TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

‘OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I

MADISON, WISCONSIN

CONTENTS

Page

Studies in Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns (With

Plates I- VI) - Ruth F. Allen, 1

The Grasses of Milwaukee County (With Plates VII-IX)

Charles T. Brues and Bierne B. Brues, 57

Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice

Edward T. Owen, 77

The Anti- Auction Movement in the New York Working¬

men’s Party of 1829 - - Horace Secrist, 149

An Investigation in Regard to the Condition of Labor and

Manufactures in Massachusetts, 1860-1870

Jonathan F. Scott, 167

The Early Harbor History of Wisconsin

. Ralph G. Plumb, 187

Structural Abnormalities in Copopeda (With Plate X)

. C. Dwight Marsh, 195

Hiaptomus Coloradensis (With Plate X)

. C . Dwight Marsh, 197

The Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin

(With Plates XI-XVII and one Table)

. Frank Collins Baker, 200

The Railways of the Old Northwest before the Civil War

(With Thirteen Maps in the Text)

- - - - - Frederic L. Paxson, 243

Page

A Study of Retarded Children in a Group of North-West¬

ern School Systems - - Freeman A. Lurton , 275

Officinal Pastorum : A Study of the Dramatic Developments

within Liturgy of Christmas - Karl Young , 299

The Regulations of the University of Wittenberg, 1546

. Ernst Voss , 397

A Biological and Statistical Analysis of the Vegetation of

a Typical Wild Hay Meadow (With Plates XVIII-

XXIII) - Arlow B. Stout , 405

The Pholiota of the Region of the Great Lakes (With

Plates XXIV-LV) - - Edward T. Harper, 470

The Walden Inversion - - Andrew F. McLeod, 503

The Chemistry of Boron and some new Organo-Boron

Compounds - Arden R. Johnson, 528

A Study of the Light Reactions of Philobolus (With 19

Tables and 21 Figures)

Ruth F . Allen and Hally D. M. J olivette, 533

The Cytology of the Convallariaceae (With Plates LVI-

LVIII) - - - Frederick McAllister, 599

Browning’s Idealism - - - J. W. Cunliffe, 661

The Last Will and Testament as a Form of Literature

. - - Eber G. Perrow, 682

Note : The Index of this Part of Volume XVII will be found

at the end of Part II. A single index will comprise the whole

volume.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. i

iOV.;IlT!

wk

MADISON, WISCONSIN

VC?

CONTENTS

Studies in Spermatogenesis and Apogamv in ferns.

(Plates I-VI), Ruth F. Allen,

The grasses of Milwaukee county, Wisconsin. (Plates

VXI-IX), Charles T. and Beime B . Britts,

STUDIES IN SPERMATOGENESIS AND APOGAMY IN

FERNS.

RUTH F. ALLEN.

During recent years, the interest in the cytology of the ferns

has developed along two main lines — the study of the male

cells, for which the ferns are very favorable, and the study of

apogamy, a field in which ferns also offer excellent opportuni¬

ties for the investigation of the important cytological questions

involved.

The literature relating to the structure and development of

the motile male cells is very extensive and has been frequently

summarized in recent years. I shall here review only the

papers most closely related to my own studies.

The early work was done with the aim of determining

whether the entire cell or only the nucleus entered into the

formation of the antherozoid. At the close of the eighties it

was fairly well established that the spiral body of the anthero¬

zoid was formed from the nucleus and that the cilia and the

vesicle were derived from the cytoplasm. The question of the

presence of a cytoplasmic envelope about the spiral nucleus was

still under debate.

G-uiguard (43) in 1889 studied the metamorphosis of the

mother cell into a spiral antherozoid in Chara, Pellia, Sphag¬

num, and Angiopteris. In Angiopteris, the large nucleus

moves to one side of the cell and elongates into a crescent lying

against the surface of the cell. The nucleole disappears and

the chromatin becomes dense and homogeneous. The cilia orig¬

inate from a special hyaline layer on the surface of the cell.

The nucleus now elongates further, becoming transformed to a*

r2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

spiral band. Guiguard remains in doubt whether a cytoplas¬

mic envelope encloses the nucleus of the mature antherozoid.

In the same year, Belajeff also describes the formation of

Hie antherozoid in Pteris , Gymnogramme and Aneimia. The

antherozoid mother cell first develops a hook-shaped projection

of the cytoplasm which becomes the anterior end of the anthero¬

zoid. Belajeff believes that the spiral form results from a

folding in of the surface of the cell while the nucleus becomes

stretched into a shorter parallel spiral. Belajeff describes the

origin of the cilia from the outer surface of the spiral band.

Strasburger in 1892 (84) discusses the formation of motile

cells in algae and in ferns. At this time, Strasburger inclined

toward a belief in the general occurrence of centrosomes in

plants. In the much-elongated, spiral, motile cells of ferns he

finds the nuclear matter in the thicker posterior coils and kino-

plasm in the slender anterior coils from which the cilia grow.

In the antherozoid of Marsilia, the spiral consists of eleven

coils, ten of which are slender and nearly uniform in diameter.

Prom the last of these ten coils arise the cilia. The eleventh

coil is larger and in its hollow lies the vesicle. Strasburger be¬

lieves that in this case the nuclear material is to be found in

the heavy posterior coil, that the kinetic center is at the anterior

end and that the numerous intermediate coils consist of kino-

plasm.

Belajeff in 1894 (11) studied the development of anther o-

zoids in Chara. He did not succeed in finding centrosomes in

the nuclear divisions in the antheridial filaments. Within the

antherozoid mother cell the nucleus assumes a lateral position.

A deeply staining thread is seen in contact with the nucleus at

one end and extending along the plasma-membrane for some

distance. This thread Belajeff thinks may have been derived

from an * c attraction-sphere. 5 ’ The cytoplasm on the opposite

side of the nucleus pushes out into a slender curved horn — this

is the posterior end of the antherozoid. The cytoplasm now

shrinks in about the elongating anterior thread so that the

thread comes to lie in a pointed projection on the cell surface.

Prom this projection, two long cilia grow out. Purther de¬

velopment consists in the elongation of both the nucleus and the

Allen — -Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns.

3

enclosing cytoplasm of the large central mass. The result is

a long spiral cell consisting of a thin spiral sac of protoplasm

containing the deeply staining thread in the anterior end, the

elongated nucleus in the central coils and plasma in the posterior

coil.

Belajeff follows this account by several short papers in 1897

(12, 13, 14). He had not yet found centrosomes in the

divisions preceding the formation of the antherozoid, but in

the young antherozoid mother cell of a fern (genus not men¬

tioned) he saw a rounded deep-staining body in the plasma

and was able to trace it in its elongation into a spiral band

lying along the convex side of the nuclear spiral. In Equise-

tum, he ^established the origin of the cilia from this thread.

During the same year (1897) Hirase and Ikeno (53 and

54) reported their notable discovery of motile male cells in

Gymnosperms. The antherozoid is top-shaped and a spiral

band on the conical surface of the cell bears numerous short

cilia throughout its length.

Later in the same year (1897) Webber (92, 93) reported the

discovery of similar antherozoids in Zamia. In the generative

cell, before the last division, two centrosome-like bodies sur¬

rounded by very pronounced asters are found in the cytoplasm

on opposite sides of the nucleus. During the ensuing division,

the asters about these bodies disappear, and they break up into

fragments which later unite to form a band which at the end

of the division moves out to the cell surface and there grows into

a spiral band of several successively narrower coils, j ust beneath

the plasma membrane. Erom this band, the cilia arise as deli¬

cate projections even before it reaches the surface of the cell.

Webber concludes (94, 95) that this cilium producing body is

not homologous with the centrosome and he proposes to call it

a “blepharoplast.”

In 1898, Ikeno (55, 56) describes further the development

of the antherozoids in Cycas. The chief difference between

his account and that of Webber for Zamia is that in Cycas the

cilia-bearing band while young is attached to a beak on the

nucleus. Ikeno considers the term “blepharoplast” unneces¬

sary and believes the body in question to be a centrosome.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Belajeff (15) in the light of these discoveries in the Gym no-

sperms, finds two rounded bodies in the cytoplasm on opposite

sides of each nucleus before the last division in the antheridial

sac in Gymnogramme. After the division, he finds one of these

granules in each cell. He did not succeed in finding them dur¬

ing the division and so cannot consider it proved that they are

centrosomes.

Shaw (83) in 1898, working on the antheridial sacs of

Marsilia , finds at the end of the third from the last division a

tiny granule on the polar side of each daughter nucleus. This

granule which he calls the “blepharoplastoid” grows during the

resting stage of the cell and divides during the prophase of the

next division. The resulting pair of granules migrate in the

cytoplasm to the equatorial plane and there disintegrate. At

the same time, there forms near each pole another granule, the

true blepharoplast. This persists through the resting stage and

divides just before the last nuclear division. The two granules

so formed migrate to opposite ends of the cell and stay near the

poles during the last division. After this division, the ble¬

pharoplast grows, fragments, and then stretches out into a band

along the surface of the nucleus. The band and nucleus migrate

to the surface of the cell so that the band lies close to the

plasma membrane. Here nucleus and blepharoplast elongate

together into a spiral within the still rounded cell. The nu¬

cleus forms three or four coils and the blepharoplast extends

beyond it at both ends.

In the same year, 1898, Belajeff (17, 18) working also on

the antheridia of Marsilia finds centrosomes present in all stages

of nuclear division and concludes that we should assume that

centrosomes exist in every cell but are not always stainable.

Thom (89) working on the formation of the antherozoids of

Adiantum and Aspidium claims that the nucleus moves to one

side of the cell, leaving a nucleole behind which stays there

while the nucleus elongates to form one coil. At this stage

the nucleole becomes attached to the anterior end of the coil

where later the cilia are inserted.

Webber (96, 97) still working on Zamia finds that the

blepharoplasts originate in the cytoplasm of the generative cell

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 5

as tiny granules with two or three fibres radiating from them.

When first seen they were some distance from the nucleus. He

reaffirms his earlier statement that the hlepharoplast is not a

centrosome.

Ikeno (57, 59) claims that in Marcharitia, centrosomes are to

be found at the spindle poles during several divisions preceding

the formation of the antherozoid hut that the centrosome comes

at each division from within the nucleus. The centrosome is

conspicuous during the last division and at its close migrates

to a comer of the cell and elongates against the plasma mem¬

brane. Two cilia grow from it. A body which Ikeno calls

the “Nebenkern” appears after the last division and disap¬

pears soon after. The nucleus comes to lie connected with the

elongating centrosome. The whole cell and the nucleus and

centrosome within it now elongate to a spiral of one or two

coils.

Yamanouchi 1908 (102) finds in Nephr odium molle that

the blepharoplasts first appear as well defined spheres in the

cytoplasm on opposite sides of the cell just prior to the last

division in the antheridial sac. The blepharoplasts remain

near the spindle poles during the last division. Then the

hlepharoplast applies itself to the nuclear membrane and elon¬

gates together with the nucleus to a spiral. In the mature

antherozoid, the hlepharoplast runs two-thirds of the length of

the spiral and cilia spring from its whole surface.

The widespread occurrence of Apogamy in ferns together

with the fundamental problems involved have led to consider¬

able investigation in this field. The earlier studies by Far-

low, De Bary and others were models of accuracy and careful

work and the observations of these authors have been almost

wholly confirmed by more recent students.

Farlow (35) discovered in 1874 that prothallia of Pteris

cretica produce sporophytes directly by vegetative growth. Ac¬

cording to his description, the prothallia hear numerous antheri¬

dial sacs hut no archegones. A projecting mass of cells forms

on the ventral side of the prothallium a few cell's hack from

the apical notch. There is no definite boundary between the

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cells of the proth allium and those of the outgrowth. Farlow

describes tracheids extending back from this cell mass into

the vegetative tissues of the prothallium. The first leaf grows

out on the anterior side of this projection. Then the first root

forms and after this the stem apex is organized on the upper

side of the base of the first leaf. The three organs, leaf, root

and stem form successively, and there is no foot.

Apogamy has since been found in many different groups of

ferns and the list of these is still being increased.

In 1878 De Bary (5) gave a more detailed account of the

“Farlow shoots” in Pteris cretica. De Bary describes the apoga-

mous outgrowth as beginning as a group of three or four cells

just back of the marginal meristem at the apical notch. A

mass of cells is formed by growth and division and at the apex

of this mass an apical cell is differentiated and through its

activities the first leaf develops. In the rounded angle between

the upper surface of the leaf base and the prothallium a shal¬

low protuberance — the stem Anlage — is formed. It soon be¬

comes clothed with hairs and later a second leaf forms. The

boundary between gametophytic and sporophytic tissue is ob¬

scure. The vascular bundle runs down the leaf stalk and into

the prothallial tissue. Ventral to the vascular bundle, and

usually near the first leaf insertion, a root is formed endo¬

genously which pushes out and grows down into the ground.

The root may form in the prothallium considerably below the

leaf insertion when the vascular bundle reaches that far.

De Bary found that with the formation of the sporophyte

the prothallium ceases growth. In case no sporophyte is pro¬

duced on a prothallium it gives rise to secondary or adventive

prothallia. Occasionally a sporophyte forms on a secondary

pro thallium.

In addition to the “normal” Farlow shoots, various anomalies

are found. There may be two “first” leaves with a stem

Anlage between them. The first two roots may appear simuh

taneously. There may be two apogamous outgrowths, one on

the dorsal and one on the ventral surface of the prothallium.

The leaf may be as usual while the stem Anlage is on the dor¬

sal side of the prothallium. When the sporophyte aborts, a

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 7

vascular bundle may form running the length of the prothal¬

lium. A “middle lobe” may grow out from the apical meri-

stem. Transitions are found between middle lobes and normal

first leaves. Some of these have stomata and tracheids.

In addition to this description of Pteris cretica, De Bary

gives the first account of Apogamy in Aspidium felix-mas var.

cristatum and in Aspidium falcatum. The process in essen¬

tials is the same as in Pteris cretica. In Aspidium falcatum

archegones are found on twenty-five to thirty per cent of the

prothallia but they do not open and they cease to form when

the sporophyte develops. The apogamous shoot forms as in

Pteris, but its surface is sometimes irregular. The root is

often very late in forming. There are very few abortive sporo-

phytes in Aspidium falcatum. Secondary prothallia some¬

times form.

Leitgeb (66) (1885), studied the light reactions of Apoga¬

mous fern prothallia. If a prothallium of Aspidium falcatum

bearing a very young sporophyte is lighted on the ventral side,

the sporophyte is suppressed and a new one forms on what has

been the dorsal side. In rare cases both survive and they ap¬

pear to form one sporophyte with its members on both sides of

the prothallium. Leitgeb explains some of the anomalies

described by de Bary as due to alteration of light relations

during the growth of the prothallia.

Bower (20) in 1888 reports a further case of Apogamy ac¬

companied by apospory in 'Trichomanes alatum. Spores are

commonly produced in this species but on old fronds that lie

on the ground, aposporous prothallia form freely. The gameto-

phyte, which consists of alternating protonema-like filaments

and flat one-layered cell masses or ribbons, bears gemmae and

antheridial sacs but no archegones. On this prothallium

sporophyte buds may form either on the end of a filament or

sessile at the margin of a ribbon or on its surface. The transi¬

tion between the gametophyte and sporophyte tissues is some¬

times very gradual. Bower regards apogamy and apospory as

merely a simplification of the life cycle and states that “the

fact that apogamy and apospory occur on the same plant is a

coincidence rather than a point of further importance.”

■8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Heim (50) in 1896 describes apogamy in Doodya caudata.

The prothallia bear archegones and antheridial sacs, and sexual

reproduction may take place. When a normal embryo does not

form, the tissue about the sex organs grows out into “arche-

gonial projections” or “antheridial projections” as the case

may be. On these tissue masses, of which there may be thirty

on one prothallium, the sporophyte buds form much as in Pteris

'Cretica. Only a few of those upon one prothallium can sur¬

vive.

Lang (64) in 1898 made some interesting experiments upon

the following ferns :

Scolopendrium vulgare, N ephrodium dilatatum, N ephrodium

Or&opteris, Aspidium aculeatum, Aspidium angulare, (two

varieties) Athyrium niponicum, Aspidium frondosum, Poly po¬

dium vulgare, and Athyrium filix-foemina. Eight of the nine

ferns studied, were not known to reproduce in any but the

usual way. The prothallia were maintained under conditions

which favored vegetative growth but prevented fertilization.

In all of the cultures the prothallia sooner or later made at¬

tempts, often abortive, at producing sporophytes apogamously.

In Scolopendrium vulgare , for example, Lang finds that when

fertilization fails to take place, the meristem at the apical notch

or the tissue just back of it on the ventral side of the prothal¬

lium develops into a massive cylindrical solid outgrowth,

radial in structure and often two centimeters long. The in¬

terior of this mass may contain only parenchyma or there may

'be isolated tracheids or even a fairly well organized stele. In

some cases there are rhizoids on its lower surface, in others,

roots arise endogenously, break through and grow down into

the ground. The apex of this cylindrical vegetative out¬

growth may grow out into a flattened pro thallium returning to

the typical gametophyte phase, or on the other hand it may

give rise to a sporophytic bud with leaf, stem and root. This

cylindrical process bears achegones and antheridial sacs on

all sides. If fertilization is allowed to take place a normal

embryo can form. If not, the tissue about an archegone forms

an “archegonial projection” upon which may be formed a

group of sporanges. These sporanges are often ill-formed but

Allen - — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns . §

in a few eases are perfect, showing stalk, wall and annulus and

containing several spores. Gametophytic and sporophytic char¬

acters are intimately associated here and the cytological prob¬

lems presented are certainly very complex.

Woronin (100) in 1907 describes apogamy in Trichomones

Kraussii , Pellia flamens , Notochlaena Eckloniana , N. sinuata

and Pellaea teriera. Cultures of Pellaea flavens grown in poor

light or on poor soil show transitions between gametophyte and

sporophyte .as mixed as those reported by Lang.

Farmer and Digby (40) in 1907 have described a most re¬

markable nuclear migration and fusion in the prothallium of

an apogamous species of Lastraea which they characterize as

a vegetative fertilization, and they have traced out the history

of the chromosome number in several other abnormal types.

Their results may be summarized as follows :

1. Athyrium felix foemina var. clarissima Jones. In this

variety, there are apospory and apogamy. Both the sporanges

and the archegones are abortive. There is no reduction or

doubling of the chromosomes, the number, presumptively the

double number, ninety, is maintained unchanged throughout

the life history.

2. Athyrium fdix-foemina var. darissima Bolton. Here

we have apospory and parthenogenesis. The sporanges are

always sterile. The double number of chromosomes, eighty-

four, is present in both gametophyte and sporophyte. In

spite of the double chromosome number eggs and antherozoids

of normal form occur. The egg, which grows without fertili¬

zation to form the embryo, has the double or diploid chromo¬

some number and on this account Farmer and Digby do not re¬

gard it as the physiological equivalent of an egg.

3. Athyrium felix^foemirta var. uncoglomeratum — Stansfield.

The account of this form is incomplete. Apparently here, too,

there is apospory and parthenogenesis. The chromosome num¬

ber is about one hundred.

4. Scolopendrium vulgare var. crispum Drummcmdae is

aposporous and p arthenogenetic. The counts of chromosomes

varied. In the prothallium there were seventy, in the embryo

eighty to a hundred. In the normal Scolopendrium vulgare

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the diploid number is sixty-four. Since this is considerably

less than the lowest number found in the abnormal variety,

the authors conclude that the latter has at least the diploid num¬

ber. The variability of the number at different points in the

life history is held to be real and not due to errors in counting.

5. Lastraea pseudo-mas var. polydactyla. The sporophyte

produces spores and the prothallia grown from them have sixty-

five chromosomes. The prothallia do not bear archegones.

Vegetative nuclei from adjacent prothallial cells come together

and fuse to form the beginning of the new sporophyte. Several

fusion figures are shown. The sporophyte grown from these

diploid cells contains one-hundred and thirty chromosomes.

6. Lastraea pseudo-mas. var. cristata apospora. Here, too,

there is apospory and apogamy. The prothallium grows from

marginal or superficial cells of the frond. It bears anther idial

sacs but no archegones. The sporophyte forms vegetatively on

the prothallium. The counts of chromosomes which vary be¬

tween sixty and seventy-eight at different points in the two

generations show in the author’s opinion that it is the reduced

chromosome number that is present throughout the life history.

V athansohn (72) concludes that exposure to higher tem¬

peratures for a limited time stimulates the development of

apogamous embryos from the gametophytes of Marsilia Drum-

mondi.

Shaw (82) calculated the percentage of embryos formed from

isolated macrospores of Marsilia Drummondi and compared

this with the percentage formed when macrospores and micro¬

spores remained together. The percentage of embryos formed

in the first case is considerably lower than in the last.

Strasburger (88) in 1907 made a cytological study of Mar¬

silia Drummondi and related species. In the macrosporange

Strasburger finds fewer than sixteen spore mother cells. One

instance is mentioned where there were only four. This is in

marked contrast with the conditions in such species as M.

vestita, M. elata and M. hirsuta in which the invariable num¬

ber is sixteen. These spore mother cells pass into a synaptic

condition perfectly normal in appearance. Subsequent to

synapsis, Strasburger observes a lack of uniformity in the ap¬

pearance of the spore mother cells. Some nuclei are larger and

Allen— Spermatogenesis . and Apogamy in Ferns . 11

much richer in chromatin content than others. In these denser

nuclei thirty-two double chromosomes are found. Upon the

spindle they present a fairly close resemblance^ to heterotypic

chromosomes. In the second division thirty-two chromosomes

can again be counted at the equatorial plate stage. Other spore

mother cells in the same macrosporange remain poor in chroma¬

tin content and when they divide, sixteen chromosoms are found

on the spindle in both divisions. Here the figures are also

characteristic for heterotypic and homoeotypic divisions.

Strasburger believes that in these latter cases there is a true

reduction. Concerning the larger mother cells he believes that

the synaptic condition from which come the diploid number of

chromosomes cannot be considered as a true synapsis since the

chromosomes did not fuse or at least did not remain fused.

Consequently he concludes that the first division in this case is

homoeotypic in nature and the second division is an added one

without homologue in other reduction divisions.

The result of this varied behavior of, the spore mother cells

is that we have spores of two sorts — diploid and haploid.

He holds further that the diploid macrospore develops into

a gametophyte normal in appearance except that the neck of

the archegone remains closed and the canal cells do not die.

Thirty-two chomosomes are preesnt during the divisions iti the

growth of this gametophyte. The diploid and haploid chromo¬

some number in other species of Marsilia are thirty-two and

sixteen respectively.

The micro gametophyte of Marsilia Drummondi does not de¬

velop normally. Ho antherozoids were seen. The egg de¬

velops directly into the embryo without fertilization. Since

the egg possessed the diploid chromosome number, Strasburger

does not regard it as a true sex cell and in accord with this view

the form of reproduction found here is called apogamy and not

parthenogenesis. Thirty-two chromosomes appear in the vege¬

tative divisions of the sporophyte so formed.

Yamanonchi (104) in 1908 studied apogamy in Nephrodium

moltei. When conditions for fertilization are supplied, this

species reproduces normally. The diploid and haploid chromo¬

some numbers are one hundred and thirty-two, and sixty-six

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

rspectively. If cultures of prothallia are placed in strong light

and watered from below, fertilization is prevented and apoga-

mous outgrowths form instead. These sporophytes develop

from a single surface cell of the prothallium and the chromo¬

some number remains sixty-six. Here, then, is a second case

(Lastraea pseudo-mas being the first) in which the chromosome

number present in the gametophyte persists during the develop¬

ment of the sporophyte.

I have studied the development of the antherozoids in Adian-

tum and Aspidium falcatum and the apogamous development

of the latter species, Prothallia of A diant um Capillus-V eneris

were purchased. The prothallia of Aspidium were grown in

pots of red clay. The pots were covered with bell jars or were

kept in a Wardian case and surrounded by Sphagnum or moist

sand. The prothallia were not watered from above. The

moisture in the sand or Sphagnum provided the clay with a

uniform supply. Material for sectioning was fixed in the dif¬

ferent Flemming’s solutions. The solution of medium strength

gave the best results. The sections were stained in the triple

stain or in Heidenhain’s iron-haematoxylin.

The material for sporogenesis in A. falcatum was taken from

vigorous green house plants. Flemming’s medium solution,

picro-formol solution, and a mixture of one-half glacial acetic

acid and one-half absolute alcohol were used for fixing. Sec¬

tions were stained in Flemming’s triple stain or with Heiden-

hain’s iron-haematoxylin.

The Development of Antherozoids in Adiantum Capil¬

lus-V eneris and Aspidium falcatum.

The dome-shaped mother cell from which the antheridial sac

arises has a volume nearly equal to that of the entire sac, just

after nuclear and cell division is completed. At the end of

this period of active division there ensues a considerable period

of growth during which the diameter of each antherid (or

antherozoid mother cell) is nearly doubled.

One would naturally expect under such circumstances to

find a typical resting nucleus in the growing cell. Yet a true

Alien-Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 13

resting condition of the nucleus with finely divided chromatin

and large nucleoles, such as is found between divisions in the

eight or sixteen cell stage of the sac for example, (Cf. fig. 27 of

Aspidium falcatum) or in the adjacent vegetative tissue of the

prothallium, was not found at this stage. After the dispirem

of the last division, the chromatin passes into a very heavy net-

work, exceedingly dense and compact at first, hut becoming

looser and more open as the cell and nucleus grow. (Fig- 1-5.)

The chromatin strands throughout are thick and approximately

uniform in diameter. The appearance at first glance all

through this period is strongly suggestive of a spirem. Only

by careful study can it be determined that there are real anasto¬

moses and not mere crossings of the. strands of chromatin. This

net-work is distributed uniformly throughout the nucleus.

The relatively small size of the nucleoles at this stage is also

notable. The conspicuously large nucleoles found in each rest¬

ing nucleus in the earlier stages of development of the anther-

idial sac, are represented here by two small nucleoles, easily

overlooked, the time of whose appearance and disappearance is

doubtful.

Figures one to three show a stage in which the cells have

begun to round up leaving intercellular spaces at their angles.

The nucleus is somewhat irregular, conforming roughly to the

general shape of the cell. As noted, it is completely filled by a

dense close network of chromatin. Ho nucleoles have been ob¬

served at this stage.

About half way between the nuclear membrane and the cell

wall, is the blepharoplast. It stains bright red with safranin

and is constantly present at this stage. It is not at this time a

definite well-rounded granule. It is large, more or less trans¬

parent, irregular in outline, with ill-defined boundaries, the

peripheral parts shading off gradually into the surrounding

cytoplasm. Ho aster could be brought out by any method of

fixing or staining which was tried. The blepharoplast may be

comma-shaped (fig. 2) or more irregular (fig. 1). Sometimes

there seem to be several darkly staining portions embedded in

a less stained ground mass (fig. 3).

The position of the blepharoplast bears no fixed relation to

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the shape of the nucleus hut the latter is often slightly flattened

just beneath it. The different cells in a sac are not oriented

alike — the blepharoplast being on one side in one cell — another

in another.

A slightly later stage is shown in figure four. Small nu¬

cleoles have formed in the nucleus. The exact time of the ap'

pearance of the nucleole is not easily determined. These nuclei

stain densely and the nucleoles are never conspicuous at any

time.

The blepharoplast here has become a denser rounded mass,

smaller and more sharply stained than before.

Figure five shows a still later stage in which there is a

marked increase in the size of the cell and nucleus. The strands

of the nuclear net are heavy and uniform in diameter as before.

This nucleus showed no nucleoles although at the stage repre¬

sented they are generally present. Of the other nuclei in the

same sac, some had two small nucleoles, others one, and a num¬

ber like the one drawn had none. There was a lack of uni¬

formity in the blepharoplasts in this sac. Several were still

densely staining spheres. Others had elongated into a short,

very narrow band, lying parallel to the surface of the nucleus

but not in contact with it.

A later stage is represented in figures six to nine. The cell

has reached its mature size. The nucleus is still in the center

of the cell. Some of the nuclei contain two nucleoles — others

one. The meshes of the nuclear net are greatly increased in

size, making the structure comparatively easy to examine. The

cytoplasm has become vacuolated.

The blepharoplast is here a band, tapering gradually to a

point at one end, and coming more abruptly to a point at the

other. This band lies across the nucleus, keeping parallel to

the nuclear membrane and at a small distance from it, except

at the narrower, thinner end which projects out into the cyto¬

plasm. This is probably to become the anterior end of the

antherozoid. Figures six and nine show profile views and eight

shows a surface view of the blepharoplast. Figure seven

shows a section through the same nucleus shown in surface view

in figure eight. It is plain on comparing the blepharoplasts of

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 15

this and the earlier stages that it has grown materially in mass.

Shortly after this the cells round up, separating from each

other. The intercellular spaces are filled with a slimy sub¬

stance that stains strongly with orange G. The nucleus moves

to one side of the rounded cell so that the blepharoplast comes

to lie near the plasma membrane. The nucleus increases in

volume during this change in position and rounds out so that

the blepharoplast and the nuclear membrane below it, run

parallel to the plasma membrane. The meshes of the nuclear

net increase in size and the small nucleoles disappear. The

blepharoplast meanwhile continues to grow along the surface

of the nucleus until it forms a broad band running half of the

way around the nucleus and then out into the cytoplasm at one

end, forming a curved, pointed beak at the anterior end.

The fact that the cells in a sac are not oriented alike gives

opportunity for studying them from all points of view. Fig¬

ures ten to twelve show median sections through the cell in three

planes which intersect each other at right angles. Figures ten

and eleven are longitudinal sections through the nucleus at right

angles to each other and figure twelve is a cross section. The

nucleus is slightly elongated, rounded at the posterior end and

drawn out to a short conical beak along the inner surface of

the blepharoplast, at the anterior end. The blepharoplast, as

may be seen from the different sections (figures 10-12) forma

a broad band along the outer convex side of the nucleus, curv¬

ing around the tip of the nuclear beak and projecting on into

the cytoplasm at the anterior end. It is broadest in the mid¬

dle (figure 12) and narrower towards the ends ( a and b figure

11).

The nucleus now pushes out at the posterior end forming a

short conical projection (figure 13). The blepharoplast runs

clear to its tip but does not extend beyond the nucleus as it

does at the anterior end. The anterior end of the nucleus has

meanwhile become longer and slenderer so that the entire nm

cleus forms over three-fourths of a circle.

At this stage a slow, gradual shrinking of the cytoplasm be¬

gins. Along the middle of the blepharoplast (figure 13) the

plasma membrane has drawn in against it. This shrinkage is

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

more pronounced in figures fourteen and fifteen where the

plasma membrane is in contact with the blepharoplast through¬

out

Just after the stage represented in figure thirteen, the nucleus

also begins to decrease in volume. The network of chromatin

becomes more dense, the threads forming the meshes becoming

shorter and thicker. Apparently an extrusion of nuclear sap

takes place along the inner side of the nucleus, resulting in the

formation of a series of large vacuoles in the cytoplasm on the

concave side of the nuclear membrane (figure 15). The irreg¬

ular, somewhat angular contour of the inner side of the nucleus

as drawn in figure thirteen is changed to the smooth curve that

is shown in figure fifteen.

In figure fourteen, the position of the nucleus corresponds to

that in figure eleven and the stage represented is intermediate

between that of figures thirteen and fifteen. The curvature of

the nucleus was followed in making this drawing. The

blepharoplast which is in the form of a broad band around the

convex side of the nucleus, is represented in cross section twice,

once at each end of the drawing of the nucleus (figure 14, a

and b). There is, as can frequently be seen in this and later

stages, a distinct space between the nuclear membrane and the

blepharoplast. The cross section of the blepharoplast is un¬

equal in thickness and somewhat ragged in outline. From this

time on, the band is often wider than the nucleus — projecting

beyond the borders of the nuclear spiral. The nucleus at this

stage forms about one coil of a counter-clockwise spiral as

seen under the microscope.

In figures sixteen to eighteen, are shown three cells in differ¬

ent positions, in which the spiral is a coil and a half in length.

In figure sixteen, the anterior end is uppermost and in the

drawing the plane of the nuclear coil is followed down and

around to the posterior tip. Other views of the same stage are

given in the next two drawings (figures 17, 18). Both are

side views of the nuclear coil corresponding to that shown in

figure fourteen. With the elongation of the nucleus and

blepharoplast, a curved horn-shaped projection of the cell is

formed which will be the anterior end of the antherozoid (fig-

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns . 17

•ure 16). The bulk of the cytoplasm lies hack of the middle

of the spiral and bulges out beyond the posterior coil of the

nucleus (to the right in figure seventeen and to the left in figure

eighteen).

Figure nineteen shows a longitudinal section through the cell

somewhat above the median plane at a stage when the nucleus

forms about two turns of a spiral. Four portions of the coil

appear at a, b, c and d respectively. The anterior end is below.

Figure twenty shows the coil with its posterior end uppermost.

The anterior part which would lie under the portion drawn, is

not represented.

From these drawings (drawn to the same scale as those pre¬

ceding) it is seen that a marked contraction has taken place in

both nucleus and cytoplasm. The larger nuclear coil has only

three-fourths its former diameter. The hollow of the same

coil, however, is as large as before. This decrease in the vol¬

ume of the nucleus is accompanied by a contraction of tbe

chromatin network into a coarse reticulum containing heavy

aggregations of chromatin irregularly connected.

The blepharoplast bears the same relation to the nucleus as

before.

The cytoplasm has undergone an even greater alteration than

the nucleus. The cytoplasmic mass has no longer a bulging con¬

vex outline. At the posterior end (figure 20) the cytoplasm

has drawn back into the hollow of the spiral. At the anterior

end also there are changes. The shrinking in of the cytoplasm

and the pushing forward of the anterior end have continued.

The mother cell wall, already vague and somewhat disinte¬

grated in the preceding stages, is here nearly obliterated, and

the intercellular slime is encroaching upon the space between

it and the developing antherozoid. The cell wall is omitted in

later drawings.

The further development consists "in the condensation of the

chromatin into an apparently homogeneous mass and the elon¬

gation of the antherozoid to form a rapidly narrowing spiral

about which the cytoplasm shrinks to form a close fitting sheath.

A stage in this process in which the nucleus forms between

two and one-half and three coils, is shown in figure twenty-one

2

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

a. The shape of the last coil and a half is almost the same

as in the two-coil stage (figure 20). The anterior part forms

an additional turn of comparatively small diameter.

Nothing remains visible of the structure of the nuclear con¬

tents. With the increasing homogeneity of the nucleus, the

blepharoplast becomes more difficult to distinguish. In figure

twenty-two, there is no line of demarcation between the portion

of the spiral composed of blepharoplast alone, i. e. the beak,

and that which also contains the nucleus. The two portions

form a smooth curve and the stain is uniform, red or gray,

according to whether the triple stain or the iron-haematoxylin

is used. In the triple stain, however, when the preparation has

been deeply stained in the blue, the blepharoplast can still be

discerned as a purple line bordering the red of the nucleus (fig¬

ure 23).

The changes in the cytoplasm are not marked. The bulk of

it lies as before in the hollow of the large posterior coil. Its

form can be seen in figure twenty-one b which represents twenty-

one a with the last half turn removed. A coil near the anterior

end (figure 22) shows the cytoplasm drawing in about the nu¬

cleus. The cytoplasm forms a spiral following that of the

nucleus, very bulky in the hollow of the large posterior coil but

growing more and more slender toward the anterior end. The

posterior end of this spiral has the same shape in ripe anthero-

zoids so long as they are still in the sac.

The origin of the cilia is not clear in my preparation. As

the mature antherozoids become active the cilia are seen as a

coil of threads about the anterior end (figure 24). They are

fastened to the coil along the tip, curve outwards, then run back

in a spiral following the nucleus. In figure 25 a portion of the

cilia are shown free throughout their length and are directed

forward, still loosely coiled.

The development of the antherozoid in Aspidium falcatum is

essentially similar to that of Adiantum. As will be described

below, the antherozoids of this species never function, since the

sporophyte of Aspidium falcatum is always formed apoga-

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 19

mously. The disuse of the motile male cells in this species has

not, however, been accompanied by their degeneration.

Antheridial sacs are formed abundantly upon the prothallia.

They are found chiefly along the middle, but scattered sacs are

often seen on either side and may be even marginal.

Figure twenty-six represents an anaphase stage in the first

division of the central cell of an antheridial sac. It has the

usual shape of such central cells; the basal side is conical; the

distal side nearly hemispherical. The cytoplasm is dense, con¬

taining few vacuoles. The karyokinetic figure occupies a rela¬

tively small part of the central portion of the cell. The spindle

is broad-poled. The chromosomes are long, slender rods.

About one-third of the total number in each of the two groups

is repreesnted in the drawing. There are several darker stain¬

ing granules scattered in the cytoplasm whose nature has not

been determined, but neither in this nor in later divisions in

the antheridial sac up to the sixteen celled stage has anything

been seen which could be called a centrosome or blepharoplast.

The last division in the sac was not found.

A resting cell of the eight-celled stage in the antheridial sac

is shown in figure twenty-seven. It is drawn on a much larger

scale (2700 diameters) than figure twenty-six (1950 diame¬

ters). The cell drawn in figure twenty-seven resembles closely

the corresponding stage in Adiantum. Cells at this period are

commonly but not always long and narrow. The convex sur¬

face of the cell drawn, was applied closely to the inside of the

wall of the antheridial sac. The other sides were flattened,

fitting against the neighboring cells in the sac. The cytoplasm

is loose, containing large vacuoles. The nucleus is elongated,

following roughly the contour of the cell. The chromatin is in

a very finely divided condition and the reticulum consists partly

of granules of various shapes and partly of fine branching

threads. There are several large conspicuous spherical nu-

cleoles, three of which are shown in the drawing.

In figure twenty-eight, which represents an antherid at the

time of the beginning of the elongation of the blepharoplast, the

conditions are very different. The cell (drawn to the same scale

as figure twenty-seven) is much smaller. 'No nucleoles are

20 Wisco?isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

present. The chromatin is in the form of a heavy branching

net-work composed of uniform threads.

The blepharoplast lies close to the nuclear membrane but as

a rule not in contact with it. It is a short, thick, more or less

conical mass. In figure twenty-eight, a section is shown

through the thick end of the blepharoplast. In figure twenty-

nine is given a section through the same blepharoplast at its

thinner, narrower end. Figure thirty shows a side view of

another blepharoplast at the same stage. The nucleus is often

indented just under the blepharoplast.

As the metamorphosis progresses, a nuclear beak forms under

the elongating blepharoplast. The beginning of this process is

seen in figure thirty-one. The section cuts through the ble¬

pharoplast obliquely. There is a distinct angle in the contour

of the nucleus, probably representing a ridge or projection

under the anterior end of the blepharoplast. Nucleus and

blepharoplast are not yet in contact.

In a slightly later stage, the nuclear projection lies in/ con¬

tact with the middle portion of the blepharoplast (figure 32).

The nucleus at this stage is still in the center of the well-

rounded cell. The anterior end of the blepharoplast forms a

short beak (a) beyond the nucleus, then runs back for some

distance in contact with it. The posterior third of the blepharo¬

plast is not at this stage in contact with the nuclear membrane.

It extends out through the cytoplasm and its posterior tip is in

contact with the plasma membrane.

In figure thirty-three, we have a cross section of the ble¬

pharoplast at a slightly later stage. The section cuts through

behind the nuclear projection, as may be seen from the fact

that the nucleus and blepharoplast _^are not in contact. The

condition of the chromatin has changed but little since the

stage in figure twenty-eight. The network is perhaps more

open.

The blepharoplast and nucleus now push out forming a

slender half coil, lying just below the plasma membrane. In

this projection the blepharoplast extends somewhat farther for¬

ward than the nucleus. The larger part of the nucleus still

forms a rounded mass as shown in figure thirty-four. Figures

Allen— Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 21

thirty-four and thirty-five are drawn on a smaller seale (1950

diameters) than the rest of this series. At the right in figure

thirty-four is a surface view of the slender beak — at the left, a

cross section of the main nuclear mass.

Occasionally at this stage, and more and more frequently in

later stages, little masses coloring dark blue in the triple stain

are seen scattered in the cytoplasm. Several of these are pres¬

ent in figure thirty-four.

Figure thirty-five represents a somewhat later stage than the

preceding. The blepharoplast appears at two points in the sec¬

tion, once at its widest place where it lies in contact with the

nucleus and again below where the plane of the drawing passes

through its anterior end.

About this time, the posterior end of the nucleus also begins

to grow out into a slender curved projection. Both anterior

and posterior extremities of the nucleus continue to grow for

some time. At this time, too, the cytoplasm begins to decrease

in volume, shrinking in about the nucleus.

Figure thirty-six shows a stage in which one and a half turns

of the spiral have been formed. This stage corresponds to the

one in Adiantum represented in figure sixteen. In both, the

blepharoplast runs the full length of the nuclear spiral and in

both, the anterior end has pushed out forming a projection of

the cell-body. In both, the greater mass of cytoplasm is at the

posterior end.

The later stages of the development of the antherozoids in

'Aspidium resemble in the main, those of Adiantum. In one

respect, however, the older antherozoids are unlike those of

Adiantum. The cytoplasm contains numerous rounded gran¬

ules which stain dark blue. These are probably starch grains.

Figure thirty-seven shows the posterior part of a nearly mature

antherozoid. The cytoplasm contains a large number of these

starch granules. They vary considerably in size and shape.

These granules are still present in the cytoplasm of the mature

antherozoids. Similar starch granules have been noted by

various authors for other ferns.

Living prothallia were mounted in a drop of water and

watched under the microscope. The mature antherozoids were

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

observed as they were liberated and swarmed about actively in

the water.

dSTo signs of degeneration have been detected in the anthero-

zoids of Aspidium. So far as can be seen, either from a cyto-

logical study of the development or from observation of the

living antherozoids, the male cells here are perfectly normal.

The Formation of the Apogamous Sporophyte in Aspidium

Falcatum.

The spores of this species germinate a few days after sowing.

The short filament coming from the spore broadens at the apex

and is divided into a narrow plate of cells. An apical notch

is soon developed and the prothallium assumes the usual heart

shape. The prothallium is never more than three cells thick

excepting perhaps at the margin of a large apogamous out¬

growth. Glandular hairs are found along the margin and on

the dorsal surface.

Antheridial sacs, as has been described above, are developed

in large numbers on nearly all of the prothallia. De Bary

found archegones on twenty-five to thirty per cent of the

prothallia of Aspidium falcatum. In my material, grown

under the conditions described, archegones are of much less

frequent occurrence.

The apogamous outgrowths usually form when the prothallia

are five or six months old. The time of their appearance

varies considerably, however. In several cases a very young

sporophyte was found upon a large prothallium eleven months

old. A great majority of the prothallia produce sporophytes

sooner or later.

The position of the outgrowth is on the ventral side a few

cells back from the apical notch. Since the prothallium is only

two cells thick at this place, the outgrowth is certainly super¬

ficial and may be of epidermal origin. The origin of this out¬

growth has not been traced back to the first cell divisions, but

figure thirty-eight shows a median section through an early stage

in its formation. The little projecting mass of tissue, though

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns . 28-

but two or three times the size of one of the adjacent prothal-

lial cells, consists of twenty-five or thirty cells. The well-de¬

fined surface layer of this compact mass is composed of small

irregular cells. In the interior of this mass, repeated tangential

divisions have resulted in several layers of still smaller tabular

cells. ISTo apical cell can be distinguished at this stage. The

limits of the sporophytic tissue are well defined.

As this compact mass of embryonic tissue grows larger, the

contrast in size between its cells and the adjacent prothallial

cells becomes less marked. It is still possible to determine the

limits of the sporophytic tissue, however, when the outgrowth

is large enough to be seen with the hand lens. (Figures 39 and

40.)

The prothallium is now three cells thick for a short dis¬

tance back of the sporophyte. The tangentially placed walls

in the mass are still conspicuous, bounding the flat cells which ex¬

tend in rows radially from the center of the mass to its outer

surface. (Figure 39.) At a still later stage, as shown in fig¬

ure forty, the arrangement of the cells is somewhat more ir¬

regular. Cell differentiation has begun at this stage. There

is a series of fully formed tracheids in the interior of the mass

and the chromatophores of the outer layer of cells contain good

sized starch grains.

In its further growth, an apical cell is differentiated at the

outer anterior angle of the young sporophyte. „ This by growth

and division gives rise to the first leaf. In the hollow between

the base of this leaf and the prothallium the apex of the stem

is organized. The first root arises endogenously and pushes

backward from a point near ihe base of the first leaf. Figure

forty-one shows a somewhat oblique section of a sporophyte in

which the root (r) is just breaking through the tissues. The

young incurved leaf (1) protects the stem apex (s) which lies

near its base. A strand of vascular tissues runs from the leaf

tip back toward the root. The section is slightly oblique and

the missing part of the vascular strand is found in adjacent

sections. The leaf and stem of the young sporophyte are cov¬

ered with glandular hairs of the same form as those found!

upon the prothallium.

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The prothallium may live for a considerable time after

the sporophyte has formed upon it. Apical growth, however,

^ceases and the cells at the base of the apical notch grow to full

size. The expansion of these cells makes the notch shallower

-and pushes the lobes farther apart. Even after the prothallium

estops growing, it may remain fresh and green until the spore-

phyte borne upon it has five or six leaves and as many roots.

5 The appearance upon a prothallium of an isolated member

of the sporophyte, as a leaf or a root (so common in some apo-

gamous ferns) is, so far as I have observed, rare in Aspidium

falcatum. I have but once seen a leaf growing directly from

the prothallium with no sign of stem apex or root. I have

never seen an isolated root nor have I ever seen tracheids in the

tissue of a prothallium which was producing no sporophyte.

The mixtures of gametophytic and sporophytic characters which

have been described by Lang and others for Scolopendrium

vulgar e and other ferns I have not found in Aspidium falca¬

tum.

A certain percentage of the prothallia are slow to produce

sporophytes or fail altogether to produce them. In these pro¬

thallia, the same growth phenomena are to be observed which

are seen in old prothallia of normal ferns when an embryo is

not formed. These prothallia of Aspidium falcatum continue

growing for months and attain a length of two or three centi¬

meters. The growth may be apical, the prothallium becoming

gradually narrower and thinner as it increases in length until

it ends in a narrow one-layered strap of cells. Usually in this

case the apical notch becomes very shallow and may even dis¬

appear. These conditions are doubtless due to unfavorable

environment.

Ordinarily, however, in prothallia producing no sporophyte,

the growth is more irregular. Even in the prothallia described

above, there is some marginal growth, resulting in notched edges

and in more or less folding of the whole prothallium. Usually

apical growth ceases entirely and marginal growth becomes more

pronounced. Sometimes the two lobes grow out into broad

straps. Sometimes growth begins at various points along the

margin, the outgrowths varying greatly in width. An out-

Allen-— Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 25

.growth may begin as a filament and then broaden into a strap,

or it may continue as a filament and branch, much in the

fashion of the prothallium of Trichomanes as described by

Bower and others. All of these adventitious prothallia bear

rhizoids and glandular hairs and antheridial sacs. In one case

I saw a filament thirty-five cells long with a side branch three

cells long. Scattered along its length were nine antheridial

sacs. Ho indication of a sporophyte has been observed on any

of these secondary prothallia.

Cell and Nuclear Fusion in the Sporange of Aspidium

Falcatum.

In the light of Farmers and Digby’s discovery of nuclear

migration and fusion in the tissue of the prothallia from which

the young sporophyte arises in Lastraea pseudo^mas var. poly-

daclyla, the possibility of the existence in other apogamous

ferns of vegetative fusions replacing normal fertilization, must

be especially considered. In Aspidium falcatum I find a sub¬

stitution fusion in the sporanges. The sixteen spore mother

cells fuse in pairs to form eight much larger cells which then

undergo the reduction division.

The development of the sporanges and sporogenesis pro¬

ceeds normally up to the point at which fusion takes place. In

the first eight-celled stage the spore sac is small. The cells of

the two-layered tape turn are still intact. They are fitted closely

to each other and occupy their original position. The nuclei of

the tapetal cells are dense and stain heavily but the cells do

not show marked signs of degeneration. The eight cells of the

sporogenous tissue are angular and pressed closely against each

other, leaving no intercellular spaces. The equatorial plate

stage of the division of these eight cells is shown in figure

forty-two. The cell was one of eight which were passing simul¬

taneously through the last division before the formation of the

spore mother cells. The cells at this stage are still angular,

fitting closely to each other and to the walls of the inner layer

of tapetal cells. The cell walls, if present, are very thin and

delicate. The cytoplasm here is dense and the vacuoles are

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters v

small. The chromosomes are relatively large and form a very

compact group. The spindle is as in the other tissues broad-

poled. Slightly over a third of the chromosomes are repre¬

sented in the drawing.

As a result of this division, sixteen spore mother cells are

formed. The cells were carefully counted. Camera lucida

sketches were made of successive sections of a sporange and

these sketches were carefully studied and compared and the

number of cells thus determined. The result was invariably

sixteen.

These sixteen young spore-mother cells are normal in ap¬

pearance. (Figure 43.) As a rule they are angular and

nearly isodiametric, but a few are more elongated. The cell

wall, if present, is very thin. The cytoplasm is dense and is

free from darkly staining granules. The nucleus is rounded

and is ordinarily at the center of the cell. The chromatin

forms a loose reticulum consisting of small aggregations con¬

nected by delicate strands. The amount of nucleolar material

varies greatly. In some nuclei there are three or four good-

sized nucleoles.

In the next stage we find that the sixteen spore mother cells

are fusing in pairs. The fusion figures are numerous and

unmistakable, and as the cells are large and easily fixed and

stained, the process can be followed in detail. The drawings

of these fusion stages are all made on the same scale. They

are magnified nineteen hundred and fifty diameters.

A stage showing the earliest indications of fusion is repre¬

sented in figure forty-four. In this instance, the nuclei are no¬

where in actual contact, but the cells are united along one side.

The chromatin is in the form of fine, uniform, much convoluted

threads. There are several nucleoles in each nucleus. On

each nucleus there is a slender pointed projection extending to

the plasma membrane. Each of these projections contains a

loop of the spirem. The projection on the one nucleus is ex¬

actly opposite the one on the other but the plasma membranes

of the two cells are not quite in contact at this place. The sur¬

faces of the nuclei are smooth and rounded except at the points

where these beaks protrude.

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 27

A slightly later stage is shown in figure forty-five. The cells

are united along one side hut are still distinct through more

than half of the surface of contact between them. The two

cells are rounded except along the edges of the surface of con¬

tact. A broad lobe from one nucleus extends into the other

cell and lies in contact with its nucleus. It is doubtful whether

there is yet actual continuity between the two nuclear cavities.

The chromatin here is distinctly reticulate. There are a few

uniform threads of chromatin— but there is also a real mesh-

work with small aggregations of chromatin at the angles.

It is plain from figures forty-four and forty-five that the

chromatin is not always at the same stage at the time of fusion.

In figure forty-four the chromatin is in practically the spirem

stage. In figure forty-five it is in the earlier stage of the

reticulum. The beginning of fusion is not dependent upon any

particular condition of the chromatin.

Further, the sixteen cells, although formed at the same time,

do not always fuse simultaneously. In the spore sac from

which figure forty-four is drawn, in the case of one or two

pairs of cells the fusion was fairly well advanced; in some

others it was about half completed; and in the one drawn it

was just beginning. In all of the nuclei in this spore sac the

chromatin is in nearly the same condition, consisting of fine

threads of uniform diameter. In general, however, the reticu¬

late condition of the chromatin predominates in the earlier stage

of fusion and the spirem is more common in the later stages.

In figure forty-six, we have a slightly more advanced stage of

fusion. The nuclear cavities are in communication and the

cytoplasm of the two cells is almost completely fused, although

along the left hand side of the figure the cytoplasmic masses

are not yet in contact. The chromatin is reticulate and no nu-

cleoles are present.

It is noteworthy that although the stage of fusion in figure

forty-six is somewhat more advanced, the fusion cell appears to

be distinctly smaller than in either of the two preceding figures.

As noted above, the drawings are all made on the same scale.

This difference in size is probably due to the fact that the time

when fusion begins, varies, and the spore mother cells are grow-

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ing both before and after fusion. The fusion may take place

early, in which case as in figure forty-six, the fusion cell is

small. On the other hand, the fusion may be delayed until the

cells are half grown. The fact that the stage when fusion be¬

gins, varies both in different spore sacs, and to some extent in

the same spore sac, accounts in part for the abundance of these

stages in sections through the young sori.

In figure forty-seven, the cytoplasm of the two cells is shown

completely united. It is to be noted, however, that at the mid¬

dle of the right hand side, where the union is most recent, the

line of union is still traceable by the openness of the cytoplasmic

mesh-work and the large vacuoles. In the nuclei the fused

region is much broader than in figure forty-six and the chro¬

matin reticulum of the two is continuous. Ho nucleoles were

present in this case.

Figure forty-eight represents the type of fusion figure encoun¬

tered most frequently. I have recorded not less than forty like

it. Some of these are smaller than the one drawn and a few are

larger. The condition of the chromatin varies in the different

cases from that of a reticulum to that of a well-defined spirem.

In all cases, the nucleus has the characteristic kidney shape,

and the cytoplasm of the two cells is completely fused around

the convex side of the fusion nucleus, but remains separate

almost to the nuclear membrane on the concave side.

Just why the cells and nuclei should fuse and round out more

quickly on one side than on the other is hard to understand,

but in the majority of cases the fusion plainly occurs in this

fashion. These figures are not oriented in any particular way

in the sporange. In some, the convex side of the nucleus is

turned toward the sporange wall, while in others the concave

open side is turned outward.

Figure forty-nine represents a more unusual type of fusion.

The cell here is almost full grown. The cytoplasm of the two

is completely fused. [Neither the contour of the cell nor the

appearance of the cytoplasm gives any evidence that a fusion

has occurred. The nucleus on the other hand still shows clearly

its double nature. In fusing, the two component nuclei evi¬

dently came to lie side by side and flattened against each other.

Allen— -S per mat o genesis and Apogamy in Ferns . 29

Although there is a broad, connection between the two, each nu¬

cleus has retained to a large extent its individual contour. The

zone where the two nuclear membranes are in contact is marked

by a deep furrow. A number of the fine strands of chromatin

run through from one nuclear cavity to the other. There is a

dense tangle of threads between the two. Many of the chroma¬

tin strands in the nucleus at the right, run radially inward

toward the opening, suggesting perhaps the idea of motion to¬

ward the chromatin of the other nucleus. In a half dozen

places the chromatin threads are already paired for a short dis¬

tance.

In figure fifty, we have another characteristic fusion figure.

Here, as in figure forty-eight the fusion in the nuclei is the

more advanced. A rather deep furrow still partially separates

the two masses of cytoplasm. The plasma membranes of the

two cells are continuous but at the plane of junction of the

nuclei a furrow extends in almost to the nuclear membrane.

The fusion nucleus is well rounded. A protruding ridge in

the outline along the upper side is the only remaining evidence

of fusion so far as form is concerned. Within the nucleus the

strands of the spirem run more or less continually from one

end of the nucleus to the other. Here, too, in a few places the

chromatin threads are paired. Two or three small nucleoles

are present

That the fusion is always in pairs and that all the sixteen

mother cells fuse in the above described fashion is further estab¬

lished by the number of sporogenous cells in the spore sac be¬

fore and after the fusion process.

The stage during which sixteen spore mother cells are pres¬

ent in the spore sac is apparently short. The fusion stages are

next found abundantly. The growth of the cells continues dur¬

ing fusion and when the spore mother cells reach their full size

and round up, only eight are to be found in a sporange.

This second eight-celled stage is markedly different from the

first eight-celled stage described above. The spore sac has now

increased greatly in size. The tapetal cells are shrunken and

crushed and often out of place. The spore mother cells are more

or less rounded up and separate from each other. The nucleus

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of the spore mother cell is much larger in proportion to the

volume of the cell than it was in the cells of the first eight-

celled stage.

In a few cases not all of the cells fuse. In the spore sac

from which the cell in figure fifty-one was drawn, there were

nine separate cells. Seven of the cells were like the one drawn.

The other two, which were lying at a little distance from each

other, were smaller. Each had considerably less than half the

volume of one of the larger cells. The ratio of the diameters

of the smaller and larger cells is about 2 :3. In this case,

fourteen of the sixteen cells apparently fused by pairs. The

other two, either because they were too far apart, or for some

other reason, remained separate. Two cases of this sort have

been recorded. A third case of a similar nature was studied.

Here ten cells were were found in a spore sac, six of which were

large and four were small.

The cells after fusion proceed directly to the heterotypic di¬

vision. Several counts were made at the time of the very con¬

spicuous synaptic stage and here, too, there are only eight cells

in a sporange. Eight cells go through the double division and

eight tetards are formed. Spore counts were made from fresh

material. The sporange was mounted under the microscope and

crushed and the spores counted. The number of spores is fre¬

quently fewer than thirty-two but never exceeds that number.

The evidence from all these data is conclusive that the sixteen

young spore mother cells fuse by pairs to form eight cells.

The Reduction Divisions.

After the fusion, the eight diploid cells at once enter upon

the prophases of the reduction divisions.

In figure fifty-one, we have a cell in which fusion is com¬

plete. The chromatin is still reticulated in certain regions

but the spirem is appearing also. The volume of the nucleus

is larger in proportion to the size of the cell than it has been in

any preceding stage. There are relatively large, clear spaces

between the chromatin strands. So far as the chromatin devel¬

opment is concerned, this is really an earlier stage than those

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 31

given in figures forty-nine and fifty. The latter are really en¬

tering upon the special presynaptic stage, while in figure fifty-

one there is no evidence of this.

Soon after this time, the cells become more uniform in ap¬

pearance. The larger ones round out and become spherical,

lying free from each other in the cavity of the full-grown spore

sac. The smaller ones in which fusion is complete, grow, be¬

coming spherical as they increase in size, and the chromatin

gradually assumes the appearance found in larger cells.

Figure fifty-two shows a thin section through a cell during

this growth. There has been a decided increase in volume

since the stage shown in figure fifty-one and the angular out¬

line has changed to a well rounded form. The cell is nearly

spherical. The nucleus has also increased somewhat. Nearly

all of the chromatin is in the form of delicate threads, suggest¬

ing the leptoneme spirem. There are still chromatin aggrega¬

tions, however, especially in the immediate neighborhood of

the nucleoles.

Shortly after this, the chromatin draws off to one side of the

nucleus forming a dense mass having about one-half the diame¬

ter of the nuclear cavity. Spore sacs containing nuclei in syn¬

apsis are seen freqeuntly, and usually all the cells in the spore

sac are in the same stage. These masses are not oriented in

any particular manner in the sporange. In some of the cells

the mass is on the side away from the peripheny of the spor¬

ange, in others it is on the side nearest it. While the cell is

in synapsis the layer of cytoplasm is always thinner on the

side of the cell adjacent to the mass of chromatin than it is

elsewhere. In cells which have been very lightly stained, the

structure of the synaptic mass can be made out. No nucleole

is found at this stage. The chromatin thread of which the mass

is made is markedly crinkled, and winds irregularly in and

out. The thread cannot be seen to be double at this time and

the two strands have probably fused.

At this stage also there are occasionally cell-fusion stages to

be found. In one case, a sporange was found containing seven

large spherical cells in the synaptic stage. The eighth cell

(figure fifty-three) had the form of two spheres slightly flat-

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tened against each other. The two nearly spherical nuclear

cavities are connected by a rather narrow region of fusion. In

each of the two nuclear cavities there is a dense mass of chro¬

matin threads, and a dense series of similar threads runs from

one mass to the other. The two synaptic masses of chromatin

are equal in size (the plane of the drawing passes tangentially

through the left hand mass) and resemble very closely the syn¬

aptic masses in the other cells in the sporange. Double cells

with a somewhat broader opening between them have been seen

in even later stages, containing normal heterotypic chromo¬

somes.

After synapsis, which apparently lasts a considerable time,

the chromatin again spreands out through the large nuclear

cavity. A stage in this loosening of the knot is seen in figure

fifty-four. A rather thick section through the cell is repre¬

sented, and shows the enormous length of thread that is present

at this time. Ho attempt was made to follow the thread

through its intricate windings. The thread is everywhere uni¬

form in diameter and can nowhere be seen to be double. Here,

as in synapsis, the layer of cytoplasm on the side of the cell

nearest the chromatin knot is very thin.

As the spirem spreads through the nuclear cavity, the nucleus

regains its central position in the cell. In figure fifty-five we

have the large nucleus centrally placed. The spirem, which is

now nearly uniformly distributed, consists of long, fine threads

that wind in and out irregularly through the large nuclear cavity

and are everywhere double. Sometimes the two strands lie

parallel, sometimes they are twisted upon each other, but there

are always two. The course of one of these double strands can

often be traced, irregularly bending and looping, half way

across the nucleus.

Segmentation now occurs and the chromosomes are at first

long and slender but soon shorten and thicken. In the stage

represented in figure fifty-six, the length of a chromosome ex¬

ceeds the diameter of the nucleus. The chromosome is easily

seen to be double. Later, as the chromosomes shorten they ap¬

pear as pairs of thick rods uniformly distributed through the

nuclear cavity. Sixty-nine chromosomes were counted in a

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. S3

nucleus at this stage. This is practically the same number

which is found throughout the gametophyte and the vegetative

life of the sporophyte as will be described below. As noted,

each of these chromosomes is double, as is regularly the case in

diakinesis.

At about this stage, kinoplasmic fibres appear in the cyto¬

plasm. They are at first few and scattered. Later, they be¬

come more numerous and collect into bundles forming a multi¬

polar spindle.

The chromosomes meanwhile have shortened into irregular

lumps, each composed of two very short, thick rods twisted

about each other. The appearance of these heterotypic chro¬

mosomes is very different from the long slender rods in the

vegetative mitoses.

The nuclear membrane now breaks down and the multipolar

spindle becomes bipolar. It may remain multipolar, but some¬

times at least becomes strictly bipolar as in the one drawn

(figure fifty-seven). During the ’formation of the spindle, the

chromosomes which have hitherto been scattered through the

large nuclear cavity, come to lie in the equatorial region of the

spindle. The equatorial plate is frequently irregular in out¬

line and forms sometimes a curved surface so that the chromo¬

somes do not lie in the same plane.

As the halves of these double chromosomes are pulled apart,

the halves themselves become double. In several cases in figure

fifty-seven the daughter chromosomes are seen to consist of two

thin parallel rods whose united bulk would about equal one-

half of the heavy heterotypic chromosome.

When the chromosomes are drawn back to the poles, the

daughter nuclei are partially reorganized but no cell division

takes place.

In the homoeotypic division which soon follows, the two spin¬

dle axes may be placed parallel to each other, or they may lie

at right angles. In other cases one is oblique to the other. An

example of the last named case is represented in figure fifty-

eight. Extending between the two spindles is a thick plate of

rather dense cytoplasm. The cytoplasm of the remainder of

3

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

the cell is much less dense. The spindles themselves are usually

broadpoled and the chromosomes are short and thick.

At the close of the second division the daughter nuclei are

formed and the chromatin goes into the form of a reticulum.

Central spindles are then formed connecting all four muclei in

preparation for cell plate formation. Figure fifty-nine shows

a stage in this process. Only two of the four nuclei lie in the

plane of the drawing. The volume of all four taken together

is considerably less than that of the fusion nucleus before di¬

vision. These four nuclei are irregular and angular in outline.

The rather scanty chromatin is in the form of a loose irregular

network. At this stage numerous fibres are seen running

radially from almost the entire surface of every nucleus. The

only side of each nucleus that is free from fibres is that lying

toward the mother cell-wall. This space between the nuclei

and the mother cell wall is filled with vacuolated cytoplasm.

Many of the fibres can be followed through their entire length

from one nucleus to the other. They are uniformly distributed

throughout the space between the nuclei. In the middle plane

between each pair of nuclei, thickenings in the fibres are formed.

They do not as yet touch each other and are still placed a little

irregularly. This is the beginning of cell-plate formation.

With the formation of the cell plates, the spore mother cell

is divided simultaneously into four approximately equal cells.

Figure sixty represents a section through a tetrad of young

spores. Only three of the four spores lie within the plane of

the drawing, and the middle one of the three is not seen in me¬

dian section. The four cells lie loosely connected — spaces ap¬

pearing between them. Each young spore is a somewhat elon¬

gated cell whose surfaces of contact with the other spores are

still flat but whose free surface is convex. The nucleus also

is elongated following more or less the contour of the mother

cell. The chromatin is more conspicuous than it was in the

stage shown in figure fifty-nine and forms a dense reticulum in

which there are comparatively large aggregations.

As mentioned before, the number of spores formed in a spore

sac never exceeds thirty-two. Eight spore tetrads is the maxi-

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns.

35

mum. Not infrequently, twenty-eight spores are found, indi¬

cating the abortion at some stage in the development, of one of

the spore mother cells. There are sometimes even fewer.

Cases in which one pair of spore mother cells fail to fuse may

account for some of the cases in which twenty-eight spores have

been found in a sporange. There is no evidence that the un¬

paired cells can undergo a, double division to form spores.

Cases of incomplete fusion such as those already described may

also explain reductions of the final spore number.

The question as to the number of chromosomes in the nuclei

of the sporophyte of apogamous ferns as contrasted with those

in which normal fertilization occurs, has attracted much atten¬

tion in recent years, and in the light of the facts as to the

fusion of the spore mother cells above described it becomes

especially important for Aspidium falcatum. In my sections

of prothallia, I have not found division figures common. Fig¬

ure twenty-six shows a characteristic division figure in the

young antheridial sac as described above. It represents an

early anaphase in the first division. About one-third of the

total number of chromosomes are represented in the drawing.

The chromosome number is so large and the chromosomes are

so massed together that a single counting cannot be depended

upon to give trustworthy results. The difficulties in the way

of arriving at an exact determination of the number of chromo¬

somes in any particular division are very great. I have fol¬

lowed the plan of making at least three separate counts for

each division figure. The three numbers so obtained varied

from each other within a range of five or six. It is an average

of the three counts in each case which I have taken as represent¬

ing the nearest possible approximation to the actual number.

The two chromosome groups in the diaster of a vegetative

division in the prothallium when counted in this manner showed

respectively 62 and 61 daughter chromosomes. The three

countings of the first figure gave 61, 62, and 63; for the second

63, 60, 60. Four equatorial plates from an antheridial sac

counted in the same way showed respectively 61, 63, 58 and

60 chromosomes. The three countings from which in each case

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

these figures were derived were respectively 59, 68, 60; 62, 6 If,

63; 60, 55, 59; and 60, 61, 58. The average for all of these

countings is 60, which it seems probable is slightly below the

number of chromosomes characteristic of the prothallium in

this species. The higher numbers were obtained in spindles

where the chromosomes were spread out to the best advantage

for counting. It is probable that sixty-two or sixty-three is

more nearly correct than the average of the six numbers.

The chromosome number in the dividing nucleus of the young

sporophyte was determined in the same way. In sections

through the young apogamous outgrowth, division figures are

comparatively abundant. An equatorial plate stage is shown

in figure sixty-one. It was taken from a point near the newly

formed stem apex. Here, too, as in the division figures in the

gametophyte, the spindle is broad-poled. The denser part of

the cytoplasm is massed about the poles of the spindle. To¬

ward the periphery of the cell there is a much greater propor¬

tion of cell sap. The slender chromosomes, a few of which

show the longitudinal split, are apparently attached by one end

at the equator of the spindle. The free ends may extend to¬

ward the poles or radially outward. They hide from view the

greater part of the spindle fibres. About a third of the total

number of chromosomes are represented in the figure.

The counting of the chromosomes was done as before, each

number given representing the average of three counts for the

same nucleus. The division figures from which counts were

made were from different parts of the young sporophyte. The

majority were in the central mass of tissue near the base of

the stem apex; some came from the apical region of the young

leaf. The numbers obtained in the individual countings were

63, 61/-, — ave. 63; — — ■, — ave. 61+; 63, 69, — average 66;

59, 59, 63, — average 60; 56, 58, 59, average, 58; 58, 61, 58, —

ave. 59; 58, 60, 59, — average 59; 62, 66, 6J+, — ave. 61+; and 61,

65, 62, — average 68. The average of the means so obtained is

62.

The greater variation in the numbers here is probably due to

inaccuracies in counting and does not prove irregularity in the

chromatin content of the nuclei.

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns . 37

To make certain that the same chromosome number persists-

throughout the life of the sporophyte, sections were made of

the young spore sac and the chromosome number in dividing

nuclei counted in the same way. Division figures are easily

obtained. Figure forty-two which was earlier described, shows

an equatorial plate stage. The numbers obtained in the in¬

dividual countings in the young sporophyte were 61, 63, 65, — -

ave. 63; 66, 63, 66, — average 65; 61, 65, 65, average 63. The-

total average here is 65.

The evidence is conclusive from all the above countings that

the chromosome numbers from the nuclei of the prothallium,

young sporophyte and sporange are approximately the same.

The number characteristic of all these stages may then be

said with considerable certainty to be between 60 and 65.

Whether it is the original gametophyte number which per¬

sists through the sporophyte or whether it is the diploid sporo¬

phyte number which persists through the gametophyte is a

question of considerable difficulty.

General Discussion.

Belajelf has described especially the transformation of the

nucleus into a spiral form, but the change in form of the cell

as a whole, the question as to the persistence of the plasma

membrane, etc., are much less clearly worked out.

In the antherozoid of the Gymnosperm the cytoplasm remains

as a more or less rounded mass enclosing a large spherical nu¬

cleus. Here there can be no doubt that the entire cell is pres¬

ent in the mature antherozoid and that the plasma membrane

is still intact. According to Belajelf, it is also intact in Chara.

In Adiantum as described above, the plasma membrane forms

an unbroken covering of the antherozoid. Here, however, as

is usual in ferns, the bulk of the cytoplasm is at the posterior

end. It is found there very early in the process of transforma¬

tion and remains there as the spiral is developed. The plasma

membrane apparently shrinks in about the spiral nucleus

throughout its whole extent.

Ikeno, as noted above, concludes from his observations on

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Cycas and Marchantia that the centrosome forms within the

nucleus before the last division and then moves out through the

nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. Yamanonchi, though

non-committal, considers this as a possibility in Nephr odium

molle. Thom, whose work like my own was largely on Adian-

tum, inclines to the belief that the nucleus of the antherozoid

mother cell in moving to the side of the cell leaves one of its

large nucleoles behind in the center of the cell and that this

nucleole later becomes attached to the anterior end of the nu¬

cleus and becomes the blepharoplast.

My preparations do not support either of these views. The

figure that Thom gives (fig. 27) of the stage before the ap¬

pearance of the blepharoplast corresponds very closely to what

I find in the sixteen-celled stage of the sac. I do not find

large nucleoles and finely divided chromatin in nuclei after the

last division. I find the blepharoplast present in the cytoplasm

before the appearance of the antherid nucleole and continuously

present in all succeeding stages. The blepharoplast certainly

does not originate as a nucleole.

Although the nucleole as such does not move out into the

cytoplasm and become the blepharoplast, the possibility is of

course not excluded that the material for the growth of the

blepharoplast is derived from the nucleus. Strashurger holds

this view. In the swarm-spores of Oedogonium , Strashurger

finds that the hyaline disk about which the cilia grow, forms

only when the nucleus is in contact with it. In antherozoids,

too, the nucleus and blepharoplast are closely associated. These

facts suggest to Strashurger that the source of material for the

origin and growth of the blepharoplast lies within the nucleus

and may perhaps be found in the nucleoles.

This, of course, cannot he regarded as proved, still, the con¬

tact of two organs while one increases in size suggests that the

one is furnishing material for the growth of the other. The

blepharoplast which is seen in the young antherid cell certainly

increases in volume many fold during its development. Still,

the nucleoles found in the nucleus of the growing mother cell

are far too small to supply sufficient material for all this growth.

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 39

There may be more material of the same sort in solution in

the nucleus, hut not all of the substances used in the growth of

the blepharoplast can have been derived from the recognizable

nucleolar material of the antherozoid mother cell.

The question as to the relations of the blepharoplast and cen¬

trosome is still an open one. There is considerable evidence

that the animal centrosome is a permanent structure of the

cell. The plant blepharoplast as it appears in Archegoniates

and seed plants is apparently not permanent. It is present

during a few divisions or perhaps only one. There can be no

question that after considerable growth and various transforma¬

tions, the blepharoplast becomes the structure from which the

cilia are developed. In this it conforms entirely to the be¬

havior of the centrosome in animal spermatogenesis. It seems

probable that the animal centrosome and the blepharoplast are

closely related in their essential nature, to the spindle and astral

fibres and may both be classed under the category of kino-

plasmic substances. As our knowledge of the various activi¬

ties of kinoplasm and of the equally varied forms which it can

assume, increases, it perhaps becomes less surprising that a

kinoplasmic organ, similar in form and function to the centro¬

some can be formed de novo for a special function.

In connection with the old question as to the effects of use

and disuse upon the persistence of a structure, it is interesting

to note that the majority of the apogamous ferns, including

Aspidium falcatum ■, still produce normal antherozoids. Yet so

far as can be judged, apogamy is here an old and well estab¬

lished process. Winkler find equal persistence in apogamous

seed plants.

The occurrence of substitution fusions in plants that have

become apogamous is a fact of fundamental importance for the

interpretation of sexual phenomena. Such cases are apparently

not uncommon among the fungi but the case reported by

Farmer and Digby for Lastraea pseudo-mas var. polydactyla

is the only one hitherto reported for the apogamous ferns.

There can be no question that as described above, sixteen spore

mother cells are formed in the spore sac of Aspidium falcatum

and that these sixteen cells fuse in pairs to form eight. The

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

nuclei of these eight cells fuse at once and immediately enter

upon the prophases of the heterotypic division. Synapsis and

the reduction divisions are normal in every respect. Thirty-

two spores are formed. The number of chromosomes, sixty to

sixty-five, persists through both the gametophytic and sporo-

phytic generations.

Whether this is the original haploid or diploid number is not

at once evident. I am inclined to the view that it is the haploid

number and that in the evolution of Aspidium falcatum, apog-

amy appeared before the fusion of the spore mother cells in

the spore sac. The fern may have existed for some time with

no nuclear or cell fusion or reduction divisions of any sort be¬

fore by further and perhaps correlated variation the fusion of

the spore mother cells appeared. This seems to me the more

probable view but the possibility exists that the fusion of the

spore mother cell appeared first and then led to the immediate

suppression of the normal fertilization. In this case the num¬

ber of chromosomes found at present in both the sporophyte and

gametophyte would be of course the diploid number.

There can be no doubt than; the chromosome number in both

gametophyte and sporophyte is the same in this case as shown

from the counts described. The nuclei of the prothallium and

of the sporophyte which is produced vegetatively upon it, con¬

tain sixty to sixty-five.

Winkler (99) classifies the cases of apogamy under two

heads, (1) somatic apogamy and (2) generative apogamy.

Under somatic apogamy are included all cases of apogamy in

which the double number of chromosomes runs through both

gametophyte and sporophyte. Under generative apogamy are

included the few known instances in which the reduced chromo¬

some number persists through the sporophyte. On this basis

Aspidium falcatum would be classified as a case of generative

apogamy.

In discussing generative apogamy Winkler suggests the possi¬

bility that a case might be found in which a haploid gameto¬

phyte would produce a sporophyte without change of chromo¬

some number and that later in the growth a nuclear fusion

would make good the sporophyte number. In the case of Aspid¬

ium the fusion comes at the close of the sporophyte, showing

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns,

41

that it is not necessary for the development of the sporophytic

characters.

Two other cases of generative apogamy have been discovered

in which, as in Aspidium , it is claimed that the haploid chro¬

mosome number is continued through the sporophyte. Las-

tra'ea pseudo-mas var. cristata apospora is reported by Farmer

and Digby. As previously noted, this form is aposporous as

well as apogamous. The variety is not known to produce

spores and no reduction divisions have been discovered. The

only evidence at present which shows that it is the haploid and

not the diploid chromosome number that is present, is the size

of that number. The counts for Lastaea vary between sixty

and seventy-eight. Another variety of the same species has

sixty-six as the gametophyte number and double that in the

sporophyte. Among ferns in general sixty and seventy are

common gametophyte numbers. Such being the case the pre-

'iimption is in favor of Farmer’s and Digby’s assumption that

it is the haploid number which runs through the whole life-

history.

The second case in which it is claimed that the reduced chro¬

mosome number is maintained unchanged in the development

of the sporophyte is that of NepJtrodium molle described by

Yamanonchi. Here there is no question about its being the

haploid chromosome number, since the species is reported as

also reproducing normally in which case the haploid number,

sixty-six, is doubled to one hundred and thirty-two at the origin

of the sporophyte and reduced to sixty-six once more at spore

formation. Yo description is given by Yamanonchi of the

process of spore formation in these apogamously produced sporo-

phytes. They may possibly resemble Aspidium in showing a

fusion of spore mother cells.

The reverse case, in which the gametophyte has the sporo¬

phyte number, i. e., somatic apogamy, is reported more com¬

monly. Among the instances noted are the macrogameto-

phytes of Antermaria alpina , Thalictrum purpurascens, Tara¬

xacum officinale , Wilcstroemia indica, and several species of

Eualchimilla and Hieracium among the Phanerogams. In all

these cases, however, the macrogametophyte is reduced to a few'

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cells and its morphological characters are not very complex.

Among the ferns, Athyrium felix-foemina varieties clarissima

and unco-giomeratum and Scolopendrium vulgare var. crispum

Drummondas are reported to have a gametophyte with the dip¬

loid number. With few exceptions these gametophytes have

normal form.

It seems to be fairly well established that a gametophyte can

be normal in all morphological details and have the double

chromosome number, and that a sporophyte can be quite as

normal and have the reduced chromosome number. Under

these conditions, the view held by Strasburger that a gameto¬

phyte with the double number of chromosomes must be regarded

as sporophytic tissue, is no longer tenable. To call the large

plant of Aspidium falcatum with its stem and roots, and its

fronds bearing numerous spore sacs, a gametophyte because it

has the haploid number of chromosomes, involves the neglect

of too many important and conspicuous characters both physio¬

logical and morphological.

We can, in my opinion, no longer maintain that the chromo¬

some number as such, determines the morphological characters

of the gametophyte and sporophyte We are forced to the con¬

clusion that the morphological characters may be in certain

cases independent of the chromosome number. This view is

accepted by Farmer and Digby, Winkler and others.

In Marsilia Drummondi as noted above, the same chromo¬

some number appears in the gametophyte and the somatic cells

of the sporophyte and again in the majority of the reduction

division figures in the spore sac. Strasburger also found that

there were fewer than sixteen spore mother cells in a spore

sac at the time of reduction. Correlated with this condition,

some of these spore mother cells were found to be larger than

others and to contain a larger amount of chromatin. It seems

to me possible from these facts that a fusion of the spore mother

cells in Marsilia Drummondi similar to that which I have

found in Aspidium falcatum may occur. In full accord with

this is Strasburger’s statement: “Im allgemeinen konnte man

darauf rechnen, diploiden Makrosporen in einem Sporocarp

um so haufiger gu begegnen, je geringer die Zahl der Sporen-

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 43

mutter Zellen war, die man in den Makrosporangium angelegt

sail.’7 The observation that there were fewer than sixteen

spore mother cells at the time when the reduction division be¬

gins, is at least suggestive.

Against the possibility of such a fusion in Marsilia is the

fact that the smaller spore mother cells which were poor in chro¬

matin content also undergo reduction divisions, according to

Strasburger. It would certainly be hard to believe that cells

already possessing the reduced number of chromosomes could

carry out regular reduction divisions. Possibly these cells cor¬

respond to the cells remaining unfused in the sporange of Aspid¬

ium, but they seem to have been of more frequent occurrence in

Marsilia than I have found them in Aspidium.

On the second hypothesis suggested as to the origin of the

condition in Aspidium falcatum, i. e., that the fusion in the

spore sac arose before the fern had become apogamous, the re¬

duction divisions of unfused cells might of course be expected.

In this case the difficulty Strasburger feels in the assumption

of a sporophyte with the haploid number of chromosomes would

also be obviated. I am, however, of the opinion as argued

above, that in Aspidium falcatum it is the haploid number

which appears in both generations.

The finding of a fusion of vegetative nuclei at the beginning

of the sporophyte in the prothallium of Lastraea as described

by Farmer and Digby, combined with the above described dis¬

covery of a fusion of vegetative nuclei in so unexpected a place

as the young sporange in Aspidium falcatum emphasizes still

more strongly the fundamental significance of cell and nuclear

fusion for the maintenance of the life cycle. In these cases, at

least, when the normal sexual fusion has disappeared it is re¬

placed by a substitute fusion either at the same or some other

stage in the ontogeny. The facts already ascertained show the

need of careful search for similar fusions in such plants as are

now supposed to be continually apogamous.

This work was done under the supervision of Dr. H. A.

Harper, to whom I am indebted for many valuable suggestions

and criticisms.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Summary.

1. In Adiantum, the antherozoid mother cell has a dense nu¬

cleus containing a heavy chromatin network, and a large irregu¬

lar blepharoplast in the cytoplasm. Cell and nucleus grow, the

blepharoplast elongates into a band running half way around

the nucleus and out into the cytoplasm. Encleus and blepharo¬

plast move to one side" of the cell and elongate together into a

spiral. As the elongation of the nucleus and hlepharoplast

progress, the cytoplasm shrinks in to form a close fitting sheath.

The cilia are attached near the anterior end of the blepharoplast

and tend at first to extend backward about the spiral.

2. In Aspidium falcatum , the antherozoids develop normally,

are set free and swim about actively although they do not func¬

tion.

3. The young apogamous sporophyte of Aspidium falcatum

forms by a vegetative outgrowth from the median region of the

prothallium. There is no vegetative fusion of nuclei at this

stage.

4. In the prothallium of Aspidium falcatum the nuclei have

from sixty to sixty-five chromosomes.

5. In the nuclei of the young sporophyte sixty to sixty-five

chromosomes are also present. This number is maintained un¬

changed throughout the growth of the sporophyte as is shown

by counting in the divisions in the young sporange. The “hap¬

loid sporophyte” so formed is normal in all morphological re¬

spects.

6. Sixteen sporemother cells are formed as in other ferns.

These sixteen cells fuse by pairs to form eight cells which then

enter directly upon the reduction divisions.

7. Eight cells are found in the spore sac in synapsis, in

post-synapsis and throughout the divisions.

8. A maximum of thirty-two spores is found in the mature

spore-sac.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL XVII

PLATE I

ALLEN, R. F. : —

AD1ANTUM AND ASPID1UM

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns.

45

Description of Plates.

The drawings were made with a camera lucida. Figures

1-25 are magnified 2250 diameters. Figures 26, 34, 35 and

42-61 are magnified 1950 diameters. Figures 27-33 and

36-37 are magnified 2700 diameters and 38-41 are 162 diame¬

ters.

The drawings are arranged in regular sequence on the plates

except number 38 to 41 which are omitted in plate 3 and

placed by themselves on plate 4.

Plate 1 —Adiantum Capillus-Veneris.

1. Young antherid. Small. Nucleus containing heavy

-chromatin network— -no nucleole. Blepharoplast large and ir¬

regular.

2. Same stage. Blepharoplast comma-shaped.

3. Same stage. Blepharoplast showing dense granules.

4. Later. Nucleole present. Blepharoplast more sharply

hounded.

5. Later. Cell larger. Blepharoplast spherical, dense.

6. Blepharoplast elongated to a band parallel to the surface

of the nucleus. Nucleus in center of cell.

7. Same stage. Nucleole present. Nuclear net more open.

Blepharoplast cut twice at a and b.

8. Same cell as 7. Surface view of blepharoplast.

9. Same stage. Corresponds to 6. Space between blepharo¬

plast and nuclear membrane.

10. Older. Cell rounded. Nucleus larger and at the side

of the cell. Nucleus somewhat elongated, having formed an

anterior beak. Blepharoplast seen in edge view. It extends

along the whole convex outer surface of the nucleus and on

into the cytoplasm at the anterior end.

11. Same stage. Longitudinal section at right angles to 10.

Width of blepharoplast seen at two points — a and b.

12. Same stage. Median cross section showing the width of

the blepharoplast.

13. Later. Nucleus forms three-fourths of a coil. Nucleus

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

here has its maximum volume. The anterior nuclear projec¬

tion is longer and the posterior projection is forming.

14. The cytoplasm has contracted away from the wall. The-

middle half coil of the nucleus is shown. An edge view of the

blepharoplast is seen at each end of nucleus.

15. The nucleus forms one coil. Nucleus is shrinking — the-

hollow of the coil is larger. Blepharoplast is shown along the

convex side.

16. One and a half turns of the spiral. The anterior end of

the coil is elongating. The cell shows a projection, the anterior

end of the antherozoid.

17. Same stage. Side view. Narrow half coil near anterior

end. Section through posterior tip of nucleus and blepharo¬

plast.

,18. About the same stage. Showing the broad posterior end

of the nucleus. The narrow anterior end of the cell comes up

from below on the right.

Plate 2.

Figures 19-25. Adiantum Capillus-V eneris.

Figures 26-31. Aspidium falcatum.

19. Two coil stage. Longitudinal section through cell.

Posterior end upward. Nucleus has become condensed to a

thick band. The cytoplasm is also contracting.

20. Same stage. Posterior portion of spiral shown. The

cytoplasm has drawn back into the hollow of the posterior coil.

21. Two and a half coil stage. Chromatin homogeneous.

a. Complete, b. Last half coil omitted to show retraction of

the cytoplasm between last coil and the one next to it.

22. A single coil from the middle of the antherozoid. The

cytoplasm now forms a heavy spiral.

23. Later. Posterior coil and a half. Cytoplasm same.

24. Mature antherozoid. Cytoplasm forming posterior

vesicle. Cilia conspicuous near anterior end.

25. Same. Some cilia directed forwards.

26. Division of central cell in antheridial sac. Spindle broad

poled. No centrosome.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE II

ALLEN, R. F : —

ADIANTUM AND ASPIDIUM

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

\

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE III

ALLEN, R. F. : —

ADIANTU M AND ASPIDIUM

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns.

47

27. Resting cell at eight cell stage. Nucleus contains large

nucleoles and finely divided chromatin.

28. Antherid. Shows section through thick end of blepharo¬

plast.

29. Same cell. Shows section of same blepharoplast at

smaller end.

30. Same stage. Surface view of blepharoplast

31. Blepharoplast elongating. Cut obliquely. Projection

on the nucleus below the blepharoplast.

Plate 3.

Figures 32-37. Development of antherzoid in Aspidium fab

catum.

Figures 42-47. Nuclear fusion in spore-soc of Aspidium

falcatum.

32. Blepharoplast elongated further. Nucleus touches mid¬

dle region of blepharoplast.

33. Cross section, somewhat oblique, at the same stage,

sh owing pro j ection .

34. Shows long anterior beak.

35. Median cross section through nucleus. Blepharoplast on

outer side. Anterior projection below.

36. One and a half coil stage. Anterior and posterior pro¬

jections slender. Bulk of nucleus in the center. The cell

shows a pointed projection containing the anterior end of the

blepharoplast.

37. Posterior coil from nearly mature antherozoid. Starch

grains in the cytoplasm.

42. One of the eight equatorial plate stages in a spore-sac.

43. One of the sixteen young spore mother cells. Cell small

and angular.

44. Beginning of fusion of spore mother cells. Cytoplasm

of the two cells fused at the right. Projection on each nucleus

extends toward the other.

45. A broad lobe of one nucleus extends over to the other

nucleus. Cytoplasm is still separate through more than half

of the surface of contact between the two cells.

48 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

46. The two nuclear cavities are continuous.

47. Cytoplasm completely fused. The fusion nucleus kid-

ney-shaped.

Plate 4.

Figures 38-41. Aspidium falcatum.

38. Median longitudinal section of young apogamous out¬

growth.

39. Older sporophyte showing radial rows of cells. Vascu¬

lar tissue present.

40. Still older. The boundary between gametophytic and

sporophytic tissues obscure.

41. Sporophyte has developed the first leaf (1). The first

root (r) is just breaking through, s is the newly organized

stem apex.

Plate 5.

Aspidium falcatum.

48. Fusion nucleus kidney shaped. Cytoplasm is not fused

on the concave side of the nucleus.

49. Cytoplasm fused. Nucleus still shows its double nature.

Chromatin threads show pairing.

50. Furrow remains in the cytoplasm at the plane of fusion.

Chromatin threads show pairing.

51. Fusion just completed.

52. Older. Cell rounded. Occasional paired threads.

53. Incomplete fusion. Synapsis. A dense tangle of

threads in each nuclear cavity. Similar threads run from one

mass to the other.

54. Early post-synapsis. Nucleus eccentric. The tangle of

threads is loosening. Threads very long, uniform in diameter

and can not he seen to be double.

55. Nucleus central. Slender double threads.

56. Segmentation. Double chromosomes. Spirem thicker.

57. Equatorial plate of heterotypic division.

58. Equatorial plate of homoeotypic division.

59. Central spindles after the last division.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE IV

ALLEN, R. F. : —

ADIANTUM AND ASPIDIUM

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE V

ALLEN, R. F. : —

ADIANTUM AND ASPIDIUM

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE VI

ALLEN. R. F. : —

ADIANTUM AND ASPID1UM

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 49

60. Section through tetrad of young spores.

61. Equatorial plate from young apogamous outgrowth near

stem apex.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Allen, C. E. : Chromosome Reduction in Lilium Cana-

dense. Bot. Gaz. 31 : 464-471. 1904.

% - Nuclear Division in the Pollen Mother Cells of

Lilium Canadense. Ann. of Bot. 19: 191-258.

1905.

3. - Das Verhalten der Kemsubstanzen waehrend der

Synapsis in den Pollen-Mutterzellen von Lilium Can¬

adense. Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. 42: 72-82. 1)906.

4. — - Die Keimung der Zygote bei Coleochaete. Ber. d.

Deut. Botan. Ges. 23: 285-292. 1905.

5. Baby, de A.: Ueber apogame Earne und die Erschein-

ung der Apogamie im Allgemeinen. Bot. Zeit. 36:

449-487. 1878.

6. Beard, J. : On the Phenomena of Reproduction in Ani¬

mals and Plants. Antithetic Alternation of Genera¬

tions. Ann. of Bot. 9: 441-447. 1895.

7. Belajefe, W. C. : Antheridien and Spermatozoiden der

heterosporen Lycopodiaceen. Bot. Zeit. 43: 791-802

and 809-819. 1885.

8. — — - Ueber Ban und Entwickelnng der Spermatozoiden

bei den Gefaesskryptogamen. Ber. d. Deut. Botan.

Ges. 7: 122-125. 1889.

10. - Zur Lehre von dem P ollenschlauche der Gymno-

spermen. Ber. d. Deut. Botan. Ges. 9 : 280-286.

1891.

10. — — Zur Lehre von dem Pollenschlauche der Gymno-

spermen. Ber. d. Deut. Botan. Ges. 11: 196-201.

1893.

11. - —Ueber Ban und Entwickelnng der Spermatozoiden

der Pflanzen. Flora 79 : 1-48. 1894.

4

50 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

12. - Ueber den 1ST ebenkem in spermatogenen Zellen nnd

die Spermatogenese bei den Farnkraeutern. Ber. d.

Dent. Botan. Ges. 15 : 337-339. 1897.

13. - Ueber die Spermatogenese bei den Schachtelhal-

men. Ber. d. Dent. Botan. Ges. 15 : 339-342. 1897.

14. - Ueber die Aehnlicbkeit einiger Erscbeinungen in

der Spermatogenese bei Tbieren und PfLanzen. Ber.

d. Dent. Botan. Ges. 15 : 342-345. 1897.

15. - Ueber die Cilienbildner in den spermatogenen

Zellen. Ber. d. Dent. Botan. Ges. 16 : 140-143.

1898.

16. - Die verwandschaftlichen Beziehnngen zwiscben

den Phanerogamen und den Cryptogamen im Licbte

der nenesten Forscbnngen. Bio. Cent. 18: 209-218.

1898.

17. - Ueber die Centrosome in den spermatogenen Zel¬

len. Ber. d. Dent. Botan. Ges. 17 : 199-205. 1899.

18. - Die Centrosomen in den spermatogenen Pflanzen-

zellen. Bot. Cent. 77 :61'. 1899.

19. Blackman, V. H. : On the Relation of Fertilization to

“Apogamy” and “Parthenogenesis.” Hew Phytolo-

gist 3:149-158. 1904.

20. Bower: On some Normal and Abnormal Developments

of the Oophvte in Trichomanes. Ann. of Bot. 1:

269-305. 1888.

21. - On antithetic as distinct from homologous Alterna¬

tion of Generations in Plants. Ann. of Bot. 4:347-

370. 1890.

22. - Opening Address in the British Association.

(Bristol Meeting.) Nature 59:66-69, 88-91, and

112-114. 1898.

23. Campbell, D. H. : Antithetic versus Homologous Al¬

ternation. Amer. Hat. 37: 153-169. ,1903.

24. - Mosses and Ferns. 1905.

25. Chamberlain, C. J. : Alternation of Generations in Ani¬

mals from a Botanical Standpoint. Bot. Gaz. 39 : 137..

1905.

I

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogmny in Ferns.

51

26. Christensen, C. : Index Filicum. 1895-1896.

27. Christman, A. H. : Sexual Reproduction in the Rusts.

Bot. Gaz. 37: 267-274. 1905.

28. Coulter, John M. : The Origin of the Leafy Sporo-

phyte. Bot. Gaz. 28 : 46-59. 1899.

29. Davis, B. M. : The Spore-mother Cells of Anthoceros:

Bot. Gaz. 28 : 89-108. 1899.

30. - Nuclear Studies on Pellia. Ann. of Bot. 15 : 147~

180. 190,1.

31. - Origin of the Sporophyte. Amer. Nat. 37: 411-

429. 1903.

32. Debski : Beobachtungen ueber Kerntheilung bei Chara

fragilis. Jahr. f. Wiss. Bot. 30: 227-248. 1897.

33. Dodel — Port.: Das amphibische Verhalten der Pro-

thallien von Polypodiaceen. Kosmos. 7 : 11-22.

1880.

34. Engler and Prantle: Die natlirlichen Pflanzenfami-

lien. 1-4.

35. Farlow, W. G. : An Asexual Growth from the Prothal-

lus of Pteris cretica. Quar. Jour. Mic. Sci. 14:

266-272. 1874.

36. - Ueber ungeschlechtliche Erzeugung von Keimpflam

zen auf Farn Prothallien Bot. Zeit. 32 p. 180-183.^

1874.

37. - Apospory in Pteris Aquilina. Ann. of Bot. 2r

383-385. ,1889.

38. Farmer and Reeves : On the Occurrence of Centro-

spheres in Pellia epiphylla. Nees. Ann. of Bot. 8 :

219-224. 1894.

39. Farmer, J. B. : On Spore-Formation and Nuclear Divi¬

sion in the Hepaticae. Ann. of Bot. 9 : 469-523...

1895.

40. Farmer, J. B., and Dig by, L. : Studies in Apospory

and Apogamy in Ferns. Ann. of Bot. 21 : 161-199.

1907.

41. Goebel, K. : Archegoniaten studien. Flora 76: 92-l'16o.

1892.

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

42. - Archegoniaten studien. Flora 82: 67-75. 1896..

43. Guiguaed : Developpement et Constitution des Anthero-

zoids. Bevue Gen. de Bot. 1: 11-27, 63-78, 136-

145, 175-186. 1889.

44. - Observations sur le Pollen des Cycadees. Jour, de

Bot. 3: 222-236. 1889.

45. - Les Centrosomes cbez les Vegetaux. Compt.

Bend. 125 : 1140-1152. 1897.

46. Haeoker: The Reduction of the Chromosomes in the

Sexual Cells as described by Botanists: A reply to

Professor Strasburger. Ann. of Bot. 9 : 95-101.

1895. *

47. Harper, B. A. : Kerntheilung und frei Zellbildung im

Ascus. Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. 30: 249-284. 1897.

48. - Sexual Beproduction and the Organization of the

Nucleus in certain Mildews. Pub. Carnegie Inst.

Wash. No. 37. 1905.

49. Hartog, M. : Alternation of Generations. Ann. of

Bot. 12: 593-594. 1898.

50. Heim, Carl: ITntersuchungen ueber Farnprothallieco.

Flora 82 : 329-373. 1896.

51. Henneguy: Sur le rapport des Centrosomes avec les

cils Vibratiles. Compt. Bend. 126 : 975-978. 1898.

52. Hermans' : Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Spermatogenese.

Arch. f. Mik. Anat. 50: 276-315. 1897.

53. Hirase: ITntersuchungen ueber das Verhalten des Pol¬

lens von Ginkgo biloba. Bot. Centr. 69 : 33-35.

1897.

54. Ikeno and Hirase: Spermatozoids in Gymnosperms.

Ann. of Bot. 11 : 344-345. 1897.

55. Ikeno. ITntersuchungen ueber die Entwickelung der

Geschlechtsorgane und den Vorgang der Befruchtung

bei Cycas revoluta. Jahr. f. wiss. Bot. 32: 557-602.

1898.

56. - - - Zur Kenntniss des sogenannte centrosomaenlichen

Koerpers im Pollenschlauche der Cycadeen. Flora.

85:15-18. 1898.

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 53

57. - Beitraege zur Kenntniss der pflanzlichen Sperma-

togenese : Die Spermatogenese von Marchantia poly¬

morph a. Bei. zum Bot. Centr. 15 : 65-88. 1903.

58. - Blepharopla sten im Pflanzenreich. Bio. Centr.

24: 211-221. 1904.

59. - Are the Centrosomes in the Antheridial cells of

Marchantia polymorpha Imaginary ? Bot. Mag.

Tokyo. 19. 1905.

60. Juel, H. O. : Parthenogenesis bei Antennaria Alpina.

Bot, Centr. 74: 369-372. 1898.

61. Karstens: Ueber Beziehungen der Uukleolen zu den

Centrosomen bei Psilotum triquetrum. Ber. d. Deut.

Botan. Ges. 11: 555-562. 1893.

62. Klebs, G. : Alternation of Generations in the Thallo-

phytes. Ann. of Bot. 12: 570-583. 1898.

63. Lang, W. EL. : Alternation of Generations in the Arche-

goniates. Ann. of Bot. 12 : 583-592. ^898.

64. - On Apogamy and the Development of Sporangia

from Fern Prothallia. Phil. Trans. Boy. Soc. Lon¬

don. B. 190:189. 1898.

65. Leclerc du Sablon: Sur la Formation des Anthero-

zoids des Hepatiques. Compt. Bend. 106: 876-878.

1888.

66. Leitgeb, H. : Die Sprossbildung an apogamen Farn-

prothallien. Ber. d. Deut. Botan. Ges. 3: 169-176.

1885.

67. Lyon, F. M. : The Evolution of Sex Organs in Plants.

Bot. Gaz. 37: 280-293. 1904.

68. Meves, F. : Ueber Centralkoerper in maennlichen

Geschlechtszellen von Schmetterlingen. Anat. Anzeig

14: 1-6. 1897.

69. - — Ueber Structur und Histogenese der Samenfaden

des Meerschweinchens. Arch, f . Micr. Anat. 54 : 329-

402. 1899.

70. Miyake: On the Centrosome of Hepaticae. Bot. Mag.

Tokyo, 19^1905.

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

71. Moore, J. E. S. : On the Essential Similarity of the

Process of Chromosome Reduction in Animals and

Plants. Ann. of Bot. 9: 431-439. 1895.

72. ^athafsohn, A. : Ueber Parthenogenesis bei Marsilia

und ihre Abhaengigkeit von der Temperatur. Ber. d.

Deut, Botan. Ges, 18: 99-109. 1900.

73. Ostenfeld, C. EL, and Rosenberg, 0. : Experimental

and Cytological Studies in the Hieracia Bot. Tidssk.

27:225. 1906.

74. Overton, J. B. Parthenogenesis in Thalictrum pur-

purascens. Bot. Gaz. 33 : 363-374. 1902.

75. - Ueber Parthenogenesis bei Thalictrun purpur-

ascens. Ber. d. Dent. Botan. Ges. 22: 274-283.

1904.

76. - Ueber Reductionsteilung in den Pollenmutterzel-

len einiger Dikotylen. Jahr. fiir Wiss. Bot. 42 : 121-

153. 1905.

77. Pringsheim, U. : Ueber Sprossung der Moosfruechte

und den Generationswechsel der Thallophyten. Jahrb.

f. Wiss. Bot. 11: 1-46. 1878.

78. Rosenberg, O. : Experimental and Cytological Studies

in the Hieracia II. Cytological Studies on the Apog-

amy of Hieracium. Bot. Tidssk. 28 : 143. 1907.

79. Schottlaender. Boitraege zur Kenntniss des Zellkerns

und der Sexualzellen bei Kryptogamen, Bei. z. Bio. d.

Pflanzen. 6: 267-304. 1893.

80. - Zur Histologie der Sexualzellen bei Kryptogamen.

Ber. d. Deut, Botan. Ges. 10: 27-29. 1892.

81. Shaw, W. R. : The Fertilization of Onoclea. Ann. of

Bot. 12: 261-285. 1898.

82. - Parthenogenesis in Marsilia. Bot. Gaz. 24: 114-

117. 1897.

83. - Ueber die Blepharoplasten bei Onoclea und Mar¬

silia. Ber. d. Deut. Botan. Ges. .16: 177-184. 1898.

84. Strasburger: Schwaermsporen, Gameten, pflanzliche

Spermatozoiden und das Wesen der Befruchtung.

Hist. Beitr. 4. 1892.

Allen — Spermatogenesis and Apogamy in Ferns. 55

85. — — The Periodic Reduction of the number of Chromo¬

somes in the Life History of Living Organisms.

Ann. of Bot. 8: 281-316. 1894.

86. — — Ueber Reductionsteilung, Spindelbildung, Centro-

somen und Cilienhildner im Pflanzenreich. Hist.

Beitr.>6. 1900.

87. - Die Apogamie der Eualchimillen und Allgemeine

Gesichespunkte die sich aus ihr ergeben. Jahr f.

Wiss. Bot. 41: 88-164. 1904.

88. - Apogamie bei Marsilia. Flora 97 : 123-188. 1907.

89. Thom: The Process of Fertilization in Aspidium and

Adiantum. Trans. Akad. Sci.. of St. Louis. 9 : 285.

1899.

90. Timberlake : Development and Structure of the Swarm

spores of Hydrodichtyon, Trans, of Wis. Acad. 13.

1901.

91. Vaizey, J. R. : Alternation of Generations in Green

Plants. Ann. of Bot. 4: 371-378. 1890.

92. Webber: Peculiar Structures Occurring in the Pollen-

tube of Zamia. Bot. Gaz. 23. 453-459. 1897.

93. - Uotes on the Fecundation of Zamia and the Pollen

Tube Apparatus of Ginkgo. Bot. Gaz. 24: 225-235.

1897.

94. - Are Blepharoplasts Distinct from Centrosomes ?

Science. U. S. 7 : 118. 1898.

95. - Origin and Homologies of the Blepharoplasts.

Science, U. S. 8 : 652. 1898.

96. - Further notes on the Spermatogenesis of Zamia.

Science 13 : 254. 1901.

97. - - Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia, IT. S.

Dept, of Agric. Bureau of Plant Industry. Bull. Ho.

2.

98. Winkler, Hans: ITeber Parthenogenesis bei Wikstroe-

mia indica. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buit. 5: 208. 1906.

99. - Ueber Parthenogenesis and Apogamie im Pflan-

zenreiche. Progressus Rei Botanicae. 1908.

100. Woronin, H. : Apogamie und Aposporie bei einigen

Farnen. Flora 98 : 101-162. 1907.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

101. Yamanouchi, S. : The Life History of Polysiphonia vio-

lacea. Bot. Gaz. 42: 401-448. 1906.

102. — — Sporogenesis in Nephrodium. Bot. Gaz. 45:

1-30. 1908.

103. - Spermatogenesis, Oogenesis, and Fertilization in

Hephrodium, Bot. Gaz. 45: 145-174. 1908.

104. - Apogamy in Hephrodium. Bot. Gaz. 45 : 289-

318. 1908.

University of Wisconsin ,

December 23, 1909.

THE GRASSES OF MILWAUKEE COUNTY, WISCONSIN.

BY CHARLES T. AND BEIRNE B. BRUES.

Milwaukee County includes an area of about 180 square

miles in the southeastern part of Wisconsin, and is adjacent to

Lake Michigan along its entire eastern boundary. All of the

county is covered by glacial drift and presents the moderately

undulating surface characteristic of such drift deposits. Lake

Michigan is about 580 feet above mean sea-level, and along the

lake the shore rises in most places abruptly in the form of

bluffs from 60 to 120 feet high. F rom these westward, the

undulations assume a more or less parallel direction, defining

slight ridges with a north and south trend, until in the western

part of the county elevations of from 220 to 260 feet above the

lake are attained. FTo large rivers traverse the county, although

there are several streams of considerable size which empty their

waters into the lake. The most important of these is the Mil¬

waukee river which enters the county on the north, and due

to the position of the previously mentioned ridges, follows a

southward course only from one to three miles removed from

the lake shore, finally turning abruptly eastward near the cen¬

ter of the city of Milwaukee where it reaches Lake Michigan.

The next in size, known as the Menomonee river, enters the

county at the northwest corner and flows south and east

through Wauwatosa into the Milwaukee river about three-

fourths of a mile from its mouth. In the southern part of the

city of Milwaukee is a third stream, the Kinnickinnic river,

scarcely over five miles in length, which enters the lake with

the Milwaukee river; and finally in the extreme southeastern

part of the county, another small stream, Oak creek, flows into

the lake. There are no lakes within the county, except two or

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

three very small ones in the southwestern part, although there

is much marshy land scattered throughout the area. Most of

this is not contiguous to the larger streams, and much of it is

being drained for commercial reasons. A considerable part of

the county is wooded, almost entirely by deciduous trees, al¬

though much land has been cleared’ for farming purposes.

There are also small patches tending toward prairie formation

in the southwestern part. One other small locality in the

northern part of the county, along the Milwaukee river south

of Whitefish Bay also supports several typical prairie forms like

Panicum virgatum and Spartina Michauxiana. In the region

to the south of Bay View, there are a few small open sandy

places, and beaches of very limited extent occur sporadically

along the shore of Lake Michigan. Railroads enter the county

from the west, and these have afforded paths for the ingress of

several typically western species which appear to have estab¬

lished themselves within the county.

From its geographical position, the region under considera¬

tion lies close to the northern limit of the upper austral zone

as defined by Merriam,1 and therefore, besides a predominance

of the species characteristic of this zone, affords a congenial en¬

vironment for many forms belonging to the adj oining ' more

northern transition zone.

The present list is based on collections made during three

seasons and a part of a fourth, and while quite likely not com¬

plete, undoubtedly includes the great majority of species oc¬

curring within the county. In all, 101 species and varieties

are listed, which include a number of cultivated forms that

occur regularly and actually form a part of the present flora.

The grasses of Milwaukee county have been previously enumer¬

ated twice in connection with general lists of the flowering

plants of this region, first by Wheeler2 in a short paper which

gives also considerable general matter pertaining to the county ;

and later by Russel,3 but as little attention has hitherto been

1 Bull. U. S. Biol. Surv. No. 10. (1898.)

2 Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, 1888, pp. 187-189.

s Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. 5, pp. 172-175. (1907.)

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

59

paid to the grasses of the county, these lists are necessarily in¬

complete with regard to this group.

With the exception of a single one, all the species which we

have collected appear to he described, although the range of a

number is somewhat extended by the present records. The

following are the more important of these :

Panicum iennesseense Ashe.

Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv.

Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw.

Sporobolus compressus (Torr.) Kunth.

C dlamagrostis Macouniana Yasey.

Sphenopholis nitida (Spreng.) Scrib.

Trisetum melicoides (Michx.) Yasey.

Cy no surus cristatus L.

Poa trimalis L.

Glyceria pallida (Torr.) Trin.

Bromus breviaristatus (Hook.) Buck.

Brornus ciliatus laeviglumis Scrib.

Agropyron Gmelini Scrib. & Smith.

Elymus Macounii Yasey.

The nomenclature and sequence used is essentially that

adopted in Robinson and Fernald’s seventh edition of Gray's

manual (1907) with a few changes, particularly in respect to

species listed by them as varieties or synonyms, although a

number of species are included which do not appear in the

manual. The references cited after each species are in nearly

all cases only those which contain descriptive matter or figures.

Thus, B. & B. Ill. FI. refers to Britton and Brown’s Illustrated

Flora of the Northern United States, Yol. 1 (1896) ; B. & B.

Man. to the later manual of these authors; Beal, 2 to the sec¬

ond volume of Beal’s Grasses of North America (J896) ; Hack,

trans. to the translation by Scribner (1896) of Hackel’s article

on Gramineae which appeared originally as a part of Engler

and Prantl’s aDie Natiirlichen Pflantzenfamilien and Bull.

Agrost. to the various bulletins of the division of Agrostology

of the IT. S. Department of Agriculture.

No species are included of which we have not seen authentic

specimens from the county, but we have been able to add a few

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to those collected by ourselves from a study of specimens com

tained in the herbarium of the Milwaukee Public Museum.

On account of the draining of marshes, clearing of wood¬

lands for farming purposes, and the building up of villages and

towns, many of the grasses hitherto found are disappearing, and

in their place the railroads and other sources are bringing in

new species. This probably accounts for our own failure to

find a number of the species previously recorded which have

no doubt now disappeared entirely.

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES AND TRIBES.

1. Spikelets one, rarely two flowered; when two flowered the terminal

flower perfect, the lower staminate or neuter; rhachilla articu¬

lated below the glumes; spikelets more or less dorsally com¬

pressed. . . . . Subfamily PANICOIDEAE. 2.

Spikelets one to many flowered, the rudimentary floret if present

usually uppermost; rhachilla usually articulated above the

glumes which are persistent on the pedicel or rhachis after the

fall of the florets; when 2-many flowered a distinct internode

of the rhachilla separates the florets and is articulated below

them; spikelets more or less laterally compressed........ . .

.... . . . . Subfamily POACOIDEAE. 3.

2. Spikelets in pairs or threes on the usually articulate rhachis of a

spike-like raceme; one sessile and fertile, the other pedicelled

and perfect, staminate, neuter or rudimentary . .

. . . Tribe ANDROPOGONEAE.

Spikelets all perfect, in racemes or panicles; glumes membranous,.,

unequal; first usually small, sometimes obsolete; fertile lemma

and palea indurated, firmly clasped together enclosing the free

grain, almost always awnless.. . . . . .Tribe PANICEAE.

3. Spikelets upon pedicels, in panicles, spike-like panicles, or racemes,.

not in rows . . . . . 4.

Spikelets arranged in two rows . . . . . 7.

4. Spikelets with but one perfect flower which is terminal except in

Ammophila and certain species of Calamagrostis . . . . . . . .5.

Spikelets with two or more perfect flowers. (The lower one stami¬

nate in Arrhenatherum ) . . . . . . . . 6.

5. Glumes one or none . . . .Tribe ORYZEAE.

Glumes four, (Only two in Savastana, but the pair above bear only

staminate flowers) palea one-nerved ..... Tribe PHALARIDEAE.

Glumes two, palea two-nerved........ . Tribe AGROSTIDEAE.

6. Lemmas generally shorter than the glumes, usually with a bent

awn on the back. . . . . Tribe AVENEAE.

Lemmas generally longer than the glumes, unawned or with a

straight awn from the apex.... . .....Tribe FESTUCEAE.

7. Spikelets forming a one-sided spike or raceme . . .

. . . . . . .Tribe CHLORIDE AE.

Spikelets in opposite rows forming an equilateral spike. ............

. .Tribe HORDEAE.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

61

KEY TO THE GENERA.

Subfamily PANICOIDEAE.

Tribe ANDROPOGONEAE.

Inflorescence composed of spike-like silky racemes. .. ANDROPQGON.

Infloresence paniculate; spikelets silky . SORGHUM.

Tribe PANICEAE.

1. Spikelets without an involucre of bristles . 2,

Spikelets with an involucre of bristles . 4.

2. Lemma leathery, indurated, with hyaline margins, not inrolled;

spikelets lanceolate, forming slender spike-like racemes . .

. DIGITARIA,

Lemma chartaceous, indurated, margins inrolled, not hyaline . 3.

3. Glumes and lemmas awnless . PANICUM.

Sterile lemma awned or pointed, inflorescence a panicle of crowded

one-sided racemes . ECHINOCHLOA.

4. Involucre consisting of one to many persistent bristles; spikelets

in a dense cylindrical spike-like panicle . SET ARIA.

Involucre consisting of two spine-bearing valves forming a bur.

. CENCHRUS.

Subfamily POACOIDEAE..

Tribe ORYZEAE.

1. Spikelets unisexual, unlike in appearance . ZIZANIA.

Spikelets consisting of perfect flowers . LEERSIA,

Tribe PHALARIDEAE.

X. Third and fourth glumes small and empty or rudimentary. . . .

. PHALARIS.

Third and fourth glumes enclosing staminate flowers . .

. HIEROCHLOE.

Tribe AGROSTIDEAE.

1. Lemma indurated at maturity . 2.

Lemma membranous . 3.

2. Spikelet awnless, no callus . MILIUM.

Spikelets with a terminal awn, callus at the base . STIPA.

3. Lemma awned from the tip or mucronate, closely infolding the

grain . . 4.

Lemma awnless or dorsally awned, loosely embracing the grain.. 5.

4. Rhachilla not prolonged behind the palea; lemma pointed or awned.

. MUHLENBERGIA.

Rhachilla prolonged into a bristle behind the palea; lemma long

awned . BRACHYELYTRUM.

5. Glumes conspicuously compressed, carinate; spikelets in dense

spike-like panicles . .....6.

Glumes not conspicuously compressed; spikelets in open or narrow

panicles . 7.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

6. Spikelets readily deciduous at maturity; lemma awned below the

middle . ALOPECURUS.

Spikelets not deciduous; lemma awnless . PHLEUM.

7. Lemma one, rarely three-nerved, awnless; pericarp readily separat¬

ing from the grain . SPOROBOLUS.

Lemma three to five-nerved, awned or awnless; pericarp adherent

to the grain . 8.

8. Florets sessile; stamens three . 9.

Florets plainly stalked; stamen one . . CXNNA.

9. Rhachilla not prolonged behind the palea . AGROSTIS.

Rhachilla prolonged behind the palea into a bristle . 10.

10. Panicle loose or contracted, callus and prolonged rhachilla with

long hairs . CALAMAGROSTIS.

Panicle dense, spike-like, callus and prolonged rhachilla with

short hairs . AMMOPHILA.

Tribe AVENEAE.

1. Spikelets articulated below the glumes, falling entire or with

glumes and lowest floret together; florets usually awnless....

. SPHENOPHOLIS.

Articulation above the glumes; glumes not falling off with the

spikelets; awns present . 2.

2. Awns dorsal dorsal, not flattened . 3.

Awns from between the teeth of the bidentate apex of the lemma,

flattened and twisted . DANTHONIA'.

3. Spikelets two to several-flowered, lowest floret perfect . 4.

Spikelet two-flowered, lower floret staminate, long-awned, upper

perfect and usually awnless . ARRHENATHERUM.

4. Spikelets less than one centimeter long, grain free from the palea.

. 5.

Spikelet more than 1 cm. long; grain adherent to the palea.

. AVENA.

5. Lemma keeled, bidentate, awns arising from above the middle.

. TRISETUM.

Lemma convex, awn arising at or below the middle .

. DESCHAMPSIA.

Tribe CHLORIDEAE.

Spikelets one flowered, all alike; rhachilla articulated below the

narrow, unequal glumes . . . SPARTINA.

f

Tribe FESTUCEAE.

1. Rhachilla with long hairs enveloping the lemma; tall aquatic

grasses . PHRAGMITES.

Rhachilla and lemma naked or hairy; hairs much shorter than the

lemma . ••••*•• *

2. Spikelets of two forms, the fertile 1-3 flowered, surrounded by the

sterile consisting of many pectinate scales . CYNOSURUS.

Spikelets all alike . o.

3 Lemmas 1-3 nerved, all with perfect flowers, or the upper staminate

or empty . ERAGROSTIS.

Lemmas 5-many nerved, each with a perfect flower, or the upper¬

most sometimes aborted . 4.

4. Scales more or less strongly compressed or keeled . 5.

Scales rounded on the back, at least below . *>.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

63

5. Lemmas herbaceous, awn-pointed; spikelets collected in one-sided

clusters . . . . .DACTYLIS.

Lemmas scarious margined; rhachilla glabrous; lemmas mostly

webby at the base . POA.

6. Stigmas placed at or near the apex of the ovary . 7.

Stigmas plainly arising below the apex of the ovary; spikelets large,

usually drooping; scales generally awned. . . . . BROMUS.

7. Lemma obtuse or subacute and scarious at the apex, usually

toothed . 8.

Lemma acute, pointed or awned at the apex, not webby .

. . . .FESTUCA.

8. Lemma plainly 5-7 nerved ; styles present . GLYCERIA.

Tribe HORDEAE.

1. Spikelets solitary at each notch of the rhachis . 2.

Spikelets 2-6 at each notch of the rhachis . 5.

2. Lemma with its convex dorsal surface turned toward the rhachis.

. LOLIUM.

Spikelets with their lateral aspect turned toward the rhachis . 3.

3. Lemma with a distinct callus which is limited by a furrow at the

base, falling off at maturity with a single grain which is grown

to the palea. . . AGROPYRON.

Lemma without a callus, persistent at maturity; grain free . 4.

4. Glumes subulate, 1-nerved . SECALE.

Glumes ovate, 3-many nerved . ~. . TRITICUM.

5. Spikelets 1-flowered, or with only the vestige of a second .

. HORDEUM.

Spikelets two-many flowered . 6.

6. Glumes a little smaller than the lemmas (in one species the glumes

more reduced in a part of the spikelets) . . ELYMUS.

Glumes very small or none . HYSTRIX

Andropogon L.

Andropogon furcatus Muhl. Willd. Sp. PI. 4, 919. (1806) B. & B.

Ill. FI. p. 102; Beal, 2, p. 55 (provincialis) ; Bull. Agrost., 7, f. 14

(provincialis) ; Bull. Agrost., 20, f. 13; Gray, 7th, p. 94.

There is a single specimen of this species bearing the label “Bay

View, Sept. 4” in the herbarium of the Milwaukee Public Museum.

We have not found it in the county although it is quite abundant to

the southward in Racine County.

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Sp. PI. 1047. (1753.) var. techni-

cum. B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 104; Hack, trans. p. 59; Gray, 7th, p. 95.

The occurrence of a single specimen of this species has been brought

to our attention. It was found in a yard, within the City of Milwaukee,

under conditions which suggest that it sprouted from seed dropped by

passing birds.

Digitaria Scop.

1. Pedicels terete; first glume obsolete; spikelets scarcely over 2 mm.

long . . . .D. humifusa.

Pedicels sharply angled; first glume present, minute; spikelets over

2 mm. long . . . . . .D. sanguinalis.

Digitaria humifusa Pers. Syn. 1; 85. (1805.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p.

Ill (linearis); Beal, 2, p. 110; (lineare); Bull. Agrost. 7, f. 37; Gray,

7th, p. 95.

There is a specimen of this species from Milwaukee County in the

Milwaukee Public Museum.

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Digitaria sanguinalis (L) Scop. Sp. PI. 57. (1753.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. Ill; Beal, 2, p. 110; Bull. Agrost. 17, f. 339; B. & B. Man. p. 77;

Gray, 7th, p. 96.

This naturalized European species is extremely common in waste

land within or close to the City of Milwaukee.

Panicum L.

1. Annuals . 2.

Perennials .

2. Panicle erect, spikelets not over 2 y2 mm. long . P. capillar e.

Panicle drooping, spikelets 5 mm. long . P. miliaceum.

3. Basal leaves similar to the culm leaves; not forming a winter

rosette; culms usually simple, unbranched . P. virgatum.

Basal leaves usually distinctly different from the culm leaves, form¬

ing a winter rosette; culms usually much branched late in the

season . 4.

4. Leaves about 3 cm. wide; spikelets 31£ mm. long . P. latifolium.

Leaves less than 1 cm. wide; spikelets less than 2 mm. long .

. . . . . P. tennesseense.

Pancum capillars L. Sp. PI: 58 (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI., p. 123;

Beal, 2, p. 129; Bull. Agrost., 17, f. 350; B. & B. Man., p. 81: Gray, 7th,

p. 103.

Abundant along country roads and waste places throughout the

county.

Panicum miliaceum L. Sp. PI. 58 (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI., p. 123;

Beal, 2, p. 125; Hackel, trans., p. 76, f. 77; B. & B. Man., p. 82; Gray.

7th, p. 104.

Near the Rolling Mills in Bay View, July 19, 1908.

Panicum virgatum L. Sp. PI. 59 (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI., p. 122; Beal,

2, p. 123. Bull. Agrost., 7, f. 54. B. & B. Man., p. 82; Gray, 7th, p. 104.

Along the Milwaukee River near the Cement Mills.

Panicum tennesseense Ashe. B. & B Ill. FI., p. 120 (nitidum pars.) ;

B. & B. Man, p. 85 (nitidum pars); Gray, 7th, p. 110.

On dry, rocky hillsides along the Milwaukee River opposite the

Cement Mills.

Panicum latifolium L. Sp. PI. 58 (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI., p. 117

(macrocarpon) ; Bull. Agrost., 17, f. 396; B. & B. Man., p. 88; (macrocar-

pon) ; Gray, 7th, p. 117.

On summit of lake bluffs at Bay View; Mitchell’s Woods and New

Coeln.

Echinochloa Beauv.

Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Sp. PI. 56 (1753). B. & B. Ill.

FI., p. 113 (Panicum) ; Beal, 2, p. 119; Bull. Agrost. 7, f. 64; B. & B.

Man., p. 78; Gray, 7th, p. 117.

Setaria Beauv.

. $. glauca.

. 2.

8. verticillata.

. 3.

1. Setae at base of each spikelet 5 or more .

Setae at base of each spikelet 1-3 .

2. Setae downwardly barbed .

Setae upwardly barbed . . . . v : *

3 Spikelets 2 mm. long; panicle 2-8 cm. long, 1 cm. or less thick. . . . . .

" * . 8. vmdis,

Spikelets 3 mm. long; panicle 5-10 cm. long, about 1 cm. in diameter.

y . 8. italica , var. germanica ,

Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. Sp. Pi. 56 (1753). & B. Ill. FI., P

126 (ixophorus); Beal, 2, p. 155 ( Chamaer aphis ) ; Bull. Agrost. 17, f

401; Bull. Agrost. 21, p. 9 (Chaetochloa) ; B. & B. Man., p. 89 (Chaetoch

loaj; Gray, 7th, p. 118.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

65-

Common in sandy and waste places. We have collected it at West

County Line, New Coeln, Mitchell’s Woods, McKinley Park and Bay

View during the latter part of July and August.

Setaria verticillata (L.) Beauv. Sp. PI. Ed. 2. 82 (1762). B. & B'„

Ill. FI. p. 126 (Ixophorus) ; Beal, 2, p. 151 ( Chamaer aphis ) ; Bull.

Agrost., 21, p. 16 (Chaetochioa) ; Bull Agrost., 17, fig. 403; B. & B. Man.,

p. 89 (Chaetochioa) ; Gray, 7th, p. 118.

Much less common than the preceding. It was collected near the

rolling mills in Bay View and at the foot of the lake bluffs in McKin¬

ley Park.

Setaria viridis (L) Beauv. Sp. Pi. Ed. 2, 83 (1762). B. & B. Ill. FL

p. 126 (Ixophorus) ; Beal, 2, p. 157 (Chamaeraphis ; Bull. Agrost. 21,

p. 19 (Chaetochioa) ; Bull. Agrost, 7, fig. 65; B. & B. Man., p. ,90

(Chaetochioa) ; Gray, 7th, p. 118.

Exceedingly common and widely distributed, although rare in the

northern part of the county.

Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. var. germanica (Mill.) Richter. Mill.

Gard. Diet. Ed. 8, p. 1. (1768.) Bull. Agrost 21, p. 21; Bull. Agrost 7,

fig. 68; Gray, 7th, p. 119.

This species was found in McKinley Park where it had evidently

escaped from cultivation.

Cenchrus L.

Cenchrus carolinianus L . Sp. PI. 1050. (1753). B. & B. Ill. Fl.

p. 127 (trihuloides) ; Beal, 2, p. 161 (trihuloides) ; Bull. Agrost, 7, fig. 69

(trihuloides) ; B. & B. Man., p. 90 (trihuloides) ; Gray 7th, p. 119.

Occurs quite commonly in sandy localities in Bay View and also

along the lake beach of Jones Island, but apparantly never extends intc

the northern part of the county.

Zizania (Gronov.) L.

Zizania palustris L. Mant, 2, 295. (1771.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 128

(aquatica pars); Beal, 2, p. 173 (aqiiitica pars); Bull. Agrost, 17, p.

113 (aquatica pars); Gray, 7th, p. 120; Hitchcock, Cont. U. S'. Nat.

Herb, 12, p. 124.

There are specimens in the herbarium of the Milwaukee Public Mu¬

seum bearing the label “AAzania aquatica, Milwaukee and Clinton

Roads,” and it has been recorded as common in the Menomonee valley

by Russel (’07) but is apparently becoming extinct in the county al¬

though very abundant along the inland lakes.

Leersia Sw.

1. Spikelets 2*4-3 mm. long, panicle simple, its branches usually rigid.

. L. virginica.

Spikelets 4-5 mm. long, panicle diffusely branched, its branches

usually lax . . . L. oryzoides.

Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. Sp. PI. 55. (1753). B. & B. Ill. Fl. p.

129 (Homalocenchrus) ; Beal, 2, p. 178 (Homalocenchrus) ; Bull. Agrost,

7, fig. 76 (Homalocenchrus) ; B. & B. Man., p. 91 (Homalocenchrus) ;

Gray, 7th, p. 120.

Occurs along the Milwaukee river in the extreme northern part of

the county.

Leersia virginica Willd. Sp. PI. 1, 325. (1797.) B. & B. Ill. Fl.

p. 129 (Homalocenchrus) ; Beal, 2, p. 178 (Homalocenchrus) ; Bull.

Agrost, 7, fig. 77 (Homalocenchrus) ; B. & B. Man., p. 91 (Homalocen¬

chrus); Gray, 7th, p. 120.

This species occurs in Mitchell’s Woods, New Coeln, western part of.

Wauwatosa.

5

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Phalaris L.

.1. Panicle very dense, spike-like; glumes wing-keeled. . .P. canariensis.

Panicle branched; glumes not winged on the back.. ..P. arundinacea .

Phalaris canariensis L. Sp. PI. 54. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p.

131; Beal, 2, p. 182; B. & B. Man. p. 92; Gray, 7th, p. 121.

Bay View, near the rolling mills.

Phalaris arundinacea L. Sp. PL 55. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 130;

Beal, 2, p. 183; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 411; B. & B. Man., p. 92; Gray,

7th, p. 121.

Found on Howell’s Road one and one-half miles north of New Coeln

according to a specimen in the Milwaukee Public Museum. We have

not seen it in the county although the variety picta is often seen in

gardens.

Hierochloe. (Gmel.) R. B.

Hierochloe odorata (L.) Scribn. Sp. PI. 1048. (1753.) B. & B.

Ill. FI. p. 132 (Savastana); Beal, 2, 186 (Savastana) ; Bull. Agrost. fig.

83 (Savastana) ; Gray, 7th, p. 122.

Occurs in the early spring in swampy places in Mitchell’s woods and

Wauwatosa.

Milium (Tourn.) L.

Milium effusum L. Sp. PI. 61. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 141;

Beal, 2, p. 234; Bull. Agrost, 20 fig. 42; B. & B. Man., p. 98; Gray, 7th,

p. 122.

Mitchell’s woods, growing in damp, shady places.

Oryzopsis Michx.

Oryzopsis asperifolia Michx. FI. Bor. Am. 1, 51. (1803.) B. & B.

Ill. FI. p. 140; Beal, 2, p. 225; Bull. Agrost, 7, fig. 93; Gray, 7th, p. 123.

“East of New Coeln,” represented in the herbarium of the Milwau¬

kee Public Museum.

Stipa L.

Stipa spartea Trin. Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. 6, 1:82. (1831.) B. &

B. Ill. FI. p. 139; Beal, 2, p. 215; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 89; Bull. Agrost.

20, p. 62; Gray, 7th, p. 124.

“Bay View?” There is a specimen in the herbarium of the Public

Museum in Milwaukee bearing this label.

Muhlenbergia Schreb.

Muiilenbergia sylvatica Torr. Flor. U. S. 1, 87. (1824.) Agrostis

diffusa Muhl. Gram. 64. (1817.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 143; Beal, 2, p.

248; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 43; B. & B. Man., p. 100; Gray, 7th, p. 127.

Found growing along the shore of the Milwaukee River near the Ce¬

ment mills and on the Menomonee River in Wauwatosa.

Brachyelytrum Beauv.

Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) Beauv. Agrost. 39. (1812.)

Muhlen'bergia erecta Schreb. Beschr. Gras. 2, 139. (1772-9.) B. &

B. III. FI. p. 146; Beal, 2, p. 269; Bull. Agrost. 20, p. 66; Bull. Agrost.

7, fig. 112; Gray, 7th, p. 128.

Represented in the Milwaukee Public Museum by a specimen from

“City limits, between Howell’s and Chicago Road.”

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County .

67

Phleum L.

Piileum pe aten se L. Sp. PI. 59. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 147;

Beal, 2, p. 276; Bull. Agrost, 20, fig. 47; B. & B. Man. p. 102; Gray, 7th,

p. 128.

Common throughout the county in open places and along roads.

Alopecurus L.

Alopecurus geniculatus L. Sp. PI. 60. (1753.) var. aristulatus

Torr. FI. U. S. 1, 97. (1824.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 149; Beal, 2, 280;

Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 115 (fulvus) ; B. & B. Man. p. 103; Gray, 7th, p. 129.

Found in Bay View near the Rolling Mills and further southward,

and also at Whitefish Bay.

Sporobolus R. Br.

1. Pedicels equalling or shorter than the spikelets; first glume about

half as long as the second . 8. cryptandrus.

Pedicels at least twice the length of the spikelets; first glume about

equalling the second... . 8. compressus.

Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray. Ann. Lye. N. Y. 1, p. 151.

(1824.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 155; Beal, 2, p. 304; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig.

456; B. & B. Man. p. 106; Gray, 7th, p. 131.

Collected at Bay View near the Rolling Mills, and also along the

lake shore in the same region.

Sporobolus compressus (Torr.) Kunth. Cat. Pi. N. Y. 91. (1819.)

B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 156; Beal, 2, p. 297; Bull. Agrost. 7,- fig. 125; B. &

B. Man. p. 107 (torreyanus) ; Gray, 7th, p. 131.

Mitchell’s woods.

Agrostis L.

Agrostis alba L. Sp. PI. 63. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 159; Beal,

2, p. 332; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 58; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 483; B. & B.

Man. p. 109; Gray, 7th, p. 132.

Common throughout the county in* open places both in high, dry

situations and in swampy meadows.

Calamagrostis Adans.

1. Spikelets 2 mm. in length . C. macouniana *

Spikelets 3-3.5 mm. in length . C. canadensis *

Calamagrostis macouniana Vasey. Coult. Bot. Gaz, 10, p. 297*

(1885.) B. & B. Ill. FJ. p. 163; Beal, 2, p, 343; Bull. Agrost. 11, p. 31;

Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 492; B. & B. Man. p. 113.

Mitchell’s woods and Milwaukee River near the Holton St. viaduct.

The specimens apparently belong to the Missouri form of the species.

Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. FI. Bor. Am. 1, p. 73.

(1803.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 163; Beal, 2, p. 350; Bull. Agrost. 11, p. 28;

B. & B. Man p. 112; Gray, 7th, p. 135.

Common throughout the county in swampy meadows, often in dense

patches.

Ammophila Host.

Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link. Sp. Pi. 82. (1753.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. 166; Beal, 2, p. 354; Bull. Agrost. 7, figs. 149 & 265; Bull. Agrost.

20, fig. 61; B. & B. Man. p. 114; Gray, 7th, p. 136.

Found along the sandy beach of Lake Michigan on Jones Island.

68 Wisconsin Academy . of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ClNNA L.

Cinna aeundinacea L. Sp. PL 5. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 158;

Beal, 2, p. 318; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 134; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 57; B. &

B. Man. p. 108; Gray, 7th, p. 136.

Mitchell’s woods and Wauwatosa, growing in wet, rather open woods.

Sphenopholis Scribn.

1. Panicle narrow, densely flowered; second glume as broad as long.

. obtusata.

Panicle lax, more or less spreading, at least in flower. ... _ ... .2.

2. Glumes subequal; second broadly obovate, obtuse; florets obtuse, the

second scabrous . s. nitida.

Glumes unequal; first shorter than the narrowly obovate second

one; florets mostly acute, glabrous . S. p aliens .

Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. FI. Bor. Am. 1, p. 62.

(1803.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 192 (Eatonia) ; Beal, 2 p. 492 (Eatonia) ;

Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 252 (Eatonia) ; B. & B. Man. p. 132 (Eatonia); Gray,

7th, p. 138.

Occurs in Wauwatosa.

Sphenopholis nitida' (Spreng.) Scribn. FL Hal. Mant. 1, p. 22.

(1807.) B. & b. Ill. FI. p. 193 (Eatonia); Beal, 2, p. 492 (Eatonia

dudleyi) ; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 253 (Eatonia); B. & B. Man. p. 132

(Eatonia) ; Gray, 7th, p. 138.

Whitefish Bay.

Sphenopholis pallens (Spreng.) Scribn. B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 193

(Eatonia pennsylvanica) ; Beal, 2, p. 493 (Eatonia pennsylvanica) ;

Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 251 (Eatonia pennsylvanica) ; B. & B. Man. p. 132

(Eatonia pennsylvanica) ; Gray, 7th, p. 138.

Common in shady places in Mitchell’s woods, along the banks of the

Milwaukee River and at Wauwatosa.

Deschampsia Beauv.

Deschampsia caepitosa (L.) Beauv.. Sp. PL 64. (1753.) B. & B. Ill.

Fl. p. 169; Beal, 2, p. 368; B. & B. Man. p. 116; Gray, 7th, p. 140.

Milwaukee River, near the Cement Mills and below the Humboldt

Street bridge.

Avena (Tourn.) L.

1. Lemma with a long bent and twisted awn . A. fatua.

Lemma awnless or with a straight awn . A. sativa.

Avena fatua L. Sp. PL 80. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 173; Beal, 2, p.

384; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 499; Hack, trans. pp. 121-122; B. & B. Man.

p. 118; Gray, 7th, p. 141.

Found west of Bay View, but is apparently rare in our region.

Avena sativa L. Sp. Pl. 79. (1753.) Beal, 2, p. 385; Hack, trans.,

p. 121; Gray, 7th, p. 141.

Common everywhere along country roads and city streets.

Arrhenatherum Beauv.

Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. Sp. Pl. 79. (1753.) B. & B.

Ill. Fl. p. 173; Beal, 2, p. 387; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 167; B. & B. Man.

p. 118; Gray, 7th, p. 141.

Hawley Road in the Menomonee Valley in Wauwatosa and in the

city near McKinley Park.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

69

Danthonia DC.

Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Sp. PI. 80. (1753.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. <p. 174; Beal, 2, p. 391; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 168; B. & B. Man., p.

119; Gray, 7th, p. 142.

Whitefish bay; locally common in open, dry places.

Trisetum Pers.

Trisetum melicoides (Michx.) Vasey. var. majus (Gray) Hitch. Ann.

Bot. Soc. Canada, 1, p. 57. (1861.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 210 ( Graphe -

phorum) ; Beal, 2, p. 562 (Graphephorum) ; B. & B. Man., p. 142

(Graphephorum) ; Gray, 7th, p. 139.

Whitefish Bay.

Spartina Schreb.

Spartina michauxiana Hitch. Cont. U. S:. Nat. Herb. 12, p. 153.

(1908.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 175 (cynosuroides) ; Beal, 2, p. 397 (cyno-

suroides) ; Bull. Agrost. 9, p. 6 (cynosuroides) Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 173

(cynosuroides) ; B. & B. Man., 120 (cynosuroides) ; Gray, 7th, p. 142.

Along the Milwaukee River to the northward from the Humboldt

Street bridge and also in Bay View.

Phragmites Trin.

Phragmites communis Trin. Fund. Agrost. 134. .(1820.) B. & B.

Ill. FI. p. 184 ( P . Phragmites) ; Beal, 2, p. 460 ( P . Phragmites) ; Bull.

Agrost. 7, fig. 229; B. & B. Man., p. 126 (P. Phragmites) ; Gray, 7th, p.

148.

Jones Island, growing in swampy places near slips tributary to the

lake.

Eragrostis Beauv.

1. Culms creeping; plants polygamous.... . E. hypnoides.

Culms erect; ascendant or decumbent; flowers perfect . 2.

2. Spikelets 2-5 flowered, 2-3 mm. long . E. capillaris.

Spikelets 5-many flowered, 5 mm. or more long . 3.

3. Spikelets not over 1.5 mm. wide . E. Purshi j.

Spikelets 2-3 mm. wide . 4.

4. Lemmas densely imbricated; rhachilla joints and base of lemma

hidden . 7 . E. megastachya.

Lemmas rather loosely imbricated; rhachilla joints or base of lemma

visible . . . . . E. minor.

Eragrostis hypnoides (Lam.) BSP. Tabl. Encycl. 1, p. 185. (1791.)

B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 192; Beal, 2, p. 477; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 245; Gray,

7th, p. 150.

“Near Forest Home.” Represented in the Milwaukee Public Museum.

Eragrostis capillaris (L.) Nees. Sp. PI. 68. (1753.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. 188; Beal, 2, p. 481; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 514; Gray. 7th, p. 150.

Represented by specimens in the Milwaukee Public Museum from

New Coeln.

Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv. var. Purshii Schrad. Linnsea 12, p.

451. (1838.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 189; Beal, 2, p. 487; Bull. Agrost. 17,

fig. 241; B. & B. Man., p. 130; Gray, 7th, p. 150.

West of the Rolling Mills in Bay View.

Eragrostis megastachya (Koeler) Link. B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 189

(major); Beal, 2, p. 486 (major); Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 511 (major);

Gray, 7th, p. 150.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Within the limits of the city of Milwaukee, growing in the court¬

yard of the Public Museum.

Eragrostis minor Host. FI. Austr. 1, p. 135. (1827.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. 189 (E. Eragrostis); Beal, 2, p. 482 (E. Eragrostis); B. & B.

Man., p. 130 (E. Eragrostis) ; Gray, 7th, p. 150.

Occurs in the Bay View region and also with the preceeding species.

Dactylis L.

Dactylis glomerata L. Sp. PI. 71. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 200;

Beal, 2, p. 523; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 269; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 114; B. &

B. Man., p. 136; Gray, 7th, p. 154.

Common throughout the county and also in the city. One of our

most conspicuous grasses, noticeable on account of the light color of

its foliage.

Cynosurus L.

Cynosurus cristatus L. Sp. PI. 72. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p.

200; Beal, 2, p. 524; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 255; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 115;

B. & B. Man., p. 126; Gray, 7th, p. 154.

Growing on lawns near Lake Park, where it had doubtless been in¬

troduced with commercial grass seed.

Poa L.

1. Annual . P. annua.

Perennials . 2.

2. Culms strongly flattened, oval in cross-section . P. compressa.

Culms terete, or but slightly flattened . 3.

3. Panicle lax, the branches long, slender, naked half their length;

usually widely spreading . 4.

Panicle branches rough, erect or ascending . P. nemoralis.

4. Pedicels commonly shorter than the spikelets . 5.

Pedicels commonly equalling or longer than the spikelets. . .

. P. debilis.

5. Lemma obscurely nerved; spikelet about 4 mm. long . P. tri flora.

Lemma prominently nerved . 6.

6. Lateral nerves silky pubescent; spikelets 4-5 mm. long .

. . . P. pratensis.

Lateral nerves naked; spikelets about 3 mm. long . P. trivialis.

Poa annua L. Sp. PI. 68. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 201; Beal, 2,

p. 530; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 533; B. & B. Man., p. 138; Gray, 7th, p. 155.

Seen in the Lake Park region, but not common.

Poa compressa L. Sp. PI. 69. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 202; Beal,

p. 546; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 544; B. & B. Man., p. 141; Gray, 7th, p.

155.

Very common in all parts of the county, especially along roadsides

and in waste ground.

Poa nemoralis L. Sp. PI. 69. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 205; Beal,,

2, p. 552; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 546; B. & B. Man. p. 139; Gray, 7th, p..

156.

Woods along the Milwaukee River, south of the Cement Mills.

Poa debilis Torr. FI. N. Y. 2, p. 459. (1843.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p..

206; Beal, 2, p. 539; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 535; B. & B. Man. p. 139;

Gray, 7th, p. 157.

Found in the Menomonee Valley near the Sixth Street viaduct.

Poa triflora Gilib. Exercit. Phyt. 2, p. 531. (1792.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. 205 (flava); Beal, 2, p. 550 (1 lava); B. & B. Man. p. 139 (flava) ;

Gray, 7th, p. 156.

Common and widely distributed throughout the county, growing in

damp meadows and along streams.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

71

Poa pratensis L. Sp. PI. 67. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 204; Beal,

2, p. 543; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 273; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 117; B. & B.

Man., p. 139; Gray, 7th, p. 156.

Common, especially in dry, open fields, but not so abundant in the

less thickly settled parts of the county.

Poa trivialis L. Sp. PI. 67. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 204; Beal,

2, p. 541; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 539; B. & B. Man., p. 139; Gray, 7th, p.

157.

Whitefish bay.

Glyceria R. Br.

1. Spikelets 2-7 mm. long, ovate or oblong . 2.

Spikelets 1.5-2 cm. long, compressed, cylindric, subsessile or nearly

so . G. septentrionalis.

2. Panicle contracted, or narrow, 1.5-3 dm. long . G. Torreyana.

Panicle open, lax; spikelets not over 2.5 mm. wide; lemmas strongly

nerved . 3.

3. Second glume 1 mm. long..... . . G. nervata.

Second glume 2-2.5 mm. long . 4.

