding off, form
the spores. The young spore contains two nuclei. These fuse
in turn and the mature spore is uninucleated. The germination
of this spore and that of IT. Carbo are practically the same.
The nucleus of the spore passes into the promycelium and there
divides into two and then into four. The promycelium cuts up
into four cells each of which produced a conidium containing a
single nucleus. The formation of the spores was not worked
out in IT. Carbo but was in IT. violacea. The mycelial walls of
this species at the stage of spore-formation become thick and
1194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
gelatinous and the hyphae break up into an indefinite number
of segments. Dangeard found it impossible at bis time to de¬
termine the number of nuclei in the segments and it was only
with difficulty after the walls were put in that the two nuclei
could be seen in each young spore. From his observations on
IT. Tragopogi be feels justified in assuming that these two nuclei
fuse. The germination of the spores of this species is the same
as that for the other Ustilagos he had already described.
In Doassansia Alismatis, Dangeard describes the spores as
usually produced as short branches on the principal filaments
although some may be intercalary. These branches then be¬
come rounded or elliptical. The first ones produced are at the
interior of the spore mass while the younger ones are always on
the outside. Each spore encloses two nuclei which later fuse.
Spore germination was not followed any further than to find
that it was similar to that of Tilletia and Urocystis.
Entvloma Glaucii, he found, forms its spores either apically
or perhaps intercalary. The two nuclei of each young spore
later fuse.
The spore balls of Urocystis Violae are difficult to follow in
their origin but after their formation the fertile cells in the
centre each have two nuclei while the sterile cells on the outside
are described as not having any. The two nuclei of the fertile
cells fuse. In germination a non-septate promycelium is
formed containing eight nuclei derived by the three fold division
of the original spore nucleus. There are eight uninucleated
sporidia as a rule, although there may occasionally be fewer.
Dangeard describes only the cytology of the germination of
the spores in Tilletia Caries. A non-septate promycelium is
formed containing eight nuclei derived as in Urocystis Violae
by three divisions from the original spore nucleus. Eight
slender conidia are borne in a crown at the apex of the promy¬
celium. While the conidia fuse in pairs the nuclei do not seem
to do so. In the secondary conidia there are always two nuclei,
produced by the division of the nucleus of the primary co-
nidium. As will be seen from the above, Dangeard’s work re¬
lates almost entirely to spore formation or germination. In his
general discussion of the group, however, he makes the statement
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts . 1195 ,
that the mycelium has multinucleated cells up until the time
that spores are to be formed. The statement is made as a gen¬
eral one and so may be assumed to refer to all the genera
studied.
Dangeard has certainly brought together a mass of evidence
for the regular appearance of two nuclei in the young spore
which by their fusion produce the single nucleus of the mature
spore. One of these nuclei is regarded by Dangeard as male,
the other as female and the whole structure is interpreted as an
oogone. The fusion results in an uninucleated oospore; this
spore being the equivalent of the uninucleated stage in the ascus,
to the same stage in the basidium, or to the teleutospore of the
rusts, according to Dangeard’s views on the morphology of those
structures.
In a later paper Dangeard (13) goes into further details on
the spore-formation in Entyloma Glaucii but nothing new of
essential importance was brought out.
Kaciborski (34) made a detailed study of Entyloma nymph-
aeae especially as to spore-formation and the peculiar haustoria
that this species has developed. He describes the young spores
as binucleated but states that later by the fusion of the two nu¬
clei they become uninucleated.
Harper (22) has described nuclear phenomena in the germi¬
nation of the spores and the formation of the promycelium and
conidia in Hstilago scabiosae and IT. antherarum. He finds the
divisions of the spore nucleus to be of the typical mitotic form
but was unable to distinguish whether they were reduction di¬
visions or not. The nuclei of the promvcelial cells undergo a
similar mitotic division in the formation of the nuclei for the
conidia ; each conidium receiving one nucleus from the uninucle¬
ated promycelial cell. A similar process occurs too in the bud¬
ding of the conidia. As has long been known the conidia of IT.
antherarum fuse in pairs when kept in cultures from which the
nutrient substances have been largely used up. He found that
no fusion of the nuclei was to be observed in these cases, the
fused pairs were always much larger than those that had not
fused ; and usually stood the unfavorable conditions better. He
1196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
regards the fusion as purely cytoplasmic “that leads to a growth
in the size of the fused cells, perhaps also making them more re¬
sistant to unfavorable conditions.”
Maire (30) in a short note on the spore formation of Tilletia
Tritici states that not only the spore hut also the mycelial hypha
from which it arises is binucleated. The nuclei in the spore
fuse before its maturity.
Istvanffi (25) thought the conidia of Ustilago Zeae contained
three nuclei ; one in the middle and one at either end. Maire
was able to show, however, that Istvanffi had mistaken accumu¬
lations of cyplasm in the two ends for nuclei and that the spores
were really uninucleated.
Federly (15) working on the fusion of the conidia in Ustilago
Tragopogi finds that a nuclear fusion occurs also. The nucleus
passes through the connecting tube from one conidium over to
the nucleus of the other one of the conjugating pair and the two
fuse. The fusion of the conidia involving thus both nuclear
and cytoplasmic unions is regarded as a true sexual act and
Federly opposes the view of De Bary and Harper that it is only
a vegetative union.
The rusts are now by many believed to be nearly related to
the smuts and they present so many similarities to them, that in
any discussion of the cytology of the smuts a consideration of
the important work that has recently been done on the rusts is
essential.
It was observed by Bosen (35) in 1892 that the rust spores
were all binucleated and that the so-called “basidium” from
which the aecidiospores arose was uninucleate. He did not ob¬
serve the fusion of the two nuclei in the teleutospore but be¬
lieved that it occurred, as he saw them lying closely pressed to¬
gether.
In 1896 Seppin-Trouffy’s (36) general work on the histologi¬
cal structure of about 35 species from 10 genera of rusts ap¬
peared. In this he was able to show that the two nuclei fuse in
the teleutospore, and that the mycelium that produces uredos-
pores and teleutospores is binucleated. He was able to observe
too that the mycelium was not binucleated at all stages but that
it originated as uninucleated and later became binucleated.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1197
Dangeard and S appin-T rouff y regarded the fusion of nuclei in
the teleutospore as the sexual process in the rusts and paid little
attention to the origin of the binucleated condition further than
to discover that there were pairs of nuclei of different origin far
back in the mycelium.
Maire (28) was able to show that the vegetative cells of the
hyphae of Endophyllum are uninucleated up to the base of the
aecidium. This condition was considered general by him for
the aecidium bearing mycelium. The end cells are binucleated
and from these binucleated end cells the spores are produced.
To Maire is due the credit of recognizing the general signify
cance of this discovery in his suggestion of the alternation of
generations in the rusts. The change from sporophvte to game-
tophyte takes place in the reduction divisions to form the four
promycelial cell nuclei.
Holden and Harper (24) showed that the nuclear divisions in
the promycelium of Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis are of the or¬
dinary mitotic type with from six to ten chromosomes present
instead of two as had been claimed by Maire.
When the origin of the sporophyte had been pointed out by
Maire as lying at the beginning of the binucleated condition in¬
stead of in the fusion of the two nuclei in the teleutospore, as
Dangeard had suggested, the importance of finding the first cells
having the two nuclei and the method of their origin was much
increased.
Blackman (2) in 1904 and Christman (7) in 1905 found the
origin of the binucleated condition in rusts with aecidia of the
caeoma type. Blackman in Phragmidium violaceum discovered
that the binucleated condition arises by the entrance of the nu¬
cleus of a vegetative cell into a large cell, the so-called basidum,
above it. Christman in Phragmidium speciosum found a
fusion of two such cells giving rise to a binucleated cell from
which arises the row of two nucleated aecidiospores.
Blackman and Fraser (3) found in the aecidia of Hromyces
poae and Puccinia poarmn that the fusion was of the type pre¬
viously described by Blackman, while in Melampsora Bostrupi
there were evidences of a fusion like those described by Christ¬
man in Phrag. speciosum. Christman (8) later described
1198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
fusions similar to those in Phrag. speciosum in the formation of
the primary uredospores of Phragmidium potentillae-canadensis
and further (9) published a general account of the spore forms
in the rusts in which he advances the view that the aecidio-,
uredo-, and teleutospores are only a series of asexual repio-
ductive stages arising from morphologically equivalent basal
cells in the sporophyte generation and that one form of spore
may replace the other; if there are no aecidiospores, the sporo¬
phyte generation begins with the uredospores, etc.
It will he seen from the above that while our knowledge of
the number of nuclei in the mycelium and the origin of the bi¬
nucleated condition of the cells of the rusts does not as yet,
cover nearly all the species, still we are sure of enough to make
some generalizations. It has now been fairly definitely estab¬
lished that all forms of spores in the rusts are binucleated begin¬
ning with the aecidiospores, or if they are suppressed, with the
uredospores, and that the mycelium that is produced from these
spores has binucleated cells up until the formation of the teleu¬
tospores when the nuclei fuse. There is further, considerable
evidence that the reduction divisions occur in the formation of
the four cells of the promycelium and that from these come un-
inucleated sporidia which in their turn develop into a my¬
celium with uninucleated cells.
Por an understanding of the life cycle of the smuts it will al¬
so be necessary to review the cytological work that has been done
on the nuclear phenomena and on the spore formation of the
Basidiomycetes. This group while not so nearly related to the
ITstilagineae still has much in common with them in the homol¬
ogous structure of basidium and promycelium and of basidio-
spores and conidia.
It was established during the ?90’s by the work of Boseny
Wager, and Dangeard that the cells of the carpophore are fre¬
quently multinucleated while the basidia are at first binucleated
hut later become uninucleated by the fusion of the two nuclei.
Maire (29) in 1902 found that in a number of species the
cells of the sub-hymenial layer are binucleated while many of
those of the stipe and pileus were multinucleated. He did not,
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1199
however, trace the origin of the binucleated cells in the develop¬
ment of the carpophore.
The fusion of the two nuclei in the basidium and the later di¬
vision of the fusion nucleus has been followed in great detail by
Wager, Maire, Ruhland, Juel and others. The division to form
the four nuclei which pass into the basidiospores is supposed to
be the reduction division.
Harper (21) was able in Hypochnus to trace a series of bi¬
nucleated cells from the hymenium back into the mycelium in
the sub-stratum.
Neither Maire or Harper found the origin of the binucleated
cells. Miss Nichols (32) working on this problem came to the
conclusion that in some species the mycelium becomes multi-
nucleated, very soon after the spore germinates. She found no
definite point at which the multi-nucleated condition of the cells
passed over into the binucleated condition.
The binucleated condition of the young ascus has been re¬
cently shown by Maire (31) to extend in Galactinia succosa into
the ascogenous hyphae in the sub-hymenium for several cells at
least. This would seem to indicate that the binucleated condi¬
tion in this species at least is working back into the earlier cells
of the sporophyte.
Several of the yeasts show conjugations similar to those of
the conidia or promycelial cells of the smuts. Barker (1) has
described two cells of Zygosaccharomyces Barkeri as fusing, the
nuclei also fuse and then eight endospores are formed. Guiller-
mond (17, 18) has further described such nuclear and cytoplas¬
mic fusions in a number of species of yeasts in some of which it
occurs prior to spore formation while in others the spores fuse
on germinating.
The difficulty in working out the nuclear phenomena in the
entire life cycle of the smut is very great. The saprophytic
parts of it are in most cases easier to get than the parasitic
stages, especially the earlier stages of parasitism. It is fre¬
quently difficult to detect the fungus in the host until it is too
late to find out much about mycelial conditions especially in
those species in which the mycelium simply breaks up into the
1200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts •, and Letters.
spores. Added to these difficulties is the fact that the mycelium
is very much twisted and branched and that the nuclei are very
small and not at all easy to differentiate.
I have studied at various stages of development the following
species : IJstilago levis, II. Zeae ,U. Triaici, II. nuda, Urocystis
Anemones, Doassansia Alismatis, D. deformans, and Entvloma
Hymphaeae. As my methods were different for almost every
species I shall describe them as I take up the individual forms.
I desire to thank a number of mycologists for material, par¬
ticularly Dr. J. I. Davis of Racine, Wis. My thanks are due
also to Prof. R. A. Harper at whose suggestion the work was
undertaken and on account of whose assistance and encourage-
/
ment it was completed.
IJstilago levis (Kell. & Sw.) Magn.
Ustilago levis has been our most common species of oat smut
during the past three years. As it is available at any time dur¬
ing the summer and the spores are viable for a long time it is on
the whole a very favorable smut for cytological study.
In order to obtain large quantities of the conidia for the pur¬
pose of infecting seedlings it was necessary to resort to bacterio¬
logical methods. A very high dilution of the spores in sterile
water was plated out in 1 % beerwort agar and kept at a temper¬
ature of about 12° C., a refrigerator being used. This temper¬
ature seemed to prevent the too rapid growth of other species of
fungi such as moulds and Penicillium while it did not hinder so
much the development of the smut conidia. After three or four
days, small white colonies appear on the plates ; these spread in
the film of water that always covers agar plates and were al¬
lowed to grow until they had attained the diameter of a centi¬
metre. These colonies can be obtained as practically pure
growths of conidia and were used in this condition for infection
purposes, or they could be still further increased in quantity by
inoculating flasks of liquid beerwort and allowing them to stand
for a few days. In most cases the colonies themselves were used
for inoculations as they were much easier to handle and the lo¬
cation of the infected area on the seedling could be more readily
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1201
distinguished by the smear from the agar culture as described
below. It required 5-10 days for the colonies to attain suf¬
ficient size for use when they were kept at these low tempera¬
tures.
In the meantime the oat seedlings were being grown in moist
filter paper. Seedlings about 2-3 days old and whose leaf
sheathe was not longer than 1 cm. were used for inoculation,
those with leaf sheathe about 1/2 cm. long being preferred.
The conidia from the colonies on the plates were now spread on
the young leaf sheathes with a scalpel. The infected seedlings
were then replaced in the damp filter paper and put back in the
refrigerator at a temperature of about 12° C. After being kept
there for 5-7 days they were planted out in soil in large pots.
By peeling off the epidermis under the infected area and ex¬
amining it with the microscope the process of infection could be
readily followed. The first penetration of the epidermis oc¬
curred after 2-3 days and after 5 days many of the epidermal
cells were full of the smut mycelium. Keeping the seedlings at
a low temperature greatly retards their growth without seeming
to have nearly so great an effect on the fungus growth, thus giv¬
ing the latter as nearly as possible the conditions that are said
to favor its growth in nature and cause such high percentages of
smutted heads, i. e., cold, damp spring weather. The infection
of the growing point of the young plant cannot be seen from the
outside but in sections it was found to be infected after about 10
days.
While this method of securing infected heads has been found
very successful, the percentage of infection obtained is also de¬
pendent on the season when the inoculation is made and the rate
of growth of the oat plants. Plants infected in this way about
Sept. 1st and kept in the green house over winter did not come
to maturity until about Peb. 1st when they showed about 95%
of infected heads. Another lot infected April 1st, came to ma¬
turity about June 1st and only showed about 50% of infected
heads. I am inclined to believe that this difference was not due
to increased immunity from infection but to a higher percentage
of recovery after infection. The winter conditions in the green
5— S. & A.
1202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
house apparently retarded and stunted the growth of the young
oat plants so much that the fungus was able, In most cases, to
keep pace with it and it was only the most rapidly growing indi¬
viduals that were able to push ahead of it. When the plants
were given a fairer chance under more normal conditions, as in
the spring months, a larger number could outgrow the fungus
and produce clean heads.
There has been considerable question as to whether U. levis
is a true species or whether its characters of smooth walled
spores, formed in rather definite pustules, are only the result of
physiological conditions in the host plant, leading to these char¬
acteristics in the parasite. In the course of these experiments
I have carried this smut through three generations and have al¬
ways had the same kind of heads in which the smut is enclosed
in the only partly destroyed glumes and the same smooth walled
spores. It may be that my conditions were the very ones re¬
quired to bring out these peculiarities but it would hardly seem
that they would appear for three successive times and in plants
grown both rapidly and slowly. So I am inclined to regard
IJstilago levis as a stable species.
My principal object in the above experiments was to obtain
an abundance of the fungus at all stages of its development for
further study of the cell structure, spore formation, etc.
For the younger stages of the mycelium the parts of the leaf
sheathe under the smear of conidia were sliced off and fixed in
Fleming’s weaker solution. For the older stages when the
growing point of the plant had become infected (10 days-2
months) the older leaves were removed and the entire growing
tip fixed, usually also in Fleming’s weaker solution. Staining
was largely with the triple stain although the iron-haematoxylin
was also used.
In addition to the parasitic stages of the fungus it was possi¬
ble also, from the cultures to get all stages in its Saprophytic de¬
velopment. The conidia, as has been frequently described be¬
fore, reproduce abundantly by budding in the same manner as
yeasts. Ordinarily the bud drops off almost as soon as formed
but in rich media, long chains of these, produced by continued
budding without separation of the cells may remain together.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1203
These may produce finally the tree-like groups such as Brefeld
(4 & 6) has figured. The conidia (Fig. 1) during all of this
budding are usually uninucleated. This is the case in liquid
media that are still rich in nutrient substances.
If, however, the conidia are taken from the dense masses on
the plate cultures they show quite different nuclear conditions.
Sometimes there appears only a single nucleus but there are
more likely to be two or more in each cell (Fig. 2). The num¬
ber does not seem to be definitely fixed though it does not seem
to exceed four or five. It seems to be a general rule that the
conidia when formed in the crowded masses in the plate cultures
may become multinucleated but when growing free in liquid
cultures full of nutrient substances they remain uninucleated.
In addition to becoming multinucleated these conidia lose the
oval shape typical of the oat smut and become swollen and ir¬
regular (Fig. 3). A germ tube may be pushed out (Fig. 2)
and the material in the conidium travel out into it. As progress
is made forward by this tube, successive walls are put in behind
the advancing cytoplasm. The forward end loses the form of a
conidium and also becomes multinucleated (Fig. 3). In very
old cultures these germ tubes may be seen radiating out in all
directions from the edges of the colonies on the agar, each of
them with a bit of nucleated protoplasm in its tip and a long
empty tube behind it. It appears that as the conidia become
too crowded and are enfeebled they cease budding and spend
their last efforts in putting out germ-tubes ; if these do not find
a host plant, of course, they die.
Sections made from parts of the leaf sheathe immediately un¬
der the smears will show the fungus making its way through the
outer epidermal walls. The conidium apparently fastens itself
to the wall and proceeds to penetrate it (Fig. 4-5) while the
host in response to this stimulus builds the wall thicker. The
fungus pierces further and further into the cell until finally the
wall is passed and the conidial tube makes its way into the
protoplast through a small opening. This continued dissolving
and thickening of the walls produces the funnel-like openings of
the conidial germ-tubes observed by Brefeld (5) in surface
1204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
view. Once through the outer wall the hyphae grow straight
across the cell and pierce the inner wall.
It is difficult to follow this process except at places where the
conidia are rather scattered. It was very unusual to find more
than three or four tubes making their entrance in one section
(Fig. 6) of an infection spot. There seems little doubt, how¬
ever, that the successful entrance of even one germ-tube into a
plant might under favorable conditions be sufficient to smut the
entire oat head.
In the material in which the early stages of infection were
found the conidia usually had 2-3 nuclei ; the majority having
two (Fig. 6). The conidia which had failed to make their way
in, usually had about the same number and there was no evi¬
dence that the successful ones were in any way different so far
as number of nuclei is concerned.
A few days later, and about the fifth day after infection, the
cells of the leaf sheathe will be found to be full of much
branched, sparingly septate, multinucleated fungus cells. As
the hyphae make their way through the leaf sheathe they are
largely intracellular in position but they become almost entirely
intercellular in their distribution in the young growing plant.
Young plants fixed and sectioned ten days to two weeks after
the infection have an abundance of smut mycelium between the
cells of the first node and of their tip (Fig. 7). Young plants
sectioned from this time up until pretty close to flowering show
practically the same conditions as to distribution of the my¬
celium ; it being most conspicuous at the nodes and the growing
tips. There is, as other authors have observed, apparently some
kind of an equilibrium maintained between the host and its
parasite. In spite of the numerous hyphae that run all through
the growing region the normal functions of the oat cells are ap¬
parently not interfered with. The cells divide normally in the
usual mitotic manner (Fig. 9) and the nuclei and cytoplasm
give no evidence that they are abnormal in any way.
The hyphae of the smut are scattered throughout the growing
tip of the young plant with apparently little reference to its
structure. The growing tip and the base of the leaves show the
most abundant hyphae (Fig. 7) ; the central parts of the plant
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1205
in sections not showing quite as many fragments of mycelium.
The hyphae (Figs. 11-12) at this time are very much contorted,
of varying diameter, the cells multinucleated, and almost en¬
tirely intercellular (Fig. 9). The young leaves are full of the
hyphae (Fig. 8) and even those that have lengthened may show
the presence of the fungus up nearly to their tips. Many of the
hyphae in the leaves are found to be intracellular in contrast to
those nearer the axis of the plant. This is in plants six weeks
to two months old in which the leaves are fairly well developed*
Of course, no indication of spore formation appears in any part
of the oat plant at this time.
At flowering time longitudinal sections (Fig. 10) through the
young infloresence showed the fungus in the older flowers as
young spore pustules. The younger flowers show all stages in
the development of the smut spores.
The characteristic of this smut in addition to its smooth
walled spores is that it does not convert the entire flower into a
dusty mass hut forms pustules of rather small size which, ass
they do not run together, do not destroy all the cells of the
flowering glumes. The glumes thus retain the shape of the
flower and keep the spore mass from becoming entirely diffuse.
Spore formation can be traced in all its stages in a single panicle
fixed at the proper time (Fig. 10). Sometimes the flowers near
the tip remain immune while the ones below them are attacked
indiscriminately especially the older ones near the base. At
this time the rudiments of the glumes and sometimes of the
t stamens are still to be distinguished but the smut seems to make
no discrimination as to which tissue is attacked first in forming
spores. ISTone of the floral parts ever come to maturity except
the glumes ; all the other are converted into spores before they
are fully differentiated.
The first indication of spore formation in the fungal hyphae
is a much branched and contorted condition of some of the hy-
phal tips. These are at the time intercellular and this knotting
up of the hyphal tips frequently occurs at the angles of the host
cells where they may be wedged apart considerably. These
swollen ends of the hyphae (Fig. 1'3) are multinucleated, each
one containing 10-15 nuclei.
1206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
The cell walls of the hyphae now begin to gelatinize from the
inside (Fig. 14), a clear zone appearing between the protoplasm
and the darker staining wall. The nests or pustules of hyphae
continue to grow and swell and their walls become so completely
gelatinized at this stage (Fig. 15) that all that seems to be pres¬
ent is a tangle of hyphae of irregular shape and varying di¬
ameter without walls and lying in a clear matrix. At the same
time the walls of the host cells immediately adjacent lose the ca¬
pacity to take up the stain, the gelatinization of the fungal walls
having apparently extended to the walls of the host cells also.
The gelatinized walls do not stain at all in the iron haema-
toxylin and only take a faint blue in the triple so that all that
appears in the sections are the darker staining protoplasts of the
hyphae. The protoplasm of the latter seems to be so dense at
this time that it is almost impossible to distinguish nuclei.
Bodies appear in them which may be nuclei (Fig. ,1'6) but it is
impossible to say with great certainty. The hyphae continue
to spin out more and more becoming still more finely attenuated
in places until they are apparently pinched off into segments
(Fig. 17). At this time these little pieces of hyphae are very
angular and the walls difficult to make out. Some of these little
pieces show two nuclei and some one. Whether the two fuse to
form the one cannot be ascertained with certainty as they are ex¬
ceedingly small and about all that can be said about them is that
they sometimes contain two dark staining bodies and sometimes
one. The irregular segments now change their shape, round up,
and the spore wall begins to develop.
From this account it will be seen that the uninucleated con-
idia of U. levis frequently become multinucleated before they
cause infection. The mycelium is composed of multinucleated
cells from its beginning and these are continued throughout the
life of the fungus up to the time of spore formation. At that
stage the hyphae break up into segments, the number of nuclei
of which is difficult to determine, but which is either one or two.
The young spores contain one or two nuclei and the mature ones,
one, but it is not possible to determine with certainty whether at
some early stage all have two which later fuse to form the single
one.
Lutmun — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1207
Ustilago Zeae (Beckm.) Ung.
Pure cultures of the conidia of this smut were obtained by
plating out the spores on 1 % beer-wort agar. A transfer was
then made to flasks of liquid beer-wort. When a thick white
sediment of conidia had collected in the bottom of the flask the
culture was shaken up and sprayed into young corn ears in
which the silk had just appeared as recommended by Brefeld
(5). After a week or ten days the young kernels were found
hypertrophied usually on one side or one end. These affected
parts were fixed in Flemming’s Weaker Solution. Sections of
such a part would show an abundance of smut hyphae between
the cells. The very early stages when the smut was making its
way into the ear could not be obtained in this way but all later
stages up to and including spore formation were abundant.
The appearance of the mycelium (Fig. 18) in these hyper¬
trophied parts of a kernel is practically the same as that of the
mycelium of U. levis in the oat plant. It is largely intercellu¬
lar, much twisted and branched, and the cells are multinucle-
ated. The host cells are apparently in a fairly healthy condi¬
tion but somewhat hypertrophied.
The process of spore formation is essentially similar to that in
IT. levis. De Bary (14) and Miss Knowles (26) have des¬
cribed the external features of it very accurately. The blunt
and much branched ends of the hyphae form balls which fill the
intercellular spaces between the host cells. There is great vari¬
ation in the size and shape of these hyphal ends but they are al¬
ways multinucleated. The same gelatinization of the hyphal
walls occurs, making it impossible to distinguish anything ac¬
curately in the hyphae at just this stage. Some of the segments
show, when stained with iron-ha ematoxylin, two dark staining
bodies that are undoubtedly the nuclei. The segments (Fig.
19) at this time may be irregular or only long, but they all have
very thick walls. A little later (Fig. 20) when these segments
have changed their shape and become spherical, it is easier to
distinguish the nuclei. Some of them show two but there are
others with apparently only one. The same thing that was said
of TJ. levis applies here; it is impossible to prove whether a
1208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
fusion really takes place or not, as in both species the nuclei are
so exceedingly small. The mature spore, however, is uninucle-
ated and its cytoplasm frequently contains very large vacuoles
while the nucleus is pushed to one side.
In all essentials the mycelium and spore formation of TJ.
Zeae will be seen to be the same as that of U. levis. The vege¬
tative mycelium, composed of multinucleated cells, breaks up
into short segments containing one or two nuclei which pass into
the spores. In both species it is impossible to determine
whether two nuclei are always present in these segments or
whether they fuse to form the one nucleus which appears in the
mature spores.
Fusions in the Promycelial Cells of Some of the Smuts.
The spores were germinated in drop cultures on slides placed
on racks in damp chambers. The material found best for this
purpose was an exceedingly dilute beer- wort. An addition of
even a few drops of beer -wort to a watch glass full of water was
sufficient to help the germination of the smut spores and not suf¬
ficient to cause much immediate growth of moulds. The food
material being so dilute was soon used up and the promycelial
cells started almost immediately to fuse in pairs. These cul¬
tures could be kept without drying out or without so very much
contamination for a week or ten days which was as long as it
was necessary to obtain material at all stages of development.
The spores of U. hordei, U. A venae, and U. Tritici were used
for this germination and all showed practically the same results.
The promycelia were stained on the slide directly by means
of a modification of the method proposed by Harper (22) : A
slide was rubbed with albumen fixative as for sections, one of
these cultures was pipetted on it and the Flemming’s weaker
solution added. The fixing fluid coagulated the white of egg
and the spores and promycelia stick in it after the drop is al¬
lowed to dry out. After bleaching in hydrogen peroxide the
slide was stained in iron-haematoxylin or the triple stain.
Under the above conditions the promycelial cells fuse in pairs
almost as soon as formed ; there is sometimes a fusion in threes
Lictman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1209'
but this is exceptional. Each cell of the promycelium is uninu-
cleated. If now some of the promycelia be taken from the
cultures 3-5 days old it will be seen that conditions are chang¬
ing. The cytoplasm of each cell of the fused pair is becoming
highly vacuolated and the nucleus of one cell can be found at all
stages of passage from one over into the other. This passage
of the nucleus can be traced in great detail from one cell into the
other (Figs. 30-32) through the conjugation tube. In the pas¬
sage it often becomes drawn out or amoeboid in shape. This
movement of the nucleus occurs before there is any flow of cyto¬
plasm ; seeming to be the result of some kind of an attractive
stimulus exerted on one nucleus by the other. It is probable too
that food supply has something to do with it as the movement
seems to be toward the better nourished cell. The cytoplasm of
the enucleated cell becomes more and more vacuolated and the
material in it begins to withdraw into the one with the two
nuclei (Fig. 33). As it retreats from the enucleated cell it
builds successive walls behind it (Fig. 34). The enucleated
cell finally appears very much shriveled as a result of losing its
contents and in some cases with a number of cross-walls marking
the successive retreats of the cytoplasm. In the last stage all
the material from both cells is found in the one with the two
nuclei. The two nuclei may now lie side by side closely pressed
together or they may be at some distance apart. As to whether
they actually fuse or not is rather difficult to decide but at any
rate they become so closely pressed together that it is impossible
to differentiate them as two in some cases (Figs. 33 and 34).
It must be remembered too that at this time the cell is filled with
large vacuoles in many cases and the nuclei are compressed be¬
tween them so as to lose their shape. At this stage, the nucle-
ole, which earlier is easily differentiated, cannot be readily dis¬
tinguished. If the nuclear fusion occurs it is probably only in
a part of the cases ; in many, the two nuclei simply seem to lie
separate in the cell until it dies.
In one case (Fig. 35) that was observed, three promycelial
cells had fused and the nuclei of all three was in the middle one.
Another interesting variation is that which occurs sometimes in
U. Avenae where a long fusion tube is frequently formed, the
1210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
tube being much larger than the cells it connects. In these it is
usual to find all the greater bulk of the cytoplasm with the two
nuclei has flowed out into this tube. The two cells are left com¬
paratively empty while the tube contains a dense cytoplasm and
has the two nuclei either separate or apparently fusing.
I have not been able to determine what would become of these
cells if they could be started growing again. This was found
impossible as by the time the two nuclei were in one cell the
cultures were in such a condition from contamination with bac¬
teria that it was impossible to give the smut cells a new start by
adding fresh beer-wort. It would be interesting also to deter¬
mine whether these large fusion tubes could cause infection or
whether even the fused promycelial cells themselves could do so.
It has generally been assumed that the promycelial cells are the
equivalents of the conidia but it has not been shown directly
that they can produce infection.
Doassansia Alismatis (Hees.) Cornu.
Infected spots on the leaves of Alisma plantago were fixed in
Flemming’s Weaker Solution, then imbedded, sectioned, and
stained either with iron-haematoxylin or the triple stain.
In the main my work on this species confirms that of Dan-
geard (12) but I have been able to observe a number of further
facts on this highly specialized smut.
A single section will usually show a number of stages in the
development of the spore-balls ; the older ones being in the mid¬
dle and the younger ones on the edges of the infected area. The
spore-balls originate apparently as described by Dangeard as a
tangle of hyphae in an intercellular space (Fig. 47). From
these hyphae are budded off the spores as short branches. At
first the mass of spores is undifferentiated, all containing two
nuclei, but as thev become more and more tightly pressed to¬
gether, the outside ones lose their nuclei and become thick
walled, forming the outer sterile layer of the spore-ball. Later,
the two nuclei in each fertile spore fuse.
The mycelium is difficult to follow but in the spaces formed
between the spore-balls the hyphae frequently travel straight for
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1211
a considerable distance and in this position can be studied to ad¬
vantage. They seem to have two nuclei which lie rather close
together, and while the ends of the cells cannot in the majority
of cases be made out; in some cases (Fig. 46) they can, and in
these cells the binucleated condition can be determined with cer¬
tainty. Further, the young hyphal branches from which the
spores seem to arise seem to be binucleated in some of the few
cases that I was able to trace. If the fungus does not have bi¬
nucleated cells universally, at this stage of development, there is
at least a strong tendency toward the binucleated condition.
An interesting fact with regard to the germination of the
spore-balls was brought out in examination of sections of rather
old infected spots of the leaf. Brefeld (6) has described and
figured the germination of the spores in water after the spore-
balls have been teased out or after the ball has been broken up
but does not describe the germination in situ in the leaf. When
the free spore-ball germinates after being freed from the leaf it
pushes out its promycelia in a radial manner all over the surface
of the ball between the sterile cells. In germination in the leaf
(Fig. 48), however, and this may apparently occur as soon as
the ball is mature, a break occurs at one point on the surface of
the ball, usually on the side nearest the leaf epidermis, and is
due to the first promycelia wedging the sterile layer apart at that
point; the figure that is formed being almost an exact reproduc¬
tion of the one given by Magnus (27) for Setchellia puncti-
forinis (ISTiessl) Magn. The promycelia are always long enough
to reach the exterior and protrude from this opening so that they
may bear their tufts of conidia at the apex, exteriorly to the sur¬
face of the leaf. This confirms Setchelhs (38) statement that
the balls germinate immediately after formation.
Doassania defornums (Setch).
The material for this work was fixed and sent to me by Dr. J.
J. Davis of Racine, Wis., where it occurred on Sagittaria varia-
bilis. It was imbedded, sectioned, and stained in iron-haema-
toxylin or the triple stain.
1212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
The hypertrophied petioles were full of smut halls in all
stages of development. This is one of the forms of smut halls
in which the fertile cells are on the outside and the sterile cells
form a pseudoparenchyma in the interior ; the exact reverse of
the conditions in D. Alismatis. Setchell (38) has described
the morphology of the smut halls of this species very thoroughly.
The hall begins as a tangled mass of hyphae in one of the in¬
tercellular spaces of the hypertrophied host tissue (Fig. 40).
It is not possible to make very much out of the nuclear struc¬
tures at this time as the cytoplasm is very dense. Careful
staining, however, with the iron-haematoxylin will bring out the
fact that many of these cells are binucleated ; whether all are so
is difficult to say. I should say from my preparations that the
binucleated condition is probably constant, for while in some
cases the cytoplasm is too dense for the nuclei to be seen, in all
cases where they can be seen there are always two and only two
present.
At the beginning, the cells are all alike, but those on the in¬
terior soon begin to lose their contents and become transparent
(Fig. 41). The material in the cell seems to all go to in¬
crease the size of the cell. The outer cells remain dark-staining
and apparently furnish new cells to the central region as the
original number of cells there is not a fourth of that which is
found in the mature balls and I do not believe that these central
cells divide. It may be possible that the hyphae from the onit-
side push in between the fertile cells on the outside and add fur¬
ther pseudoparenchymatous cells to the interior and there seems
to be some indication that this occurs. In the last stage, that of
the nearly mature spore-ball, the external cells are dense with
cytoplasm and contain two nuclei that are in various stages of
fusion. Surrounding these are the protective hyphae, wound
around the exterior of the ball, making a. felted layer outside it
(Fig. 42).
The nuclei of the cells of the mycelium are rather difficult to
differentiate out but in the felted layer around the spore mass
two nuclei are usually found associated together. In the long
hyphae, also, that run across the intercellular spaces an ar¬
rangement of the nuclei in pairs seems to be the rule in the cells.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1213
Many of these cells are so long that it is not possible to follow
them to their ends but in the shorter ones (Fig. 43) that can be
traced there are two nuclei. Whether the cells are all regu¬
larity binucleated cannot be decided with certainty but there is
certainly a great tendency toward the binucleated condition.
This fungus has small haustoria by which it holds itself in
place in the intercellular spaces and gets material from the host-
cells. Sometimes two or three of these can be seen in a single
section making their way into a single cell (Fig. 44). They
are very small in proportion to the size of the host cell. Their
form is unlike that of the haustoria of the rusts and mildews as
they branch repeatedly as soon as inside the wall (Fig. 45) ;
the branches are very short and give the haustorium the ap¬
pearance of a bunch of grapes hanging down in the cell. On ac¬
count of their small size it is impossible to differentiate their
nuclei.
Urocystis Anemones (Pers.) Wint.
This species occurs every spring in great abundance on all the
aerial parts of Hepatica acutiloba. In the young stages of
spore-formation the pustules are observable as white spots on the
leaves or petioles. The smut from the petioles was found better
for the study of the mycelium as the hyphal cells are compelled
to run parallel to elongated host cells and can be traced more
readily. Parts of the stem and leaves showing the white
blotches of the smut were fixed in Flemming’s weaker solution,
and stained in the triple stain.
At the time when the white pustules appear, the smut is al¬
ready far advanced, and many of the hyphae are beginning to
form spores. At first it seems impossible to make anything out
of the tangle but by carefully selecting a place where they are
not so dense and where the filaments are forced to run parallel
to the host cells it can be seen that the cells are binucleated (Fig.
21). Whether this is true of all is impossible to say but cer¬
tainly the majority of the hyphal cells show two nuclei closely
associated and frequently the end walls of the cells can be made
out. While there is great variation in the size and length of
1214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
cells in this region those that can he followed are certainly hi-
nucleated.
The spores begin as short -side branches (Figs. 22-23) con¬
taining two nuclei in a very dense cytoplasm. The two nuclei
may lie in the long axis of the cell or transversely. The branch
increases in length and size, cuts up into new cells so that a
chain of binucleated cells is produced (Figs. 24-26). In the
meantime it becomes wound around on itself and contorted so as
to make it impossible to follow its turns. Sometimes it seems
to branch and the branches to grow in so as to become a part of
the knot that is forming the spore-ball.
The cells of the ball grow very much in size and their two nu¬
clei can now be easily seen lying side by side in each spore
(Fig. 27). In well stained preparations the nucleoles can be
followed through all the stages in the progress of the fusion of
the two nuclei up to that of the mature spore with its single
large nucleus and nucleole. All the cells are binucleated at this
time ; both those that are to form the sterile cells and the young
spores. The difference between the two lies in the cytoplasm;
those that will become sterile contain little stainable material
while the spores are quite dense, but both are binucleated. On
account of the small size of the nuclei and cells it is impossible
division. It seems probable that the nuclei of this chain of
spores are formed in this fashion as the nuclei frequently lie in
a position to suggest the occurence of such divisions and the cells
are broad enough for the two spindles to lie side by side.
In this smut also, haustoria are present. The hyphae are
found almost entirely in the intercellular spaces and apparently
depend on the haustoria to get their food from the host cells.
The haustoria originate as short side branches which penetrate
the cells. Sometimes they are quite large, extending far down
into the cell (Fig. 29), while at other times they are merely
little branched hyphae (Fig. 28) that only penetrate the cell
wall. Their characteristic feature is that whether large or
small they branch extensively as soon as they are inside the cell
wall ; if the haustorium is a large one these branches may run all
through the host cell. In the smaller types the branches are
short and stubby. In the cases I have observed, there seem to
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1215
be two nuclei present in the larger haustoria ; the two lying in
the neck of the haustorium just at the point where it begins to
branch.
Entyloma Nympheae (Cunn.) Setch.
This smut is very common on our species of white water lily
(Hymphaea reniformis) in the lakes around Madison, forming
whitish patches on the under sides of the -leaves. As the smut
occurs in the intercellular air spaces, it was impossible to fix it
in any of the osmic or chromic fixing fluids as they would not
penetrate to the mycelium. Carnoy’s fluid was found, how¬
ever, to give most excellent results on the fungus although it
caused some shrinkage in the host cells. The sections were
stained in the triple stain or in the iron haematoxylin.
Raciborski (34) has described the spore formation and also
the remarkable haustoria of this species in their histological
features. His paper was not available to me in the original but
he was kind enough to copy and send me his figures and a sum¬
mary of his work.
The spores and mycelium lie in the intercellular spaces of the
lily leaf (Fig. 56) and the spores are formed especially in the
large air-spaces just above the lower epidermis and in the air
chambers below the stomata, although they may be formed in
any free space between cells in the leaf. The spores of this
species are always borne as the ends of short side branches.
A short lateral branch, very dense with cytoplasm, is put out
from one of the larger hyphae (Fig. 55). Inside of this are
two nuclei usually arranged parallel to the long axis of the cell
as it is narrow at this time. This branch grows both in length
and thickness and the two nuclei come to lie side by side in it
(Figs. 57-62). The stalk of the spore becomes vacuolate and
finally a large vacuole seems to cut the spore off from the hypha
bearing it and a wall is put in behind it. The wall of the spore
thickens and the cytoplasm becomes filled with vacuoles. In
the mature spore the wall has become very thick and is covered
with minute spines (Fig. 61) ; the end is apiculate by the thick¬
ening of the end wall ; and a large vacuole often fills a large part
1216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
of the spore, the nucleus being pushed to one side by it. It is
Tather difficult to distinguish the fusion nucleus inside the spore
as the process of fusion is not complete until the spore has at¬
tained a very thick wall. This takes up the stain and makes it >
difficult to see any structures inside the spore.
The hyphae are the largest found in any of our common
smuts. They lie in the intercellular spaces among the palisade
parenchyma and pulp parenchyma cells of the leaf and form
long strands across the air spaces above the lower epidermis.
The branching is characteristic of this smut, and of Urocystis at
least, if not of other species ; a side branch always originating in
front of a partition across the main hypha (Fig. 49-55). The
cells are typically binucleated; the two nuclei usually lying in
the part of the cell formed by the main hypha, although one of
them may lie out in the branch.
. The nuclei are large, occupying a large part of the transverse
diameter of the cell lumen and always lying in its main axis.
They show a well differentiated nucleole ^and chromatin reticu¬
lum (Fig. 51). While conjugate divisions were not observed,
it seems entirely probable that they occur here as in the rusts
where the nuclei are frequently similar ily placed. In spore
formation the tubes which lead to the small branch that is to
form a spore are entirely too small to admit more than one nu¬
cleus at a time, and the two may be seen following one after the
other into the young spore (Fig. 57). It is impossible, of
•course, at this time to distinguish whether the two going in, are
sister nuclei, or nuclei that have been produced by conjugate di¬
vision from a pair in the main hypha. I have been unable to
find division figures in the nuclei.
The large haustoria are especially striking in this species and
serve probably both as holdfasts and as organs by which the host
plant is drained of its food. Kaciborski (34) has given a good
account of their external morphology with the exception of the
appressorium but did not discuss their nuclei.
These haustoria originate like ordinary side branches from
hyphae in the intercellular spaces. They are binucleated and
usually short (Fig. 49). They are pushed out against the cell
wall and there begin to branch, not to form a sack as Raciborski
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1217
(34) stated it, sending out short projections which become
closely appressed to the cell wall to form a sort of appressorium
(Figs. 63, 70, 71) such as occurs in the mildews except that in
this case it is much larger and better developed. The host cell
wall under this appressorium ultimately becomes dissolved away
and a hvpha is pushed down from its middle into the cell. In
the meantime, however, the host cell is not entirely passive ; as
a response to the irritation of the appressorium it has thickened
its wall under the spot where the stimulus occurs (Fig. 70).
There is apparently a struggle but the parasite ultimately
penetrates the host cell. The hypha is very much constricted at
this point where it enters the cell but once in, it swells out into a
tube as large as the normal hyphae of the intercellular spaces.
It now begins to branch profusely and almost fills the entire
host cell with short hyphae. The host cell nucleus is frequently
enclosed in a tangled knot formed of these haustorial hyphae
and as Raciborski (34) noted is hypertrophied. One haustor-
ium is found in a single cell and the absorbtion of material by it
is continued until the cell is dead.
There are two nuclei in these branches that form the young
appressorium and this number is maintained in the mature
haustorium. They lie in the swollen ends of the appressorium
(Fig. 70) and in the stalk of the haustorium just after it has
entered the cell but has not started to branch (Figs. 64 & 65).
While they may be seen taking other positions this location in
the neck of the haustorium is probably the most favorable for
their functions in relation to the entire haustorium. As noted
before they take this same position in Urocystis Anemones.
THEORETICAL DISCUSSION.
The similarity of the promycelium which comes from the
chlamydospores of the smuts to that which comes from the
teleutospores of the rusts has been the principal reason for as¬
suming as Brefeld (6) has that the two groups are closely re¬
lated. While this promycelial tube is always divided into four
cells by three transverse walls in the rusts and the number of
6— S. & a.
1218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
cells may vary in the smuts or there may he a non-septate
promycelium as in the Tilletias, still as Brefeld (6) has shown,
there are variations in the basidia, especially those of, the Tre-
mellineae, which are perhaps parallel in some degree to those in
the rusts and smuts. An exhaustive study of the basidium in all
its forms has been made by Brefeld and the system of classifica¬
tion which he worked out is the quite commonly accepted one
today for the groups of the Ustilagineae, TTredineae, and Basid-
iomycetes.
Our belief in the relationship of these three groups was still,
further strengthened by the discovery by Dangeard (12) and
Sappin-Trouffy (36) that the formation of both teleutospore
and chlamydospore was preceded by the fusion of two nuclei in
the young spore which made a striking parallel to the fusion of
the two nuclei in the young basidium.
It has now been well established that this fusion of two nu¬
clei in the teleutospore of the rust and a similar fusion in the
young basidium is universal for the two groups having these or¬
gans. And my results on the smuts above described confirm the
views of Dangeard, Maire, and Raciborski that a similar fusion
occurs regularly in the chlamydospore of the smuts. Microtome
sections bring out very clearly as described, the great difference
in the spore formation of the two divisions of the smuts: the
Tilletiaceae and the ITstilaginaceae. In the latter group an en¬
tire group of hyphae break up into spores, while in the first the
spores are borne as side branches or at the tip of the main
hyphal branches.
The question whether the nuclear phenomena are the same in
the two cases is a difficult one. Dangeard (12 & 13) has found
a nuclear fusion in the formation @f the spores of Doassansia
Alismatis, Entyloma Glaucii, and Urocystis Violae of the Til¬
letiaceae; Maire (30) has found it in Tilletia Tritici, and
Raciborski (34) in Entyloma Eymphaeae. In my own work I
have been able to confirm the existence of the fusion in Doas-
sausia Alismatis and Entyloma ETymphaeae and to show that it
also occurs in Urocystis Anemones and Doassansia deformans.
Practically all of the most decisive work has been done on this
division of the smuts,, while little has been done on the other.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1219
Dangeard definitely asserts that a fusion occurs in TIstilago
Tragopogi; in IT. Violaeea there are two nuclei present and
sometimes only one hut it is impossible to see the fusion. The
reason for this uncertainty is, of course, the small size of the
cells and nuclei. My own observations indicate that a fusion
occurs in the young spores of TIstilago levis and U. Zeae. But
further evidence is needed to make it perfectly clear that the
same nuclear conditions are present in both groups. It may be
that there are species with larger cell and nuclei that are more
favorable for study than those of the species studied so far.
Soon after the discovery that the two nuclei fuse in the basid-
ium and teleutospore, appeared the additional fact from the
work of Sappin-Trouffy, Ruhland, Maire, and Harper that the
mycelium from which the teleutospores and basidium arise is
binucleated and especially that the sub-hymenial cells are bi-
nucleated. It is fairly well established that the two-nucleated
stage in these fungi represents the sporophyte generation in
their life history and hence it is of the first importance to dis¬
cover whether in the smuts this condition of the cells is limited
to the spore alone or whether it extends throughout a large part
of the mycelium. Previous authors have done little on the
nuclear conditions in the mycelium. All that we have are the
statements of Dangeard (12), Fisch (;T6), and Schmitz (37)
that the mycelium is composed of multinucle&ted cells.
My observations show, however, that while this statement that
the mycelium is made up of multinucleated cells is probably
true of the genus TIstilago it is probably not true of the Tilletia-
ceae. Entyloma Hymphaeae has binucleated cells. The same
is probably true of Urocystis Anemones, Doassansia Alismatis,
and Doassansia deformans; at least many binucleated cells are
present in the later stages. Maire (30) also has made the
statement that the spores of Tilletia Tritici arise from binucl^
ated cells in the mycelium. Dangeard’s figures of spore forma¬
tion in Urocystis Yiolae, Entyloma Glaucii, and Doassansia
Alismatis (12) show a mycelium in which the cells nearly all
have two nuclei associated together.
It is true that all these observations relate for the most part to
the time of spore formation and that this binucleated condition
1220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , arid Letters .
may not in all cases extend far back of this, or even may be
characteristic of it; still in Entyloma Nymphaeae the entire
mycelium is binucleated. In general it may be said at present
as to the nuclear conditions in the smut mycelium that in the
genus Ustilago the cells are multinucleated up to the time of
spore formation ; in some of the Tilletia group the cells are cer¬
tainly binucleated while in others they are probably so, at least
to the extent that many binucleated cells are present.
The question arises for the smuts as for the rusts and Ba-
sidiomycetes as to the point of origin of this binucleated condi¬
tion. Eor the rusts it is now generally agreed according to the
work of Blackman (2) and Christman (7) that it arises in some
way in the aecidium, or in the primary uredo, if the aecidium
is lacking. In the Basidiomycetes Miss Nichols (32) found
the binucleated condition arising irregularity at almost any
point in the mycelium which formed the carpophore.
As described above we have a fairly complete life history of
one of the types with multinucleated cells in Ustilago levis and
there are a number of points of interest here to which it is
necessary to call attention. The divisions which the nucleus
undergoes in forming the nuclei for the promycelium should
perhaps be assumed to be the reduction divisions on analogy
with the rusts. Usually there are two of these divisions in the
genus Ustilago while in Tilletia there are at least three, one of
which must be on this hypothesis only a vegetative division.
The promycelial cells on this hypothesis have the reduced num¬
ber of chromosomes and the conidia that come from them also
have the reduced number and hence are gametophytic. When
the nucleus of this conidium divides without the conidial cell
dividing, has the cell now become necessarily sporophytic?
Certainly not, since the condition is evidently unstable and the
nuclear divisions may continue till the cell contains twenty or
thirty sister nuclei. The sporophytic generation cannot be as¬
sumed to begin until the binucleated condition is definitely es¬
tablished and it is very difficult to say at just what point this oc¬
curs. There seems to be no possibility that the binucleated con¬
dition in Ustilago is established by any thing in the nature of
cell fusion or nuclear migration.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1221
Tilletia and its related genera are presumably more special¬
ized than is Ustilago and it is interesting to note that the binu-
cleated condition is present in them at an earlier stage preced¬
ing spore formation. This may well be due to the working
back of the binucleated condition in the life cycle from the
spore in which only it is present in Ustilago.
That the sporophytic binucleated condition of the cells can
work back in the mycelium has been recently shown by the work
of Maire (31) on Galactinia succosa in which he found that
the binucleated condition which was supposed to appear only
in the ascus cell may appear in several cell generations back of
it. Such a tendency might lead to a form with binucleated cells
throughout its ascogenous hyphae and this condition might lead
to the entire suppression of the original type of fertilization
such as occurs in Pyronema, Sphaerotheca, etc. according to the
work of Harper (19, 20, 23). The old, normal fertilization at
the beginning of the sporophyte generation might thus become
lost or suppressed.
In the rusts this may have happened. The binucleated con¬
dition of the teleutospore with conjugate divisions may have
worked its way back until, as we find, the entire mycelium of the
sporophytic generation is composed of binucleated cells. In the
Basidiomycetes the process apparently has not gone so far. In
them, as Miss Uichols (32) has shown, the binucleated condi¬
tion does not arise at any one region in the mycelium but may
start at almost any point in it.
In this connection the fusion of the cells in the promycelium
of Ustilago is interesting. These fusions are entirely similar to
those in the yeasts but in them the fusion leads to different re¬
sults. In the yeasts the fusion is evidently a sexual process ac¬
cording to the accounts of Barker (1) and Guilliermond (17 &
18). It may lead to the production of ascospores or as in Sac-
charomyces Ludwigii it may occur at their germination. In
the smuts also the process has all the appearance of being sex¬
ual ; the fusion typically occurs in pairs ; there is an apparent
attraction of the nuclei for each other and a fusion of the nuclei
m some cases.
1222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
In the yeasts since in some cases ascospores are produced af¬
ter the fusion it has been assumed by Guilliermond that it cor¬
responds to the nuclear fusion that occurs in the ascus, forming
what he considers a zygospore. In the ascus, however, the nu¬
clear fusion is not the direct sequence of a cell fusion, there be¬
ing only one cell fusion occurring in the Ascomycetes, and that
is between an oogonium and antheridium at the origin of the as-
cocarp. Therefore it would seem more natural to assume that we
have in the yeasts of this type where fusions occur before spore
formation a shortened life cycle with the formation of a single
ascus bearing ascospores inside it.
In the smuts, however, the case is different. It is probable that
at the present time the parasitic mycelium rarely or never starts
from the conjugated conidi a or promycelial cells even though
they represent the old sexual form of conjugation. It is quite
possible that this normal sexual fertilization has ceased to play
any essential role in the life cycle of the smut even though it
recurs regularly when the promycelial cells or conidia are
brought under certain conditions which favor it. Functionally,
though not morphologically, it may have been replaced by the
intracellular nuclear fusions of the chiamydospore, preceded by
a longer or shorter series of conjugate divisions. As Harper
(28) has noted, the same process may be going on in certain As¬
comycetes. A true fertilization between the oogonium and an¬
theridium has been found by Harper (20) in Pyronema and the
Mildews. In others of this same group these structures seem to
be wanting or are rudimentary. In the smuts the morphologi¬
cal equivalents of the oogone and antherid are the fused conidial
or promycelial cells. Functionally the fusion of the cells is no
longer of much importance in the life cycle of the smut but they
still represent the primitive gametes. In the Basidiomycetes
cell fusion has disappeared entirely but in the smuts it is re¬
tained in a rudimentary state and is only functional in a lim¬
ited fashion under certain conditions.
It seems probable also that there may be different degrees in
which this fusion occurs in the different species of smuts. In
Hstilago Tragopogi according to Federly (15), the nuclei of the
fused conidia travel toward each other and apparently fuse as a
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1223
rule. In the promycelial cells of the species of Ustilago of the
cereal grains, the nuclei travel toward each other, come to lie in
the same cell, and occasionally fuse. In U. antherarum, as
described by Harper (22), the nucleus of each conidium re¬
mains in its place and all that occurs between the conidia is a
cytoplasmic fusion. Dangeard (12) has probably described a
similar case in Tilletia where the cytoplasmic fusion of the
conidia is never followed by a nuclear one. In addition to these
cases where fusions of various sorts occur, there are probably
numerous others, where no conjugation of any kind, cytoplasmic
or nuclear, takes place between either conidial or promycelial
cells.
The haustoria constitute another feature in which the two
groups of the smuts are unlike. The Ustilagos apparently get
sufficient nourishment from their host plants by occupying in¬
tercellular spaces and perhaps by occasionally passing through a
host cell. It is true that they usually live in positions that are
favorable for the collection of food materials such as the grow¬
ing points of young seedlings, in the ovaries or stamens, etc.
The smuts of the Tilletia group, on the other hand, have well
developed haustoria in three species at least;- — Hrocystis
Anemones, Entyloma Hymphaeae, and Doassansia deformans.
So far as I have found in the literature the only species hitherto
known to have haustoria was E. Hymphaeae in which they had
been described by Raciborski. In all the species in which haus¬
toria have been found the smut occurs in tissues less favorable
for furnishing a concentrated food supply, i. e. in the leaves and
stems. The intercellular spaces here are large and the smut has
to develop organs that will actually penetrate the cells and thus
come in direct contact with the protoplasts.
The development of the haustoria of Entyloma Hymphaeae is
of special interest as bearing on the nature of the haustorium
not only in this group but in the mildews. As has been des¬
cribed, the young haustorium originates as a side branch which
fastens itself to the cell wall and there for a time appears as an
appressorium, serving apparently as an organ of attachment.
Soon, however, it sends a tube down into the cell which func¬
tions actively as a sucker. Originally perhaps, the appressoria
1224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
alone were produced, the penetrating hypha being a further de¬
velopment or a better adaptation to the life of the fungus. The
mildews may have developed their haustoria in a similar man¬
ner.
The term, spore ball, is quite loosely used to include a variety
of aggregations of spores. In general all that seems to be meant
by the term is that a number of spores hang together for a
longer or a shorter period, the question of their common origin
not coming into consideration further than that they all or¬
iginated in the same region. In Sphacelotheca all that the
word, spore-ball, implies is that the spores which come from the
breaking up of the hyphae in a certain region, and are formed
in a similar way to those of Ustilago, remain clinging together
after formation. In Doassansia Alismatis it is only the side
buds from the tangle of hyphae in an intercellular space which
form the spores of the ball, the fertile ones being on the inside
and the sterile layer on the outside. In D. deformans the ori¬
gin of the spores is probably the same but the relation of sterile
and fertile cells is exactly reversed, the sterile cells in this
species being on the inside and a single layer of fertile ones on
the outside. In Urocystis the spore ball is a very definite
structure composed of closely related cells all originating from
one of the hyphal branches.
It is easy to see, of course, that the spore-ball originated as a
group of spores, of more or less common origin, clinging to¬
gether. It is a more difficult physiological problem, however,
to discover how it should be that in one species, the sterile cells
all lie at the interior of the ball, while in another species un¬
doubtedly of the same genus they only form a single layer on
the outside of it. I shall not attempt at present an explanation
of the origin of these different types of spore-balls nor propose
a new system of naming for the different varieties. The neces¬
sity for work in this line is, however, conspicuous and it is evi¬
dent that we are at the present time including under the name
of spore-balls a variety of structures that are not at all homolo¬
gous in their origin.
In my opinion the results of my studies seem to indicate that
the two divisions of the smut group may be more distantly re-
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1225
lated than has been commonly supposed. The 1 simple spores
produced by the breaking up of the mycelium ; the multinucle-
ated mycelium during the entire life cycle; the intercellular
mycelium without haustoria; the typically four celled promy¬
celium, which are all characteristics of the Ustilago group are
in striking contrast with the elaborate and varied spore-balls;
the spores produced on lateral branches ; the haustoria ; the pres¬
ence of binucleated cells and the non-septate promycelium which
are found in the Tilletia, Entyloma, Urocystis division.
LITERATURE CITED.
1. Barker, B. T. P., A Conjugating Yeast. Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc. London, p. 467. 1901.
2. Blackman, V. H., On the Fertilization, Alteration of Gen¬
erations, and General Cytology of the Uredineae.
Ann. Bot. 18: pp. 323-873. 1904.
3. Blackman, Y. H. and Fraser, Helen C., Further studies on
the Sexuality of the Uredineae. Ann. Bot. 20: pp.
35-48. 1906.
4. Brefeld, O., Botanische Untersuchungen iiber Hefenpilze,
Leipzig. 1883.
5. - , Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete d. Myk-
ologie. 11, Heft Brand pilze II. Munster. 1895.
6. - , Hemi basidii, 12. 1895.
7. Christman, A. H., Sexual Reproduction in the Rusts. Bot.
Gaz. 39 : pp. 267-274. /1905.
8. - , The Nature and Development of the Primary Ure-
dospores. Trans. Wis. Ac. Sc. 15: pp. 517-526.
1907.
9. - , The Alternation of Generations and the Morphology
of the Spore-forms in the Rusts. Bot. Gaz. 44: pp.
81-101. 1907.
10. Clinton, G. P., Broom Corn Smut. Bull. Ill. A g. Ex. St.,
47: 373-412. 1897.
1226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
11. Cornu, M., Sur quelques Ustilaginees nouvelles ou peu
connues. Ann. Sc. Eat., Bot. 6, 15: pp. 269-296.
1883.
12. Dangeard, P. A., Sur la Reproduction Sexuelle des Cham¬
pignons. Le Botaniste 3 : pp. 240-281. 1892.
13. - , La Reproduction Sexuelle de l’Entyloma Glaucii
(Dang.). Le Botaniste 4: pp. 12-17. 1894.
14. De Bary, A., Untersuchungen iiber die Brandpilze, Berlin.
1853.
15. Federly, H., Die Copulation der Conidien bei Ustilago
Tragopogi pratensis Pers. Ofv. a. Finska Vet. Soc.
Forbandlingar 46 : pp. 1-23. 1904.
16. Fiscb, C., fiber das Verhalten der Zellkerne in fusionier-
enden Pilzzellen. Bot. Centrbl. 24: p. 221. 1885.
17. Guiliermond, M., Recherches cytologiques sur les Levures.
Paris. 1902.
18. - , Recherches sur la Germination des Spores et la Con-
jugaison chez les Levures. 17: pp. 337-376. 1905.
19. Harper, R. A., Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung
und Sporenbildung im Ascus. Ber. d. Deutcb. Bot.
Gess. 13: p. 67. 1895.
20. - , Sexual Reproduction in Pyronema confluens and the
Morphology of the Ascocarp. Ann. Bot. 14 : pp.
321-400. 1900.
21. - , Binucleate Cells in certain hlymenomycetes. Bot.
Gaz. 33: pp. 1-23. 1902.
22. - , Nuclear Phenomena in certain Stages in the Develop¬
ment of the Smuts. Trans. Wis. Ac. Sc. 12: pp.
475-498. 1899.
23. - , Sexual Reproduction and the Organization of the
Nucleus in certain Mildews. Carnegie Pulb. Wash¬
ington 1905.
24. Holden, R. J. and Harper, R. A., Nuclear Division and
Nuclear Fusion in Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis.
Trans. Wis. Ac. Sc. 14: pp. 63-77. 1903.
25. Istvanfh, G., fiber die Rolle der Zellkerne bei der Entwick-
elung der Pilze. Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Ges. 13: pp.
452-467. 1895.
Lutman — Life History, and Cytology of the Smuts. 1227
26. Knowles, E. L., A Study of the Abnormal Structures in¬
duced by Ustilago Zeae-Mays. Journ. Myc. 5 : pp.
14-18. 1889.
27. Magnus, P., fiber die IIstilagineen-Gattung Setcbellia
Magn. Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Ges. 13: pp. 468-472.
4895.
28. Maire, R., L’evolution nucleaire chez les Endopbyllum.
Journ. de Bot. 14: p. 80. 1900.
'29. - , Recherches cytologiques et Taxonomiques sur les
Basidiomycetes. Soc. Myc. d. Er. 28 : pp. 1-211.
1902.
30. - , Sur la Coexistence de la Eielle et de la Carie dans les
grains de Ble. Bull. Soc. Myc. Er. 18: p. 130.
1902.
31. - , Recherches cytologiques sur le Galactinia succosa.
Compt. Rend., p. 769-771. 1903.
32. Kichols, S. F., The Kature and Origin of the Binucleated
Cells in Some Basidiomycetes. Trans. Wis. Ac. Sc.
15: p.30-66. 1905.
33. Prevost, B., Memoire sur la Cause immediate de la Carie
ou Charbon des ble. Montauban. 4807.
34. Raciborski, M., Mykologische Studien. Anz. d. Ak. der
Wiss. in Krakau, pp. 385-386. 1896.
35. Rosen, E., Studien iiber die Kerne und die Membranbil-
dung bei Myxomyceten und Pilzen. Cohn’s Beitrage
6: pp. 237-266. 1892.
36. Sappin-Troud’y, P., Recherches histologiques sur la famille
des Uredinees. Le Botaniste 5 : pp. 59-244. 1896.
37. Schmitz, Fr., U ntersuchugen iiber die Zellkerne der
Thallophyten. Verb, des naturhist. Vereins der
preuss. Rheinlande u. Westfalen, p. 345. 1879.
38. Setchell, W. A., An Examination of the Species of the Ge¬
nus Doassansia Cornu. Ann. Bot. 6 : pp. 1-48.
1892.
39. Tulasne, T^. et Ch., Memoire sur les Ustilaginees comparees
aux Ilredinees. Ann. d. Sc. Kat., Ser. 3, 7. 1847.
, Memoire sur les Uredinees et les Ustilaginees. Ann.
Sc. Eat. Ser. 4, 2.
40.
1228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
41. Von Waldheim, Eischer, Beitrage zur Biologie nnd Ent-
wicklnngsgeschicte der Ustilagineen. Jahrb. f. Wiss.
Bot, 7: pp. 61-145. 1869.
42. Winter, G., Einige ETotizen iiber die Eamilie der Ustilag-
ineen. Elora 59 : pp. 145-452, 161-172. 1876.
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1229
PLATE LXXXVII.
1230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXVII.
Ustilago levis.
Fig. 1. Conidia budding to form tree-like structures.
Fig. 2. Conidia, one and two nucleated, putting out germ-tubes.
Fig. 3. Conidia from old cultures showing remains of old germ-tubes.