4. Panicle ample, many flowered, 2 dm. or more long . G. grandis.

Panicle narrow, few flowered, rarely 1.5 dm. long . G. pallida.

Glyceria septentrionalis Hitchc. B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 213. ( Pani -

cularia fluitans) ; Beal, 2, p. 569 (P. fluitans) ; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 285

(P. fluitans ); B. & B. Man. p. 144 (P. fluitans)-. Gray, 7th, p. 159.

Lindwurm and New Coeln.

Glyceria Torreyana (S^reng.) Hitch. B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 212 ( Pani -

cularia elongata ) ; Beal, 2 ] p. 565 (P. elongata) ; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig.

282 (P. elongata ) ; B. & B. Man p. 143; Gray, 7th, p. 158.

Occurs in Mitchell’s Woods.

Glyceria nervata (Willd.) Trin. Sp. PI. 1, p. 389. (1797.) B. &

B. Ill. Fl. p. 212 ( Panicularia ) ; Beal, 2, p. 567 ( Panicularia ) ; Bull.

Agrost. 7, fig. 281 ( Panicularia ) ; B. & B. Man. p. 144 ( Panicularia ) ;

Gray, 7th, p. 159.

Common throughout the county along streams and in swampy land.

Glyceria grandis Wats. Gray, Man. ed. 6, p. 667 (1890). B. & B.

Ill. Fl. p. 212 ( Panicularia Americana) ; Beal, 2, p. 568 (P. Ameri¬

cana)-, Bull. Agrost. 7, figs. 280, 281 (P. Americana); B. & B. Man. p.

144 (P. Americana) ; Gray, 7th, p. 159.

Milwaukee River near the Humboldt Street bridge; Wauwatosa;

swamp in Bay View, and swamp at head of ravine in Lake Park.

Glyceria pallida (Torr.) Trin. Cat. N. Y. 91. (1819.) B. & B. Ill.

Fl. p. 213 ( Panicularia ) ; Beal, 2, p. 566 ( Panicularia ) ; Bull. Agrost.

7, fig. 283 ( Panicularia ) ; B. & B. Man. p. 144 {Panicularia) ; Gray,

7th, p. 159.

Collected at Whitefish Bay.

Puccinellia Pari.

Puccinellia airoides (Nutt.) Wats. & Coult. Gen. 1, p. 68. (1818.)

B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 215; B. & B. Man. p. 145; Gray, 7th, p. 160.

We have collected at Wauwatosa specimens which evidently belong

to this species.

Festuca L.

1. Annuals; stamens usually one; leaves 2 mm. wide or less .

. . F. octo flora.

Perennials, stamens 3; leaves 4 mm. wide or more, flat . 2.

2. Lemmas 5-7 mm. long; spikelets 5-10 flowered . F. elatior.

Lemmas 4 mm. long or less; spikelets 3-6 flowered . F. nutans.

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Festuca octoflora Walt. FI. Car. 81. (1788.) B. & B. Ill. FI. ,p*

216; Beal, 2, p. 586; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 580: B. & B. Man. p. 146;

Gray, 7th, p. 161.

Whitefish Bay.

Festuca elatioe L. Sp. PL 75. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 217;

Beal, 2, p. 591; Bull. Agrost. 20, fig. 124. B. & B. Man. p. 147; Gray,

7th, p. 162.

Common everywhere in open places.

Festuca nutans Spreng. FI. Hal. Mant. 34. (1807.) B. & B. Ill.

FI. p. 218; Beal, 2, p. 588; B. & B. Man. p. 147; Gray, 7th, p. 162.

Western part of Bay View.

Bromus L.

1. Lemma with pubescence about equally distributed over the dorsal

surface . 2.

Lemma with pubescence conspicuously unevenly distributed over

the dorsal surface, longest and densest on the margins or base

or both. . . 5.

Lemma smooth or scabrous . 7.

2. Panicle narrow, lower branches not over 10 cm. long . . .

. . . B. Tjreviaristatus.

Panicle rather broad, some of the lower branches over 10 cm. long. .3^

3. Lower glume more or less distinctly 3 nerved . B. Kalmii.

Lower glume 1 nerved, acute . 4.

4. Sheaths densely soft, pilose pubescent, longer than the internodes.

....: . B. incanus.

Sheaths sparsely pilose pubescent, or nearly smooth, shorter than

the internodes . B. purgans.

5. Panicle rather broad, loose and drooping; awn less than 3 mm.

long or absent. . . 6.

Panicle rather narrow and erect, or not conspicuously drooping;

awn 3-5 mm. long . B. ciliatus.

6. Lower glume1 1 nerved; spikelets 2-2.5 cm. long . B. inermis.

Lower glume 3 nerved; spikelets 3-4.5 cm. long . B. inopinatus .

7. Margins of lemmas strongly involute in fruit . B. secalinus.

Perennials, sheaths usually pubescent; lemmas not involute in

fruit . .....B. ciliatus Iceviglumis.

Bromus breviaristatus (Hook.) Buckl. FI. Bor. Am. 2, p. 253.

(1840.) B. & B. III. FI. p. 223; Beal, 2, p. 623; Bull. Agrost, 23, p. 53

( marginatus )-, B. & B. Man. p. 151.

In Wauwatosa and along the Milwaukee River^near the Humboldt

Street bridge. These records extend the eastern range of the species.

Bromus Kalmii Gray. Man. ed. 1, p. 600. (1848.) B. & B. Ill. Fl.

p. 221; Beal, 2, p. 624; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 584; Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 34;

B. & B. Man. p. 150: Gray, 7th, p. 164.

Whitefish Bay, Fox Point, and along the Milwaukee River near the

Humboldt Street bridge.

Bromus incanus (Shear) Hitch. Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 41. (1900.)

Gray, 7th, p. 164.

Mitchell’s Woods and Wauwatosa.

Bromus purgans L. Sp. PL 76. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 219

( ciliatus pars)-, Beal, 2, p. 619 ( ciliatus pars)-, Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 39*

B. & B. Man. p. 149 (ciliatus pars)-, Gray, p. 164.

Fox Point, at the Cement Mills.

Bromus inermis Leyss. Fl. Hal. 16. (1761.) Beal, 2, p. 612; Bull.

Agrost. 7, fig. 290; Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 47; B. & B. Man. p. 149.

Menomonee Valley, along the railroad tracks near 34th street, where

it has been undoubtedly introduced from the west.

Brues — The Grasses of Milwaukee County. 73

Bromus inopinatus sp. nov.

An erect perennial, 9.5-10.5 dm. high. Culms smooth, slightly pu¬

bescent just below the nodes; stout at the base. Sheaths smooth,

ligule 1 mm. or less. Leaves linear lanceolate, 5-10 mm. wide, 2-2.5

dm. long; smooth above, and slightly scabrous below. Panicle dense,

rather diffuse, spreading; 1.7-2. 5 dm. long; lower branches 10-14 cm.

long. Spikelets 3-4.5 cm. long, mostly 3.5-4; subcylindrical, 3 mm.

wide and but slightly flattened before flowering; late'r spreading and

flattened, 6-10 mm. wide; florets distinctly separating. Spikelets 8-14

flowered, the usual number being 12. First glume' 7-8 mm. long, dis¬

tinctly 3 nerved; lateral nerves nearly reaching the apex; subacute,

puberulent, the median nerve delicately hispid. Second glume 9-10

mm. long, 3 nerved; subacute and not much broader than the first;

faintly hispid on the keel. Lemmas 12-14 mm. long; those near the

apex of the spikelets becoming shorter; shining, with short, very

sparse pubescence near the base, extending almost to the middle on the

lateral nerves; 7 nerved. Awn 1-2 mm. long, sometimes obsolete;

palea nearly equalling the lemma, faintly pubescent along the nerves.

Joints of the rhachilla covered with thick silky pubescence.

Described from specimens collected within the limits of the city

of Milwaukee, in the Lake Park region. Some were found growing

at the foot of the bluffs along the shore of Lake Michigan near Mc¬

Kinley Park, and others nearby in an open field at the head of the

bluffs.

In general appearance this form resembles inermis Leyss. very

closely, but in characters might be confounded most easily with

pumpellianus Scribner. It differs from this form, however, by the

almost entire absence of pubescence on the lemmas; narrower, longer,

more flowered spikelets; distinctly 3 nerved lower glume; and longer

leaves, which are scabrous below; also by its larger panicles, with

longer lov/er branches. From inermis it may be distinguished by its

much larger size, longer spikelets, large number of florets, and 3

nerved lower glume. On close examination of the specimens of the

genus Bromus Contained in the Gray Herbarium at Cambridge, no

exotic forms were found which resemble the’ present species. There are

several specimens of pumpellianus from the western United States in

the same collection of quite similar habitus, differing structurally,

however, as previously set forth.

Bromus ciliatus L. Sp. PI. 76. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 219;

Beal, 2 p. 618; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 583; Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 31; B. &

B. Man. p. 149; Gray, 7th, p. 164.

Menomonee Valley in Wauwatosa; Lake Park Region, and at New

Coeln.

Bromus ciliatus var. laeviglumis Scrib. Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 32.

(1900.)

Wauwatosa, and Milwaukee River near the Port Washington Road.

Bromus secalinus L. Sp. PI. 76. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 222;

Beal, 2, p. 625; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 291; Bull. Agrost. 23, p. 16; B. & B.

Man. p. 150; Gray, 7th, p. 163.

City Street near McKinley Park; New Coeln; southwestern Bay

View, and also sparingly in other localities.

Lolium L.

1. First glume shorter than the spikelet . . . L. perenne.

First glume equalling or extending beyond the lemmas .

• . • - . L. temulentum.

Lolium perenne L. Sp. PI. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. Fl. p. 225; Beal, 2,

p. 629; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 295; B. & B. Man. p. 152; Gray, 7th, p. 165.

Along lake shore bluffs, Lake Park region, and generally in county

near farms.

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Lolium temulentum L. Sp. PI. 83. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 225;

Beal, 2, p. 630; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 587; B. & B. Man. p. 152; Gray, 7th,

p. 165.

Menomonee Valley near sixth street viaduct.

Agropyron J. Gaertn.

1. Culms tufted, no creeping rootstocks . . . 2.

Culms solitary or few, erect from creeping rootstocks . 4.

2. Basal culm leaves shorter than the upper . A. Gmelini.

Basal culm leaves longer than the upper . . . 3.

3. Lemmas long-awned, the awn about twice the length of the lemma..

. A. caninum.

Lemmas awnless, or short awned . A. tenerum.

4. Spikelets compressed, ovate, acute, diverging. . A. Smithii.

, Spikelets narrow, subcompressed, or subcylindrical, acute or obtuse..

. . 5.

5. Leaves scabrous on both sides; joints of rhachilla minutely scab¬

rous . A. pseu^dorepens.

Leaves glabrous below, scabrous or sparsely hirsute on the nerves

above; joints of rhachilla smooth . ! . 6.

6. Leaves sparsely hirsute along the nerves above; spike more elon¬

gate . :A. repens.

Leaves hirsute above; spike crowded . .A. repens var. agreste.

Agropyron Gmelini Scrib. & Smith. Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 30. (1897.)

Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 601: B. & B. Man. p. 154.

Wauwatosa, in places along the railroad tracks in the Menomonee

Valley.

Agropyron caninum (L.) Beauv. Sp. PI. 86. (1753.) B. & B.

Ill. FI. p. 228; Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 29; Beal, 2, p. 639; B. & B. Man. p.

153; Gray, 7th, p. 167.

Western part of Bay View; Whitefish Bay; Milwaukee River near

Humboldt Street bridge.

Agropyron tenerum Vasey. Coult. Bot. Gaz. 10, p. 258. (1885.)

B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 227; Beal, 2, p. 637; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 593; B. & B.

Man. p. 153; Gray, 7th, p. 167.

Bay View.

Agropyron Smitiiii Ryd. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 1, p. 60. (1900.)

Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 33 (spicatum); Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 594 (occidental );

B. & B. Man. p. 154 (spicatum) ; Gray, 7th, p. 166.

In most parts of the county. Specimens' from the Menomonee Valley

at 30th street are of the form with two spikelets at each node of the

rhachis.

Agropyron pseudorepens Scrib. & Smith. Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 34.

(1897). Gray, 7th, p. 167 (tenerum pars).

Menomonee Valley at 30th street, and near the Rolling Mills in Bay

View.

Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Sp. PI. 86. (1753.) B. & B. Ill. Fl.

p. 226; Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 35; Beal, 2, p. 636; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig. 298;

B. & B. Man. p. 154; Gray, 7th, p. 166.

Common everywhere except in wooded areas, and escaping in many

places from cultivated fields.

Agropyron repens var. agreste Anders. Bull. Agrost. 4, p. 36; Bull.

Agrost. 7, fig. 298.

Lake Park region and in Bay View.

Triticum L.

1. Spikes long, more or less loose, somewhat dorsally compressed .

. . . . T. sativum vulgare.

Spikes short, dense, distinctly 4-sided . T. sativum compactum.

Ernes : — The Grasses of Milwaukee County.

75

Triticum sativum vulgare VilL Hist. PL Dauph. 2, p. 153. Hack.,

frans. p. 183; Beal, 2, p. 642.

Escaped from cultivation in various places. Both the' awned and

awnless forms occur.

Triticum sativum compactum Host. Hack., trans. p. 184.

This has also escaped from cultivation in various parts of the

county.

Hordeum L.

Secale cereale L. Sp. PI. 84. (1753.) Hack., trans. p. 177; Beal,

2, p. 640.

Occasionally found throughout the county.

Hordeum L.

1. Only the middle spikelet of each cluster of three fertile; spike about

as widens long, readily separating at maturity . .H. jubatum.

All spikelets fertile, therefore six rows of fruit . . . 2.

2. All six rows of fruit distinctly separated.. . .H. sativuyn hexasticTion.

Only the middle rows distinctly separated, the side rows overlap¬

ping . . . . . . . 3.

3. Lemma awned . . . . . .H. sativum vulgare.

Lemmas each with a peculiar 3-branched horn . . . .

. . IT. sativum vulgare, form trifurcatum.

Hordeum jubatum L. Sp. PI. 85. (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 229;

Beal, 2, p. 644; Bull. Agrost. 17, p. 603; B. & B. Man. p. 165; Gray, 7th,

p. 167.

In open fields and waste places, especially in the southern part of the

county.

Hordeum sativum hexastiohon L. Sp. PI. 85. (1753.) Hack.,

trans. p. 189; Beal, 2, p. 647.

Occurs rarely, escaped from cultivation.

Hordeum sativum vulgare L. Sp. PI. 85. (1753.) Hack., trans. p.

190.

Escaped from cultivation in various places throughout the county.

Hordeum sativum vulgare form trifurcatum Jacq. Bull. Bot. Soc.

France, 1:187. (1854.) Hack., trans. p. 190.

West of the Rolling Mills in Bay View.

Elymus L.

1. Glumes as long as the florets, or nearly so . . . 2.

Glumes reduced to short awns . . . 7.

2. Spikelets spreading . . . . .3.

Spikelets appressed to the rhachis . . . . . . . . . . 6.

3. Glumes awl-shaped ................... . . . E. striatums.

Glumes narrowly lanceolate . . . . . 4.

4. Glumes indurated below, spike erect . . . ....... .E. virginicus.

Glumes not indurated below, spike nodding. . . 5.

5. Lemma hirsute . . . .E. canadensis.

Lema minutely scabrous. . . . . . . .E. br achy st achy s.

6. Spikelets in pairs. . . . . . .E. glaucus.

Spikelets mostly solitary. . . . . E. Macoidnii.

1. Awn-like glumes of varying size in each spike _ E. diver siglumis.

Elymus striatus Willd. Sp. PL 1, p. 470. 1797). B. & B. Ill. FI.

p. 230; Beal, 2, p. 655; Bui. Agrost. 17, fig. 611; B. & B. Man. p. 156;

Gray, 7th, p. 169.

Wauwatosa, Mitchell”s Woods and Menomonee Valley at 30th Street.

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Elymus virginicus L. Sp. PI. 84. (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 230;

Beal, 2, p. 653; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 612; B. & B. Man. p. 166; Gray, 7th,

p. 169.

Menomonee Valley in Wauwatosa, and shore of Lake Michigan near

Lake Park.

Elymus canadensis L. Sp. PI. 83. • (1753). B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 231;

p.169.

Quite common, especially along the lake shore and the Milwaukee

River.

Elymus brachystachys Scrib. & Ball. Bull. Agrost. 24, p. 47. B. &

B. Man. p. 1064; Gray, 7th, p. 169.

Menomonee Valley in Wauwatosa, and in Mitchell’s Woods.

Elymus glaucus Buckl. Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, p. 99. (1862).

B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 231; B. & B. Man. p. 157; Gray, 7th, p. 170.

Mitchell’s Woods.

Elymus Macounii Vasey. Bull. Torr. Club, 13, p. 119. (1886). B.

B. Ill. FI. p. 231; Beal, 2, p. 653; Bull. Agrost. 17, fig. 614; B. & B. Man.

p. 157; Gray, 7th, p. 170.

Bay View.

Elymus divebsiglumis Scrib. & Ball. Bull. Agrost. 24, p. 48. (1900).

Gray, 7th, p. 170.

Ravine in Lake Park; South Milwaukee, and Mitchell’s Woods.

Hystrix Moench.

Hystrix patula Moench. Meth. 295. (1794). B. & B. Ill. FI. p. 233.

(H. Hystrix); Beal, 2, p. 656 (Asprella hystrix ; Bull. Agrost. 7, fig.

302; B. & B. Man. p. 158 (H. Hystrix); Gray, 7th, p. 171.

Common in most parts of the country.

APPENDIX.

The following additional species have been listed by Russel (Bull.

Wisconsin Natural History Soc. Vol. 5, pp. 172-175 (1907), but we have

neither collected them, nor are they represented in the herbarium of

Che Milwaukee Public Museum by specimens from Milwaukee County.

Andropogon scoparius Michx.

Panicum dichotomum L.

Muhlenhergia mexicana (L.) Trin.

Agrostis perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm.

Agrostis hyemalis (Walt) BSP.

Melica striata (Michx.) Hitch.

Poa glauca Vahl.

Festitica ovina, var, duriuscula (L.) Koch.

B romus hordeaceus L.

E lymws arenarius L.

Jamaica Plain, Mass.

January 30, 1910.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE VII

A. GLUMES ; B LEMMA

SPIKE LETS BEFORE AND AFTER FLOWERING

BROMUS INOPINATUS SP. NOV.

BRUES: GRASSES

'

y

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE VIII

BROMUS INGPINATUS SP. NOV.

BRUES: GRASSES

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE IX

BRUES:

GRASSES

BROMUS INOPINATUS SP. NOV,, NATURAL GROWTH

'X

TRANSACTIONS

w

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

m.¥

*>

h ; OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. 2

■I '

Ml

SSSi

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1911

.y '

contents

Relations expressed by the passive voice,

Edward T. Oiven , 77

The anti- auction movement and the New York working¬

men ’s party of 1829, Horace Secrist, 149

An investigation in regard to the condition of labor and

manufactures in Massachusetts, 1860-1870,

Jonathan F. Scot t, 167

Early harbor history of Wisconsin, Ralph G. Plumb, 187

THE RELATIONS EXPRESSED BY THE PASSIVE VOICE

EDWARD T. OWEN, PH. D.

ORIENTATION

Were a definition of the passive voice required, all perhaps

would agree on this: it is a system of verbal forms whose

meaning differs from the meaning of the active — very greatly.

There might not he so close agreement as to what the difference

is.

The popular conception may he indicated thus: “The can¬

nibal ate the missionary” tells of eating; “The cannibal was

eaten by the missionary” tells of being-eaten; eating and being-

eaten are very different; the active voice expresses one; the

passive voice, the other ; — a conception surely plausible, enough

so to arouse a curiosity to learn where it would lead, were it

adopted. If, for instance, being-eaten is different from eating,

presumably also being-struck is different from striking. Cor¬

bett striking Sullivan implies for Sullivan a being-struck by

Corbett. If being-struck is different from striking, the blow

is two phenomena, instead of one as commonly supposed. Every

other doing must be matched by a different being-done. Activ¬

ity then operates in couples — unless perhaps this seeing it in

couples be after all the merest seeing double.

In talking of abstractions I find relief in over-frequent use

of “you” and “I” — still more in illustrations that amuse me.

Accordingly in dealing with this glib conception of the passive,

I invite you, hoping to save us both some weariness, to think a

little more in detail of the cannibal. In particular, comparing

his eating with his being-eaten, you perceive of course the pos¬

sibility of minor differences. If the cannibal is eaten by the

missionary, better manners may be looked for; knife and fork

and napkin — even finger-bowl — may complicate the function;

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

grace may be said. I bardly think however that we heed these

differences, or others of their class. What occupies attention

is not a difference between the cannibal’s eating and his being-

eaten; for his being-eaten is merely after all itself an eating —

the missionary’s eating. Accordingly the difference between the

cannibal’s eating and his being-eaten reduces to a difference

between two eatings — his and the missionary’s — more specifi¬

cally, say, two dinings; and, howsoever much we amplify or

sense these in their details, we seem, as said above, to heed

their difference very little. What is heeded rather is the crucial

question : Who is diner ?— Who is dinner ?

This fallacy of differentiated doing and being-done should

occupy us only long enough, it seems to me, to laugh it out of

court. Tor anyone who may think otherwise I do my best in

argument on pp. 65-71. Meantime let the cannibalistic dinner

last a moment longer. Let it pose in your imagination as a

drama. Let me carry figurative juggling so far as this: the

substitution of the passive for, the active does not change the

play (the essential nature of the eating) ; and surely no inflec¬

tion of the verb could change the players (say “denature” can¬

nibal or missionary.) Inflection might however assign or re¬

assign their parts (of diner and dinner). You, who played

Macbeth to my Macduff in an active presentation, may ex¬

change with me in a passive.

The hint derivable from play and players is no doubt in¬

accurate. I mean it only to suggest that study of the passive

voice should give up any being-done distinguishable from doing ;

that, in a doing, two are likely to be implicated — to partici¬

pate; and that the nature of the implication, and the mutual

relation of participants, may vary. Yow it calls for little

straining of imagination, to suppose that both the active and

the passive voices may express this nature — also this relation —

tlhe passive differing in such expression from the active. In¬

deed it seems to me that this precisely is the passive function ;

but I can hardly make my opinion plausible or even clear, ex¬

cept by leading up to it through further observations.

These I shall confine so far as possible to verbs expressing

genuine action, which, as I suppose, we all conceive as roughly,

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 79

say, an output of energy. Further, in linguistic thinking we

absolve ourselves from all responsibility to Physics, regularly

looking for (an energy-creator, or) a putter-out of energy— -im¬

aginary only, as is further indicated, pp. 9-10. Our further

search for what the output energy effects, or affects, is the more

permissible that, were there no affecting or effecting, it is far

from easy to imagine how the putting-out of energy would be

made known to us. We accordingly conceive of action as ac¬

complishing some change.

This change it will be advantageous to observe in the rela¬

tions which obtain between participants in action — in particu¬

lar the change from non-relation to relation. Thus, for in¬

stance, given a robin and a cherry, suppose the robin eats the

cherry; the act may be regarded as the instituting of a pre¬

viously non-existent eater-to-food relation between the bird and

the fruit.

Each particular action institutes its own particular relation.

In “A struck B” I find the relation of striker to victim; in

“Brown hired Johnson,” that of employer Jo employee. Tak¬

ing a hint from the suggestive suffixes occurring in “employer”

and “employee,” I group relations of this type — especially in¬

structive in the study of the passive voice — as actor-to-actee re¬

lations.

To regard them thus generically is a great convenience; and

thus to overlook specific character will work no harm, so long

as the particular action is itself distinctly recognized. To il¬

lustrate this, an act of hiring plainly will not of itself alone

develop any special form of actor-to-actee relation, save

the one that I express by employer-to-employee — not the one,

for instance, that I might express by murder er-to-victim. Ac¬

cordingly I do not risk confusion, if, instead of regarding

“hired” as expressing an action-produced relation of employer-

to-employee, I regard the word as expressing an employment-

produced relation of actor-to-actee.*

*In other publications I have given reasons for believing such to be

the meaning of the verb, the nominative and accusative inflections

of its subject and its object showing in the given illustration that

relation indicated by the verb obtains between (first) Brown and (sec¬

ond) Johnson, thought of in that order only.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Art's, and Letters.

THINKING IN THE PASSIVE EOKM

Its Nature

By thinking in the passive form I mean the kind of thinking

which the passive voice expresses, though — as I shall later strive

to show — such thinking does not always choose the passive

voice for its expression. To illustrate, in the sentence “Brown

employed Jones” I intend the active voice to indicate that, of

two persons, one was by a given action put in that relation to

the other which may described as the relation of employer to

employee. On the other hand, in “Jones was employed by

Brown” I might intend the passive voice to intimate that, of

two persons, one was by the given action put in that relation

to the other, which would be described as the relation of em¬

ployee to employer.

It should be observed that every thought in the passive form

is virtually tantamount to some thought in the active form.

The two are mental counterparts of one occurrence — or one

status. But the first and last terms of one thinking have be¬

come respectively the last and first terms of the other. Unless

accordingly these terms are in relation of equivalence, the

change from what may be called a proverse order of the terms

to a reverse order certainly will change the form of their rela¬

tion. In passing from ravine to hill-top I am conscious of

what may be known as higherness; but, in returning, this will

be displaced by lowerness. That is, reversal in the order of

my terms entails a change from what may be called the pro-

verse relation of higher to lower, to the reverse relation of lower

to higher*. This, then, is what I more particularly mean by

* What for convenience I exhibit thus as two relations, may be

rather sensed as different aspects of the same relation. Thus, what¬

ever bulk-relation holds between for instance the unequal A and B,

is obviously one only; yet the different mental transits — one from A

to B, and one from B to A — develop different mind-sensations, which

may be expressed, the one by A> B — the other by B A.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 81

thinking in the passive form: a thinking in which the order

of the first and last terms- is reversed— a change which brings

about reversal of relation.

As said above, the passive form of thinking is substantially

equivalent to some thinking in the active form. To illustrate,

given “Brown employed Jones,” if now I change to “Brown

was employed by Jones,” I plainly use the passive voice, and

doubtless also think in a passive form; but this passive form

of thought is not by any means equivalent to that expressed

by “Brown employed Jones,” but only to that expressed by

“Jones employed Brown.” On this distinction, obvious as it is,

I lay some stress, because I don’t believe that “Brown was

employed by Jones” would ever have developed from “Brown

employed Jones,” but only from “Jones employed Brown;” for

it is in the desire to change the form of thought, but not its

substance, that I look to find the motive for the use of passive

forms.

Its Motive

To illustrate, picture the catastrophe suggested by the words

“The cow has scared the cook.” These words express the men¬

tal counterpart of an activity in which the two participants

are posed in the relation (noted just above) of actor to actee.

If, with the cook — and others not a few — you think of “cow”

and “terrifier” as essential synonyms, relation may be more

specifically known as that of cow-to-cowed — a relation under¬

stood to hold between the implicated parties in the order men¬

tioned.

This order, it will surely be admitted, is completely natural,,

especially in case I happened to see the cow and her perhaps;

disquieting demeanor before I saw the cook. Yet I might,

have seen the woman first; and I might have been profoundly

moved by her dismay, before observing her disturber. Indeed,,

without such prior observation, merely as my fellow human be¬

ing, as a member of the weaker sex, as the preparer of my

food, the cook has prior claim upon my interest; and certainly,

when now the first excitement of my observation yields to the

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

comparative calm of recollection, what I want to tell yon about

is less the cow and her more or less imaginary doing, than the

cook and what she underwent.

i I am indeed aware that such a thinking backward — so to

style it — may be caused by other influences: (1) putting the

first term last, (2) putting the last term first, and (3) re¬

versal of relation, each requires the other two — that is, effects

a thinking backward ; and also each may have not only a posi¬

tive, but also a negative occasion.

In other words, I might desire per se to use the reverse re¬

lation, or I might rather wish to avoid the proverse. I might

wish to think last of the cow, or merely not to think of her

first. I might dislike to think last of the cook, or I might

positively wish to think of her first ; and plainly any one of these

likes or dislikes might induce the passive form of thinking

indicated by “The cook has been scared by the cow.” But on

the whole, for reasons given on pages 5 and 23 the motive for

the passive form of thinking seems to me, as a rule at least,

to be the wish to begin with what in the active form of think¬

ing is the final term. The very type of influence which pre¬

vents me from saying “A pin has been swallowed by the baby!”

seems to me to lead me to say “The cook has been scared by

the cow.”

Its Frequency

Thinking in the passive form is plainly not confined to

action. To illustrate, in the sentences “Boses are red” I find

no hint of action. Their redness, it is true, may be regarded

as resulting from a former output energy which made them red ;

but the sentence seems to me (by means of “are”) directly to

exhibit roses and what I express by “red” or “redness” in the

merely existing relation of (thing or) substance-to- (its own)

attribute or quality. FT ow, just so far as I am sure of any¬

thing, I’m sure that, instead of thinking of the roses first and

later of the redness, I can think, if so I choose, of redness

first, and later of the roses ; and that, in so doing, I no longer

experience the mind-sensation which I called the thing-to-quality

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 83

relation, but beyond a doubt the reverse relation of quality-to-

thing. This last relation, notwithstanding the hasty denial of

some writers (e. g. Steinthal), is without the slightest diffi¬

culty thinkable, is sometimes really thought, is sometimes even

Nearly expressed, as in the sentence “Redness characterizes

roses.”

In this connection it is interesting to observe that thought-

reversal — or “conversion,” if you better like the phraseology

of Logic — if repeated in this case, might lead to “Roses are

characterized by redness,” which to me exactly paraphrases

“Roses are red.” So also, in its denotative aspect, “Men are

animals,” reversed, is “Animals include men;” and, rereversed, is

“Men are included in (are in the speeies-to-genus relation with)

animals,” which to me exactly paraphrases denotatively the sen¬

tence “Men are animals.” Or, in the connotative aspect — if

you like it better — reversal of “Men are animals” develops

“Animal-ness is included in man-ness,” which rereverses into

“Man-ness includes animal-ness,” which to me exactly para¬

phrases connotatively the sentence “Men are Animals.”

In reversals of this sort, however, so far as I have observed,

a figurative action is imagined — as if, for instance, the red¬

ness “did something” to the roses; but, seeing no gain to be

effected by examining just now the purely figurative, I con¬

fine myself so far as possible to what, with no imagining, may

rank as action (always specially conceived as a relation-former),

action-formed relations, and reversal of relation.

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

By this I mean a system of verbal forms which express re¬

lation the reverse of that which is expressed — or might be —

by the active voice. I concede the passive rank to the homely

phrase “is being loved” as cordially as to the elegant “amatur ;”

bnt I exclude the. forms which are not recognized by general

consent as constituting with the active forms one larger verbal

system. To illustrate, in the sentence “June precedes July”

the verb expresses a relation which, neglecting figurative values,

may be known as that of earlier-to-later. If now I wish to

substitute the passive form of thinking for the active, the re¬

quired reverse relation of later-to-earlier may be expressed by

“follows,” as in “July follows June.” But I do not plan to

aggravate existing difficulties by attempting to establish “fol¬

low” as a passive of “precede.”

Its Uxxecessamkess

By this I mean that passive verb-forms are by no means

indispensable, although I recognize their great convenience.

In the first place I suppose that it is never absolutely neces¬

sary to adopt the passive form of thinking. Reviving my ini¬

tial illustration, given a cannibal and a missionary, which¬

ever eats the other, I can always think of that one first, and

always sense relation of the two accordingly as that of eater-to-

food. My mental operations do not seem to seriously suffer,

even if the relation of food-to-eater never dawns upon my con¬

sciousness.

In the second place, although I be distinctly thinking in the

passive form, as intimated under the preceding title I do not

seem to absolutely need an actual passive voice for its expres¬

sion. In further illustration, given what is indicated by

“The box overlies the book,” the positional relation of the

mentioned objects plainly is that of overlier-to-overlain, or up-

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 85

per-to-lower. If now I wish to indicate the reverse relation of

overlain-to-overlier, or lower-to-upper, I have only to make use

of “underlies.”

It is true that — thanks perhaps in part to long perversion

of my brain by talk of verbs and their objects — I think, in

“The box overlies the book,” of the box as “doing something”

to the book; and that, in “The book underlies the box,” I vio¬

late this notion by thinking rather of the book as doing some¬

thing to the box. However, as this notion strictly is unwar¬

ranted, and not particularly plausible, I hardly imagine that

unwillingness to violate it would of itself alone prevail on lan¬

guage to produce the passive form “is overlain.”

Ho doubt a careful search would bring to light a number

of verbs not ranked as passive which are able to suggest relations

the reverse of those expressed by certain other verbs; but I

confine myself to one more illustration. If I put in a shal¬

low pan of water a sponge that is not too dry, in a little while

I find the sponge-pores occupied by water. What has happened

I may indicate by saying, as I choose, “The water wet the

sponge” or “The sponge absorbed the water.” That is, once

more a verb in the active voice (“absorbed”) is merely able to

perform essentially the functions of the passive, as performed

for instance in “The sponge was wet by the water.” The in¬

teresting difference in the meanings of “absorb” and “wet”

may be however worth more careful observation.

That we make witch-work of the laws of matter in the mental

picturing that language registers, I have already intimated on

p. 3. In the present illustration we may catch ourselves twice

over “in flagrante,” one “delictum” offering too an outright

contradiction to the other. I mean that both the wetting by

the water and the opposite absorbing by the sponge exhibit the

erroneous conception overthrown by Hewton — the conception

that in action things are active. Till his day we mainly

doubted not that apples did their falling of themselves, without

the help of gravity; and linguistically they continue still to

do so. Thus, in saying that the apple fell, I mean that it

•performed the act of falling — caused to exist, between itself

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

and falling, the relation of an actor to his action — or, if yon

so prefer, established substance-attribute relation between itself

and down-ness.

Analogously cerebrating, I imagine water in the one case

as performing on the sponge the act of wetting, though if I

reflect a moment, I am well enough aware that water of itself

is impotent. Yet the force of habit is so strong that, if I be

not roused to more than usual care, I think of wetting some¬

what as the water’s entering, and indeed more specially its

rising up into, the sponge — a rising not so very different from

a school-boy’s climbing up into a tree. I feel, however, nowise

so far pledged to this conception as to be at all embarrassed in

adopting on occasion one absurdly opposite; for by “The sponge

absorbed the water” I am sure I mean that, in its turn en¬

dowed with active powers, the sponge “drew in” or, as the

etymologist might tell us, “sucked away” or, as plebeian par¬

lance puts it, “drank” the water “up” — conceptions, all, in

which I am about as near to fact as if I said the tree reached

down and pulled the school-boy up into it.

The illustration emphasizes what the careful thinker often

overlooks: that words are the immediate symbols not by any

means of things (activities, etc.), but of ideas, which only

more or less exactly are the mental counterparts of things ; that

sentences are symbols not by any means of facts, but of our

thoughts, which only more or less exactly are the mental count¬

erparts of facts; that not even is the this day’s counterpart

consistent always with the counterpart of yesterday — the self

of now with the self of then. Thus, in the now considered

case, the action ranks in one expression as the water’s push,

and in the other as the sponge’s pull.

I am not however looking for linguistic trouble, having

learned to be content with crude expression, and with cruder

thinking and observing. It’s 4 enough for me to notice that at

first the water wasn’t in the sponge, and that at last it was —

enough to reason that it somehow got there — enough to tell

you that it did so. Any successful method satisfies me. “On

parle toujours bien, quand on se fait entendre.”

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice . 87

After all I’m half aware that I’ve been speaking quasi fig¬

uratively in either one of the expressions cited. Both expres¬

sions came to me as an inheritance. In each I found a mode

of outer-world conceiving, adequate to phenomenon-suggestion.

Whether my train (of thought) be pulled by a locomotive at

one end, or pushed at the other by an elephant, I care not, so

long as my train arrives in safety. Given then “The water

wet the sponge/7 if I prefer to begin my thinking and ex¬

pression of the happening with the sponge, I suppose “The

sponge absorbed the water77 will be felt to meet the most im¬

portant needs of speech.

I suppose moreover that linguistic ingenuity may be relied

upon to have been equal to emergencies in every other case in

which it may have been desired to express the passive form of

thinking (or a figurative, make-shift substitute) — and that,

without creating passive verbal forms.

Its Convenience

This appears most clearly when comparison is made between

the passive verb-forms and the verbs that might be used instead

of them. Recalling substitutes already mentioned, I admit

again that, given “to precede, to overlie, to wet,77 the corres¬

ponding passive forms “to be preceded, overlain77 and “wet77

are far from indispensable, because the reverse relations which

the passive forms express are adequately indicated by “to fol¬

low, underlie, absorb.77

Such expression is however much too wasteful of linguistic

effort. To unnecessary verbal effort I am sometimes not in¬

deed averse, provided there be not too much of it. If I wish

an opposite to “merciful,77 I may indeed enjoy a display of

lexical equipment, making use in turn of “vengeful, cruel,

stern, severe, etc;77 but I can’t rely on each or any of these

words to come to me unfailingly; and so I7m very glad to be

able always to fall back on “merciless” or “immerciful.77 The

meaning-changers, “un77 and “less,77 since they are constantly

in use, I do not easily forget; and, being too in almost every

case available, I come to prize them much more highly than

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

the unreliable approximate equivalents of “merciless,” the use

of which might pose me as the master of a rich vocabulary.

Perhaps indeed we all are ostentatious ; but we all presum¬

ably are also indisposed to excessive effort. Why write the

figures 847 nineteen times in column, and then add them,

when you reach the same result by writing once and multiply¬

ing by nineteen ? Why use a different hammer for every nail

you drive, when one will answer ? — or lug about a set of golf

sticks, just to knock the pebbles off your paths ?

In passing from the active to the passive forms of thinking,

language found it irksome to provide a special verb for each

reverse relation. It was better, in the passive sentence, to in¬

vest each verb of active thinking with an indication that, in

passive thinking, it expresses a relation the reverse of that

employed in active thinking. A little variation in the costume

of the active verb — a mere inflection — was enough. The policy

of providing every verb of action with a help-meet to exhibit

action as producer of reverse relation- — the policy of doubling

the number of the action verbs — was given up. The effort

thus economized was ready to be spent upon the evolution of a

passive voice.

If the passive has been rightly said to express relations the

reverse of those expressed or expressible by the active, it is ob¬

vious that a rational effort to differentiate the passive from

the active (and the different passive values, one from another)

will base itself upon some study of relations both in proverse

and in reverse form.

Reverse relations are moreover best perceived, in their ex¬

pression by the passive voice, when juxtaposed with the rela¬

tions indicated by the active voice. If the perception of these

latter be complete, since every reverse has its proverse, the rela¬

tion-repertory of the passive voice may be derived from that de¬

veloped by the active. I begin accordingly with the active

voice.

An expression in the active voice may recognize not only

an action, but also an actor and a direct object — or, say, an

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 89

actee.* That is, the personnel or dramatis personae of an

action will consist in full of these two elements; and, in the

active form of thinking, any relation sensed between them

plainly can be only the relation thus far emphasized- — the re¬

lation of actor-to- (his own) actee. If now this personnel shall

vary by the omission of either element, any recognized rela¬

tion certainly will be a new one; for the old relation plainly

cannot hold between two terms of which one is not in the mind.

The possible variations in the personnel moreover will suggest

the several new relations which those variations may develop.

The variant personnel may plainly be made up as follows:

actor and actee may both be present ; the actor may disappear ;

the actee may disappear; both actor and actee may disappear.

The action will not be omitted; for without it there will not

be any action-formed relation; no other relation is considered;

and without relation there will be no proper thoughtf and also

no expression.

In the passive form of thinking, corresponding variations

may be looked for. In expression by the passive voice the

actee of the active is however subject, while the actor is known

as the agent. These familiar designations I will use to make

some following sub-titles clear, as now I reach the nucleary

topic of investigation, indicated by my leading title, i. e. “The

Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice.’7 Accordingly,

* The indirect object I omit, and also other more or less im¬

mediate participants in action, as they seem to me to throw no val¬

uable light on the relations in which actor, action and actee appear.

t The mere co-thinking of e. g. the missionary and the cannibal is

not at least such thought as language makes the effort to express.

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE RELATION WHICH THE PASSIVE VOICE EX¬

PRESSES

Case (1) When Used With Both a Subject and aw

“Agent”

MEANS OF INDICATING THE DELATION

As intimated on p. 13, for every variation in tlie action-

personnel I look to find a corresponding variation in the recog¬

nized relation formed by action; and for each relational variety

no doubt a special means of expression might have been adopted.

But the particular action-personnel in actual practice will be

found to insure in the active voice particular relation (in¬

suring it for instance, when the actor disappears, as that of

action to actee) devolving on the passive voice the duty only

of determining relation as reverse — e. g. relation not of action

to actee,, but of actee to action. That is, the function of the-

passive will be sensed as not the naming of particular reverse

relation, but the naming of a what so ever -it-may-be reverse re¬

lation, the reverse of the relation indicated — or which might

be indicated — by the corresponding active voice. Accordingly

the symbolizing policy adopted when the passive is attended

by actee and actor both- — or, say, by subject and by agent —

is available still, though one or even both of them withdraw.

Examination of this policy is not then special to Case (1), and

might begin and end before examination of Case (1) and all

the other cases, were it not that data necessary to the two ex¬

aminations interlock. Accordingly I somewhat dislocate the

sequence of my reasonings, reviewing first the merely possible

means of expressing a reverse relation, hoping this review may

disembarrass me of preconceptions harmful to intelligent per¬

ception of the means in fact employed — passing next to in¬

fluences tending to evolve these actual means, and following

their changes both in form and meaning — trusting better thus

to understand their ultimately reached significance.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 91

Possible means

On page 8-9 I outlined one of these, which now I will

examine somewhat more completely — thus: Suppose an ac¬

tion which develops a particular relation; and suppose I wish

to indicate reverse relation. I may replace original action by

another action which establishes relation more or less exactly the

reverse of that established by the original action. For instance,

given “The box overlies the book’5 expressing (figuratively) the

action-established relation of upper-todower, the reverse rela¬

tion of lower-to-upper is established by the action named in

“The book underlies the box.” The verb-form “underlies” ac¬

cordingly may be compelled to carry out essentially that pur¬

pose of the passive voice which is distinctly indicated in “The

book is overlain by the box.”

'Now the tendency of language usage is notorious: to take

an ell when given an inch. If “under” in the present case

successfully suggests reverse relation, why not use it for sug¬

gesting all reverse relations? What is sauce for the goose is

sauce for the gander. As a virtual passive for “The boy has

climbed the tree,” why not “The tree has underclimbed the boy ?”

Why not moreover let the usual erosive influences have their

way? These would in the course of time reduce the “under,”

say to “u” — a prefix with the power always to suggest reverse

relation. A verb attended by this prefix might be ranked es¬

sentially as the inflectional offspring of the active voice — as

legitimately passive.

Of such offspring it might be expected that linguistic ingen¬

uity would be prolific — capable of reaching more than one

solution of the passive problem. Other prepositions (adverbs)

— e. g. “counter,” “anti,” “re” and many more — effect required

suggestion of reverseness quite as plainly and with larger range

of applicability than “under”. Moreover, quite as truly as

these prepositions, readjustments in the structure of the verbal

form itself are eminently capable of intimating the required

readjusted thinking. A shift of the syllabic accent from the

verb’s beginning to its end, or vice versa — in other words the

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

transposition of successive sound-intensities from strong and

weak to weak and strong — affords a hint of changed relation

quite as plain as language often condescends to give for any

purpose; and interchange of pitch between the verbal front and

rear, or of the quality of consonants or vowels would he hardly

less effective.

To illustrate these three possibilities in turn, of “correct”

tacked

the passive might he “correct” ; of “(He) at- (me)” the

(“I) (him)*”.

passive might he at- Of “Confuse” the

tacked

passive might be “Confuse.” Of “Push” the passive might be

“Fus,” such aspiration-shifting being quite a favorite in older

languages.

The interchange of syllables or single sounds, and other

possible means of indicating the reversal of relation I neglect,

except the simplest and most natural of all — inversion. Of

this in mathematical (notation everyone makes use. Given

thought expressed by A > B, if now I begin my thought with

B, I indicate the further, indispensable reversal of relation by

replacing > by <. That is, I reverse or invert the relation

sign— or, so to speak, I spell the inequality symbol backward.

And so, instead of saying “The burglars daily rob our houses,”

if I wished to start with “houses,” not however changing the

essential value of my statement, I might indicate the further,

indispensable reversal of relation by the simple change of “rob”

to “bor,” as in “Our houses bor the burglars,” — that is, in this

case also, by inverting the relation sign.

The fact, however, that verbs are for the most part ill-adapted

to a backward utterance or spelling, would restrict the avail¬

ability of this mode of symbolizing. As moreover this and other

possible modes of symbolizing are, so far as I have noticed,

either possible only, or at most occasional, I neglect them all

in favor of the constantly occurring, actual means.

* (This latter uttered with the well-known Anglo-Irish dip and

lift).

Otben — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice.

93

Adopted Means — figurative

While the examined possible means of indicating the reverse

relations some of them are rather indirect, the chosen means,

so far as I have noted them, are vastly more so, being figura¬

tive in a most remarkable degree. I take up first

A— THE FIGURE OF SELF-INFLICTION

Difficulties of expressing passive thought before a passive voice

existed

It will, I think, be helpful to appreciation of the mental

operation indicated by this title, to suppose ourselves in the

predicament of one who does not have a passive voice at hi3

disposal, hut who, thinking of an action, has begun his thought

— and therefore wishes to begin expression also — with the ob¬

ject of the action, say with the actee — a change of order which,

as argued on pp. 4-5, necessitates (except as indicated) use of a

relation the reverse of that experienced in thought beginning

with the actor.

The history of speech establishes that such a one could not

create the passive voice, nor could he use it, even were it of¬

fered him; for he has rarely sensed reverse relation, and more

rarely still has sensed it as a whatsoever-it-may-be relation,

the reverse of the relation indicated by the active voice. More¬

over such a one, however he express himself, in order to be

understood will of necessity confine himself to words and com¬

binations that as a rule already are familiar to others ; any de¬

viation in a meaning or a syntax must be small, must bring

the hearer very close to where he was intended to arrive, must

leave him where he easily can see from where he stands to

where the speaker meant he should be standing. That is, ex¬

act expression failing, a somewhat riddle-like expression may

be substituted, the linguistic law of substitution being that the

riddle must be guessable — and guessed.

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Their alleviation

That we can guess successfully is owing first of all to this,

that in the main your repertory of ideas matches mine. As

compared with those of Eskimo and Zulu, our experiences

closely tally. My observations, analyzings, classifyings have

arranged on my idea-shelves a stock that only negligibly differs

from your own — an indispensable preliminary to all thought-

communication, seemingly ignored by those who clamor for

exchange of signals with our Martian neighbors. Thus

equipped for thought-communication, and made skillful by

long practice, we are guided by the common momentary situa¬

tion, context, inference, association, aspiration, tendency to

figurative thinking — so far guided that we keep together in

our thinking, though occasionally the intended meaning of a

word or phrase be not exactly that with which we are familiar.

Meaning-change has also some analogy with physical mo¬

mentum. I mean that, when the meaning of a word has made

a series of advances all in one direction, the next advance will

be expected in the same direction. This principle will later

be applied to our conception of participants in action. In the

meantime that conception may with some advantage be ex¬

tended.

For a moment in particular I wish to go beyond the usual

conception of an action as implying merely an associated actor

and, it may be, an actee direct or indirect. By way of illus¬

tration let it be supposed that Brown has rightly aimed his

duly loaded shotgun at a partridge. As his finger pulls, the

bird comes down — occurrences which both are indicated by

“He (the actor) shot (the action) the partridge (the actee).”

Examining now with somewhat more than usual care, I real¬

ize that the effects of Brown’s activity are multiple. With ob¬

jects both direct and indirect, according to your point of view —

with datives ethical or of advantage, disadvantage, interest —

with every kind there is — my illustration will be found to be

abundantly provided. (May I only make no, blunder as to

which one ought to rank as which!) For obviously the

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 95’

shooter did not shoot the bird alone; he also shot the gun, the'

powder and the shot, a streak of flame, a disagreeable noise and,,

by recoil, perhaps a bruise upon his shoulder. He shot the

partridge for his sister, for her supper, but unluckily to pieces.

Being on the spot, I take my own association with the action

seriously. In speech indeed we all reveal an adequate appre¬

ciation of the “quorum pars magna fui.” Hence expressions

in Elizabethan parlance such as “Perkins pulls me (the dative

of the bystander? or, say, remote associate?) a shilling out of his

pocket and gives it to a beggar.” Analogously, then, “Brown

shot me a partridge for his sister.” Indeed — politeness recom¬

mends no less — “He shot him a partridge for his sister ;” and,

if politeness reach the Spanish multiplicity, “He shot her a

partridge for his sister.”

Suppose now I examine no less closely into what, it seems

to me, occasions action (pp. 9-10), aids it or abets it. Hot

to speak of motor nerves and muscles easy to dissociate from

mental self, I notice that the shooter’s finger made a quite

important contribution to the shooting. The trigger also was

a far from negligible factor — and the hammer and the spring

whose pent up energy, once liberated, wielded it to strike the

detonating blow. Indeed I’m not so sure that after all the

shooter shot the gun at the partridge. It may be rather that

he shot the partridge with the gun. Perhaps the latter as a

whole and in its parts, and even in its contents, should be

sensed as implicated in the action rather as its co-producer than

as wrought-upon by it. Of this at least I’m well assured, that,

if we so are minded, we shall think of action as effected not

alone by actors, but additionally by co-actors or sub-actors — say

by coadjutors. I am ready to conceive of action on the one hand

as divergent in its influence, and on the other as resultant of

a multiple convergence. What we recognize as objects more

or less distinctly indirect, are matched by what we know as

means or instrument, concomitant, et cetera. It suits me at

this moment best to think of them as subjects more or less —

now more, now less — direct or indirect, suggesting thus a sort

of instability in them; for this, it seems to me, was basal in

the evolution of the passive voice.

.96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters. '

'The very multiplicity of action details thus facilitates lin¬

guistic dealing with them. To sense them accurately is im¬

possible. Bewildered by their crowding, mind renounces hard

and fast determination of their several implications. Rigidity

of mental total yields to flexibility. So conceiving them, I

can for instance think of self and shot-gun as approximately

partners, either one of whom may at a given moment rank

.according to convenience as a senior or a junior partner — even

:as a silent partner — even lending nothing to the enterprise be¬

yond his name. I am ready then to think of self not only as

co-active with the weapon in the shooting, but as also far less

genuinely active — or as, say, sub-active — in a shooting pictured

as effected by the weapon. In general, the actor may be posed

;as coadjutor.

Coming now to what in speaking of the changes in the mean¬

ing of a word I called momentum, I observe that, speaking of

the Boston-Portland boat, if I should say “She runs by the

shore,” the preposition would suggest that course of boat, and

trend of shore, are virtually parallel. If now I say “She runs

by schedule,” this equivalence of physical direction is advanced

to harmony, agreement, almost to community of purpose — which

may be expressed exactly by “in accordance with.” Still

further, in “The clerk computed interest by bankers’ tables,”

‘“by” not only has this meaning, but gives also hint of further

meaning easier to discover in “She runs by sails — or paddle-

wheels” — in which the prepositional suggestion has once more

advanced, from the idea of harmony to that of help ; for “by’’

means doubtless “with the aid of” — not however “by the un¬

assisted act of,” wheels or canvas being plainly impotent with¬

out co-operation — that of energy or whatsoever we may think

of as providing energy. It seems to me indeed, not only that

we apprehend the situation thus, but also that in actual prac¬

tice We construct our mental picture of the situation quite ac¬

cordantly. “By” then contemplates in this case a contribu¬

tory, partial agency. If now the meaning of the preposition

is still further to advance, it seems to me we could if necessary

guess approximately the direction and amount of the progres-

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 97

sion. From contributory, partial agency the next step — or

the next to that — will naturally be to agency complete, exclu¬

sive, self-sufficient. This indeed appears to me to be expressed,,

if now I say “She runs by steam,” in which the figurative'

“runs” is felt to differ very little in its ultimate suggestion

from “is run” or “is propelled.”

It appears accordingly that, if in evolution of the passive it

at any time be necessary for the preposition “by” to pass from

the idea of aid to that of agency, the change will easily be made

and easily understood. With this in mind, and with ideas of

action now more flexible (see pp. 19-20), I turn to figurative

self-infliction of an action, noting that, although it is per se

absurd, it cannot therefore fairly be regarded as implausible;

for action surely is conceived in other figures more absurd,

yet actually formed beyond a peradventure. Personally, at

least, when once I am accustomed to the Spanish thought-

form — eminently to be envied — -indicated by “The letter you

requested me to mail has disremembered (or forgot) itself for

me,” I’m very ready to accept as actually formed the mental

pictures of another, even though I don’t belong to his particu¬

lar school of figurative art.

A priori probability that the actee would at the first be pictured

as inflicting action on itself , assisted by the actor

That action would be figuratively conceived as self-inflicted

is suggested when it is remembered that, so long as a passive

voice has not yet been developed, what the speaker regularly

thinks of first— and therefore regularly mentions first in all lin¬

guistic thinking of an action— is what momentarily at least

posed as actor. Thus, even in “Brown received a blow from

Bobinson,” the syntax of both thought and sentence poses Brown

as, in a figurative sense, the actor, i. e. “doing” the receiving.

It is true that now and then a word forsakes its proper place

in the sentential line. For instance, thinking of St. George’s

killing of the dragon, I may say, poetically or affectedly, “St.

George the dragon slew,” “The dragon St. George slew,” or

even “The dragon slew St. George.” So too indeed, instead

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of “slew/7 I may write “elws.77 But, as I elsewhere sought to

show (Hybrids p. 131), the hearer and the speaker must reset

in mind all sentences that thus are out of joint, before he can

correctly sense intended meaning. Apparently there Is accord¬

ingly no genuine exception to this law: What the speaker

thinks of as the actor, he begins with in the active sentence (i. e.

one whose verb is in the active voice).

If accordingly the ante-passive language-user, thinking of

a given act and its participants — for instance those exhibited

in “Robinson struck Brown77 — begins with Brown, the mental

habit formed in long employment of the active voice develops

a well-nigh insuperable tendency to think of Brown in the

usual way as somehow still the actor in the given action. That

is, the law of action- thinking that I formulated just above, Is

operative in its converse aspect. What the speaker begins with

in the active sentence he will think of as the actor, even though

it he the actual actee.

Suppose I start accordingly with Brown (the actual actee)

conceived, however, as the actor, and continue with the act of

striking; the place of the actee (or person struck) invites an

occupant. If Brown is somehow actor, Robinson might be

expected somehow correspondingly to figure as actee ; and, with

all its violence, an imaging of just this sort sometimes occurs,

although, so far as I have noticed, only farcically, as in “Brown

struck Robinson on the fist with his eye.77 Except, however,

when expression strains at wit, the sentence “Brown struck

Robinson77 can be regarded as intelligible, only in the flattest

contradiction of the given fact. Furthermore, to say that

Brown struck Smith or Jones or anyone thus far unmentioned,

is irrelevant to fact. On the other hand, the figurative state¬

ment that he struck himself, as I shall argue, can be reconciled

with fact — by piecing out — and even can be made intelligible

as a statement of the fact. To give however to the evolution

of so figurative an expression any plausibility, I need another

illustration — one which virtually will compel the mind to the

complete conception of a figurative self-infliction. Such an

illustration waits me ready-made — achieved by one of those un-

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 99

tutored minds in which, linguistic genius is embarrassed very

little by conventionality. The illustration presupposes that a

snake has bitten Brown. I further stipulate that it was in

the back. The illustration thus protected I exploit as follows:

Desiring to tell you what has happened, I of course can re¬

alize my purpose by “A snake bit Brown, etc.” But I don’t

want to begin with the snake. Brown interests me more — and

first. He is the superior creature. He was the “under-dog.”

He is a friend of mine. The snake I never even saw. I want

to begin with Brown.

Yielding to the force of habit — following the mental line of

least resistance — since I thus begin with Brown, I also pose

him as the actor (see p. 22) . I picture him as a doer of the biting ;

and I like the picture. It poses Man as arbiter of his destiny — •

no victim of a loathsome reptile.

But the picture does not yet inform you that the biting any¬

wise affected Brown. I must extend the picture, even though

absurdly. Accordingly “Brown bit himself.”

This statement might be more precisely true to fact; bufc

that is unimportant. So long as I successfully inform you

that a given injury befell my friend, the question who or what

inflicted it may rank with you as quite subordinate. For my¬

self, I like my way of putting matters very much; and, “sav¬

ing” thus “the face” of him who really was a victim, by this

feigning that what happened to him he achieved himself — “on

purpose” — I am hardly guilty of an innovation. For it is in

speech a deferential habit — most inveterate: — to attribute to

another an autonomy contrasting violently with my own sub¬

jection to my destiny — a habit still detectable in “I shall, thou

wilt, he will” — that usual linguistic exaltation of the other,

often indicated only by a converse self-abasement, direct in

the Japanese self-designation as “your stupid younger brother,”

indirect in the Chinese “that dirty woman, my wife.”* My

deviation from the truth, in telling so far what has happened,

is accordingly not only unimportant, but effectively supported

by analogy.

* These hearsay phrases, quite unverified, I offer for their illus¬

trative value only.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

But I have defrauded you of details. To indemnify you, I

extend my statement, adding “in the back.”

This however brings me to a halt. Brown couldn’t bite him¬

self in the back. Besides, it isn’t fair to you — and doesn’t

satisfy my love of telling all I know — to leave the snake out

of my story.

Accordingly, beside the actually quite inert and purely hon¬

orary actor Brown, I put the really active snake, the bona fide,

genuine actor. To the latter I assign the imaginary (figura¬

tive) role of coadjutor or, if you so like it better, subject in¬

direct, for which no doubt a sentence adequately fitted out

may find a place as easily as for an object indirect (see p. 19-

20), or any of the many effluents or influents or affluents or

confluents which action, thought of as a complex stream, may

call upon the sentence to express.

This coadjutor (means or instrument) I might naturally

join with the figurative actor Brown, as if the latter and the

snake on equal terms cooperated to effect the biting. For

“Brown with” (the snake) is almost, if not quite, synonymous

with “Brown and” as is strongly hinted by the popular “Brown

is good friends with me,” in which an “is,” unduly (?) in¬

fluenced by “Brown,” and order (thus far unreformed) are all

perhaps that hinder this interpretation : “Brown with me —

i. e. we two — are good friends.”

In my liguistic thinking I prefer however to associate the

reptile with the action , using for this purpose “with” as syno¬

nym for “by,” and meaning “through the agency of.”* Accord¬

ingly the sentence due to no invention of my own, but to a

genius whose linguistic bow I cannot bend, “He bit himself

in the back with (or by) a snake” — a sentence which, as well

as the also far from original “He kicked himself on the head

with a horse,” will bear comparison, though far less ostenta¬

tious, with “durch jemand in Erfahrung (zu) bringen,” which

to me means little more than “be informed” (by some one).

* That, in my association of the snake (the agent) with the biting

rather than with Brown, at least I am not guilty of a mental in¬

novation, is apparent in the light afforded by for instance “Itur ab

omnibus” in which only with the action (going) can the agent be

associated.

Owen — Relations Expressed hy the Passive Voice. 101

It appears accordingly that an imaginary, figurative self-

inflicted action may, in spite of all its clumsiness, be utilized

successfully in so transposing thought- and sentence-order, that

the object (or actee) is given what at first would seem to be

exclusively the actor’s place, and vice versa.

Probability that the actee and actor would be sensed in riew

relations

What has thus far been accomplished plainly is but the ini¬

tial step in the evolution of the passive voice. Further steps

may be expected to establish members of the trio (actor, ac¬

tion and actee) in new relations different from those expressed

by the active voice. In the search for these another illustra¬

tion will be more convenient — one in which relations will be

understood more easily. Accordingly, “My apples eat them¬

selves by (the aid of) the boys.”

This illustration seems to me, so far as it goes, identical

in structure of both thought and sentence with my last, and

also in its use of figurative self-infliction. That is, although in

fact the boys eat the apples, I imagine the apples to “do” the

eating “to themselves” with some assistance from the boys.

That is again, the apples are conceived as in the eater-to-food

relation — -a particular actor-to-actee relation — with themselves.

How if that relation shall be superseded, in the first place

it must be ignored. “It is well to be off with the old love

before you are on with the new.” So long as mind is occupied

by what the symbol > expresses, I see little room in mind for

that which is expressed by <. Furthermore I see no proba¬

bility that a relation be ignored, so long as what expresses it is

unimpaired. I look accordingly for some impairment of the

expression “eat themselves.”

By way of leading up to this, suppose my illustration to be

typical— -that “eat themselves” is regularly used whenever we

today would say “are eaten”- — that the case of “bit himself”

is quite analogous— -that generally this reflexive usage holds the

place that later will be yielded to a passive clearly recognized

as such— -and that the change-resisting influence of printing

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and habitual writing is not yet in operation. In speech-devel¬

opment it is an a priori certainty that under such conditions

verb and ever-present reflexive object coalesce, wear down and

come to be regarded as a mere inflectional variant of the verb —

that the like occur in other persons, numbers, modes and tenses

— that a full reflexive system of inflections, a reflexive conju¬

gation, be established.

Thus far I have merely been reciting the initial chapter in

the history of the so-called “middle voice’7 — a species of reflex¬

ive conjugation which has often reached a strictly passive mean¬

ing. I find the major interest in the succeeding chapter. It

opens with “themselves77 — tjie once effective symbol of reflex¬

ive object or actee — so much impaired as to be quite unable

longer to effect its (earlier) purpose. That is, although the

specially inflected middle voice still indicates a reflex action,

its distinguishing inflection does not symbolize with any cer¬

tainty the reflex object.

As a rule, in such conditions, what no longer is expressed

distinctly, is in time forgotten. In “The apples eat them¬

selves,77 then, let “themselves,77 surviving only in some frag¬

mentary form — in the present case for instance ^(emselves) —

suggest no longer any element of thought ; but let it be remem¬

bered still that any verb inflected with that form — say “eattfft/'

analogous to “eduntur77 with a middle meaning only — is used

of only such activity as exercises its effect upon the subject —

in the present case the apples.

With the mental disappearance of “themselves,77 the rela¬

tion — purely figurative — which at first was recognized between

the apples and themselves, is also necessarily in time forgotten.

That is, the apples and themselves are now no longer even figura¬

tively perceived in the eater-to-food relation. But the apples

must be sensed in some relation; for otherwise they could not

enter into any thought intended. Though sensed in detail,

apples, boys and eating still are recognized as the constituents

of a unit. It must assuredly be felt that all are in some way

bound together by relation, though momentarily there be no

clear conceiving what particular relation it may be. Indeed,

Owen — -Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 103

about all that I further seeni to even vaguely recognize at first,

is that in what occurs the apples somehow get the worst of it.

In postulating such a state of mind I am emboldened by the

recollection of some English friends whose mental operations

were distinguished in their talk by greater strength than nim¬

bleness. For instance, failing often for a moment, like the

rest of us, to marshall with success the many details of a more

than ordinarily involved assertion, these gentlemen were usu¬

ally quite unable to reorganize their scattered forces. To coin

an illustration, “The more you’re sure that it’ll never do to own

up that you can’t do what’s expected of you, all the more — I

would say, all the less — I mean — you know” or “don’t you

know ?” That is, the speaker knows, although he cannot at the

moment tell ; and he is sure the hearer knows what is not told.

The ground of this assurance seems to be the presence in both

minds of a distinctly' indicated situation, the embarrassment

attending which is a familiar corollary. What is absolutely

indispensable to thought-inception, is successfully exhibited.

Thought-completion is entrusted to the hearer with no fear that

he will not accomplish it. One might express the speaker’s

estimate of what he has in mind by “Somehow it’s all right,

although I don’t see just exactly how.”

Such a status seems for a while to prevail in the minds of

all who use a given language, when, as happens with some fre¬

quency, the thought conveyed by this or that expression having

been torn down, the old materials have not yet been put to¬

gether in a second mental structure. Meantime in the mind

there lie about disjoined masses of thought-masonry in much

disorder — not too much; for, if there were too much — if the

intended structure could not be approximately recognized — ma¬

terials surely soon would cease to cumber mind, and their ex¬

pression would no longer be attempted.

The inconvenience of disorder, keenly felt, may be supposed

to stimulate the mind to orderly thinking — to excite an effort to

rejoin, arrange, reorganize disorganized materials of thought.

ETow organization of thought-materials is to me the recognition

of relations that obtain between them. Supposing, as I do,

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

that the necessity of such relations never ceases to be strongly

felt — though far from clearly understood — I almost find the.

mental eye perceiving dimly the relation needed in my illus¬

tration. More pictorially speaking, I observe amid the mass

of gathered thought-materials, a void, whose surfaces are fixed

by its environment — not merely a place for a needed idea, but

a place with contours adequately definite; and these are, as it

seems to me, a partial revelation of what is to fill that void.

In this connection I recall a packing of my trunk, so compli¬

cated and absorbing that I found, on waking from the sleep

for which I left it, that I had been dreaming of it at some

length and to some purpose, putting in together satisfactorily

books and boxes that had previously been too much for me.

The new arrangement I began as soon as possible to carry out

according to a mental diagram of all the several objects in their

places — all but one; for as to that one — now that I was wide¬

awake — I could not remember wThat or where it was. Even of

its attributes the only ones I could recall were size and shape,,

initially established by the place which in my dream it had.

to fill. Of its color, its material, specific gravity or use, I had

not the faintest notion. Yet, stimulated and directed only by

remembered size and shape, I finally recalled, recovered and

successfully adjusted it among its waiting neighbors.

The new relation that should have been found

Somewhat similarly guided, one who was puzzled much, but

also stimulated by “My apples eat^(emselves) by (the aid of)

the boys,” might it seems to me, discover the relation that ob¬

tains between “My apples” and “the boys” — a relation cer¬

tainly that ought to be discovered, as I shall a moment later

indicate. I do not positively say however that it ever was dis¬

covered ; for, although presumable, discovery has left no record

of which thus far I have information.

Yet, for a moment, I prefer to reason on precisely as if the

sought relation, being found, had been adopted as the meaning

of the verb, thenceforward genuinely passive; for a measure

of familiarity with that relation, as it seems to me, is vital

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 105

to the full appreciation of the others which have actually been

discovered and adopted, now the one and now the other, as the

meanings of the passive voice.

It will in time, I think, appear distinctly that the evolution

of the passive meaning was diverted from its natural, rational

course. My reasoning will accordingly endeavor to establish

first the rational, and then the (commonly accepted, current)

actual passive meaning. To reach the latter, I shall analyze

the eating-formed relation that obtains e. g. between the apples

and the boys of my illustration into (1) relation between the

apples and the eating, and (2) relation between the eating and

the boys — each one of which relations I shall offer on occasion

as perhaps the meaning of the passive voice; but on this occa¬

sion neither seems to me to be the one I really care to find.

Relation (2), which finds expression in the preposition “by,”

is ipso facto of presumably a secondary interest; for, so far as

I have noted up to date, the preposition never names a dominant

relation, which to me appears to be the reason why we cannot

turn a preposition into an assertive verb — the namer of a domi¬

nant relation — though perhaps all prepositions can be para¬

phrased by unassertative verbal forms.* Thus, for instance,

“A woman between her husband and her son” declines to be

made over into “A woman who betweened the two,” the coined

verb impressing one as more than merely a neologism.

Moreover, granted that my apples have been eaten, it’s to

me a minor matter who has eaten them, or what relation holds

between the eating and whoever it may be. I cannot rank re¬

lation, then, between the eating and the boys as what I’m mainly

^anxious to discover.

As to relation (1), although of greater interest than (2), it

is hardly what you would expect me first of all to look for —

is accordingly, as well as (2), of secondary interest. In the

doubtless prior, long familiar active voice, “The boys eat my

apples” tells you what relation I experience in thinking from the

boys to the apples — that of actor and actee. When accordingly,

* E. g “with” may be replaced by “accompanying,” “after” by

'“following,” etc.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

instead of thinking in that order, I reverse my thinking and be¬

gin with apples, I am naturally looking for reverse relation to

obtain between the apples and the boys — between actee and actor .

But, previous to the evolution of the passive, I assume that I

had never sensed relation of this sort. I couldn’t even try

to formulate it; for it wasn’t even part of my idea-repertory.

Yet in saying that the apples ate themselves, I thoroughly ap¬

preciated that my mode of thinking1 was a make-shift. If now I

merely say the apples are in this or that relation with the eat¬

ing, I shall hardly be much better satisfied. What I want to

tell — and therefore first of all to find — is the relation that ob¬

tains between the apples and the boys. •

Moreover, if my statement is to be complete, this far from

satisfactory relation between the apples and the eating must

be supplemented by relation between the eating and the boys;

and mentally to picture first the one and then the other costs

me a superfluous and irksome effort. Also therefore for that

reason, rather than for instance say “The apples were affected

by an eating which itself was furthermore effected by the boys''’

(or an equivalent thereof), I much prefer to tell you briefly

what relation was, by eating, formed between the apples and

the boys.

Started thus upon the search, and guided by the facts, it

seems to me that sooner or later one is sure to find the sought

relation. To recognize it, one needs only, as it seems to me,

to give himself completely to the situation’s influence upon his

mind — an influence which I shall understand most easily if, in

approaching it, I start with a more simple illustration.

Accordingly, imprimis I observe that, as I walk from hill to

valley, I experience the physical sensation namable as that of

going down or down-ness ; and, if I merely pass in thought from

hill to valley, I experience the mind-sensation namable as low¬

erness or — more distinctly — as relation of the lower to the

higher.* If I now reverse the walk, the physical sensation is

reversed for me without cooperation or exertion of my mind;

* Why not of the higher to the lower, is a far from easy question,

worthy of a specially attempted answer in another publication.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 107

what I may call the universe of nerve instructs me. Also, even

if what I reverse is mental passage, the required reversal of

the mind-senation calls at most for little mental effort. The

universe of space is this time my instructor. If now I pass,

in thought of eating, from the actor to the object, I perceive

without a struggle the relation of eater to food. This relation

is no doubt a trifle more obscure than those of space; but, on

the other hand, I have the vast advantage now of being taught

by that most stimulating of instructors — the universe of action.

“Things in motion more do catch the eye than what not stirs.”

Accordingly, if now, conversely, in a teachable state of mind,

I often pass, in thought of eating, from actee (object) to actor,

some day, in some brighter mental moment, as it seems to me

I certainly shall hear and understand the great instructor: I

shall, at first but dimly, but with growing clearness, sense the

new relation of food to its own eater.

The situation, as I apprehend it, may be indicated by a tabu¬

lation of ideas thus :

Apples

known to play the part

of food

Boys

known to play the part

of eater

In view of fact the following relations are untenable :

that of eater to food,

that of eater to eating,

that of eating to food.

Indeed, the form of the reflexive phrase or verb (e. g. edun-

tur), so different from that employed to express the above re¬

lations, points distinctly to a different relation.

In view of mental tendencies discussed on pp. 29-30, the

following relations are of secondary interest:

that of food to eating,

that of eating to eater.

The one remaining* tenable relation not of secondary inter¬

est is that of food-to-eater.

* It seems unnecessary to develop here relations thinkable between

co-actors, co-actees, actor (or action) and an indirect actee, etc., since

the illustration has no room for them.

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

To prepare the way for the perception of this new relation,

I have argned that relation at the first expressed in “ Apples

eat themselves” — relation purely figurative — was forgotten. I

must imagine, further, the relation which at first the preposi¬

tion “by” expressed, to have been forgotten also. That is, I

think of, say, “eduntur-ab” as virtually but a single word, the

preposition ranking merely as a supplementary element of pas¬

sive inflection, which has still maintained its isolation. In

other words while “edunt” names, as the relation caused by

eating, that of eater to food, I am thinking of “eduntur-ab” as

naming a reverse relation — that of food to eater.

This conception of the passive meaning can be made more

tangible in English, though unfortunately figurative self-in¬

fliction is too unfamiliar in our language, to be utilized in il¬

lustration. Accordingly I look for aid to the regularly fac¬

torized “are eaten by,” but write it as a single word in the re¬

modeled illustration: “My apples areeatenby the boys.”

As quasi precedent for such an innovation, I observe that he

who stigmatizes “to repeatedly examine” as a “split infinitive”

may well enough regard “are (often) eaten (after dark) by” as

the analogously doubly split reverse of “eat,” and recognize in

the unjoined “are eaten by” a unit quite as genuine as the

equally unjoined “to examine.” That so indeed it has been

recognized by many, is suggested by their marked analogous

unwillingness to break the contiguity of verb and preposition.

To illustrate, the prescribed “The brute by whom I was in¬

sulted” is with much persistency displaced by “The brute whom

I was insulted by” — which after all is not by half so bad as

German juggling with the separable preposition. Indeed that

little but unruly member of the body sentential quite ignores

the effort to control it, as is doubly noticeable in “The man

(whom) she can’t appear on the street without being spoken

to by” and trebly in “The stick that I was struck at with by

a tramp.”

Hor is it prepositions only, that in such a case are lawless.

Almost one might say that with the passive “all things are possi¬

ble.” If in “He was given-a-cane-to” and the even more absurd

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 109

“He was made-a-present-of-a-cane” the hyphenated words are

felt to operate essentially as one — as strongly hinted by the

would-be humorous equivalent “He was caned/’ and by the far

from would-be humorous academic “was certificated” and the

journalistic “circularized” — they seem to countenance my sens¬

ing of “are eaten by” as also virtually but a single word. This

headline also, taken from a local daily, “John Doe's Where¬

abouts Would Like to be Known by His Wife/' which

seems to be intended as a passive paraphrase of “John Doe’s

wife would like to know his whereabouts,” suggests that in the

active voice “would-like-to-know” was fused in mind — a neces¬

sary preparation for the passive, also fused, “would-like-to-be-

known.”*

Choice of “cases” for related terms

This I can most advantageously examine after comment on

the use of cases with the active voice, recalling that the case-

sign of its subject — formerly a word complete, i. e. the nomi¬

native ending “s” — at first meant “always very active later,

“active in the action momentarily considered” — ergo actor ; last

of all, accordingly, “first thought of” in the mental operation

which is indicated by the active voice — or even also by the

passive voice — i. e. first term or subject and that by no means

always in an action, e. g. “Brown is ill.”

The accusative might have reached a corresponding function,

* It was not apparently appreciated that in passive thinking there

was no excuse for meddling with the ‘'knowing.” In a passive sen¬

tence rightly formed “to know” — the nucleary object of the active

sentence, used as subject of the passive — would not suffer change; ac¬

cordingly, “To know his (John Doe’s) whereabouts would be liked by

John Doe’s (his) wife.”

f The nominative inflection of the noun in predicate position,

though by no means rational, is thinkable as imitating the inflection

of the adjective, which as an adjunct takes that case to show associa¬

tion with the nominative subject, and retains it rather naturally in

the predicate position. I imagine it however as originating rather

in the sentence which may be reversed without essential change in the

relation indicated; e. g. “The King (of England) is (identical with)

the Emperor (of India)” — a sentence of which either end, canoe-like,

is prepared to lead. (See further p. 36.)

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and with great advantage. In doing so its case-sign needed not

to have been in former times a word complete, as was the nomi¬

native “s;” its meaning needed not to have been “always very

inactive.” Enough that with the active voice, when both a first

term and a last term are exhibited, the accusative was plainly

felt to indicate what “suffers” or endures or is affected (or

effected) by the action. The one that suffers is presumably

“inactive in the action momentarily considered”- — -certainly is

the actee. The accusative, in naming the actee, exactly matched

the nominative in the latter’s second stage of evolution into

namer of the actor.

But while the nominative case advanced to an almost exclu¬

sive indication of the starting point in thought — that is, the

first term — the accusative apparently made no advance. What

indeed it named was plainly in the active voice not only

the actee, but also quite as plainly the last term. But, so

far as I have learned, the latter naming was not recognized.

While accordingly the nominative had become the sign of a par¬

ticular thought-membership (i. e. as first term), the accusative

remained the sign of a particular action-implication (i. e. as

actee, or that which suffers) — one of those anomalies which

language offers in bewildering abundance — one which might

have been avoided, had linguistic evolution carried (1) the ac¬

cusative a little further or (2) the nominative not so far. Thus

(2) if with the active voice the nominative had developed only

to the point of standing for the actor — the accusative however

having come to stand for the actee — the passive voice would

rationally have exhibited its subject (the actee) in the accusa¬

tive,* and put the “agent” (actor) in the nominative— -with, of

course, no preposition.

Or (1) if in association with the active voice the accusative

had, like the nominative, taken one more step and reached

the point of indicating only last-term membership of thought,

the passive might have rationally duplicated the procedure of

* This, indeed, unless my information be at fault, has really been

the practice of one language, demonstrating that “there are” in

speech as well as other acts “more ways than one to skin a cat.”

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. Ill

the active, putting — as the passive does in fact — its first term

(subject, the actee) in the nominative, and — as it does not in

fact— its last term (agent, actor) in the accusative— again with¬

out a preposition.

But evolution of this sort was barred by the tenacity with

which the accusative was held to indicate what suffers action —

not what is last term in thought. This old conception of accu¬

sative function was continued naturally and without disaster

even when the verb expressed an action altogether figurative,

as in “Sight requires” or “demands an eye to see with,” which

I sense as merely figurative paraphrasing of “No seeing can

occur without an eye” or “Eyes are indispensable to seeing.”

But the old conception was continued further quite unnaturally

and disastrously. Actual and figurative actions so beset the

mind that they produce a habit which we follow in their ab¬

sence. When the verb, although it names no action, is at¬

tended by a first term and a last, we often still proceed as if

there were an action — e. g. in “A equals B” (Conf. exceeds,

outweighs, overlies, antedates, etc.,) in which a well inflected

language would exhibit B as object of the verb.

But in “equaling” there plainly is no genuine action. Also

any spurious action- — any unreal “affecting” — any “suffering

the action” — is rather taken for granted than distinctly even

imagined. Habit seems to be what leads to the continued use

of the accusative as namer of what suffers. As habit strengthens,

any possibility of sensing the accusative as used or usable for

any other purpose weakens ; and when action ceases to be even

taken for granted, the possibility of using the accusative inflec¬

tion as a sign of last-term membership in thought is practi¬

cally certain to be overlooked.

The cessation comes abruptly — when for instance bulk-equiva¬

lence — or, say, a single, incomplete identity of e. g. A and B —

is superseded in the mind by multiple, complete identity. If

this last identity comprises, as it might, a score of single ones,

whatever rationality there may have been in using the accusa¬

tive with one identity would seem to be increased not less than

twenty-fold ; and yet in “A is B” which indicates complete iden-

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tity of A and B, we do not put our B in the accusative.* Sud¬

denly — I’ve no suspicion why — we lose all thought of action.

A no longer is conceived as “doing anything” to B. B no

longer is conceived as suffering “a doing.” Since we then are

quite unable to conceive accusative inflection as the sign that an

idea is merely not the first term in our thinking but the last—

since we think of such inflection only as the sign of “action-suf¬

fering” — we feel that, in the absence of that suffering, we must

abandon that inflection. Why, of all the other several inflec¬

tions, one appeals to us and not another, it is hardly necessary

to examine. Unluckily we violate the uniformity of nomina¬

tive function as the sign of first term, blundering into the adop¬

tion of the nominative case for B, the last term.

Conservatism won the day. Entrenched in the inveterate

'conception of accusative inflection as exclusively the sign of “ac¬

tion-suffering,” it held its own against the advance of those

who doubtless strove for the conception of accusative inflection

as the sign of a last term. Unsupported by sufficient knowl¬

edge of accusative history, I should hesitate to say that any

“doubtless strove” for the latter conception, were it not that

to this day it has its numerous and strenuous supporters; un¬

ceasingly the instinct of the laity protests against convention¬

ality, insisting on “It’s me” and other analogous expressions ;

and a writer, whose perceptions are superior to his reasonings,

defends with much enthusiasm a poetic, resolute, defiant “I’ll

he me.”

Relations that were actually found

For reasons which I later indicate the (natural) rational

(advanced) conception of the passive meaning (pp. 31-32) was

not generally reached. When the thought at first expressed by

the reflexive sentence was reorganized, the new relation that

should have been found, unfortunately was not found — not

found, at least, by many. The relations actually found were

* With this peculiar government by what is called the copula “to-be”

rank also the exceptions offered by “to seem” (or “be apparently”)

and other so-called “copulative verbs.”

Owen— Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 113

very different. The evolution of the passive mode of thinking

was in the majority of minds diverted — personally I prefer

to say perverted.

Perversion of the passive evolution

How this happened I can best appreciate by going back a

little “for a running start,” observing first that what we rank

as worth the effort of expression always may he sensed as multi¬

ple. One idea hardly stirs us to such effort. The mental pic¬

ture of the biggest fish I ever caught, I care but little to pro¬

duce before your mental eye, except conjointly with the mental

picture of myself. Even two ideas are not a thought, but

merely one idea and then again another idea, unless combined

into a thought by a relation. To hang my portrait in your

mental gallery beside the picture of the fish, is hardly worth

the effort, if you do not further sense me in relation with the

fish, as catcher to his “catch.” A trio of ideas, two* and what

they have to do with each other — their relation — are the mini¬

mum of thought-communication.*

Of relations doubtless some are easier to apprehend than

others. To grasp the bulk-superiority of A to B requires surely

less exertion than to sense the difference between “eventuality”'

and “possibility.” Relations of the latter type — since they are

later recognized, and far less frequently — are less familiar..

They are also much more difficult per se. In a given case-

they have less chance of being apprehended.

Applying now the recognition of this difference between re¬

lations, think a moment of, for instance, a collision — rather,

say, an impact. However absolutely the occurrence be, to first

perception of the mental eye, a blended whole, it plainly can¬

not be linguistically so exhibited; for almost always our vo¬

cabularies offer us at best a word for every constituting ele¬

ment of a particular occurrence — none for the occurrence as a

whole. Of necessity we sense it, in linguistic thinking, in its

details. I, for instance, sense the impact as an A, a striking,

* That all the- members of a trio be expressed by words is plainly

quite unnecessary, gesture or “the situation” often operating in the

place of words.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and a B. As indicated just above, I have a keener mental eye

for a relation (caused by striking) to obtain between the A and

B, which are material, than for relation to obtain between ma¬

terial A and striking which is immaterial, or between the im¬

material striking and material B.

But perception of this natural relation was obscured by sev¬

eral influences. Of these perhaps the most effective — one which

was presumably already operative in the active mode of think¬

ing — was that dual recognition of thought as subject and predi¬

cate, which I have elsewhere at some length antagonized.* Re¬

peating here in brief, I note that, while I certainly can sense

an insect as consisting of a head and what follows, I can doubt¬

less sense it also as a tail and what precedes, or even as a body

and what precedes in part and partly follows. Yet I luckily

can sense it also as a head, a thorax (body) and an abdomen

(tail). So also I am able to conceive my thought, not only as

a subject and a predicate, but also as this and that and what

they have to do with each other — as first term, last term and

relation which subsists between them. But Grammar and even

Logic, in their merely dual recognition — for to me the further

recognition vaguely indicated by their “copula” is but the recol¬

lection of a unity inhering still in what they fancy they have

severed (“analyzed”) — give the subject, or the starting point in

thinking, an importance which to me is quite fictitious and un¬

natural, as if what I am talking of were on at least a par

with all the rest of what I have to say. The scratch-line of

a foot-race hardly equals in importance both the goal and inter¬

vening space combined; the where I get and how I get there,

or what I encounter on the way, can hardly mean to me 10

more than where I start — in running or in thinking. But the

recognition of a thought, or sentence, as consisting of a subject

and a predicate, has operated much as if its advocates had chosen

to regard a thought as “a head and what is left,” the last term

and particularly the relation (that subsists between the first

and last term) largely losing in that “what is left” distinctness,

individuality, importance.

* “Interrogative Thought.” pp. 365-369.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 115

Again, the “agreement” of the subject and the verb in num¬

ber and in person, further so distracts attention of grammarians

from the mental juxtaposing of the subject and the object, that

the relation which obtains between the two is generally alto¬

gether overlooked. For instance, though “A equals B” is

surely often used as if in answer to the question “What rela¬

tion holds between the bulk of A and that of B ?” that sentence

is interpreted as if it always were a statement of the bulk of A

in terms of that of B — as answer to “How big is A

This attention to “agreement” ought to lead to a distinct per¬

ception of the subject and the verb as in the obvious relation of

an actor to (his own particular) action — that one in which he

is implicated — not some other action. But in fact the atten¬

tion finds the subject and the verb to be in such relation only

as is hinted by the declaration that the subject “is the subject

of a particular verb” — a statement quite as valid when the pas¬

sive voice is used, and with the active when there is no inti¬

mation of an actor or an action— a statement which accordingly

can not exclusively or certainly suggest relation of an actor to

his action — a statement which is but a clumsy cart-before-the-

horse announcement of what the “agreement” really tries to

tell us, namely that the verb “is the verb of a particular sub¬

ject.”*

If entirely consistent, Grammar further would announce for

instance in “The boys eat my apples” that, not only “boys”

is subject of the verb, but also that the verb is verb of the ob¬

ject “apples.” That is, we should, though vaguely, be in¬

structed in relations that obtain in turn between the boys and

eating, and between the eating and the apples. Recognition of

essentially this sort indeed is necessary to the unity of total

thought, for if we do not recognize relation (eating-formed) be¬

tween the boys and apples, but begin with boys in a relation

with the eating, a relation must be further recognized between

the eating and the apples ; for the apples otherwise would be

irrelevant.

* It seems to be forgotten that my subject may be such, although

I even have not yet determined what shall be my predicate.

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

But recognition of the verb as verb of the object* takes the

inconvenient form of recognition that the object is the object of

the verb. Accordingly, to feel the oneness of the total thought

experienced as “The boys in relation with an eating, itself in

relation with my apples” — to feel this oneness as prescribed by

Grammar — looking in “The boys eat my apples” first from left

to right, I sense “The boys” and “eat” in the relation of a sub¬

ject to its verb; but to sense, as Grammar does, the “eat” and

“apples” in a further indispensable relation — that of object to

its verb — I am required to look from right to left. Thus pro¬

ceeding, I appreciate that somehow “boys” is in relation with

an action which in film is still more “somehow” in relation

with “my apples.”

In the active voice, to generalize upon my illustration, Gram¬

mar fails entirely to sense the actor-to-aetee relations (e. g.,

between the boys and apples, that of eater-to-food) — senses the

relations of actor-to-action (e. g. that of boys to eating) very

dimly — senses the relations of action-to-aetee (e. g. that of

eating to the apples) still more dimly, also very awkwardly,

perhaps the best appreciation of the last relation being indi¬

cated by the class-room question : what does “eat”, for instance,

“take as object?”.

Bewildered by unnatural conceptions reached in dealing with

the trio formed by actor, action and actee, it hardly could be

hoped that Grammar would fare better when confronted with

the more perplexing trio formed by the actee, the action and

the actor. Imprimis, in e. g. “My apples are eaten by the

boys,” to recognize the food-to-eater relation — the reverse of an

eater-to-food relation which the active voice had not succeeded

in revealing to grammarians — was plainly out of the question.

But the way was cleared for truer apprehension of the other

possible relations by a fortunate forgetting that the nominative

noun had been supposed to name the doer of the action — the

accusative, what suffers it. Though presented by a nominative

* Such expressions as “Les pommes que j’ai mangel,” in which

the (compound) verb may be said to agree with both its subject and

its object, plainly lose importance in the rather disconcerting in¬

verse order of the verb and object.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. Ill

noun, tlie subject of the. passive gained a little flavor of what

suffers (possibly because its verb was thought to name a “be¬

ing-done” or, say, a “being-eaten” different from an “eating,”

see p. 1), hinting at relation of actee-to-action, which how¬

ever does not seem to be at all distinctly recognized. The most

that can be said is then perhaps that there is felt to be — as

also when the active voice is used— -a mutual belonging of the

subject and the verb, the subject surely not however being

thought of now as doer of the action. Grammar seems indeed

incapable of clearly recognizing a relation formed by action,

either in the active or the passive sentence, till it comes upon

the “by” of passive usage, which it classes as a preposition,

sometimes adding that “a preposition names a mere relation.”

Though relegated thus to what was wrongly thought to be

inferior rank, relation indicated by that preposition, so to speak,

was strengthened. When, for instance, apples ceased to be

conceived as “doing eating to themselves” with some assistance

from the boys — or, say, as helping in the eating — all the bur¬

den of accomplishing the eating fell upon the boys; and “by”,

instead of meaning “with the aid of”, came to mean “by the

exclusive agency of” (see p. 21). That is, the eating and the

boys were clearly recognized in the relation of an action to its

actor — a relation which, however, being indicated by a prep¬

osition, is no part of what the passive verb expresses.

In recapitulating, I should bear in mind that users of a given

word or combination do not of necessity think all of them alike

in using it, and even that the individual user’s thinkings may

be different at different times. The slaves of Grammar and

the devotees of language history, in saying “if you please,”

presumably regard the “you” as object indirect, as if the

phrase were “if to you be pleasing.” You and I however

'probably agree that “you” is subject, and that “please” has

come to mean “prefer” or “like,” as plainly is the case in “if

I please,” etc.

Thus put upon my guard, I think it probable that many

users of the words “The boys eat my apples” think as indicated

by “(The boys accomplish [eating) affects the apples]” — or

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

‘“The boys are in the actor- to- action relation with an eating

which is in the action-to-actee relation with the apples.” Of

.the “active” sentence thus interpreted, “My apples are eaten

by the boys” — with the meaning of “The apples are in the

(but dimly seen) relation of actee-to-action with an eating

which is in the action-to-actor (clearly seen) relation with the

boys” — is, except in form, the exactly corresponding passive

sentence.

But if, as I suppose is proper, it be held that “eat” expresses,

unassisted, both an actor-to-action (the eater-to-eating) relation

and an action-to-actee (the eating-to-food) relation — -the former

•commonly appreciated only as the sub ject-to- verb relation, and

the latter only as the ob j ect-to-verb relation* — -then that factor

of the passive sentence which we call the passive verb — divid¬

ing function with the preposition, and itself expressing only

the relation of actee-to-action — thus expresses only part of what

the active verb expresses, and accordingly is not in the now

•considered case its reverse or correlative.

But I think it probable that many— most, perhaps— of those

who say “The boys eat my apples” think directly from the

boys to the apples, reaching an immediate relation (action-

caused) between the two. To illustrate by a simpler case, I

do not think of myself as brother to my father’s son, and further

of that son as father to his daughter. I make a short-cut, think¬

ing of myself and her as in the uncle- to-niece relation. Ana¬

logously I seem not to think of boys as eaters in an eating in

which further I conceive the apples as the food. Bather again

I make a short-cut, thinking of the boys and apples in the re¬

lation of eater-to-food.f

ISTow persons who, in saying “My apples are eaten by the

boys,” mean “My apples are in food-to-eater relation with the

boys,” use “are-eaten-by” as the exactly corresponding passive

* This relation might be held to be expressed by the accusative

inflection; and possibly it so is held in fact by users of the well-in¬

flected languages; but, in our own, it seems to m© tne transitiveness

of a verb — its need of an attendant object— -indicates that it should

be defined as naming “an action plus that action’s action-to-actee re¬

lation with ............... .”

f It does not seem to me however in the least impossible that both

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 119

voice of “eat” interpreted as naming the eater-to-food relation.

But of such users I suppose there are at most but few. In the

prevailing usage, then, it may be said — as I began to argue on

p. 37 — that evolution of the passive in the first place was di¬

verted or perverted.

Arrest of passive evolution

There still remained the possibility of fusing in the mean¬

ing of the passive verb the two relations whose expression was

respectively effected by the passive and the preposition “by”-—

the noun for the actee continuing to be inflected nominatively,

because in “passive thinking” (ipso facto) the actee is the

first term — the actor-naming noun however being put in the

accusative without a preposition, since the actor in a passive

thinking is the last term, destination, or arrival-point of mental

transit. (Conf. “Romam ire”). But, until this possibility be

the single short-cut and the two-fold roundabout relation be in mind

together. In this diagram of three relations and three lines

in which the words adjacent to the upper right-hand angle are sup¬

posed to name one person, I can see undoubtedly three lines at once;

and doubtless I can also simultaneously sense the three relations.

The required effort surely is no greater than the one demanded by

“11:22 :: 13:26,” which calls on me to sense relation of equality be¬

tween two other relations (ratios) — an operation which I certainly

cannot effect, with either of the three relations out of mind. I am

not however to be understood as meaning that the short-cut and the

roundabout are both expressed, or that each one is part of thought

intended for expression .

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

realized, it may be said that in the second place the evolution

of the passive was arrested.

Of linguistic thinking, what I must accordingly concede to

be the accepted passive mode — which recognizes two relations

(one between e. g. my apples and an eating; one between that

eating and the boys) — at first may seem implausible, because it

corresponds so inexactly with what I regard as the accepted

active mode- — which recognizes one relation only (that e. g.

between the boys and my apples). Yet the inexactness of this

correspondence has its close analogies. The musician does not

choose, for the descending minor scale, all notes he played in

the ascending. How and then the Mississippi river cuts the

neck of a far-sweeping bend. Two channels are accordingly

available. Going down the stream you choose — or, rather,

hardly can avoid — the shorter, swifter channel. But if you

now reverse your course, it may be you will find that you can

make no head against the stronger current of that channel *

or your progress is so slow and painful that you wisely let

yourself be swung into the other. So also even in the telling

of your “passive” thought, perhaps you find “The longest way

’round is the shortest way home.”

B— THE FIGURE OF ACQUISITION

As what I said of self- infliction in the main applies, with

only obvious modification, to the now-considered figure, I can

make the exposition of the latter very brief.

To illustrate, given “Henry broke the knife,” suppose, in¬

stead of thinking (as that sentence indicates) from Henry to-

the knife, I start my thinking with the knife and end with

Henry. I may figuratively construct my thought as indicated

by “The knife acquired fragmentariness through agency of

Henry.”

Expression of this type, on which I base my present title,,

also may conveniently assume the form “The knife became

fragmentary, etc.”, in which the words italicized may be en¬

dured as merely an ambitious substitute for the more popular

“come broke.”

Owen — Relatione Expressed by the Passive Voice. 121

Dealing rather now with form and structure of my thought

than with its substance and constituent elements, I lay no

stress on choice of prepositional phrase or preposition — e. g.

a (ab or abs) von, durcli, vtto etc., — electing for convenience

“by.” Accordingly “The knife became fragmentary by Henry.”

In this expression knife and fragmentary status (posed as

quality or attribute of knife) appear in a developing or forma¬

tive relation (that of object to its quality)- — not in a relation

already established- — these relations being readily distinguish¬

able as the one dynamic, and the other static. That is, lin¬

guistic cerebration in the present case is true to Hegel7 s doctrine,

humorously summarized as follows : “Nothing is, and noth¬

ing’s not, but everything’s becoming.”

Figurative thinking then — in this case almost the personify¬

ing of a knife, conceived as passing (from relation with its

prior wholeness) to relation with its (later) brokenness — has

merely slighted the departure-point, in its preoccupation with

the passage and arrival-point, (Conf. p. 38.)

To exhibit clearly passive evolution from a figurative ac¬

quisition (or development or passage-and-arriva!) I need to

use what commonly is known as the past and passive participle,

in its earlier exclusive value — that is, only past , by no means

passive — in the sense in which we find it in the German “Hein¬

rich ist gekommen,” also even in the corresponding English

“Henry is come,” in each of which the final word might be

defined as meaning “in a state of having come,” or simply

“here.”

Using somewhat so the participial “broken” in the sense *f

“fragmentary,” I will substitute it in my illustration. Accord-

ingly, “The knife became broken (fragmentary) by (through)

Henry” — in the actual German, “Das Messer wurde (von)

durch Heinrich gebrochen.”

Reasoning analogous to that applied to figurative self-inflic¬

tion, would presumably establish that, in the meaning of the

German sentence, an original relation, sensed between the knife

and fragmentariness, gave way to a relation sensed between

the knife and the act of breaking (which produced the frag-

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

mentariness) — a relation of actee-to-action. That is, as the

result of shifting in the mental point of view, the figurative

acquisition-phrase, at first by no means passive, came to be

as much a passive as the classic phrase of self-infliction, and

by no means figurative.

C— THE FIGURE OF QUALITY

To illustrate, given “Henry broke the knife,” suppose again,,

instead of thinking (as that sentence indicates) from Henry

to the knife, I start my thinking with the knife, and end with

Henry. I may reverse my thought as indicated by “The knife

was fragmentary through the agency of Henry/’ figuratively

exhibiting the knife and fragmentariness in the relation of an

object to its quality.

Strictly speaking it must be admitted that the mental picture

thus expressed reflects a moment subsequent to that of break¬

ing, and exhibits not at all a breaking, but resultant brokenness.

Each of these however implies the other. Indeed, it may per¬

haps be said that, heeding now the one and now the other, we

no more forget their oneness, than the eye of one in motion over¬

looks the oneness of a changing scene perplexed by parallax.

Accordingly it may be held that either picture adequately cor¬

responds to outer-world reality.

In the exhibition of the second mental picturing let “broken”

take the place of “fragmentary,” the resultant total being then

“The knife was broken through the agency of Henry” — or “The

knife was broken by Henry” — an expression which I do not

yet intend as passivq. “Broken,” somewhat as before (See p.

45) shall still be understood as “in a state of brokenness.”

Let now the mental picture offered by “The knife was broken”

be so blurred that detail is forgotten. Discontent is sure to

follow. There is sure to be a striving for distinctness. “Brok¬

enness” with utmost ease suggests the far more vivid “breaking.”

“(The knife) was broken” may be reinterpreted as the expres¬

sion now no longer of a status (of the knife) but rather of a

prior, status-forming action.

Reasoning analogous to that applied to figurative self-in-

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 123

fliction might establish that, in thought intended by my illus¬

tration, the relation which at first obtained between the knife

and brokenness— relation qualitative, static — was displaced by

a dynamic action-caused relation of actee-to-action — of knife to-

breaking (“being-broken”). That is, as the result of shifting

in the mental point of view, a figurative phrase of quality, by

no means passive, came to be an action-phrase as much a pas¬

sive 'as the classic phrase of self-infliction, and by no means

figurative.

While it is presumable that other lines (to me unknown)

of passive evolution have been followed, both analogy and a

priori indication lead me to expect of it in every case a figura¬

tive start and a peculiar, not to say a rambling course.

Case II — When Used Without ah “Agent ”

In the absence of the agent of the passive voice — in other-

words, the actor of the active voice — the only elements im¬

mediately offered for construction of an action-thought appear

at first to be the action and actee (or object of the active voice) ;

and they are not enough.

To illustrate, if I set before your mind together a baptizing

and, say, monkeys, you presumably are far from satisfied. You

want to know what the baptizing “has to do with” monkeys.

Any inference to which you may be tempted you renounce, be¬

cause it is implausible. You are conscious that my thought,

so far as you can duplicate it, needs another element, to be

complete. You satisfy yourself that in the case before us,

as in other cases, thought conceived in detail must consist at

least of two terms and what one term has to do with the other —

say, then, the relation which obtains between them.

In the present case required relation seems to be evolved as

follows. When the actor is eliminated, though without him

the phenomenon in which he played his part must seem at

first to mental habit but a fragment, still it soon is recognized

that nothing will be added by the speaker to complete it. Tol¬

erated first as the merest all-there-is of thought-to-be-exhibited —

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

accordingly as only a de facto whole — the fragment quickly takes

the rank of a de jure whole and readily is sensed in detail as

an action, an actee, and their reciprocal belonging ; or — to think

of rather one of them alone in its belonging with the other,

or its “having to do with7’ that other — we may pose them, in

the “active” form of thinking, as the action, the actee, and

that relation of the action to its own actee, so dimly recognized

by Grammar’s dictum that, in any phrase or sentence represent¬

ing such a thought, the noun is the object of the verb.

In illustration of the now-considered case I offer the ex¬

pressions “II fit hdtir une maison ” “Fecit aedificare domum ”

of which the words italicized express an action (named by

“batir”, “aedificare”), the relation of the action to its own

actee — specifically that of building to what is built, incorporated

in the meaning of “batir,” “aedificare” — and an actee (“mai¬

son,” “domum”).* That is, their meaning may be rendered

by “He caused (never mind whom) to build a house

The gratuitous imagining of an indefinite actor (e. g. “some¬

one,” as the object direct or indirect of “caused,” or subject

of “to build”), the violent conception of “batir” as passive

(“maison” being held to be its subject), and the French grammar¬

ian’s ingenious, though delirious, interpretation of “fit batir”

as a causative verbal unit,t are so foreign to my own pro-

* The words “II fit” and “Fecit” are irrelevant to the case in hand,

and are admitted only because I do not think of any satisfactory case

in which the now-considered type of thought obtains expression, save

the clause employed as a substantive.

f Lest I seem unfair, I note that building is a mere variety of mak¬

ing or creating — that is, causing to exist. This causing to exist in¬

deed I readily make over into an investing with existence, blend this

total into a single act, and pose it as affecting what I choose. Indeed

I can do more, accomplishing with no great effort the linguistic feat

of blending “cause to be more beautiful (than it had been before),”

expressing all of this by “beautify.” But if I be commanded to effect

a blending of “to cause to make” — that is, “to cause to cause to ex¬

ist” — I must admit that I’m in danger of a serious blunder.

“Any man can lead a horse to water; but the king himself can’t

make him drink.” And I — while I can blend in thought the total

“cause a horse to (drink water, i. e.) cause water to enter his

stomach” — I cannot blend the causing of the drinking, while conceiv¬

ing in their individuality the horse and water. “To cause to drink,”

for momentary purposes, may adequately be expressed by “drench;”

but “drench the horse the water” is too much for any syntax in my

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 125

cedure that I find myself unable to antagonize them even ra¬

tionally.

Dealing then with only what materials I surely have, and

as I seem to have them, I observe that — given in the active

form of thought the act of building, the relation of the action

to its own actee, and the house — if I reverse this trio, I obtain

the house, the relation of actee to its own action (the one with

which the said actee is properly associated) and the action. In

the expression of all this, as in the active voice so also in the

passive, as it seems to me, relation is incorporated in the mean¬

ing of the verb which names the action. That is, in “maison

6tre batie,” “domum aedificari” (a house to be built”), it is

by what distinguishes the verbal form as passive that I find

the relation of actee to its own action indicated.*

In this case then the passive is the passive of the active voice.

It is only such, however, as a consequence of having, like the

active, overlooked the actor, abrogating like the active much of

its prerogative and interest.

Case III — When Used Without a Subject

In the absence of the subject of the passive voice — in other

words, the actee-— the only elements immediately offered for

construction of a thought appear at first to be the action and

the actor, known as “agent,” (subject of the active voice) ; and

Ihey are not enough. But, posing as the terms of thought,

they readily suggest appropriate relation, as required for

thought completeness.

To illustrate, the occurrence, in the active voice recorded by

the sentence “Omnes eunt,” is reflected in the mind at first, I

power — or that, I much suspect, of any one. To clearly pose the

horse as drinking, I must sense the drinking individually, in no

coalescence with the causing — also if I wish to pose the drinking as a

drinking of the water; and, if I would pose the king as only causing,

and not drinking, I had better sense that causing in no coalescence

with the drinking; for, so long as drinking blends with causing, I am

powerless to forestall misunderstanding— scandal. The horse may

have the King’s nose in the trough in spite of me.

* Indeed I do not know where else to find it. Order has no value;

nor has noun-inflection.

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

doubt not, as a blended whole. But the installment-plan of

thought-delivery by words compels the secondary recognition

of this blended whole in detail as consisting, say, of persons and

a going — that is, two constituents or terms; and these must

still maintain in mind their mutual belonging; rather, one is

felt to belong with the other, or to “have to do with” it ; there

is felt in short to hold between them a relation. This relation —

hinted by the statement of the grammars, that the noun is sub¬

ject of the verb — I choose to recognize as rather that of actor

to his action. To exhibit this relation very plainly in trans¬

lation, I might choose the expression “All perform (or all

accomplish) going” or even “All are going.” But I accept the

usual “Ajil go,” in which however it seems to me the said re¬

lation is a part of what is meant by “go;” and I suppose it

also to have been a part of what was meant by “eunt.” Com¬

pleting thus the number of ideas necessary for construction of

a thought, I do not feel the need of any object, be it cognate

or— if you prefer it — innate, for the verb. Accordingly I

am not tempted by “All go a journey” or “All go a going.”

That I have not read presumably excessive meaning into

“eunt,” may be hinted by the sentence “Horses advertise,”

which I imagine stirs you to the question “What have horses

to do with advertising?” — or, with more distinctness, “How

can advertising be the act of horses ?” — an inquiry which as¬

sumes on my part an intention to declare, between the horses

and the advertising, the relation of an actor to an action of

his own. Analogously “Omnes eunt” shall be held, as in¬

dicated, to express an actor, the relation of the actor to his

action, and the action.

The exact reverse of this trio — or, say, the same idea-series

posed in the opposite order of succession — is the action (going),

the (necessarily reversed) relation of the action to its actor,

and the actor. Accordingly any form of a verb which ex¬

presses this relation, shall be ranked as the passive of what¬

ever form of that verb expresses the (corresponding proverse)

relation of actor to his action. Thus, in the present instance,

any verb which expresses the relation of “going” to its own

Owen— Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 127

actor (“omnes”) shall be ranked as passive— and the passive

of “emit.”

As however in Case I relation of the action to its actor was

expressed exclusively by prepositions, it can hardly be ex¬

pected that the preposition in the present case will abdicate

in favor of the verb. Indeed I do not at this writing know

of any verbal form of which the meaning can he stretched to

cover this relation. The sole approximation, even merely

formal, is afforded by expressions such as “Itur ah omnibus,”

which, masquerading as the passive paraphrase of “Omnes

emit,” has been tolerated more or less , unflinchingly by lan¬

guage students. A moment’s observation shows however, as

it seems to me, that in “Itur ab omnibus” the relation of ac¬

tion (going) to actor (“omnibus”) is well expressed by “ab” ;

and I see no reason for believing that it is again expressed by

“Itur.” However much opinion differ in particulars, it seems

to me it will agree upon the meaning of “Itur (ab omnibus)”

as of the type expressed by “Something is done (by all)” — a

type which might be disregarded, as apparently a rather unim¬

portant variant of Case I.

I wish however not to leave this difficult case without establishing

its nature somewhat more exactly; and, in doing so, I need the aid

of what I must content myself with posing now as postulates, yet

hoping that they may seem plausible enough to invite assent, though

unsupported by the reasoning which attended them in previous pub¬

lications.*

A minimal or unextended judgment, as it seems to me, consists, in

ordinary thinking, of a thought (i. e. two terms and their relation,

see p. 37) and belief in its “truth,” by which I mean its being

matched by external reality. This truth is first, no doubt, associated

by the mind with total thought. But the associations utilized in the

linguistic thought-construction commonly are much more special:

an obviously genuine associate of total thought is frequently displaced

by an associate of one thought element; in particular the place of

truth conceived as spreading over total thought, is taken by the

suitableness of a single term (to the completion of true thought) — that

is, by rightness.

Belief in rightness, which is my interpretation of affirmative as¬

sertion, might no doubt associate itself with any element of thought/}-

* See Interrogatives, pp. 376-380, etc.

f Such freedom of association often is suggested, if not indeed

established. Thus, in “(What is the relation of A and B? — A equals

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letter

But in actual linguistic practice the belief in rightness (i. e. the as¬

sertion) clings to the relation — to the most important element of

thought. I say the most important, for the earlier thinking surely

was the finding of relations for already given terms, and not the

finding of the terms to suit already given relations.* * The sheep which

was found occasioned more rejoicing than its fellows which had not

necessitated any search. This prestige relation never abrogated. Re¬

lation was accepted as the nucleus of thought; and hence with it

particularly, truth of total thought — made over into rightness of a

single element of thought — was still associated, even in the case in

which that rightness should have been associated with some other

element. Further when, in an extended judgment, there is more than

one relation, the belief in rightness (i. e. the assertion) is associated

with the focal, central, dominant relation — not with any that is mar¬

ginal, lateral, subordinate. Thus, in “Careful managers employ men

of steady habits,” it is the relation found between the managers and

men that is asserted, though relations plainly also hold between the

managers and carefulness, between the men and habits, and between

the habits and their steadiness.

When moreover (1) relation is produced by (2) action, a single

word — a verb — is made to exhibit both, and further made by suitable

inflection (actual or virtual) to indicate (3) belief in (4) right¬

ness — that is, to assert affirmatively as, for instance, in “My uncle

rents his house.” No doubt, in the expression of a judgment, it was

possible to furnish each one of the four with a particular symbol;

hut in actual linguistic practice, the expression of them all is forced

upon the verb — the verb in the indicative, by which I would include

the verb subjunctive (optative, conditional) in form alone (employed

e. g. in certain cases to assert conclusions), and exclude the verb

indicative in form alone, employed often when assertion certainly

is not intended, as for instance in “I don’t believe Durand is ill,”

of which the “is” no more expresses my belief, than would “to-be.”f

B. — No!) G equals B,” belief in rightness, or in other words assertion,

plainly is associated, not with “equals,” but with “C.” Or rather I

should say that, while linguistic precedent affords no sanction for

asserting “C,” I nevertheless distinctly indicate by emphasis that “C”

is what I would assert, were it permitted. In short I clearly intimate

that, in my pre-linguistic form of thinking, given “equals B,” I feel

assured that “C” is what is needed to complete a mental picture

matched by outer-world reality; or “C,” in other words, is right — is

what I would assert.

*To illustrate, doubtless primitive humanity began with reaching

= or ;> or <% as the result of mental stimulus exerted by an A and

B, and not with reaching B as the result of stimulus exerted by A — ,

or by A or by A <^.

t What' are usually ranked as verbal variants, imperative (assert¬

ing my desire that another e. g. act) and interrogative (asserting my

desire that you give me information as to e. g. action) I have else¬

where made an -effort to identify as independent verbal types. See

“Interrogative Thought.”

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 129

In negation the alternative of rightness, namely wrongness, is ex¬

pressed by “not” or an equivalent. As the following investigation

does not enter into differences between affirmative and negative as¬

sertion, I may overlook them now in making a distinctive list of

elements contributed, in the expression of an action- judgment, by

the verb— as follows:

A dominant relation (action-formed) and

an assertion

Lest I seem to overlook the other parts of speech that also name

relations, I admit that a relation-namer, (say “superiority,” “supe¬

rior,” “superiorly”) when abstracted from its terms, is capable of

sentence-membership as any part of speech. But the preposition is

the only other part of speech that, like the verb, exhibits a relation

in immediate association with its terms. Thus “superiority,” and

other namers of relation in the abstract, all apparently require preposi¬

tions as the indicators that, in the relation named, attendant terms

are implicated. For example, “the superiority of steel to iron.”

The preposition is accordingly the only part of speech that could

aspire to the expression of the thought-contingent that I have sup¬

posed to be imported by the verb alone. I seem to see however that

the aspiration never would be realized. In support of my belief I

merely note what I intend to argue in another publication: that the

preposition, in its meaning, does not comprehend assertion; that,

although the preposition often names relation surely the result of

action, it makes no attempt to name the action itself; that the

preposition does not name a dominant relation; that the preposition

and its object operate together as an adjunct — a subordinate element.

For instance, in the sentence “Brown was struck by Robinson,” what¬

ever be the intrinsic notability of what the preposition means, in the

linguistic thought-perspective “by” and “Brown” (or rather the ideas

which they name) together enter thought-construction as the adjunct,

the attendant in the background of — I care not now precisely what;

perhaps of Brown, perhaps of any of the several elements incorporated

in the meaning of the verb. In conspicuous contrast with that ad¬

junct, Brown, the relation of Brown and striking, and the striking

occupy the foreground, forming thus together a sufficient mental

entity; for while “by Robinson” is valueless except it be associated,

say, with “Brown was struck,” the latter formally at least is self-

sufficient.

Returning now to “Itur ab omnibus” I find in “Itur” (an indicative)

assurance* of intention to express a judgment or, in other words,

* Moreover, as I have contended elsewhere, in linguistic practice

every exhibition of a thought by courtesy implies assertion; for, out¬

side of poetry, in which for instance the intrinsic beauty of a mental

picture is sufficient warrant for displaying it, you do not care to

see the pictures in my mind, unless I vouch for them as something

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

two terms, a focal (central, dominant) relation sensed between them,

and assertion. The dominant relation and assertion are expressed

presumably by “Itur.” I do not find however that a single item in

the listed total is expressed by, or receives the slightest aid from,

“ab” or “omnibus” or both together. For, if tae meaning of “Itur (ab

omnibus”) (as indicated on p. 51) is of the type expressed by “Some¬

thing is done (by all),” required judgment is complete in form, with¬

out adjunctive contribution by “ab omnibus.”

The effort to interpret “Itur” more exactly may with safety then

ignore “ab omnibus.” Accordingly, I shall not make the effort till

I reach Case IV — the case in which the passive voice is used without

a subject or an agent — in which the unattended “Itur” will be studied

in the light of other similar expressions.

However, to complete the present topic, I may add anticipa-

tively that in Case IV I do not find that unattended “Itur” in its

meaning comprehends a genuine relation of an action to its

actor. “Itur” in association with “ah omnibus,” though pos¬

sibly the passive of some active verbal form (existing or im¬

aginable) can not then he held to be the passive counterpart cf

“Eunt,” which expresses the relation of an actor to his ac¬

tion in the sentence “Omnes eunt.”

“Eunt,” so far as I have noted, has no proper passive. The

reverse of the relation (that of all to going) which it names, so

far as I have found is always nominated by a preposition ; and

a preposition hardly will be ranked as passive till, assuming

the assertive function, it becomes — essentially at least — a verb.

Case IV: When Used Without a Subject or an Agent

Even illustration of this case is hampered by the prevalent

intrusion, into modern-language sentences, of elements which

seem to me to have no meaning — or, in other words, to stand

for no ideas. For example, in “Es wurde gespielt, gesungen

und getanzt,” I cannot find a bona fide meaning for the “Es”/

more than figments of my fancy. For instance, while I might arouse

your interest — and even lay you under obligations — by “It rains;”

and while no doubt you would forgive me if I made occasional mis¬

takes in such announcements; doubtless I should only vex you by

the unassertive “It to rain” — and hardly less than by a downright

lie. Indeed linguistic trifling in either form presumably would

quickly bring about suspension of linguistic relations.

* The interpretation of a thrice effective (trebled) “es,” as in succes¬

sion “playing” “singing” and “dancing,” either introduces an offensive

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 131

which is to me the merest formal stoprgap, quite analogous to

the indefinite subjects and objects which occur in “Gro it”

(though I fancy “it” has here a meaning which I merely can¬

not find), “It rains,” “Per me se va nella citta dolente”

(Through me is passage, etc. ; hardly, “Into-the-city goes itself”),

“II s^agit (There is action) de ma vie,” “Se me olvido” (There

was forgetting for me), “Wie hiibsch spielt’s sick den Vater!”

In all these illustrations the indefinites, including the reflex¬

ives, as it seems to me, afford a merely formal satisfaction of a

vaguely conscious need of actor and actee in the assertion of

an action. That indeed their use is formal only, is particu¬

larly indicated in the final illustration (from “Der Eeffe als

Onkel” — Act I, Sc. 7) by the “sich,” which tabes indeed the

object-place. . . ostensibly, but cannot actually close

it to the bona fide object “Vater.” That the subject “es” is

quite as spurious, is implied in its presumable meaning-identity

with “sich.” Perhaps accordingly I do not modify essentially

the mentally conscious total by reducing “Es wurde gespielt”

to “Wurde gespielt” or, in the present tense, to “Wird gespielt”

— a sentence with no indicated actor or actee, no subject and

no object.

As my most effective illustration is distinctly out of sympathy

with the conceptions prevalent in class-room parsing, though I

have some confidence that Schiller (its distinguished author)

rather well knew what he was about — and think he showed his

purpose very clearly- — I add a brief endorsement of his method.

Reducing his expression, which I also rid of its embarrassing

exclamatory aspect, I obtain, as the essential of the moment,

this: “Es spielt sich den Vater.” In this expression “Es”

and “sich” to me are virtually mere inflections— -isolated, sup¬

ernumerary. An imaginary need of both a subject and an ob¬

ject — legible and audible — has reached imaginary satisfaction.

The formal superfoetations “Es” and “sich” have added noth¬

ing to the total of ideas. As well then “Spielt” without them —

the assertion of a playing — -quite analogous to “Pluit.”

and implausible abuse of cognates, or, by a counterbalancing reduction,

further making “wurde gespielt” “gesungen” and “getanzt” each one

in turn mean “was effected,” brings about a verbal repetition almost

equally offensive and implausible.

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

As “Spielt” alone can take the object “Vater,” so can also

((Es spielt sick,” which stands for action unattended in the

mind by any actor or actee — attended at the most by empty

categories of the two. A mind like that of Schiller surely did

not put in “Vater” in a place which he regarded as already

filled.

Rare in northern languages, linguistic operation of this sort

is less unfrequent further southward — common in both Spanish

and Italian. I quote from the last pages of my reading in the

former language (1) “Se ha estranglado a los sacerdotes,” (2)

“Los dioses que se adoraba.”

The interpretation of “Se” in either case as the equivalent

of “Man” or “On,” I must abandon to whoever can make use

of it. (Let such a one experiment with “Se llueve” etc.) Re¬

garding usage as hereditary, and adhering to analogy of other

languages, I render “Se” by “itself.” As usual in Spanish I

supply a subject — the on^ly one compatible with“se” (“itself”) —

the precisely correspondent “It.”

The personal object -noun (direct) in Spanish is identified

by an attendant “a.” Accordingly the following translation

(1) : “(It) has strangled (itself, or for itself) the priests.” In

other words “(There) has occurred a strangling (of) the

priests.”

In (2) the use of “a” would not extend to a pronominal ob¬

ject. “Que” accordingly is not by such means indicated as the

object of the verb. As obviously pronoun relative however,

“que” can only be “referred” to “los dioses,” being thus es¬

tablished as of plural value — therefore not presumably the sub¬

ject of the singular verb — therefore of necessity its object. As

before, accordingly, I render “se” by “itself,” supply as sub¬

ject “it”, and then translate the whole expression by “The

gods whom (it) adored (itself).” In other words, “The gods,

an adoring whom occurred.”

Analogously let “Es spielt sich” be reduced to “Spielt” — a

one-word sentence (of the “Pluit,” “Piove” type) which also

indicates no actor or actee. This and “Wird gespielt,” as 1

already have contended (p. 2) will be found to name the same

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 133

phenomenon ; and yet I am persuaded that, whatever the rela¬

tion found to be expressed by “Spielt,” the same relation hardly

will be found to be expressed by “Wird gespielt.” Indeed a

most inviting explanation for the using of the passive “Wird

gespielt” would be that it was brought about by consciousness

of a relation the exact reverse of that which finds expression

in the active “Spielt.” But as we continue we shall find, I

think, in actual practice that, in such a form as “Wird gespielt,”

relation of that order is not contemplated.

To find the relation actually intended in the now examined

case of passive usage, it is necessary to perceive the terms between

which the relation holds. Looking now for these, I am quite

unable to discover, either in “(Es) spielt (sich)” or in “(Es)

wird gespielt,” the slightest bona fide hint of anything which

can effect the playing, or anything on which the playing oper¬

ates. The phenomenon of playing is not sensed in usual detail

as an actor and an action — and perhaps an actee also. The

case is quite analogous to that of raining as expressed by

“Pluit.”* The (output energy) action and the implicated per¬

sonnel remain — as doubtless they at first appeared in con¬

sciousness — a blended whole. There being thus no recognition

of an actor or actee, the usual relations of (1) actor-to-action,

and (2) action- to-actee, as well as the thereto equivalent, there¬

from derivable relation of (3) actor-to-actee, are of necessity

unexperienced. So too the usual reverse relations of (2) actee-

to-action, and (l1) action-to-actor, as well as the derivable rela¬

tion of (3) actee-to-actor, must alike be unexperienced.

At this stage of investigation I prefer sentential specimens

which are not even formally denatured by the presence of a

supernumerary member— -be it subject— -be it object. “Pluit”

will do very well for study of the active voice; and “Itur” of

“Sic itur ad astra,” not attended by “ab omnibus” as on pp.

51, etc., will answer for a passsive, the equivalent of “(Es) wird

gegangen”-— the analogon of “(Es) wurde gespielt” etc.

* Such extensions as, for instance, that of “Pluit” into “Jupiter

pluit,” call for independent explanations of their own, which do not

seem to me to explain e. g. the unextended “Pluit” or “Piove.”

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

I wish moreover, to facilitate comparative examination, that

my active and my passive specimens be forms of one verb only.

Not however finding thus far any verb to furnish them, I do

some violence to Latin usage, postulating “Pluitur”, which I

propose as tantamount to an also postulated, not however quite

so violent, “(Es) wird geregnet” — the analogon again of “(Es)

wurde gespielt.”

My specimens at once suggest a facile interpretation. The

action (raining) might with little difficulty take the subject-

place in a figurative thought consisting of the action posed as

an active entity, the relation of performer to what is performed,

and the action posed as such. That is, the action might be

figured as performing itself. “Pluit” might then be trans¬

lated “Raining performs itself ;” and “Pluitur”, “Itself is per¬

formed by raining,” or — because “Itself” and “Raining” are

essentially identical — -“Raining is performed by itself.”

If this interpretation were accepted, recognizing both the

members of an action-personnel, the present case would be, ex¬

cept in form, a repetition of Case I.

In the present ease I see however not the slightest indication

that the mental picture of a self -performing action was devel¬

oped; for, had it been developed, it might fairly be expected

that it also would be formally expressed. The mind that with

such ease could, mainly out of mental nothings, build “Es spielt

sich” and the like, could doubtless, out of mental somethings,

with much greater ease construct “Ein spielen thut sich,” or

“Das Regnen macht sich” — even “Pluere facit se” ; and it is

true that in the actual “Es thut sich ein Spielen” many would

presumably construe as bona fide subject “Spielen,” ranking

“Es” as merely its indefinite prefigurement. But, as shown

above, “Wie hiibsch spielfis sich den Vater !” and analogous ex¬

pressions common in both Spanish and Italian indicate the ac¬

cusative value of “Spielen,” and the meaning-nullity of “Es”

and “sich.” Even in the active voice accordingly the figure

of self-performance seems not in the present case to have been

adopted. In the passive voice the much more difficult “'Ein

Spielen wird (durch) von sich gethan,” “Ein Regnen wird von

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 135

sich gemacht” and “Pluere fit per se” impress me as yet more

implausible. I accordingly renounce interpretation of my

specimens as the expression, in the active voice, of self -perform¬

ing action — -in the passive voice, of action self-performed.

The renounced interpretation may however be in so far right,

as it exhibits action as the subject. Action being unaccom¬

panied (in thought considered) by the actor or actee, it seems

that only action can be posed as subject. Indeed, perception

being jogged by this suggestion, it appears to me that, in “(Es)

spielt (sich)” and “(Es) wird gespielt,” the playing is pre¬

cisely “what I am talking about”— that is, my subject. Also

I am led to expect that always, in expressions of the now con¬

sidered type, the action will be found in either voice to be the

subject — that is, the first term — of thought expressed. What

then are the other indispensable constituents of thought ex¬

pressed by “Pluitur” and “Pluit?”

In seeking these I emphasize my previous contention that a

single word— for instance aPluitur” and “Pluit” — frequently

effects the purpose of a sentence formally complete. As such

it should express a judgment. Accordingly its meaning should

contain two terms and their relation plus assertion. (See p. 51.)

That assertion is intended in the present case, is demon¬

strated by comparison of “Pluit” with the plainly unassertive

“Pluere.” If “Pluere” be subtracted, so to speak, from “Pluit,”

the remainder obviously contains assertion.

As other verbs assert, so far as I have noted, a relation

sensed between a pair of terms, I am not prepared to doubt that

“Pluit” — also “Pluitur”— asserts relation sensed between a first

term (raining) and some other term— that, in the language

of the schools, these one-word statements predicate of raining

. . what ?

If the question bore upon the active voice alone, I should in

answer probably interpret “Pluit,” say, by “Raining is occur-

rent” or “occurs” or “happens.” But if analogously I interpret

“Pluitur” by “Raining is occurred” or, say, “is happened,” I

feel as if the solid earth had failed beneath my feet. I must

find in “Plait” a more satisfactory “predicate” for raining.

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

What alone occurs to me at first, as predicable of a raining,,

is reality. Thus confronted, I require for my own enlighten¬

ment some correlation of my thinkings with the happenings of

the outer world.

To experiment a little, many times I think for instance it is

raining, but am afterward convinced that no occurrence in the

world about me matches what was going on within me— -in my

mind. Many times I am more fortunate. I may say accord¬

ingly that I develop many mental pictures (counterparts) of

raining, some of which are matched by outer-world reality,,

while some are not. These however in essentials are so much

alike, that I am prone to sense them not as many, each presented

once, hut as one presented many times — or, say, a single picture,

sometimes in my mind, and sometimes not. This single fre¬

quently recurring picture I further recognize consistently as

sometimes matched by happenings of the outer world, and some¬

times not so matched-— -as sometimes true and sometimes un¬

true. Confining my vagaries to my personal mental business —

which I am free to carry on as I elect, and irresponsibly — -I

have not thus far meddled with outer-world reality. I pro¬

ceed, however, further.

As a truism, this can hardly be surpassed: the outer world,

the world that often matches those conceptions which I rank

as true, is made up only of what is. Strictly nothing in that

world can tally with conceptions which I rank as untrue. In

other words, the outer world does not contain, and only indi¬

rectly can suggest, the unreal — that is, what it does not con¬

tain. Yet the love, perhaps, of symmetry induces me, parti¬

cularly in the case of action, not only to suppose my true con¬

ceptions to be duplicated by reality (by phenomena that do

occur), but also to imagine my untrue conceptions to be matched

by unreality (by phenomena that don’t occur). In other words

I people the outer world with flesh and blood occurrences that

happen, and with ghosts of many more occurrences that do not

happen.

In my thus extended outer world there are, for instance,

rainings that are real and rainings that are unreal. Gener al I x-

ii

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 137

ing in their turn on these, I reach a single raining of the outer

world — a raining which is sometimes real and sometimes unreal.

In other words I think of the phenomenon of rain as sometimes

busy and sometimes taking a holiday — sometimes active, some¬

times dormant.

In either case, however, thus far I do hardly more than

couple a phenomenon with what I rank as a temporary charac¬

teristic. My mode of thinking is analogous to that expressed

by “Yonder cloud is yellow” or “in motion.” That is, I do

not thus far pose the raining as the actor in an action, but as

rather substance in relation with an attribute. Now sucii con¬

ceptions are not commonly reversed. For instance, “Yonder

cloud is yellow” or “in motion” does not frequently appear as

“Yellow (ness)” or “motion characterizes yonder cloud.” While

then conceptions of this sort can be reversed, reversal is not

probable enough to furnish plausible occasion for a passive voice.

In particular, if the thought of raining is to achieve a passive

evolution, we must start it in a better shape.

Accordingly I further meddle with the outer world. If

raining be, for instance, sometimes resting from its labors, and

sometimes on the other hand exerting itself, it must occasionally

pass from one phase to the other. What particularly interests

me at the moment is that raining must, then, pass from unre¬

ality to reality. As this passing is a change in outer-world

conditions, it requires the output of some energy. This energy,

according to linguistic Physics, (see pp. 3, 9-10) may be ex¬

erted by the raining or some other agent — possibly unknown

and possibly unthought of. In other words the raining may

unaided pass from unreality to reality, or it may be-passed, by

which expressions in italics I intend no difference in the pass¬

ing (see p. 2) but a difference in relations which shall hold be¬

tween the raining and the passing.

In “Raining passes from unreality to reality,” “Raining,”

figured as an entity, associates with passing in the actor-to-action

relation. In “Raining is passed, etc.”, the relation of the same

two terms is that of actee-to-action. The sentences presented in

quotation marks indeed might be accepted as interpreting— the

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

first one “Pluit,” and the second, “Pluitur”; but I think it

possible to find for each a somewhat better, though essentially

equivalent interpretation.

“Passing (from unreality) to reality” might be sensed as the

development of a relation with reality — relation of substance

to its attribute — and might be superseded by “becoming real.”

But while “Pluit” may be well enough interpreted as “Pain¬

ing becomes real,” to interpret “Pluitur” by “Paining is be¬

come* . whatever you please,” embarrasses me. Indeed

as previously intimated, I shall make but little progress in the

study of the passive by examining forms of thought which do

not readily find a place for a conspicuous actee. Accordingly,

I substitute the equivalent form of thought expressed by “Pain¬

ing acquires reality,” in which the rather vivid figurative action

of acquiring is attended by a subject and an object (actor and

actee).

The passive counterpart of “Paining acquires reality” is

“Peality is acquired by raining.” As I do not doubt however

that the subject in the thinking registered by “Pluitur” is

“Paining,” in translating I must find a passive verb of which

I may use “Paining” as the subject, while maintaining virtual

equivalence between the passive thought to be expressed by my

translation, and the active thought expressed by “Paining ac¬

quires reality.”

Por convenience I suggest this so far unfound verb by

“blank,” and range the outlines of expressions that I need 10

find, with the expressions that I have already found, as follows :

(1) Raining acquires reality; (3) Reality blanks raining;

(2) Reality is acquired by raining; (4) Raining is blanked by reality ;

observing first that (1), (2), (3) and (4) express the same

phenomenon. Such being the case, whatever verbs shall take

the places of “is blanked” and “blanks” must, roughly speak¬

ing, be the opposites (see p. 67) respectively of “is acquired”

and “acquires.”f

* I intend the “is become” as passive, quite analogous to “is occurred’*'

or “happened” of p. 59.

t Compare “absorbs” and “wets” etc. of p. 9-10.

Owen ■ — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 139

How, for “acquires,” I cannot think of any opposite, except

the unreliable “invests” and the coined “bequalify.” As both

of these are quite unsatisfactory, I take as model “This mortal

shall put on immortality,” and substitute for “acquires” the

figurative quasi-synonym “puts on.” Accordingly, “Raining

puts on reality” — in the aoristic sense of “Raining occurs,” and

not in that of “Raining is occurring” or “occurs habitually.”

Of “puts on,” an opposite is “clothes,” and this I substitute

in (3). Accordingly, “Reality clothes raining.” Of thought

expressed by this, the corresponding passive form- — obtained by

interchange of terms, and the reversal of relation — is “Raining

is clothed by reality;” and this— with aoristic value also — -I

submit as full interpretation of the coined passive “Pluitur,”

available (with change of subject) for the actual passive verbs

which are employed with no subject or a merely formal subject*

How far the passive in Case IV be held to have resisted the

arrest of development, suggested in examination of Case I, de¬

pends upon the point of view. If “Pluitur” means “Raining

is clothed by reality,” expressing two relations — that of actee

to action (sensed between the substantive “Raining” and the

act of clothing) and that of action to its actor (sensed between

the action and “reality”)— its development has been arrested.

These two relations may however readily he fused, developing

the one relation of actee to actor. As the exhibitor of this re¬

lation, “Pluitur” exemplifies the possible completely developed

passive voice suggested on pp. 28-33, etc.— but with this

difference, that it is not the symbol of asserted action-caused

relation only, but of such relation and its terms — of an entire

judgment.

“Pluitur” indeed— as not an ordinary word, but a one- word

passive sentence— is “hors de concours.” There is little satis¬

faction in comparing it with tantamount or parallel expressions,

* One only, of the many whose opinions I’ve consulted, thinks of

“Pluitur” as but a synonym — a merely formal variant— of “Pluit.”

But as he, in recognizing thought, exhibits regularly a phenomenal

perception of its substance, his indifference to the passive mandate to

remodel form of thought, establishes but little probability that other

language-users commonly refuse obedience.

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be they words or sentences. It invites however confrontation

with the kindred one-word active sentence “Pluit.”

Realizing that my full interpretations of these one-word sen¬

tences have been extreme, if not extravagant, and little doubt¬

ing that, in usual linguistic thought, analysis would be content

if “Pluit” were interpreted as “Raining happens” — “Pluitur”

as “Raining is effected (made to happen)” — I admit these

meanings into an improvement of the tabulation offered on p.

62. Accordingly:

(l)

“ Pluit”;

“Raining puts on reality’

“Raining happens’’.

(3) | “Reality clothes raining’

l .

- “ Reality is put on by raining’’; (4) <

[ . . ; .

“ Pluitur’’ ;

“ Raining is clothed by reality’’;

“Raining is effected’’.

This admitting is however incomplete — and that conspicu¬

ously. In (2) I do not put a final passive sentence, for the

reason that I can’t. In (3) I do not put a final active sentence

— again because I can’t. In (2) and (3) I have exhibited no

one- word sentences, because I do not know of any. Hor do I

blame myself for these omissions; for I don’t believe they can

be filled, my reason being this: (2) and (3) begin with an idea

which is far too abstract. In its thinking, mind is taxed enough

in passing from the concrete to the simplest abstract, as in

“Yonder cloud is white,” without augmenting difficulty by re¬

versing its procedure. “Whiteness characterizes yonder cloud”

has never been a favorite. In struggling to a vastly higher

species of abstraction, the severity of effort is still greater. To

increase it by beginning with abstraction is intolerable. “Ilium

fuit” gives no promise of “Existence characterized,” and less

of “ceased to characterize Troy,” although the latter para¬

phrases the translation “Troy is no more.” “Reality clothes”

or “is put on by raining” doubtless in linguistic practice never

will be thought — much less expressed.

I conclude accordingly that “Pluit” has no corresponding

passive — “Pluitur,” no corresponding active.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 141

SPECIAL INVESTIGATION OF BEING-DONE

VERSUS DOING

The illusory conception of a passive “being-done/’ distin¬

guished in imagination from the active “doing/’ is the root

of so much evil in linguistic study, that perhaps it merits a

more serious examination that was given it on pp. 1-2.

As this conception hardly can have tricked the mind of any¬

one more absolutely than my own, I can appreciate its plausi¬

bility. To illustrate, it would doubtless commonly be held that

being-eaten is distinctly less agreeable than eating. Assuming

properly enough that what is less agreeable is different from

what is more so, I might readily conclude that being-eaten can¬

not be the same as eating.

Such conclusions are, however, dangerous unless more care

is used in forming them. For instance, given “Brown is fond

of salt” and “Jones objects to sodium chloride,” difference in

the tastes of different persons does not demonstrate a difference

between the substance liked by one and that disliked by the

other. Now “Eating (1) is agreeable” may be the verdict of

the eater. “Eating (2) is disagreeable” may voice the dis¬

approval of the victim. The difference between “agreeable”

and “disagreeable” does not then require me to differentiate

whatever may be meant by “Eating (2) (or “Being-eaten,”

which might take its place) from what presumably is meant by

“Eating” (1).

Suppose however “Eating (^T) is agreeable” and “Eating (2)

is disagreeable” to be intended both as the opinions of one per¬

son — say myself. You do not necessarily suppose a contradic¬

tion. You may properly imagine that by “Eating (1)” I meau

my eating something, while in saying “Eating (2)” I think

of something’s eating me. That is, the difference between oc¬

currences respectively announced by “Eating (1)” and “Eat-

ing (2)” may be a difference only in the implications of par¬

ticipants in eating — not at all in the specific actions in which'

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

they are implicated. Elow “something’s eating me” is under¬

stood to stand for an occurrence which I may correctly also

call “my being-eaten by something;” and for this last expres¬

sion I may substitute the pregnant “Being-eaten.” What is

true of “Eating (2)” may therefore equally be true of “Being-

eaten.” It appears accordingly that, while there is a striking

difference between the occurrence indicated as a whole by “Eat¬

ing (1)” and the occurrence indicated as a whole by “Being-

eaten,” the action-eZemen,£-of-one-occurrence may not differ from

the action-eZemenf-of-the-other. More generally speaking, I am

thus far not obliged to think of action doubly — as sometimes a

“doing” and at other times a different “being-done.”

It might be expected that, when action and those implicated

in it — say the actor and actee — are all distinctly named, the

differentiation of a “being-done” from “doing” would not be

attempted. But suppose for illustration “I shall be glad if

Brown kills Jones” and “I shall be sorry if Brown is killed

by Jones.” What I’m glad of plainly should not be the same

as what I’m sorry for. Accordingly again I’m ready for a

dangerous assumption— that “being-killed” is different from

“killing.” Yet before adopting this assumption I’m again in¬

clined to look about a little.

A brief, examination of a simpler case may help me. Thus

I note that “Brown killed Jones” exhibits Brown and Jones in

the relation of slayer to victim; “Jones was killed by Brown”

no doubt invites me to conceive the two in changed relation. In

sensing this relation I am aided by the striking change in order*

of the terms. The thought itself has plainly been reversed. In¬

evitably also the relation has been modified. Some relation

not expressed by “Brown killed Jones” is surely now expressed

by “Jones Was killed by Brown.” That relation-difference is

enough to adequately differentiate the passive sentence from

the active. I am not very strongly tempted to imagine that

their difference in total value must consist of difference be¬

tween a killing and a being-killed.

In juxtaposing “Brown killed Jones” and “Brown was killed

by Jones” I hardly fare so well. In the latter the persistence

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 143

of the order followed in the former disconcerts me. I may fail

to note the great relation-change which change in order of the

terms revealed in “ Jones was killed by Brown.” Blind to any

difference in Brown’s and Jones’ respective implications in the

act of killing, sure that Brown and Jones are each unchanged,

hut well aware that very different happenings are intended by

the two expressions, I perhaps imagine that — I know not, care

not, how — the killing was in one case (independently of its

participants) unlike the killing in the other. Indeed, perhaps

I go so far as to conceive these different killings as the one the

other’s opposite.

I do not intend to risk my peace of mind — perhaps my san¬

ity — in any effort to establish with precision what I mean, or

ought to mean, by “opposite.” Enough that what it roughly

indicates appears to be what is conceived by those who think of

“being-killed” as different from “killing” — i. e. that “being-

killed” must be about as far as possible from “killing” — “be¬

ing-done” from “doing.”

If, being cross-examined, I attempt to justify myself in my

supposed imagining, I must imagine somewhat more distinctly.

First then I dismiss such natural opposites to “kill” — or, say,

deprive of life — as “not to kill,” “to endow with life” and “to

restore to life”; for these don’t seem to help me very much.

Indeed about the best that I can do is to suppose that while in

“Brown killed Jones” the action, or in other words the out-put

energy, was exercised in one direction — say from left to right,

in “Brown was killed by Jones” it was put out in the opposite

direction — say from right to left. I nominate then killings

of two sorts, the one done forward and the other backward —

say a prorso-active and a retro-active. Indeed, I half suspect

these terms express with some precision the imaginary differ¬

ence between a “doing” and a “being-done.”

For this or any other difference the universe affords, I think,

no precedent. To illustrate, take for an example action of the

simplest order, motion rectilinear and horizontal, of a uniform

velocity — beginning, say, with motion northward.

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Within these postulated bounds, I cannot think of aught that

differs from a northward motion, save a motion in a different

direction — say northeastward. But this I cannot think of

as a “being-done,” distinct as such from northward “doing.”

I succeed no better if I box the compass with successive il¬

lustrations. In particular, a motion southward- — the only “op¬

posite” which I can think of — does not seem to me at all a

backward northward motion, even less a “being-done” correla¬

tive to northward motion sensed as “doing.” Contrariwise, and

very clearly, motion southward does impress me also as a for¬

ward motion on its own account, and as itself a “doing” — quite

as much so as a motion northward.

To illustrate more emphatically, I recall the flight of a

meteor. Something the meteor “did” ; or — if you like it bet¬

ter-energy of some sort, subject to the law of gravity, “did

something” to the meteor. In this “doing” I can not conceive

a genuine change, apart from unconsidered circumstances, save

a change in the velocity or the direction of the motion. As

variation in velocity is plainly not intended by the users of

the passive voice, I heed direction only, noting that a change

in it would merely, as I found above, develop another “doing”

rather than a “being-done.” Especially if the meteor reversed

its course and, plunging from the earth, fled into space, I should

by no means call this different flight a “being-done”, but cer¬

tainly an even more conspicuous “doing.” Eor such a “doing”

would run counter to the universal course of cause and effect.

What we conceive as meteors do not — never will — reverse their

flight, until creation shall retrace its steps. As in such reversal

contact with the earth must antedate appearance in the sky,

the half-delirious fancy voiced in “Backward ! Turn backward,

oh Time ! in your flight” will then be realized. The marching

hours, days and years will “about face.” “The last shall be

first ; and the first shall be last.”

If now the impressions of others tally with my own, it may

be granted that ideas of action sensed as “being-done” distinct

from “doing,” cannot be derived from cosmic sources.

Owen - — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice. 145

The like however may he argued also of, for instance, the

conception of a fourth dimension. Though underivable from

the external universe, we “make up” such ideas — “out of our

own heads.” I am not, therefore, ready to contend that we

can not develop the idea of “being-done” distinct from “ doing, v

I merely raise accordingly the question : Do we ?

In answering I recognize that, under all the strain imposed —

as I have sought to indicate — by picturing a Worse than topsy-

turvey world, my little mental strength may not forsake me;

yet I don’t believe in tempting Providence. Even if, when¬

ever I use the passive voice, I can imagine the impossible, I

shall not do so till I have to. In the meantime I am very sure

1 don’t, and rather sure that others don’t.

It is true that customary facile talk of “being-done” as dif¬

ferent from “doing” indicates a mental differentiation of the

two. This differentiation is however, as I sought to show, so

vague that we might better say we think we have effected it,

than we have actually effected it. On the other hand we may

do what in its results so much resembles such a differentiation

as to take its place, and be mistaken for it. Eor, although the

course of motion always lies perforce from its beginning to its

end, and never from its end to its beginning; and although in

language practice it be not conceived per se except in that di¬

rection; it still is possible, and even easy, for the mind to

choose its view-point either at the head of the motion-stream

or at its foot — the latter view-point offering a different view.

In the former station, looking down the stream, I sense the

flow as from me. In the latter, looking up the stream, I sense

the flow" as toward me. In both these cases my idea of flowing

takes in self, is relative to self, subjective, ego-centric. I no

longer sense the flow per se alone, but also certainly per me.

The question still remains however whether in fact we do so

shift the mental view-point in the passive form of thinking.

In offering an illustration to assist the answering of this

question, I make use of “come” and “go,” intending them to

indicate a single motion, fixed in absolute direction, but ob-

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

served from different points of view. Let then a given action

be supposed to be correctly sensed and well enough expressed

by “Jones went to Brown.” In this expression motion, sensed

by Jones — who is stationed at the head of the motion-stream —

or sensed by me who stand in thought near Jones, is motion

from himself (or rather his initial station) toward another

person at the foot of the stream.

Thinking of the same occurrence now, but in the passive

form, I start with Brown. If I wish to do so, I may also change

the mental picture of the motion. But I must content myself

with such a different picture as that same and unchanged motion

offers from a different point of view. I must not — to get the

different picture — change the motion. Bor instance, I must

not reverse the motion-flow itself ; I must not say “Brown went

to Jones” — the statement of an altogether different occurrence,

not at all the one I have in mind.

Bemembering that I am to make no change in what I see,

but only in the whence-I-see-it, I might shift my point of view

to . anywhere you may imagine (say half-way) between

beginning of the action and its end ; but that would get me into

trouble — I don’t exactly know how much; for, to keep in si¬

multaneous near-by view both Jones and Brown,* it seems to

me that I should need to look in mind both up the stream to

Jones and down the stream to Brown at once — to simulta¬

neously sense the motion as approach (to me) and as departure

(from me) ; and I’m not so sure that I can do it. So I shift

my view-point to the foot of the motion-stream. That is, in¬

stead of looking now from head to foot of the flow and seeing

the motion as a going, I look from the foot (the view-point of

Brown) and see it as a coming.

If now I really were conceiving thus, I should express my¬

self, with small consideration for the squeamishness of Gram¬

mar, by the sentence “Brown was come-to by Jones.” This

however I need not do ; and ordinarily I should not even think

* That first and last terms of a thought at least must overlap in

consciousness is indicated by for instance “A -> B,” of which I can

not sense the > with eimer A or B not in my mind.

Owen — Relations Expressed by the Passive Voice . 147

of doing it. If this investigation were not goading me to look

for every possibility of thought-formation, I suppose that only

one expression would occur to me — the simple “Brown was

gone- to by Jones.”

So too again, although a given motion may no doubt bo

sensed as either a leaving one place or a starting for another,

had I said “I left Chicago for Yew York,” I should not say

in the passive voice “Yew York was started for by me from.

Chicago,” but rather, with no shift in point of view, “Chicago

was left by me for Yew York.” I conclude accordingly that,

while a change of view-point is in passivr ;orms of action-think¬

ing possible, and even eminently suitable, it does not in lin¬

guistic practice seem to be effected.

That there is no genuine thought of “being-done” distinct

from “doing”, Grammar might itself admit, if taken unawares.

To illustrate, in the sentence “Jones was struck by Brown,” the

subject Jones is said to “suffer” what the passive indicates.

I ask the question : “Suffer in particular what ?” ; and even

from the devotee of Grammar I expect the answer “striking.”

It hardly will occur to him to mention what Jones suffers as

a “being-struck.” Being off his guard, presumably he will no

more imagine any difference between the actions named by

“being-struck” and “striking,” than between the actions named

in “Herod’s slaughter of the innocents” and “slaughter of the

innocents by Herod.” Or would he recommend “the being

slaughtered of the innocents by Herod?” Or, prompted by a

true-to-fact interpretation of “the murder of Lincoln” as a

murdering him, must we renounce the expression “Lincolns

murder” and compel ourselves to “Lincoln’s being-murdered?”

Again, in “ J ones was struck by Brown,” grammarians speak

of Brown as the agent of the passive voice, by which I under¬

stand the doer of the action indicated by the passive verb. Yow

were I to put to a grammarian this question : “What did Brown

accomplish or perform or do?”, I hardly am prepared to be

informed that Brown accomplished or performed or did a

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

“being- struck,” I expect, instead, a “striking” ; I expect a

semiconscious acceptation of this proposition: agents- — that is,

doers — do only “doings.” “Being-dones,” then, simply are

not done.

Madison, Wis., June, 1910.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828.

149

THE ANTI-AUCTION MOVEMENT AND THE NEW YORK

WORKINGMEN’S PARTY OF 1829

HORACE SECRIST.

The following paper is a part of a larger investigation of the Anti-

Auction Movement. This study was undertaken primarily to test the

assertion made by some students of the early American Labor Move¬

ment that the Workingmen’s Party of New York City was a direct

outgrowth of the Anti-Auction Movement of 1828.

The sale of goods: at auction even in large quantities during

the period 1812 to 1830 was common to all the larger cities

along the Atlantic coast. The chief center, however, was ISTew

York City. Before 1812 such sales had created no alarm, for

the importing and retail business was chiefly in the hands of

home merchants. Goods were generally of uniform quality,

and the importers responsible men.1 But by 1828, sales had

passed into the hands o)f foreigners,2 or their agents, who took

advantage of the loose methods at the custom houses, of the

facilities for undervaluation, of long time credits for custom-

duties, etc., and the practice became oppressive.3 The first de¬

termined stand taken against the auctions by blew York City

was in 1828 ; although protestations had been registered in

meetings as early as 1802, 4 and memorials frequently addressed

to Cbngress on the subject in 1817, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 1824.5

These memorials had not borne definite fruit,, although they had

put Congress in possession of the facts, and had created consid-

1 Remarks upon the Auction System, etc., p. 8.

2 Tbree-fourths-four-fifths of import trade in tbe bands of foreigners,

Niles Register, Vol. 35, p. 209, Nov. 29, 1829.

3 Goss: Tariff Administration in the United States, p. 37.

4 New York American, Jan. 16, 1829, p. 2, col. 3.

e Workingmen’s Advocate, Dec. 12, 1829.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

arable interest there. On May 13, 1828, McDuffie, Representa¬

tive from -New York, wrote that he was of the opinion that “a

majority of the Committee on Ways and Means’* 7 were in favor

of a National tax on auctions.6

The anti-auction movement proper, in New York City, began

in the spring of 1828. The chief causes for renewed interest

at that time seems to have been the agitation in 1827, and fol¬

lowing, by New York, Pennsylvania, as well as New England

en bloc , for additional tariff legislation ; the pending bank legis¬

lation in New York, and the dumping policy of England where¬

by her surplus manufactured products of the Napoleonic period

were poured in upon our markets. New York, although she

favored increased protection — at least the protection that should

have come as a result of the Tariff of 1824, if correctly and

honestly administered, thought it useless to increase the tariff

schedules so long as frauds on the revenue continued and auctions

sales predominated. The particular demand, therefore, was for

the removal of frauds — which they thought would result if cus¬

toms were paid in cash — and a national tax of ten per cent im¬

posed on auction sales.

The class of people most directly affected were the merchants,

who were thrown into competition with the foreign producer,

with his accumulated lot of goods, and his superior methods of

dyeing and weaving. Accordingly, in the early part of May,

1828 — (after the passage of the Tariff of 1828, from which they

had hoped for relief, and before the passage of the law of May

28, 1830, providing for the collection of revenue7 — -meetings

were called for the purpose of formulating reasons for the aboli¬

tion of the auction system, and for petitioning Congress. The

most important and the one which started a positive policy was

a Respectable meeting of citizens,” May 2, 1828.8 The pre¬

siding officer was Thomas H. Leggett, a merchant9 Resolu¬

tions were offered by Daniel Jackson, a merchant, and a com¬

mittee of eighteen .appointed. 1 0 This committee was afterwards

e Boston Palladium, May 13, 1828, p. 2, col. 3.

7 Goss: p. 41.

s Niles Register, Vol. 34, p. 174.

9 N. Y. City Directory, 1828-1829.

10 13 of the 18 are known to have been merchants.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828 .

151

known as the New York Anti- Auction Cbmmittea In June it

submitted a report called, “Reasons Why the Present Auction

System Should m Abolished.” 1 1 Summarized, they are as

follows :

1st, Auctions are a monopoly 1 2 which crushes the middle

class and divides the people into rich and poor.

2nd, Auctions tend to concentrate trade in a few cities.

3rd, They are destructive to domestic manufacturers, mer¬

chants, and to the market in general. They remove all induce¬

ments to excel, and cause rapid fluctuations in prices.

4th, They make it possible for one state to tax another:

the taxing power should be in the hands of the Central Govern¬

ment.

5th, They make the sale of contraband goods easy.

6th, They are pernicious to internal trade.

7th, They injure consumers generally by enhancing the

price,13 and induce dealers to handle inferior goods.

8th, They create unnatural competition! ahd encourage

overtrading.

9 th, They produce the “pernicious effects of gambling”

due to rapid changes in price.

10th, They facilitate fraudulent bankruptcies, while the

auctioneers “form a monied aristocracy, influencing the banks,

controlling by the fear of their displeasure, the free expression

of public opinion, and are hostile to the genius of republican

government.”

These “reasons” certainly smack of mercantilism, and are

typical for the period 1812 to 1830. A definite program was

not outlined at this time, but at a “large and respectable meeting

of mechanics and citizens,” 14 October 10th, 1828, called by the

Anti- Auction Committee, pursuant to a resolution made in May,

11 Niles Register Yol. 34, p. 258. Also in pam. form in Wis. Hist.

Library.

12 In 1829, there were 56 state-appointed auctioneers in N. Y.

13 The state fixed the number. N. Y. American 1 /16 /29, p. 2, col. 1.

See an interesting discussion between Mercator, “a consumer”, and

McDuffie, N. Y. AM. Jan. 2-3-6-9-10-12-17, 1829.

14 N. Y. Ev. Post Oct. 14, 1828, p. 1, col. 5-2000-2,600 present, ibid.

Oct. 21, 1828.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

1828, giving them power to call such meetings as they saw fit,

a definite program was decided upon. Three men were nom¬

inated15 for Congress on an independent ticket,16 and specific

plans laid 17 for capturing the vote in the November election.

The chairman was Henry I. Wycoff 18 and the secretaries, Rich¬

ard E. Mount, a manufacturer,19 and George H. Stanton. Reso¬

lutions were drawn up which embodied the ideas of the earlier

reports of the committee, and appeal made to “every honorable

merchant and good citizen” to unite in a cordial and simul¬

taneous effort to check its (auction’s) operation.” In addition,

a tax of 10 per cent was asked for until the system was “so far

changed as no longer to oppress the fair and regular trader.” 20

The committee maintained that the sentiment against the system

was practically unanimous; that the movement would be pur¬

sued without the slightest reference to tariff opinions or party

politics ; 21 that the merchants were the classes most affected,

etc.22 The last point is clearly enunciated in the speeches which

followed the adoption of the committee’s report.23 However,

appeal is made to the “great and influential body of mechanics”

whose interests “are closely bound up with ours” (the mer¬

chants.)24

The three men first chosen as candidates for congress were

Messrs. Walter Browne, David Bi. Ogden, and Campbell P,

White. Browne and White declined the nomination, because it

is Niles says, Vol. 35, p. 147, that it was the mechanics who did the

nominating. This, I think, is an error.

16 The ticket is “totally aloof from party distinctions and composed

of men who have pledged themselves to pursue all honorable means to

remove and abolish a monopoly— etc.” Anti-Auctioneer, Nov. 1 /28, p. 2.

17 Their earlier reports had been circulated throughout the Atlantic

States.

is Afterwards prominent in the Loco-Foco Party: Hist. Loco F. Party,

p. 15.

is N. Y. City Directory, 1828-1829.

20 N. Y. Evening Post, Oct. 14, 1828, p. 1, col. 5.

21 “We have no party, no political creed, and no party man will get

our votes unless he opposes the continuance of the present auction

system.” N. Y. Evening Post. 10 /21 /28, p. 2, col. 2.

22 ibid. It would be folly to send men to congress, so that it would

make it possible for “our opponents to say that we do not represent

the opinion of the mercantile men of the city of N. Y.”

23 ibid.

24 ibid.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828. 153

was mad© without their consent and in an irregular manner.25

Ogden was a counsellor at law, and White a merchant; both

were supported by Bums, who seconded their nomination on the

ground of their being “essentially commercial in their pursuits.’’

“We have deemed it most proper and in accordance with your

feelings to propose to you men, a majority of whom, from their

habits of life, have devoted their thoughts to commercial sub¬

jects. . . .” 26

Walter Browne was sincere in his refusal of the candidacy

and somewhat later Thomas C. Taylor, “selected from the great

and respected body of mechanics” 27 was named in his stead.

The ticket then stood Ogden, a counsellor at law,, White, a mer¬

chant, and Taylor, a mechanic.

A committee 28 of fifty 29 was appointed for the purpose of

circulating memorials and getting signatures. All of the mem¬

orials asked for a ten per cent tax on auction sales. “Your

memorialists persuade themselves that your Honorable Bodies

will interfere to correct the evils resulting from the system —

a system which in its more immediate effects, encourages fraud

on the revenue, depresses domestic manufacture, facilitates im¬

positions on the public, destroys the mercantile character, and

is ruinous to that class of citizens to which your memorialists

belong, and the injurious results of which ultimately fall upon

the agricultural and the laboring part of the population. They

therefore respectfully pray your Honorable Bodies to impose a

duty of ten per centum on sales by auction, excepting the effects

of bankruptcies, and of deceased persons, goods sold for the ben¬

efit of underwriters, shipping and real estate.” 30

25 New York Even. Post Oct. 17, 1828, p. 1, col. 1 — “as members of the

Republican family, and supporters of its usuages and systems,, we can

accept of no nomination, unless made in the usual and regular man¬

ner.”

26 This is pretty clear evidence that Brown was a merchant.

27 N. Y. Evening Post, Oct. 31, 1828, p. 2, col. 4.

28 This committee was not to supplement the Anti-Auction Committee.

29 Of this committee thirty are known to have been merchants, and

manufacturers, chiefly merchants. There were two mechanics. Of the

others, I cannot say.

so N. Y. Even. Post Nov. 4, 1828, p. 4, col. 1. On Dec. 10, 1828, a

memorial, signed by 10,000 citizens of N. Y. was presented to congress

and asked for the 10 per cent tax. On Dec. 15, 1828, one was pre¬

sented which carried 7,600 signatures. Niles Reg. Vol. 35, p. 255, 271.

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Between October 10, 1828,. and November 4, 1828, — tbe date

of tbe election, tbe committees began tbe publishing of tbe Anti-

Auctioneer, a newspaper, devoted to tbeir interests and through,

its columns they pointed out the baneful effects of the connection

of auctions and tbe banking monopoly, and justified tbeir turn¬

ing away from tbe old parties whose candidates bad refused to

declare against auctions.31 They appealed to all classes to sup¬

port tbeir candidates. The “Mechanics and Oartmen of New

York;”32 “The Mechanics;”33 “The Weavers,” 34 and “The

Book-sellers, Printers and Book-binders 35 were addressed in

particular.

A surprising unanimity of feeling existed against auctions.

Manufacturers,, merchants, and mechanics worked side by side.36

However, there were some who looked upon the system as a

“kind of labor saving machine no less important in the business

of buying and selling than the water mill or steam engine in the

business of manufacturing. . . . The inland merchant

who buys his sugar, molasses, iron, etc., on the wharf at public

sale, prevents, and therefore saves,, the cartage, warehousing,

breakage, waste, insurance', interest, jobbers’ profits, and the bad

By Dec. 23, 1828, petitions coming from N. Y. City alone had the com¬

bined signatures of 22,000 persons. N. Y. Even. Post for the Country,

Dec. 23 /28, p. 3, col. 4.

31 Anti-auctioneer Nov. 1, 1828, (copy) p. 5. It appears that their

hostility was aimed at Cambreling, in particular, who in an informal

way had assured three members of the Anti-Auction Committee that

he was opposed to auctions. But to make sure, a letter was addressed

to him by five of the Committee members; Cambreling ignored it.

This precipitated the break. The controversy appears in full in the

N. Y. Even. Post, Oct. 24, 1828, pp. 2 and 3; and Oct. 28, p. 1, ffl.

32 “You have a common interest with the merchant. Now the mer¬

chants are, and have been for years groaning under an oppressive

auction monopoly. The merchant asks of you no sacrifice of political

principle. ... To your sense' of justice — do they appeal for assist¬

ance. . . . Shall the head suffer and not the members also?” signed

“Mercator” Anti-Auctioneer, Nov. i, 1828, p. 12 (copy).

33 “Wealth and authority are running your trades, men who ought

to represent your interests are seeking their own advancement only.

— Campbell P. White, Thomas C. Taylor, and David B. Ogden, are the

Anti-Auction candidates; support them and all will be well.” Signed

“Fulton,” ibid.

34 “Perhaps more than any other class of laboring citizens, the

weavers are interested in putting down the auction system,” ibid. p. 13.

35 “To the polls, then I say go. Vote for the Anti-Auction ticket, and

all will be safe.” Signed “Franklin.”

36 N. Y. Morning Herald Mar. 4, 1820, p. 2, col. 1.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828.

155

debts on private sale in excess of those of public sale.” 37 Others

looked upon them with favor because they quickened sales and

did away with the middleman, etc.38

The chief objections to curtailing the auction monopoly were

political and fiscal. The auctioneers were wealthy men, closely

connected with the banks and other fiscal agents, and it was

politically dangerous for Cambreling and others to pledge them¬

selves against auctions. As for relief in the state legislature,

that was next to impossible.39 The state tax of one and one-half

per cent, brought into the treasury about $250,000 annually,

and there appeared to be no other source of revenue in case this

one were cut off.40 This was the reason assigned by Cambreling

and Verplanck in 1828, 41 for not opposing the system; and it

was said to be something demanding serious consideration, in

Governor Martin Van Buren’s message to the Legislature, Jan¬

uary 6th, 1829. 42 The committee report on the Governor’s

message emphasized the same consideration ; 43 while the New

York Evening Post thought that the election of the Anti- Auction

men would “destroy an immense trade which. attracts thousands

of merchants from the north, south, east and west, and gives

additional employment to nearly two hundred thousand mer¬

chants, traders, carmen,, shipwrights, boat-builders, etc.,” 44 as

well as take from the state a revenue of approximately $300,000

a year which is being so well spent.45

The vote is very interesting. White was common to the Anti-

37 N. Y. Evening Post Nov. 7, 1828, p. 1, col. 2. Communication

signed “Shipowner.”

38 N. Y. Am. Jan. 3 and 10, 1829, pp. 2 and col. 4 and 6, respectively,

“A consumer.”

39 N. Y. American, May 13 /29.

40 See table at end of paper. (Appendix “B.”)

41 Anti-Auctioneer Nov. 1, 1828, p. 4 (copy).

42 “it is respectfully submitted, whether the amount of revenue de¬

rived from this source by the state: the valuable purpose for which it

is appropriated, and the difficulties of supplying its place, should not

induce you to consider whether measures may not be adopted by you,

which, while they may save the interest of the state, would at the same

time, respect those of the complainants.” N. Y. American Jan. 7, 1829,

p. 2, col. 2.

43 N. Y. Even. Post, Feb. 17 /29, p. 4, cols. 4 and 5.

44 ibid. Nov. 4 /28, p. 1, col. 2.

45 The revenue was used to support hospitals, foreign poor, orphan

asylums, and to keep up the Canal fund. N. Y. Am. Jan. 7 /29, p. 2, c. 2.

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Auction and Republican tickets.46 According to a map of !New

York City, 1853, Pearl street, — the street where most of the

merchants in the Anti- Auction committee as well as the Com¬

mittee of Fifty had their places of business — runs approxi¬

mately parallel with Broadway and East River, touching Broad¬

way at both ends. As the wards of the city are marked in this

same map;, Pearl street traverses the first, second, fourth and

sixth wards. It is here that we should suppose the Anti- Auction

vote to be strongest. The total vote was White, 18,070 ; Ogden,

11,204; Taylor, 10,974. The vote more in detail is as follows :

From the foregoing table it appears that the four wards in

which Taylor, the mechanic, received his greatest numerical vote

were the first, eighth, ninth and second, in the order named;

while the four wards which gave him the largest percentage of

the total vote cast in any ward were, in the order named, the

second, first, third and fourth. That is, the first and second

wrards gave him the largest numerical as well as the largest rel¬

ative vote. As for White, the merchant, the four wards in

which he received his greatest numerical vote were, in the order

named, the eighth, ninth, seventh and tenth; while the four

wards in which he received his largest relative vote were, in the

order named, the twelfth, eleventh, sixth, and seventh. That

is, no marked concentration appears. The vote for Ogden, the

46 He ran with Cambreling & Verplanck on the Republican ticket.

ISf. Y. Even. Post Oct. 17, 1828, p. 2, col. 1.

Secrist — The Anti- Auction Movement of 1828. 157

lawyer, was not unlike Taylor’s. He received his greatest

numerical vote in the eighth, first, ninth and second, in the order

named ; and his greatest relative vote in the third, second, first

and fifth, in the order named. That is, the first and second

wards, as in the case of Taylor, gave him both the largest nu¬

merical and relative vote. The first five wards were mercantile

and it is in them that at least two of the candidates received their

greatest support.47

Although none of the candidates was successful, the leaders

of the movement considered the election at least a partial

triumph. At a meeting, May 9, 1829, called by the Anti-

Auction Committee, the progress of the work was reviewed in

an elaborate report read by J onathan D. Steele. It was related

that some fifty memorials from different parts of the United

States had been received by Congress ; that Congress had re¬

ported a bill ; 48 which, however, was not passed because of the

rush of business, that, “many members of Congress, not being

merchants were ignorant of the forms of mercantile business,

and, consequently, had but imperfectly understood the evils of

auctions.”49 It was further observed that, “It will require but

a few years longer to force men of capital out of trade; to- ex¬

tinguish that intermediate class of wholesale dealers, which is

as essential to the freedom of commerce as the middle ranks

generally are to political liberty. . . .” 50 Resolutions of

the typical sort were adopted and spoken to by Messrs. James

Auchincloss, M. Disosway, Lewis Tappan, Daniel Jackson, and

John E. Hyde, all merchants.

The next Anti- Auction meeting of importance was December

47 N. Y. Amer. May 13, 1829. Jonathon D. Steele, Sec. of an Anti-

Auction meeting, May 8th, 1829, says “We are proud to publish to all

our constituents that in the first, second, third, fourth and fifth wards

of the city, where the commercial and trading classes principally re¬

side, the anti-auction candidates had a great preponderance. They

polled 14,655 votes, while our opponents polled only 13,966.”

48 This was not satisfactory to the merchants in Washington^ who

had come there from N. Y. and other places to watch their interests.

A substitute measure, which, it was hoped would conserve the rights of

the manufacturers, mechanics, and merchants, was drawn up, but was

not reported. N. Y. Am. May 13, 1829.

49 N. Y. Amer. May 13, 1829.

so ibid.

6

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

8, 1829. The presiding officer was an appraiser,, and the two

secretaries and chief speaker, merchants.51 Resolutions cover¬

ing frauds, etc., were prepared, and it was further “Resolved,

That these evils are continually increasing, and unless speedily

and effectually checked, threaten to involve the mechanics, mer¬

chants and manufacturers in one common destruction.” 52

This takes us through the part of the Yew York Anti-Auction

struggle which assumed a, political character. We are forced to

conclude that this was only a segment of a larger movement;

that it came about as a result of a variety of causes, chief of

which were the importance of Yew York City as an importing

center; to frauds upon the revenue due to lax custom regula¬

tion ; to the policy of granting credits for custom duties ; to the

dumping policy of England; to the monopoly which the state

fostered; to the unwillingness of Yew York to give relief to the

merchants, because of the revenues from auction sales; to the

refusal of the regularly nominated candidates of the old political

parties to pledge themselves; and finally to the determination

of the mercantile class to stand together for the redress of their

grievances.

Yow passing to the other half of this paper, viz., the Work¬

ingmen’s Party and its connection with the Anti- Auction Move¬

ment, we find a decidedly different set of circumstances.

The Workingmen’s Party was started in a general meeting 53

April 23, 1829., for the purpose of protesting against a change

in the length of the working day. A Committee of Eifty, to

supervise the general movement was appointed at a meeting,

April 28, 1829, and reported at a meeting Oct. 19, 1829. At

the October meeting Isaac Odell54 was chairman and the Sec¬

retaries were Wm. G. Tillow and Robt. D. Owen.55 In the

Report no mention was made of the ten hour day, but the things

51 Workingmen’s Advocate, Dec. 12, 1829, p. 3, col. 4; also Niles Reg.

Yol. 37, p. 303, Jan. 2, 1830.

52 Workingmen’s Advocate, Dec. 12, 1829, p. 3, col. 4.

53 Morning Courier, Apr. 25, 1829 (copy).

54 A Carpenter. N. Y. Directory, 1828-29. _

55 Owen says that he was unacquainted with the purpose of this

meeting and went to it as a stranger. Workingmen’s Advocate Oct.

31, 1829 (copy), also N. Y. Spectator Oct. 30, 1829, p. 1.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828.

159

contended for were equal education, equal rights to the soil, etc.

Monopolies in all forms were inveighed against and chiefly those

seen in banks and auctions 56 because of their close affiliation.57

The aversion to auctions per se was, however, secondary,58 as is

shown by the absence of all mention of them in the Prospectus 59

as a topic to be given consideration by the Workingmen’s Ad¬

vocate, their official paper. Banking monopolies, however, were

given specific mention.

At a meeting, Oct. 26, 1829, the working men entered the

political field by nominating candidates for the State Legisla¬

ture. Their names and occupations,60 so far as known, are as

follows :

There is a striking similarity in the votes of the candidates

for the Assembly. Lord, who Was elected, received 6,166 votes ;:

while each of the ten remaining candidates, with one exception,

got 6,000 and over; six of these getting over 6,100. Numer¬

ically, all Assembly candidates were strongest in the 10th ward •

56 “One dozen auctioneers receive of New York more than a million

dollars annually over and above all their expense's, for their personal

services. The thing to do is to break down the auction monopoly.”

Workingmen Advocate Oct. 31, 1829.

st ibid. Jan. 16, 1830.

ss Auctions are denounced but are put in a category of institutions

“contrary to the genius of republican institutions” alongside of “char¬

tered banks . . . and clerical exemption from taxation.” Ibid.

Oct. 31, 1829 p. 3, col. 4.

59 ibid. Oct. 31, 1829, p. 3, col. 1.

so The Workingmen’s party “consisting as well of merchants, lawyers,

physicians and speculators, as of operatives under the general cogno¬

men of working men. Hammond, Hist, of Pol. Parties, etc., Yol. II, pp„

330-331; also Jenkins Pol. Parties in N. Y. pp. 368-369.

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

2nd strongest, in the 8th ward; 3rd strongest, with two excep¬

tions in the 9th ward ; 4th strongest, with one exception, in the

11th ward ; and 5 th strongest, with one exception, in the 13th

ward. The remainder of the vote was as uniformly divided.

When the vote polled is compared with the population,61 the

wards, in order of importance, were 10th, 8th, 13th, 11th and

14th wards. The vote for Mr. Webb, the carpenter, for the

Senate, follows very closely the vote for the Assembly ticket.

The vote for Mr. Wood, the merchant, is very different. The

wards for these candidates were in order of importance.

Mr. Webb was strongest both absolutely and relatively in the

13th, 10th, 8th, 11th and 14th; the same wards in which the

assembly candidates were strongest. Mr. Wood, on the other

hand, was strongest both absolutely and relatively in the 1st,

3rd, 2nd, 8th and 9th ; that is in the same wards which sup¬

ported the merchants’ Anti-Auction candidates in 1828.

A peculiar overlapping of candidates appears in 1829, and

furnishes an interesting comparison. Mr. Ogden was an Anti-

Auction candidate in 1828 ; he was a Republican- candidate in

1829. Mr. Wood, the Workingmen’s candidate in 1829 was

also Mr. Ogden’s running mate on the Republican ticket in

1829. The votes for these men at the two periods absolutely

and relatively are as follows :

6i The population of voting age for N. Y. City was not available. The

total population, however, can be used with comparative safety, be¬

cause, as Appendix “A” at the end of the paper shows, the possible

vote was not widely different in the different wards.

Secrist- — The Anti- Auction Movement of 1828.

161

This seems to show that the vote for Ogden, as a Republican

in 1829 was not unlike his vote as an Anti- Auction candidate

in 1828 both absolutely and relatively; while the vote for Wood

as a candidate for both the Republican and Workingmen’s

tickets in 1829 is very similar to the vote for Ogden in both

1828 and 1829.

My conclusion from this analysis is that the Workingmen’s

candidates, who in the main were workingmen, drew their sup¬

port from a definite and compact area of the city, roughly the

13th, 10th, 11th and 14th wards; while their coalition merchant

candidate drew his support from an entirely different section of

the city, roughly, the first five w7ards ; i. e. the district that sup¬

ported the Anti- Auction ticket in 1828.

Encouraged by the election of one of their men, which they

took more or less as a complete victory, they adopted a general

plan for organization at a meeting of “mechanics and other

Workingmen, etc.,” Dec. 29, 1829. Elaborate resolutions were

adopted on the subject of monopolies — including banks and

auctions. It is here that we find the first real labor argument

against the system; but even here it is coupled with banking

monopoly, etc.

“Resolved : That the present auction system, which operates

as a means of oppressing the producing classes, by introducing

large quantities of the products of labor of foreign countries,

which otherwise would be furnished by our own mechanics, is

fraught with alarming evils, and should be immediately re¬

stricted.

“Resolved: That this system is most decidedly injurious to

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the mechanics’ interest of this city, compelling them in many

cases, to abandon their business or dishonestly manufacture

very inferior goods for the competition of the auction room.

“Resolved : That the credit system on duties at our custom

houses, which furnishes the auctioneers and foreign importers

with an additional capital of fifteen million dollars, at all times

in this city, the greater part of wdiich is drawn from the pro¬

ducing classes, they being the consumers, is an evil of immense

magnitude, and demands our immediate attention.

“Resolved: That the banks under the administration of the

present directors 62 and officers, and by the concert of auctioneers

and foreigners aided by custom house credits, form a monopoly

that is hostile to the equal rights of the American merchant,

manufacturer, mechanic and laboring man; and that the re¬

newal by the Legislature of the charters prayed for will —

perpetuate an aristocracy wdiich eventually may shake the foun¬

dations of our liberty and entail slavery on our posterity.” The

proposed remedies were: 1st, duties to be paid in cash; 2nd,

charters of banks controlled by monopolies, to be allowed to ex¬

pire, and, if the banks be needed that part, of the directors be

named from the producing classes ; 3rd, heavy duties on sales at

auction — to be levied at least for some time to come.63

At this same meeting a General Executive Committee was

appointed for the purpose of coordinating the movement in the

various wards of the City. This is the second Committee of

Fifty. The names of the first are not available!, but the names

and occupations of the second are given in the Workingmen’s

Advocate*64 With few exceptions it was composed of working¬

men, none of whose names, however, appear in the Anti- Auction

Committee of Fifty nor the Few York Anti- Auction Com¬

mittee of Eighteen.

62 Every auctioneer “it is believed” is a bank director and that money

is distributed from Wall street at the discretion of bank directors and

auctioneers. Workingmen’s Advocate, Jan. 16/30.

63 “Our legislature was adjourned, after passing 387 acts during a

session of 106 days. Among these acts is one providing for an equal

system of education, for the abolishment of imprisonment for debt,

. . . for amending the present monopolizing banking and auction

system” — Editorial: Workingmen’s Advocate Apr. 17, 1830, p. 3, col. 2.

64 Mar. 20, 1830, p. 3, col. 4.

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828. 163

Of the subsequent history of the Workingmen’s Party it is

unnecessary to speak in this connection, except to say that all

antipathy to auctions per se was swallowed up in the struggle

for common schools, mechanics’ lien law, abolishment of im¬

prisonment for debt, etc.

To summarize, we find in New York Oity in the years 1828-

1830 two distinct, though contemporaneous movements. The

one was the dramatic incident of a movement extending as far

back as 1815 in New York Oity and in a general way to all the

cities of the Atlantic coast. It was a mercantile movement, led

by mercantile men and was opposed to auctions, not because of

any natural rights theory, or primarily because auctions were

a monopoly, but because they were inimical to the trader’s in¬

terest, to his welfare as a business man. It took the forms it

did in 1828, because of a variety of events previously enumer¬

ated, and though it seemed to have failed at the most propitious

moment, still lived on until the evils complained of were re¬

moved. The other movement was industrial in its inception,

and addressed itself to the questions which emphasized the dif¬

ference between rich and poor — bank, education,, auction, and

land monopolies. It attacked auctions because they were

monopolies, and the auctioneers connected with the banks ; not

because they were inimical to the trader, the jobber and the

commission merchant. The merchant appealed to the mechan¬

ics’ interest because he had “fish to fry” ; in the same way did

the workingman appeal to the merchant. This appeal, however,

is the only common grounds between the two movements.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

’% ‘Wow

‘uora.i'eio

'% ‘aiPIM

04 Vft

co —i

vft Ci

vra —>

1ft vft C4

co t-

i-H C4

S3 fe

CO

00 lO !>•

oi H H

g s s

1-1 © 04 04 04 04

04 t- O CO © 05

ci in ci ici w m

in ci in w n

'% IIIM.

04 Vft 04 CO

'% ‘J^Od

‘JJ82

'% wia

‘ajouipi^s

'% ‘PU8RJ

’°i> ’^UIW

CO ^ CO 04 00

w m o

VO 04 co

8 §

HO o

04 CO

04 1ft

C4 00

04 VO

8 S3 8

N CO

W ifO if5

8 ^ ^

i-i CO 04

8 38 S

04 CO VO

i— I CO i— I

CO 04 VO

o ci in

04 VO 04 CO

*% ‘qq^Av

'% ‘pooav

N O CO

00 00

CO CO

CO 00

OJ

ci iA

00 CO CO

O CM !>.

ci ci CO

' H

g;>8

‘POOM

% ‘napso

00 CO

00 TH

O CD

13 &

&

o .

H 04

Q OO

mO

<1

| ojo ‘napso

’% ‘©IPIM

•% ‘joiAbx

•S* ^

^ CO

CO CD

CD CD t-

CD 00 ID

oo* Ci O TH

to CO CD

CM Ci CO

O Ci OO*

O O o

+2 Hi +>

fl fl fl

o o o

fn Sh fn

Pm Pm Oh

PM Ph Ph

O O

43 +=

d fl

© ©

o O

fH U

© ®

P< Ph

165

Secrist — The Anti-Auction Movement of 1828.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

APPENDIX “B.”

Auction Receipts in Various Places.

’'Estimated for the year from receipts from one quarter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Boston Palladium.

Goss: Tariff Administration in the United States.

Hammond: Hist, of Pol. Parties, etc.,, in Hew York, Yol. 11.

Hew York American.

Hew York Evening Post.

Hew York City Directory.

Hew York Morning Herald.

Hew York Morning Courier.

Hew York Spectator.

Hiles Register.

“Reasons Why the Auction System Ought to be Abolished.”

H. Y. 1828.

“Remarks on the Auction System,” H. Y., etc., 1828.

The Anti-Auctioneer.

Workingmen’s Advocate.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 167

AN INVESTIGATION IN REGARD TO THE CONDITION

OF LABOR AND MANUFACTURES IN

MASSACHUSETTS, 1860-1870

JONATHAN P. SCOTT.

In making a study of the effects of the Civil War upon econ¬

omic conditions in any part of the country, it is unsafe to as.^

sume, for purposes of comparison, that the year 1860 was a year

of prosperity, and that a healthy state of affairs during the next

five years is proved by gains over conditions existing in that

year. In order to prove progress by means of comparisons be¬

tween 1860 and later years, it must be shown that in 1860, the

recovery from the Crisis of 1857 was complete. If, for ex¬

ample, we find an industry in poorer condition in 1865 than

it was in 1855, we may assume one or more of the folio-wing

causes: 1. that the effects of the crisis have been felt by this

industry for eight years. 2. that the industry has been de¬

pressed by the economic disturbances accompanying the war.

3. that special circumstances have caused its- decline. The

question is not only whether conditions in 1865 were better than

they were in 1860 or 1861, but whether there has been a normal

advance since 1857.

There is no doubt that by 1860, Massachusetts was at least

beginning to recover from the crisis. The governor, in his ad¬

dress, Jan. 6, 1860, said “the mechanical, manufacturing, and

commercial interests are recovering from recent depression and

will soon exhibit, with such aid as the general government may

properly grant, their former vigor and success.” 1 The number

of firms and corporations established in 1860, and reported to

i Reported in the Boston Daily Advertiser, Jan. 7, 1860.

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be in existence in 1890, was 396, as over against 160 in 1850

and 174 in 1858. 2 The amount of deposits in savings-banks

was considerably larger than in previous years and tlie number

of depositors bad increased.3 The average number of paupers

supported at the three state almshouses was less than it had been

for some time.4 The Boston Board of Trade reports the various

articles of produce as showing, with a few exceptions, a fair in¬

crease over previous years.5 On the whole, the clouds seemed

to be breaking, and there were prospects of fair weather in the

business world.

I am inclined to think, however, that Massachusetts was re¬

covering more slowly from business depression than the country

as a whole. The wool industry seems to have been less flourish¬

ing in 1860 than in 1859, 6 while the boot and shoe trade was

in a state of unusual depression.7 In the country at large, on

the other hand, E. I). Fite says, “the crops were abundant, and

manufacturing, with few exceptions, was active in every

branch. . . . All branches of commercial life were reason¬

ably prosperous, looking forward to the future with confident

hopes of growth and expansion, and relying on peace to bless

their ventures.” 8 The Boston Daily Advertiser indignantly re¬

sents the statement of Mr. Douglas that “ The mechanics and

laborers of Few England are now reduced to the starvation

point/ ” but it goes on to say “prices are so low that some

classes of manufacturers cannot pay to their workmen wages

sufficient for their support.9 Certainly these statements do not

indicate the existence of prosperity in Massachusetts at the be¬

ginning of the decade. Furthermore, figuires taken from the

Report of the Boston Board of Trade for 1861, show that the

value of exports, from the District of Boston and Charlestown,

2 Wadlin, The Growth of Manufactures, p. 308

3 Mass. Public Documents. Abstracts of Returns from Savings In¬

stitutions, 1857_1860.

4 Mass. Pub. Doc. Report of the Board of State Charities, 1864.

s Report of the Boston Board of Trade, 1861; Review of the Market

for 1860.

e Ibid.

7 Ibid; also Boston Daily Advertiser, March 5, 1860.

s Fite, Prosperity during the Civil War, p. 2.

» March 5, 1860.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 169

fell from $28,326,918 in- 1857 to $15,168,015 in 1860, a de¬

crease of nearly 47 per cent. During the same period the value

of exports from the United States as a whole rose from $362,-

960,682 to $400,122,296, an increase of over 9 per cent. Im¬

ports into Boston decreased about 12 per cent. Imports into

the country at large decreased a little less than 3 per cent.

These bits of evidence tend to show that Massachusetts was still

in the shadow of the panic and that she was not as well off as

the country at large, in 1860.

Among the causes of economic disturbance during the war

period were the enlistment of great numbers of laboring-men,

the stoppage of trade between North and South, the constant

fear of military disaster, and the issue of paper money. Of

these, the last was the most potent in bringing trouble. The

enormous expenses of the war necessitated the issue of paper

currency, a measure which was, in reality, the exaction of a

forced loan. Owing to lack of confidence in the government the

greenbacks depreciated in value, or — to put it the other way

around— gold was at a premium. Dewey gives a table showing

the average annual value in gold of $100.00 in currency, from

1863 to 1878. 10 Not until December 17* 1878, was paper cur¬

rency quoted at par.* 11

1863.

1864.

1865.

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

$72.9

64.9

49.5

71.2

70.9

71.5

72.7

81.1

1871.

1872.

1873.

1874.

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

188.7

89.4

87.3

89.3

88.4

87.8

92.7

97.5

The results of the depreciation of the paper currency were

far reaching, but it is here important to us chiefly on account of

its effects upon wages and prices. The comfort of the laboring-

man depends largely upon these two factors. If prices are high

and wages are low he is likely to suffer. If, on the other hand,

wages are high, and the purchasing power of money is consid¬

erable, it is probable that he is in fairly comfortable circum-

10 Financial History of the United States, p. 376.

11 Financial History of the United States, p. 375.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

stances, unless, of course, lie is not steadily employed. The

depreciation of paper money caused a rise in the nominal value

of wages and prices. They were both raised, but not propor¬

tionately. The following figures from the Aldrich Report12

will bring this out.

In 1862 prices began to soar above wages. By 1865 the

former were more than twice what they had been in 1860, while

the increase in wages was between forty and fifty per cent for

the same five years. In other words, the increase in prices was

more than double the increase in wages. This was not entirely

due to the inflation of the currency, but it may be attributed

largely to that cause. From 1865 to 1873 wages gradually in¬

creased while prices went down. By 1869 the percentage for

wages was higher than the percentage for prices. The figures

in the Aldrich Report are said to be somewhat untrustworthy,

but they seem to show that the condition of the workingman,

while not an enviable one during the war period, improved dur¬

ing the latter half of the decade, so that by 1869 he was better

off than he had been in I860.13

Statistics for Massachusetts show the increased cost of living

in that state during the War. From the table given here we

see that income has not kept pace with expenses.14

12 Pages 9, 13.

13 Prof. Mitchell in his hook “Gold, Prices, and Wages under the

Greenback Standard,” says, “The wage-changes from 1867 on . .

cannot be explained as a defence of the standard of living prevailing

in 1860. In other words, the advance in money wages from 1867 to

1872, represents a real improvement in the position of wage-earners —

very slow from 1867 to 1869, faster in the next two years.” P. 245.

14 Report Mass. Bureau of Statistics, 1873, p. 522.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 171

Income compared with cost of living.

The Daily Evening Voice, a labor paper published in Boston,

asserts in 1864, that never “in the history of this country was

there snch a gripe upon the laborer as at the present time. He

is taxed for all the luxuries of the wealthy, which he is too poor

to enjoy.” 15 Allowing for partisan exaggeration in this latter

statement, it is yet clear that the workingman in Massachusetts

was having a hard struggle for his livelihood during the Re¬

bellion. It is probable, however, that if willing to work he

found little trouble in securing and retaining employment from

1862 to the end of the war.16

After the war there was an increased demand for labor in the

state, owing to a general revival of manufactures.17 Employ¬

ment continued to be steady during the latter half of the de¬

cade.18 The number of hands employed in manufactures in¬

creased more than 28 per cent during the ten years, while the

population increased only 18 per cent; 19 39 per cent of the

population are returned as being engaged in gainful occupations

in 1870, as over against 37 per cent in I860.20 On the other

hand, the relation between wages and prices was slow of read¬

justment. The Commissioners on the Hours of Labor conclude

that the average advance of wages in 1867 over 1860 has been

is Daily Evening Voice, Dec. 13, 1864.

is “In nearly all departments of trade there was a scarcity of labor,

and all who were willing to work found employment at good prices.”

Report, Boston Board of Trade, 1867, p. 42.

17 Voice, July 26, 1865, quoting from the Newburyport Herald; Ibid,.

Aug. 21, 1865, quoting from The Traveller; Ibid, Sept. 22, 1865, quoting

from the Lynn Bulletin, etc.

is Reports Boston Board of Trade, 1866-1871. Passim.

is From figures given in United States Census Reports, 1860, 1870.

20 Ibid.

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

about 50 per cent, 'whereas prices have risen over 100 per cent,21

The following tables, constructed from the Report of the Mas¬

sachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor for 1879 22 compare

wages and prices in 1860 with wages and prices in 1872, the

values being reduced to a gold basis.

From these tables it appeals that wages went up about 48 per

cent during the twelve years, while fuel went up over 50 per

cent, provisions 55 per cent, and board and lodging about 139

per cent. Other evidence 24 supports the conclusion that the

workingman of Massachusetts was not as well off in the latter

sixties and early seventies as he had been before the war. C. R.

Fish, in speaking of economic conditions in Wisconsin after the

war, says, “The ease with which Wisconsin adjusted itself to

these two successive labor difficulties (of which he has given an

account) suggests interesting questions as to the relative elastic-

21 Report of the Commissioners on the Hours of Labor, Boston, 1867,

pp. 16, 17.

22 Pages 67 ff.

23 Approximately.

24 Table giving expenses of a house-carpenter of Salem, Mass., given

in Report Mass. Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 1872, p. 522; Report

Boston Board of Trade, 1868, p. 121, says “The merchant, the manu¬

facturer, and the mechanic, who, in taking a retrospective glance at his

business during the past twelve months, finds a balance in his favor,

may consider himself fortunate, for his case is the exception and not

the rule.” See also Boston Daly Advertiser, Jan. 13, 1870.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 173

ity of agricultural as compared with manufacturing communi¬

ties.” 25 The evidence which has been presented here seems to

indicate a slower recovery in manufacturing communities, for

Massachusetts is preeminently a manufacturing state.

The fluctuations of wages and prices and the discontent aris¬

ing therefrom had many results.. Tor one thing, there were

attempts on the part of workingmen to combine. During and

after the war we find trades-unions, as well a:s other kinds of

associations of workingmen, multiplying and increasing in

strength.20 Although these forms of resistance often failed,

they are at least a partial cause of the improvement of the rela¬

tions between labor and capital which came about in the seven¬

ties. During the sixties we also find a considerable agitation

for shorter hours of labor. The Voice frequently complains of

the injustice of compelling employees, particularly women, to

work eleven or more hours a day in a factory. Eight Hour

Leagues were formed in Boston,27 and a commission was ap¬

pointed by the legislature of Massachusetts to inquire into the

question of the hours of labor. The commissioners, in their

report of January, 1867, make the following statement: “An¬

swers to the . . . inquiry were received from seventy-four

establishments, which give the following as the hours of labor : —

5 worked 10% hours.

63 wTorked 11 hours.

4 worked 12 hours.

12 worked irregular hours, 8 to 15.

From this it wull be seen that eleven hours is the rule, and any

longer or shorter time the exception in the factories of the

Commonwealth.” 28 Much of this agitation centred around, and

was chiefly caused by, the employment of women and children

in the factories. The wdthdrawTal of large numbers of men for

the army frequently left the burden of supporting their families

25 Some Phases of the Economic History of Wisconsin, 1860-1870.

Proc. Wis. Hist. Society for 1907, p. 211.

26 Voice, Dec. 28, 1864; Jan. 5, 1865; also 1865, 1866 passim; Rept.

Boston Board of Trade 1870, p. 127.

2T Voice, Sept. 10, 1865, and passim; Report of the President of the

Boston Eight Hour League, 1872.

28 P. 8.

7

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

upon their wives and children, who were sometimes forced,

-especially in the last two years of the war, to seek employment

in the factories. The commissioners to whom we have just re¬

ferred, say “We have been satisfied from our personal observa¬

tion, as well as the testimony of those best qualified to judge,

that eleven hours’ toil each day for six days in each week is

more than women and children ought to be required to perform.

We are certain that they cannot do this without impairing,

sooner or later, their vital powers, and shortening the duration

of life. We are confident that it is a most uneconomical waste

of life, which it is the interest of the state to prevent.” 28a The

commissioners find that 60 per cent of the employees in 65 fac¬

tories were women.28b The appointment of this commission

shows that the state was beginning to be aroused to the necessity

for action. .Not until 1874, however, did the agitation bear

fruit in legislation. In that year the ten-hour law was passed,

limiting the labor of women, and of children under eighteen

years of age, to ten hours a day.29 The law was practically not

in operation until 1879.30

The disproportion of women to men in Massachusetts some¬

what affected economic conditions. In 1860 there were 592,-

25.3 white males in Massachusetts and 629,212 white females.

In 1865 there were 597,222 white males and 659,642 white

females.31 The excess of females over males amounted to 36,-

959 in 1860, while in 1865 it was 62,420. It had increased 41

per cent during the war. Governor Andrew notes some of the

effects of the disproportion. “It disorders the market for labor ;

it reduces women and men to an unnatural competition for em¬

ployments fitted for men alone, tends to increase the number of

both men unable to maintain families, and of women. who must

maintain themselves unaided.’ ” 32 The competition between

the sexes for employment tended to lower men’s wages. Women

could sometimes do the same work as men, especially in the

28a. Ibid.

28b. Ibid.

29 Whittlesey, Massachusetts Labor Legislation, etc., p. 12.

so ibid, p. 13.

31 Mass. Census Reports, 1860, 1865.

32 Governor’s Address to the Legislature of Mass., Jan. 6, 1865.

Scott— Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 175

factories, and were willing to accept less pay.33 The excess of

female over male labor may have had something to do with the

comparatively slow readjustment of wages after the war. On

the other hand, it had an indirect, hut beneficial effect, in that

it was a partial cause of the agitation for shorter hours. After

the war the disproportion between male and female employees

decreased, and by 1870 it was slightly less than it had been in

I860.34

In 1865, there came,, as has been stated, an increased demand

for labor. Confidence was now restored, and it seemed that

with the encouragement of the war tariff, the use of new labor-

saving machinery, and constantly increasing facilities for trans¬

portation, manufactures must flourish. The demand for labor

was met by two classes of men. In the first place, there were

the returned soldiers. Many of these very naturally stepped

into the unfilled places in the mills and factories. Secondly,

there were immigrants from Europe and British America to

meet the demand for unskilled labor. Immigration into Mas¬

sachusetts had fallen off enormously between 1855 and 1865.

In 1850 there were 164,024 foreign bom persons in the state ;

in 1855 there were 244,685, an increase of 80,661 persons.35

In 1865, however, there were only 265,486 foreigners in Mas¬

sachusetts,36 an increase of but 20,801 over 1855. In other

words, the number of immigrants during the ten-year period

1855 to 1865 was less than a third of what it had been during

the five-year period 1850 to 1855. In 1870, however, we find

353,319 foreign-bom persons in Massachusetts’,37 an increase of

87,833 in the five years following the war. A large proportion

of these people went into the factories. Miss Turvill, in her

thesis a Immigration into Massachusetts, 1820-1900/’ says

“About two-thirds of the Canadians who were employed were

found in manufacturing industries. In this respect, the French-

33 The Voice, July 25, 1865, gives the average daily wages of a woman

at 87% cents.

34 u. S. Census Reports, 1860 and 1870, give the number of hands

employed: Male, 1860, 146,268; 1870, 179,032; Female, 1860, 71,153;

1870, 86,229.

35 u. S, Census Report, 1870, Mass. Census Report, 1855.

36 Mass. Census Report, 1865.

37 U. S. Census Report, 1870.

176 "Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Canadians ranged second among the foreign nationalities.”38

The Irish were first.39

It is usually stated that the Civil War acted as a stimulus to

manufactures. Carroll D. Wright, in his “Industrial Evolution

of the United States” says, “The North held the mechanical

industries of the country, and naturally under the stimulus of

war, these industries could he expanded to almost any extent,

and they were so expanded, giving to the North every resource

of power which mechanics give to great armies,”40 A recent

careful investigation, while taking a somewhat more moderate

view, concludes that manufactures in the North recovered speed¬

ily from the depression of 1861 and flourished during the re¬

mainder of the Rebellion.41 It is not our purpose here to de¬

termine whether these conditions hold good for the whole North,

but whether they apply to Massachusetts.

Indications of prosperity in Massachusetts during the war

period' are to be found in' the reports of the Boston Board of

Trade. The Board admits a falling ofl in many branches of

business in 1861, but says “the disasters so confidently pre¬

dicted, have not been realized to their full extent. What a year

of prosperity the past would have been if it were not for the

present civil war.” 42 In reviewing the market for the year

1862, the Report of the Board says, “The industry of Massa¬

chusetts, paralyzed for a short time at the commencement of the

struggle, soon recovered from the depression . . . the re¬

sult of the war so far has been to impart increased activity to

many of our leading branches of manufacture, and,, all things

considered, the productive industry of the state was never more

fully developed or more prosperous than at the present time.” 43

The Reports of the Board for the two following years give us

the same idea of the general prosperity of manufactures.44 All

this evidence must not be underestimated, for it is, in the main,

38 Turvill, p. 67.

39 ibid, p. 92.

40 Wright, Industrial Evolution of the United States, p. 153.

41 Fite, Prosperity During the War; A Study of Northern Conditions,.,

p. 63.

42 Report Boston Board of Trade, 1862, p. 63.

43 Report Boston Board of Trade, 1863, p. 43.

44 ibid, 1864, p. 59; 1865, p. 63.

Scott-Labor Conditions in Massachusetts , 1860-70. 177

the result of a careful study of statistics* It is possible, how¬

ever, that the Board was deceived by the high prices which pre¬

vailed,, and which were chiefly due to the premium on gold, into

thinking that industry was in a flourishing condition. In fact,

the Report for 1867 admits that “From 1862 to 1866 was a

period of seeming prosperity.”45

There is no doubt that certain individual manufacturers made

enormous fortunes during war times. There is no doubt, also,

that certain industries in Massachusetts were stimulated, by

the change in conditions. Of these the most important was the

manufacture of wool. Even before the war there were signs

that this industry was to have a rapid growth. Governor An¬

drew, in his address to the legislature, Jan. 5, 1861, said, “At¬

tention to sheep husbandry is now on the increase, by reason of

the protection which has been a, horded to it by judicious legis¬

lation, and the importance of this branch of farming to the

various interests of Hew England can hardly be over-esti¬

mated.” 46 Later, when the war came,, the high price of cotton

increased the demand for woolen goods. Cotton factories in the

neighborhood of Boston became woolen factories.47 Between

1855 and 1865 the number of establishments for the manu¬

facture of wool increased from 146 to 218, while the number of

pounds of wool consumed grew from about 19,000,000' to nearly

29,0Q0,00O.48 After the war the business became less profit¬

able. The Boston Board of Trade reports in 1869 “scarcely a

woollen mill in Hew England . . . has done a profitable

business, and most of them will be satisfied, if, on balancing the

profit and loss of the year, there is no actual loss.” 49 In 1870

the industry had not improved.50 In fact the following table

giving the number of bales received in Boston annually from

1860 to 1870 shows a falling off in 1870 from 1869.51

45 p. 42.

46 Address to the Legislature, Jan. 5, 1861; see also Boston Daily

Advertiser, May 1, 1860.

47 Fite,, p. 12.

48 De Witt, Statistical Information Relating to Certain Branches of

Industry in Massachusetts, etc., for 1855; and Warner, Ibid, for 1865.

49 Report Boston Board of Trade, 1870, p. 128.

so ibid, 1871, p. 138.

si From Reports Boston Board of Trade, 1860-1870.

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Art's, and Letters.

Wool , bales , receipts.

These figures, however, give an idea of the gain of the wool

industry during the decade. Though profits were probably

small for some time after the war, the trade was too firmly

established to he permanently injured. It is probably fortunate

for the economic progress of the state that the wool industry in

large measure took the place of the manufacture of cotton, since

the soil of ISTew England is by nature adapted to the raising of

sheep, whereas cotton has to be transported from a great dis¬

tance.

The industry which had been the most important in the state

before the war was the one to suffer most between 1861 and

1865. The cutting-off of the supply of raw material from the

South was, of course, the chief cause for the decline in cotton

manufacture. The number of bales received in Boston in 1860

was 381,966. In 1864 it was 77, 890, 52 a decrease of nearly

400 per cent. But little over half as many yards of cloth were

manufactured in 1865 as in 185 5. 5 3 The Southern market

speedily revived after the war, however. The newspapers tell

us in July 18 6 “There is not a spindle or loom in the country

that would not be put in motion if skilled labor could be had for

that purpose.” 54 In 1869, however, many manufacturers had

to stop their mills on account of the depressed state of the

trade;55 and in 1870, though business was more satisfactory

than it had been the year before, profits were not large,56 while

the number of bales received in Boston was not nearly as large

52 Reports Boston Board of Trade, 1860_1870.

53 De Witt, Statistical Information, etc., 1855; Warner, Ibid, 1865.

54 Voice, July 26, 1865, quoting from the Newburyport Herald; see

also Voice, Oct. 1, Oct. 6, Nov. 25, 1865, for other notices relative to

the revival of this branch of manufacture.

55 Report Boston Board of Trade, 1870, p. 127.

56 Ibid, 1871, p. 139.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 179

as it had been in 18 GO.5 7 In fact the progress of cotton manu¬

facture in the state had been permanently retarded by reason

of the growth of the wool industry and by the fact that the

South had been thrown on its own resources during the war

period, and was learning to manufacture its own cotton.

A third industry ranking in importance with cotton and wool

was the manufacture of hoots and shoes:. Here we note a decline

between 1855 and 1865. The annual output of the factories

dropped from about 45,000,000 pairs to about 31,000,000 pairs

during the ten years,58 while the number of manufacturers de¬

creased during the war period from 1,885 to 1,269. 59 In 1859,

750,000 cases of boots and shoes were shipped from Boston; in

1865, 715,844, while the figures for interveuing years are much

smaller.60 Immediately after the war there came a rapid re¬

action. “The shoe business was never more promising than at

this time/7 says the Daily Evening Voice, August 21, 1865, and

again, “The shoe business of Lynn was greater than it has ever

been before for a corresponding length of time.77 61 The follow¬

ing figures, giving the number of cases forwarded annually from

Boston indicate the progress of the industry from 1866 to

1870.62

1866 . 852,622

1867 . 938,379

1868 . 1,941, 172

1869 . i, 182, 704

1870 . 1,213,129

The number of establishments increased during these five years,

and while the number of hands employed was slightly less in

1870 than it had been in I860,63 this may probably be accounted

for by the introduction of labor-saving machinery such as the

McKay sewing machine, for sewing uppers to: soles. This was

patented in 1858 and put on the market in 1862. This inven-

57 Ibid, Reports 1860-1871. 381,966 bales received in 1860. 265,026

bales received in 1870.

ss DeWitt, Statistical Information, etc., 1855; Warner, Ibid, 1865.

59 Mass. Census Reports, 1860, 1865.

60 Reports Boston Board of Trade, 1860-1866.

61 Oct. 22, 1865.

62 Reports Boston Board of Trade, 1871.

; 63 u. S. Census Reports, 1860, 1870, give 62,283 bands employed in

1860. 54,831 hands employed in 1870.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tion was instrumental in bringing the boot and shoe industry

from the small shops to the factories.64 The Boston Board of

Trade reports the industry as being in a very flourishing con¬

dition in 1870. 65 It is clear, that this branch of manufacture,

though temporarily retarded during the war, was not seriously

cheeked., but made rapid strides after peace had been proclaimed.

Today Massachusetts is preeminently the shoe-manufacturing

state of the Union.

The fifteen years from 1855 to 1870 saw a great advance in

the manufacture of sewing-machines. The number of machines

manufactured in Massachusetts increased from about 4,000 in

1855 to nearly 50,000 in 1865. 66 The number of hands em¬

ployed in this business was 514 in 1860, 1033 in 1870.67 In¬

directly the extensive use of the sewing-machine somewhat

affected the labor market. Women who had other sources of

income sometimes took needlework at very low prices in order

to afford themselves luxuries or to contribute to the family sup¬

port. This reacted on the labor of other women, forcing them

to accept low wages.68 The Voice in 1864 estimates the average

wages of sewing- women at $3.00 to $3.50 per week,69 a low rate

at any time, but a most miserable pittance in a period of in¬

flated currency. The value of the sewing-machine to the house¬

hold, however, more than offset any disturbances which it may

have brought to the labor-market. )•

Ho study of economic conditions in Massachusetts at this time

would be complete without some account of the decay of the

merchant marine. In the first half of the nineteenth century

very many of the coast and river towns of Massachusetts were

important ship-building places. Boston was, of course, the

most conspicuous of these,70 but Salem, Newbury port, Ames-

64 Fite, pp. 68, 69.

65 Report, 1871, p. 139.

66 DeWitt, Statistical Information, etc., 1855; Warner, Ibid, 1865.

6.7 XJ. S. Census Reports, 1860, 1870.

es Voice, Apr. 7, 1865.

69 ibid, Dec. 13, 1864.

70 u. S. Census Report, 1880, vol. VIII, The Ship Building Industry

in U. S., p. 110. “For a long period Boston was the first of American

cities in the amount of tonnage owned by her merchants, and she has

always ranked as one of the first four.’'

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 181

bury, and Haverhill also had large industries. In 1880 the

situation had entirely changed. “At present, except at Uew-

buryport, ship-building has been completely abandoned on the

Merrimac, and that town in the census year (1880) presented

.a desolate array of abandoned ship yards, boat-shops, and rope-

walks.” 71 In 1860, wages for ship-building had reached their

highest point, $20.84 a week; in 1878 they had gone down to

$10. 75. 7 2 In 1860 the total tonnage of American vessels

amounted to over 12,000,000 tons. In 1870 it had declined to

less than 7, 000, 000. 73 In 1860, 70 per cent of the carrying

trade between Great Britain and the United States was in the

hands of American ship-owners ; in 1870 only 24 per cent.74

Hot all of this decline is to be attributed to the Civil War.

It is probable that the industry would have decayed even had

there been no war. The change from wood to iron hulls was an

advantage to Great Britain, for at the time of this change she

produced much more iron than the United States. The change

from paddle to screw also tended to throw the business of ship¬

building into England’s hands. The abandonment of subsidies

for the Collins Line and others in 1857, is thought to have been

another cause of decay.75 Reciprocity treaties with Great Brit¬

ain, in which she took advantage of us*76 the transition from

sail to steam,77 the diversion of business enterprise and capital

to other more profitable pursuits,78 the increased cost of ma¬

terials and labor,79 the navigation laws and other national and

state restrictions,80 have all been considered partial causes of

decline. The decay was consummated, however, during the

Civil War. At that time Confederate vessels preyed on our

'commerce, so that a large number of American ships transferred

to foreign flags for protection. After the war they were pre-

r. Ibid, p. 108,

72 Wright, Wages and Prices, pp. 28 ff.

73 Report Merchant Marine Commission, vol. 3. pp. 1768, 1769.

74 ibid.

75 Report Merchant Marine Commission, vol. 1, p. 630; vol. 3, p. 1680.

76 Ibid, vol. 1, p. 630, Statement of J. C. Ross.

77 ibid, vol. 3, p. 1679, Statement of Hon. R. G. Bickford.

78 Ibid, vol. 1, p. 381, Statement of P. D. Todd.

79 Ibid, vol. 3, p. 1749, Statement of Rear-Admiral P. F. Harrington,

V. S. Navy.

so Ibid.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

vented by our navigation laws from becoming American vessels

again.81 Ship-builders now found their business unprofitable,

and while many of them struggled on for some time, others

turned their attention to more profitable fields of enterprise.

From the blow delivered by the Civil War, our shipping indus¬

try has never recovered.

Having traced the course of some of the more important in¬

dustries in Massachusetts during and after the war, let us ex¬

amine the following table which compares conditions of certain

branches of manufacture in 1865 with conditions in 1855. 82

Cotton

) Number of establishments. . . .

( Yards of cloth manufactured

Wool

Number of establishments .

Lbs. of wool manufactured .

Yards of broadcloth manufactured

Sewing- machines.

j Number of establishments .

i Sewing machines manufactured.

Calico

Number of yards printed

Bleaching and

coloring .

j Number o-' establishments. .

( Number of hands employed,

Boots and shoes-. .

Pairs of boots manufactured

Paifs of shoes manufactured

. ... . . . . . — . — . — - v

The manufacture of

carpets, declined between 1855 and 1865.

hosiery, improves between 1855 and 1865.

linen, improves between 1855 and 1865.

silk, nearly stationary between 1855 and 1865.

nails, declines between 1855 and 1865.

pig iron, declines between 1855 and 1865.

hollow ware and castings, improves between 1855 and 1865.

scythes, declines between 1855 and 1865.

cutlery, improves between 1855 and 1865.

ploughs and other agricultural implements, declines considerably between 185-

and 1865.

From this table and the other evidence thus far presented it is.

clear that many industries, and especially the more important

ones,83 were not only retarded in their natural rate of progress

during these ten years but were not as well off in 1865 as they

had been ten years before.

During the twenty years preceding the Crisis of 1857, the

si Ibid, vol. 1, p. 435.

82 Constructed from DeWitt, Statistical Information, etc., for 1855,

and Warner, Ibid, for 1865.

83 Wool excepted.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts , 1860-70. 183

industrial progress of Massachusetts was enormous. In 1838

the annual amount of industrial products was eighty-six million

dollars; in 1845 it was one hundred twenty-four millions, and

in 1855 two hundred ninety-five millions.84 Between 1845 and

1855 the increase in value was 138 per cent. Between 1855

and 1865, however, it was only 72 per cent, according to Oliver

Warner,85 who has collected the statistics on the subject Fur¬

thermore, if the inflated condition of the currency in 1865 be

taken into account, it is clear that the real increase was much

less than 72 per cent. In fact, if we accept Dewey’s calculation

that a paper dollar in 1865 was, on the average, worth less than

fifty cents,86 the supposed increase in the value of manufactured

products becomes a decrease.

Other evidence supports the conclusion that the progress of

manufactures slackened during the war period. Acccording to

Warner, there were 271,421 hands employed in various kinds

of manufacture in 1855. In 1865, there were 245,908, a fall¬

ing-off of over 25,000.87 This alone would not prove a de¬

pression of manufactures, for it may be partially, perhaps

wholly, accounted for by the introduction of new labor-saving

machinery How many men this new machinery threw out of

employment we have no means of knowing. Glance, however,

at the following table, which gives a comparison between the

number of males over fifteen years of age engaged in certain oc¬

cupations in 1860, and those engaged in the same occupations

in 1865. 88

84 Warner, Statistical Information, etc., for 1865, pp. xxi and xxil.

ss ibid.

86 Financial Hist. U. S. p. 376; see table given above, p. 3.

87 Warner, p. 793.

88 Constructed from Mass. Census Reports 1860, 1865. Note also that

between 1855 and 1865 the number of manufacturers in Mass, de¬

creased from 5,294 to 3,903. Mass. Census Rept. 1865, p. 306.

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The foregoing table shows a falling-off in the number of man¬

ufacturers and in the number of mill operatives, and combines

with the other evidence presented, to prove that, in general,

manufactures declined in Massachusetts between 1855 and

1865. Much of this decline came during the war period, and

in spite of the encouragements of the war tariff. It was prob¬

ably due to the after-effects of the Crisis of 1857, and to the

economic disturbances accompanying the war.

After the cessation of hostilities, manufactures seemed to take

on new life. Fear of disaster had passed away, confidence was

restored and the opening of the Southern market afforded new

opportunities for trade.90 The transition from war to peace

seems not to have been very disastrous.91 By 1870 it is prob¬

able that manufactures were in fairly good condition. The

number of establishments had increased from about 8,000 to

over 13,000 (8,176 to 13,212) during the decade, the number of

hands employed from 217,421 to 2 7 9, 3 80, 9 2 an increase of over

28 per cent. As the population had increased only about 18

per cent during the same period,93 it is evident that the factories

were employing a considerably greater portion of the state’s

inhabitants in 1870 than in 1860. The total value of manu¬

factured products rose from $255,545,922 to $553,912,568 dur-

89 This apparently great decline is probably due to a change in the

method of making returns. Perhaps many of those given as “farm

laborers” in 1860 were returned as “farmers” in 1865.

90 Report Boston Board of Trade, 1866, p. 72.

91 Ibid, p. 72.

92 U. S. Census, Reports, 1860, 1870.

93 From 1,231,066 in 1860 to 1,457,351 in 1870. U. S. Census Reports.

Scott — Labor Conditions in Massachusetts, 1860-70. 185

ing the ten years.94 According to the United States Census for

1870, goods worth $1,000,000,000 in 1860 would have been

worth $1,560, 000, ,000 in 1870. In other words, “the Superin-

ten dent is disposed to regard 56 per cent as a just statement of

the increase in price for all classes of mechanical and manu¬

facturing productions between 1860 and 1870.” 95 If the total

value of manufactured products in 1860, $255,545,922 he mul¬

tiplied by 1.56 the result will be slightly less than $400,000,000,

which, subtracted from the valuation in 1870, gives an absolute

increase of over a hundred and fifty million dollars during the

decade. Business conditions were still unsettled, however, and

it is probable that the profits of manufacturers were small. The

total cost of raw materials rose (in currency values) over 147

per cent 96 during the decade, while the total annual value of

products rose only 117 per cent. The Report of the Boston

Board of Trade for 1867 says that business men., with few ex¬

ceptions, found their profits in 1866 less than they had found

them for some years.97 The next year they speak of “extreme

depression in all branches of business.” 98 There is the same

sort of complaint for 1869. “The manufacturer has found it

difficult to obtain cost for his goods. . . . We must, how¬

ever, look for these fluctuations until all business transactions

are conducted on a specie basis.” 99 In 1870 conditions appear

to have improved slightly, but, “small profits and strict economy

in the sale and manufacture of goods is now the order of the

day.” 100 Evidently prosperity had not been entirely reestab¬

lished at the end of the decade which we have been considering.

In general it seems safe to conclude that the thirteen years

from 1857 to 1870 were a period of more or less economic de¬

pression in Massachusetts. The lowest point was touched in

1861 when the outlook was as black as it has ever been at any

time in the history of the United States. Conditions in 1865

94 u. S. Census Reports, I860, 1870.

95 u. S. Census Report 1870, vol. on Industry and Wealth, p. 379.

96 From figures in U. S. Census Reports, 1860, 1870. $135,053,721 in

1860. $334,413,982 in 1870.

97 p. 42.

98 Report for 1868, p. 121. Review of the Market for 1867.

99 Report 1870, p. 127.

igo Report 1871, p. 138.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

were undoubtedly better than they had been in 1861, but prob¬

ably not as good as they had been in 1855. The restoration of

confidence after the war brought a speedy revival of manufac¬

tures and a new demand for labor, but there was no great pros¬

perity. The number of manufacturing establishments in¬

creased, and employment seems to have been steady, but wages

were low during the five years after the war, and even with the

encouragement given by the war-tariff, and the increased use of

labor-saving machinery, profits Were small. Massachusetts

seems to have been slow in recovering from the financial crisis

of 1857 and the political crisis of the sixties. Had she been an

agricultural state it is probable that readjustment would, in both

cases, have been more rapid.

Plumb — • Early Harbor History of Wisconsin

187

EARLY HARBOR HISTORY OF WISCONSIN.

R. G. Plumb.

The State of Wisconsin contains many of the most important

harbors of the Great Lakes. Within its boundaries at sixteen

different points the United States government has undertaken

improvement and there are, besides, numerous bays and coves,

where improvements of a purely local nature have been made

by individuals. The sixteen government harbors are at Ke¬

nosha, Racine, Milwaukee, Port Washington, Sheboygan,, Mani¬

towoc, Two Rivers, Kewaunee, Algoma, Sturgeon Bay, Green

Bay, Pensaukee, Oconto, Marinette, Ashland and Superior.

There is also the harbor at Bayfield, that enjoys the distinction

of being one of the few where engineering skill was not required

to aid nature and where artificial improvement, beyond a few

private docks, was totally unnecessary, since deep water ex¬

tended up to the very docks.

The participation of the national government in the con¬

struction of harbor improvements is a matter of historical devel¬

opment. As such it is but a subsidiary phase of the general

history of internal improvements, and is marked by the gradual

augmentation of national power, due partly to legislative action

and partly to judicial construction. It was a fundamental

English doctrine that rivers and bays were the king’s property

and this theory the American Colonies adopted, going so far as

to. claim the right to lease streams and inlets. By the Articles

of Confederation Congress was given no power over navigation

so that the control of the separate colonies continued. It Was

the inequality of the tonnage dues under this system that was

one of the chief causes leading to the adoption of the Federal

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Constitution, wherein Congress was given the power to control

foreign and domestic commerce. The clause conferring this

power is the basis of all harbor legislation, although as an in¬

cident of this power Congress did not immediately assume the

improvement of even the ocean harbors. That .there was a sub¬

stance and a latent force to the clause, however, is shown by the

fact that as soon as the Constitution was adopted, the states ap¬

plied to Congress for permission to levy tonnage duties, acts that

they had performed independently hitherto. The proceeds

gained by this and other means enabled the states to undertake

ill-planned and worse-executed systems of internal improvement.

Most of the funds, thus applied, were devoted to roads, canals

and rivers, however, harbors receiving little recognition.

'Mere state authority could not indeed long meet the require¬

ments of an expanding people. By a series of legal refinements

and complicated distinctions the national system insinuated it¬

self into active being. The first national turnpike had been

built in 1807, the first national canal in 1812 and finally in

1822 the first appropriation for a harbor passed Congress.

Prior to this there had been bills “for the maintenance of light¬

houses, beacons, public piers, etc.,” the constitutionality of which

had never been questioned but they were not harbor appropria¬

tions in the true sense of the term. The original accepted

doctrine was that the Constitution was “a salt water instrument”

giving power for sea coast improvement only. The new north¬

west, however, soon lifted its voice, demanding harbors on the

Great Lakes, and the convenient theory was advanced that these

bodies of water were merely “inland seas.” There were those

in authority, however, that were unable to admit the constitu¬

tionality of improving inland harbors for the needs of commerce,

but were satisfied if the plans were designated as “refuge har¬

bors.”

Wisconsin came into being as a territory just as the west was

beginning to realize the need for national assistance in local

projects. Harbor improvements and, indeed, lake commerce

prior to 1843, the date of the first appropriation for a Wisconsin

harbor, were meagre. The first steamer had appeared on the

lakes in 1819 ; the number had increased to eleven by 1833 and

Plumb — Early Harbor History of Wisconsin 189'

to fifty-two in 1845. The first line from Buffalo to Chicago

was established in 1839 and it was about this time that Lake

Michigan gained prominence as a highway of commerce. Prior

to 1837 the government had spent but $162,601 on Lake Mich¬

igan, wholly at Chicago and St. Joseph, Mich., and up to 1853

only one-eighth of the river and harbor appropriations1, taken as

a whole, had been devoted to the Great Lakes. Wisconsin’s

growth in the early thirties soon accentuated its needs. The

first memorial concerning harbors in the territory was one by

certain steamboat owners trading out of Milwaukee, transmitted

to Congress by the Territorial Council of Michigan in Decem¬

ber, 1834. They speak of the requirements of the port and

think a harbor could be built for $15,000. In the territorial

days it was, of course, quite natural for the legislatures to ap¬

peal for aid to the general government. The first governor of

Wisconsin, in his message in 1836, suggested “the propriety of

asking Congress for an appropriation sufficient to cover expenses

of surveying all the necessary harbors on Lake Michigan and for

the construction of lighthouses.” Wisconsin’s delegates in Con¬

gress secured such appropriations and in 1837 several surveys

were undertaken. Petitions regarding improvements poured

in on Congress all through the thirties and forties, many signed

extensively by residents of eastern cities, such as Hew York,

Albany and Erie. In 1840 and again in 1842 efforts were

made at the introduction of Wisconsin Harbor Bills but in both

cases they were met with too strong opposition and succumbed.

Milwaukee however finally, in 1843, secured $30,000 and Ra¬

cine and Kenosha $12,500 each in 1844. Other small sums

were voted during the period preceding the Civil War, but the

major portion of the improvement during that time was done

by the localities and individuals particularly interested. It

was the era of bridge piers, extensions of wharves or docks built

out into the lake to a sufficient depth to accommodate the landing

of steamers, and of course very inadequate makeshifts, partic¬

ularly useless in rough weather. Most of these piers were built

by individual initiative and often excessive tolls were charged.

When the national government began the work of harbor im~

8

I

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

provement in earnest, in 1866, a more adequate engineering

.‘solution was worked out. It was realized that the shifting

sands interfered with lasting improvement; that parallel piers

-must be constructed, channels dredged and protection break¬

waters established.

“ The sum total of government appropriations for Wisconsin

harbors prior to 1866 was $175,700, Milwaukee having received

$84,100, Kenosha $37,500, Racine $26,100, Sheboygan $20,000

and Manitowoc $8,000. Thus fully three-fourths of the num¬

ber of harbors within the boundaries of the state had not been

begun by this date and the insignificance of the sum spent is

seen by comparison with the total of expenditures within the

state up to 1900, an amount approximating $8,000,000. The

representatives of the state in Congress were largely responsible

for the securing of this large sum, several of them, notably

Philetus Sawyer, having been at the very forefront in defense

of harbor improvement. Persistent memorials from the state

legislatures, petitions from individuals and the steady co-opera¬

tion of private enterprise — all have been factors in obtaining

government aid.

Aside from government improvements in Wisconsin there

have been Several other agencies at work. First as to the part

played by the state. This has been comparatively unimportant

and consists almost entirely of legislative control,, such as pro¬

viding and limiting the methods that the corporate locality

might employ in the schemes of improvement. Of itself it has

done nothing, outside of the construction of the Sturgeon Bay

Canal, by means of proceeds from a land grant, donated for the

purpose bv the general government. This project, while still

in the hands of the contractors as The agents of the state, was

purchased by Congress and has since been conducted as a na¬

tional waterway, free of all tolls.

The next factors in Wisconsin improvement have been the

village and the city, always prominent,, and particularly so in

ante-bellum days. Government aid was at that time slow and

uncertain and many Wisconsin towns proceeded to help them¬

selves. In fact the city and village were the chief instruments

in improvement and the general government merely assisted.

Plumb — Early Harbor History of Wisconsin 191

Today conditions are reversed and the role of, assistance falls to

the locality. However, even yet the improvement inside the

harbor or shore line must fall to the lot of the municipality, and

repeated statements to this effect have been made by the govern¬

ment engineers. Each municipality is by statute required to

keep a separate harbor fund and the general surveillance of the

harbor is assigned to harbor masters. The first instance of the

existence of this officer was that in the charter of the village of"

Manitowoc in 1850 and the second in that of Sheboygan in 1862.

Besides the direct methods of harbor work, the cities have done

much indirectly, by Way of assistance to> government work,

either in appropriations or otherwise. Often the cities have

assisted in dredging the outer harbors and in two cities, She¬

boygan and Kenosha, the dredge was furnished the govern¬

ment at cost. Kewaunee and other cities have donated prop¬

erty for the use of the Engineers’ Department, while in other

instances money has been temporarily loaned to> carry on the

work, where the national appropriations had been insufficient,

the municipality trusting for reimbursement, to succeeding ap¬

propriations.

Township and county have also contributed a share in the-

work of improvement. The former has been active where the

harbor was not situated in a locality, already incorporated, as

for instance Oconto., Kewaunee and Ahnapee (Algoma). The

work done by this unit, however, has not been important and

county aid has played a much greater part, particularly in the

early days when villages were too small to* carry on the improve¬

ments alone. The counties of Sheboygan, Manitowoc, and

Douglas — all have voted considerable sums at various times for

this purpose.

Last of all, individual initiative is to be considered as a factor

in Wisconsin harbor improvements. Private subscription has

always been an important means of raising money and parties

ularly is this true in the early days of improvement. Assistance

was thus rendered in Port Washington, Kenosha. Pacine and

Algoma and in other cases a partial payment of expenses of a

government dredge has been contributed by individuals. It will

be remembered that the early bridge-piers, also, were owned and

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

operated by private firms or corporations, the first being that at

Kenosha in 1840. Lumber companies in the northern part of

the state still build and. maintain this sort of a structure and

their piers and channels were the basis of the government im¬

provement at both Marinette and Pensaukee. On Lake Su¬

perior the private ore docks are always important factors in har¬

bor facilities and many channels have been dredged at private

expense from the deeper waters to these docks. Summarizing,

it may be said that in Wisconsin every local division has con¬

tributed its share in the development of the harbors, all being

aided by the co-operation of the individual.

Illustrative of the working out of these principles it is of in¬

terest to study in detail the work of these various factors in

Wisconsin’s three oldest harbors, Kenosha,, Kacine and Mil¬

waukee.

Kenosha is situated fifty miles north of Chicago and thirty-

three miles south of Milwaukee. The first step to be taken

towards a harbor was Delegate Durkee’s special pre-emption bill

of 1837, which provided that the village lots should be sold by

the government at an appraised value, fixed by its officers and

that the proceeds, estimated at $30,000 should go to the harbor

fund. It seems that the land was still in the hands of the gov¬

ernment and this way was devised of providing homes for the

settlers and insuring their future. The bill, however, failed to

pass Congress. A survey was conducted by the government in

1840, but as there were several points, at which it was possible

to locate the piers, dissensions arose and no action followed, al¬

though the citizens by subscription raised funds to erect a light¬

house. Petitions and memorials, both for appropriations and

land grants continued to be poured in upon Congress and in 1844

$12,500 was authorized to be spent by that body. During the

latter forties city taxes and bonds were voted and in 1850 a

dredge purchased out of the funds of the municipal treas¬

ury. Government engineers during this period frequently ap¬

peared before the city council to discuss plans and the two

authorities: worked in entire harmony. Appropriations by the

city up to 1879 reached a total of $75,000, about half of which

was in the form of bonds. The government up to 1900 has ex-

Plumb — Early Harbor History of Wisconsin 193

pended nearly a half million dollars and the result is a twenty-

foot channel and a breakwater.

A more important harbor is to he found at Racine, twenty-

three miles south of Milwaukee. A survey was made here by

the government in 1837 but all efforts to secure an appropriation

failed until 1844, when $12,500 was allotted to it. Four years

prior to that, however, since legislative memorials and individ¬

ual petitions had proved unavailing, the city commenced work

on two piers and before 1844 had voted at a harbor meeting $10,-

000 in taxes and subscriptions and $25,000 in bonds. The

county extended aid also and an agent was sent to Washington

at a salary of four hundred dollars a year to solicit money. In¬

dividuals guaranteed the city loans in one instance, in expecta¬

tion of national assistance and the act of 1843 permitted city

harbor works to be sold to the general government. In fact such

a start had the local undertakings obtained that, when the gov¬

ernment did begin appropriating money, sarcasm was aimed at

it for playing the part of an assistant in connection with “a

little village.” By 1845 the harbor was so well advanced that

vessels could enter it, although the old bridge-piers were still

usdd long afterwards. In 185Q a prominent citizen, Philo

White, published a lengthy account of Lake Michigan improve¬

ments, in which he particularly recommended Racine for gov¬

ernment aid. A board of harbor commissioners, three in num¬

ber, were appointed six years later but their activity was inter¬

rupted by the Civil War. IJp to 1879 the locality had spent

about $60,000 while the government, which assumed full charge

of the work in 1866, has appropriated ten times that sum, re¬

cently completing a protection breakwater.

The metropolis of the state, Milwaukee, owes much of its past

and present importance to its harbor, whose situation, one hun¬

dred miles from the foot of the lake has given it. great advan¬

tages. As early as 1834 attention was called to its improve¬

ment and Captain Berrien made a survey and recommended

that the government take action. The same year also witnessed

the construction of a pier by the first resident, Solomon J uneau,

and the building of the first vessel, while a lighthouse, estab¬

lished in 1838, was the first government improvement. The

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

original plan of the United States engineers was to build a pier

at the mouth of the river, but. this conflicted with the views of

the citizens and thus interfered with harmonious co-operation

on their part. The first government appropriations: were ex¬

pended, according to its plans, at the mouth of the river while

the citv, on the other hand, in April 1844 voted a loan of $15,-

000 with which to dig a channel known as “the straight cut,”

thus avoiding the lower windings of the river. Private subscrip¬

tions for the same object were also received but the project was

not successfully begun until 1852. By that time the govern¬

ment had been convinced that the scheme: of the citizens was the

better and so abandoned its own work at the mouth of the river,

already proved worthless, and appropriated $15,000 to aid the

city’s plans. Until the latter was completed private piers were

the sole means of landing except for those little crafts that could

ascend the river at the old mouth. Since the government aid

was intermittent the city decided to complete the work itself and

having secured in the charter of 1846 power to raise harbor

taxes, whenever the citizens so voted, in all some $100,000 was

authorized. The cost of the work done in the succeeding years

was greater than this amount and the contractors were obliged

to bring suit for the balance. Litigation was prolonged for a

decade, coming before the Supreme Court of the state several

times, under the title Ilasbrouck vs. The City of Milwaukee

and was finally adjudicated in favor of the contractor in 1866.

Thus, the cost of the improvement was almost double what it

would have been otherwise, the total sum spent by the city for

the harbor being in the neighborhood of half a million dollars,

up to 1870. Efforts were repeatedly made to secure reimburse¬

ment from the: government for this sum but all failed of ac¬

complishment. The government resumed the work in earnest

after the Civil War and in 1881 began the construction of the

outer harbor of refuge, costing a million in itself. The com¬

mercial position of the Cream City is so largely due to its harbor

however that the expenditures, on the whole, enormous as they

have been, cannot be considered as excessive.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. 3

("Mi

MADISON, WISCONSIN

19 1 1

CONTENTS.

Structural abnormalities in Copopeda (with plate X),

C. Divighlt Marsh , 195

Braptomus Qoloradensis, sp. Nov. (with plate X), .

0. Dwight Marsh, 197

The Molluscan fauna of Tomahawk lake, ’Wisconsin

(with plates XI-XYI and one table),

Frank Collins Baker, 200

Marsh — Structural Abnormalities in Copepoda. 195

STRUCTURAL ABNORMALITIES IN COPEPODA.

C. Dwight Marsh.

With Plate X, figs. 1-6.

Abnormal or freak structures in the genera of Cyclops and

Diaptomus are remarkably rare. While there is great variabil¬

ity in the species of Cyclops , unusual structures seldom occur.

In Diaptomus, which shows hardly any variability within

species limits, freak organs are still more rare.

Yery few references to such structures are made in the cope-

pod literature.

Schauss,1 1908, p. 195, figures a shortened furcal ramus of

Cyclops vernalis Pischer, evidently a case of regeneration after

injury.

A similar case in Cyclops serrulatus Fischer is mentioned by

Vosseler2 in 1889.

Wolf,3 1905, pp. 203, and 204, discusses “Regenerationser-

scheinungen,” and mentions finding two specimens of Cyclops

serrulatus with one furcal ramus shortened. His case of regen¬

eration in the furcal setae of Cyclops fimbria tus seems rather one

of the instances of telescoping of portions of the setae which has

been discussed by Schmeil and others, and probably is not the

result of injury and regeneration.

Because of the -rarity of abnormal structures it seems best to

1 Beitrag zur Kenntnis der freilebenden Copepoden und Cladoceren

der Umgegend von Bonn. Yerhand. Naturhist. Ver. der preuss.

Rheinland nnd Westfalens. 64 Jahrg. pp. 163-218.

2 beber' einen Cyclops mit verkriippelter Furka. Archiv. fur Naturge-

schichte, 55, p. 123, Taf. VI, fig. 16.

3 Die Fortpflanzungsverhaltnisse unserer einheimischen Copepoden.

Zool. Jahrb. Abt. f. Syst. Bd. 22, pp. 101-280.

196 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

put on record a few that have been seen in the course of the

author’s systematic work on Copepoda.

Plate X, figure 1 is a seta on the endopodite of the fourth

foot of a specimen of Cyclops phaleratus Koch. It is evident

that the seta was injured and the lateral which has grown out

is the result of a regenerative process. Likewise plate X, fig¬

ure 2, may be explained as defective regeneration after an

injury; this is the second segment of the exopodite of the fourth

foot of Cyclops serrulatus Ficher. Normally there should be a

single spine on the external margin instead of two.

So, too, the abnormal terminal seta of Cyclops viridis var.

americanus Marsh in plate X, figure 3, can be explained as the

result of traumatism.

In plate X, figure 4, however, we have a real monstrosity.

This is the fifth foot of a specimen of Cyclops viridis Jur. col¬

lected in Pennsylvania. The second segment is normally armed

with a short spine and a single long seta. Here we have a spine

and two setae. This was not the result of injury and regenera¬

tion, for both fifth feet were of the same form. In all other re¬

spects the animal had the usual structure of Cyclops viridis . If

there were any question of hybridization, it seems probable that

other structures would have been affected.

Plate X, figure 5, is the second segment of the exopodite of

the right fifth foot of a male Diaptomus pallidus Herrick. Nor¬

mally the lateral spine is on the outside of the segment. In

this case it is on the inside. There is nothing to indicate that

this is the result of injury.

Plate X, figure 6, is the second segment of the exopodite of

the right fifth foot of a male Diaptomus sicilis Forbes. This

has two terminal hooks instead of one. This specimen was

from Green Lake, Wisconsin, and is the only one of the kind

that has been seen, although great numbers of this species have

been examined from many different localities.

Another unique abnormality was seen in a specimen of

Diaptomus minutus Lillj. found in Stone Lake, Wisconsin.

This was a female with nothing unusual about its structure ex¬

cept its antennae which were those of a male, the right one being

geniculated like the typical male antenna.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

MARSH: COPEPODA

Marsh — 'New Species of Diaptomus from Colorado. 197

ON A NEW SPECIES OF DIAPTOMUS FROM COLORADO.

C. Dwight Marsh.

DIAPTOMUS COLORADENSIS SP. NOV.

Plate X, figs. 7, 8 and 9.

Of medium size. The suture between the first and second

cephalothoracic segments is quite distinct, and these two, form¬

ing the first apparent segment, are together somewhat shorter

than the three following segments. The last cephalothoracic

segment is expanded into large lateral processes, each side being

armed with two small spines.

The first segment of the female abdomen (Plate X, fig. 8)

slightly exceeds in length the rest of the abdomen. It is broad,

dilated ventrally, and moderately dilated laterally. The lateral

processes bear large spines which are turned towards the pos¬

terior end of the animal. The second segment is shorter than

the third and the two together are considerably longer than the

furca. The f ureal rami are stout and ciliate on both the inner

and the outer margins. The antennae reach beyond the end of

the furca. The antepenultimate segment of the right male an¬

tenna is without any special appendage.

The fifth feet of the female (Plate X, fig. 9) are slender.

The spines of the first basal segments are large and prominent.

The lateral hairs of the second basal segments are of moderate

length. The first segment of the exopodite is more than twice

as long as wide. The second segment is long and slender, ex¬

ceeding in length the first segment. The hook is slightly curved

and denticulate on , the inner margin. It is armed with three

spines of which the inner is the longest. The two inner spines

represent the third segment. The endopodite is slender and

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

somewhat shorter than the first segment of the exopodite. It is

setose at the tip, and armed with two long terminal spines

which are inserted well back from the end of the endopodite.

In the male fifth foot, (Plate X, fig. 7) the spines of the first

basal segment are rather prominent and acute. The second

basal segment of the right foot is about twice as long as broad;

the lateral hair is situated a little beyond the middle of the seg¬

ment. The first segment of the exopodote is quadrate, slightly

longer than broad, and bears two curved hyaline processes, one,

which is quite prominent, on the inner distal angle, and the

other, much smaller, on the distal posterior edge. The second

segment is more than twice as long as broad, is nearly straight,

and is of about the same width throughout. The lateral spine

is small, curved, and situated distad of the middle. Hear the

inner margin on the posterior surface is a small spine reminding

one of the similar structure in the oregonensis group, although

less pronounced. The terminal hook is rather stout, slightly

curved, and, in length, exceeds, a little, the rest of the exopo¬

dite. It is finely denticulate on the inner margin. The right

endopodite nearly equals in length the first segment of the ex¬

opodite. It is somewhat variable in shape, but is ordinarily

rather broad and pointed at the tip. The end is armed with

minute setae. The left foot reaches to the end of the first seg¬

ment of the right exopodite. The second basal segment is as

long as wide. The inner margin is strongly convex, and near

this margin, about midway of the segment, is a small blunt

spine. The lateral hair is situated near the distal end of the

segment. The first segment of the left exopodite is longer than

wide, its length in some cases being more than twice its width.

The second segment is about two-thirds as long as the first, and

has upon its inner surface a convex setose pad. ; the segment is

terminated with two digitiform processes, of which the outer is

the longer. The endopodite is slender, one-segmented, more or

less pointed, and reaches to about the middle of the second seg¬

ment of the exopodite. The tip is distinctly setose.

Length of female 1.88 mm. Length of male 1.32 mm.

This has been found at Corona, Kremmling, Tolland, and

Mount Carbon, Colorado.

Marsh — Neiv Species of Diaptomus from Colorado. 199

This species is closely connected with Tyrelli and was at first

thought to be identical with it. The differences, however, are

constant and are of sufficient importance to justify a specific

separation. The principal points of difference are as follows:

In the female fifth foot, the spines of the first basal segments

are large instead of small as in Tyrelli. The endopodite is

shorter than the first segment of the exopodite, while in Tyrelli

it is longer. In the male fifth foot the distal margin of the first

segment of the right exopodite has two hyaline processes, the

one at the inner angle being quite large, while Tyrelli has one

inconspicuous process on the inner distal angle. The lateral

spine of the second segment of the right exopodite is rather

strongly curved instead of nearly straight as in Tyrelli , and the

blunt spine of the dorsal surface of this segment I have never

seen in Tyrelli. The right endopodite is nearly as long as the

first segment of the exopodite while in Tyrelli it is much

shorter. The left endopodite of the male fifth foot is much

stouter than in Tyrelli.

D. coloradensis is interesting as indicating a possibility of

bridging over between the oregonensis and tenuicaudatus groups.

In the Revision of the Rorth American Species of Diaptorrtm

the author stated*' that Tyrelli apparently was most closely re¬

lated to the tenuicaudatus group although not having any ap¬

pendage of the antepenultimate segment of the right male

antenna as in that group. The presence of the small blunt

spine on the dorsal surface of the second segment of the exopo-

dite of the male fifth foot in coloradensis is evidence of relation¬

ship to the oregonensis group. While, in the light of our

present knowledge we can only make a guess at the phylogeny

of Tyrelli and coloradensis it seems probable that they should

be classed with the oregonensis group.

* Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Letters, and Arts, XV, p. 396.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

THE MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF TOMAHAWK LAKE,

WISCONSIN.

>With Special Beference to its Ecology.

BY FRANK COLLINS BAKER.

Curator, The Chicago Academy of Sciences.

Of the states of the northern part of the Mississippi Valley,

the Wisconsin inollnscan fauna is the least known, although

that of Minnesota is known hut imperfectly. With this fact

in mind, the writer planned his summer vacation of 1908 so

that it included a three weeks’ visit to Tomahawk Lake, in

northeastern Wisconsin. But little systematic molluscan work

has been done in Wisconsin, that of Mr. Chadwick (’02) being

the most complete. Such work as that which Buthven (’06),

and Walker (’06, ’09) have accomplished in the study of the

Mollusca of Michigan is totally lacking.

The methods now in use for studying faunal areas are quite

different from those in vogue a decade or more ago, the time

honored annotated list being largely replaced by a discussion of

the environment factors under which the organisms live. This

ecological view point is of great value if properly interpreted,

and when a large number of accurate papers based on studies of

this kind have been published it will be possible to make many

generalizations concerning the laws which govern the changes

and formations of various habitats. The laws of succession are

very interesting and very important and the study of these

laws will help us not a little to understand the extinction of old

species and the appearance of new ones in certain localities.

TRANS. W1S. ACAD. VOL. XVI

PLATE XI

BAKER:

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. 201

An ecological study of the Mollusca entails not only a consider¬

ation of the mollusks themselves, but also of those animals and

plants intimately associated with them, and the ecological study

of any one group naturally includes, if exhaustively carried on,

a fairly complete discussion of the biota of the area under con¬

sideration. Time and means, however, did not permit of an ex¬

haustive study of the entire biota, and only a few animals, as

well as some typical plants, were collected and noted.

My thanks are due the following persons: Mrs. Frank C.

Baker, of Chicago ; Mrs. Harry L. Burke, of Kansas City ; Mr.

Don Blanchard, of Chicago, and Mr. Claude Sanders, of Toma¬

hawk Lake, for assistance in collecting; Mr. Bryant Walker,

of Detroit, Michigan, and Dr. Y. Sterki, of New Philadelphia1,

Ohio, for assistance in the determination of certain mollusks.

GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY.

Tomahawk Lake (plate XI) is situated on the line between

Oneida and Villas counties. The drainage is into the Little

Tomahawk River via Lake Kawaguesaga, a tributary of the

Wisconsin River; the waters of this region, hence, belong to the

Mississippi River drainage area. Tomahawk Lake is one of

the numberous chains of lakes which dot this portion of the

United States. It has been well said that no single area in the

world includes so many lakes as does the country bordering the

line between Canada and the United States, and Wisconsin may

almost be said to lead in the number of its lakes, large and small.

The lake under discussion is situated in the area covered by

the late Wisconsin ice sheet and the multitude of ponds and

lakes is due to the agency of this huge glacier. The lake is over

four miles long and about two miles wide at its widest point;

its many hays and coves give it a shore line of over eighty miles.

It occupies a depression of some thirty to about one hundred

feet below the surrounding country, the banks in many places

rising quite abruptly. The country surrounding the lake was

originally covered with a heavy coniferous forest, hut all that

now remains is the area on the south side which has been set

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

aside as a state forest reservation. The lumbered portions to

the north, east and west, are now covered with a second growth

of deciduous woods, such as oak, maple and birch. (Fig. 1.)

Some years ago, a dam was constructed in an arm of Lake

Kawaguesaga, west of the town of Minocqua, which raised the

level of this lake and Tomahawk Lake three to four feet. This

dam was built for the purpose of giving uniform flow to the

Tomahawk Liver, and also to the Wisconsin Liver, for the

transportation of lumber rafts. The result of raising the lake

has been to submerge many low, flat tracts and convert them

into swamps. One looks aghast at the wholesale manner in

which fine trees have been killed by the rising of the water level,

and the question it at once suggested as to why these trees were

not cut and used before the dam was built; any competent en¬

gineer could have easily indicated the lands which would be

submerged, and many thousands of feet of fine lumber might

have been saved. These noble trees now stand in the shallow

water, veritable skeletons whose bleached and outstretched arms

proclaim man’s short-sighted and wasteful use of nature’s

bountiful gifts.

The rising of the water and the consequent flooding of all

points and low areas about the lake has produced a number of

interesting habitats, besides providing several typical examples

of molluscan succession. The time at the writer’s disposal was

too short to make a survey of the many lakes in the vicinity,

large and small, or even to make more than a cursory reconnois-

ance of the western part of Tomahawk Lake. The large lake

north of the thoroughfare, Lake Kawaguesaga, was not stud¬

ied, although a comparison between this lake and Tomahawk

Lake would doubtless produce some interesting results.

One day was spent in a study of the Wisconsin Liver at a

point about four miles northeast of Tomahawk Lake. The

river was high and swift and little work could be done on the

Unionidse. Gilmore Creek, a small tributary of the Wisconsin

Liver, however, produced some interesting naiads. It is to be

regretted that time was not available for a detailed examination

of some of the larger lakes in the vicinity, which would doubt-

TRANS. WIS. ACAD, VOL. XVII

PLATE XII

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

FIGURE 2

'

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 203

less reveal many interesting species not hitherto reported from

Wisconsin.

Headquarters were established at Sanders’ Resort on the north

shore of the eastern arm of the lake and from this base all field

operations were conducted. The Wisconsin River stations are

mostly on land owned by Mr. Charles Sanders.

DISCUSSION OF BIOTA BY STATIONS

Station I. (Figure 2.)

Well-wooded area on high bluff above Sanders’ Resort. The

timber is second growth, following the cutting of the original

coniferous forest, and consists principally of birch, maple, pop¬

lar and oak. The ground beneath this forest growth is thickly

covered with rotting logs and bark, dead leaves and a thick carpet

of vegetable mold. The hill slopes at a sharp angle, providing

excellent drainage. Although there had been a prolonged

drought the ground was moist under the leaves and large logs,

showing that a well wooded tract of country holds the moisture,

allowing it to seep through the soil and provide more or less per¬

manent springs. These incipient forests were always dark and

damp. .

The small mollusks, as well as a number of beetles, were very

abundant in this section, hiding under started bark, in crevices^,

under rotting logs and in any other place of concealment.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Zonitoides arboreus, very common.

Euconulus fulv-uSj rare.

Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis, commcn.

Pyramidida aliernata , rare.

Helicodiscus parallelus , common.

Polygyra albolahris, very rare.

Strohilops virgo, common.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Station II. (Figure 3.)

Substation I.

A small bay, or bayou, west of Sanders’ Kesort. The water

is from a foot to five or six feet in depth, and is filled with logs,

which have been brought for use in Sanders’ saw mill. Mollusks

are abundant on the logs or in the shallow water near the shore.

MOLLTJSCA COLLECTED.

Lymncea emarginata wisconsinensis.

Planorbis binneyi.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Campeloma decisum.

Substation 2.

The swampy shores of substation I, caused by the raising of

the water level of the lake. The water is shallow (a few inches

to a foot in depth), the bottom is composed of soft, sticky mud

of clayey character and is filled with algae. Hear the shore

there is an area of Typha latifolia , which extends westward for

a considerable distance. Above the Typha society there is the

same second growth of forest as that mentioned under StationL

MOLLTJSCA COLLECTED.

Lymncea columella.

Lymncea lanceata.

Lymncea obrussa.

Planorbis hirsuties.

Segmentina armigera.

Succinea retusa.

Musculium securis.

Pisidium abditum .

Trans, wis. Acad. vol. xvii

^lAte kill

FIGURE 3

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

FIGURE 4

Banker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. 205

Station III. (Figure 4.)

Exposed north shore of Tomahawk Lake, near Sanders’ Re¬

sort. The bottom is sandy and gradually deepens to ten or fif¬

teen feet when it becomes very deep, at one place being reported

as dropping suddenly to a depth of sixty feet. It is very shal¬

low for a distance of fifteen or twenty feet, and especially so on

a long point extending southeasterly into the lake for a distance

of some thirty feet the water being scarcely a foot deep on the

bar but falling suddenly to sixty feet just off the end of the

point.

The sandy shore, thought in a most exposed situation, and

subject to heavy surf action during northwesterly storms forms

a well tenanted habitat for Lymncea emarginata , Campeloma de-

cisum, Planorbis bicarinatus striatus and Physa ancillaria war -

reniama. In the deep water many naiads abound. During

heavy wind or storms the water is thrown over the ridge of sand

forming the beach and collects in little pools which are inhab¬

ited by Lymncea and Physa, with an occasional Campeloma

washed in by the waves. These small pools were also good

habitats for the Leopard Frog (Rama pipiens).

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

In Deep Water.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginaia.

Lampsilis luteola.

In Shallow Water.

Sphcerium simile.

Amnicola cincinnatiensis.

Campeloma decisum.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis campamdatus.

Planorbis campanulatus ruderitis.

Lymncea emarginata wisconsinensis.

Of the above, Amnicola was represented only by dead shells,

washed from some other habitat.

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Station TV. (Figure 5.)

Substation 1.

South shore of Tomahawk Lake near Quynock Point, oppo¬

site Sanders’ Resort. A small embayment affords a typical hab¬

itat for several mollusks. The bottom is of firm sand; the

water near the shore is from ten to twenty inches in depth, rap¬

idly deepening to ten, fifteen, twenty or more feet toward the

lake. Lymncea emarginata wisconsinensis is plentifully scat¬

tered over the sandy bottom, Lymncea stagnalis lillianw and

Planorbis binneyi are abundant on the sandy bottom and on

floating logs, and several species of naiads live in five to ten feet

of water. Evidences of the muskrats’ presence were seen in the

shape of little piles of dead shells along the shore.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

In Deep Water.

Lampsilis luteola.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginata.

In Shallow Water.

Lymncea stagn'alis lilliance.

Lymrtwa emarginata wisconsinensis.

Planorbis binneyi.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Substation 2.

The shore of Substation 1 is swampy with a heavy growth of

Typha latifolia and back of this plant society the ground rises

and is heavily wooded with a coniferous forest. Planorbis and

Lymnwa occur in fair number in this habitat, which is in great

contrast with that of Substation 1.

TftANS. WlS. ACAD. VOL. XVl !

plateSxiv

FIGURE 5

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

FIGURE 7

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 207

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Planorhis trivolvis.

Lymnoea lanceata.

Station V.

A large bay south of Quynock Point, formed by the raising of

the level of the lake. A heavy sand bar, formed by wave action,

encloses the bay. The water on the bar is from a foot to eigh¬

teen inches in depth; in the bay it increases to four and five

feet and outside of the bar on the lake side, it deepens rapidly.

The entrance to the bay is further closed by a large number of

logs which form a tangled mass on the sand bar. The rising of

the water has killed all of the trees formerly occupying the low

area and the trunks of these dead trees stand in the water.

The enclosed bay affords an excellent' habitat for a plant so¬

ciety consisting of pondweed (Potamogeton) , white pond lily

(Castalia odorata) and yellow pond lily (Nymphoea advena).

Near the shore a Typha latifolia society is developing. Back

of the shore the land rises abruptly and is thickly wooded, birch,

spruce, pine and hemlock being the predominating trees.

The pond-lily society affords a habitat for Planorhis ibinneyi,

Physa ancillaria, Lymnoea lanoeata, Amnicola cincirmatiensis

and Ancylus parallelus. The under side of the lily leaf is

usually chosen as a resting place, and is doubtless used as a feed¬

ing ground also. Musculium securis and Planorhis are plentiful

in algse, the bay being filed with this plant near the shore. The

logs are tenanted by Planorhis hinneyi, Physa ancillaria war-

reniana and Lymnoea lanceata.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Musculium securis.

Planorhis hirsutus.

Planorhis himieyi.

Lymnoea lanceata.

Ancylus parallelus.

Physa ancillaria warreniana. {

Amnicola cincinnatiensis.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Station VI.

k ' ; .

Sand Bar and Exposed Lake Shore Worth of Station V.

This habitat is occupied principally by Lymnoea emar¬

ginata wisconsinensis which thickly covers the sand and the rocks-'

of the shore.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Lymnoea emarginata wisconsinensis.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Station VII. (Figure 6.)

Exposed shore north side of lake, three miles west of Sanders9'

Resort (old logging camp Wo. 7). The beach is sandy, shallow

and slopes gradually into deep water. The land back of the

beach is elevated three feet or more above the beach and forms a

flat plain for a considerable distance. Several species of mol-

lusks live on this exposed beach, their dead shells with other

debris forming a distinct line at high water mark. Lymnoea

emarginata wisconsinensis is here the most abundant molluskr

and its shell shows all degrees of variation between elongated

and globose. Lymnoea stagnalis lilliance also shows much var¬

iation in the form of the shell. Amnicola consisted only of

dead, bleached shells which had doubtless been washed from a

nearby habitat.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Campeloma decisum (living and dead).

Amnicola cincinnatiensis (dead).

Physa ancillaria warreniana (dead).

Planorbis campanulatus (living and dead).

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis (living and dead).

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus (living and dead).

Lymnoea stagnalis lilliance (living and dead).

Lymncea emarginata wisconsinensis (living and dead)

Baker— M o lluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake* , Wisconsin, 209

Station VIII.

Point of land opposite (west of) Quynock Point. The beach

is shallow and sandy ; it is exposed to the full force of the waves

on the north and west side, but on the south and southwest side

it is more or less protected, and in this situation the majority

of the mollusks live. A few hardy individuals of Lymnwa

emarginata wisconsinensis brave the roughness of the west side.

MOLLTJSCA COLLECTED.

Lymnwa emarginata wisconsinensis.

Planorhis bicarinatus striatus.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Campeloma decisum.

Station IX.

Protected bay-like area on east side of long point opposite

Quynock Point. The water is shallow (5 to 18 inches in depth)

and the botton is sandy. Back of this is a swampy area. Sev¬

eral species of Lymnwa , Planorhis and Physa inhabit the sandy

beach in shallow water. A few individuals prefer the logs

which are scattered about.

MOLLTJSCA COLLECTED.

Lymnwa stagnalis lillianw.

Lymnwa lanceata.

Planorhis hinneyi.

Planorhis campanulatus.

Planorhis campanulatus rudentis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Station X.

Eagle Bay, a small enclosed bay on the south side of Toma¬

hawk Lake, about three-quarters of a mile long and less than a

quarter of a mile wide. The shores are sandy and rapidly fall

away into deep water. On the sandy shores several mollusks

live in considerable number.

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

MOLLUSKS COLLECTED.

Lymncea stagnalis lilliance.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Anodonta marginata.

Lampsilis lubeola.

Station XI.

The southern end of Eagle Bay is very swampy, a condition

due in large measure to the rising of the lake. The swamp is

bordered by a Typha latifolia society. The water is shallow and

is filled with floating logs, while stumps and trunks of dead trees

are standing in profusion. The bottom is of carbonaceous mud

and the open spaces are ocupied by a plant society consisting

of Castalia odorata and Nymphoea advena. The pondweed

( Potamageton ) is also present. Lymncea columella lives on the

under side of pond-lily leaves while Lymncea lanceata prefers

the sandy, or muddy, shore in shallow water.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Lymncea columella.

Lymncea lanceata.

Station XII.

An island, situated at the mouth of Eagle Bay. The shores

are sandy and the water quite shallow. On the southeastern

side of the island, where there is protection from the westerly

storms, considerable driftwood has collected, which is inhabited

by several mollusks.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XV

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 9

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 211

Station XIII. (Figures 7, 8, 9.)

Swamp at head of thoroughfare between Tomahawk and Lit¬

tle Tomahawk Lake. The swamp is of large size (Figure 7) ex¬

tending in a westerly direction well into the wooded portion of

the country. A deep creek meanders through the swamp, but

outside of this the water is very shallow in many places, scarcely

covering the boggy bottom, which in places extends above the

water, forming miniature islands of soft, starchy consistency.

The deep water of the thoroughfare is inhabited by a pond-

lily society consisting of Castalia odoraia, Nymphcea advena

and Potamogeton natans. The swampy portion is thickly cov¬

ered with a Typha latifolia society with a few Scirpus lacustris.

The shores rise abruptly from the swamp and are thickly cloth¬

ed with a spruce, hemlock, cedar and birch forest. As in all of

the bays of Tomahawk Lake, this swamp is filled, near the shore,

with the dead trunks of trees killed by the rising of the water.

This station was one of the best for molluscan life, the eight

species tabulated, living here in large numbers.

Substation 1.

Shore1, Floating Logs or Boggy Islands Hear the Shore.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymnoea lanceata.

Lymncea megasoma.

Lymncea stagnalis appressa.

Bulimnea megasoma was found on the boggy islands and on

logs near the shore, one or two specimens only being seen in one

place, the species not being gregarious, apparently.

Substation 2.

C astalia-N ymphoea Plant Society.

Amnicola cincirmatiensis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Lymncea columella.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Station XIV.

Creek at east end of Lake, near town of Tomahawk Lake.

The creek is on the south side and extends well into the shore

where a wide area of swamp has been formed by the rising of

the water level. The creek is quite deep, but the swamp is bare¬

ly covered with water in many places, though spots occur where

the water is several feet deep; the bottom is covered with soft

mud. A Castalia odorata and Nymphwa advena society occu¬

pies the creek while a heavy Typha latifolia society with Ponte -

deria cordata occupies the swampy portion

Substation I.

The following mollusks were common on the under side of

the lily pads :

Lymnwa columella.

Ancylus parallelus.

Physa ancillaria warreniana (young).

Planorbis parvus.

Amnicola cincinnatiensis.

Substation 2.

On logs and on the shore in the shallow water of the flooded

area, where the habitat is protected from the rough water of the

mouth of the creek.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Lymnwa lancelata.

Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus.

Planorbis trivolvis.

Substation 3..

Entrance to creek, which is deep, the shores sandy and the

water shallow for some ten or twelve feet where it becomes quite

deep. The snails were observed on sticks and logs and on the

sandy bottom. The naiads were plentiful on the sandy beach in

water from ten to thirty inches in depth.

Trans, wis. acad. vol. xvii

plate xvi

figure io

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

FIGURE 11

Baker — Malluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Luke, Wisconsin . 218

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginata.

Planorbis binneyi.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Lymnoea stagnalis lilliance.

Station XV. (Figure 10.)

Swampy pond at Sanders’ “minnow-box,” north side of lake,,

near Sanders’ .Resort. This station has been artificially pro¬

duced by damming a little creek which flows from a small lake

north of the Northwestern Railroad embankment. This barrier

has caused the formantion of a shallow, stagnant pond, from, six

inches to about four feet in depth. The bottom is now very

muddy, although originally hard and firm, showing the rapid

decay and acumulation of plant humus. The water is thickly

filled with Chara and the surface with Spirogyra. A large

amount of duckweed ( Spirodela ) is scattered over the surface,

as well as a species of Lemna. The trees surrounding this pond

are nearly all second growth and embrace birch, oak, elm and

poplar. The photograph shows a number of dead bushes, killed

by the rising of the water.

Mollusks were common either swimming near the surface or

crawling over the bottom. The vegetation on the surface of the

pond was so thick that it was necessary to clear a patch of water

before the mollusks could be seen. Planorbis was more fre¬

quently seen on the bottom, while Lymnasa seemed to prefer

sticks or old logs in the water, or the vegetation. Physa was

observed on the bottom or on logs, while Musculium was found

only in the vegetation. Segmentina was seen only on logs and

sticks.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Lymncea lanceata.

Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus.

Planorbis trivolvis.

Segmentina armigera.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Musculium securis.

Station XVI.

Bass Lake one mile north of Sanders’ Resort. A small lake,

with soft, mucky bottom, occupying a deep Hollow or kettle hole.

A stream flows from the lake into the artificial pond at Sta¬

tion XV. The only mollusk observed was Physa ancillaria

warreniania.

Station XVII.

Small pools in swales (kettle holes) west of Sanders’ Resort.

The whole country is rolling, and every depression contains a

small pond or swampy pool. The ground is very marshy, the

vegetation consisting of Iris and Typha , besides a kind of swamp

grass. The plants in this vicinity were literally swarming with

aphids. Pisidium was the principal mollusk observed, though

a few Ancylus and Planorbis were secured from the surface of

sticks.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Ancylus parallelus.

Planorbis parvus.

Pisidium abditum.

Pisidium roperi.

Musculium rosaceum .

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVll

PLATE XVll

FIGURE 12

FIGURE 13

BAKER: MOLLUSCAN FAUNA

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin . 21fi

Station XVIII. (Figures 11, 12.)

Woods on Quynoqk Point. This piece of woodland is a part

of the Wisconsin forest reservation and is nearly all virgin for¬

est, with the vast accumulation of debris characteristic of such

a region. Among the forest trees are white pine, spruce, hem¬

lock, white cedar, birch and poplar. The curious ground pine

(Lycopodium ohscurum) is also common. The ground is cov¬

ered with moss and the trees with lichens. Rotten logs are scat¬

tered over the ground in endless profusion affording excellent

concealment for the smaller helices. Curiously enough, no

shells were found in birch logs, but were plentiful in pine and

poplar logs. Mollusks were numerous in individuals but few

in species.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Zonitoides arbor eus.

Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis.

Stro bilops virgo.

Station XIX. (Figure 13.)

Virgin woods near logging camp Xo. 7, known locally as the

cyclone woods. The character of this habitat is the same as that

of the Quynock Point station. The trees are also the same, with

the addition of oak, maple and balsam fir.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Zonitoides arboreus.

Strobilops virgo.

Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis.

Helicodiscus parallelus.

Station XX.

Wisconsin River, four miles northeast of Sanders’ Resort.

The river meanders here considerably, the curves being long and

sweeping. The river bottom is sandy mud. The flood plain

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

varies in extent from a few feet to a quarter of a mile in width,

in the latter case a marsh being formed. The banks of the river

are lined with heavy thickets with here and there a forest growth

of maple, birch, etc., extending to the water. Several species

of swamp grass occupy the flood plain, and Iris and Typha

societies are scattered over the area, in the vicinity of pools.

The river has a very swift current, forming an ideal environ¬

ment for naiads, a number of species of which live in this hab¬

itat. The larger and heavier mussels live in deep water, but

Lampsilis luteola , together with Sphcerium and Campeloma,

seem to prefer the shallows near the shore. Campeloma was

also plentifully distributed over the surface of floating logs.

Lymncea humilis modicella was observed to cover the exposed

mud flats along the edge of the water.

Station I.

Deep Water of Wisconsin River.

Lampsilis ligamentina.

Lampsilis recta.

Lampsilis ventricosa.

Quadrula undulata.

Substation 2.

Shallow Water Along Shore of River.

Lampsilis luteola.

Sphcerium striatinum.

Pisidium virginicum.

Campeloma decisum .

Substation 3.

Muddy Flats Above High Water.

Lymncea humilis modicella.

Succinea retusa.

Baker— Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 217

Station XXI.

Swampy tracts along margin of river, separated from the lat¬

ter by a high ridge. These depressions vary in extent from a

few feet to several hundred feet in diameter, and also vary in

depth. The vegetation consists of swamp grass, Iris and Typha .

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Sphcerium occidentale.

Musculium partumeium.

Pisidium subrotundum.

Physa gyrina.

Aplexa hypnorum.

Planorbis hirsutus.

Segmentina armigera.

Vitrea hammonis.

It is noteworthy that the mollusk fauna of this station is sim¬

ilar to that noted in some of the summer dry ponds of the

Skokie Marsh area in Illinois.

Station XXII.

Gilmore Creek, a small tributary of the Wisconsin River,

emptying into the latter four miles northeast of Sanders’ Resort.

The water is shallow, from a few inches to two or three feet in

depth, and the bottom consists of clean, firm sand. The current

is swift and the water clear. Xaiads are abundant buried in

the sand in company with Campeloma. Muskrat heaps are a

common sight, showing that this animal resorts frequently to

this region for its food supply. The preponderance of pelecy-

pods at this station is notable.

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

MOLLUSCA COLLECTED.

Lampsilis luti&ola.

Lampsilis ventricosa.

Lampsilis ligamentina.

Strophitus edentulus.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginata.

Anodonta implicata.

Symphynota costata.

Symphynota comprcssa.

Campeloma decisum.

Station XXIII.

Mucky slough iu marsh near mouth of Gilmore Creek. The

Water is shallow (eight inches to a foot or more) and the muddy

bottom, which is composed of soft, impalpable, black mud formed

from vegetable decomposition, is from two to six feet in depth.

The pool is bordered by Iris , Typha and swamp grass and is

partly filled with old logs.

This slough is the best habitat for Bulimnea megasoma which

has come under the writer’s observation, the specimens being

numerous as well as large and of fine color. The individuals

were observed attached to logs and other floating debris, as well

as on the soft mucky bottom. Plarvorbis birineyi and Bulimnea

were the only mollusks present.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 219

COMPARISON OP THE FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCAN

LIFE OF THE DIFFERENT STATIONS.

(See Table.)

The twenty-three stations and twelve substations previously

considered contain a variety of molluscan life. Upon analyz¬

ing this life, a division is at once apparent, based on the kind of

habitat. This analysis is tabulated below.

Species living on sandy shore subject more or less to rough

water.

Lampsilis luteola.

Anodonta marginata.

Anckdonta grandis footiana.

Sphcerium simile .

Campeloma decimm.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymnoea stagnalis lilliance.

Lymnoea stagnalis wisconsinensis.

Species living in enclosed or sheltered bays which are con¬

nected with the open lake and in which the water never becomes

stagnant.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginata.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymnoea stagnalis lUliance.

Lymnoea lanceata.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Species living on Castalia-Nymphoea society is dear water of

creek or in enclosed bay.

Amnicola cincinnatiensis.

PJiysa ancillaria warreniana.

Ancylus parallclus.

Planorbis parvus.

Planorbis hirsutus.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentisf

Lymnoea columella.

Species living in swampy ponds or in Typha plant societies

where the water is more or less stagnant.

Sphcerium occidentale.

Musculium partumeium.

Musculium securis.

Pisidium subrotundum.

Pisidium abditum.

Physa gynna.

Aplexa hypnorum .

Ancylus parallelus.

Segmentina armigera.

Planorbis hirsutus.

Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus .

Planorbis trivolvis.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymncea stagnalis appressa.

Lymnoea columella.

Lymncea megasoma.

Lymncea lanceata.

Lymncea obrussa.

Species living in swales.

Musculium rosaceum.

Pisidium abditum.

Pisidium roperi.

Ancylus parallelus.

Planorbis parvus.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 221

Species living in river with swift current.

Lampsilis ventricosa.

Lampsilis luteola.

Lampsilis ligamentina.

Lampsilis recta.

Quadrula undulata.

Bphcerium striatinum.

Pisidium virginicum.

Campeloma decisum.

Species living in creek with sandy bottom and clear, cold

water; current swift.

Lampsilis ventricosa.

Lampsilis luteola.

Lampsilis ligamentina.

Strophitus edentulus.

Anodonta marginata.

Anodonta implicata.

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Symphynota costata.

Symphynota compressa.

Campeloma decisum.

These tables may be further analyzed as follows :

Peculiar

Total to this

number, habitat.

1. Open shore . . 12 4

2. Enclosed or sheltered bays . . 9

3. Castalia — Nymphaea society . 8

4. Swampy ponds . 18 15

5. Swales' . 5 2

6. Swift current of river . 7 4

7. Swift current of creek . 10 4

It will be seen that number four (swampy ponds) produces

the greatest number of species (18) as well as the greatest num¬

ber of peculiar forms (15). The open shore produces twelve

species with but four peculiar. A number of species also live

in several of the habitats.

Anodonta marginata in 1, 2, 7.

Anodonta grandis footiana in 1, 2, 7.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Lampsilis luteola in 1, 6, 7.

Lampsilis ventricosa in 6, 7.

Lampsilis ligamentina in 6, 7.

Campeloma decisum in 1, 6, 7.

Physa ancillaria warreniana in 1, 2, 3.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis in 1, 2, 3.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus in 1, 2.

Planorbis binneyi in 1 2, 4.

Planorbis parvus in 3, 5.

Ancylus parallelus in 3, 4, 5.

Lymnoea stagnalis lillianoe in 1, 2.

Ijymncea lanceata in 2, 4.

Lymnoea columella in 3, 4.

The largest number of species was produced by Stations III

and XXII, each having ten. These stations are respectively

the open shore and the cold, clear creek. 6, 7 and 8 species were

common in several stations. It is of interest to note that though

fifty-three species were secured from the entire area, yet the

largest number of species from any one area was ten, a few pro¬

duced six and seven, and while the majority were less than five,

the average for the twenty-three stations was about six. This

low average is indicative of a wide range of habitat variation, a

condition which has already been seen to exist in this area.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. 223

MOLLUSC AN SUCCESSION.

Tomahawk Lake presents a unique example of molluscan

succession, a condition due to the raising of the water for storage

purposes. So markedly has this change of level altered the

shore in many places that a complete revolution has taken place

in the biota. Originally, the lake was encircled by sandy shores

with hut few swampy areas. The elevation of the lake level has

changed this condition in many places, and at the present time

swamps are abundant along the shore. All of the low flats have

been submerged, the points extending under water for a con¬

siderable distance as sandy beaches and the low flats forming

swamps or bays, the dead trees standing in three or four feet

of water.

Succession here has been in reverse order from that usually

seen, i. e., the encroaching of one plant and animal society upon

another, causing in the case of a pond, its gradual filling up and

destruction. It has here been a change from dry land to

swamps. However, it will be studied from the usual point and

its artificial origin will be ignored in the present discussion.

Stations V, XI and XIV, are the best examples of succession.

Primal Condition, the Open Lake Shore.

(Figures 4, 5.)

In this primal stage, the shore is bordered by a shelving, shal¬

low, sandy beach, which is subject to wave action to. a greater

or less degree. Such mollusks as the following occupy this hab¬

itat :

Lampsilis luteola.

Anodonta marginaia.

Anodonia grandis footiema.

Sphcerium simile.

Compeloma decisum, ■.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymncea stagnalis lilliance.

Lymnoea emarginata wisc'onsinensis.

Enclosed Bay Succession.

(Figure 9.)

The rise of the w^ter overflows the lower portions of the

shore, producing enclosed hays, which soon become filled with

such plants as pondweed ( Potamogeton ), white pond-lily ( Gas-

talia odorata) and yellow pond-lily (Nymphcea advena). The

mollusks of such a habitat are :

Anodonta grandis footiana.

Anodonta marginata.

A mnicola cincinn atiensis.

Physa ancillaria warreniana.

Ancylus parallelus.

Planorbis hirsutus.

Planorbis campanulatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis .

Planorbis bicarinatus striatus.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymacea stagnalis lilliance.

Lymncea columella.

Lymncea lanceata.

It will be noted that four species (Lampsilis, Sphoerium

Campelama and Lymnoea emarginata wisconsinensis) have dis¬

appeared, while five species ( Amnicola , Ancylus, Planorbis hir¬

sutus, Lymncea columella and Lymnaea lanceata) have been

added. This change of species well illustrates the influence of

a changing environment.

Baker- — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 225

Swamp Succession. (Figure 3).

The water rises still higher and overflows meadow-like areas

producing large open swamps (as at station XIII) or, small-

ponded areas. The water is shallow, the bottom is usually

muddy or boggy and the vegetation consists chiefly of Typha

latifolia and several species of sedge. A considerable change is

noted in the character of the mollusks.

Musculium securis.

Pisidium abditum.

Pisidium subrotundum.

Ancylus parallelus.

Segmentina armigera.

Planorbis hirsutus.

Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus.

Pla/norbis trivolvis.

Planorbis binneyi.

Lymncea stagnalis appressa.

Lymncea megasoma.

Lymncea lanceata.

Succinea retusa.

It will be noted that the Pelecypods are represented only by

the small Musculium and Pisidium and the Gastropods all be¬

long to the fresh-water Pulmonates (excepting Succinea.)

Only four species are the same as those in the previous succes¬

sion ( Ancylus , Planorbis hirsutus , Planorbis binneyi, Lym¬

ncea lanceata), nine species or about 66 per cent, being new to

the environment. Only one species, Planorbis binneyi, persists

throughout the last three successions.

Swale Succession.

Should the level of the water fall a foot or more, a fourth

succession would develop in certain places, in which small

swampy pools or swales would be developed. Such a habitat

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

would contain (as several stations in tins area have been found

to).

Musculium rosaceum.

Pisidium roperi.

Ancylus parallelus.

Planorbis parvus .

The fresh-water species have here been reduced to five species.

Land Shell Succession.

Figure 13.

Should this area become dry it would soon be covered with

such trees as birch, white spruce, tamarack, etc., and the follow¬

ing land mollusks would completely replace the fresh-water pul-

monates.

Helicodiscus parallelus.

Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis.

Zonitoides arboreus.

Vitrea hammonis.

Strobilops virgo.

Though not observed continuously in one place, the above five

successions have been seen within a radius of one mile ; the first

three, however, have occurred in one small area, during the few

years which have passed since the water was raised.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin . 227

TAXONOMY.

An analysis of the fifty-three species of mollusks recorded

in the systematic catalog reveals several interesting facts.

It is at once seen that the Gastropods (32) exceed the Pele-

cypods (21) almost three to two. The Gastropods divide

naturally into three groups as follows :

Prosobranchiates . 2

Land pulmonates . 9

Presh-water pulmonates . 21

The large preponderance of the fresh-water pulmonates is

noteworthy. A large portion of this excess is divided be-

tween Planorbis and Lymna, each with seven and eight spe¬

cies* respectively. This is to be expected, however, as these

genera are typically northern in distribution, the number of

species increasing largely in the boreal zone. Of the naiads,

the Wisconsin River and its tributaries produced nine species

while the lake produced but three, which is in accord with the

well known fact that this family is typically an inhabitant of

rivers.

The mollusk fauna of this region includes two elements;

first, the species which are widely distributed throughout the

greater portion of North America, and, second, those species

which are purely boreal in distribution. These two elements

may be compared in the subjoined tables.

Widely Distributed Species.

Lampsilis luteola.

Anodonta marginata.

implicata.

grandis footiana.

Symphynota costata.

compressa.

ventricosa.

ligamentina.

recta.

Strophitus edentulus.

In this analysis varieties are treated as species for convenience.

2 28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Quadrula undulata.

Sphwrium simile,

striatinum.

occideniah.

Musculium partumeium.

securis.

rosaceum.

Pisidium abditum.

roperi.

virginicum.

subrotundum

Campeloma decisum.

Amnicola cincinnatiensis.

Physa gyrina.

Aplexa hypnorum.

Ancylus parallelus.

Segementia armigera.

Planorbis parvus,

hirsutus.

trivolvis.

bicarinatus unicariatus.

bicarinatus striatus.

campanulatus.

Lymnoea stagnalis appressa.

calum&lla.

humilis modicella.

obrussa.

Succinea retusa.

Strobilops virgo.

Helicodiscus parallelus.

Pyramidula alternata.

Vitrea hammonis.

Euconulus fulvus.

Zonitoides arboreus.

Polygyra albolabris.

Boeeal Species.

Planorbis campanulatus ruderitis.

Planorbis binneyi.

Physa ancillarba warreniana.

Lymnwa stagnalis lilliance.

Lymnoea megasoma.

Lymmcea lanceata.

Lymnoea emarginata luisconsinensis.

Pyamidula cronkhitei catskillensis.

The very great preponderance of the widely distributed

(45) over the boreal (8) species is brought out strikingly in the

tables. The land shells secured from this region are of no

special interest, being of general distribution throughout a large

portion of the United States and Canada. The same may be

said of the Pelecypods.

Among the fresh-water pulmonates, however, there are sev¬

eral species of unusual interest. Two new forms of Lymnsea

Baker — MoUuscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 229/

were discovered, besides a recently described variety of Plan-

orbis not before recorded from the state. Comparing the catalog

with Chadwick’s published list, it is found that a number of

species have not been previously recorded from the state. These

additions (13) to the Wisconsin fauna are as follows:

Strobilops virgo.

Lymncea stagnalis lilliance.

Lymncea lanceata.

Lymncea emarginaia ivisconsinensis1 .

Planorbis binneyi2.

Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus.

Planorbis campanulatus rudentis.

Anodonta marginata.

Musculium securis.

Musculium rosaceum.

Pisidium abditum.

Pisidium roperi.

Pisidium subrotundum.

i Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., IV, pp. 67-99.

1 The species reported on p. 80 of Chadwick’s list as decollata is,

emarginata angulata Sowb.

2 No. 51a of Chadwick’s list is this species.

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

SYSTEMATIC CATALOG OF SPECIES.

(See Table.)

Class PELECYPODA.

ORDER PRIOX ODESMACE A.

Superfamily Xaiadacea.

Family Unioiidae.

Genus Lampsilis Rafinesque.

1. Lampsilis ventricosa (Barnes).

Station XX1, XXII. Apparently not common as only

three specimens were found.

2. Lamp&iis luteola (Lamarck).

Stations III, IV1, X, XX2, XXII. The ' luteolas in¬

habiting Tomahawk Lake and vicinity are apparently close¬

ly related to Marsh’s superior ensis, which is undoubtedly

a variety or race of luteola 1. Some specimens answer well

to the original description and figures. The shape of the

shell, however, is rather of the luteola type than of the

superiorensis type. The specimens are all small (60 to 70

mill.) and vary from unicolored to distinctly rayed. The

surface varies from smooth and shining to rough and

scabrous. The hinge teeth are thin, especially the cardinal

teeth, which are rather weak. All of the stations in which

this species was found were of the rough water type.

3. Lampsilis ligamentina (Lamarck).

Station XX1, XXII. Specimens of this species from

the Wisconsin River are quite normal, though small, and

distinctly rayed. The Gilmore Creek examples are more

quadrangular in outline and less distinctly rayed. Both

inhabit swiftly running water.

4. Lampsilis recta (Lamarck).

Station XX1.

i Nautilus, x, p. 103, pi. 1, figs. 1, 2, 5, 1897.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 231

Genus Strophitus Rafinesque.

5. Strophitus ectemtulus (Say).

Station XXII. The examples of this species are rather

small and the shells are thinner than in individuals from

farther south.

Genus Anodonta (Bruguiere) Lamarck.

6. Anodonta marginata (Say).

Stations III, IV1, X, XIVs, XXII. The individuals of

this Anodonta are usually very uniform. At Station X

the specimens vary from the usual cylindrical shape to one

approaching Anthony7 s irisansj with a marked postero-dor-

sal ridge. All inhabit rough or running water. This is

a common species in Wisconsin, though not mentioned in

Chadwick’s list.

7. Anodonta implicata (Say).

Station XXII. Apparently typical.

8. Anodonta grandis footiana (Lea).

Stations III, IV1, XIV3, XXII. This race is quite

typical and shows little variation. The stations are all in

rough or running water, which accounts, in some measure,

for the small size and uniformity of the individuals. At

Station III, the open lake shore, footiana forms a large

bed, associated with Lampsilis luteola. which the muskrats

have made good use of. A hollow tree trunk on the shore

of this lake was found filled with the empty shells of

Anodonta and Lampsilis , evidently representing the Alin¬

ing halPof a muskrat.

Genus Symphynota Lea.

9. Symphynota costata (Barnes).

Station XXII. Common and typical.

10. Symphynota compressa (Lea).

Station XXII. One specimen of compressa was found

in a lot of costata . It is evidently rare at this station.

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Genus Quadrula (Rafinesque) Agassiz.

11. Quadrula undulata (Barnes).

Station XX1. Only one specimen found.

Order TELEODESMACEA.

Superfamily Cyrenacea.

Eamily Sphaeriidae.

Genus Sphaerium Scopoli.

12. Sphcerium sttialinum (Lamarck).

Station XX2. Common on sandy bottom, near high-

water line.

13. Sphcerium simile. (Say).

Station III. A single valve of this species was found

on the lake share.

14. Sphcerium occidentale. Prime.

Station XXI. Common and typical in swamps border¬

ing the Wisconsin River.

Genus Musculium Link.

15. Musculium partumeium (Say).

Station XXI. All the specimens secured were imma¬

ture.

16. Musculium securis (Prime).

Stations II2, Y, XY. The specimens secured are all

rather small, none exceeding seven mill, in length. All

were collected in swampy bays or ponds. Xot mentioned

in Chadwick’s list.

17. Musculium rosaceum. (Prime).

Station XYII. A frequent species in the small pools

which occupy most of the kettle holes in this region.

Genus Pisidium Pfeiffer, 1824.

18. Pisidium abditum Hald.

Station II2, XYII. Common and variable.

19. Pisidium roperi Sterki.

Station XYII. Common associated with the last spe¬

cies.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 233

20. Pisidium suhrotundum Sterki.

Station XXI. Fairly abundant in swampy places along

the Wisconsin Fiver.

21. Pisidium virginicum Gmelin.

Station XX2. Common in the sandy shore of the Wis¬

consin Fiver, in shallow water associated with Sphwrium

striatinum , Campeloma and Lampsilis luteola.

Numbers 17, 18 and 19 are not in Chadwick’s list.

Class GASTROPODA.

Order PFOSOBFAN CHI AT A.

F amilv V ivipaeidae.

Genus Campeloma Fafmesque.

22. Campeloma decisum (Say).

Stations II1, III, VII, VIII, XX2, XXII. Campeloma

decisum is abundant in this region on sandy shores in

rough or rapidly moving water. The Wisconsin Fiver

habitat was the best and furnished the largest and finest

specimens. The current here is very swift and the Campe-

lomas bury themselves completely in the sand or rest on the

lee side of anchored logs. Some specimens approach

Campeloma milesi, but lack the peculiar rounded whorls so

characteristic of the Michigan species.

Family Amuicolidae.

Genus Amnicola Gould and Haldeman.

23. Amnicola cincinnatiensis (Lea).

At Stations V, XII2 and XIV1 this species lives in

abundance, its habitat being the under side of lily leaves.

At stations III and VII the dead shells were found in shore

debris, evidently washed from the sheltered bays.

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Sub-Class Euthyisteuea.

Order PULMOHATA.

Sub-Order BASOMMATOPIIORA.

Eamilj Piiysidae.

Genus Physa Draparnaud.

24. Physa ancillaria warreniana Lea.

Stations II1, III, IV1, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XII,

XIII2, XIV1, XV, XVI.

This Physa lives in either a protected bay or on an ex¬

posed shore; the protected bays, however, are frequently

subject to rough conditions when the winds are from the

unprotected side, which is often the case. Stations VIII

andXII, both protected bays, produced the finest specimens.

The normal habitat appears to be a sandy shore, but logs

and other submerged objects are resorted to.

Warreniana appears to be a race of ancillaria rather

than of sayii . Specimens in Tomahawk Lake vary toward

this species (ancillaria) in the wide aperature, low spire,

and shouldered body whorl. The specimens secured were

mostly of small size and were very solid.

25. Physa gyrina Say.

Station XXI. Swamp bordering the Wisconsin River.

All of the specimens secured are immature.

Genus Aplexa Fleming.

26. Aplexa hypnorum (Linne),

Station XXI. Typical, but not common.

Family Ancylidae.

Genus Ancylus Geoffrey.

27. Ancylus parallelus Hal deman.

Stations V, XIV1, XVII. This species occupied two

habitats. At stations V and XIV it was found on the

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 235

under side of lily pads and the shell is rather flat and

broad, while at station XYII it was found on old sticks

in bogy swales and the shell is higher and more compressed

than are the specimens from the two previous habitats.

The effect of environment is quite clearly marked on the

shells of these two diverse habitats. The ancyli were

very abundant at all three stations.

Family Planorbidae.

Genus Segmentina Fleming.

28. Segmentina armigera (Say).

Stations II2, XY, XXI. All specimens were collected

in swampy ponds. At Stations II2, they were found

abundantly in the upper marshy portions of the hay.

Genus Planorbis Muller.

Subgenus GyraillllS Agassiz.

29. Planorbis parvus Say.

Stations XI Y1, XYII. Rather rare on lily pads (Sta¬

tion XI Y1,) and dead sticks in swales (Station XYII).

30. Planorbis hirsutus Gould.

Stations II2, Y, XXI. All stations were quiet water

habitats, and the species was fairly common in each.

The relation of hirsutus to deflectus, albus and drapar -

naldi is not quite clear, and perfect specimens of all these

species are not at hand to make satisfactory comparisons.

Deflectus is frequently spiraly striated and hirsute and any

considerable lot of hirsutus contains specimens with a sub-

carniate periphery. In a large series of hirsutus all gra¬

dations may he found between the two forms, as these are

usually understood. The deflection of the aperture oc¬

curs in all the smaller planorhes and cannot he taken as a

specific character. An examination of the types of de-

fledtus and hirsutus in addition to a study of lots of shells

from many localities would doubtless straighten out the

matter.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

Submenus Helisoma Swainson.

31. Planorbis campanulatus Say.

Stations III, IV1, VI, VII, IX, X, XIII2, XIVs.

This Planorbis apparently prefers a habitat where wave

action is marked. It is the commonest Planorbis in this

region, living on the sandy, or pebbly shore in a few inches

of water.

32. Planorbis campanulatus rudentis Dali.

Stations II1 III, IV1, VI, VII, IX, X, XII.

A large number of the campanulatus in Tomahawk Lake

appear to be referable to Balks rudentis (Alaska Moll. p.

90) characterized by a large shell and particularly by the

elevation of the apical whorls above the body whorl, much

as in Planorbis multivolvis Case. The apical whorls are

flat as in typical campanulatus , the deflected body whorl

beginning at about one-third of the last whorl. In typical

campanulatus the whorls are usually coiled in the same

plane, the apical whorls being a little below the dorsal mar¬

gin of the body whorl. The specimens mentioned by Wal¬

ker, from Siskowit Lake, Isle Royale, are probably also

this variety (An. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. p. 293). The

Tomahawk Lake campanulatus are more variable than

specimens from Xew York and Illinois.

33. Planorbis bicarinatus striatus Baker.

Stations II1 III, VII, VIII, XII. Very common on

logs and on sand and pebbles in a few' inches of water.

Prefers open shores.

All of the bicarinatus living in Tomahawk Lake seem

referable to this race. The spiral striation is very conspic¬

uous and is well marked on the majority of the specimens

secured. In typical bicarinatus from Xew York state

(near Owasco Lake) the spiral sculpture is faint or lack¬

ing.

34. Planorbis bicarinatus unicarinatus Haldeman.

Stations XIV2, XV. This distinct race was seen only

in a swampy bay and the quiet waters of a small creek,

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. 237

habitats quite different from those occupied by Planorbis

bicarinatus striatus. Unicarinatus is spiraly striated much

as is variety striatus , though not to so marked a degree.

The habitat of this species is the muddy bottom of a pond

or on sticks and other debris at the mouth of the creek.

«35. Planorbis binneyi Tryon,

Stations II1, IV1, V, IX, XIII1, XIV3, XXIII. Binneyi ,

inhabits several diverse habitats. Stations II1, IX, XIII1,

XIV3, were more or less sheltered bays where there was

little wave action ; the shells live for the most part on logs

and floating debris, but a few prefer the sandy bottom in

about a foot of water. Station IV1 was an exposed bay,

open to the full force of the waves and this Planorbis lived

here in considerable number. Station V was an enclosed

bay occupied by a pond-lily society ; this habitat is equiva¬

lent to the sheltered bay as the lake Waters have free ac¬

cess to it. Binneyi occupied the logs in this bay. Station

XIII was a mucky slough in a marsh, and the Planorbis

were seen clinging to logs or crawling over the muddy bot¬

tom in eight to twelve inches of water. The specimens from

this habitat are not horn colored, as is the case with those

from the other habitats but of a reddish tinge, due probably

to the iron in the water. The difference between this hab¬

itat and those of Tomahawk Lake is marked, yet there is no

difference in the form of the shells.

Planorbis binneyi is a common species of the northern

tier of states and has been seen by the writer from western

Massachusetts to Oregon. Chadwick’s reference (Wiscon¬

sin Moll. p. 83) to Plariorbis trivolvis Say, large form,

probably refers to this species.

Dali’s statement (Alaska Moll. p. 88) that binneyi “is

not known east of the Rocky Mountains” is erroneous, a3

it is a common Planorbis in the northeastern part of the

United States. It is apparently a species which ranges

from Oregon to Massachusetts, and from southern Wiscon¬

sin and Xew York northward. It has been identified as

corpulentus Say, but that is quite a different species.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

(See Walker, Nautilus, XIII, p. 133; Baker, Nautilus,

NXII, p. 41). Binneyi is related to Palnorbis ammon

Gould, but is apparently distinct.

36. Planorbis trivolvis Say.

Stations IV2, XIV2, XV. This species inhabits only

quiet bodies of water which are more or less swampy. In

such a habitat it is always abundant. The trivolvis of

Tomahawk Lake are very large and the fully mature ex¬

amples suggest such names as me\gasoma DeKay and mac-

rostomus Whiteaves which are probably to be considered

but different phases of development.

F amily Lymnaeidae.

Genus Lymnaea Lamarck.

37. Lymncea stagnalis appressa Say.

Station XIII1. Stagnalis appressa lives only in the more

open part of a swamp-bordered thoroughfare. The shells

are here quite uniform and closely resemble the typical

form. At Station XIII1 the habitat was a protected, lake¬

like bay at the head of a wide thoroughfare and the shells

were found on floating logs or on the sandy bottom in shal¬

low water.