Figs. 4-6. Germ-tube penetrating the epidermis of young seedling.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI.
PLATE LXXXVIII
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
Lutmanr-^Life History and Cytology of the Smuts.
1231
PLATE LXXXVIII.
1232 Wisconsin Academy of Saiences, Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXVIII.
Fig. 7. Longitudinal section of young seedling showing distribution of
smut in young leaves and growing tip.
Fig. 8. Young leaf from preceding showing distribution of mycelium
in it.
Fig. 9. Smut mycelium among growing cells, showing cell dividing.
Fig. 10. Young panicle with rudimentary flowers and floral bracts.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI.
PLATE LXXXIX
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
Lutmm — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1233
PLATE LXXXIX.
i
7— S. & A.
1234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXXXX.
Fig. 11. Intercellular mycelium.
Fig. 12. Intracellular mycelium from leaf.
Fig. 13. Branching hypha tips that will soon begin spore formation.
Fig. 14. Section of branching end showing the beginning of the gelat-
ination, of the walls.
Fig. 15. The mycelium with walls gelatinized, broken up into segments.
Fig. 16. Some of the segments from a similar stage apparently show¬
ing nuclei.
Fig. 17. Segments, still later, showing nuclei; also young spores with
nuclei.
JJstilago Zeae.
Fig. 18. Mycelium.
Fig. 19. Segments of mycelium ip spore-forming stage; two of them
with gelatinized walls.
Fig.. 20. Young spores showing nuclei. X1800.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XC
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
Lutman — Life" History and Cytology of the Smuts . 1235.
PLATE XC.
1236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters ..
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XC.
Urocystis Anemones.
Fig. 21. Binucleated cells from the mycelium.
Figs. 22-23. Beginning of spore-ball formation; young branches.
Fig. 24. (a) Surface view of young spore-ball; dotted lines indicate
contours of hyphal tips behind the part in view, (b) same
showing nuclei.
Figs. 25-26. Young spore-balls.
Fig. 27. Nearly mature spore-ball showing all cells with two nuclei.
Figs. 28-29. Haustoria.
Ustilago Hordei.
Figs. 30-34. Fusions in promycelial cells with nuclei in various stages
of migration or fusion.
Fig. 35. Three promycelial cells fused and nuclei in middle one.
TJstilago Avenae.
Figs. 36-37. Nuclei and most of the cytoplasm in the large conjuga¬
tion tube.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCI
~
SMUTS
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts . 1237
PLATE XCL
1238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XCI.
Figs. 38-39. Cell and nuclear fusions in the promycelial cells. Doas-
sansia deformans.
Fig. 40. Young 'spore-ball.
Fig. 41. Older spore-ball with sterile paerenchyma forming in center.
Fig. 42. Section of edge of spore-ball, (a) layer of hyphae around it.
(b) fertile spores, (c) sterile cells.
Fig. 43. (a) and (b) Binucleated cells from the mycelium between
the spore-balls.
Fig. 44. Haustoria in a host cell. X500.
Fig. 45. Detailed view of a haustorium.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCII
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
:ockayi
BOSTOI
Lutman — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1239
PLATE XCII.
1240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XCII.
Doassansia Alismatis.
Fig. 46. Binucleated cells from the mycelium between the spore-balls.
Fig. 47. Young spore-ball.
Fig. 48. Spore-ball germinating in position in the leaf. X300.
Entyloma Nymphaeae.
Figs. 49-52. Details of mycelium showing the binucleated cells, the
method of branching, and the origin of the appressoria.
Figs. 53-55. Formation of spores.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XC1II
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
Lutmam — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts, 1241
PLATE XCIII.
1242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XCIIL
Fig. 56. Cross-section of leaf showing distribution of spores and xpyce-
lium. X460.
Figs. 57-62. Stages in spore-formation. X2500.
Fig. 63. Surface view of a young appressorium.
X2500.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCIV
LUTMAN : —
SMUTS
COCKAYNE. BOSTON
Lutman - — Life History and Cytology of the Smuts. 1243
PLATE -XOIY.
1244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XCIV.
Figs. 64-65. Section, showing haustorium; the walls of the appresso-
rium are thicker than in the preceding figure. 2500.
Fig. 66. Section of young appressorium showing thickened host cell
wall under it. X2500.
Fig. 67. Partial surface view of young appressorium showing nuclei
migrating out into it.
Magnification: — All figures are magnified about 1300 X unless as noted
differently after the figure.
TRANS. V
VOL. XVf
PLATE XCV
LUTMAN:-
SMUTS
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
i
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II. NC
CONTENTS
Page
The radioactivity of some spring waters at Madison,
Wisconsin, . . . Herman Schlundt, 1245
Description of a new species of Eubranchipus from Wis¬
consin, - with some observations on its reaction to
light (with one plate), . Sanvue'l J. Holmes , 1252
Some European biological stations, (with four plates)*
Chancey Juday, 1257
The gravimetric determination of Tellurium,
Victor Lenher and A. W. Homberger , 1278
An operculated gastropod from the Niagara formation of
Wisconsin (with one plate), Edgar E. Teller , 1285
The annual half -volume of the Transactions is issued by the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and. Letters in six num¬
bers, under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.
The price of this part is 35 cents.
THE RADIOACTIVITY OF SOME SPRING WATERS
AT MADISON, WISCONSIN.
HERMAN SCHLUNDT.
The radioactivity of underground Waters is generally due to
the presence of a very minute quantity of radium emanation.
This disintegration product of radium, being a gaseous sub¬
stance, can he easily separated from the water by boiling for a
few minutes. By collecting all the dissolved gas in a known
volume of water the quantity of emanation present may be
readily determined by introducing the water gas into a suitable
form of electroscope or electrometer.
During the past summer (1908) several of the spring waters
in the vicinity of Madison were tested for radioactivity by mak¬
ing quantitative determinations of the radium emanation car¬
ried in solution. The method of conducting the tests will be
outlined first and then will follow the results of the experiments
and some comparative data.
As the emanation quickly escapes from running water, and to
some extent from stored water, an effort was made to obtain the
samples directly from the spring where the water issues from
the ground. Since most of the springs were walled in, the
water had to be drawn into the collecting vessel by means of
tubing the intake end of which was held where the water issued.
In this way the influx of water from the overflow basin was
minimized. The collecting vessel was filled nearly full and was
then tightly stoppered. The container used was made of gal¬
vanized iron, and served as a boiler later in the separation of
the dissolved gases. Its capacity was 5.34 liters. The samples
1246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
of well water tested were taken directly from the discharge pip©
of the pump after about two minutes of flow.
The water samples were then taken to the laboratory where
the dissolved gases were separated by boiling. This operation
was carried out in a special form of apparatus described else¬
where.1 The boiling was continued for at least 15 minutes.
A few cubic centimeters of caustic soda were generally added
just before boiling to fix the carbon dioxide. The separated
gas was then transferred to an air tight electroscope which had
previously been partially exhausted. The electroscope was sup¬
plied with a reading microscope for noting the rate of fall of the
charged leaf. This apparatus had been carefully standardized
beforehand by means of a known quantity of, emanation ob¬
tained from a small weight of pitchblende (uraninite) :
Ey the foregoing operations the radium emanation present in
the water was separated and stored in the electroscope for quan¬
titative measurement. Headings were then, taken on the rate of
fall of the charged leaf. Owing to the induced activity that re¬
sults from the decay of the emanation the rate of fall of the leaf
increases for fully three hours after the introduction of the gas,
attaining a maximum value about 35 to 40 per cent greater than
the initial value. This maximum value was made the basis for
determining the quantity of emanation present.
In this country the activity of waters (and gases) is generally
expressed in terms of the standard first proposed by BoltWood.2
The standard is based upon the existence of a constant ratio be¬
tween the quantity of radium associated with uranium in
natural minerals.3 The unit of activity represents the quantity
of emanation associated with unit weight of uranium in a
natural mineral. The activity is thus expressed in terms of
uranium, and as the ratio between uranium and radium i&
known the activity may be expressed directly in terms of radium.
When referred to waters the values of the activities represent
the quantity of uranium (or radium) required to maintain in
1 Schlundt and Moore, Jour. Phys. Chem. 9, 320 (1905).
2 Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 18, 381 (1904).
3 Boltwood, Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 18, 97 (1904), Phil. Mag. (6) 9, 599
(1905), McCoy, Ber. d. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell. 37, 2641 (1904).
Schlundt — Radioactivity of Some Spring Waters . 1247
radioactive equilibrium the emanation present per liter of water.
In the table of results the activities are expressed in terms of
both uranium and radium. The radium values were obtained
by multiplying the uranium values by 3.8 x 10-7, the equi¬
librium ratio, Ra/^
On the continent of Europe the activity of waters is expressed,
as a rule, in absolute units. The saturation current, in elec¬
trostatic units, produced by the emanation per liter of water ex¬
presses its activity. The constants required in this system of
units were determined for the electroscope used in the tests.
The last column of the table of results gives the values of the
activities in electrostatic units.
The electroscope used in these experiments is of the C. T. R.
Wilson type. It is rectangular in form, — 6.4 x 10.1 x 14.7 cms.
inside measurements, — and is securely fastened on a wooden
base which also carries the reading microscope for noting the
rate of fall of the leaf. Its rectangular brass frame is fitted in
the front and back with pieces of plate glass, and is provided
with two good brass stopcocks. On the top is a circular opening
with a threaded brass ring into which screws a brass cap having
a central opening. Through this hole projects the brass rod to
which is fastened below the blade that carries the aluminium
leaf. This leaf system is fastened into the cap by means of a
sulphur cast which also serves to insulate it from the case of the
instrument. To protect the sulphur insulation the electroscope
is provided with a small cap that slips over the screw cap.
The capacity of the electroscope was found to be 952 cc. A
fall of the leaf of one division per minute represented 7.5 x 10"4
gram uranium or 28.5 x 10"11 gram radium. Each division of
the ocular of the microscope, in the space where readings were
always made, represented a fall of potential of 1.7 volts, and the
electrostatic capacity of the leaf system was found to be 9.4 cms.
the latter constant was determined by means of a Harms stand¬
ard condenser whose capacity was 42.5 cms. The procedure
given by Harms was carefully followed.1 The calibration of
iPhysik. Z. 5, pp. 49-50.
1248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
the scale in volts was done by noting the position of the leaf
corresponding to several values between 350 and 450 volts.
The method of, standardizing the electroscope by means of
uraninite, and other details of manipulation have been described
in former publications.2 *
The computation of the activity is simple and is illustrated
by the following example : In the test of Silver Spring it was
found that the emanation obtained from 5.34 liters of water
produced a maximum fall of the leaf of 12.65 divisions per
minute. Hence the activity in terms of the uranium standard
is given by, —
12.65 X 7.5 X 10“4
5.34
17.7 X 10~~4 g. U = 67.3 X 10~ 11 g. Ra.
In E. S. units the activity is, —
12.65X1*7X9.4
60 X 300 X 5. 34
21.2 X 10-4
The quantitative results of the examination are given in
Table I. The fitst column gives the name of the spring or other
source, the second its location, the third the date of collection,
and the remaining columns the activities expressed respectively
in terms of uranium, radium, and electrostatic units. These
values represent the activities of the samples at the time of collec¬
tion. In several tests some hours elapsed between the collection
and the electroscopic test. The decay in the activity of these
samples was corrected for by the formula I0=It ert, expressing
the decay of the activity with the time. I0 represents the initial
activity, It the activity observed t hours after the water was
collected, and r the radioactive constant of the radium emana¬
tion. The value of r used in the calculations was 0.0077, which
is an approximate mean of the values of several investigators.
2 Jour. Phys. Chem. 9, 320 (1905), and Trans. Am. Electrochem.
Soc. Yol. 8, 292 (1905).
Schlundt — Radioactivity of Some Spring Waters. 1249
Table I.
That the radioactivity of the different water samples is due
to the presence of radium emanation was established by the
curves representing the rise in activity during the first three
hours, following the introduction of the emanation into the
electroscope and by the position of maximum activity on the
decay curves. The sample of water from Merrill Springs was
evaporated ; the residue was tested, but no positive indication of
activity was obtained. In this case then the activity of the
water is due almost entirely to radium emanation that has
diffused into the water in the course of its underground flow.
The activity is not due to the presence of traces of radium salts.
This conclusion will probably be found to hold for the other
springs. Ho attempts were made to test the waters for thorium
or actinium.
Although the spring waters show differences in activity still
the values are of the same order of magnitude. The differences
in activity are small in comparison with results obtained for
waters in other areas. The results obtained by Boltwood1 in
his tests on the radioactive properties of the waters of Hot
Springs, Ark., are characterized by marked variations in their
9 ! '!
1 . J * 3
i Am. Jour. Sci. 20, 128 (1905).
1250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
activities. This result is all the more striking because the
waters from the different springs at Hot Springs show a marked
resemblance in their general chemical characteristics. The
most active spring was found 500 times more active than the
least active. The same result was characteristic of the activities
of some natural waters in different sections of Missouri.2 In
comparison with these results the springs in the vicinity of Mad¬
ison are characterized by uniformity in activity, and we may
say that the similarity in geological formation of the spring
area finds confirmation in the activity of the springs.
The following table gives the activity of a few well known
spring waters, European and American :
TABLE II
1 Ber. d. Ak d. Wiss. Wien, Abt. IIA, 113, 1329.
* Ber. Akd. Wiss. Wien, Abt. IIA, 1 14 , 355.
3 Mache and Meyer, Ber. Ak. d. Wiss. Wien. Abt. IIA, 114, 545.
4 Smhidt and Kurz, Physik. z. 7, 214 (1906).
5 Curie and Laborde, Compt. rend. 142, 1462 (1906).
7 Henrich. Ber. Ak. d. Wiss. Wien, Abt. IIA, 113. 1092.
0 Boltwood, 1. c.
8 Moore and Schlundt, 1. c.
The spring waters at Madison may then bo regarded as
moderately radioactive.
2 Moore and Schlundt, Trans. Am. Etectrochem. Soc. 8, 291 (1905).
Schlundt — Radioactivity of Some Spring Waters . 1251
I am obligated to Professor Louis Kahlenberg of the Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin for the use of his laboratory and other cour¬
tesies extended to me in connection with these tests.
University of Missouri,
February, 1909.
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF EUBRANCHIPUS
FROM WISCONSIN WITH OBSERVATIONS
ON ITS REACTION TO LIGHT.
S. J. HOLMES.
Eubranchipus ornatus sp. nov.
Male: Antennae slender, extending considerably beyond the
eyes. Frontal appendages irregularly oval, resembling those
of E. serratus Forbes, the inner margin convex and dentate ex¬
cept on the proximal fourth, the teeth being longer on the most
prominent part ; outer margin convex near the base where it is
furnished with six to eight long finger-like processes which
gradually decrease in size distally where the margin becomes
concave; the surface of the appendage is studded with small
blunt projections which occur also on the teeth. Claspers long;
the first joint thick, incurved, with a broad basal process on the
inner side which is distally truncated and bifid and meets its
fellow in a broad flat surface in the middle line; distal end of
joint concave; second joint long, slender, incurved, more or less
abruptly narrowed near the middle where there is a moderate
convexity, and ending in a single acute point ; at the base of this
joint is a small blunt spine which points backward and outward.
Abdominal segments not narrowed in front or produced back¬
ward at their posterior angles, the last segment slightly wider
distally than the preceding ones. Anal appendages narrowly
lanceolate and setose on both sides from base to tip.
In the female the much smaller second antennae end in a
slender, attenuate incurved process.
Length 12mm. General color bluish green; ventral side of
abdomen, outer surface of male organ, stylets, and dorsal side
Holmes — Description of a Species of Eubranchipus. J'253
of last abdominal segment orange ; tip of stylets whitish. Swim¬
ming feet and claspers tinged with orange. A pair of blue
spots above median eye and a bine area on onter side of egg sac.
This species which is one of beautiful coloration was taken
along with E. bundyi in small ponds near Madison, Wis., in
April, 1907 and 1909. The two species were sometimes found
in the same pond or pool and sometimes in separate ones, both
make their appearance at about the same time and live for only a
few weeks.
Eubranchipus ornatus differs from E. bundyi in its much
broader and more irregularly shaped frontal appendages, and
in its claspers which are long and attenuated and end in a single
point instead of a truncated and dentate tip. From E. serratus
Forbes which it resembles in its frontal appendages it differs
markedly in the form of the claspers which in the latter resemble
those of bundyi , and in the segments of the abdomen which pre¬
sent no appearance of serration. E. vernalis Verrill of the
eastern states, the only other species of the genus in Rorth
America, has very different frontal appendages and claspers.
Eubranchipus in ordinary daylight or even sunlight shows
little phototactic response. Individuals placed in a glass dish
do not congregate to any noticeable extent either on the side
toward the light or away from it, but if taken into a dark room
and exposed to a sharply localized source of light they at once
manifest a quite decided phototaxis. They congregate on the
side of the dish toward the light and will follow the light about
in all directions. This behavior is similar to that of many
insects which show no tendency to fly towards the sun while in
the field, yet manifest a marked proclivity to go toward a win¬
dow or a lamp when brought into a room. The reason for this
may be, as Radi has suggested, that when out of doors light falls
upon the eyes from all parts of the sky and impulses to go in any
one direction do not greatly preponderate over others ; while if
the light comes from one direction it is much more likely to
produce orientation.
When the light is moved from side to side Eubranchipus
orients itself by a sudden movement of the tail toward the light.
When one such movement does not suffice others are performed
1254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
until a fairly accurate orientation is secured, by moving tbe
light very slowly to one side as the animal is swimming towards
it, it may orient itself to a certain extent without this sudden
movement of the tail. This is accomplished by rotating the
body so that the ventral surface is more nearly perpendicular
to the rays; the ventral curvature of the body soon causes its
course to be deflected towards the light. The changes in the
direction of swimming brought about by rolling from side to
side are, however, very slight, and constitute a minor factor in
the orientation of the body. One eye was cut off in a number
of individuals but the shock effect prevented any response to
light and in a few hours all were dead.
Swimming on the back in Eubranchipus is due in part at
least to the light. If several individuals are swimming in a
glass dish which is illuminated from below many of them will
turn over ventral side downwards and swim close to the bottom
making efforts to get as close to the light as they can. They
may be caused to reverse their position repeatedly by moving
the light above and below the dish. Some specimens, however,
do not reverse and may not show at any time any marked photo¬
tactic response.
Holmes — Description of a Species of Euhranchipus. 1255
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCVI
1
HOLMES: —
EUBRANCHIPUS
SOME EUROPEAN BIOLOGICAL STATIONS.
CHANCEY JUDAY.
The first European biological stations, such as we know to¬
day, were founded some forty odd years ago. Previous to this
time individual investigators visited the seashore, some lake, or
river to carry on their researches on aquatic organisms, but in
such cases it was necessary for them to improvise their own
laboratories and to provide their own laboratory and collecting
equipments. Under such conditions, of course, but few biolo¬
gists could enjoy these opportunities and it is little wonder that
the first permanent stations were heartily welcomed by the
biologists of that time. These first laboratories were poorly
equipped in comparison with the more modern stations, but they
at least furnished a working place and some of the most neces*
sary equipment. This made it possible for many more investi¬
gators to pursue researches at places where material was abun¬
dant and where work could be carried on under the most favor¬
able conditions. It is not surprising, then, that these early sta¬
tions enjoyed great popularity and rapidly increased in import¬
ance.
This growth in popularity and importance resulted not only
in increased facilities at the earlier stations, but led to the
establishment of others and the number is still gradually grow¬
ing in spite of the fact that almost every European nation now
has a liberal quota of such laboratories. The coast line has be¬
come dotted with marine stations and many fresh-water ones
have been established on lakes and rivers. The constant in¬
crease in the number of both kinds furnishes ample testimony
of the continued interest in such institutions. The modem sta-
1258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
tions owe their popularity to the fact that they are such excel¬
lent places for carrying on research work. Here the investiga¬
tor is supplied with the most necessary comforts and conveni¬
ences which will make his work most pleasant and profitable.
He is free from all duties which might detract from the work
in hand and fresh material may be had in abundance. In other
words he enjoys good laboratory facilities while he is practically
in the field. At the larger stations, also, the investigator will
generally find himself associated with biologists from various
quarters of the globe and his results will be more fruitful in
consequence of the discussions, criticisms, and suggestions of
his co-workers.
Zoologists have taken a much more active interest in the estab¬
lishment of these stations than botanists and they deserve the
chief, if not the entire credit for the founding of practically all
of them, many of them being called zoological rather than
biological stations. Yet the botanist is heartily welcomed at all
of them and is accorded the same privileges and facilities for
his work as the zoologist.
In addition to the regular laboratory facilities, several of the
marine stations possess important adjuncts in the way of sup¬
ply departments from which both living and preserved material
is sent to the various universities for study in the class room,
for museum demonstrations, or even for research work. Ma¬
terial destined for the latter will even be carefully prepared by
special methods if so desired. By rendering such services, these
supply departments greatly enhance the usefulness of such sta¬
tions and also widen their influence very much. Several of the
stations themselves are adjuncts of universities, thus not only
serving as supply depots but also offering excellent opportunities
for work to their students of biology.
Bor the past few years, extensive and elaborate international
investigations have been in progress on the Horth sea. The
various governments taking part in this work, have assigned
their allotted portions of the researches to their respective
marine stations, thereby stimulating a greater interest in these
laboratories and adding greatly to their usefulness. While these
investigations were undertaken with a practical end in view,
Juday — Some European Biological Stations, 1259
that is, the improvement of the North sea fisheries, yet they are
being conducted along broad scientific lines and so far they have
yielded results which are very interesting and valuable from a
purely biological standpoint.
The various marine and fresh-water stations of Europe have
become such important factors in biological investigations be¬
cause so much valuable work has been and is now being done at
them, that a brief account of some of them may prove interesting
to biologists.
England.
The Plymouth Laboratory was founded by the Marine Bio¬
logical Association of the United Kingdom. The present stone
building was completed in 1888. It is located on a prominent
bluff on a military reservation near the head of the bay and
commands a fine view of the bay. A public aquarium occupies
the ground floor of the main part of the building. It is
equipped with large, well lighted aquaria in which the habits
of the larger marine animals may be studied. The laboratory
proper is located on the second floor, just above the aquarium.
The main room contains 12 well lighted compartments which
are at the disposal of investigators for a small fee. The center
of the room is occupied by a number of small tanks which may
be used for studying the smaller animals. The west wing of
the building contains an apartment for the care-taker, the li¬
brary, the museum, and chemical, photographic, and specimen
rooms, together with the engine room and pumps. The east
wing contains the directors apartment, and two small working
rooms. The laboratory staff is taking part in the North sea in¬
vestigations and two ships have been chartered and equipped
with dredges, trawls, and nets for this work. The station offers
no instructional work whatever but it offers opportunities to
universities to conduct summer classes here.
The Port Erin Station was established by the Liverpool Ma¬
rine Biology Committee which was organized in 1885, largely
through the efforts of Dr. W. A. Herdman, who is now director
of the station. The present laboratory is the third that has
been built by this committee. It is a stone building pleasantly
1260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
located at the southwest corner of Port Erin bay, Isle of Man.
It stands at the base of a cliff on the side of which are the two
large tanks which supply the hatchery and aquaria with water.
The building consists of three parts. The central one is occu¬
pied by the aquarium which has several large, well lighted con¬
crete tanks arranged along three of the walls, with smaller tanks
in the center of the room. A gallery around this room contains
a number of museum cases in which specimens of the local
fauna and flora are exhibited.
On the ground floor of the east wing, there are six small work
rooms on one side, which may be rented for 10 shillings a week
each, and on the other side are the library, dark room, store
room, and a general work room. The second floor of this wing
consists of a large laboratory which is used as a general class
room for students. The fish hatchery occupies the ground
floor of the west wing and above this is a large room in which
various types of fishing and scientific apparatus are exhibited.
The ponds in which plaice are kept for breeding purposes are
located just west of the building.
The private steam yacht of the director is used for dredging
and plankton work. There is a rich fauna and flora in the
immediate neighborhood, and, since the maximum difference
between tide levels is about 6 m. much interesting material may
be obtained at extreme low tide.
Through the munificence of Mr. W. H. Hudleston another
English station was erected in 1908. It is located at Culler-
coats near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and is an annex of Armstrong
College at Newcastle.
In the autumn of 1901, Mr. Eustace Gurney built a fresh¬
water laboratory at the edge of Sutton Broad about a kilometer
and a half from the village of Stalham. It is a substantial
brick building and is large enough to accommodate four or five
investigators. The laboratory is provided with all necessary
glassware, chemicals, and collecting apparatus, including a small
motor boat and other collecting boats. This Broad — a term
used locally for bodies of water having an area of two hectares
or more — was a large sheet of open water until comparatively
recent times but it is now filled with reeds and many other kinds
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCVI
PLYMOUTH.
SUTTON BROAD LABORATORY.
JUDAY:—
EUROPEAN BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1261
of aquatic plants. There is scarcely any open water except the
channels which are kept free for navigation. The shores of the
Broad are ill defined, consisting of low, level marshes, large
areas of which are submerged by a very slight rise of the water.
The greatest depth of water does not exceed two meters. Al¬
though forty kilometers from the sea, high tides sometimes affect
the level of water in Sutton Broad and during these times there
is an appreciable rise in salinity. There are five other river
valleys with their Broads all within easy reach of the laboratory.
Mr. Robert Gurney is director of the Station and the work at
present is directed toward acquiring a general knowledge of the
fauna and flora of the region as a preliminary for more detailed
investigations into bionomical problems. So far a fairly com¬
plete knowledge of the Crustacea, Coleoptera, and Odonata has
been obtained and, to a less extent, of the Rotifera and Hydra-
chnida. Chemical analyses have been made also to determine
the effect of the tides. No charge is made for the use of the
laboratory.
Scotland.
The Millport Laboratory was established by the Marine Bio¬
logical Association of the West of Scotland. It is situated on
the Isle of Cumbrae in the midst of the extremely rich and
varied fauna of the Firth of Clyde, and is within easy reach of
Glasgow. The building consists of a main portion and a wing,
each two stories in height. On the ground floor of the former,
there are several research rooms and above them are the Robert¬
son Museum and the library. The museum contains the inter¬
esting and valuable Robertson collection of Ostracoda. The
public aquarium occupies the ground floor of the wing and above
this is a large, well lighted general laboratory. The station is
well equipped with compound and dissecting microscopes, micro¬
tomes, and apparatus for physiological work. It also possesses
a small collecting steamer.
During the summer, courses in biology are given which are
adapted to the needs of both teachers and students. Along
research lines it is the aim of the laboratory to make a detailed
physical, chemical, and biological survey of the Clyde Sea Area.
1262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Tables may be bad in the research rooms for a nominal rental.
The marine laboratory at Saint Andrews is a stone building,
one story high. There is a large, well lighted acqnarinm room
and work places in an adjoining room for a dozen persons. It
is under the direction of Professor Macintosh of the University
of St. Andrews.
The Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory at Edinburgh has
also played a very prominent role in marine investigations.
Dr. W. S. Bruce, its director, had charge of the Scotia Antarctic
expedition and he has also made explorations in Spitzbergen.
In this way the laboratory has obtained much valuable material
from these regions. Part of this material has been studied by
specialists and their results published, but much of it is still
being studied or remains untouched.
A small marine laboratory is also maintained in connection
with the fish hatchery at Aberdeen.
In 1897 very extensive investigations were begun on the
lakes of Scotland by the Scottish Lake Survey under the direc¬
tion of Sir John Murray. So far the work has been carried on
without the aid of a biological station. At first attention wa§
directed chiefly to a bathymetrical survey of the lakes and up
to the latter part of 1906, when this part of the work was dis¬
continued, 562 lakes in all had been sounded. Reports on this
work and hydrographic maps of many of the lakes have already
been published.
The biological phase of the work has been confined principally
to making collections for a qualitative survey of the fauna and
flora of the lakes. A study of the material that has been col¬
lected, has so far revealed the presence of more than 700 species
of plants and animals. It has also brought out many interest¬
ing facts concerning the peculiar habits and unusual distribu¬
tion of many forms. The several papers relating to the work
which have so far been published, constitute a very important
contribution to limnology.
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1263
Norway.
In common with the other European countries, Norway has
also taken very great interest in marine stations. The impor¬
tance of her marine fisheries has led to extensive investigations
in the fjords along the coast and Norwegian biologists are now
taking a prominent part in the international investigations on
the North sea. The station at Bergen which is a dependency
of the Bergen Museum, was established a number of years ago
and it has grown steadily in importance. At present it is the
leading station in the country. Its summer courses attract
many biologists not only from Norway but from many other
countries as well.
The two story building is a frame structure and is located
near the head of a bay just outside one of the city parks. A
public aquarium occupies the ground floor of the wing. The
laboratories are located on the second floor and there are accom¬
modations for about twenty-five individuals, but it has some¬
times been necessary to provide for as many as thirty-five dur¬
ing the summer courses. The popularity of these courses is due
in no small measure to the efforts of the director, Dr. B. Hel-
land-Hansen.
The Michael Sars, which is the Norwegian ship taking part
in the North sea investigations, is also at the service of this
laboratory part of the time and is then used for explorations
along the coast, especially in the fjords.
Some years ago also a marine station was established at Dro-
bak, a short distance south of Christiania. It is closed in winter
but is visited by many biologists in summer.
Sweden.
The great interest of Swedish naturalists in biological sta¬
tions is well attested by the three laboratories which now exist
in that country. Two of them have been established only com¬
paratively recently, but the third, the marine station on the
Kattegat at Kristineberg, is one of the oldest stations in Europe,
as it was founded in 1877, and it has become widely known
through the large amount of important work that has been car-
1264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
ried on here by various Swedish investigators. The main build'
ing was erected rather recently, having been begun in the fall
of 1903. It is two stories high. The first door is occupied
by a large public aquarium, three laboratory rooms, and a con¬
servation room ; the second has a stock room, four work rooms,
and the library. The station possesses a fair sized collecting
boat, the Sven Loven.
In 1903 a station was established at Vassijaure, under the
direction of the Royal Academy of Science of Stockholm. It is
situated in Lapland, in northernmost Sweden, well within the
arctic circle, and is near the northern limit of trees. The labor¬
atory is near lake Vassijaure and is also only about 21 kilo¬
meters from the very large lake Tornetrask. The station pos¬
sesses little in the Way of apparatus except meteorological in¬
struments. The building serves as laboratory and dwelling
place for investigators. It was established for general scien¬
tific work but it is frequented most by biologists.
A second fresh-water station has just been built on some lakes
in southern Sweden. Six tables are available for investigators.
It is the aim of this laboratory to give special attention to the
biology of fishes.
Denmark.
The modest laboratory of the Danish fresh-water station con¬
sists of the deck house of the ship used for the Ingolf Expedi¬
tion. It was brought to Euresee in 1898 and converted into
the present laboratory. The station is equipped with a good
motor boat, plankton nets, and various other kinds of collecting
apparatus. It is most favorably situated, being located in a
district where several lakes which possess very different physical
and biological characters, may be easily reached from the labor¬
atory. As a result of the investigations of Dr. Wesenberg-
Lund, director of the station, the knowledge of the biology of
these lakes has grown from almost nothing at the time the labor¬
atory was established until they now may be classed among the
most thoroughly studied lakes in the world. Two very im¬
portant volumes relating to the work of the laboratory have been
published as well as many shorter articles. In 1906 the station
Was annexed to the University of Copenhagen.
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCVIII
BELGIAN STATION AT OVERMEI RE.
JUDAY : —
BERGEN.
PLOON.
EUROPEAN BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
'
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1265
Holland.
In 1890 a zoological station was founded at Helder, in the
province of Horth Holland, through the influence and support of
the Zoological Society of Holland. It has been maintained
regularly by this Society, hut at present the government pays
an annual rental for one floor which is used as the laboratory
for the Hollandish biologists engaged in the International Horth
sea investigations. The building is three stories high, the first
and second floors being occupied by laboratories, a museum, and
a library, and the third serving as a residence for the director,
Dr. Bedeke.
The chief aim of the station is to furnish accommodations for
research work to the members of the Zoological Society. There
are tables also for half a dozen students or young investigators,
but such individuals must either first become members of the
society or must be vouched for by a member. The laboratory
is located on one of the mouths of the Zuyder Zee so that it has
the advantage of both the Horth sea and the Zuyder Zee for
collecting purposes. Helder itself is a very interesting city.
It is the chief naval station of Holland and is also noted for its
huge and extensive dykes.
Belgium.
The Station Biologique d’Overmeire is an annex of the Ha-
tural History Museum of Belgium. It is located on the lake
of Overmeire not far from Brussels. The laboratory was
opened in April, 1907, and it occupies a large residence on the
shore of the lake which is known as Chalet Prince Albert.
There are five rooms, three of which are used as laboratories,
one for the small but well selected and growing library, and
one for a museum containing a collection of local fauna. The
basement is fitted up with aquaria and a dark room for photo¬
graphic work. For such a young station it is very well
equipped with collecting and laboratory apparatus.
The lake on which the station is located, lies in a low, flat,
level country, and it is in fact an old abandoned bed of the
Scheldt river. It has an area of 85 hectares and a maximum
1266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
;
depth of 5 meters. The fauna and flora are rich and varied and
insure an abundance of material for the investigations which
have been undertaken.
Germany.
The German government established a biological station on
Helgoland soon after this island was acquired from Great
Britian in 1890. The island is situated about 50 kilometers
out from the mainland, directly off the mouths of the Elbe and
Weser rivers. Thus very diverse and interesting biological
conditions are found between the island and the mouths of these
rivers. Tidal currents are very strong around the island also
and much interesting pelagic material is brought to this region
by them. Much good shore collecting is found along some por¬
tions of the island, too.
The station buildings at present consist of a large and sub¬
stantial brick structure erected in 1904, and four dwelling
houses which have been converted into laboratories. The ground
floor of the brick building is occupied by a large public aquarium
and above this are some laboratory rooms. The dwelling houses
will soon be replaced by a large, modern station building, as
a sum of money has recently been appropriated for this purpose
by the German government. The library contains an unusually
good collection of literature on both marine and fresh-water
biology.
The local museum which is a dependency of the station, con¬
tains an excellent collection of birds which have all been cap¬
tured on the island, as well as a good collection of local fishes
and invertebrates.
The station is taking a very prominent part in the Uorth
sea investigations, Dr. F. Heincke, its director, and Dr. Ehren- v
baum having charge of some of the most important fields of this
work.
While there is no regular biological station at Kiel, the Uni¬
versity, which is located directly on the shore of the Baltic, and
the laboratory of the investigators taking part in the interna¬
tional studies on the Uorth Sea may be regarded as marine sta¬
tions. At the university one finds Dr. Hansen, the father of mod-
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE XCIX
HELGOLAND.
BANYULS-SUR-MER,
RUSSIAN STATION AT VI LLEFRANCH E-S U R-M ER.
JUDAY:-
EUROPEAN BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1267
ern marine planktology, still actively engaged in such work in
spite of his advanced age, and Dr. Brandt who has made many
valuable contributions to our knowledge of marine biology.
The laboratory of the staff engaged in the International In¬
vestigations is situated in a residential portion of Kiel, some
distance from the university. Dr. 0. Kriimmel is director of
the laboratory and two other members of its staff are the well
known planktologists, Dr. Apstein and Dr. Lohmann.
The German government built a special ship, the Poseidon,
for the Korth sea investigations. It is ewll adapted and splen-
didly equipped for this work. Most of the material which is
obtained during the regular cruises of the Poseidon, is brought
to the Kiel laboratory for the subsequent chemical and biological
studies that are made thereon.
One of the most widely known fresh-water biological stations
in Europe is the one located on the shore of Grossen Ploner See,
in the quiet, picturesque town of Plon in Holstein. This sta¬
tion was founded in 1892 chiefly through the efforts of Dr. O.
Zacharias, its present director. The brick building is two
stories high, the second floor serving as a residence for the di¬
rector. On the first floor, there is a large, well lighted general
laboratory on one side of the central hall which affords accom¬
modations for a number of students and investigators, and on
the other side there is a small room for research work and a
library. One room in the basement is supplied with aquaria
and another is used for storing apparatus.
The station is equipped with boats and an abundance of col¬
lecting apparatus, such as dredges and various types of plankton
nets. The work is carried on during the entire year, the chief
part being done, of course, in the summer. Courses are offered
during the summer and these attract many students and investi¬
gators. Every student of limnobiology is familiar with the
journal coming from this station, a volume of which has ap¬
peared each year since 1893.
A biological and fish-culture station is located on Miiggelsee
at Eriederikshagen near Berlin. A large, new three-story build¬
ing was completed and occupied early in 1908, so that the labor¬
atory now possesses much greater facilities for both biological
1268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
and fish-culture work. The station is conducted under the aus¬
pices of the German Fishery Association.
Important plankton investigations have also been made on the
Elbe river in the vicinity of Hamburg. This Work has been
carried on by Dr. Richard Volk under the auspices of the Ham¬
burg Hatural History Museum. The plankton has been studied
both qualitatively and quantitatively and chemical analyses of.
some of the Crustacea have been made to determine their value
as fish food.
Switzerland.
Strictly speaking there is no regular biological station on any
of the Swiss lakes, yet the biologists of this country have been
among the leaders in limnological work for many years. The
classic work of Forel on lake Geneva has served as a model for
very much of the work that has been done since its appearance.
In 1887 a Limnological Commission was organized as a de¬
partment of the Swiss Natural History Society and this commis¬
sion drew up a comprehensive program for physical, chemical,
meteorological, and biological studies on the lakes. As a result
the various lines of work have been well co-ordinated and uni¬
fied. Thorough and systematic studies have been made on four
lakes for a number of years and some of the results have been
published from time to time. Also Professor Zschokke of the
University of Basel has devoted a number -of years to a thorough
and comprehensive study of the fauna of the typical Alpine
lakes.
France.
The extended coast line of France offers some splendid oppor¬
tunities for marine stations and the biologists of that country
have availed themselves of some of these advantages by estab¬
lishing a number of laboratories. Most of the stations are affili¬
ated with universities and receive government aid but some
have been founded by local scientific societies. Two , are spe¬
cially concerned with practical problems relating to the fisheries.
The largest and most important French station is the one that
was founded by de Lacaze-Duthiers at Roscoff in ,1872. Since
the death of its founder it has been named the “Lacaze-Duthiers
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1269
Laboratory.” It is situated on the English Channel and col¬
lecting opportunities are most excellent here for there is a maxi¬
mum difference of twelve meters between tide levels. The sta¬
tion is an annex of the Sorbonne. The buildings are located on
a large plat of ground containing some 6,000 square meters and
partially enclosed by a large, beautiful garden which contains
many exotic plants, some of which are sub-tropical, this being
made possible by the very mild climate.
The aquarium extends parallel with the shore line and is
thirty meters long by ten wide. In the middle there are two
large granite basins and along the walls of the two sides there
are forty aquarium tanks. Between the aquarium and the sea,
there is a large vivier , a basin which is used both for experi¬
mental work and to retain a supply of Water for the laboratory.
A large addition to the laboratory was built in 1907 and 1908
which increased the work places to more than three times the
original number. Formerly there were only twelve rooms for
investigators but this number was increased to thirty-seven.
Besides these, there is a general laboratory containing twelve
work places and this number can be increased to eighteen if
necessary. One room is reserved for the study of animal psychol¬
ogy, another for library, two for dark rooms, and one for physi¬
cal and chemical investigations. There are also sixteen living
rooms which are at the disposal of students and investigators
for a very nominal rental.
The twenty-five investigators’ rooms that have recently been
added are available for both foreign and French states, univer¬
sities, and biological societies for an annual rental of 1,500
francs. It is the purpose of the present director, Dr. Y.
Delage, to make the station international in character. Ac¬
cordingly the stranger is given every privilege accorded the
French biologist, that is, a table, reagents, microscope and other
apparatus, as well as material, all gratis. It is open to investi¬
gators from April 1 to September 30. There are two Summer
sessions during which students are admitted. The first extends
from July 15 to August 15 and the second from August 15 to
September 15. The station possesses a collecting sloop twenty
1270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
meters long which is equipped with, plankton and dredging ap¬
paratus.
The Sorhonne is unusually fortunate in having a second an¬
nex, the Arago Laboratory, which is situated on the side of a
small hay at Banyuls-sur-mer, a small town on the Mediterra¬
nean coast only a short distance from the Spanish border. The
three-storv building contains a large public aquarium, a ma¬
chine shop fully equipped for making the various kinds of ap¬
paratus needed, and a museum on the first floor. The second
floor is devoted to laboratory rooms and a well equipped library,
and the third chiefly to living rooms. A small building espe¬
cially for photographic work has been erected recently. Be¬
neath this building there is an underground chamber for ex¬
perimental work in total darkness. It is so arranged that the
animal or animals experimented on can he removed from this
chamber and quickly photographed.
The station at Cette, founded by the late Professor Sabatier
in 1879, is an annex of the University of Montpelier. The
central portion of the large stone building is two stories high,
with the aquarium and the museum on the first floor and large,
well lighted laboratories on the second. The three-story end
portions have not been entirely completed as yet.
One of the most productive stations is that which was founded
by the late Professor Giard at Wimereux on the Straits of Dover
in 1874. In 1867 a laboratory was built at Arcachon by a local
scientific society hut this station has since become affiliated with
the University of Bordeaux. The marine station at Concar-
neau is devoted largely to practical fish culture but one floor of
the building is reserved for scientific researches. The station
at Marseilles is concerned primarily with fish culture, also.
There is also a small station at Villefranche-sur-mer under the
direction of Dr. Barrois.
The Bussian station at Villefranche-sur-mer was established
more than twenty years ago. The small, rather shallow bay on
which it is located possesses a rich pelagic as well as a rich
shore fauna. Very deep tvater is found a short distance off the
mouth of the hay, so that a good variety of collecting territory
is within easy reach. These advantages together with the mild
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1271
-climate of the French Riviera make this an admirable place for
a biological laboratory.
The building was formerly a Sardinian prison and through
the efforts of Dr. Korotneff, the present director, it was acquired
by the Russian government and transformed into a biological
■station. On the ground ffoor there are two general laboratories,
the aquarium, the library, the museum, and a room for assort¬
ing, and preserving the material that is collected. Above the
laboratories there are some living rooms, and a small research
room. The station possesses a naphtha motor boat twelve
meters long which is equipped with apparatus for dredging and
plankton collecting. The laboratories are supplied with gas
and both fresh and salt water. The station is open throughout
the year. In March and April each year a practical course in
zoology is given for the benefit of students and younger in¬
vestigators. The station is international in character, being
visited by Russian, German, Swiss, French, and Italian biolo¬
gists.
Through the munificence of the Prince of. Monaco, a very
beautiful Oceanographic Museum has been erected in the city of
Monaco. The corner stone of the building was laid on April
25, 1899, but it has required ten years to complete the structure.
It is an imposing stone building, situated at the edge of the
beautiful garden of St. Martin where the rock rises almost per¬
pendicularly out of the sea. It is 100 meters long, the central
part 20 meters and the two wings 15 meters wide. The struc¬
ture is four stories high, two being below the level of the main
entrance.
The preparation and mounting rooms, and the large aquarium
are located on the first floor. The second floor has more prepar¬
ation rooms, some store rooms, the library, zoological labora¬
tories, two large chemical laboratories, and small rooms for the
accommodation of about a dozen investigators. The two upper
floors are devoted to the museum and a large assembly hall which
will accommodate about 500 persons.
Many years ago the Prince conceived the idea of founding a
museum and he began making collections for it as early as 1885.
As a consequence nearly all of the museum material has been
1272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
collected by the Prince himself on his numerous scientific
cruises. While the institution is nominally a museum, never¬
theless researches are being carried on by a staff of investigators
and the well equipped Eider makes trips regularly once or twice
a week for the purpose of collecting material and making obser¬
vations. The museum has recently become affiliated with the
Sorbonne. Dr. Jules Richard is its present director. It was
formally opened on March 29, 1910.
Austria-Hungary.
The Zoological Station at Trieste is pleasantly situated near
the far end of the harbor, in a quiet residential portion of the
city, and overlooks the Gulf of Trieste with its varicolored and
very transparent water. The building was once a residence and
belonged to the king of Spain. It has been converted, however,
into a conveniently arranged and well equipped station. There
are two rather large general laboratories, some smaller rooms
for research work, a library, and a museum. The aquarium is
rather small and is located in the basement, being somewhat
dark.
The station now possesses a fair sized motor boat, especially
built and well equipped for work in any part of the Adriatic.
Previous to 1908, that is before the new boat Was built, investi¬
gations were confined chiefly to the Gulf of Trieste and some of
the shallower adi acent water. But with the present equipment,
attention can now be directed to a much larger field of opera¬
tions. Dr. C. I. Cori is the director of the station. It is open
to research students during the entire year but naturally it is
visited by the largest number of biologists during the summer.
The Zoological Station at Rovigno is located in the midst of a
good collecting region on the Adriatic. The building was en¬
larged in 1902. It is pleasantly situated on a small, quiet bay.
The first floor is occupied by an aquarium, a dining room, and a
kitchen. The second floor is occupied by the laboratories and
the library, while on the third floor, there are several well-fur¬
nished living rooms. During the regular summer season, board
and room may be obtained at the station for about a dollar a
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1273
day. There are laboratory and living accommodations for ten
persons.
Formerly the station served as a supply depot for the Berlin
Aquarium but recently this Aquarium was abandoned. Its
chief source of income at present is a subsidy from the Prussian
government. Dr. Hermes is its director. Rovigno itself is an
old city of about 10,000 inhabitants, chiefly Italian speaking.
The large number of narrow, crooked streets and quaint build¬
ings make the city an interesting place to visit.
In 1905 through the munificence of Dr. C. Kupelwieser of
Vienna, a Biological Station was established on some lakes near
Lunz, Lower Austria, by Dr. R. Woltereck of the University of
Leipzig. Dr. Kupelwieser owns a large game preserve here, in
fact practically an entire mountain valley in which there are
three lakes. His large summer residence, the Seehof, stands
near one of the lakes, and one wing of this castle has been con¬
verted into a pleasant, and well appointed laboratory. Two
basement rooms contain aquaria which are supplied with an
abundance of running water. One contains large cement
aquaria for fish-breeding experiments, and the other has glass
aquaria of various sizes.
On the ground floor are located the library room with a well
selected and rapidly growing library, a general laboratory, two
rooms with tables for research work, the director’s room, a store
room for apparatus and supplies, and a dark room fitted up for
photographic and physiological work. Above the laboratory,
there are several living rooms for the accommodation of students
and investigators.
Hot far from the Seehof is the “Dependance” of the station
which contains living rooms for the assistants, a heating plant,
and two glass culture houses. These glass houses contain cement
and glass aquaria of various sizes. One, the Warmhaus, is fitted
with steam heating apparatus for experimental work at high
temperatures, the cement aquaria themselves being supplied with
steam pipes. The other, the Kalthaus, is supplied with run¬
ning water from a cold spring so that experimental work may
be carried on at tolerably low temperatures. By means of these
two houses, experiments may be carried on at temperatures vary-
T274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ing from about 10° to 30° or even higher, so that the range of
temperature is practically from alpine to tropical.
Between the Seehof and Lunzersee, along the stream which
flows down from the lakes above, there are a few large ponds and
some cement pools in which fish-breeding experiments are car¬
ried on.
The three lakes which lie within the station’s domain repre¬
sent very different physical and biological conditions. The
IJntersee or Lunzersee on which the laboratory is located, is the
largest. It is about 1,600 m. long, from 200 to 600 m. broad,
and has a maximum depth of 34 m. Its altitude is 617 m.
^Further up the valley is the Mittersee, less than a quarter as
large as the Untersee and having a maximum depth of only 4 m.
It is fed largely by springs. Still further up the valley, at an
altitude of 1,177 m., lies the Obersee. It is about 700 m. long,
300 m. broad, and has a maximum depth of 15 m. There is an
abundant snowfall at this altitude in winter and the lake is
covered with ice for several months each year, so that rather
severe alpine conditions are found here. Also many small
ponds and pools are found in this mountain valley and the sur¬
rounding country.
The beautiful and interesting mountain scenery and the well
equipped laboratories make this an unusually good and attractive
place for summer biological work. Tables in the laboratory as
well as living rooms in the Seehof are gratis. Dr. H. Kupel-
wieser is the present director of the station.
The Bohemian Portable Laboratory was founded by Dr.
Fritsch, its present director, in 1888. For some time after irs
establishment, this station was used for conducting investiga¬
tions on some Bohemian lakes and lakelets. Then it was trans¬
ferred to the Elbe river and has since been used as a base for
making physical, chemical, and biological investigations on the
Bohemian portion of this stream and its backwaters. The work
is still being carried on at all seasons of the year, but chiefly, of
course, in the summer. Several publications resulting from
investigations pursued at this laboratory constitute most valu¬
able contributions to the aquatic biology of Bohemia.
There is no permanent biological station on lake Balaton, but
Juday — Some European Biological Stations . 1275
.the very important limnological work that has been in progress
for some years and is still being carried on here, mnst be men¬
tioned in this connection. Several valuable papers dealing with
the physical, chemical, and biological phases of these investiga¬
tions have already been published. Much of the work has been
done under the direction of Dr. von Loczy, who is president of
the commission.
Although the laboratory in the “Vivarium1’ which is located
iii the Prater at Vienna is purely for experimental researches
and not for limnological work, it is well worth mentioning here.
The one story building stands in a large court near the center
of the park. It is a large structure and has a number of rooms,
some of which are designed for special investigations and others
for laboratories. Among the former may be mentioned two
glass houses, a room fitted with special heating apparatus for ex¬
perimental work on tropical animals, some rooms with large
cement aquaria for work on fishes, and an underground dark
room for cave experiments. Then there are chemical, physio¬
logical, botanical, and zoological laboratories. Dr. L. von
Artheim, director of the Laboratory, has charge of the botanical
researches and Dr. Przibram has charge of the zoological work.
Italy.
The reputation of the Stazione Zoologica at Naples as the
foremost marine station in the World is well deserved because
of the conveniences, equipment, and material that are here acces¬
sible to every investigator. Even a brief visit suffices to explain
why this station has become the mecca of biologists in every
quarter of the globe. The three attractive stone buildings are
situated in one of the city parks, the Villa Nazionale, and are
surrounded by a wealth of semi-tropical vegetation. They are
separated from the blue water of the Gulf of Naples only by a
fashionable driveway and the balconies of the buildings com¬
mand a splendid view of Vesuvius, the island of Capri, and
other points of interest around the gulf.
The station was founded in T874 by the late Dr. Anton Dohrn
whose son is now its director. As a result of the founder’s
efforts and careful management, it has enjoyed a phenomenal
1276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
growth. It has been necessary to make two substantial addi¬
tions to the original building, making three buildings in all at
present. The first addition was the physiological laboratory
which was erected some years ago, but the second addition has
been completed just recently. The first two buildings had table
accommodations for fifty biologists but the third itself will
accommodate fifty, thus providing for a hundred in all. A sub¬
sidiary station has also, recently been erected on the island of
Ischia for the purpose of studying the fauna and flora of that
district.
The station is gradually becoming self-supporting but it still
receives subsidies from many of the European governments.
Tables are rented for $500 each per year and many of them are
subscribed for by governments, universities, and scientific insti¬
tutions and societies.
A large public aquarium is located in the basement of the
main or original building. The large display tanks are espe¬
cially well lighted from above, so that the material that is on
exhibition is seen most advantageously. The wealth and great
variety of animals exhibited in the various tanks make the
aquarium one of the chief attractions of Naples and it is regu¬
larly sought by large numbers of visitors.
The library has grown rapidly also and recently it became
necessary to assign more room to it. It has long been regarded
as one of the very best working libraries in marine zoology.
Another interesting feature of the station is the supply de¬
partment. Much material is constantly being brought in and
that which is not needed for immediate use in the laboratories,
is killed and prepared for sale to universities, museums, or in¬
dividual investigators. The methods used for preparing this
material yield excellent results so that there is a good demand
for these preparations. In addition to smaller boats, the sta¬
tion possesses two steamers which are equipped for deep-sea
dredging.
A building has just recently been completed for a new bio¬
logical station near Cagliari on the island of Sardinia. The
work places and living rooms are at the disposal of investigators
of all nations. The Sardinian coast possesses a rich and varied
TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI
PLATE C
ANNEX OF STATION AT LUNZ, AUSTRIA
JUDAY
NAPLES
EUROPEAN BIOLOGICAL STATIONS
COCKAYNE, BOSTON
Juday — Some European Biological Stations. 1277
marine fauna which insures an abundance of material for the
laboratories. Dr. Ermanno Giglio-Tos of the University of
Cagliari is the director of the station.
Bulgaria.
The new kingdom of Bulgaria has already established a
biological station at Varna, on the Black Sea, with Dr. T. Mor-
now as director.
Russia.
Russian biologists have long taken great interest in such
laboratories and they were among the first to establish a station.
One was founded at Sebastopol on the Black Sea in 1871, by
the Royal Academy of Science of Sebastopol. A new building
was erected in 1897 which contains laboratories that will ac¬
commodate seventeen investigators, a public aquarium, a mu¬
seum room for local fauna, and a library. The station possesses
a fair sized motor boat which is equipped with collecting appar¬
atus. The laboratories are open to foreign as well as Russian
biologists.
In 1899 a station was opened near Alexandrowsk on the Mur-
man coast of Russia. It is situated on Catherine Harbor which
lies well within the Arctic Circle.
Some years ago a biological station was established at Saratow
by a local natural history society for the purpose of studying
the fauna and flora of the Volga River in that vicinity.
Just recently a laboratory was founded at Astrachan for the
purpose of making a special study of the fauna found in the
delta of the Volga River and in the neighboring parts of the
Caspian Sea. Dr. S. A. Mitropolsky is director of this station.
THE GRAVIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF TELLURIUM.
VICTOR LENHEK AND A. W. HOMBEEGER.
Of all the methods proposed for the precipitation of tellurium
perhaps the one which is most used is a modification of the
original method of Berzelius. He used sulphurous acid as a
precipitating agent.
The method of procedure as commonly carried out consists in
adding to the hydrochloric acid solution of tellurium a strong
aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide and allowing this mixture
to remain in a warm place for a few days in order to effect com'
plete precipitation. It has been shown by Schroetter,1 Braw-
ner,2 Norris and Bay,3 Crane,4 Brerichs,5 and others that the
precipitation by means of sulphur dioxide is far from satisfac¬
tory. Brawner has pointed out that part of the precipitated
tellurium undergoes oxidation in the liquid becoming converted
into the tetrachloride in which form it remains in solution.
Crane has suggested that the main cause of the incomplete pre¬
cipitation by means of sulphur dioxide is the very rapid in¬
crease in the ratio of the acids to the unprecipitated tellurium
in solution, two-thirds of this being due to the hydrochloric acid
set free, and one-third to the sulphuric acid formed. He
thought if these could be removed the reduction would be com¬
plete. The hydrochloric acid could be eliminated by evapora¬
tion, but the continuous increase in sulphuric acid would soon
interrupt the reaction. This might, however, be kept under
control by the addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide.
1 Chem. News 87, 17.
2 Jour. Chem. Soc. 55, 392.
s Amer. Chem. Jr. 20, 278.
4Amer. Chem. Jr. 23, 408.
s Jr. fur pr. Chem. 66, 261.
1280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Whitehead has suggested a remedy in the use of sodium acid
sulphite. He advises a moderately concentrated solution of the
sulphite and that the quantity added to the tellurium solution
he sufficient only to just neutralize the acids present and that
formed during the reaction. When the solution is thoroughly
agitated and then allowed to stand in a warm place, the precipi¬
tate will form and settle evenly. He states that “while sodium
acid sulphite does not completely remove all of the tellurium
from the solution in the cold, that if not used in great excess
and the mixed solutions he raised to the boiling point, toward
the end of the action the precipitation will he perfect, and the
tellurium will be obtained in a state of aggregation favorable to
easy filtration.”
Frerichs has worked on the basis that hydriodic acid and sul¬
phur dioxide cause immediate and complete separation of tel¬
lurium from a tellurous solution even in the cold, and Mclvor* 1
has confirmed this method.
Horris and Fay2 have demonstrated that under ordinary work¬
ing conditions precipitated tellurium increases in weight about
0.5 per cent, owing to oxidation and that this increase is bal¬
anced by the quantity of the elements left behind as tellurium
tetrachloride in the strongly acid solution in which the precipi¬
tate was formed by sulphur dioxide. They believe that it is
more accurate to weigh tellurium dioxide than to weigh tellu¬
rium in the elementary state.
Mclvor1 and Donath2 have studied the precipitation of tel¬
lurium by hyposulphurous acid. This method possesses the dis¬
advantage of a precipitate of tellurium contaminated by more
or less sulphur. The method hardly possesses any advantages
over the sulphurous acid percipitation.
Stolba1 in 1873 and later Kastner2 have proposed the precipi¬
tation of tellurium from an alkaline solution by means of grape
sugar.
1 Chem. News 87, 163.
2 Amer. Chem. Jr. 20, 278.
1 tuem. News 87, 163.
2 Zeit. fur Angew. Chem., 1890, 214.
1 Zeit. fur Anal. Chem. 11, 437.
2 Zeit fur Anal. Chem. 13, 142.
Lenher — Gravimetric Determination of Tellurium. 1281
Laterr Gutbier3 described tbe precipitation of tellurium by
means of hydrazine as a method for its determination. His
mode of procedure is to dissolve telluric acid in warm water in
a porcelain dish covered with a glass cover and add by means
of a pipette a 10 to 20 per cent solution of hydrazine hydrate.
A dark blue almost black color is noted and after heating a short
time, elementary tellurium is precipitated in a flocculent con¬
dition, the liquid becoming colorless. He continues the addi¬
tion of hydrazine hydrate until the fluid is no longer colored by
further addition of the reagent.
Experimental.
Precipitation by hydrazine. — In our hands the method of
Gutbier gave fairly good results. The facts were noted, how¬
ever, that the addition of an excess of the hydrazine does not
at once precipitate all of the tellurium. It is preferable to
add a small amount of the precipitating agent from time to
time. This necessitates several hours for complete precipita¬
tion. The following results were obtained by Gutbier's
method in hydrochloric acid solution:
Te03
.2247 gm.
.1988
.2006
.2056
Te required
.1795 gm.
.1588
.1608
.1643
Te obtained
.1790 gm.
.1577
.1596
.1637
Precipitation by sodium acid sulphite.- — In order to com¬
pletely precipitate the tellurium by this reagent from a hy¬
drochloric acid solution of a tellurous compound, the solution
must contain excess of the reagent and must be allowed te
stand in a warm place for twenty-four hours. In the follow¬
ing experiments the sodium acid sulphite was prepared freshly
for this purpose by passing sulphur dioxide into a solution of
sodium carbonate. It has been our experiejnce that when
sodium acid sulphite which has not been freshly prepared is
used for the precipitation of tellurium, that the precipitated
element frequently contains sulphur.
sBer. 34, 2724.
1282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
That it is necessary for the solution to stand a considerable
length of time is apparent from the following experiments, all
of which experiments were made under exactly the same con¬
ditions. The solution of the dioxide in hydrochloric acid was
brought to boiling, a saturated solution of sodium acid sulphite
was added, the solution allowed to stand the requisite length
of time, then brought on a Gooch platinum filter, washed with
water until the filtrate no longer showed chlorides, after which
it was washed with 15 cc. of alcohol and dried at 105°.
Solution allowed to stand two hours.
Allowed to stand twenty-four hours.
Te required
.1609 gm.
.1609 ~
.1726
.1286
Te obtained
.1615 gm.
.1618
.1730
.1289
error
+ .0006 gm.
+ .0009
+ .0004
+ .0003
After tellurium, which has been precipitated by means of
sodium sulphite and hydrochloric acid, has been washed
thoroughly with water and alcohol, it oxidizes very slowly even
when heated as high as 200°, as evidenced by the following data:
Length of time of heating Temperature Te (1) Te (2)
15 minutes . . . . . 105° .1619 gm. .1620 gm.
15 “ . 105° .1619 .1620
1 hour . . . 120°-130° .1620 .1622
1 “ . 200° .1620 .1623
PRECIPITATION BY MEANS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE.
By the treatment of tellurium dioxide dissolved in hydro¬
chloric acid with a freshly saturated solution of sulphur diox¬
ide and allowing to stand for 24 hours, the following results
were obtained :
Lenher — Gravimetric Determination of Tellurium. 1283
Te required
.1607 gm.
.1609
.1609
.1609
Te obtained
.1617 gm.
.1613
.1615
.1613
Unless the acidity in this precipitation is ten per cent, the tel¬
lurium is not likely to he completely precipitated or it will
be precipitated in a very fine state of division. The solution
should also be hot in order to secure satisfactory precipitation.
SIMULTANEOUS PRECIPITATION BY MEANS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE
AND HYDRAZINE.
By bringing both sulphur dioxide and hydrazine into a
tellurium solution the whole of the element is thrown out of
the solution almost instantaneously.
The solution should have an acidity of 5 to 10 per cent and
it is desirable to have the solution in a high degree of concen¬
tration. The solution is brought to boiling and 15 cc. of a
saturated solution of sulphur dioxide is added, then 10 cc. of
a 15 per cent solution of hydrazine hydrochloride and again
25 cc. of the sulphur dioxide solution. The solution is boiled
for a few minutes when the elementary tellurium will settle
in such a way that it can be rapidly washed. The liquor is
then brought on a platinum Gooch filter and washed with hot
water until all of the chlorine is removed. The precipitate is
then washed with 15 cc. of alcohol and the crucible and con¬
tents dried at 100-105 degrees.
The following results were obtained by the process as out¬
lined above, using a 20 per cent solution of hydrazine hydro¬
chloride with sulphur dioxide. Tellurium dioxide was used
for the analysis:
Te required Te obtained Error
. 1731 gm . . 1735 gm . + . 0004
.2065 . .2068 +.0003
.1638 .1641 +.0003
.1608 .1608 -
1284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
A 15 per cent solution of hydrazine hydrochloride along with
sulphur dioxide gave
Te required
.2212 gm.
.1435
.1605
.1072
Te obtained
.2210 gm.
.1434
.1607
.1070
Error
— .0002
— 0001
+ .0002
— .0002
A ten per cent solution of the hydrazine hydrochloride with
sulphur dioxide yielded.
Te required
. 1658 gm.
.1642
.1268
.1422
Te obtained
.1656 gm.
.1637
.1264
.1420
Error
— .0002
— .0005
— .0004
—.0002
That hydrazine must be present in sufficient quantity is evi¬
denced hy the following series of tests in which a 6 per cent
was used along with sulphur dioxide and the solution boiled
for a few minutes other conditions being exactly the same as
in the preceding series of experiments.
The following two experiments were made with a large ex¬
cess of sulphur dioxide water along with a 6 per cent solution
of hydrazine and the solution heated six hours:
Te required Te obtained Enor
.1680 gm. .1545gm. — .0135
.1516 .1416 —.0100
The method which has been used in this laboratory for a
number of years and which has proven the most satisfactory
for the gravimetric determination of tellurium is as follows:
The tellurium either as derivative of the dioxide or as a tel-
lurate, should he present in a solution which has an acidity of
approximately ten per cent of hydrochloric acid, and it is pre¬
ferable to have the solution sufficiently concentrated, otherwise
the fine state of division of the precipitate will render it unsatis¬
factory for washing. The solution is heated to boiling and 15
cc. of a saturated solution of sulphur dioxide added, then 10 cc.
Leriher — Gravimetric Determination of Tellurium. 1285
of a 15 per cent solution of hydrazine hydrochloride, and again
25 cc. of a saturated solution of sulphur dioxide. The boiling
is continued until the precipitate settles in such a way that it
can he easily washed. This boiling should not take more than
five minutes. The precipitated tellurium after being allowed
to settle is washed with hot water on a Gooch filter until all of
the chlorine is removed after which the water is displaced by
alcohol and the crucible and contents dried at 105°.
AN OPERCULATED GASTROPOD FROM THE NIAGARA
FORMATION OF WISCONSIN.
EDGAR E. TELLER.
As many of the gastropods of the Hamilton and the more
recent formations are known to have been op er dilated, it wonld
not be unreasonable to suppose that some of the earlier forms
will he found to possess that character. The material of which
they were composed and the delicacy of the structure of many
of them was such, however, that it is not likely that in the older
formations many of them will have left their fossil forms, still
close investigation should show a few of them.
Fossil literature of the earlier formations contains hardly a
single reference to such forms although many specimens should
he found in the collections of close investigators of such objects.