38. Lymnoea stagnalis lillianoe Baker.

Station IV1, VII, IX, X, XIV3. All of these stations

were on more or less exposed shores, subject to the force of

the waves. Lillianoe is typically an inhabitant of sandy

shores, in shallow water, where it is subject to heavy wave

action. When any number of specimens were found, the

habitat was invariably an exposed beach. Individuals

were observed crawling over the sandy beach or attached

to water soaked logs or other shore debris. The animal of

this race exhibits two color modifications, one bright yel¬

low and the other black or grayish-black. No cause for

this color dimorphism was apparent. It is not protective,

as both forms occupy the same area of white sandy beach.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 239

Specimens living in protected bays have a longer spire

and more closely resembles appressa, clearly showing that

lilliance is a modification of this race.

Genus Pseudosuccinea Baker.

39. Pseudosuccinea columella (Say).

Stations II2, XI, XIII2, XIV1. Columella always oc¬

cupies a still water or swampy habitat, its situs being

usually the under side of lily leaves or on floating debris.

Genus Bulimnea Haldeman.

40. Bulimnea megasoma (Say).

Stations XIII,1 XXIII. This large, fine Lymnsea lives

in swamps where the water is quiet. The bottom of such

a habitat is boggy and the water is so shallow that frequent¬

ly little boggy islands are formed, and on these megasoma

may be found, one or two specimens on each island. In

other parts of this habitat they may be found near the

shore, clinging to logs and other debris. A small swampy

slough, lying between the Wisconsin Biver and Gilmore

Creek, afford the best habitat for megasoma, where it lived

in considerable number. This slough is about a quarter

of a mile long and two or three hundred feet wide. The

water is (in summer) but a few inches in depth, but the

mud which is about the consistency of mush, is six

or more feet in depth. Megasoma lives on the surface of

the mud and on old logs which the lumbermen have left

in the swamp. It would seem that the characteristic

habitat of this species is a swamp or marshy pond or bay.

The individuals of this species are very large and fine,

a length of 47 mill, being frequently attained. The epi¬

dermis is olive green or greenish chestnut, and the surface

of the last whorl is either heavily malleated or shows more

or less equidistant riblets parallel with the growth lines.

The spire varies from elevated to depressed.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Genus Galba Schrank.

41. Galba Jiumilis modieella (Say).

Station XX3. Common just above the water line on

the muddy flats bordering the Wisconsin River.

42. Galba obrussa (Say).

Station II2. This species was seen only on debris above

the water on the shore of a sheltered bay.

43. Galba lanceata (Gould).

Stations II2, IV2, V, IX, XI, XIII1, XIV2, XV. This

species normally lives only in large swampy bays protected

from rough water. It is most abundant in quiet bodies of

water where there is little* wave action, where it lives on

logs, on the stems of Typa or on floating vegetation. Though

quoted as a synonym of both reflexa and exilis, this species

is unquestionably recognizable as a species ; it is one of the

most abundant species in Tomahawk Lake. Xot in Chad¬

wick’s list.

44. Galba emarginata wisconsinensis (Baker).

Stations II1, III, IV1, VI, VII, VIII. This recently

distinguished race of emarginata is characteristic of the ex¬

posed, wave-beaten shores of the large lake. It lives on the

sandy or pebbly shores, in water from a few inches to sev¬

eral feet in depth. By wading along the sandy beach

thousands may be collected in water but a few inches in

depth. The habitats in this lake are all on exposed points

or in curved bays where the shore receives the full force

of the waves. Xo specimens were found in sheltered places,

where the water was at all stagnant. The individuals

were irregularly scattered over the surface, crawling over

the sand where a distinct tract was left, or lying half

buried in the sand. Two different color varieties of the

animal were observed, one almost black and the other yel¬

lowish or even orange.

Emarginata wisconsinensis is by far the most abundant

shell in Tomahawk Lake, where in many places it forms

windrows of dead shells on the shore after a northwesterly

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 241

storm. There is great variation in the length of the spire

which may he elevated or greatly depressed. All speci¬

mens agree, however, in having a pronouncedly globose

body whorl. The reference to Lymaoea decollata Mighels,

from Madison, by Chadwick (p. 81) is founded on speci¬

mens of Galbra emarginata angulata Sowb., which is

plentiful in the lakes near Madison.

Sub-Order STYLOMMATOPHORA

Family Succineidae.

Genus Succinea Draparnaud.

45. Succinea retusa Lea.

Station II, XX3. In wet places, on debris or water

plants. Apparently not common.

Family Pupillidae.

Genus Strobilops Pilsbry.

46. Strobilops virgo Pilsbry.

Stations I, XVIII, XIX. Common in damp places under

logs, in started bark and crevices and on mouldy and de¬

caying leaves. Station I is a young deciduous forest while

XVIII and XIX are virgin woods of pine, spruce, cedar,

birch, etc. In these two habitats the shells were found on

rotting birch logs, but not on pine logs. Stro'bilops virgo is

very abundant in the forested area about Tomahawk Lake.

Family Etoodontibae.

Genus Helicodiscus Morse.

47. Helicodiscus parallelus (Say).

Stations I, XIX. Associated with Strobilops virgo ,

common.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Genus Pyramidula Fitzinger.

Subgenus Patula Held.

48. Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis (Pilsbry).

Stations I, XVIII, XIX. Common associated with the

two above mentioned species. Xone of the typical form

were seem, all being good examples of catskillensis.

49. Pyramidula alternata (Say).

Station I. A few specimens of this common land snail

were collected in the young deciduous forest near Sanders’

Resort. They were found on the under side of decaying

logs.

Family Zonitidae.

Genus Vitrea Fitzinger.

50. Vitrea hammonis (Strom).

Station XXI. A single specimen was found on the edge

of a muddy pool.

Genus Euconulus Reinhardt.

51. Euconulus fulvus (Muller).

Station I. Common, associated with Strobilops and

Helicodiscus.

Genus Zonitoides Lehmann.

52. Zonitoides arboreus (Say).

Stations I, XVIII, XIX. This is by far the com¬

monest land snail in this region and is associated with

Strobilops , Pyramidula cronkhitei catskillensis , Eucon¬

ulus and Helicodiscus.

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin. 243

Family IIelicidae.

Genus Polygyra (Say) Pilsbry.

53. Polygyra albolabris (Say).

Station I. Three dead specimens of this large land

snail were found on the hillside above Sanders’ Resort.

It is apparently rare in this area.

REFERENCES.

Baker, Frank C.

1909. Note on Planorbis Binneyi Tyron. Nautilus,

XXII, p. 41.

1910. A new variety of Lymnsea Stagnalis. Nautilus,

XXIII, p. 112.

1910, a. Description of a New Lymnsea. Nautilus,

XXIV, p. 58.

Chadwick, George IT.

1902. Notes on Wisconsin Mollusca. Bull. Wis. Nat.

Hist. Soc., IV, pp. 67-99.

Dali, William H.

1905. Land and Fresh Water Mollusks. Harriman

Alaska Expedition, XIII.

Marsh, William A.

1897. New American Unionidse. Nautilus, X, p. 103.

Ruthven, A. G.

1906. An Ecological Survey in the Porcupine Mountains

and Isle Royale, Michigan. Rep. State Board

Geol. Surv. Mich., 1905, pp. 17-55.

Walker, Bryant.

1900. The Genuine Planorbis Corpulentus Say. Nau¬

tilus, XIII, pp. 133-138.

1906. An Illustrated Catalogue of the Mollusca of Michi¬

gan. Part I, Terrestrial Pulmonata. Rep.

State Board Geol. Surv., 1905, pp. 428-529.

1909. Annotated List of the Mollusca of Isle Royale,

Michigan. An Rep. Geol. Surv. Mich., 1908,

pp. 281-298.

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

SiSfig :iHP

8 *-S &§

HI-

|| §

I||

Baker — Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake , Wisconsin . 245

' *3 2 ^rSS O to rQ

;il«

ils §

§ CS8

'.2 to~

^CcOh

si *§ e3 If §l § § §-g s is

co O 5iSi Ow» *• CO to 53

co «'■§

§§«-§

O g

§|| E

!|<e§

§; co so 53

■ills

111 |

SSoo

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

EXPLANATION OP PLATES.

locally as the ' cyclone woods.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. 4

(my

II i'X-1 ;1

V A/ ;

MADISON, WISCONSIN

CONTENTS

The Railways of the Old Northwest before the Civil War

Frederic L. Paxson , 243

A Study of Retarded Children in a Group of North-

Western Schools . . Freeman A. Lurton, 275

Offieium Pas to Hum : A Study of the Dramatic Develop¬

ment within the Liturgy of Christmas Karl Young, 299

The Regulations of the University of Wittenberg, 1540

. . . . . Ernest Voss, '397

The annual half-volume of the Transactions is issued by the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, in six num¬

bers, under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.

The price of the number is 35 cents.

THE RAILROADS OF THE “OLD NORTHWEST”

BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR.

Frederic L. Paxson.

In most of the works which make any mention of railway

transportation it is stated that the second quarter of the last

century was a period of exceeding activity, and that between the

financial crisis of 1837 and 1857 the foundations of the Ameri¬

can railroad system were securely laid. Occasionally this

statement is supported with maps and tables purporting to

show when and where the earliest lines of the system were es¬

tablished. But it takes only a brief examination of these to

leam that few attempts have been made to authenticate the

figures. It would be dangerous to say that no accurate railroad

maps exist for the period before the civil war, but it is certain

that none such are in frequent use.

It is particularly true that the railroads of the Old Northwest

await their historian. For even the most commonplace facts

concerning these the investigator must go to scattered, incom¬

plete, and inaccurate sources, which, at best, are to be found in

only a few of the greatest libraries. To remedy this defect has

been the attempt of a group of students in the University of

Wisconsin, who have recently gathered and systematized much

of the material necessary fpr a statement of the annual railroad

construction in the Old Northwest before the civil war.1 The

results of their work have aided in the preparation of a series

of maps and tables, from which a few preliminary generaliza¬

tions may be drawn.

The most important compilation of statistics of railway con-

i Lillian E. Cook, Helen Freer, Andrew E. Hansen, and John W.

Rodewald, in History 21, First Semester, 1910-11.

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

struction in the United States is to be found in the fourth vol¬

ume of the Census of 1880. Prior to this report, the Census

had made little effort to reduce railway facts to a statistical

basis, and even now it found it necessary to resort to legal pro¬

ceedings, or admonitions through the United States District At¬

torney, in order to persuade certain of the railroads to contri¬

bute their answers to the questionnaires of the bureau.2 The

reluctance of the companies to reveal the facts of their history

throws some doubt upon the accuracy of the tables thus ob¬

tained, but the Census was at last able to publish, in 1883, an

elaborate volume on the construction and operation of Ameri¬

can railroads. In this volume are to be found schedules which

give for each road the amount of mileage built in each year

from 1830 to 1879. The totals of construction thus obtained

are not far from, the fact, yet the figures are so arranged that

considerable skill and foreknowledge are required for their

reading. The inveterate tendency of railways to reorganize

and change their names mjakes it difficult to identify single

lines. And since only the mileage of each year is given, with¬

out reference to terminal points, the figures are useless for geo¬

graphical reference. Thus, the mileage given for the Illinois

Central Railway, — 1852, 14m.; 1853, 117m. ; 1854, 294.75m.;

1855, 202.47m. ; 1856, 77.28m., — conveys no idea of the

facts of construction from three or four points, in as many di¬

rections', and of the closing up of gaps in 1855 and 1856. 3

The tables prepared for the Tenth Census have been the basis

of most of the statements recently made respecting the ante-bel¬

lum railways of the United States. They were, in part, re¬

printed in 1888 by J. L. Ringwalt, editor of the Railway World ,

in a popular illustrated compilation which is often cited as

though it possessed an independent value as a source.* 1 It is,

however, only an aggravating mixture of railway journalism

and census statistics, which is confusing at best, and fails to an¬

swer the questions respecting the actual locations of the pioneer

2 Tenth Census, 1880, Transportation Volume, 3.

s Tenth Census, 1880, Transportation Volume, 359.

i Ringwalt, J. L„ Development of Transportation Systems in the

United States, (Philadelphia, 1888),

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 245

systems, east or west. Much more scholarly than Bingwalt was

Henry V. Poor, whose long experience as editor of the Ameri¬

can Railroad Journal2 had specially qualified him to write the

intelligent “Sketch of the Rise and Progress of the International

Improvements, and of the Internal Commerce, of the United

States,” in the introduction to his fourteenth annual Manual

of the Railroads of the United States .3 But although here, as

throughout the other volumes of the Manual he gave many

figures of construction, he failed to present a comprehensive

view of the whole subject.

In the absence of compilations showing the geographic back¬

ground of railroad extension, it has been necessary to go di¬

rectly to detailed local sources for the history of the railways of

the Old Northwest. Most valuable of all these is the file of the

American Railroad Journal , whose editor read with care the

newspapers of the United States, and clipped from them! frag¬

mentary paragraphs from which can be assembled contemporary

evidence for the construction of nearly every railroad of the

United States. The indexes to the Journal are so imperfect

that it has often been necessary to turn the pages of volume

after volume, but the facts desired have generally been found.

Not only local accounts of building and opening are found here,

but large numbers of railroad reports are reprinted in full or in

digest.

Next to the continuous file of the American Railroad Journal ,

come the actual annual reports of the presidents and directors

of the several companies. The burden of making detailed re-

2 For several years prior to 1860, the American Railroad Journal

published, in its first number for January, a table of existing mile¬

age, tabulated by states.

3 Poor, H. V., Manual of the Railroads of the United States for 1881.

Fourteenth Annual Number (New York, 1881). Henry V.

Poor became editor of the American Railroad Journal in 1849. This

periodical had been started as a weekly in 1832 by D. K. Minor, and

was now continued by Poor until 1862. The outgrowth of his edi¬

torial experience was the announcement by Poor of his intention to

publish a history of American railways. In 1860 he published Vol. I

of his “History of Railroads and Canals of the United States of Amer¬

ica,” covering the New England and Middle States. The second vol¬

ume on the South, and the third, on the West, failed to appear, and

Poor did not revert to his main intention until 1868 when he brought

out the first of the annual volumes which are still continued under

his name. He was born in 1812 and died in 1905.

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ports rested so lightly upon the souls of these officials that it was

frequently neglected, or undertaken without enthusiasm!. Rail¬

roading was regarded as private business, and the public was to

he taken into the managers’ confidence only when such frankness

appeared likely to further the business of the company. Yet

enough of the reports exist to he of great aid in establishing the

dates for the opening of specific sections. The James J. Hill

Collection of the University of Wisconsin is specially rich in

ephemeral literature of this sort, and has been drawn upon con¬

stantly.

About 1850 there had been built enough railways in the

United States to necessitate the inauguration of another variety

of source material of high value. The American Railway

Guide 1 began its monthly issues in this year, and since its value

to the purchaser depended entirely upon its fidelity in describ¬

ing actual running arrangements, its time-tables have been of

great use in confirming other sources in their statements of

operation. Unfortunately the number of copies that escaped

destruction is small.

Urom yet another point of view, the local newspapers and

county histories have been full of usful detail in verification.

The railroad companies often advertised in the papers, while

these printed news items on the facts of operation. The writers

for the innumerable county histories, that ripened during the

eighties to adorn the parlor table of every rural household, al¬

most always mention the date when the first train ran into the

county seat, and often describe the ensuing celebration in some

detail. In at least one case the wreck of an early excursion

train called forth a monument of historical evidence upon the

completion of a new through line.1 2

1 Published in New York by Dinsmore and Co. There was already

in existence a “Pathfinder Railway Guide for the New England States,”

but the advance of construction had now made a national guide both

possible and necessary. Cf. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, XXII, 683.

2 This occurred in the autumn of 1859, when the Chicago and North¬

western had opened its line from Chicago, by way of Janesville and

Fond du Lac, to Oshkosh. Hist, of Winnebago Co., Wisconsin, (Osh¬

kosh, Allen and Hicks, 1880), 146; Hist, of Fond du Lac Co., Wiscon¬

sin, (Chicago, Western Hist. Co., 1880), 437; Fond du Lac Common¬

wealth, Nov. 2, 1859; New York Tribune, Nov. 5, 1859.

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest.

247

From these diverse sources, checked up by the tables of the

Tenth Census, it has been possible to construct a history of rail¬

road building for the five states northwest of the Ohio Fiver,

which is believed to be more accurate than any other that is now

accessible. The facts involved lend theanlselves most readily to

presentation in the form of maps, and annual tables. Most of

the labor has been statistical, seeking its reward in the accu¬

racy of its results. Yet its utilitarian character has not pre¬

vented it from throwing new light upon mlany of the political

and economic problems of the Old Northwest in the two decades

before the civil war. Transportation, after all, has determined

both the course and the period of western development ; and in

no section of the continent has this determination been more

nearly absolute than in the region between the Ohio Fiver and

the lakes.3

Where the earliest railroad of the West was built, and when

its wheels first rumbled in their precarious attempt to keep upon

the flimsy tracks, is yet a matter of unimportant antiquarian

controversy. In 1 838 there were at least five projects far enough

along to boast of actual operation. In 1837, there is sure proof

of only one, the Erie and Kalamazoo,* 1 which was built and

opened from Toledo to Adrian, and was contemplating further

construction towards the western side of Michigan.2 There

are ruifiors of a tram-track earlier than this, in eastern Indiana,3

s It is said that 49 counties in Illinois, through which the Illinois

Central ran, increased in population from 351,887 in 1850 to 1,127,087

in 1865. Flint, H. M„ Railroads of the U'. S., 320.

1 This was chartered as a Michigan road before the boundary con¬

troversy placed Toledo in Ohio. Its locomotive, the “Adrian No. 1,” of

which a cut is often printed, arrived at Toledo in June, 1837. A few

miles were used as a horse road in 1836. Wing, T. E., Hist, of Mon¬

roe Co., Mich., (N. Y., 1890), 216: Knapp, H. S., Hist, of the Maumee

Valley (Toledo, 1872), 551, 624: Howe H., Hist. Coll, of Ohio, (Ohio

Centennial Ed., 1891), II, 412.

2 One local writer insists that a locomotive was run from Sandusky

to Bellevue over the track of the Lake Erie and Mad River Ry., in

1837; and that the Sandusky and Mansfield Ry., was operated by horse¬

power, over wooden rails, to Monroeville, in the same year. Hist, of

Erie Co., Ohio, (Syracuse, D. Mason and Co., 1889), 266, 268.

3 At Shelbyville, where a horse-power, wooden tramway is said to

have been used on July 4, 1834. Hist, of Shelby Co., Indiana, (Chi¬

cago, Brant and Fuller, 1887), 286; Cottman, G-. S., Internal Improve¬

ments in Indiana, in Ind. Quart, Mag. of Hist., Ill, 152.

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

and of a coal road in western Illinois,1 bnt if such existed at all

they were no part of any continuous organic life. How rapidly

these roads might have developed under the enthusiastic guid¬

ance of youthful promoters and complaisant legislatures cannot

he said with certainty, since the financial storm, which had been

brewing ever since General Jackson began to utter executive

inenaces against the Bank, broke upon the United States in the

spring of 1837, to depress the whole country and check the de¬

velopment of the West. As active agencies in transportation,

railways did not exist in the Oid Horthwest until the Mexican

war was over. The lines undertaken between 1835 and 1847

are to be regarded as pioneer enterprises conceived in poverty

1 Gov. Reynolds claimed to have helped to build six miles of wooden

railway from his coal mine to the Mississippi opposite St. Louis, in

1837. Reynolds, J., My own Times, (Illinois, 1855), 503; Tanner, H. S.,

Descr. of the Canals and Railroads of the U. S., (New York, 1840),

197; Hist, of St. Clair Co., Illinois, (Phila., Brink, McDonough and

Co., 1881), 32.

Paxson — Early Bailway s of the Old Northwest.

249

and inexperience, prostrated by general bankruptcy, and re¬

vived only in another decade.

By the end of 1847, there were 3205.70 miles2 of railroad in

the United States, of which 660 were operating in the Old

Northwest,— or ought to have been if none of them had been

worn out or washed away by the last spring flood. Each west¬

ern road stood for an ideal which had not yet reached fulfill¬

ment. No lines connected the waters of the lakes with any part

of the Ohio River. The nearest approach to a complete line

was in Indiana, where from Madison, on the Ohio, the earliest

Hoosier railroad ran to Indianapolis. It had taken seven la-

2 Tenth Census, 1880, Transportation Volume, 309. According to

these tables the mileage of the five northwestern states was 613.85,

whereas my own tables give 660. The difference is due to the fail¬

ure of the Census to mention the Lake Erie and Mad River Ry.,

which was in operation from Sandusky to Bellefontaine, Ohio, and to

the fact that it credits the Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark Ry.,

which actually operated only 56 miles to Mansfield, with 116.25 miles

I am unable to verify this mileage allowed to the S., M., & N.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

borious years to build, and when its first train steamed into the

capital, in 1847, carrying an itinerant circus in addition to its

hilarious excursionists, the celebration had been enthusiastic*3

But north of Indianapolis there was no continuation of the

road. The counties along the Wabash canal were still depend¬

ent upon trail and country road for their connection with the

southern portion of the state.

The Madison and Indianapolis was one of two local roads

touching the Ohio in 1847. The other had been started into

the back country from Cincinnati, winding its way along the

Little Miami Liver, from which it derived its name, to Xenia

and Springfield.* 1 To meet these feelers from the south, a larger

group of railway arms extended from the north. At four points

below Lake Huron, — Detroit, Monroe, Toledo, and Sandusky,

— six lines of track had begun to penetrate Michigan and Ohio,

and had advanced, by the end of 1847, to Pontiac, Kalamazoo,

Tecumseh, Hillsdale, Belief ontaine, and Mansfield. The only

other railroad in the Old ^Northwest was in Illinois, where the

abandoned Horthem Cross, from Meredosia to Springfield, was

a monument to the misguided enthusiasm of a youthful state.2

In 1847, no rival had come to end the fifteen years of un-

eon tested supremacy enjoyed by the Ohio Canal. The pioneer

period of the railways was indeed nearing its close, but the re¬

markable changes of the next ten years were beyond prophecy.

In a large proportion of cases railway construction began at

points already well established in trade or industry, and ad¬

vanced to the unknown from the known. An apparent excep¬

tion to this rule is the line which commenced its track at Mf

dosia, on the Illinois Liver, and headed for Springfield, in

Sangamon County. Xeither of its terminals was a place of

s Sulgrove, B. R., Hist, of Indianapolis and Marion County, (Phila.,

1884), 135. _

1 Hunt’s Merchants' Magazine, XXIV, 640; Niles’ Register LXXV,

310.

2 Hist, of Sangamon Co., Illinois, (Chicago, Inter-State Pub. Co.,

1881), I. 145; Hist of Vermilion Co., Ill., (Chicago, Hill and Iddings,

1880), 351; Carter, C. F., When Railroads were New, (N. Y., Henry

Holt and Co., 1909), 186; McConnell, G. M., Recollections of the

Northern Cross Railroad, in Ill. State Hist. Library Pub., XIII, 145.

Its condition in 1843 is described by an emigrant to Iowa. Iowa

Historical Record, Xl'II, 40.

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 251

any consequence, and the latter had only just succeeded V'an-

dalia as capital of the state. The whole scheme was a piece of

economic log-rolling, but the fact that supplies could be brought

to Meredosia by river steamers determined the point at which

construction should begin. In other cases initial points were

of greater importance. Cleveland, Sandusky, Toledo, Monroe,

and Detroit were well-known stopping places for the commerce

of the lakes. Cleveland had the Ohio Canal, and was slow to

go in for railroads, while the other ports were stimulated in

their activity by her prosperity.3 Cincinnati had wide busi¬

ness connections before she undertook the Little Miami;* 1 fur¬

ther down the Ohio a series of river landings had hopes of com¬

ing first into the field and monopolizing the internal trade of

Indiana. The older inland towns, in many cases, influenced

the route of the pioneer roads. Villages springing up along the

National Road, or the Ohio or Miama Canal, became easy ob¬

jectives or starting points for new schemes. Indianapolis was

an artificial center, but she did not begin her complex of radiat¬

ing lines until the Madison and Indiapolis had made it possible

to deliver Ohio River freights to her warehouses. In Illinois,

LaSalle, head of navigation on the Illinois River, and outlet of

the Illinois and Michigan Canal, was regarded as a future rail¬

road center before the canal had ripened into the condition of a

practicable scheme.

The periods of canal and railroad dominance overlapped in

the Old Northwest, and by their overlapping affected the de¬

velopment of both agencies of transportation. In 1825, DeWitt

Clinton had not only opened his Erie Canal, but had given aid

and comfort to schemes for feeder canals throughout the West.

Ohio had undertaken two complete systems, the Ohio Canal,2

reaching from Cleveland to Portsmouth, and open in 1832, and

the Miami Canal, which was so extended as to afford a water

route from Cincinnati to Toledo by 1845. Indiana had pro-

3Cf. Oberholtzer, E. P., Life of Jay Cooke, I, 25.

1 Taft, Alphonso, A Lecture on Cincinnati and her Railroads, (Cin¬

cinnati, D. Anderson, 1850) 1.

2 Morris, C. N., Internal Improvements in Ohio, in Papers of the

American Historical Association, III; Ohio Arch, and Hist. Soc., His¬

tory of the Ohio Canals.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

jected her Wabash Canal/ and opened it from Toledo to Logaus-

port in 1843. Illinois, under the same stimulus, completed her

canal from Chicago to LaSalle in 1848.* 1 For none of these

canals was the period of ascendancy long. The Wabash Canal

was paralleled by a railway in 1856. In six years after the

Illinois Canal was opened competing railroads had been run

from Chicago to both Alton and Bock Island, on the Missis¬

sippi. While in the year of the Illinois Canal, 1848, the pio¬

neer period of railroad construction came to an end in the com¬

pletion of a line across Ohio which destroyed all hopes for an

important future for the Ohio canals.

The canal systems, the earliest efforts of the Northwest to

improve upon the routes of nature, failed to receive fair trial.

It had been promised for them that they would force the com¬

merce of the Mississippi to run up hill,2 but they ceased to com¬

mand the interest of the West before they were completed.

The railroad not only overtook, but passed and left themi far

behind. In the autumn of 1848, when troops for Oregon serv¬

ice were being moved from New York to Jefferson Barracks in

St. Louis, Niles’ Register commented upon the new record of

eight days which they made. By steamboat, canal, and lake

steamer they were taken to Sandusky; thence, by the new rail¬

road to Urbana, where a march of only fourteen miles enabled

them to reach the northern end of the Little Miami Bailroad,

which speedily carried them to Cincinnati and the river boat

upon which they completed their journey to St. Louis.3 Before

the end of the year the gap which separated the ends of these

roads was closed, and through service by rail was inaugurated

3 Benton, E. J., Wabash Trade Route, In Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud¬

ies, XXI. Details of the opening with the oration of Gen. Cass, are in

Niles’ Register, LXIV, 276, 343, 345, 378-381.

1 Putnam, J. W„, E'con. Hist, of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, in

Journal of Political Economy, XVII; Greene, E. B., and Thompson,

C. M., Governors’ Letterbooks, 1840-1853, in Ill. State Hist. Lib. Coll.,

VII.

2 Cf. De Bow’s Review, X, 442 : “The Wabash and Erie Canal is

stretching its line down the banks of the Wabash, and, as fast as it

extends itself, it sweeps the whole products of the valley up the river,

against its natural current, to the Eastern markets, by way of the

Lakes.”

s Niles Register, LXXIV, 191, Sept. 20, 1848.

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 253

from Lake Erie to the Ohio.1 It is an interesting coincidence

that in this year, so momentous in the fate of western com¬

merce, the city which was to rise from insignificance because

of the new order pushed its first track to the Des Plaines River

and ran the first locomotive out of Chicago.2

Every year after 1848 saw new railroads undertaken and ex¬

isting projects hurried to completion. The Northwest was in

the swirl of a railway fever that unsettled financial conditions

in all of western Europe, and had its pioneers in America with

eyes fixed upon the commerce of the Pacific and the engineering

1 Annual Report of the Mad River and Lake Erie Railroad, Jan. 19,

1849, pp. 1-8; Hist, of Logan Co., Ohio, (Chicago, O. L. Baskin and

Co., 1880), 289; Hist of Champaign Co., Ohio, (Chicago, W. H. Beers

and Co., 1881), 274; Poor, H. V., Manual of Railroads, for 1884, 705.

2 Second Annual Report of the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad,

Apr. 5, 1849.; Church, C. A., Hist, of Rockford and Winnebago Co.,

Illinois, (Rockford, W. P. Lamb, 1900), 271. The locomotive, “Pi¬

oneer,” which is mentioned here, is on exhibition in the Field Colum¬

bian Museum, Chicago.

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

conquest of the Rockies. Rot every section, however, had it in

itself, to acquire in a short ten years a complete system of lines,

extending from border to border, and changing the whole out¬

look of social and economic life.

Before 1848, the line of the old Rational Road, from* 1 * Wheel¬

ing to Columbus, Indianapolis, Vandalia, and St. Louis, split

the five northwestern states into uneven halves of discordant

social tone.3 The southern half was reached by navigable-

streams tributary to the Ohio River. It had been peopled by

the rush of pioneers in the years following the war of 1812.

The parents of many of its citizens were from the Blue Grass

or the Tennessee. Their parents, in turn, had come from Old

Dominion or Carolina, bringing from tidewater the ideals of

the southern states. The southern element in the Scioto V alley

had been a permanent factor in the politics of Ohio. In Indi¬

ana, the struggle for slavery had been tense for nearly two dec¬

ades. In Illinois, the inhabitants of “Egypt” never lost hope

of. winning their state for slavery until 1824. The southern

counties of the Old Rorthwest were never unanimous for slav¬

ery, but they were thoroughly impregnated with the ideals of

the South before the northern tiers of counties had been sur¬

veyed or cleared of Indians.

Rorth of the Rational Road, roughly speaking, was the zone

of the Erie Canal.1 After 1825, in increasing volume, emigrants

from Rew York and Rew England flooded the Lake shores.

The Ohio Valley was well started before the growth began, but

by 1840 a new Rew England stood rival to a northern South

within the three oldest states of the Old Rorthwest. Eor an¬

other twenty years, from the election of Harrison to that of

Lincoln, the political future of the section was indeterminate.

With two great classes of inhabitants, possessing different an¬

cestry and divergent trade, — for the one did business in Rew

Orleans and the other in Rew York, — it was too much to ask

that a homogeneous population should have appeared at once.

splint, H. M., Railroads of the United States; their History and Sta¬

tistics, (Philadelphia, John E. Potter and Co., 1868), 239.

i Mathews, L. K., Expansion of New England, (Boston and N. Y.,

Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909).

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 255

But when the civil war came to test the temper of the North¬

west, it uncovered the amazing change that two decades had

wrought. The hopes of the confederacy to carry the Ohio Val¬

ley with the Mississippi were frustrated, and the activity of

Copperheads in Indiana and Ohio could not conceal the fact

that in the Northwest were the foundations of the Union’s

strength.

The growth of this sentiment of nationality in the North¬

west is still under investigation. It has indeed been shown

that the attitude of the Ohio V alley did much to fix the outcome

of the civil war.2 But the attitude of the Valley was itself

largely determined by its commercial cities which were units

in an economic organization that bound the right bank of the

Ohio to the Lakes. Where the Lake district, with its New

England population went, the northern half of the Ohio Val¬

ley had to follow. Artificial bonds had created an economic

section out of portions of two great river valleys. Geographic

sectionalism was weakening before the hand of man, and in the

railway systems which were created between 1848 and 1860

may probably be found the key to the later history of the

Northwest.

The opening of the through line between Cincinnati and

Sandusky, in 1848, was the initial step in the process of bind¬

ing the Ohio Valley to the Lakes. In 1849, the most import¬

ant track that was opened completed a road between Betroit

and New Buffalo on Lake Michigan. The old state railroads of

Michigan, undertaken lavishly in 1837, had built, collapsed,

and passed into private hands which now hurried both the Cen¬

tral and Southern lines towards Chicago. Chicago was all but

reached in 1849, yet the accomplishment was deferred until

1852, while neither 1849 or 1850 witnessed the closing in of

any gaps. Profuse local building had begun, however, as is

shown by the lines pushing from Cleveland, Columbus, In¬

dianapolis, and Chicago into their tributary agricultural areas.

By 1851, Cleveland was in communication with Pittsburg, by

2 Fish.. C. R., The Decision of the Ohio Valley, in Am. Rep. Am,

Hist. Assn., 1910.

256 'Wisconsin Academxy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

way of Alliance, and with Cincinnati, by way of Columbus;

Milwaukee bad begun to build towards Madison and Prairie

du Cbien; while below Cincinnati on the Ohio railways actu¬

ally started inland from Madison, Jeffersonville, and New Al¬

bany, and were projected from Lawrenceburg, Evansville, and

Cairo.

In 1852, the advancing ends of track began to meet. Chi¬

cago' was reached almost simultaneously by both the Michigan

roads,3 while the Ohio lines and their extensions not only en-

3 Indiana, interested in the future of Indianapolis, obstructed the

entry of the Michigan roads into Chicago. Finally the Michigan Cen¬

tral crossed Indiana on tracks built by the New Albany and Salem,

while the Michigan Southern used the tracks of the Northern Indiana.

The former used the Chicago terminal facilities of the Illinois Cen¬

tral; the latter those of the Chicago and Rock Island. American

Railroad Journal, XXV, 295, 343; Poor’s Manual, 1884, 560; Farmer,

S., Hist, of Detroit and Michigan, (Detroit, 1884), 899; Hake Shore

and Michigan Southern Railway System and Representative Employees,

(Biographical Pub. Co., 1900), 32.

Paxson — Early Bailway s of the Old Northwest. 257

tetred Indianapolis but penetrated beyond to the Wabash River

at Lafayette and Terre Haute. By the end of another season,

(1853), there were seven railroads which radiated from In¬

dianapolis and gave her abundant trade routes to southern In¬

diana and Ohio as well as to Chicago. The Chicago connec¬

tion is typical of most of the through lines of the early fifties.

Three companies were concerned in it. Prom Indianapolis

City the traveler passed over the tracks of a second, the Hew

Albany and Salem; while he entered Chicago from Michigan

City, in the cars of the Michigan Central. Already some be¬

ginnings in railroad consolidation had been made, but the typi¬

cal company of this period was a local concern that depended

on its connecting neighbors for through service. The public

was too glad to get carried to its destination to worry over fre¬

quent changes of cars.

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

An examination of the map for 1853 discloses the great steps

towards adequate communication that had been taken in Ohio

and Indiana,. Railroads skirted the whole southern shore of

Lake Erie,1 and from1. Cleveland and Sandusky, on the north¬

east, to Dayton, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis, on the south¬

west, stretched what was already an intricate network of tracks.

Illinois, however, remained largely dependent upon the future,

with beginnings of lines penetrating the northern counties to

the boundary of Wisconsin, hut without a road in operation

south of a line that could he drawn from Alton, through Spring-

field and Bloomington to Kankakee.

On the next three maps, for 1854, 1855, and 1856, it is

in Illinois that the chief interest is to he found. The Illinois

Central Railroad was finally started, and after building four¬

teen miles in 1852, to let in the Michigan Central have an entry

into Chicago, had made a fair beginning in 1853, and had set¬

tled down to rapid work the following year. Building at once

on five different parts of its route, in 1854, it had been able in

1855 nearly to complete its task. In 1856 there was but a

single section left to be ironed before the work was done, ex¬

tending up the very center of the state from Cairo to La Salle,

and thence to Galena,2 with a Chicago branch running nearly

parallel for more than half its length. It was the longest and

most imposing railway in the Korthwest. It had extracted

from the United States extensive aid in grants of public lands.

But it traversed a country which had little use for the new

Michigan Canal, and less for it. Einished on the eve of a com¬

mercial crisis., it never returned an income on its cost until the

civil war, with troops and stores to be hauled, brought an acci¬

dental commerce to its rescue.3 Had the railways of the Klorth-

1 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway System and Repre¬

sentative Employees, (Biog. Pub. Co., 1900).

2 The Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, which had contemplated

building to Galena, from Chicago, by way of Freeport, relinquished

to the Illinois Central its rights west of Freeport. Later it realized

its blunder in giving up its Mississippi terminus and constructed a

branch from Aurora Junction, by way of Dixon, to Fulton. Flint,

H. M., 275; Ninth Annual Report of the G., and C., U., Rr., (1856, June

4.)

3 Ackerman, W. K., Plistorical Sketch of the Illinois Central Rail¬

road, (Chicago, Fergus Printing Co., 1890), 68.

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest.

259

west been built only where they were needed they might well

have been too few to hold in the trying, days of the early six¬

ties.

The Illinois Central is only the most striking of the north¬

west roads appearing on the maps after 1853. Less was anti¬

cipated from it than from other roads of shorter mileage.

the least savory of all the projects in what was not a squeamish

decade. Taken together, the Detroit and Milwaukee, and the

La Crosse and Milwaukee, as the roads were named, were ex¬

pected to afford a short and popular route to Wisconsin and the

new state of Minnesota. Both were done by the end of 1858.

■

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

South of Michigan and Wisconsin, the gaps were filling in.

Through a consolidation of lines of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and

Indiana, the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne, and Chicago Eailroad

emerged as a system, entering Chicago over its own tracks in

1858. 3 Crossing this road diagonally at Ft. Wayne, the neu-

cleus of another system came down from Toleda in 1855. In

1856 this system, later known as the Wabash, was extended to

Springfield, Illinois. It absorbed and extended the pioneer

Horthem Cross, and reached the Mississippi in 1859.

Poads running from east to west attracted, on the whole,

more attention than those from north to south, and the interest

s Wilson, W. B., Hist of the Pennsylvania Rr. Co.

Paxson — Early Raihvays of the Old Northwest.

261

that was centered on the Wabash and the Pittsburg, Pt. Wayne,

and Chicago was watching also a road that left the Mississippi

at East St. Louis, and was open to the Illinois Central junction

at Sandoval in 1854. This was the Ohio and Mississippi, a

mystic road that was to supplement the river and play into the

hands of Cincinnati and St. Louis, its terminal points. 'No¬

where between the two did its right of way enter a city of im¬

portance save Vincennes, whose fame Was legendary rather

than commercial. . East of Cincinnati, the Marietta and Cin¬

cinnati continued the course of this “American Central Pail-

road Line,”1 to the mouth of the Muskingum, where it just

i Smith, W. P., The Book of the Great Railway Celebrations of 1857,

(New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1858), Introd. p. v.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

failed of meeting the western end of an extension of the Balti¬

more and Ohio. The completion of the lines from St. Louis

to Baltimore, in 1857, was the occasion of a noisy celebration

on behalf of the three constituent roads and their friends. At

Baltimore there was an elaborate banquet that began with green

turtle soup and ended with twenty-five desserts including seven

kinds of ice cream,2 while the Cincinnati Commercial saw in

the event the hand of God, “The purposes for which the Creator

erected the Allegheny barriers, against free communication be¬

tween the seaboard and the Ylalley of the Mississippi, are ac¬

complished. The populations on either side have been dc-

2 Smith, W. R, 85, 86.

Paxson— Early Bailway s of the Old Northwest. 263

veloped in their habits and pursuits up to the precise point,

where necessity for comparative separation ceases, and the Di¬

vine wisdom that piled the mountains and scooped the valleys,

has permitted their removal and filling up, that the middle

way across the continent may he levelled and made straight,

for the swifter marches of the armies that shall achieve the

Industrial Millenium.”3

The first connecting railway of the Northwest was opened in

1848. Thereafter the movement of promotion gathered

strength so that the next ten years saw the map transformed.

Values changed as one city after another felt the stimulus of

s Quoted, in Smith, W. P., 104, from the issue of June 4, 1857.

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

transportation. Chicago began to gain npon St. Louis, and

though the latter labored for the building of a trans-Mississippi

system of her own,1 she found little in it to replace her former

dominion among the cities of the West. By 1858 the system

of the Northwest was substantially complete. The panic came

in 1857 to wreck the hopes of many, but the tracks were down.

Few railways, that were not done before the crash, were finished

in the next five years. As it stood upon the opening of the

civil war, the railway system was the outcome of the ten sea¬

sons from 1848 to 1857.

For the first time in history, a great modern war was fought

i Million, J. W., State Aid to Railways in Missouri, (Chicago, The

Univ. of Chicago Press, 1896).

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 265

from 1861 to 1865. Hever before bad the function of the

railway as a military agent been imagined or realized. The

Northwest now was the possessor of a completed equipment,

whose ultimate influences may as yet be only hinted at. The

section was bound together, so that physical and intellectual

unity were possible; the physical presence of the system pro¬

vided an alternative for moving the crops, when war closed the

outlet of the Mississippi ;2 it facilitated the mobilization and

distribution of instruments of war. Had the secession move¬

ment of 1850 grown into war, none of these factors would have

been effective, and success for separation could hardly have

2 Fite, E. D., Social and Industrial Conditions in the North during

the Civil War, (New York, Macmillan, 1910), ch. 3.

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

been questioned. But in 1860 secession came too late. The

Northwest was crossed and re-crossed by an intricate entangle¬

ment of tracks.2 3 Railways touched its boundary rivers every

few miles from Pittsburg to La Crosse: Wellsville, Steuben¬

ville, Bellaire, Marietta, Ironton, Portsmouth, Cincinnati,

Lawrenceburgh, Madison, Jeffersonville, New Albany, Evans-

2 In its annual summary for Jan. 1, 1861, The American Railroad

Journal gives the following totals:

Ohio . 2,670.53

Indiana . 2,058.17

Illinois . 2,924.60

Michigan . 807.30

Wisconsin . 902.09

Total . 9,362.69

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 267

ville, Cairo, Illinoistown, Alton, Quincy, Warsaw, Burlington,

Rock Island, Dunleith, Prairie du Chien, and La, Crosse. In

less than fifteen years modern life had ripened to maturity

within the Old Northwest.

TABLES ILLUSTRATING THE RAILWAYS OE THE

OLD NORTHWEST BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR.

There are two reasons why entire accuracy cannot he attained

in preparing schedules of annual railway construction. In the

first place, the terminal points for the several years cannot al¬

ways he determined. Statements that a line is in operation

may mean that (a) a track is huilt, (h) that a construction

train has run over it, (c) that a pleasure trip has been taken

in the cars, (d) that a construction train carries occasional pas¬

sengers and freight, or that the line (e) is operated regularly

on a fixed schedule. In the following tables the last meaning

has been regarded as the test, and followed wherever possible ;

but in a few cases there is uncertainty whether a given sec¬

tion should be placed in one year or the next. In the second

place, distances between terminal points are only approximate.

The railroads in their own reports occasionally give varying

distances between the same points. Present distances cannot

be trusted because nearly every road has straightened out and

shortened its line since 1860. These tables rely chiefly on the

distances given in time-tables and travelers’ maps, but since

the time-tables often give, on the same page, varying distances,

editing has been necessary. It is believed that these are more

nearly accurate than any other tables now in print, but they

must be regarded as subject to changes in detail. In general,

the totals are very nearly correct. Corporate names were

changed so frequently that it has been impracticable to follow

them in all cases.

268 Wisconsin Academic of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

RAILROADS IN OPERATION BEFORE JAN. 1, 1848.

Ohio.

Sandusky, Mansfield, and Newark, Sandusky to Mansfield . 66

Mad River and Lake Erie, Sandusky to Bellefontaine . 102

Little Miami, Cincinnati to Springfield . . . 84

Erie and Kalamazoo, Toledo to Adrian . 33

Indiana.

Madison and Indianapolis, Madison to Indianapolis . 86

Illinois.

Northern Cross, Meredosia to Springfield.... . 55

Michigan.

Michigan Southern, Monroe to Hillsdale . . 66

Michigan Southern, Junction to Tecumseh . 10

Michigan Central, Detroit to Kalamazoo . 143

Detroit and Milwaukee, Detroit to Pontiac . . 25

Total mileage, Jan 1, 1848 . 660

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1848.

Ohio.

Mad River and Lake Erie, Bellefontaine to Springfield . 32

Illinois.

Galena and Chicago Union, Chicago to Harlem . 10

Michigan.

Michigan Central, Kalamazoo to Niles . 48

New mileage for 1848 . . 90

Total mileage, Jan. 2, 1849 . 750

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1849.

Ohio.

Mad River and Lake Erie, Carey' to Findlay . . 16

Illinois.

Northern Cross, Naples to Bluffs . 5

Michigan.

Michigan Central, Niles to New Buffalo . . . 27

New mileage for 1849 . 48

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1850 . 798

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1850.

Ohio.

Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati, Cleveland to Shelby _ 67

Columbus and Xenia, Columbus to Xenia . . . . 55

Indiana.

Indianapolis and Bellefontaine, Indianapolis to Pendleton . 28

Jeffersonville, Jeffersonville to Memphis . 15

Shelbyville Lateral, Edinburgh to Shelbyville . 10

Shelbyville and Knightstown, Shelbyville to Knightstown . 27

Shelbyville and Rushville, Shelbyville to Rushville . 20

Illinois.

Galena and Chicago Union, Harlem to Elgin . 34

Aurora Branch, Aurora Junction to Aurora . . . 13

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 269

Michigan.

Michigan Central, New Buffalo to Michigan City (Ind.) . . 10

Michigan Southern, Hillsdale to Ooldwater. . . . . . 22

New mileage for 1860 . . — . . . . . . 807

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1851... ..... — ■ . . . . . . 1,105

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1851.

Ohio.

Clove., Painesv., and Ashtabula, Cleveland to Painesville . 29

Cleveland and Pittsburgh, Cleveland to Alliance. . . 56

Pittsb., Ft. W., and Chicago, State Line to Alliance . 36

Sand., Mansfield, and Newark, Mansfield to Newark...... . 60

Cleve., Columbus, and Cm., Shelby to Columbus . . — . 68

Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, Cincinnati to Dayton..... 60

Mad River and Lake Erie, Dayton to Springfield . . . 24

Indiana.

Jeffersonville, Memphis to Scottsburg. . . . . . . 12

New Albany and Salem, New Albany to Orleans — . . 57

Peru and Indianapolis, Indianapolis to Noblesville. . . . . 22 •

Mich. So., and Northern Indiana, State Line to La Porte.. — 61

Illinois.

Galena and Chicago Union, Elgin to Belvidere. _ _ ... — ..... 36

Illinois Coal Co., Brooklyn to Casey ville. . . . . 9

Michigan.

Michigan Southern, Ooldwater to State Line (White Pigeon).. 36

Wisconsin.

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Milwaukee to Waukesha.. . . 20

New mileage for 1851 . . . . . . . . 586

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1852 . . . . . . . . . 1,691

S

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1852.

Ohio.

Cleve., Painesv., and Ash., Painesville to State Line (Oonneaut) 39

Cleveland and Pittsburg, Alliance to Wellsville . . 45

Cleve., Zanesville, and Gin., Hudson to Akron...... . . . 16

P., Ft. W., and C., Alliance to Wooster . . . 52

Ohio Central, Newark to Zanesville.. . . . . 26

Ironton, Ironton to mines... . . . . . 13

Bellefontaine and Indiana, Gallon to Marlon. . . . 20

Cleve., Col., and Gin., Delaware Curves . . . . 5

Greenville and Miami, Dayton to Union (Ind.)........... . 47

Eaton and Hamilton, Hamilton to Eaton........... . . 29

Indiana.

Indianapolis and Bellefontaine, Pendleton to Union . . 56

Jeffersonville, Scottsburg to Columbus . . . . 39

Evansville and Crawfords ville, Evansville to Princeton.. 27

Terre Haute andi Richmond, Indianapolis to Terre Haute _ 73

Lafayette and Indianapolis, Indianap. to Lafayette . 64

Mich. So., and Northern Ind., Bailey town to Mich City..... _ 13*

Mich. So., and Northern Ind., La Porte to Chicago Jet. (Ill.).. 52

Mich. So., and Northern Ind., Elkhart to Goshen..... . . . 10

New Albany and Salem, Michigan City to Calumet (Ill.)...... 42

270 Wisconsin Academty of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Illinois.

Chicago, Alton, and St. Louis, Alton to Springfield . 72

Illinois Central, Chicago to Calumet (Kensington) . 14

Chicago and Rock Island, Chicago to Joliet..... . 40

Galena and Chicago Union, Belvidere to Rockford . 14

Michigan.

Michigan Southern, White Pigeon to Constantine . . 4

Wisconsin.

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Waukesha to Milton . 42

New mileage for 1852 . . 854

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1853 . 2,545

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1853.

Ohio.

Cleveland and Toledo, Cleveland to Sandusky . . . 61

Cleveland and Toledo, Grafton to Toledo . 88

Cleveland and Pittsburg, Bayard to Oneida . 6

P., Pt. W., and C'., Wooster to Crestline . 53

Ohio Central, Columbus to Newark . 33

Scioto and Hocking Valley, Portsmouth to Jackson . 44

Columbus, Piqua, and Indiana. Columbus to Urbana . . . 47

Springfield and London, Springfield to London . 19

C'in., Wilmington and Zanesville, Morrow to Washington . 41

Bellefontafne and Indiana, Bellefontaine to Sidney . . 23

Dayton and Michigan, Dayton to Piqua . . . 28

Dayton and Western, Dayton to Richmond (Ind.) . 40

Eaton and Hamilton, Eaton to Richmond . 17

Indiana.

Peru and Indianapolis, Noblesville to Tipton . 17

Indiana Central, Indianapolis to Richmond . 68

Indianapolis and Cincinnati, Lawrenceburgh to Indianapolis.. 90

Madison and Indianapolis, Columbus to Shelbyville . 23

Jeffersonville, Columbus to Edinburgh . 12

Cinci., and Martinsville, Franklin to Martinsville . 26

Evansville and Crawfordsville, Princeton to Vincennes . 24

New Albany and Salem, Crawfordsville to Michigan City . 119

Illinois.

Illinois Central, Calumet to Kankakee . 42

Illinois Central, Mendota to Bloomington — .* . 75

Chicago, Alton, and St. Louis, Bloomington to Springfield — 60

Chicago and Rock Island, Joliet to Genesco. . 119

Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, Aurora to Mendota . 45

Galena and Chicago Union, Rockford to Freeport . 29

Galena and Chicago Union, Belvidere to Beloit . 20

Wisconsin

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Milton to Stoughton . . . 18

New mileage for 1853 . 1.287

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1854 . . . . . 3,832

Not shown on maps.

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest . 271

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1854.

Ohio.

Cleveland and Pittsburg, Oneida to New Phila . 26

Cleveland and Pittsburg, Oneida to Carrollton . 11

Cleve., Zanesville, and Gin., Akron to Miller sburg. . . 47

Steubenville and Indiana, Stuebenville to Newmarket . 34

Steubenville and Indiana, Cadiz Jet. to Cadiz . . . 7

Ohio Central, Zanesville to Bellaire . 78

Cin., Wilmington and Zanesville, Washington to Lancaster — 48

Dayton, Xenia, and Belpre, Dayton to Xenia . 15

Springfield, Mt. Vernon, and Pittsburg, Springfield to Delaware 49

Columbus, Piqua, and Indiana, Urbana to Piqua. . . 25

Ohio and Mississippi. Cincinnati to Cochrane (Ind.) . 27

Bellefontaine and Indiana, Marion to Bellefontaine . 40

Bellefontaine and Indiana, Sidney to Union, (Ind) . 35

P., Ft. W., and C., Crestline to State Line. . . 112

Mad River and Lake Erie, Sandusky to.’ Tiffin . 33

Indiana.

New Albany and Salem, Orleans to Crawford sville . 112

Evansville and Crawfordsville, Terre Haute to Vinennes . 58

Peru and Indianapolis, Tipton to Peru . 35

Cincinnati and Chicago, Richmond to Newcastle . 27

P., Ft. W., and C., Sate Line to Ft. Wayne . . . 19

Illinois.

Terre Haute and Alton, Terre Haute to Charleston . 46

Terre Haute and Alton, Alton to Litchfield . 29

Ohio and Mississippi, Illinoistown to Sandoval . 61

Illinoistown and Belleville, Illinoistown to Belleville . 15

Illinois Central, Freeport to Galena . . . 50

Illinois Central, Mendota to Amboy . 10

Illinois Central, Bloomington to Decatur . 43

Illinois Central, Cairo to Sandoval . 118

Illinois Central, Kankakee to Urbana . . 72

Great Western (Wabash), Springfield to Decatur.... . 39

Chicago, Alton, and St. Louis, Bloomington to Joliet . 88

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, Mendota to Galesburg . 80

Peoria and Oquawka, Galesburg to Knoxville . 5

Peoria and Bureau Valley, Bureau to Peoria . 47

Chicago and Rock Island, Genesco to Rock Island . 23

Galena and Chicago Union, Aurora Jet., to Dixon . 68

Galena and Chicago Union, Elgin to Wis. State Line . 33

Chicago and Northwestern, Chicago to Cary . 38

Chicago and Milwaukee, Chicago to Waukegan . 85

Wisconsin.

Chicago and Northwestern, Fond du Lac to Chester . 18

Milwaukee and Watertown, Brookfield to Oconomowoc . . . 19

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Stoughton to Madison . 15

New mileage for 1854 . 1,796

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1855.. . . . 5,628

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1855.

Ohio.

Cleveland and Pittsburg, Wellsville to State Line . 11

Steubenville and Indiana, Newark to Newmarket . 83

Cin., Wilmington and Zanesv., Lancaster to Zanesville... . 42

Marietta and Cincinnati, Loveland to Byers . 100

Marietta and Cincinnati, Blanchester to Hillsboro . 21

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Scioto and Hocking Valley, Jackson to Hamden . 12

Cleveland and Toledo, Millbury to Sandusky . 40

Wabash, Toledo to State Line . . . 76

Indiana.

F., Ft. W., and 0., Ft. Wayne to Columbia . 20

Cincinnati and Chicago, Newcastle to Anderson . 21

Cincinnati and Chicago, Kokomo to Logansport . 22

Ohio and Mississippi, Cochrane to Mitchell . 100

Wabash, State Line to Ft. Wayne . . 18

Joliet and Northern Indiana, Lake to Joliet, (Ill.) . 45

Illinois.

Ohio and Mississippi, Vincennes to Sandoval . 87

Alton and Illinoistown, Alton to Illinoistown . 21

Terre Haute and Alton, Charlestown to Mattoon . 10'

Terre Haute and Alton, Litchfield to Pana . ' . 39

Illinois Central, Galena to Dunleith . 17

Illinois Central, Fteeport to Amboy . 48

Illinois Central, Decatur to Sandoval . 93

Illinois Central, Champaign to Mattoon . . . 44

Peoria and Oquawka, Galesburg to Burlington . 42

Galena and Chicago Union, Dixon to Fulton . 38

Chicago and Northwestern, Cary to Woodstock . 13

Chicago and Milwaukee, Waukegan to State Line . 10

Michigan.

Detroit and Milwaukee, Pontiac to Fentonville . 25

Michigan Southern, Constantine to Three Rivers . 8

Michigan Southern, Tecumseh to Manchester . 12

Detroit, Maumee, and Toledo, Detroit to Monroe . 41

Wisconsin.

Chicago and Northwestern, Beloit to Footville . . 16

Chicago and Milwaukee, State Line to Milwaukee . 40

Racine and Mississippi, Racine to Springfield . . . 34

Milwaukee and Watertown, Oconomowoc to Watertown . 12

La Crosse and Milwaukee, Milwaukee to Horicon . 54

New mileage for 1855 . 1,315

Total mileage, Jan. 1, 1856 . 6,943

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1856.

Ohio.

Cleveland and Mahoning, Cleveland to Warren . . 53

Cleveland, Pittsburg and Wheeling, Wellsville to Bellaire . 46

Marietta and Cincinnati, Byers to Athens . . . 34

Indiana.

P., Ft. W., and C., Columbia to Plymouth . 45

Wabash, Ft. Wayne to State Line . 143

Cincinnati, Peru, and Chicago, Plymouth to La Porte . 30

Illinois.

Galena and Chicago Union, Chicago to Harlem . 10

Wabash, State Line to Decatur . 81

Terre Haute and Alton, Mattoon to Pana . 39

Illinois Central, Mattoon to Centralia . 82

Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, Galesburg to Quincy . 100

Peoria and Oquawka, Elmwood tp El Paso . 67

Chicago and Northwestern, Woodstock to Janesville (Wis.).... 40

Michigan.

Detroit and Milwaukee, Fentonville to Owosso . . . 28

Detroit, Monroe, and Toledo, Monroe to Toledo, (Ohio) . 24

Paxson — Early Railways of the Old Northwest. 273

Wisconsin.

Fox R. Valley, State Line to Geneva . 9

Chicago and Northwestern, Chester to Minnesota Jc . 12

Racine and Mississippi, Springfield to Delavan . 12

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Madison to Mazomanie . 23

Milwaukee and Watertown, Watertown to Columbus . 19

La Crosse and Milwaukee, Horicon to Fox Lake . 17

Milwaukee and Horicon, Horicon to Waupun . 15

New mileage for 1856 . 929

Total mileage Jan. 1, 1857 . 7,872

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1857.

Ohio.

Cleveland and Mahoning, Warren to Youngstown . 14

Marietta and Cincinnati, Athens to Marietta... . . — 39

Dayton and Michigan, Piqua to Sidney . 12

Northern Indiana, Toledo to State Line..... . . 64

Indiana.

Northern Indiana, State Line to Goshen . . . 58

Ohio and Mississippi, Mitchell to Vincennes . 65

Illinois.

Peoria and Oquawka Eastern Extern, El Paso to Gilman . 43

Peoria and Oquawka, Knoxville to Elmwood . 20

Rock Island and Peoria, Rock Island to Coal Valley . 11

Michigan.

Detroit and Milwaukee, Owosso to Ionia . 46

Wisconsin.

Kenosha and Rockford, Kenosha to Fox River . 20

Racine and Mississippi, Delavan to Durand (Ill.) . 40

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Milton to Monroe....^ . 42

Milwaukee and Mississippi, Mazomanie to Prairie du Chien... 73

Mineral Point, Warren to Mineral Point . 32

Milwaukee and Watertown, Watertown to Sun Prairie . 25

La Crosse and Milwaukee, Fox Lake to Kilbourn . 44

Milwaukee and Horicon, Waupun to Ripon . 15

New mileage for 1857 . 663

Total mileage Jan. 1, 1858 . 8,535

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1858

Indiana.

P., Ft. W., and C., Plymouth to Chicago Jet. (Ill.) . . 75

Cincinnati and Chicago, Anderson to Kokomo . 36

Illinois.

Chicago and Alton, Joliet to Chicago . 35

Mississippi and Wabash, Warsaw to Carthage... . 16

Racine and Mississippi, Durand to Davis . . . 5

Michigan.

Detroit and Milwaukee, Ionia to Grand Haven . 65

Amboy, Lansing and Traverse Bay, Owosso to Laingsburgh. . 12

Michigan Southern, Manchester to Jackson . 16

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Wisconsin.

Chicago and Northwestern, Footville to Magnolia . . 4

Chicago and Northwestern, Oshkosh to Fond du Lac . 17

La Crosse and Milwaukee, Kilbourn to La Crosse . 87

Milwaukee and Horicon, Ripon to Berlin . 12

New mileage for 1858 . . 380

Total mileage Jan. 1, 1859 . 8,915

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1859

Ohio.

Dayton and Michigan, Sidney to Toledo . . 101

Fremont and Indiana, Fremont to Fostoria . . 20

Columbus, Piqua and Indiana, Piqua to Union . . . 33

Junction, Hamilton to College Corners . 20

Indiana.

Toledo, Logansport, and Burlington, Logansport to State

Line . . . . 60

Illinois.

Toledo, Logansport, and Burlington, State Line to Gilman.. 28

Wabash, Meredosia to Camp Point.. . 34

Racine and Mississippi, Davis to Freeport . 13

Kenosha and Rockford, Rockford to Harvard . 28

Michigan.

Detroit and Port Huron, Detroit to Port Huron . 58

Marquette and Bay de Noquet, Marquette to Mines . 17

Amboy, Lansing, and Traverse Bay, Laingsburgh to Bath.... 8

Wisconsin.

Sheboygan and Mississippi, Sheboygan to Plymouth . 14

Chicago and Northwestern, Janesville to Minnesota Junction.. 56

Kenosha and Rockford, Fox River to Genoa . 8

New mileage for 1859 . . . . 498

Total mileage Jan. 1, 1860 . . . . . . 9,413

RAILROADS COMPLETED DURING 1860.

Ohio.

Fremont and Indiana, Fostoria to Findlay . 16

Illinois.

Illinois River Valley, Pekin to Virginia . . 68*

Michigan.

Flint and Pere Marquette, Saginaw (twenty miles) . 20

Wisconsin.

Sheboygan and Mississippi, Plymouth to Glenbeulah . 7

New mileage for 1860 . 101

Total mileage Jan. 1, 1861 . . . 9.514

* The evidence for the operation of this section during 1860 is somewhat less than

conclusive.

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children.

275

A STUDY OF RETARDED CHILDREN IN A GROUP

OF NORTHWESTERN SCHOOL SYSTEMS.

BY FREEMAN E. LURTON., M. S., M. Av PH. D.

Definition of terms.

When a child fails, at the end of the school year, to win the

right to be promoted into the next grade, but must spend an¬

other year in the same grade, he is said to repeat the work of

that grade, or to be a “repeater.” Unless he makes up, by ex¬

tra effort, the work thus lost, and so regains his standing as a

member of the class with which he originally was, he is said to

be “retarded,” and remains so as long as he continues in school.

Scientific administration.

The fact that large numbers of children were thus retarded,

has, of late years, attracted considerable attention. Execu¬

tives, in all lines, are applying scientific methods in adminis¬

tering affairs, in the effort to eliminate waste and prevent loss.

Search for greater efficiency is the outstanding fact in business

today. Schools are not behind in their endeavors.

Three possible methods.

Eetardation may be studied from two points of view — one,

psychological and one administrative. Under the former there

might be an extensive series of tests to demonstrate authorita¬

tively what would be the normal mental endowment, in knowl¬

edge of data and power to reason, at a given age. Unfortu¬

nately such are now wanting, and investigations are proceed¬

ing in such a manner that one cannot be looked for in years, if

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ever. Sucli tests have been worked out abroad but on a lim¬

ited scale, and, moreover, are not necessarily applicable here.

Einet worked out, after years of preliminary effort, a scale

of tests to determine when children might be considered men¬

tally defective. Norms were established for each age from

three to thirteen. This scale of tests has been used extensively

in the New Jersey institution for the feeble-minded at Vine-

land and at the Illinois institution at Lincoln.

“These institutions, however, are concerned to know whether

these norms found for the successive ages of French children

are really norms which hold good for the same ages of Ameri¬

can children. Besides, Einet himself calls attention to this:

the Einet norms have been worked out for the children of the

working classes of Paris and vicinity. They may need some

revision when applied to other social classes and to other re¬

gions, even in France.” (Huey)

What then is their probable practical value to school admin¬

istrators, here and now, with the children actually before them

for educating? In the light of the above quotation the ques¬

tion answers itself. The theory is interesting, however. For

could such normis be satisfactorily determined they would fur¬

nish a psychological basis for ascertaining the amount of re¬

tardation now existing, and also for constructing scientifically

a course of study which should be so wisely adapted to the nor¬

mal child as to preclude the causing of more retardation among

children in the public schools unless they were mentally de¬

fective, and proper subjects for institutional treatment. Prac¬

tically all the literature, even the psychological journals, deal

with this question as one of practical school administration.

From this point of view the question is not “has the child, for

any reason, fallen below the psychologically established posi¬

tion for a child of his age” but rather “has he failed to meet

the requirements laid down by the administration, in the course

of study, for a child of his age?”

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children.

277

Two administrative views.

When we attempt to gather data upon this latter point, from

the school systems, in order to compute the amount or retarda¬

tion existing, whom shall we consider as being retarded ? Whom

shall we regard as having failed to meet such requirements?

We are confronted by two methods.

The progress method.

One set of workers demand that we shall ascertain the age at

which each individual pupil entered school, and then follow

him through the grades to see if he ever failed to win promo¬

tion. If he never thus failed he is never to be regarded as

retarded. According to this view a ten or even fifteen year old

child in the first grade is not retarded provided he has not

spent more than a year therein. In other words, the pupils

status, retarded or otherwise, is to be measured strictly by his

rate of progress through the grades after he enters, regardless

of his age at entrance or his age when investigated. The whole

theory can best be stated in the words of one of its most elo¬

quent advocates:1

“ ‘Retardation’ . . . has simply to do with the pupil’s

progress in his studies as a pupil, after he is once regularly

installed in school. It does not take into account his age

. If his parents deem it wise to keep him out of school

until the compulsory law would force him into school, then the

question of retardation or acceleration would begin soon there¬

after to operate. Retardation, except in a very remote way,

is not one of years, months, and days, but one of educational

velocity after one starts to school and it should be estimated on

his rate of speed through his studies.” “After a pupil is once

entered in school, no difference what his age may be, and he

does his work in the allotted time of his class, . . . that

pupil is not retarded in his studies and should not be so

counted.”

1 Supt. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. in School and Home Edu¬

cation for March, 19(19; also in MS.

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The advocates of this method have not won a large following

for several reasons. One difficulty with this method is that

it is nearly impossible to operate it. By it the study of large

groups of children, such as it is most desirable to study, is diffi¬

cult because each one must he traced by some system of records,

not by age as now, but by the date of his entrance into the sys¬

tem. Pew if any systems show this fact; because it has no

value except for this one purpose which is not the major one in

keeping school records, and would even for this purpose have no

value except in the few, comparatively, cases of those who en¬

tered later than the statutory age. In case children transfer

from one system to another as they do by thousands annually,

it is still more difficult to trace the age at entrance for the ex¬

ceptional ones. The “progress” theory neglects, too, the

broader social relations of the schools. The schools are es¬

tablished by the state for a purpose. The stern purpose of

making each and every one of its citizens who is mentally and

physically capable, prepare in the highest degree possible, for

his duties as a member of the state, both socially and economi¬

cally. This purpose is as stern as a measure of internal pro¬

tection, as war is for external protection against aggressions.

If therefore, a child who is otherwise able, remains out of

school beyond the time fixed by common experience and ex¬

pressed in the statutes of the state, while he may make normal

progress through the grades, after entrance, he nevertheless is

retarded in the sense that he gets out of school and into active

life, behind schedule time and actually behind those who en¬

tered on time. So, he has that much less of productive life.

He is forever retarded. Again we repeat, that the progress

theory wholly overlooks the manifest duty of parents and

schools, cooperating, to prepare the child as soon as possible,

consistent with reasonable efficiency, for performing its proper

economic functions as a member of a progressing society.

The age-in-grade method.

The other and most widely accepted method of determining

retardation is the age-in-grade method. By this, it is assumed

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children. 279

that all children enter school, or should enter school, at a given

age, that prescribed by law, spend a year in a grade and then

pass on into the next. That expresses the very meaning of

the term grade, i. e. a year of prescribed school work. This

method is easy of application, regardless of the records kept or

even if no records at all are kept. All the children in each

grade are present and can answer, on inquiry, as to their own

ages. Or parents, especially in case of the very young, can

easily be consulted.

Retardation as defined by Ayres.

“During the past few years the term “retarded” has been ap¬

plied with increasing uniformity to describe the condition of

school children who are too old for their grades. It describes

but it does not attempt to explain. It is applied to all chil¬

dren of this class whatever may be the cause or causes which ac¬

count for the fact that they are above the normal age for their

grades. They may have entered school late, or they may have

made slow progress ; under both circumstances they are termed

‘retarded.’

“How many able educators and among them some of the

keenest thinkers in the profession, have taken issue squarely

with those who use the term in this way and have argued that

the proper criterion for judging backwardness among school

children is not age in grade but rather rate of progress.

“Here we have two criteria, one setting up an arbitrary

standard which says that the boy who is eight years of age or

older in the first grade, nine years old or older in the second

grade, etc., is “retarded” and the other claiming that the

child who takes more than one year to complete the work of

one grade is retarded.

“The criterion which judges the extent of retardation in a

school system by telling how many of the children are too old

for their grades has won its way into nearly universal use be¬

cause it gives the quickest, clearest, and most easily understood

answers to these questions. To discover how many over-age

children are in his school system a superintendent has only to

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

draw up a table showing the distribution of children by grades

and ages and to draw through it a line separating the over-age

children from those of normal age.

“The objections that have been brought against this method

are : first, that it exaggerates the extent of the evil : and second,

that the facts shown are non- significant because the child who

enters school late is not retarded at all but will make such rapid

progress as to more than catch up with those who entered

earlier.

“Considering now the first of these two objections, is it true

that the age standard of measuring retardation exaggerates the

seriousness of the existing conditions ? In Yew York City

16,000 children graduated from the eighth grades last June.

Of these children 42 per cent had required more than eight

years to complete the eight grades. In another study of the

school histories of 19,000 children in Yew York it w'as found

that 23 per cent had made slower progress than that called for

by the course of study. In an article published in the Educa¬

tional Review for September, 1909, Dr. Roland P. Falkner

published data from a number of cities showing that when we

can apply both the age-in-grade and the progress criteria we

find almost without exception that the age standard understates

rather than overstates the extent of the evil.

“Turning now to the second objection we are confronted by

the claim that the child who enters school late readily over¬

comes, his initial handicap and by rapid progress soon catches

up with the children wdio entered early and even passes them.

Here again the question at issue can only be answered by an ap¬

peal to fact, not to opinion.

“Reference has been made to a study of the school records of

the 16,000 children who graduated from the eighth grades in

Yew York City last June. One part of that study consisted

of a tabulation of the records of progress made by the chil¬

dren who entered at each age. In this study only the records

of the children who started in the first grade and completed

the eight grades were taken into consideration. The results

are shown in the following table :

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children.

281

Age at Entering and Months Required to Complete Eight Grades,

“The lesson taught by the table is that children who enter

school late make a little more rapid progress than do those who

enter early, but that it is only a little more rapid. (The italics

are ours). To state it another way, the lesson is that the child

who enters late will notj as has been claimed, catch up with the

child who enters early. The figure which tells us howT many

over-age children there are in each lower grade is an important

figure because it helps to tell us how many children are not

going to be able to stay in school long enough to graduate.

“To summarize: retardation is a term used in educational

economics to signify a condition and a result, not an explana¬

tion of a result. A retarded child is a child who is too old for

tie grade he is in. Why he is too old the term does not attempt

to explain. Retardation is found to a greater or less extent in

all school systems. Because of it half of the children who en¬

ter our city schools fail to graduate. Retardation as calculated

by the age-in-grade standard has not been overstated. [From

Addresses and Proceedings of the National Educational Asso¬

ciation for 1910, p. 149 et. seq.]

Our system of public schools, as at present organized into

grades, is based upon certain fundamental theories which are,

in the mlain, the result of long experience in the effort properly

to train the young for the duties of mature life, and the plans

carried out in Minnesota do not vary markedly from the plans

usual to all parts of the country.

Briefly the plan for the elementary schools, that is the work

considered necessary to prepare a child for entrance into the

high school, is that children shall enter the schools at the age

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of six years, do a certain portion of the entire work in one year

which is termed the first grade, then be promoted into the next

grade called the second, and so on through eight years or grades

of work. Entrance at the age of six is not compulsory but

that is the legal entering age fixed by statute, and by well

marked custom has become the usual entering age of children.

It is, of course', a familiar fact, that each year some children

are not promoted in the public schools. That is, they are com¬

pelled to go over a certain portion of the established course of

study for a second time, thereby becoming retarded in their

progress through the grades.

IsTow the real basis of promotion is the course of study which

the administrative authorities of the schools have established

and which is, in short, nothing more or less than the amount

of work prescribed to be done in each of the eight years of the

elementary school. It prescribes the quantity of work to be

done. The authorities likewise establish a quality standard

for the work, or what is commonly termed the passing mark.

Promotion and non-promotion or retardation are always rela¬

tive to these two standards. The course of study itself is the

result of complex influences emanating from the past, from the

present, from the home, and in short from too many extra¬

schoolroom sources. Rarely, if ever, is it the product of care¬

ful experimentation, being worked out under the same sur¬

roundings and conditions under which it is to be applied.

Eor example: a superintendent from a cultured, old-settlecf

community may go into a new lumber, prairie, or mining town,

to take charge of the schools. The arranging of a course of

study being left mainly, if not wholly, in his hands he at oncft

applies his former course of study, without revision of any

sort, to these widely different children, and then wonders at tm

poor results. How many superintendents could stand up and

say they had prepared the course of study for the very children

who were attempting to follow its requirements. We need

more tailor-made courses of study and fewer ready-made ones.

We shall not attempt, either, within the scope of this thesis,

to discuss the subjects usually found in a course of study, either

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children. 283.

as to their values or why they are there, although both have a

vital hearing, I am sure, upon this question, in its final analy¬

sis. It may be dogmatically asserted, however, that it should

consist of such an amount of work that the average child for

whom it was prepared could easily master it in the designated

time, and all but a few could at least meet the minimum re¬

quirement in the same time.

If the average child can just comfortably carry the work

required by the course of study for a given year then about

an equal number ought to be able to accomplish more and be¬

come advanced. This is the mere expression of a hope, for in

actual practice they do not, as our figures will show, to any

great extent, while far more than the fair proportion fail to ac¬

complish the required amount of work and drop behind, “re¬

peaters” and thereafter retarded so long as they remain in

school.

In whole systems of schools scarcely a child is in advance of

the proper grade for his age. On the other hand, very many

fail to keep up with their grades, drop back into the next lower

one, and finally drop out of school, often early in the course,

discouraged, to swell the great army of untrained workers who

struggle from end to end of life for the means to maintain de¬

cent existence. From the school standpoint that is the very

thing education hopes to prevent or at least mitigate.

It is with these sub-average children that we are concerned

at this moment, and with the conditions that have to do with

determining their unfortunate status. There are, of course,

many factors that must be taken into consideration in any at¬

tempt to study the elusive problems of repeating and retarda¬

tion, their cause, significance, and possible remedies.

Asa preliminary matter, it is well to study some of the feat¬

ures of school organization and practice in Minnesota. Di¬

versity or uniformity in these matters will affect our study and

interpretation of retardation statistics. In order to make cer¬

tain that the practices governing the entrance and promotion of

children were fairly uniform some questions were addressed

to the superintendents who furnished the data on which much

of this thesis is based, and their answers are summarized below®

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Regarding entrance : nine schools admit at five years of age ;

ten schools at five and one-half years or if six by Christmas or

the end of the first semester. All others admit at six. Or to

state it more simply: thirty-one admit at six and twenty-one

at less than six years of age. The average entering age, then,

of each child, if he entered at his earliest opportunity, would

be considerably less than six years. We have, however, reck¬

oned the entering age at six, giving the schools, as systems, the

benefit of the doubt. And it might further be said that in all

computations of percentages of children who are advanced,

normal, or retarded the small fractions of percentages have

been arbitararily assigned to the column headed ‘normal/ again

giving the doubt to the schools.

The claim is frequently made that many children enter

school at an age greater than the minimum allowed by law.

In the schools reporting there were 2,691 children in the first

grade. How many were repeaters, unfortunately I do not

know, hut only 441 were above six years of age when then en¬

tered. From another investigation I ascertained that the aver¬

age per cent age of repeaters was 7.4. Assuming that to hold

true for the first grade, then the number of repeaters among

the 2,691 first grade children we are studying, would he 199,

leaving 2,492 as the estimated number who entered for the first

time into the first grade. The 441 over-age children at en¬

trance would he 17.6% of this number while the 207 who en¬

tered before they were six would he 8.3% leaving as the net

percentage who were over-age at entrance as 9.3. To further

overcome this figure we must remember that many children

who are nearly six are entered as being six by anxious parents,

and they remain on the records as being slightly older all the

time, than they really are. Also offset by the “on trial” and

second year promotions.

[Next, considering the standard required for passing from one

grade to another we find surprising uniformity in the face of

the fact that in Minnesota each school system is at liberty to

fix its own requirements in these respects. In the grades be¬

low the high school, six schools promote on a basis of 70%,

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children. 285

forty -four on 75%, one on 80% and one on 85%. In general

then, about 80% of these school systems require 75% as the

passing mark.

The final marks are made up in all cases of both class work

and examinations, and in the following proportions:

The next practice that might affect the amount of retardation

is the question of how frequently promotions are made. The

facts are very uniform: fifty-two promote yearly, in June, two

promote half-yearly, and one “when ready,” whatever that

means.

This rigid system of class marks, examinations, and annual

promotions, while seemingly an essential part of the necessary

system, so long as we are obliged to handle children in large

masses, say forty to a teacher, would appear, offhand, to be the

most serious obstacle to the easy progress of a pupil through

the grades. And while at the present moment we are concern¬

ing ourselves with those who are retarded, there is another

aspect of the question — that of the child of especial promise.

Can he progress faster than a grade a year ? I asked how many

schools were in the habit of selecting for promotion whenever

they were ready, such children. [Forty-five schools say that

they do, often if not generally qualifying the statement with

•such words as ‘seldom/ ‘rarely/ etc. Eight schools say no. So

much for the willingness of the schools to promote children in¬

dividually, because it might be the means whereby retarded

children would regain their lost place with their grade. The

number of such promotions actually made is insignificant.

Twenty-one schools, the only ones making definite answers, did

so promote only 166 children last year. Comparing this num¬

ber with the number that failed of promotion at all, and yon

see there is little hope in this practice.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

At this point I want to call attention to two practices com¬

mon among superintendents which tend to conceal much of the

real existing retardation. Neither one of them, so far as I

can recall, have ever been mentioned in the literature of the

subject. The first is the practice of arbitrarily promoting a

child at the end of the second year in the grade, whether his

work merits it or not. The repeating or retardation concealed

by this practice is the very worst sort, namely, second-time

repeating. Promoting thus on sympathy forces the child

through the grades whether he merits it or not. x\kin to this

is another practice which has the same effect. It is the custom

of promoting children “on trial,” even if they do not quite meet

the requirements of the class where for one reason or another

they are permitted to remain. And need it he added that when

once a child has been allowed to go on with the class he is rarely

reduced to the grade below, no matter how poor his work ? The

causes which • operated to place him above the grade he merited

operate to keep him there.

The data in hand show 1612 children promoted on trial this

year; and there are no figures to show how many were arbi¬

trarily promoted at the end of the second year in the grade.

But there can be no doubt that these two practices reduce ma¬

terially the number of repeating and retarded children.

With this consideration of the problem itself, of the organi¬

zation of the schools, and the circumstances tending to obscure

the real amount of retardation, we next turn our attention to

the data upon the question. To obtain this a questionnaire

was sent to all the state high schools in Minnesota. The re¬

turns secured were good in quantity and quality and from

schools sufficiently scattered to give fair representation to 'the

conditions prevailing in all sections of the state, geographically,

socially, and educationally. The largest four cities were pur¬

posely omitted to preserve unimpaired the essentially rural con¬

ditions governing the other returns.

The figures presented are those from fifty-five high school

systems, with 1.7,279 children in the grades below the high

school. We shall deal only with grade children because in

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children. 287

the high schools promotions are usually made by subjects and

class or grade lines are to that extent broken down and there¬

fore retardation in the usual sense of the term does not exist,

or cannot be accurately computed.

The complete results of the investigation are given in Table

A. Attention is called to the fact that the data were gathered

in the fall and deals only with children actually enrolled and

in attendance. This makes the showing favorable to the schools,

for some children who failed to win promotion in the spring,

no doubt dropped out during the sumimer.

Retardation is computed upon the basis of entering at six

and spending a single year in a grade and no more.

Table A. — Shows grade by grade , and by sex, the amount of retardation.

In examining this table you will note four things, mostly

facts that are contrary to popular belief. First, the boys

equal or exceed the girls in number in every grade up to the

seventh where they fall only four behind. It is in or at the

close of the seventh grade that the boy meets his decisive de¬

feat. Secondly, the workings of the process of elimination

can best be seen in the last three grades. Thirdly, and most

important, the retardation begins heavily in the first grade and

steadily increases grade by grade through the eighth, with the

exception of the slight downward drop of the curve in the

seventh grade due probably to the rapid elimination at that criti¬

cal point. Fourthly, the retardation of the boys is greater than

that of the girls right from the start and remains so, grade by

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

grade, varying from an excess of 1.1%' in the first grade to

7% in the eighth grade.

The average percentage of retardation officially reported to

exist in these schools, under their own standard of require¬

ments, is 59.3%. When the course of study makes such re¬

quirements that only 40.7% of the pupils can and do meet them,

we have a curious state of affairs, where to be abnormal is the

usual or normal state of matters.

The Ayres’ standard of retardation.

In the investigations carried on by Leonard P. Ayres, Ph. D.,

and published by the Russell Sage Foundation, children in the

first grade are considered normal if they are under eight years

of age. In the second grade ages under nine are normal, and

so on through the grades. The reasons for thus allowing an

extra year for each grade are not given. The text dismisses it

by merely saying that these are the ages allotted to those grades

by “common consent.” But it certainly is not in accord with

the practice as reported to me by the superintendents in Minne¬

sota. Its effect is to conceal one year’s retardation for each

and every child during his progress through the grades, pro¬

vided he entered at six years of age, and last year, as we have

shown, only 441 children in these schools were over six years

of age at the time of entrance.

See how Mr. Ayres’ plan would work out. A child enter¬

ing the first grade at six should be in the second grade at seven,

the third grade at eight, and so on. How suppose he fails to

be promoted at the end of the first year and remains in the

first grade two years, repeating the work and surely retarded,

yet his age when he enters the second grade would be only

eight, and that by the Ayres method would be considered nor¬

mal. It is clear then that by this method it is possible for

every child in an entire school system to be retarded one year

and yet for the system when tested by the Ayres method to ap¬

pear absolutely free from retarded pupils. That is unsound.

The Joint Committee on Retardation and Statistics ap¬

pointed by the Minnesota Superintendents’ Association and the

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children.

289

Minnesota Psychological conference, of which the writer was a

member, unanimously states its position thus :

“The Minnesota schools are organized on the assumption

that all children enter the first grade at six years of age, and

that children normal in body and mind will advance one grade

each year. This is the theory supporting not only our state

schools, but their entire administration, and the theory fixes

a certain normal school age for all children in each successive

grade. Prom the administrative point of view, the child of

six is in his proper place in the first grade, the child of seven

in the second grade, and so on until under the Minnesota plan

of school organization, a child should begin his eighth grade

work at fourteen and finish at fifteen. The child who does not

enter the first grade till he is seven is already behind schedule

and loses as a result, a year or two of economically productive

life, which, after all, is what the state would avoid in the

theoretical organization of the schools.

“This retardation the committee designates as administrative

retardation.

“It must be manifest, of course, that a report which shows

the number of pupils too old for their respective grades will

not indicate the number of mentally defective children in the

schools. The number of over age pupils in any system of

schools will always be larger than the number of feeble-minded.

The number of children in the public schools of Hew York

City whose mental defectiveness is recognized is seven thou¬

sand, or about one per cent of the total school attendance. If

expert neurologists examined all the children, the number

would probably reach ten thousand. Haturally, the number of

mental defectives who come into the Children’s Courts would

form a higher percentage than would be shown in the schools.

And while in the schools a certain small number is pressed into

the ungraded classes established for children unable to make

normal progress, where they are provided with special instruc¬

tion, there is, nevertheless, no real sifting-out process. Even

if there were, the city at present has no adequate provision for

the proper treatment of such mental defectives.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences \ Arts , and Letters.

For the sake of comparison the data in table A has been

computed by the Ayres standard and is given in Table B.

There the average percentage of retardation is 30.9. That is

bad enough. This is really only, however, 52.6% of the amount

actually known to exist in these schools. The balance is con¬

cealed by the allowance of the extra year to the grades, for pos¬

sible late entrants, who are too few to justify such an allow¬

ance.

A few other statistics are given for the sake of illustrative

comparison, computed on both bases.

The schools in item two above are those known technically

as “graded schools.” They are mostly small, ranging from

four to six teachers as a rule; but they are inspected for state

aid and are the schools from which the high schools of the state

rise. The four special cities are not included in the fifty-five

given above, but are among the largest and best cities, by com¬

mon reputation, in the state.

hurt on — A Study of Retarded Children.

291

Repeaters.

Possibly one of the best ways to approach the question of re¬

tardation is to ascertain the number of repeaters in the sys¬

tem because about them there can be no question as to age at

entrance or the proper age for each grade. Elimination will

work confusion here as before; nothing can prevent that. But

all the time we must bear in mind that the “repeaters” are only

one year’s contribution to the full army of retarded children.

In order to ascertain, at first hand, the amount of repeat¬

ing in the schools of Minnesota, I sent out a printed question¬

naire to all the superintendents in the state. Hinety-six,

slightly less than one-half, replied promptly and with well-

arranged data. The returns cover a total of 40,710 children in

the grades of these schools. The number found to be repeating

the work of their grade, and the per cent, of the total number

of repeaters to be found in each grade is as follows: —

Also, 168 others were repeating the work for the second time.

This is 7.4% of the total grade enrollment in the 96 school

systems studied, but even this does not adequately measure the

ground lost by pupils in these schools owing to the pratices, to

which I have previously called attention, of prompting “on

trial” and also arbitrarily at the end of the second year, chil¬

dren who, measured by the same scale as the others, are realty

entitled to be repeaters.

We have some reliable figures from St. Paul upon this point

for they have been studying the matter there with the practical

view of modifying their administration and creating new types

of schools to remove the evil so far as possible.

Superintendent Heeter, of St. Paul, addressing the general

session of the Minnesota Educational Association in 1909 said

“One thousand, nine hundred thirty two children, almost two

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

thousand, are just now going over a term’s work for the second

time” The grade enrollment was, at that time, in round num¬

bers, 23,000. Therefore, 8.4% were repeating. This year the

number of repeaters in St. Paul is 1,726 in the grades.

Having studied the laggards in our Minnesota schools from

two standpoints, it is interesting to note how strikingly the re¬

sults agree. We found the percentage of retardation to he 59.3

and that of the repeaters to be 7.4. How, bearing in mind that

the number of repeaters in merely one year’s quota of the re¬

tarded ones, and multiplying the 7.4 by eight, the number of

years in the grade course, we have 59.2 as the calculated num¬

ber of laggards. The ascertained number is only .1 of one per

cent, more than this.

Causes.

The essential thing in a study of an unsatisfactory educa¬

tional condition is to find out its causes in order to proceed ra¬

tionally to discover and apply a remedy. There are two sources

from which we might expect to derive information as to the

causes of retardation. One is the teachers. The other is the

children themselves. The form'er is the one most generally

used and is the one we are to use. But the vital source is the

retarded children themselves. In the last analysis, the true

solution of the whole vast problem will come, if it ever does

come, as the result of a wide-spread study of the cause from the

viewpoint of the affected individuals. That will be a long,

delicate and arduous task but the fruits will be rich. We must

see the faults of the school system as the child whom it has

failed to serve effectively sees it, and through his eyes. Then,

seeing why he fails and getting his point of view we will be

ready to adjust schools to his requirements. But at present we

are not in a position to reach the solution of the question from

that angle. So we resort to the easier though less effective one

of finding out what the teachers believe to be the true causes of

retardation.

The causes as given by the superintendents of these schools]

do not pretend to be based upon any special or scientific sifting

hurt on — A Study of Retarded Children. 293

of the question. They are the offhand statements of the heads

of these schools, hut even then they are very valuable, for these

men are professional educators living in daily contact with this

problem in its concrete manifestations, and it is their duty to

study it all the time in the administration of their schools. F or

that reason high value should be attached to their opinions.

Several causes are usually given by each superintendent, so

the causes are given below in the order of the highest number

of times that they are mentioned by those reporting. The com¬

bined results, then, are as follows : —

Irregular attendance. . .

Mental incapacity .

Home conditions .

Foreigners .

Dislike for school work,

Illness . .

From country schools. . .

Poor teaching .

Social pleasures .

Lack of ambition . .

Laziness .

Physical defects .

Parochial schools. .......

26

24

23

10

9

6

5

4

Lack of application .

Outside work. .

Malnutrition .

No home occupations,

Beer and tobacco .

Poor school facilities,

Shifting population . . .

Rapid development. . .

Immaturity .

No home study .

Skipping grades . . .

Ill treatment .

Bad habits . .

4

3

2

1

This will repay careful study. It has in it some things that

are contrary to much of the arm-chair philosophy on the sub¬

ject. The fact of foreign birth or the speaking of a foreign

language in the home seems not to be a serious factor. The

dicta of Dr. L. H. Gulick who says “retardation is not due to

physical defects” and “over-age children have the fewest de¬

fects,” are corroborated here. How much of this calls for

medical treatment and how much for pedagogic treatment it is

impossible to say. The economic condition of the home seems,

likewise, to figure very little. It apparently resolves itself to a

large extent into a moral question and one of home integrity

at that.

It would seem that the principal causes of retardation are

largely beyond the control of the school. Possibly school-men

hesitate to place the blame upon the schools over which they

hold control. Put the fault with schoolmen is that they are

usually too free to blame the schools and charge them with

faults. The writer expressed himself in an article published

in The Journal of the Minnesota State Medical Association

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

upon this point as follows: “And if, perchance, you attend a

teachers’ association, or read the printed proceedings thereof,

yen will he impressed, I am sure, by the frank and fearless way

in which the shortcomings, as well as the successes, of the schools

are discussed as to both matter and methods. What for?

Simply to learn how to make them better, and thus render a

larger social service.”

The child, too, is scarcely responsible for “mental incapacity”

or “home conditions” though he may be to a degree for irregular

attendance. The extent of the time lost by non-attendance

may he indicated by the statement that schoolmen consider 150

days out of the 180 days that schools are in session, a good aver¬

age attendance for each child. That much loss is calculafed

for in arranging the course of study and planning promotion.

The Money Cost of Repeating.

V ast sums are lost to the country yearly because of repeating.

We recognize that not every child who repeats represents a

money loss for in a small system especially, he may he merely

added to the number coming from the grade below and the only

extra cost he will, in that case, represent will he the supplies

used. But in the larger systems where new rooms are being

opened constantly, half-day sessions held, new buildings erected,

and where the plant is never quite adequate to care for the chil¬

dren, then and there the repeater because he spends one more

year than he ought, in the schools, adds one-eighth of the total

cost of educating him every time he repeats a grade. The exact

cost can never be arrived at with mathematical exactness, but

some calculations cannot fail to cast light on the enormous pos¬

sibilities of the evil.

In fifty-five large cities, studied by Ayres, with an average

enrollment of 34, 687 for each city, he found 15.4 of all the

pupils to be repeating their work. He figures the cost of the

repeaters to be $13,705,464, to those cities. That is an aver¬

age of $43.92 per child. In St. Paul the estimated cost of re¬

peaters for one year is $67,000.

Our findings for Minnesota show a much smaller number of

repeaters than do the large cities studied by Ayres, and that is

Lurt on — A Study of Retarded Children. 295

to be expected because these are rural towns where the matter

of education is less interferred with by the many distractions in¬

cident to city life.

Minnesota spends nearly $15,000,000 annually on her

schools. On the basis of 7.4% repeating this would mean a loss

approximating $1,110,000 yearly.

The latest report of the National Commissioner of Education

shows a national expenditure of $371,344,410 for the common

schools. With a 7.4% loss the amount would be $27,479,485.

The next item is reduced from the 1907 report of the Minne¬

apolis schools. There were, that year, 44,683 children in the

schools. Of them 8,465 were repeaters. They cost the city

the sum of $258,647. That was 18.9% of the total expendi¬

tures.

The Social and Economic Loss.

And to this gigantic money-cost there are two things to be

added. One is the moral and ethical loss suffered by the indi¬

viduals who repeat; that is past human computation. We owe

it to the children, to ourselves, to society, to prevent, if it be

possible, such waste. We find, according to the location of the

schools, from 7.4% to 15.4% of our boys and girls repeating

the work of one year’s preparation. That is, wasting one year

of life. Boys furnish 13% more repeaters than do girls, ac¬

cording to the following table, taken from Laggards in Our

Schools.

Number of repeaters among boys and girls in fourteen cities:

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

How one of three things must happen. The repeaters must

make up that lost year by extra work, which very few can or

do do, or they must spend one extra year in completing the

course, or they must drop out without fully completing the

course, and in the latter two cases, handicapped to that extent,

go to life’s economic efforts. But wdiether poorly prepared or

not, the year is lost. According to the report of the National

Commissioner of Education for 1907 there were 17,061,962

pupils, urban and rural, in the school of the country. On the

Minnesota basis of repeaters, 7.4% of that number is 1,262,585

pupils. On the Ayres basis of 15.4% the number would be

2,627,542 pupils. That is significant. Every year we lose in

human energy the equivalent of from 1,262,585 to 2,627,542

years of work. Allowing thirty years to be the average work¬

ing life of a man, then this loss equals the absolute perishing

from the face of the earth of from 42,086 to 87,584 men an¬

nually. That is a serious drain upon the resources of the na¬

tion. It is more than a mere school problem. It becomes a

national, economic problem of great magnitude.

Estimating roughly, Minnesota thus loses annually, in the

time lost by her repeaters, and amount of time equal to the

active working life of about 842 men on the 7.4% basis.

The figures showing cost in money and in time will vary ac¬

cording to the method of approaching the problem, but even

these general and varying computations are sufficient to con¬

vince one that there is a crying necessity for such a study of the

problem as may lead to changes that will amount to a remedy.

What are the schools doing to correct the evil? Practically

nothing as yet. These evils are the product, or a by-product, of

the present system. Evidently there must be changes in the

course of study and in the organization of the system. Some

new solution must be worked out.

Some Constructive Remedies.

It is relatively easy to find out the extent of this evil ; also

to approximate its causes, but it is not so easy to suggest con¬

structive remedies. And admittedly there must be a reason-

Lurton — A Study of Retarded Children.

297

able amount of experimentation in reaching a rational solution

of the problem. But a few suggestions, looking toward a solu¬

tion, may not be out of place.

First. There should be fewer children to a teacher, thus per¬

mitting mlore attention to the individual child.

Second. There should be more frequent promotions, mak¬

ing the course more flexible, so that there would be less time lost

and less discouragement, in case of failure.

Third. There should be more ungraded rooms for children

who are irregular in their work in the several subjects. It

would be a benefit to the regular ones to have the irregular re¬

moved from the grade thus.

Fourth. There should be extra teachers, not in charge of

rooms, to go from room to room to assist pupils with their dif¬

ficulties, while the regular teacher is busy with recitations.

Fifth. There should be adequate medical and dental inspec¬

tion, with work by municipal paid physicians and nurses to fol¬

low it up.

Sixth. There should be better playgrounds and gymnasiums,

with properly supervised activities.

Seventh. There should be better teachers, more imbued with

the professional spirit, with keener sympathies and better prep¬

aration, who will awaken new life and interest in the pupils.

Eighth. There should be more men teachers for the boys.

Hot more hoy teachers, but men with school and life experience;

preferably mlarried men with boys of their own. Men who

know boys.

Hinth. A better truancy law on right principles, excusing

from school attendance only when the course is completed and

not when a certain AGE is reached. The enforcement of this

law should be compulsory, under penalty.

Tenth. There should be a better adaptation of the course of

study to the needs and capacities and tastes of the children.

Work so difficult, so uninteresting, with passing standards so

high as to promote failure and discouragement are really, at

bottom, low and vicious standards. Further, such readjust¬

ment of the course of study ought to be taking place constantly,

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

year by year, such revision constituting one of the superinten¬

dent’s most important duties.

Eleventh. More time should be given to the assignment of

te lesson, showing more in detail what is important, and what is

less so, and indicating what will be expected in the next lesson.

There should be more TEACHING and less HEARING OF

RECITATIONS.

Twelfth. Pupils should be taught; not subjects. That is,

teachers should change their point of view in the recitation, in

which the child and not the subject is the center of effort.

Thirteenth. The study period should follow the recitation

period and not precede it. The time to prepare a fresh lesson

is just after the inspiration of the class recitation and discus¬

sion, and not just before the class is called out. We all feel like

doing a thing immediately after seeing how some one else does

it.

By calling the attention of the parents and teachers to the

elements of this problem, by applying some, not all, of the above

remedies in the schools of which I have charge, we were enabled

is one year to reduce the number of retarded children fourteen

per cent.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

299

OFFICIUM PASTORUM: A STUDY OF THE DRAMATIC

DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE LITURGY

OF CHRISTMAS.

KAKL YOUNG

The liturgical plays of tlie Christmas season constitute, no

doubt, the most varied and most appealing dramatic group of

the liturgical year. Although the plays attached to the liturgy

of Holy Week and of Easter are inspired by a more profound

doctrinal intent, the Christmas plays, in their intimacy, pictur¬

esqueness, and variety, are more stimulating to humble personal

piety and more lively to a humble dramatic sense.

These plays connected with the Nativity may he grouped as

follows: (1) a play of the prophets (Processus Pro^hetarum) ,

associated with Christmas Hay, or with the octave of Christ¬

mas; (2) a play of the shepherds (Officium Pastorum) , per¬

formed on Christmas day ; (3) a play of the killing of the chil¬

dren (Ordo Rachelis), for Innocents’ Hay (Dec. 28); and

(4) a play of the Magi (Officium Stellas ), for Epiphany (Jan.

6). Although none of these dramatic offices has been over¬

looked by historians of the drama,1 recent accessions of fresh

materials from manuscripts call for renewed discussion. In

the following pages, then, I confine my attention to the liturgy

of Christmas Day and attempt a fresh account of the develop¬

ment and associations of the Officium Pastorum .2

1 See E. K. Chambers, The Medieval Stage , Oxford, 1903, Vol. II,

pp. 41-56.

2 In the present study I am under constant obligation to my friends

Reverend H. M. Bannister, of Rome, and Le Reverend P§re Dom

G. M. Beyssac, O. S. B., of the Abbey of Solesmes. In general reply

to more than one inquiry I may be allowed to say here that the

present article, along with several others already published, repre-

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

I

The most important dramatic germ of the liturgy of Christ¬

mas was long ago recognized in a trope of the Introit of the

third Mass of Christmas morning ( Missa in Die, Magna Missa ,

or Missa Major).1 The simplest form of this trope is repre¬

sented by the following :

2 AT) D 0'M.ini c om. missam:

Quern quenUs in presepe, pastores, dicite?

Saluatorem Xpistum Dominum.

sents part of a general treatise on the subject of liturgical drama

which I now have well under way. The needs of my own classes in

the subject and the importance of certain new texts prompt me to

publish, from time to time, detached sections, which are less in¬

telligible in their isolation than they will be, I hope, when they are

disposed in a treatise and are preceded by necessary prologomena.

iSee L>. Gautier, Historire de la Poesie Liturgique. I Les Tropes,

Paris, 1886, p. 218; W. Creizenach, Gesohichte des Neueren Dramas ,

Vol. I, Halle, 1893, p. 57; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, Ox¬

ford, 1903, Vol. II, p. 41; H. Anz, Die lateinischen Magierspiele,

Leipzig, 1905; pp. 37-42. A non-critical text of this trope based upon

six manuscripts is found in Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi (ed. C.

Blume and G. M. Dreves), Vol. XLIX, Leipzig, 1906, pp. 8-9. My ob¬

servations are based upon my own study of texts in twenty five manu¬

scripts. This study was made possible by the great kindness of

Reverend H. M. Bannister, of Rome, and through the use of Mr.

Bannister’s list of troparia, now published in Analecta Hymnica, Vol.

XLVII, pp. 22-25. I have not seen the texts to be found in Turin,

Bibl. Regia, MS. F. IV. 18, Troparium Bobbiense saec. xii, fol. 10r,

and Pistoia, Bibl. Capit., MS. 70, Troparium Pistoriense saec. xl-xii,

fol. 14a The absence of this trope from the St. Gall troparia is,

of course, noteworthy. Anz (p. 38) is in error in associating this

trope with St. Gall.

2 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS. latin 887, Troparium — Sdquen-

tiarium — Prosarium Sancti Martini (?) Lemovicenis saec. xi, fol. 9a

The same simple form of the trope is found in the following: Paris,

Bibl. Nat., MS. latin 13252, Troparium Sammaglorianum saec. xii, fol.

3r; IMd., MS. lat. 903, Troparium Sancti Aredii Lemovlcensis saec. xi,

fol. 147v; IMd., MS. lat. 1119, Troparium Sancti Augustini Lemovi-

censis saec. xi, fol. 4r; IMd., MS. lat. 1121, Troparium Martialense

saec. xi, fol. 2r-2v; IMd., MS. lat. 9449, Troparium Nivernense saec.

xi, fol. 7r; IMd., MS. lat. 1084, Troparium Martialense saec. xi, fol.

53v~54r; IMd., Nouvelle Acquisition, MS. lat. 1235, Graduale-Troparium

Nivernense saec. xii, fol. 183v-184r; IMd., Nouv. acq., MS. lat. 1871,

Troparium Moissiacense saec. xi, fol. 4r; Huesca, Bibl. Capit., MS. 4,

Troparium Oscense saec. xi-xii, fol. 124r; Modena, Bibl. Capit., MS.

O. I. 7., Troparium Ravennatense saec. xi.-xii, fol. 6v-7r (fragment) ;

Placentia, Bibl. Capit., MS. 65, Troparium-Hymnarium Placentinum

saec. xii, fol. 229^ (fragment) ; Vercelli, Bibl. Capit., MS. 146, Tro¬

parium Vercellense saec. xi, fol. 107r; Vercelli, Bibl. Capit., MS. 161,

Troparium Vercellense saec. xii, fol. 118v; Vercelli, Bibl. Capit., MS.

162, Troparium Vercellense saec. xii, fol. 187r-187v; Vich, Museum,

MS. 31, Troparium Vicense saec. xii-xiii, fol. 30r; Vich, Museum,

MS. 124, Processionale saec. xiii-xiv, fol. Av-Ba

Young — Officium Pastorum.

301

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.1

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria, matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinando Isaias dixerat propheta :

Ecce uirgo concipie£ et pariet filium ;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

Alleluia, alleluia.

Iam uere scimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta, dicentes :

Psalmus. Puer natus est.2

This trope, which has no textual basis in the Vulgate or in the

liturgy of Christmas, seems obviously to be modeled upon a

well known Easter Introit-trope, of which the simplest form is

shown in the following :

it em de RESUKRec^oue Domim :

int errogatio : Quern queritis in sepulchro, Xpicticole ?

r<espox’sio> : Ihcym nazarenum crucifixum, o caelicolae.

Xion est hie ; surrexit sicut predixerat ;

Ite, nuntiate quia surrexit de sepulchro.

Pesurrexi.3

Upon this model, then, arose a Christmas Introit-trope, to the

development and varieties of which we may now turn our at¬

tention.4

Although the text of this trope printed above (Bibl. nat.,

MS. lat. 887, fol. 9V) suggests dialogue, no explicit indication is

given as to the manner in which it was rendered. A vague in¬

dication of this sort is given in the following:

5 < Quern > queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite?

lrrhe arrangement of the lines in my printed texts of this trope is

not to be interpreted as an attempt to establish poetical form in a

composition that is clearly prose. Cf. C. Blume, Repertorium Reper-

toni (Hymnotogische Beitrage, Vol. IIJ, Leipzig, 1901, p. 268.

2 The beginning of the Introit.

* St. Gall, MS. 484, Troparium Sangallense saec. x, p. 111. For a

facsimile see Gautier, p. 216.

4 Cf. Chambers, Vol. II, p. 41; Anz, p. 38.

'Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS. latin 909, Troparium-Sequen-

tiarium Martialense saec. xi, fol. 9r.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

versus: Saluatorem Xpistum Dominum,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

versus: Adest hie paruulus cum Maria mjatre sua,

de <fol. 9V> qua dudum uaticinando Isayas dixerat pro¬

phet :

Ecce uirgo concipie£ et pari et filium;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

t ropus: Alleluia, alleluia.

Iam uere seimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta, dicentes :

1a ntiphona: Puer nat us est nobis. Tsalmus: Cantate Dom¬

ino. ii.1

The rubrics of this text, brief as they are, indicate clearly that

the trope w’as rendered in dialogue form. The two “Versus”

may have been sung by alternating half -choirs, and the conclud¬

ing passage, Alleluia , alleluia. Iam uere . . . dicentes,

by the whole choir.

An addition to the trope itself, along with a further division

into parts, is shown in the following:

2tro pm:

Quern queritis in presepe, pastures, dicite ?

versus: Saluatorem Xpistum Dominum,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

versus: Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de quo dudum uaticinando Ysayas dixerat propheta :

versus: Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium ;

iet nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

versus: Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

Iam uere seimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta,, dicentes :

Puer natus est nobis.

11 The Introit of the Magna Missa of Christmas. This text is fol¬

lowed immediately in the manuscript by the following fresh Introit

trope: Tropws: Gaudeamus hodie quia Deus .

2 Ivrea, Codex Capituli 60, Graduale-Troparium Eporediense saec.

xi in., fol. 10v.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

303

versus: Ora est psallite; iube, domne, canere1 eia.2

The trope is still a mere introduction to the Introit. The ad¬

ditional verse, Ora est , psallite; iube , Domne t cartere; eia <eia

dicite> , is not easily explained as it stands before us in the

text. This passage is found several times, in other manuscripts,

as an introduction to this or that well known trope, and is char¬

acterized by Gautier as “le trope d? un trope.”3 In the present

case it may be intended as an introduction to the trope that fol¬

lows in the manuscript, or it may be a special festal introduc¬

tion to the Introit proper, following upon the general intro¬

ductory trope Quem quceritis. A more probable explanation,

however, miay be suggested by a detail in the following:

4ix die Nataix DomiNi STAao ad sanctuM petru m.

INCIPIENT TEOP US5 ANTEQUAm DICAT UT OFFICmm.4

Quem queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite ?

Respondent : Saluatorem Xpistum Domsinum,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

Respondent : Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uatizinando Isaias dixerat propheta:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et paries filium ;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

'Respondent : Alleluia, alleluia.

Tam uere scimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo <fol. 9r> eanite omnes cum propheta dicentes:

Awtiphonas son i <vii> :6 Puer na tus <est nobis >.

1 MS canetet.

2 Followed immediately by:— Tropws: Gaudeamus hodie, quia Deus

descendit . , a fresh trope of the Introit.

3 Gautier, p. 226.

4 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1118, Troparium-Tonale-Prosarium Lemo-

vicense saec. xi-xii, fol. 8v. For a facsimile see Gautier, p. 215.

5 This word is spelled and declined in a variety of ways. See

Gautier pp. 49-50.

8 Dom Bevssac has helped me to interpret this puzzling rubric.

The nominative singular antiphonas is familiar in Limoges manu¬

scripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Sonus in here used in

the sense of tonus.

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ad p sai.mum:

Cantate Domino canticum nouum; eia die, Domipne, eia.1

In this case the introductory trope Quem quoeritis in preesepe

is accompanied, or completed, by a continuation of the trope

within the Introit proper. This situation will he quite clear if

we bring before us the complete Introit :2

In Die Hiatal e Domini Stacio ad Sanctum Petrum.

Incipiunt tropus antequam dicatur Officium :

Quem queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite?

Eespondent: Saluatorem Xpistum Dominum,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

Eespondent: Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uatizinando Isaias dixerat propheta:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium ;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

Eespondent : Alleluia, alleluia.

lam uere scimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta dicentes :

Antiphonas soni vii : Puer natus est nobis , et filius datus est

nobis: cujus imperium super Jiumerum ejus: et vocabi-

tur nomen ejus, magni consilii Angelus.

Ad Psalmum : Cantate Domino canticum nouum ; eia die,

Dompne, eia! Cantate Domino canticum novum , quia

mirabilia fecit.

The passage Cantate Domino canticum nouum; eia die, Dom¬

pne, eia, it appears, is a mere introduction to the Psalm-verse of

the Introit. It seems likely, then, that the passage Ora est,

psallite; iube, Domne, canere eia in the text above3 is also an

internal trope of the Introit in the form of an introduction

to the Psalm-verse.

Passing on to further variants of the trope under considera¬

tion, we find an interesting extension of the text in the fol¬

lowing :

1 Followed by the rubric : Alios, indicating a fresh trope of the

Introit.

2 1 print the Introit itself in italics.

3 From Ivrea, MS. 60, fol. 10.^

Young — Officium Pastorum.

305

^NCIPIUNT TEOPPHI IN NAT iuitdte DOm^Ni:

Quern queritis in presepe, pastures, dicite ?

Saluatorem Xpistnm Dominum,

inf ant em pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinando Ysaias dixerat propheta:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

Alleluia, alleluia.

Ia<m> uere scimus Xpistum natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta dicentes :

Puer natus est nobis.

<fol. 21r> Gloria tibi, Xpiste,

gloria tibi, Sancte,

gloria tibi, Domine,

quia uenisti omne genus liberare.

Omnes gaudentes dicite :

Puer natus est nobis.1 2

The trope seems to be still a, mere introduction to the Introit.

After the repetition of the words Puer natus est nobis , the

Introit is probably to be sung without further interruption.

The interest of the next text lies, no doubt, in the explicit

division of parts between the single Cantor and the Chorus

(Scold):

1 o

ITEM alia:

Quern queritis in presepe, p a stores, dicite ?

-Respondeat sco Ra:

Saluatorem Xpistum Dominum.

1 Turin, Bibl. Reg., Cod. G. V. 20, Graduale-Prosarium-Troparium

Bobbiense saee. xi, fol. 20a

2 Followed immediately by: Troppbi: Quern nasci mundo, — a

fresh trope of the Introit.

8 Verona, Bibl. Capit., Cod. CVII, Troparium Sancti Benedicti Man-

tuani saec. xi, fol. 5a This is the last of a series of tropes of the

Introit of the Magna Missa.

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

■Respondeat canto?’:

Infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

Respondeat scol#:

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinandum Esaias dixerat propheta :

Respondeat cant or:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est,

alleluia, alleluia.

Respondeat scola:

<fol. 6r> lam uere s<c>imus JLpistum natum in terra,

de co canite omnes cum propheta dicentes :

Puer natus est.

Tn such a division of parts one may, perhaps, recognize a

slight advance toward drama. The cantor’s addressing the

chorus as “Pastures,” and his receiving their reply, seem to

point the wlay directly to the use of these sentences in true

drama.

The dramatic advance is still more marked in the following:

Tn n atiuitate i yomim a d mis sam sint parati diaconi induti

DALMATICIS RETRO ALTARS DICENTES :

Quern queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite?

RESPONDEANT 11° CANTORES IN CHORO VerSUm:

<fol. 6V> Saluatorem XpAten Dominum,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

it cm diaconi versum:

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinando Ysaias dixerat propheta:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium ;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

TUNC CANTOr DICAT EXCELS# UOCS.*

Alleluia, alleluia.

1 Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Douce 222, Troparium Novaliciense saec.

xi, fol. 6.r Anz (p. 38), following Gautier (pp. 136, 218), erroneously

assigns this Novalesa troper to St. Gall.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

307

lam uere sciimis Xpi-stum natum in terris,

cui canite omnes cum propheta dicentes:

Puer natus est nobis, p salraus: Cantate Domino canticum.1

The chief importance of this text lies, obviously, in the sug¬

gestions of the rubrics as to raise en scene.2 Two deacons

standing behind the altar address as Pastores two cantors in

front of the altar, who reply with the usual dramatic sentence*

The stage-setting, then, if one may use a phrase so ambitious,

is the altar itself, a fact that one may well try to explain.

In the first place, since the trope Qpera quoeritis in proesepe

is itself modeled upon the Easter trope Quern quoeritis in sep-

ulchro, one is tempted toward the inference that the raise en

scene before us is merely an imitation of the similar raise en

scene shown in such texts of the Easter trope as the following

four:

(1) 3dominica mnciuM pascha STatio ad sanctAm ma-

RIA < M > . INDUms FreSByteH sacris uestibms stet

POST ALTARE et DIC at AET& UOCe:

Quern queritis in sepulcro, Xpisticole ?

RESPONDEAT DI AC OUUS :

Hiesum nazarenum, o celicole.

’Respondeat BresByteB :

Non est hie; surrexit sicut predixerat;

ite nuntiate qma surrex^.

tunc perGiT diao onus canendo usq ue in choro :

Alleluia, resurrexit Dominws.

iTEm versus de intro^o ;

Hodie exultent iusti. Resurrexi4

1 Followed immediately by a fresh trope: Hodie cantandus est nobis.

See below pp. 362 £f.

’This observation was made first, apparently, by Gautier, p. 218,

note 2.

* Benevento, Bibl. Capit., MS. 27, Troparium Beneventanum saec

xii. fol. 47. v

4 The beginning of the Introit. The internal trope of the introit

continues.

308 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

’(2) 1DOMiHric'a sanctuM paschu.

finita TerriA uadat vmis sac erdos an te altars, alba tjeste

INDUTUS, ET UerSUS AD CHORnm DICAT ALTA UOCe.* *

Quem queritis ?

ET DUO ALII CLERICI STANTES in MEDIO CHORI RESPONDEANT l

Iesum nazarenum.

et SAceroos:

Xon est hie; surrexit.

illi uero conuersi ad ciiounm dicant:

Alleluia, resurrexit Dominus.

POST HEC INCIP itur TROPOS. SEQmTUr INTROITnS:

Resurrexi.

(3) 2in die sancto3 pasce tropi.

FINITA TERCIA. CANTOR CUM ALIIS UADAT RETRO ALTARE, <ET>

excelsa uoce incipiat : Quem queritis:

Quem queritis in sepulcro, Xpisticole ?

QUI ANTE ALTARE FUERIUT RESPONDEANT :

Hiesum nazarenum crucifixum, o celicole.

ILLI UERO <QUI> RETRO FUERINT DICENT :

Xon pst hie; surrexit sicut predixerat;

ite nunciate quia surrexit dicentes:

qui ante:

Alleluia, alleluia! Resurrexit Dpminus.

ILLI QUI RETRO DICANT :

Eia ! Oarissimi, uerha canite Xpisto.

HIS FINITIS, QUI RETRO FUERINT, ANTE ALTARE UENIANT, ET

CUM ALIIS SIMUL CANTANT :

Resurrexi.

1 Monte Cassino, Bibl. Monast., MS. 127, Missale Cassinense saec.

xi, fol. 105 a

* Placentia, Bibl. Capit., MS. 65, Troparium Placentinum saec. xii,

fol. 235.v

* MS. Sanctum.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

309

(4) xin die sancTo pasce>, cum om nes simul ccwueneeint in

ECCLmAM AD MIS SCMl CELEBEANDAm, STENT PAEATI duO

DIAC Oni INDUTI DALMATICIS EET7'0 ALT are DICENTES I

Quem qneritis in sepulchre, Xristicole?

EESPONDEANT duO CANTOEES STANTCS IN CHOEO I

Iesnm nazarenum crucifixum, o celicole.

iTem m^coni:

Xon est hie : surrexit sicut predixerat;

ite, nunciate qnia resurrexit, dicentes :

TUNC CANTOf DICAT EXCELSA UOCC:

Alleluia ! resurrexit Dominus.

Tunc PS alia t scola:

Resurrexi.1 2

Since in these cases the dialogue of the Easter Introit-trope

is sung at the altar, or even across the altar, one infers that the

altar is to he regarded as representing the sepulchrum of the

text.3 If, then, the altar represents the sepulchre of Christ, it

is difficult, at first sight, to understand why the [Nativity trope

should he given this setting, except in misguided imitation of

the Easter texts.

A second consideration, however, may serve to absolve the

authors of the Christmas trope from the stigma of mere blind

imitation in this detail of mise en scene, for it may be that the

altar was actually regarded not only as sepuchrum, but also,

independently, as Proesepe. This possibility appears, in the

first place, from such an observation as the following from the

1 Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Douce 222, Troparium Novaliciense saec.

xi, fol. 6r-6.v This text has already been published by N. C. Brooks

(The Journal of English and Germanic Philology , Yol. VIII, 1909,

pp. 463-464), along with much other valuable material concerning the

history of the Easter introit trope.

2 The internal trope of the Introit continues.

8 As part of a separate study I am preparing a discussion of the

Easter Introit-trope Quem quaeritis as found in some thirty manu¬

scripts, and of the altar mise en scene now before us. From the

history of the Christian altar it is, evidently, not difficult to demon¬

strate that altare was regarded not only as 8epulchrum Sancti, but

also as Sepulchrum Christi, and one easily infers, from the rubrics of

the Easter Introit-tropes and of the dramatic Visitationes Sepulchri,

that the primitive “Easter Sepulchre” was the altar itself.

310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Rerum Ecclesiasticarum Theoria of Germauus of Constanti¬

nople :

Altare est et dicitur prcesepe et sepulchrum Domini.1

The same possibility arises also from the fact that, according to

certain texts of the Officium Pastorum , the prcesepe is found be¬

hind the altar, or near it.2 3

It should be noticed, moreover, that Quem quoeritis in

prcesepe is not the only Christmas Introit-trope that was sung

in dramatic fashion iuxta altare. The following text, for ex¬

ample, shows an extension of this dramatic practice of Christ¬

mas time :

3in ISTatiutate Domim ad Missam Maiorem. Finita

Tercia, cant ores had ant retro altare, excelsa uoce inci-

piant :

Ecce adest de quo praphete cecinerunt dicentes: Puer

natus est nobis.

Qui ANTE FUERINT RESPONDEAUT :

Quem uirgo Maria genuit

Et films datus est nobis.

Ite m Qui RF/rro euerint respondeant :

Homen eius Hemmanuhel uocabitur, cuius imperium super

humerum eius, et uocabitur nomen eius magni consilii

Angelus.

1 Bibliotheca Patrum et Veterum Auctorum Ecclesiasticorum, Vol.

VI, Paris, 1610, col. 116. Cf. also a pertinent passage in the Expositio

de Divino Templo of Simeon Thessalonicus, Migne, Pat. Graec., Vo-1.

CLV, col. 703-706. See also below, pp. 336 ff.

2 Presepe sit paratum retro altare: Rouen, Bibl. de la Ville, MS.

384 (Y. 110), fol. 22r; Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1213, p. 17. See

be'low pp. 330-333, 387. From the general mise en sc&ne indicated in

Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 904; fol. llv-141-- (see below pp. 325 ff) and in

Montpellier, Bibl. de la Faculte de Medecine, MS. H. 304, fol. 41r-4r»-

(see be’low, pp. 323-4) it is clear that in these cases the Prcesepe is

placed near the altar.

3 Placentia, Bibl Capit., Cod. 65, Graduale-Prosarium-Troparium

Placentinum saec. xi-xii, fol. 230^ col. 1. This text was published in

Ephemerides TAturgicae, Annus XVII, No. 3, March, 1903, p. 149, by

Dr. P. Piacenza, in an article entitled “De Tropis nonnullis in codice

placentino saec xii.” My text is taken from a photograph of the

manuscript generously brought, to my attention by my friend De

Reverend Pere Dom Beyssac, O. S. B. It should be remembered that

this manuscript contains also a text of Quem quceritis in pr&sepe , as

indicate above, p. 300, note 2.

Young — Officmm Pastorum.

311

Yersus: Multiplicabitur ei us imperium et pacis non erit finis.

Illi vero qui retro eeant ante aetarei ueniant et cum

ALIIS SIMUL cum ORIRI DECORE DICART I

Gloria tibi, Xpiste,

Gloria tibi, Sanc^e,

Gloria tibi, Domine,

quia uenisti omne gen?/s liberare.

Omnes gaudentes, dicite eia.

<col. 2> Puer natus est.

Gloria Patri. Euouae.

Ecce agnus Dei,

Ecce qui tollit peccata mundi,

quem Ysaias propheta predixit.

Puer natus est.1

In tbis case tbe part sung iuxia altare is not a mere introductory

trope, but tbe Introit itself, troped as it is, throughout.

Returning, then, to Quem quce/ritis in prcesepe as we find it

sung at the altar, we may conclude tbis section of our investiga¬

tion by observing that, although this particular text2 indicates

an attempt at dramatic mise en scene , neither this text nor any

other shown above represents true drama, for in none have we

evidence of genuine impersonation.

II.

Having stopped short of true drama while it remained at¬

tached to the Introit of the Magna Missa of Christmas, the

trope Quem quceritis in prcesepe found lodgement, and event¬

ually a true dramatic development, at the end of the office of

Matins. To make clear, therefore, the new associations of the

familiar trope, one had best survey, in broad outline, the struc¬

ture of Christmas Matins.

Passing over the introductory formulae, we may say that

Christmas matins consists, substantially, of three liturgical

groups called Nocturns. The Hocturn contains three psalms,

1 Followed immediately by the rubric: Alia in Kirieleyson TropL

2 Printed above from Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Douce 222, fol. 6l

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

each provided with its antiphon , and three lessons (lediones),

each followed by its responsor y (responsorium). After the

final1 responsory follows the Genealogy , and then the concluding

Te Deum laudamm . These facts may be shown in outline as

follows :2

MATUTINUM

I. Introduction — V ersiculi et Eesponsiones.

Gloria Patri. Alleluia.

Invitatorium. Psalms xciv (Venite).

Hymnus.

II. ISTocturns— Nocturnus I.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Lectio i.

Pesponsorium.

Lectio ii.

Pesponsorium.

Lectio iii.

Pesponsorium.

Pocturnus II.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Antiphona. 1

Psalmus.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

1 Since the lessons are numbered in one series throughout the three

Nocturns, the final resvonsory may he called also the ninth.

2 This outline may he applied to the complete texts in Appendices

A and B.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

313

Lectio iv.

Kesponsorium.

Lectio v.

Kesponsorium).

Lectio vi.

Kesponsorium.

Kocturnus III.

Antiphona.

Psalmns.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Antiphona.

Psalmus.

Lectio vii.

Kesponsorium.

Lectio viii.

Kesponsorium.

Lectio ix.

Kesponsorium^

III. Genealogy — Liber, Generations.

IV. Conclusion — Te Deum laudamus.

[Officium Pastorum]

[Missa in Gallicantu]

It was at the very end of this office, then, that Quem quceritis in

prcesepe achieved a new development.

Before tracing this development, however, we shall do well to

recognize the fact that this particular trope is only one of a

large number that flourished in the liturgy of matins, and by

glancing at a few of these miscellaneous excrescences we shall

better understand the circumstances under which Quem quceritis

in prcesepe was transferred from the Introit of the mass to the

end of Matins.

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , a/nd Letters.

The tropes of Matins naturally attached themselves almost

exclusively to the musical elements of the office, and especially

to the responsories. Of this particular class of tropes alto¬

gether the most conspicuous are those attached to the famous

Descendit , which is found, usually, as the third, sixth, or ninth

of the responsories of Christmas. The responsory Descendit

untroped stands as follows :

respoxsorium : Descendit de coelis missus ah arce Patris.

Introivit per aurem Yirginis in regionem nostram, indutus

stolam purpuream: ot exivit per auream portam lux et decus

universse fabrics mundi. Versus: Tanquam sponsus Do-

minus procedens de thalamo suo. Indutus.1

At an early period it was customary to provide a long series of

vocalizations, or musical notes, to he sung over a prolongation

of the syllable fa of the word fabricce . Thus in the remark¬

ably orthodox Liber Responsalis (saec. x) of Hartker we find

the following:

Responsorium : Descendit de celis missus ah arce Patris.

Introiuit p er aurem Virginis in regionem nostram indutus stola

purpurea. Et exiuit per auream portam lux et decus universe

fabrice mundi.

Pa . bricse mundi.2

Fa . bricse mundi.

Fa . hricse mundi.

Versus: Tamquam sponsus Dominus procedens de thala¬

mo suo. Et ex <iuit>.

Gloria Patri et Filio et SpirituI Sancto.

Sicut erat in principio, et nunc, et semper, et in secula seen-

lor um., Amen.

Tamquam sponsus Dominus procedens de thalamo suo. Et

exiuit.3

The musical development illustrated here was followed natur-

1 Migne, Pat. lat Vol. LXXVIII, col. 734. As to the normal man¬

ner of singing a responsory see below pp. 344-346.

2 The broken lines represent long melodies written in neums.

9 Paleographic Musicale, Deuxieme Serie, Vol. I, Solesmes, 1900,

pp. 45-46.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

315

ally by such verbal troping as we find in the following two

texts :

(1) 1’ELespon$orium : Deseendit de celis missns ab arce Patris.

Introiuit per aurem Vir’ginis in regionem nouam indutus stola

purpurea. Et exiuit per auream portam lux et decus uniuerse

fa . brice mundi.

Versus : Tanquam sponsus Dominus procedens de thalamo

suo. Et exiuit.

Versus: Missus ab arce ueniebat;

magnam leticiam nunciabat;

est Xpistuc uenturus aluo Matris procreatus.

Gloria.

Fa . . . brice mundi

Versus : Gloria Patri et Eilio et Spiritui Sancto.

Versus: Sicut erat in principle, et nunc, et semper, et in

secula seculorum, Amen.

Versus: Gloria pie trinitati;

honor et uirtus sit unitati ;

potestas et regnum deitati ;

summa uictoria.

Ea . brice mundi.

Versus: Eacture plasmator et conditor. Fa.

Versus: Cunctprum et angelorum fator.

Versus: Qui celos cum Patre confirmarat.

Versus: Cum Sanctoque Spiritu crearat.

Versus: Quiqwe tunc hominem patrie factum ymagini simi-

lem.

\ ersus: Elunc iungens sibimet retulit hostis quern ceperat.2

(2) nesponsorium : Deseendit de celis missus ad arce Patris.

Introuit per aurem Virginis in regionem nos<fol. 10r>tram

indutus stolam purpuream. Et exiuit per auream portam lux

et decus uniuerse fabrice mundi.

. 1 Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Miscell. Liturg. 346, Breviarium Benedic-

tinumum Alemannicum saec. xiii, fol. 26*. Cf. Ilid., MS. Miscell.

Liturg. 202. Liber Responsalis Allemannicus saec. xiii, fol. 15v-16r.

See also below, Appendix B.

2 Followed immediately by the rubric: In seeundo Noctwrno.

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Versus: Tanquam sponsus Dominus procedens de thalamo

suo. Et exiuit.

Prosa: Tanta nunc resultant gaudia, quia Xpistus natus est

in terra coequalis Patri in gloria de sancta Maria. Tan¬

quam. Et exiuit.

Fabrice mundi.

Prosa: Familiam custodi, Xpiste, tuam, quam natus alma de

Maria redemisti morte tua, ut cognoscant te <condi-

torem > . Fabrice.

Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto. Et exiuit.

Fabrice.

Prosa: Fac, Ileus, munda corpora nostra et animas die ista,

ut tua protecti dextra collaudemus auctorem. Fabrice.

Hesponsorium : Descendit de <celis>.

Fabrice mundi.

ProsuuA : Facinora nostra relaxari mundi gloria,

Petimus, mente deuota Dauid regis prolem inclitam,

Virgo quern casta seclo Maria protulit summi Patris gratia,

Cuius ortus saluat omnes cuncta per secula ;

Et die hac nobis iugiter faueat atque omni.

Fa brice mundi.

<Et exiuit (?) >1 1

Although we can scarcely hope to recover the exact manner in

which the parts of these troped responsories were distributed

and sung,1 2 nevertheless the texts before us are useful evidence

of the vogue of the tropes of the Descendit .3

Of the many other tropes that arose in Christmas Matins4 we

1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 12044, Liber Responsalis Sancti Mauri

saec. xii, fol. 9^-10r.

2 As to the manner of rendering the text printed above from Paris

Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 12044, fol. 9v-10r, see P. Wagner, Origine et Devel-

oppement du Chant Liturgique, Tournai, 1904, pp. 286-287.

3 For other texts and other forms of this particular family of

tropes see Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1273, fol. 38r (printed below.

Appendix B ); lUd., MS. lat. 1296, fol. 38r; Ibid., MS. lat. 1292,

fol. 29v; Ibid., MS. lat. 1291, fol. lllv; Ibid., MS. lat. 1255, fol. 87r;

Ibid., MS. lat. 1270, fol. 177r: Ibid., MS. lat. 1065, fol. 109v; Ibid., MS.

lat. 1057, fol. 29*; Ibid., Nouvelle Acq., MS. lat. 1235, fol. 243r-244r;

Ibid., MS. lat. 746 A, fol. 23r; Ibid., MS. lat. 13233, fol. 107v-108r.

4 For examples of these tropes see Paris Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 17998,

fol. 16r; Ibid., MS. lat. 17999, fol. 95r; Ibid., MS. lat. 10487, fol. 114v;

Ibid., MS. lat. 784, fol. 22r-26r; Ibid., MS. lat. 1268, fol. 174^— 175^;

Ibid., MS. lat. 1298, fol. 21v; Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Miscell. Liturg.

346, fol. 28.r

Young — Officium Pastorum.

317

need, for the moment, observe only one, a well known literary

embellishment of the responsory Verhum caro factum est:

'Tiesponsorium : Verbum caro factum est et habitabit in

nobis, cuius gloriam uidimus quasi unigeniti a Patre, plenum

gracia et ueritate. <fol. I7r> Versus : In principio erat

uerbum, et uerbum erat aput Deum, et Deus erat uerbum.

Plenum. Gloria Patn et Filio et Spiritui Sancto. Sicut erat

in principio.

Trophe :

Quern ethera et terra atq Ue mare non preualent totum capere,

Versus: Asine presepe infans implet, celos regens, ubera

sugens.

Versus: Factor maris f actus hodie est de matre.

Versus: Creans diem hodie creatus est in die.

Versus: Hiascitur mundo oriens Gabriel, quern uocauit Em¬

manuel, nobiscum Deus.* 2

ITnder these general circumstances, then, along with numer¬

ous other tropes, Quem quceritis in prcesepe found its way to

Christmas Matins, taking a place at the end of the office, after

the Te Deum Laudamus .3 * The most obvious and most likely

reason for this transfer is to be found, no doubt, in the analogy

with Easter. Just as Quem quceritis in prcesepe Was indubitably

modeled upon Quem quceritis in sepulchro * so the transfer of

the Christmas trope from the Introit of the Miagna Missa to the

end of Matins may well have been suggested by the similar

transfer of the Easter trope.5 6 i

In this connection, however, it is interesting to observe one

or two special liturgical manifestations at the end of Christmas

Matins which may or may not be considered dramatic, and

which may or may not have been influential in the development

3 Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. Miscell. Liturg 202, Liber Responsalis

Allemanicus saec. xiii, fol. 16v-17r.

2 Followed immediately by the rubric: Hie imponatwr prima Missa.

3 For a complete text of Christmas Matins, containing tropes, see

below, Appendix B.

4 See above pp. 301 ff.,

6 See Chambers, Vol. II, p. 25.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of Quem quceritis in prcesepe at this point. From Auxerre, for

example, we have the following oxdo :1 2 3

2Ista sequels a ntiphona dicitur iuxta maius altare a

BUOBUS CANONICIS TORTARIIS EXISTENTIBUS in ALBIS in CORNT-

BUS AETARIS I

Eeee annuncio uobis gandinm magnum, quod erit omul

populo, quia, natus est hodie in ciuitate Dauid rex Israel. In

Bethleem natus est, Iheri/salem uisus est, et in omm terra hon-

orificatus est rex Israel.

Sequitur: Te Deum <laudamus>.

This antiphon, sung at the altar at the conclusion of the Gene¬

alogy by two canons dressed in white albs, must have produced

a striking and grateful effect. The duo canonici tortarii exist¬

ent es in albis may indicate a vague attempt toward the dramatic

impersonation of angels. This seems, indeed, likely, for we

shall find that a similar antiphon, delivered by a choir-boy

placed ante chorum in excels o- in similitudinem Angeli, forms

the introduction of the dramatic Officium Pastorum of Rouen.®

A certain interest attaches, also, to the brief dialogue found

just before the Te Deum of Christmas in the following text:

4nesponsorium : Fesciens mater Virgo uirum, peperit sine

dolore Saluatorem seculorum, ipsum; regem angelorum; sola

Virgo lactabat ubere de celo pleno. versus: Aue Maria

gratia plena ; Dominus tecum. Sola.4

WTEnrogatio : Quid Begina poli faciat, nunc dissere nobis?

1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1029, Br^varium Autissiodorense saec.

xiv, fol. 60v. For a similar text see Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1055, Brev.

Autissiodorense saec xv, fol. 112r.

2 Preceded immediately by the Liber Generationis . The liturgical

setting of such short texts can easily be made out by reference to

the general outline of Matins given above, or to the texts printed in

Appendices A and B.

3 See Rouen, Bibl. de la Vilie, MS. 384 (Y. 110), fol. 22r, printed

below, p. 331. It is interesting to note the same formula (An-

nuntio vobis) in the Officium Stellae. See Brussels, MS. Bolland.

(sine numero), fol. 179, v printed by C. Cahier and A. Martin, Mel¬

anges d * Arcfieologie, d ’ Histoire et de Litterature, Vol. I, Paris, 1847,

p. 259.

This is the last of a series of ten responsories found at the end

of the third Nocturn of Christmas.

Young — Officium Past or urn.

319

rn.es ponsi O' : Nunc puerum Npistnm genuit, gremioqwe locauit.

Te Deum 1 audamus.1

A longer form of the dialogue appears in the following :2 3

a wte Te Dowm eaudamws.

Quid regina poli facial, nunc dissere nobis ?

lam puerum Npistum genuit, gremioqwe locauit.

Quern puerum genuit nobis, gremio<q>ue locauit?

Qui Deus est et homo processit Yirginis aluo;

Emmanuhel dictum leti cognoscite natum.

In spite of its dramatic content, this dialogue seems never to

have advanced further toward genuine drama.

Although not primarily dramatic, the following text deserves

a place among the illustrative materials now before us :

suesponsorium: V erbum caro factum est et habitabit in

nobis, cuiws gloriam uidimws quasi unigeniti a Patre, plenum

gratia, i et ueritate. versus: In principio erat uerbum et uer-

bum erat aput Deum, et Dews erat Verbum. Plenum. Gloria

Patri usQue secwlorwm amew.

einito isroxo uesponsorio et ge on a vatvi, vesponsoriuM a

PHNCIPIO REPETATWr. CUm QUO DESCENDIT AD MEDlUm EC-

clesm cum. PrOCESSIONE ET DUOBUS CANDELABmS PrOCEDEWTI-

BUS CEREIS ACCEWSIS, IBI CA^TATtTUr UOrSUS ISTI :

Quern ethera et terra atqwe mare no n preualent totum ca-

pere,

Asine presepe infans implet, celos regews, ubera <fol.

' 30v> sugens.

Factor matris f actus hodie est de Ma£re.

1 St. Gall, Ms. 388, Liber Responsalis Sangallensis saec. xii, p. 57.

This dialogue is found also in the Responsdle Hartkeri (St. Gall, Ms.

390-391, saec. x), as was pointed out by W. Meyer, Fragmenta Burana,

Berlin, 1901, pp. 35-36. The dialogue may, perhaps, be considered a

trope of the Te Deum, as Gautier (p. 170, note) remarked. Meyer

characterizes these lines as Versus sacerdotales'. My own observation

is that the versus sacerdotales are found, usually, after the Te Deum.

2 St. Gall, Ms. 390-391, Responsale Hartkeri sae'c. x, p. 8. Page 8

occurs in the part of the manuscript added by a hand of the thirteenth

.century.

3 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 5546, Brev. Diessen. saec. xv,

fol. 30r-30u

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Creans diem hodie creatur in die.

Nascitur mtmdo oriens prophets, quern uocauit Emanuel,,

nobiscum Dews.

QUIBWS FINITIS INCIPlTWr MISSA IN CHORO I DOinWU S DIXIT

AD ME. KYRIEL CySOU CUm GLOfTIA IN EXCELSIS DE Be&TA vir-

GIWE. PrOPHe^IA ET EPis^OEA LEGANTWT COWTINUATim. SE-

queNtia : Grates nunc omnes. credo in UNum DEum mcatun.

PreFAcio DE NttTmiTATE CUmi COmmWNICANTIBWS, ET C071CLUD-

AT Ur MISSA cum BCNCDICAMWS DOm^NO. S ed AD ALIAS DUAS

missas mcatun : Ite missa est. finita missa in gallicantu

LEGa^wR nuangeliuM : liber GUNerAcioNis.

quo finito, iocuwda uoce mciPiATi^r hec ANtiphona:

O muwdi Domiim regia, ex semiwe orta, ex tuo tarn X.pistus

processit aluo tamqwam sponsus de thalamio. Hie iacet in p re-

sepio qui et sydera regit.

postea eowTiNUATim mcatun illa an tiphona:

Completi sunt dies Marie ut pareret filium suum pWmogeni-

tum.

y ersus: Post partum Virgo. onatio: Deus qui per Beate Marie.

postea sEQuiTwr: Te Deum laudamus.

versus: Benedicts qui uenit in nomine Domini.1

This text is striking evidence of the freedom with which, in

the later Middle Ages, interpolations were admitted at the end

of Christmas Matins. In the present instance a processional

trope is inserted after the ninth responsory, and the first Mass

is followed by two intrusive antiphons. The content of these

interpolations seems to suggest the presence of an actual Christ¬

mas Crib (preesepe) ,2 the structure about which the dramatic

Officium Pastorum developed in this part of the Christmas

3 Followed immediately by the rubric: Laudes. For the liturgical

setting of this text, see the general outline of Matins printed

above, and the complete texts of Christmas Matins printed in

Appendices A and B. For a text somewhat similar to that printed

here see Rouen, Bibl. de la Vi lie1, Ms. 211 (A. 145), Brev. Gemmeticense

saec. xii, fol. 30r-30v. In this text the antiphon 0 mundi Domina is

written under the rubric Ad Processionem.

2 Note’ such a clause as Hie iacet in presepio. Concerning the

Preesepe see below pp. 334 ff.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

321

liturgy. The evidence is yet to be found, howtever, that the

interpolations before us ever had a place in this dramatic office.

Passing on, then, from these collateral developments -within

the liturgy, let us return to the Introit-trope Quern quceritis in

prcesepe and trace its development in the new situation at the

end of Christmas Matins.

We find the familiar text, still used as a mere trope, in the

following :

<Quem queritis secundum usum ecclesiae cathedraeis

CEABOMONTENSIS > 1

<fol. 28v> QUO2 DICTO., DUO PUERI IUXTA AETARE HUflC P7*0~

SEEEum cawtemt, u ersus:

Quem queritis in presepe, Pastores, dicite?

versus:

Saluatorem Ypistum Dominum,

inf an tern paraiis inuolutum

secundum sermonem angelicum.

versus:

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinando Ysaias dixerat prophe/a:

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium;

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

versus :

Alleluya, alleluya.

versus:

lam uere scimns Xpistfnm natum in terris,

de quo canite omnes cum propheta dicente<s> :

QUO EINITO IMMEDIATE inCIPIAUT AD MISS AM OEFICIUm :

Dominus dixit ad me.

The word prosellum of the opening rubric indicates clearly

that we are dealing still with a mere trope, a trope introducing,

1 Clermont-Ferrand, Bibliotheque de la Ville, MS. 67, Breviarium

Claromontense saec. xv, fol. 28u This text first came to my notice

through the incomplete version given by Twigge in The Dublin Re¬

view, Yol. 121 (1897), p. 362. I reprint from the manuscript.

2 Preceded immediately by: Te Deum laudamus.

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

now, the Introit not of the third Christmas Mass (Puer natus

est ), hut of the first Mass (Dommus dixit). Whether or not the

Words iuxta altare represent an intention of mise en scene / the

text stops far short of genuine dramla, for it bears, certainly, no

sign of impersonation.

Substantially the same text, from the same church, appears

in another manuscript as follows :

COFEICUTM PASTORIJM SECUNDUM USUM ECCLE-

SIAE CATHEDRALIS CLAPOMOXTEXSIS >1 2

<fol. 40T> quo3 d^cto, duo puen cantent iuxta altare

versum:

Quem qneritis in presepe, Pastures, dicite?

pastores versum:

Saluatorem dominum,

infantem paraiis inuolutum,

secundum scrmonem angclicum.

pum versum:

Ades£ hie pemiulus cum Maria matre sua,

de qua dudum uaticinando Ysaias dixerat prophefa:

Ecce virgo concipiet- et pariet filium,

et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

pastores :

AlMn-ia, alleluia!

Iam uere scimus Xp istum natum in terris ;

canite omnes cum prophe^a dicentes:4

<I)ominus dixit > 5 6

The only additional interest provided by this text is found in

the word Pastores of the rubrics. This simple word clearly

1 See above, pp. 306-311, and below, pp. 334 ff.

2Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1274, Breviarium Claromontense saec. xiv, fol.

40v. For a complete text of Matins and Lauds see below, Appendix A.

3 Preceded immediately by: Psalmus : Te Deum.

4 Followed immediately by the rubric: Quo finito, chori prouisores

incipiawt ad Missam in Gallicantu.

6 Beginning of the Introit of the first Mass of Christmas, i. e. Missa

in Gallicantu.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

323

suggests impersonation, especially to one who notes the use of it

in the succeeding office of Lauds according to the same manu¬

script,1 and in the play of the shepherds from the Eouen manu¬

scripts.2 It would probably be unjustifiably audacious, how¬

ever, to see in the duo pueri iuxta altare an intended imperson¬

ation of the mid- wives (Obstetrices) at the crib.

When we pass on to the Officium Pastorum < as it comes to us

from Eouen, all our demands of impersonation and mise en

scene are finally satisfied. Genuine drama is unmistakable in

the following:

< OFFICITJM PA'STOEUM SECUNDUM USUM EO TH¬

OM AGEN SEM > 3

<fol. 41r> IN NATIUITATE DOWWNI, FINITO TE T>eUM L(2U-

damus, pueri in uno loco ECCLesiE baculis se sustentantes

IN SIMILITUDINE PASTOEUm COUSISTANT,, U NUS AUT em PUER IN

EXCELSO, AMICTU et ALBA INDUTUS, IN SIMILITUDINE AN06LI

NATiuiTu/em DomiNi annuntiantis, nunc u ersum dicens:

Nolite timere, ecce enim evangelizo nobis gaudium mag¬

num, quod erit omui populo, quia natus est uobis hodi© Sal-

uator mundi in ciuitate Dauid, et hoc uobis signum: Inu-

enietis infantem pannis inuolutum et positum in presepio.