The limestones of the Hiagara formation at Racine, Wiscon-
son, have furnished a few specimens of a fossil that has been
of doubtful identity, they have always been found in the form
of a flat impression of what might be supposed to have been that
of a small and very much crushed and flattened gastropod.
Ho gastropod of a size that would make such an impression is
known at the locality, and there are none of the other fossils
found in the same layers that show any evidence of compres¬
sion, neither has it ever been found in any layer except those
that contain gastropods, these peculiar forms are not numerous,
neither by the ordinary collector have they been considered
worth the collecting on account of their evident poor state of
preservation, but one side of the fossil is known, the other not
having been as yet recognized.
Some years since it was suggested to other collectors that they
were probably that of the operculum of a gastropod but just
what one unknown, as operculated shells in the formation were
Teller — An Operculated Gastropod.
1287
evidently unknown, and there were several varieties associated
in the layers where found but little consideration was given to
the suggestion until at last the finding of a specimen of a gastro¬
pod with the operculum in its natural position confirmed the
supposition, other forms of operculum from other localities in
the Niagara of Wisconsin are now known hut the species to
which they belong have yet to be identified.
In the years 1860-61 the late Prof. James Hall, then the
geologist of the state of Wisconsin, made large collections of
fossils from the formations of the south-eastern portion of the
state, many of the specimens were described in his report of the
Geology of Wisconsin in 1861, and in the first volume of the
Geology of Wisconsin in 1862 all without figures. In the twen¬
tieth annual report of the state cabinet of natural history of the
state of New York 1867, and in the revised edition of the
same report 1868, he gives a redescription of these species with
figures adding several new species not previously described,
among them several gastropods, to one of them on plate 15, fig¬
ure 1 9 he has given the name Murchisonia conradi.
Genus murchisonia, Phillips. Murchisonia conradi , JN. S.
Shell turreted, somewhat rapidly ascending, consisting of about
seven volutions which are distinctly carinated on the mid¬
dle or scarcely above the middle. Above the carina the
surface is slightly concave, and below the carina very
slightly rounded; while the lower side of the last volution
is regularly rounded and somewhat ventricose.
The surface has been finely striated with irregular undula¬
tions corresponding with the lines of growth where the striae
have become crowded. The entire length of the shell to the base
of the last volution is one and nine-tenths inches and the diame¬
ter near the base nine-tenths of an inch.
1288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
Formation and Locality. — In the limestone of the age of the
Niagara group at llaeine, Wisconsin.
Type. — In the American Museum of Natural History, New
York City.
The figure shown on plate 01, fig. 1 is that of an external
cast of the species described, showing seven volutions of the
shell and which agrees in every respect \Ath the description of
the type form, a little within what was the orifice or opening
of the shell is found the impression of the operculum which had
closed the opening and prevented the shell from becoming filled
with sediment; the impression of the operculum is circular or
slightly sub-ovate and is that of the outer surface which is ap¬
parently coiled upon its own axis and has about four volutions.
Fig. 2, is that of the operculum in the form of which it is usually
found, this also shows the outer surface on which the volutions
are plainly shown and is the best preserved of the specimens
collected. Figure 3, is of a similar specimen on one side of
which is shown a raised edge by which we can judge the opercu¬
lum to have been about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness.
No specimens showing a satisfactory inner surface have been
found, this surface, however, was probably smooth.
Feh. 10, 1908.
Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. XYI.
Plate CP
Teller.
An Operculated Gastropod
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
■ & ' -
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
T1 ; ■ , • _
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XVI, PART II, NO. 6
MADISON, WISCONSIN
19 10
CONTENTS
Some factors ill the progress of scientific research. The
Presidents address, 1909, Louis Kohlenberg , 1289
Some personal recollections of Abraham Lincoln,
John W. Hoyt, 1305
List of officers and members, . . . . 1310
Proceedings of the Academy, . . . . 1341
• y fey - - - .v - : --y ' . § ; ; vy . _ l ... ,t - > ' '
■Report of the Secretary, . . . 1362
Treasurer’s statement, . . . . .1363
‘Reports of the Exchange ' committee, . . . 1364
The annual half-volume of the Transactions is issued by the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters in six num¬
bers, under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.
The price of this part is 35 cents.
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, 1909.
SOME FACTOES IN THE PEOGEESS OF SCIENTIFIC
EESEAECH.
By Louis Kahlexberg.
The search after knowledge of the material things of the
universe has been in progress since the appearance of man on
the earth. To minister to his daily needs in the way of food,
drink, clothing and shelter required an acquaintance with many
of the most important properties of plants, animals and sub¬
stances of mineral character. So the struggle against hunger,
thirst, inclement weather, sickness, wild beasts and enemies
of his own species led man to the acquisition of a large number
of fundamental facts. These, at first handed down to succeed¬
ing generations by word of mouth, were gradually more and
more preserved in some kind of written form, and thus taught
and transmitted to others. In this early stage of the acquisi¬
tion of knowledge of material things the imagination and the
religious superstitions of man played a large part. This is
true especially of his efforts to conquer his enemies and to pro¬
tect himself against the ravages of disease. For example, to
imagine that a sick person was one possessed of an evil spirit
was very common; and it was, of course, quite natural that
the treatment of disease should have been directed to the
methods of scaring out, coaxing out, or otherwise removing
that evil spirit from the patient. Amd thus the appeasing and
control of evil spirits and the gaining of the favor of kindly
ones was coupled with the treatment of disease ; in other words,
medicine and theology had much in common in their origin,
1290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
and the priest and the medicine man were generally one and
the same person. But the stubborn fact that disease is fre¬
quently readily eradicated by resorting to definite physical
treatment with herbs or substances of animal or mineral origin
gradually gained ground, took the place of the exhortations
to remove evil spirits, and formed the basis of the science of
medicine. That the early attempts to cure disease should
have been extremely crude is most natural, and that they
should have been influenced by superstition and religious
views for a long time was to have been expected. It must be
remembered that even in the days of George Washington it was
still reputable practice to administer to patients such things as
iron from the nails of the coffins of criminals, serpents7 excre¬
ment, parts of vipers, and pulverized skull bones of murde.-ers
as specifics for certain diseases. Was it not the great chemist
and apothecary Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a contemporary of Wash¬
ington, who first had the courage to banish such things from
the shelves of his shop. And are we at the present day quite
emancipated from the idea of the treatment of disease by
mental effort alone ? The notion that our bodily ills are con¬
trolled by our psychical condition is thus very old indeed, and
its persistence is not to be wondered at or even lightly regarded,
for after all it contains a considerable element of truth, of
which every truly successful modern physician is cognizant,,
and of which, directly or indirectly, he avails himself in min¬
istering to his patients.
It is in the study of medicine that many of our natural
sciences like botany, zoology, and chemistry really had their
origin. The heavenly bodies excited wonderment and study
even in earliest times, and so astronomy had its beginnings in
the remote past. Hor was it strange that our forefathers should
have fancied definite connections between their daily affairs,
their diseases, the progress made by their crops, and the move¬
ments of certain heavenly bodies. . Does not to the minds of
some to the present day the particular phase of the moon have
considerable to do with choosing the time for planting the seed
so as to insure a good yield % Mathematical computations also
Kahlenherg — Factors in Scientific Research. 1291
began very early, being necessitated by the construction <jf
shelter and various implements and contrivances that were re¬
quired for transportation and communication. This work
naturally also led to the beginnings of the sciences of physics,
mineralogy and the study of the earth, geology. Though in
early times all of the natural sciences were very closely linked
with the study of medicine. Mathematics naturally developed
rather independently of the other sciences, and it has conse¬
quently reached a higher stage of perfection at the present time.
Astronomy too as a science is much further along in its de¬
velopment than are the other natural sciences, which comes
from the fact that the distances between the heavenly bodies
are relatively very great, so that practically only the masses of
the stars and the distances between them enter into the laws
governing their movements. When it comes to a study of the
chemical composition of the heavenly bodies and the processes
that are going on in the various orbs we are still greatly handi¬
capped, even though progress made in this direction by use of
the spectroscope and the art of photography is very gratifying
in a way.
The abstract subject of mathematics really reached a high
degree of perfection before even the beginnings of the natural
sciences as such were laid. E’er is it difficult to see why this
should have been so. The development of mathematics really
presented much less difficulty than did the development of ex¬
perimental sciences; nor did mathematics have to contend with
superstition, which stood in the way of the growth of medicine
and the natural sciences in general. The slowest of all to de¬
velop was agricultural science in its various phases of horti¬
culture, raising of grain, animal husbandry and dairying. And
thus it is that the pursuit of exact and systematized knowledge
in abstract mathematics and astronomy occupied more atten¬
tion and reached a higher stage of perfection before the science
of physics and its applications, engineering, were developed.
Again, the sciences that grew out of the study of medicine were
of still later growth, and finally, agricultural pursuits on the
basis of carefully systematized knowledge represent the most
1292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
recent development of all, though the tilling of the soil and
animal husbandry were practiced as arts from very early times.
It is true that for its development upon a thorough scientific
basis agriculture must make use of the other natural sciences,
particularly chemistry, botany, physics, bacteriology, zoology,
and physiology. But this was really not recognized until re¬
latively recently. Indeed, agriculture was commonly regarded
as a very ordinary, simple pursuit, calling for but very little
knowledge. Moreover, this notion is still rather widespread,
and the bulk of our farming is yet going on in an empirical
way. There can be no question but that the fact that the tilling
of the soil was looked upon as much lower in dignity than the
practice of medicine, law, theology, engineering, teaching, trad¬
ing or manufacturing has stood against its development upon a
scientific basis in the past, and indeed still stands against ‘t
at the present time. The farmer works long hours to produce
the food and other materials the world requires, and for his
labors he is really not fitly compensated in money or the con¬
veniences and enjoyments of life. Labor saving machinery
has helped greatly in doing the work of tilling the soil and
thus the inventor, the manufacturer and laborer in the city
have aided work in farming very directly. Nevertheless, when
all has been said, the farmer still plods on with severe physical
labor for long hours without receiving the compensation that
is really due him. He cannot form combines and unions to
raise his pay. The professional men, and particularly those
engaged in the management of transportation, manufacturing,
and other major business operations, acquire under existing
conditions much more than their fair share of the world’s
goods and conveniences.
While the study of the progress of knowledge of the material
things about us and the laws that govern the changes they un¬
dergo has contributed greatly to man’s physical well being, it
has also had a most profound effect upon his ways of thinking
and looking at things in general. It has emancipated his spirit
by pointing out the errors of his preconceived notions of the uni¬
verse and the relative position of the earth and man therein,
Kahlenberg — Factors in Scientific Research. 1293
and has opened the true path to the acquisition of real facts
and laws.
After all, the fundamental laws of nature are few and com¬
paratively simple, though the phenomena controlled by the
laws are frequently extremely varied and complex. We recog¬
nize the far reaching character of the laws of mechanics, of the
conservation of mass, of the conservation and transformation of
energy, and of the proportions in which substances unite chemi¬
cally. We know that under these general laws there are special
laws and principles governing limited groups of phenomena;
thus, for instance, we have the laws of conduction of electricity,
of electrolysis, of propagation of wave motion, of reproduction,
which, however, are all subject to the few great general laws.
Yet we must recognize that all these laws have been discovered
by experimental study and observation. Yewton’s laws of
motion were discovered only about two hundred years ago. The
law of conservation of mass was discovered about a century ago,
and the laws of conservation and transformation of energy were
formulated as recently as the middle of the nineteenth century.
We have, furthermore, acquired the far reaching and funda¬
mental ideas that certain chemical substances, the so-called ele¬
ments, can neither be decomposed nor synthesized, and that liv¬
ing beings always spring from living beings and cannot be pro¬
duced artificially from dead mineral material. These latter
notions, too, have come to us only recently, that is, within the
last century. The idea that complex living forms have gradu¬
ally evolved from simpler ones, and that, indeed, the principle
of evolution applies to the universe itself is also of very recent
origin. When we reflect that laws are simply general state¬
ments of fact, and that our most fundamental laws have been
discovered within the last hundred years, it certainly must
dawn upon us that there is great probability that the laws we
have discovered are not the only ones of fundamental and far
reaching character that obtain, and that some more general law
may still await discovery.
Each of our natural sciences has already accumulated a
very respectable body of facts, to master which requires special
1294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and 'Letters .
and continuous application. In every treatise on science we
find a description of facts, a generalization of these facts into
laws and principles, and a presentation of certain views and
opinions closely linked with hypotheses and theories. By no
means all scientific writers seek to distinguish clearly between
what is fact or law on the one hand and what is theory or
opinion on the other. Indeed, it is unfortunately true that
many are not able to distinguish fact from hypothesis, which
comes about to a certain extent, because many facts are spoken
of and described in the language of some hypothesis. In this
way much confusion results. The rising generation of students
too is often mislead and their ardor is dampened by teaching
hypotheses and notions or opinions as though they were facts
and laws, or at least on a par with the latter in importance.
Nothing can he more harmful to secure clear, logical, scientific
thinking ; nothing stands more in the way of scientific research.
Research means inquiry, it means hard, earnest work. It
can only he done by a vigorous, enthusiastic human being that
is truly cognizant that he does not know it all, and that the
existing state of our knowledge is unsatisfactory. One who
has made his mind up as to just how natural phenomena come
about, one who is cocksure of the explanation of what goes on,
has no incentive to inquire further. So a person imbued with
a theory or notion to the point where he expounds that notion
and begins a propaganda in favor of it, is drifting away from
the true frame of mind of a scientific inquirer after truth.
In order to further scientific research there is one thing neces¬
sary above all others, namely, the enlisting of the flower of our
youth in scientific pursuits. We need to get vigorous, able,
enthusiastic young men and women to catch the true spirit of
scientific inquiry. We need to write our textbooks and shape
our lectures, classroom and laboratory work not merely to ex¬
pound facts, laws, and existing theoretical notions, but rather
to inspire the student to further inquiry. In other words,
while we teach what is known and what the existing opinions
and theories are, we must constantly do this in such a way as to
get the student to study further. Our ideal must be the de¬
velopment of an independent thinker and inquirer.
Kahlenberg — Factors in Scientific Research . 1295
Theories, hypotheses and notions are very helpful when
rightly used. They have a very important function in sug¬
gesting new avenues of attack by experiment and observation.
But it must also he pointed out that theories and hypotheses
suggest by implication that certain things are impossible and
that it would be a foolish waste of time to look for such things,
which are often quite possible. Thus, theories are frequently
a hindrance and a stumbling block. And yet they often take
such complete possession of men that they amount to convic¬
tions and can not be shaken by any means whatever. They
then become what we might well term scientific creeds. So it
was believed by the great Stahl that when substances burn a
subtle principle, phlogiston, flies out of them. He expounded
this enthusiastically in detail, and gained a great many ardent
disciples who tenaciously stuck to his view, and defended it.
Even the discoverers of oxygen themselves, the great Scheele and
Priestley, were followers of Stahl and defended the phlogistic-
view of combustion as long as they lived, holding that Lavoi¬
sier’s idea that combustion in the air consists of union with
oxygen was untenable in spite of the quantitative experiments,
on increase of weight during combustion which the latter de¬
scribed. Thus we see that scientists and theologians are not
made of different clay when it comes to adhering tenaciously
to preconceived notions, expounding these and making disci¬
ples. Think of the idea of evolution of Darwin and how
Huxley fought for it through thick and thin, and are we after-
all so cocksure of the matter at present ? It took some time to
establish the notion that a chemical element is a substance that
has defied both analysis and synthesis. Later it was generally
taught, and not infrequently the so-called chemical elements are
looked upon as undecomposable substances rather than as unde-
composed ones. Furthermore, it is quite safe to say that prac¬
tically no serious efforts are being made to resolve any of the
long known elements into something simpler. The very fact
that these substances have been placed in the table of elements,
has drawn attention away from efforts to decompose them;
and some of the recently reported transmutations of Bamsay
1296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
having been shown to be unfounded, are not calculated to en-
courage further efforts in this line. The notion that living
beings always spring from living beings and not from inani¬
mate matter is so deeply rooted that probably no biologist is
attempting to synthesize any living forms, however simple.
May we hope that out of the intensive work of Otto Lehman,
the great molecular physicist, this seeming impossibility may
yet be accomplished? Up to 1828 it was thought that the
•chemical products of plant and animal metabolism could only
be produced by the life process; and yet when Woehler syn¬
thesized urea the spell was broken, and soon many other or¬
ganic compounds were synthetically prepared, whose artificial
synthesis was thought to be quite impossible.
In biological lines, the great- advances in modern' surgery
stand out preeminently. These were made possible by the de¬
velopment of bacteriology, which pointed out the way to se¬
cure aseptic conditions under which alone major surgical opera¬
tions have any chance for success. Tor many years biologists
Lave engaged in studying the anatomy of living forms and
•classifying them. This work has given the biological sciences
the name descriptive sciences. While this study of form is
of great importance, and while it has always been closely asso¬
ciated with the study and description of functions, that is with
physiology, the latter has of recent years come into the fore¬
ground more and more. It is recognized that the great prob¬
lem in botany is not so much to describe new forms of plant
life as to discover what goes on within a plant, even the com¬
monest weed by the wayside, as it lives. Experimental physi-
ology, the crowning glory of biological studies, is slowly but
surely coming into prominence, and great things are to be ex¬
pected of it, though its path of progress is a difficult one.
Think of the foundation in chemical, physical, physico-chemical
and biological studies that its successful pursuit presupposes.
We ask how nourishment passes from the alimentary tract into
the blood, and how the various glands of the body manufac¬
ture the various secretions in each individual case from one and
the same fluid, the blood; and meanwhile chemists and phy-
Kohlenberg — Factors in Scientific Research. 1297
sicists are still debating tbe explanation of such a simple proc¬
ess as the solution of a lump of sugar or of salt in water. But
the experimental physiologist works on undismayed even though
he be obliged to blaze his own way in chemical and physical
matters. This is after all as it should be, for hesitation and
delay, because a cognate science can not furnish all information
needed to go ahead, can not be tolerated long. Has not the
law of conservation of energy itself been discovered by a young
physician, Julius Robert Mayer, and may we not expect ad¬
vances in physics and chemistry in the future from those who
are primarily engaged in physiology? From the study of the
structure and function of the cell we have much to expect ; but
the study of the functions of aggregations of cells as they make
up the various organs and the organism as a whole must not
be neglected, and even those who strenuously believe in the cell
theory of living beings must needs bear in mind the necessity
of macroscopic study of function. In the progress of experi¬
mental physiology lies our hope of finally placing the treat¬
ment of disease upon a truly scientific basis. Bacteriology has
taught us of the existence of micro-organisms that produce dis¬
ease and pointed out the methods of combatting these para¬
sites, but it remains for experimental physiology to point out
the way in which many of our bodily ills may be cured with¬
out resorting to the surgeon, by simple and effective means in
unearthing which the physiologist, pathologist and therapeutist
require the efficient and sympathetic aid of the chemist in
particular. Furthermore, the work in experimental physiology
lies at the very basis of scientific agriculture. The princi¬
ples of biological growth and function are general in charac¬
ter, and the work of the physician and the scientific farmer is
really based upon laws that are identical. I take it that it
will commonly be conceded that above all things upon the sci¬
entific horizon at the present day experimental physiology is
of utmost importance for our welfare. Tbe progress of surgi¬
cal treatment in which America has had such a large share
deserves due recognition and respect of all. Bfut the successful
combatting of ills of the body without the use of the knife is a
1298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
grander achievement which still awaits solution. In this work
our rich store of anatomical knowledge gathered since the days
of the great and courageous Vesalius will doubtless be required,
nor will the work of the histologist, cytologist and chemist play
a minor role in its development.
In the arts and industries there are great problems that
await solution. The question of the storing of the energy of
the sun, of using wind and water power to better advantage,
so as not to continue the terrible waste of our fuel supply, has
recently been brought home to us stronger than ever. The fact
that our rich agricultural lands must receive careful treatment,
so that their fertility may be conserved from year to year, is
apparent. Alnd is it too much to expect that with careful work
the yield of our soils may be doubled as to both quantity and
quality? All our soils should be systematically studied as to
what treatment is required to produce the best crops for which
they are adapted. And in animal husbandry do we not realize
that the grade of our horses, cows, sheep, hogs and poultry may
be greatly improved by proper methods of breeding?
In the improvement of our means of communication we have
but begun. What other view could we possibly take? Were
not the invention of the steam engine, dynamo, telegraph, tele¬
phone, wireless telegraphy and telephony all made within the
last century? It would be presumptuous to suppose that our
possibilities in these directions are approaching exhaustion.
That aerial navigation will eventually develop into a safe, rapid
method of transportation who can doubt, though the difficulties
and dangers connected with it appear very great at present?
In our methods of construction we are using less and less
wood and metal every year and turning to our supply of silice¬
ous materials. Where lightness and great strength are re¬
quired metal is still indispensable. But the supply of iron Is
limited and the tendency will be to seek to use other materials
in its place wherever possible. This has already begun. The
chemistry of silicates and other compounds of silicon has been
studied for a long time, and yet the uses to which compounds
of silicon have been put have not been greatly increased. Here
Kablenberg — Factors in Scientific Research. 1299
is a fertile field for study. May we not expect too that textile
fabrics; clothing, and especially paper will he prepared in part,
if not entirely, of mineral materials that are not inflammable
and subject to decay, and still possess those highly esteemed
qualities which characterize fabrics of organic origin. Im¬
provements in the preparation and conservation of foods have
also been progressing, though radical changes made in these
lines have hardly been great or startling. The methods in use
have been in the way of gradual improvements rather than
changes of revolutionary character.
But it would be wrong to dwell unduly upon the material
conquests which scientific inquiry has -brought about directly
or indirectly, and to consider merely the outlook for the future
of further work in this line. Food, drink, clothing, shelter,
and all the imaginable physical conveniences that the pursuit
of science and its applications may shower upon us, though
exceedingly important, are neither all nor even the main thing
to he achieved. The ever growing horizon of human thought,
the better understanding between man and man, and nation
and nation, follows the pursuit of the truth. About the con¬
nection between things material and psychic phenomena we are
still quite in the dark, though even here we live in hopes that
the veil may some time he lifted as the result of patient in¬
quiry.
And what are the factors that determine the progress of scien¬
tific research at present? First and foremost of all, it is neces¬
sary to get strong, able, industrious and enthusiastic young
men and women to take up this work. A large share of our
very best native talent must he diverted to carry on scientific
researches. How is this to he done? The answer is in two
ways: (1) keen interest in scientific inquiry must be aroused,
and (2) there must also he placed before the future scientist a
prospect for a comfortable living. Usually the desire to pre¬
pare for a vocation that will he certain to yield the means for
a good livelihood is uppermost in the minds of young persons
preparing themselves for life’s work, and with the rank and
file this will perhaps always he so. But for the one that rep-
1300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
resents the timber out of which real investigators are made
this will not necessarily he the case. The endowment of in¬
stitutions of scientific research will no doubt do much to foster
inquiry; hut men cannot be properly trained except through
the influence of educational institutions of proper type and
scope. In practice the work of enlisting men and women in
scientific pursuits falls almost entirely upon universities, from
which special research laboratories draw their supply of inves¬
tigators. For this reason the universities are really the prime
factor in scientific advances. A university professor by failing .
to enlist students of proper caliber to make the pursuit of
science their life work, seriously hampers the progress of scien¬
tific research. It is well known that bright students who
choose medicine, engineering, law or a practical career in busi¬
ness generally become engrossed with these pursuits and are
unavailable for scientific researches. It is also true that the
financial outlook in these lines is very alluring as compared
with that of the one who chooses a career as scientist, and so
in fact, science loses a large proportion of those that are by
nature fitted to do research work. A person preparing himself
for 'scientific work outside of the professions of medicine and
engineering still very commonly has to associate himself with
an educational institution — a university, technical school, or
college. The life of a teacher is, however, not specially at¬
tractive to many of excellent native ability, for the work is
hard and the salary is relatively small. And so the university
professor has a difficult task before him in recruiting the ranks
of future investigators. It is, moreover, a question whether
the pensioning of university professors and thus making them
quasi objects of charity will really serve to draw more promis¬
ing men into university careers.
!N]ow it must be realized that much excellent scientific in¬
quiry is going on outside of the walls of the laboratories of uni¬
versities and technical schools, but this work quite commonly
deals with problems of applied science and is not directed
toward the unearthing of new principles. This means that
it is really not calculated to open up new avenues of research.
j Kohlenberg — Factors in Scientific Research . 1301
This is the difficulty, too, with specially endowed research lab¬
oratories which are generally created to foster a certain specific
line of work. And though the attempt is generally made to
conduct such work along as broad lines as possible, the specific
reports of progress required from time to time necessitate that
the work be after all rather narrow and specific in scope. When¬
ever sums of money are granted to carry on scientific researches,
it is common to have the one who is to do the work outline
it sharply, or what is to be done is even prescribed for him.
FTow much real valuable and helpful scientific work can be done
and has been done in this way ; but this work is after all what
might be termed routine in character. The determination of
physical constants by new, or at any rate somewhat improved
methods ; the extension of this or that principle in certain direc¬
tions ; the testing of the validity or usefulness of certain modes
of procedure in specific cases; the exploration of some new ter¬
ritory, etc., are all types of work that can very successfully be
done in this way. The, deepening and widening of our knowl¬
edge along lines already somewhat familiar by means of meth¬
ods that are fairly well in hand and simply require some am¬
plification, can successfully be carried on thus. But real crea¬
tive scientific work that opens up new avenues is not done in
this way. A certain amount of leisure, a perfect freedom
from all restraint as to choice and definiteness of outline of
the problem in hand, and no thought as to just how the work
is to be done and when the results must needs be reported, are
quite essential for real creative scientific work. These condi¬
tions cannot be obtained at the present time so far as I am
aware, outside of the walls of a great university. USTo man of
positive creative genius in scientific lines can afford to hamper
his work and force it into avenues that are definitely to be laid
out beforehand, in order to secure financial aid to carry out
what he really wants to accomplish. Work that can be laid out
in advance and passed upon by a commission as to its value
and feasibility is necessarily only routine in character, valua-
able though it be. For this reason it is very likely that the
greatest fundamental scientific discoveries of the future will
be made at universities where the proper atmosphere for bring-
1302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.
ing forth creative results exists. The idea of engaging pro¬
fessors who are to do a certain limited amount of teaching and
then devote the remainder of their time to research of their
own choosing is the best way of securing real creative work.
It shows the remarkable insight of William E. Vilas when he
provided in his will for the establishment of such professor¬
ships at Wisconsin. But that he should have foreseen that
this is the best method to advance research is really not to be
wondered at, for he was himself a man of great energy, origi¬
nality and creative power. Only such a one can really com¬
prehend what is essential to conditions for productive work
that is not mediocre in character. There is, of course, great
danger of making a mistake in securing a person who is to
carry on researches of the highest order. The leisure and free¬
dom from all restraint will almost certainly be abused by some,
especially by those who are really unfit to do work of the high¬
est order. Nevertheless, to make progress the risk of securing
the proper persons for creative scientific work must be run,
just as such risks are taken in securing individuals to carry on
important lines of work in business and other vocations. In
choosing persons for positions in which work of the highest
order is to be done, it would be folly, however, to select any
but those that have already demonstrated that they are indus¬
trious and have accomplished something that shows genuine
independence of thought and creative genius.
Those whose minds are already made up, have no desire to
investigate, consequently open-mindedness is a prime quality
characterizing a successful scientific investigator. Independ¬
ence, fearlessness and self reliance, which must, however, never
reach the stage of self-conceit, are further indispensable attri¬
butes of the successful scientific man of the first order.
That teaching develops the power to think clearly and to
express one’s thought in simple language that is readily com¬
prehended, there can be no doubt. And so it is to be regarded
as an advantage rather than a hindrance to one engaged in re¬
searches to do a limited amount of teaching. Moreover, the
duty to lead, instruct and inspire the rising unsophisticated
Kohlenberg — Factors in Scientific Research. 1303
.generation, and to discuss scientific questions with them so as
to stimulate thought and originality of manner of viewing phe¬
nomena, when well done, reacts as a powerful stimulus upon
the teacher himself, renewing his youth as it were, spurring
him on to new endeavor and in fact often leading to sugges¬
tions culminating in new ways of attacking difficult problems.
Think, for example, of the laboratory of Justus Liebig, who
himself was a man of real creative power, and personally con¬
ducted many researches, was he not helped in his work by the
large numbers of enthusiastic, industrious young men that
thronged about him and afterwards carried on further the
work of their great master ? His compelling eye and energetic
manner drew students to him as if by magic spell. Truly
such a teacher is practically always acting in accord with the
immortal lines of Coleridge, which he put into the mouth of
the Ancient Mariner — “The moment that his face I see I know
the man that must hear me, to him my tale I teach.” Then
there is Michael Faraday, that great experimental genius whose
simple, direct mode of attacking and solving experimental
difficulties will ever remain as a model. Did not he seem to
long to give expression to his thoughts to others, did he not
almost yearn to teach ? Let his lectures on the life history
of the tallow candle speak for themselves. He exemplified, too,
the proper type of mind of a scientific man. To him facts
and laws were of utmost importance, while hypotheses and
theories were hut tools that lasted for a day. Preconceived no¬
tions he always regarded as an enemy to real scientific progress.
He was no worshiper of authority in scientific matters. He
calmly dared to describe his experiments and draw the conclu¬
sions to which they led, though these conflicted with those of so-
called authorities. The disdain with which the great Berzelius
dared to characterize Faraday’s work upon which he based his
well-known law of electrolysis is known to all ; yet Faraday was
undismayed, and future, years revealed he was indeed in the
right.
In America we are now entering an era of financial pros¬
perity. Our vast natural resources though by no means com-
1304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
pletely exploited, are sufficiently well developed, so tliat we
ought to take a greater part in scientific inquiries of the first
order. The lack is not that there are insufficient funds to do
this. In fact there is an abundance of money. What we want
is the men that can do this work and that love to carry it on
mainly for the sake of the good that will come from it to all,,
and for the sake of the joy there is in doing the work itself.
Scientific work of creative character will ever be characterized
by the spirit of that great discoverer of chemical facts, Carl
Wilhelm Scheele, when over a hundred years ago he said: “Es
ist ja nur die Wahrheit welche wir wissen wollen, and welche
Freude bereitet es nicht- sie erforscht zu haben.” In lines like
iron and steel, transportation, industrial operations on a gigan¬
tic scale, and operative surgery America is already taking the
lead. . Why are we so slow to take rank in scientific matters ?
The answer is that we are not yet showing the initiative and
independence of action here that we ought to. Our scientists
are still leaning too heavily upon what is said and done by our
friends across the water. There is still too much of the spirit
of hero worship and not enough of independence of thought
and action and direct recourse to carefully observed facts as
the ultimate court of appeals in matters scientific. But we
shall gradually get over this, though the process will be far
more rapid if we can but divert more of our best talent to
scientific work, instead of having it go so largly to those lines
that promise great financial returns. Endowments for research
by individuals, learned academies and other institutions will
greatly aid the work, which must be placed upon a pedestal so
as to command the highest respect of all. But teaching, learn¬
ing and research must ever go hand in hand and the one who
engages in the highest type of scientific research cannot afford
to have mercenary ideas uppermost in his mind. He must go
whither the truth would lead him, and while he ought to be
given an abundance of the world’s goods so as to make him
comfortable through life, he will ever find the pleasure of his
researches his greatest reward.
SOME PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS OF
ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
My deep interest in Mr. Lincoln came, first, of his manifes¬
tations of opposition to any further extension of slavery over
the territories of the United States — an opposition in which I
believe I shared as sincerely as any American; for, while a
student and medical professor in Cincinnati, in the early fifties
of the last century, I had ofttimes looked across the Ohio River
to the shadows on the Kentucky side, and now and then, by
sympathy, felt the smart of a driver’s lash on Freedom’s shore;
there, too, had earnest part in forming the great political party
solemnly sworn to resist extension of the damning curse of
human bondage, and thence had gone out, as one of Freedom’s
advocates on more than a hundred ‘stumps,” in Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, and Wisconsin.
Meanwhile, I had, with profound interest, so watched the
masterly discussions of Mr. Lincoln with Douglas, in northern
Illinois, and so marked him for his destiny, that, in the win¬
ter of 1858-9, being then in command of agricultural affairs in
Wisconsin, I went down to Chicago to congratulate him and,
if possible, secure him for delivery of the annual address at
the next state fair, to be held at Milwaukee in September, 1859.