SINT ITEW PLURES PUERI DEXTRA et SINISTRA PARTE SIMILITOr

INDUTI, Q ui, FINITA PfOFATA A ntipkona, INCIPIANT CANTANDO :

Gloria in excel sis Deo, et in terra pax hominibus bone

uoluntatis, alleluia, alleluia.

hoc rrerum fin ito, pastores suBSEQueNTEm a ntiphonam can-

TANTES^ AD LOCUM IN QUO ParATUm FUIT4 PreSEPE ACCEDAUT I

Transeamus usque Eethleem et uideamus hoc uerbum quod

factum est, quod fecit Dominus et ostendit nobis.

1 See below, Appendix A.

2 See the next three texts printed below.

3 Montpelier, Bibl. de la Faculte de Medecine, MS. H. 304, Miscdl-

lanea saec. xii, fol. 41r-41v. Previously published by the present

writer in Modern Philology Vol. vi (1908), pp. 207-208.

4 MS. fuit corrected from fuet.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

QUEm du m iNTruueriNT,, n. CLmci, qui <fol. 41v>ad presEPE

FUERlNT, INCIPIANT CANTARE I

Quem queritis in presepe, Pastures, dicite?

PASTURES RESPORDEBRRT :

Saluatorem Xipistum Dominum ,

infantem pannis inuolutum,

secundum sermonem angelicum.

AD PresEPE stantes iTerwM dicant:

Ades£ hie parnulus cum Maria matre sua,

de quo dudum uatieinando Ysaias dixerat propheia :

Ecce uirgo coucipie^ et pari et filium,

et nomen ei us Emmanuel dicetwr.

pastores :

Xatus est nobis hodie Saluator, qui est Xpis^wc Dominws

in ciuitate Dauid.

Te D eum laudamus.

QUO FINITO^ IDEM PASTORES INCIPIANT iNTROITUmf DominUS

dixit ad me, et regant CHORum ad omwem missattr

finita missa^ incipiat presuL uERsum : Benedicts qui

uenit in nomine Domini, deinde, Dens in adiutorium, cum

Gloria Patri et , Allefom. postea incipiat cantor a nti-

ptionam :

Quem uidistis usq ue, Qnis apparuit?

et PASTORES DICANT .*

Xatum uidimns, usQne in FiNEm.

postea incipiant pastores : Dominus regnauit, et ad FiNEm

REGENDO CHORUm IPSI MATUTINAS POrDUCANT. FINITA COL-

Jjecta MATUTiNARum, cantet^ Antiphona: Ecce completa

sunt omnia, cum subsequenti coimecta: Dens qui salutis

eterne.1

The dramatic office here occupies the exact position in which

we have already found the simple trope Quem queeritis in pree-

sepe : immediately after the Te Deum at the end of Matins.

In this case, however, the Te Deum seems to be repeated after

the play. To the trope proper three speeches have been pre¬

fixed, and at the end the text itself of the trope has been modi-

i Followed immediately by the rubric: Officium Stelle ita celebretur.

See Modern Philosophy, Vol. vi (1908), p. 208.

Y oung—Officium Pastorum.

325

fied. It is clear, especially through the repetition of the Te

Deum , that the dramatic text is no longer felt to he a trope of

the Introit of the succeeding Mass. The stage-setting is a defin¬

itely constructed Prcesepe of some sort.1 Impersonation is

made particularly explicit in the rubric pueri . . . bar

culis se sustenantes in similitudine Pastorum.

Further textual additions and scenic details appear in an¬

other text from Rouen :

cofficium pastorum secundum usum

ROTHOMAGENSEM > 2

<fol. 11V>IN3 mnctA NOCTE natiuitatis Domini POST TE

DEUm, AUGeTUS ASSISTED AN<N>UnCIET XPistUM NAT UTTl ESSE,

et HOC DICET :

Nolite timere, ecce enim evangelizo uobis gaudium mag¬

num, qtmd erit omni populo, quia natus est nobis hodie Sal-

uator mundi in ciuitate Dauid, et hoc uobis signum: In-

uenietis infantem pannis inuolutum <fol. 12r> et positum

in presepio.

HOC AUDIEUTES VII PUEBI STAUTES in AETO LOCO DICANT :

Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra pax hominibus' bone

uoluntatis.

AUDIEUTES PASTOB.CS EANT HCrSUS PBESEPE CAWTAWTES HOC

b esponsorium:

Pax in terris nuuciatur,

in excelsis gloria.

Terra fedora tur,

tnediante gratia

Mediator, homo, Deus

descendit in propria,

ut ascendat homo reus

ad admissa gaudia. Eya ! Eya !

1 See' below, pp. 334 ff.

2 Bibliotheque Nationale, MS. lat. 904, Graduate Rotbomagense saec.

XIII, fol. llv— 1 4r. This text is printed by E. de Coussemaker, Drames

Liturgiques du Moyen Age, Rennes, 1860, pp. 235-241. I reprint from

the manuscript.

8 Preceded immediately by the words: Te Deum laudamus , which

mark the end of Christmas Matins.

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Transeamus, uideamus

U erhmn hoc quod factum est;

transeamus ut sciamus

quod nuntiatum est.

versus :

In ludea puer uagit,

puer salus populi,

quo bellandum se presagit

uetus hospes seculi.

Accedamns, accedamns

ad presepe Domini,

et dicanms:

Laus fecunde virgini.

TUNC PASTORES ORADIANTUR PER CHORWm, I U MANIB US BACU-

LOS PORTAUTES, ET CANTANTES USQUe AD Xpisfa PreSEPE Uer-

sum :

Transeamus usque Bethleem, et uideamus hoc verbum

quod factum est, quod fecit Dominus et ostendit nobis,

IELIS UENIENTIBWS II CLEBICI IN PrCSEPE CAUTEUT VCV-

sum:

Quem queritis in presepe, pastores, dicite ?

pas Tores r espondeant :

Saluatorem Xpis^um Dominum,

<fol. 12v> infantem pannis inuolutum

secnndum sermon em angelicunL

ITem OB < S > TETRICES CORTINAm APERIENTES^ PUERUm DE-

MonsTRERT me enies u ersum:

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua, de quo dudum

uaticinando Ysayas dixerat prophe/a:

OSTENDAUT MATREm PUERI DICEUTES :

Ecce uirgo concipiet et pariet filium ; et euntes dicite quia

natus est.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

327

TUnC SALUTE'ttT PA STOKES vifGIXEm ITA DICEXTES :

Salue, Virgo singular is,

Virgo manens Deum paris

an te secla generatum

corde Patris

adoremus ntmc creatum

came matris.

versus: ;

X os, Maria, tna prece

a peocati purga fece

nosZri cursum incolatns;

sic dispone

nt det sna frui natus

uisione.

TUNC UISO PUE.RO, PASTORES ADORERT EUm. DEINDE UER~

TAXT SE All CHORUM DIC entes:

Alleluia, Alleluia! Iam uere scimus Xpis/um natum in

terris, de quo canite omnes cum prophetfa1 die entes.

POSTEA STATIM TXCIPIATUR MISSA, ET PAST0R6S REGAXT CHOR-

um ET CAXTEXT GVoHa IX EXCELSIS DEO, ET wisto~LAm, et

TROPA. ET TTXUS2 PASTORUm EE GAT LECTioXEM : PopuluS

gencium. subdiacoxus tuxica ixbutus3 legat ep^oeam,

XUEEO GRADAEEi IXTCrCERTO. DUO PASTORES CAXTERT IX PUE-

pito grad ale : Tecum principium. dlto de maiori sede c ax-

text ix pulpito : Allefom. 4Dixit Dormnus .4 Fixita

Missa, sAcerDos q ui Missam canTAveriT uerTAT se uersus

Pastores et dicat haxc Antiphonam usq ue ad : Xlatum.

Officium ixcipit. Owicium: Dominus dixit ad me: filius

meus es tu, ego hodie genui te. ps almus: Quare f<remue-

runt>. Gloria secnlorum amen, ovatio : Deus qui hainc

sacratissimam. Memoria Beate Marie: Deus qui salutis.

"Lectio prima: Populus gentium. wistovA : Apparuit

i Corrected in the manuscript from prophefis.

After this word the following passage has been written and ex-

punctuated: cus legat epistolam.

3 MS. inductus.

4 4 MS. dixit dix.

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

gratia. Responsum: Tecum <fol. 13r>principium in die

uirtutis tue, in splendoribus sanctorum, ex utero ante luciferum

genui te. Versus: Dixit Dominus Domino meo: sede a dextris

meis donee ponam inimicos tuos scabellum pedum tuorum.

Alleluia, versus: Dominus dixit ad me: filius meus es tu;

ego hodie genui te.

SEQUENTIA :

Hato canunt omnia Domino pie agmina

Sillabatim pneumata perstringendo organica

Hec dies sacrata in qua nova sunt gaudia mundo plene dedita

Hac nocte precelsa intonuit et gloria in uoce angelica.

Pulserunt et innania nocte media pastoribus lumina,

Dum <fol. 13v> fouent sua pecora subito diua percipiunt

monita.

Natus alma uirgine qui extat ante secula;

Est immensa in celo gloria pax et in terra.

Hie ergo celi caterua altissime iubilat,

Et tanto canore tremat alta poli machina.

Sonet et per omnia bac in die gloria1 uoce clara reddita.

Humana concrepent cuncta Deum natum in terra

Confracta sunt iraperia hostis crudelissima

Pax in terra reddita nunc letantur omnia nati per exordia

Solus qui tuetur omnia solus qui condidit omnia

Ipse sua pietate soluat omnia peceata nostra

2Eu angelium: Exit editum a Cesare2. off ertorium:

Letentur celi et exultet terra ante faciem Domini, quoniam

uenit. Co mrnunio: In splendoribns sanctorum ex utero ante

luciferum genui te.

3Finita Missa, sAceraos TJe l ep iscopus qui Missam ca n-

TAueriT uerTAT se ad Pastoecs et dicat haxc a ntiphonam

us que ad: ISTatum.3

| Quern uidistis, pastores, dicite; annunciate nobi’s in terris

quid apparuit?

? MS. gioria.

2 2 Written in the right margin.

3 3 Written in the right margin.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

329

< PASTORES RESPOXDEAXT> :

FTatum uidimus et choros angelornm collaudantes Dominum,

alleto’a, alleluia.

Chorus dexter ixcip iat: Dominus r<egnauit>, et cetera.

Fixitis Laudibus Pastores loco Benedieamus dicaxt :

<fol. 14r> Verbum Patris hodi©

Processit ex Virgin e

Venit nos redimere

Et celesti pa trie

Volnit nos redd ere.

Virtutes angelice

Cum canore iubilo

Benedicant Domino.

r esponsio :

Refulgens pastoribus

Bunciauit angelus

Pacem, pacis nuncius.

Tu, Pastor ecclesie

Pacem tumet dirige,

Filios et instrue

Bedemptori debitas

Iubilando gracias.

Post Benedicamus oymes Pastores caxtext ix pulpito

haxc AXTIPHO??Om:

Ecce completa sunt omnia que dicta sunt per angelnm de

Virgine Maria.

ORa/io: Dens qui s<alutis eterne>1.

The textual advance represented by this text is, obviously, con¬

siderable. Of the additions the most conspicuous are the two

delightful songs of the Pastores, in verse. The dramatis per -

sonce include (1) the Angelus who introduces the action, (2)

the septem pueri who represent the Chorus Angelorum, (3) the

Pastores , and (4) the duo clerici in preesepe who represent the

Ohstetrices. The Mater (Maria) and Puer (Christus), it ap-

i Followed immediately by the rubric : Missa in Dilucwlo.

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

pears, are represented by artificial figures1 placed in the Prcesepe,

which is definitely mentioned as a separate structure. The

most interesting development shown in this text is the extension

of the role of the Pastores into the first Mass and into Lauds.

In the first Mass the Pastores rule the choir and supplant the

Deacon, Sub-Deacon, and choir in several of their offices. In

Lauds they take part in a dramatic rendition2 3 of the first anti¬

phon, and conclude the office by singing a verse trope of the

Benedicamus and a special antiphon.

The dramatic and festal usages connected with the Oficium

Pastorum at Rouen are still further clarified by a third text:

< OEEICIUM PASTORUM SECUNDUM USUM ROTH-

OMAGrEN SEM> 8

<fol. 22r> Lectio4 * nona Euu anGelium: In principio erat

uerbum. liesponsorium : Verbum caro factum. Versus: In

principio. Plenum. Gloria, et cetera. Oimes de maiori

SEDE IN SUPOrLIClTS, EXCEPTO BECANO, IN MODUm CORONE CAN-

TENT PROSAm, ei incipiatur a cantore: Quern ethera et terra,

ET CHORUS Jiesp O NDE A T NEUMIS. ElNITA PROSA, SACOfDOS

CANONICUS, REUESTITIJS OMRIBRS INDUMENTIS SACERDOTALIBWS,

cum ipso subi naconus tunica reuestitus, cantet ante

altare EuuanGOLittM : Liber generationis. Einito EuudRGE-

LIO, ARCHIEpisOOpUS UEL ALIUS SacCTDOS INCIPIAT ANffi ALTARE

cum cANDELABns et thuribuUs: Te Deum laudamus. Einito

Te Deum laudamus, peragatur OpinciuM PAsTORum hoc

mouo sectmmm RoTiioMAGonscm usum.

PrESEPE SIT PARATUm RETRO ALTARE et YlIAGO SanC^E

Marie sit in eo posita. Inprimis quidam puer an^

1 See the rubric Presepe sif paratum retro altare et Ymago gamete

Marie sit in eo posita , from Rouen MS. 384 (Y. 110), fob 22r, printed

below.

2 See below, pp. 352 ff.

3 Rouen, Bibiiot.heque de la Ville, MS. 384 (Y. 110), Ordinarium

Rothomagevse saec. xiv, fol. 22^-2 3l Printed by A. Gaste, Les Drames

liturgiques de la Cathedrale de Rouen , Evreux, 1893, pp. 25-32. I re¬

print from the manuscript.

4 1 begin with the last Lectio of Christmas Matins in order to make

clear the setting of the Qfficium Pastorum.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

331

CHORUM IN EXCELSO IN S1MILITUDINEM' AnGELI NATIUITU^m

Dom^NI ANNUriCIANS AD QUINQ166 CANONICOS QuiNDECIM

MARCH ARUM et LIBRAR um, 1UEL AD EOR W UICARIOS DE SGCUnda

sede, Pastores intrantes per magnum HOSTium chori per

MEDIUM CHOEMm TRANSEUNTES, TUNICIS et AMICTIS INDUTOS,

hunc uersuM ita dicens :

Holite timlere, ecce enim, usQue In presepio.2 Sint p lures3

PUeri IN UOLTIS ECCLeSIE QUASI ANGeLI,QUI ALTA UOCE INCI-

PIANT :

G-loria in excelsis Deo, et cantent usque uoluntatis.

Hoc audientes Pastores ad locum in quo paratum est

PreSEPE ACCEDANT CANTANTES HUUC UerSUM :

Pax in terris <fol. 22 v> TOTum.

Quod dum iNTRAUERiut, duo uresuytem dalmaticati de

MAIORI SEDE, qUClS I ObSTETRICES QUI AD PP6SEPE EUeriNT,

DICANT :

Qnem queritis, usQue Dicite.

Pastores rcspondeant :

i Saluatorem Xpistum. usque AngelicuM,

Item OBSTETRiees cortinam APeriENTES Puerum demon-

STREUT, DICENTES:

Adest hie puruulus, usque Ysaias dixerat prophet.

Hie OS^NDANT MaTREM Puen DICENTES I

Ecce Virgo, usque Quia natus est.

Tunc, EO UISO, IN CLINATIS CCfUICIBUS ADORENT PuERUM et

SALUTENT DICENTES I

Salne, Virgo singularis,

usQue Frui natus uisione.

DeINDE UCrTANT SE AD CIIOR UM REDEUNTES et DICENTES l

Alleluia, alleluia, iam uere scimus,

usque cum prophe^a dicentes.

1 Concerning the designation canonicus quindecim marcharum et

Wbrarum see Gaste, p. 25, n. 3: Anz, 39-40.

2 For the completion of many of the incomplete speeches in this

manuscript, see the text given above from Bibl. Nat., MS, lat. 904.

The value of this text from Rouen MS. 384 (Y. 110) lies, obviously, in

the rubrics.

3 According to the text given above from Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 904, the

“pueri” number seven.

•332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Hoc FIN IT O INCIPIATUR MlSSA, ET PASTORES REGANT CHORWm.

DoWNWS ARCHIEpisCOpnS, SI PRESENS FUeriT, CANTET MiSSAM,

OFFicinm : Dominas dixit ad me. Kyrie.1 Gloria in excelsis.

Pastors can Tent prosam: Quern ciues celici. Or atio:

Deus qui banc sacratissimam. De Beat a Maria 0 Ratios:

Deus qui salutis eterne. Quidam de PASTORibns< cantet:

Populus gentium. Sine intervallo suBDiAconns legat

Ep^olam: Apparuit gratia Dei saluatoris. Duo Pastores

de secunda sede Hesponsum : Tecum principium. Versus:

Dixit Dominus. PEiTeretur r esponsum: Tecum prin cipium.

Dxro de maiori sede: Alleluia. Versus: Do minus dixit ad

me. SEque^iia: Fa to canunt omnia. Duuancelium: Exiit

edictum. Credo in unum. OFFertorium: Letentur celi.

Offerant om nes qui uoluerint, et recipiatur a Pastoribus

et distribuatur iNter eos. Secreta : Accepta tibi sit,

Domine. Alia sec reta: Miuneribns nostris. Prefatio:

Quia p er incaraati, Hec Ppcfatio suprascRiPTA DicATnr om-

niBUS FESTIUIS DIES US USQ UC AD PuRIFICA^ion^m, EXCEPTO DIE

Epyphanie Do?niNi cum eius OcTAua. Communicantes et

noctem sacratissimam dicattjr Sanctus et Agnus Dei fes-

tiue. Coumunio: In splendoribns. Post Co mmunio:

Da nobis, quesumus , Domine, Dens nosier. Alia Co mmunio:

Hec nos comimunio Deo. Ite missa est.

Finita Missa, ar c hie p iso opu s uel aeius ad aetare dicat

u ersum: Benedictus qui <fol. 23r> uenit in nomine Domini.

Deus Dominns. Deus in adiutorium. Gloria Datri. Sicut

erat, et cetera. AllcZnia.

ARCHiEpiseopns uel alius sacerdos uersus ad Pastores

dicat :

Quern uidistis, pastores, dicite ? annunciate nobis in terris

qnis apparuit?

Pastores RESPONDeani :

FTatum uidimus, et cetera,

et TOTAm Antiphonam finiant. Debinc incip iat quidam Pas¬

tor a DEXTera parTE Dsalmum: Dominns regnauit. Anti-

i Following in the MS. by the word festive, partly erased.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

333

phona: Quern uidistis. Pastores alias a ntiphonas incip-

iant, UNvsQuisque suAm secunuuM ordtoem, et omues cum

neum^s FiNiANT^r, et Pastores regant cHORwm. A ntiphona:

Genuit puerpera: Ps almus: Iub Hate. Antiphona Ange-

lus ad pa < stores >. P salmus: Deus, Jdeus. Antiphona:

Facta est cum angelo. P salmus: Bencd icite. Antiphona:

Paruulus filius. P salmus: Laudate . CAuitulum: Populus

gentium. Ymnus: A solis ortws cardme. Versus: Yider-

unt om nes fi<nes> t erre. Antiphona sicut in Vesperis repe-

TAtw: Gloria in excelsis. V salmus: Beuedictus. Or atio:

Concede, quesumus, omnipotent Dens. Benedicam us cantettjr

a pastorum. Yerbum Patris hodie. Quo finito, Pastores

cantent hang a ntiphonam totam in pulpito : Ecce com-

pleta sunt. Archiep iscopus uel SAcemos dicat u ersum:

Post partum Virgo. Or atio: Deus, qui salutis eterne. Bene-

dicamus in. de prima sede.1

The chief interest of this text lies, manifestly, in the new

details furnished by the rubrics as to mise en scene. The play

is explicitly designated Officium Pastorum. We are given the

exact location of the Prcesepe (retro altare), — and, hence, of

the main action, — and we are definitely told that Maria is pres-

.sent in an artificial figure of some sort (Ym.ago Sancte

Marie). The pueri who represent the Chorus Angelorum are

placed in some elevated spot under the vaulting (in uoltis ) , and

the Pastores , numbering five ( ad quinque canonicos . . . Pas¬

tores), are vested in tunics and amices ( tunicis et amictis indu-

tos) and approach the Prsesepe through the portal of the choir-

screen (per magnum hostium chori). The Ohstetrices are in

this case impersonated by two priests vested in dalmatics ( duo

preshy teri dalmaticati ) . Concerning the role of the Pastores

in the first Mass and in Lauds significant additional details are

offered.

In the Officium Pastorum of Bouen the original Introit-

trope Quern quwntis in prcesepe reached its highest dramatic

development within the liturgy of Christmas, Further than this

i Followed immediately by the rubric: Sequatur Missa de Luce.

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Quern quaeritis in prcesepe seems to have been directly useful

in liturgical drama only in the use once of a substantial part of

it in the Ojficium Stellce of Epiphany.1 2

III.

In our consideration of the Officium Past or um we have found

that the action of this dramatic office centers, in a specially con¬

structed Prcesepe / or crib. We are bound, then, to inquire

into the nature and history of this structure.3 | -

The history of the Prcesepe begins with the very grotto in

Bethlehem traditionally venerated as the birth place of Christ,

1 See Coussemaker, pp. 157-158. ,

2 Classical prcesepe, -is (n.) ; prcesepes, - is (f.); prcesepia, -ae (f).

In mediaeval documents prcesepium (n.) is usual. Cf. Italian presepio.

3 1 am especially indebted to G. Hager, Die Weihnachtslcrippe,

Munich, 1902, and to H. Usener, Das Weihnachtsfest, Bonn, 1889

(Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, von H. Usener, Theil I),

pp. 279-290. Chabot’s popular pamphlet Les Creches de Noel dans

tons les pays , Pitjhiviers, [1906], in so far as it has scholarly value, is

merely based upon Hager’s monograph. I have consulted also Cham¬

bers, Vol. IT, pp. 42-43; G. Cohen, Histoire de la Mise en scene dans

le Theatre Religieux Francais du Moyen Age, Paris, 1906, p. 23; K. A.

H. Kellner, Heortology, London, 1908, pp. 155-156; Baumer’s article in

Wetzer and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon, Vol. vn (1891), col. 1195-1197; P.

Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, Vol. II, Paris, 1899, col. 1107-

1109; G. Moroni, Dizionario di Erudizione storico-ecclesiastica, Vol.

xxvi, Venice 1844, p. 63, Vol. LV, ibid., 1852, pp. 173-179; F. Bianchini,

De Sacris Imaginibus Musivi Operis a S. Xysto Papa III post Oecu-

menicam Synodvm Ephesiam in Basilica Liberiana constructs, et de

Dominicce Nativitatis Praesepi ac V enerabilibus Cunis Infantiae Christi

Domini ibidem custoditis disser tat tones dues , Rome, 1727, pp. 1-14;

P. Lafond, La Creche de la Cathedrale Sainte-Marie d ’ Oloron, in

Reunion des Societes des Beaux- Arts des Departements, Vol. xxl (1901),

pp. 567-572; F. Cancellieri, Notizie intorno alia novena vigilia notte e

Festa di Natale, Rome, 1788 ; A. F. Gorins, Osservazioni sopra iv monu-

menti degli antichi christiani rappresentanii il Presepio del Nato Sal¬

vatore, Florence, 1740; C. Liibeck, Die Tiere an der Krippet des

Erlosers, in Zeitschrift fur ehristliche Kunst, Jahrg. xviii (1905), col.

9-14; M. Schmid, Die Darstellung der Geburt Christi in der bildenden

Kunst, Stuttgart, 1890, pp. 82-87; Chabot, Noel dans les pays grang¬

ers, Pithiviers, 1908, pp, 62-65, 77-82, 93, 103; J. de Bonnefon, Creches

de Noel, in U Art et V Autel, Paris, 1901-1902, pp. 153-156 (Neglig¬

ible) ; Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, Puer Parvulus, in The Contem¬

porary Review Vol. LXXVII (1900), pp. 117-123; Dom Grenier, In¬

troduction a V Histoire Generate de la Province de Picardie, in Mem-

oires de la Societe des Antiquaires de Picardie. Documents In6dits,

Vol. Ill, Amiens, 1856, pp. 389-390. I have not seen G. Rietschel,

Weihnachten in Kirche, Kunst und Yolksleben, Leipzig, 1902, and

E. Niffle-Anciaux, Les repos de Jesus et les berceaux reliquaires,

1896.

Young — Officium Past or um.

335

As early as the third century, according to Origen (c. 185 — c.

254), this veneration was well established, and a specific crib

was the center of pious devotion.1 Over this spot the empress

Helena erected a basilica,2 visited during the fourth century

and after by numerous pilgrims, to whose spiritual edification

through the sight of the holy Prcesepe , St. Jerome expressly

refers.3 Rich decorations were bestowed upon the grotto, and

the crib itself was adorned with gold and silver.4 It has, in¬

deed, been asserted that not only ornaments, but also figures

of the holy family had been placed in the Prcesepe at Bethle¬

hem as early as the year 400 ; but, this assertion can hardly be

proved.5

Whatever may have been the reaches of the cult of the

Prcesepe during the first Christian centuries in the East,6 * 8 the

widest development of this form of devotion occurred during

later centuries in the West. In 354, at Rome, Pope Liber ins

first established the Nativity as a special feast to be celebrated

on December 25, distinct from the feast- of Epiphany, of which

it had previously been a part on January 6. As a church dedi-

1 See Origen, Contra Celsum, Lib. i, § 51, Migne, Patrologia Graeca,

Vol. XI, col. 756.

2 See Usener, pp. 283-284.

3 Ibid.

4 See Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexilcon, Vol. VII, col. 1195-1196;

TJsener, pp, 284-285-

6 Usener (p. 287) bases his assertion upon the following passage

from the Sermo in Nativitatem Christi written about the year 400

by Sanctus Gregorius Thaumaturgus:

Ne vero sermonem protrahamns, summam ejus et quasi capitum

texentes indiculum, postulabimus quomodo Verbum, patiendi incapax,

factum sit corpus visnmque fuerit, idem ob snam divinam naturam

remanendo? Verum quid dicam quidve eloquar? Aspicio enim fa-

brum et prsesepium, puerum, virginemque genitricem omnibus desti-

tutam indigentiaque oppressam . . . Quid dicam quidve eloquar?

Puerum pannis obvolutum et positum in praesepio video; Maria, virgo

simul et mater, stat famulans cum Josepho.

Usener comments positively, “der Verfasser predigt vor einer

biihnenartig aufgebauten Krippe mit den Personen der heiligen

Nacht.” In the Latin passage I see no proof of anything beyond

rhetorical vividness. Cf. Hager, pp. 7-8.

8 Concerning the observances associated with the Crib at Bethlehem

see T. Hase and C. Iken, Thesaurus Novus Theologico-philologicus ,

Lyons, 1732, Vol. II, pp. 118-122; Benedicti Papae XIV de Festis

Domini Nostri Jesu Christi et Beatae Mariae Virginis libri duo

< Migne, Theologiae Cursus Completus , Paris, 1842), col. 514-515;

Bianchini, pp. 5-12; Vigouroux, col. 1108; Moroni, Vol. LV, pp. 174-176.

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cated especially to the observance of the Nativity this pope

erected the Basilica Liber ii, or Basilica Liberiana , which dur¬

ing the fifth century became known as Basilica Sanctoe Mar ice,

and after the ninth century as Sancta Maria Major.1 Mean¬

while, in the time of Pope Theodore (642 — 649), relics of the

Prcesepe in which Christ was born had been brought from

Bethlehem and deposited in the Basilica Liberii, henceforth

appropriately known by still another name : Sancta Maria ad

Prcesepe .2 As a suitable shelter for these relics a chapel3 was

built in the right aisle, to the decoration of which Pope Gregory

III (731 — 741) later contributed gold figures of Mary and her

Child.4 When Pope Sixtus V (1585 — 1590) built the new

chapel in the right transept, the old Prcesepe chapel, already

once restored in the thirteenth century, was moved to a posi¬

tion beneath the main altar.5

As to the use of the relics themselves in the church of

Sancta Mkria ad Preesepe we have only meagre information.

It appears that the venerated boards of wood originally de¬

posited in the side-chapel were not encased, as the modern

fragments are, in a reliquary, but were joined together in the

form of an actual Prcesepe .6 This Prcesepe , moreover, was

the veritable altar upon which the pope appropriately laid the

consecrated Host (Corpus Christi) when he celebrated his an¬

nual Mass in the side-chapel on the Vigil of Christmas.7 As

1 See Usener, pp. 275-277.

2 See id., p. 282.

3 The chapel is mentioned as oratorium sanctum quod prcesepe

dicitur in a document of the period 731-741, and as camera prcesepii

in a document of the period 844-847. See Usener, p. 280.

4 See Usener, p. 291.

6 See id., p. 281.

• See id., pp. 282-283.

7 In connection with this act of laying the Corpus Christi upon

the altar, and with the general doctrine altare est prcesepe, one should

note the association of the dramatic trope Quern quceritis in prcesepe

with the altar, as shown above’, pp. 306 ff. See also the phrase in

prcesepio altaris, from Guerricus (quoted below, p. 338, note 1),

the clause Ubi in latere altaris - maoris erat Prceepium from Gal-

vano Flamma (quoted below, p. 338), and the gloss Ponitur in

prcesepio, id est, corpus Christi super altare applied to Luke ii. 7

( Et reclinavit eum in prcesepio ) in the Glossa Ordinaria of Willifridus

Strabo of Fulda. (Biblia Sacra cum, Glossa Ordinaria primum quidem

a Strabo Fuldensi . . . collecta, Vol. Y, Antwerp, 1617, col. 710).

Young — Officium Pastorum.

337

to the ceremonial use of the relics we know, directly, nothing

more. We may infer that the Crib of Sanctaj Maria ad

Prsesepe was imitated in other Roman churches. We know,

indeed, that Pope Gregory IV (827' — 844) placed an avowedly

similar Prcesepe in Santa Maria trans Tiberim.* 1 Except for

this one example, however, the actual documents dealing with

the first ten centuries are silent. Whether or not the Cribs of

Sancta Maria ad Prsesepe and Sancta Maria trans Tiberim

held figures of the holy family we can by no means decide.

That the chapel in each of these cases was supplied with such

figures there can be no doubt;2 but that the ancient Cribs them¬

selves to any considerable extent resembled the elaborate Italian

contrivances of the later Middle Ages we have not a single

indication.3

This last important reference my friend H. W. L. Dana pointed out

to me from E, Male, L’ Art Religieux du xiii e siecle en France, Paris,

1910, p. 222. For representations of the Puer lying upon the altar in

art of the thirteenth century and later, see Male, op. cit., p. 222,

and E. Male, U Art religieux de la Fin du Moyen Age en France ,

Paris, 1908, p. 4. For representations of the Nativity in art in gen¬

eral, see F. Noack, Die Geburt Chris ti in der bildenden Kunst bis zur

Renaissance, Darmstadt, 1894; F. A. von Lehner, Die Marienverehrung

in den ersten Jahrhunderten, Stuttgart, 1886, Plates VI and VII;

Rohault de Fleury, La Sainte Vierge, Vol. I, Paris, 1878, pp. 109-136;

J. Ficker, Die altchristlichen Bildwerke im Christlichen Museum

des Laterans, Leipzig, 1890, pp. 137-139, 156, 158.

1 In ea [i. e. Sancta Maria trans Tiberim] sanctum fecit praesepium,

ad similitudinem Praesepii sanctae Dei genetricis quae appellatur

Maioris; quod videlicet lamminis aureis et argenteis adornavit. See*

Liber Pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, Vol. II, Paris, 1892, p. 78. Since

the word prcesepe was used in connection with Sancta Maria ad

Prsesepe in referring to the chapel as well as to the crib itself, we can¬

not be sure that the simAlitudo of Gregory IV was not, specifically, a

chapel rather than a structural Prcesepe. See Usener, pp. 280-281.

2 See Usener, p. 291.

3 Concerning the preservation of the relics of Sancta Maria ad Prsesepe

in modern times see Vigouroux, col. 1107-1108, and Bianchini, pp. 12-

14. A fifteenth century inventary in the archives of Santa Maria Mag-

giore contains the following description:

Quinque asseres seu tabulae oblongae ad mensuram unius brachii,

et plus, structae ad mensuram quatuor digitorum, quae sunt de

cunabulis D. N. Jesu Christi, positae in quadam capsula oblonga et

stricta cooperta argento cum historia Beatae Virginis ex figuris

deauratis, et ab alio latere quae dicunt: Anno Domini M. CCLXXXIX

D. Jacobus de Columna Cardinalis fecit fieri hoc opus, et arma

ejusdem sine pileo. Rodie vero in alijs cunabulis sunt inclusae ex

argento deaurato, annis praeteritis a Catherina Hispaniarum Regina

dono datis. (X. Barbier de Montault, Inventaire de la Basilique de

Samte Marie Majeure a Rome, Arras, 1873, p. 23. Reprint from

Revue de V Art Chretien, Vol. XVI).

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Leaving, then, the direct tradition of the Prcesepe of Bethle¬

hem and Borne, let ns turn to a new source of information in

the tradition of liturgical drama itself. Waiving for the mo¬

ment the question of origins, let us review the evidence con¬

nected with the earliest plays of the Christmas season.

External evidence of the use of the Proesepe is not wanting.

Gerhoh of Belch ersberg, writing about the year 1160, expresses

himself as follows:

Exhibent prseterea imaginaliter et Salvatoris inf ant se cuna-

bula, parvuli vagitum, puerperse virginis matronalem hibi-

tum.1

The chronicler Galvano Elamma (1283-1344), in a lively ac¬

count of an Epiphany play produced at Milan in 1336, men¬

tions 'the Prcesepe as. follows :

Ubi in latere altaris majorxs erat Prsesepium cum bove et

asino, et in prsesepio erat Christus parvulus in brachiis Vir¬

ginis matris.2

Prom these citations we may infer that during the period from

the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries a structural Crib was

used for dramatic performances. The Crib contained figures,

and was closely associated with the altar.

Passing on to the internal evidence of the liturgical plays

themselves, we find that as early as the eleventh century the

dialogue of the Christmas Introit-trope Quem • quceritis in

proesepe was delivered in a manner suggesting that either the

altar itself or an inferred Prcesepe located upon or near the

altar was used as a mise en scene? For the Officium Pastorum

1 GerhoM Reich, ersbergensis Prrrpositi opera hactenus inedita, ed

F. Scheibelberger, Lincii, 1875, p. 27. See Chambers, Vol. II, pp.

98-99; Hager, p. 10. In a Christmas sermon of: the Cistercian abbot

Guerricus (f circa 1157) we find the. following passage:

Fratres, et vos invenietis hodie infantem pannis involutum, et

positum in prsesepio altaris; videte vilitas tegminis ne offendat aut

turbet obtntum vestrse fidei, veritatem reverendi corporis sub aliis

rerum formis intuentis (Migne, Pat. Lat., Vol. CLXXXV, col. 46).

1 cannot agree with Lafond (p. 567) in his inference that Guerricus

is certainly describing an actual Prcesepe. The intention of the

homilist seems to me to be rhetorical and mystical.

2 A. D’Aneona, Origini del Teatro Italiano, Vol. I, Turin, 1891,

p. 98.

sCf. Oxford, Bibl. Bod.; MS. Douce 222, Troparium Novaliciense

saec. xi. See above, p. 306.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

339

the Prcesepe is mentioned as the mise en scene in texts of the

twelfth,1 thirteenth,2 fourteenth,3 and fifteenth4 centuries. We

find the Officium Stellce definitely associated with the Prcesepe

in texts of the eleventh,5 twelfth,6 thirteenth,7 fourteenth,8 and

fifteenth9 centuries. The same structure is mentioned in texts

of the Or do Bachelis from the eleventh10 and thirteenth11 cen¬

turies, and in the Benedictheuern Christmas play of the thir¬

teenth century.12

In information as to the actual nature of the Prcesepe these

dramatic texts are not generous. .From the Offcium Pas¬

torum of Rouen we learn that the structure, erected behind

the altar,13 was large enough for the two Obstetrices to stand in

it.14 * It was provided with figures representing Mfary and the

Child,10 which were hidden, until the fitting moment, by a cur¬

tain.16 The further equipment of the Crib we can only con-

1 Montpellier, MS. H. 304, Miscellanea saec. xii. See Modern Phil¬

ology, Vol. VI (1908), p. 207.

2 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 904, Graduale Rothomagense saec. xiii.

See' above, p. 326.

3 Rouen, MS. 384 (Y. 110), Ordinariuin Rothomagense saec. xiv.

See above, p. 330.

* Rouen, MS. 382 (Y. 108); Paris, Bibl Nat., MS. lat. 1213, — Or-

diniharia Rothomagensia sae'c. xv. See below, pp. 387 ff.

5 Paris, Bibl. Mazarine, MS. 1708, Liber Responsalis Nivernensis ( ?)

saec. XI. See Publications of the Modern Language Association of

America, Vol. XXIV (1909), pp. 296-297. The words custodes and

imagine/m of the rubrics seem to indicate an actual Pra’sepe.

6 Montpellier, MS. H. 304, saec. xii. See Modern Philology , Vol.

VI (1908), p. 210.

• Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS. lat. 904, saec. xiii; see Coussemaker, p. 248;

Orleans, MS. 201 (. olim 178), Miscellanea saec. xiii: see Du Meril,

p. 163; Laon, MS. 263, Troparium Laudunense saec. xiii; see U.

Chevalier, Ordinaires de V Eglise Cathedrale de Laon, Paris, 1897,

p. 392.

3 Rouen, MS. 38L (Y. 110). See Gaste, pp. 50-51.

9 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1213. See Modern Philology, Vol. VI

(1908), pp. 220-221.

10 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 6264, Miscellanea Frisingensia

saec. xi. See Du Meril, p. 172.

11 Orleans, MS. 201 (olim, 178). See Du Meril, p. 176.

12 Munich, Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 4660, Carmina Burana, saec.

xiii. See Du Meiril, p. 204.

13 Presepe sit paratum retro altare, Rouen, MS 384 (Y. 110), above,

p. 330.

14 Duo clerici in Presepe, Paris, Bibl. Nat., lat. 904, above, p. 326.

16 Ym^ago Sancte Marie sit in eo posita . . . Puerum demon-

strent . . . Ostendant Matrem Pueri, Rouen, MS.384 (Y. 110),

above p. 330 ff.

16 Obstetrices cortinam aperient.es, Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS., lat. 904, and

Rouen, MS, 384 (Y. 110) above, pp. 326, 331.

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

jecture. From the Officium Stellce we have the additional in¬

formation that the Crib was sometimes erected at the door of

the monastery.1 The Rouen texts of this office seem to indi¬

cate that the Prwsepe was placed upon the altar, or was per¬

haps, the altar itself. The statuette of the Mother and Child

seems to have been set upon the altar-table and surrounded by

a curtain that was opened at the suitable dramatic moment.2

The Ordo Bachelis and the Benedictbeuern Christmas play pro¬

vide only the most meagre details. The Crib of the latter

play contained a figure of the Child,3 and that of the Ordo

Bachelis from Freising may have been large enough to receive

actors impersonating the holy family.4

For the origin of the Prwsepe as we find it employed in

these liturgical plays, we turn, naturally, to the tradition of

the Crib of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome. Down to the

eleventh century, when we first encounter the .use of the

Prwsepe in drama, no other source is at hand, except the re¬

stricted inventiveness of the liturgists themselves. The con¬

stant association of the dramatic Prcesepe with the church

altar seems to link the mediaval mise en scene to the holy

relics at Rome.

On the other hand, however, neither the Roman tradition

nor the dramatic practice would account satisfactorily for the

amazing popularity of the Crib during the later middle ages?

in both public and private worship. This later and still flour¬

ishing cult of the Holy Manger received its chief impetus

from an ecstatic episode in the life of St. Francis of Assisi.

Although numerous writers have been misled into assigning to

1 Prwsepe quod ad jauuas monasterii paratum erit, Orleans, MS.

201 ( olim 178), Du Meril, p. 163.

2 Magi ... ad yrtiaginem Sancte Marie super Altare Crucis

prius positam cantantes pergant . . . duo dalmaticati aperientes

cor,tinam dicant: Ecce puer, Rouen, MS. 384 (Y. 110), Gaste, pp.

49-52; Duo de maiori sede dalmaticis induti in utraque parte altaris

stantes . . . operientes cortinam dicant: Ecce puer, Paris, Bibl.

Nat., MS. lat. 904, Coussemaker, p. 244.

* Adorent Puerum, Munich, Staatsbibl., Cod. lat. 4660, Du Mdril, p.

204.

4 Angelus. super presepe apparens, moneat Joseph fugere in Aegyp -

turn cum Maria , Orleans, MS. 201 ( olim 178), Du Meril, p. 176.

Young — Officium Pastorum .

341

St. Francis the very originating of the Prcesepe,1 probably no

one has overestimated St. Francis’ influence in the tradition of

the Christmas Crib from the beginning of the thirteenth cen¬

tury onwards.

Of St. Francis’ association with the Prcesepe we have two

famous accounts.2 The record left to us by Saint Bonaventura

(1221-1274), in his Legenda Sancti Francisci , may be suim

marized as follows:3

In the year 1'223, in order to stir the people to a more

devout observance of the Nativity, Francis obtained the

papal permission to erect at Greccio a prcesepium , for which

he supplied provender, and at which he stationed a live ox

and ass. Crowds gathered, and the Holy Night was made

festal with clustered lights and glad sounds. Before the

prcesepium , which served also as an altar, stood Francis, suf¬

fused with tears of joy. At Mass, celebrated super prcesepe,

Francis himself sang the Gospel and preached a sermon on

the Nativity. A certain Sir John of Greccio reported that

he had seen sleeping in the crib a beautiful child, whom the

Saint roused from sleep' and embraced. The hay from, this

holy manger was preserved as a miraculous panacea for dis¬

eases of animals.

The account of Thomas of Celano (fl 1250) runs as follows:4

With the help of a certain John of Greccio, Francis pre¬

pared a prcesepium for which he supplied provender, and

at which he stationed an ox and an ass. M'en and women

1 Kellner, p. 156 : Moroni, Vol. XXVI, p. 63, Vol. LV, p., 177; H.

Malleson and M. A. R. Taker, Handbook to Christian and Ecclesiasti¬

cal Rome, Vol. II, London, 1897, p. 212; Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco,

in The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXXVII (1900), pp. 117-123.

2 Concerning this episode in St. Francis’ life see Acta Sanctorum ;

Octobris, Vol. II, Antwerp, 1768, pp. 643-644, 706, 770; P. Sabatier,

Vie de S. Francois d ’ Assise, Paris, 1896, pp. 328-329; Wetzer and

Welte, Kirchenlexikon, Vol. VII, col. 1196-1197; N. Tamassia, S. Fran¬

cesco d- Assisi e la sua Leggenda, Padua and Verona, 1906, pp. 83-87.

See also the fresco by Giotto in the Upper Church at Assisi, repro¬

duced, for example, by H. Thode, Franz von Assisi und die Anfdnge

der K'iinst der Renaissance in Italien, Berlin, 1885, p. 417.

3 For the complete text of Bonaventura’s account see Appendix F.

Concerning the validity of this account see Sabatier, pp. LXXXI—

LXXXVIII.

4 For the complete text from Thomas of Celano see Appendix EL

Concerning the validity of this account see Sabatier, pp. LI-LVI.

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences f Arts^ and Letters.

gladly brought myriads of cand'els and torches, so that night

became as bright as day. The grove resounded with glad

voices, and Francis stood before the prcesepium* in an estasy

of gladness. At Mass, celebrated with the prcesepium as

altar, the Celebrant reseived a new spiritual comfort. In

the sweet voice of one inspired, Francis sang the Gospel of

the Mass, and preached an appropriate sermon. When he

wished to mention the Child Jesus, he called him Boy of

Bethlehem, speaking with the soft sound of a bleating sheep.

The spiritual gifts from on high were miany. A child lying

lifeless in the Crib was waked to life by the holy Francis.

The provender was preserved as a, panacea: for bodily ills

of men and of animals. On the spot where the celebration

occurred a church was built, in which an altar to the honor of

St. Francis was erected over the Prcesepium.

Although we have no information as to what specifically in¬

spired St. Francis to erect his Prcesepium , we may infer that he

was under the influence of traditions both from Bethlehem and

from Rome. During the period 1219-1220, some three or four

years before the celebration at Greccio, St. Francis had him¬

self journeyed in the East; and the Crib of 1223 may have

been “the crystallization of haunting memories carried away

from the real Bethlehem.”1 The influence of the tradition of

Sancta Maria ad Prsesepe at Rome is to be seen, perhaps,

in the use of the Prcesepe as the altar at Mass.2 At the pres¬

ent time we have no grounds for inferring that St. Francis

whs influenced by the mise en scene of the Christmas liturgical

plays. Although the Prcesepe had been associated with these

plays north of the Alps as early as the eleventh century,

neither Bona ventura nor Thomas of Celano gives any positive

suggestion of St. Francis’ acquaintance with them.3

5 Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco in The Contemporary Review, Vol.

XXXVII (1900), p. 117.

8 Bonaventura: Celehrantur Missarum solemnia super prcesepe .

"Thomas of Celano: Celehrantnr Missarum . solemnm super prcesepe ;

.... in honorem heal'ssimi Patris Francisci super prcesepe

altare construitur.

3Thode (p. 418) and Hager (p. 12) wrongly assert that the cele¬

bration at Greccio was itself a play. As D’ Ancona pointed out (Vol.

I. p. 117), this celebration, though dramatic in character, was not

drama.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

343

Whether or not Francis of Assisi drew a measure of in¬

spiration from mediaeval drama, there can he no doubt that

the Prcesepe of Greccio itself provided dramatic inspiration

to later writers. A happy testimonial of this influence comes

to us in the following lines from a Bavarian poet of the

early seventeenth century:

Ein gw'onheit ist zur Jahresfrist

dass iezundt celebrire

unnd dieser Zeit die Christenheit

den Christag renovire.

Franciskus dess ein Zeug mir ist

die hoch seraphisch Sonnen,

der richtet auch ein Kripplein auf,

nur mit stum men Persohnen.1

hlo doubt the tradition of St. Francis was felt in numerous

dramatic efforts of which we have now no knowledge. The

texts of the strictly liturgical plays of the thirteenth, four¬

teenth, and fifteenth centuries, however, betray no explicit in¬

fluence from the Crib of Greccio.

As a matter of fact, from the thirteenth century onwards

the Prcesepe became less important as a dramatic raise en scene

and more important as a center of public and private devotion.

Through the devout enthusiasm of the Franciscans, Christmas

Cribs were eventually erected throughout Western Europe.

Churches, dwellings, and public squares were brightened an¬

nually by the familiar scene. |The living actors of the liturgi¬

cal plays were supplanted by dumb figures, from the hands, of

artisans. The Crib gathered about itself not dramatic action

but prayers and Christmas carols. Finally, through the addi¬

tion of scores of human and animal figures, through scenic

elaboration, and through lavish adornments of jewels and fab¬

rics, the Prcesepe of Bethlehem, of Pome, and of the liturgical

1 K. Weinhold, Weihnachtsspiele und Lieder aus Suddeutschland und

Schlesien, Vienna, 1875, p. 175. Cf. Hager, p. 12.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

plays became, during the Renaissance and later, a mere curios¬

ity of plastic ingenuity.1

IV.

Although the Officiwm Pastorum , developed from the trope

Quem quceritis in prwsepe and associated with the structural

Proesepe , is the most important dramatic development to he

found within the liturgy of Christmas, an account must be

rendered also of other dramatic elements closely associated,

both in content and in liturgical usage, with the genuine play

of the Shepherds. Let us turn first, then, to the well known

responsory Quem uidistis, of which the following is a repre¬

sentative form :

responsorium : Quem vidistis, Pastures, dicite. An-

nuntiate nobis in terris quis apparuit? ISfatum vidimus in

choro angelorum Salvatorem Dominum. versus: hTatus

est nobis hodie Salvator, qui est Christus Dominus in civitate

David. ISTatum.2

Of the several ways3 of distributing the parts in the rendition

of a musical piece such as this, only two need concern us here.

In the first place let us observe what we may call the normal

Roman practice of the eighth century and before.4

(1). cantor : Quem vidistis, Pastores, dicite ? Annuntiate no¬

bis in terris quis apparuit? ITatum vidimus in

choro angelorum Salvator emi Dominum.

chorus: Quem vidistis, Pastores, dicite? Annuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit? Hatum vidimus

in choro angelorum Salvatorem Dominium.

cantor: Natus est nobis hodie Salvator, qui est Christus

Dominus in civitate David.

1 Concerning the Prwsepe during the Renaissance and in modern

times see Hager, pp. 18-145; Lafond, pp. 569-572. Examples of the

modern Crib may be seen in the Musee de Cluny (Paris), in the

Museo Civico (Naples), in the Bayerisches National-museum (Mun¬

ich , and in many pious households in Europe.

* Migne, Pat. lat., Vol. LXXVIII, col. 734, Liber Responsalis sadc. ix.

8 See P. Wagner, Origine et Developpement du Chant Liturgique ,

Tournai, 1904, pp. 135-143.

4 Cf. Wagner, pp. 136-137.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

345

chorus Quern vidistis, Pastores, dicite? Annuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit ? Saturn vidimus

in choro angelorum Salvatorem Dominum.

cantor: Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto; sicut

erat in principio et nunc et semper et in saecula

saeculorum, Amen.

chorus: 1ST atum vidimus in choro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.

cantor: Quern vidistis, Pastores, dicite? Annunciate

nobis in terris quis apparuit? Saturn vidimus

in choro angelorum Salvatorem Dominum.

chorus: Quern vidistis, Pastures, dicite? Annuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit? Natum vidimus

in choro angelorum Salvatorem Dominum.

In this form of rendition, the whole response1 is sung hy the

soloist ( cantor , or praecantor ), to whom the chorus ( succen -

tores) respond by repeating the entire response. The soloist

then sings the verse (versus), and the chorus once more sing

the entire response. After the soloist has sung the doxology

( Gloria Pain), the chorus sing the latter half of the response;

and then the soloist and chorus, in turn, repeat the entire re-

cponse.

Although the musical and liturgical splendor of this formula

is gratifying to contemplate, this form of responsory fails to

arrive at what is, for us, most important: dramatic dialogue.

The singing of the entire response by one voice, or group of

voices, annuls the dramatic possibility so obviously present in

the text.

Let us pass on, then, to a second method of rendering the

same text, a method which, though perhaps less Homan, had

begun to establish its predominant vogue outside Home, espec¬

ially north of the Alps, even before the year 800 :2

1 By mediaeval writers the word responsorium is used both for the

first part of the liturgical element before us, down to the versus, and

for the whole piece, including both responsorium and versus. To

avoid confusion in mj’ explanation I use the word responsory to

designate the whole piece and the word response to designate the

first part of the piece, down to versus.

2 See Wagner, pp. 137-138.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

(2). cantor: Quern vidistis, P&stores, dicite? Auuuntiate

nobis in terris quisi apparuit?

chorus: Natum vidimus in choro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.

cantor : Flatus est nobis liodie Salvator, qui est Cbristus

Dominus in civitate David.

chorus : Fatum vidimus in choro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.

cantor: Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto; sicut

erat in principio, et nunc, et semper, et in

saecula saeculorum, Amen.

chorus: Fatum vidimus in choro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.1

cantor: Quern vidistis1, Pastores, dicite? Auuuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit?

chorus: Fatum vidimus in choro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.

According to this formula, the soloist begins by singing only

the first half of the response, to which the chorus respond by

singing the latter half. The soloist then sings the verse, to

which the chorus respond with the latter half of the response.2

The rendition is concluded by the singing once more of the

response, the first half by the soloist, the latter half by the

chorus.

In this form of rendition, then, the dramfatic value of the

response is fully brought out, for the formula begins and ends

with the dialogue :

cantor: Quern vidistis, Pastores, dicite? Annuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit ?

1 No doubt this repetendum was often omitted. Instead of repeat¬

ing the second part of the response at this point, the Chorus often

took from the Cantor the latter part of the Gloria Patri, beginning

with Sicut erat. See the texts from Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MSS. Misc.

Liturg. 346 and 202 printed above pp. 315-317. With this change, form¬

ula (2) seems applicable to the third responsory (Quern vidistis) in

Christmas Matins from Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1273, fol. 35v-38,t printed

below in Appendix B.

2 This repetendum by the chorus must often have been omitted.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

347

chorus: Ratum vidimus in clioro angelorum Salvatorem

Dominum.

The peculiar aptness of the question presented by the soloist is

apparent in the plural Pastores, which is dramatically applic¬

able to the several persons of the chorus.

That the dramatic value of this dialogue was felt by the

writers of liturgical drama can be definitely shown in con¬

nection with the office of Lauds, of which the first antiphon is

normally1 the following:

ahtiphoha : Quern vidistis, Pastores, dicite ? Annuntiate

nobis in terris quis apparuit ? hlatum vidimus in choro

angelorum Salvatorem Pominum, alleluia, alleluia.2

In the course of the Officium Padorum as produced in the

cathedral of Rouen, we find this antiphon treated as follows :

ARCHIEPISCOPUS UEL ALIUS SACERDOS UERSUS AD PASTORES

dicat : Quern uidistis, Pastores, dicite ? annunciate no¬

bis in terris quis apparuit ?

PASTORES RESPOXDEANT :

ISTatum uidimus, et cetera , et totam antiphonam finiant .3

As a matter of fact, however, the available evidence indi¬

cates that this promising dramatic element was neither widely

used nor extensively developed in liturgical drama. A (side

from its modest part in the Offcium Pastorum of Rouen, it

seems to have played no role in the true drama of the Christ¬

mas liturgy. To be sure, it has been suggested4 that the dia¬

logue form of the Lauds antiphon (Quern vidistis ), quoted

above, may have influenced the formation of the trope Quern

quaertis in praesepe , the development of which has been traced

1 There are, of course, exceptions. In Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 783,

Breviarium Lemovicense saec. xiv. fol. 58r, for instance, the first

antiphon of Christmas lauds is: Antiphona: Natus est nobis hodie

Saluator, quid e'st Xpistus Dominus in ciuitate Dauid.

2 Migne, Pat. lat., Vol. LXXVIII, col. 735.

3 Rouen, Bibl. de la Ville, MS. 384 (Y. 110), Ordinarium Rothoma-

gense saec. XIV, fol. 23r, printed above, p. 332. Cf. Bibl. Nat., MS.

lat. 904, Graduate Rothomagense saec. XIII, fol. 13v, printed above,

p. 326. The delivery of this dialogue was popularly called chanter

la Pastourelle. See Grenier, p. 390.

4 Anz, pp. 37-38.

"348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

above; but this influence is not demonstrable.1 In tbe Offi-

>cium Stella , of Epiphany, which, earlier or later, absorbed

the Officium Pastorum, the Quem vidistis dialogue seems to

have been used only once, and then in a form materially al¬

tered.2

y.

Sometimes connected with the responsory Quem vidistis ,

though, as we shall see, independent of it in final dramatic de¬

velopment, is the interrogation, Pastores , dicite , quidnam, vid¬

istis ? The following are variant forms of the responsory con¬

taining this verse :

( 1 ) nesponsorium : Quem uidistis, Pastores* dicite ? An¬

nunciate nobis in terris quis apparuit ? (Xatum uidimus in

choro angelorum Saluatorem Dominum. versus: Dicite,

quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti natiuitatem. Xatum.

Gloria. Quem uidistis.3

(2) r esponsorium: Quem uidistis, Pastores, dicite? Ad-

nunciate nobis in terris quis apparuit ? Xatum uidimus in

choro angelorum Saluatorem Dominium <p. 54 >. versus :

Dicite, quidnam uidistis, et adnunciate Xpisti natiuitatem.

Xatum. versus: Xatus est nobis hodie Saluator, qui est

'Kpistus Dominus in ciuitate Dauid. Natum.4

(3) r esponsorium: Quem uidistis, Pastores, dicite? Ad-

nuntiate nobis in terris quis apparuit. Xatum uidimus in

choro angelorem Saluatorem Dominum. versus: Xatus est

nobis hodie Saluator, qui est Xpictus Dominus in ciuitate

1 Anz would probably have been on sounder ground in attributing

this supposed influence upon Quern quaeritis in praesepe not to the

dialogued antiphon (Quem vidistis) of Lauds, but to the dialogue

rendering of the responsory (Quem vidistis) of Matins. I know of

no evidence that the dialogue form of the Lauds antiphon antedates

the formation of the trope Quem quaeritis in praesepe, whereas the

dialogue rendering of the responsory of Matins certainly does so.

2 See E. Du Meril, Les Origines Latines du Theatre Moderne, Paris,

1897, p. 169; Coussemaker, p. 163.

3 Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 16309, Brevarium Santonense saec. xiv,

fol. 30r=

4 Saint Gall, MS. 388, Liber responsalis Sangallensis, saec. xii, pp.

53-54. Cf. Munich, Staatsbibl., Cod. lat. 5349, Breviarium Chiemsense

'Saec. xv, fol. lllv.

Young— Officium Pastorum.

349

Dauid Saturn, a inter: Dicite, quidnam uidistis, ©t ad-

nuntiate Xpicti natiuitatem. Xatum.1

Expanding the first2 of these texts according to the second

formula explained above, we arrive at the following :

Cantor: Quern uidistis, Pastures, dicite ? Annunciate

nobis in terris quis apparuit ?

chorus: Xatum uidimus in choro angelorum Saluatorem

Dominum.

cantor: Dicite, quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem,

chorus : Xatum uidimus in choro angelorum Saluatorem

Dominum.

cantor: Gloria Patri, et Filio, et Spiritui Sancto; sicut

erat in principio, et nunc, et semper, et in saecula

eaeculorum, Amen.

[chorus: Xatum uidimus in choro angelorum Saluatorem

Dominum.]3

cantor: Quern uidistis, Pa stores, dicite? Annunciate

nobis in terris quis apparuit ?

chorus: Xatum uidimus in choro angelorum; Saluatorem

Dominum.

The dramatic advance achieved through the new verse is ob¬

vious. In addition to the dialogue element previously found

in this responsory, we now have the following :

cantor: Dicite, quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem.

chorus: Xatum uidimus in choro angelorum Saluatorem

Dominum.

1 St. Gall, MS. 413, Breviarium Sangallense saec. xi, p. 102. Cf.

Bodleian, Laud Miscellaneous MS. 284, Liber Responsalis saec. xii,

fol. 10u

2 The two verses (versus) in each of the texts from St. Gall MSS.

388 and 413 seem to be merely alternatives, only one of which was

actually used in any one rendition of the responsory. To be sure,

in a primitive form, of which we have no texts, a responsory probably

included a large number of verses: in fact, a whole psalm. See

Wagner, p. 136.

3 It seems probable that, instead of singing this repetition, the

Chorus took from the Cantor the second part of the Gloria Patri,

beginning with Sicut erat. See above, p. 346, note 1.

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The interest felt in this form of the responsory is shown

in the following trope :

2r esponsorium: Quem uidistis, Pastor es, dicite? Annunr

ciate nobis in terris quis apparuit. A atum nidimns in choro

angelorumi Saluatorem Dominium. versus: Dicite quidnam

uidistis, et annunciate Xpis^i natiuitatem. Xatum.

prosula :

Gloria in altissimis Deo,

et in terra pax hominibus

bone uoluntatis.

versus: Facta est hodie multitude

milicie celestis exercitus

laudancium <fol. l‘12v> Dominum et dicen>»

cium :

Gloria in terra. Gloria Pairi.

prosa :

Quia uerbum hodie est caro factum

ex uirginea

stirpe Dauitica.

versus : Olim quem uates cuncti cecinere fore uenturum

a mundo cuncta

tollere pecca^a.

versus : Quis audiuit talia

cuncta per secula,

quod uirgo incorrupta

fit mater feta ?

versus : Virgo uirgua Tessea

floruit Maria;

attulit uite fructu m

mater intacta.

versus : Casta eius gestant uiscera,

quom mundi non capit figura.

versus : Gremtis fert sacro saneto,

qui palmo concludit omnia.

1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., nouv. acq., MS. lat. 300, Breviarium Bituricense

saec. XIII, fol. 112r-112v.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

351

versus : O semper benedicta

que tale pignus hodie

mundo edidisti alma

versus : Aue, gratia plena,

Dominic s tecum heatst,

guam tu es uirgo enixa.

versus : Cui in munera

ac premaxima

celestis beat splendens caterua.

versus : In altis gloria

Deo sit magna,

pax homjinibns aioue in terra.

Bone.1 2

The most extended dramatic use. of the interrogation Pas -

tores, dicite, quidnam vidistis is to be found, however, in its

career independent of the responsory. We have a variant

form of it, for example, used as an introductory trope of the

Introit of the first Christmas Mass:

2TROPnS IN MEDIA NOCTE :

Pastores, dicite, qnidnam uidistis, et annunciate

Xp isti natiuitate <m>.

.III.3 Infantem nidi <fol. 5r> mus pannis inuolutum et

choros angelorum laudantes Saluatorem.

.III.3 Dominus dixit, p salmus: Quare fremuernn^. Gloria

seculorum , Amlen. 4

Again we find this dialogue prescribed for delivery after the

first Christmas Mass, just before the Te Deum at the end of

Christmas Matins:

1 Followed immediately by the rubric: In secundo Nocturno.

2 Bodleian, Douce MS. 222, Troparium Novaliciense saec. xi, fol.

4V— 5r.

s I cannot interpret this sign. Neither tres nor ter is satisfactory.

Tertius modus is, as Dom Beyssac informs me, impossible.

4 Followed immediately by: Responsum: Tecum principium, — the

Graduale of the Mass.

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

deinde1 incipm^r mtssa: Domimis dixit ad me, films..

qua dicta, sTATim mcipiatun A^tiphona:

Pastores, dicite, quidnam uidistis, et adnunciate X.'pisti

natiuitatem.

r esponsio :

Infantem uid firms pannis inuolutum, et chores angelorum

laudantes2 Saluatorem.

postea incipitur: Te Deum laudamns.3

A similar text, with interesting rubrics, is shown in the follow¬

ing:

4non dicitue: Ite, missa est.4 si missa celebbatue cum

-CANTU, NE POPELES LICEN CIATUM SE CREDENS, NON AUDITO

MAT utinO, DISCEDAT, DICITUE A DIACHOEO :

Pastores, dicite, quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpis/i

natinitatem, et cetera,

chorus respondeat :

Infantem nidi <18v> mns pannis inuolutum, et chores

angelo-rwm laudantes Saluatorem, ut habetue in breviariis.

dicitue Te Deum laudamus.5

Most conspicuous of all, however, is the use of this dialogue

in connection with the psalmody of Lauds, where it served a

variety of uses. This variety we shall understand better, no

doubt, after a glance at the liturgical structure of Lauds.

As the name suggests, the office consists chiefly in the sing¬

ing of psalms of praise, of which there are five,6 each being

provided with an antiphon to he sung before it and to he re-

1 Preceded immediately by the Liber Generations.

2 MS laudentes.

sBibl. Nat. MS. lat. 1033, Breviarium Pictaviense saec. xiv, fol. 26r,

44 Marking the end of the first Christmas Mass.

8 Paris, Bibl. Mazarine, MS. 420 ( olim 216), Missale Pictaviense

saec. xiv, fol. 18r-18v Cf. Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1057, Breviarium Pic-

laviense saec. xiv, fol. 2SK See also Cousseau, Memoire sur V an-

cienne liturgie du diocese de Poitiers et sur les monuments qui nous

en restent, in Memories de la Societe des Antiquaires de V Quest Ie

Serie, t. V (1839, pp. 222-223; Du Meril, p. 148.

‘That is to say, five liturgical psalms. As we shall see below, the

liturgical psalm often comprises two or more scriptural psalms.

Ydung — Officium Pastorum.

353

peated after it.1 The place of the psalmody in the office will

appear in the following broad outline :2

LAUDES

I. Psalmody — Antiphona.

(1) Psalmus.

Antiphona.

(2) Psalmus.

Antiphona.

(3) Psalmus.

Antiphona.

(41 Psalmus.

Antiphona.

(5) Psalmus.

Antiphona.

II. Chapter — Capitulum.

III. Hymn — Hymnus.

Antiphona.

TV. Canticle — Canticum (Benedictus).

Antiphona.

V. Prayer — Oratio.

YI. Conclusion— Yersiculi, Responsiones, et cetera.

Confining our attention, then, to the psalmody of this office,

we may outline the content of the prevalent Christmas form as

follows :

1 See’ P. Wtagner, Origine et Developpement du Chant Liturgique ,

Tournai, 1904, p. 151. During the earlier mediaeval period the antiphon

was, no doubt, repeated, entire or in part, after each verse of the

psalm; but for the period with which we are at present concerned

(circa 1100-1500), the practice mentioned above may he considered

normal. Cf. Wagner, pp. 147-152. See the text printed below from

Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1268 (saec. xiv), in which the repetition of the anti¬

phon at the end of the psalm is expressly mentioned (Quo ftnito et

antiphona eius cantata).

2 This outline may be applied to the complete texts printed in Ap¬

pendices A and B.

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

(1) Antiphofa : Qnem vidistis, pastores, dicit© ? An¬

n-initiate nobis in tends qnis apparuit.

Hatum vidinus, et chores Angelorum

collaudantes Dominum, alleluia, alle¬

luia.

Psalmus: Dominus regnavit (Ps. xcii).

Antiphoxa : Qnem . . . Dominum, alleluia, alle¬

luia.1

(2) Axtiphoxa: Genuit puerpera regem, cui nomen

sternum, et gaudia matris habens cum

virginitatis bonore; nee primam simi-

lem visa est, nec habere sequentunq

alleluia.

Psalmus: Jubilate Deo (Ps. xcix).

Axtiphoxa: Genuit . . . sequentem, alleluia.

(3) Axtiphoxa : Angelus ad pastures ait: Annuntio

vobis gaudium magnum, quia natus est

vobis ho die S alva t or mundi, alleluia.

Dens, Deus mens (Ps. lxii) Deus

misereatur (Ps. lxvi)2.

Angelus . . . mundi, alleluia.

Pacta est cum Angelo multitudo coeles-

tis exercitus laudantium Deum, et di-

centium : Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in

terra pax hominihus 'bonse voluntatis,

alleluia.

Benedicite (Daniel, in) .

Pacta est . . . voluntatis, alleluia.

Parvulus filius hodie natus est nobis, et

vocabitur Deus Fortis, alleluia, alleluia.

Laudate Dominum (Ps. cxlviii) ; Can-

tate Domino (Ps. cxlix) ; Laudate Do¬

minum (Ps. cl).

Parvulus . . . Fortis, alleluia, alle¬

luia.

1 In the manuscripts, the repetition of the antiphon is, of course, sel¬

dom explicitly indicated.

2 When the liturgical psalm comprises more than one scriptural

psalm, the manuscript usually give the incipit only of the first scrip¬

tural psalm.

Psalmus :

Antiptioxa :

(4) Axtipttoxa:

Psalmus :

Antiptioxa :

( 5 ) Antiptiona :

Psalmus :

Antipiiona :

Young — Officium Pastorum.

355

It is in the midst of this psalmodic series that the dialogue

Past ores, dicite, quidnam vidistis ? achieves its most interesting

development within the liturgy of Christmas. The simplest

type of this development is well represented by the following

text d

<AD LAUDES IN; NATIVITATE DOMINI >1 2

<foL 175V> Eintta comMUNiONE ph’me Misse, cantan-

tur MAtutine Lau des, in quibus no n dicatur Cap itulum nec

H ymnus, see mcipito sequels antipiiona: Quern uidistis,

pastures, dicite? Annunciate nobis in terris quis apparuit?

Natum uidimus in choro angelorum Saluatorem Dommnm,

alleluia, alleluia.

<fol. I76r> P salmus: Dominus regnauit <xcn>.

Ant iphona: Genuit puerpera regem, cui nomen etemum et

gaudium matris habeas cum uirginitatis honore; nec primam

similem uisa est, nec habere sequentem, alleluia.

P salmus : Ivihilate <xcix>.

A ntiphona: Angelus ad pastores ait: Annuncio uobis

gaudium magnum, quia natus est nobis hodie Saluator mundi,

alle^ma.

vsalmus: Dews, Deus <lxii, et Deus misereatur (lxvt)>,

a ntiphona: Facta est cum angelo multitudo icelestis exerci-

tus3 4 laudantium et dicentium: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in

terra pax homimbus bonse uoluntatis, alleluia.

vsalmus: Benedicite < Daniel iii>.

bum cantatut vsalmus Bencd icite, uArumT ptjeri retro al-

TAREp ET EINITA ANTIPHOHO- ILLIUS PSALmi, ILLI QUI CHORTim

1 For similar texts see Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1273, Breviariunx

Andegavense saec. xiv, fol. 39^, printed below, Appendix B; Ibid., MS.

lat. 16309, Breviariunx Santonense saec. xiv, fol. 35r-35v; Paris, Bibl.

Sainte Genevieve, MS. 117, Liber Responsalis Bellovacensis saec. xiii-

xiv, fol. 25r; Paris, Bibl. de V Arsenal, MS. 279, Breviarium C’adomense

saec. xiii, fol. 87r.

2 Bibl. Nat. MS. lat. 1268, Breviarium Silvanectense saec. xiv, fol-

175v-176v.

8 MS. excercitus.

4 Concerning the use of altare see pp. 306-311, 336-7.

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

SERUAnT UENIEnTES AN^<3 ALTARE DICANT ANT ipJlOnam

Pastores, dicite, qnidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpis£i na

tiuitatem.

ET PUERI STAnTES RETRO AETARE DICAWT :

Infantem uidimns pannis inuolutum, et chores angelorum

laudantes Saluatorem.

Anriphona: Parunlns films hodie natus est nobis, et uoca-

bitnr Dens fortis, alleluia.

Psalmus: Laudate <cxlviii, et Cantate Domino (cxlix)

et Land ate (cl)>.

Quo EINITO ET ANTiphona EI US CAUTATA, ILLE QUI MlSSAM CAU-

tat stans ad altare incipit ant iphonam super B enedictus,

ET TOTAm CANTAT QUAm EI DEFERT UNUS CUSTODUm CHORI.

Ad ~Benedictus Antiphona: Gloria in excdLsis Deo, et in terra

pax hominibus bone uoluntatis, alleluia.

Psolmus : Bened ictus.

<fol. 176V> 0 ratio: Da nobis, quesumus, Domine, Dens

nosier, nt qni natiuitatem Domini no>stri Ihesu Xpis/i nos fre-

quentare gaudemus, dignis conuer sationibus ad eins mereamur

pertingere consorcium. Per eundem.1 *

In this eaJse the familiar dialogue is merely inserted before the

fifth antiphon, the psalmody being otherwise uninterrupted.

The rubrics are only nieagerly suggestive as to misc en scene.

The expressions ante altare and stantes retro altare may indicate

either that the altar is conceived of as Prcesepe / or that a struc¬

tural Prcesepe. of some sort is placed near the altar.

Another use of the dialogue is shown in the folowing :

<AD LAUDES IX XATIVITATE DOMIXI>3

<fol. 112r> In I midibus.

Antiphona: Quern uidistis, piastores, dicite? Annunciate

nobis in terns qnis apparuit. Xatum uidimns in choros ange-

lorum collaudantes Dominnm, alleluia, alleluia.

i Followed immediately by the rubric: Ad horas ant iphonce ....

* 'See above, pp. 306-311, 336-7.

* Rome, Vatican, MS. Ottobon. 672, Breviarium Bisuntinum saec. xv,

fol. 112r-112v.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

357

< Psalmus: Dominus regnavit (xcii)>1

A ntiphona: Genuit puerpera Regem., cui nom en et ernum,

et gaudium matris habeas cum uirginitatis pudore ; nee pnmam

similemi uisa est, nec habere sequentem, alleluia.

< Psalmus: Iubilate Deo (xcix)>.

A 'ntiphona : Angelus ad pastores ait : Annuncio uobis

gaudium magnum, quia na tus est nobis hodie Saluator mundi,

alleluia.

< Psalmus: Dens, Dens mens (uxii) ; Deus misereatur

(uxvi) >.

Antiphona: Facta est cum angelo multi tudo celestis exer-

citus2 laudancium et dicencinm: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in

terra pax hominibus bone uoluntatis, alleluia.

<Psalmus: Benedicite (Dan. iii)>.

Antiphona: FPato Domino angelorum chorus canebat dicens :

Salus Deo nosiro sedenti super thronum, et Agno, alleluia.

Psalmus: Laudate,3 usque "Laudato Dominion in sanctis

eius, exclusive. Gloria Patri. Sicut erat. Postea dicaut

duo dyacoxi m medio choei ANtiphonam:

Pastores, dicite, quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem.

RespoxDEAnT duo pueei:

Infantem uidimus pannis inuolutum et chores angelorum col-

laudantes Saluatorem.

Psalmus: Laudate Lomimim in sanctis eius <Ccl. l.>.

Psalmus: Laudate eum; in uirtutibus <cl. 2.>.

Gloria Poiri. Sicut erat.

Iteeato dicaxt dyacoxi :

Pastores, dicite.

RespowDEAXT pueei:

Infantem.

Psalmus : Laudate eum in sono tube < cl. 3 > . Laudate

eum, in tympano <cl. 4>. Gloria Patri. Sicut erat.

iTerATO dycaxt dyacoxi, ut prius :

Pastores, dicite.

1 See the outlines above, p. 354.

2 MS. excelsitws. The corruption in this late manuscript is consid¬

erable.

•MS. Lcwdante.

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

PespoNBEANT pueri :

Infantem.

P salmus: Laudate ©urn in simbalis <cl. 5>.

Gloria P atri. Sicnt ©rat.

iTOrATO BICANT BYACONI I

Pastores.

Dicant pueri:

Infantem uidimus pa nnis.

SAcornos be aetari inciPiAT a ntiphonam: Gloria in excelsis

D'eo <fol 112v> et in terra pax bominibus bone uoluntatis,

alle?ma.

P salmus: Benedicius.

Onatio : Da nobis, quesumus, Do mine, Dens nosier, ut qui

natinitatem Domini n<ostri> I<hesu> Xpis^i nos frequenter

gaudemns digms conuersacionibns ad eius mereamnr pertingere

consortium. Per<enndem>.

Benedicamns Domino.

Deinbe bicant prebicti pueri a ntiphonam:

Completi sunt dies Marie ut pareret filium suum pregenitum.

PeSpONDEANT BYACONI :

Ecce oompleta sunt amnia qne dicta sunt per an^elnm de

heats. Virgin© M aria.

Tunc chorus bicat:

Glorificamus te, Dei genitrix, quia ex te natns est Xpistuc.

Salua omnes qui te glorifioant.1

According to this text the psalmody proceeds regularly

through to the fifth psalm, or group of psalms : cxEviii ( Lau¬

date Dominum ), cxeix (Cantate Domino), and ce (Laudate

Dominum). Of this group the first two psalms are sung regu¬

larly, without interruption. Before Psalm ce (Laudate Do¬

minum in sanctis ejus ), however, is inserted the dialogue,

which is repeated after verses 1 and 2 sung continuously,

after verses 3 and 4 sung continuously, and after the final

verse 5. This reiteration gives to the office a distinctly festal

character.

Quite as worthy of the feast is the practice revealed in the

following :

* Followed by the rubric: Ad Pnmam.

Young — Officium Pastomm.

359

<AD LAUDES IN jSTATIVXTATE DOMEI>1

<fol. 40v> Et2 eihita M'issa usQ^e ad compiENDAm,

SAcerDos qui cantat MissAm alta uoce iticipiat Anti -

phonam :

Pastores, dicite <quidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem>.

Deinde chori prouisonES alta TJOCE P salmum:

Dominw-s regnauit, decorem indutus est: indutus est Do mi¬

nus fortitudinem, et precinxit se<xcn. i>.

Chorus hicat a ntiphonam::

Pastores, dicite, qmdnarn uidistis, et annunciate Npisti na-

tiuitatem.

Tres puen retro altare respo^dea71t excelsa uoce a nti¬

phonam :

Infantem uidimns parmis inuolutum et chorus angelornm

laudantes Saluatorem.

Ciiori provisoREs :

Etenim firmauit orbem terre, qui no n commouebitur

<xc a. 2>.

< CHORUS DICAT ANTIPHONAM > :

Pastores, supra.

Pum iterum cadent Aritiphonam .

<fol. 41r> Infantes.

Chori prouisoREs:

Parata sedes tua, Pens, ex time a seeu\o tu es<xcii. 3>.

Chorva? a ntiphonam :

Pastores, supra.

< PlTERT AXTIPHOUAM> J

Infantem.

A ntipJiona: Quern uiejistis ?

Chorus versus : <xcii. 4-7 >.

1 Bibl. Nat., MS. lat. 1274, Breviarium Claromontense saec. xiv, fol.

40v-41v„

2 For the liturgical setting of this text sec below, Appendix A.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

<4>. Eleuauerunt flumina, rDomine ; eleuauerunt flumina

uocem suam.1

<5>. Eleuauerunt flumina fluctus suos, a uocib us a quorum

mnltarum.

<6>. Mirabiles elationes maris; mirabilis in altis

T) animus,

<7>. Testimonia tua credibilia fa.c/ a sunt nimis; domum

tuam decet soncZitudo in longitudinem dierumi.

Gloria PoZri. Sicut erat.

A \nitiphona :

Quem uidisti<s>, pastures, dicite? Annunciate nobis in

terris quis apparuit. Ar atum uidimns in choro angelorum

Saluatorem Dominnm, alleluia , alleluia .

A ntiphona. Genuit puerpera regem, cui nomen eZernum,

et gaudium matris hahens cum uirginitate pudoris; quia nec

primam similem uisa est, nec habere sequentem, alleluia.

Psalmus: Iubilate <xcix>.

A ntiphona: Pacta est cum angelo midtitud<o> celestis

exercitus laudanci am Deum et dicenciu<m> : Gloria in ex-

celsis Deo, et in terra pax liominZbns bone uoluntatis, alleluia.

Psalmus: Deus, Dens’ meus <lxii et Deus misereatur

Lxvi>. ‘ M

.. i

A ntiphona: Angel us ad pastures ait: Annuncio uobis

gaudium magnum, quia natns est liodie saluotor mundi, alleluia.

Psalmus: Benedicite <Daniel iii>.

A ntiphona: Poruulus filius bodie natus est nobis, et uocabZ-

Zur Deus fortis, alleluia, alleluia.

Psalmus: Laudate < cxeviii, et Cantate Domino cxlix, et

Laudate Dominum ce>.

Ca pitulum, Ymnus Versus xo n mcenduM, sed qui caxtat

MissAm incipiat a ntiphonam: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in

terra pax hominibus bone uoluntatis.

Psalmus: Penedictus.

OrArio : Da nobis, qnesumns, Domine, Deus noster, ut qui

natiuitatem Domini nosZri, Ihesu Xpisti, nos frequentare gua-

1-1 The manuscript, corrupt at this point, reads: uo Domine ele¬

uauerunt flumina fluctus suos a uocibns uocem suam.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

361

denms dignis c o nuer sationibus ad eius mereanmr1 2 pertin-

<g>ere rcmsorciiun. Qui tecum.

Pro Benddioapms mcatur :

2Verbum Patris hodie

Processit de V irgine ;

Virtutes angelice3

Cum canoro iubilo

Reddunt laudes Domino.

A ntiphona :

Pacem nobis omnibus

E’unciauit angelus

<fol. 41v> Refulsit pastoribws.

Yeri solis claritas

Dicant omnes4 gratias.5

In this case the dialogue is attacked to the first psalm, Ps.

xcii (Dominus regnavit). The interrogation alone6 is sung

before the first verse, and the complete dialogue after each of

the first three verses. The normal first antiphon of Lauds

(Quem vidistis) is then sung, and thenceforth the psalmody

proceeds regularly.7

In spite of the dramatic character of the dialogue before us,

and in spite of the festal appreciation bestowed upon it in the

various forms reviewed above, this liturgical element neither

created for itself an independent dramatic office nor joined it¬

self to the Officium Pastorum developed from Quem quceritis in

prcesepe. Along with several other dramatic pieces from

Christmas, however, Pastorcs, dicitc, quidnam vidistis served

1 The manuscript seems to have : mereanws.

2 In connection with this trope of the Benedicamus see the texts

from Rouen manuscripts above, pp. 329, 333.

3 MS. angelices.

4 MS. gives this word twice.

8 Followed immediately by the rubric: Et dicatur ad Yesperas .

6J[t is entirely likely that the reply has been erroneously omitted

from the manuscript at this point.

1 In connection with this type of Christmas Lauds see Dublin Re¬

view, Vol. cxxi (1897), p. 372.

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

effectively both in the Ordo Rachelis of Innocents’ Day,1 and

in the Officium Stellas of Epiphany.2

VI.

In onr consideration of the dramatic developments v^ithin

the Christmas liturgy we come, finally, to th© famous Introit-

trope Hodie cantandus est, of which Tutilo, monk of St. Grail at

the end of the ninth century, is the well accredited author.3

Of this trope a simple, unrubricated form is seen in the follow¬

ing:

<p. 41 > 4Hodie cantandus est nobis puer, quern gignebat

ineffabiliter ante tempera Pater, et eundem sub tempore gen-

erauit inclyta <p. 42 > Mater.

Quis est iste puer, quern tam magnis preconiis dignum

uociferatis ? dicite nobis, ut conlaudatores esse possimus.

Hie enim est quern presagus et electus symmista Dei ad ter¬

ras uenturum preuidens longe ante prenotauit, sicque predixit.

Puer natus est nobis. Preter omnium puerorum <p. 43 >

consuetudinem de uirgine procreatus. Et filius datus est nob is

Ex tempore quidem matri, sempiternitate uero oonsubstantialis

Deo Patri. Cuius imperium sup&r humerum eius. Crucis

uidelicet lignum ad debellandos inuisibiles inimicos. Et

uocabitur. Priuilegio Patris Eilii superai. Nomen eius.

Iudeis ac gentibus adnuntians se Deum. Magni consilii An-

gelus. P salmus: Cantate Domino canticum <nouum i>, quia

1 See DuMgril, p. 172.

2 See Anz, pp: 152, 157; C. Cahier and A. Martin, Melanges d’ Arche -

ologie. d ’ Histoire et de Litterature. Vol. I, Paris, 1847, p. 260; Zeit-

schrift fur deutsches Alterthum, Vol. xxxii, p. 414; Modern Philology ,

Vol. vi (1908), p. 210; Publications of the Modern Language Association

of America , Vol. xxiv (1909), pp. 327-328; Du Meril, p. 204.

3 The evidence for Tutilo’s authorship is, of course, overwhelming.

S'ee Gautier, pp. 43, 44, 61—64 : A. Schubiger, Die Sangerschule St.

Gallens vom achten bis zwolften Jahrhundert, Einsiedeln and New York,

1858, p. 60. The rubric Harmanni Versus which accompanies the text

of Hodie eantandUs est in Oxford, Bibl. Bodl. MS. Selden supra 27,

Troparium Heidenhemense saec. xi, fol. 62v, may or may not be signifi¬

cant. I have seen no explanation of this rubric.

4 St. Gall, Stiftsbibliothek, MS. 378, Graduale-Troparium-Prosarium

Sangallense saec. x, pp. 41-43. The manuscript gives no introduc¬

tory rubric.

Young — Officium Past ovum.

363

<mirabilia> fecit. Miro modo cum; de uirginis utero ut

homo processerat, sed ut Deus imperitat. Puer natus est

nobis. Gloria Patri , amen. Cuius potentissimus. Puer.1

The dramatic nature of the opening sentences of this trope

long ago attracted attention, and the most distinguished inves¬

tigator of this branch of liturgical composition has seen in

this dialogue the very beginnings of mediaeval drama :

Le plus ancien trope connu, le fameux Ho die cantandus ,

nous apparait dans les plus anciens tropaires sous une forme

yisiblement dram)atique: Interrogatio. Quis est iste puert

— Biesponsio. Hie enim est , etc. (Test le primier germe

d? un futur theatre; e’ est Y embryon qu’ il faut presque

etudier au microscope.2 3 f

To this sanguine observation from an investigator of tropes, a

more recent investigator, approaching the subject from the

point of view of drama, opposes the following terse statement :

It <LHodie cantandus est> is an example of some half a

dozen dialogued Introit tropes which might have, but did

not, become the starting-point for further dramatic evolu¬

tion.8

Although this latter statement of the case must have brought

conviction generally to students of the drama, it may have left in

the minds of some the impression that a study of a larger range

of texts might reveal a more fruitful development of this

promising dramatic germ. Hence, although my own observa¬

tions only confirm a statement that Was already authoritative,

I offer a certain variety of texts drawn from what is, probably,

a somewhat exhaustive collection, to illustrate the limited de¬

velopment of Ho die Cantandus .4 * * *

i Followed immediately by the rubric Alio modo, which indicates the

beginning of a new trope. In the text above, the liturgical Introit is

printed in italics.

2L. Gautier, Les Tropes, Paris , 1886. p. 218. See also Rassegna

Gregoriana, Vol. V (1906). col. 532; Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi,

Vol. XLIX Leipzig, 1906, p. 7.

3 Chambers, Vol. II, p. 9. Cf. Creizenach, Vol. I, p. 57.

4 My observations are based upon texts taken from twenty-three

manuscripts. Gautier pp. 63-64, mentions some ten manuscripts, and

in Analecta Hymnica Medii Aevi, Vol, xlix, p. 8, nineteen are referred

to. To the manuscripts mentioned by Gautier and by the editors of

Analecta Hymnica one may add: Munich, Staatsbibl., Cod. lat. 14083,

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Turning our attention, then, to an examination “au miscro-

scope’7 of Tutilo’s famous trope, let us pass in review some of

the variants of the text already printed above. Whereas this

text, in use at St. Gall at the end of the tenth century, hears

no explicit evidence of having been rendered in dialogue form,

such evidence is unmistakably present in the following :

1Hodie eantandus est nobis puer, quern gignebat ineffabiliter

ante tempera Pater, et eundem sub tempore generauit inclyta

Mater.

TNTerrogatio : Quis est iste puer, quem tarn magnis preconiis

dignum uociferatis? dicite nobis, ut conlaudatores esse pos-

simus.

RESPorcsio : Hie enim est quem presagus et electus symmista

Pei ad terras uenturum preuidens longe ante prenotauit> sicque

predixit: puee natus est nobis. Prefer omnium puerorum

consuetudinem de Virgine procreatus. et eilius datus <fol.

29v> est nobis. Ex tempore quidem Mlatri sempiternitate

uero consubstantialis Deo Patri. cuius imperium super

iiumerum eius. Crucis uidelicet lignum ad debellandos in-

uisibiles inimicos. et uocabitur. PTivilegio Patris Filii

superni. nomen eius. Iudeis ac gentibus adnuntians se

Deum. Magni consilii angelus. vsalmus: Cantate Dom¬

ino CAN TIC UM NOUUM, QUIA MIRABILIA EECIT. MPo modo de

Virginis utero ut homo processerat, sed ut Deus imperitat.

PUER <NATUS EST> NOB is. GLORIA < PATRI >. AImEN.

Cuius potentissimus. <puer>.2

The rubrics Int<terrogatio> and Resp<.onsio> clearly in¬

dicate conscious dialogue. In this text, as in that given above,3

the troping continues into the interior of the Introit.

Troparium Sancci Emmerani saec. xi-xii, fol. 80v; Ibid., Cod. lat.

14845, Troparium Sancti Emmerani saec. xii, fol. 74r-74v; Verona, Bibl.

Capit., MS. 107, Troparium Mantuanum saec. xi, fol. 4v; Roma, Bibl.

Angelica, MS. 948 (R. 4. 38), Graduale-Troparium saec. xii, fol. 128r;

Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. 350r (19436), Missale Benedictinum Sancti

Martini saec. xi, fol. 4r; Rouen, Bibl. Municip., MS. 250 ( olim . A. 233),

Graduale Monasticum saec. xiv, fol. 17r-17u On the general subject

of the trope Hodie eantandus est one may consult Gautier, pp. 34, 43,

44, 61-64, 139, 209, 218; Meyer, p. 34; Chambers, Vol. II, pp. 8-9;

Rassegna Gregoriana, Vol. V (1906), col. 531-533; Schubiger, p. 60.

1 St. Gall, MS. 380, Troparium Sangallense saec. xi, pp. 29r-29^.

2 Followed immediately by the rubric: Alio modo.

» From St. Gall MS. 378, p. 41.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

365

As to the rendering of such a trope wte have also external

evidence in the following ordo , applicable to the diocese of

Rouen in the eleventh century.1

Post Terciam uero iiet processio. Qua finita, duo clerici

circa alt are stabunt, qui uersus, scilicet Ho die cantandus est,

oantabunt. Qurbus secundum uersum regentes chorum re-

spondebunt. Primi tertium dicent. Et hoc finito, cantores

OfRcium2 incipient, et celebre perfinient.

According to this ordo the parts of the trope are dramatically

distributed as follows:

duo clerici: Hodie cantandus est nobis puer

regentes chorum: Quis ist iste puer?

duo clerici: Hie enim est

In this distribution, however, there seems to be no suggestion

of impersonation, for we cannot reasonably infer that the Duo

clerici represent the Obstetrices of the Rouen Officium Pas¬

torum, or that the Regentes chorum represent the Pastores3

The rubric circa altare is, perhaps, a recognition once more

either of the presence of an actual preesepe at the altar,4 or

of the symbolical formula altare est preesepe .5 6

A similar dramatic distribution of parts is indicated by the

rubrics in the following:

6tropi in nat iuitate domini:

Hodie cantandus est nobis puer, quern gignebat ineffabiliter

ante temjpora Pater, et eundem sub tempore <fol. 89r> gen-

erauit inclita Mater.

Montpellier, Bibl. de la Faculte de Medecine, MS. H. 304, Miscel¬

lanea saec. xii, fol. 32r. For the complete ordo of Christmas see below,

Appendix D. Concerning this manuscript in general, and concerning

its association with Rouen and with Jean d’ Avranches, see Modern

Philology , Vol. VI (1908), pp. 201-227.

2 Officium is the Gallican word often used for the Roman Introitus.

3 The extract quoted above should be1 studied in connection with the

complete text given below in Appendix D. There it will be observed

that the Pastores cease to rule the choir after Lauds: usque ad fmem

Matutinorum regent chorum (Montpellier, MS. H. 304, fol. 32r). I in¬

terpret Matutinorum as meaning Matutinw Laudes=Laudes.

4 The ordo mentions the Presepis Officium (Montpelier MS. H. 304,

fol. 32r).

5 See above, pp. 306-311, 336-7.

6 Munich, Cod. lat. 27130, Graduale-Troparium Ottoburanum saec.

xii in., fol. S8v-89l

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

duo cantores respondeant:

Quis est iste puer, quem tain magnis preconiis dignum

uociferatis ? dicite nobis ut eollaudatores esse possimus.

item priores:

Hie enim est quem presagus et electus symnista Dei ad

terras uenturum preuidens longe ante prenotauit, sicque pre-

vdixit :

Puer natus est.

The trope is here a mere introduction to the Introit.

According to the following text, the trope is used as a pro¬

cessional :

*in die natalis nommi ad proc essionem t Ropus.

Hodie cantandus est nobis puer, quem, gignebat ineffabili-

t er ante tempora Pater, et eundem sub tempore generauit

inclita mater.

chorus : Quis est iste puer quem tarn magnis preconiis

dignum- uociferatis ? dicite nobis, ut eollaudatores esse possi-

mus.

processio : Hie enim est quem presagus et electus sym-

mista Dei ad terras uenturumi prseuidens longe ante prseno-

tauit, sicqwe prsedixit :

a ntiphona: Puer natus <est nobis>.1 2 3

In the following text the rubrics have a further interest :

3in nat iuitate, Domwi ad mis sam sint om nes ornati in

CHORO STANTES, ET PrONUNCIET SCOLA HUNG UERSUm :

Hodie cantandus est nobis puer, quem <g> ignebat in-

effabiliter ante tempora Pater, et eundem)4 sub tempore gen¬

erauit inclita Mater.

rcs pondeant cant ores:

Quis est iste puer, que <m> tarn magnis preconiis dig¬

num uociferatis? dicite nobis, ut conlaudatores esse possimus.

rcs pondeat scoda :

1Cambrai, Bibl. Municip., MS. 75, Graduate Sancti Vedasti Atre-

batensis saec. xi, fol. 7V.

2 Followed by a fresh Introit-trope beginning: Ecce adest de quo

prophetse cecinenmt. Cf. the text below from Oxford, Bibl. Bodl. MS.

775, fol. llr.

3 Verona, Bibl. Capit., Troparium Sancti Benedicti Mantuani saec. xi,

fol. 4^.

4 MS. euntem.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

367

Hie eniin est que <m> presagus et eleotus simixta Dei

ad terrain uenturum preuidens longe ante prenotauit, sicque

pre dixit :

Puer natus est.1

As a final example one may well add the text from the

famous Winchester troper:2 j

veesus3 ante oFFicium canend i in die NAtai^e jyofmiN i.

peimo dicant cANTores:

Hodie cantandus est nobis puer quem gignebat ineffabiliter

ante tempora Pater, et eundem sub tempore generauit inclita

Mater.

item dicant alii nesponsionem :

Quis est iste puer quem tarn magnis preconis dignum

uocife<fol. llr>ratis? dicite nobis ut conlaudatores esse

possimus.

it em peetituiJ:

Hie enirn est quem presagus et electus simmista Dei ad

terras uenturum preuidens, longe ante prenotauit, sicqwe

predixit :4

<Puer natus est>.

From this survey of the texts and uses of Hodie cantandus

est it appears that the dramatic nature of this trope was fully

appreciated, and that in some cases, — as shown by a document5 6

associated with Eouen, — it was provided with a suggestion of

mise en scene. Most frequently, however, the dialogue seems to

have been used either as a mere introduction to the Introit, or

as a processional. In any case, there is, as yet, no evidence to

show that it established an independent dramatic tradition or

influenced palpably the dramatic developments from other

sources. Although it was among the first of those tropes that

1 Followed by a fresh Introit-trope beginning: Ecce adest de quo

prophete.

2 Oxford, Bibl. Bodl., MS. 775, Troparium Wintoniense saec. x, fol.

10v-llr.

8 Concerning the term versus in this connection, see Gautier, pp.

23-31.

4 Followed immediately by: Tropi in Die Natale Domini Nosfri Ihesu

Xpisti: Ecce adest de quo prophete cecinerunt . . . , a second trope of

the Introit.

6 Montpellier, MS. H. 304, fol. 31v-32r.

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

issued from Tutilo’s ample artistic spirit during the later years

of the ninth century, and although it antedates, probably, both

Quern quceritis in sepulchro and its derivative Quem quaeritis

in praesepe, Ho die cantandus est plays only a curious, not an

effective, role in the history of liturgical drama.

Erom this study it is fair to conclude that, although the

liturgy of Christmas day contained numerous dramatic mani¬

festations, it developed and retained within its own limits very

little true drama. It appears that the only substantial Christ¬

mas play developed within these limits is the Officium Pas¬

torum , for which we have texts, as yet, only from Rouen and

Clermont. At the end of this study, however, as at the begin¬

ning, the reader should be reminded that I have purposely iso¬

lated the Officium Pastorum , and its immediate liturgical associ¬

ations, from several other groups of plays of the Christmlas sea¬

son: (1) the Processus Prophetarum of Christmas and the oc¬

tave, (2) the Or do Pachelis of Innocents* Day, and (3) the

Officium Stellce of Epiphany. My attempt to analyze dra¬

matic details of the Christmas cursus , and to provide liberal

liturgical texts as a basis for criticism, should not be allowed

to obscure the truth that, after all, the Officium^ Pastorum and

the Christmas cursus found their most fruitful dramatic de¬

velopments not in isolation, but as contributory to the other

dramatic groups of the Christmas season. i

I

Young — Officium Pastorum. 369

APPENDIX A.

< BEE VIAKIUM CL AEOMONTEX SE IN NATIYITATE

DOMIXI>.1

<f0l. 3YV> IK KATIUITATE DOMIKI.

muiTatorium : Xp istus natus est nobis, nenite a dor emus.

j? salmus: Venite.

ik Primo jxodurno.

Antiphona : Dominus dixit ad me, Eilius mews es tu; ego

hodie genni te.

p salmus: Quare fr emuerunt.

Antiphona : Tanquam sponsus Dominus procedens de thal-

amo sno.

-psalmus: Celi enar rant.

Antiphona: Diffusa est gracia in labi<i>s tuis propterea

benedixit te Dens in eternum.

p salmus: Eructauit.

versiculus: Do minus dixit ad me.

<respoksum> : Eilius mews es tu; ego bodie genui te.

Pater nosier.

versiculus: Tanquam sponsus.

ysaie nectio Prima.

Primo tempore alleuiata est terra Zabulon, et terra Xepta-

lim; et nouissimo aggrauata est uia maris trans Iordanem

Galilee Gencium. Populus qni ambulabat in tenebris, uidit

lucem magnam; buMtantibus in regione umbre mortis, lux

orta est eis. Multiplicasti gentem; non magnificasti leticiam.

Letabuntur coram te, sicut letantur in mjes.se, sicut exultant

uictores2 capta preda,, quando dividunt spolia. Iugum enim

honeris eius, et uirgam humeri eius, et sceptrum exactoris eius

1 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS. latin 1274, Breviarium Claro-

montense saec. xiv, fol. 37^-41^

2 MS. uictoreres.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

superasti sicut in die Madyan. Quia omnis niolenta predatio

cum tumultu, et uestimentum uiixtum sanguine, erif in con-

bustionem, et cibns igni<s>. Paruulus enim na tus est nobis,

et films dat us est nobis, et iactus est principatns super hum-

erum eius ; et uocabitur nomen eins, Admirabilis, Gonsiliarius,

Dens, Fortis, Pat er futuri seculi, Princeps pa<fol. 38r> cis.

Hec dicit Dominns: Oonuertimini ad me, et salni eritis.

nesponsorium : Ido die nobis celornm Pex de Yirgine nasci

dignatus est , nt hominem perditum ad celestia regna renocaret.

Gaudet exercitus1 angelorum, quia salus e tema Immano generi

apparuit. vermis: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra pax hom~

inibus bone uolnntatis. Quia. Gloria, ‘nesponsorium:

Hodie.

IjEctio secnnoA.

Consolamini, consolamini, popnle mens, dicit Dominns Deus

wester. Loqnimi<ni> ad cor Ihcrnsulem, et uocate earn,

quoniam completa est malicia eius, dimissa est iniquitas illins,

suscepit de manu Domini duplicia pro omnibus peccatfis suis.

Vox clamancis in deserto: Parate uiam Domini, rectas facite

in solitudine semitas Dei nosfri. Hec dicit Dominns.

wesponsorium : Hodie nobis de celo pax uera descendit;

hodie per totum mundum melliflui iaeti sunt celi. versus:

Hlodie illuxit nobis dies redempcionis n ostre, preparation^

antique, felicitatis eterne. Ho<die>. Gloria. Hodie.

-Lectio Tertia.2

Consurge, consurge, induere fortitudine tua, Syon, induere

uestimentis glo'rie tue, Ihemsalem ciuitas sancti, quia non

adiciet ultra ut pertranseai per te incircumcisns3 et inmundus.

Excutere de puluere, consurge sede Ihernsulem; solue uincula

colli tui, captiua filia Syon. Quia hec dicit D omirms Deus:

Gratis uenumdati estis, et <sine> argento redimemini. Hec

dicit Dominns.

1 MS. excercitus.

2 MS. secunda.

3 MS. incircumsisus.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

371

e esponsorium: Quein uidistis, pastures? Dicite, annunciate

nobis in terris qnis appamit ? jXatum uidimns in cboro an-

gelorum Saluatorem, Dominnm. versus. Dicite, qnidnam

uidistis ? ei annunciate Xpisii natiuitatem. Xatum. Gloria.

^esponsorium : Quern.

if Secundo Xocinrno.

ANTipRona: Suscepimns, Deus, misericordiam tua m in

medio tempi i tui.

Tsalmus: Magnus Domnins.

a ritiphona: Orietur in diebus Domini hu&nndancia pacis,

<fol. 38v> et dominabiinr.

p salmus: Deus iudicium.

a ntiphona: Veritas de terra orta est, et iusticia de celo pros-

pexit.

<p salmus> : Benedixisti.

versiculus: Tanqnam sponsus.

<respofsitm> : Dominus procedens.

Pate r 'Noste r.

versiculus: Paruulus natns est.

sermo s ancti a jj Gust ini e st Lectio Quanta.

Salluator Roster, dilectissimi, hodie natns est; gaudeamns.

Xeque enim fas est locum esse tristicie, ubi n&tolis est uite;

que consumpto mortalitatis timer e, ingerit nobis de promissa

eternitate leticiam. Nemo huins ab alacritatis participatione

secernitur. IJna cunctis est leticia co<m> munis est ratio,

quia Do miu ns nosier peccaii mortisqne destructor, sicut nullum

a peceato liberum reperit, ita pro liberandis omnibus uenit.

Exulte<t> iustns, qnia adpropinquat ad palmam ; gaudeat pec-

eator, quia inuitatnr ad ueniam ; animetnr Gentilis, quia u<o>

catur ad uitam. Tu antem <Domine, miserere nobis, re-

spofstjm: Deo gratias>.

uespomsorium. : O magnum misterium., et admirabile sacra-

mentum, ut animalia uiderunt Dominnm natum, iacentem in

presepio. Beata Virgo cuins uiscora meruerunt portar© Do¬

minnm Xpisinm. versus: Domine, audiui auditum tuum et

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tiirmi; consideraui opera tua et expaui in medio duorwm awi-

malium. Tacentem.

s ermo eeonis paPE.

Exultemns in Domino, dilectissimi, et spiri/uali iocunditate

letemur, quia illuxit nobis dies1 redemptions nostre prepara¬

tions antique felicitatis eteme. Bep<ar>atur enim nobis

salutis nostre annua reuolntione sacramentum ab inicio promis-

sum, in fine mansurnm, in quo dignum; est nos sursum ereptis

cordibus dininum addorare misterium, ut quod magno Dei

munere agitur? magnis ecclesie gaudiis celebretnr. Tu <au-

tem>.

: nesponsorium : Beata Dei genitrix, Mlaria, cuins uiscera in

taeta permanent. Hodie genuit Saluatorem secnli. versus:

Beata qne credi <fol. 39r> dit, quoniam perfecta sunt omnia

qne dicta sunt ei a Domino. Ho<die>.

s ermo EUEGEnTii e st lectio Sexta.

Iustissime,2 iratres, festiuitatis presentis diei in omne gau-

dium- totns ubiqtte snbsistat mundus, quia hodie promissns a

seenlis universe orbi Iudex natus est et Bedemptor. Et necessea

est, ut in eommune nos omnes, qui futuri ex animis resurrec-

tionis que promisse salutem suscepimws, fidem habemus metum

quidem; de Iudice, s ed de Bedemptore leticiam, omnis n&mque

fidelis anima timore corrigitur, correctione letatur. Hodie

itaqne natus est Xp istus, sed in natiuitate eius nostra omnium.

ha&et uita utilitatem, quia qui priuilegia prime natinitate ad-

misimns, uisitante nos Vpisto, sanctiore partu redimns ad

uita m. Tu< autem. > .

Hesponsorium: Descendit de celo missus ab arce Parris.

Introiuit in utheram Virginis in regionem nostfram indutus

stolam purpuream. Et exiuit per auream .portam lux et decus

uniuerse fabrice mundi. Versus: Tanq uam sponsus Doming

procedens de thalamo suo. Et. Gloria. Et exi<uit>.

1 MS. dues.

3 MS. Iuustissime.

8 MS. nesse'se.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

373

In T eriio PHocturno.

Antiphona: Ipse inuocauit me, alleluia ; Pate r mews es tu,

alleluia.

<Psalmus> : Misericordias Domini.

Antiphona: Letentur ■ celi et exultet terra an te faciem

Do mini quoniam uenit.

Psalmus: Cantate. i.

Antiphona: Kotum fecit Do minus, alleluia , salutare suum,

alleluia.

<Psai.mus> : Cantate. ii.

Versus Paruulus natus est.

SecundwM. Lucham.

In illo tempore exiit oditum a Cesare Augusto, nt describere-

tur uniuersus orbis. IT ec descriptio prima facia est a preside

Syrie Cvrino. Et rel iqua.

PLomilm Greaorii < Lectio Septima>

Quia, largiente Domino, Missarum' solempnia ter bodie cele¬

brated sunms, diu loqui de euangelica leciione no n pos<s>

umm1; s ed nos aliquid uel breuit er dicere Redemptoris nosiri

natiuitas ipso compellit. Quid est quod nascituro Domino

mimdus describitur uniuersus, nisi <fol. 39v> boc, quod aperte

moustrat ur, quia idle ueuiebat in carne, qui electos suos ascri-

beret in eiemitate ? Quod contra de reprobis dicitur per pro-

pbeiam : Delean/ur de libro uiuentium, et cum iustis nou scri

baniur. Qui bene etiam in Betbleem nascitur. Ipse namqiie

est , qui ait : Ego sum panis mmis, qui de eelo descendit.

Pesponsorium: Sand a et immaculata uirginitas quibus te

laudibus offer am nescio, quia quern celi capere non poterant,

tuo gremio contulisti. Yersus: Benedicta tu in mulieribus,

et benedictus fructus ueutris tui. Quia.

SecunduM LucHAm.

In illo tempore pastores loquebantur ad inuicem: Transea-

mus usque Betbleem, et uideamus boc uerbum quod faetum est ,

quod fecit D ominus et ostendit nobis. Et <reliqua>.

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

LLomilie Ve < isterabilis > Be<de> Lectio Octaua.1

Hato in Bethleem Domino Saluatore sicut sacra Evangelii

testatnr ystoria, pastoribns, q ui in regione ©adem erant uigi-

1 antes et custodientes uigilias noctis super gregem suum, ange-

lus Domini raagna. cum luce apparuit, exortumqne mundo solem

iusticie no n solum celestis uoce sermonis et uerum eciam clari-

tatis dinine lucis abstruxit. Husqnam enim in tota Veteris

Testamenti serie reperimns angelos q ui tam sedulo apparuere

pa/ribns cum luce apparuisse. S ed hoc preualegium recte hodi-

erno tempori seruatum est qnando exortum est in tenebris

lumen rectis corde misericors et miserator et iustus Do minus.

Tu<autem>.

Hesponsorium : Beat a uiseera Marie Virginis q ue portaue-

runt etemi Pairis Eil i urn, et beata ubera que te lactauerunt

Xpisfomi Dominum, quia hodie pro salute mundi de Virgine

nasci dignatus es. Versus: Dies saneiificatus illuxit nobis;

uenite genres et adorate Dominum. Quia.

SecunduM. lonannem.

In principio erat uer <fol. 40r> bum, et uerbum erat apud

Deum, et Dens erat uerbum. Et rel iqua.

Homilie Ve<aterabiljs> Be<de> Pairis Lectio Nona.

Quia temporalem mediatoris Dei et hominnm et hominis

Xpisfi Ihesu natiuitatem qne bodierna die facta est sanc¬

torum uerbis eu angel i s t a rum Mathey uidel icet et Lucbe

manifest ataw. cognouimns, licet eciam de uerbi, id est, de

dininitatis eius, etemitate in qna Pa£ri manet et mansit semper

equalis, beati Iohannis euangeliste dicta scruetari, qui singulari

priuilegio meruit castitatis ut ceteris altius dirinitatis eius

cap<er>et. simnl et patefaceret archanum. Xeqne enim

frustra in cena supra pectus Domini Ihesu recubisse per<h>-

ibetur, s ed hoc stipite docetur. Tu<autem>.

Lesponsorio : In principio erat uerbum, et uerbum erat

apud Deum et Dens erat uerbum. Hoc erat in principio apud

Deum. Versus : Omnia per ipsum fac£a sunt et sine ipso

fac^nrn est nichil. Hoc. Gloria. Hoc.

'< Versus > : Dominus uobiscum.

i MS. septirm.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

375

<Responsio> : Et <cum spiritu tuo>.

Ixicium Sanch EvAftoeiii secumduM MATHEum.

Liber generation^ Ihesu Xpi.s/i filii Demid, filii Abraham.

Abraham genuit Ysaac. Ysaac autem ge<nuit> Iacob.

Iacob autem g -&<nuit> In dam, et frames eius. Indas astern

ge<nuit> Phares et <Z>aram de Thamar. Phares autem

ge<nuit> Esrom. Esrom autem ge<nuit> Aram. Aram

SLUtem ge<nuit> Amina dab. Aminadab autem ge<nuit>

Xaason. Xaasen autem ge<nuit> Salmon. Salmon autem

ge<nuit> Booz de Ra<ha>b. Booz autem ge<nuit>

Obeth1 ex Ruth. Obeth autem ge<nuit> Iesse. less© astern

ge<nuit> I)auid regem. Dauid autem rex ge<nuit> Salo-

monem ex ea que fuit Vrie. Salomon autem ge<nuit> Ro-

boam. Roboam autem genuit Abiam. Abias autem ge<nuit>

Asa. Asa autem ge<nuit> Iosaphat. Iosaphat autem

ge<nuit> Ioram. Ioras astern genuit Oziam. Ozias-

<fol. 40v> autem- ge<nuit> Iohatam. Iohathas autem

ge<nuit> Achat. Achat autem ge<nuit> Ezech<i>am.

Ezechias autem ge<nuit> Manassem. Manasses autem

ge<nuit> Amon. Amon autem ge<nuit> Iosian. Iosias

autem- ge<nuit> lechoniam, et frames eius in transmigratiowe

Babilonis. Et post transmigrationem Babilonis Iechonias

ge<nuit> Salatiel. Salatiel autem genuit Zorobabel. Zoro-

babel autem ge<n,uit> Abiud. Abiud autem ge<nuit>

Sadoch. Sadoch autem ge<nuit> Elchim. Elchim autem

ge<nuit> Eliud. Eliud autem ge<nuit> Eleazar. Eleazar

autem ge<nuit> Matham. Matham autem ge<nuit> Iacob.

Iacob autemi ge<nuit> Ioseph uirum Mjarie, de qua natus est

Ihesus qui uocatwr Xipistus.

Psalmus: Te Deum.

Quo meto nuo pueri cantent iuxta altaee u ersum:

Quem qweritis in presepe, pastores, dicite?

Pastokes it ersum:

Saluatorem Dominum, infantem pannis inuolutum secundum

sermonem angelicum.

Pueri u ersum :

i MS. Obetl.

376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Adest hie paruulus cum Maria matre sua, de qua dudum

uaticinando Ysaias dixerat prophet a : Ecce mrgo con'cipiet et

poriet filium; et nunc euntes dicite quia natus est.

Pastures :

Alleluia, alleluia , iam uere scimus Xpistum natu m in terris ;

eanite o mnes cum prophe^a dicentes :

Quo FINTTO CHORI PrOUlSOEES INCiriAUT ad Missam m Galli-

cantu. Et fihita Missa usq ue ad cwiENDAm^ sAceroos

Qui cahtat MissAm alta uoce tucipiat a ntiphonam:

Pastures, dicite <quidnam uidistis et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem>.

Deinde chori prouisoREs alta uoce p salmum:

Domim/s regnauit, decorem indutus est; indutus est Do minus

fortitudinem, et precinxt se<xcii. 1>.

Chorus dicat Knliphonam:

Pasture?, dicite qmdnam uidistis, et annunciate Xp^s£i

natiuitatem.

Tees pueri retro altare RESPonDEAnT exselsa uoce a nti¬

phonam :

Infantem uidimus pannis inuolutum et choros angelorum

laudantes Saluatorem.

Chori ptovisores :

Etenim firmauit orbem terre, qui non commouebitur

<xcii. 2>.

< Chorus dicat antiphohat\i> :

Pastures, supra.

Pueri iterum cautent a ntiphonam:

<fol 41r> Infantem.

Chori ptouisores :

Parata sedes tua, Dens, ex tunc a secnlo tu es <xcii. 3>.

Chorus a ntiphonam:

Pastores, supra.

<Pueri ahtiphonam> :

Infantem.

Antiphona: Quern uidistis ?

Chorus versus: <xcii. 4-7 >

Young — Offlcium Pastorum .

377

<4>- Elevauernn# flumina,1 Domino ; elevauerunt flu-

mina uocem suam.1

<5> Eleyauerunt flumina fluctos suos; a uocibns aqnar-

um mnltarum.

<6>. Mirabiles elationes maris; mirabilis in altis Dom-

inns.

<7>. Testimonia tua credibilia iaeta sunt nimjis; domum

tuam decet scmctitudo in longitudinem diorum.

Gloria Patri <et Eilio et Spiritui Sancto> ; Sicut erat <in

principio, et nunc, et semper, et in secula seculorum, Amen>.

A ntiphona:

Quem uidisti<s>, pastures? dicite; annunciate nobis in ter-

ris quis apparuit? ISTatum uidimns in cboro angelor um Salua-

torem Dominum, alleluia, alleluia .

A ntiphona: Genuit puerpera Begem, cui nomen etermim,

et gaudium matris batons cum uirginitate pudoris, qnm nec

primam similem uisa est, nec habere sequentem, alleluia .

P salmus: Iubilate <xcix>.

A ntiphona: Paeta est cum angelo mnltitud<o> celestis

exercitus laudomcium Deum et dicenciu<m> : Gloria in excel-

sis Deo, et in terra pax bo-minibns bone uoluntatis, alleluia.

P salmus: Deus, Dens meus <lxii, et Deus misereatur

Lxvi>.

A ntiphona, : Angelus ad pa stores ait: Annuncio uobis

gaudium magnum, quia natns est bodie Saluator mundi, alle¬

luia.

P salmus: Benedicite < Daniel iii>.

A ntiphona: Pnruulus blius bodie natus est nobis, et uoca-

hitur Deus fortis, alleluia , alleluia.

P salmus: Laudato <cxLviii, et Cantate Domino cxuix, et

Laudato Dominum cl>.

Oa pitulum, Y rnmtSj Versus Non jyicenduM.; sed qui cantat

MissAm inctpiat Antiphonam:

Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra pax bominibus bone uolun¬

tatis.

2-1 The manuscript, corrupt at this point, reads : uo Domine eleuauer-

unt flumina fluctus suos a uocitms uocem suam.

378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

P salmus: ~Benedictus .

Qnatio : Da nobis, quesumus, Domine, Deus noster, nt qni

natiuitatem Domini uos^ri Ihe.su Xpis^i nos frequentare gaude-

m us dignis cowuersationibus ad eius mereamus pertin<g>ere

consorcium. Qui tecum <uiuit et regnat in unitate Spiritus

sancti Deus, per omnia secula seculorum. Amen>.

Pro BeweDicAM^s d icatun:

1Yerbum Parris hodie

Processit de Yirgine;

Virtutes angelice1 2

Cum canoro iubilo

Peddunt laudes Domino.

A ntiphona:

Pacem nobis omnibus

Xunciauit angelus

<fol. 41v> Pefulsit pastoribns

Yeri solis claritas

Dicant omnes3 gramas.4

1 In connection with this trope of the Benedicamus see the texts

from Rouen manuscripts above, pp. 329, 333.

2 MS. angelices.

3 The manuscript gives this word twice.

4 Followed immediately by the rubric: Et dicatur ad Vesperas . . „

Young — Officium Vast or um.

379

APPENDIX B.

< BEE VIAEIUM ANDEGAVENSE IN NATIVITATE

DOMINI >x

<fol. 35v> It? Die Natitjitatis Domim.

Inuit atorium: Xpistus natus est nobis; uenite adoremus.

P salmus : V enite.

A Patre unigenitns

Ad nos uenit per Virginem,

Baptisma Xpi^i consecrans,

Cunctos fi deles generans.

De eelo celsus prodiit,

Exeepit formarn homims,

Facturam morte redimens,

Gaudia nite largiens.

Hoc te redemptor quesimus

Illabere propit ms

Clarnmqi/,6 nostris sensibws

Lumen prebe fidelib^s.

Mane nobiscum, Domino,

Noctem <fol. 36r> obscuram remoue

Omwe delictum ablue

Piam medelam tribue.

Quern iam uenisse nouimus

Bedire item credimus

Tu sceptrum tuum inclitum

Tuo deffende clipeo.

Gloria tibi, D omine.

In P rimo N octurno.

Antipliona: Dixit Dominus ad me: Filius meus es tu; ego

bodie genui te.

V salmus : Quaie fremueim?it.

1 Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS. latin 1273, Breviarium Andegavense

xiv, fol. 35v-39r.

saea

380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Antiphona : Tanq uam spon sus, Dominns procedens de tbala-

mt> suo.

Psalmus: Celi enarrant.

Antiphona: Diffusa est gratis in labiis tuis prop£eroa bene-

dixit te Deus in etemum.

Psalmus: Eructauit.

Versus: Puer natus est nobis.

: Eesponsum : Et filius datus est nobis.

Lectio PHma.

Prime tempore alienata3 est terra Zabulon, et terra Heptalim ;

et nouissimo aggrauata est uia maris trans Iordanam Gfalilee.

Populus geneium qui ambulabat in tenebris, uidit lucem mag-

nam ; h$Mtantibns in regione uinbre mortis, lux orta est eis.

Multiplicasti gentem, no n magnifieasti leticiam. Hee dixit

T)ommus Deus, qui bodierna die de Virgine dignatus est nasci :

Conuertimini ad me et salui eritis.

Ttesponsormm: Hodie nobis celorum Pex de uirgine nasci

dignatus est, ut bominem perditum- ad regna celestia reuocaret.

Gaudet exercitus angelornm, q uia salus etema bumano generi

apparuit. Versus: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra pax hom-

i nibus bone uoluntatis. Gaudet exercitus.

Lectio SecwnDA.

<fol. 36v> Consol ami ni, consolamini, popwle meus, dixit

Dominns Deus uestev. Loqnimini ad cor Ihernsalem, et aduo-

cate earn, quoniam complecta est malicia eius, dimissa est in-

iquitas illius, suscepit de manu Domini dupplicia pro omnibns

peceatis suis. Vox clamantis in deserto: Parate uiam

Domino, recta s facite semitas1 2 Dei no^ri. Hec dixit <Dom-

inus>.

: Responsorium : Hodie nobis de celo pax uera descendit.

Hbdie per totum mundurn mellitlui facti sunt celi. Versus:

Hodie illuxit dies redemptionis nostre, reparacioni<s> an-

tiqne, felicitatis eterne. Hodie per totum.

1 One would expect alleuiata.

2 MS. semictas.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

381

<Lectio> T ertia.

Consurge, consurge induere fortitudinem tuam, Syon; i n-

duere uestimentis glorie tue, Ihernsalem, ciuitas sancti,1 quia

non adiciet ultra ut pertranseat per te incircumcisus et im-

mundus. Excutere de puluere, consurge, sede Vaerusa\em ;

solue uincula coli tui captiva filia Syon, quia hec dixit Dom

inns Deus : Gratis uenumdati estis, et sme argento redimemini.

Hec dixit Dominns.

ne sponsor ium : Quern uidistis, pastores? Dicite, annun¬

ciate nobis in terris quis apparuit? Xatum uidimus in cboro

angelorum Saluatorem Dominum. versus: Hatus est nobis

bodie Saluator, qui est Xpis^us Dommws in ciuitate Dauid.

Hatum. Gloria. Quem.

In ~Nocturno Secundo,

a ivtiphona: Suscepimus, Deus, misericordisan tuam in

medio templi tui.

p salmus: Magnus Dominns.

Lnti'phona: Oriet ur in diebus Domini ha&undancia pacis, et

dominahitur.

v salmus: Deus, indicium.

a ntiphona: Veritas de terra orta est, et iustBia de celo

prospexit2

p salmus: Benedixisti.

versus: Xotum fecit Dominns.

e esponsum: Salutare suum, alleluia..

LECTio Quarta.

Saluator noster, dilectissimi, hodie nat us est; gaudeamus.

Heqne enim fas locum est esse tristicie, que, consumpto mor-

talitatis timore, ingerit nobis de promissa eternitate leticiam.

Nemo ab Inline alacritatis parti cipaeione secornitur. IJna

cunctis letitie commnnis est racio, quia Dominns noster peccati

1 MS. sanctas.

2 MS. prospecit.

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

mortisqne destructor1 * <fol. 37r> sicut nullum a reatu liberum

reperiit, ita liberandis omnibus uenit.

Responsorium : O magnum misterium et admirabile sacra-

mentum, ut anin?alia uiderent Dominum. natum iacentem in

presepio. Beota Virgo cuius uiscera meruerunt portare Do-

minum Xpistum. versus: Domine, audiui auditum tuum et

timui; eonsideraui opera tua, et expaui in medio du<or>um

animalium. Iacentem.

LEicmo Quinta .

Suscipientes aliquid de buius diei solemnitate narrare, sim-

ulqne considerantes illud unum uerbum de quo dicere uolumus-

nulla inuenimus substantia, quibns suffiicientnr aliquid dicere

ualeamus. Etenim hoc uerbum non quod desunt prolatum,

sed quod permanet natum; non transitorium, sed etemum ;

non factum a Deo Poire, sed genitum; non solum genitum^

sed etiam unigenitum.

Responsorium : Beota Dei genetrix Maria cuius uiscera in-

tacta permanent ; hodie intacta genuit Saluatoremi seculi. ver¬

sus: Beota que credidit, q uoniam perfecta sunt omnia q ue

dicta sunt ei a Domino. Hodie.

nee Ho Sexta.

20 uos, inqnom, conuenio, O ludei qui usqne in hodiernum

negastis Eilium Dei. Xonne uox uestra est ilia q uando eum

uidebatis miracula facientem atqne temptantes dicebatis :

Quousqne animas nostras suspendis? Si tu es Xpis£us, die

nobis palam. Ille autem uos ad consideracionem miraculorwm

mittebat dicens : Opera que ego facio, ipsa testimonium perbib-

ent de me; ut Xpisfo testimonium dicerent3 non uerba sed

facta.

Responsorium: Beota uiscera Marie Virginia que portauerunt

etemi Poiris Eilium, et beata ubera que lactauernnt Dominum

i MS. destutor.

a In connection with this lectio from the famous pseudo-Augustinian

sermon, see M. Sepet, Les Prophites du Christ , Paris, 1878.

* MS. dixerent.

Young—Officium Past or um.

383

Xpis^m, quia foodie pro salute mumli de Virgine nasci dig-

n&tus est. versus Dies sanctificatus illuxit uobis ; uenite gentes

«et adorate Dominum. Quia. Gloria. Beata.

in Tertio 'Nbcturno.

Antiphona: Ip se inuocauit me, alleZma; Poier meus es tu,

alleluia.

p salmus: Allsericordias Domini.

Antiphona: Letentur celi et exultet terra an te faciem Dom¬

ini, quoniam uenit.

Tsalmus: <fol. 37v> Cantate. i.

Antiphona: Xotum fecit Dominos, alleluia, salutare suum

.alleluia.

p salmus: Cantate. ii.

versus: Viderunt omnes fines terre.

e esponsum: Salutare Dei nostri, alleluia.

secunvuM. lucam.

< LECTIO SEPTIMA> .

In illo tempore , exiit editum a Oesare Alugusto ut dis^

nriberetur uniuersus orbis. Et rel iqua.

ome lia Beati geegoeii.

Quia, largiente Domino, Missarum sollemnia ter foodie cele-

braturi sumus, loqui diu de euangelica lectione non possums ;

sed nos aliquid uel breuiter dicere Redemptoris nosiri natiuitas

ipsa compellit. Quid est quod nascituro Domino mundus des-

crikitur, nisi boc, quod aporte mwi.stra.tur, quia ille apparebat

in carne, qui electos suos ascriberet in etemitate.

e esponsorium: Sancta et immaculata uirginitas, quilrns te

lauditms referam, nescio ; quia quern celi capere non poterant,

tuo gremio contulisti. versus: Benedicta tu in mulieribES, et

foenedietus fructus uentris tui. Quia.

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Secundum Luca m.

< LECTIO OCTAUA>.

In illo tempore, Pastures loquebantur ad inuicem: Tran-

seamus usque Bethleem, et uideamus hoc uerbum quod factum

est, quod fecit Dominws et os^endit nobis. Et r eliqua.

omelia yen erAnilis bede.

Hato Domino Saluatore sicnt sacra Euangelii testatur

ystoria, pastor ibus, qui in regione eadem erant nigilantes et

custodientes nigilias noctis supra gregem suum, angelus enim

Domini magna cum luce apparuit, exortumque minndo solem

iusticie non solum celestis uoce sermonis uerum etiam claritatis

diuine lucis astruxit.

b esponsorium: In principio erat uerbum-, et uerbum erat apud

Deum, et Deus erat uerbum. Hoc erat in principio apud

Deum. Omnia per ipsum facta sunt, et sine ipso factan est

nicliil. versus: Quod factum est in ipso uita erat, et uita

erat lux hominum. 0<mnia>.

< secundum > ioHannEm.

< LECTIO NONA>.

In principio erat uerbum, et uerbum erat apud Deum, et

Dens erat <fol. 38r> nerbnm. Hoc erat in principio apud

Deum. Omnia per ipsum facta sunt, et sine ipso factum est'

nicliil.

Omelia ve<nerabilis> bede.

Quia temporalem mediatoris Dei et hominum hominis Ihesu

Xpis^i natiuitatem, qne bodierna die facta est sanctorum uerfns

evangelistarum, Mathei uidelicet et Luce, manifestatam1 cog--

nouimus, licet etiam de uerbi, id est, de dininitatis eins eterni-

tate, in qua Pa/ri manet semper equal is beati Iohannis euangel-

iste dicta scrutari, qui singulari prinilegio mieruit castitatis ut

ceteris alcius dininitatis ipsius caperet simul et patefaceret:

arcbanum.

i MS. magnifestatem.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

385

nesponsorium : Descendit de celis missus ab arc© Parris;

introiuit per aurem uirginis in regionem nostfram, indutus

stolam purpuream ; et exinit per auream portam lnx ©t decus

uniuerse fabrice xnuudi.

prosa i1

Pelix Maria, mundi domma, te collaudant uniuersa celo rum

agmina, stella, mirandaque statnra.

Fabrice mundi.

versus: . Tamquam sponsus Dominus procede<n>s de tbalamo

suo. Inductus.

prosa :

Familiam custodi, Xp^e/e, tuam, quam natus alma de Maria

redemisti morte tua, nt cognoscat te condi torem. Fabric©

mundi.

Gloria.

nesponsorium : Descendit.

prosA :

Facinora nostra relaxari mundi gloria,

Petimus mente deuota Dauid regem prolem inclitam,

Virgo quam casta seclo Maria protulit summi Parris gratia.

Cuius ortus saluat omnes cuncta per secula.

Et die bac nobis dignantnr faueat atq ue omni fabrice.

< versiculus > : Fomina uobiscum.

<responsum> : Et cum spm^u tuo.

iNicium sancti EUonsroeLii secnnDUM matheum.

<respo'xsum> : Gloria tibi, Do mine.

Liber generacmnis Ibesu Xp isti, filii Dauid, filii Abraham.

Abraliam genuit Ysaac. Ysaac autem genuit Iacob. Iacob

autem genuit Tudam, et fratres eius. Iudas autem genuit

Pbares et Zaram de Thamar. <fol. 38v> Pbares autem

genuit Esron. Esron autem genuit Aram. Aram autem

genuit Aminadab. Aminadab autem genuit Xaason. Xaason

autem genuit Salomon. Psalomon autem genuit Booz de Baab.

Booz autem genuit Obeth ex Butb. Obetb autem genuit Yesse.

Yesse autem genuit Dauid regem. Dauid autem rex genuit

Salomon em ex ea qne fuit Urie. Salomon autem genuit Bo-

1 This word is written twice in the manuscript.

386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

boa m. Roboam autem genuit Abiam. Abia aut em genuit

Aza. Aza autem genuit losaphat. losaphat autem genuit

Ioram. Ioras autem genuit Oziam. Ozias autem genuit Ioa-

tham, Ioatham autem genuit Achaz. Achaz autem genuit

Ezeehiam. Ezechias autem genuit Manassem, Manasses au¬

tem genuit Amon. Amon autem genuit Iosiam.1 Iosias au¬

tem genuit Ieconiam, et fratres eius in transmigracione Bab-

ilonis. Et post transmigraeionem Babilonis Ieconias genuit

Salatiel. Salatiel autem genuit Zorobabel. Zorobabel autem

genuit Abiud. Abiud autem genuit Eliacbim. Eliacbim a u-

tem genuit Azor. Azor autem genuit Sadoeb. Sadoch autem

genuit Acbim. Achim autem genuit Eliud. Eliud autem

genuit Eleazar. Eleazar autem genuit Mathan. Mathan au¬

tem genuit Iacob. Iacob autem genuit Ioseph, uirum Marie,

de qua natus est Ihesus, qui uoeatur Xp^us. Omnes ergo

generaciones ab Abraham usque ad Dauid, genersiciones qua -

tuordecim; et a Dauid usqwe ad tmnsmigraciowem Babilonis

generaciones q^atuordecim. Xpisti ergo generacio sic erat :

cum est desponsata mater eius Maria Ioseph, anteqimm com

venirent, inuenta est in utero habens de Sipiritu Sancto.

Te Deum laudamus.

IN LAITDIBITS.

ANTipHona : Quern uidistis, pastores, dicite? annunciate no¬

bis in terris quis <fol. 39r> apparuit? Xatum uidimus in

cboro angel orum Saluatorem Dominum: uenite adoremus.

nsalmus : Dominus r egnauit.

a ntiphona: Genuit puerpera Regem, cui nomew etemum, et

gaudium matins habens cum uirginitatis honore, nec primam

similem uisa est, nec habere sequentem, alleluia.

p salmus: lubilate.

Antiphona: Angelus ad pastores ait: Aununcio uobis gau¬

dium magnum, quia natus est bodie Saluator, alle?ma.

p salmus: Dem?, Deus.

Antiphona: Eacta est cum angelo multitude celestis exercitus

i MS. oziam.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

387

iaudancium et dicencium : Gloria in excelsis Deo, et in terra

pax bominibns bone uoluntatis, alle^ma.

me pum qiti suut retro alt are dic a xt u or sum seq uen-

t em, ver sum :

Pastores, dicite qnidnam uidistis, et annunciate Xpisti

natiuitatem.

RospoxDEAnT weri similiter versum:

Infantem uidimus pannis inuolutum et cboros angelornm

1 andantes Deum Saluatorem.

AntipJiona: Paruulus films hodie natus est nobis, et uocabi-

tur Dens fortis, alleZuia, alleluia,

vsalmus: Laudate.

POSTEA DICAT SACERDOS AD ALTARE IIAXC AX £ ipJlO Yltt 171 AXTE

Be^emctus et a x/e glotia et post, AntipJiona: Gloria in

excelsis Deo, et in terra pax bominibns bone nolnntatis, alle-

luia .

vsalmus: Boned ictus.

POSTEA dicat sacerdos posTcommnnioxEm misse et ORn-

tionem. et dyaciioxus ite miss a tM, cum soLLEmxiTATE.

sequitur alia missa, sci licet: Lux fulgebit.

APPENDIX C.

<OEEIOIUM PASTOEUM SECUXDITM USUM EO TH¬

OM AGEX SEM > 1

<p. 17> Fin^TO Te Deum 1 audamus,2 verAGATur owiciuM

pastor um iloc Modo, secunduM. 3 usum ROTnoMagensem.3

presEPE sit PARATum retto altare, et ymago somefe Marie

SIT in EO POS1TA. IX PnMIS QUIDAm PUER AXfe CHORnm in

excelso in simiLiTudinem Axgeli xatiu^tatem4 vomini

il print the text from Eibl. Nat. MS. lat 1213, Ordinarium Roth-

omagense saee. xv, pp. 17-19 (A), previously published by the present

writer in Modern Philology, Vol. VI (1908), pp. 215-216. I append all

the variants from Rouen, Bibl. de la Ville MS. 382 (Y. 108), Ordinarium

Rothomagense saec. xv, fol. 23r-24r (B).

2 B omitted.

*-3 B. Rothomagensem usum.

4 A Natiwitatis.

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

nuwcians1 ad qmnque cA~Nonicos QuiuDEcim* muechaeimu et

lABBABUm, UCL AD EOEUM2 UICAEIOS DE SeCUnda SEDE., PASTOEES

IUTEAUTES P er MAGNUW <P. 18 > OSTIUm3 CHOEl PEE MEDIUm

CHOEUm TrONSEUn/TES TUNICAS ET AMICT^S <INDUTOS>,4 HU nC

uersum ita dicens: 5JSTolite timer'©, usq uef In presepio.

siut PLwrES pueri in uoltis ECciesiE quasi a^gcli, qui alta

uoce iucipiaet: Gloria in excelsis Deo, et cautent usquc,

Voluntatis. hoc audie^tes:, pastoees ad Locum in quo

PAEATUm ~ESt PreSEPE AC CEDANT CA72TANTES6 HU71C U erSUm:

Pax in term, TOTum. quoi> du m iNTrctuEEinr, duo vresBytem

7dalmaticati quasi oBSTETricEs/ qui ad presEPE fueeiut

dicawt : Quern queritis, usQue, Dicite. pastoees sespoND-

eaut: Saluatorem Xpisium, usQne, Angelicum. iTEm ob-

STETricES COETlNAm APEEIETITES, PUEEUm DEMOnSTEEUT8 D ir

contes : Adest hie puruulns, usQne, Ysaias dixerat propheia.

hic o^eNDAnT9 m^eem pueri DiceNTES i Salue Virgo singu¬

lars,10 usQue, Frui natws uisione.11 DEiNtie12 uerTAwr se ad

CHOEum, eedeuutes ct dentes i Alleluia, Alleluia, iam

uere scim us usque Cum prophe^a dicentes.13

HOC FINITO, inCIPIATUr MISSA, et PASTOEES EEGAUT CHOEWm.

do minus AECiiiEpiscopus, si preseNs Fueri£, cantet14 MissAm,

15aut decants.15 OFFiciuM: Dominns dixit16 ad me.17 p salmus:

Quare iremuerunt.17 Kyriel eyson,18 Pex 19genitor. Gloria19 in

1 B annuweiaws.

2 A eos.

3 B hostium.

4 Supplied from B.

8-8B Nolite timere ecce enim.

6 A cawtores.

7-7 B dalmatici de maiori sede qwosi obstetrices.

8B demonstrant.

* B os£endat.

10 B omitted.

11 B omitted.

12 Before the word De’inde, B inserts: Hunc eo uiso, inclinatis ceruici-

bus adorent Puerum, et salutent dicentes: Salue, Virgo singular^

usque, Frui natus uisione.

13 A ducentes.

14 A cawtent.

18-18 B omitted.

16 B dicit.

17-17 B omitted.

18 B Kyrie.

sm»b genitor festique. Gloria.

Young — Officium Pastorum.

389

excelsis. pastores cauteut1 prosAm: Que<m> ciues celici,

et cum uENmNT2 ad Locum ubi dic Hub, Suscipe3 depreca-

cionem nosfram, omnes fee c taut genua uersus altarEw

or atio'', Deus qui hanc4 sacrcftissimam. be Beat a Maria or atio:

Deus qui salutis . QuiDAm de pastoribus cautet5 in pvbpUq5

uecTioNEM : Poplins goucium. sine intouuallo subdiacouus

legat6 EpisiouAM: Apparuit gratia Dei Saluat-oris.7 8 duo

pastores de secunda sede gr aduale: Teen m principium.

versus: Dixits Do minius.* reit6/,et/ur gr aduale: Tecum prin-

cipium.9 duo de maiori sede:10 Alleluia, Domiuus10 dixit

lxad me.11 sEQUEuiio .* Nato canunt omnia . EUAUGeZium: Exiit

editum. Credo. OFFeRT orium: Yctentur celi.12 offerant13

omnes qui14 uolueriut. Sec reta:1* Aocepta t ibi sit, Domwe.15 *

al ia sec reta.1Q Muneribus nosfris. vrePAtio: Quia per iucar-

nati. nee prescripTA17 * prep Atio dicatut omnipus fest mis die-

bus usquo ad pumpicationem, pxcepto die epy phanie, cum

ei us .octauis. Oommtmicantes et Hoctem saemtissimam, di-

oantur.18 19S<mc£us et Agnus19 festive, co mmunio : In

splendoribtis. post communio: Da nobis, q uesumus™ Do mine,

Deus nosfer.20 Auia post communio: Hec nos communio. Ite

missa esi.

pinipA missa, do minus ARcui episcopus uol 21alius dicat21

1 B cantawt.

2 B uenerit.

3 A suscepe.

4 A nos.

B-s B omitted. 1

8 B cantet.

7 B omitted.

8 B dicit.

9 9 B reiteretwr Tecum.

i0-10B Alleluia. Versus: Dominus.

“-11 B omitted.

12 B omitted.

13 A offerenda.

14 14 B uolerint, et recipiatwr a Pastoribws oblacio, et distribuatw

inter eos.

13 B omitted.

16 B omitted.

17 B omitted.

18 A dicatur.

19-19 B Agnus et Semens.

2tL28B omitted.

3121 B alius ad altare dicat. 1

390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

u ersum: Benedicts q ui uenit1 in nomine Do mini.1 versus:

Dens, Bominus2 et Cetera.2 Alleluia. Dens in adiutoifium.

3Glona Pairi. Sic ut erat, et cetera. AlleZnia.3 arch iepisco-

pus ueu *aiaus uersus ad pastores dicat: Qnem4 uidistis,

Pastores, dicite? Annunciate nobis in terris qnis5 apparuit?

pastores RespoNDEAnT : ISTatum uidimns, et cetera , et TOTAm

a ntiphonam FiniANT. DEHinc inciPiAT QUiDAm pastor a

DEXTra parTE ps almum: Do minus negnauit. Antiphona:

Quern uidistis. pastores alias a ntiphonas inciPiAnT, unns-

quisque sua m secundum oRDinem, et omnes cum NEumis6

fintant ur, et pastores REGAnT cHORwm. a ntiphona: Genuit

puerpera. p salmus: Iubilatfe. Antiphona: Angelns 7ad pas-

tores.7 p salmus: Dens, Dens. Antiphona: Facta est. ps almus:

Bened idle. Antiphona: Parnnlns filins.8 ps almus: Land ate.

c apitulum: Popnlus gentium, y mnus: <p. 19 > A solis ortas

cardine.9 versus: Videmnt 10omnes fines.10 Antiphona sic ut

in11 vesperis ter repet ATnr : Gloria11 in excelsis De\o.12 ps almus:

Benedictus. o -Ratio: Concede, quesnmns,13 omnipotent Dens.13

Benedicamns cAnTETnr a PASTORiBns: Verbum Parris hodie.

quo FiniTO, pastores CAnTEnT HAnc14 a ntiphonam TOTAm in

puLpi^o; Ecce14 completa.15 arch iepiscopus ueL sAcernos

dicat u ersum: Post partum. o Ratio: Dens, qni salutis. Bene¬

dicamns/6 tres puen.16

11 B omitted.

2 2 B omitted.

83 B omitted.

44 B alius sacerdos ad altare dicat uersum ad Pastores. Quern.,

5 A q ui.

6 B neumpna.

T-7 B omitted.

8 B omitted.

*B omitted.

J0-10 B omitted.

«-flB Vesperis re'iteratur, antiphona.: Gloria.

12 B omitted.

’SS13B omitted.

14,4 B antiphonam in pulpito [MS. pupito] totam, antiphona; ecce.

^5B complecta.

5«.i« B tres ae prima sedd.

i'oung — Officium Pastorum.

391

APPENDIX D.

CORDO IN NATIVITATE DOMINI SECUNDUM

VSUM ROTHOMAGEN SEM> 1 * *

<fol. 31V> SOLEMNITAS NATALIS DOWmi ITA CELEBEABITW.

CHORUS A DUOBM5 CANTOBIBlkS CAPPIS INDUTIS BEGETWr. FIN-

itis psalmis et antiphonis suis et capitulo, e esponsiones

duo cleeici cELEBEiTer cantent. hymno i Veni Redemp-

t or, dicto,a ntiphona cum tbina eepetitione super Magni¬

ficat CANTETWr. ALTAEE CUM DUOB US THUBIBULIS INCENSE-

TUV. AD MATUTINAS PHMA NOCTIS VIGILI M OME6S CAWPANE

SONENTt/T. DEINDE BINE et BINE COftSONANDO SUBSEQmiNT'Er.

INUITATOEIUm A QUATUOE CLEEICIS C ANTE TIM'*. HYMNW5 SE-

QUClTUr. CHOEWm IN VESPeriS DUO EEGANT. OMEtA E espOJl-

soria cantent bini et bini Tercium^ vi. vim. tees cappis

INDUTI. IN seewnDA et Qtt&BTA et QmNTA DECTIONE ALTAEE

incensetue, et thueibulu m per cHOEwm defeeatue. sim-

iLiTer ad Te Detail laudarims et Benedicte. LECTtones phmi

noct umi de propnefrs ebunt, sectmm de sebmonibi^ tebcii

DE EXPOSITIONIBM5 <fol. 32r> EUAN GeLIOEttm. TEIA EUAN-

GeuiA cum cappis, cum incenso, et candelabeis pbeceden-

TIBWS PrONUNTIEN TUT. FINITO NONO E espOUSOriO, BBisCOpUS

uei, DECAN US SACEEDOTALIBttS INDUTI CUm DALMATICA UESTI-

MenTis procEDAT, et EUANGeuium genealogie x?isti secunouM

MATHEum festiue legat. quo lecto, Te Delon laudanrus

ALTA UOCE INCIPIAT.

iNTeriM prepAEENTt^r. vn. itjuenes, amictis et abbIs et

TUNICIS INDUTI, BACULOS IN MANIB US FEEENTES IN SIMILITUD-

INE PASTOEttm, qui, FINITO PreSEPIS OFFICIO, IN PHMA MISSA

USQt/e AD FINEm MATUTINOE^m EEGENT CHORm INDUET UT

ioitur un us puee amictu et alba, in similitudine ANGeLi

1 Montpellier, Bibl. de la Faculte de Medeclne, MS. H. 304, fol.

31v_32r Concerning this manuscript and this ordo, see Modern

Philology, Vol. VI (1908), pp. 201-206.

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

NATlUITATEm DOCTWI PrONUN CIA.NTIS, QUI IN EXCELSO LOCO

CONSTITUTES UERSUS INSTITUTOS CANTABIT.

pnMA missa cum laudib us : Quern ernes*, et sequencia:

Hato canunt, celeb rabitw. glad ales duo ex pastorib us

CANTABITNT, ALLelldA DUO EX MAIORIBES CAPPIS .INDUTI.

QUAm MISSA m THESAURARIttS ECClesiv CELEBR et, SI EPISCOPES

defuerit; secwDAM u ero cantor, si ep iscopus defuerit;

TerciAm presuL aut decani, si AuTEm p?'Osul presENS

FUERIT, PHMAm MISSAEl DECANES CANTABIT.

qua perACTA, iNCiPie^ presuL, per Does in adiutorium,

Laudes,1 qui pnMum, uersus ad popelem, a ntiphonam in-

cipiaTj TOTA'm dicens usQEe ad? Xatum uidiniES, QUAm pas-

tores CHORWm REGENTES SOLI TOTAm FINIANT. INCEPTO

PHMO PSALMO, SACERDOS AB ALTARI RECEDAT, Q ui MATUTINALE

OFFicium cum suis antipiionis et hymnis, cowpleat. quo

FINITO PASTORES PULPITUm ASCENDENTES,AE^p7?-0Eam .* EeCe

completa sunt omnia , alte incipiant, et tota m finiant.

ORATIO COEGRUENS SEEC^E MARIE COMMEMORATION I SUCCEDAT.

IN CIPIENTE DILUCULO, ALTerA MISSA EODEm CELEBRETEr UT

pHma. excepto qeod laudes n on cantabunt ur) sed sequen¬

cia : Sonent reginato, tota DiCETEr.

Post Terciam Hero ~Fiet Processio. Qua Einita Duo Clerici

circa altare stabunt, Qui uersus, sciLicef : Hodie cantandES

est CANTAEEET, QUIBES SeCEEDEM UERSUm REGENTES CHORUM

RESPONDEBUNT. PnMI III. DICENT. ET HOC FINITO CAN-

t ores offic ium, incipient, et celebre perFiNiENT. in ves-

pms, capitulo dicto, r espansorium: Verbum caro factum,

CANTABITUR, QEOD HYMN US : A Solis Ortll, SEQUETEf ; et UERSU

dicto. Magnificat cum a ntiphona: Hodie Xp ishls, ter repet-

ITA CANTABITEr. ET SIC YESPCTE FINIENTUR.

1 After this word a later hand inserts: Matutinas.

Young— Officium Pastorum.

393

APPENDIX E.

THE PRAESEPE OF ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, AC¬

CORDING TO THOMAS OF CELANO.1

Be iprcesepio , quod fecit in die natalis Domini.

Summa ejus intentio, prsecipuum eius desiderium, supre-

mumque proposition ejns erat, sanctum evangelium in omnibus,

et per omnia observare, ac perfecte omni vigilantia, omni stu¬

dio, toto desiderio mentis, toto cordis fervore domini nostri

Jesu Christi doctrinam sequi, et vestigia imitari.

Recordabatur assidua meditatione verborum ejus, et sagacis-

sima consideratione ipsins opera recolebat. Prsecipue imcarna-

tionis bumilitas, et charitas passionis ita eius memoriam occu-

pabant, ut vix vellet aliud cogitare. Memorandum proinde, ac

reverenti memoria recolendum quod tertio anno ante gloriosi

obitus sui diem apud castrum, quod Graecium dicitur, fecit in

die natalis domini nostri Jesu Christi.

Erat in terra ilia vir quidam nomine Joannes bonse famse,

sed melioris vitae, quem beatus Franciscus amore prsecipuo

diligebat, quoniam, cnm in terra, sua nobilis, et honor abilis

plurimum extitisset, carnis nobilitate calcata, nobilitatem

animi est sortitus. Hunc vero beatus Franciscus, sicut ssepe

solebat, per XV. dies ante nativitatem Domini fecit ad se

vocari, et dixit ei: Si desideras, ut apud Graecium prsesentem

festivitatem Domini celebremus, festina procedere, et quse tibi

dico, prsepara diligenter. Yolo enim illius pueri memoriam

agere, qui in Bethlem natus est, et infantilium necessitatum

ejus incommoda, quomodo in prsesepio reclinatus, quomodo ast-

ante bove, atque asino supra foenum positus extitit, utcumque

corporeis oculis pervidere. Quod audiens vir bonus atque

fidelis, cucurrit citius, et omnia in prsedicto loco, quae sanctus

dixerat, prieparavit. Appropinquavit autem dies Isetitiae, tem-

iVita Prima et Secunda S. Francisci Assisiensis auctore B. Thoma

de Celano, Romae, 1880, Vita Prima, Cap. xxx, pp. 63-65.

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

pus exultationis advenit, et de pluribus locis vocati sunt fratres.

Yiri, et mulieres terrse illius secundum posse suum exult antibus

animis cereos, et faces prseparant ad illuminandam noctem,

quae scintillanti sidere dies omnes illuminavit, et annos.

Yenit denique sanctus Dei inveniens omnia praeparata, vidit,

et gavisus est. Et quidem prseparatur praesepium, apportatur

foenum, bos, et asinus adducuntur. Honoratur ibi simplicitas,

exaltatur pau<p. 64>pertas, bumi litas commjendatur, et quasi

nuova Bethleem de Graecio facta est.

Illuminatur nox ut dies, et hominibus, atque animalibus de-

litiosa existit. Adveniunt populi, et ad novum mysterium

novis gaudiis adhetantur. Personat sylva voces, et jubilantibus

rupes respondent. Cant ant fratres, Domino laudes debitas per-

solventes, et tota nox jubilatione resultat. Stat sanctus Dei

coram prsesepio suspiriis plenus, pietate contritus, et mirabili

gaudio superfusus. Celebrantur missarum solemnia super

prsesepe, et nova fruitur consolatione saeerdos.

Induitur sanctus Dei leviticis ornamentis, quia ievita erat,

voce sonora sanctum evangelium cantat; vox vehemens, vox

dulcis, vox clara, voxque sonora cunctos invitans ad prsemia

summa. Prsedicat deinde populo circumstanti, et de nativitate

pauperis regis, et Bethelem parvula civitate melliflua eructat.

Ssepe quoque cum vellet Christum Jesum nominare, amore

flagrans nimio eum puerum de Bethelem nuncupabat, et more

balantis ovis Betheleem dicens, os suum voce, sed magis dulci

affectione implebat.

Labia sua etiam, cum puerum de Bethelem, vel Jesum nom¬

inaret, quasi lanniebat lingua, felici palato degustans, et deglu-

tiens dulcedinem verbi hujus. Multiplicabantur ibi dona Om-

nipotentis, et a quodam viro virtutis mirabilis visio cernitur.

Yidebat enim in prcesepio puerulum unum jacentem exanimem,

ad quern videbat accedere sanctum Dei, et eimidem puerum

quasi a somni sapore suscitare. Nee inconveniens visio ista,

eum puer Jesus in multorum cor dibus oblivioni fuerit datus, in

quibus, ipsius gratia faciente, per servum suum sanctum Ftan-

ciscum resuscitatus est, et impressus memoriae dilgenti.

Finiuntur deinde solemnes excubiae, et. unusquisque cum

gaudio ad propria remeavit: conservatur foenum in praesepio

Young — Officium Pastorum.

395

positum, ut per ipsum jumenta, et animalia salva faeiat Dens,

quemadmodum multiplicavit misericordiam suam sanctam. Et

revera sic actum est, ut animalia multa diversos morbos ha-

bentia per circumadiacentem regionem manducantia de hoc

foeno a suis sint aegritudinibus liberata. Imo et mulieres partu

gravi, ac longo laborantes de praedicto foeno sibi superimpon-

entes partu pariunt salutari, atque a diversis cladibus utriusque

sexus concursus desideratam ibidem obtinent sanitatem.

Consecratus est denique locus prsesepii templum Domino, et

<p. 65 > in honorem beatissimi patris Francisci super

praesepe altare construitur, et ecclesia dedicatur, ut ubi animalia

quandoque foeni pabulum comederunt, ibi de caetero ad sanita¬

tem animae, ac corporis manducent homines carnes agni im-

maculati, et incontaminati Jesu Christi domini, qui summa, et

ineffabili charitate dedit se ipsum nobis ; cum Patre, ac Spiritu

sancto yi vens, et regnans Deus aeternaliter gloriosus per cuncta

saecula saeculorum. Amen. Alleluja, Alleluja.

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

APPENDIX F.

THE PRAESEPE OF ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, AC¬

CORDING TO ST. BONAVENTURA.1 \

<fol. Lv> Contigit autem anno tertio ante obitum suu m,

ut memoriam natiuitatis pueri IESIJ ad deuotionem exci tan-

dam apud Castrum Greeii disponeret agere cum quanto maiori

solemnitate ualeret. Ne uero hoc leuitati posset ascribi, a sum-

mo pontifice petita & obtenta licentia: fecit prseparari prsese-

pium: apportari fenum: bouem & asinum ad locum adduci.

Aduocantur fratres: adueniunt populi: personal sylua uoces:

& uenerabilis ilia nox luminibus copiosis & claris, laudibusgme

sonoris & consonis & splendens effieitur & solemnis. Stabat uir

Dei coram prsesepio pietate repletus: <fol. iir> respersus

lachrymis & gaudio superfusus. Celebrantur missarum solem-

nia super preesepe : leuita Christi Francisco sacrum euangelium

decantante. Prsedicat deind© populo circunstanti de natiuitate

regis pauperis, quern cum nominare uellet: puerum de Beth-

leem prre amoris teneritudine nuncupabat. Miles autem

* quidam uirtuosus & uerax qui propter Christi amorem sseculari

relicta militia, uiro Dei rnagna fuit familiaritate coniunctus.

Dominus loannes de Grecio se uidisse asseruit puerulum quen-

dam ualde formosum in illo prsesepio dormientem: quern beatus

pater Franciscus ambobus complexans brachiis excitare ui de¬

batin' a somno. Hanc siquidem, denoti militis uisionem non

solum uidentis sanctitas eredibilem facit: sed & designata

ueritas comprobat: & miracula subsecuta confirmant. Nam

exemplum Francisci consideratum a mundo excitatiuum est

cordium in fide Christi torpentium, & fenum prsesepii reserua-

tum a populo, mirabiliter sanatiuum fuit brutorum languen-

tium, & aliarum repulsiuum pestium diuersarum, : glorificante

Deo per omnia seruum suum : sanctseq-ue orationis efficaciam

euidentibus miraculorumi prodigiis demonstrante.

^urea legenda maior beati Francisci: composita per sanctum

Bonauenturam.- miro inter omnes sanctorum uitas dictatu nuper

impressa, [Florentiae, 1509], fol. Lv-Lir.

Voss — Regulations of the University of Wittenberg , 1546. 397

THE REGULATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WIT¬

TENBERG, ISSUED IN THE YEAR 1546, REGARDING

THE DRESS OF THE PROFESSORS, THEIR WIVES

AND THE STUDENT BODY; ALSO RESTRICTIONS

IN REGARD TO THE WEARING OF IEWELRY, THE

COST OF WEDDINGS, BETROTHALS, BAPTISMALS

AND OTHER FESTIVITIES.

Ernst Yoss.

In 1546, under Duke John Frederick of Saxony, arckmarshal

*of the Holy Homan Empire and one of the Electors , an Or¬

dinance — eine neue Landordnung — was issued in his duchy for

the regulation of dress and certain expenditures.

This ordinance especially endeavored to abolish the abuses

and extravagances in the different classes in regard to dis¬

play of dress, wearing of jewelry, celebration of marriage fes¬

tivals, baptismals, betrothals and all such festivities. (Strange

to say nothing is said in this ordinance about funerals.) It

advocated a return to the simpler life, to modest, less expensive

modes and customs.

The University was not included in this proclamation, but it

was tacitly understood, that the authorities in control would is¬

sue their own laws and regulations in regard to these matters.

Whereupon followed in due course the Ordinance of the Uni¬

versity of Wittenberg regarding dress, jewelry, and the celebra¬

tion of all festivals; the same being issued on Trinity Sun¬

day of 1546 (the Sunday after Penticost, Whitsunday) by the

University Senate, and printed shortly after that date in Ger¬

man with an introductory admonition in Latin by the Univer¬

sity Hector.

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

I quote from it what has seemed interesting from the view¬

point of 20th century standards, as an illustration of the effort

made some four centuries earlier to check the fast life of those

times.

The Ordinance opens with a grateful preamble acknowled¬

ging the Duke’s graciousness toward the University of Witten¬

berg in excepting the University from obedience to the general

ordinance for his realm, thereby confirming the powers of the

University to make its own laws of government. It then pro¬

ceeds in the first chapter to prescribe the dress to be worn by

those who have the degree of doctor or licentiate. They are ad¬

monished to honor their position by giving a good example to

the people, and by adherence to the customs and traditions jn

vogue for men in their walk of life during the preceding cen¬

turies. As the wearing of short gowns or coats was a departure

from these past customs of modesty and dignity, no man among

them should permit himself to be seen in a gown or coat which

swung less than a hand’s breadth below the knees.

Further, gowns that are split and cut up are so made for the

purpose of showing expensive and rich undergarments; gowns

which are decorated with heavy bands and embroidery are

made for display and vain glory. Therefore they are admon¬

ished to have nothing to do with such frivolous and outlandish

fashions, as they are unbecoming and too expensive for men

in their position. He who does not take heed to this admoni¬

tion shall first be warned by the Hector and if this warning does

not correct his folly, he shall be fined ten Gulden for each of¬

fense in dress.

The second paragraph prescribes the dress for those with the

degree of magister and the bachelors in the upper faculties.

From whatever rank they come, whether they be of noble birth

or not, they are expressly admonished to adhere to the long

gowns, at least gowns that hang below the knees. Coats or

gowns of plush and silk are proscribed as extravagances, but

under jackets or vests may be worn, if they are made from da¬

mask and satins.

Caps or hoods of plush are forbidden, but the gowns may be

Voss — Regulations of the University of Wittenberg , 1546. 399

bordered with a strip of plush not broader than a finger

length. As in the case of the doctors, especial prohibition is

laid upon the splitting or cutting of gowns as a reprehensible

fashion intended only as a means for boastful display and

vanity.

If this ordinance is not obeyed the fine shall be five Gulden,

to be paid under all circumstances without exception. Men

of noble birth who are students at the University must wear

the same kind of gowns as the masters, that is they must be

whole and of prescribed length, but they are allowed to have

their hoods or caps made of plush, if unadorned by plumes,

pearls, gold or embroidery. But only those noblemen shall en¬

joy these privileges who can establish at least four ancestors

of nobility.

Princes, counts and barons are not included in the above, but

are advised that they must honor themselves by wearing becom¬

ing, dignified garments, and not give themselves to frivolous

display. But all masters, noble or of lowly birth, all students,

noble or otherwise, are forbidden to wear golden chains, dag¬

gers or swords with silver sheaths. In case of disobedience the

fine is five Gulden, and the third offense shall be regarded as

contempt and followed by suspension from the University for

one year. All other students in all the colleges must wear gowns

of prescribed length, neither slashed nor short, and of modest

inexpensive quality.

Then comes a lenient clause in which the authorities, realiz¬

ing the difficulty of an immediate change in dress, graciously

give to all (princely, noble or otherwise), indulgence until

next Michaelmas, before these dress regulations shall be in*

forced. Meanwhile all students of noble birth and all others

who enjoy the liberties and privileges of the University are ad¬

monished to have the honor and welfare of their Alma Mater

at heart and to discard as fast as possible disreputable and un¬

becoming dress. This is pointed out as a great duty because it

is nothing short of a great shame and scandal that men and

youths should parade themselves in short clothing before decent

and honorable maids and matrons.

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

All masters and others who board and room their disciples

are earnestly admonished to see that the young students are

dressed properly and becomingly without the above mentioned

carelessness and frivolity of display.

All persons who are not masters or of noble birth are forbid¬

den to wear garments of silk, satin or plush, whether they be

jackets, vests, gowns, hoods, caps or scarfs; but less expensive

materials are allowed for jacket and short coats. Offenders

of this regulation will be fined three Gulden for the first offense

and a third infringement of this law shall be punished with a

year’s suspension from the University.

The Ordinance now proceeds to deal with the dress of the

wives and daughters of men connected with the institution.

What has already been said to the doctors and licentiates in re¬

gard to their duties in these matters applies with equal force to

the women. By simple, economical, modest and becoming

dress they can honor themselves and adorn their station, while

giving at the same time a worthy example to those less exalted

or distinguished. But as the feminine heart is so prone to err

in these particulars, and womankind so given to self-adornment,

it is wise and necessary to prescribe a maximum limit for what

will be considered “modest and becoming” in the eyes of the

august authorities. Take the matter of caps and scarfs, no ar¬

ticle of dress can be made more perniciously captivating than

these. Gorgeous decorations have been more and more lavished

upon them by the use of embroideries in silks, gold and silver,

and the employment of pearls and precious stones. The au¬

thorities will have no more of this, but as a concession to femi¬

nine vanity a sparing use of gilt or tinsel will be permitted.

Neither shall dame or damsel disport herself in the future

with embroidered or plush bands of unseemly breadth or rich¬

ness upon her cloak or gown. The grave men in authority de¬

clare that the borders of such garments ought to be in their opin¬

ion no broader than the woman’s hand. However in case the

poor lady has chosen a stuff that in the wearing brings her to

mortification through shrinking to an improper shortness, she

Voss — Regulations of the University of Wittenberg , 1546. 401

may add a border thereto sufficient to clothe her ankles, but it

must be of no costlier fabric than the original garment.

Plush jackets and collars are thought to be permissible, but

they must be plain, Ho silver and gold embroideries, no bor¬

ders and bands of adornment can be allowed, and special warn¬

ing is given against the reprehensible fashion of cutting and

slashing one’s dress so that fin© undergarments may disclose

themselves for the witchery of the beholder. Short cloaks and

mantels are also a snare and temptation, in the decisions of the

Senate, when adorned above or below with costly borders or

overshot with useless, giddy decoration.

But most of all must the women reform their flowing head¬

dresses and their bewitching embroidered veils. Golden tresses

of the curling, floating fashion must be abandoned, and all

strings of pearls and golden head ornaments left out of the fair

one’s coiffure. However, since gold and silver are treasures,

they may wear in modest and fitting manner a golden chain and

a gilded silver girdle.

In this last concession one sees again that these solemn am

thoriti.es wished after all to retain a little good-will with the

women at home. But in the next sentence they are reminded

of the gold and silver bracelets which they conclude to for¬

bid (as one must certainly draw the line pretty closely on these

frivolous creatures after all.) How follows a careful regula¬

tion in detail of all dress and adornment of the wives and

daughters of the university masters and others. The restric¬

tions are the same as for the women of higher position except

as they are made more severe. All fine silks are strictly pro¬

hibited, but the cheaper grades, such as the satin from Bruges,

are permitted together with plush collars and damask jackets.

The skirts of the women of this rank may have an upper

border not broader than three fingers, but no lower borders are

permitted, except where the skirt through age became short

and had to be lengthened. But even in this case the material

for the lower border must not be more expensive than the one of

which the skirt was originally made.

402 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The cost of their golden chains is limited to 50 Gulden and

they shall only wear simple silver girdles.

The fines for all women shall be the same as those laid down

for the men of their rank. One wonders what would serve to

punish the women on the third offense in place of the one year’s

suspension given the men.

Servants of the persons of the university are next consid¬

ered and the conclusion is wisely taken that they shall dress in

exact accordance with the ordinance issued for the whole realm

by their most gracious Duke, John Frederick.

!Now we come to marriages and other festivals. Great abuses

must have become the fashion in that middle sixteenth cen¬

tury in the way of costly and extravagant entertainments. No

doubt the authorities had seen painful instances of unseemly

rivalry and lavish display that the poor professor could ill af¬

ford. Many families had perhaps squandered the substance

which ought to have gone towards travel and the purchase of

parchments and pamphlets, and many a master had perchance

strained his nervous system to a collapse over private teaching

when he longed instead to do research work. If our wise and

solemn Senate sitting in conclave can rectify these things what

n day’s work it will be. Let us see what they conclude:

First, If a Hector, Doctor or Licentiate holds a wedding for

himself, or gives in marriage his son or daughter the number of

his guests shall be limited to eight tables. (The number at a

table is not given. It was doubtless a fixed and understood

thing.) Masters and university men shall not be allowed more

than six tables of guests and no more than two servants shall

be employed to serve at each table. At betrothals one table full

of guests or friends is thought sufficient advertisement of the

felicitous affair.

Hectors, doctors and licentiates shall at their own marriages

or those of their sons and daughters serve not more than six

•courses for the noon meal and not more than five courses for

the evening meal. But a less number than these can be served

at the discretion of those concerned. Masters and other persons

connected with the university are limited to five courses for

V oss — Regulations of the University of Wittenberg , 1546. 403

dinner and four for supper. One can only conjecture what had

been the fashionable thing in Wittenberg university circles, if

these four, five or six course affairs are supposed to be a return

to the simple life.

Guests to these celebrations must have had an inconvenient

way of staying on to make merry at the host’s expense, for the

next paragraph looks after them.

If the wedding begins in the evening, the ordinance reads,

guests from town shall not be invited to more than three meals.

(They certainly were royal entertainers.) If the wedding oc¬

curs in the forenoon, invitations shall be limited to two meals

served on the day of the celebration, and guests are not to be

asked for the day following. Strangers, however, who have*

journeyed from their homes to help honor such festivals are en¬

titled to breakfast on the second or even the third day, if they

find it inconvenient to get away.

ISTow follows a most essential and strenuous warning to hosts

and guests alike.

In the printed ordinance of our gracious lord, the Prince

Elector, it is especially set forth, we read, that propriety and

seemingly conduct shall be observed at all times in dancing.

Sudden turning from right to left, pushing, leaping, and other

motions which are violent or unbecoming, must be avoided if the

participants do not wish to come into the displeasure of those in

authority. All those wishing to have dances in the evening must

arrange for them in the City Hall, the Rathaus. Evening

dances in private houses are no longer permitted.

The University Senate also indorses in detail all that is said

in the ducal ordinance in regard to pay for the musicians, cost

of gifts, outside dining, baptismal feasts, other feasts and cele¬

brations, drinking bouts at night, order in the streets after such

festivals, etc.

In conclusion every one in any way connected with the uni¬

versity is admonished most strenuously to take careful heed

to every requirement of the Ordinance, seeing to it that it is

obeyed to the letter, and bearing in mind the fines mentioned

in every case for those giving offense.

404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The Rector of the University is to act as the university’s exe¬

cutive in enforcing these regulations to the last detail through

the university beadles. If the Rector should he inclined to in¬

dulgence or oversight in these vital matters, the Senate shall

officially remind him of his obligation and give him the impe¬

tus and assistance which the weight of its authority will always

afford. (We must remember that the rector or president was

chosen from year to year by the Senate from among its mem¬

bers, as is still the custom in German universities.)

As was customary in other cases, fines collected were to be

divided into three parts. The first third should go to the Pis-

cus, the State Treasury, the second to the Rector and the third

to the beadles, the university police.

The ordinance proclaimed is to become effective within four

weeks after the date of publication, except in the changes of

dress, for which the time is extended up to the following

Michaelmas. And to prevent any claim of ignorance on the

paid of persons affected, the Senate orders that the document

shall be read in public at the time of the announcement of the

university’s statutes. Persons connected with the institution

shall also have ample opportunity to study the terms of this

proclamation with diligence and sobriety through the printed

forms which shall be immediately provided; and to their ear¬

nest perusal the Senate solemnly enjoins everyone under its jur¬

isdiction.

TRANSACTIONS

■< r ■ . , ^ .

OF THE

' ' - 7 , *

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

I ; ) .

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. 5

MADISON, Wlb^

1913

CONTENTS

A Biological and Statistical Analysis of the Vegetation of

a Typical Hay . Meadow . Arlow B. Stout , 405

The Pholiota of the Region of the Great Lakes

Edward T. Harper , 470

The Walden Inversion •. Andrew. F. McLeod , 503

The Chemistry of Boron and some new Organic-Boron

Compounds . . Arden B. Johnson, 528

A Study of the Light Reactions of Philobolus

... Hally D. Jolivette, 533

The Cytology of the Convallariaceae

Frederick McAllister, 599

The annual half- volume of the Transactions is issued by the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letter in six num¬

bers, under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.

The price of this number is $1.00.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 405

A BIOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE

VEGETATION OF A TYPICAL WILD

HAY MEADOW.

A. B. Stout

INTRODUCTION.

Natural low lying meadows are important sources of wild

hay supply over a considerable portion of tbe northern states.

This is especially true of the region about the city of Madison,

Wisconsin, where many acres of “'marsh hay,” “wild hay,” or

“slough hay” lands are cut yearly. The vegetation of such

habitats has been recognized by all students of plant geography

and ecology as a more or less definitely characterized formation

consisting largely of sedges and grasses. Little attention has

been given to the detailed field study of this class of vegetation.

The improvement and utilization of marsh lands is however re¬

ceiving more and more attention and this vegetation is destined

to become an object of increased interest both from economic

and scientific points of view.

The hay cut from these marsh meadows varies in value in the

local markets from four or five dollars to as high as eight or

nine dollars per ton. The basis of distinction in value is doubt¬

less to be found in the varying ratio of grasses to sedges and the

degree of coarseness of the latter. The grasses are regarded as

having higher feeding value although little distinction is made

between them and such grass-like sedges as Carex Sartwellii

and Carex stricta.

The earlier writers on plant geography noted that marsh

meadows are typically northern in their geographical distribu-

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tion. In regard to this point Schouw (1) (1823), who mapped

the earth’s surface into kingdoms and provinces on the basis of

families peculiar to each region, made a “Province of Carex”

which he located in the region of the Arctic Circle.

Meyen (2) (1836) regarded Gramineous plants as. an im¬

portant physiognomic class and noted that the low meadow

forming grasses are characteristic of colder regions while

grasses of the tropics are chiefly of larger or gigantic size.

“Meadows,” he says, “are an ornament of northern regions.”

These general statements of Schouw and Meyen in regard

to sod forming grasses and sedges, are accepted by Grisebach

(3) (1872) who makes the additional observation that one tenth

of all the vascular plants of the Arctic regions belong to the

genus Carex. He notes that the Carices predominate on the

more poorly drained areas while sod forming grasses prevail

on the better drained areas. In his discussion of the forest

areas of both the Eastern and the Western Continents he states

that there is also present in the same latitude a series of meadow

formations depending on the drainage conditions just as there

is in the Arctic regions.

Coming to the more recent students of plant geography,

Drude (7) (1890) distinguishes more closely between meadows,

as composed largely of grasses, and meadow moors composed

largely of sedges, the latter with a peaty substratum having a

high water content. His classification of these low moist sod

formations is as follows:

A, Dormant during winter; during the warm seasons grow¬

ing and green, composed of low growing shrubs and herbs, and

moss; trees are absent, and turf is compact —

a Principally grasses with short sward: Meadows,

h Principally of sedges, reed grasses with short sward grow¬

ing on peaty marshy soil : Grass moors. Meadow moors.

In this distinction the emphasis is placed on the character of

the vegetation. Drude again emphasizes the fact that of the

three thousand species of Cyperaceae relatively few are found

in the tropics, the genus Carex being characteristically circum¬

polar in its distribution. He also describes Carex strict a as an

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 407

important factor in the natural tilling in of ponds leading to the

development of meadow lands.

Drude’s meadow moor is plainly the equivalent of our marsh

meadows. If he had distinguished further the grass moor and

sedge moor according to the prevalence of such grasses as Cala-

magrostis canadensis he would have characterized these forma¬

tions quite adequately, judged from the standpoint of our Wis¬

consin conditions.

The presence of this type of vegetation in Wisconsin was

recognized by Chamberlin (5) (1877) and his co-laborers. In

their discussion of the dor a of Eastern Wisconsin they recog¬

nized a “Grass and Sedge Group” occupying open meadow and

marshes and they note that grasses predominate on marshes

more easily improved and that sedges occupy marshes more

difficult to improve. They find that this form of vegetation

grades imperceptibly into the upland prairies. A sharp dis¬

tinction is made by them between the “Grass and Sedge Group”

and the “Heath Group” though both occupy marsh habitats.

The map of the vegtation of Wisconsin which accompanies their

discussion shows that the grass and sedge marshes are confined

to the west central portions of the state and are intermingled

with the prairies in the belt of the greatest development of the

oaks. To the immediate north and east the “Heath Group”

leaches its greatest development in the marshes. In the dense

pine and maple belt the tamarack is shown to be characteristic

of the undrained regions while still further north this species

is largely replaced by white cedar and spruce.

MacMillan (9) (1892) whose work on the flora of Minne¬

sota stands quite alone in its comprehensiveness so far as any

of our western states are concerned, describes the type of vege¬

tation with which we are concerned as a “swamp moor or wet

meadow” formation composed mostly of “sedges, grasses, and

rushes, but with a strong intermixture of other plants including

such varieties as the shield ferns, marsh marigolds, the Parnas-

sias, some gentians, buck beans, orchids, willow herbs and pars¬

leys.” Mingled with these are often shrubs such as dogwoods*

willows, buckthorns and meadow sweets, and also a consider¬

able moss vegetation.

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

For the Minnesota River Basin he lists two hundred and

sixty-four marsh and swamp inhabiting plants but does not

specify in this list the “swamp moor” element. Of this list one

hundred and forty-five are monooots with seventeen grasses and

forty -six species of Carex. From the available literature Mac¬

Millan shows that these swamp plants are mostly northern and

eastern in their distribution and that they constitute twenty-

two and one-half per cent of all the species of the Minnesota

Valley. He does not, however, give any data as to the relative

abundance of these classes of plants.

Pound and Clements (12) (1900) in their map of the so-

called “Prairie Province” show that the eastern line of blend¬

ing of this with the “Forest Province” passes diagonally across

Wisconsin in the region of the greatest development of marsh

meadows as shown on Chamberlin’s map of the vegetation of

Wisconsin. In ^Nebraska they distinguish a “wet meadow for¬

mation intermediate between marshes and meadows proper,”

and subdivide it into three types, as follows: (1) The rush

meadow type, (2) The fern meadow type, and (3) the sedge

meadow type. The latter is composed largely of Carex stricta,

Carex striata and Carex lanuginosa. According to their ob¬

servations accessory species are almost lacking. Extensive

marsh meadows of this type exist in Nebraska only along the

main streams near the Missouri River. A characteristic

swamp meadow formation is described by Beck (13) (1901) as

present in the Upper Balkan peninsula. The “Sumpfwiesen”

as he calls it, is composed largely of sedges and reaches its best

development in the broad lower valleys. He lists one hundred

and twenty-two species of plants characteristic of such meadows.

Of these forty-five are monocots, fourteen are grasses, and nine¬

teen are sedges of which twelve are Carex species. In his list

are such species as the following : Phragmites communis. Mo -

Unia coerulea, Poa palustris, Scirpus lacustris , Carex vulpina,

and Carex riparia. Statistics as to relative abundance are

lacking hence it is difficult to compare this type with our wild

hay meadows.

G-anong (15) (1903) finds among the fresh water marshes

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Ray Meadow. 409

of the region about the Bay of Bundy a “wet meadow” forma¬

tion characterized by two types of vegetation. In one Spartina

cynosuroides Willd. is dominant with Cicuta maculata , Carex

maritima , Calamagrostis canadensis , and Scirpus atrovirens as

secondary species. He also finds a floating bog association or

“Garicetum” with Carex filiformis, Eriophorum vaginatum ,

Carex stricta decora , and Carex Magellanica as principal spe¬

cies.. Both of these have species in common with our marsh

meadowTs but all being more nearly a bog formation on the flood

plain of a tidal river.

Lewis (17) (1904) describes, under the term “Grass Heath”

a formation of the Pennine moors of England which although

differing somewhat has many points in common with our marsh

meadows. It is developed on glacial drift overlaid by peat with

a high water content. The grass Molinia varia is dominant

with such secondary species as Desckampsia flexuosa , Carex

flava , Carex echinata, Carex Goodenomi, and Juncus conglome¬

rate. He distinguishes these sharply from the Heath (Heide

or Zwergstrauchheiden of Warming). He states that these

grass heaths stretch for miles on gently sloping poorly drained

ground, and that although they occur at all altitudes they are

best developed at one thousand feet altitude where they form

intermediate zones between the heather moors higher up and

the cultivated lands of lower altitudes.

Smith (18) (1904) makes a sharp distinction between typi¬

cal bog formations and “marshes” in Scotland. The latter he

considered as corresponding to the typical mieadow moor of

Warming. He found that in Scotland their vegetation was

composed of the taller sedges, grasses and rushes, and that they

were best developed on the “landward side of the reed swamps

of lowland lochs and rivers.”

In the various types of vegetation present in the extensive

flat-moors of Austria, Bailer and Wilk (22) (1907) have de¬

scribed associations which are quite similar to the wild hay

meadows of Wisconsin. They term such an association a

“Magno Caricetum” and describe it as composed chiefly of

Carex stricta, Carex filiformis, Carex acuta , Carex paludosa ,

410 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Car ex vesicaria, and Car ex riparia, with Equisetum limosum,

Equisetum palustris, Hypnum species, and Cladium maricus

as secondary species, and as less frequent Menyanthes trifoliata

and Heleocharis palustris. They also note that “on drier places

this association is quickly replaced by a Molinietum” or a more

purely grass association.

Feilburg (8) (1890) has studied the influence of the depth

of the ground water on the vegetation of marshy sand plains in

Jutland. He claims that, the chemical and physical composi¬

tion of the soil being uniform', “when the ground water in sum¬

mer stands at a depth of three inches J uncus and meadow moor

vegetation prevail ; at six inches mosses and Cyperaceiae still oc¬

cur but grasses begin to appear; at nine inches these taller be¬

come dominant ; at twelve inches normal grass growth occurs in

ordinary summers; at from eighteen to twenty-four inches

cereals thrive in cold moist summers, at from thirty to forty

inches the soil is unsuited for cereals and xecophytes predomi¬

nate.” According to Feilburg the depth of the water table is

here the sole factor determining the natural vegetation that ap¬

pears and the crops that can be grown.

As to the physical characteristics, soil composition and dis¬

tribution, Whitson and Jones (23) (1907) distinguish two

types of marsh lands in Wisconsin. The one most abundant in

Horthern Wisconsin is in the sandstone and granite regions, as

a rule, and is the typical bog formation with sphagnum,^ tama¬

rack, and spruce. The soil is strongly acid and is deficient in

available potash and phosphoric acid. The second type is the

marsh meadow or meadow moor best developed on the lime stone

area of the eastern and south eastern part of the state. Here

the peat shows little or no acidity, is deficient in potash but less

so in phosphoric acid. To this latter type belong the wild hay

marshes of this portion of the state

The region about the city of Madison is especially favorable

for the study of marsh formations and I have undertaken to

analyze the flora of a typical formation of this class by statisti¬

cal methods with the aim of obtaining the numerical relations,

and the relative importance of the various species as they are

grouped in such an association.

Stout- — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 411

The area studied is chiefly included in the property of the

Dane County Fair Association and is one of the many wild hay

meadows in the vicinity of Madison. In its general outline this

marsh meadow is almost circular and it is nearly surrounded by

low irregular morainic knolls. The east edge has been cut by

the road beds of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway,

and the western side by that of the Chicago and Northwestern

Railway. At the south edge a race track has been built out into

the marsh. A few large ditches have been dug mainly for the

drainage of the race course. Formerly a shallow, sluggish

water course known as Murphy Creek meandered through the

center serving as an overflow outlet from Lake Wingra but its

function is now taken by a canal recently cut between Lakes

Wingra and Mendota. A broad strip of marsh extending

through the center from north to south is at present little af¬

fected by these changes and it is this region that I have espe¬

cially studied.

The area is almost perfectly flat as is shown in the photo¬

graphs here reproduced. The elevation is but a few feet above

the level of the lake which lies at its nearest point but a few

rods from the eastern border of the marsh. During the spring

and after heavy summer rains water floods much of the area to

a depth of several inches.

Ten soil borings made at points along the transect showed

that the surface layer of humus muck and well rotted peat is

from one to four feet in depth. There is a shallow layer at the

south edge where for a distance of one hundred and twenty-

five feet it is underlaid by sand, fine gravel, and red clay at a

depth of from a few inches to one and one-half feet. The

greater portion of the central part has about four feet of peaty

material underlaid by a fine grained blue clay. A broad belt

at the north is underlaid by white sand. The water table in

these holes, bored during the autumn of 1908 at an unusually

dry time, varied from a few inches beneath the surface in the

central portions to three feet or more in the portions underlaid

by sand.

In common with the numerous marshes of this part of Wis-

412 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

consin, as pointed out by Chamberlin (5) (1877), this marsh

meadow has probably been formed chiefly by the accumulation

of vegetable material in a rather shallow expanse of lake area.

The region is one of rather imperfect drainage due to the gla¬

cial deposits associated with the terminal moraines. The clay

and the sand substrata undoubtedly form'ed the bottom of the

former body of water and the1 accumulation of plant substance

accounts for the rather thin layer of peat and muck which now

holds the rainfall like a sponge. Erosion of the surrounding

knolls has resulted in washing more or less of the upland soils

on to the borders of the area.

The entire area is well clothed with a dense growth of grasses

and sedges which form a well knit turf of sufficient firmness

over much of the area to hold up teams in the work of hay

making, at least during a dry mid-summer. If cut at all the

hav is usually made during August although the work is often

delayed until the ground is frozen in which case the product is

more often used as bedding or for packing ice, etc.

Method of Study

The frequence and the abundance of the various species of

plants on the area were studied by countings of the plant popu¬

lation on a strip four inches wide extending from edge to edge

through the center of the marsh in a north and south direction.

It was planned to extend this belt-transect in a straight line

across the entire marsh but when the part north of the canal

was reached it was found that cattle had eaten out portions

making a slight deviation from a continuous straight line neces¬

sary. This belt-transect fairly represents the conditions, of the

whole area and its population was carefully studied as to both

the occurrence and abundance of all the species concerned.

The enumeration was planned to give complete data through¬

out the transect in regard to — (1) the species present, (2) the

numerical abundance of each species, (3) the numerical fre¬

quence, (4) the grouping of the species, and (5) the relative

weight of the dominant species in the hay produced.

In making the counts a ten foot measuring rod was pushed

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 413

through the grass (dose to the surface of the ground. Then the

vegetation at one side was trampled down as shown in the

photographs of plates XX and XXI. A comb or rake like de¬

vice was then used to determine definite areas of uniform size.

This comb was one foot long and had four pointed teeth each

four inches apart measuring from tip to tip. It could be pushed

into the vegetation at any point along the rod and when thus in

place it enclosed on three sides the vegetation growing on three

four inch square areas, or quadrats, which were the unit areas

on which the different species present were noted and their

number determined by count. With note hook previously

ruled and numbered the data were recorded for each quadrat of

every other foot, thus data were obtained in successive order

representing rather completely all the conditions on the area.

A stake was pla'ced at the end of each ten foot segment. These

stakes were numbered and left standing throughout the season

so that continuous observations could he taken concerning sea¬

sonal changes in growth. Plants undetermined at the time of

the census because of immaturity were staked and labelled to

await the development of the floral parts. It was impossible to

determine the individual plants of the various grasses and

sedges. These types have a more or less highly developed un¬

derground stem system. In Car ex strict a, Car ex riparia, Car ex

. aquatilis and Car ex filiformis, especially, the underground

stems branch out in all directions from the individual stools.

(See Plates XXI and XXII). This method of propagation

gives a rather widely spread plant if we consider that all the

clumps of culms having direct connection with each other consti¬

tute a plant. The result gives an intermixing not only of plants

of different species but of the same species. Por the grasses and

sedges it was hence deemed best to count the culms.

The species of Eleocharis were not counted. Although

widely distributed in the marsh and exceedingly abundant in

point of number of culms, they were everywhere weak and slen¬

der and overshadowed by more vigorous species. The abun¬

dance of the Eleocharis species is given in the relative terms,

absent, sparse, medium dense, and dense.

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The entire length of the belt transect counted was two thou¬

sand three hundred feet. It was four inches wide and all

plants on every other foot were counted with the exception of

the Eleocharis species. Thus one thousand one hundred and

fifty records were made on areas twelve by four inches, that is,

the plants on three thousand four hundred fifty areas of four

inches square were counted.

A few species were noted growing near the belt transect but

not actually included in it. With the exception of a few spe¬

cies these were plants not dominant on any portion of the marsh.

To give completeness to the list these species are included and

are indicated by a star.

The nomenclature is that of Gray’s Manual (seventh edi¬

tion). All species not identified with certainty were sent to

the United States ISTational Herbarium where they were deter¬

mined by Mr. C. E. Wheeler. The mosses included in the list

were determined by Mr. A. J. Grout.

List of Species Growing on The Four Inch Strip.

Musci

Calliergon Schreberi, Wild.

Campylium chrysophyllum Bryhn.

Drepanocladus uncinatus (Hedw.) Warnst.®

Bryum (?).

Polypodiaceae

Aspidium Thelypteris (L) Sw.

Equisetaceae

Equisetum arvense L.

Equisetum fluviatile L.

Typhaceae

Typha latifolia L.

Sparganiaceae

Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm.

Alismaceae

Sagittaria latifolia Willd.

Gramineae

Andropogon furcatus Muhl.

* Phieum pratense L.

Agrostis alba L.

Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx) Beauv.

Calamagrostis neglecta (Ehrh. ) G. M. and S.

Sphenopholis pallens (Spreng.) Scribn.

Spartina Michauxiana Hitchc.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow . 415

* Phragmites communis Trin.

Poa pratensis L.

Glyceria nervata (Willd.) Trin.

Bromus ciliatus L.

Hordeum jubatum L. /

Cyperaceae

Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. and S.

Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. and S.

Scirpus validus Vahl.

* Scirpus atrovirens Muhl.

Eriophorum angustifolium Roth.

* Carex straminea Willdv

Carex Bebbii Olney.

Carex sterilis Willd.

* Carex vulpinoidea Michx.

Carex diandra, var. ramosa (Boott.) Fernald,

* Carex stipata Muhl.

Carex Sartwellii Dewey.

Carex aquatilis Wahlenb.

Carex stricta Lam.

Carex tetanica Schkuhr.

Carex polygama Schkuhr.

Carex filifor mis L.

Carex lanuginosa Michx.

Carex riparia W. Curtis.

* Carex comosa Boott.

* Carex hystericina Muhl.

Juncaceae

Juncus Dudleyi Wiegand.

Liliaceae

* Lilium canadense L.

Amaryllidaceae

Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville.

Iridaceae

Iris versicolor L.

Orchidaceae

" Calopogon pulchellus (Sw.) R. Br.

Salicaceae

Salix discolor Muhl.

Salix Candida Fliigge.

* Salix amygdaloides Anders.

Santalaceae

Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt.

Polygonaceae

* Rumex altissimus Wood.

* Rumex crispus L.

Polygonum amphibium var. Hartwrightii Gray.

* Polygonum pennsylvanicum L.

Ranunculaceae

* Ranunculus abortivus L.

* Ranunculus pennsylvanicus L. f.

416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

v Thalictrum dasycarpum F. and L.

Galtha palustris L.

Saxifragaceae

* Saxifraga pennsylvanica L.

Parnassia caroliniana Michx.

Rosaceae

* Spiraea salicifolia L.

Leguminosae

Trifolium pratense L.

Trifolium hybridum

Lathyrus palustris L.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens biflora Walt.

Yiolaceae

Viola cucullata Ait.

Viola blanda Willd.

Lythraceae

Lythrum alatum Pursh.

Onagraceae

* Epilobium densum Raf.

Umbelliferae

* Zizia aurea (L.) Koch.

Sium cicutaefolium Schrank

Cicuta maculata L.

Primulaceae

Lysimachia thyrsiflora L.

Gentianaceae

* Gentiana crinita Froel.

* Gentiana Andrewsii Griseb.

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias incarnata L.

Polemoniaceae

Phlox pilosa L.

Verbenaceae

* Verbena hastata L.

Labiatae

Scutellaria galericulata L.

Pycnanthemum virginianum (L.) D. and J.

Lycopus uniflorus Michx.

Lycopus americanus Muhl.

Mentha arvensis var. canadensis (L.) Briquet.

Scrophulariaceae

Chelone glabra. L.

* Mimulus ringens L.

* Gerardia purpurea L.

* Pedicularis lanceolata Michx.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major L.

Rubiaceae

* Galium boreale L.

Galium trifidum L.

S. owt — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 417

Campanulaceae

Campanula aparinoides Pursh.

Lobeliaceae

Lobelia siphilitica L.

Compositae

Eupatorium purpureum L.

Eupatorium perfoliatum L.

Solidago uliginosa Nutt.

Solidago neglecta T. and G.

* Solidago canadensis L.

* Solidago Ridellii Frank.

Aster puniceus L.

* Aster prenanthoides Muhl.

* Aster paniculatus Lam.

Erigeron philadelphicus L.

Helianthus grosseserratus Martens.

Bidens frondosa L.

* Bidens connata Muhl.

* Bidens trichosperma (Michx) Britton.

Cirsium muticum Michx.

A summary of the families, genera, and species is given in

the following table :

Table I.

Abundance of the Various Species

The above summary shows that in point of number of species

the dicots exceed the monocots but it is self evident that a mere

list or summary of species does not show the actual occupancy

of the area as it does not consider the numerical abundance of a

species or the comparative number of individuals.

As a matter of convenience the data obtained by counting as

previously described are here grouped in Table 2. In this list

the species are arranged in the order of their numerical abun¬

dance. The strip is divided on the basis of its physical char¬

acter and its plant population into five associations as follows:

(1) Ly copus Caricetum, (2) Carieetum, (3) Calaimagrostis

Car ice turn, (4) Ly copus Caricetum', (5) Caricetum.

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

TABLE 2.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 419

Considering this table solely from the standpoint of abun¬

dance it is plain that the bulk of the vegetation belongs to a few

species. This is more graphically shown by Plate XVIII which

shows diagramatically the relative proportions of the fifteen

leading species. It is noticeable that all but three of the fif¬

teen leading species are sedges or grasses and it can be said that

these three do not rank as dominants anywhere in the transect.

To make the summary more exact as to the nature of the vege¬

tation the following table showing the percentages for the lead¬

ing species may be arranged.

Table 3.

Total population of transect . 52,377

Total Carex species . 33,989 or 63%

Total grasses . 12,698 or 24%

Total Carices and grasses . 87%

Total Carex stricta . 21,127 or 40%

Total Calamagrostis canadensis . S,765 or 18%

Total for these two species . 58%

The nature of the plant population and the quality of the

product of the marsh in hay is easily understood from the fig¬

ures. The great excess of sedges over grasses (sixty-three per

cent to twenty-four per cent) and the high percentage (forty

per cent) of the rank growing Carex stricta indicates that the

hay value will be largely determined by the sedges. As far as

the grasses are concerned the value is almost wholly due to the

eighteen per cent Calamagrotis canadensis since the total of

the remaining grasses (six per cent) is small.

Por the purposes of a comparison of the families of chief

importance numerically, the data may be grouped as follows:

Table 4.

420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

This table again emphasizes the great preponderance of the

sedges and grasses and the relatively small numbers of dicots

present.

Plant Associations

The general character of the vegetation being now established

the question of the natural grouping can well be considered.

Por this purpose we may return to a study of table two.

The numerical abundance of each species is there given for

each association. But in considering the fluctuations in abun¬

dance it must be remembered that the associations are not of

equal area. The data in the columii for each association show

what species are present and what the numerical proportions

are. Por study in connection with this table curves have been

plotted showing the abundance and frequence of the principal

species. Por these the totals have been tahen every fifty feet,

instead of for the entire association as in table 2, hence the dis¬

tribution is more exactly shown. On each fifty foot segment

seventy-five quadrats were counted as previously explained and

since in determining frequency the presence of a species in a

quadrat is considered as a unit, the highest frequency possible

for a fifty foot segment is seventy-five.

What may be called a Lycopus Caricetum occupies about five

hundred feet of the south end of the transect. This is a border

zone and is rather dry compared with the more central region.

It slopes almost imperceptibly toward the center of the marsh.

The soil borings taken showed there is more or less of the trans¬

ported upland soil intermingled with the layer of humus and

peat which in turn, is underlaid by sand, gravel, and clay.

This border association is relatively rich in different 'species

as shown in column one of table 2. Car ex stricta and Calama-

grostis canadensis lead in frequency and in numbers here as for

most of the transect. Although clearly dominant for much of

this association neither reaches its maximum development here.

Car ex stricta constitutes forty-two per cent by count and seven¬

ty-six by weight of the total vegetation and averages about

eighteen inches in height. C alamagrostis canadensis eonsti-

Stowt — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 421

tutes ten per cent by count and thirteen per cent by weight.

In height it is about two and one half feet with rather few

culms producing flowers. Carex sterilis is abundant but at its

best development is seldom over eight inches in height and is a

small low growing plant compared with the majority of the

species present. Besides Calamagrotis canadensis the other

grasses present are principally well developed plants of Poa

pratensis, Agrostis alba , and Glyceria nervata. Together they

constitute nineteen per cent by count and nine per cent by

weight. These with Carex Belbbii and Carex diandra ramosa

are present in sufficient numbers to be dominants in certain

limited spots. Nearly all the other species given in column

one of table 2 are subordinate species, few in numbers and

much scattered.

This association is characterized by the development of the

grasses above named and by the presence of a rather large num¬

ber of dicots which, although constituting about one third of all

the species present, amount to only about six per cent of the

plant population. Of the dicots, Lycopus uniflorus is by far

the most abundant, with Carex stricta heading the monocots.

Bor convenience this association may therefore be called a Ly¬

copus Caricetum.

Caricetum: The strip extending from the five-hundred-foot

station to the seven-hundred-fifty-foot station on the transect

shows a typical development of Carex stricta . This species is

present on three hundred seventy-three of the three hundred

seventy-five successive squares counted. It is of robust growth

reaching on a level to the height of from twenty to twenty-eight

inches and in several places showed very characteristically its

stool ing habit that gives it the name of tussock sedge. This

stooling is quite characteristic of this sedge when it develops un¬

hindered by secondary species and especially when the habitat

is rather wet as in the case of development in or around ponds.

They appear as clumps of closely packed culms at the base of

which masses of underground branches and dead culms build up

a rounded hummock of from six inches to three feet in diame¬

ter and often a foot or miore in height. This species here con-

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

stituted seventy-five per cent by count and seventy-eight per

cent by weight of the total vegetation.

Calamagrostis canadensis was abundant and frequent, and

constituted twenty-five per cent by count and twenty-one per

cent per weight of the total. This relatively low figure for

weight is due to the fact that at nearly all points in this asso¬

ciation the culms were weak and slender so that even in mid¬

summer they were able to surmount Car ex strict a in height only

in a few patches.

Prom table 2 we see that but fifteen species were found here

and that there is a marked decrease in the number of dicots.

The line of contact of the Ly copus Caricetum and the outer

edge of this association is marked in this changed character of

the vegetation. There is also, seemingly, an increase of water

content, a decrease of transported soil in the surface layers and

a change to a pure blue clay substratum which is about three

and one-half feet below the surface. As is shown by the plots

in plate 19, the highest development of Carex stricta is reached

in this part of the transect and for the convenience the portion

from five hundred to seven hundred fifty feet of the south edge

of the marsh may be called a Caricetum.

Calamagrostis Caricetum: Prom eight hundred feet to nearly

fifteen hundred feet is found the wettest portion of the transect.

Carex aguatilis, Carex filiformis, and Carex Sartwellii are lim¬

ited to this portion of the marsh as is shown by curves in Plate

III. Carex stricta is abundant but has dropped to twenty-two

per cent by number and fifteen per cent by weight. The sedges,

however, constitute sixty-five per cent of the total by count and

about the same by weight.

Calamagrostis canadensis leads in totals for any one species.

By count it constitutes thirty-four per cent and by weight

thirty-six per cent. It is in this portion of the marsh that this

species reached its best development and considerable patches of

it reached the height of from four to five feet thus completely

overtopping all other species.

There is, in this portion of the marsh, marked fluctuation

within short distances in regard to the presence of the several

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 423

species. The plots of Plate XIX show that wherever Carex

aquatilis and Carex filiformis develop there is absence of Carex

stricta and Calamagrostis canadensis. The vegetation of this

portion of the marsh is practically wholly of Carices and Cala¬

magrostis and the association can he designated therefore, as a

Calamagrostis Caricetum.

The water course shown to the left in the photograph (See

Plate 20, Fig. 1) is about ten feet in width and but a few inches

in depth. It cuts the transect at fourteen hundred fifty to fif¬

teen hundred feet. Along and in this shallow water course

there is a narrow strip in which Scripus validus and Typha lati-

folia are dominants. The species at this point are included in

the list of those for the sedge and Calamagrostis association.

Ly copies Caricetum: A short distance to the north of this

stream the transect crosses the canal shown in the photographs

and immeiately north of this there is a very complex association

extending about seven hundred and fifty feet between the sta¬

tions at fifteen hundred feet and at twenty-two hundred and

fifty feet on the transect. Sixty species are present and these

are much intermingled. Carex stricta is a dominant over much

of the area with a percentage of forty by count and fifty-two by

weight. Carex sterilis becomes abundant but as in the border

association it is too weak in habit to be ranked as dominant.

Calamagrostis canadensis is well developed only in a few limited

areas and shows a percentage of thirteen by number and seven¬

teen by weight.

It is in this association that nearly all the species of Com-

positae are found, as well as the maximum development of

Aspidium Thelypteris , Ly copus americanus , Parnassia caro-

liniana and other of the species listed for this association in

table 2.

The habitat is a low ridge, elevated at its center about two

and one-half feet above the lower portions of the marsh. Here

the humus and peat is underlaid by sand. Evidently this was

a sand bar or spit in the old lake bay and was probably the first

to be occupied by the land plants. At the time of taking soil

borings the water level lay below the surface of the sand which

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

came to within three feet of the surface while in the wet sedge

and Calam'agrostis association it was within seven and one-half

inches of the surface. This is then a relatively dry portion of

the marsh with at least a slightly better aeration and this is

possibly the reason for the greater number of dicots (thirty-

four species in all) many of which, as shown in table 2, are con¬

fined to this region. The plants typical of the wet portions are

lacking here.

Caricetum: The transect cuts this low ridge and its character¬

istic vegetation diagonally and passes into a nearly pure but

rather small association that is almost entirely composed of

Car ex stricta. This occupies a shallow but marked basin' like!

depression about one hundred feet across. VESere but nine spe¬

cies are present and their relative numerical proportions are

given in table 2. This association terminates the marsh

abruptly at this point.

Data for Typical Stations

A fuller view of the vegetation of the marsh can be gained by

a study of the data collected in the following tables, each giving

the population of a ten foot strip or station. These tables rep¬

resent typical portions of the marsh and show exactly the

grouping of species for each station. Since every other foot of

the four inch strip was counted and each foot was divided into

three quadrats the totals are for fifteen quadrats, or in all, an

erea of one and two-thirds square feet. The totals for each sta¬

tion will be given in the first column and the frequence will be

given in the second column. The presence of a species in a

quadrat was considered a unit of frequency, hence, for example,

fifteen under the head frequency means that the species named

was present in each quadrat of the station in question.

Lycopus Caricetum. Twenty to Thirty Feet.

This is located close to the outer edge of the association.

The humus and peat is about one and one-half feet deep but

mixed with, and underlaid by, washed soil from the uplands.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Ray Meadow. 425

Although Car ex strict a is here dominant it is not spooling nor

is it robust in habit. The vegetation is dense, a firm smooth

turf is formed and it is distinctly a mixed association.

110 to 120 Feet,

This is in the Ly copus Caricetum association and is the region

where Car ex Bebhii reaches its maximum development.

140 to 150 Feet.

A spot where the vegetation is almost entirely of Car ex

stricta. It was not, however, stooling hut stood smooth and

even at the height of about eighteen inches. The Calamagros-

tis canadensis is weak and scattering.

340 to 350 Feet.

This section is typical of the border association where Carex

stricta has the least development. The species are scattered

and intermingled giving a mottled covering. The vegetation is

thin and sparse hut the ground is completely occupied.

426 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

470 to 480 Feet.

A station close to the inner edge of the mixed association and

one of the few points where Glycria nervata is dominant. The

culms are fine and closely set.

710 to 720 Feet, Car ice turn.

Here Carex stricta reaches its maximum development and

appears as described under general discussion of this belt.

Calamagrostis canadensis culms are weak and subordinate at

this point. Eleocharis palustris is abundant but weak and much

scattered between and below the culms of the other species.

810 to 820 Feet. Calamagrostis Caricetum.

This is in the midst of the wet association, and was the point

where Carex aquatilis reached its maximum development. The

leaves stood on a level of about forty inches giving a coarse

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 427

sedgy aspect. Calamagrostis canadensis was in little evidence

at any time during the year.

860 to 870 Feet.

Here Car ex filiform, is reaches its maximum development and

this is one of the wettest portions of the marsh. Carex fili-

formis with its slender wire like leaves does not form a dense

vegetation and does not cover np the ground as do the other

sedges of the strip. A heavy coat of moss covers the ground

making it much more spongy than is the case elsewhere on the

marsh.

1180 to 1190 Feet.

A comparison of Plates 2 and 3 shows that Carex Sartwellii

is a dominant form in this region from 1150 to 1350 feet and

that Carex stricta is lacking. There is also a marked decrease

of all other Carex forms. This ten foot section is typical of

the region. Carex Sartwellii forms a dense and leafy vegeta¬

tion about twenty-four inches high on the level. The habitat is

slightly less wet than that of the purer Carex aquatilis associa¬

tion.

428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

1490 to 1500 Feet.

At this point the transect cuts the Scirpus-Typha association

that occupies the shallow water course previously described.

1640 to 1650 Feet. Ly copus Caricetum.

This is a typical segment of the mixed association and an¬

swers to the general description previously given. 'Carex steri-

lis can hardly be called a dominant because of its weak growth.

It is seldom over eight inches in height and is hence overshad¬

owed by most of the other species. The complexity of this

whole association is well shown by the large number of species

present on the 'fifteen quadrats here summarized. As many as

eight species were present on a single quadrat four inches

square.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 429

1680 to 1690 Feet.

In this segment Viola blanda, Solidago, uliginosa, Bideus

frondosa, and Aspidium Thelypteris all reach their maximum

development. The vegetation is unusually sparse hut the en¬

tire surface is fully occupied.

1780 to 1790 Feet.

This is another section typical of this whole association. Ly-

copus uniflorus here reaches its greatest development in num¬

bers per quadrat. The various mints and oompositae develope

during late August and September and give a marked difference

to the aspect of the flora in late summer.

430 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters

1990 to 2000 Feet.

This is in the border of the mixed association. The vegeta¬

tion is more dense and grass like.

2140 to 2150 Feet.

A section of the association dominated by Carex stricta , with

dense vegetation two feet high on the level and this is over¬

topped by thb taller Calamagrostis canadensis .

2270 to 2280 Feet. Caricetnm.

This gives the data for a portion that is typical of the asso¬

ciation dominated by Carex stricta , which occnpies the last one

hundred feet of the transect.

These more detailed discussions of typical ten foot sections

of the various associations show that what has been called

the Lycopus Caricetnm, the Caricetnm, or the Calama-

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 431

grostis Caricetum is in reality a complex of smaller associa¬

tions, for in no section of ten feet do we find any one species

excluding all others. The facts thus shown together with the

curves given in plate 20, show the suddenness with which

dominant species may change.

Among the species that may he considered as dominants there

are further various degrees of development and domination.

This is well shown in the fluctuations in the curves on plate 20.

At station 75, although Calamagrostis canadensis was very

abundant it was entirely overshadowed throughout the season

by Car ex stricta and did not even produce flowers and seeds.

Hay Production

To determine the relative weights of the various species in

the composition of the hay the following plan was used. At in¬

tervals of fifty feet the vegetation growing on an area of five

square feet was cut, sorted, labelled and tied into bundles.

This was done during the last two weeks of August, 1907.

The bundles were thoroughly dried under cover and then

weighed. From the weights, per cents have been computed

and the total hay production per acre estimated. The total is

somewhat higher than would be obtained by methods of Wy

making, due to the fact that there was no waste.

These facts show the relative hay production of the various

associations as well as the proportional weight values of the var¬

ious species in the hay. The data as to weights are summarized

in the following table.

Table 5.

432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The total yield per acre is heaviest in the Calamagrostis Car-

icetum and least in the Lycopus Caricetum associations. The

bulk of the vegetation by weight is composed of the two species

Car ex strict a and Calamagrostis canadensis. The former con¬

stituted forty-three per cent according to the data for the tran¬

sect and the latter twenty-four per cent. Many tons of hay

of this character are fed each year on the farms in the vicinity

of Madison and many acres of this type of marsh land are util¬

ized for pasturage. When pastured heavily it is noticed that

the sedges are rather closely cropped especially in the early part

of the season when they develop most rapidly and there is a

general opinion that marsh meadows afford excellent grazing.

There seem to be no data on the digestibility oi-Carex strict a.

Analyses by Bailer and Wilk (22) show 93.97 per cent of or¬

ganic substance and 6.03 per cent ash of which 1.954 is Si 0?.

Storer (4) (1875) found that “bog hay” (composed of Carex

stricta ) taken from the barn gave analyses as follows :

Water . 8.17%

Ash . 5.54%

Albuminoids . 6.88%

Carbohydrates and fats . . . . . 45.99%

Cellulose (ash free) . . 33.42%

This bog hay showed very slight differences in comparison

with meadow hay. He also noted that bog hay collected by

hand in June was better than that mown later due to the fact

that Carex stricta matures early in the season.

For Calamagrostis canadensis Jordan (6)p. 38 (1889) gives

the results of the analysis of the water free hay as follows : Ash

5.70 per cent; Protein 10.19 per cent; Fiber 36.32 per cent.

He states that it is the most valuable of lowland grasses and

his tables show that it has a per cent of digestibility greater

than that of timothy or red top.

Pammel (11) (1901) states that Calamagrostis canadensis

covers a considerable area of lowland marshes in northern and

central Iowa and is a well relished and valuable forage crop.

The other grasses of the transect aggregate but two or three

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 433

per cent of the total weight and the total weight of the her¬

baceous dicots is somewhat less.

The sedges characteristic of the wet portions are coarse and

rough with the exception of Carex Sartwellii which makes a

hay of tine texture.

The total weight percentage of the grasses is nearly equal for

the Lycopus Caricetum and the Calamagrostis Caricetum with

the yield decidedly in favor of the latter. What the nutrition

value of the sedges in question may he should certainly he

settled by analyses and experiments.

The mixture of Calamagrostis canadensis with the sedges

gives manifest disadvantages for the utilization of the mixed

crop as hay because of the different seasonal development of

the species. It is evident that when Calamagrostis canadensis

is ready for cutting, and this is the time when the hay is usu¬

ally made, the sedges have passed maturity and are becoming

dry. Few attempts have been made to improve marsh mead¬

ows of this type, but the high hay value and heavy yield of

Calamagrostis canadensis suggests the feasibility of its use es¬

pecially for the wetter portions of such marsh meadows.

Efforts to improve marsh hay lands have been begun in Wis¬

consin. The results have not as yet been published but they

show that surface drainage accompanied by the tearing up and

destroying the surface layer of moss, and the sowing of such

grasses as Phleum pratensis , Poa triflora , Agrostis alba and

Calamagrostis canadensis together with alsike give excellent re¬

turns.

Geographical Range op the Species

In considering the continental range of the species the plan

of MacMillan (9a) is followed. The 95th meridian is taken

as the line between the eastern and the western half of the con¬

tinent and the 45th parallel FT. latitude as the line dividing

the northern from the southern region. The distribution of a

species with reference to these lines determines the range. In

most cases the range of species here given is taken from Mac¬

Millan (1892). The following is a tabulation of the continental

434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

range extent of the species listed in table 1 with the exception

of the mosses.

Table No. 6.

It is noticeable that the plants which belong to the 1ST S E W

range are about; evenly divided between monocots and dicots

and that in totals there is little difference between the three

range groups 1ST S E W, 1ST E W, and S E.

Summarizing the above table and securing the total number

of species of the four ranges 1ST, S, E, and W we have :

Table No. 7.

This shows that as a whole, the species of this marsh meadow

are decidedly eastern with little difference between the other

ranges. MacMillan finds that the vegetation of the Minnesota

River V alley is decidedly southern and eastern in range and he

points out that this is the result of the “geological, topograph¬

ical, and hydrographical southeasternness of the valley together

with biological factors concerned with continental pressure

tensions.”

If we now compare the number of species from the north

with those from the south, we find that the plants of H E W

or those of distinctly northern range lead in number of species

throughout the transect except in the complex Lycopus Carice-

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 435

turn. Those of the hi" S E W range fluctuate considerably in

number. This is shown in the following table.

Table No. 8.

The wetter middle portions of the transect are occupied by

species of limited range only and in these the northern distri¬

bution is strong. In marked contrast is the drier border por¬

tion with large numbers of species and a marked mixing of

range elements.

The geographical distribution of the fifteen species most

abundant on the whole transect are tabulated below.

Table 9.

While Car ex stricta is to be considered as a member of the

northern element its distinctive range is E* S E and as such it

belongs to a region that has few representatives in the marsh.

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The NEW element lias seven members in this list aggre¬

gating about forty per cent of all the vegetation. It also leads

in number of species in every association except the mixed as¬

sociation. The high precentage of northern, eastern, and west¬

ern elements in such a marsh meadow is clearly evident.

It is to be noted that the western element present here is

also a northern element and that there is an absence of any ele¬

ment that is S W or even N S W. These facts apply to the

vegetation as a whole according to MacMillan’s analysis of the

Minn. River Valley, the cause of which is to be found in the

“southeasternness” of the area as a whole.

While the vegetation of this marsh meadow shows this in¬

fluence in the presence of a strong eastern element there is in

the important northern element an evidence of other influence.

The abundance of species of northern as well as eastern range,

especially in the wetter portions of the marsh emphasizes the

influence of the glacial period. Five of the six principal spo-

cies found in the marsh meadow and which comprise 72.5%

of the total vegetation are of extra continental range, a fact

that points to a common northern center of development.

It should be stated in this connection that in regard to the

species here under discussion exact data are lacking concerning

the geographical range with the varying habitats and the cor¬

responding fluctuations in the vegetative and the reproductive

vigor of the species. These facts must be determined as a

basis for the satisfactory understanding of the abundance of a

plant in any given locality. Plants that are no more highly

specialized than are those here under consideration are capable

of developing under a variety of conditions climatic as well as

edaphic. In a general way the distribution of the species is

known but statistics as to the relative abundance and centers

of greatest development are lacking and the data at hand can

not hence be shown to be definitely related to known climatic or

edaphic conditions.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 437

Distribution of Marsh Meadows in North America

Of equal importance is the more complete study of the geo¬

graphical distribution of the physical conditions represented in

marsh meadows with reference to the climatic and edaphic con¬

ditions that are operating. The literature reviewed above in¬

dicates the inadequacy of the data available.

Transeau (16) (1903) has sketched a map of the “bog so¬

cieties” of North America. He recognizes that these are inti¬

mate relationships between “bog societies” and “swamp socie¬

ties or drained swamps.” In his discussion he pays no special

attention to the marsh meadow type which is however evi¬

dently included in his “drained swamp.” He concludes that

in general the belt of bog societies corresponds on the north to

the border of the forest belt and that bog societies are typical

of the colder portions of North America. He notes that an

examination of a diagonal area extending northwest and south¬

east through central and southern Wisconsin shows a noticeable

thinning out of the bog societies in its east and west extension.

This Transeau considers as evidence of a transition from a for¬

est to a prairie region.

It should be noted further, that this is a belt in which marsh

meadows are especially developed and that these are evidently

more closely related to prairies than are “bog societies.”

Transeau considers that “under present conditions the bog

societies cannot compete with marsh plants in the possession

of newly exposed undrained areas, but decides that neither

presence of peat, depth of water, or manner of seed dispersal

can account for the preponderance of marsh plants. His con¬

clusion is that the bog plants are remnants of the bog and tun¬

dra vegetation that bordered the glacial front and that in the

capture of newly exposed undrained areas swamp societies are

now successful because they are made up of more southerly

forms and are hence the normal hydrophytic vegetation of the

present climatic conditions.

In regard to this point it is be be noted, however, that the

ranges of the principal species found on the marsh meadow in

438 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

question show as wide a distribution especially to the north as

do the hog plants.

The facts of distribution seem to indicate that the deciding

factors in this case are chiefly edaphic rather than climatic and

that the conclusions noted above as reached by Chamberlain and

also by Whitson and Jones that the heath group is intimately

connected with an merges into the forest, while the marsh type

leads to the prairies is the more nearly correct.

Horizontal Stratification

The plants of the marsh show also a characteristic horizontal

stratification that is generally considered as due to the light

requirements of the different species. 1

Recent investigations of Yapp (24) (1909) show that there

are marked differences in the evaporation at the various levels

and that this is an important factor in influencing the aerial

structure of the various species. Close to the ground and shaded

by the sedges and grasses there is a rather compact carpet like

growth of moss covering most of the marsh. In the mixed

associations low growing plants like Viola blanda and Parnas-

sia caroliniana seem to also thrive in spite of considerable shad¬

ing by taller forms. 'Over much of the area Eleorharis palus-

tris grows with slender weak culms seldom more than eight

inches in height and which are abundantly scattered among the

taller plants. This is true also of Car ex sterilis.

There is further also what may he called a seasonable devel¬

opment which results in the successive ascendency of different

species and a corresponding change in aspect of the whole flora.

At several points in all the association where Car ex strict a and

Calamagrostis canadensis were nearly evenly balanced in num¬

ber and frequence this was very clearly shown. In June and

early July the Carices flower and reach their maximum de¬

velopment completely overtopping Calamagrostis, but in July

and August the latter develops and forms a leafy stratum above

the sedges and in some cases almost entirely masks the sedges

below. The various Labiatae and Compositae also> develop

late in summer or in the early autumn and by rather profuse

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 439

branching and flowering give a new aspect to those portions of

the marsh in which they occur.

Adaptations

The adaptation of the plant members in so far as it affects

their relations to each other and their consequent combinations

in plant associations forms a most important phase of the

study of such a population as we are considering. The vege¬

tation is almost entirely herbaceous and the majority of the

species are perenials.

The various species of Carex found, have, in general, a simi¬

lar and characteristic form1 of growth, both in their under¬

ground and aerial portions. We may take as a type Carex

siricta. In the ground there is a well developed root stock

system. The wire like rootstocks grow about six inches below

the moss layer and below the roots of many of such secondary

species as may be present. The terminal buds turn up and de¬

velop aerial branches in the form of clumps of culms. By

continued growth and branching from the bases of their culms

a thick dense cluster of culms are produced. When a culm

produces fruit it dies. Two types of growth and branching

of rhizomes are thus to be distinguished. One for spreading

and reaching new territory and the other for the immediate

production of aerial culms. A root stock grows for a consid¬

erable distance, often to a length of more than a foot, then its

terminal bud sends up aerial leaves and the formation of a tus¬

sock is begun. Further creeping rhizomes arise from the tus¬

sock and thus the two types of branching provide for vegetative

spreading and for leaf and flower production.

Two types of roots are developed. Long, cylindrical, mostly

unbranched roots develop from the area of short compact inter¬

nodes at the base of the culms and push downward into the

cold saturated peaty soil to a depth of six or eight inches. These

are essentially soil roots. Fine fibrous roots also develop at the

base of the culms but grow upward to the surface where they

form a miass of finely divided rootlets.

The various species differ in the number, size, and position

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of root stocks and roots, and in the size of the clumps of culms.

Car ex aquatilis is large and coarse, has few culms in a clump

and produces most definitely the two kinds of roots (See Plate

XXI. The rootstocks and soil roots often grow to he a foot

long and both are provided with aeriating tissue. The soil

roots have no branches. The method of branching is the same

as noted for Car ex stricta. Car ex riparia is similar but is still

coarser in growth and produces roots from the rootstock (See

Plate XXII. The rootstock of Carex Sartwellii does not branch

much laterally (See Plate XXII).

Compared with these sedges C alamagrostis canadensis has a

fine and much branched underground rootstock system which

fives nearer the surface. The roots are all finely fibrous and

the branching that results in aerial shoots is loose.

The general adaptations of these plants have been repeatedly

pointed out. The conditions require a superficial or at least a

shallow root development. This limits the aerial growth and

forces exposure to sun and winds. The herbaceous habit is

adapted to the seasonal extremes of aerial conditions. The

rhizomes provide for spread and for perpetuation. The abun¬

dance of root development with air chambers in roots, rhi¬

zomes and scales is adapted to the water and soil conditions.

Yapp (24) (1909) has pointed out the unsatisfactory state

of our knowledge of the adaptations of xerophytic swamp plants.

His studies of the evaporation at different levels show a marked

corellation of the stratification of the plants with the varying

amounts of evaporation. The xerophytic leaf structures de¬

velop in the upper levels while the mesophytic are below in the

zone of decreased evaporation. He considers that the aerial

structures are adaptations to the extremes of evaporation that

exist.

The view that swamp xerophytes are results of the physio¬

logical dryness of the swamp habitat is somewhat in question as

Clements (21) (19051 emphasizes. He considers that the

xerophytic structures of such plants are not due to presence of

humic acids in the soil but that these features “are due to the

persistance of stable structures which were developed when

these species were growing in xerophytic conditions.”

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 441

The plants that give character to this marsh vegetation pos¬

sess, we may say, the same general appearances and habit of

growth and hence should be competitors. Yet if we analyze

their adaptations further we are forced to give up any such

general conclusion.

To illustrate : There are, in spite of the same general grass¬

like habit of growth, marked anatomical differences already

mentioned between Car ex stricta and Calamagrostis canadensis.

Yet as shown in plate 19 there is a tendency for both to oc¬

cupy the same territory. One would say at first thought that

these two species are close competitors yet the mode of root and

rhizome growth, the vertical stratification, and the seasonable

development really provide two different environments for the

two plants altho they may stand side by side.

A plant society may be not so much a collection of plants of

various species which are adapted to the same conditions as

an association of species which are adapted in a different

fashion to the same locality. This fact has not been sufficiently

recognized in many ecological studies, but has been most clearly

pointed out by Yapp in his studies of marsh vegetation in Eng¬

land.

One of the most difficult points in solving the problems of

plant adaptation in this marsh meadow is the mutual exclusive¬

ness of Car ex stricta and Car ex aquatilis. Large numbers of

rhizomes, roots, and vegetative shoots were examined as to

structure and general habit of growth. This afforded no evi¬

dence as to why there should be such a marked differential dis¬

tribution with such apparently slight differences in the en¬

vironment. The solution does not seem to be with the differ¬

ences in the vegetative habit or in the anatomy. Yet it must

he said that we know very little of the root and rhizome habit

of the sedges and grasses. We need detailed studies of vari¬

ous root and rhizome systems and the influences which deter¬

mine them.

The evidence afforded by the distribution of these species in

the marsh meadow studied seems conclusive that Carex aqua-

tilus , Carex riparia, Typha latifolia , Scirpus validus and Carex

442 Wisconsin Academy of > Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

filiformus were the first of the species now present to gain a

foothold. These species occupy the wetter portions of the

marsh. Gar ex stricta is evidently a more recent arrival and

altho of general distribution in the marsh yet reaches its

greatest development between the wetter portions and the bor¬

der zone. The range of Carex stricta is N S E, while that of

Carex aquatilis is fsT E W. This indicates that Carex aquatilis

is more northern in its climatic requirements.

The conditions of competition in such a dense population

already so fully occupying the space affords a most interesting

field for the study of development. Practically every inch of

the ground is occupied and hence the question of seed dispersal

is of little importance in the spread of species. The struggle

is chiefly between species very similar in structure and adapta¬

tion. This struggle is severe beneath the ground for the rhi¬

zome development admits of steady persistent spread and gives

rather permanent possession even after the most favorable con¬

ditions have ceased to exist. Yet it is noticeable that there is a

definite grouping of species with definite areas of best develop¬

ment and marked zones of contact. Sligth differences in mois¬

ture content, in soil composition, and slight elevations or depres¬

sions are associated with change of species. In a habitat with

such uniform conditions as is here found and with so many

species of similar structure1, slight differences in environment

are correlated with the individual peculiarities of the various

species most strikingly.

Influence of Water Level

It is universally recognized that the amount of water in a

soil and the level at which the ground water stands are im¬

portant direct factors in determining the character of the plant

life which is present.

A series of experiments was carried out to test the influence

of this one factor and to determine whether there is a cor el-

lation between depth of the water table and the root and shoot

development. Seeds of the species that are dominant in the

marsh meadow above described were not available when these

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 443

experiments were taken up and lienee in view of the problems

involved in the growth of more valuable forage plants on these

marsh meadows, the following species were used for the tests:

Alsike clover ( T. hybridum ) ; red-top ( Agrostis alba ) ; timothy

(Phleum pratense ) ; and Calamagrostis canadensis . The lat¬

ter as has been shown is the most important grass of the marsh

meadow. The other species are more or less in use in the at¬

tempts to improve marsh meadows.

Tor the experiments six galvanized iron cylinders three feet

in diameter and four and one-half feet in height were selected

from the soil cylinders in use in experimental work carried on

in the greenhouse of the Department of Soils of the Agricul¬

tural College. These particular cylinders had previously been

filled with muck soil obtained from marsh land and hence closely

duplicated the soil conditions of the marsh meadow in question.

Strips of galvanized iron sheeting were set edgewise into the

soil in such a manner as to divide the surface area of each

cylinder into four equal segments. A cylindrical basket

made from eight-mesh galvanized wire screening was placed

in the center of each of these areas. These baskets were

six inchs in diameter and from two to two and one-half

feet in length. In sinking the baskets the soil was carefully

sifted and gently tamped in and around each basket to prevent

checks or pockets. Thus there was provided a total of 24 bas¬

kets, 4 in each cylinder and each basket imbedded in the cen¬

ter of one quarter of the surface of the cylinder.

The bottom of the cylinders were covered with several inches

of broken tile which formed a sort of reservoir beneath the dirt.

To regulate the height of the water table, glass tubes were

fitted by means of rubber corks into a tap connection at the bot¬

tom of the cylinder. The glass tubes were arranged to stand

erect at the side of the cylinders and hence to act as water

gauges. The height of the tube attached to a cylinder deter¬

mined the position of the water table within that cylinder for

any excess would flow from the top of the gauge until the level

sank to the height of the gauge.

The cylinders were prepared between Eeb. 7 and 14, 1910.

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Water was applied to the surface frequently until Mar. 25

without any planting in order to secure complete adjustment

of the water levels. In March 25 seeds of alsike, red-top, and

timothy were sown, each species in one of the quarter areas of

each cylinder. It was impossible to secure seeds of the blue

joint and so the areas designed for this species remained va¬

cant until Apr. 12, when rhizomes were transplanted from

the marsh meadow to the cylinders.

Each of the four species thus occupied one quarter of the

surface area of each cylinder and was enclosed in a wire basket

placed as described above. The water gauges were adjusted to

allow the water to stand as follows:

Cylinder ISTo. I, at the surface of the soil.

Cylinder Ho. II, 4 inches below the surface of the soil.

Cylinder Ho. Ill, 8 inches below the surface of the soil.

Cylinder Ho. IV, 12 inches below the surface of the soil.

Cylinder Ho. Y, 24 inches below the surface of the soil.

Cylinder Ho. YI, 30 inches below the surface of the soil.

The water used was from the pipes of the green house and

was applied by means of a hose to the surface of the cylinders.

In cylinders I and II the surface was flooded for about 30 min¬

utes after each application. Evaporation would lower the

water level in cylinder I so that much of the time it was slightly

below the surface. During the greater part of the time the ex¬

periment was run there was no difficulty in keeping the water-

level of the gauges. During the hot weather of June the water

table usually fell somewhat below the level of the gauges be¬

tween the applications of water. Ait first the seedling in cy¬

linders I and II made the best progress. Aside from this there

was no decided differences noticeable until May 6 when the

following notes were recorded.

Timothy.

Cylinder I, 2*4 inches high, yellowish, doing poorly.

Cylinder II, 6 inches high, green, doing well.

Cylinder III, 7% inches high, green, doing well.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 445

Cylinder IV, 10 inches high, green, doing the best.

Cylinder V, 6 inches high, about as in II hut greener.

Cylinder VI, 4 inches high, green but small in size.

Bed top.

Cylinder I, 2 % inches tall, yellowish.

Cylinder II, 2% inches tall, not so yellow as in I.

Cylinder III, 3% inches tall, green, doing well.

Cylinder IV, 4% inches tall, green, best of all.

Cylinder V, 4 y2 inches tall, green, doing well.

Cylinder VI, 2 inches tall, green, slow in growth.

Blue joint.

In all cylinders the culms were from one to one and one-half

feet in height and showed no marked differences in height and

color. Certain plants in all the cylinders showed parasitic ef¬

fects of the fungus Sclerotium rhizodes.

Alsike clover.

Cylinder I, 144 inches tall, green, leaves small.

Cylinder II, 4 inches tall, green, leaves larger than in I.

Cylinder III, 4 inches tall, green, poorer than in II.

Cylinder IV, 3 inches tall, green.

Cylinder V, 3 inches tall, green.

Cylinder VI, 2% inches tall, green, poor growth — sparse be¬

cause of poor germination.

All the species except Calamagrostis showed at the end of

this six weeks growth marked differences in appearances in the

various cylinders. All did poorly at the extremes of the water

levels.

The data taken June 1st. were as follows:

Timothy.

Cylinder I, 5% inches tall, yellowish, erect, poor.

Cylinder II, 9 inches tall, yellowish, erect, poor.

Cylinder III, 12t/2 inches tall, yellowish, lodging.

446 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Cylinder IV, 13 inches tall, green, lodging.

Cylinder V, 11 inches tall, green, lodging.

Cylinder VI, 11 inches tall, dark green, less lodging.

Bed top.

Cylinder I, 5 inches tall, yellowish, doing poorly.

Cylinder II, 5% inches tall, yellowish, doing poorly.

Cylinder III, 7 inches tall, green, erect.

Cylinder IV, 8 inches tall, green, lodging.

Cylinder V, 12 inches tall, green lodging.

Cylinder VI, 10 inches tall, green, lodging.

Bine joint.

Cylinder I, 20 inches tall, yellowish, in blossom.

Cylinder II, 18 inches tall, yellowish, in blossom.

Cylinder III, 21 inches tall, light green, in blossom, best

of all.

Cylinder IV, 20 inches tall, light green, in blossom, do¬

ing well.

Cylinder V, 20 inches tall, green, in blossom.

Cylinder VI, 20 inches tall, green, no blossoms.

Alsike Clover.

Cylinder I, 5 inches tall, small fine leaves, green.

Cylinder II, 8 inches tall, large leaves.

Cylinder III, 8 inches tall, green and doing well.

Cylinder IV, 8 inches tall, green and doing well.

Cylinder V, 10 inches tall, green and doing well.

Cylinder VI, 9 inches tall, good but sparse.

The conditions of relative vigor that existed at the end of

six weeks growth were in general still preserved. Continued

growth by all species was made in all the cylinders and this

was somewhat greater considering the time involved. The

period of three weeks since the previous notes were taken was

a period of rather rapid growth which was more apparent in

cylinders with low water table.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 447

During the latter part of Tune the heat in the green house

became rather excessive for the best development of these plants.

By July 1st it was evident that the crop had reached its best

development under the conditions and so from July 9 to 11

the final data were taken on the aerial development and the

baskets were dug out to determine the facts concerning the

root development.

The cylindrical baskets were easily removed. The tops of

those plants growing within the area included in a basket were

of course attached to the main roots included within that basket.

In a few cases roots extended slightly below the bottom of a

basket and in those cases it is possible that some of the finer

and deeper rootlets were broken off in the process of removing

the baskets.

A fine stream of water from a hose was used to wash the dirt

from the roots within the basket and the development of the

roots was studied as to depth of penetration and degree of de¬

velopment at the various levels.

In all cases the plants growing within the area of the bas¬

kets were typical of those of that segment. The measurements

of root and shoot development were taken from the surface of

the ground. The culm measurements were taken to the tips of

the longest leaves.

The final data on the plants are as follows:

Timothy.

Cylinder I. Boots 5 y2 inches, dense mass of fine roots in

upper iy2 inches of the soil. Stems 6% inches, leaves yellow¬

ish and sparse.

Cylinder II. Boots 24% inches, dense in upper 4 inches.

Stems 141/2 inches, leafy and yellowish green.

Cylinder III. Boots 27 inches, denser in upper 6 inches.

Stems 19 inches, leafy, green, fruiting.

Cylinder IV. Boots 24 inches, dense in upper 6 inches.

Stems 26 inches, leafy, green, fruiting.

Cylinder V. Boots 16 inches, denser in upper 6 inches.

Stems 11 inches, green and leafy.

448 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Cylinder VI. Hoots 24 inches, as in V. Stems 11 inches,

more erect than in V.

This development in relation to the water and soil levels is

graphically shown in Plate XXIII. In this experiment we note

that timothy barely existed in cylinder I where the root and

shoot growth was decidedly inhibited. Here the upper 1%

inches of soil was practically one mass of fine roots. The best

general development was in cylinders III and IV where at

least one-half of the length and one-fourth of the total root

mass was in the water. In cylinders V and VI with the water

level close below the tips of the roots and the roots growing in

soil of high capillary power the development of roots was some¬

what less and that of the stems decidedly less than in cylinders

II, III and IV.

Red top.

Cylinder I. Roots 17 inches deep, mostly in upper 7 inches.

Stems 7 inches, yellowish, poor leaf development.

Cylinder II. Roots 24% inches deep, well developed below

water level. Stems 15 inches, leafy but yellowish.

Cylinder III. Roots 29% inches deep. Stems 19 inches.

Cylinder IV. Roots 24 inches deep. Stems 15 inches.

Cylinder V. Roots 23 inches deep. Stems 17 inches.

Cylinder VI. Roots 25%' inches deep. Stems 17 inches.

Red top grew poorly in cylinder I with the water at the

surface and it made its best growth in Cylinder III with the

water 12 inches below the surface of the soil. There were no

marked differences in the other four cylinders. In II, III, and

IV the roots grew well in the free soil water and the general

development was nearly the same as in V and VI where the

roots developed above the water table. See Plate XXIII.

Blue joint.

Cylinder 1. Roots 18 inches, densest at surface. Culms 20

inches, fruiting, leafy, yellowish.

Cylinder II. Roots 26 inches. Culms 20 inches, fruiting.

Cylinder III. Roots 33 inches. Stems 24 inches, fruiting.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow . 449

Cylinder IV. Roots 30 indies. Stems 24 inches, fruiting.

Cylinder V. Roots 25% inches. Stems 20 inches, fruiting.

Cylinder VI. Roots 25 inches. Stems 20 inches.

These blue joint plants were grown from rhizomes trans¬

planted from the field and not from seed. This may account in

part for the rather uniform results (See Plate XXIII). This

species made a good growth in cylinders I and II but the foliage

was yellowish. It fruited in all of the first five cylinders and

showed little differences in the root development in all but the

1st cylinder.

Alsike clover.

Cylinder I. Roots 6 inches. Stems and leaves 8 inches.

Cylinder II. Roots 24% inches. Stems and leaves 9 inches.

Cylinder III. Roots 25% inches. Stems and leaves 11

inches.

Cylinder IV. Roots 25 inches. Stems and leaves 9 inches.

Cylinder V. Roots 21 inches. Stems and leaves 15 inches,

in blossom. !

Cylinder VI. Roots 21 inches. Stems and leaves 9 inches.

This plant did poorly in cylinder I. The main roots were

short and thickened and bore many branches close to the sur¬

face. The aerial development was mostly leaves of good color

but noticeably small. The different water levels in the other

cylinders did not cause any marked differences except that

plants in cylinder V were the only ones to produce blossoms.

Discussion of the Experiments

The final results for all the species are shown geographically

in Plate XXIII with the depth of root growth and the height of

the shoot development drawn to a scale in reference to the sur¬

face of the soil and the water level. This shows that under the

conditions given the roots of all the species tested can extend be¬

low the water level and make a vigorous growth in the water

saturated soil. The best general plant development was in cylin¬

ders III and IV where the roots had a zone of soil 8 and 12

inches thick above the water table. In these the root develop-

450 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ment was more extensive than was the case in cylinder Y and

VI where there was much deeper water tables. There is how¬

ever a marked uniformity in the root development in cylinders

II, III, IY, Y and YI irrespective of the wide differences in

the water level.

In cylinder I all the plants made a dense mat like growth of

roots in the surface two inches of soil below which' there was

relatively little root growth. While red top and blue joint sent

roots down into the water to a depth of 17 and 20 inches these

roots did not branch much. In the other cylinders there was

no marked zonal distribution of the roots although there were

relatively more roots in the upper layers.

While removing the baskets it was noted that the soil in cylin¬

der Y had a poorer consistency (structure) than did that of the

other cylinders. The soil was mk>re compact and broke up into

hard compact chunks. In this regard the conditions were more

unfavorable for root development in this cylinder. In all other

cylinders the soil was loose and granular in texture.

The greatest differences between the four species in any one

cylinder was seen in Ho. I. Th blue joint and red top showed

a marked ability to develop with the water level at the surface

hut this was unfavorable for their best development.

In cylinder YI none of the roots extended to the water level

which was 2 y2 feet below the surface and the growth that each

species here made was surpassed in at least one other cylinder.

This indicates that the water level suitable for the maximum

development has been passed and that no better growth can be

expected with a still lower water table.

Ten Eyck (20) (1904) has studied the root development of

' a number of grasses grown in the field. He was not concerned

with the influence of various water levels and he did not exam¬

ine any of the species tested here. He found that each species

which he studied has a specific and characteristic root develop¬

ment and that the perennial grasses produce as a rule a large

number of fibrous roots near the surface while at the same time

the root system penetrates to a considerable depth, as for ex¬

ample, Kentucky blue grass, 4 feet; Andropogon furcatus, 6^

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 451

feet; Bromus inermis 5% feet. None of the species tested

made in the time this experiment was run such an extensive

root development as Ten Eyck found.

The conditions under which these experiments were run do

not exactly duplicate field conditions. The soil in the cylin¬

ders was without doubt warmer than the soil at similar depths

in the field. The repeated application of water to the surface

gave opportunity for better aeration. The plants were grown

free from competition with other species.

This kind of experimental work, however, sheds some light

on plant requirements and under such control, species can he

tested in reference to known conditions both with and without

competition and the data thus obtained can be corellated with

the facts ascertained in the field.

The results of these experiments suggest the following con¬

clusions for the species tested :

1. There is sharp correlation between root and shoot de¬

velopment.

2. There is poor development when the water level is con¬

stantly at the surface.

3. There is a marked development of roots in water soaked

soil when the water level stands at 4, 8, and 12 inches.

4. A high water table (not above 4 inches) is not prohibitive

to the growth of these plants, but rather is favorable for the

best growth.

It would he of interest to test the Car ices in a manner similar

to that used in the experiments just described. None of these

marsh Oarices about Madison set seed during the spring of 1910

hence experiments of this kind have been deferred. There is

evidence however that water level is not the sole factor deter¬

mining the distribution of these plants.

The ditch shown in Plate XX was dug in the summer of 1906.

In constructing it large masses of sod were often transferred

from the level of the marsh to the top and sides of the ridge of

dirt thrown out. The photo shown in Plate XX shows this con¬

dition. In 1910 this ridge of newly exposed soil was well cov¬

ered with such plants as Salsola Kali var. tennifolia, Oenothera

452 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

biennis , Melilotus alba ; Helianthus grosseserratus and Salix

amygdaloides. These are species that are not found in the

marsh meadow. At many places however Car ex stricta, Carex

aquatilis , Carex riparia and Calamagrostis canadensis are flour¬

ishing and spreading from the sod transplanted to the tops and

sides of the ridge five or more feet above the highest level of

ground water and in direct competition with the recent in¬

comers named above. In such locations these species are not

provided with their natural water conditions but are able to

grow and spread when thus transplanted.

The statistical study of the transect shows that the blue joint

develops best between the border zone and the central wetter

zone where the water level varies during the summer from

about 4 to 20 inches in depth. The tests in the cylinders give

the same result showing that this species thrives well with the

water level at 4, 8 , 12 or 24 inches below the surface.

The field study showed that red top, timothy, and alsike were

confined to the border zone where the water level was at least

three feet in depth throughout most of the growing season. In

this case the results of the field study do not agree with the

results in the cylinder experiment — thus indicating that other

factors besides water level are concerned in the case of these

species.

The Evolution of the Maush Meahow

As to the evolution of such a marsh as a whole the general

principles of the physiographic theory as especially emphasized

by Woodward (10) (1894) and later by Cowles (14) (1901)

and Harshburger (19) (1904) are of considerable significance.

Drainage has brought about the change from a water habitat

to a condition such as is found on the marsh at present. More

complete drainage will produce marked changes. In the vi¬

cinity various gradations coincident with degrees of drainage

exist, showing progress toward a type of wild hay meadow with

more grasses and less sedges.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 453

Classification of the Marsh Meadow

Warming (25) (1909) classifies the plant formations closely

related to the marsh meadow described above as follows :

A. The soil is very wet and the abundant water is available to

the plant (at least in class I). The formations are there¬

fore more or less hydrophylous.

Class I. Hydrophytes (of formations in water).

Class II. Ilelophytes (of formations in marsh).

1. Reed swamp formations.

2. Bush swamp formations.

B. The soil is physiologically dry; i, e, contains water that is

available to the plant only in slight extent. The forma¬

tions are therefore essentially composed of xerophylous

structures.

Class III. Oxylophytes (formation on acid soil).

1. Low moor.

2. Grass heath.

3. High moor.

H. Soil and climate favor the development of mesophylous for¬

mations.

Class XIII. Mesophytes.

A. Communities of grasses (used in a wide sense to include

Gramineae Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, etc,).

1. Arctic and Alpine not grassland.

2. Meadows.

It should he noted that among the species of the reed forma¬

tion Warming includes Car ex strict a. Car ex aquatilis Car ex

riparia and Car ex filiformis which are dominants in the marsh

meadow described above, and also Phragmites communis , Scir-

pus lacustus and Typha latifolia which are present but less

abundant.

Warming recognizes that there can be no sharply defined

ecological classification of plants on account of the gradations

between the types. It is to be noted, however, that Warming

separates widely the meadow and the meadow moor making the

former mesophytic and the latter oxylophytic and in this re¬

spect his classification is not satisfactory for our Wisconsin

454 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

conditions. Here, as has been stated above, the typical marsh

meadows develop in glaciated areas underlaid by limestone and

the soil of the marsh meadows is very slightly if at all acid. In

other respects our marsh meadow agrees with Warming’s low

moor.

Evidently there are meadow moors of somewhat similar vege¬

tation developing under both acid and neutral conditions. The

latter is the type here under consideration. It differs sharply

in this respect from Warming’s low moor for which he assumes

that the abundance of humous acids determines the general

xerophytic character of the vegetation. The vegetation of our

type agrees with Warming’s characterization of the low moor.

It differs in the presence of abundant Calamagrostis canadensis

even in quite wet parts.

It is probable that acidity is a factor of considerable im¬

portance. The conditions in the low areas of the extreme east¬

ern portion of Dane county and the western portion of Jeffer¬

son county, not over 35 miles east of the region here considered,

indicate that where acidity prevails the vegetation conforms

much more nearly to Warming’s oxylophy tic series and leads

up rapidly to forest conditions. It is also to be stated that in

large swamp areas the soil is often neutral around the margin

and strongly acid in central portions and under these conditions

there is transition from marginal meadow-moor formations to

■sphagnum and tamarack formations in the central portion.

The data on the plant succession leading to the marsh meadow

in question together with the general conditions that exist in

the marsh areas near Madison also indicate that the conditions

are not correctly represented in Warming’s oxylaphytic series.

Here the succession has led through hvdrophytic formations and

reed swamp formations to marsh meadows which in turn give

way to meadows and low prairies or possibly to a bush swamp

formation leading to low lying timbered areas.

In the poorly drained areas of the state underlaid by sand¬

stones and granite the succession leads to typical bog forma¬

tions (the Heath Group of Chamberlain) and to tamarack and

spruce forests. The latter are related to the forest belt.

The marsh meadow here described seems to agree in its gen-

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow . 455

eral characteristics most nearly with those described by Lewis,

by Yapp, and by Smith as occurring in various parts of Great

Britain, also with Warming’s meadow moor of northern Europe,

and a type described by Bailer and Wilk as present in Austria.

Lack of data as to frequency and abundance of the species

which make up the population of these European marsh

meadows make detailed comparisons impossible. For a more

complete understanding of the principles determining the vege¬

tation of the marsh meadow’ it is of fundamental importance

that we should have more exact data concerning the geographical

distribution of marsh meadows, the range of variations in the

composition and vigor of the plant population and the corella-

tion of these facts with the geographical, edaphic and biological

factors that are of influence.

Summary.

The habitat of this wild hay meadow is that of a nearly level

and poorly drained marsh with a peaty surface stratum.

The vegetation is prevailingly of sedges and grasses of which

Carex stricta and Calamagrostis canadensis are dominant

species.

There is a marked grouping of species with few species in

the wetter portions and a more complex grouping on the higher

and drier portions.

The vegetation is strongly northern and eastern.

Species of southern range have gained a foothold in the

border and drier portions and are recent arrivals.

The differences which exist in the anatomy and the vegetation

habit of the various species do not adequately explain their dis¬

tribution.

The results of the experiments indicate that the height of the

water table is not an important factor in determining the dis¬

tribution of the plants growing on this marsh meadow.

The meadow is w7ell advanced toward a natural grass meadow

with recognized greater hay values than the pure sedge

meadows.

The utilization and improvement of this class of meadow

lands is a question of considerable economic importance.

456 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Bibliography.

1. Schouw, J. F., Grundzuge einer allgemein er Pflanzen-

geograpihie. (Translation). 1823.

2. Meyen, E. J. E., Grundriss der Pflanzengeographie. 1836.

3. Grisebach,A., Die Vegetation der Erde. 1872.

4. Storer, E. II. , Bulletin Bussey Institute. Part IV, No.

16. 1875.

5. Chamberlin, T. C., Geology of Wisconsin. Vol. II. 1877.

6. Jordan, W. H., Maine Experimental Station Deport.

1889. |

7. Drude, 0., Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie. 1890.

8. Eeilburg, P., Om Grasskultur paa Klitsletterne ved Gam-

mel Skagen. Soborg. Autographie. 1890. (Warm¬

ing. Oecology of Plants. 1909).

9. MacMillan, Conway,

(a) The Metaspermae of the Minnesota Valley. 1892.

(b) Minnesota Plant Life. 1899.

10. Woodward, J. B., The Delation Between Base Leveling and

Organic Evolution. Am. Geol. Vol. 14. 1894.

11. Pammel, L. H., Bulletin No. 56. Iowa Experimental

Station. 1901.

12. Pound and Clements. Phytography of Nebraska. 1900.

13. Beck, Gunther, Vegetation der Erde. IV. 1901.

14. Cowles, H. C., The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and

Vicinity. Bot. Gaz. Vol. 31. 1901.

15. Ganong, W. T., Vegetation of the Bay of Fundy. Bot.

Gaz. Vol. 36. 1903.

16. Transeau, Edgar, On the Distribution and Ecological Dela¬

tions of Bog Plant Societies of North America. Bot.

Gaz. Vol. 36. 1903.

17. Lewis, E. J., Distribution of Vegetation in the Basins of

the Divers Eden, etc. Geographical Journal. 1904.

18. Smith, Wm. G., Botanical Survey of Scotland. Scottish

Mag. 1904.

19. Harshberger, J. W., Phytogeographic Sketch of extreme

southeastern Penn. Bull. Torry. Bot. Club, Vol. 31.

1904.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 457

20. Ten Eyck, A. M., Kansas Ex. Sta. Bulletin 127. 1904.

21. Clements, E. E., Research Methods in Ecology. 1905.

22. Bailer and Wilk, Zeitschrift fur Moorkulten and Confoer-

wertung. 1907.

23. Whitson and Jones, Drainage Conditions in Wisconsin.

Bulletin Ko. 146, Wis. Ag. Ex. Station. 1907.

24. Yapp, R. H.

ISFew Phytologist, Yol. 7. 1908.

Annuals of Botany, Yol. 23. 1909.

25. Warming, E., Oecology of Plants. Translation by Groom

and Balfour. 1909.

458 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

PLATE XVIII.

TRANS. W1S. ACAD.. VOL. XVI!, PART I.

PLATE XVIII

/S’ /i /s 12 n /o

• • ' i i i

500

/ooo

10 00

3 000

f 000

5000

(oOOO

7 000

fooo

9000

/OOOO

/sooo

20000

STOUT.

MARSH VEGETATION.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow . 459

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

The relative numerical proportions of the fifteen leading species as

given in table 2 are here shown.

1. Carex stricta.

2. Calamagrostis canadensis.

3. Carex sterilis.

4. Carex Sartwellii.

5. Lycopus uniflorus.

6. Carex aquatilis.

7. Carex diandra ramosa.

8. Glyceria nervata.

9. Carx filiformis.

10. Agrostis alba.

11. Carex Bebbii.

12. Poa pratensis.

13. Scutellaria galericulata.

14. Audropogon furcatus.

15. Viola cucullata.

460 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

PLATE XIX.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL, XVII, PART I.

PLATE XIX.

/.

STOUT.

MARSH VEGETATION.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow.

461

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX.

These plots show the distribution of the principal species. The up-

per plot of each set shows the numerical abundance and the lower one

shows the corresponding frequency. In the former the value of each!

ordinate is 50 in the latter it is 10. The abcissa of both have the value

of 50 feet. The highest frequency possible for a fifty foot segment,

estimated as previously explained, is 75.

No. 1. Red is for Calamagrostis canadensis.

Black is for Car ex stricta.

No. 2. Red gives the total combined values of Agrostis alba, Poa

pratensis, audropogon fuscatus and Glyceria nervata.

Black is for Lycopus uniflorus.

No. 3. Red is for Carex Sartwellii.

Black is for Carex aquatilis.

462 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

PLATE XX.

TRANS. WIS ACAD., VOL. XVII. PART I

PLATE XX.

FIG. 1

STOUT.

MARSH VEGETATION.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 463

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XX.

Fig. 1. View of the marsh looking toward the east. The transect

studied passes from south to north almost in a line with two

half mile posts on the race track shown in the right center of

this view. Photo was taken in August when the vegetation wa3

fully developed.

Mg. 2. View looking northward from the 1120th foot of the transect

This shows a typical growth of Carex aquatilis and Carex Sart-

wellii. The measuring rod is here shown in place.

i

464 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

PLATE XXI.

TRANS WIS, ACAD., VOL. XVII. PART I,

PLATE XXI .

FIG. 1

STOUT.

FIG. 2

MARSH VEGETATION.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 465

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1. View looking south, along the transect from the 1100 foot

station. Taken in the midst of the Calamagrostis caricetum.

Fig. 2. A portion of a plant of Carex aquatilis as it grows in the soil.

The view shows the rhizomes and their method of growth and the

two kinds of roots which are produced.

466 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

\

PLATE XXII.

s

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVII, PARTI

PLATE XXII

STOUT.

MARSH VEGETATION.

FIG.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow . 467

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII.

Fig. 1. Portion of a plant of Carex riparia.

Fig. 2. Plant of Carex Sartwellii.

468 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

PLATE XXIII.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVII, PART I.

PLATE XXIII.

1

/ a 3 V i

X

x 3 y

zz

i. 3 y

m

X 3 y !

JE

J X 3 Y

Soi I

! Wafer Leva I

i j y ■

ZZ

STOUT.

MARSH VEGETATION.

Stout — Vegetation of a Typical Wild Hay Meadow. 469

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII.

The results of the cylinder experiments are here graphically shown.

The depths of the root growth and the heights of the shoot develop¬

ment are drawn to a scale with reference to the surface of the soil

and to the water level. In plots 1 and 2 the results for each species

are grouped together. In plot 3 the relative development of the

four species in each cylinder is shown in succession.

SPECIES OF PHOLIOTA OF THE REGION OF THE

GREAT LAKES

Edward T. Harper.

The genus Pholiota includes plants with rusty or ochraceous

spores, a well developed annulus, adnate or adnexed lamellae

and a fleshy stem. These features are not absolutely distinctive

of all the species for the color of the spores runs into the purple

brown of Stropharia and the veil is sometimes as scanty as

the fibers of a Flammula or clings to the margin of the pileus

as in the genus Hypholoma.

Individuals in the same species often vary greatly and some

different species are connected by numerous forms. As far as

possible we have chosen characteristic plants for the photo¬

graphs. Striking divergences from published descriptions have

been noted but we have not made any new species when our

plants failed to agree in all minor points with the descriptions

of the species to which we have referred them.

We have endeavored to put together those species most alike

in habit, structure and general appearance, arranging them

under a series of types. The system of Fries has been fol¬

lowed. His three main divisions : plants growing on the

ground, on wood, and among mosses are convenient though by

following them some species like Pholiota terrigena and Pholi¬

ota angustipes are thrown out of their true relationship and the

two similar types represented by Pholiota togularis and Pholi¬

ota marginata are widely separated. We have neglected the

divisions based on the shade of color of the spores entirely as it

is impossible to put similar plants together with that arrange¬

ment.

(470)

Harper— Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 471

The genus includes plants of very diverse habits since it is

based on only two characters, spore color and annulus. The

most typical are the bright colored clusters of the squarrose

and squamose group growing on the trunks of trees. They have

the characteristic universal veil composed of matted fibers which

tear apart as the plant expands leaving the stem annulate and

the margin of the pilous appendiculate. Large plants growing

on the ground of the type of Pholiota caperata can scarcely be

distinguished from Stropharia. Others of the praecox-dura

type are very similar to the appendiculate forms of Hypholoma

and some of the species with smooth caps and scanty collars

might almost as properly be placed in the genus Flammula.

But all divisions are more or less artificial and spore color and

annulus are perhaps as well marked characters as can be found

on which to base a genus.

The species of Pholiota which grow on the trunks of trees are

important from an economic point of view for they are quite as

destructive to timber as some of the polypores. The mycelium

grows for a long time in the wood before it is prepared to burst

forth under favorable weather conditions into the handsome gold

and yellow clusters which adorn the trunks of decaying trees in

late summer and autumn.

Stevenson remarks that “none of the species of Pholiota can

be commended as edible” but none of them are known to be

poisonous or harmful. Some of them like Pholiota caperata

are very delicious. No one need be afraid to try them.

We have not attempted to make an artificial key to the species

but we think that the synopsis together with the pictures will

enable anyone to recognize easily the plants we have had in

hand. We have added under each type notes on the related spe¬

cies which are reported from the United States as far as they

have come to our notice. These notes have been compiled from

published descriptions. It is probable that some of the species

reported, such as those described by Montague from dried plants

sent to him from Ohio by Sullivant, will never be identified.

Except in the cases noted the illustrations are natural size

and give the average for the species. We have given few meas-

472 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

urements as it is difficult to fix the limits. There are few species

in which very large and very small individuals do not occur.

The plants have been collected and photographed at different

places in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois during the past four

years. The district is quite rich in these plants and there is no

reason why many of the species listed in the notes may not also

be discovered here as well as a number of others that occur in

Europe.

Synopsis of the Species.

A. Growing on the ground (Terrigenae). \

1. Large plants with a thick persistent annulus. Type of

Pholiota caperata.

Pholiota caperata (Pers.) p. 476, pi. XXIV.

Pholiota . p. 476, pi. XXV.

Related species: Pholiota johnsoniana, Pk.

2. Large plants with a membranous annulus.

Pholiota howeana, Pk. p. 477, pi. XXVI.

Related species: Pholiota ventricosa, Earle.

3. Medium sized plants with a membranous annulus. Type

of Pholiota praecox and Pholiota dura.

Pholiota praecox (Pers.) p. 478, pis. XXVII and XXVIII,

A, B.

Pholiota vermiflua, Pk. p. 478, pi. XXVIII, C-E.

Pholiota temnophylla, Pk. p. 479, pi. XXXIII, A.

Pholiota dura, Bolt. p. 480, pi. XXIX.

Related species: Pholiota mollicula, Bann. and Pk., Pholiota du-

voides, Pk.

4. Medium sized plants with a membranous annulus and vis¬

cid pileus. Type of Pholiota erebia.

Pholiota erebia, Fr. p. 481, pi. XXX.

Pholiota ombrophila, Fr. p. 482, pi. XXXI.

Related species: Pholiota aggericola, Pk. and Pholiota aggericola

var. retirugis, Pk.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 473

5. Small plants with a membranous annulus. Type of Pho-

liofa togularis.

Pholiota togularis (Bull.) p. 482, pi. XXXII.

Related species: Pholiota togularis var. filaris, Fr., Pholiota blat-

taria, Fr., Pholiota rugosa, Pk., Pholiota anomala, Pk., Pholiota

sabulosa, Pk.

6. Plants with a universal fibrous veil which leaves a fibrous

annulus on the stem when the pileus expands, usually caespi-

tose.

Pholiota terrigena, Fr. p. 484, pi. XXXIII, B.

Pholiota augustipes, Pk. p. 484, pi. XXXIV.

Pholiota speciosa, Clements and Pholiota rubecula, Bann &

Pk. belong in the division Terrigenae.

B. Growing on Wood (Truncigenae),

I. Pileus and stem covered with squarrose or squamose scales

(Squarrosae or Squamosae).

7. Type of Pholiota squarrosa.

Pholiota squarrosa, Muell. p. 485, pi. XXXV, A.

Pholiota squarrosa, var. verruculosa, Lasch. p. 486, pi.

XXXV, B.

Pholiota squarrosoides, Pk. p. 486, pis. XXXVI and

XXXVII.

Related species: Pholiota squarr'osoides var. faginea, Pk., Pholiota

subsquarrosa, Fr., Pholiota dactyliota, B. & M.

8. Type of Pholiota aurivella.

Pholiota aurivella, Batseh. p. 487, pis. XXXVIII,

XXXIX.

Pholiota adiposa, Fr. p. 487, pi. XL.

Related species: Pholiota limonella, Pk., Pholiota villosa, Fr.

9. Type of Pholiota flammans.

Pholiota flammans, Fr. p. 488, pi. XLI, C.

Pholiota tuberculosa, Fr. p. 489, pi. XLI, A, B.

Related species: Pholiota curvipes, Fr., Pholiota hormomorpha,

Mont.

474 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

10. Type of Pholiota albo-erenulata.

Pholiota albo-crenulata, Pk. p. 490, pis. XLII, XLIII.

Related species: Pholiota fusca. Quel. (Europe).

11. Type of Pholiota spectabilis.

Pholiota spectabilis, Fr. p. 490, pi. XLIY.

Related species: Pholiota aurea, Matt.

12. Type of Pholiota comosa.

Pholiota comosa, Fr. p. 491, pi. XLV.

Related species: Pholiota destruens, Broud.

13. Type of Pholiota heteroclita.

Pholiota heteroclita, Fr. p. 492, pis. XLVI, XLVII.

14. Type of Pholiota luteofolia.

Pholiota luteofolia, Pk. p. 492, pi. XLVIII.

Pholiota fulvo-squamosa, Pk. belongs to the section Squa-

mosae.

II. Pileus nearly naked, sometimes rimose-rivulose (Aegeri-

tinae) .

15. Type of Pholiota aegerita.

Pholiota aegerita, Brigant. p. 493, pi. XLIX.

16. Type of Pholiota lutea.

Pholiota lutea, Pk. p. 493, pi. L.

Related species: Flammula alnicola, Fr.

Pholiota capistrata, Cke. Pholiota radicosa, Bull., Pholiota

ornella, Pk. and Pholiota aeruginosa, Pk. belong to the sec¬

tion Aegeritinae.

III. Small plants with scaly or bristly pileus and stem.

17. Type of Pholiota muricata.

Pholiota erinaceella, Pk. p. 495, pi. LI.

Pholiota muricata, Fr. p. 495, pis. LII and LIII.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 475

IV. Small plants with an hygrophanus pileus and membran¬

ous annulus (Hygrophanae).

18. Type of Pboliota marginata.

Pholiota marginata, Batsch p. 496, pis. LIV and LV.

Related species: Pholiota marginella, Pk., Pholiota unicolor, FI.

Dan., Pholiota mutabilis, Schaeff., Pholiota autumnalis, Pk., Pholiota

discolor, Pk.

19. Type of Pholiota confragosa.

Pholiota confragosa, Fr. p. 497, pi. XLI, D. E.

Pholiota acericola, Pk. and Pholiota ceracina, Pk. belong to

the section Hygrophanae.

C. Very small plants growing among mosses.

Pholiota mycenoides, Fr., Pholiota pumila, Fr., Pholiota

rufidula, Kalchb. and Pholiota minima, Pk. are reported from

this country.

476 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

A. Growing on the ground.

I. Large plants with a thick persistent annulus. Type of

Pholiota caperata.

Pholiota caperata, (Pers.). PI. XXIV.

WRINKLED PHOLIOTA.

A fine large species growing on the ground in woods and open

places and mossy swamps, scattered or gregarious, frequent in

this country and Europe. The specimens photographed were

collected at Xeebish, Mich., in September. They show the aver¬

age size of the plants hut the variation is great.

Pileus firm and fleshy, small for the size of the stem, ovate

when young becoming broadly bell shaped and expanded, ob¬

tuse, glabrous, yellow or alutaceous, usually covered with white

flocci especially when young. The fibers wash off in wet weather

and the pileus becomes somewhat soggy. In the plants I have

seen the pileus is deeply striate. Flesh whitish, thin toward

the margin, mild. Lamellae moderately close, adnate or

broadly notched, more or less uneven on the edge, whitish

becoming rusty with spores. Stem solid or stuffed, equal, white,

glabrous or floccose, remains of the universal veil sometimes

suggesting a volva at the base. Annulus thick and white, near

the middle of the stem. Spores elliptic, 7 — '8x13 — 14^.

Pholiota . . PL XXV.

Two collections of these plants were made in Sept., 1910, one

at Blue Mounds and the other at Devil’s Lake, Wis. They

grew on the ground in thin woods.

They differ from Pholiota caperata in the shorter, floccose

stems, the small spores, the squamose pileus and the striate an¬

nulus. The annulus is exactly like that of Stropharia bila-

mellata, Pk., and Dr. Peck to whom photographs and descrip¬

tions were submitted considered that the plants might belong to

that species but recent collections of what seems to be true

Stropharia bilamellata make the reference doubtful ; the spores

are very small and rusty browti, not purple brown, and the pile-

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 477

us is squamose. Striations or ridges on the annulus have been

noted in Pholiota aurea, Pholiota rugosa, Pholiota togularis,

var. filaris and in Stropharia coronilla. The ridges in our

plants are very marked.

Pileus fleshy, convex becoming , plane, obtuse, even, slightly

viscid when moist, smooth or squamose with innate darker col¬

ored fibers, yellowish. Flesh white. Lamellae close, adnate

or slightly notched, becoming dark ferruginous brown with

white eroded edges. Stem short, enlarged below, white floccose,

solid becoming stuffed or hollow. Annulus thick with deep

radiating ridges on the upper surface. Spores ferruginous

brown, elliptic, 3 — 4x5 — 6 /*.

The plant photographed is a very large specimen.

Note. Pholiota johnsoniana, Pk., is another species of this type. It

is somewhat smaller than Pholiota caperata, has a similar thick an¬

nulus and even white stem. It was described and figured by Peck,

N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 23 p. 98 and PI. III. It is also described and

photographed by Atkinson, Mushrooms, p. 153. Reported from Michi¬

gan by Kauffman.

2. Large plants with a membranous annulus.

Pholiota howeana, Pk. (?).

The plant photographed was found growing on the ground

in open damp woods at Glencoe Ill., in June.

Pileus heavy, fleshy, convex to plane or depressed when

old, smooth, moist, even, dirty whitish or yellowish becoming

dark colored. Flesh thick and white. Lamellae broad, ven-

tricose, adnate, whitish becoming rusty brown with spores.

Stem white, much thickened towards the base and fusiform

rooted, slightly enlarging towards the apex, scaly and shreddy

below the collar. Annulus broad, membranous, entire. Spores

4 — 5x8 — 9 /*.

The plant is close to Pholiota howeana, Pk., ~N. Y. State

Mus. Rep’t 26, pp. 59-00 (Stropharia howeana) and Mus.

Bull. 122 p. 147.

Pholiota ventricosa, Earle, Bull. Y. Y. Bot. Garden 1902

p. 341, is another species based on plants very similar to ours.

478 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The plants grow in pine woods at Leland Stanford University,.

California. The habit, size and shape of the stem are very

similar and the spore measurements exactly the same as in our

plants hut the colors are darker.

3. Medium sized plants with a membranous annulus. Type

of Pholiota praecox and Pholiota dura.

Pholiota praecox, (Pers.). Pis. XXYII and XXVIII, A, B.

EARLY PHOLIOTA.

The early Pholiota is quite common on manured lawns and

in grassy places during the spring and summer. The plants

photographed were collected near Chicago in June.

Pileus smooth, white with more or less yellowish or tan

color, especially in the center, usually convex but sometimes

umbonate. Lamellae broadly sinuate adnexed, slightly ventri-

cose, whitish becoming rusty or fuscous brown. Stem white,

smooth, more or less striate, even or slightly tapering downward,

straight or flexuous. Annulus thin, membranous, separating

from the pileus or from the stem. Spores rusty 6 — 8x10 — 12 y.

The species is variable, Peck reports :

Var. sylvestris. Pileus with a brown center. Growing in

woods. Var. minor. Small, with the veil separating from the

stem and remaining as an appendiculate margin on the pileus.

Pholiota vermiflua, Pk. PL XXVIII, C— F.

WORMY PHOLIOTA.

The species is described in X. Y. State Mus. Kep’t 31, p. 34

and figured in Mus. Bull. 75, pi. 86. It is closely related to

Pholiota praecox but somewhat larger, cap whiter, often cracking

into areas, stem striate above the annulus, lamellae darker

brown and spores slightly larger. Its habitat is the same as

that of Pholiota praecox but it occurs later in the season. Our

plants were collected in the mulching by a fruit tree late in Sep¬

tember. The cap was almost white and the lamellae darker

brown than in Pholiota praecox. The spores were 8x12 — 13 /*.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 479

The pilei were only slightly cracked. The veil has almost dis¬

appeared from the plant figured. Peck’s description of the

plant is as follows:

Pileus convex or nearly plane, glabrous or sometimes floccose

on the margin, commonly rimose areolate, especially in the cen¬

ter, white, sometimes slightly tinged with yellow. Flesh

white. Lamellae close, adnexed, white, becoming ferruginous

brown, generally minutely eroded on the edge. Stem equal, hol¬

low, striate at the top, white, the white annulus more or less

floccose on the lower surface, lacerated, often evanescent.

Spores 8x12 — 13 p.

Pileus 2-4 inches broad ; Stem 2-3 inches long, 3-5 lines

thick.

Pholiota temnophylla, Pk. Pl. XXXIII, A.

CUT-GILLED PHOLIOTA.

The species is described in X. Y. State Mus. Kep’t 23, p. 90

and in Mus. Bull. 122 p. 146.

Pileus fleshy, hemispheric, becoming convex, smooth, ochra-

ceous yellow. Lamellae very broad, adnexed, obliquely trun¬

cate at the inner extremity, brownish ferruginous. Stem equal,

glabrous, hollow, white, the annulus well developed, membran¬

ous, white. Spores brownish ferruginous, broadly elliptic

7—9x10—12 ft.

Pileus 1-2 inches broad, Stem 1-4 inches long, 2-4 lines

thick. Grassy ground by roadsides in June. The plants re¬

semble Xaucoria semiorbicularis and Pholiota praecox.

Peck reports a single collection and Kauffman has found the

species in Michigan. The plants photographed grew on the

ground in grassy woods at Glencoe, Ills., in June. The gills

of plants which were collected on Mackinac Island are even

more typical of Dr. Peck’s species, but the spores in both collec¬

tions are narrower than in the type 6 — 7x10 /*. The identifica¬

tion has been confirmed by Dr. Peck. <

480 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Pholiota dura, (Bolt.). PL XXIX.

HARD PHOLIOTA.

Pholiota dura is very similar to Pholiota praecox, but the

plants are heavier with a shorter, thicker, more irregular stem

and the pileus tends to crack into areas. The two are found in

similar localities, though Pholiota dura prefers gardens and

fields, Pholiota praecox grassy plaices.

The plants pictured were found in a garden bed in June.

They are mature and the pilei are well expanded. M. E. Hard,,

Mushrooms Edible and Otherwise p. 259 gives a good photo¬

graph of younger plants showing the incurved pileus with a

rimose areolate surface. In our plants there are striations on

the stem above the annulus like those on the stem of Pholiota

vermiflua.

Pileus firm, fleshy, smooth or cracked into areas, margin in¬

curved when young becoming convex or expanded, obtuse, even

on the margin, yellowish tawny or tan color, becoming darker.

Flesh firm, brittle, white, mild. Lamellae ventricose, ad-

nexed, with a slight sinus and a striate decurrent tooth, whitish,

becoming the color of the spores. Stem stuffed or solid, even,

tapering downward, more or less ventricose, fibrous, widening

to the pileus, whitish. Annulus thin and fragile, entire or

tom. Spores rusty brown, 5 — 6x8 — 9 p.

Note. The two following species described by Peck appear to belong

to the praecox-dura type.

Pholiota duroides, Pk. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 122 p. 148. It is

separated from Pholiota dura by its more ochraceous pileus, softer

substance and smaller spores, 4 — 5x6—7/*.

Pholiota mollicula Bann. and Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 44 p. 70,

is a plant of the same character. It has a whitish pileus with the

disk yellowish, gills whitish becoming cinnamon, stem white, stuffed

or hollow, annulus large and white and spores rusty 5x8/*. Growing in

woods at the roots of trees.

This large number of species shows the great variability of

the praecox-dura type of Pholiota. Mbre forms might be dis¬

tinguished for plants are often collected that do not agree ex-

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 481

actly with any of those described. A careful study of the group

would probably show that all the species are connected by inter¬

mediate forms. A number of European botanists have doubted

whether even Pholiota praecox and Pholiota dura should be con¬

sidered specifically distinct.

|4. Medium sized plants with a membranous annulus and vis¬

cid pileus. Type of Pholiota erebia.

Pholiota erebia, Fr. PL XXX.

DARK PHOLIOTA.

The plants from which the photographs were made were col¬

lected at Blue Mounds, Wis., in September. They grew scat¬

tered or in small clusters on the ground in damp woods. More

mature plants have been found at Xeebish, Mich. Some of

them had the pileus slightly umhonate. The margin of the

pileus was distinctly striate and the annulus more remote than

in the plants from Blue Mounds.

Pileus fleshy in the center, thin on the margin, convex, be¬

coming plane or somewhat umhonate, viscid, smooth or rugose

wrinkled, hygrophanous, striate on the margin when mature,

brown or blackish when moist, lighter when dry, fully dried

specimens are clay color. Lamellae adnate with a tooth, pallid

or grayish, becoming rusty. Stem equal or slightly tapering

upward, stuffed or hollow, striate with innate fibers and squam-

ulose especially towards the base, stems often cohering at the

base, whitish above the annulus, darker below. Anhulus near

the top of the stem, becoming distant, membranous, reflexed,

sulcate, white. Spores Oxl 2 — 14^. .

Massee remarks of the European plant that the pileus is some¬

times more or less umhonate and Stevenson says that many of

the stems cohere at the base where they are squamulose, also

that the pileus is often wrinkled. Our plants show these char¬

acters.

"Note. The plants agree with the description of Pholiota aggericola,

Pk. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 122 p. 146 except in the sometimes um-

bonate pileus, the hollow stem and the slightly longer spores. 12 — 14/*

482 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

instead of 10 — 12 /jl. The hollow stem and longer spores are given as

characters of Pholiota indecens, Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 30, p. 40,

which Peck has decided is not distinct from Pholiota aggericola, Mus.

Bull. 122, p. 146. Hence it is probable that both Pholiota indecens and

Pholiota aggericola are the same as Pholiota erebia, Fr. Pholiota ag¬

gericola retirugis is the form with a wrinkled pileus and is further

proof of the identity of the species.

Glatfelter reports Pholiota aggericola from St. Louis with spores

5 — 6x12 — 15^. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 1906.

Pholiota ombrophila, Fr. PI. XXXI.

Pain-loving Pholiota.

The plants illustrated were collected near brush piles in a

grassy pasture at Geneseo, Ills., in June. Others have been

found at Lake Geneva, Wis., and elsewhere, always about brush

piles and in very wet weather. The plants photographed were

somewhat above the average size. They agree well with the de¬

scription of Pholiota ombrophila hut the pilei are not so dark

colored as in the figures given by Cooke, illust. pi. 359 and

Fries leones 103. The latter is var. brunneola. The color of

the pileus is described as “pale ferruginous.”

Pileus fleshy, convex to expanded, smooth, slightly viscid,

hygrophanous, irregular or wavy on the margin, striatulate,

pale ferruginous. Flesh whitish. Lamellae sinuate attached

with a decurrent tooth, narrowing outward from the stem,

whitish becoming rusty. Stem stuffed or hollow, whitish, flexu-

ous, somewhat fibrous striate. Annulus membranous, broad,

entire, white. Spores ferruginous, 5 — 6x8 — 9 (Stevenson

gives 4x8 ^ and Saocardo 6 — 7x13 — 14 /*.)

5. Small plants with a membranous annulus. Type of Pho¬

liota togularis.

Pholiota togularis, (Bull.) PI. XXXII.

LITTLE CLOAK PHOLIOTA.

Pholiota togularis is a common species growing on the ground

or attached to sticks in open woods and pastures. We have col-

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 483

lected it at Madison, Wis., Geneseo, Ills., and elsewhere. The

photographs in pi. XXXII, A are from the Madison plants.

They are old with the p ileus depressed and the annulus almost

gone and are not very satisfactory. The plants in pi. XXXII,

B were more hygrophanous, with the margin of the pileus

slightly striate and the gills bent in the middle. They were

quite wrinkled when dry and suggest a form of Pholiota rugosa,

Pk. We have no good photograph of Pholiota togularis which

is a pretty little plant with a broad membranous annulus, the

“little cloak” which suggested the name.

Pileus thin, soft, convex to plane or depressed, smooth, even

on the margin, somewhat hygrophanous, pale ochraceous, almost

white when dry. Lamellae adnate or toothed-decurrent, veil-

tricose, yellowish-white becoming ochraceous. Flesh thin, soft,

yellowish. Stem hollow, flexuous, somewhat fihrillose, colored

like the pileus, darker below. Ahnulus membranous, evanes¬

cent, near the middle of the stem. Spores ochraceous, 5x8

Note. Plants of the Pholiota togularis type form a very variable

group. A number' of species and varieties have been reported from

this country. They are all small plants growing on the ground or at¬

tached to sticks and very closely related to each other.

Pholiota togularis, var. filaris, Fr. is reported by Peck and raised to

the rank of a species. Mus. Bull. 122, p. 144. It is characterised by its

small size slightly striate pileus and very thin stem. Figured in Fries

Icon. pi. 104.

Pholiota hlattaria Fr. is reported in Farlow’s Index. It is like a

slender form of Pholiota togularis but has the pileus striate on the

margin and the gills free.

Pholiota rugosa, Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 50 p. 102 and Mus. Bull.

122, p. 144, is a more hygrophanous plant with the pileus slightly

striate on the margin, the annulus with striae on the upper surface

and the p'^us rugose wrinkled when dry. It is reported from Michi¬

gan by Kauffman.

Pholiota anomala, Pk., Torr. Bull. 22, p. 202, was described from

plants growing on sticks and leaves lying on the ground at Pasadena,

California. They are about the size of Pholiota togularis, brown, dry¬

ing cream color, with adnate lamellae and a fugaceous annulus.

The stem is hollow with transverse partitions, the internodes stuffed

with a cottony substance. Pholiota dissimulans, B. & Br. has such

nodes in the stem, Cooke, Illust. pi. 371.

484 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Pholiota satulosa , Pk., Torr. Bull. 23, p. 414, is another similar

plant which grew on sandy soil in Alabama. It is the same size as

the others, yellowish brown becoming pale tawny when dry, with a

concolor’ous hollow stem, and a slight annulus, but there were rusty

brown scales on the pileus.

6. Plants with an evident universal veil and ragged fibrous

annulus. Growing on the ground, scattered or caespitose.

Pholiota terrigena and Pholiota angustipes are placed here be¬

cause they grow on the ground. The former belongs to the

Squarrosae and the latter to the Squamosae.

Pholiota terrigena, Fr. PL XXXIII, B.

The plants were found at Devil’s Lake, Wisconsin, Septem¬

ber. They grew in clusters on the ground in open woods. The

photograph shows a bunch of young plants. The caps expand

and become almost plane.

Pileus convex, margin incurved so that in young plants the

cap is lens shaped, becoming expanded and plane, dry, covered

with a coat of silky matted fibers, more or less torn and fibrillose

scaly especially on the margin, dull yellow or tawny, scattered

over the surface are tawny, verrucose, easily separable scales

like those on the stem. Flesh yellowish, Lamellae becoming

rusty with an olivaceous tint. Stem stuffed or hollow, squar-

rose with tawny, verrucose scales in a web of white fibers, silky

white above the annulus. Annulus the torn margin of the

universal veil part of which adheres to the pileus. Spores

ochracous 4x5 — 6 /u

Our plant agrees with the illustration in Fries, leones, 103.

Oooke’s plate 349 is too bright yellow and does not well repre¬

sent our forms. (

Pholiota angustipes, Pk. PL XXXIV.

NARROW STEM PHOLIOTA.

The plants grew in clusters on the ground in a place where

stumps had been removed in a pasture near Madison, Wis., in

September. The average size is shown by the photographs. Our

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 485

plants agree exactly with the description of Pholiota angustipes

except that the spores are a little smaller, 4x6 — 7 /*.

Pileus fleshy, hemispheric, becoming convex or nearly plane,

slightly viscid when moist, squamnlose with minute, dot like

appressed scales, brown or grayish brown becoming alutaceous

brown or sub alutaceous, P'lesh whitish, taste unpleasant. La¬

mellae thin, close, sinuate, whitish or creamy yellow, becoming

tawny brown. Stem equal or tapering downward, flexuous,

stuffed or hollow, squamose, whitish or cinereous, Spores navi-

culoid, 4 — 5x7 — 8 /*.

Note. Two species of Pholiota which grow on the ground but do

not appear to be very closely related to any of th§ above types have

been reported from the United States.

Pholiota speciosa, Clements, University of Nebr. Bot. Sur. 1893, II,.

p. 41, is said by the author to resemble Pholiota gibberosa, Fr. It

is about two inches high and broad, has a sordid white pileus and

white stem, smoky gills and umber spores 3.5x5/i.

Pholiota rubecula , Bann. & Pk. N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 44, p. 70, is

not fully described.

B. Growing on wood.

I. Pileus and stem covered with squarrose or squamose

scales.

The plants are clothed with a universal fibrous veil which

forms squarrose or squamose tufts of fibers on the pileus and

stem. When the margin of the pileus separates from the stem

the veil tears apart leaving a floccose ring on the stem and the

margin of the pileus ragged.

7. Type of Pholiota squarrosa.

Pholiota squarrosa, Muell. PI. XXXV, A.

SCALY PHOLIOTA.

One of the most common and best known of the species of

Pholiota. It grows in dense clusters on standing trunks, stumps

and logs in woods. It sometimes lias a very disagreeable odor.

Pileus fleshy, broadly conic or campanulate to convex, dry,

background yellowish or tawny covered with darker tawny-

486 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

squarrose scales. Lamellae adnate or slightly notched decur¬

rent, whitish becoming ferruginous. Stem straight or flexuous,

colored and adorned like the pileus, white furfuraceous above

the annulus. Spokes elliptical 4x7 — 8 y.

There are a number of varieties of the scaly Pholiota. Plate

XXXV, A shows two plants nearly typical. The pileus was dry

with ragged tawny scales on a paler tawny background and

Spores 4x7 /*. The plants were collected at Blue Mounds,

Wis., in October. Other collections have still darker caps but

the spores are usually smaller.

Pholiota squarrosa, var. verruculosa, Lasch. PI. XXXV, B.

The plants were collected at Frankfort, Mich., in August. The

pilei were yellow with hard, sharp, verrucose, tawny scales.

Pholiota squarrosoides, Pk. Pis. XXXVI and XXXVII.

SHARP SCALE PHOLIOTA.

Pholiota squarrosoides is described and figured in X. Y. State

Mus. Bep’t 54, p. 183, pi. 73 and Pholiota squarrosa in Mus.

Bull. 54 p. 971 and pi. 79. The former has the background of

the pileus whitish and viscid instead of tawny and dry as in Pho¬

liota squarrosa, it has sharp instead of fiat scales and smaller

spores, 3 — 4x5 n instead of 4 — 5x7 — 8 /*. The plants illus¬

trated in pis. XXXVI and XXXVII have these characteristics.

They were collected on a well decayed log at Frankfort, Mich.,

in July. The log was covered with large handsome clusters.

This form seems to be more common in our regions than Pholiota

squarrosa but I have collected plants with white and tawny caps

growing side by side. The color becomes darker with age and

the viscidity depends much on the weather. Both spore meas¬

urements are reported by Stevenson, British Fungi I, p. 230.

Dr. Peck has distinguished and figured the form on beech

logs, Pholiota squarrosoides faginea, Pk., X. Y. State Mus.

TRep^t 54, p. 183 and pi. 73. It is a smaller plant with more

{scattered scales. He finds Pholiota squarrosoides on maple logs

tand this form on beech.

Note. Two more plants of the Pholiota squarrosa type are reported

in this county.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 487

Pholiota subsquarrosa , Fr. Mcllvaine. One thousand American

Fungi, p. 275. The plants have a viscid pileus and appressed scales.

The gills are yellow when young. The species is figured by Fries

leones, 103.

Pholiota dactyliota , B. & Mont, is a little known species described

from plants collected by Sullivant in Ohio. It is said to be so similar

to Pholiota squarrosa as scarcely to need a description. The only

differences are that the annulus is thick and persistent and the gills

nearly free.

8. Type of Pholiota aurivella.

Pholiota aurivella, Batsch. Pis. XXXVIII and XXXIX.

GOLDEN FLEECE PHOLIOTA.

A very showy plant growing singly or in clusters of few indi¬

viduals on trunks, stumps and logs. The illustrations are from

plants found on a well decayed bass wood log at River Forest,

Ills., in October, also collected in Colorado and elsewhere. Very

similar to the following species as Cooke’s Illustrations pis. 351

and 353 well show, but much more handsome. Stevenson re¬

marks “Very beautiful. More refined in appearance than any

of its allies.”

Pileus broadly convex, gibbous, splitting on the margin,

slightly viscid when moist, smooth and almost glassy when dry,

bright tawny yellow or orange, scattered over with tufts of dark

tawny fibers, appressed with squarrose points. Lamellae ven-

tricose, adnexed with a small sinus, whitish or yellowish becom¬

ing rusty brown with spores. Stem even, or somewhat fusi¬

form, solid, curved to match the position of the plant, lighter

yellow than the pileus, very smooth and polished above the an¬

nulus, shreddy and tawny scaly below. Annulus slight, formed

by the torn margin of the veil. Spokes rusty brown. 4 — 6x8 — *

9 n.

Pholiota adiposa, Fr. PI. XL.

FAT PHOLIOTA.

The Fat Pholiota is much more common than the preceding

and forms large clusters on trunks, stumps and logs. The pho-

488 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tograph is from part of a large cluster taken from the trunk of a

maple tree at River Forest, Ills., in June. It is a much less

trim plant than the Golden Fleece Pholiota and the colors are

not nearly so bright. The two can easily be distinguished even

from dried specimens.

Pileus convex or expanded, broadly umbonate, dingy yellow

with the scaly tufts of fibers brownish or blackish. Scales easily

separable leaving the pileus smooth. Flesh thick, dull yellow.

Lamellae slightly notched, dirty yellow becoming brown.

Stem even or slightly thickened downward. Scaly below the

annulus, furfuraceous above, yellowish with a tawny or brown

base. Annulus the slight remains of the torn veil, soon disap¬

pearing. Spores rusty brown 5x8 p.

Note. Two species reported from this country are said to be

closely related to Pholiota adiposa.

Pholiota limonella, Pk. N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 31, p. 33. It grows

in clusters on beech trunks and resembles Pholiota adiposa. The

plants are about the size of Pholiota flammans but the spores are

twice as large as in that species, 5 — 6x8 — d/x. They ar’e lemon yellow

with erect reddish brown scales on the pileus and stem. Morgan re-

ports the plant from Ohio.

Pholiota villosa, Fr. is a rare species in Europe. The plants are

about the size of Pholiota adiposa with tawny yellow, floccose, flbrillose

pilei and stems. It is reported in Farlow’s Index.

9. Type of Pholiota flammans.

Pholiota flammans, Fr. PI. XLI, C.

YELLOW SCALE PHOLIOTA.

This beautiful little plant differs from the others of the sec¬

tion Squarrosae in having the scales lighter colored than the

background. The pileus is deep yellow or tawny and the

scales sulphur yellow. It grows singly or in tufts on stumps

and trunks. The one photographed grew on a stump at Xee-

bish, Mich., in September. It is a small plant, the pileus less

than two inches broad.

Pileus thin, fleshy, convex to plane, slightly umbonate, dry,

yellow or tawny with paler yellow scales. Flesh yellowish.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 489

Lamellae notched attached, yellowish becoming ferruginous.

Stem straight or curved, stuffed or hollow, yellow and adorned

like the pilous. Annulus near the top of the stem, ragged.

Spokes rusty 3 x 5 /l

The plants retain their color when dry. Ours became cov¬

ered with a yellow powder like the pulverulence on some Boleti.

Fries, Icon. 104, beautifully illustrates the plant It is re¬

ported from Michigan by Kauffman.

Pholiota tuberculosa, Fr. PL XLI, A. B.

Tuberculate Pholiota.

Pholiota tuberculosa is similar to Pholiota flammans but

the scales are concolorous with the background or darker, and

there is a beautiful round bulb at the base of the stem. The

illustration in Fries, Icon. 104, represents our plants exactly.

They were collected at Xeebish, Mich., in September. The

photograph is taken from a dried plant.

Pileus fleshy, convex, obtuse, beautiful tawny yellow, with

more or less squarrose, scattered tawny scales. Stem hollow,

incurved, bulbous at the base, flbrillose scaly, colored like the

pileus. Lamellae adnexed, yellow becoming rusty. Annu¬

lus the ragged upper margin of the scaly part of the stem.

Spores rusty ochraceous, inequilateral 3 x 5 — 6 p. (Steven¬

son 4x7 /*-, Sacc. Sylloge 4 — 5x8 — 10 p.

Note. Pholiota hormomorpha, Mont., described from plants col¬

lected at Columbus, Ohio by Sullivant is said to be very similar to

Pholiota tuberculosa. The stem is thickened at the apex as well as

bulbous at the base and naked. Spores oblong.

Pholiota curvipes, Fr. is reported from this country by Peck, Hard

and others. In Farlow’s Index it is given as identical with Pholiota

tuberculosa and according to Longyear it has been confused with Pho¬

liota muricata in this country.

10. Type of Pholiota albo-crenulata.

490 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Pholiota albo-crenulata, Pk. Pis. XLII and XLIII.

WHITE GRANULATED PHOLIOTA.

Single or two or three together on stumps and logs especially

maple. The photographs are from plants found on a maple

stump at Frankfort, Mich. The characteristic features of the

plant are the dark brown color, easily recognized even in dried

specimens and the white granules on the margin of the gills.

The species is very closely related to Pholiota fusca, Quel,

and may prove to be identical with it. Plants in the Madison

herbarium were so referred by Bresadola and the description

of the gills of that species as “white granulate” on the edge is

better for our plants than “white crenulate.” But both the

description and figure of Pholiota fusca show that it is strik¬

ingly mammillate and it is said to be caespitose. We have seen

no American plants with these characteristics.

Pileus, fleshy, convex or with a smlall umbo, viscid, yellowish

brown with dark brown floccose scales which easily rub off.

Stem slightly tapering upward, stuffed or hollow, covered up to

the annulus with dark brown tufts of fibers on a light colored

background. White furfur aceous above the annulus which has

the form characteristic of this group. Lamellae with a pecu¬

liar appearance, those reaching the margin narrowing toward

the stem and those attached to the stem narrowing toward the

margin, edge eroded and beaded with white granules, grayish

becoming rusty brown. Spores, rusty brown, 6 — 7x10 — 12^.

The plant is reported from Michigan by Kauffman.

11. Type of Pholiota spectabilis.

Pholiota spectabilis, Fr. PL XLIV.

SHOWY PHOLIOTA.

The whole plant including the flesh is some shade of bright

yellow or orange and retains its color when dry. The plants

photographed were collected at Xeebish, Mich., in September.

They are young but show the characteristics of the plant well.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 491

The thick matted veil covers the whole plant when young. It

tears apart at the separation of the pileus from the stem and

leaves the stem peronate and the margin of the pileus covered

with bunches of fibers. The pileus is scaly but not squarrose.

Pilecjs fleshy, compact, hemispherical, becoming nearly plane,

dry, silky fibrillose, yellow to tawny orange. Flesh thick, pale

yellow, bitter. Lamellae dose, narrow, adnate or slightly

decurrent, yellow becoming ferruginous. Stem ventricose or

thickened below, solid, peronate, mealy above the annulus, fib¬

rillose like the pileus below. Spores elliptic, ochraceous, 5 —

6x8 — 9 [i.

Fries, leones 102, gives a good illustration of our plant.

Note. Pholiota aurea, Matt., which is the type of the genus and

its most gorgeous species, is closely related to Pholiota spectabilis.

It grows on the ground. The plant is reported from this country in

Farlow’s Index but we have never seen it.

12. Type of Pholiota comosa.

Pholiota comosa, Fr. PI. XLY.

HAIRY PHOLIOTA.

A firm fleshy species growing on trunks and stumps of de¬

ciduous trees. The pictures are from plants collected at Frank¬

fort, Mich., in August and at River Forest, Ill., in October.