We spent half the night together, in his chamber, reviewing
the past and outlining a possible, even probable future — an
evening so deeply interesting that, after fifty years, the dis¬
cussions and incidents are still almost fresh enough for recital
in detail. Even then the dark clouds of a coming conflict
hovered near enough to make one anxious; but in the minds
1306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
of botli, even civil war, with carnage widespread and fearful,
seemed not so dreadful as a further extension of human slavery
over half a continent by consent of possessors whose immediate
ancestors had themselves been freed from British oppression,
not half so terrible, at great cost of blood and treasure. There
was yet hope that the resolute champions of the curse would stay
their demands, but the prospect was sadly faint, for even then
the need of preparing for the worst was painfully felt.
I need hardly say that my conviction of the greatness of
Mr. Lincoln, already gained by a reading of his discussions of
the all-engrossing questions of the time, was yet further deep¬
ened by that night’s experience and study of the homely, ro¬
bust statesman before me, and that, with a glad heart I bore
away, at midnight, his promise to be with us, in Milwaukee,
at the appointed time.
When, at the moment of departure, he was asked to let me
know the time of his leaving Chicago, so that I could meet him
on his arrival in Milwaukee, he merely said, with his charac¬
teristic simplicity: “Oh, don’t trouble yourself on my account;
I’ll be at the ISTewhall in good time, all right.” And so he
was, some eight months later.
But it so happened that his actual arrival was at midnight,
and that the room intended to be reserved for him had, by
the blunder of a clerk, been given to a man and his wife who
were already in bed and asleep. There was no remaining va¬
cant room in the house, and the clerk, having been stoutly ar¬
raigned by the landlord, was in distress of mind ; seeing which,
Mr. Lincoln, with a smiling countenance and comforting words,
said: “Oh, my dear sir, don’t be unhappy on my account. I
see there is vacant space enough right here, at the end of the
counter. Just bring a cot and clothes-rack, with sheet for a
screen, and I’ll sleep like a top.” The thing was done, and
the distinguished guest, after a cheerful and hearty “Good¬
night, gentlemen,” handsomely retired.
Of course I Was prompt to fulfill my promise to come down
in good time to breakfast with him, but he was a little tardy,
so that when, having heard a little stir behind the screen, I
Hoyt — Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln . T30Y
ventured to tap gently on the frame, word came out at once,
“Come in ! ” Brut, on passing ’round, I found him not only
half dressed, but shaving himself, and so encumbered that,
instead of moving his chair for a greeting of his visitor, having,
recognized my voice, he turned his head squarely back and saw
me, with his lathered face inverted and considerably broadened
by a smile. Of course I was quick to retire and wait.
The breakfast disposed of, we were soon on our way to the'
Bair grounds, for Mr. Lincoln said he wanted to see what sort
of farmers, gardeners, and mechanics the Badgers made.
The address was to be at 1^1' :00, and meanwhile we made our¬
selves very busy, going the rounds of all the departments. It
soon became apparent that, notwithstanding his modest dis¬
claimer of knowing much of practical affairs besides wood¬
chopping and rail-splitting, he did know much of many things
in country life; that he was in fact capable of critical judg¬
ment of horses, cattle, sheep, and other domestic animals, as
well as of most products of the soil.
The address was listened to by many thousands, some say
thirty thousand, not a few of whom had made special efforts
and sacrifices that they might see and hear the man who, from
the depths of poverty and laborious service in wood and field,
had risen to a foremost place in the legal profession and in
statesmanship. Perhaps no address more practical, useful, and
entertaining was ever delivered on any such occasion. It dealt
with the necessary relation between education and labor, as
well as with the economy of thorough work in farming especi¬
ally, and was so enlivened by humorous hits that it was at once
highly entertaining and of enduring value. It was in fact so
admirable, and so deepened my conviction of his eminent fit¬
ness for leadership, that then and there I began to speak of
him as the man for next President of the United States— fit
for a superior service in statesmanship at any time, but pre¬
eminently fit for such a crisis as then seemed surely very near —
in due time I went to Chicago, to help nominate him, and
thereafter gave myself to platform service in many of the
Northern states, and to the end of the campaign.
1308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
How nobly, bow grandly be transcended the highest expecta¬
tions of bis most sanguine admirers is too well known for his¬
toric proof. Ho greater demand for a national guide and guar¬
dian was ever made, or more nobly and wonderfully met in
any part of the world. It is certain that, for measure of en¬
dowment and balance of powers, the supreme founder and
father of the Republic alone can be compared with Lincoln,
its preserver and the eismancipator of millions of a down-trod¬
den and most wretched race.
Intellectually, Mr. Lincoln was remarkable for the habit of
close and critical attention to whatever engaged his thought;
for such power of discrimination and comparison as made him
clear-headed ; such power of logical analysis as made him quick
to detect a flaw and expose a fallacy, on which account his
opponent in debate ofttimes found himself floundering ere he
knew he was on the wrong side, and painfully sunject to such
withering sarcasm, if he deserved it, as Mr. Lincoln knew so
well how to use;- remarkable also for such readiness to dis¬
cover the relations of things as made him far-sighted and hence
either courageous, even bold and daring, or prudent, as the
occasion might justify or demand.
On the side of the sensibilities I was happy to find, after
a further acquaintance, that I had myself underrated him.
His rugged, stalwart frame was at first suggestive of a prob¬
able sternness of spirit and manner. But, as I came nearer, I
was charmed by the delicacy, even tenderness, and all-abound¬
ing sympathy of a great and beautiful soul — qualities that made
him a lover of the beautiful in nature ; that prompted him, on
entering the great round tent at the Wisconsin State Bair, with
its magnificent display of fruits and flowers, to take off his
hat, for a salute, with a grace that won the hearts of all who
were present, saying : “How beautiful ! Eden transferred ! ;”
that made him too glad for utterance when he signed the im¬
mortal Emancipation Proclamation and saw the shackles fall
from millions of his fellow-men, and again when, after one of
the most fearful conflicts in human history, he knew the Re¬
public saved and foresaw a Union grander and more glorious
Hoyt — Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln. 1309
than had been dreamed of in all the past, a thing of destiny;
qualities, too, that made him so impressionable by others, so
sensitive in soul, that he almost never failed to judge rightly
the men with whom he had to do, and enabled him to draw
into the service of his country so great a galaxy of men of
genius, devotion, and heroic virtue.
Morally, Mr. Lincoln was nothing less than an embodiment
of virtue, truth, and justice. Those who knew him best be¬
lieved him incapable of wilful wrong. He so loved truth that
he was ever in earnest search of it, and anxious to make it
known ; and it was the cherishing of a profound love of justice,
and his exalted aims and aspirations that made him ever ready,
even glad, to do and die for his country.
As for the will, he was resolution itself — never halting or
hesitating in his course. Because he felt himself right, and
knew the right must win, there Was fixedness of purpose. He
never just hoped for a final victory; he saw it coming, and,
though deeply sad over the dreadful fate of so many martyrs,
yet, after all, whenever the future of the Republic was referred
to, his noble face was illumined. It was this high assurance
of a determined soul that made it easy for him to say to me,
one dark morning, when I had gone to the White House, with
anxious sympathy, because great armies of Confederate troops
had boldly crowded into Pennsylvania and were threatening
both Harrisburg and Philadelphia, “Hever mind, Dr. Hoyt,
you may be sure we’ll trot them out of there very soon and
make them glad to get home again.”
It was this fixedness of purpose and his unfailing confidence
that enabled him to preserve his calmness, so that he was rarely
disturbed in spirit and never really agitated. His face and
voice and daily life were ever giving expression to an unwav¬
ering trust in God.
And thus it is that we are amply justified in pronouncing
Abraham Lincoln one of the very noblest and grandest of men
in all human history.
Washington, D. C.
WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND
LETTERS.
LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS, CORRECTED TO
AUGUST 1, 1910.
OFFICERS.
President ,
Samuel Plantz, Lawrence College, Appleton.
Vice-President of Sciences ,
Sigmund Graenicher, Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Vice-President of Arts ,
John G. Gregory, Milwaukee.
Vice-President of Letters,
D. C. Munro, University of Wisonsin, Madison.
Secretary,
Arthur Beatty, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Treasurer ,
Rollin H. Denniston, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Librarian,
Walter M. Smith, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Curator,
Charles E. Brown, Madison.
Council,
The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and
Past Presidents retaining their residence in Wisconsin.
List of Members.
1311
Committee on Publication.
Samuel Plantz, Appleton, President.
Arthur Beatty, Madison, Secretary.
Bennet M. Allen, Madison.
Committee on Library.
Walter M. Smith, Madison, Librarian.
George W. Peckham, Milwaukee.
George Wagner, Madison.
B. G. Thwaites, Madison.
S. E. Culver, Stevens Point.
Committee on Membership.
Arthur Beatty, Madison, Secretary.
Henry L. Ward, Milwaukee.
Lewis A. Youtz, Appleton.
Winnifred Titus, Milwaukee.
J. B. Overton, Madison.
Past Presidents.
Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington,
B. C., 1870-75.
Hr. P. B. Hoy, M. B.,* 1876-78.
President A. L. Chapin, H. B.,* 1879-81.
Professor Boland H. Irving, Pli. B.,* 1882-84.
Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, Ph. D., Sc. B., LL. D.,
Chicago, Ill., 1885-87.
Professor William E. Allen,** 1888-89.
Professor Edward A. Birge, Ph. B., Sc. B., LL. B., Madi¬
son, d'889-90.
Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. B., Milwaukee, 1891-93.
President Charles B,. Van Hise, Ph. B., LL. B., Madison,
1894-96.
Professor C. Bwight Marsh, A. M., Ph. B., Washington,
B. C., 1897-99.
Professor Charles S. Sciilichter, M. S., Madison, 1900-1902.
Br. John J. Bavis, M. B., Bacine, 1903-1905.
Professor Louis Kai-ilenberg, Ph. B., Madison, 1906-1909.
^Deceased. ** Deceased December 9, 1890. Professor Birge elected to fill unex»
pired term.
1312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters,
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, Hyde Park, Hotel,
Chicago, Ill.
A. B. (Beloit); Pli. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan); EE. D. (Michigan, Be¬
loit, Columbian, Wisconsin); Sc. D. (Illinois). Head of Geological
Department and Director of Walker Museum, University of
Chicago, Consulting Geologist U. S. Geological Survey;
Consulting Geologist, Wisconsin Natural History
Survey; Geological Commissioner, Illinois
Geological Survey; Editor, Journal
of Geology.
Garland, Hamlin, New York, N. Y.
Vice-President, International Institute of Arts and Letters. Chairman of
Cliff-Dwellers, of Chicago.
I
Jordan, David Starr,
President of Stanford University, Stanford University, Cal.
82 Oxford Road, Ann Arbor, Mich.
M. S., Cornell University, 1872; M. D., Indiana Medical College, 1875;
Ph. D., Butler College, 1878; LL. D., Cornell University, 1886, Johns
Hopkins University, 1902, Illinois College, 1903; Instructor in Botany,
Cornell University, 1871-72; Professor of Natural History, Lombard
University, 1872^-73; Principal of Appleton (Wis.) Collegiate Insti¬
tute, 1873-74; Lecturer in Marine Botany at Penikese, 1873-74;
Teacher of Natural History, Indianapolis High School, 1874r-75;
Professor of Biology, Butler College, 1875-79; Instructor in
Botany, Harvard Summer School, Cumberland Gap, 1875-76;
Assistant to U. iS. Fish Commission, 1877-81; Professor of
Zoology, Indiana University, 1879-85; President of Indi¬
ana University, 1885-91; President of the California
Academy of Sciences, 189^-98, 1901 03, 1908; U. S. Com¬
missioner in charge of Fur Seal Investigations, 1895-
98, of Salmon Investigations, 1904; International
Commissioner of Fisheries, since 1908; President
of the American Association for the Advance¬
ment of Science, 1903-09
Trelease, William, Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.
B. S. (Cornell); S. D. (Harvard); LL. D. (Wisconsin, Missouri, Wash¬
ington University). Director of Missouri Botanical Garden; Engelmann
Professor of Botany, Henry Shaw School of Botany, Washington
University; President, Academy of Science of St. Louis; Secre¬
tary, The Round Table, St. Louis; Honorary President,
Engelmann Botanical Club, St. Louis; Chairman, City
Plan Committee, Civic League, St. Louis; Vice-
President, Board of Commissioners,
Tower Grove Park, St. Louis.
List of Members.
1313
Wheeler, W. M., Forest Hills, Boston, Mass.
Ph. D. Professor of Economic Entomology, Harvard University.
Whitman, diaries Otis, University of Chicago, Chicago, I1L
A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin); Ph. D. (Leipzig); LL. D. (Nebraska). Head
Professor of Zoology, University of Chicago; Director of Marine
Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.
LIFE MEMBERS.
Birge, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Williams); Ph. D. (Harvard); Sc. D. (Western University
of Pennsylvania); LL. D. (Williams). Professor of Zoology and
Dean of the College of Letters and Science, University of Wis¬
consin; Secretary of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wiscon¬
sin; Director and Superintendent, Wisconsin Geolog¬
ical and Natural History Survey; Member, Wis¬
consin State Board of Forestry; Wisconsin
Conservation Commission; Senator,
Phi Beta Kappa.
Davis, John Jefferson, 504 Monument Square, Racine.
B. S. (Illinois); M. D. (Hahnemann)., Physician.
Flint, Albert Stowell, 450 Charter St., Madison.
A. B. (Harvard); A. M. (Cincinnati). Astronomer, Washburn Observa¬
tory, University of Wisconsin.
Hobbs, William Herbert,
820 Oxford Road, Anna Arbor, Mich.
B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute); A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).
Professor of Geology, University of Michigan.
Hoyt, John Wesley, Washington, D. CL
A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan); M. D. (Cincinnati); LL. D. (Missouri).. Chair¬
man of the National Committee of Four Hundred to Promote the
Establishment of the University of the United States.
Marsh, Charles Dwight,
3430 Brown St., U. W., Washington, D. 0.
A. B., A. M. (Amherst); Ph. D. (Chicago). Physiologist in Bureau of
Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.
1314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
PeckhaMj George Williams, 646 Marshall St., Milwaukee.
LL. D. (Wisconsin). Librarian, Public Library.
Sharp, Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court, Madison.
A. B. (Amherst); Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Philosophy, University
of Wisconsin.
Skinner, Ernest Brown, 210 Lathrop St., Madison.
A. B. (Ohio); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Mathematics,
University of Wisconsin.
Slichter, Charles Sumner, 636 Frances St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin; Consulting Engineer.
Van Cleef, Frank Louis, 39 Fort Greene Place,
Brooklyn, Y. Y.
A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard); Ph. D. (Bonn). Chief of Sixth Division and
Translator in Office of Commissioner of Records, Kings County.
Van Hise, Charles Bichard, 772 Langdon St., Madison.
B. Met. E. , B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin); LL. D. (Chicago, Yale,
Harvard, Williams, Dartmouth). President, University of Wis¬
consin; Consulting Geologist, Wisconsin Geological Sur¬
vey; President, Board of Commissioners, Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey;
President, Wisconsin State Board
of Forestry.
ACTIVE MEMBEES.
Allen, Bennet Mills, 710 Conklin Place, Madison.
Ph. B. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Anatomy,
University of Wisconsin.
Allen, Charles Elmer, 2014 Chamberlin Ave., Madison.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Botany, University of
Wisconsin.
Allen, Florence Eliza, 219 Lathrop St., Madison.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Allen, Buth Florence, 450 Charter St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Assistant in Botany, University of Wis¬
consin.
List of Members.
1315
Arzberger, Emil Godfrey,
4233 Shenandoah St., St. Louis, Mo.
Ph. B. (Wisconsin). Research Fellowship, Missouri Botanical Garden.
Lanzhou, EL L., 120 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.
Bardeen, Charles Bussell, 25 Mendota Court, Madison.
A. B. (Harvard); M. D. (Johnsi Hopkins). Professor of Anatomy, and
Dean of the Medical School, University of Wisconsin.
Barrett, S. A., Public Museum, Milwaukee.
B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (University of California). Anthropologist; Cura¬
tor of Anthropology, Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Barth, George P., 302 21st St., Milwaukee.
Physician.
Beatty, Arthur, 1824 Jackson St., Madison.
A. B. (Toronto); Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of English,
University of Wisconsin.
Beebe, Murray Charles, 211 Langdon St., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of
Wisconsin.
Blackstone, Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin St., Berlin.
A. B., A. M., C. E. (Union).
Blair, Emma Helen, 131 W. Gorham St., Madison.
B. S. , A. M. (Ripon and Wisconsin). Joint Editor of “The Philippines,
1498-1898,” and Editor of “The Indian Tribes of thet
Upper Mississippi Valley.”
Bleyer, Willard Grosvenor, 625 Langdon St., Madison.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Journalism,
University of Wisconsin.
Bowles, James F. B., Canal Zone, Isthmus of Panama.
Chemist.
Bradley, Harold Cornelius, 701 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (California); Ph. D. (Yale). Assistant Professor of Physiological
Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.
131 6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Braun, Adolph R., 832 38th St., Milwaukee.
Graduate of National German-American Teachers’ Seminary, Milwaukee.
Teacher of Modern Languages, Milwaukee High School.
Brxnckley, William Joshua, 505 John St., Appleton.
A. B. (Salina); B. S., A. M. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Austin). Professor of
Biology, Lawrence University.
Brittingiiam, Thomas Evans,
640 ISTorth Henry St., Madison
Lumberman; Chairman, State Park Board; Vice-Chairman, Wisconsin
Conservation Committee; Chairman, Forest Hill
Cemetery Commission.
Brown, Charles E., 1609 Monroe St., Madison.
Secretary and Curator, Wisconsin Archaeological Society; Chief, State
Historical Museum.
Brown, Charles Mewton, 271 Langdon St., Madison.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer.
Brown, Eugene Anson, 152 East Johnson St., Madison.
M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician and Surgeon; Secretary of Board of Fed¬
eral Pension Examiners, Madison District.
Browne, Edward Everts, Waupaca.
B. L., LL. B. (Wisconsin). District Attorney, Waupaca County; State
Senator, 21st Senatorial District; Vice-President, Wisconsin
State Bar Association.
Brues, Charles Thomas,
Bussey Institution, Eorest Hill, Boston, Mass.
B. S., M. S. (Texas). Instructor in Economic Entomology, Harvard
University.
Brundage, Albert H.,
375 Gates Ave., Brooklyn Borough, Hew York City.
Emeritus Professor of Toxicology and Physiology, Marquette University;
Physician.
Buehler, Henry Andrew, Rolla, Mo.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Geologist; State Geologist of Missouri.
List of Members.
1317
Burgess, Charles Frederick, 1601 Adams St., Madison.
B. S., E. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Chemical Engineering, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Burnett, Earle Smead, 620 Frances St., Madison..
B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). Experimental Investigator in Engineering
Physics, University of Wisconsin.
Burrill, Alfred C., Milwaukee..
S. B. (Harvard). Public Lecturer, Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Cairns, William B., 2010 Madison St., Madison.
A. B., (Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of American Litera¬
ture, University of Wisconsin.
Chandler, Elwyn Francis, University, FT. D.
A. B., A. M. (Ripon). Professor of Mathematics, University of North
Dakota; Assistant Engineer, United States Geological Survey.
Chapin, Bobert Coit, ' 709 College St., Beloit..
A. B. (Beloit); Ph.D. (Columbia). Professor of Economics and Secretary
of the Faculty, Beloit College.
Chase, Wayland J., 1'41 Summit Ave., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Brown). Associate Professor of History, University of
Wisconsin.
Cheney, Lellen Sterling, Barron..
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). County Superintendent.
Christman, Arthur Henry, Menomonee Falls...
B. S. (Wisconsin).
Clas, Alfred Charles,
Flat 2, St. James Ct., 815 Grand Ave., Milwaukee.
Architect (Ferry & Clas), 419 Broadway, Milwaukee; Member, Board of
Park Commissioners.
Clawson, Arthur Brooks, Washington, D. C.
A. B. (Michigan). Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Coffin, Victor, 22 Mendota Court, Madison..
Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of European History, University
of Wisconsin.
1318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Comstock, Georg© Cary, Observatory Hill, Madison.
Ph. B. (Michigan); LB. B. (Wisconsin); Sc. D. (Michigan); LL. D. (Illi¬
nois; Professor of Astronomy, Director of Washburn Observa¬
tory and Director of Graduate School, University of
Wisconsin; First Vice-President Astronom¬
ical and Astrophysical Society
of America.
Cool, Charles Dean, 1818 Madison St., Madison.
Instructor in Romance Language, University of Wisconsin.
Culver, Garry Eugene, 1103 Main St., Stevens Point.
A. M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal School.
Daniells, William Willard, 515 North Carroll St., Madison.
M. S., Sc. D. (Michigan Agricultural). Professor Emeritus of Chem¬
istry, University of Wisconsin.
Dean, Alletta E., The Hamilton, Madison.
Ph. B., Ph. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, Madison High
'School.
Dearborn, Walter Eenno, 218 West Gilman St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan); Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of
Education, University of Wisconsin.
Dennis, Alfred Lewis Pinneo, 518 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.
A. B. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of European History,
University of Wisconsin.
Denniston, Bollin Henry, Science Hall, Madison.
Fh. G., B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Botany, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Dernehl, Paul Herman,
717-718 Majestic Building, Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Johns Hopkins University). Physician.
Desmond, Humphrey J., 120 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.
B. D. (Wisconsin); A. M. (Notre Dame). Lawyer; Regent, Marquette
University.
Dietrich, Otto, 730 Grand Ave., Milwaukee.
Ph. D. (Halle). Director, Milwaukee University School.
List of Members.
1319
Dodge, Robert Elkin Ijpil, 15 W. Gorham St-., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of English, University of
Wisconsin.
Dowling, Linnaeus Wayland, 2 Roby Road, Madison.
Ph. D. (Clark). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin.
Downes, Robert Hugh, 53 West Algoma St., Oshkosh.
B. L. (Wisconsin).
Dyke, Le Grand Grandis, 414 H. Henry St., Madison.
Student at University of Wisconsin.
Elliott, Edward Charles, 407 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.
B. S., A. M. (Nebraska);! Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of Education,
University of Wisconsin.
JElls worth, William H., 3302 Wells St., Milwaukee.
President, Ellsworth and Thayer Manufacturing Company.
Ely, Richard Theodore, 205 Prospect Av., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Columbia); Ph. D. (Heidelberg); LL. D. (Hobart). Pro¬
cessor of Political Economy, University of Wisconsin.
Erickson, Frank Morton, 529 Woodside Ave., Ripon.
A. B. (Wabash); A. M. (Chicago). Dean, and Professor of Greek, Ripon
College.
Erlanger, Joseph, 301 Johnson Court, Madison.
B. S. (California); M. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Physiology,
University of Wisconsin.
Ealge, Louis, Manitowoc.
B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Rush). Physician; Vice-President, Wisconsin
Archaeological Society.
Earley, John Herbert, 482 South St., Appleton.
A. M. (Lawrence). Professor of Philosophy, Lawrence College.
Ferry, George Bowman, 19 Prospect Ave., Milwaukee.
Architect (Ferry and Clas).
1320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Finger, William, 297 l'2tli St., Milwaukee.
Insurance, Loans and Real Estate Broker.
Finkler, Adolph, 612 Commerce St., Milwaukee.
Secretary, Albert Trostel and Sons Company; President, Board of Trus¬
tees, National German-American Teachers’ Seminary; Presi¬
dent, Board of Trustees, German-English Academy.
Fischer, Richard, 119 East Johnson St., Madison.
Ph. C., B. S. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Marburg). Assistant Professor of the
Theory and Practice of Pharmacy, University of Wis¬
consin; State Chemist, Wisconsin.
Fish, Carl Russell, 625 Mendota Court, Madison.
A. B. (Brown); A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Associate Professor of Ameri¬
can History, University of Wisconsin.
Fling, Harry R., 601 Jackson St., Oshkosh.
A. B. (Bowdoin). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.
Frost, William Dodge, 310 Bruen St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Minnesota); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of
Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin.
Gay, Lucy Maria, 216 Horth Pinckney St., Madison.
B. L. ( Wisconsin) . Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Giese, William Frederick, 2022 Jefferson St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Associate Professor of Romance Languages,
University of Wisconsin.
Gilbert, Edward Martinius, Superior.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, State Normal School.
Gilman, Albert G., Ripon, Wis.
Professor of Chemistry, Ripon College.
Gordon, Mrs. George, 1144 Humboldt Ave., Milwaukee.
Graenicher, Sigmund, 116 Harmon St., Milwaukee.
Ph. D. (Basel); M. (Munchen). Curator, Public Museum.
Gregory, John Goadby, 71 7 Jefferson St., Milwaukee.
Associate Editor, Evening Wisconsin.
List of Members.
1321
Griggs, Horace William, Portage, Wis.
Roundhouse Foreman, C., M. & St. P. Ry. Co.
Haase, Ewald, 621 Earwell Ave., Milwaukee.
Secretary, Milwaukee Gas Light Company.
Haberstich, Eelicie M., 411 Murray St., Madison.
Diploma, Academy of Neuchatel; A. M. (Coates).
Haertel, Martin Henry, 11'04 West Johnson St., Madison.
Ph. B. (Chicago); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in German, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Haessler, Luise,
Whittier Hall, 1230 Amsterdam Ave., Hew York, H. Y.
A. B. (Chicago). Instructor in German, Normal Colllege of the City of
New York.
Haessler, Herbert, 828 Booth St., Milwaukee.
Student, University of Wisconsin.
Hall, Edward Bennington, 747 H. Main St., Springfield, Mo.
B. S. (Drury). Assistant Professor, Geology and Mineralogy, Drury Col¬
lege, Springfield.
Hancock, Edward Lee, La Payette, Tnd.
B. S. , M. 'Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Applied Mechanics,
Purdue University.
Hardenberg, Christian Bernhardus, Philadelphia, Pa.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Harrison Fellow in Zoology, University of
Pennsylvania.
Harper, Robert Aimer, 444 Charter St., Madison.
A. B. (Oberlin); Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Botany, University of
Wisconsin.
Hartley, H. T. Jackson, Washington, D. 0.
Assistant, U. S. Biological Survey.
Harwood, Mary Corinthia, 121 Thorn St., Ripon.
B. L. , M. A. (Lawrence). Professor of French and German and Dean of
Women, Ripon College.
1322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
ILeedle, John R., 822 W. Johnson St., Madison.
Student, University of Wisconsin.
Hohlfeld, Alexander Rudolph, 104 Breese Terrace, Madison.
Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German, University of Wisconsin; Mem¬
ber of Executive Council, Modern Language Association of
America; Member of Board of Administration, Na¬
tional German- American Teachers’ Sem¬
inary, Milwaukee.
Hollister, Albert Henry, IT Langdon St., Madison.
Pharmacist.
Holmes, Samuel Jackson, 2002 Madison St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (California); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of
Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Hubbard, Frank Gaylord, 2T7 Langdon St, Madison.
A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of the English
Language, University of Wisconsin.
Hutton, Andrew J., Box 378, Waukesha.
Superintendent, Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys.
Ingebsoll, Leonard R., 810 Oakland AVe., Madison.
B. S. (Colorado College); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of
Physics, University’ of Wisconsin.
Jansky, Cyril M., 2018 Madison St, Madison.
Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Wisconsin.
Jastrow, Joseph, 222 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Pennsylvania); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of
Psychoolgy, University of Wisconsin.
Jenks, Judge Aldro, Dodgeville.
Johnson, Arden Richard, 1010 Webster Ave., Chicago, Ill.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Chemistry, De Paul University,
Chicago, Ill.
Johnson, Warren Seymour, Milwaukee Club, Milwaukee.
Mechanical Engineer.
List of Members.
1323
Jolivette, Hallie M., Madison.
Jones, Lewis K. Madison.
Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin.
Juday, Chancey, 610 Lake St., Madison.
A. M. (Indiana). Biologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey.
Kahlenberg, Louis, 234 Lathrop St., Madison.
B. S. , M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Director of the Course in
Chemistry and Professor of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.
Kimball, Mather Dean, 900 Summit Ave., Milwaukee.
A. B., A. M. (Northwestern).
Kind, John Louis, The Irving, Sterling Court, Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Nebraska); Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of
German, University of Wisconsin.
King, Franklin Hiram, 1540 University Ave., Madison.
Koelker, William F., 422 Korth Henry St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Berlin). Instructor in Organic Chemistry, University of Wis¬
consin.
Kremers, Edward, 1720 Jackson St., Madison.
Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Gottingen). Director of Course in
Pharmacy and Professor of Pharmaceutical Chemistry,
University of Wisconsin.
Krey, A. C., Madison.
Krueger, Henry, 385 27th Ave., Milwaukee.
Principal, Twelfth District School, No. 1.
Kuhn, Harry, Toledo, Ohio.
Clerk, with Franc, Heyn and Company.
Kutchin, Mrs. Harriet Lehmann, .
804 Chestnut St., Missoula, Mont..
A. B. (Ripon); A. M. (Northwestern). Engaged in zoological research.
/
1324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Laird, Arthur Gordon, 21 Mendota Court, Madison.
Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of Greek and Comparative Philol¬
ogy, University of Wisconsin.
Lannerd, Willard, 1750 Grand Ave., Racine.
B. S. (Purdue). Instructor in Science and Mathematics, Racine High
School.
Leith, Charles Kenneth, 240 Langdon St., Madison.
B. S. , Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Geology, University of Wiscon¬
sin; Non-resident Professor of Structural and Metamorphic
Geology, University of Chicago.
Leitzke, Reinhard, Hustisford.
Taxidermist.
Leonard, William Ellery, 222 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (Boston University); M. A. (Harvard); Ph. D. (Columbia). Assist¬
ant Professor of English, University of Wisconsin.
Lenher, Victor, 158 Summit Ave., Madison.
Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Professor of Chemistry, University of Wis¬
consin.
Libby, Or in Grant,
409 South Sixth St., Grand Forks, K. D.
B. L . , M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of History, University of
North Dakota; Secretary, State Historical Society of North Dakota.
Lighty, William Henry, 2006 Monroe St., Madison.
Ph. B. (Cornell). Secretary of Correspondence-Study Department, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Lloyd- Jones, Thomas R., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Principal, Fond du Lac High School.
Luening, Eugene, Madison.
Professor of Music, University of Wisconsin.
Lutman, Benjamin Franklin,
120 Colchester Ave., Burlington, Vt.
A. B. (Missouri); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Botany (pro
tern.), University of Vermont.
List of Members.
1325
Marquette, William George, 542 West Johnson St., Madison*
Ph. G. (Northwestern!) ; B. S. , Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Bot-
, any, University of Wisconsin.
Marshall, Ruth, Rockford, Ill.
B. Sc., M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Nebraska). Head, Department of
Biology, Rockford College.
Marshall, William Stanley, 139 East Gilman St, Madison.
B. S. (Swarthmore); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Associate Professor of Entomol¬
ogy, University of Wisconsin.
Martin, Lawrence, 222 W. Gilman St.. Madison.
A. B. (Cornell); A. M. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of Physiography and
Geography, University of Wisconsin; Associate Editor, Bulletin American
Geographical Society; Member, Geological Society of America,
Association of American Geographers, Wisconsin Geologi¬
cal and Natural History Purvey, United States
Geological Survey.
Mason, Max, 152 W. Gorham St., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin.
Maurer, Edward Rose, 167 Prospect Ave., Madison.
B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.
McAllister, Ered, Madison.
Me Gil vary; Evander Bradley,
1902 Arlington Place, Madison.
A. B. (Davidson); A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (California). Professor of
Philosophy, University of Wisconsin.
McKenna, Maurice, 114 Third St., Pond du Lac.
Lawyer; President, Bar Association of Fond du Lac County.
McLeod, Andrew Fridley, Chicago, Ill.
Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Chemistry, University of Chicago.
McMinn, Amelia, 172 21st St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, Milwaukee West Side High
School.
Meachem, John Goldesbrough, Jr., 745 College Ave., Racine.
M. D. (Rush). Physician.
1326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Mead, Warren J., 181,1 Jefferson St., Madison.
Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin.
Merrill, J. A., Superior.
S. B. (Harvard). Professor of Geography, State Normal School.
Merrill, Mrs. Sherburne S., 3355 Grand Ave., Milwaukee.