Pileus firm, convex, obtuse, viscid, covered with white hairy

fibrous easily separable scales on a tawny ground. Flesh

white. Lamellae broad, adnexed decurrent, white becoming

argillaceous or reddish brown. Stem somewhat bulbous with

an abrupt pointed root becoming long and curved, white fibrous

striate with the characteristic slight annulus of the section.

Spores rusty brown 5—6x8 — 9 /*.

Note. Pholiota destruens, Broud. is reported from Missouri by

Glatfelter and dried specimens in the herbarium at Madison seem to

be referable to this species. The pileus is yellowish white with a few

floccose scales and a fibrillose margin. The stem is concolorous and

thickened below. The lamellae are pallid becoming cinnamon.

492 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

13. Type of Pholiota heteroclita.

Pholiota heteroclita, Fr. Pis. XLVI and XLVII.

ECCENTRIC STEMMED PHOLIOTA.

A large, heavy, dull colored plant, often with an eccentric

stem, growing on stumps and logs of deciduous trees. Our

plants were deeply rooted in a crack on the top of a poplar

stump at Frankfort, Michigan. They were fully mature.

Hard, Mushrooms Edible and Otherwise, fig. 214, has published

a photograph of young plants which shows the characteristic

veil and annulus.

Pileus whitish, covered with dirty yellow, or tawny fibrous

scales, incurved when young, becoming convex and plane, mar¬

gin incurved, often irregular and cracked or split. Stem often

eccentric, solid, bulbous at the base, rooting below the bulb,

whitish fibrous below the annulus which is near the top of

the stem, mealy above. Flesh thick, white. Lamellae broad,

rounded at the stem, pallid becoming ferruginous brown.

Spores rusty, 5 — 6x8 — 10/l

14. Type of Pholiota luteofolia.

Pholiota luteofolia, Pk. Pl. XL VIII.

YELLOW GILLED PHOLIOTA.

We photographed some individual plants taken from a cluster

which grew on a decayed log at Piver Forest, Ill., in June. The

plants were fully mature and the pilei depressed showing the

brilliant reddish yellow gills as the clusters stood erect on the

top of the log attracting the attention at some distance.

Peck’s description reads “Pileus fleshy, firm, convex (ours

were depressed and moist from the wet weather), dry, squamu-

lose, fibrillose on the margin, pale red or yellowish. Lamellae

broad, subdistant, sinuate, serrate on the edge, yellow becoming

bright ferruginous. Stem firm, fibrillose, solid, often curved

from its place of growth. Annulus slight, fugacious. Spores

bright ferruginous 4x7/*” (ours were 4 — 5x7— 8/a).

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 493

Note. Pholiota fulvosquamosa, Pk., Torr. Bull. 30 pp. 95-96, be¬

longs in the section Squamosae. The plants on which the species is

founded were collected about the base of oak trees near the Agricul¬

tural College at Lansing, Michigan. The pileus is 6-12 cm broad,

the stem is 5-8 cm. long, and 8-10 mm. thick. The pileus, the stem

and the under side of the annulus are covered with tawny fibrillose

scales. The lamellae are attached to a narrow collar, whitish becom¬

ing pinkish cinnamon.

II. Pileus naked, sometimes rimose rivulose.

15. Type of Plioliota aegerita.

Pholiota aegerita, Brigant. PL XLIX.

The plants photographed were not very satisfactory and the

pictures are poor. They grew on a poplar trunk at Xeebish,

Mich. The dried specimens are characteristic. The pileus is

inrolled, hard, cracked into tawny areas on a whitish back¬

ground, smoother and whitish toward the margin. The stem

tapers upward and is brownish at the base.

Pileus fleshy, convex to plane, rivulose with tawny scales in

the center, smoothish and white or pallid toward the margin,

with slight greenish tints. Lamellae adnate toothed, pallid

becoming reddish brick color. Stem equal or tapering upward,

solid or stuffed, whitish with silky, brownish or reddish fibers.

Amulus superior, fibrous. Spoees 5x7^ (Sacc. Sylloge,

5x8— 9a).

16. Type of Pholiota lutea.

Plioliota lutea, Pk. PI. L.

YELLOW PHOLIOTA.

The plants referred to this species were very abundant and

grew in large clusters on the trunks and roots of black birch at

Spring Green and The Dells, Wis., during September and Octo¬

ber, 1910. The mature pilei were broadly conical or campanu-

late, buff yellow, nearly smooth, wavy, somewhat scaly and

striate on the edge. The stem was brown or ferruginous toward

494 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the base and had a well defined annulus. The spores were

5x8 — 9/x. The plants ar© very closely related to Flammula al-

nicola and may belong to that species, but they differ very de¬

cidedly in the shape and color of the pileus and the evident an¬

nulus from the forms of Flammula alnicola collected in north¬

ern Michigan. The shape of the pileus and the dark base of

the stems which are sometimes hollow do not agree with the

description of Pholiota lutea. Glatfelter has reported Pholiota

lutea from Missouri. Peck’s description is as follows:

“Pileus fleshy, firm, convex, dry, slightly silky and some¬

times minutely floccos© squamulose in the center, buff yellow,

often a little darker in the center, the thin incurved margin

slightly surpassing the lamellae. Flesh pale yellow. Odor

pleasant. Taste bitter. Lamellae thin, close, rounded behind,

adnexed, pale yellow, becoming dark ferruginous. Stem firm,

solid, thickened at the base, fibril l ose, colored like the pileus.

Annulus superior, slight, fugacious. Spores ferruginous

5x8/*. Pileus 2-4 inches broad ; stem 2-3 inches long, 3-5 lines

thick. Decaying wood and trunks of trees in woods.”

Note. The following species, reported from this country, appear to

belong in this section.

Pholiota ornella, Pk. is a small plant found growing on decayed

wood or sawdust. Pileus dark red when young fading to pink and

then yellowish brown, appressed scaly, veil annulate appendiculate.

Its history is given in N. Y. State Mus. Bui. 122, p. 151. It was first

described as a Hypholoma.

Pholiota aeruginosa, Pk. is a plant with a greenish pileus and stem,

less than two inches broad and one and one-half inches high. Distin¬

guished from Stropharia aeruginosa by its solid stem, dry pileus and

bright ferruginous spores. The type specimens were found by Dr.

Herbst growing in clusters on oak railroad ties in Pennsylvania. N. Y.

State Mus. Rep’t 43, p. 81. The plant is also reported from Connecti¬

cut, White, and Michigan, Longyear.

Pholiota capistrata, Cke is reported in Farlow’s Index. It is figured

in Cooke, Illust. 364. A large subcaespitose plant with a viscid livid

pileus, a subsquamulose stem and persistent annulus, growing on frag¬

ments of wood.

Pholiota rad&cosa, Bull, is also reported in Farlow’s Index. It is a

large plant with smooth pileus, squarrose scaly stem and a long root.

It appears to grow on the ground though placed among the Truncigenae

in Sylloge.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region. 495

III. Small plants with scaly or bristly pilous and stem. .

The plants in this division arc squarrose or squamose, but

they are small, grow on logs in woods and resemble those of

the following section much more closely than the showy forms

of the type of Pholiota squarrosa.

17. Type of Pholiota muricata.

Pholiota erinaceella, Pk. PL LI.

LITTLE; BULSTLY PHOLIOTA.

The plant was described as Agaricus (Pholiota) detersibilis,

Pk. in 1ST. Y. State Mus. Fep’t, 28, and the name was changed

to Pholiota erinaceela in Mus. Bull. 122, p. 152. The bristly

pileus and stem is well shown in the photographs. The plants

agree with the description exactly. They grew on logs in woods

at Frankfort, Mich., in August. Peck’s description reads :

“Pileus thin, hemispheric or convex, dry, densely coated

with small, erect, separable, pyramidal or spinelike scales,

tawny brown. Lamellae broad, close, adnexed, pallid becom¬

ing cinnamon brown. Stem equal, stuffed or hollow, densely

squamulose below the slight annulus, often curved, colored like

the pileus. Spores ferruginous, naviculoid 4-5x8-9/*. Pileus

6-12 lines broad, stem 6-12 lines long, 1 line thick.”

Pholiota muricata, Fr. Pis. LII and LIII.

The plants pictured in PI. LII were collected at Fiver

Forest, Ill., in June, those in PI. LOT at ISTeebish, Mich., in

September. The Fiver Forest plants are slightly heavier,

neater, and more squarrose than those found at Feebish but

they seem to be the same species. All were tawny yellow with

bunches of bright yellow mycelium at the base of the stems.

The plants represented in PI. LII, B, had long straggling stems

due to their position emerging from a crack in the bark of the

log.

Pileus convex to plane, obtuse, slightly umbilicate, covered

with small closely packed tufts of tawny fibers making the sur-

496 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

face appear almost granulate or muricate, tlie yellow back-

ground of the pileus shows in the cracks. Lamellae adnexed^

yellow, becoming rusty. ;Stem concolorous, stuffed or hollow,

densely clothed with scaly fibers which are more or less squar-

rose, with tufts of bright yellow mycelium at the base. Annu¬

lus slight of the character of that of the Squarrosae. Spores

4-5x7-8/a.

The plant is reported from Michigan by Longyear.

IV. Small plants with an hygrophanous pileus and a mem¬

branous annulus.

The plants are closely related to the Pholiota togularis type

but grow on logs and stumps.

18. Type of Pholiota marginata.

Pholiota marginata, Batsch. Pis. LIV and LV.

MARGINED PHOLIOTA.

The plants are common on decayed logs in damp woods late

in the autumn. In our region they are usually almost even on

the margin of the pileus and very rarely sufficiently striate to

justify their name. In this respect they agree with the Hew

York type which Peck has described as Pholiota marginella.

The forms are very various as the illustrations show but we have

not been able to separate any of the allied species such as Pho¬

liota unicolor or Pholiota mutabilis. The plants in PI. LIV", C

closely resemble those in Hard’s photograph of Pholiota uni¬

color but they do not agree with the plant figured in Flora

Danica.

Pileus watery brown or honey colored, from incurved to

convex or expanded, smooth, margin even or slightly striate,

sometimes recurved. Lamellae adnate or decurrent toothed,

watery cinnamon becoming rusty ochraceous. Stem equal or

slightly tapering upward, hollow, sometimes inflated, more or

less white pruinose, fibrous striate, somewhat mealy at the

apex and white velutine at the base. Annulus membranous,

usually adhering to the stem but sometimes to the margin of

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Legion. 497

the pileus. Spores elliptic or obovate 5 — 6x8 — 1 0/x. (Sylloge

gives 3-4x6-7/* or 4-6x10-14^.)

Hote. A number of small species of Pholiota with hygrophanous

pilei growing on decayed logs have been reported from this country.

Pholiota mutahilis, Schaeff. Somewhat larger than Pholiota mar-

ginata with the stem covered with squarrose scales. Morgan and Hard

report it from Ohio.

Pholiota unicolor, FI. Dan. Similar to Pholiota marginata but

smaller and lamellae decurrent. Reported from Ohio by Morgan and

Hard.

Pholiota marginella, Pk. Mus. Bull., 122, pp. 157-158. It is dis¬

tinguished from Pholiota marginata by “its even fibrillose margin,

adnexed lamellae and paler uniformly colored stem.”

Pholiota autumnalis, Pk. N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 23, p. 92 (as

Naucoria) and Mus. Bull. 122, p. 156. Glatfelter reports it from St.

Louis with the remark “It appears to me the same as Pholiota margi¬

nata.”

Pholiota discolor, Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 25, p. 78, is char¬

acterized by the change of color from cinnamon rufus when moist to

bright ochraceous yellow when dry. Otherwise like Pholiota marginata.

19. Type of Pholiota confragosa.

Pholiota confragosa, Fr. PI. XLI, D. E.

The plants grew on a log at Xeebish, Mich., in September.

The enlargement, PI. XLI, E, shows the peculiar white floccose

covering of the pileus. It is different from that of any other

species of Pholiota. The plants were brick red but a little

duller than in the illustration in Fries, Icon, 105. Otherwise

the illustration represents our plants well. The plants photo¬

graphed are young and smaller than the average.

Pileus convex becoming plane, obtuse, ground color almost

brick red, covered with a white fiocculose coat easily rubbed off

and which disappears when the plants become old, margin

slightly striate when moist. Lamellae adnate, narrow, edge

eroded. Stem equal, straight or slightly flexuous, ground color

similar to the pileus, peronate with a fibrous scaly white coat

which terminates in a spreading membranous white ring.

Spores rusty 5-6x7 -8/a.

498 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Note. Two species described by Peck belong to the Hygrophana*

but differ from the above types.

Pholiota acericola, Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 25, p. 77, is a large

plant with a yellow or smoky yellow rugosely reticulated pileus, lamel¬

lae becoming longitudinally wrinkled when dry, a fibrillose whitish

stem sometimes enlarged at the base and a large white deflexed annu¬

lus. It is reported from Michigan by Kauffman.

Pholiota cerasina, Pk„ N. Y. State Mus. Rep’t 26, p. 57 is a plant

about the size of the former with a marked amygdaline odor.

C. Very small species growing among mosses.

We have no photographs of species in this division. They

are known by the rusty spores and the annulus on the

stem. Pholiota mycenoides, Fr. is reported from Michigan by

Longyear. Pholiota pumila is in Far low’s Index and Peck

has described Pholiota minima from Hew York state and re¬

ported Pholiota rufidula, Kalch, from Massachusetts.

Harper — Species of Pholiota of the Great Lakes Region.

499

INDEX OP THE SPECIES.

The species followed by a plate number are described and illustrated.

The others are referred to in the notes.

Adiposa

Acericola

Aegerita

Aeruginosa . .

Aggericola .

Aggericola retirugis

Albo-crenulata,

Angustipes

Anomala

Aurea

Aurivella

Autumn alis

blattaria

caperata

capistrata

cerasina

comosa

confragosa

curvipes

dactyliota

destruens

discolor

dura

duroides

erebia

erinaceell

flammans

fulvo-squ;

fusca

heteroclita

hormomorpha

howeana,

indecens

johnsoniana

limonella

lutea

luteofolia

Page

487

Plate

XL

L

XLVIII

Page

margin ata . 496

marginella . . . . . 497 .

minima . 498 .

mollicula . 480 .

muricata . 495

mutabilis . 497 .

mycenoides . 498 .

Ombrophila . 482

ornella . 494

praecox . 478 -j

pumila . 498 .

radicosa . 494 .

rubecula . 485 .,

rufidula . 498

rugosa . 483 . ,

sabulosa . 484 ..

speciosa . 485

spectabilis . 490

squarrosa . 485

squarrosa verrucu-

losa . 486

squarrosoides . 486 -j

squarrosoides fagi-

nea . 486 ..

subsquarrosa. _ .... 487 . .

temnophylla . 479

terrigena . 484

togularis . 482

togularis var.filaris. . 483 ..

tuberculosa . 489

unicolor . 497 . .

ventricosa . 477 ..

vermiflua . 478

villosa . 488

Plate

LIV, LV

LII, LIII

XXXI

XXVII,' '

XXVIII

A B

XLIV

XXXV A

XXXVI,

XXXVII

XXXIII A

XXXIII B

XXXII

XLI A B

XXVIII

500 Wisconsin Academy * of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Plate XXIV. Pholiota caperata, (Pers.) A. Mature plant of average

size. B. Young plant with ovate cap covered with white flocci.

Plate XXV. Pholiota . A. Mature plant a little above

average size showing the scaly bulbous stem, the ridges on the

annulus and the erose denticulate gills. B. Part of the surface

of a pileus showing the innate scaly fibers. C. Part of the annulus

of a dried specimen x 4.

Plate XXVI. Pholiota howeana, Pk. Mature plant.

Plate XXVII. Pholiota praecox, (Pers.) A. Mature plant showing the

gill surface. B. Upper side of a pileus. C. Plant with the annulus

tearing from the stem. D. Plant with an umbonate pileus and

twisted striate stem.

Plate XXVIII. A. B. Pholiota, praecox (Pers.) C — F. Pholiota vermi-

flua, Pk. A. Plant with an annulus on the stem. B. Underside of

a pileus showing veil separating from the margin. C. Mature

plant. D. Section showing the thick flesh and ventricose gills.

E. Gill surface. F. Surface of a pileus.

Plate XXIX. Pholiota dura, (Bolt.) A. Mature plant with expanded

pileus. B, Younger plant showing membranous annulus. C. Plant

showing the gill surface.

Plate XXX. Pholiota erebia, Fr. A. Cluster of plants showing adher¬

ing scaly stems and membranous annulus. B. Underside of a

pileus showing the gill surface and hollow stem. C. Upper side of

a pileus showing rugose surface. D. Section showing flesh and

gills.

Plate XXXI. Pholiota ombrophila, Fr. Two mature plants.

Plate XXXII. Pholiota togularis (Bull.) A. Old plants with depressed

pilei. B. Younger plants some of which grew on sticks.

Plate XXXIII. A. Pholiota temnophylla, Pk. The under side of the

pileus shows the shape of the gills. B. Pholiota terrigena, Fr.

Cluster of young plants.

Harper — Species of PJioliota of the Great Lakes Region. 501

Plate XXXIV. Pholiota angustipes, Pk. A. Cluster showing hemi-

pheric pilei and scaly stems tapering downward. B. Parts of

plants showing the gill surface and the squamose-dotted pileus.

Plate XXXV. A. Pholiota squarrosa, Muell. Two plants showing the

stems and the under surface of the pilei. B. Pholiota Squarrosa,

var. ver'ruculosa, Lasch. Two plants showing the sharp verrucose

scales on the pilei and shaggy scales on the stems.

Plates XXXVI and XXXVII. Pholiota squarrosoides, Pk. A cluster of

young plants is shown on plate XXXVI and a cluster of older

plants giving different view on plate XXXVII.

Plates XXXVIII and XXXIX. Pholiota aurivella, Batsch. The first

shows the surface of the pileus and the stem of a medium sized

plant, the second shows the under side of two plants with the gill

surface and the stems smooth above and scaly below.

Plate XL. Pholiota adiposa, Fr. The under side of three plants taken

from a large cluster showing the gill surface and the scaly stems

which are darker colored below.

Plate XLI. A. B. Pholiota tuberculosa, Fr. Plant showing the bulbous

scaly stem, and the surface of a pileus. Both taken from dried

plants. C. A plant of Pholiota flammans, Fr. D. E. Pholiota

confragosa, Fr. Three plants natural size, the underside of a

pileus and one of the plants x 4 showing the floccose surface.

Plates XLII and XLIII. Pholiota albo-crenulata, Pk. XLII. A. The

underside of a mature plant. B. Part of the gill surface x 4 show¬

ing the white granules on the edges of the lamellae. XLIII. A.

The gill surface of a mature plant. B. The surface of a pilus. C.

Young plant showing the method of tearing of the veil.

Plate XLIV. Pholiota spectabilis, Fr. A. Young plant showing the

tearing of the veil. B. Young plant showing the fibrous surface

of the pileus. C. Section showing the thick flesh and narrow gills.

D. Very young plants covered with the universal veil.

Plate XLV. Pholiota comosa, Fr. A. Surface of the pileus covered

with white hairy scales. B. Section showing flesh and gills. C.

Mature plant with an elongated stem. D. Part of a plant reduced

one half showing the bulbous stem.

502 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Plates XLVI and XLVII. Pholiota heteroclita, Fr. The first plate

shows a mature plant and the second a section of a plant with an

eccentric stem, thick white flesh and broad lamellae, also part of

the surface of a pileus showing the scales.

Plate XLVIII. Pholiota luteofolia, Pk. A. Two old plants with de¬

pressed pilei and a section of another plant showing wide gills.

B. Underside of a pileus showing the gills and the stem hollow

from age. C. Part of a pileus showing the scaly surface.

Plate XLIX. Pholiota aegerita, Brigant. Two mature plants.

Plate L. Pholiota lutea, Pk. A. Cluster of large plants. B. Young

plants covered with the universal veil.

Plate LI. Pholiota erinaceella, Pk. Plants of various ages showing the

shape at the different stages of development and the bristly scaly

universal veil.

Plates LI I and LIII. Pholiota muricata, Fr. In plate LII, A

shows a cluster of plants growing from a piece of rotten wood,

the upper and under surface of the pileus and a young plant with

the veil separating from the pileus, B shows plants with long

straggling stems. Plate XXX shows plants in different stages of

development with bunches of mycelium at the base of the stems.

Plates LIV and LY. Pholiota marginata, Batsch. Plate LIV. A. A

very large plant. B. Young pileus showing separation of the

veil. C. Cluster of plants with inflated white pruinose stems.

D. Three plants growing on bark. Plate LV. Plants showing

different stages of development.

TRANS. WIS ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXIV

A

PHOLIOTA CAPERATA (PERS.)

HARPER — PH O LI OTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXV

n

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXVI

PHOLIOTA HOWEANA, PK. (?)

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXVII

A B CD

PHOLIOTA PRAECOX. (PERS.)

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXVIII

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA DURA, BOLT.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXIX

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

.COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA EREBI A, FR.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXX

CD

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

1

>

i

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXI

PHOLIOTA OMBROPHILA, FR

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXII

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

PHOLIOTA TOGU LARIS (BULL.)

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXIII

PHOLIOT A TEMNOPHYLLA. PK.

PHOLIOTA TERRIGENA. FR.

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXIV

PHOLIOTA ANGUSTIPES. PK.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXV

A PHOLIOTA SQUARROSA, MUELL.

B PHOLIOTA SQUARROSA. VAR. VERRUCULOSA. LASCH.

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA SQU ARROSOIDES. PK.

TRANS. W1S. ACAD. VOL. XVI!

PLATE XXXVI

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOT A SQUARROSOIDES, PK.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXVII

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA AURIVELLA. BATSCH

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXVIII

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA AURIVELLA. BATSCH.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXIX

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOT A ADIPOSA. FR.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XL

HARPER — PH QUOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTOI

TRANS. W1S. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLI

A B PHOLIOTA TUBERCULOSA. FR.

C PHOLIOTA FLAMMANS, FR.

D E PHOLIOTA CONFRAGOSA. FR.

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLI I

PHOLIOTA ALBO-CRENULATA. PK.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLIII

PHOLIOTA ALBO-CRENULATA. PK

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLIV

PHOLIOTA SPECTABILIS, FR.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLV

PHOLIOTA COMOSA, FR.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOT A HETEROCLITA. FR

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLVI

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA HETEROCLITA, FR.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLVII

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA LUTEO FOLIA, PK.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLVIII

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA AEGERITA, BRIGANT.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE XLIX

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE.

PHOLIOTA ERINACEELLA, PK.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LI

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LI I

PholiOta MURICATA. fr,

Harper— pholiota

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

PHOLIOTA MURICATA, FR.

TRANS WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LI 1 1

HARPER — PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA MARGINATA, BATSCH.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LIV

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LV

PHOLIOTA MARGINATA, BATSCH.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 503

THE WALDEN INVERSION— A CRITICAL REVIEW.

A. F. McLeod.

In 1891, Walden1 asserted that by means of a simple cycle, he

could pass directly from one optically active acid to its anti¬

pode. By treatment of natural 1 malic acid, for example, with

phosphorus pentachloride, he obtained a laevorotatory chlorsuc-

cinie acid, in which, by subsequent treatment with moist silver

oxide, he was able to substitute hydroxyl (OH) for chlorine

(Cl), and recover the hydroxy acid used as starting material.

To his great surprise, however, the malic acid thus obtained was

strongly dextrorotatory. When Walden used, in place of moist

silver oxide, stronger bases, e. g. potassium or sodium hydrox¬

ide, he recovered the original 1 malic acid. An inversion in

optical activity must have occurred, therefore, in his first cycle

either with phorphorns pentachloride or with silver oxide.

This work was ridiculed by all of the leading chemists at that

time, since it was entirely out of harmony with the ideas ad¬

vanced by Vant’ Hoff and Le Bel. These men had pointed out

that all of the optically active bodies studied by Pasteur had at

least one asymmetric carbon atom (meaning by ‘asymmetric, ’

that all of the atoms or groups attached to such a C atom were

different each from the other). This idea had served to put the

chemistry of the optically active bodies on a substantial and ra¬

tional basis. Earlier chemists2 had been forced to assign dif¬

ferent structural formulae to optical insomers — for a long time

the formula CH2OH-CH2-COOH was given to ‘fleishmilch-

1 Ber, 28, 1293.

2 Wislicenus: Ann. 166, 6; Moldenhauer : Ann. 131, 323.

504 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

saure7 (d lactic acid) to distinguish it from ‘gahrungs milch-

saure7 (dl lactic). According to Want ’Hoff’s idea, the differ¬

ence in physical properties of optical antipodes could be indi¬

cated structurally in a simple manner by means of a different

arrangement of the various groups around the asymmetric car¬

bon atom.

To maintain a rational system it was necessary, of course,

that in the simple exchange of one radical for another in an op¬

tically active compound by means of various reagents, no re¬

arrangement off the atoms in space should occur — in other

words, the substituted product should have a structure corre¬

sponding to that of the original material, as is represented by

Walden determined that these changes took place as indi¬

cated, both of which according to his latest work he regarded

as normal.3 Tie discovered, however, that by using moist silver

oxide to replace the halogen, he always obtained an abnormal

result (a product which demanded a rearrangement of the

atoms in space). Such an abnormal result always lights the

way to a new discovery, and demands an extension or revision

of our present theory. Walden was, therefore, not slow in an¬

nouncing that he had obtained an inversion in the optical ac¬

tivity off malic acid by means of a simple cycle in which OH

was replaced by Cl using phosphorus pentachloride, and the

halogen atom, in turn, was replaced by hydroxyl using moist

silver oxide — whence the name, the ‘Walden inversion.7

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 505

That such an inversion actually takes place is wonderful in¬

deed and, in my opinion, still remains to be proved, in spite of

the apparently absolute demonstration by Walden, Purdie,

Pisher, McKenzie and many others. Some recent experimental

work which I have done, indicates that the acid product ob¬

tained by the action of silver oxide in water solution on dl brom-

propionic acid (a change entirely analagous to the one given

above) has properties entirely different from those of ordinary

dl lactic acid. This evidence will be discussed at greater length

in the experimental part of this paper. (Since some confirma¬

tory evidence in the absolute proof to the contrary is still lack¬

ing, let us assume here for simplicity, that the Walden inver¬

sion is an established fact.

For a long time Walden was misled by the fact that his chlor-

succinic acids gave an actual rotation opposite to that indicated

by their sign i. e. d chlorsuccinic rotated laevo and vice versa.

But he decided finally* 4 that the action of phosphorus penta-

chloride on malic acid was normal, a conclusion which he de¬

duced largely from theoretical and physico-chemical considera¬

tions. Having determined this, it followed as a matter of

course that the action of potassium hydroxide was normal,

while that of moist silver oxide was abnormal. The question

as to whether the action of nitrous acid on asparaginic acid to

give malic was normal or abnormal, Walden left open, since he

was unable to determine. Having contributed a splendid and

practically complete demonstration of the chemistry of the opti¬

cally active malic acid series, Walden published the last of his

five papers in 1899, and left this field of work.

With the exception of a small but very significant contribu¬

tion by Purdie and Williamson,5 nothing of vital importance

was done on the Walden inversion from 1899 until March, 1907,

when Emil Fisher published his first article, “Zur Kenntnis der

Waldensche TJmkehrung.”6 In synthesizing various optically

active polypeptides, Fisher was forced to determine absolutely

sBerichte 32, 1855.

4 Ber, 32, 1833 and 1855.

s Trans. L. Ch. Soc. [1896] p. 838.

e Ber, 40, 1051.

506 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

by experiment whether there was anything in the idea of the

Walden inversion i. e. whether by nse of certain reagents, he

might obtain, not the corresponding substituted product, but its

optical antipode. This could only be determined by careful

experiment, since the sign of actual rotation whether dextro or

laevo, is no positive indication as to whether the body is really

a (d) or an (1) derivative. Fisher not only confirmed the

work of Walden by showing that an analagous inversion takes

place with a brompropionic acid by the successive action of phos¬

phorus pentachloride and moist silver carbonate, but he also

discovered another case where the change was accompanied by

inversion, namely the conversion of optically active alanin into

brompropionic acid, using nitrosyl bromide (H'OiBr) as the

brominating agent.

COOH COOH

I I

HC— NH3 + NOBr - > BrC— H + N2 + HsO

i r

CH3 ch3

d alanine 1 brompropionic

Fisher rigidly established that the Walden inversion was

confined to these two phases : Phase 1 — replacement of Cl by

OH by means of silver oxide or other bases of the same type.

Phase 2 — replacement of amino (NH2) group by halogen, using

nitrosyl halide as agent. That the action of phosphorus penta¬

chloride was normal, while that of nitrosyl bromide was ab¬

normal, he established as follows:

d iactic acid + PBr5 - d brompropionic acid (dextrorotary)

d lactic ethyl ester + PBr5 - >■ d brompropionic ethyl ester (dextroro¬

tatory)

d alanin + NOBr - > 1 brompropionic acid (laevorotatory)

d alanin ethyl ester + NOBr - > d brompropionic ethyl ester (dextro¬

rotatory).

Other evidence of course was furnished, but the main point

in Fisher’s proof was the comparison of results obtained by

various reagents on the free acids and their corresponding

esters. If these two actions were analagous, the substituting

agent reacted normally; if different products were obtained in

the two actions, an inversion must have occurred in the case of

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 507

the free acid. That the inversion took place with the free acid

rather than with the ester, Fisher decided from the fact that

esters were less inclined to optical reversals than the correspond¬

ing acids. Having established as above that the action of phos¬

phorus pentachloride or pentabromide resp. was normal, it

followed that the subsequent action of potassium hydroxide on

the brom acid, thus formed from lactic, was normal, while that

of moist silver carbonate on the same brom acid was abnormal

just as Walden finally decided. The correctness of the above

reasoning Fisher also established as follows by direct experi¬

ment.

d brompropionic acid •+ KOH - ^ d lactic acid ( — Zn salt)

d brompropionic acid + Ag20 - > 1 lactic acid (+ Zn salt)

d brompropionyl glycin + Ag20 - > d lactic ester (Free acid obt. by

hydrolysis gave negative zinc s£lt).

The actions of ammonia and of nitrous acid (nitrous fumes)

were held to be normal from a consideration of the following re¬

actions :

d brompropionic acid -f- NH3 - >- d alanin (dextrorotatory)

d brompropionic ethyl ester -f- NH3 - d alanin ethyl ester (dextro¬

rotatory)

d alanin + N203 - >- d lactic acid (Negative zinc salt)

d alanin ethyl ester + N203 - > d lactic ethyl ester (Free acid obt. by

hydrolysis gave negative zinc salt).

Walden had tried the action of ammonia on chlorsuccinic

acid but failed to get asparaginic acid. Fisher, by repeating

Walden’s experiment later,7 was able to isolate a small amount

of the amino acid in. this wav. This fact is quite significant

since it serves to bring out another important point. The for¬

mation of mon amino acid, by the action of concentrated aqueous

ammonia on the halogen substituted acids, never takes place

alone as most writers seem to imply. We sometimes have di

and triamino acids formed in this action (vide Heintz)8 and

since ammonia acts also as a weak base, as well as an amino

compound, we ought to have a large or small amount of hydroxy-

7 Fisher and Raske: Ber. 40, 1051-7.

s Heintz: Ann. 156, 25; Ann. 136, 213-223.

508 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

acid always formed simultaneously.9 These facts may have an

important bearing when we test experimentally the second

phase of the Walden inversion brought out by Fisher, namely

the apparent inversion in the action of nitrosyl bromid on the

amino acid and the normal reaction obtained with ammonia on

the brom acid to give the corresponding amino acid. In this

connection, I may add, however, that the action of nitrosyl bro¬

mide on alanin gives a quantitative yield of perfectly homo¬

geneous, constant boiling, brom-propionic acid. If the inver¬

sion which seems to occur with nitrosyl bromide, does not take

place as a matter of fact, we would simply have to shift the

names of our aminopropionic acids, i. e. call laevorotatory

alanin d alanin and vice versa, and likewise other homologous

amino acids. This would involve no very radical change as we

now have just such a condition in the case of the halogen suc¬

cinic acids — we should have the amino group now and then ex¬

erting the same general effect on the absolute rotation of, the acid

or ester as the substituting halogen group sometimes does. If such

is the case, we can test the point most readily experimentally by

a reinvestigation of the action of nitrous fumes on dl alanin to

determine whether dl lactic acid is really obtained or is the only

product formed. It is quite reasonable to believe that nitrous

acid may give in this case also a body having all the properties

of the acid product which we obtained in the action of moist sil¬

ver oxide or dl brompropionic acid.

Fisher also stated that the inversion seemed to occur only

with a substituted acids i. e. at the asymmetric carbon atom next

to the free COOH group and that it took place only with the

free acid and never with the ester. By substituting C2II5 for

H in the COOIT group, my own experiments as well as those of

others have shown that the reactivity of brompropionic acid

toward oxide of silver in absolute ether solution at ordinary

temperature is reduced from an extremely high value to prac¬

tically zero. By thus reducing the speed of the reaction we

should naturally expect to get a normal result in the replacement

of haloegn by hydroxyl using oxide of silver as substituting

9 Same as No. 8.

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 509

agent. That an inversion should not take place with esters

much more reactive than brompropionic, is not at all inconceiv¬

able if it really does take place with the free acid ; this, however,

would supply a serious objection to Fisher’s proof of which re¬

agent causes inversion. Later on,10 Fisher demonstrated that a

(3 halogen substituted fatty acid did not give an inversion with

silver oxide and that the action of nitrosyl bromide on the cor¬

responding amino acid was undoubtedly normal in this case also.

By moving the halogen one C atom back from the COOH group,

the compound ordinarily becomes far less reactive. As a simple

i lustration of this, we may compare the action of « chlor and P

chlorpropionic acid with silver oxide.11 By checking the speed

of the action, we should expect to get a normal replacement of

halogen by hydroxyl, using silver oxide as agent, just as Fisher

has determined experimentally with ft chlorbutyric acid. Mc¬

Kenzie very recently12 confirms this observation by proving that

phenyl P brompropionic acid does not give an inversion with

silver oxide. There is no reason, however, a priori, for not get¬

ting an inversion with very reactive ft halogen or amino substi¬

tuted acids as well as «.

The phenomena, giving rise to the ‘Walden inversion’ (real

or apparent), take place, as far as I have been able to judge, as

the result of a very rapid action. The replacement of halogen

by hydroxyl in a perfectly normal manner takes place when the

reaction proceeds more slowly.

We must bear in mind the fact that « brompropionic acid

forms sodium and potassium salts which have a fair degree of

stability towards water and dilute alkali. I have succeeded in

recovering sodium brompropionate almost quantitatively from

a water solution of the free acid neutralized with sodium hydrox¬

ide and subsequently distiled off at reduced pressure (20 mm)

heating finally to 60° C ; while, contrary to the statement of Beck-

urts and Otto,13 by no conceivable method could I get a trace of

ioBer. [May, 1909], 1219.

ii Wichelhaus : Ann. 143, 1. Moldenhauer, Ann. 131, 323.

is J. L. Ch. Soc. March, 1910', p. 121.

is Beckurts & Otto: Ber. 18, 223; Ber. 16, 576. W. H. Perkin; J. L.

Ch. Soc. Vol. 11, p. 25; Yol. 32, p. 90.

510 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the silver salt of a brompropionic acid by neutralizing with

silver oxide. The reaction between silver oxide and brompro-

pionic acid proceds with tremendous speed once the short period

of induction is passed — hydrogen bromide is split off readily

and silver bromide separates out quantitatively in a very short

time. According to Senter,14 a brompropionic acid, treated in

water solution with silver nitrate, gives a reaction 17000 times

faster than that of sodium hydroxide on the same acid. With

silver oxide in place of silver nitrate, there is also undoubtedly

a vast difference in speed between the two reactions. That we

are dealing here with two totally different reactions is the opin¬

io of Senter, Burke and Donnan,15 Euler16 and others, who

have attacked this problem from the physico-chemical stand¬

point. That different reaction products are formed remains to

be rigidly established.

Fisher and Scheiblef s Results and McKenzie's Contribution.

We are now in a position to consider some results, which, when

viewed in the right light, may turn out to be a reductio ad ab-

surdum disproof of the whole Walden inversion. In the first

place we may ask: Can Fisher’s explanation of the Walden

inversion be followed out to give a completely harmonious sys¬

tem ? Ho. He has found that in the case of d valin (da

aminoisovalerianic acid) a double inversion occurs i. e. an in¬

version both with nitrosyl bromide and ammonia, so that as a

result of this cycle the original valin is regenerated.17 In this

case we may still believe, as Fisher first thought, that no inver¬

sion occurs with either reagent, since Fisher and Scheibler found

that bromisovalerianic acid, treated either with potassium; hy¬

droxide or with silver oxide,18 yielded the same hydroxy-acid.

Here again we may have, of course, an inversion with both

bases — indeed, unless we make such an assumption, the action

of nitrous acid must also be considered abnormal, since 1 valin

with nitrous acid gives the same oxy-acid as is obtained by the

i4 Proc. Li. Ch. Soc. [1908] 24, 89. J. L. Ch. Soc. Dec., 1909, p. 1827.

is Trans. L. Ch. Soc. 1904, p. 555.

is Ber. 39, 2726-2734.

it Ber. 41, 889.

is Ber. 41, 2891.

McLeiod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 511

action of potassium hydroxide or silver oxide on d bromisova-

lerianic acid. These results, when carefully considered, seem

to indicate that there is no inversion of optical activity in any of

reactions of optically active valin or its corresponding deriva¬

tives. Fisher himself is. at a loss in considering these reactions

for they show that, if there is anything in the idea of a Walden

inversion, the influence of any reagent, whether normal or ab¬

normal, can not be predicted, but must be worked out carefully

in each individual case. This necessarily means much tedious

work in establishing the changes taking place with optically

active substances — as an immediate result it tends to throw some

doubt on the absolute configuration of the C3 acids as established

by Fisher on the basis of several changes, all of which were as¬

sumed to be normal.

Nomenclature Revised according to Neuberg’s Latest Work.

COOH COOH COOH COOH

HC-OH < - HCNH3 - >HCNHj - - > HCJ—OH

ch3oh ch3oh ch3 ch3

d glyceric 1 serine d alanine d lactic

(dextrorot) (natural) (natural)

Fisher and Jacobs19 had shown that d serine had a constitution

corresponding to that of d glycerinic, the structure of which

had been proved to be similar to that of d tartaric and therefore

to d glucose by Neuberg and Silbermann.20

COOH COOH

I I

HCNHg -f HN02 - > HC— OH

I (N203) I

CH3OH CH2OH

1 serine d glycerinic

1 serine gives by treatment with nitrous acid the corresponding

hydroxy-acid, (1 glycerine acid according to Neuberg and Sil¬

bermann) or d glycerinic acid according to Neuberg’s latest

work (where he shows that d glycerinic acid by addition of

prussic acid etc. gives d tartaric acid).21 d glycerinic acid has

the structural formula therefore as given above

i»Ber. 40, 1057.

20 Zeit. fur physiol. Ch. 44, 134 [1905].

21 Bioch. Zeit. 5, 451.

512 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

COOH

HC-OH

ch2oh

d glycerinic

which is in beautiful harmony with the system proposed by

Rosanoff.22 Fisher and Easke succeeded in converting 1 serine

into d alanine,23 which in turn by treatment with nitrous acid

gave d lactic acid.24 We have, therefore, a rigid demonstration

of the configuration of the whole series of tbe C3 optically active

acids, providing of course, tbat all the exchanges used in this

proof take place normally.

Fisher seems to be about to attack this problem from an en¬

tirely different point of view. Making use of Guye and Crum

Brown’s hypothesis i. e. by simply determining the effect of var¬

ious substituting groups on the absolute rotation of a large

number of organic compounds and taking account also of the

relative position of the various groups, one may ultimately be

able to calculate the rotation produced by a body of a given

configuration. Providing no other side products were formed,

we would have complete information regarding the changes

taking place with optically active bodies as soon as we had de¬

termined the rotation of the product. The exact trend of Fish¬

er’s future work on the Walden inversion is hard to determine —

his last paper on propyl, isopropyl cyanacetic acid25 seems to

be in the direction indicated here. To attain results of general

significance along this line will involve, however, a very consid¬

erable amount of tedious work, since the elimination of the

effect of the solvent upon the absolute rotation of various sub¬

stances is a matter of extreme difficulty. Unfortunately, all of

our pure organic bodies can not be studied in the form of oils.

We shall now consider some results in another series which

may be interpreted on the basis of a double inversion. Short1"

after Fisher’s first paper was published in March 1907, M

Kenzie, an English chemist, announced some experimental i

22 j. Am. Ch. Soc. [1906] Vol. 28, p. 118 footnote.

23Ber. 40, 3717; Ber. 41, 893.

24 Ber. 40, 1051.

25 Ber. [Sept. 1909] 42, 2981-2989.

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 513

suits/6 obtained with, optically active phenyl chloracetic acid,

which were entirely out of harmony with Fisher’s results ob¬

tained in the lactic acid series, as well as those of Walden in the

malic acid series. McKenzie quickly seized upon Fisher’s

double inversion idea as a means of explaining some of his ap¬

parently anomalous results (i. e. anomalous in the sense of not

harmonizing with Fisher’s conception of the Walden inversion

as proposed in 1907). He found that optically active mandelic

acid, treated with phosphorous pentachloride and then with

potassium hydroxide, yielded its antipode while successive

treatment with phosphorous pentachloride and oxide of silver

gave back the same optically active mandelic acid as was used

at the start. To obtain a harmonious explanation of these re¬

sults, McKenzie, in his second article,27 held that the action of

phosphorous pentachloride might be considered as abnormal in

this case ; the action of potassium hydroxide would then be nor¬

mal and that of silver oxide abnormal just as Fisher and Wal¬

den found in other series. But this assumption (that phosphor-

our pentachloride may act abnormally) did not harmonize with

the following observations by the same author.

d mandelic + PC15 - ^ laevorotatory d phenyl chloracetic

ethyl d mandelate + PC16 - >- laevorotatory d phenyl chloracetic ethyl

ester.

He was forced to interpret, therefore, that silver carbonate

acted normally , just as it may in Fisher’s experiment with opti¬

cally active valin, and that the action of potassium hydroxide was

abnormal. These results- are exactly the opposite of those ob¬

tained by Fisher and Walden in the lactic and malic acid series

respectively. McKenzie found also that the action of water

was abnormal comparable to the action of strong bases on halo¬

gen acids of this series while Walden found that the action of

water was similar to that of silver oxide and other weak bases.

When phenylamino acetic acid was treated with nitrosyl bro¬

mide and the resulting brom acid treated with ammonia, the

original amino acid was recovered. McKenzie explained this

26 J. L. Ch. Soc. [May 1908] Vol. 93, p. 81.

27 J. L. Ch. Soc., May 1909, p. 777.

514 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

result on the basis of an inversion with both reagents entirely

analagous to the double inversion which Fisher seems to have

rigidly established in the case of optically active valin. There

is very little danger that McKenzie will contribute anything

startling to our present knowledge of the Walden inversion’ as

he is unquestionably simply following Fisher’s lead in another

series. As a serious objection to McKenzie’s work he has yet to

prove, as far as I can see, that his phenyl chloracetic acid, when

treated and allowed to stand with solutions of various dilute al¬

kalies in cold water,28 even by boiling finally for a short time (30

to 60 minutes) actually splits to any considerable extent, or,

if it does split completely, that he obtains quantitatively mande-

lic acid. If very little splitting actually takes place, then Mc¬

Kenzie’s results for stronger alkalies in water solution are value¬

less while oxide of silver, at all events, may be very reasonably

held to give a normal substitution product — a result at variance

with the facts established by Fisher, Walden and others who

have used this reagent. Inasmuch as mandelic acid is a. beauti¬

ful crystalline body, these crucial experiments, when carefully

repeated, ought to give much more definite results than are ob¬

tained with malic and lactic acid since both of the latter give

oily derivatives difficult to identify sharply. Of course it must

be admitted that the introduction of the pheuyl group exerts a

powerful influence, but it may be said in this connection that

monochlor acetic acid gives sodium and potassium salts which

are very stable in water and alkaline solution29 while the halo¬

gen, being in the a position, is very easily removed with silver

oxide.

As I have tried to point out, future progress in disentang¬

ling the ‘Walden inversion’ will depend not on establishing

more analogous inversions in other series, for this will simply

add to the confusion already existing.

A rational explanation for the results obtained, where an in¬

version of optical activity appears to take place, will undoubt-

28 j. L. C'h. Soc., May 1909, p. 782 et seq. Expt. part.

29 Senter: J. L. Ch. Soc. Sec. 1909, 1827; Hoffman: Ann. 102, 6;

Kekule: Ann. 105, 288.

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 515

edly be found as a result of most careful experiments to estab¬

lish the changes which actually occur in the action of various

reagents on optically active bodies, all of which have been as

sumed to take place as a result of a simple metalepsis. Scarcely

any of these changes have been rigidly established. Almost

without exception,30 satisfactory figures for solubility, water

of hydration and percentage of zinc have sufficed to prove the

presence of lactic acid in the form of its zinc salt. When the

reader weighs carefully the evidence presented in the experi¬

mental part of this paper, he will undoubtedly agree with me

that the Walden inversion simply represents another case of

some peculiar co-incident results which have often led scientists

astray.

Seme recent experimental results.

This investigation was undertaken at the suggestion of Prof.

J. U. Uef of the University of Chicago with the purpose of ob¬

taining independent experimental evidence to support his idea

that the four valences of the carbon atom are not mutually equi¬

valent, but only in pairs. Acording to this idea we ought to be

able to prepare two space isomeric diazo propionic esters resp.

d and 1.

C

N— + COOR

d body

N- +CH3

C

N+ ^Tcoor

1 body

The preparation of diazo fatty esters is no easy matter and

besides it was necessary first to become thoroughly familiar

with the properties of the optically active acids of the C3

series.

Optically active alanin was prepared according to Fisher’s

method by resolution of benzoyl alanin by means of brucin in

so Wislicenus: Ann. 166, 6; Heintz: Ann. 156, 25; Ann. 157, 295;

Wiehelhaus: Ann. 143, 1; Friedel & Machuca, Comptes Rendus, 13, 408;

Buff: Ann. 140, 156; El Fisber; Ber. 40, 1051.

30 e. Fisher & A. Skita: Zeit. fur physiol. Ch. [1901] Vol. 33, 190;

E. Fisher & Zemplen: Ber. Dec. 1909, 42, 4878-4892; Beckurts & Otto:

Ber. 18, 222-238.

516 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

aqueous solution. The laevorotory alanin, thus obtained, was

converted by means of nitrosyl bromide quantitatively into

dextrorotatory d brompropionic acid according to the latest

method of Fisher and Baske. The active brom acid, as pre¬

pared, contained 4.38% of optical antipode as against 3%

usually found by Fisher.

Inasmuch as nearly all of the experiments, where an inver¬

sion was observed, had been carried out in water solution, we

attempted to ascertain whether the same inversion occurred

in non-aqueous solution in order to establish, first of all, the

influence of the solvent. To avoid also the presence of any

possible trace of free base, Prof. !Nef proposed the idea of

studying the action of silver acetate (1 mol) on d brompropi¬

onic acid in absolute ether solution.

By hydrolysis of the crude ( aeylated ? ) gum thus obtained,

and subsequent heating in water solution with zinc carbonate, a

difficulty soluble crystalline zinc salt was obtained having all the

properties of. zinc lactate. Most of this material was in¬

active — silver acetate seems to have, therefore, a pronounced ra-

cemizing effect just as Marckwald and JSjplda have found in its

action on optically active amyl haloids at higher temperatures.

The mother liquor contained a considerable amount of zinc salt

which was strongly dextrotatory, from this fact we may as¬

sume, as others have done, that there is formed here a little 1 lac¬

tic acid, mixed with a large amount of dl lactic i. e. an inver¬

sion has occurred with silver acetate in absolute ether as well

as with silver salts in' water solution. The solvent undoubtedly

causes a difference in the amount of racemation but does not

alter the character of the action as far as inversion is con¬

cerned.

By the action of silver acetate ( 1 mol. ) in water solution, po¬

tassium acetate (1 mol.) in absolute alcohol solution, and so¬

dium hydroxide (1 mol.) in 0.1% water solution on d brom¬

propionic acid there was obtained after hydrolysis in every case,

on treatment with zinc carbonate, a difficulty soluble crystalline

zinc salt which was more strongly dextrorotatory than that

obtained in the experiment with silver acetate in absolute ether.

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review ;. 517

In accordance with the usual interpretation that nothing

but lactic acid is obtained here as ultimate product, we have

here in each of these three cases an inversion of optical activ¬

ity. These experiments serve to disprove Walden’s idea that

the inversion takes place only with silver hydroxide, water, and

analagous weak bases and never with bases or salts derived

from such metals as sodium, potassium, etc., whose action on wa¬

ter gives rise to the strong bases. As a result, we see that the

inversion may occur in any solvent, aqueous or non-aqueous, and

is caused by comparable very slight concentrations of all bases,

and of those salts which give bases by dissociation or hydrolysis.

That an inversion of optical activity really takes place in any

case, in the action of weak bases on halogen substituted fatty

jicids, becomes decidedly open to question when we consider the

folowing data obtained from experiments with dl (inactive)

brompropionic acid.

Space will not permit me to give, as I should like, a detailed

description of all the experiments which I have carried out in

order to determine the changes taking place in the action of sil¬

ver oxide and silver salts on d and dl brompropionic acid. I

shall content myself with the following summary of results with

dl mat. :

In the action of silver acetate on d, 1 or dl brompropionic acid

in absolute ether we should expect to get by double decomposi¬

tion, complete transformation to a acetyl hydroxy-propionic

acid (acylated lactic) soluble in water of b. pt. 134° (15 mm.).

CH3

HCBr-f AgOOCCHj

COOH

1 brompropionic

CH3 O

I II

HC-O-C- CH3 + Ag Br

COOH

1 acetyl hydroxy propionic acid.

We get, however, as main product a stiff gum insoluble in

water. This gum by hydrolysis with water should give lactic

acid of it consisted of oily lactid or poly lactyl lactic acid. By

hydrolysis and distillation of the water at reduced pressure, I

obtained, to my surprise, in place of mobile, syrupy lactic

acid titrating over 90% in the cold, a gum, soluble in water,

which had but very little mobility and which, with H/10 po¬

tassium hydroxide, titrated only 50% as a free acid. This

518 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

hydrolyzed product therefore had all the properties of the acid

gum obtained by hydrolysis of the crude product of the action

of silver acetate on d brompropionic acid in absolute ether.

Silver oxide, as well as silver carbonate, in water solution

yielded a gum which was soluble in water and titrated for the

most part as a free acid. By heating, however, with water at

120° for 6 hrs. in oil bath, there was obtained, after distilling

off water at reduced pressure, a stiff gum which was soluble in

water and titrated only 50% as a free acid. Even after dis¬

solving in excess of 5% soda solution, and heating alkaline solu¬

tion 5-6 hrs. at 100° the gum recovered by neutralization with,

stand, dil. HC1, distilling off water at reduced pressure etc., was

soluble in water but had very little mobility and titrated only

50-60% as a free acid. Can heating in tuater solution at 100°

in the 'presence of an excess of zinc carbonate convert this ma¬

terial into zinc lactate, where heating with water at 120° , or

with an excess of sodium carbonate at 100° did not yield lactic

acid or sodium lactate resp. ?

Acrylic acid or hydracrylic acid might easily be obtained

here.

H

CH3C— COOH + A g OH - > CHo = CH COOH + A g Br

Br

If the acrylic acid then in part added water again we should get

hydracrylic acid (ft hydroxy propionic).

CH2 = CH — COOH + HOH - > CH2 OH _ CH2 COOH.

That neither of these is present is shown by the fact that the

zinc salt crystallizes almost completely from water due to its

difficult solubility, while the zinc salts of acrylic and hydracry¬

lic acids are readily soluble in water.

Dilactic acid might be formed by simple metalepsis :

H

CH3 - C COOH

A g ''Br

O

Ag \Br

CH3 _ C — COOH

McLeod — The 'Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 519

That dilactic acid is not present is shown by the fact that the

crude acid product obtained by the action of silver oxide on dl

brompropionic, although proved to he homogeneous, shows no

tendency to crystallize. In addition brucin di lactate was found

to have dec. pt. l,10°-138o while the brucin salt of the crude

acid gum melts 200o-212° very similar to that of brucin lactate,

and other high melting brucin salts.

From the standpoint of dissociation according to 1ST ef , car-

boxyethylidene is formed first as intermediate product. By

subsequent addition of unchanged brompropionic acid we should

expect as the ultimate product not dilactic acid but its structural

isomer which exists in two space isomeric modifications:

CH

HCBr ' - >

O OH

CH3

Cc^+HBr

I

COOH

ch3 ch3

2C(+2 HC— Br-

COOH COOH

CH3

> HC —

CH

i

C— Br+ Br C

I _ I

CH3

CH

OOH COOH

COOH COOH

ch3

iooH

CH-

C — Br + AgOH

COOH

> HC

CH-

I

ch3

<L

I

OH + A g Br

OOH COOH

Work is now being continued along this line by the author of

this article in the chemical laboratory of Beloit college. (An at¬

tempt will be made to prepare this body synthetically and study

its properties. From its structure we should expect it to behave

very similar to lactic or dilactic acid and in addition it ought to

give very readily a 1, 2 lactone.

In conclusion, I will say that, by using absolute ether in

place of water as solvent, one is enabled to study the action of

silver oxide on the simple esters of the halogen substituted fatty

acids without danger of hydrolysis. In marked contrast to the

behavior of the free acid, dl brompropionic ester does not react

at room temp, with silver oxide in absolute ether solution. By

520 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

heating dl brompropionic ethylester with silver oxide several

hours at 120° the main product in the action was dilactic diethyl

ester just as in the action of the sodium salt of lactic ethyl ester

on dl brom propionic ester, acording to von Bruggen.

H O

I ^

CH3_ C— C— OC2H6

Br\ A g

O

Br^* A g

CH3_ C— C— OC2H5

H %

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Table of Abbreviations used in preceding footnotes and in this bib¬

liography.

(1) Ann.=Liebig’s Annalen der Chemie und der Pharmacie.

(2) Ber.=Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft.

(3) C. R.=Comptes Rendus de l’Academie.

(4) Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. — Annales de Chemie et de Physique.

(5) J. Ch. Soc. or J. L. Ch. Soc.=Journal London Chemical Society.

(6) J. Am. Ch. Soc.= Journal American Chemical Society.

(7) Am. Ch. J.— -American Chemical Journal.

(8) Bioch. Zeit.=Biochemische Zeitschrift.

(9) Zeit. fiir phys. Ch.=Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie.

(10) Zeit fiir physiol. Ch.=Zeitschrift fur physiologische Chemie.

(11) J. Pr. Ch.=: Journal fiir Practische Chemie.

7. Decomposition of Beta iodpropionic acid.

Frop. of Acrylic and Ily dr acrylic acid.

1. Action of pot. ethylate on Beta iodpropionic acid. Schneider

and Erlenmeyer: Ber. 3, 341.

2. A study of acrylic acid. Claus: Ann. Suppl. 2,128; Linnemann:

Ann. 163, 95 Ann. 171, 292.

3. Conv. of acrylic acid into glycerin-iodpropionic acid. Wisli-

cenus: Ann. 166, 1.

4. Action of moist silver oxide on glycerin-iodproprionic acid. Bell-

stein: Ann. 120, 226; Ann. 122, 366. Wislicenus: Ann. 160, 6;

Ber. 3, 809. Socoloff: Ann. 150, 167. Moldenhauer: Ann. 131,

323. Wichelhaus: Ann. 143, 1.

5. Proof that hvdracrylic acid and ‘aethylenmilchsaure’ are identi¬

cal, Erlenmeyer: Ann. 191, 267.

6. Acrylic acid gives hydracrylic by simply boiling with water.

E. Klimenko: Ber. 23c. 325 (1890).

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 521

7. Conv. of acrylic acid into hydracrylic by heating at 100° with

aqueous sodium hydroxide. Linnemann: Ann. 191, 304. LJn-

nemann: Ber. 8, 1095. Erlenmeyer: Ann. 191, 267.

8. Action of ammonia on Beta iodpropionic acid. Heintz: Ann.

156, 25.

9. Action of lime-water at 100° on ethylene iodpropionic Beta iod¬

propionic acid). Heintz: Ann. 157, 295.

10. Splendid method for preparation of pure acrylic ethyl ester by

action of zinc on Beta dibrompropionic ethyl ester. Caspary

and Tollens: Ann. 167, 222-270.

II. Monochlor acetic, glycollic, etc.

1. Prep, of thioglycollic and thiodiglycollic ester by action of so¬

dium hydrosulphide on monochloracetic ester. Lossen: Ann.

136, 244.

2. Formation of glycollic from acetic through the action of moist

silver oxide on monochloracetic acid. Kekule: Ann. 105, 288.

3. Action of various bases on monochloracetic acid. Hoffmann:

Ann. 102, 6.

4. ‘Zur Kenntnis der glycolamidsauren’. Heintz: Ann. 136, 213-

223.

III. Lactyllactic, lactid and Tiomologues.

1. Prep, of cryst. lactid by passing an air-stream through dl lactic

at 150°. Wislicenius: Ann. 167, 318-319.

2. Prep, of lactid and of glycolid by dry distillation of sodium salts

of brom fatty acids in vacuum. Bischoff and Walden: Ber.

26, 263.

3. Prep, and prop, of lactyl lactyl lactic and dl dilactid. Jung-

fleish and Godchot: Comptes Rendus 140, 502-5.

4. Condensation of pyruvic acid by boiling with aqueous barium

hydroxide. Bottinger: Ann. 208, 129.

5. Prep, of lactyl lactic (lactic anhydride). Pelouze: Ann. 53, 112-

124. Wislicenus: Ann. 133, 257; Ann. 164, 181, etc.

6. Prep, of lactyl lactic ethyl ester. Jungfleish and Godchot: C. R.

144, 425-7.

7. Prep, of opt. active dilactid. Jungfleish and Godchot: C. R. 141,

111-113.

IV. a chlor-, brom, hydroxy, amino propionic acids.

1. Resolution of dl brompropionic acid using cinchonin. Warburg:

Ann. 340, 168. Ramberg: Ann. 349, 324>; Ber. 33, 3254; Ber. 23,

3354.

2. Resolution of dl alanin by partial fermentation with yeast.

Felix Ehrlich: Bioch. Zeit. 1. 8-31. Ber. 39, 3992 footnote.

522 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

3. Resolution of amino acids by means of alkaloids. E. Fisher and

students: Ber. 32 II, 2370-2383. Ber. 32 II, 2451. Ber. 32 III,

3638. Ber. 34 III, 3764.

4. Prep of 1 brompropionic acid from d alanin and of d brompro-

pionic from 1 alanin using nitrosyl bromide. E. Fisher and

Warburg: Ann. 340, 171. E. Fisher and Raske: Ber. 39, 3988-

3995.

5. Prep, and properties of alanin ethyl ester. E. Fisher: Ber. 34,

442. Curtius and Goebel: J. Pr. Ch. [2] 37, 159.

6. Prep, of optically active brom- and chlorpropionic esters by the

action of phosphorus pentabromide or pentachloride resp. on

opt. active lactic acid and esters. Purdie and Williamson:

J. L. Ch. Soc. 67, 914. Walden: Ber. 28, 1287.

7. The hydrolytic splitting of acylated oxy-acids. Julius Rath:

Centralblatt [1908] I, 717.

8. Conversion of propionic into a hydroxypropionic through the

action of moist silver oxide on alpha chlorpropionic acid. Buff:

Ann. 140, 156. Wichelhaus: Ann. 143, 1. Friedel & Machuca:

Comptes Rendus 13, 408.

9. A complete study of ‘gahrungsmilchsaure’ (dl lactic acid) and

of fleishmilchsaure (d lactic acid). Wislicenus: Ann. 167, 302.

10. Cone, the action of ammonia on a chlorpropionic acid. Heintz:

Ann. 156, p. 25.

11. Cone, the action of lime-water at 100° on ethylidene chlorpro¬

pionic acid (a chlorpropionic acid). Heintz: Ann. 157, 295.

12. Conv. of natural d alanin into d lactic acid by means of nitrous

acid. E. Fisher & A. Skita: Zeitschr. fur physiol; Ch. 33, 190

[1901].

13. Resolution of dl lactic using double zinc ammonium salt. Pur¬

die: Trans. L. Ch. Soc. [1893] Vol. 63, p. 1143.

14. Resolution of dl lactic with quinine and prop, of 1 lactic acid.

Jungfleish: C. R. 140, 719.

V. Prep, of fatty diazo compounds.

1. Verkettung von Amidosauren. Curtius: J. Pr. Ch. 70, 59.

2. Diazoacetic acid. Curtius & Lang: J. Pr. Ch. [2] 38, 401-406.

J. Pr. Ch. [2] 44, 564

3. Alpha diazopropionic acid. Curtius & Lang: J. Pr. Ch. [2] 44,

559. J. Pr. Ch. [2] 38, 487.

4. Diazosuccinic acid. Curtius & Koch: Ber. 18, 1294.

5. Diazosuccinamino acid ethyl ester. Curtius & Koch: Ber. 18,

1298.

6. Diazooxyacrylic acid ethyl ester. Curtius & Buchner: Ber. 19,

850. 5

McLeod — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 523

VI. Prep, and properties of dilactic acid and analagous compounds.

1. Prep, of dilactic diethyl ester by heating together alpha ehlor-

proprionic ethyl ester and sod. salt of lactic ethyl ester for 24

hrs. at 110°-120°. Yon Bruggen : Ann. 148, 224.

2. Prep, of inactive dilactic diethyl ester hy a modification of Yon

Brnggen’s experiment. E. Jungfleish & M. Godchot: Central-

Matt [1907] II, 136. Comptes Rendus 144, 979-981.

3. Prep, of opt. active dilactic diethyl ester hy mixing di brompro-

pionic ethyl ester and sod. salt of d lactic ethyl ester in dry

ether solution at ordinary temperature. Jungfleish & Godchot:

Comptes Rendus 144, 979, May 1907.

4. Prep, of dilactic acid by action of heat on anhyd. Ca. lactate at

180°. Tanatar & Tshelebiew: Centralblatt 91, 117. J. Russ

Phys. Ch. Ges. 22, 107. J. Russ. Phys. Ch. Ges. [1890] I 107-

110, at 250°-270°. Wurtz & Friedel: Ann. de Ch. et de Phys.

[3] 63, 114.

5. Proposed method for prep, of dilactic acid by action of chlorlac-

tic ester on potassium ethyl lactate. Wurtz & Friedel: Ann.

de Ch. et de Phys. [3] 63, 114.

6. Diglycollic acid and its homologues. Jungfleish & Godchot:

Comptes Rendus 145, 70.

7= New homologues of diglycollic acid. Jungfleish & Godchot:

Comptes Rendus 146, 26-29.

8. Cond. of pyruvic acid by heating with aqueous barium hydroxide.

Bottinger: Ann. 208, 129.

VII. Chlorsnccinic, malic, fumarie, 'brom-'butyric, etc.

1. Ethereal malates. Purdie & Williamson: Trans. L. Ch. Soc.

[1896] p. 818-839.

2. Action of alkyliodides on silver salt of lactic acid. Trans. L. Ch.

Soc. [1898] p. 296.

3. Action of alkyl iodides on silver malate and on silver lactate.

Purdie & Lander: Trans. 1898, 287-301.

4. Action of silver salts on fumaryl chloride in non-aqueous sol¬

vents. Perkin: J. L. Ch. Soc. [1881], Vol. I, p. 554, 562. J. L.

Ch. Soc. [1882] p. 268.

5. Opt. behavior of malic acid. Ch. Winther : Centrablatt [1906]

II, p. 22.

6. Discussion of isomerism between maleic and fumarie acids.

Perkin: J. Ch. Soc. (1881) Yol. I, p. 444-445.

7. Behavior of fumarie and maleic acid towards fuming hydro-

bromic acid. Fittig & Dorn: Ann. 188, 87.

8. Conv. of fumarie acid into malic by means of aqueous sodium

hydroxide at 100°. Loydl & Linnemann : Ann. 192, 80.

524 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

9. Form, of cro tonic acid by action of alcoholic potash on mono-

brombutyric ethyl ester. C. Hell & E. Lauber: Ber. 7, 560-64.

VIII. Alpha acetyl propionic, p acetyl propionic or levulinic, brom-

phenylpropionic , phenyl lactic , glycerinic acids.

1. By action of sodium carbonate sol. brom levulinic acid gives ft

acetyl acrylic acid and Beta hydroxylevulinic acid:

H

CH3C— C_CHs_COOH

A Br

H H

CH,C- C=C— COOH + HBr

I)

H

CH3C— C— CH.—COOH + HOH

A Br '

H H

CH3C-C- C— COOH + H Br.

|| OH H

2. Two homologoes of acetopropionic acid. Bischoff & Wislicenus:

Ann 206, 313.

3. A new synthesis of succinic acid with side formation of ft acetyl

propionic acid. Noldecke & Wislicenus: Ann. 149, 228.

4. A study of levulinic acid. Grote & Tollens: Ber. 11, 2177.

5. Acid and ketone splitting of aceto acetic ester. Wislicenus:

Ann. 188, 218.

6. Splitting of aceto succinic ethyl ester. Conrad & Wislicenus:

Ann. 206, 338.

7. Synthesis of glycerinic acid by the action of silver oxide on

monochlorlactic acid. Frank & Wislicenus: Ann. 206, 338.

8. A study of the action of various reagents on mcnobromphenyl-

prop ionic acid obtained by the action of bromine on hydrocin-

namic acid. Glaser: Ann. 143, 343.

9 TJber atrolactinsaure and phenylmilchsaure’. Fittig & Kast:

Ann. 206.27.

IX. Action of various substituting reagents on organic halogen com¬

pounds.

1. Chem. dynamics of the reactions between sod. thiosulphate and

organic halogen compounds. Slator & Colaborators : J. Ch. Soc.

85, 1286. J. Ch. Soc.. 87, 481. J. Ch. Soc. (Feb. 1909) p. 93-103.

2. Reaction between silver nitrate and organic halogen compounds.

Hans Euler: Ber. 39, 2726-2734.

3. Reactivity of the halogens in organic compounds. George

Senter: Trans. L. Ch. Soc. 91, 460. Proc. L*. Ch. Soc. (1908)

24-89 esp. Part III by same author J. L. Ch. Soc. Dec. 1909

p. 1827. Reaction of bromoacetic, a bromopropionic and a

bromobutyric acids and their sodium salts with water and

with alkali.

McLeod — -The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 525

4. Reactivity of alkyl haloids with silver nitrate. Burke & Don-

nan: Trans. L. Ch. Soc. 1904 p. 555.

5. Cone, the speed of the action of alcoholic potash on the halogen

derivatives of the fatty hydrocarbons. Mejer Wildermann:

Zeit. fiir phys. Ch. 8, 661-676.

6. Action of silver nitrate and other reagents on alkyl bromides.

Lengfeld: Am. Ch. J. 11, p. 40-66.

7. Prep, of olefines by heating alkyl haloids with oxide of lead at

220°-225°. G. Wagner: Ber. 11, 414.

8. Action of alcoholic potash, potassium acetate and silver acetate

resp. on n. propyl bromide and iodide. Chapman & Smith:

J. L. Ch. Soc. [1869] Vol. 22, p. 193-198.

9. Action of pot. ethylate, silver acetate or glacial acetic, pot.

acetate, pot. cyanide etc. resp. or butyl haloids, Lieben & Rossi:

Ann. 158, 164.

10. Relation of opt. active to corresp. dl amylalcohols. Marckwald

& Nolda: Ber. (June 1909) 1583.

X. Work of P. Walden of ‘ Walden Inversion'.

Malic, Asparaginic, chlorsuccinic acids.

Ber. 29, 135. Ber. 32, 1855. Ber. 30, 3147.

Ber. 28, 1293. Ber. 32, 1833.

XI. Work of Pur die and Williamson on * Walden Inversion .’

1. Conv. of dextrolactic into laevolactic by means of the action of

silver oxide on a chlorpropionic acid.

Trans. L. Ch. Soc. [1896] p. 838.

XII. Work of Emil Fisher on ‘ Walden Inversion:

Alanin, Brompropionic, Lactic acids.

1. Ber. 40, 1051 ‘Zur Kenntnis der Waldensche Umkehrung.’

2. Ber. 40, 5000-5008. Action of trimethylanoine and d brom¬

propionic acid.

3. Ber. 41.889'. A study of opt. active valin.

4. Ber. 41. 2891 Proof of ‘double inversion’ in the case of

opt. active valin.

5. Ber. 41, 1286. A study of phenylamino acetic acid.

6. Ber. [May 1909] 1219. No inversion with j8 Chlorbutyric.

7. Ber. [Oct. 1909] A test of Guye & Crum Brown’s hy¬

pothesis. Propyl isopropyl cyan acetic acid.

8. Ber. [Jan. 1910] Action of calcium oxide and of zinc ox¬

ide on halogen fatty acids in water sol. at 100°.

9. Ber. [July 1910] 2020-2030. No inversion in the action of

nitrous acid on d /3 amino /3 phenyl propionic to give

laevorotatory 0 oxy j0 phenyl propionic acid.

526 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

XIII. Work of MacKenzie on ‘ Walden Inversion .’

Phenylaminoacetic, phenyichloracetic, mandelic acids.

(1) Resolution of mandelic acid by means of various alka¬

loids [1899] Vol. 75, 964.

(2) 3. L. Ch. Soc. Anomalous results with, potassium hy¬

droxide, silver oxide, etc. Trans. [1908] Yol. 93, 811.

(3) J. L. Ch. Soc. Harmonizes some of his results by assum¬

ing an inversion with ammonia. Trans. [April 1909]

p. 777-793.

(4) J. L. Ch. Soc. No inversion with opt. active j8 brom j8.

Phenylpropionic acid. Trans. [Feb. 1910] p. 121.

XIV. Excellent reviews of work on ‘ Walden Inversion.’’

(1) Annual Reports of the Progress of Chemistry for 1907. J. L.

Ch. Soc. Chapter on Stereochemistry, p. 189.

(2) L. H. Cone. Chapter on Stereochemistry. J. Am. Ch. Soc.

[Mar. 1910]

XV. An ingenious idea developed from observations on pinene as to

how phosphorous pentachloride may cause inversion.

H. E. Armstrong. J. L. Ch. Soc. 69, 1399.

XVI. Asymmetric synthesis.

(1) McKenzie & Humphries: J. L. Ch. Soc. July, 1909.

Neither acylation nor subsequent hydrolysis cause inversion.

(2) Racemic phenomena during the hydrolysis of optically active

menthyl and bornyl esters by alkali. McKenzie: Trans. L.

Ch. Soc. [1904] Yol. 85, 378 and 1249. [1905] Vol. 87, 1004 and

1373. [1907] Vol. 91, 789 and 1814.

XVII. lZur Stereochemie der Katalysef

G. Bredig & Fajans: Ber. 41, 752.

XVIII. Influence of Solvent on the Rotation of Opt. Active Compounds.

(1) Patterson & Montgomerie: J. L. Ch. Soc. [July 1909], p. 128.

(2) Also many other contributions by same author and others.

XIX Action of various reagents on complex halogen substituted acids.

(1) Decomposition of bromcamphoric acid with sodium carbonate

and with boiling water.

1. Kipping & Armstrong: J. L. Ch. Soc. (1896) p. 65.

2. Some hydrocarbons obtained from the homologues of cin¬

namic acid. W. H. Perkin: J. L. Ch. Soc. (1877) [2] 660.

3. Some derivatives of propionic, acrylic and glutaric acid.

Perkin: J. L. Ch. Soc. Trans. [1896] p. 1457.

McL&od — The Walden Inversion — A Critical Review. 527

XX. Cone, the rule for the addition of halogen compounds to unsat¬

urated acids. Michael: J. Pr. Ch. [1899] 10, 171.

XXI. Action of sodium alcoholate on a hrom-fatty acid esters. Bis-

choff : Ber. 32, 1748. Ber. 32, 1899.

XXII. Studies cone, the behavior of the silver salts of the halogen

subst. acids of the series CnH2nC>2 by heating with water and by

themselves.

Beekurts & Otto: Ber. 18, 222. W. H. Perkin: J. L. Ch. Soc.

[1859] Vol. II, p. 25. J. L. Ch. Soc. [1877] Yol. 32, p. 90.

XXIII. Studies in Organic Acids. Kekule: Ann. Suppl. 1, 129-138.

Ann. Suppl. 2, 85.

XXIV. Studies of TJnsaturated Acids. Fittig and Colaborators: De¬

composition of the substitution products of the lower fatty acids

with water and with dil. sodium carbonate sol.

1. Studies in unsaturated acids. Fittig: Ann. 200. 21.

2. Fittig & Thomsen: Ann. 200, 75.

3. Properties of methylacrylic acid. Fittig & Engelhorn: Ann.

200. 65.

4. ‘Hydrosorbinsaure und Sorbinsaure’. Fittig, Stahl, Lands-

berg, and Engelhorn: Ann. 200. 42.

5. ‘Brenzterebinsaure’. Bredt & Fittig: Onn. 200. 58.

6. Cone, the addition products of cinnamic acids. Fittig &

Binder: Ann. 195, 132.

7. Phenylaminoproprionic acid. Fittig & Posen: Ann. 195, 143.

8. Phenyllactimid. Posen: Ann. 200. 97.

9. Addition of hydrogen bromide to brenzterebinsaure.’ Fittig

& Geisler: Ann. 208, 44.

10. Teracrylic acid and heptolactone. Fittig & Kraft: Ann.

208, 86.

11. The crotonic acids resulting from citraconic and mesaconic

acids. Fittig & Prehn. Ann. 188, 142.

12. Also Ann. 188, 87 — Fittig & Dorn. Ann. 143, 343 — Glaser.

Ann. 206, 27 — Fittig & Kast. Classed under other subdivi¬

sions.

528 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

THE CHEMISTRY OF BORON AND SOME NEW

ORGANIC— BORON COMPOUNDS.

Arden E. Johnson.

While engaged in carrying on a detailed review of the chem¬

istry of several individual elements, among which was boron,

I was greatly impressed by the meagre literature on the

chemistry of this element. There are but very few com¬

pounds, artificially prepared, described ; and those which

dame nature furnishes us are exceedingly rare, with two or

three exceptions, and appear to play very slight roles in the

economy of the world, either mineral or biological. Very

likely it is this apparent insignificance in nature and lack of

any immediate important, industrial applications of boron and

its compounds that has given rise to its neglect by chemists. It

was to satisfy my curiosity as to whether this element offers a

wide and virgin field of new, synthetic; products of curious

properties, or presents unsurmount able difficulties which have

really baffled chemists, that moved me to attempt some prelim¬

inary work during the summer of 1909 at the University of

Wisconsin.

If we study boron in the light of the periodic system we find

that it occupies a, position between metals and non-metals, and

also near carbon and silicon, which elements are also near the

border-line. We indeed find a strong similarity between boron

and these two elements, especially in physical properties, e. g.

Amorphous boron is much like amorphous carbon, and has a

chestnut-brown color. The corresponding graphitic and dia¬

mond boron are also known. However, in most of its com-

Johnson — The Chemistry of Boron

529

pounds boron is trivalent instead of tetravalent as is the case

with carbon and silicon compounds. In the latter property

boron is more like tbe members of tbe nitrogen group, in fact

there is some evidence that it may act as a pentavalent element

in certain compounds. Theoretically, boron should act very

much like aluminum also. Notwithstanding, excepting the ox¬

ide Bo03, there are not so very many close analogies. In fact

there is a very decided similarity to the tri- and pentavalent

elements, nitrogen and phosphorous, in chemical behavior, ah

though they are decidedly non-metallic elements. And strange

enough, though boron must be regarded as more of a non-metal

than a metal vet it reacts far more readily with non-metals than

metals ; borides of metals are very difficult to prepare.

Among the very few inorganic compounds of importance are

the halogen borides. These were merely prepared by several

workers but not studied to any extent. Their chemical com¬

portment toward other reagents has remained a virgin field.

B 013* is a liquid boiling at 20° ; B Br3 boils at 91° ; and B I3

boils at 210°. The latter compound is decomposed quite read¬

ily by light. B Br3 on account of its stability and high boiling

point has been taken as starting material for the synthesis of

boron compounds in my work. The action of all the halogen

compounds, which are being prepared from time to time by the

combustion method as needed in my work, toward typical or¬

ganic and inorganic compounds, and their physico-chemical

properties, as indexes of refraction, latent heat of vaporization,

etc., are being studied and will soon be reported on in a separate

paper.

Tn studying the chemical comportment of the halogen bor¬

ides, the tetrahalogen compounds of carbon and silicon on one

hand, of phosphorus and nitrogen on the other, and also of

aluminum have been kept steadily in mind. That is for prac¬

tical purposes, I regard boron as occupying the center of a tri¬

angular field bounded by the above mentioned groups of ele¬

ments and aluminum.

* Nickles — C.» R. 60-800-1865; Moissan — C. R. 112-717-1891; Besson

— C. R. 118-78-1891.

530 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

A most interesting matter, both from the theoretical stand¬

point and the properties of the products, is the fact that boron

compounds like B Br3, for example, form a remarkable num¬

ber of so-called addition products with compounds of the kin¬

dred elements on the three sides of the triangular field occupied

by boron. Some of these compounds are : 2B Br3, P Cl3 ;

2B Br3, PC15 ; B Br3, P H3 ; B Br3, P Br3 ; B Br3, BIST H3 ; but

As Br3 and Sb Cl3 merely dissolve in B Br3, no definite com¬

pounds separate. At the present time I am interested in the

preparation of compounds of aluminum halides and boron hal¬

ides. A1 Cl3 and B Br3 appear to give a definite compound,

but as yet I have not completed an analysis of it. Plowever,

it appears to break up under high temperature and in hydrogen

atmosphere to a boride of aluminum.

Of the compounds mentioned that with ammonia is of most

interest to me theoretically. Indeed, it was the study of this

compound which lead me to attempt to prepare some new or¬

ganoboron compounds by starting with B Br3 and members of

those classes of organic compounds characterized by the pres¬

ence of an 1ST PL group, or the PT H group (imido), or H only

as in the case of pvdrine, quinoline and others. Thus far my

work has been principally upon amines and pyridine.

If solutions of B Br3 and aniline in carbon tetrachloride,

carbon bisulphide or benzine are brought together drop by drop

an insoluble, amphorous precipitate appears. The action is

accompanied by great evolution of heat. When the precipi¬

tate is carefully dried in a nitrogen or hydrogen atmosphere and

analyzed it is found to be 2B Br3, CeBLUPL. With an excess

of aniline and higher temperature of reacting system there re¬

sults a yellow substance analyzing up to 2B Br3, 3C6PLPnp2-

The first decomposes water quite violently, while the latter acts

slowly on water giving B(OPI)3 and aniline hydrobromide. If

the 2B Br3, 30 JI5PLEI2 is allowed to stand in a strong light in

an air tight dessicator in which there is some strong alkali in

a separate dish, PI Br is evolved from the substance and there

remains what analyses up to a sort of boro-nitride of anniline.

When the product is placed in water but very slight decompo-

Johnson — The Chemistry of Boron.

531

sition occurs, even in several days. But if the water is heated

action soon sets in and continues quite rapidly giving aniline

and boric acid.

Pyridine and B Br3 form a white, amphorous precipitate in

C Ci4 as medium. It is surprisingly stable in water, not de¬

composing; readily unless boiled for some time. It analyses up

to B BrJ W.

The methods of analysis relied upon in the foregoing work

consisted in determining the bromine gravimetrically as silver

bromide, and the nitrogen by the Kjeldahl procedure. The

combustion method will be worked later but thus far the Kjel¬

dahl method has given sufficiently satisfactory results.

Another phase of boron chemistry which presents interesting

aspects is the action of born halides on the unsaturated hydro¬

carbons. |The olefine and acetylene series. As an example:

Dilute solutions of amylene and B Br3 in C Cl4 as a medium

were brought together slowly, the system being cooled with ice-

water, and to my surprise, pure, amorphous boron was precipi¬

tated in an extremely attenuated, colloidal condition. The

boron will, in fact, remain suspended in the reaction mixture

an indefinite time. That the material was pure boron, was

proved beyond a doubt by evaporating off all the volatile prod¬

ucts and washing the residue with carbon tetrachloride and

then with ether. As a film it was of a maroon color, very

stable in air, even when heated to about 500°. When heated

in a glass tube with pure oxygen it was burned to white boric

oxide. The gas drawn from the tube and then through lime-

water gave no test for carbon dioxide.

The reaction of B Br3 and the unsaturated compounds is

doubtless very complicated, however, and very exact conditions

must be maintained to obtain certain definite end-products. If

B Br3 and amylene are brought together directly they react

with explosive violence and there is charring of the organic

substance, and most irritating fumes evolved. As the other ex¬

treme, the passage of B Br3 fumes carried by a current of hy¬

drogen into amylene dissolved to the extent of 10 to 20 per

cent in carbon tetrachloride and the whole reacting mass cooled

532 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

in ice water, gives rise to no precipitate but to a most disagree-

able smelling solution from which I have not yet succeeded in

isolating a definite compound.

As soon as the above work is carried out in detail in several

of its many ramifications I expect to study the action of boron

halides on aldehydes, ketones and other typical classes of or¬

ganic compounds and compare the results with those usually

obtained with free halogens or the halides of phosphorous and

aluminum.

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus , 533

A STUDY OF THE LIGHT REACTIONS OF PILOBOLUS.

Ruth F. Allen and Hally D. M. Jolivette

Introduction.

The study of the reactions of plants to simultaneous stimuli,

either of the same or of different kinds, affords perhaps one of

the best means of approach to the fundamental questions of the

physiology of stimulation of living organisms. The simpler

organisms, devoid of specially differentiated parts for receiving

and transmitting stimuli, are especially favorable for the study

of such problems ; and plants, because of their relative slowness

of response, afford good opportunities for measuring and ana¬

lyzing the phases and elements of their reactions.

As is well known, Pilobolus is strongly heliotropic and fires

its sporanges toward an illuminated spot. By catching the

sporanges on an interposed glass plate as they are discharged,

we have a simple means of obtaining mathematical data as to

the nature and accuracy of the reaction. Furthermore such

difficulties of interpretation as are found in dealing with the re¬

actions of the complex and highly differentiated growing tis¬

sues of higher plants are eliminated here, for we are concerned

with the reactions of practically a single cell.

In the preliminary studies here described, we undertook to

obtain data which might assist in answering the following ques¬

tions: (1) How accurately will Pilobolus fire its sporanges

toward a source of light? (2) Hoes Pilobolus direct its spor¬

anges straight toward a source of light, or does it aim high ac¬

cording to the distance at which it is placed from the source of

illumination? (3) In what direction will Pilobolus discharge

534 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

its sporanges when it is presented simultaneously with two

sources of light of equal intensity? (41 What is the relative

efficiency of light of elide rent colors presented successively or

simultaneously in determining the direction in which the

sporanges will he fired ?

As early as 1874, Tode (22) discovered that Pilobolus dis¬

charged its sporanges with considerable violence toward a

source of light.

The reactions of fungi to light of different colors were stu¬

died by Sorokin (20). Cultures were grown on dung under

double-walled bell jars in white, blue, and yellow light, and in

the dark. He found that Mucor and Pilobolus show positive

heliotropism in white light, and negative heliotropism in yellow

light. The spores of Pilobolus are seldom scattered in the yel¬

low light. In Pilobolus, positive heliotropism is manifested

through the firing of the sporange toward the light in question.

In the dark, the hyphae of both genera grow upright and be¬

come much elongated.

.Fischer von Waldheim (0) studied the light reactions of

Pilobolus by the same methods and arrived at different results.

In cultures kept in the dark, the sporangiophores stood out at

right angles to the surface of the substratum, no matter whether

the surface was horizontal or vertical. The organism behaved

the same in yellow light, no negative reaction being observed.

Brefeld (41, using the same methods, finds that sporangio¬

phores of Pilobolus microsporus are strongly positively helio¬

tropic in yellow light, although the sporanges never mature.

By turning around every few hours a culture illuminated from

one side, the sporangiophore bends successively back and forth

and becomes zigzag in form. He concludes from this that the

zone of growth is at or near the apex. 1

Regel (19) also studied the bending reactions of Pilobolus

cTystallinus as Well as those of Mucor mucedo. According to

him, these molds are positively heliotropic in white, blue, yel¬

low, and red light. This is true for all light intensities and

temperatures tried. The more refrangible rays are more effi-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 535

cient in causing heliotropic curvatures than are the less refran¬

gible.

USToll (18) used in studying the light reactions of Pilobolus

a box with an opening at one end through which daylight could

enter. Inside the box, be placed a culture with the surface

sloping toward the opening. According to Noll, the grouping

of the sporanges about the opening after their discharge showed

that they were directed toward the center of the opening. His

schematic figure of the sporangiophores just before being dis¬

charged shows that those on the part of the culture furthest

from the opening were pointed far above the opening. He,,

however, says nothing about this in his description. No state¬

ment is made to show whether or not he believes that the spor¬

angiophores have aimed high in order that the sporanges may

not fall below' the opening. Noll believes that the final position

of the sporangiophore is not a resultant of a heliotropic and of

a geotropic reaction, but that it is due to light alone.

Oltmanns (16) describes experiments with PJiy corny ces to

determine whether there is an optimum light intensity for its

reactions. For these experiments he used a box one meter in

length and twenty-five centimeters in breadth and height. He

placed an arc light before the opening at one end of the box,

and intercepted the heat rays by placing a fiask of running

water between the light and the box. The cultures were placed

at ten centimeter intervals along the median line of the box.

A negative reaction was shown by those at from twenty to

thirty centimeters distance, and a positive reaction by those at

from seventy-five to eighty centimeters distance. Those between

these extremes were straight. This intermediate region, ac¬

cording to Oltmanns, is the region of optimum light intensity.

Somewhat later, the region in which the sporangiophores did

not bend was between sixty and seventy centimeters. Still

later it receded to from fifty to sixty centimeters from the light.

Oltmanns concludes that the more accustomed the sporangio¬

phores become to the light the higher is the optimum light in¬

tensity ; that is, the nearer to the light will be the region where

the sporangiophores remain straight. He also' concludes that

536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

in the region of optimum illumination the vertical position of

the sporangiophore is clue to geotropism.

Graenitz (10) repeated Bref eld’s experiments on Pilobolus

and Coprinus and corroborated his results.

Steyer (2d), like Oltmanns, found that Phy corny ces is nega¬

tively or positively heliotropic according to the intensity of the

light used, and that plants grown in the light are less sensitive

than those grown in the dark. He determined the region of

the sporangiophore which was sensitive to light by allowing a

horizontal slit of light to strike the sporangiophore at different

places. He found that the zone of growth (the portion of the

sporangiophore just beneath the sporange) alone is the sensi¬

tive region, and that the rapidity of the reaction is dependent

on the rate of growth. Steyer showed further that during arti¬

ficial inhibition of growth by ether, the sporangiophore is in a

position to perceive a light stimulus. He exposed the fungus

to light while it was under the influence of ether. Ho visible

reaction took place. The culture was then placed in the dark

and the effects of the ether were allowed to disappear. The

plant then reacted to the light stimulus which it received when

under the influence of ether.

The more recent literature dealing with the physiological

efficiency of various colors, the effects of simultaneous stimula¬

tion, and related topics will be taken up below in the discussion

of our own results.

Methods

In our experiments we used cultures of Pilobolus grown in

two-inch flower pots. The experiments were made in light-

proof boxes painted black inside and provided with one or

more openings for admitting light. A movable pane of glass, cut

to fit the inside dimensions of the box, was placed either against

the end containing the opening or parallel to it and nearer the

culture. Sporanges discharged from the culture toward the

source of light were intercepted at any desired distance by the

.glass plate and remained attached to it. The sporanges could

easily be seen with the naked eye. From cultures of the size

Allen and Jolimite — Ligfit 'Reactions of Piloholus. 537

used, fifty to five hundred sporanges are fired each day. The

glass plate was removed from the box daily and laid upon a

sheet of paper upon which a target was drawn, the form and de~

mensions of which will be described in connection with the re¬

spective experiments, and an exact record was made of the num¬

ber and position of the sporanges upon that portion of the glass

plate which corresponded to each area of the target.

tion of the sporanges of Piloholus , the ripe sporanges being

regularly discharged in the morning. The plate on which the

sporanges struck was removed in the late afternoon or even¬

ing. The sporanges had then been all discharged and the

next day’s crop was beginning its development. One culture

generally produced three or four crops sufficiently abundant for

use ; occasional cultures produced a large number of sporanges

daily for more than a week. In the case of series of observa¬

tions extending over longer periods than these, new cultures

were used to take the place of those exhausted. The cultures

were watered daily at the time when the plates were removed.

For this purpose, the cultures wore generally taken out of the

box and then replaced. This was sometimes done late enough

in the day so that the sporangiophores were sufficiently de¬

veloped to have taken a definite position with reference to the

light. In such cases the culture was replaced as nearly as pos¬

sible in its original position. In spite of the utmost care, a

certain amount of readjustment to the light on the part of the

sporangiophores was doubtless sometimes necessitated. Ex¬

periments to be described below, however, showed that the final

results of the experiments were in no way affected by the neces¬

sity of such a slight re-aiming.

The Response of Piloboltjs to the Stimulus of

a Single White Light.

As a preliminary to the study of the effect of exposure to

simultaneous stimuli, several series of experiments were made

in order to learn how accurately tbe sporanges of Piloholus are

discharged toward a source of light, using various colored lights

538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

with openings of different sizes and with the cultures at vary¬

ing distances from the source of illumination. We first at¬

tempted to determine the influence of the size of the opening

upon the accuracy of aim.

The first experiment was made with white light admitted

through a, circular opening one centimeter in diameter. An ap¬

paratus was used similar to that described by IsToll (17). A

dark' box 121 centimeters long, 27 centimeters wide and 28

centimeters high was used. The opening for the light was in

one end. The box was placed with this end facing toward, and

about 30 centimeters from, a south window. Direct sunlight

did not strike the cultures. Within the box the well-watered

culture, five centimeters in diameter, was so placed and sup¬

ported that its surface was vertical, squarely facing the Open-

Fig-. l. Target consisting of four concentric circles. The inner circle is 1 cm. in

diameter. The circles are 1 cm. apart.

ing, at a distance of 20 (centimeters, and with the center of the

culture on a level with the center of the opening. A glass on

which the sporanges were to be caught was placed inside the

box directly in front of and against the opening.

The target used in recording the position and relative distri¬

bution of the sporanges consisted of four concentric circles, the

radius of ea.eh being greater by one centimeter than that of the

next circle within. The innermost circle (the bulks eye), one

centimeter in diameter, was of the same size as the opening in

the box. The areas marked off by the circles were numbered

consecutively from one to five, beginning with the bulks eye

(Fig. 1). Area 5 included all outside of area 4. By mteans

of this target the percentage of the sporanges which landed

upon the illuminated opening and within definite limits out-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 539

side could be determined. In order to count' the sporanges in

each area, the glass on which the sporanges were caught was

placed on a paper target with the areas marked off as noted

above so that the part of the glass which stood opposite the

opening coincided with the bull’s eye on the target.

Only one experiment of this sort with an opening one centi¬

meter in diameter was made with white light. The number of

sporanges discharged was 222. Of these, 90 (40.5%) struck

the glass opposite the opening, within area, 1. 94 (42.3%)

7tt

oo\

V

\

X

\

50 \

Fig. 2.

were found on area 2, 25 (11.2%) on area 3, 7 (3.1%) on area

4, and 6 (2.7-%) on area 5. A curve plotted from these data

is shown in Figure 2 (continuous line), using the percentages

as ordinates and the areas as abscissas.

It is seen that nearly eighty-three per cent of the total are

found in areas 1 and 2, but of this number a few more are on

area 2 than on area 1. It is to be remembered that area 1 is

very small as compared with area 2, and also as compared with

the size of the culture, which is five centimeters in diameter.

On the whole, the data show that the sporangiophores are not

able to aim with a great deal of accuracy at a one centimeter

opening at 20 centimeters distance. Whether the results would

be the same if the same number of single plants were each placed

540 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

opposite the center of the opening is of course not shown by

this experiment.

In the next experiment, the light was admitted through an

opening four centimeters in diameter, the culture still being

kept at 20 centimeters distance. The target (Fig. 3) consisted

of three concentric circles one centimeter apart. The inner

circle was two centimeters in diameter. Consequently, areas

1 and 2 are both within the illuminated area. The size of the

inner circle was chosen with the possibility in mind that the

sporanges might be fired toward the center of the illuminated

area. The areas were numbered from within outward as be¬

fore, area 4 being all the space outside the third circle.

Pig-. 3. Target consisting of three concentric circles 01 cm apart The inner

circle is 2 cm. in diameter. Line A B is a horizontal line drawn through the

center of the circles.

In this experiment the total number of sporanges discharged

Was 03. 07 (72 %) of this number were found on area 1;

21 (22.5%) on area 2 ; 2 (2.1%) on area 3 ; and 3 (3.2%)

on area 4. The curve plotted as in the foregoing experiment is

shown in Figure 4 (continuous line). 94% of all the spor¬

anges landed within the area covered by the four centimeter

opening — -more than twice the proportion that landed within

the area of the smaller opening in the preceding experiment.

The next series of experiments was intended to test the suc¬

cess of the sporanges in striking an illuminated area when the

culture is removed to successively greater and greater distances

in a horizontal direction. The object was to show whether the

organism compensates for the effect of gravity on the path of

the sporange by aiming high at a more distant source. The

lower edge of the culture was kept on a level with the lower

edge of the opening. Since the surface of the culture was five

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilot olus. 541

centimeters in diameter and that of the opening hut four centi¬

meters this brought the upper edge of the culture one centimeter

above the upper edge of the opening. A series of daily

records was obtained by moving the culture back from the open¬

ing along the median line of the box so that the distance would

be increased two centimeters at a time, allowing it to stand

twenty-four hours in each position. The glass on which the

sporanges were caught was placed inside the box against the

ao

oper"°3 areas

Fig. 4.

opening as before. When the distance of the culture from the

opening became so great that some of the sporanges did not

reach the glass, a second pane of glass was placed on the bottom

of the box to catch them.

In these experiments, the bull’s eye target (Fig. 3) described

in the last experiment was employed, with the addition of a

horizontal line A B through the common center of the concen¬

tric circles. By means of this line A B it was possible to de¬

termine whether or not the center of distribution of the spor¬

anges on the glass is lowered as the distance of the culture from

the opening is increased. The line A B, however, was not used

in making the records in this set until the culture had been

542 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

moved back to a distance of 50 centimeters. The culture was

moved back 2 centimeters each day from 2 centimeters to a final

distance of 94 centimeters from the opening.

The first day, with the culture at 2 centimeters from the

opening, 255 sporanges were found on the glass. 50 of these

(19.6%) were on area 1, 201 (78.8%) Were on area 2, making

98% on the area covered by the opening. Only 4 (1.5%)

were on area 3 and none at all on area 4.

At 4 centimeters distance from the opening, 130 sporanges

were discharged. 71 (54.6%) were on area 1, 49 (37.6%) on

area 2, and 5 (3.8%) on each of the two areas 3 and 4. In

this case, 92.2% were on the area covered by the opening.

7.6% fell beyond the opening.

The total number of sporanges counted on the glass when the

culture was at 6 centimeters distance was 301. 135 of these

(44.8%) were found on area 1, 156 (51.8%) on area 2,

(0.9%) on area 3, 7 (1.6%) on area 4. In this case, 96.3%

were on the part of the glass covering the opening and less than

5% failed to strike the illuminated area.

With the culture at 12 centimeters distance, 104 sporanges

were found on the glass. Of these', 61.5% were on area 1;

30.7% on area 2 ; 6.7% on area 3, and 0.9% on area 4. There

were then 92.2% on the opening, the percentage of sporanges

outside the illuminated area being 7.6.

At 26 centimeters distance a weak culture which produced

only 43 sporanges was used, 65.1% falling on area 1; 23.2%

on area 2 ; 4.6% on area 3, and 6.9% on area 4. 88.3 per

cent are on the area covering the opening. 11.5% are found

outside of that area.

With the culture at 36 centimeters distance, the total num¬

ber of sporanges discharged was 218. 22.4% of this number

were outside the illuminated area.

With the culture at 48 centimeters distance, 99 sporanges

were discharged on the glass. Of these, 54.5% were outside

the area covering the opening. As the culture was moved still

further back, the number diminished, until at 70 centimeters

distance only 1,1'% were on areas 1 and 2. At 94 centimeters

Allen and Jolivette — Light Eeactions of Piloholus.

543

RgS

distance no sporanges at all were found on area 1 and only

2.4% on area 2. In this case almost all of the sporanges were

on area 4. The results of these experiments are shown more

in detail in Table I, and graphically by the continuous curves

in Figures 5, 6, and 7.

30?)

Area 3

rig. 8.

Table I. — Cultures at 2-9 fy cm. Opening 4 cm. in. diameter— white light.

544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tf '-tf j

o co © © -tf ©

yZ © *tf rH

rH 03

03 ©

KH r— I 03

. - NOO’Mt'O

s® ^2

O P-l

CO

© .

o £- © ?> 03 ©

yZ HNOOCO

^ HN

g ?> © CO

S. J> O 1-H O O

. q CO CO o

SPh ^

o

00 .

o!>WWON

h;^o ©

rH tH

• lHCONOO

g^00^ 2

qPh

6 co co cq o oo

CO

g 03 t- 2> i> |

• lHIOMOOO

g 3^MH ©

o Ph 1-1

o rH x O CS 00

^C5i>COHH

£5 03

g 3> HP © CO j

§ Pi ^ !

o O 00 CO 00

yZ H H H 03 CO

CO .

o o co qo h

£ co © o

Kh rH 1—1 CO

o

03 .

o £- H 03 CO CO

CO 03 OS

yZ CO CO 03 03 £-

^ 03 H -tf

g O rtf 03 CO |

. r. CO 03 03 03 O

§ P-l T_l

6 CO 03 03 03 OS

-tf 03 CO ©

g CO 00 00 |

jlh CO* J> CO* CO* O

. © © CO o

gP

CS

u 00 05 -tf CD O

. OS -tf 03 rH O

gP

CO

00 .

I— I O rH I OS OS -tf -tf

^ CO rH CO

g © © ?> 3> j

g P-i

o

03 .

CO o

^ 03 CO H H i>

• s_. rH tH -tf 03 O

tf (J) W lO H H O

ha rH

O P-i

oo^t-ot-

^^03 ^

g CO 00 © o

S_ os* 00* i-H ’ cs

H _ i r—

gP

o

OOHr#OiO

£. © © lO

/~i 03 03

o O 03 O rH CO

yZ *> -tf rH

<4 rH

O

CO .

o h o OS io *o

d CO OS ' — I CO 03

03 rH ©

Allen and J olivette' — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 545

546 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In Figure 5, the percentages that strike the opening are taken

as ordinates and the distances from the opening as abscissas.

This curve makes it plain that on the whole, in spite of consid¬

erable fluctuations as the culture is moved back, the proportion

of sporanges striking the opening sinks slowly from 98.4% at

2 centimeters to 88.8% at 26 centimeters, then somewhat more

rapidly to 84.1% at 40 centimeters, then very rapidly to 19.3%

Fig. 7.

at 5& centimeters, and then very gradually again to 2.4% at

94 centimeters.

In Figure 6, the percentages of sporanges striking area 3 at

the different distances were taken as ordinates. The percent¬

ages on this area increase irregular, 14 from 2% or 3% at short

range to 23.5% at 50 centimeters, and then decrease irregularly

to 6.1% at 94 centimeters.

In Figure 7, the percentage of sporanges striking area 4

were taken as ordinates. This curve rises very slowly from

0 at 2 centimeters to 5.4% at 40 centimeters, then abruptly to

Allen and Jolivette — Light Ueactions of Pilobolus. 547

73% at 52 centimeters, and then slowly again to 95% at 94

centimeters.

Tn genera], it appears tliat as tlie distance of the culture from

the source of light increases, there is a decrease in the propor¬

tion striking the outer areas. In interpreting these curves, the

question arises whether at the greater distances the culture was

entirely out of range. While the cultures vary in the initial

velocity with which the sporanges are discharged, it has fre¬

quently been observed that they can reach an illuminated area

at a distance of a meter vertically above them, and there can be

little question that the diminishing percentage which reaches

the opening in the series described is due directly to failure to

allow for the effect of gravity on the path of the sporange.

To determine more exactly whether or not the sporanges fall

below the opening due to the influence of gravity, the number

of sporanges was recorded which were found above and below

the median line already described, when the cultures were from

50 to 94 centimeters from the opening.

When the culture was at 50 centimeters distance;, 58 spor¬

anges were discharged. 16 sporanges (27.6%) were above the

center of the opening and 42 (72.4%) below.

At 54 centimeters, 20% of the sporanges were above, and

80% below the middle.

At 82 centimeters only 11.4 were above the center.

As the culture was moved further from the opening, the per¬

centage above the line irregularly decreased while that below

the line increased.

The results of this series of observations are given in detail

in Table II.

The large percentage below the median line with the culture

from 50 to 94 centimeters distant corresponds to the decrease

above noted in the number of sporanges which strike the open¬

ing at these distances. It is clear that more and more spor¬

anges fall below the median line as the distance from the cul¬

ture to the source of light increases.

The curves (Figs. 5, 6, and 7) showing the distribution of

the sporanges zigzag back and forth through a rather wide

range. This is at least partly due to the fact that it is impos-

548 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sible to grow cultures which have the sporangiophores uni¬

formly distributed over the surface. Preference was given to

evenly distributed cultures when such were available, but many

were used in which the majority of the sporaniophores were

aggregated in the middle, at one side or around the edge. |That

the arrangement of the sporangiophores on the surface of the

culture affects the. records may be seen from the following ex¬

periments. In the apparatus described above, a culture was

placed 110 centimeters from the opening, the center of the cul¬

ture being exactly opposite the middle of the four centimeter

opening. White daylight was used as before. The glass for

catching the sporanges, instead of being against the opening,

was placed at a distance of only ten centimeters from the cul¬

ture. The culture chosen in this case had the majority of the

sporanges arranged about the periphery in the shape of a horse¬

shoe, and it was placed so that the open, side of the horse-shoe

was downward. .Figure 8 represents the results obtained.

The configuration of the culture was reproduced with fair ac¬

curacy on the glass. It is manifest that if the horse-shoe had

been placed with the other side up, the percentages in the dif¬

ferent areas wmild have been markedly different. If the ma¬

jority of the sporangiophores had been centrally instead of

peripherally located, the percentage of sporanges striking the

opening would have been greater.

On the following night the same culture was placed at a dis¬

tance of ten centimeters from the opening. The majority of

the sporangiophores appeared to be arranged essentially as on

the preceding night. The glass was against the opening, that

is ten centimeters from the culture as before. Figure 9 shows

the result. There is a pronounced difference in the distribution

of the sporanges in the two cases. In the former the configura¬

tion of the culture is evident ; in the latter the arrangement of

the sporanges does not indicate their position bn the culture.

Comparison of these two results is interesting from another

point of view. In the earlier experiments when the glass was

kept at the opening, it was certainly true that a decreasing pro¬

portion of sporanges reached the opening as the culture was

Table II. — Culture at 50 — 94 cm — White light. Number of sporanges above and below the horizontal line A B drawn through

the center of the opening.

Allen and J olivette— Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 549

©

> JO ©,

© O

3 © .T3

<25 Q

® fe H

> 4 ©

o ,© te

<1PQQ

©

CJ

©

> £ ©

O Ofc

r© ^ its

Cfflfl

©

o

fl

CD

> £ ©

550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

moved further away, but this of itself does not prove conclu¬

sively a greater inaccuracy in aim ; since a deviation of, aim of a

few degrees from the direction of the incident light might not

prevent a sporange from hitting the opening at short range,

but would prevent it if the distance from the opening were in-

*

creased several fold. Here, however, we have positive evi¬

dence of greater inaccuracy of aim at long range. In each of

these cases the sporanges have travelled 10 centimeters toward

an opening 4 centimeters in diameter. In one case that open¬

ing was 10 centimeters away (Fig. 9), in the other 110 (Fig.

8). In the first case the sporanges are well within the open¬

ing and the scattering ones form an almost negligible percent-

Allen and Jolivetle- — Light Reactions of Piloholus. 551

age. In the second there is not only a large percentage outside

the opening, but a considerable percentage outside of an area

equaling’ in size the surface of the culture from which they

started, showing that the accuracy of aim is appreciably dimin¬

ished with the distance from the opening.

The Response of Pilobolus to the Stimulus of a Single

Ooloeed Light.

Experiments were also made to test the accuracy of response

of Piloholus to colored lights as compared with white light.

In these preliminary experiments, the light was admitted

through plates of colored glass, and no attempt was made to

obtain monochromatic light. When examined with the spectro¬

scope, the blue glass used gave a mixed spectrum comprising all

the violet, blue and green, together with a narrow band in the

red. The yellow glass used transmitted only the red half of the

spectrum, including red, orange, yellow and half of the green.

The red glass let through only the red light. The apparatus

and methods used were the same as for the experiments already

described, except that a small plate of colored glass was placed

inside the box against the opening, care being taken to exclude

all light except that which came through the colored glass.

552 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

We shall describe first the experiments with blue light. The

culture was first placed twenty centimeters from the circular

opening, which was one centimeter in diameter, and remained

there twenty-four hours. In making the records the target

shown in Figure 1 was used. 261 sporanges were found on

the glass. 161 (61.6%) were over the opening, area 1;

/6 (29.1% on area 2;15 (5.7%) on area 3;5 (1.9%) on area

4; and 4 (1.5%) on area 5. In this case a larger percentage

are on area 1 and a smaller percentage on area 2 than when

white light was used.

In the next experiment the culture was placed twenty centi¬

meters from an opening four centimeters in diameter, and the

target shown in Figure 3 was used. The total number of spor¬

anges on the glass at the end of twenty -four hours was 668.

-524 (78.4%) were on area 1 ; 126 (18.8%) on area 2; 7 (1%)

on area 3 ; and 11 (1.6%) on area 4. 97% were on the space

over the opening, compared with 94.5% when white light was

used under similar conditions. Only 18 of the 668 sporanges

struck outside the opening.

Experiments with blue light were made with the culture at

^different distances from the four -centimeter opening. The

same target was used as in the preceding experiment. At two

centimeters distance 52.1 % of the sporanges were on area 1 and

21.7% on area 2, making a total of 73.8% on the opening. Of

the remaining 26%, 17% were on area 3. With the culture

placed successively at distances from 4 to 14 centimeters from

the opening, all the sporanges in each case were found on the

opening. At 16 centimeters distance, 51% were outside the

opening. As the distance from the opening increased still fur¬

ther, the proportion striking on the opening gradually de¬

creased, until at 30 centimeters 76.8% were on the opening and

23.1% outside — for the most part below.

The results of these experiments are given in Table III.

From the percentages on the different areas at the different

distances, curves were plotted as in the previous experiments.

Figure 5 (dot — dash line) shows the curve for the percentages

on the opening. With the culture from 2 to 30 centimeters dis-

Table III. — Culture at 2-30 cm. Opening 4 cm. in diameter. Blue light.

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 553

• ©

S PL,

O

6h^OO>0

Tfl I

© o

r-t O

o t- o ^ (M

yZ 05 05 CO Tft 05

<^A 05 h

^ O O O O O

Sh O O

ri © i— I H

§*

05

i— I

6 i> o o o ?>

• ©

SPh

©

o ® X 05 H t-

00 rH CD 3> ^

i^H 05 i-l O

©

• 5

SPn

©

o

o o © o o

^ fc- CO O OS i

°OHfo co d

s-i CD CO O

• 05 rH

SPh

o

6 o to o o

!r'

©

£- 05 © © ©

o

SPh

©

GO

^ 00 00 © CO I

° h h w o

Si 00 H O

sp^

o

(M

05

0«)>©100

hr CO i> N H *C

UO O

©

sp<

©

o

05

o^oooo

^ 05 CO

o ^ CD 3> rH CO

N H lO

HOH CD

^ 00 05 O O O

Si © CO o

SPh

©

^ _ © H !>

° d d ^ ®5 d

SrlON O

SPh

©

00

ky H 05 y-r W O ’-I

rH 05

rH i> CO CD

. ©

SPh

©

05

ONO^NCO

^ ^ © © ®5

° co oi’ o> <d d

Si CD CO O

SPh

©

CD

T“H

tOOOOrrHN

ISO

r° d d d co" d

SPh

©

o

CO

oO'f S'®©

^ 03 <M ©

554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tant from the source of light, the curve closely follows that

for the white light at the same distances. There is a gradual

decrease in the percentage of sporanges on the opening as the

distance from the culture to the opening increases. The curves

for the percentages on areas 3 and 4 (Figs. 6 and 7, dot — dash

line) also present a remarkable similarity to the corresponding

curves for the same areas when white light was used. With

the culture at 16 centimeters and at greater distances, the per¬

centages on areas 3 and 4 gradually increase because the in¬

fluence of gravity tends to make the sporanges fall below the

opening. From these experiments it appears that Pilobolus

fires its sporanges with about the same accuracy toward blue

light as toward white light.

A yellow glass was next substituted for the blue, the culture

being placed 20 centimeters from the opening one centimeter in

diameter. The target shown in Figure 1 was used in count¬

ing the sporanges. The total number of sporanges found on

the glass plate at the end of twenty-four hours was 52, of which

8 (15.4%) were on the opening, 20 (38.4%) were on area 2,

1‘5 (30%) on area 3, 4 (7.8%) on area 4, and 5 (9.6%) on

area 5. The percentages in the outer areas are rather large

compared to those for the same areas, when the blue or white

light is used. It appears at once that the reaction of Pilobolus

to yellow light is much less accurate than to either blue or white

light.

A four-centimeter opening was then tried in place of the

one-centimeter opening. The target’ used in this experiment is

the same as that shown in Figure 3. 98 sporanges were found

on the glass, of which 32 (32.6%) were on area 1, 27 (27.3%)

on area 2, 14 (14.2%) on area 3, and 25 (25.5%) on area 4.

Thus 60% were on the, opening, the remainder being widely

scattered. In the corresponding experiments with blue and

white light, 97.2% and 94.5% respectively were found on the

opening.

The response to yellow light was further tested in a series

of experiments with the opening four centimeters in diameter

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 555

and the culture from 2 t6 30 centimeters distant. Data for

this series of experiments are given in Table IY.

With the culture two centimeters from the opening, the total

number of sporanges on the glass was 38. 15.8% were on

area 1 and 39.4% on area 2, making 55.2% on the opening.

18. 4% were found on area 3, and 26.3% on area 4.

At 10 centimeters from the opening, of the 198 sporanges

fired in twenty-four hours, 51% were on area 1, 16.6% on

area 2, 7.5% on area 3, and 24.7% on area 4. In this case

67.6% were on the opening.

At 20 centimeters distance, 98 sporanges were found on the

glass. 32.6% reached area 1; 27.3% were on area 2. At

this distance, then, 59.9% were on the opening, 14.2% were

on area 3, and 25.5% on area 4.

With the culture 30 centimeters distant, only 30 sporanges

were fired. 30% of these were found on area 1 and 23.3%

on area 2, making 53.3% on the opening. 30% were on area

3, and 16.6% on area 4.

The curve plotted from the percentages of the sporanges on

the opening (Fig. 5 dash — dash line) and on areas 3 and 4

Figs. 6 and 7, dash — dash lines) vary markedly from the cor¬

responding curves for the blue and white lights. The largest

percentage found on the opening was 88.3% at eight centi¬

meters distance. From this point there was a decrease down to

53% at 30 centimeters. At no point- was the percentage on

the opening in the yellow light equal to that on the same area

in the blue and white lights.

In making these countings in the yellow light, the numbers

of sporanges above and below the horizontal median line (A B,

Fig. 3) were recorded. The majority of the sporanges are

always found below the line A B. With the culture 12 centi¬

meters from the opening the number of sporanges below the

line A B exceeds that above by 2%, at 24 centimeters by 10%,

and at 30 centimeters by 26.7%. The number of sporanges

above and below the line at the various distances are recorded

fully in Table V.

556

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

GO I

I

.fcs

§

^ CO rtt GO rH I

CO rH O

Pk

ot*HHco>n

CO

^?>co

° O N C3 H O

!_ HHOO

d ° 7-1

o 05 N lo H H

KH 05 CO

Culture at 2—30 centimeters. Yellow light. Number of sporanges above and below A B. Target , Figure 3.

Allen and J olivette— Light Reactions of PilcRolus.

j©oo

° i> 02* ^

. U 05 CO

g£ i

05 . CO «3 <M

o CO CO

£

JP

OpL|

. wooo

c «© £- |

O M !>

° o’ m co

^ u CO co O'?

s © I

ofn I

co • ii 2

oHH

525 1

©

> £

o ,5

rO ©

<IfqG

<lpqQ

©

fl

. ©

fH

<d«Q

557

558 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The accuracy of response to red light was tested in one ex¬

periment. The culture was placed 20 centimeters from an

opening one centimeter in diameter. A red glass was placed

inside the box against the opening. The target shown in

Figure 1 was used to count the sporanges. The number of

sporanges on the glass after twenty-four hours was SO. 1.2%

of these were on area 1 , corresponding to the opening; 13.7%

were on area 2; 28.7% on area 3, 18.7% on area 4, and 37.5%

on area 5. The reactions toward red light are evidently very

vague and uncertain.

The results which have now been described indicate that

Pilobolus aims point blank at a source of light, making no al¬

lowance for the distance through which the sporanges must

travel ; that is, it does not aim higher for a distant source of

light than for a near one. To test this point still further,

the -culture was placed in the same box with its center on a

level with the middle of a four-centimeter opening. As in a

previous experiment, it was placed on successive days at dif¬

ferent distances along the median line of the box. The glass

upon which the sporanges were received was, however, always

placed at a distance of 25 centimeters from the culture; thus

if the sporangiophores aim higher as the distance from the

source of light increases, the sporanges should strike the glass

above the target when the culture is sufficiently far from the

source of light.

The target used in counting the sporanges is shown in Figure

10. In this case the field was divided off into horizontal strips

one centimeter wide, and they were numbered upward and

downward from a line running through the center of the open¬

ing, the strip above being marked + and that below — . An

area 14 centimeters wide was found to include nearly all the

sporanges ; those beyond this area were counted under the head

“7+”

The culture was placed successively at 25, 35, 40, 50, 65, 80,

90, 100 and 110 centimeters from the opening, being left

twenty-four hours in each position. With the culture at 25

centimeters from the opening, the center of distribution of the

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Piloholus. 559

sporanges is 0.6 centimeter below the median line. At 35 cen¬

timeters it is 0.3 centimeter below; at 40 centimeters, 0.4 cen¬

timeter below; at 50 centimeters, 0.5 centimeter below; at

65 centimeters, 1.3 centimeters below; at 80 centimeters, 1.2

centimeters below’; at 90 centimeters 1.1 centimeters below;

at 100 centimeters, 0.7 centimeter below ; and at 110 centi¬

meters, 0.9 centimeter below. The data are given in complete

form in Table VI. The center of distribution varies from 0.3

centimeter to 1.3 centimeters below the median line; in no case

is it above. It thus appears that the sporangiophores are

pointed directly at a source of light, whatever the distance of

the latter.

i

Table VI. — Glass 25cm. from Culture.

A further series of experiments was made to determine graph¬

ically the path of the sporanges as they are discharged toward

the light. From the experiments already described it is clear

that as the distance from the source of light increased, the

sporanges reached the glass at a lower point. But in these

cases the intensity of the stimulus diminished with the increased

distance. In the present series the culture was kept at ,110

centimeters from the opening and the sporanges were inter¬

cepted by a glass at various points in their path on the way to

the opening. The intensity of the light thus did not vary with

the distance of the culture from the glass. Twenty-four hour

560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

exposures were made, with the glass successively at 10, 20, 35,

50, 65 and 85 centimeters from the culture. The target de¬

scribed in the preceding experiment (Fig. 10) wtas used in re¬

cording the distribution of the sporanges. When the glass was

ten centimeters from the culture, the center of distribution of

the sporanges was 0.9 centimeter below the median line. With

— -

£ - -

v

SL

2.

_ _ _ _ _ —

_ _ _ .£ _ — .

_ _ k. _

7

?-C

rig-. 10.

the glass 25 centimeters from the culture, the center of distribu¬

tion was 1.1 centimeters below; and with the glass at 35 and at

50 centimeters, the center of distribution was in each case 1.2

centimeters below. The center of distribution sinks to 6.2

centimeters below the median line with the glass at 65 eenti-

Table VII. — Culture 110 cm.

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 561

meters, and to 12.4 centimeters below with the glass at 85

centimeters. The results are given in detail in Table VII.

Under “7-p? is given' the number of sporanges that did not

reach the vertical glass plate, but fell on a glass on the floor

of the box.

When plotted (Fig. 11), these data do not. give the modified

parabolic curve of the path of a projectile, for the descent once

begun is not rapid enough. The path of the individual spor-

ange however is probably that of a projectile.

0 _ 10 ao 30 40 SO 60 10 9° <?0 ,<7°

s

<0

10

T'ig 11

Fig. 11.

The Kesponse of Pilobolus When Subjected to Two Sim¬

ultaneous White Lights of Equal Intensity.

A preliminary experiment was made to determine the general

nature of the response of Pilobolus to two simultaneous light

stimuli, using a box with two openings in one end. The box

was of cardboard, light-proof, painted black' inside, and was

42 centimeters long, 14 centimeters wide and 9 centimeters

high. In one end were two circular holes 7.5 centimeters apart,

each being 1.25 centimeters in diameter and 5.5 centimeters

above the bottom. The glass was placed inside the box, against

the end in which the openings were cut.

The culture of Pilobolus , in a twG-inch flower-pot as before,

was placed on its side with its surface vertical and facing the

end of the box containing the openings. The center of the

surface was on the level of the centers of the openings and was

equally distant (32 centimeters) from each. The experiment

was set up at night. Twenty-four hours later, a drawing was

made, showing the distribution of the sporanges on the glass

before the openings (Fig. 12). For purposes of comparison,

a control experiment was set up exactly like the first except

562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters *

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilololus. 563

Fig. 13.

564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

that the right-hand opening was closed by a black pad. Figure

13 shows the result.

If, when subjected to two simultaneous beams of light, a

sporangiophore reacts to but one, and if the reaction to that

stimulus is in no way influenced by the presence of the other,

then Figure 13 should be comparable in every detail to the

left half of Figure 12. The absolute number of sporanges in

a given area would vary of course with the total number dis¬

charged in the course of the experiment, but the percentages in

the corresponding areas should be subs t anti ally equal.

For convenience in comparing the results of the two experi¬

ments, the field is first divided into right and left halves by a

vertical line midway between the two openings. Each half is

then subdivided into three areas by vertical lines tangent to the

right and left edges of the openings. The sporanges in each

area were counted and the percentage was calculated of the total

number included in each area. To make Figure 13 directly

comparable to the left half of Figure 12, the total percentage

for Figure 13 was made 50 instead of 100.

Table YIII — Tabulation of results shown in figures 12 and 13.

As the table shows, there is a very close correspondence be¬

tween the two experiments as to the proportional number of

sporanges in each area.

There is, however, one difference between the results of the

two experiments which the table does not show. When there

is but one source of light, (Fig. 13), the sporanges which strike

the target at the lowest level fall, of course, approximately be¬

low the opening. When there are two sources of light, the

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 565

lowest sporanges strike in tliei neighborhood of the vertical

line midway between the two openings. In Figure 12, the

sporanges as a whole are arranged roughly in the form of a

crescent with the convex side below and the points of the cres¬

cent upon the openings. This crescent shape has been repeat¬

edly noted in other experiments of a similar nature. The

sporanges which are aimed directly at one or the other of the

two openings fall very little below. Why the few sporanges

which drop far below the level of the openings should be the

ones which aim between the two openings is unexplained. It

may be that the weaker, inferior individuals are less sensitive

to light than the rest, and that they perceive in the two lights

but one general source of illumination, and aim accordingly.

The majority of the sporanges aim at one source of light

or the other and aim as accurately at the one chosen as though

the other did not exist. In general, it appears that under the

conditions of the experiment, a sporangiophore reacts to one

only of two simultaneous lights.

In the next series of experiments, we studied the variations

in the distribution of the sporanges as the distance between

the two openings varied. A light-proof wooden box was con¬

structed, provision being made in one end for two openings

which could be shifted so as to be placed at any desired dis¬

tance apart but always at the same level. The interior of the

box was painted black. Daylight was used in these experi¬

ments, and the box was placed before a south window with

the end containing the openings facing south. The position of

the box was not changed during the series of experiments.

Within the box, the culture, in a two-inch flower-pot, was sup¬

ported on a black stand. The flower-pot lay on its side, with

the surface of the culture vertical and facing the end of the

box containing the openings. The center of the culture, was on

a level with the center of the openings. In the experiments,

the distance between the openings (measured from the center

of one opening to the center of the other) wias varied between

2 and 26 centimeters, but the distance from the culture to each

566 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

opening was kept constantly at 42 centimeters. The drying

out of the culture was to some extent prevented by supporting

a dish of water on the stand just below the culture.

The sporanges were caught on a glass plate placed inside

against the end of the box, and their position on and about the

openings was recorded on a sheet of paper divided into equal

areas by parallel vertical lines one centimeter apart. The

openings are represented by two circles one centimeter in diam- '

eter. Figure 14 showTs the chart for an experiment with the

openings 10 centimeters apart.' The number of centimeter-

wide areas between the 'openings of course increased as the

openings were moved farther apart. The number of sporanges

striking within each area, was recorded separately.

We found in these cases, as in the preliminary experiments,

that a large proportion of the sporanges landed in the vicinity

of one or the other of the two openings. Throughout the series

(Table IX) in which the distance from the center of one open¬

ing to the center of the other varied from 2 to 26 centimeters,

fully three-fourths of the total number of sporanges fell upon

the vertical areas which included the openings or within 2 cen¬

timeters to right or left.

When the centers of the openings were only 2 centimeters

apart, the two groups of sporanges were not distinct. They

overlapped so as to present the appearance of a single broad-

centered group. Of a total of 201 sporanges, 39 were on the

area containing one opening, 49 on the other, and 52 sporanges

on the area between the two. (Table IX).

In the first five experiments of the series (Table IX), in

which the distance between the openings Was increased from

Allen and J olivette— Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 567

two to seven centimeters, there were more sporanges on a strip

midway between the openings than on either strip1 containing

an opening. Even in these cases, however, the position of the

openings could be located in the group] of sporanges on the

glass by the presence of two more densely crowded areas. The

sporanges between the openings were more scattered. Many

lay far below the level of those on the strips which included the

openings. The crescent shape of the whole group, which ap¬

peared in the preliminary experiment, first became apparent

when the openings were five or six centimeters apart. The

broad middle part, of the crescent resulted of course from the

fact that in that region (as noted in the preliminary experi¬

ments) the sporanges were scattered through a greater vertical

distance than were those in the immediate neighborhood of the

openings.

As . the openings were placed seven centimeters and more

. apart, however, a marked decrease appeared in the proportion

of sporanges found in the area between the openings. The

single crescent-shaped group became gradually resolved into

two. groups separated from each other by a broad region con¬

taining relatively few sporanges. From 70 to 80% of the total

number were found on the strips containing the openings or

within two centimeters to right or left, and the remainder were

scattered over the areas between the openings. There were

fewer in the middle areas, but there was no central vacant space.

dSTot until the openings were 1 7 centimeters apart did a cen¬

tral space appear comparatively free from sporanges. At this

stage in the experiments, the included angle between the two

sets of light rays reaching the culture was 23°' or 24.° A

noteworthy peculiarity lay in the fact that when the clear cen¬

tral space first appeared, it was not, as might be expected, only

a centimeter or so wide, and thereafter a centimeter wider with

each increase in the distance between the openings. On the

contrary, the clear median space, when it first appeared, was

about ten centimeters wide. When the centers of the openings

were 15 centimeters apart, the sporanges in the vertical areas

midway between the openings were, respectively,

568 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

7 — 7 — 2 — 3 — 4 — 5 — 3 — 4

Total, 35— -10% of the total number (340) of sporanges in

this experiment.

When the centers of the openings were 16 centimeters apart,

the corresponding areas contained, respectively,

6— 5— 0—2— 1—1 —3—2—6

Total, 26—8% of the total number (315) of sporanges

bred.

Compare with these, the numbers of sporanges found in the

median region of l'O strips, when the distance between the

centers of the openings was 17 centimeters:

0—0— 1—1— 0—0— 1—1— 1—0

Total, 5—3% of the total number (151) of sporanges fired.

In the remaining experiments, as the distance between the

openings was increased still further, the two discrete groups

were maintained and the intervening area grew correspond¬

ingly wider.

The complete data, of this series of experiments are given

in Table IX. Each horizontal row of figures in this table

represents the whole number of sporanges striking the glass

in a day, that is in one experiment. The total for each ex¬

periment is given at the left. The numbers in bold-faced type

in each row represent the strips which include the openings.

Between the records for these two areas in each case are given

in order the number of sporanges found in each of the centi¬

meter-wide strips between the two openings. Heading out¬

ward from the area covering each opening, the figures repre¬

sent the contents of 9 similar areas, the first 4 being recorded

separately, and the five outermost (comprising usually a very

small number of sporanges) being given collectively. The angle

between the two sets of light rays reaching the culture has been

computed in some cases and is given at the left of the table' in

the column immediately following the totals.

Table XI.

Allen and J olivette— Light Reactions of Pilobolus . 569

5/0 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The Response of Pilobolus to the Stimuli of two Suc¬

cessive White Lights of Equal Intensity.

The object of our next series of experiments was to deter¬

mine to what extent the sporangiophores can change their aim

during the morning, and whether the discharge of the spo¬

ranges can take place while a heliotropic reaction is in progress.

The sporangiophores in a culture are not all at the same

stage of development at the same time. This is well seen

in the evening when the tip of the sporangiophore is swelling

to form the sporange. Upon some sporangiophores, the only

indication of a sporange at this time is a, small yellow- knob,

while on others immediately adjacent the sporanges are full-

sized and turning dark. The latter are something more than

an hour ahead of the former. In consequence of these differ¬

ences, the sporanges do not mature at the same time and are

not discharged at the same time. It requires at least an hour

for the discharge of the entire crop. Alt any particular mo¬

ment during the time of discharge, some are on the point of

discharging, others will discharge in a few minutes, and still

others may not discharge for an hour.

The cardboard box used in the preliminary experiments

upon simultaneous stimulation was used for these experiments.

The two holes in the end of the box were 1.25 centimeters in

diameter, 7.5 centimeters apart, and 5.5 centimeters from the

bottom,. In order that the results might be as clean-cut as

possible, the distance from the culture to the' openings was

made comparatively small — 15 centimeters. The culture was

laid on its side on the bottom of the box, with the surface of

the culture facing the openings and equidistant from them.

The culture was propped securely at the sides to prevent- its

rolling over should the box happen to be jarred. As before,

the sporanges were caught on a glass plate placed inside

against the end of the box. The form of chart from which

the records were made is given in Figure 15. A vertical

line down the center of the field divides it into right and left

halves and each half is subdivided by a vertical line through

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 571

the center of the opening. The sporanges falling upon each

opening are recorded separately. As the distance from the

culture to the openings is short, very few sporanges fall be¬

low the openings.

At night, when the experiment was set up, the opening, in

the right half of the field was carefully closed by a black pad

and left so over night. The morning light entered the box

through the left opening only. At a definite time in the

morning, the glass was removed from the box, and a record

made of the sporanges already received upon it; the black pad

was then shifted to the left opening, thus uncovering the right

opening, and the glass was cleaned and replaced. Care was

taken not to jar the culture, and the box was kept closed while

the record was being made. In the evening of the same day a

second record was made.

Pig. 15. Chart used in recording' response of Pilobolur to two successive white

lights.

By conducting the experiments as just described, the mature

or nearly mature sporangiophores which have been exposed to

light from one source are subjected suddenly to light from

another source; that from the former source being cut off.

The distribution on the glass of the sporanges at the end of

+he experiment will measure the ability of sporangiophores

at this stage of development to perceive and react to light

stimuli.

This work was done during the short days of ^November

(16 to 27) ; at this time of year there was little or no dis¬

charge of sporanges before 8 :00 A. M. The exact time of

the beginning of the discharge varied greatly with different

cultures; thus, one had discharged nearly half the total num¬

ber of sporanges at 8 :30 A. AT., while another had not begun

to discharge at 10 :15 A. M. These variations may have been

572 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

due to differences in the morning illumination, to weather con¬

ditions, or to the fact that some cultures were shaded more

than others on the afternoon before being used. That the

light supply had something to- do with it seems probable, be¬

cause the development of a crop of sporanges can be retarded

considerably by placing the culture in a dark room during

the afternoon and night.

In the experiments in which the light was changed at 7:15,

7 :30, 8:00, 9:45 and 10:15, no sporanges had been discharged

at the time of the change. (Table X). In the other experi¬

ments of this series, some of the sporanges were found upon

the glass in the morning. In the latter cases, the results

were of the same character as those previously obtained when

a single light was placed a little to one side of the culture

(Fig. 13). The culture was closer to the opening- in the

present series, and so the sporanges were better centered about

the opening. Only about one-eighth of the sporanges (13%)

lay between the opening and the middle line of the field.

Of the sporangiophores still carrying sporanges when the

position of the light was changed, the majority began to bend

over toward the new source of light and in many cases the re-

aiming was completed before their discharge.

The experiment (Table X) in which the direction of the

light was changed at 9:15 A. M. may be taken as a typical

example. When the box was opened at 9:15 A. ML, we found

63 sporanges on the glass. Of these, 40 were upon the open¬

ing, 8 to the left, and 10 to the right but still in the left

half of the field, while 5 scattered sporanges were on the right

half of the field. The glass was cleaned and replaced, the

left-hand opening closed and the right-hand one opened.

In the evening, we found the remainder of the crop of

sporanges (68) on the glass. The distribution of these was

as follows: ( 1 is the closed left-hand aperture, 2 the open

right-hand aperture) : —

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Piloholus. 573

7 To left of 1 )

13 On 1 > Left half of field.

19 To right of 1 )

8 To left of 2 )

18 On 2 >■ Right half of field.

3 To right of 2 )

68 Total

The percentages (Table XI) that these number form of the

total (68) are as follows:

10.3 To left of 1 )

19.1 On 1 >• Left half of field.

27.9 To right of 1 )

11.7 To left of 2 )

26.4 On 2 > Right half of field.

4.4 To right of 2 j

100.0 Total

About 40% of the sporanges fired after the change in the

source of illumination are in the right half of the field, clus¬

tered about, the new source. This 40% come from sporan-

giophores which have completed a heliotropic reaction, al¬

though half of the crop of sporanges had been discharged at

the time the new stimulus was presented. 28% are between

the former opening and the middle of the field. This is a

larger proportion than would have been found in this part

of the field had there been no change in the direction of light.

(Compare Table VIII, which shows 12% in this part of the

field). It follows that the sporangiophores already aimed at

1 began to swing over toward the new source of light and

that the sporanges were discharged in some cases before the

new heliotropic reaction had proceeded to its completion.

A complete record of this series of experiments is given in

Table X. Thom the records made in the evening (Part 2

of Table X) the percentages found in the different areas in

each experiment have been calculated (Table XI). Each

horizontal row of figures represents one experiment, and in

the column at the left is given the fraction of the total crop

of sporanges which was found in the evening record.

574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Table X. Paht 1. — Showing distribution of sporanges in the morning when

right opening had been closed.

Table X. Part 2. — Showing distribution of sporanges in the evening. At

time indicated the left opening was closed and the right opened.

In the experiment in which the light was shifted at 9 :45,

no sporanges had been discharged at the time the change was

made. In the evening, one sporange only was found on the

left half of the field, showing that all of the sporangiophores

hut one had reacted to the new stimulus. The re-aiming was

nearly as perfect as the original aim, 67.7% being found upon

the new opening, 11.2% beyond it to the right, and 20.5%

between the opening and the middle line of the field.

In the experiment in which the light was changed at 10 :15

A. M., the re-aiming was less perfect. In this case, also, no

sporanges had been discharged at the time the light was

changed, but some of the sporanges were later discharged while

the sporangiophores hearing them were still directed at the

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 575

former source of light. We found 10% of the sporanges on

the left half of the field. On the right half only 22% were

on the opening and 6% beyond it, but 62% were found be¬

tween the middle line and the new opening. The discharge

of these sporanges evidently took place while the re-aiming

was in progress.

Table XL — Percentages calculated from table X. part 2.

In six of the experiments, those namely in which the light

was changed at 10:00, 9:00, 10:30, 9:15, 8:30, and 9:30,

part of the sporanges were already discharged. 'Under these

conditions, a considerable proportion of the remaining spo¬

ranges were about, to be fired at the moment the change was

made and others were to be fired in a few minutes. Conse¬

quently, a larger proportion of the sporanges fired after the

change were discharged in the direction of the original illum¬

ination. Large numbers, however, are found in the region

between the openings, and a varying proportion reach the

new opening.

The 8 :30 experiment is typical. .Nearly half of the entire

crop of sporanges was discharged when the light was changed.

Of the remaining half, we found in the evening that 4%

were to the left of the former opening, 2%* on it, 44.7% be¬

tween the left opening and the middle line of the field, 10%

between the middle line and the new opening, 36% on the new

opening, 2% beyond it to the right. Late as it was, very few

576 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

sporangiophores failed to begin to respond to tlie new, stimulus,,

and nearly half of them completed the reaction.

These data demonstrate that perception and reaction can take

place in fully mature sporangiophores ; that a heliotropic bend¬

and that the reaction can be interrupted at any point by the dis¬

charge.

W,e next attempted to determine to what extent sporangio¬

phores, subjected to two light stimuli, turn toward the nearer

source of light. The surface of the culture used was five centi¬

meters in diameter. The culture being placed, as before, equi¬

distant from the two openings, if the openings admit exactly

the same amount of light, only those sporangiophores which

happen to be on the median vertical line of the culture will be

equally lighted from the two directions. Placed at either side

of the middle line, the sporangiophore will be nearer to one

opening and farther from the other. The following experi¬

ments were devised to show to what extent, if at all, the spor-

anges on the right half of the culture are discharged at the left

hand opening, and vice versa.

The apparatus used was a wooden box 39 centimeters long,

23 centimeters wide and 16 centimeters high. Two openings

two centimeters square were cut in one end, eight centimeters

apart and four centimeters from the bottom of the box. The

culture lay on the bottom of the box, its surface vertical and

facing the end containing the openings and its center equidis¬

tant from the openings. The distance from the center of the

culture to the center of either opening was ten centimeters,

making the angle between the two beams of light reaching the

culture about 45°. The sporanges were caught on two plates

of glass. One, as usual, was placed inside against the end of

the box (covering the openings) and the other was placed ver¬

tically, perpendicular to the first glass at its median line and

extending back until it touched the median line of the culture.

Figure 16 is a diagram of a horizontal cross section of the box.

With this arrangement, any sporanges discharged from the left

half of the culture towards the right opening or from the right

half to the left opening will be intercepted by the second glass.

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 577

Three experiments were performed with the culture ten centi¬

meters from the openings. In the first experiment (Table

XII), 21 out of 126 sporanges were intercepted by the second

glass; in the second, 19 out of 144; and in the third, 11 out of

99. The average thus intercepted in the three experiments

is 14%.

Three similar experiments were performed with the culture

25 centimeters from the openings. In the first, 40 out 126

were on the second glass (30%) ; in the second, 31 out of 124

(40%) ; and in the third, 122 out of 317 (38%). The average

percentage for the three experiments is 36, or 22% more than

when the culture was 10 centimeters from the openings.

The respective beams of light reaching a given sporangio-

phore from the two openings do not differ greatly in intensity,

a

Fig. 16. Diagram of horizontal cross section of box used in table XII.

whatever the position of the sporangiophore in the culture', yet

the majority of the sporanges are shot toward the nearer open¬

ing, that is, toward the source of the stronger illumination. It

is evident that very small differences in light intensity are per¬

ceived by the sporangiophores.

Table XII. — Showing to what extent sporanges are thrown to the farther of

two simultaneously presented lights.

10 cm. from culture to

openings.

25 cm. from culture to

openings.

On first

glass.

t

I

105

125

88 .

86

93

195

57 8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

When the culture was 25 centimeters from each opening

(Table XII), 36% of the sporanges were shot towjard the more

distant opening, while only 14% were shot toward the more

distant opening when the culture was 10 'centimeters away.

the Openings, being kept equidistant from them, the amount of

light from the respective openings; reaching any particular

sporangiophore not in the median line of the culture becomes

more nearly equal. The ratio approaches 1:1 as a limit as the

distance increases. When the culture is placed at a consider¬

able distance from the openings, then, sporanges from the whole

surface of the culture contribute to the group at each of the

openings.

The Response of Pilobolus to the Simultaneous Stimuli

of Two Differently Colored LightsJ

The relative efficiency of lights of different colors in causing

heliotropic reaction in Pilobolus has already been considered

in connection with the question of accuracy of aim. It was

found that the reactions to white and blue lights were the most

precise ; that those to yellow light were much less so ; and that

the reactions to red light were very vague and indefinite. The

behavior of Pilobolus was next studied when subjected simul¬

taneously to lights of two different colors.

The cultures were placed in a box 38 centimeters long, 17

centimeters wide and 23 centimeters high. In the middle of

each end was a circular opening two centimeters in diameter.

The same blue, ruby, yellow and colorless glass plates were used

as in the foregoing experiments, and in addition potassium bi¬

chromate and copperoxide solutions contained in parallel- walled

flasks. The plates of colored glass were placed one against each

opening, precautions being taken to prevent the entrance of

light around their edges. When solutions were used, the flat

flasks were placed close against the opening and on the outside

of the box, black pads encircling the opening ensuring the ex¬

clusion of all white light. Against the inside of each end of

the box was placed a plate of colorless glass to catch the spor-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 579

anges. Sixteen candle power incandescent lamps were used as

sources of light and were kept before the opening day and night.

The culture was placed upright in a saucer containing water to

prevent it from drying out, and was set on the floor of the box

in line with the two openings. The culture was. first placed

two centimeters from one end of the box, and on each succeed¬

ing day was moved two centimeters toward the opposite end.

The number and position of the sporanges fired while the cul¬

ture wlas in each position were recorded. The surface of the

culture was six centimeters below the level of the centers of the

two openings. The angles at which the light from the respective

openings strikes the sporangiophores vary with the position of

the culture. To obviate the possible shading of some of the

sporangiophores, care was taken to use cultures, with an even

surface and with sporangiophores symmetrically arranged.

As the culture is moved from one end of the box toward the

other, the intensity of the light received from one opening is of

course decreased while that from the other is proportionally

increased. By recording the number of sporanges found on

each glass at each stage in the series, we can determine the ratio

of the effectiveness of the two kinds of light.

In the experiments to be described, we compared the effects

of light coming through respectively (1) the blue and the white

glass, (2) the blue and the yellow glass, (3) the ammoniacal

copper oxide solution and the bichromate solution, (4) the blue

and the red glass, and ( 5 ) the white and the red glass.

In the series in which the blue and white glasses were used,

the bull’s eye target, Big. 3, was used, the inner circle being of

the same size as the opening. The radius of each circle was

one centimeter greater than that of the circle next within. The

areas were numbered outward from 1 to 3, beginning with the

inner circle. Area 3 included all outside of area 2. More

circles were unnecessary, since relatively few sporanges were

found outside of area 2. A horizontal line was drawn through

the center of area as before, so that a record could be made of

the sporanges striking above and below the center. In these

preliminary experiments, no attempt was made to compare ab-

580 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

solutely the intensity of the two lights used, the object being to

due to distance.

When the culture was two centimeters from the blue glass

and 36 centimeters from the white, 88.6 per icent of the spo-

ranges were thrown toward the blue, 11.4 per cent toward the

white. When the culture was eight centimeters from the blue

and 30 centimeters from the white, 14.8% and 25% were found

on the two glasses respectively. At 12 centimeters from the

glass and 47.1% the white, the numbers now being almost equal

although the culture is still less than half as far from the blue

glass as from the white. When the culture was at 18 centi¬

meters from the blue and 20 centimeters from the white, only

30% struck the blue and 70% the white. At 28 centimeters

ranges were fired toward the white end. -Table XIII contains

the data in complete form. It is seen that in no case, even

when the ratio was 2 to 36 in favor of the blue, were all the

sporanges discharged toward the blue. The curve in Figure 17

is plotted from these data. The percentages of sporanges fired

toward one of the two glasses are used as abscissas and the dis¬

tances from the culture as ordinates. The area above the curve

indicates the proportion which struck the white glass and the

area below, that which struck the blue glass. Although the

Table XIII _ Blue glass and white glass at opposite ends of the box. Cul¬

ture moved 2 cm, each day from 2 cm. from the blue glass to 2 cm. from

the white glass. Opening 2 cm. in diameter.

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Rilobolus. 581

percentages vary irregularly, it is noticeable that on the whole

there is a gradual decrease in the proportion fired toward the

blue and a proportionate increase in that fired toward the white

as the culture is moved toward the latter. It appears then that

the light of short wave length, as such, has no preponderating

influence at least in determining the phototropic1 reactions of

Pilobolus. '

Whether the presence of two sources of light will affect the

accuracy of aim of the sporangiophores can be ascertained from

the results of the experiments just described by studying the

number of sporanges which strike in the different areas of the

respective targets. It would seem possible that if the pres¬

ence of one light influences the aim of the sporangiophores to¬

ward the other, some of the sporangiophores should be pulled

out of the position of direct aim and nearer the vertical position.

If, then, there be such an influence as that suggested, we shall

except in these experiments to find a larger percentage of the spo¬

ranges above the center of the target than in the case in which

only one light was used.

We note, however, that the majority of the sporanges are al¬

ways below the center of the opening. On the blue glass there

are 28% more below than above with the culture at four centi¬

meters distance, 19.3% more at 14 centimeters, 45.6% more at

26 centimeters distance. In the case of the white light, also,

the number below always exceeds that above the center of the

opening. These results are given in complete form in Table

XIII. The results make it seem probable that there is no in¬

crease in the number of sporanges landing above the opening

due to the presence of a second source of light.