First Vice-President, Wisconsin Humane Society; Second Vice-President,
Woman’s Club of Wisconsin; President, Public
School Art League.
Metzdorf, William, St. Francis.
Professor of Natural Sciences, St. Francis Seminary.
Meyer, Balthasar Henry, 1937 Arlington, Place, Madison.
B. L. , Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Political Economy, University
of Wisconsin; Chairman, Railroad Commission of Wisconsin.
Miller, William Snow, University Club, Madison.
M. D. (Yale). Associate Professor of Anatomy, University of Wis¬
consin.
Mitchell, Irving H., 2921 Cedar St., Milwaukee.
Ph. B. (Michigan). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.
Monroe, C. E., 512 Van Bnren St., Milwaukee.
A. B. (Oberlin College);; LL. B. (Michigan University). Lawyer.
Morris, William Augustus Pringle, Howard Place, Madison.
A. B. (Hamilton). Lawyer.
Munro, Dana Carleton, 630 Frances St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Brown). Professor of European History, University of
Wisconsin.
Muttkowski, Bichard Antony,
914 Borth Pierce St., Milwaukee, Wis.
Assistant, Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Public Museum; Secre¬
tary, Wisconsin Natural History Survey.
Bader, John, 302 West Main St., Madison.
Architect and Civil Engineer.
List of Members.
1327
Naylor, Wilson Samuel, Appleton.
Professor, Lawrence College.
Neilson, Walter Hopper, 114 Garfield Ave., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Rush). Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of the Prin¬
ciples and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine,
Milwaukee Medical College.
Nichols, Susie Percival, Shelbyville, Kentucky.
B. S. (Cornell); Ph. D. (Wisconsin).
Olin, John Myers, 762 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Williams); LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Professor of
Law, University of Wisconsin.
Olive, Edgar William, 821 9tli Ave., Brookings, S. I).
B. S., M. S. (Wabash); A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Professor of Botany,
South Dakota Agricultural College.
O’Shea, M. Vincent, 140 Langdon St., Madison.
B. L. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Otis, Daniel Henry, 1717 Madison St., Madison.
M. S. (Kansas Agricultural). Assistant to the Dean of the College of
Agriculture and Professor of Farm Management, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Overton, James Bertram, 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.
Ph. B. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Botany,
University of Wisconsin.
Owen, Edward Thomas, 614 State St., Madison.
A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of French and Linguistics, University
of Wisconsin.
Parker, Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Gilman St., Madison.
Professor Emeritus of Music, University of Wisconsin; Vice-President,
Music Teachers’ National Association.
Parkinson, John Barber, 516 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Vice-President and Professor Emeritus of
Constitutional and International Law, University of Wisconsin.
1328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Patzer, Otto, Seattle, Wash.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of French,
University of Washington.
Pauly, Hugo Albert, 1066 19th St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee County.
Peabody, Arthur, 630 Frances St., Madison.
B. S. (Illinois). Supervising Architect, University of Wisconsin.
Peltier, George L., Grand Rapids.
Pence, William David, 168 Prospect Ave., Madison.
C. E. (Illinois). Professor of Railway Engineering, University of Wis¬
consin; Engineer, Wisconsin State Board of Assessment and
Wisconsin State Railroad Commission.
Pereles, James Madison, 529 Astor St., Milwaukee.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; President, Milwaukee Public Library; Chairman,
Wisconsin Free Library Commission; President, Citizens’ Trust Company.
Pereles, Jennie W. (Mrs. J. M.), 529 Astor St., Milwaukee.
Secretary, Milwaukee Flower Mission and Mission Kindergarten.
Pereles, 1ST ellie W. (Mrs. T. J.), 535 Astor St., Milwaukee.
Pereles, Thomas Jefferson, 535 Astor St., Milwaukee.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Vice-President, Milwaukee Law Library
and Citizens’ Trust Company.
Perisho, Ellwood Chappelle, Vermillion, S. D.
B. S., M. S. (Earlham); M. S. (Chicago). Professor of Geology, Uni¬
versity of South Dakota; State Geologist, South Dakota.
Perrow, Eber Carle, 456 W. Mifflin St., Madison, Wis.
A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Instructor in University of Wisconsin.
Phillips, James David, 1010 Grant St., Madison.
B. S. (Illinois). Professor of Drawing, University of Wisconsin.
Plantz, Samuel, 545 Union St., Appleton.
A. M. (Lawrence); Ph. D. (Boston); D. D. (Albion); LL. D. (Baker).
President, Lawrence College.
List of Members .
1329
Porter, William, 735 College Ave., Beloit.
A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor Emeritus of Latin, Beloit
College.
Post, Harriet L., 1182 Humboldt Ave., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Woman’s Medical College of New York Infirmary). Instructor in
Biology, East Side High School.
Pbetts, William Walter, Platteville.
B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Northwestern). Physician and Surgeon.
Puls, Arthur John, Wells Building, Milwaukee.
B. L. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Heidelberg). Physician; Ex-Regent, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Putney, Prank Howell, 215 Wisconsin Ave., Waukesha.
Lawyer; President, Waukesha Gas and Electric Company; Vice-Presi¬
dent, Waukesha National Bank.
Reed, George Matthew, 809 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo.
A. B. (Geneva); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of
Botany, University of Missouri.
Reed, Mary, Oconomowoc.
Rice, Ole S., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Library Clerk, Office of State Superintendent of
Public Instruction.
Ruenzel, Henry Gottlieb
2710 McKinley Boulevard, Milwaukee.
Ph. G. (Wisconsin). Pharmacist; Member, State Board of Pharmacy.
Sage, Adolphus H., 130 Elm St,, Oshkosh.
B. S. (Cornell). Teacher of Physics, State Normal School.
Salmon, Edward Pay son, 618 Church St., Beloit.
A. M. (Beloit). Congregational Minister; Second Vice-President, Board
of Trustees, Beloit College.
Sammis, J. L., Madison.
Assistant Professor of Dairying, University of Wisconsin.
1330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Safborf, John Bell, Wisconsin Building, Madison.
B. I M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Treasurer, Wisconsin State
Bar Association; Lecturer, University of Wisconsin Law School;
Member, Wisconsin Council, American Bar Asssociation.
Safford, Albert Hart, JO 5 2 Clark St., Stevens Point.
B. L. (Wisconsin); A. B. (Harvard). Instructor in History and Civics,
State Formal School.
Schiffer, Augustin F., 628 Bay St., Superior.
D. D. Bishop.
Schlufdt, Herman, Columbia, Mo.
B. S., M. S., Ph. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Physical Chemistry,
University of Missouri.
Scott, Jonathan F., Brunswick, Me.
Scott, Winfield G., 1109 Park Ave., Bacine.
Director, Private Testing Laboratory.
Secrist, Horace, 318 Lake St., Madison.
M. A. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Political Economy, University of Wis¬
consin.
Seifert, Paul A., Gotham.
Ac. De. (Academy of Forestry, Tharandt, Saxony). Taxidermist.
Severif, Henry Herman Paul, 941 Grove St., Milwaukee.
B. A., M. A., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Fellow in Zoology, University of
Wisconsin.
Sheldof, Hina Mary, 421 Watson St., Bipon.
A. B. (Ripon). Fellow in English, Ripon College.
Shephard, William Henry,
1512 Dupont Ave., H., Minneapolis, Minn.
Ph. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in History, Forth High School.
Shermaf, Helen, 176 Mason St., Milwaukee.
B. S., A. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Botany, Milwaukee-Downer
College.
List of Members.
1331
Sherman, Lewis, 176 Mason St., Milwaukee.
B. S., A. M. (Union); M. D. (New York). Physician and Pharmacist.
Sieker, William Christian, 164 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Treasurer, Manthey-Sieker Company.
Slaughter, Moses Stephen, 633 Frances St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin,.
University of Wisconsin.
Smith, Erastus Gilbert, 649 Harrison Ave., Beloit.
A. B., A. M. (Amherst); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Chem¬
istry, Beloit College.
Smith, Hugh Allison, 1804 Madison St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Missouri). Professor of Romance Lnguages, University
of Wisconsin.
Smith, Walter McMynn, 112 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Librarian, University of Wisconsin.
Smythe., Sidney T., Delafield.
A. B., A. M. (St. Stephen’s); B. D. (Nashotah); D. D., Ph. D. (Hobart).
President, St. John’s Military Academy; Member, Commit¬
tee on Canons, Protestant Episcopal Church.
Snow, Benjamin Warner, J'35 West Gilman St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin.
Squier, George Hull, Trempealeau.
Dairyman.
Starr, William J., 135 Marston Ave., Eau Claire.
LL. B. (Columbia). Member, Board of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wis¬
consin; President, Eau Claire Public Library.
Steidtmann, E., Madison.
Stickney, M. E., • Granville, 0.
Denison University.
Stoddart, Charles William, 1602 Jefferson St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Columbia); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of
Soils, University of Wisconsin.
1332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Stout, Arlow Burdette, 924 Clymer Place, Madison.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.
Talbert, George A., Bipon.
B. S. , M. S. (Ohio Wesleyan). Instructor in Biology, Ripon College.
Teller, Edgar Eugene, .3321 Sycamore St., Milwaukee.
Thomas, Carl C., 633 1ST. Frances St., Madison.
Professor of Steam Engineering, University of Wisconsin.
Thorkelson, Halsten Joseph Berford,
1526 W. Washington Ave., Madison.
B. S. , M. E. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of Steam Engineering,
University of Wisconsin.
Th waites, Beuhen Gold, 11 East Gilman St., Madison.
LL. D. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Superintendent, State Historical
Society of Wisconsin; Vice-Chairman, Wisconsin Free Library
Commission; Secretary and Editor, Wisconsin History
Commission; Member, American Library
Institute; Councillor, American
Library Association.
Titus, Winifred, Milwaukee.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Chemistry, Milwaukee-Downer
College.
Toole, William Alexander, Pansy Heights, Baraboo, Wis.
Pansy Specialist.
Townsend^ De Wayne, Oconomowoc.
Turneaure, Frederick Eugene, 166 Prospect Ave., Madison.
C. E. (Cornell). Professor of Engineering and Dean of the College of
Engineering, University of Wisconsin.
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 629 Frances St., Madison
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins); LL. D. (Illinois);
Litt. D. (Harvard). Professor of American Historv, Harvard
University; President, American Historical Association;
Member, Massachusetts Historical Association;
American Antiquarian Society; Colonial Society
of Massachusetts; Wisconsin Historical
Society; Mississippi Valley His¬
torical Society, etc.
List of Members.
1333
Tyler, Abram Ray, 920 College Ave., Beloit.
A. G. O. (American Guild of Organists). Professor of Music and Col¬
lege Organist, Beloit College.
Uihlein, August, 332 Galena St., Milwaukee.
President, Second Ward Savings Bank; Secretary, Joseph Schlitz Brew¬
ing Company.
Updike, Eugene Grover, 148 Langdon St., Madison.
B. S., M. S., D. D. (Lawrence). Pastor, First Congregational Church,
Madison.
Van Vleck, Edward Burr,
519 Forth Pinckney St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan); Ph. D. (Gottingen); LL. D. (Clark). Pro¬
fessor of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin ; Editor, Trans¬
actions of the American Mathematical Society.
Viebahn, Charles Frederick, 703 Western Ave., Watertown.
Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School.
Vogel, Guido Charles, 583 Cass St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin).
Vorhies, Charles Taylor, 818 West Johnson St., Madison.
B. S. (Iowa Wesleyan). Assistant in Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Voss, Ernst Karl Johann Heinrich,
2,18 W. Gilman St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German Philology, University of Wiscon¬
sin; Vice-President, Germanic Museum Association.
Wadmond, Samuel C., Delavan.
Vice-President, Jackson and Jackson Company, Delavan; Secretary of
Board, Aram Public Library, Delavan.
Wagner, George, 1901 Jefferson St., Madison.
Ph. C. (Michigan); A. B. (Kansas); A. M. (Michigan). Assistant Pro¬
fessor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin; Ichthyologist, State
Geological and Natural History Survey.
Ward, Henry Levi, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Director, Milwaukee Public Museum; Vice-President, Wisconsin Natural
History Society.
1334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Watt, Homer A., Madison, Wis.
A. B. (Cornell U.); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in English,
University of Wisconsin.
Wheeler, Leverett C., Wauwatosa, Wis.
Lawyer. Patent Work.
Weidman, Samuel, 410 Horth Henry St., Madison.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Nat¬
ural History Survey.
West, George A., 97 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee.
Lawyer; President, Board of Trustees, Milwaukee Public Museum.
Whitbeck, Hay H., Madison.
Assistant Professor of Physiography and Geography, University of Wis¬
consin.
Whitcomb, Annabell Cook (Mrs. Henry F.),
721 Franklin St., Milwaukee.
President, Board of Directors, Boys’ Busy Life Club.
Whitson, Andrew Robinson Route 7, Madison.
B. S. (Chicago. Professor of Soils and Drainage, University of Wiscon¬
sin; Field Agent, United States Department of Agriculture.
. Winchell, Alexander FT., Madison.
Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin.
Winslow, John Bradley, ,131 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Racine); LL. B., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Justice, Supreme
Court of Wisconsin; President, Board of Visitors, University
of Wisconsin; Trustee, Racine College.
Wolff, Henry Charles, 1035 University Ave., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instrucor in Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin.
Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, 408 FT. Charter St., Madison.
B. S-., Ph. B. (Christiania); M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of
Agricultural Chemistry and Chemist to the Agricultural Ex¬
periment Station, University of Wisconsin.
List of Members.
1335
Weight, Clement Blake Bergin, 284 Martin St., Milwaukee.
A. B., A. M. (Toronto); B. D. (Nashotah); Ph. D. (Kansas City);
Clergyman; Canon, Milwaukee Cathedral; Secretary, Diocese of
Milwaukee; Librarian, Diocesan Library; Examining Chap¬
lain; Editor, Church Times.
Young, Karl, Madison.
Associate Professor of English, University of Wisconsin.
Youtz, Lewis Addison, Appleton.
Ph. B., M. S. (Simpson); Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of Chemistry,
Lawrence College.
Zimmerman, Oliver Brunner,
201 Kelley St., Charles City, la.
B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). Mechanical Engineer, with Hart-Parr Com¬
pany; Honorary Vice-President. Wisconsin Audubon Society.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Abbott, Charles Conrad, Trenton, H. J.
M. D. (Pennsylvania).
Abmsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.
B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic); Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale); LL. D. (Wiscon¬
sin). Director of Institute of Animal Nutrition; Expert in Animal
Nutrition, United 'States Department of Agriculture.
Bascom, John, Park St., Williamstown, Mass.
A. B., A. M. (Williams); D. D. (Iowa); LL. D. (Amherst, Williams,
Wisconsin). Greylock Commissioner.
Bennett, Charles Edwin, 1 Grove Place, Ithaca, N". Y.
A. B., Litt. D. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Literature,
Cornell University.
Bridge, Herman, Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, Cal.
A. M. (Lake Forest); M. D. (Northwestern, Bush). Emeritus Professor
of Medicine, Rush Medical College. Physician.
Buckley, Ernest Robertson, Rolla, Mo.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Mining Geologist; President, American Min¬
ing Congress.
1336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Caverno, Charles, Lombard, Ill.
A. B. , A. M. (Dartmouth). Professor Emeritus, Ripon College.
Chandler, Charles Henry, Hew Ipswich, H. H.
A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); LL. D. (Colorado). Clergyman, retired.
Coulter, John Merle, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover); Ph. D. (Indiana). Professor of Bot¬
any and Head of Department, University of Chicago.
Crooker, Joseph Henry,
820 South Sr., Hoslindale, Boston, Mass.
D. D. (St. Lawrence, Nashville). Minister, Unitarian Church.
Davis, Floyd,
317 Iowa Loan and Trust Building, Des Moines, Iowa.
Ph. B., C. E., E. M. (Missouri); Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and Con¬
sulting Chemist.
Eaton, Edward Dwight, Beloit.
A. B., A. M. (Beloit); B. D. (Yale); LL. D. (Wisconsin); D. D. (North¬
western, Yale). President, Beloit College.
Eckels, William Alexander, Easton, Pa.
A. B., A. M. (Dickinson); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Associate Professor
of Greek, Lafayette College.
Fallows, Samuel, 2344 Monroe St., Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin); D. D. (Lawrence, Marietta). Pre¬
siding Bishop, Reformed Episcopal Church; President, Board
of Managers, Illinois State Reformatory.
Hendrickson, George Lincoln,
68 Trumbull St., Hew Haven, Conn.
A. B. (Johns Hopkins); L. H. D. (Western Reserve). Professor of
Latin, Yale University.
Hodge, Clifton Fremont, 3 Charlotte St., Wor Chester, Mass.
A. B. (Ripon); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Physiology and
Neurology, and Professor of Biology in the Collegiate
Department, Clark University.
List of Members.
1337
Holden, Edward Singleton,
United States Military Acadamy, West Point, U. Y.
B. S., A. M. (Washing-ton); Sc. D. (Pacific); LL. D. (Wisconsin, Colum¬
bia). Astronomer; Librarian, United States Military-
Academy, West Point.
Hoskins, Leander Miller, 365 Lincoln Ave., Palo Alto, Cal.
M. S., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Leland
Stanford Jr. University.
Iddings, Joseph Paxon, 5730 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.
Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago; Geologist,
United States Geological Survey.
Kinley, David, Urbana, Ill.
A. B. (Yale); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the Graduate School and
Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.
Leverett, Prank, 312 H. Thayer St., Ann Arbor, Mich.
B. Sc. (Iowa Agricultural). Geologist, United States Geological Survey;
Lecturer in Geology, University of Michigan.
Lurton, Freeman Ellsworth, Fergus Falls, Minn.
B. S., M. S. (Carleton); A. M. (Upper Iowa); Ph. D. (Gale). Superin¬
tendent of Public Schools; Member, Board of Directors,
Fergus Falls Public Library.
Luther, George Elmer,
262 South College Ave., Grand Eapids, Mich.
Cashier, People’s Savings Bank; Treasurer, Historical Society of Grand
Rapids.
Marx, Charles David, Palo Alto, Cal.
B. C. E. (Cornell); C. E; (Karlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering,
Leland Stanford Jr. University.
McClumpha, Charles Flint,
56 Church St., Amsterdam, H. Y.
A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Treasurer, McClumpho
Company; Member, Fort Johnson Club; Treasurer, Amsterdam
Free Library; Historian, Montgomery County Historical
Society; Member, New York State Historical Society.
Moorehouse, George Wilton,
2069 East 96th St., Cleveland, 0.
B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Harvard). Physician to the Dispen¬
sary of Lakeside Hospital and Western Reserve University.
1338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences f Arts , and Letters.
Hehrling, Henry, Palm Cottage Experiment Garden,
Gotha, Orange County, Ela.
Peet, Stephen Denison, 438 57th St., Chicago, Ill.
A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian and
Oriental Journal.
Potter, William Bl'eecker, 1225 Spruce St., St. Louis, Mo.
A. B., A. M., M. E., Sc. D. (Columbia). Mining Engineer and Metal¬
lurgist.
Power, Frederick Belding, 535 Warren St., Hudson, H. Y.
Ph. G. (Philadelphia College of Pharmacy); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Di¬
rector of Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories, London,
England.
Salisbury, Rollin D., 5730 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.
A. M., LL. D. (Beloit). Professor of Geographic Geology, Head of the
Department of Geography and Dean of the Graduate School of
Science, University of Chicago; Geologist, United States
Geological Survey and State Geological Survey of
New Jersey.
Sawyer, Wesley Caleb, 725 Asbury St,, San Jose, Cal.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of
French and German and Lecturer on Teutonic Mythology,
University of the Pacific.
Stone, Ormond, University Station, Charlottesville, Va.
A. M. (Chicago). Director of the Leander McCormick Observatory and
Professor of Practical Astronomy, University of Virginia.
Tolman, Albert Harris, 5750 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.
A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Associate Professor of English
Literature, University of Chicago.
Tolman, Herbert Cushing, Hashville, Tenn.
A. B., Ph. D. (Yale); D. D. (Nashville). Professor of Greek, Vanderbilt
University; Canon, All Saints’ Cathedral.
Townley, Sidney Dean, Ukiah, Cal.
B. S, , M. S (Wisconsin); Sc. D. (Michigan). Astronomer in Charge of
International Latitude Observatory; Lecturer in Astronomy, Univer¬
sity of California; Editor of Publications, Astronomical
Society of the Pacific.
List of Members.
1339
Van dei Warner, Ely, 404 Fayette Park, Syracuse, FT. Y.
M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon, Central New York Hos¬
pital for Women; Consulting Physician, St. Ann’s Maternity Hos¬
pital; Senior Surgeon, Women’s and Children’s Hospital;
Commissioner of Education, Syracuse.
.
Verrill, Addison Emery,
86 Whalley Aye., New Haven, Conn.
B. S. (Harvard); A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale University;
Curator of Zoology, Yale University Museum; President,
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Winchele, [Newton Horace,
501 East Kiver Hoad, Minneapolis, Minn.
A. M. (Michigan). Geologist and Archaeologist.
Young, Albert Adams,
531 South Claremont Ave., Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); B. D. (Andover). Clergyman.
MEMBERS DECEASED.
Information of whose decease has been received since the issue
of Volume XVI.
Agassiz, Alexander,
March 27, 1910, at Sea.
A. B., S. B., LL. D. (Harvard). Director of the Museum of Compara¬
tive Zoology Emeritus, and Director of the University Museum,
Harvard University.
Baetz, Henry,
,1910, at Milwaukee.
Ex-Treasurer, State of Wisconsin. Retired.
Barnes, Charles Reid, February 24, 1910, at Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover). Professor of Plant Physiology, Univer¬
sity of Chicago.
Blake, William Phipps, 1910, at New Haven, Conn.
A. M. (Dartmouth); Ph. B. (Yale). Professor Emeritus of Geology and Mining,
University of Arizona; Director, Arizona School of Mines;
State Geologist, Arizona.
Bones, Katherine Herkimer, September 17, 1907, at Racine.
Ph. B. (Chicago). Teacher of English and Sciences, Genoa Junction
High School.
1340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Burke, John F., December 24, 1907, at Milwaukee.
Gilman, Daniel Coit, Baltimore, Md.
A. B., A. M. (Yale); LL. D. (Yale, Harvard, William and Mary, Prince¬
ton, St. John’s, Columbia, North Carolina, Toronto, Wisconsin,
Clark). President Emeritus, Johns Hopkins University.
Harris, William Torrey,
November 15, 1909, at Providence, B. I.
A. M. (Yale); Ph. D. (Brown, Jena); LL. D. (Missouri, Yale, Prince¬
ton, Pennsylvania). Officer de l’lnstruction Publique, France;
Editor, Journal of Speculative Philosophy; Editor-in-
Chief, Webster’s International Dictionary of
the English Language
HiGLEir, William Kerr, 1908 at Chicago, Ill.
Ph. M. (Michigan). Secretary, Chicago Academy of Sciences; Editor,
Birds and Nature.
Holland, Frederic May, May 17, 1908, at Concord, Mass.
A. B. (Harvard). Retired Clergyman.
Nicholson, Dexter Putnam, April 28, 1908, at Appleton.
B. S., M. S. (Lawrence). Professor of Geology, Lawrence University.
Bogers, Augustus J., November 2, 1907, at Milwaukee.
Ph. B. (Cornell). Principal, South Division High School.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY, RULES, REGU¬
LATIONS, ETC.
THIRTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING
(Held in conjunction with the Wisconsin Archeological So¬
ciety, the Wisconsin Mycological Society, the Wisconsin Nat¬
ural History Society, and the Wisconsin Section of the
American Chemical Society.)
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, February, 13-14, 1908.
The Academy met in the lecture room of the Public Museum.
The following program was carried out:
Thursday, February 13.
9 :00 A. M.
Business session of the Academy.
9 :30 A. M.
Joint meeting of the Academy and the Natural History
Society.
1. “The early development of the wings of the caddis-ily.”
William S. Marshall.
2. “A note on the dog like mammals of Wisconsin.” George
Wagner.
3. “On Entomostraca from the southern states.” E. A. Birge.
4. “Regeneration in Thy one briar eus.” (By title.) Ellen
Torelle.
5. “Some recent codes of nomenclature.” Howland Russel.
6. “Observations on the habits of Wisconsin Crabronidae.”
George P. Barth.
1342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
7. “ A revision of the North American spiders of the family
Attidae.” (By title.) G. W. and E. G. Peckham.
8. “A rapid melanistic and subsequent partial albinistic
change in a caged robin.” Hemry L. Ward.
9. “On the interpretation of certain tropisms of insects.”
Charles T. Brues.
10. “Modern exhibitional tendencies of museums of natural
history and ethnography designed for public use.” Henry L.
Ward.
11. “The scientific development of taxidermy and its effect
upon museums.” George Shrosbree.
12. “The North American species of Cyclops (By title. )
C. Dwight Marsh.
13. “An operculated gastropod from the Niagara formation
of Wisconsin.” E. E. Teller.
14. “A graphic comparison of the alteration of rocks by
weathering with their alteration by hot solutions.” Edward
Steidtmann.
15. ’’Physiography of Northern Wisconsin.” (Illustrated
by lantern slides.) S. Weidman.
2:00 P. M.
Joint meeting of the Academy and the Wisconsin Section
of the American Chemical Society.
16. “Purity and volatility of antimony produced by pre¬
cipitation.” L. A. Youtz.
17. “The gravimetric determination of tellurium.” V. Len-
her.
18. “Some modified forms of simple apparatus.” L. A.
Youtz.
,19. “On glycyl derivatives of aromatic amido acids.” W.
F. KoeTker and C. C. Le Febvre.
20. “An experimental study of the dissolution of metals in
acids.” Arden B. Johnson.
21. “Chemical constitution as a factor in solubility.” L.
Kahlenherg.
Proceedings of the Academy . 1343
22. “On the validity of Faraday’s law at low temperatures.”
W. G. Wilcox .
23. “On the interaction of dry ammonia and hydrochloric,
acid gases in presence of benzine vapors.” David Klein.
24. “On the solubility of methane in various solvents.” A _
S. McDaniel.
25. “Hypermetamorphosis among Hymenoptera.” S. Grae-
nicher.
8 :00 P. M.
Joint meeting of all the societies.
26. “The archeological wealth of Wisconsin.” (Illustrated
by lantern slides.) A. B. Stout.
27. “What place should the science of biology occupy in
public education?” Ellen 'Torelle.
28. “Some phases of the pure food question.” Richard Fis¬
cher.
Friday, February 14.
9:00 A. M.
Business session of the Academy.
9:30 A. M.
Joint meeting of the Academy, the Mycological Society and
the Natural History Society.
29. “Nuclear division in the vegetative cells of Gentiana de -
tonsa .” R. H. Denniston.
30. “The hlepharoplast in the development of the anthero-
zoid in ferns.” Ruth F. Allen.
31. “Variations in macrospore formation in Smilacina stel-
letaP Fred McAllister.
32. “Nuclear division and spore formation in GeoglossumP
Hallie D. M. J olivette.
33. “Nuclear structure and nuclear division in Chrysomyxa
ledi.” R. A. Harper.
34. “The development of the male cells of a moss.” C. E ,
Allen.
1344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
35. “The vegetation of Twin Island.” (By title.) Ruth
Marshall.
36. “The flora of Bacine and Kenosha counties.” (By title.)
S. C. Wadmond.
37. “A list of the popular names of the plant families repre¬
sented in Northeastern America, with their Latin equivalents
in alphabetical form.” (By title.) Herbert Clowes.
38. “The mechanics of the tornado.” George W. Colles.
39. “Squalls and high winds on the Madison lakes.” James
L. Bartlett.
40. “Some effects of sleet storms in the Ozarks.” (Illus¬
trated by lantern slides.) E. R. Buckley.
f 2:00 P.M.
Joint meeting of the Academy and the Archeological Society.
41. “Local historical and archeological museums.” Reuben
€r. 'Thwaites.
42. “The Calumet.” George A. West.
43. “Bude stone implements from the Congo Free State.”
Frederick Starr.
44. “Judgments used by the aborigines in selecting materials
for their utensils and weapons.” George L. Collie.
45. “Archeological work in Wyoming.” Harlan I. Smith.
46. “The trade beads of Wisconsin.” Publius V. Lawson.
47. “The tabular mounds of Wisconsin, their purpose and
authorship.” George LI. Squier.
48. “Mounds in the vicinity of McFarland, Dane County.”
W. G. McLachlan.
49. “The occurrence of perforated pottery-disks in Wiscon¬
sin.” Charles E. Brown.
50. “Pebble netweights.” George A. West.
51. “A comparison between animal figures in the effigy
mounds of Wisconsin and animal figures in the early architec¬
ture of various nations.” Stephen D. Peet.
52. “A Mandan village site.” Herbert C. Fish.
53. “Banner, or ceremonial stones.” C. H. Robinson.
Proceedings of the Academy.
1345
54. “The progress of archeological science in Wisconsin.”
Warren A. Moorhead.
55. “A treatise of the year 1528 by Johannes Landtsperger.”
(By title.) E. K. J. H. Voss.
7 :00 P. M.
Dinner for members of all the societies and their friends,
at the Plankinton House.
Items of business were transacted as follows:
Thursday, February 13.
Morning Session.
The meeting was called to order by President L. Kahlenberg,
who announced that in view of the small attendance and the
small amount of business to he transacted, the business meeting
would he postponed until Friday afternoon.
Mr. H. L. Ward, vice-president of the Wisconsin Natural
History Society, was called to the chair.
The program for the session was then carried out as printed,
except that papers numbered 3 and 5 were read by title. Paper
number 13 was read by the secretary in the absence of the
author.
Afternoon Session.
The meeting was called to order by President Kahlenberg.
The program as printed was carried out, except that paper
number 25 was read by title. Paper number 17 was read by
Mr. Walton, paper number 20 by Mr. Bradley, paper number
23 by Mr. Kahlenberg, and paper number 24 by Mr. Walton.
Evening Session.
. .The meeting was called to order by President Kahlenberg.
Papers numbered 26 and 27 were presented, the latter being
freely discussed. Paper number 28 was omitted because of the
absence of the author.
1346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Friday, February 14.
The meeting was called to order by President Kahlenberg.
The treasurer’s report was presented by Mr. Denniston. The
chair appointed, as an auditing committee, Messrs. Stout and
Peckham.
The secretary’s report was read. Upon motion of Mr. Peck-
ham, it was accepted and placed on file.
The report of the exchange committee was read by Mr. Wag¬
ner, accepted and placed on file.
Upon motion of Mr. Davis, the exchange committee was au¬
thorized to continue its worn for another year.
The report of the committee on membership was read by the
secretary. Upon motion the following-named persons, recom¬
mended by the committee, were unanimously elected to active
membership, the secretary being instructed to cast the ballot of
the Academy therefor.
Henry L. Banzhaf, Milwaukee.
Holland C. Cooke, Milwaukee.
Hiram Delos Densmore, Beloit.
Walter O. Gloyer, Madison.
Aldro Jenks, Dodgeville.
Hallie D. M. Jolivette, Madison.
Frederick William Mackenzie, Madison.
Lawrence Martin, Madison.
Fred McAllister, Beloit.
John Langley Sammis, Madison.
Edward Steidtmann, Madison.
Malcolm Enos Stickney, Granville, Ohio.
Alexander Fewton Winchell, Madison.
Upon motion of Mr. Wagner, it was voted that the commit¬
tee on exchanges be authorized to arrange with the University
Library for the deposit in the University Library of such Acad¬
emy books as may seem desirable, it being understood that the
ownership of such books shall remain with the Academy.
The chair appointed Messrs. Marshall and Davis as a com¬
mittee on resolutions.
Proceedings of the Academy.
1347
Bennet M. Allen was nominated to fill the vacancy in the
office of secretary. Upon motion of Mr. Davis, the secretary
was authorized to cast the ballot of the Academy for Mr. Allen.
This concluding the business of the morning, the session ad¬
journed, and the joint session for the reading of papers was
called to order by Dr. Lewis Sherman, President of the Wis¬
consin Mycological Society.
The program as printed was carried out, excepting that pa¬
pers numbered 30, 32, 33 and 39 were read by title.
Afternoon Session.
The meeting was called to order by Mr. Ellsworth, president
of the Wisconsin Archeological Society.
The program as printed was carried out, excepting that pa¬
pers numbered 47, 48 and 51 were read by title. Paper num¬
ber 43 was read by Mr. Brown, number 45 by Mr. Knox, num¬
ber 46 by Mr. Brown, number 52 by Mr. Stout, and number 53
by Mr. Wenz.
A special business session of the Academy was called to
order at 4 :30 by President Kahlenberg.
The report of the auditing committee, showing that the treas¬
urer’s report had been found correct, was presented by Mr.
Stout. Upon motion, the report was adopted and placed on
file.
The report of the committee on resolutions was presented by
Mr. Davis. Upon motion, the following resolutions, presented
by the committee, were unanimously adopted :
Resolved: —
“1, That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Let¬
ters expresses its appreciation of the co-operation of the Wis¬
consin Archeological Society, the Wisconsin Mycological So¬
ciety, the Wisconsin Natural History Society and the Wiscon¬
sin Section of the American Chemical Society in bringing about
and carrying through the first combined meeting of the Scien¬
tific Societies of the state and thus placing Wisconsin in line
with recent tendencies in scientific organization ;
“2 — , The Academy tenders its thanks to the citizens of Mil-
1348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
waukee for the interest they have shown in this meeting and to
the objects for which these Associations stand;
“3 — , To the Milwaukee Public Museum and Library for
kindly courtesies and the excellent facilities furnished for these
meetings.
“Dr. C. E. Allen being obliged to tender his resignation as
Secretary, the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Let¬
ters wishes to express its deep appreciation of the very efficient
and extremely valuable service he has rendered during his term
of office and to express its profound regret that these official
relations are now to be terminated.”
The meeting then adjourned.
THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL MEETING
In conjunction with the Wisconsin Section of the American
Chemical Society, Madison, Wisconsin, February 11-12, T909.
February 11th.
Morning Session.
The meeting was called to order at 9 a. m. by President Kah-
lenberg. After the reading of general announcements for the
meetings, the remainder of the morning session was turned over
to the Wisconsin Section of the American Chemical Society, the
following papers being read:
1. The replacement of metals by one another in non-aqueous
solutions. 10 minutes. CJias. B. Gates.
2. The physical constants of ethyl tri-borate. 10 minutes.
Robert K. Brewer.
3. Analysis of some Wisconsin zircons. 5 minutes. By
title. R. D. Hall.
4. The liberation of hydrochloric acid from sodium chloride
by weak dibasic acids. 10 minutes. R. B. Dunlevy.
5. Osmotic experiments with collodion membranes. 10 min¬
utes. J. Howard Mathews.
Proceedings of the Academy. 1349
6. The constitution of Purple of Cassius. 5 minutes. Vic¬
tor Lehher.
7. The stearate separation of the rare earths. 10 minutes.
C. W. Stoddart.
8. Equilibra in the systems — silver bromide — pyridine and
silver iodide — pyridine. 10 minutes. Louis Kohlenberg.
9. On an improved method of determining vapor pressures of
water and of aqueous solutions. 10 minutes. Francis C.
Krauskopf.
TO. The metallic tellurites. 10 minutes. Edw. Wolesensky.
11. Crowing animals on a ration containing phosphorus, only
in the inorganic form. 10 minutes. E. V. McCollum.
12. An unexpected case of “Pingspaltung.” 5 minutes. Ed¬
ward Kremers.
13. An improvement in the method for making nitrosochlori-
des. 10 minutes. Edward Kremers.
February 11th.
Afternoon Session.
The first part of this meeting was given over to the trans¬
action of business, the first action taken being the appointment
by the president of a nominating committee. It was consti¬
tuted as follows :
E. B. Skinner, Chairman; E. A. Birge, C. B. Van Hise,
J. J. Davis, E. B. Hutchins, C. E. Allen, Geo. Peckham.
The following nominations for honorary membership were
made:
W. M. Wheeler, William Trelease, Hamlin Garland, D. S.
J ordan.
Upon recommendation of the Executive Committee it was
voted to increase the pay of the Secretary from $75.00 to
$100.00.
The following papers were presented:
Afternoon Session , 2:30 o'clock.
Business session of the Academy.
Beading of papers.
1350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
14. The radioactivity of some spring waters at Madison,
Wis. 5 minutes. Herman Schlundt.
15. An apparatus for density determinations. 10 minutes.
W. J. Mead.
1'6. The effect of temperature on the magnetic properties of
electrolytic iron. 10 minutes. E. M. Terry.
17. Magnetic rotation in iron cathode films. 10 minutes.
L. R. Ingersoll.
18-19. The evidence for temperature seiches. A hitherto un¬
considered factor in lake temperatures. 20 minutes. E. A.
Birge.
20. The bird stones of Wisconsin. 10 minutes. Chas. E.
Brown.
21. The Roddy six-nation wampum belts. ■ 5 minutes. Chas.
E. Brown.
22. The Mandan village sites of the upper Missouri. 10
minutes. Arlow B. Stout.
23. The origin of the sex-cells of Amia and Lepidostens. 10
minutes. Bennet M. Allen.
February 11th.
Morning Session.
The meeting was opened by the reading of the report of
the secretary, after which the report of the treasurer was read.
Dr. J. J. Davis and Mr. H. L. Ward were appointed as an
auditing committee and subsequently reported that they had
examined the accounts of the treasurer and found them correct.
Mr. Wagner next, made a report for the library committee
and submitted the list of exchanges. It was announced by Mr.
Wagner that steps had been taken toward combining the Acad¬
emy Library with the University of Wisconsin Library. Upon
motion of Mr. Wagner the society authorized the Librarian to
dispose of duplicate sets of hooks by sale or otherwise.
The dominating Committee reported the following nomina¬
tions for office during the ensuing term :
President — Samuel Plantz.
Proceedings of the Academy.
1351
Vice-President of Sciences — S. Graenicher.
Vice-President of Arts — John G. Gregory.
Vice-President of Letters — Dana C. Munro.
Secretary — Arthur Beatty.
Treasurer — P. PI. Denniston.
Librarian — W. M. Smith.
Curator — C. E. Brown.
Committee on Publication : Samuel Plantz, Arthur Beatty,
Bennet M. Allen.
Committee on Library: W. M. Smith, Geo. W. Peckham,
Geo. Wagner, P. G. Thwaites, G. E. Culver.
Committee on Membership : Arthur Beatty, Henry L. Ward,
L. A. Youtz, Winifred Titus, J. B. Overton. The society
adopted the above nominations of the dominating Committee,
and instructed the Secretary to cast the ballot of the society
in their favor.
It was moved and carried that the Exchange Committee be
reappointed as previously constituted.
Mr. C. E. Brown made a statement regarding the purchase
of the Baraboo “man” mound. He also moved that a commit¬
tee be chosen by the Academy to assist a similar one of the
Wisconsin Archeological Society in marking the sites of Indian
mounds. The chair appointed C. E. Allen, P. G. Thwaites,
F. C. Krauskopf.
Resolutions (1) recommending measures for the conservation
of natural resources Were presented by Dr. J. J. Davis and
passed by unanimous vote of the Academy. It was further re¬
solved that copies of these resolutions be placed in the hands
of the Governor, members of the State Board of Forestry,
members of the Legislature, and the Public Press.
A like distribution was next voted for a series of resolutions
introduced by Mr. Ward and protesting against a proposed
amendment of the game laws providing for an extension of the
open season for the shooting of ducks. (2) The following
papers were then read :
1352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Morning Session, 9:00 o’clock.
Reports of officers and committees, and general business.
Reading of papers.
24. Aj census of the flora of a typical Dane County marsh
meadow. 10 minutes. Arlow B. Stout.
25. A new Arrhenurus from Wisconsin. Bv title. Buth
t j
Marshall.
26. The mildews of the cereals. By title. George M. Beed.
27. A simple undescribed saprophytic fungus. 5 minutes.
J. B. Overton.
The secretary next read a paper contributed by J. W. Hoyt,
and giving an account of his personal recollections of Abraham
Lincoln. The academy then adjounrned.
The Afternoon Session. Feb. ,42th:.
The Academy was called to order at 2 :30 in room 42 Sci¬
ence Hall. The following papers were read:
28. Some light reactions of Bilobolus. 10 minutes. Buth
Allen and Hallie J olivette.
29. Some European biological stations. 15 minutes. (Il¬
lustrated. ) C. Juday.
30. On the persistence of insect types as illustrated by fossil
Hymenoptera from the Tertiary formations. 15 minutes. (Il¬
lustrated.) C. T. Brues.
31. The cell-structure of Closterium Ehrenbergii. 10 min¬
utes. B. F. Lutman.
32. On the polarity of certain cells in mosses. 10 minutes.
C. E. Allen.
33. The individuality of chromosomes in somatic cells of
Gentiana detonsa. 10 minutes. B. H. Denniston.
34. Studies on the Tremellineae of Wisconsin. 15 minutes.
By title. E. M. Gilbert.
35. On a probably new species of whitefish from Wisconsin.
5 minutes. George Wagner.
36. Relations expressed by the passive voice. 15 minutes.
Edivard T. Owen.
Proceedings of the Academy.
1353
37. Popular studies at Paris in the thirteenth century. 10
minutes. D. C. Munro.
38. Labor and manufactures in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 10
minutes. J. P. Scott.
39. John of Salisbury’s attitude toward the classics. 10
minutes. A. C. Krey.
40. The present geologic work of Wisconsin rivers. TO min¬
utes. By title. S. Weidman.
At the conclusion of the reading of papers the committee on
membership reported favorably upon the four men who had
been nominated for honorary membership at the first session of
Academy — P eh. 1 1th, and recommended for active membership
the following:
Bowles, J. T. B., Madison, Wis.
Brundage, Albert LI., Milwaukee, Wis.
Burrill, Alfred C., Milwaukee, Wis.
Chase, Wayland J., Madison, Wis.
Heddle, John B., Madison, Wis.
Ingersoll, Leonard B., Madison, Wis.
Krey, A. C., Milwaukee, Wis.
Mason, Max, Madison, Wis.
Mead, Warren J., Madison, Wis.
Toole, W. A., Baraboo, Wis.
Thomas, Carl C., Madison, Wis.
Young, Karl, Madison, Wis.
Scott, J. F., Madison, Wis.
The Academy then adjourned until the next annual meeting.
Besolutions.
Whereas, an earnest and active movement is being made by
the people of the United States for the conservation of the nat¬
ural resources of the nation and
Whereas, Wisconsin can gain much fro msuch a movement
within its borders, and
Whereas, while the iron, lead and zinc of the state are being
freely given without hope of replacement, there are other nat¬
ural resources that may he husbanded and increased by estab-
1354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
lishing harmonious relations with natural forces now acting*
therefore he it
Resolved: That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences* Arts
and Letters gives its hearty approval of this movement as being
for the benefit of the agricultural, commercial and industrial
interests of the state, and he it further
Resolved: That the Academy at this time, earnestly rec¬
ommends to the people of the state and their legislative and
executive representatives the carrying out of the wise plans of
the State Board of Forestry for the preservation and increase
of the forest resources of the state and the conservation and
control of its lakes and streams.
Whereas, the preservation of the game of a region is a duty
that the citizens of any community owe to posterity and
Whereas, the molestation of the birds of any region at the
time when they are arriving from the spring migration and
have recently or are about to mate and to select the locality in
which they will nest and rear their young, strongly tends to
drive them away from and prevent their nesting in said region,
and
Whereas, the spring shooting of ducks tends to drive these
birds from their natural breeding grounds in this state and
works towards the ultimate extinction of the species, therefore
Resolved , that the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts
and Letters looks with disfavor upon Assembly bill hTo. 188,
recently introduced into the Legislature, legalizing the hunting
of ducks in the month of April.
Resolved , that the Secretary be directed to transmit a copy
of this resolution to both houses of the legislature and to the
governor of the state.
Bennet M. Allen-,
Secretary.
Proceedings of the Academy .
1355
FORTIETH ANNUAL MEETING.
Held in conjunction with the Wisconsin Archeological So¬
ciety, the Wisconsin Mycological Society, and the Wisconsin
Natural History Society, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, February 17-
18, 1910.
The meetings were held in the Lecture Room of the Public
Museum. The following program was presented:
Thursday, February 17.
Morning Session , 10:30 o'clock.
Reports of Officers and General Business.
Presentation of papers.
1. A New Type of Thermostat for Use in Physical Chemis¬
try. Arden P. Johnson.
2. The Chemistry of Boron, and Some New Organo-horon
Compounds. Arden R. Johnson.
3. The Electro-Chemistry of Radio-active Elements. Arden
R. Johnson.
4. The Walden Inversion: A Critical Review. A. F. Mc¬
Leod.
5. The Walden Inversion: Some Recent Experimental Re¬
sults. A. F. McLeod.
6. Terpen es as Oxygen Conveyers. Edward Kremers.
7. The Velocity of Light in Metals. L. R. Ingersoll.
8. The Story of the Return from the Dead in Popular Tales
and Popular Ballads. Arthur Beatty and Stith \ Thompson .
Afternoon Session, 2:00 o'clock.
Presentation of Papers.
9. An Ordinance of the City Council of Frankfort, refer¬
ring to dress, marriage festivals, haptismals, and such like
things, of the year T598. Ernst Foss. An abstract.
10. Some Specimens of a Forthcoming Translation of Lucre¬
tius. William Ellery Leonard.
11. The Teacher of Literature. William Ellery Leonard „
1356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
12. Early London Pageants. Homer A. Watt. With lan¬
tern slide illustrations.
13. The Recent Shakespeare Discoveries. Homer A. Watt.
With lantern-slide illustrations.
14. Southern Folk-Songs. E. C. Perrow.
15. F. H. Bradley on the Concepts of Change and Relation.
J. H. Farley.
Friday, February 18.
Morning Session , 9:00 o'clock.
Presentation of Papers.
16. The Stickleback of Lake Superior. George Wagner.
17. A Fossil Rhinoceros from Wisconsin. George Wagner.
18. The Computation of the Time of Rising and Setting of
the Moon. A. S. Flint.
19. Franco-American Study of a Waning Prehistoric Indus¬
try. C. H. Doer fling er.
20. A Boulder Effigy on the Upper Missouri. Arlow B.
Stout.
21. The Early Harbor History of Wisconsin. Ralph G.
Plumb.
22. Rotes on Certain Archaelogical Features of Southwest¬
ern Wisconsin. Richard Herrmann.
23. The Classification of Wisconsin Stone Axes. George L.
Collie.
24. Rotes on Tennessee Antiquities. Mary E. Stewart.
25. Classes and Distribution of Wisconsin Banner Ceremon¬
ials. Charles E. Brown. By title.
26. Grooved Pebble Sinkers of Wisconsin. Frank Gordon.
27. Gun-flints. W. B. Hinsdale.
28. Some Features of Californian Indian Folk-lore. S. Bar¬
rett.
Afternoon Session , 2:00 o clock.
Presentation of Papers.
29. French Literature in American Magazines, prior to
1800. Charles D. Cool.
Proceedings jof the Academy.
1357
30. A Simple Method of Determining the Energy of Baker’s
Yeast. W. D. Frost.
31. A Consideration of the Nesting Habits of Some Fossorial
Wasps. George P. Barth.
32. Close Relations of Certain Flies to Flowers of the Com¬
posite. Sigmund Graenicher.
33. Vitalism and the Ultimate Divisibility of Living Matter.
Charles T. Brues. To be presented by Richard A. Muttkowski.
34. The Chief Sense of Guidance and the Origin of the Tent-
Building Habits of the Ant Cremastog aster lineolata Say.
Alfred C. Burrill.
35. The Nomenclature of Types and its Practical Applica¬
tion. Richard A. Muttkowski.
36. Apogamy in Aspidium falcatum. Ruth F. Allen.
37. Embryo-sac Development and Polyembryony iu Smiles
cina racemosa. Fred McA llister.
38. A Comparison of Mitoses in Mosses with those in the
Seed Plants. C. E. Allen.
39. The Grass Flora of Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.
Charles T. Brues and Beirne B. Brues. By title.
40. The Structure of the Peridium in Certain Slime Molds.
R. A. Harper.
4,1'. Nuclear Phenomena in the Root-tip of Dolichos multi-
florus. R. H. Denniston.
42. Experiments on the Sex Ratios in Hemp. F. J . Prit¬
chard.
Morning Session, February 17.
The meeting was called to order, with Mr. Henry L. Ward
in the chair. Upon motion, the reading of the minutes of the
last meeting was dispensed with. Mr. George Wagner pre¬
sented the report of the Exchange Committee; and it was
moved that the report be accepted.
The reading of papers was then taken up; at which point
President Samuel Plantz took the chair. The reading of the
papers proceeded as announced on the programme.
1358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Afternoon Session .
The papers were presented as announced on the programme,
except that No. 15 was read by the Secretary.
Morning Session, February 18.
The papers were presented as announced on the programme,
except that Nos. 22 and 24 were read by title, and Nos. 20,
21, 26, and 27 were read by Mr. C. E. Brown. No. 28 was
presented before No. 25.
The Treasurer presented his report; and the Chairman ap¬
pointed an auditing committee, consisting of Mr. George
Wagner and Dr. J. J. Davis, who reported that all the accounts
were correct.
The Committee on Membership presented the subjoined
names as new members, and upon motion the Secretary was
instructed to cast the ballot of the meeting for them :
Barrett, Samuel A., Milwaukee.
Barth, George P., Milwaukee.
Cool, Charles D., Madison.
Dyke, Le Grand G., Madison.
Gilman, Albert G., Bipon.
Haessler, Herbert, Madison.
Jackson, Hartley H. T., Washington.
Jansky, Cyril M., Madison.
Leonard, William E., Madison.
Luening, Eugene, Madison.
Martin, Lawrence M., Madison.
Muttkowski, Bichar d A., Milwaukee.
Naylor, Wilson S., Appleton.
Perrow, Eber Carle, Madison.
Secrist, Horace, Madison.
Watt, Homer A., Madison.
Whitbeck, Bay H., Madison.
Afternoon Session .
The changes in the programme were; Nos. 30, 36, 37, 38
and 42 which were read by title.
Mr. Henry L. Ward introduced a resolution in support of
Proceedings of the Academy.
1359
a bill in the 61st Congress, for the protection of migratory
birds in the United States; and the Secretary was instructed
to send a copy of the resolution to each Senator and Repre¬
sentative from Wisconsin to the United States Congress:
There has been introduced by Mr. Weeks in the House cf
Representatives of the 61st Congress of the United States, a
bill “To protect migratory birds in the United States” known
as H. R. 10276, by the terms of which “geese, swans, brant,
ducks, snipe, plover, woodcock, rain, pigeons and all other mi¬
gratory birds which, in their northern and southern migrations,
pass through or do not remain permanently the entire year
within the borders of any State or Territory shall hereafter
be deemed to be within the custody and protection of the Gov¬
ernment of the United States, and shall not be destroyed or
taken contrary to regulations hereinafter provided for.”
These provisions are that the Department of Agriculture
shall adopt suitable regulations prescribing and fixing closed
seasons and declaring penalties for the violation of these regu¬
lations.
Nothing contained in this bill is to interfere with laws of
the States and Territories for the protection of game localized
within their borders nor to prohibit their enacting laws to
render efficient the regulations of the Department of Agriculture
provided under this statute.
This proposed law if enacted would remove one of the great¬
est obstacles to the efficient protection of birds, particularly
game birds, by rendering the laws in force in all states uniform
as to conditions, the absence of which uniformity now consti¬
tutes one of the strongest arguments used by those who desire
spring shooting. Therefore
Resolved , That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts
and Letters favors the passage of Bill H. R. 10276 to protect
migratory birds in the United States and requests the Wiscon¬
sin members of Congress to vote for this bill and to use their
influence to secure its passage and
Resolved, That the Secretary of the Academy be instructed
to mail a copy of these resolutions to each Senator and Repre¬
sentative from Wisconsin to the United States Congress.
1360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Mr. C. E. Brown introduced a resolution of congratulations
to Professor E. W. Putnam of the Peabody Museum, Harvard
University, on his distinguished services to the science of An¬
thropology; and Mr. S. A. Barrett introduced a similar resol¬
ution congratulating Professor E. B. Tylor, of the University
of Oxford, on his distinguished services to the science of An¬
thropology.
Resolved , That the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and
Letters at its annual meeting in Milwaukee, February 17th to
18th, 1910, send to Professor Frederick Ward Putnam, D. S.,
its greeting, and upon the occasion of his recent retirement,
under the Carnegie Foundation, from active instruction as
Professor of Alftropology of Harvard University and of the
University of California, the Academy herewith transmits its
congratulations to him upon his long career of active service
in the interests of the science of anthropology, and
Resolved , That the secretary of the Academy he instructed to
see that a copy of this resolution is sent to Professor Putnam,
and that the resolution be placed upon the minutes of this meet¬
ing and published in the regular Transactions of the Academy.
Resolved, That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters at its annual meeting in Milwaukee, February 17 th
to 18th, 1910, send to Professor Edward Burnett Tylor,
D. C. L., F. B. S. its greeting, and, upon the occasion of his
retirement as professor of Anthropology in the University of
Oxford, and as director of the Pitt-Bivers Museum, the
Academy herewith transmits its congratulations to him upon
the completion of his long career of active service in the in¬
terest of the science of anthropology, and
Resolved. That the secretary of the Academy be instructed
to see that a copy of this resolution is sent to Professor Tylor,
and that the resolution be placed upon the minutes of this
meeting and published in the Transactions of the Academy.
Mr. S. A. Barrett introduced a resolution to the effect that
the Academy would look with favor upon the establishment, of
a Wisconsin branch of the American Folk-lore Society, and
would co-operate with it in the study of folk-lore in Wisconsin.
It was moved and voted that this resolution be laid over until
Proceedings of the Academy .
1361
the next meeting of the academy, and that the resolntion be
printed in the preliminary notice of the next meeting.
Resolved , That for the furtherance of the study of Folk-lore
in any and all of its various phases, the Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, Arts ahd Letters would look with favor upon the
formation of a Folk-lore Society in the State of Wisconsin
under, if practicable, the auspices of, and as a branch of the
American Folk-lore Society, which is the national society or¬
ganized in America for the general study of Folk-lore in all
its branches throughout America.
Now in view of the fact that the above named national or¬
ganization is devoting its entire energies to the study of Folk¬
lore in all parts of America and that its members are engaged
in active research along the lines of Folk-lore, and that there
now exist various sections of this society known as state
branches, and further,
That this national society and its various branches are now
publishing a journal of world wide circulation, known as the
Journal of American Folk-lore, the sole purpose of which is
the publication and dissemination of knowledge of American
Folk-lore, and that this valuable publication is sent by the
American Folk-lore society to each of its members, both those
of the general society and those of the branches and further,
That since it is the desire of this Academy to foster all
branches of science, arts and letters, and especially where these
are within the State of Wisconsin, therefore be it
Resolved , That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts
and Letters will be pleased to co-operate with such an organi¬
zation founded for the study of Folk-lore in Wisconsin.
Mr. C. E. Brown moved that the President of the Academy
appoint a committee of five to consider ways and means of
bringing about closer affiliations between the Academy and the
related State societies. This motion was put to a vote and
carried. The president later appointed Arthur Beatty, Chair¬
man, George P. Barth, Charles E. Brown, Louis Kahlenberg,
and Dr. Lewis Sherman.
The meeting then adjourned.
Arthur Beatty,
Secretary .
1362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
REPORT OP THE SECRETARY.
The last published report of the Secretary gave the number
of active members as 189, honorary members, 6, life members,.
12, and corresponding members, 43 ; with a total of 250.
The present membership of the Academy is as follows :
Honorary Members . . . . 6
Life Members . 12
Active Members . 244
Corresponding Members . 40
Total . . . 302
Since the last report, twelve members have died. Their
names will be found at the end of the List of Members, under
the heading of Deceased Members.
The plan of publishing the Transactions in six numbers
each year has been carried on for two years. If the plan
seems to carry out the intentions of those who devised it it will
be' continued, at least until one more effective is formulated.
It is a pleasant thing for the Secretary to note the liberal
policy of the printing commissioners in furnishing the neces¬
sary plates to illustrate the papers of the Academy in a fitting
manner.
Arthur Beatty,
Secretary.
Treasurer s Statement . 1363
TREASURER’S STATEMENT.
1909 Receipts .
Feb. 5, Balance . . . . . . . $23 17
Received for dues . . 196 00
Received for duplicate Journals . 25 00
Received for Transactions . 2 00
Received for Separates and Plates . . . 17 50
Received for bonds matured . . . 400 00
Received for interest on bonds . 119 00
$782 07
Disbursements.
Postage (Treasurer) . . $5 00
Paper, labels, etc., for mailing Trans . 7 70
4 City Street Improvement bonds . 416 00
Extra separates and plates . 15 50
John Conohan (for running engine) . 1 00
B. M. Allen (Bal. due secretary 1908) . . 25 00
Arthur Beatty (Secretary’s allowance 1909) . . 100 00
Geo. Wagner (Postage, Journals, etc.) . 62 25
Express (Plates) . . 60
Safety deposit box . 3 00
Printing, (Programs, etc., 1909 Meeting) . . 24 25
Shipping and Wrapping Trans. . . . 30 10
$690 40
Eeb. 14, Balance on band . . . . . $92 27
Feb. 18, 1910.
The undersigned auditing committee have examined the
Treasurer’s books and vouchers, and find the same true and
oolrreet.
J. J. Davis,
George Wagner.
1364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters,
REPORTS OF THE EXCHANGE COMMITTEE.
Madison, Wisconsin, February 10, 1909.
To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters:
The Committee on Exchanges herewith presents its annual
report. As in previous years its chief efforts have been to¬
ward adding to the number of organizations with which w'e
exchange publications, and to complete, so far as possible, the
incomplete sets on our shelves. The result for the year has
been as follows:
New exchanges added . 26
Missing volumes received . 212
Missing numbers received ...., . 686
Sets completed . 13
Vols. completed . 32
Very material aid in this work was gained by exchanging
some of our duplicates with the Library of Congress, from
whose duplicates we have obtained many much needed volumes
and parts.
The work of cataloguing our library, and shelving it with
the University Library is now actively under way, and pro¬
gressing rapidly. This work has involved the study of a com¬
plicated series of problems in Library Science, for which no
library seems as yet to have found an entirely satisfactory so¬
lution. In the transfer of our book, proper arrangements have
been made so that Academy property can be easily identified.
There have developed, however, a number of duplicate sets,
of which a single set would seem to serve all possible purposes.
We suggest that this Committee be given authority to dispose
of such sets by sale, and to use the funds thus secured for pur¬
chasing other needed books. The sale of duplicate parts
this year has yielded $,17.50. As in years past, a sum of $40
from outside has also been at the disposal of the Chairman.
Reports of the Exchange Committee. 1365
Eeside this, the sum of $82.25 (including the above $17.50)
was expended from the Academy funds to purchase needed
works. This has enabled us to secure a number of needed
volumes, and to complete two sets: Sitzungsberichte der K.
Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Verhandhugen
des Botanischen Vereins der Provinz Brandenburg.
The most needed books at present are the missing volumes
of the Proceedings of the Boyal Society of London and it is
the hope of this committee that they may be purchased the
coming year. It means an expenditure of about $50.
Prom certain statements overheard this last year, it seems
not unnecessary to state at this time, that no money appro¬
priated to the uses of this Committee has ever been paid to
any one as a remuneration for services.
We recommend that this committee be continued for another
year, and that there be appropriated for its use such sums as
in the opinion of the executive committee may be available.
Respectfully submitted,
Walter M. Smith,
Edward Kremers,
George Wagner.
APPENDIX.
The following are the addresses added to our Exchange List
since its publication in Vol. 15; those marked with a star
come to us through the Geological and Natural History Survey:
Charleston, S. Carolina: The Charleston Museum.
Chili, N. Y. : The Oologist.
Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio Naturalist.
Philadelphia, Pa. : Wagner Free Institute of Science.
Springfield, Mass. : Springfield Museum of Natural History.
Sao Paulo, Brazil: Sociedad Scientifica, Museo Paulista.
Aimani, German East Africa : K. Biologisch-Landwirth-
schaftliches Institut.
Modderfontein, Transvaal : South African Ornithologists9
Union.
1366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,
Colombo, Ceylon: Colombo Museum.
^Melbourne, Australia: National Museum.
Sidney, Australia: Royal Anthropological Society, New
South Wales Naturalists’ Club.
Tokyo, Japan: Imperial Central Agricultural Experiment
Station, Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society.
Budapest, Hungary: Hngarische Ornithologische Centrale.
Wien, Austria: Verein zur Verbreitung Naturwissenschaft-
licher Kenntnisse, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein der XTniver-
sitat.
Ghent, Belgium: Ylaamsch Natur en Geneeskundig Con.
gres.
* Amiens, France: Academic des Sciences, des Letters, et
des Airts.
Macon, France: Academie de Macon.
*Semur, France: Societe des Sciences Historiques et Nafc-
urelles.
Berlin, Germany : K. k. Botanischer Garten.
Bernburg, Germany: Herzoglich-Anhaltische Versuchssta*
tion.
Geestemiinde, Germany: Verein fiir Naturkunde an der
TJnterweser.
Hamburg, Germany: Hamburgische Wissenschaftliche Am
stalten, Botanische Staats-Institute.
Miinchen, Germany : Gesellschaft fiir Morphologic und
Physiologic.
Schwabach, Germany: Entomologische Blatter.
Stuttgart, Germany: Verein fiir Vaterlandische Natur¬
kunde, Entomologische Zeitschrift (Intemationaler Entomo-
logischer Verein).
^Glasgow, Scotland: Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Ferrara, Italy: Accademia delle Scienze Mediche Naturali.
Portici, Italy : R. Scuola Superiore di Agricoltura, Labora¬
tory di Zoologia generate e agraria di R. Scuole Superiore di
Agricoltura.
Amsterdam, Netherlands: Genootschap ter Bevoordering
Natuur — Genes — en Heelkunde.
Saratow, Russia: Societe des Naturalistes.
Reports of the Exchange Committee, 1367
Geneva, Switzerland: Association pour la Protection dea
Plantes.
He w Societies added to our exchange list:
Warren Academy of Sciences, Warren, Pa.
Pomona Journal of Entomology, Pasadena, Cal,
Le Haturaliste Canadien, Quebec.
Direccion de Estadistica General, Montevideo, Uruguay.
Societe Scientifique et Station Zoologique, Arcachon, France,
Kaiser Gesundheitsamt, Berlin.
Botanical Society, Liverpool, England.
Fisheries Board for Scotland, Edinburgh.
Geografiska Forening i Finland, Helsingfors.
Societe Entomologique Busse, St. Petersburg.
Societe Heuchateloise de Geographie, Heuchatel.
Societas Entomologica, Zurich.
Madison, Wis., U. S. A. February 10, 1910.
To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters:
Gentlemen: Your Committee on Exchanges begs to present
their annual report. The work of securing new exchanges, as
well as completing (by requests to the publishing societies),
the sets on our shelves, has been continued with the following
results :
Volumes received . 135
Parts of volumes received . 191
Sets completed . 8
Volumes completed . 32
Hew exchanges . . 12
The committee has again had at its disposal $40 from out¬
side sources, $38.95 of this have been spent, $2.40 on custom,
house charges, the rest on books, with the following result :
Volumes purchased . 14
Parts purchased . 68
Sets completed . . 4
Volumes completed . 14
1368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
A considerable number of duplicates have been sold, the
amount realized appearing in the Treasurer’s report.
Five dollars of the funds of the Academy have been spent
in postage and stationery for this committee. An order for
the volumes needed to complete our set of the Proceedings of
the Koyal Society of London has been placed. The books are
in transit, but have not yet arrived. Their cost is about $45.00,
and the Treasurer should be instructed to set aside that amount
from last year’s funds to pay for the same.
The consolidation of our Library with that of the Univer¬
sity, authorized two years ago, has made good progress during
the year. Most of our books have now been catalogued and
shelved with those of the University on similar subjects. A
special bookplate for the Academy books has been printed, and
placed in all bound volumes. We do not hesitate in saying
that the value of our library, by this consolidation (and the
attending completion of sets and elimination of duplicates) has
at least doubled. We hope in another year to have this work
substantially completed.
We offer the following recommendations: That this Com¬
mittee on Exchanges be continued for another year; that it
be allowed such sums as may be realized from the sale of
duplicate material; and that it be further granted such further
sum as in the opinion of the Executive Committee may be
available.
' Respectfully submitted,
Edward Kremers,
Walter M. Smith,
George Wagner,
Chairman.
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