A possible effect might also be shown in a, general tendency

to inaccuracy of aim toward one light due to the presence of the

other. The percentages of the total number of sporanges which

land in area ] in the blue and white lights respectively, are,

however, practically the same as in the case in which the two

glasses were used separately (Compare Table XV with Table

II). As before, there is a slightly larger proportion on area 1

when the blue light is used than when the white light is used.

Table XI V'. — Culture at distances indicated. Opening 2 cm. in diameter. Blue and white glasses at opposite ends of box .

582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

m «© ^ GO

aw l

o

Oc-(MO

ft kd rji 00

o <0 10 os

£ O* £- h?

g Ph ^ *° rf

© I

©3 ©3 O

05 kO

000

O kO

CO CO o

©

00

©3 .

o

fc'

&I3

©

4-3

s

£

d

o

bo

kO kO o

©3 t- >0

WH©

CO ko rt

Table XV. — Culture at distances indicated. Opening 2 cm. in diameter. Blue and white glasses at opposite ends of the box. Table

shows number of sporanges on the different areas with the cultures at the various distances.

Allen and J olivette— Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 583

S' ©iflWrtO

d r-H

m I

lO o" ©

^CCNO

584 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

<£>

0*

§

Oi

&

%

*C>

1

I

§

o>

HNM

Vi Cfi 02

cc vi Vi

ad G

t*

KS

’5}li'fcdOcP

3 0 0

PQCGCQ

HCQCO

05 M K •

SO W M •

r&i)'feCrSD^

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 585

In our next series of experiments, the blue glass was placed

at one opening and the yellow glass at the other. With the

culture two centimeters from the yellow glass more than half of

the sporanges were fired toward the blue, although it was eigh¬

teen times as far away as the yellow light. With the culture in

the middle of the box, 91% were discharged toward the blue,

and at 22 centimeters from the yellow light all the sporanges

were fired toward the blue. The decrease in the percentage of

sporanges reaching the yellow glass was very irregular, prob¬

ably because of inequalities in the distribution of the sporanges

on the surface of the cultures. The exact data for each observa¬

tion are given in Table XVI. The curve (Figure 18) is

plotted from these data and shows the proportion of sporanges

fired toward the bine and yellow glasses respectively.

Table XVI — ‘Culture at distances indicated. Opening 2 cm. in diameter.

Blue and yellow glasses at opposite ends of the box.

As in the experiments with blue and white lights, the accu¬

racy of aim toward either the blue or the yellow did not seem to

be affected by the presence of the other color.

We next tried the effect of placing the copper sulphate and

bichromate solutions at opposite ends of the box. On com¬

parison of the results with those when the blue and yellow

glasses were used, a difference is found in that at two centime¬

ters from the bichromate solution only a small percentage of the

586 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sporanges were discharged toward the blue, while when the

glasses were used over half went toward the blue. Further¬

more, the percentage fired toward the yellow solution decreases

more regularly as the culture is moved toward the blue, al¬

blue and yellow respectively as when the glasses were used.

The detailed results are given in Table XVII. Figure 21

shows the proportion of sporanges fired toward each of the two

solutions.

Table XVII. — Culture at distances indicated. Opening 2 cm in diameter.

Blue and yellow solutions at opposite ends of the box.

Xext the red and white glasses were placed at opposite ends

of the box. With the culture two centimeters from the red and

36 centimeters from the white, 85% of the sporanges were dis¬

charged toward the red. At four centimeters, only one-fourth

all were sent toward the white. Table XVIII contains the

complete data for this series of experiments. Taking the sum

of the results of this series of experiments, twelve times as many

light (Figure 20). The accuracy of aim, as shown by the spo¬

ranges which hit the opening with the red light, was very poor,

just as was the case when the red light was used alone. There

is no indication that one light affected the accuracy of aim of

the sporangiophores toward the other.

Table XVIII.— Culture 2-16 cm. from red. Opening 2 cm. in diameter.

Red and white lights at opposite ends of the box.

Allen and J olivette — Light Reactions of Pilololus . 587

588 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Similar experiments were tried, using the blue and red

glasses. Only at two centimeters from the red did a majority

of the sporanges reach the red glass. At ten centimeters, none

were fired toward the red. Table XIX gives the data for these

experiments. As in the case of the red and white lights, twelve

times as many sporanges all told were fired toward the blue as

toward the red light (Figure 19).

As in the preceding cases, the accuracy of aim toward either

light appears to be unaffected by the presence of the other.

Table XIX. — Culture at distances indicated. Openings 2 cm. in diameter.

Blue aud red lights at opposite ends of the box.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The wide upper part of the top-shaped vesicular bulb of

Pilobolus is broader than the sporange which caps it; conse¬

quently, when the sporangiophore is pointing directly toward

a small source of light, only the sporange and a narrow rim

around the upper end of the vesicular bulb are exposed to

direct illumination. The slender stalk below the bulb under

such circumstances is shaded.

Steyer (21) has obtained evidence that in Piny corny ces the

sensitive and motor zones in the sporangiophore coincide and

are located just below the sporange. In Pilobolus , after spo¬

range aud vesicular bulb are formed, the motor zone is in the

upper end of the sporangiophore, just below the vesicular bulb.

If, as in Phycomyces, the motor is also the sensitive region,

the fiual adjustment in the process of aiming, that is, after

the sporangiophore has come to point almost directly toward

the light, is not made under the influence of direct illumination ;

for such light as reaches this portion of the stalk must have been

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 589

reflected backwards inside the bulb. It may be, however, that

the bulb itself is sensitive and transmits the stimulus to the

motor zone below. In either case the perfect symmetry of the

bulb probably facilitates exact aiming, for a one-sided bulb

would be unequally illuminated on its different sides.

Sensitiveness to light, as our experiments show, is maintained

throughout the later stages of development ; and in spite of the

changing turgor within the bulb and the sporangiophore imme¬

diately preliminary to the discharge of the sporange, even at

this late stage an accurate heliotropic reaction can be carried

out. The two sets of processes, leading respectively to the dis¬

charge of the sporange and to a change of aim on the part of

the sporangiophore, proceed independently of each other,

neither inhibiting the other. If Hoiks theory that curvature is

due to an unsqual change in the elasticity of the walls of a

cell, be extended to apply to the present case, it must be as¬

sumed that there is a very nice adjustment of the amount of

change in elasticity as the turgor of the bulb increases. With

one degree of turgor, a given increase in elasticity of the wall

on one side of a sporangiophore would result in a stretching of

the wall on that side and a consequent bending of the cell as

a whole. With a greater degree of turgor, an equal change in

elasticity would result in a greater stretching and so in a

greater curvature. Yet. we find that reactions are essayed

and successfully controlled during the period of the final turgor

changes within bulb and sporangiaphore. jit would be inter¬

esting to know whether reactions are performed more rapidly

wfien the turgor is greater, but this is a question which we

have not yet investigated.

Whatever the mechanism in Pilobolus for the perception of

light may be, it is certainly efficient. TW example, in the

white light, ninety-five per cent of the sporanges struck a four-

centimeter opening when the culture was twenty centimeters

distant from the light ; and with one or two exceptions, the re¬

maining five per cent struck within one or two centimeters of

the opening. It is plain that the aiming has been done with

remarkable precision.

590 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The experiments in which a; single white light was used

afford some evidence as to the factors which influence the dis¬

tribution of the sporanges on the receiving plate. These fac¬

tors naturally fall into two classes: those which concern the

structure and operation of the aiming and firing mechanism,

and those which are external to the individual sporangiophore.

Nearly all of the sporanges struck the glass immediately over

the opening through which light was admitted, when the dis¬

tance from culture to opening was relatively short. Even in

those cases, a few sporanges did not reach the opening but

struck below, above or to one side. There is therefore some

variation in the accuracy with which the individual sporangio-

phores aim toward the source of light. This difference may

result from an unequal sensitiveness of perception on the part

of individual sporangiophores, or from a difference in the per¬

fection of the firing apparatus, or from a combination of both

causes. It is probably to be traced back to some factors in the

organism itself rather than to external conditions at the time

of discharge. Whatever may be the cause of this variation in

the accuracy of aim, it is apparent that it has an important

bearing on the final results in all of the experiments.

Not only is there a variation in the accuracy with which the

individual sporanges are fired toward the light, but the force

with which they are discharged is plainly quite unequal. Even

at comparatively short distances, as we have seen, some of the

sporanges fell below the opening; and at the greater distances

individual difference in this respect stood out much more

plainly. Some of the sporanges struck the opening even when

the culture was at a distance of ninety-two centimeters,, al¬

though sixteen and seven-tenths per cent failed at this dis^

tance to reach the vertical glass and fell on the floor of the

box. Variations in the force of the discharge, therefore, as

Well as in accuracy of aim are to be reckoned with in the con¬

sideration of the final results.

Our experiments have made it plain that the distance of

the culture from the source of light is another deciding factor

in the distribution of the sporanges. The number of spo-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 591

ranges falling upon the opening decreases with an increase in

the distance of the culture from the source of light (as shown

by Table I), because of the effect produced by gravity upon

the path of the dying sporange.

The arrangement of the sporangiophores in the culture is

also to be taken into account, since, as we have pointed out

and as Figures 8 and 9 plainly show, this factor may be a

source of irregularity in the final distribution of the sporanges

upon the glass plate- — since it of course affects the position of

the individual sporangiophore relatively to the source of il¬

lumination.

It was found that the proportion of sporanges which reached

the opening varied somewhat with the size of the latter, the

proportion being greater with the larger opening. Although

no extensive series of experiments was performed with refer¬

ence to this point, the results obtained were sufficiently decisive

to show that the size of the opening is a factor which affects

the accuracy of aim of the sporangiophores.

There are doubtless other factors which influence the final

distribution of the sporanges, but upon which our experiments

have as yet thrown no particular light. Tight intensity is cer¬

tainly one such factor, and another, to be discussed below, is

the wave length of the light which serves as a stimulus. But

when all of the factors are taken into consideration which may

influence the path taken by the sporanges and their ultimate

position, it becomes evident from our observations as well as

from those of previous investigators that the sporangiophores

of Pilobolus aim with remarkable accuracy toward a source

of white light.

Toward a blue light the sporangiophore is aimed, on the

whole, just about as accurately as toward a white light. In

some cases, indeed, the reaction is even more accurate; for

example, when the culture was twenty centimeters from a

four-centimeter opening, ninety-seven per cent of the sporanges

fell upon the opening.

Toward a yellow light, on the other hand, we find that the

aim is much less accurate than toward either the blue or the

592 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

white : and the red light seemed to be the least efficient of all

in producing accuracy of aim. In fact, there seemed to be

almost no definiteness of aim whatever in the cultures subjected

to the red light. So far as we can find, no explanation has

yet been suggested for the different efficiencies of lights of

different colors in cases of this sort.

The question as to whether the sporangiophore of Pilobolus

is aimed high in order to make allowance for the distance the

sporange must travel to reach the light, appears to be settled

by the data given in Table VII. The sporangiophore is

aimed straight toward the light, making no allowance for dis¬

tance. The sporange follows the path of a projectile, and the

distance that it fails below the source of illumination increases

with an increase in the distance it must travel. The curve

(Figure 11) which represents the results of our observations

upon this point, shows the average path, of a large number of

sporanges. Any individual sporange, as just pointed out, is

fired straight toward the opening, and its path is that of a

projectile, since gravity tends to pull it downward as is the

case with any body thrown horizontally or approximately so.

Different sporanges, as has been shown, vary in the accuracy

with which they are aimed and in the force of their discharge ;

and these individual differences necessarily influence the di¬

rection of the curve. Consequently, the curve (Figure 11)

which shows their average path does not represent the path

of any single sporange and is therefore not a parabola.

Hathansohn (14) in testing Talbot’s law for plants, found

the point between a constant and an intermittent light at which

the two had equal power to induce a heliotropic reaction in

seedlings of Brassica. It is noteworthy that at this point,

where the difference between the two lights (as tested by the

human eye) was less than one per cent, each seedling reacted

accurately to one light only. About half of the seedlings ex¬

perimented with, bent toward one light, the other half toward

the other light. In other words, one light in each case pro¬

duced a full and complete reaction and the other had no

visible effect. Which of the two lights would prevail could

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 593

not be predicted. In a few cases in which Avena seedlings

were used, no reaction occurred. On the other hand, with

Brdssica , the most sensitive of the plants worked with, there

was always a reaction in one direction or the other.

Pilobolus also, as our experiments show, when subjected to

two approximately equal beams of light, aims and discharges

at one or the other of the two. In the majority of cases, the

aim toward one source of light is as accurate as though the

other were not in existence. Light rays from both sources

reach the sensitive sporangiophore. Apparently there is noth¬

ing to prevent each set of light rays — or each individual light

ray for that matter- — from setting up those changes in the proto¬

plasm which constitute the perception of a stimulus:, and

nothing to prevent these simultaneous stimuli from acting to¬

gether to produce a resultant reaction. But this does not

occur. The visible reaction of each sporangiophore is to one

and one only of the two possible sources of stimulation.

When the two openings which serve as sources of illumina¬

tion are close together, there are, to be sure, a small number

of sporanges which land about midway between the openings.

Attention has already been called to the fact that these particu¬

lar sporanges often fall considerably below the level of the rest

of the sporanges on the glass. When the openings are so far

apart that the angle between the two beams of light is more

than 20°, the sporanges which fall markedly below their fel¬

lows are found, not under the middle of the field, but beneath

one or the other of the two openings.

It is possible that the sporanges which fall between and

below the openings came from sporangiophores which per¬

ceived and reacted to both lights at once, thus aiming at a point

between the two openings. But if this be the case, why should

the resultant reaction to two simultaneous stimuli appear only

when the openings are close together ? If two separate beams

of light can be perceived at the same time by a single cell, and

if each separate perception can produce its influence in the

motor region, thus giving rise to a true resultant reaction, it

is hard to see why the feat is not performed at least as often

594 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

when the angle between the two sources of light is 40° as it

is when the angle is 15°. On this assumption, also, why

should there not be a similar resultant reaction when the two

stimuli are of unequal intensity? The lesser stimulus would

be expected to produce a smaller effect, but why should it not

exercise a proportional influence upon the reaction instead of

being entirely neglected by the sporangiophore, as we have

found is the case? It remains unexplained, too, on the as¬

sumption of a simultaneous influence of the two stimuli, why

the sporanges which land in the median region usually lie at

a lower level than do those which are aimed at one or the other

of the two openings.

The facts therefore suggest strongly that the sporangiophores

which produced these particular sporanges were like the less

sensitive Arena seedlings used by Xathansohn. They were

prqbably weak and imperfect and lacked not only the turgor

to give force to the discharge, but also the sensitiveness to per¬

ceive in two neighboring lights anything but one general source

of illumination.

What factors determine, when two lights are presented,

which of the two lights shall prevail, is not always apparent.

A slight difference in the relative intensity of the two lights

may make a marked difference in the proportional numbers of

sporanges found at the respective openings. This was well

shown in the experiments in which the sporanges fired from

the left half of the culture to the right opening and from the

right half to the left opening were intercepted upon a vertical

glass perpendicular to the culture surface. When the culture

was ten centimeters from the openings, 14 per cent of the

sporanges were caught upon this glass (Table XII). When

the culture was 25 centimeters from the openings, 36% were

caught upon it. The alteration in the relative intensity of the

light received from the two sources was not great, but it made

a difference in the result of 22 per cent of the total number of

sporanges discharged.

Again, the sporangiophores in a culture are not always per¬

pendicular to its surface when the experiment is set up. Con-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 595

sequently, the light rays from the two openings do not hit a

given sporangiophore at the same angle. We have not deter¬

mined for Pilobolus the angle at which the incident light rays

produce maximum stimulation, hut it is very probable that the

efficiency of a given light does vary with the angle at which

it strikes the sporangiophore. This, too, may aid one set of

light rays in gaining dominance.

Besides these factors, there are doubtless conditions within

the organism itself which we are at present unable to define,

that may determine or aid in determining which light shall

produce a visible effect. It is not impossible, for example,

that different sides of the same sporangiophore may vary in

sensitiveness, and that this difference in sensitiveness may der

cide the course of the reaction.

The experiments dealing with the response of Pilobolus in

the presence of two differently colored lights involve much

the same problems that we discussed in connection with the

experiments in which two white lights were used simultan¬

eously. The data (Table XIY) showing that the presence

of one light does not affect the aim of the sporangiophore to¬

ward a second light seem to corroborate the results obtained

in the case in 'which the two white lights are used simultane¬

ously. For example, with the blue and white glasses placed

at opposite ends of the box, there are found on the blue glass

twenty-eight per cent more below than above the center of the

opening when the culture is four centimeters distant, forty-nine

and three-tenths per cent more at fourteen centimeters, and

forty-five and six-tenths per cent more at twenty-six centi¬

meters. Tn the same way, the number below the opening on

the white glass always exceeds that above. There is no ap¬

parent change of aim towards one light due to the presence of

the second light, for this would result in a larger proportion

of the sporanges striking above the center of one of both open¬

ings. The number of sporanges below the center of the open¬

ing always exceeded that above the center, just as was the case

when a single light was used, and the proportional excess below ,

the center was about the same.

596 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

A comparison of the reactions of 'Pilobolus toward each of

two colored lights nsed simultaneously gives results in har¬

mony with those obtained when similar lights were used separ¬

ately. The reaction is most accurate toward the blue light

when the latter is used in combination with the white, the

yellow or the red. A larger percentage of the sporanges strike

the glass at the opening in the blue light. The reaction

toward the white light is a little less accurate than that toward

the blue, as is shown when the white light is used simultan¬

eously with the blue, red and yellow. A comparison of the

average percentages reaching the respective openings in the

whole series of experiments (Table XV ) shows plainly that a

larger percentage strikes the opening in the blue than in the

white light. The average percentage striking the opening in

the blue light was 57.9 ; that in the white light 47.3. The

reaction toward the yellow light is much less accurate than that

toward either the blue or white, while the reaction toward the

red light is the least accurate of all.

We have found that when the culture is exposed to blue and

white lights simultaneously, the ratio of the total number of

sporanges bred toward the respective lights is 4 to 7 in favor

of the white light, although, as our previous experiments, just

cited, had shown, the sporangiophores are aimed, if anything,

rather more accurately toward a single blue light than toward

a single white light. The results with the simultaneous blue

and white lights seem to show that the relative intensity of the

light is a prime factor in determining the reaction. The in¬

tensity of the white light used is greater than that of the blue,

since the blue glass cuts out a large portion of the spectrum,

thereby diminishing the intensity of the light. It must be

left to further investigations to determine whether the number

of sporanges bred respectively toward the simultaneously act¬

ing blue and white lights is proportional to the relative inten¬

sities of the two lights.

The ratio of the total numbers of sporanges bred respectively

toward simultaneous blue and yellow lights was 9 to 1 in favor

of the blue. These results are in harmony with those ob-

Allen and Jolivette — Light Reactions of Pilobolus. 597

tained in the experiments with the single lights of different

colors, in which it was found that, as in the present case, the

sporanges were aimed much more accurately toward the blue

than toward the yellow light.

When either white or blue light was used simultaneously

with red, the ratio was 12 to 1 in favor of the white or blue

light. This also agrees with the results of the previous experi¬

ments which tested, the accuracy of aim of Pilobolus toward

single lights.

We wish to thank I)r. R. A. Harper and Dr. C. E. Allen of

the University of Wisconsin for their suggestions and criticisms

in the writing of this paper.

Bibliography.

1. Albrecht, G. : fiber die Perzeption der Liehtrichtung in

den Laubblattern (Vorlauffge Mfittheilung) . Ber. d.

deut, Bot. Ges., 26: 1'82~191, 1908.

2. Brefeld, O. : Experimentelle Versuche. Untersuchungen

aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mycologie, 3 :6 7-97,

114-116. Leipzig, 1877.

3. - : Pilobolus. Ibid, 4:60-97. 1881.

4. - : Die Bedeutung des Lichtes fur die Entwickelung

einiger Pilzformen. Ibid, 8: 275-290, 1889.

5. Dandeno, L B. : Phototropism under light-rays of differ¬

ent wave-lengths. Science, K. S. 18: 604. 1903.

6. Elfving, L. : Studien iiber die Einwirkung des Lichtes auf

die Pilze. Helsingfors, 1890.

7. Engelmann, T. W. : fiber Licht und Earbenperception

niederster Organismen. Pfl tiger’s Archiv, 29 :

1882.

8. Famintzin, A. : Die Wirkung des Lichtes auf Algen und

einige andere ihnen nahe verwandte Organismen.

Jahrblicher f. wiss. Bot., 6:1. 1869.

9. Fischer, A., von Waldheim: Ueber den Heliotropismus

niederer Pilze. Mitth. d. ITniversitat Warschau,

1875.

598 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

10. Graenitz, F. : Ueber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die

Entwickelung einiger Pilze. Inaug Diss., Leipzig,

1898.

11. von Gutenberg, H. : Tiber das Zusammenwirkung von Geo-

tropismus und Heliotropismus in parallelotropen

Pflanzentheilen. Jabrb. f, wiss. Bot,, 45: 191~23l,

1907.

12. dost, T. : Uber den Einfluss des Liclites auf das Knospen-

treiben der Rothbuehe. Ber. d. deut. Bot. Ges., 12 :

188-197. 1894.

13. Klein, J. : Zur Renntniss des Piloibolus. Jahrb. f. wiss.

Bot, 8: 305-381. 1872.

14. Hathansohn, A., and Pringsbeim, E. : Ueber die Summa¬

tion intermittierenden Licbtreize, Jabrb. f. wiss.

Bot., 45 : 137. 1907.

15. Oltmanns, E. : Ueber die pbotometriscben Bewegungeu der

Pflanzen. Flora, 76: 183-266, 1892.

1 6. — — : Ueber positiven und negativen Heliotropismus.

Flora, 83 1-32. 1907.

17. Uoll, F. : Heterogene Induktion. Leipzig, 1892.

18. - : Zwei Vorlesungsversucbe. Flora, 77: 27-37. 1893.

19. Regel, K. : Ueber die Einwirkung des Licbtes auf Pilze.

Gedr auf Verfugung der St. Petersburger Katurfor-

scber Gesellschaft. 21 pp. 4881. (Russian).

Beilage zu der Protocollen der Sitz. d. Haturf.

Ges. d. Univ. z. Kasan, 47.

21. Stever, K. : Reizkrummungen bei Play corny ces nutans.

Inaug. Diss., Leipzig. 1901.

22. Tode, J. : Pilobolus. Scbriften d. Haturf. Berlin.

Gesell., 5 : 46. 1784.

23. Vines, S. : Tbe influence of light upon the growth of leaves.

Wurzburg. Arbeit, 2: 114-132. 1878.

— : Tbe influence of light upon the growth of unicell¬

ular organs. Wurzburg. Arbeit, 2: 133-147, 1878.

24.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

599

ON THE CYTOLOGY .AND EMBRYOLOGY OF

SMILACINA RACEMOSA,

BY FREDERICK MC AEEISTER

The conception of the constancy of the chromosome number

in the nuclei of individuals of different species and the numeri¬

cal equality of the paternal and maternal chromosomes in dip¬

loid nuclei as established by Flemming (28), Strasburger (92),

Gfuignard (33, 34), Van Bene den (4), Boveri (12, 13) and

their contemporaries, underlies all recent studies of reduction

phenomena in plants and animals. That this constancy of the

chromosome number is also the starting point for all studies of

the individuality of the chromosome is self evident. As has

been pointed out by Harper (39), the constant recurrence of a

characteristic number of chromosomes in the nuclei of the or¬

ganism during mitosis is nevertheless alone insufficient to estab¬

lish the individuality of the chromosomes. Babbs idea (78)

of the reorganization of the chromosomes from the resting retic¬

ulum, involved the material as well as the numerical persist¬

ence of the chromosomes.

Boverbs earlier work on Ascaris (10, 11, 13) demonstrated

that the same number of chromosomes reappears in the pro-

phases as had disappeared in the reticulum in the preceding

telophase, and further that they reappeared in the same position

in which they had disappeared.

The discovery by Henking (40) of a permanent difference

in the form and size of certain chromosomes in the nuclei of va¬

rious species, indicating thus a qualitative difference among

chromosomes, has given considerable further support to the doc¬

trine of the permanence of the chromosomes. The accessory

600 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

chromosomes found in the nuclei of various insects by Henking

(40), Montgomery (60, 61), Sutton (10,1), Paulmier (76), de

Sinety (92) and others, have been shown to be as constant nu¬

clear elements as the ordinary chromosomes.

For plants the work of Strasburger (95, 96), Miyake (55),

and Miss Sykes (102) on Funkia, of Rosenberg (79) on Lis-

tera ovata, of Miyake (55) on Galtonia and of Muller (68)

on Yucca has shown that a constant difference in the size of the

chromosomes exists in these species. Miiller further reports

that the small chromosomes in Yucca lag behind in the ana¬

phase and go into the resting condition on the side of the

daughter nucleus toward the equatorial plate and that in the

following prophase they reappear in the same position from

which they had disappeared.

More recently the discovery of the so-called prochromosomes

of Rosenberg and Overton in the nuclei of certain species has

given no little support to the doctrine of the individuality of

the chromosome. These bodies occur in the nuclear reticulum

as persistent conspicuous chromatic masses of the sarnie num¬

ber as the chromosomes and v§ry from a nearly spherical form

in some of the Cruciferae to an elongated rod-like structure in

Thalictrum and Calycanthus. The persistence of these cen¬

ters about which the chromatin of the reticulum is aggregated

in the prophases has enabled Overton (74) to follow, the course

of the chromosomes of Thalictrum and Calycanthus through

the reduction divisions and to observe that these centers, at

least, retain their identity throughout. Overton has reviewed

the literature of this subject fully.

Fick (27) regards the chromosomes as not persisting from

one cell generation to the next but changing in composition as

the ranks of a maneuvering army may change from: day to day

without changing the composition of the army.

The work of Hacker (36) and of Riickert (81) on Cyclops

demonstrated that in these forms there is no fusion of the

paternal and maternal chromosomes in fertilization. For a time

at least the two sets of chromosomes remain separate and distinct

and appear as separate groups in metaphase. Their work has

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. oOl

received striking confirmation in the work of Moenkhaus (56)

on hybrids of Fundulus heteroclitus and Menida notata. He

found that the paternal and the maternal chromosomes have

very distinctive forms and sizes and thus can he traced in the

fertilization and the early cleavage stages. They were seen

to form, distinct groups through the first and second cleavage

divisions of the fertilized egg, thus retaining their number,,

form and relative position, for a time at least.

The cases in which the chromosomes of the male and female

nuclei are fully prepared for division at the timje of the ap¬

proximation of the pronuclei in the egg form the most frequent

type of fertilization in animals. This is the case in Ascarisr

Cyclops, Nereis and a large number of other forms.

For plants the fusion of the sexual nuclei has been commonly

reported as taking place in the resting condition, — the resulting

fusion nucleus also remaining for a time in the resting condi¬

tion. Prominent exceptions to this general contention are re¬

ported for the Grymnosperms. Here Blackman’s observations

(8) of two distinct groups of chromosomes in the fusing nuclei

in the fertilized egg of Pinus have been confirmed by Chamber-

lain (15) and especially by Miss Ferguson (26) who found

two groups of chromosomes in the spindle of the first division

of the fertilized egg. Wbycicki (109) found similar condi¬

tions in Larix and Murrill (70) in Tsuga, while mjore recently

Nichols (71) has described two chromosome groups in the fer¬

tilized egg of Juniperus. Miss Pace (75) reported that in

Cypripedium the sexual nuclei had fully formed spirems be¬

fore they came in contact in the egg. This, as far as I am

aware, is the only reported case among the Angiosperms of the

fusion of the parental nuclei in any other than the reticulate

condition. I

the chromosome as follows: (1) evidences , — of the constancy

of the number of chromosomes , (2) of the numerical equality

of the paternal and maternal chromosomes in diploid nuclei,

( 8) of the reappearance of the same number of chromosomes in

the prophases and in the same position as they disappeared in

602 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the 'preceding telophase , ( Jf) of the constant recurrence of

chromosomes of a characteristic size and shape , (5 ) of the per¬

sistence of chromatic centers of the same number as the chromo¬

somes, and (6) of the independence of the paternal and mater¬

nal chromosomes following fertilization.

Harper (39) has pointed out that the doctrine of the per¬

manency of the chromosome does not necessarily imply that the

chromosomes themselves are composed of differentiated struc¬

tures as a cell is, nor that they are elementary independent or¬

ganisms as Boveri has conceived them to be. The chromosome

is to be regarded as a structure “undergoing continually its own

series of cyclic changes in resting stage, mitosis, fusion, etc.

doubtless susceptible to minor alterations due to

changing environment.”

The individuality of the chromosome is questioned by some

who regard the chromo-mere as the persistent unit. Ifottier

(64, 65) is of the opinion that the chromosome does not main¬

tain complete individuality from one cell generation to the

other. He believes “that in synapsis or earlier the pangens of

like affinity, or those bearing like characters are brought to¬

gether in chromomeres. These chromomeres are then organ¬

ized into chromosomes. Each chromosome is accordingly com¬

posed chiefly of homologous chromomeres which become ar¬

ranged end to end, and which split to form paired chromo¬

somes.” He is further of the opinion that these chromosomes

are distributed according to the rules of chance or according to

the affinity which they have one for the other.

Farmer (25) regards the chromomeres as “the discrete units

which are responsible for the production of hereditary charac¬

ters,” and therefore the nuclear element which persists from

one cell generation to the next. He believes that the relatively

small number of chromosomes in cells offers a fatal objection

to the viewr that they are the primordia of the characters of the

adult organism and therefore he has selected the chromomere

as the structural unit. He cites an example from Darbyshire,

who says that in pure races of Pisum sativum and Fisum ar-

rense there are at least 18 pairs of characters which behave in

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 603

the hybrid as allelomorphs. Since in the germ cells of these

varieties there are only seven chromosomes it would be necessary

that the 18 allelomorphs must occur in seven groups, which

Farmer regards as improbable if not impossible. He regards

the chromosomes as made up of groups or rows of chromomeres,

— “but they would not necessarily represent permanent and per¬

sistent structures in the sense that each one is to be looked at as

being invariably composed of the same chromomeres.”

The possibility of the pairing of paternal and maternal

chromosomes to form the heterotypic chromosomes seems to

have been first urged by Henking (40) in his attempt to ex¬

plain the origin of the tetrad chromosomes of Pyrrhoeoris.

Montgomery (58) figured a series of stages and described the

pairing of the chromosomes in the spermatogenesis of Peripatus

balfouri. In 190,1 he argued that in Asearis megalocephala

univalens pairing of paternal and maternal chromosomes to

form the heterotypic chromosome necessarily follows since in

the diploid nuclei there is but one chromosome from each parent.

He (60) laid the foundation for the study of the sex chromo¬

some by advancing further evidence based upon studies of

Hemiptera to the effect that pairing of parental chromosomes

here takes place. In Hemiptera heteroptera two small “hetero¬

chromosomes” are present in the division stages of the diploid

nuclei. These unite during synapsis to form one double heter¬

otypic chromosome and are separated at the time of the heter-

typic metaphase so that each germ cell contains but one “het¬

erochromosome.” Evidently then in the fertilized egg one

“heterochromosome” must come from the male parent and one

from the female and it is these two which pair later. From

these observations Montgomery argues that the other double

chromosomes of the first division must be formed in the same

manner.

Winiwarter (108) in 1901 described paired threads as oc¬

curring during synapsis in the nuclei of the mother cells of

the rabbit and man. This paired condition he connected with

the origin of the heterotypic chromosomes, reasoning that the

604 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

most probable explanation of the latter was the side by side

pairing of paternal and maternal chromosomes when in the

thin spirem condition.

Sutton in 1902 (,101) reported that the 22 ordinary chromo¬

somes of Brachystola magna could be separated into eleven

pairs, each pair differing from the others as to size. Further,

in the spermatids after reduction has taken place a graded series

of eleven chromosomes can be seen showing that each germ cell

has received one member of each of the eleven pairs. He

the ovarian follicle cells corresponded with those of the sperma¬

togonia. The union of the male and female germ cells would

therefore give 22 chromosomes, but only eleven different sizes,

— or eleven different pairs. These results Sutton believes con¬

firm Montgomery’s conclusions as to the pairing and conjuga¬

tion of paternal and maternal chromosomes.

As early as 1882 Strasburger reported a great dissimilarity

in the size of the chromosomes of the pollen mother cells of

Funkia Sieboldiana. Gruignard in 1899 called attention to

the fact of chromosomes of different size in pollen mother cells

of JSTaias major. Koernieke in 1901 also observed that in the

embryo-sac of Yucca filamentosa, the chromosomes differed

strikingly from one another. These observers did not at the

time connect any particular significance with the described

facts.

chromosomes remain distinct through the diploid generation

and at a period at the close of the sporophyte generation there

must be an intimate association of the homologous chromo¬

somes, after which separation occurs. He assumed a side by

side pairing as providing the best means for intimate asso¬

ciation, and believed that this association occurs previous to

the separation of the halves of the heterotypic chromosomes.

Rosenberg has reported (79) that in the embryo-sac mother

cell of Listera ovata there are 32 somatic chromosomes of dis¬

similar sizes. These pair to formi the 16 bivalent heterotypic

chromosomes of which five are strikingly larger than the re-

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology .

605

maining eleven. Of the five large ones three are very long and

the other two decidedly shorter. The eleven smaller ones show

differences in size though this is not conspicuous enough to in¬

sure accurate counting. He agrees with Montgomery and Sut¬

ton that in synapsis a union of the homologous parental chromo¬

somes in pairs takes place.

Strasburger again in 1900 (96) calls attention to the marked

differences in the sizes of the chromosomes in the pollen mother

cells of Funkia Sieboldiana. Strasburger (97) and Miyake

(55) also refer to this disparity in size of the chromosomes of

Funkia, and further call attention to differences in the chromo¬

some sizes in Galtonia candicans. Attention is called to the

fact that in advanced prophases of the somatic nuclei of Funkia

and Graltonia, chromosomes of similar size could frequently be

seen lying close together. These are regarded as homologous

parental chromosomes, and the double chromosomes of hetero¬

typic diakinesis and metaphases are conceived to arise from the

approximation of the members of the pairs when in the lepto-

nema stage.

Funkia has twelve large chromosomes and about thirty-six

very small ones. The reduced number as counted in the heter¬

otypic equatorial plate is given as six large and eighteen small

chromosomes. In Galtonia there are twelve large and four

small chromosomes in the somatic nuclei. In the equatorial

plate of the first reduction division six large and two small

chromosomes are present according to Miyake. Strasburger

(98) believes that the presence of these pairs of chromosomes

at the time of the reduction divisions forces one to. the conclusion

that one chromosome of each pair is of paternal and the other of

maternal origin.

Miss Svkes (102) has confirmed the observations of Stras¬

burger and Miyake on Funkia ovata and Funkia Sieboldiana

as to the number of somatic and reduced chromosomes as well

as to the pairing of the chromosomes in somatic nuclei.

Muller (68), studying the nuclei of root tip cells of Yucca in

Strasburger’s laboratory, finds ten large and 44 to 46 small

chromosomes. In metaphase, chromosomes of like size are fig-

606 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

ured lying near one another side by side to form pairs. This

arrangement in pairs is seen more or less distinctly through the

anaphases and in early telophases.

The pairing of chromosomes even in resting nuclei has been

reported by Overton (74), who has observed prochromosomes

in the somatic nuclei of Podophyllum and Calycanthus ar¬

ranged parallel in pairs and connected by linin intervals. In

the resting nuclei of the pollen mother cells of these species

this arrangement in pairs is still seen, as well as in the later

prophases of the heterotypic division.

Very recently Strasburger (100) has discussed at greater

length the subject of pairing of homologous chromosomes. He

reports that in chloralized root-tips of Pisum sativum, in those

cases in which two diploid nuclei fuse, this fusion nucleus upon

division shows the chromosomes arranged in pairs, and that

even in those cases of the fusion of four diploid nuclei, the di¬

vision of the fusion nucleus still shows the paired arrangement

instead of a tetraploid arrangement. He concludes from these

observations that those affinities which are responsible for the

approximation of homologous chromosomes are satisfied with

the proximity of two such units.

He further calls attention to conditions in the endosperm

nuclei of Galtonia candicans as evidence in support of his con¬

clusion that only homologous chromosomes pair. As men¬

tioned above, the haploid nuclei of Galtonia contain six large

and two small chromosomes, and the endosperm nucleus would

therefore contain twelve large and four small chromosomes

from the female polar nuclei and six large and two small

chromosomes from the male nucleus. In polar views of the

equatorial plate stage Strasburger believes that the. chromo¬

somes are arranged to form six pairs of large and two pairs of

small chromosomes and in addition six isolated large and two

isolated small chromosomes. (See his Figs. 10 and 11, PL VI.)

The isolated chromosomes are conceived as remaining separate

owing to a lack of homologous chromosomes with which to pair.

Rosenberg (80), investigating hybrids of Drosera longifolia

X D. rotundifolia, — the former with 40 somatic chromo-

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 607

somes and the latter with 20, found that in late prophases of

the heterotypic division of the pollen mother cells ten double

chromosomes and ten unpaired single chromosomes were present.

Rosenberg explains this distribution by assuming that the ten

paternal chromosomes pair with ten from the maternal parent,

thus leaving ten female chromosomes unpaired. Unfortunately

these hybrids do not set fertile seed, so their conduct during the

reduction divisions in succeeding generations could not be

traced.

Gates (30) has reported, on the other hand, that hybrids of

Oenothera lata X O. gigas, the former with 14 and the latter

phases of the first reduction division, 21 chromosomes which

give little or no evidence of pairing. In the heterotypic di¬

vision these 21 chromosomes are distributed as nearly equally

as possible between the daughter nuclei, one getting eleven and

the other getting ten chromosomes.

Strasburger (100), commenting on Gates’ observations, is of

the opinion that the single equatorial plate stage which Gates

has figured and which Strasburger has reproduced in his plate

might easily be conceived to show seven single and the seven

pairs of chromosomes, — with a single member of a pair lacking,

which, according to the theory of the pairing or homologous

chromosomes, should be present. Still, such pairing as is shown

in this figure does not go far, to say the least, in establishing

any theory of the pairing of homologous chromosomes.

There seems thus to be considerable evidence that there is a

pairing and conjugation, more or less intimate, of the paternal

and maternal chromosomes, occurring during or shortly before

the prophases of the first reduction division. But in regard to

the question as to how the chromosomes are paired there is a

marked difference of opinion. Allen, Gregoire, Strasburger

and others have interpreted the phenomena as showing pairing

of chromosomes side by side, while Farmer and Moore, Mottier

and others believe the pairing of the parental chromosomes to be

end to end.

608 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

The voluminous literature of this controversy has been re¬

viewed recently more or less fully by Strasburger (97, 98,

99), Overton (74), Mottier (60), Gregoire (31) and many

others, and it seems superfluous here to give a detailed review

of the subject. Strasburger (99) calls attention to the fact

that each new investigation on the subject of reduction has

only intensified the controversy instead of bringing the oppos¬

ing views nearer to a general point of agreement.

Yamanouchi (111) reports that in Fucus there is an end to

end pairing, while in Yephrodium (110) he calls attention to

a side by side pairing. He seems to be of the opinion that these

differences are to be found throughout the plant kingdom.

Juel, who in 1905 (46) reported the side by side pairing of

spirem threads in the heterotypic prophases of Hieracium, later

reports in Saxifraga (47 ) the looping of the spirem and prob¬

able approximation of the limbs of the loops to form the hetero¬

typic chromosomes.

Gates (30) referring to Yamanouchi’ s results says “It is

very evident that the time has passed when all accounts of re¬

duction in plants can be brought under a single scheme.” Bot¬

anists have not accepted this view to any extent as yet, and in

view of the remarkable uniformity in the phases of typical

cell division in the higher plants and animals, such wide dif¬

ference in the reduction divisions, which themselves show a

remarkable uniformity in general appearance wherever they

occur, seems very improbable.

Almost all recent researches on the reduction divisions have

emphasized the fact of the universal occurrence of the synaptic

stage. Guignard however in 1899 (35) reported that he was

unable to find the synaptic contraction in Haias major and there¬

fore he concluded that synapsis was an artefact. In two other

cases synapsis has been reported as lacking, — the case of the

spermatogenesis in Triton, according to Moore and Embleton

(62) and that of the ovogenesis of Planaria as reported by

Schleip (871.

McAllister— -Cytology and Embryology. 609

On the other hand Miss Sargent (83), Overton (73), Berghs

(5), and Schleip (88) have reported synapsis as distinguish¬

able in living cells. Schleip figures this stage from living ma¬

terial.

Schaffner (84, 85, 86) is of the opinion that the synaptic

knot is an artefact due to fixation. In hisi recent work on

Agave (86) he reports that in living pollen mother cells no

trace of synaptic contraction is to be found.

McClnug’s (51, 52) work on the insects has also led him to

the conclusion that the synaptic contraction is an artefact.

Mottier (65) has regarded the synaptic knot as due to fixa¬

tion and in a recent paper (67) has offered evidence to that

effect. He has fixed, embryo-sac mother cells of Lilium, some

with the nucellar tissue intact and others with the tissue cut

away so as to bring the mother cell close to the surface. In

the untrimmed ovules he figures formless masses at the time

of synapsis and in the trimmed ovules a fine spirem may be

seen. His results thus suggest that the dense, contracted masses

are due to fixation. It would seem that embryo-sac mother

cells were not favorable for such a comparative study as this

because of their isolation one from the other. In the Lily

anther several mother cells may easily be brought into direct

contact with the fixative by cutting, while those deeper will be

less exposed. These large anthers have been more frequently

studied than those of any other genus, and all accounts agree

that synapsis is here entirely independent of proximity to cut

surfaces in fixation.

J anssens (44) believes that in the spermatogenesis of Batrach-

oseps the characteristic synaptic figure is found only in those

cases in which the fixation is poor. He finds that commonly

the peripheral spermatogonial nuclei of a testis show no well

defined synaptic contraction while in the deeper lying nuclei

contraction is conspicuous.

Berghs (6) is inclined to believe that the synaptic contrac¬

tion occurs normally though it is accentuated by the action of

the fixing agent, and in this respect Lerat (49) is practically in

accordance with him.

610 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Hacker (38) who formerly (37) regarded the synaptic knot

as natural is now “iriehr als friiher geneigt, auch den synap-

tischen Knaliel fiir einen nicht ganz naiturlieh Zustand zu

halten.”

By far the greater proportion of cytologists however are of

the opinion that the synaptic contraction is a normal stage in

the heterotypic prophases.

As to the mechanics of the synaptic contraction there is very

little definite evidence. The shape of the knot as well as its

location in reference to the nuclear membrane seem to indicate

that it is due to some internal contraction and not simply a

collapse of the chromatic nuclear content. Gravity, necessarily

the important factor in producing a collapse, very evidently has

nothing to do with the form and position of the synaptic knot,

although Cardiff (1'4) has offered this explanation of the posi¬

tion of the knot.

Babbs (78) conception of the nuclear organization, involving

as it does the permanency of the chromosomes and the perman¬

ent connection of the chromosome with a center, should apply

equally well to the movements of the spirem during synapsis as

during the later phases of the mitosis. Evidences of such per¬

manent connection between spirem and the exterior are not

lacking.

In the ascus it has been shown by Harper (39) and Miss

Sands (79) that there is a permanent connection of the spirem

with the centrosome. Many investigators have figured fine

fibers in attachment with the spirem during synapsis and in the

following prophases. Among these are Earmer and Moore (23) ,

Mottier (66) and Overton (73). Marquette’s (53, 54) work

on Isoetes and Marsilia has demonstrated that in plants lacking

centrosomes there may still be a polar organization of the

cell. It is possible that in those forms whose nuclei lack per¬

manent centers there may still be a permanent connection of

the chromatin with the cytoplasm.

There is thus much to suggest that the phenomenon of synap¬

sis, as Well as the recovery from synapsis and the later move¬

ments of the spirem or its segments, previous to the formation

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology .

611

of a conspicuous spindle, as well as after, may be due to tbe

action of contractile fibers which in the earlier prophases owing

to their delicacy are broken and shrivelled during fixation.

R. Hertwig (41), seeking to harmonize his “Kemplasmare-

lation” with the fact of the increase in the size of the animal

egg without accompanying nuclear division, has proposed the

idea that synapsis is an abortive cell division. The longitudi¬

nal splitting of the spirem he regards as a tentative biparti¬

tion which does not materialize, but from the standpoint of

the multiplication of the chromatin has the same effect as a

typical nuclear division. He offers as evidence that in Pal-

udina and Periplaneta, as determined by his pupils Popoff (77)

and Wassilieff (105) respectively, the chromatin seems to

simulate a resting condition following the longitudinal split¬

ting.

Hertwig’ s idea, aimed as it is to explain the enormous growth

of animal eggs without nuclear division, does not apply at all

to plants. Here the reduction division and ovogenesis may be

separated by many cell generations, as is the case in the forma¬

tion of the enormous egg of the Gymnosperms.

The second contraction figure or “second synapsis” seems to

,have been first described by Miss Sargent in 1896 and 1897 in

Lilium Martagon (83). She describes this stage as “accom¬

panied by all the signs of synapsis,” appearing after a period

of uniformly distributed spirem. Since then it has been re¬

ported by a number of investigators for a variety of species and

has besides been plainly figured by several authors who have

however failed to recognize or describe it.

The second contraction stage has been reported in the fol¬

lowing plants: Lilium Martagon (Miss Sargent 83), Lilium

candidum (Parmer and Moore 23, Mottier 65), Lilium Can-

adense (Allen 2), Lilium tigrinum (Schaffner 85), Lilium spe-

ciosum (Gregoire 31), Allium Moly (Miyake 55, Mottier 65),

Hyacinthus orientalis (Hyde 42), Tradescantia virginica

(Parmer & Shove 24), Podophyllum peltatum (Overton 73,

Mottier 66), Oenothera rubrinervis (Gates 30), Oenothera

612 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

grandiflora (Davis 18), Primula sinensis (Gregory 32), Os-

munda regalis (Farmer and Moore 23), Aneura pinguis

(Farmer and Moore 23), and Humaria rutilans (Mliss Fraser

29).

Farmer and Mloore (23) have also reported the second con¬

traction stage as occurring typically in the ovogenesis of Peri-

planeta americana, while Moore and Robinson (63) reported

it in the spermatogenesis of the same species. Farther than

this practically no attention has been called to this stage in the

reduction divisions in animals.

The second contraction stage as described for the above spe¬

cies, with the exception of Oenothera, occurs after the stage of

the uniformly distributed thick spirem. The characteristic

feature of this stage consists in the massing of a considerable

part of the spirem in the center of the nucleus from which mass

more or less irregular loops extend to the periphery.

The case of Oenothera as reported by Davis (18) differs

from the other cases above mentioned in that the second synap¬

sis is described as following immediately after synapsis without

the intervention of a stage in which the spirem becomes uni¬

formly distributed.

Farmer and Moore are of the opinion that it is in second

synapsis that the lateral approximation of the parental chromo¬

somes which are to form the double heterotypic chromosome oc¬

curs. The parental chromosomes, having previously been con¬

nected end to end to form the continuous spirem, now become

bent together in such a manner that the members of the pair

come to lie side by side, forming thus the double heterotypic

chromosome. The significance of the first synaptic aggrega¬

tion is left undiscussed by Farmer and Moore, notwithstanding

the fact that it is one of the most constant and typical stages

of the reduction divisions. ‘ They describe “the first contrac¬

tion stage” as occurring immediately after the formation of the

thin spirem from the reticulum and the second contraction as

following after a period of uniformly distributed thick spirem.

Thus from their descriptions of these stages it seems clear that

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 613

no confusion exists in their minds as to the distinction be¬

tween them.

It is to be noted that Farmer and Moore found the second

contraction stage well marked in all the forms which they re¬

ported on, — in Lilium, in Osmunda, in Aneura, and in the

ovogenesis of the cockroach. It may be of further significance

in this connection that out of the 17 citations above of authors

reporting the second contraction stage, 13 cases have been re¬

ported by investigators seeking to uphold the end to end pair¬

ing of parental chromosomes with the subsequent bending to

form the heterotypic chromosomes.

Fraser and Brooks (29) have reported a “first contraction

stage’7 and “a second contraction stage or synapsis77 in the re¬

duction divisions in the ascus of Humaria rutilans. Here the

situation is complicated by the fact that according to Fraser and

Brooks the nuclear fusion in the ascus is preceded by “the

first contraction stage77 in the nuclei which fuse, and immedi¬

ately follows the recovery from this contraction. The fusion

takes place while the two nuclei are in the split spirem stage,

and the second contraction takes place therefore after the fu¬

sion of the two nuclei. Just how these two spirems are to be¬

come associated to form the loops of the second contraction

stage the authors do not show.

That the second contraction figure has been observed by other

investigators and has not been recognized by them seems clear

from an examination of the figures of various authors repre¬

senting the later prophases of the reduction divisions.

Strasburger (96) in his Figures 84 and 85 shows good second

contraction figures for Tradescantia* virginica. He calls at¬

tention to this massing in the center of the nucleus but makes

no reference to the work of Miss Sargent and others on this

stage. Ernst (22) represents a good second contraction figure

(Fig. 7) for Paris quadrifolia which he describes as a late

stage in synapsis, but from the thickness of the spirem strands

it seems clear that the stage of the uniformly distributed spirem

has been overlooked and that his figure really represents second

synapsis. Berghs (7) (Fig. 3) shows a similar figure for the

614 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

same plant but makes no reference in bis paper to the contracted

condition. Juel (46) figures the stage for Hieracium (Fig.

52) and describes it as frequently following the homogeneous

pachynema spirem, often forming a knot, “der jedoch mit der

Synapsis wenig Aehnlichkeit hat.” Cardiff (14) says that he

could find “no constant and definite stage that could be called

a second contraction period” in the plants which he studied.

Yet in his Figures 47 and 48 for Salmonia biflora he shows,

in what he describes as “post-synaptic nuclei,” good representa¬

tions of the central tangle of the spirem, characteristic of the

second contraction period. His figure 69 for Botrychium ob-

liquum, although designated as a stage in recovery from synapsis,

suggests very strongly a later prophase and represents well the

appearance of the second contraction figure.

In the heterotypic division in the formation of the germ

cells in animals, a stage resembling the second contraction seems

to be not uncommon.

Eisen (20) describes and figures in the spermatogenesis of

Batrachoseps, “the angular spirem stage” which has the gen¬

eral appearance of the second contraction figure and occurs in

the prophase following a period of extended thick spirem.

Janssens (48, 44) and Janssens and Dumez (45) describe

the stage of “tension nucleaire” which they believe to be re¬

sponsible for the transverse segmentation of the spirem in late

prophases. In the spermatogenesis of the Tritons, of Batrach¬

oseps attenuatus and Pletodon cinereus, this stage has been

described as occurring in the late prophases after the longitudi¬

nal splitting has taken place. The loops formed at the time

of the bouquet stage are described as extending away from the

polar region by way of the periphery of the nucleus and return¬

ing by way of the interior. Attachment of the spirem to the

nuclear membrane occurs at the polar region and in the regions

where the loops extend along the periphery. When the spirem

thread contracts it produces the stage of “tension nucleaire”

which produces in the center of the nucleus “un noeud en partie

inextricable” the nature of which in later stages becomes clear.

Janssens believes that this stage of tension corresponds to the

McAllister— Cytology and Embryology . 615

“angular spirem stage” of Eisen. The tension on the nuclear

membrane causes the nuclear cavity to grow smaller at this

stage, but finally the spirem becomes broken apart at the weak¬

somes. Janssens is of the opinion that this stage is improperly

called second synapsis.

Van Molle (57) in an investigation of the spermatogenesis

of the squirrel divides synapsis into three stages, “lepto-synap-

tine,” “amphi-synaptine” and “pachy-sy nap tine.” His Figure

13, representing a thick split spirem massed in the center of the

nucleus, is interpreted by him as the latter stage, but is. in every

way a good representation of the second contraction figure.

Arnold (3) in his Figures 12, 13, and 14 of the spermatogen¬

esis of Hydrophilus piceus represents a stage which he inter¬

prets as post-synapsis. The chromatin, according: to Arnold,

is aggregated in the center of the nucleus in a dense knot, while

manner characteristic of the second contraction. Arnold how¬

ever calls these loops “linin” though they are figured as strands

as thick as spirem strands.

Schleip (88) in the ovogenesis of Hotodromas monarcha

shows in his Figures 66 and 67 a stage following the uniformly

distributed spirem after synapsis, in which the major part of

the spirem is aggregated in the center of the nucleus with radi¬

ating loops of a split spirem. It is a typical second contrac¬

tion figure and coincides with this stage as to time as well.

Grates (30), referring to the fact of the non-occurrence of the

“bouquet stage” in the higher plants, is of the opinion that “the

second contraction phase probably corresponds to it.”

I have reviewed the literature pertaining to the so-called

atpical methods of embryo-sac formation in an earlier paper

(50). Since the appearance of this paper Miss Stephens* pre¬

liminary note (93) on the Penaeaceae has been followed by a

more detailed account (94). She has found that the 16-nucle^

ate embrvo-sac of this group arises by four divisions of the em¬

bryo-sac mother cell, — her earlier observation that an axial

616 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

row of cells was present having been found to be incorrect. As

stated in her preliminary note, however, she finds the 16 nuclei

are formed in four definite peripheral groups due to the double

division of the four peripherally placed nuclei resulting from

the first two divisions of the mother cell. Three of each group

form cell membranes1 about themselves ; each of the four “peri¬

pheral groups’7 of cells so formed resembles an egg apparatus,

while the remaining four nuclei fuse to form the endosperm

nucleus. There is some variation in the number of nuclei en¬

tering into the fusion nucleus, — six oases being noted in which

more than four nuclei fused. In these cases there seemed to be

a corresponding diminution in the number of the nuclei to be

found in the peripheral group of cells.

The embryo is usually formed by the fertilization of the nu¬

cleus of one of the cells of the “peripheral group” nearest the

micropyle, at the apex of the embrvo-sac, though cases are cited

of embryo formation away from the apex. One case of poly-

embrvony was noted with a rudimentary embryo at the apex

of the embryo-sac cavity and another laterally placed.

The author is inclined to regard the first four nuclei formed

by the division of the embryo-sac mother cell as macrospore

nuclei, “the germination of each ceasing at the four-nucleate

stage.” She is further of the opinion that the embryo-sac of

the Penaeaceae is to be regarded as a derived structure and not

as primitive.

Went has supplemented his earlier paper (106) on the Po-

dostemaceae by a fuller account (107). He describes the ex¬

terna] morphology as well as the morphology of the embryo-

sac of twelve species of the group representing the genera

Oenone, Apinagia, Lophogyne, Mourera and Tristicha. His

general conclusions as to the embryo-sac formation in the group

coincide in detail with the results given in his preliminary

paper. He finds uniformly throughout the species studied

that tfie embryo-sac mother cell divides to form two cells, the

outer of which degenerates. The nucleus of the inner cell

divides, though neither cell wall nor cell plate is formed. The

inner of the two nuclei, which Went calls the antipodal nucleus,

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 617

degenerates, after which the remaining single nucleus divides

twice to form the four-celled embryo-sac, which consists of two

synergids, the egg and the upper polar nucleus.

Went has figured and described synapsis as occurring in the

mother cell of Oenone Imthurma previous to the first division

of the embryo-sac mother cell, which seems to point clearly to

the fact that 'the reduction divisions coincide with the first two

divisions of the mother cell.

He also finds consistently in all forms studied the large

pseudo-embryo-sac which is formed at the base of the small

true embryo-sac and into, which the embryo grows after fer¬

tilization, the true embryo-sac degenerating.

The more recent literature of polyembryony has been admir¬

ably summarized and the different methods of the formation of

embryos classified by Ernst (21). Since Ernst’s review Mur-

beck (89) has reported embryos arising from nucellar tissue in

Alchemilla pastoralis and embryos arising from the synergids

in Alchemilla sericata. Gui guard (35) has also reported em¬

bryos arising from the synergids of JSTaias major. Treub (103)

has reported the occurrence of the peculiar endosperm embryos

in Balanophora elongata. Cook (17) has recently reported

polyembryony in Mangifera indica and in Eugenia Jambos, the

embryos arising from the nucellus.

The present study of Smilacina racemosa was originally un¬

dertaken with the aim of comparing the macrospore formation

and embryo-sac development in this form with that in Smilaci¬

na stellata (50). The problem has since been extended to in¬

clude the embryo development as well as the reduction phe¬

nomena in the pollen mother cells.

The materials for this study were collected in the vicinity of

Beloit, Wis. during Miay and June of 1906, 1907, 1908 and

1909. Several fixatives were used but the material killed in

Flemming’s strong solution was finally used exclusively for the

study of the reduction divisions while the weaker chrom-acetie

fixatives gave better results with large embryo-sacs. Whole

racemes were fixed and sectioned for the study of the pollen

mother cells. For late stages of embryo-sac and embryo de-

618 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

velopment single ovaries were of necessity used. As far as

possible the materials were fixed in the field, use being made of

the simple air pump of the type described by Osterhout (72),

to insure rapid penetration by the killing solutions. The sec¬

tions were cut from five to 25 microns in thickness and stained

in Flemming’s triple stain and in Heidenhain’s iron liaema-

toxylin stain, — as well as in Benda’s modification of the iron

haematoxylin stain. The triple stain was used to the greatest

advantage on thin sections and the haematoxylin stains gave

best results on the thicker sections.

DESCRIPTIONS OF OBSERVATIONS.

1, The development of the embryo-sac.

The embryo-sac mother cell of Smilacina racemosa, at the

time of synapsis, is commonly separated from the outer layer

of cells of the nucellus by a single cell layer. In some ovules

more than one cell intervenes between mother-cell and epider¬

mis, though in these cases definite layers were not clearly distin¬

guishable. Rarely the mother cell seems to lie in contact with

the epidermis at the time of synapsis.

In a number of cases more than one mother cell was present

in the same nucellus and the two were either in contact with

one another or separated by a thin layer of somatic cells. Two

cases were observed in which two fully formed embryo'-sacs were

lying side by side in the same nucellus. In one nucellus the

embryo-sacs were lying in contact with one another and in the

other they were separated by a thick layer of sterile cells. This

latter nucellus was very broad and at the tip showed evidences

of lobing.

The first division of the embryo-sac mother cell is in a plane

approximately at right angles to the long axis of the nucellus

(Fig. 36). The nuclear phenomena of this division indicate

clearly that it is the heterotypic division. The short, thick

bivalent chromosomes which appear in diakinesis, and the pre¬

cocious splitting of the daughter chromosomes in the early ana-

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 619

phases of the first division both point conclusively to the hetero¬

typic nature of this division. The number of the chromosomes

was not accurately determined at this stage but it was unques¬

tionably much smaller than the somatic number.

A cell plate is formed in the telophases of the first division

which splits to form plasma membranes between which a rather

thick, apparently gelatinous wall is deposited. Even in the

metaphases the spindle is seen to be nearest the chalazal end of

the mother cell and during cell plate formation the outer cell

grows rapidly while the inner one grows very slowly, in

some cases evidently not at all, so by the time the daughter

nuclei are ready for the second division the outer cell is several

times larger than the inner. Although considerable difference

exists between the daughter nuclei it is not as striking as the

difference in size between the two daughter cells.

The second or homoeotypic division occurs immediately after

the formation of the daughter nuclei and cells of the first di¬

vision. Usually the nucleus of the larger outer cell divides

slightly in advance of the nucleus of the smaller inner cell (Fig.

37). It is possible that at times the inner daughter nucleus

does not divide although I could find no positive evidence on

that point. In the telophases of this division a definite cell

plate is formed which splits and thus causes the complete sep¬

aration of the four macrospores though no cellulose Wall is

formed (Fig. 38). These four macrospores are not uniform

in size as are the four macrospores of S. stellata, the two outer

cells being large and plump while the two inner ones are small

and often distorted. Nevertheless the evidence is perfectly

clear that for a time four, perfectly distinct cells exist. The

lack of cell walls separating all four macrospores does not in

the least affect their individuality as cells.

The plasma membranes which are formed by the homoeo¬

typic central spindle figures do not form any cell wall as far as

I have been able to observe and they very shortly disappear

(Figs. 39 and 40). The plasma membrane and wall formed

by the central spindle of the first division figure persists and

we therefore get at this stage, two binucleated cells which have

620 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

resulted from the two divisions of the embryo-sac mother cell.

The inner of these cells is small, with small, often distorted

nuclei and the outer cell is at the close of the second division,

commonly five or six times as large as the inner cell and its

nuclei are plump and normal.

The outer binueleated cell grows rapidly and continuously

to form the young embryo-sac. The inner cell however remains

approximately the same size as at the time of the homoeotypic

division and its nuclei become gradually distorted and disor¬

ganized, though often retaining their general outlines as late as

the beginning of the development of the embryos. At that

time they may be seen as small irregular masses of deeply

staining material lying near the three antipodal nuclei which

they greatly resemble.

When the outer cell has grown to two or three times the size

it had at the time of the homoeotypic telophase, its two nuclei

undergo division forming the four celled stage of the embryo-

sac (Figs. 41 and 42). After a further period of growth

during which the large central vacuole of the mature embryo-sac

is finally formed, these four nuclei divide to form the eight

nuclei of the embryo-sac (Figs. 43 and 44).

At a stage very shortly after this last division, three plump

normal nuclei are to be seen in the micropylar end of the em¬

bryo-sac and three somewhat distorted nuclei in the constricted

antipodal end, while the two polar nuclei have begun to ap¬

proach one another (Figs. 45 and 46). At a somewhat later

stage membranes are formed around the micropylar nuclei

forming an irregular group of cells. There is a great diversity

in the arrangement of the cells of these micropylar groups as

well as in the size of the cells which compose them. Appar¬

ently they very rarely become organized to form the typical egg

apparatus. I have seen, very rarely, embryo-sacs which had

complexes in the outer end of the cell which might be inter¬

preted as an egg apparatus. In nearly all the sacs examined the

cells of the micropylar end were irregular in size, number and

arrangement, bearing no resemblance whatever to an egg ap-

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 621

paratus and lacking any cell which might he regarded as an egg

cell.

At about the time of the formation of the cell membranes

about the nuclei in the outer end of the embryo-sac, the two

polar nuclei have come together in the central part of the sac.

They remain in contact, but entirely distinct from one another,

until about the time of the beginning of embryo formation,

when they are seen to be fused.

During the rapid growth of the embryo-sac the nucellus has

been enlarged, to accommodate the growing cell, by a consider¬

able increase in the size of the cells of the outer layer of the

nucellar wall and by anticlinal division of some of these cells.

Disintegration and absorption of the inner cell’ layers of the

nucellus follow until at the upper end of the nucellus there re¬

mains but the outer layer of cells. In the immediate vicinity

of the micropyle however, certain cells of the inner layers of

the nucellus remain plump and dense and even increase in size.

and the disintegration of the neighboring cells these persistent

cells become more or less isolated, round up and become approxi¬

mately spherical. (Figs. 44, 45, and 46.) The number of

such cells is variable and seems to range from one to four or

five. Frequently small rounded cells which have earlier re¬

sisted absorption succumb and are absorbed thus diminishing

the number of these cells.

As suggested above, the cells derived from the nucellus tend

to become separated from the nucellar wall and thus come to lie

within the outlines of the space occupied by the embryo-sac. In

many cases such cells could still be distinguished from those of

the embryo-sac (Figs. 47, 48 and 49) but in other cases, especi¬

ally in the older stages it was impossible to distinguish between

these rounded nucellar cells and those of the gametophyte. Al¬

though there was considerable variation in the size and content

of the nuclei of the embryo-sac in this region, still no sharp

distinction in appearance could be made between those of the

sporophvte and the gametophyte.

622 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

In many preparations, in which the cytoplasm of the embryo-

sac had shrunken away from the nucellar wall at the outer end

a fairly accurate distinction could be made between the cells of

the embryo-sac proper and those of. the nucellus (Figs. 46

and 47). From these preparations it seems clear that part or

all of the three micropylar embryo-sac nuclei undergo an early

degeneration. Occasionally a larger cell persists in the cyto¬

plasm of the embryo-sac which may possibly be the egg. Other

preparations show all three cells degenerated which may indi¬

cate that a large cell persisting in the embryo-sac is simply

one which has resisted degeneration longer than the other two

(Figs. 48 and 49).

As above mentioned some of the rounded isolated nucellar

cells at the micropylar end of the nucellar cavity become gradu¬

ally absorbed. Others retain their plumpness and increase in

size, some of them becoming considerably vacuolated. These

proceed to form adventitious embryos. At a period before the

fusion of the polar nuclei some of these rounded cells which are

of undoubted nucellar origin, are seen to be dividing (Fig. 48).

Apparently not all of these nuclei divide at such an early stage

but certainly some divide before there is any possibility of fer¬

tilization having occurred. The nuclei of others of these nu¬

cellar cells seem to remain undivided often until after the fu¬

sion of the polar nuclei and the first division of the resulting

endosperm nucleus.

Commonly these divisions take place in isolated cells, or at

least in rounded cells which though lying near one another,

seem to remain perfectly independent. The cell masses re¬

sulting from the division of these neighboring rounded cells

seem to remain separate from one another, suggesting that each

mass may ultimately form an embryo. Still in cases where

some of a mass of cells were observed to be dividing it was of

course impossible to determine whether the mass had resulted

from the division of one or more than one cell. The frequent

large solitary dividing nucellar cells suggest very strongly that

in many instances at least, these adventitious embryos are de¬

rived from a single sporophytic cell.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 623

Tlie evidences are strong that in addition to this polyembry-

onic budding from the nucellus fertilization occurs. Pollen

tubes are very abundant in the tubular styles and are not in¬

frequently found in the vicinity of the micropyle and in sev¬

eral cases were seen entering the micropyle. The confused col¬

lection of nuclei of various sizes and stages of degeneration at

the outer end of the nucellar cavity makes it very difficult to

identify a male nucleus. The lack of any definite easily recog¬

nizable egg cell has also been a great obstacle in determining

whether any nuclear fusion occurs here.

In order to determine whether pollination was necessary to

the growth of embryos I castrated, in the spring of 1908, from

75 to .1*25 flowers on each of thirteen racemes, after which each

raceme was carefully bagged to prevent pollination from other

plants.

All of the flowers thus treated, probably from 1200 to 1400,

withered and dropped off within three or four days. This

shows conclusively that, although an embryo is probably rarely

developed from the egg, still pollination is necessary to initiate

the vegetative budding of the nucellar cells.

As will be seen from figures 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, considerable

variation exists in the form and arrangement of the cells of

these nucellar proliferations. Some have very broad bases,

which suggests that they may have originated from more than

one cell. Others have but one cell in contact with the nucellar

wall (Fig. 52). In all these embryos the irregularity in

the arrangement of the cells is conspicuous. It is also to be

noted that no embryos are to be found which resemble embryos

commonly figured as developing from an egg.

These adventitious embryos continue to grow and ultimately

from one to three develop into mature embryos (Figs. 58 and

59). Usually all of these embryos appear perfectly normal

and nearly equal in size. I have been unable thus far to ger¬

minate the seeds and so am unable to state whether all of the

embryos will form plants.

I have been able, through the kindness of Prof. Osterhout

who has furnished me with material of Smilacina sessifolia, to

624 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

compare the macrospore formation of this Pacific coast species

with that of S. stellata. I find that the formation of four in¬

dividual macrospores with the subsequent disappearance of the

division walls occurs here identically as in S. stellata. This

is, of course, to he expected since S. sessifolia is the Pacific

form comparable to S. stellata.

Prof. H. I). Densmore has very kindly allowed me to exam¬

ine his material of Smilacina amplexicaulis which is the Pa¬

cific Coast species very closely resembling S. racemosa. This

species I have found to form four unequal macrospores in the

same manner as S. racemosa. I have been unable to follow

the development of the embryo-sac.

Preliminary studies on the early stages of the development

of the embryo-sac of Maianthemum canadense show that here

also separate macrospores are formed which later become merged

into one cell. The four macrospores in this case seemed to be

potentially equal as is the case in S. stellata.

It will thus be seen that Smilacina racemosa though differing

definitely in the development of its embryo-sac from S. stellata

as previously described by me (50) still resembles it in a strik¬

ing manner. In S. racemosa as in S. stellata four distinct

macrospores are formed which are separated from one another

by distinct double membranes. These cells in S. racemosa are

nevertheless not potentially equal for the two inner degenerate

while the eight nucleate embryo-sac is formed from, the prod¬

ucts of the division of the two outer cells which first come to oc¬

cupy the same cell by the disappearance of the plasma mem¬

branes between them. The absence of cell walls between the

plasma membranes in no way detracts from the individuality

of the four cells formed from the embryo-sac mother cell. If

a cell wall were necessary to the individuality of a cell as Ernst

(22a) intimates, separate individual cells would be extremely

rare in the animal kingdom.

These results thus give additional evidence to support the

view that the first, four nuclei in the embryo-sac of the lilies and

in other embryo-sacs which are formed directly from the em¬

bryo-sac mother cell, are morphologically macrospores. It is

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 625

plain that the embryo-sac of Smilacina racemosa is formed from

two individual macrospores and the method of the formation of

the macrospores here suggests strongly that all those embryo-

sacs which are formed from one of the daughter cells formed by

the first division of the emryo-sac mother cell are to be regarded

morphologically as formed from two macrospores.

2. The development of the microspores.

In order to more accurately interpret the figures found in the

reduction divisions I have first taken up a study of division in

the somatic cells from which the spore mother cells are formed.

The resting nuclei of the cells just preceding the last premeio-

tic division are similar to those in the other embryonic areas of

the sporophyte. The characteristic reticulum of small chroma¬

tin bodies connected by linin strands is clearly seen (Fig. 1).

With the initiation of the prophases of the last premeiotic

division, the chromatin bodies lose some of their tendency to

take the blue stain and take the red stain more readily. At this

time they become arranged in more or less definite rows, con¬

nected by the linin elements, which take less stain than the chro¬

matin bodies. In this characteristic manner the resting reticu¬

lum becomes transformed into a kinky, closely packed spirem.

Whether there is ever a union of two or more net knots of the

resting reticulum to form a single chromomere could not be defi¬

nitely determined, — but from the irregularity in size of the

chromatin masses of the reticulum and their comparative regu¬

larity in diameter in the spirem it seems very probable that

some rearrangemexit is necessary to form the uniform chromo-

meres.

I was unable to find a paired condition of like chromosomes

in the division figures of sporophytic nuclei such as Strasburger

and others have seen in plant cells recently investigated by

them. Their figures representing the pairing of somatic chro¬

mosomes are by no means convincing and it would seem that

the foreshortening of those chromosomes seen from the end as

well as the possible unequal rates of contraction of the chromo¬

somes in the stages following the transverse segmentation of the

626 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

spirem, would introduce fertile sources of error in all attempts

at determining the paired condition of sporophytic chromo¬

somes.

The nucleoli of these resting nuclei vary as to size and num¬

ber. Commonly three nucleoli of unequal size are present, but

often only one is to be seen and in other cases as many as five

or six smaller ones can be made out.

In the formation of the spindle of the last mitosis preceding

synapsis broad strongly developed polar caps appear (Fig. 2).

The spindle ultimately assumes the characteristic bipolar form

of the typical mitosis.

In the metaphases and anaphases we find typical longitudinal

splitting and separation of the chromosomes (Fig. 3). The

chromosomes differ strikingly in their form, number and sim¬

plicity from those found in the corresponding phases of the

heterotypic division. In the telophases the reconstruction of

the resting reticulum of the daughter nuclei is brought about

by the development of anastomoses between the daughter chro¬

mosomes. During this process the chromosomes retain for a

time their boundaries even though they have become very much

enlarged and reticulated (Fig. 4). Finally all outlines of

the chromosomes are lost in the uniform reticulum and the

nucleoli appear again in apparently the same number and sizes

as before.

In none of the stages of this last division before reduction is

there anything to distinguish it from a typical mitosis. There

is nothing that can be interpreted as a preparation for the reduc¬

tion divisions which are to follow.

The net knots of the resting reticulum immediately preced¬

ing synapsis are much more irregular in size and distribution

than those found at the corresponding stage of the preceding

cell generation (Figs. 5 and 6). Some of these knots; are

large and conspicuous and others are much smaller, appearing

as fine granules connected by finer linin strands (Fig. 6).

They arc chromatic aggregations, irregular as to size and shape,

connected by fine irregular strands which in staining take the

same general color as the net knots. The strands connecting

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

627

these net knots do not differ essentially from the knots them¬

selves in their staining qualities, though naturally, from their

extreme fineness they are much fainter. I think that it would

be difficult at this stage to demonstrate a difference between

the two elements of the reticulum by their staining reactions.

In later stages of mitosis this difference becomes more apparent.

Here as in the nuclei of the preceding cell generation there is

no evidence of chromatic aggregations of the nature of prochro¬

mosomes, the net knots being too small and too irregular to be

regarded as such, besides being far in excess of the sporophytic

chromosome number.

The reticulum, does not take up a marked peripheral position

in the nuclear cavity as has been described for a large number

of plants, though it is clearly less dense in the central region.

There are also conspicuous clear zones around the larger nu¬

cleoli which are practically free from the reticulum.

The very first stages in synapsis are clearly shown in S. race-

mosa. The appearance of the first traces of a thin chromatic

spirem and the first traces of the synaptic contraction are almost

simultaneous as has been reported for various species by Mot-

tier, Allen, and others. With low magnification this stage ap¬

pears as though the reticulum had drawn together somewhat in

certain regions, thus increasing the effect of knots by the ap¬

parent increase in the size of the chromatin aggregations

(Fig. 7). At the same time areas are found at the periphery

which are practically free from the reticulum. In the central

region also areas are often formed which are nearly free from

strands and knots.

High magnification shows in the nuclei at this stage, the pres¬

ence of many, fine chromatin threads, much bent and folded on

themselves in such a way that the appearance of knots is still

present. Tangential sections of these stages show clearly that

the apparent knots are due to such bendings and crossings and

that the chromatin now forms a very fine spirem, which is bent

and folded in a most tortuous manner (Figs. 7a and 8).

Neighboring nuclei which with low magnification show little

difference from the resting nuclei in appearance, show with

628 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

higher magnification the organization of the chromatin into

threads with a disappearance of many of the fine linin strands.

As suggested above, the formation of the leptonema spirem

results from a spreading of the chromatic material of the net

knots along certain of the strands of the reticulum forming a

thread into which is withdrawn others of these linin fibers,

There is no definite arrangement of the knots into rows to form

the spirem as seems to be the case in the formation of the spirem

in the earlier mitoses of the anther. The knots of the reticu¬

lum placed side by side would, because of their great diversity

in size, form a spirem of extreme irregularity and, in places, of

much greater diameter than the leptonema spirem shown in the

figure. It seems probable that some of the smaller knots lying

side by side in the reticulum do form a part of a spirem, but

nevertheless have no especial significance. Figure 9 shows a

tangential section of a nucleus which lies in an anther with

other nuclei in advanced stages of synapsis. Strands are still

present but the appearance of chromatin knots is giving place

to a condition in which the chromatin is distributed in threads.

The disappearance of the fine strands of the reticulum together

with the appearance of more open, free areas in the nuclear

reticulum certainly suggests strongly the withdrawal of part of

the fine strands into the knots or into the other strands.

We must conclude 1 think that the thin chromatin spirem is

formed by two processes, — first the elongation of the net knots

in certain definite directions along certain of the connecting

fibers to form a much attenuated chromatic strand and secondly

the withdrawal into the aggregation thus formed of the remain¬

ing linin strands.

Almost at the same time that the leptonema spirem becomes

differentiated, the chromatic content of the nucleus can be seen

to be irregularly drawn away from the nuclear membrane in

places (Fig. 7). A tangential section (Fig. 7a) of the same

nucleus as figured in figure 7 shows that the chromatin is prob¬

ably all transformed into the spirem, though certain other areas

such as are represented in figure 9 still show fine strands which

indicate that a spirem of uniform thickness has not yet been

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 629

completely formed. The knotted appearance shown in this

figure is due in part at least to the optical effect caused by a

number of strands crossing in the same vertical plane, — the

combined effect of these crossings being to allow, less light to

pass through these areas thus accentuating the effect of dark

bodies or knots. This effect is of course increased by the fact

of part of the spirem threads being more or less out of focus.

The bending of a strand upon itself and the frequent folds and

kinks all tend stil] further to give the nuclear content the ap¬

pearance of a reticulum with conspicuous net knots.

It is not improbable that in some cases there has been a partial

solution of the spirem threads by the fixing solution and a sub¬

sequent reprecipitation of the dissolved materials. Under such

circumstances, whenever threads touched one another in crossing

a knot would perhaps be formed.

Tangential sections show plainly the leptonema condition and

in the median sections of the nuclei we can also now make out a

tangle of more or less uniform strands rather than a mixture of

very fine irregular anastomosing strands connecting unevenly

distributed chromatic masses of extremely diverse sizes and

shapes such as were present in the previous stage.

In the stage represented in Fig. 10 in which synaptic con¬

traction is well begun leptonema strands paired for short dis¬

tances are common. Slightly later stages still show this pair¬

ing for short distances. They also show diversity in the size

of the spirem threads. Some are quite thin and others are of

such size as could be expected from a fusion of the thinner

strands (Fig. 1!2). These phenomena all suggest the grad¬

ual side by side pairing of parts of the thin spirem to form a

coarse spirem such as appears in parts of Fig. 10. Here a part

clearly consists of the thin spirem threads. A tangential sec¬

tion of the same nucleus shows the thin spirem with suggestions

of pairing on the right side of the figure (Fig. 11). In other

parts of the same nucleus the strands are distinctly larger and

as in the upper central part of Fig. 10 paired strands can be

distinctly seen extending for some distance. As contraction ad-

630 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

vances there is an increase in the proportion of the thicker

threads in the nucleus.

The contraction of the thin spirem into the synaptic condi¬

tion goes on rapidly after it is once inaugurated so that a single

anther may often contain the earliest stages of contraction as

well as nuclei with the chromatin practically at its maximum

contraction into a tight knot.

The first perceptible stages of the synatic contraction, as has

been already mentioned, consist in the drawing together of the

kinky mass of fine spirem threads to form denser aggregations

of the threads, at first principally at the periphery of the nucleus.

This effect of peripheral aggregation seems to be produced by

the collapsing of the chromatin threads at the periphery. The

appearance of a withdrawal of material from the central region

is thus given (Fig. 10). This peripheral collapse is quickly

followed by a more or less uniform contraction leading to the

formation of the globular synaptic aggregation at one side of

the nuclear cavity, the familiar synaptic knot which is figured

and described in all recent accounts of the reduction divisions

(Fig. 13).

The synaptic knot of Smilacina is an especially dense globu¬

lar mass lying in contact with the nuclear membrance. Very

little detail can be made out in the knot itself, but thin tangen¬

tial sections show it to be composed of a relatively thick spirem

which in places can clearly be seen to be composed of tw'o paral¬

lel strands. (Figs. 14 and 15). Occasionally strands of the

spirem project from the synaptic mass and these can usually

be seen to be double. A! large proportion of the spirem of this

stage, however, shows this doubling obscurely or not at all.

There is no orientation of the synaptic knot in any definite

position in the nuclear cavity as far as I could determine. It

is located neither in reference to gravity nor to the surrounding

tapetal layer and the earlier stages of contraction suggest that

the knot comes to lie on the side of the nucleus to which it is

most closely attached by linin threads.

From the relative number of anthers in which the synaptic

condition is to be found on a given raceme, it is very probable

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology .

631

that this stage occupies from % to % of the whole time con¬

sumed in the two reduction divisions, — from the first percepti¬

ble prophase of the first division to the telophase of the second.

This observation accords in general with the observations of

others in regard the duration of this stage.

The commonly described loosening of the spirem begins at

once at the close of the period of synapsis. We first find loose

loops extending out into the nuclear cavity (Tig. pL!6). [Occa¬

sionally fine strands could be seen attached to these loops and

connecting them with the nuclear membrane. Although the

connections between spirem and the nuclear membrane are rela¬

tively infrequent in fixed material it is of course not impossible

that in living material they are always present and that during

the process of fixation they have been destroyed. These fine

strands have been figured by Mottier, Berghs, Allen

and other investigators for synapsis and the later prophases

and they may also have some relation to the movements of the

spirem, during the prophases of this division.

As the spirem emerges from the synaptic condition it appears

like a thick nodular filament, the nodules staining considerably

darker than the main body of the filament ’(Tig. ,1*6) . The

nodules are not arranged in two parallel rows on the periphery

of the spirem but seem to be located on all sides of the filament.

The bodies on the flanks of the spirem, as observed from above

are more conspicuous, while those lying on the upper or under

surface of the spirem are less easily identified. The double

spirem of the synaptic stage must have fused to form this single

spirem, at some time in the later phases of synapsis. This

stage with its scattered chromatic granules may represent a

stage in which the fusion is still incomplete for later the spirem

becomes homogeneous.

After the spirem of the synaptic knot has begun to loosen it

expands rapidly until it becomes uniformly distributed through

the nucleus. (Tigs. 17 and 18). The spirem is at this period

a uniform homogeneous filament showing no differentiation into

chromatin and linin nor into chromomeres. The nodular ap¬

pearance apparent at first upon recovery from synapsis has dis-

632 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

appeared and the spirem is now a single thick thread. No defi¬

nite arrangement of the spirem loops can be made out hut the

spirem is distributed in such a manner that no regions denser

than others are present in the nucleus.

This stage has been described as occurring in the heterotypic

prophases of practically all plants studied as to reduction.

Still Grates (30) and Davis (18) have recently reported that in

the Genus Oenothera the uniformly distributed spirem follow¬

ing synapsis is lacking, synapsis being followed at once by an

irregularly distributed thick spirem. Davis is inclined to think

that this expanded stage and the second contraction stage which

follows it are both parts of the synaptic stage. This usage of

the term synapsis seems to be new with Davis.

As the spirem begins to change from the uniformly distri¬

buted condition to a condition of unequal distribution it again

appears double (Figs. 19 and 20). This separation appears

first as a more transparent line containing less stain, which ex¬

tends longitudinally through the middle of some parts of the

spirem thread. The earlier stages are best demonstrated in

preparations stained in Heidenhain’s iron alum haematoxylin

stain. Slides stained in Flemming’s triple stain retain the

stain more tenaciously between the halves of the spirem so that

the longitudinal splitting shows more or less obscurely.

During the period of the uniformly distributed spirem the

thread increases in diameter and at the same time probably

shortens somewhat, though there is no conspicuous shortening.

The increase in diameter is out of proportion to the shortening

of the spirem and it seems clear that the amount of stainable

material in the nucleus has been largely increased during this

period.

This stage of the uniform distribution of the spirem does not

seem to be of long duration for though not at all uncommon in

my preparations it is quickly succeeded by a second contraction

stage. A, dense aggregation of a part of the spirem in the cen¬

ter of the nuclear cavity appears, with broad irregular loops or

coils extending out from this central mass to the periphery

(Figs. 21 and 22). This stage corresponds in appearance and

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 633

in time to the “second synapsis” first described by Miss Sargent

for Lilium in 1896 and 1897, and since then reported by a num¬

ber of investigators among whom are Farmer and Moore, Mot-

tier, Schaffner, Gregoire, Allen and Miyake.

Figure 19 shows the beginning of this central aggregation

drawn from a median section. Here it will be seen, the uni¬

formly distributed condition has been converted into a system

of irregular coils consisting of broad loops, no two of which lie

in the same vertical or horizontal plane. It will be seen that a

part of each coil extends to the periphery of the nucleus, where

for a considerable portion of its length it lies near or in contact

with the nuclear membrane. It is the crossing and recrossing

of the inner parts of these coils in the central region of the nu¬

clear cavity that gives the appearance of a central massing of

the spirem which is characteristic of this period.

The spirem continues to shorten and thicken and as a result

the inner portions of the coils are drawn nearer and nearer to

the center of the nucleus thus increasing the density and com¬

pactness of the central tangle of threads. The peripheral parts

of the coils do not change greatly in their configuration but re¬

main open and for some distance in close proximity with the

nuclear membrane, suggesting strongly that they are here at¬

tached to the membrane. (Fig. 21).

This attachment of one side of these coils to the periphery of

the nucleus, the opposite side of the coil remaining unattached

and free in the nuclear cavity further suggests a possible ex¬

planation of the central tangle of spirem strands, — for as the

spirem shortens and thickens, as it clearly does at this period,,

the inner parts of the coils would be drawn toward the center

of the nucleus and since they are being drawn in that direction

from all sides they would necessarily cross and recross in such

a way to produce a central tangle. This explanation of the

phenomenon of “second synapsis” has been suggested by Jans¬

sens in his idea of a “tension nucleaire” which causes the seg¬

mentation of the spirem into chromosomes in Batrachoseps and

in the Tritons. According to Janssens the loops of the bouquet

stage following synapsis are whole chromosomes. They extend

634 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,- and Letters.

out from the polar region to the periphery of the nucleus oppo¬

site. They are united with one another at the pole where they

are also attached to the nuclear membrane. The other ex¬

tremities of the loops are also in contact with and attached to

the nuclear membrane. The loops being in this manner at¬

tached to the nuclear membrane at both extremities, when con¬

traction of the spirem takes place, the state of “tension nu-

cleaire” occurs and is relieved when the spirem breaks which,

as Janssens believes takes place at the weakest place, the point

of juncture of the chromosomes.

While a certain tension may exist in these nuclei the

lack of polar organization makes a close comparison between

them and Janssen’s figures out of the question. Further

the method of transverse segmentation here cannot differ greatly

from such segmentation in typical mitoses where no such ma¬

chinery seems necessary to the formation of chromosomes.

As the spirem gets shorter and thicker and the central tangle

at the same time becomes more dense, the longitudinal segmen¬

tation of the spirem becomes more and more distinct, until at

the time of the maximum density of the central knot the spirem

is clearly split throughout its entire length so that in many

places the halves diverge from one another for short distances.

It is at this period that the spirem segments transversely in the

peripheral region to form the heterotypic chromosomes. I did

not find any instances in which the transverse segmentation

took place elsewhere than at or near the periphery. In no case

was I able to find free ends of the spirem in the central region

of uncut nuclei.

Immediately following transverse segmentation the longi¬

tudinal halves of the spirem are seen to be twisted around one

another forming the familiar strepsinema condition (Fig. 21).

Previous to segmentation the twisting seems to be obscure or

lacking. It is probably due to unequal shortening of the outer

and inner parts of the halves of the split spirem. When the

spirem is continuous or nearly so there is little chance for

twisting to take place but transverse segmentation makes it pos¬

sible.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

635

The spirem segments formed by the transverse segmentation

continue to shorten and thicken (Fig. 23). The central knot

becomes looser and finally the chromosomes become separated

out of the mass and we have the diakinesis stage (Figs. 24

and 25).

It will be seen from the preceding description and figures

that there is nothing in the prophases of the heterotypic division

of the pollen mother cells of Smilacina racemosa which suggests

the approximation of the two limbs of a spirem loop to form a

double heterotypic chromosome. Such a process could not pos¬

sibly be fitted into the series shown in figures 17 to 25.

Neither is there at any stage a sudden doubling of the thickness

of the spirem, as would necessarily be the case if there were an

approximation of the two limbs of a loop to form a heterotypic

chromosome. The increase in the thickness of the spirem be¬

fore and after transverse segmentation is gradual throughout

the prophases. All possibility of the end to end pairing of two

somatic chromosomes with a subsequent bending upon them¬

selves and approximation to form the double heterotypic chromo¬

somes is thus excluded in the heterotypic prophases of Smila¬

cina racemosa.

Strasburger (98) has held that this second contraction phase

is brought about by a grouping of the individual loops around

the nucleolus. He suggests that some nutritive relation may

exist by which the nucleolar material is added to the spirem.

He believes that the presence of more than one nucleolus will

cause a corresponding number of centers about which the spirem

will mass or there may not be any massing at all.

Fig. T9 show that the central massing of the spirem may oc¬

cur with nucleoli outside of the contraction figure. This is

generally true in S. racemosa in which, as above noted, several

nucleoli may be present. Although nucleoli may at times be

included in the central mass it is clear that no relation here ex¬

ists between the number and position of the nucleoli and the lo¬

cation of the central contracted spirem tangle. In no case did

I find auy appearance that could be interpreted as showing sev-

636 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

era! centers of aggregation of the spirem as Strasburger believes

should be the case in nuclei with several nucleoli.

The coils of the second contraction figure extend toward the

periphery of the nucleus in all directions making it very diffi¬

cult to determine whether any relation exists between the num¬

ber of coils and the number of chromosomes. If the transverse

segmentation of the spirem takes place in the peripheral region

of the nucleus the number of the chromosomes will equal the

number of coils of the spirem. In the earlier diakinesis stages

the presence of very short double chromosomes in the same

nucleus with others of the same diameter but five or six times

as long (Fig. 24) suggests the possibility of a later segmenta¬

tion of some of the first formed spirem segments, for if the un¬

equal lengths were due to a more rapid contraction of certain

chromosomes we should naturally expect the shorter chromo¬

somes to have a greater diameter. There is however a decided

decrease in the volume of the individual chromosomes following

their formation by the breaking up of the second contraction

figure so that the chromosomes of the equatorial plate and meta¬

phase are considerably smaller than those of early diakinesis.

It is probable that this irregularity of the chromosomes of early

diakinesis may be due to a more rapid decrease in volume as

well as length in some chromosomes than in others. Polar

views of the equatorial plate stage although showing a, certain

diversity in the size of the chromosomes do not show any such

great difference as is seen in earlier diakinesis (Figs. 29 and

30).

There is however a difference in the size* of the chromosomes

as they appear in the equatorial plate stage. In polar views of

the equatorial plate from five to seven chromosomes lying in the

interior of the chromosome group are seen to be decidedly

smaller than those lying around the periphery. There is also

some irregularity in size among these peripheral chromosomes,

one or more being usually larger than the rest. (Figs. 29 and

30). Figure 30 shows 24 double chromosomes and figure 29

shows 22. The former number is evidently the reduced number.

The multipolar spindle is formed from a felted zone as has

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

637

been frequently described and upon the breaking down of the

nuclear membrane the double chromosomes seem to be pulled

into the center of the nuclear cavity where for a short time they

form a crowded mass in the center of the multipolar polyarch

spindle. The chromosomes are then drawn out of the crowded

central aggregation and form the equatorial plate. They at first

become very much drawn out at the points of attachment of the

spindle fibers as though considerable tension existed. This dis¬

tortion disappears as the spindle figure becomes diarch and at

the time of the equatorial plate stage no traces of it can be

seen (Figs. 26 and 27).

As the chromosomes become arranged in the equatorial plate

they have become shortened and thickened until their length is

only about one and one-half times their diameter. In some

chromosomes there seemed to be little or no difference in the two

dimensions, the direction of the longitudinal segmentation be¬

ing the only index as to which was the longer axis (Fig. 28).

There can be no question that the halves of the double

chromosomes of the equatorial plate stage are the longitudinal

halves of the spirem segments which were formed by the trans¬

verse segmentation of the spirem during the second contraction

stage. The line of separation between the two halves of the

heterotypic chromosome of the equatorial plate stage is the line

of the first longitudinal segmentation of the spirem. This first

longitudinal splitting which appeared before the second con¬

traction stage, has remained distinct throughout all the phases

of second synapsis and diakinesis. At no time has there been

any closing up of the first longitudinal split and a folding of

parts of the spirem upon one another to form the double hetero¬

typic chromosome.

The halves of the double chromosomes in the equatorial plate

are drawn apart in the manner so frequently described, the

ends toward the center of the plate separating first while the

peripheral ends are last to separate. The smaller chromosomes

of the interior of the plate usually are some distance from one

another before the larger peripheral chromosomes are com¬

pletely separated. (Fig. 31).

638 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

As the halves of the double chromosomes of the metaphase

are being drawn apart, the second longitudinal split appears.

By the time the single chromosomes are fully separated from

one another this longitudinal split is conspicuous, the resulting

halves diverging widely from one another. They remain at¬

tached to one another at the end to which the spindle fibers are

attached, giving the familiar V shaped appearance as they pass

back to the poles (Fig. 36). The short, thick form is rer

tained in the anaphase and not until the daughter chromosomes

have reached the poles do they begin to elongate to form the

slender V-shaped chromosomes characteristic of the earlier

telophases. The apex of the Vs points toward the pole and the

limbs radiate out from this as a center.

As the thick- V-shaped chromosomes reach the pole the limbs

of the Vs become considerably extended and at the same time

becomes more slender (Fig. 32). As they elongate they be¬

come constricted in places which gives them a knotty appear¬

ance (Fig. 33). It seems probable that part of these con¬

strictions continue to grow deeper until the chromosome is

almost separated in several places. By this time the chromo¬

somes have lost their regular contour and have become so ragged

and uneven that it is impossible to trace their individual out¬

lines. At this stage one or more nucleoli become visible, indi¬

cating a resting condition of these daughter nuclei of the hetero¬

typic division (Fig. 34). In this resting condition, how¬

ever, it may be seen that there is no anastomosing of chromo¬

somes to form a reticulum. The chromosomes seem to remain

entirely free from one another although much constricted and

extended in regions.

The chromosomes reappear in the prophases of the homoeo-

typic division in the characteristic V-shape of the early telo¬

phases of the heterotypic division (Fig. 35). They seem

to be formed directly by a drawing together and smoothing up

of their outlines. I could find no traces of anything that re¬

sembled a spirem stage following the resting condition. It is

impossible to determine by direct observation in Smilacina that

these chromosomes of the homoeotypic prophases are identical

McAllister— Cytology and Embryology.

639

with those of the heterotypic telophases. From the fact that

large masses remain intact through the resting condition, — that

the homoeotypie chromosomes are formed very quickly without

the intervention of a spirem stage and from their general shape,

size and position it seems reasonable to conclude that they are

the same.

As these homoeotypie chromosomes become aggregated in the

equatorial plate they have the general elongated form of chromo¬

somes of typical mitoses and in the metaphases the two halves

are separated one part going to each pole.

DISCUSSIOK

The observations described above for Smilacina racemosa

point strongly to the conclusion that in the early prophases of

the first reduction division a longitudinal pairing of leptonema

spirems occurs. The thin pre-synaptic chromatin strands fre¬

quently appear paired. The strands increase in thickness as

the nucleus is entering into synapsis as would be the case if

there were a lateral approximation of two thin spirems. Tan¬

gential sections of the synaptic knot frequently show that the

spirem is here double. The simplest interpretation of these

facts is that there has been a side by side pairing of thin

chromatin strands during these early prophases.

These evidences are strongly supported by other phenomena

of the later prophases. It seems clear: (1) that the longitudi¬

nal split of the later prophases does not close up but persists

until the halves are finally separated: (2) that the transverse

segmentation is not exclusively central, but in most cases at least,

occurs near the periphery; (3) that the shortening and thick¬

ening of the spirem segments after the transverse segmentation,

is gradual and not the sudden shortening and thickening that

would necessarily result from the lateral approximation of the

two limbs of a loop composed of two chromosomes attached end

to end. As far as I am aware no investigator of the reduction

divisions has called attention to any such sudden shortening and

640 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

thickening as should occur at this period on the theory of

Farmer and Moore.

Mottier (67) though a supporter of the Farmer and Moore

hypothesis is of the opinion that the segmentation of the spirem

may take place at the periphery as well as in the central region

of the nucleus. The central segmentation of the spirem appears

however to be an essential part of the Farmer and Mbore hy¬

pothesis. Very serious mechanical obstacles interfere with the

looping and lateral approximation when segmentation occurs

away from the central region. The looping of the spirem in

the peripheral regions of the nucleus which is open and rela¬

tively free from spirem strands at this period seems to be the

only method and the only position in which looping could be

brought about. In the central region the presence of the ag¬

gregation of spirem strands prohibits looping until after the

segmentation of the spirem and the breaking up of the central

aggregation. It is difficult to conceive of the looping of spirem

segments after segmentation and such a process has thus far not

been described.

There can be no doubt that in Smilacina there exists a defi¬

nite well marked second contraction period as a stage in the first

reduction division. The survey of the literature indicates fur¬

ther that without doubt the phenomenon is more widespread

than the attention which it has received would indicate.

The view of Davis (18) that the second contraction stage is

simply a continuation of synapsis does not correspond well with

the observed facts in Smilacina. The stage of the uniformly

expanded spirem found here has been described for the hetero¬

typic division in practically all the higher plants studied and

lias nothing in common with synapsis according to the commonly

accepted usage of the term. The shortening and thickening of

the spirem may be a more or less uniform, continuous process

from the time of its formation to diakinesis but to designate

this whole period “synapsis” because contraction is going on is

to give an entirely new meaning to the term. There are two

distinct stages in which the spirem becomes wholly (synapsis)

or partly (second synapsis) aggregated in a dense knot. It is

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 641

this condition of aggregation which is the visible evidence of

synapsis and we can not at present give it any more definite

characterization. Between these two stages the spirem becomes

expanded uniformly throughout the nuclear cavity and is per¬

haps here more uniformly distributed than in any other stage of

its existence. As contrasted with the compact massing of the

whole spirem in synapsis, the second contraction which follows

the expanded stage of the spirem is only a partial aggregation

of the spirem in the center of the nucleus with loops extending

into the open regions of the nuclear cavity.

There is no evidence in Smilacina that the second contraction

stage has any such significance as has been ascribed to it by

F armer and Moore. It is not a “true synapsis” according to the

usage of Farmer and Moore since there is no lateral approxima¬

tion of chromosomes which have been arranged in pairs end to

end in the spirem.

Evidences of a connection of the nuclear contents with an

external cytoplasmic center are common in animal cells and in

the lower plants. The work of A. and K. E. Schreiner (89,

90) on Mvxine and Tomopteris and that of Harper (39) on the

mildews may be cited as typical cases. The work of Marquette

(53,54) on Marsilia and Isoetes further suggests that in forms

lacking a eentrosome there may still be a polar organization and

the possibility exists that in those forms lacking centers and

without any visible polar organization there may still be a con¬

nection of the nuclear contents with the cytoplasm.

In Smilacina there are evidences of such a connection in the

form of fine fibers extending from the spirem to the periphery

of the nucleus. It must be said however that these connections

are not as conspicuous as those which have been figured for var¬

ious other species by Allen (1), Farmer and Moore (23), Mot-

tier (66), Overton (74) and others.

The orientation of the spirem during the second contraction

stage suggests strongly that certain regions of the spirem are

attached to the periphery of the nucleus while parts unattached

tend to be drawn into the center giving the familiar central ag¬

gregation characteristic of the phase. On this assumption the

642 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

second contraction figure would necessarily follow the con¬

tinued shortening and thickening of the continuous spirem. It

is my opinion that the second contraction figure arises as a nec¬

essary stage in the shortening of the elongated post-synaptic

spirem to form the short heterotypic chromosomes.

That part of Janssen’s (43, 44) hypothesis of a “tension

nucleaire” which assumes the spirem to be attached in places to

the nuclear membrane may possibly be applicable to the second

contraction stage in Smilacina. Still that any tension exists

in the nuclei of Smilacina at this stage seems improbable. The

curvature of the coils and loops of the spirem is too great to be

consistent with any great tension. Further this hypothesis as

suggesting a method of segmentation seems to be superfluous

for in ordinary mitoses no such mechanism is necessary for the

segmentation of the spirem.

Overton’s (7) suggestion that in plants with short chromo¬

somes the second contraction stage is inconspicuous or lacking

probably should be limited to refer to those forms whose nuclei

have a relatively small amount of chromatin as is the case in

Oalycanthus and Thalictrum.

Strasburger’s explanation (98) that the second contraction

figure is formed around the nucleolus for the possible purpose

of obtaining nutriment from it, fails with Smilacina for here

several nucleoli are present and but one center of aggregation.

The nucleoli are probably more frequently to be found outside

of the contraction figure than included within it. The sugges¬

tion of Strasburger that in nuclei with several nucleoli several

centers of aggregation or none could be expected, finds no sub¬

stantiation in Smilacina for I have never observed more than

one center of aggregation and have never observed nuclei of this

prophase in which it was lacking. The second contraction figure

is here quite unrelated to the position of the nucleoli.

Gates’ (30) conception that the second contraction stage cor¬

responds to the “bouquet stage” of Eisen seems based on the apr

proximate time of its occurrence. In the “bouquet stage” the

chromosomes become definitely oriented in respect to the cen-

trosome. The stage is commonly described as occurring im-

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 643

mediately upon recovery from synapsis and is followed by a

period of a more or less distributed condition of the chromatin.

Janssens’ stage of nuclear tension which may be comparable

with the second contraction stage follows a definite bouquet

stage. I have cited other cases [Eisen (20), Van Mlolle (57)

and Schleip (88)] of a definite contraction stage occurring in

the reduction divisions of animals which has been preceded by

a bouquet stage and a period comparable to the stage of uni¬

formly distributed spirem. It seems clear therefore that no

relation can exist between the bouquet stage and the second

contraction figure.

The work of Riickert (87) and Hacker (36) on Cyclops has

shown that the parental chromosomes remain separate for a

time at least in the nuclei of the diploid individual. The work

of Moenkhaus (36) on hybrid fishes further suggests that there

is not a fusion of the parental chromosomes at the time of fer¬

tilization but a gradual mingling of the distinct chromosomes

in the nuclear cavity.

In Pinus Blackman (8), Chamberlain (15) and Miss Fergu¬

son (26) as mentioned above, report that the parental chromo¬

somes retain their identity during the first mitosis of the fer¬

tilized egg. The work of Woycicki (109) on Larix, of Murrill

(70) on Tsuga, of ISTichols (71) on Juniperus, as well as that of

Shaw on Onoclea ( 91*) and Dublin (19) on Pedicellina demon¬

strate similar phenomena.

The parental nuclei in the diploid generation of the rusts as

shown by Blackman (9), Christman (6) and by others, re¬

main perfectly distinct throughout the entire diploid genera¬

tion. The fact that in a large number of cases among animals

the sex nuclei at the time of fusion have their chromosomes al¬

ready organized so that at least during the first cleavage of the

fertilized egg the parental chromosomes must remain distinct

bears out the general conclusion that the paternal and maternal

chromsomes remain distinct during the first division, at least, of

the diploid generation.

The pairing of the chromosomes as described for Funkia,

Galtonia, Yucca, etc. shows that there is a tendency toward a

644 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

definite arrangement of the parental chromosomes and it seems

probable that at some period during the diploid generation

there is a distribution of homologous chromosomes to form

pairs.

It is at the time of the formation of the spores at the close

of the diploid generation that the chromosomes seem to come

into close and intimate contact but. no satisfactory evidence is

yet available as to when or how the homologous chromosomes

from the two parents have come into such relations that the

synaptic pairing becomes possible.

The last typical divisions preceding synapsis in Smilacina, as

described above, differ in no way from ordinary somatic divi¬

sions. There is no evidence that any preparation for reduction

occurs immediately preceding the heterotypic division but it

seems clear that there is an abrupt change from an ordinary

division immediately preceding synapsis to the heterotypic divi¬

sion immediately following it. If there has been a pairing of

homologous paternal and maternal chromosomes previous to

synapsis it must have taken place at a period previous to the

nuclear divisions in the young anther.

The conduct of the nuclei in the diploid generation of the

rusts, which do not fuse until immediately before reduction in¬

dicates that here the pairing of the homologous parental chromo¬

somes must take place after the last pre-reductional division,

immediately after fusion and immediately preceding reduction.

The work of Rucker t, Hacker, Mioenkhaus as well as the

above mentioned authors on the Gymnosperms indicates that

the association of homologous parental chromosomes does not in

the forms studied take place immediately upon the fusion of the

gametes but that the chromosomes of the twt> parents may re¬

main distinct for several cell generations, though1 finally be¬

coming merged into one homogeneous group. Still the pres¬

ence of paired chromosomes in somatic nuclei as reported in

Funkia, Galtonia, Yucca and other plants suggests that there

may be a relatively early pairing of homologous chromosomes.

These phenomena may indicate that though the parental

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

645

chromosomes do not become immediately associated in pairs

after fusion, in these forms, they gradually come to be so paired.

These facts suggest a possible explanation of the appearance

of blend hybrids and of hybrids which segregate according to

Mendelian ratios. The blends may occur in those cases in

which the parental chromosomes become associated early in the

diploid generation and thus exert a mutual influence upon one

another. The hybrids which segregate in the second generation

may be those whose chromosomes do not become associated until

synapsis. The association of the parental chromosomes is here

so intimate that the mutual influence which they exert upon one

another is far greater than that which results from the less inti¬

SUMMARY.

1. Evidence found in the pollen mother cells of Smilacina

racemosa indicates that no preparation for reduction takes place

in the last division preceding synapsis but that the last presynap-

tic division is an ordinary somatic cell division.

2. The observed phenomena during synapsis suggest very

strongly that a side by side pairing and fusion of leptonema

spirems occurs, and that the fusion is complete at the time of the

recovery from synapsis.

3. The second contraction stage which follows a period of

uniformly distributed spirem results necessarily from the grad¬

ual contraction of the spirem which is attached to the nuclear

membrane in places.

4. There is no approximation of the limbs of loops to form

the double heterotypic chromosomes.

5. The double heterotypic chromosomes are formed by the

transverse segmentation of a longitudinally split spirem, the

line of the split of which probably represents the line of ap¬

proximation of the two parental spirems at the time of synapsis.

6. The flrst division of the embryo-sac mother cell of S.

racemosa results in two unequal cells, the inner being much the

646 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

smaller. The homoeotypic division produces four unequal

cells, which are fully separated by plasma membranes.

7. The plasma membrane of the first division persists while

those of the second division quickly disappear, thus producing

two unequal binucleate cells.

8. The inner of these binucleate cells does not undergo any

further growth while the outer grows rapidly and by two nu¬

clear divisions forms the eight nucleated embryo-sac.

9. Certain nucellar cells in the micropylar region resist dis¬

integration and remain large and plump in the embryo-sac cavity

and later divide to form adventitious embryos of which from

one to four mature.

10. The egg apparatus of the embryo-sac is never well de¬

veloped and it is practically impossible to identify the egg and

to determine whether it also develops into an embryo.

11. The presence of abundant pollen tubes indicates that

fertilization occurs.

12. Castrated flowers withered within two or three days

showing pollination to be necessary to the development of the

nucellar embryos.

In conclusion I wish to express my gratitude to Prof. P. A.

Harper for his most helpful suggestions and criticisms during

the preparation of this paper.

Since this paper went to press Lawson (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 47:

661.1911.) has advanced the view based upon work on Smilacina, that

synapsis is not due to a marked contraction of the nuclear contents

but to a sudden enlargement of the nuclear cavity which gives the

appearance of a contraction. Gates (Ann. Bot. 25:909.1911.) believes

that his observations on Oenothera gigas afford evidence in favor of

this view.

I have ma|de camera drawings of a large number of nuclei of Smil¬

acina racemosa in the synaptic condition and preceding it and find

no evidence whatever of an enlargement of the nuclear cavity at this

period. Synapsis in this species is in every case observed a contrac¬

tion.

The great number of figures of this phase published before Lawson’s

hypothesis furnish unbiased evidence that synapsis is a contraction of

the nuclear contents.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

647

LITERATURE CITED.

1. Allen, C. E., The early stages of spindle formation in the

pollen mother cells of Larix. Annals of Botany, 17:

281-312. 1903.

2. - - - Unclear division in the pollen mother cells of

Lilium canadense. Annals of Botany, 19:189-258.

1905.

3. Arnold, George. The nucleus and microchromosomes in

the spermatogenesis of Hydrophilus piceus. Archiv

fiir Zellforschung. 2:181-190. 1908.

4. Beneden, E. van, et Heyt, A. Eouvelles recherches sur la

fecondation et la division mitotique chez Y Ascaride

megalochephale. Bull. Acad. roy. Belgique. 3rd ser.

1887.

5. Berghs, J. La formation des chromosomes heterotypique

dans la sporogenese vegetale. II. Depuis la sporo-

gonie jusqu’aux spirem definitif. La Cellule 21 :383-

394. 1904.

6. - La formation des chromosomes heterotypique dans

la sporogenese vegetale. IV. La microsporogenese

de Drosera rotundifolia, ISTarthecium ossifragum et

Hellehorus foetidus. La Cellule 22 :139-160. 1905.

7. — — Le fuseau heterotypique de Paris quadrifolia. Lai

Cellule 22 :201-214. 1905.

8. Blackman, V. H. On the cytological features of fertili¬

zation and related phenomena in Pinus sylvestris.

Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 190 : 395-426. 1898.

9. — — - On the fertilization, alternation of generations and

general cytology- of the Uredineae. Annals of Bot¬

any 18 :323-378. 1904.

10. Boveri, Th. Ueber Differenzierung der Zellkerne wah-

rend der Furchung des Eies von Ascaris Meg. Anat.

Anzgr. 1*887.

648 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1 B Ueber die Befruchtung der Eier von Ascaris mega-

locephala. Sitz-Ber. Gres. Morph. Phys. MTinchen 3.

18S7.

1'2. - Zellenstudien. Heft. II. Jenaishe Zeitschr. fur.

Haturw. 1888.

13. - Zellenstudien. Heft. III. Jenaische Zeitschr.

f. Haturw. 1890.

14. Cardiff, Ira D. A study of synapsis and reduction.

Cent. dept, of Bot. Columbia Univ. Ho. 228. Bull.

Torr. Bot Club 33 :27l-306. 1906.

15. Chamberlain, C. J. Oogenesis in Pinus Laricio. Bot.

Gaz. 27:268-280. 1890.

16. Christman, A. H. Sexual reproduction in the rusts.

Bot. Gaz. 39-267-275. 1905.

17. Cook, M. T. Hotes on Polyembryony. Torreyea. 7 :113.

1907.

18. Bavis, B. M. Cytological studies on Oenothera. I.

Pollen development of Oenothera grandiflora. An¬

nals of Botany, 23 :551-571. 1909.

19. Dublin, L. I. The history of the germ cells of Pedi-

cellina americana. Ann. H. Y. Acad. Sci. 16 :1-

64. 1905.

20. Eisen, G. Spermatogenesis of Batrachoseps. Joum.

Morph. 17:1-117. 1900.

21. Eirnst, A. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Entwicklung des

Etobryosackes und des Embryo (Polyembryonie) von

Tulipa Gesneriana L. Flora 88:37-78. 1901.

22. — * — * Chromosomenreduktion, Entwicklung des Embrvo-

sackes und Befruchtung bei Paris quadrifolia und

Trillium1 grandiflorum. Flora 91 :l-46. 1902.

22a. - - Peview of The development of the embrvo-sac of

Smilacina stellata, McAllister, F., in Bot. Gaz. 48.

Zeitscher. f. Bot. 2:127. 1910.

23. Farmer, J. B. and J. E. S. Moore. On the Maiotic

phase (reduction division) in animals and plants.

Quart. Jour. Mic, Sci. 48:489-557. 1905.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

649

24. Farmer, J. B. and Dorothy Shove. On the structure

and development of the somatic and heterotype chro¬

mosomes of Tradescantia virginiea. Quar. Jour.

Mic. Science. 48 :559-569. 1905.

25. Farmer, J. B. The structural constituents of the nucleus

and their relation to the organization of the individ¬

ual. Croonian Lecture. Proc. Boy. Soc., London,

Ser. B. 79:534. 1907. \

26. Ferguson, M. C. Contributions to the knowledge of the

life-history of Pinus with special reference to sporo-

genesis, the development of the gametophytes and fer¬

tilization. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci. VI:1-102.

1904.

27. Fiek, R. Betrachtungen ueber die Chromosomen, ihre

Individualist, Reduktion und Yererbung. Arch. f.

An at. und EEntWgesch. 1905. Suppl.

28. Flemming, W. Beitrage zur kenntniss der Zelle und

ihrer Lebenserscheinungen. III. Archiv fur Mic.

Anat. 1881.

29. Fraser, H. C. I., and W. E. St. John Brooks. Further

studies on the cytology of the aseus. Annals of Bot¬

any 23:537-550. 1909.

30. Gates, R. R. The behavior of the chromosomes in Oeno¬

thera lata x O. gigas. Contrib. from Hull Bot. Lab.

128. Bot. Gaz. 48:179-199. 1909.

31. Gregoire, V. La formation des gemini heteroty pique

dans les vegetaux. La Cellule 24: 369-420. 1907.

32. Gregory, R. P. JSTote on the histology of the giant and

ordinary forms of Primula sinensis. Proc. Cam¬

bridge Phil. Soc. 15 :239-246. 1909.

33. Guignard, L. Structure et division du noyau cellulaire.

Ann. Sci. Hat. Bot. VI. 17 :5-59. 1884.

34. — — Observations sur les Santalacees. Ann. Sci. Hat.

Bot, VII. 2 :l*81-202. 1885.

35. — — 1 Le developpement du pollen et la reduction dans

Haias Major. Arch. Anat. Micr. 2:455-509. 1899.

650 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

36. Hacker, V. Die Eibildung bei Cyclops und Canthocamp-

tus. Zool. Jahrb. 5. 1892.

37. - Praxis und Theorie der Zellen- und Befruchtungs-

lehre. Jena. 1899.

38. — - — ■ Die Chromosomen tls angenommene Viererbungs-

trager. Ergeb. und Fortschritte der Zool. 1:136.

1907.

39. Harper, R. A. Sexual reproduction and tbe organiza¬

tion of the nucleus in certain mildews. Pub. Carne¬

gie Institution, Washington, No. 37. 1905.

40. Henking, H. Ueber Spermatogenesis und deren Bezieh-

ung zur Entwicklung bei Pvrrhocoris apertus.

Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 51:685-736. 1891.

Arch, flir Zellforschung 1:1 -3 2. 1908.

42. Hyde, Edith. The reduction division, in the anthers of

Hyacinthus orientalis. Cont. from Biot. Lab. of Ohio

State Univ. 47. Ohio Nat 9:539-544. 1909.

43. Janssens, F. A. La spermatogenese chez les Tritons.

La Cellule 19:5-116. 1901.

44. - Spermatogenese dans les Batraciens. III. Evolu¬

tion des auxocytes males du Batracoseps attenuatus.

La Cellule 22 *3.77-427. 1905.

45. Janssens, E. A. and It. Dumez L’element nucleinein

pendant les cineses de maturation des spermatocytes

chez Batracoseps attenuatus et Pletodon cinereus. La

Cellule 20:421-460. 1903.

46. Juel, H. O. Die Tetradentheilungen bei Taraxicum und

anderen Cichorieen. Kungl. Svenska Vetenskaps-

akademiens Handlingar. 39 :21pp. 1905.

47. — * — Studien ueber die Entwicklungsgeschichte von

Saxifraga granulata. Nova Acta Beg. Soc. Sci. Up-

sula. Sec. IV. VoL 1. Hjo. 9. 41pp. ^1907.

48. Koernicke, M. Studien an Embryo-Mutterzellen. Sitz-

ungerber. d. Ueiderrhein. GesellscH. fiir Hatur

und Heilkunde zu Bonn. 4 :III. 1901.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

651

49. Lerat, P. Les phenomenes de maturation dans l’ovogen-

ese et la spermatogenese du Cyclops strenuus. La

Cellule 22:163-199. 1905.

50. McAllister, F. The development of the embryo-sac of

Smilacina stellata. Bot. Gaz. 48 :200-215. 1909.

51. McClung, C. E. The spermatocyte divisions of the Lo-

custidae. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull. 1 : 185-231. 1902.

52. - The chromosome complex of Orthopteran spermato¬

cytes. Biol. Bull. 9 :304-340. 1905.

53. Marquette, W. G. Manifestations of polarity in plant

cells which apparently are without centrosomes.

Beih. Bot. Centralblatt 21 :281-303. T907.

54. — Concerning the organization of the spore mother-

cells of Marsila quadrifolia. Trans. W'is. Acad. Sci.

16.83-106. 1908.

55. Miyake,- K. Ueber Beduktiontheilung in den Pollen-

mutterzellen einiger Monokotylen. Jahrb. f. Wiss.

Bot. 42:83-120. 1906.

56. Moenkhaus, W. J. The development of the hybrids be¬

tween Fundulus heteroclitus and Menida notata with

especial reference to the behavior of the maternal

and paternal’ chromatin. Amer. Jour. Anat. 3 :29-

64. 1904.

57. van Molle, Jacques. Les spermatocytes dans TEcureuil.

La Cellule 24:259-279. 1907.

58. Montgomery, T. FT. The spermatogenesis of Peripatus

(Peripatopsis) balfouri up to the formation of the

spermatid. Zool. Jahrb. 14:277-368. 1900.

59. — — A study of the chromosomes of the germ cells of

Mfetazoa. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 20:154-236. 1901.

60. — — Further studies on the chromosomes of the Hemip-

tera heteroptera. Proc. Acad. Eat. Sci. Phila.

53:267-271. 1901.

»

61. - The spermatogenesis of Syribula and Lycosa, with

general considerations upon the chromjosome reduc¬

tion and heterochromosomes. Proc. Aicad. Nat. Sci.

Phila. 57:162-205. 1905.

652 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

62. Moore, J. E. S. and Miss A. L. Embleton. On synapsis

in Amphibia. Proc. Roy. Soc. London. B. 77 :

1906.

63. Moore, J. E S. and L. E. .Robinson. On the behavior of

the nucleolus in the spermatogenesis of Periplaneta

Americana. Quar. Journ. Mic. Sci. 48:571-583.

1905.

64. Mottier, D. M. The behavior of the chromosomes in the

spore mother cells of higher plants and the homology

of the pollen and embryo-sac mlother cells. Bot. Gaz.

35 :250-282. 1903.

65. - Eecondation in plants. Publications of the Car¬

negie Institution, Washington. No. 15. 487 pp.

1904.

66. - - Development of the heterotypic chromosomes in

the pollen mother cells. Annals of Botany 21 :309-

347. 1907.

67. — — On the prophases of the heterotypic mitosis in the

embryo- sac mother cell of Lilium. Annals of Botany

23:343-252. 1909.

68. Muller, Clemens. IJeber karyokinetische Bilder in den

Wurzelspitzen von Yucca. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 47 :

99-117. 1909.

69. Murbeck, S. Tarthenogenetische Embryobildung in der

Gattung Alchemilla. Lunds Univ. Arsskrift. 362:

no 7, 46 pp. 1901.

70. Murrill, W. A. The development of the archegonium

and fertilization in the hemlock spruce (Tsuga Cana¬

densis). Annals of Botany 14: 583-607. 1900.

71. Nichols, G. E. A morphological study of Juniperus com¬

munis var. depressa. Beih. zum Bot. Centralblatt. 25 :

201-241. 1940.

72. Osterhout, W. J. V. Contributions to cytological tech¬

nique. Univ. of Cal. Publications 2:73-90. 1904.

73. Overton, J. B. Ueber Reduktionstheilung in der Pollen

mutterzellen einiger Dikotylen. Hist, Beitr. z. Ver-

erbungsfrage. Jahrb. f. wiss Bot. 42:121-153.

1905.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology.

653

74. — — On the organization of the nuclei in the pollen

mother cells of certain plants, with special reference

to the permanancy of the chromosomes. Annals of

Botany 23 : 19-61. 1909.

75. Pace, Lulu. Fertilization in Cypripedium. Bot Gaz.

44:353-374. 1908.

76. Paulmier, F. C. The spermatogenesis of Anasa tristis.

Jour, of Morph. 15, Suppl: 223-272. 1899.

77. Popoff, M. Eibildung bei Paludina vivipara und Chro-

midien bei Paludina und Helix. Arch. Mikr. Anat.

70 : 43-129. 1907.

78. Rabl, C. Ueber Zelltheilung. Morph. Jahrb. 10:214-

330. 1885.

79. Rosenberg, O. Zur Kentniss der Reduktionstheilung in

Pflanzen. Botaniska ISTotiser 1905. pp. 1-24.

80. - * Cytologische und morphologische Studien an Drosera

longifolia X rotundifolia. Kungl. Svenska, Vetensk.

Handlingar 43: Ho. 11. 1909.

81. Rlickert, J. Ueber das Selbstandigbleiben der vaterlichen

und mutterlichen Kernsubstanz wahrend des ersten

Entwicklung des befruchteten Cyclopseies Arch.

Mikr. Anat. xlv: 339-369. 1895.

82. Sands, M. C. Huclear structure and spore formation in

Microsphsera alni. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and

Letters. 15:733-752. 1907.

83. Sargent, E. The formation of the sexual nuclei in Lil-

ium Martagon. I. Oogenesis. Annals of Botany

10:445-477. 1896. II. Spermatogenesis. Annals

of Botany 11 : 187-224. 1897.

84. Schaifner, J. H. The division of the macrospore nu¬

cleus. Bot. Gaz. 23 : 430. 1897.

85. - * Chromosome reduction in Lilium tigrinum. Bot.

Gaz. 41:183-191. 1906.

86. - The reduction divisions in the microsporocytes of

Agave Americana. Bot. Gaz. 47 : ,198-214. 1909.

87. Schleip, Wlaldemar. Die Entwicklung der Chromosomen

im Ei von Planaria gonocephala Dug. Zool. Jahrb.

(Anat.) 23:357-380. 1907.

654 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

88. - Vergleichende Untersuchung der Eireifung bei

partlienogenetisch und bei geschlechtlich sich fort-

pflanzenden Ostracoden. Archiv. f. Zellforschimg

2 :390-431. 1909.

89. Schreiner, A. and K. E. Ueber die Entwieklung der

mannlichen Geschlechtzellen von Myxine glutinosa

Arch, de Biol. 21 : 183-314. 1905.

90. - HWe Studien neber die Chromatinreifung der

Gieschlechtszellen. I. Die Reifung der mannlichen

Geschlechtzellen von Tomopteris onisciformis. Arch,

de Biol. 22 :l-69. ,4906.

91. Shaw, WL R. The fertilization of Onoclea. Annals of

Botany 12 : 264-285. 1898.

92. Sinety, R. de. Recherches sur la biologie et Tanatomie

des Phasmes. La Cellule 19 : 117-278. 1901.

93. Stephens, E. L. A preliminary note on the embryo-sac

of certain Penseacese. Annals of Botany 22:329.

1908.

94. - The embryo-sac and embryo of certain Penaeaceae.

Annals of Botany 23: 363-378. 1909.

95. Strasburger, E. Ueber den Theilungsvoragang der Zell-

keme und das Verhaltniss der Klerntheilung zur

Zelltheilung. Arch, fiir 'Mic. Anat. 21:476-590.

4882.

96. — • — < Ueber Reduktionstheilung, Spindelbildung, Cen-

trosomen und Cilienbildner im Pflanzenreich. His-

tolog. Beitrage VI. Jena. 1900.

97. - Tvpische und Allotypische Kemtheilung. Hist.

Beitr. zur Vererbnngfrage. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 42:

1-71. 1905.

98. - — Chrombsomenzahlen, Plasmastrukturen, Verer-

bungstrager und Reduktionstheilung. Jahrb. f. wiss.

Bot. 45 :470-570. 1908.

99. - Zeitpunct der Bestimmung des Geschlechtes, Apo-

gamie, Parthenogenesis und Reduktionstheilung.

Histolog. Beitr. 7. Jena. 1909.

McAllister — Cytology and Embryology. 655

100. — — Chromosomenzahl. Flora 100 : 398-446. 1910.

101. Sutton, W. S. On the morphology of the chromosome

group in Brachystola magna. Biol. Bulletin 4 : 24-

39. 1902.

102. Sykes, M. G. Nuclear division in Funkia. Archiv. fiir

Zellforschung. 1 : 380-398. 1908.

103. Treub, M. L’ organe femelle et rapogamie du Balano-

phora elongata. Ann. J ard. Bot. Buit. 15; 1-22

1898.

104. de Vries, H. Befruchtung und Bastardierung. Leipzig.

1903.

105. Wassilieff, A. Die sperm atogenese von Blatta german-

ica. Arch. M'ic. Anat. 70:1-42. 1907.

106. Went, F. A. F. C. The development of the ovule, em¬

bryo-sac and egg in Podostemaceae. Recue il Trav.

Bot. Neerl. 5:1-16. 1908.

107. - — Untersuchungen ueber Pbdostemaceen. Verhandl.-

Koninkl. van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. 16:88

pp. 1910.

108. Von Winiwarter, H. Recherches sur l’ovogenese et l’or-

ganogenese de l’ovaire des mamtmiferes (Lapin et

Homme). Arch, de Biol. 1!7 : 33-199. 1901.

109. Wpycicki. Fertilization in the Coniferae. (In Russian)

58 pp. 1899.

110. Yamanouchi, Shigeo. Sporogenesis in Nfephrodium.

Bot. Gaz. 45 : 1-30. 1908.

111. - Mitosis in Flucus. Bot. Gaz. 47 : 173-197. 1909.

656 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

All figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida.

Figures 1 to 35 inclusive have an approximate magnification

of 2000 times; figures 36 to 46, 600 times; and figures 4 7 to

58, 150 times.

Plate I.

Figure 1. Resting nucleus immediately preceding the last pre-

synaptic division in the anther.

Figure 2. Late prophase of the last pre-synaptic division

Polar caps formed as in typical divisions.

Figure 3. Equatorial plate stage of the last pre-synaptic di¬

vision.

Figure 4. An early telophase stage immediately preceding

synapsis. The general location of the chromosomes

can still he seen.

Figure 5. The resting nucleus of the pollen mother cell.

Figure 6. A tangential section of the resting nucleus of a

pollen mother cell showing chromatin knots and the

finer connecting strands.

Figure 7. The nucleus of a pollen mother cell in the early

prophase stage. The net like appearance is becom¬

ing transformed into more uniform and continuous

threads while the chromatin material is drawing away

from the periphery of the nucleus.

Figure 7a. A tangential section of the nucleus shown in Fig.

7. The fine spirem is seen here to be w^ell formed

with no trace of knots and connecting strands.

Figure 8. Tangential section of another nucleus in the same

stage of contraction as Fig. 7. The leptoneme condi¬

tion conspicuous.

Figure 9- A tangential section of a nucleus in very early pro¬

phase. There are fewer connecting strands and the

chromatin knots are more elongated than in the rest¬

ing nucleus.

TRANS. WIS. AC

PLATE L.V I

MCALLISTER — CON V ALL;

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

McALUSTER-CONVALLARIACAE

* •

PLATE LVI

McAllister— -Cytology and Embryology. 657

Chromatin threads of two sizes can be seen here.

Also definite double strands.

Figure 11. A tangential section of the nucleus represented

in figure 10. Evidence is to be seen here of the ap¬

proximation of two thin spirems to form one thick

spirem.

Figure 12. A portion of a nucleus entering into synapsis

showing chromatin threads of different diameters.

Figure 13. The fully contracted synaptic knot.

Figure 14. A tangential section from the synaptic knot in the

above figure. The double nature of the spirem is

clearly evident in a part of the strands.

Figure -15. A tangential section from! another synaptic knot,

showing doubleness.

Figure 16. A nucleus at the time of recovery from synapsis.

The spirem shows some evidences of doubleness which

may however be due to the rows of darker bodies

along the periphery of the threads.

Figure 17. A post synaptic stage. The spirem is not quite

uniformly expanded. The free ends showing are cut

ends of the section.

Figure 18. A surface view of a nucleus in the uniformly ex¬

panded condition.

Figure T9. A median view of a nucleus in very early stages

of the second contraction. The free ends to be seen

here are ends of spirem thread which pass out of the

plane of the section.

Figure 20. A view of a section of a nucleus entering into the

second contraction, showing the distribution of the

spirem threads at this time. The first longitudinal

splitting is clearly evident here.

Figure 21. A nucleus in the second synapsis. The spirem is

partly aggregated in the center only. 'Segmentation

is taking place in the region of the periphery of the

nucleus. This figure is from a nucleus uncut by the

razor. !Nbt all the spirem is drawn however.

658 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Figure 22. A' later stage in the second contraction. The nu¬

clei in the anther from which this was drawn were

unusually small. Some cut ends show in the figure.

Figure 23. The second contraction figure is becoming lost due

to the separation of the chromosomes from one an¬

other due to shortening and thickening.

Figure 24. A later stage in the shortening and thickening of

the spirern segments to form the double diakinetic

chromosomes.

Figure 25. Early diakinesis. The chromosomes very irregu¬

lar in size.

Plate II.

Figure 26. A cell in the multipolar spindle stage. 'Note the

draAvn condition of some of the chromosomes as

though under tension.

Figure 27. A cell in which the multipolar spindle is becoming

bipolar and the chromosomes are being drawn into

the equatorial plate. Note the distorted appearance

at the point of the attachment of the spindle threads.

Figure 28. The heterotypic metaphase stage.

Figure 29. A polar yiew of the equatorial plate stage. 22

double heterotypic chromosomes are present.

Figure 30. Polar view of heterotypic equatorial plate. 24

chromosomes.

Figure 31. Late anaphase heterotypic division. The V-

shaped chromosomes arising from the second longi¬

tudinal splitting are to be seen.

Figure 32. A polar view of an anaphase somewhat earlier

than that represented in figure 3,1!: showing the V-

shaped chromosomes.

Figure 33. A partial polar view of the early telophase of the

heterotypic division. The chromosomes are becom¬

ing elongated and knotty.

Figure 34. A resting nucleus of the heterotypic division.

Note the lack of a reticulum and the presence of a nu¬

cleolus.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVII

PLATE LVI I

MCALLISTER— CON VALLARIACEAE

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

McAllister — convallariaceae

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVI

PLATE LVIil

i

.'vi.;

36

,

f: :V y ..v:

:<%a

rja«» " • V\

S- W

mm

>.**V • •; * •*. • V

I 1

. >;

MCALLISTER — CON VALLARI ACEAE

659

McAllister — C 'ology and Embryology.

Figure 35. A multipolar spindle stage of the second reduc¬

tion division. The characteristic V-shape of the

chromosomes of the late anaphases of the first divi¬

sion is again seen here.

Plate III.

Figure 36. A telophase of the first division of the embryo-sac

mother cell. Hjote the dissimilarity of the two

daughter cells in size.

Figure 37. Telophase of the homoeotypic division of the em¬

bryo-sac mother cell. A wall is formed between the

daughter cells of the first division and a cell plate be¬

tween the outer pair of nuclei.

Figure 38. Four fully separated macrospores formed from

the two divisions of the embryo-sac mother cell. The

inner spores are smaller.

Figure 39. A stage similar to figure 38, though later. Ho

wall showing between the inner pair of nuclei while

a trace of a plasma membrane shows between the

outer pair.

Figure 40. The inner pair of nuclei small and evidently in

early stages of degeneration. The outer pair large

and healthy with no trace of division membranes be¬

tween them.

Figure 41. Division of the two outer nuclei to form the four

nucleate embryo-sac. The inner nuclei nearly de¬

generated.

Figure 42. The four nuclei fully formed in the embryo sac

while the outer pair still retain their form in the

small inner cell. The nucellar wall is here two cell

layers in thickness.

Figure 43. The division of the four nuclei to form! the eight

nucleate embryo-sac. This embryo-sac was cut ob¬

liquely and in this figure the upper end is shown, and

a polar view1 of one of the lower nuclei in process of

division. The inner pair of macrospores is still to

be identified.

660 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

X

Figure 44. The lower end of the same embryo-sac as shown in

Fig. 43. The other nucleus of the sac is shown in the

figure above. A large cell of the nucellar wall is seen

immediately below the embryo-sac with remains of

other cells which have degenerated. The nucellar

wall has been reduced to a single layer of cells.

Figure 45. A view of the microplylar end of a nucellus show¬

ing three of the embryo-sac nuclei and a large nucel¬

lar cell of the inner layer which has resisted degenera¬

tion.

Figure 46. A fully formed embryo-sac with two cells of the

nucellus separated from the nucellar wall and lying

near the embryo-sac.

Figure 47. iSTucellar cells persisting at the apex of the embryo-

sac.

Figure 48. The embryo-sac nuclei degenerating while a nucel¬

lar cell is dividing.

Figure 49. The next section of the same nucellus showing an¬

other nucellar cell which seems to be healthy and nor¬

mal. The endospern nuclei not yet fused.

Figure 50. An embryo formed from one of the dividing nucel¬

lar cells. Endosperm nucleus seen above it.

Figure 51. A flat aggregation of cells at the micropyle.

Figure 52. A section remote from the above represented Fig.

51 but in the same nucellar cavity. The embryo

here is quite clearly from one cell.

Figure 53. Two rudimentary embryos lying close together in

the micropylar region.

Figure 54. Two embryos in the micropylar region. One still

a single cell in stages of division.

Figure 55. Two embryos much similar to those in Fig. 53.

Figures 56 and 57. Two successive sections in the micropylar

region of a nucellus, showing three and probably four

young embryos.

Figure 58. Three well-formed embryos in the micropylar re¬

gion. The inner integument is shown.

Figure 59. Three large embryos in a seed in which endosperm

is nearly all formed.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVII, PART I, NO. 6

MADISON, WISCONSIN

Mm

'm v M p

CONTENTS

Browning’s Idealism . . J. W. Cunliffe, 661

The Last Will and Testament as a Form of Literature

E. G. Ter row, 682

The annual half-volume of the Transactions is issued by the.,

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and fetters in six numbers,

under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.

The price of this number is 315 cents.

Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

661

BROWNING’S IDEALISM.

J. W. Cunliffe.

L The Aspiration for the Infinite.

The contradiction between Browning’s personality and his

poetry, which was often remarked by those who knew him, and

was interpreted by Mr. Henry James with characteristic sub¬

tlety in a notable passage of William Wetmore Story and his

Friends (II. 88-89), was paralleled by a similar antinomy in

the poet’s message to his time. 1ST o one insisted more than he

on the necessity for action,1 and no one was more convinced

of the absolute certainty of failure, since all aims worth striv¬

ing for are unattainable.2 Man’s only chance of success is to

concentrate his efforts on low and immediate aims, and this

kind of success was, in Browning’s view, the worst kind of fail¬

ure. The select spirits must, by the very law of their nature,

aim at the infinite, and the infinite is beyond their reach; it is

loftiness of aim which distinguishes them as leaders and up-

lifters of humanity, not largeness of accomplishment. “ ’Tis

not what man Does which exalts him, but what man Would

do!” This doctrine is familiar enough to Browning students

as expressed in some of the shorter poems — A Grammarian’s

Funeral , Andrea del Sarto , and Rabbi Ben Ezra may be cited

!E. G. Let a man contend to the uttermost

For his life’s set prize, be it what it will!

And the sin I impute to each frustrate ghost

Is— the unlit lamp and the ungirt loin.

— The Statue and the Bust.

2 E. G. The Last Ride Together , Stanzas 5-8.

662 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

as well-known examples — but it has perhaps hardly been suffi¬

ciently realized that the same idea serves as a key to the under¬

standing of some of the longer and more difficult poems.

.Browning’s view of aspiration may be found implied or ex¬

pressed in connection with every field of human endeavor he

has touched. It is applied to public service in Sordello and

Luriaj to science, in Paracelsus ; to learning, in A Grammar¬

ian's Funeral ; to painting, in Old Pictures in Florence; to

music in Abt Vogler ; to love and to religion, throughout the

whole range of his work. His heroes, from first to last, are all

idealists ; with the mere opportunists he has no sympathy, though

he delights in setting forth their point of view, as he conceives

it ; Bishop Blougram in religion, Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau

in politics, and the Don Juan of Fifine in love are conspicuous

examples of the poet’s power of dialectic exhibited in support

of a view of life which he regards as wholly untenable, to the

discomfiture of some readers who are so dazzled by Browning’s

display of sophistry that they lose sight of the main point. In

Paracelsus and Sordello , which, if less sophistical, are hardly

less metaphysical, there has been some misapprehension of

Browning’s point of view, and it is upon these earlier poems, in

which Browning first set forth his idealism, that I wish to base

my analysis of his leading principles.

Though it would be possible to trace the beginnings of

Browning’s idealistic philosophy in Pauline — set forth some¬

what vaguely in the poem itself, and more clearly in the second

paragraph of the author’s note on the passage beginning with

line 822 — it was in Paracelsus that Browning first dealt at all

adequately with the problem of human aspiration and its in¬

evitable failure. Professor Boyce’s admirable and penetrating

study of this poem1 seems to me to fall short precisely on this

point. Professor Boyce finds the secret of the failure of Para¬

celsus in his search for a divine revelation in nature instead of

in human sympathy. “This is the final message of Paracelsus,

and the meaning of the whole tale.” Hot I think of the whole?

though undoubtedly of a part. Aprile also fails; and Paracel-

i Boston Browning Society Papers.

Cunliffe—Br owning ’s Idealism.

663

sus fails equally when he seeks the infinite love of Aprile and

when he follows his own aspirations after infinite knowledge;

he says himself of Aprile’ s message :

I learned this, and supposed the whole was learned.

What he had not learned was

To see a good in evil, and a hope

In ill-success: to sympathize, be proud

Of their half reasons, faint aspirings, dim

Struggles for truth, their poorest fallacies,

Their prejudice and fears and cares and doubts;

All with a touch of nobleness, despite

Their error, upward tending all though weak,

Like plants in mines which never saw the sun,

But dream of him, and guess where he may be,

And do their best to climb and get to him.

All this I knew not, and I failed.

But he dies, knowing that he has “done well, tho’ not all well,”

and re-asserting his hope for the future :

If I stoop

Into a dark tremendous sea of cloud,

It is but for a time; I press God’s lamp

Close to my breast; its splendor, soon or late,

Will pierce the gloom: I shall emerge one day.

Evidently this is a recollection and assured re-iteration of his

earlier aspiration :

I go to prove my soul!

I see my way as birds their trackless way,

I shall arrive! what time, what circuit first,

I ask not: but unless God send his hail

Or blinding fireballs, sleet or stifling snow,

In some time, his good time, I shall arrive:

He guides me and the bird. In his good time!

Upon this passage Professor Boyce has the following remark¬

able comment : —

“The heroic speech of Paracelsus consists of tenders and not

of true pay. It is vainglorious boasting ; and must be regarded

as such. Or, to speak less bluntly, it is a pathetic fallacy.

Paracelsus does not see his way as birds their trackless way.

On the contrary, his instinct is false, and his way, before one

664 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

reaches the very moment of t his final dying enlightenment and

confession, is a blind flight no-whither through the blue, God

has no need to waste any hail or fire-balls on the case. Para¬

celsus is left to himself, and he does not arrive, except, indeed,

at the very last moment, at the insight that another man ought

to be formed to take his place/7

This is surely not what the poet meant to convey. Paracel¬

sus fails, it is time ; but he is a heroic soul, contrasted with the

quietist Festus, who never fails, because he never aspires, and

who therefore finds it so difficult to understand the last words of

his friend. Festus asks

And can it be,

Dear Aureole, you have then found out at last

That worldly things are utter vanity?

That man is made for weakness, and should wait

In patient ignorance, till God appoint. . . .

And again

But all comes

To the same thing. ’Tis fruitless for mankind

To fret themselves with what concerns them not;

They are no use that way: they should lie down

Content as God has made them, nor go mad

In thriveless cares to better what is ill.

Paracelsus emphatically repudiates this suggestion; and his

own pronouncement upon his career, in the enlightenment of

approaching death, is undoubtedly what we are intended to

take as the poet’s final verdict. “Inscrutable77 a & it appears to

Festus, Paracelsus looks back to his early aspirations as “that

happy time,77 and his one regret is that he ceased to follow

them. His one real failure was when he determined not to be

balked ! j

Of the meanest earthliest sensualest delight

That may be snatched; for every joy is gain,

And gain is gain, however small.

He has made mistakes; he has sinned; and it is natural that his

contemporaries should fasten upon his shortcomings; but that

will not be the verdict of posterity.

As yet men cannot do without contempt;

’Tis for their good, and therefore fit awhile

That they reject the weak, and scorn the false,

Rather than praise the strong and true in me:

But after, they will know me.

Cunlijfe — Browning’s Idealism.

665

It was undoubtedly as a “strong and true” soul, in spite of bis

human weaknesses and limitations, that Browning wished

Paracelsus to be known to his readers.

'■There is an almost equal danger of misunderstanding Sor-

dello, who is again one of the heroic souls, “foremost in the

regal class,” aspiring to the infinite and inevitably failing,

whom Browning thought worthy of sympathetic study. Un¬

like Paracelsus, Sordello does not, until the very last, attempt to-

realize his aspirations; the poet, when he is half way through?

the first book, really lets the secret of his story escape :

Ah, but to find

A certain mood enervate such a mind,

Counsel it slumber in the solitude

- Thus reached nor, stooping, task for mankind’s good

Its nature just as life and time accord.

Sordello, the idealist who cannot act, is contrasted with Tau-

rello Salinguerra, the man of action without ideals:

Remark

Why schemes wherein cold-blooded men embark

Prosper, when your enthusiastic sort

Fail: while these last are ever stopping short —

(So much they should — so little they can do!)

The careless tribe see nothing to pursue

If they desist; meantime their scheme succeeds.

Thoughts were caprices in the course of deeds

Methodic with Taurello.

(IV. 848-856.)

.Not only is this contrast implicit in Browning’s conception

of the two characters, and carefully worked out in the latter

half of the poem, but it is • plainly stated by him in one of the

earlier books (III. 916-924) :

Alack,

Not so unwisely does the crowd dispense

On Salinguerras praise in preference

To the Sordellos: men of action, these!

Who, seeing just as little as you please,

Yet turn that little to account, — engage

With, do not gaze at, — carry on, a stage,

The work o’ the world, not merely make report

The work existed ere their day.

But it would be a capital error to suppose that Browning

commends the man of action for his limited aims. The ex-

666 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

clamation “Alack/i * * * * * 7 with wThich the passage begins, might well

put us on our guard; but lest it should not be sufficient, the poet

goes on to warn us against mistaking his hero for the villain of

the story:

What seems a fiend perchance may prove a saint.

And he emphasizes the warning by the amusing anecdote of

Xanthus, whose portrait of the beloved apostle was mistaken

for a picture of the Devil. Sympathetically as the figure of

Salinguerra is drawn in the later books, there is no excuse for

misunderstanding the poet’s ultimate j udgment on him ; he

dwindles “down to a mere showy turbulent soldier/7 and comes

at last to naught. Sordello dies spiritually triumphant, cast¬

ing under foot the imperial badge which would give him the

joys of the present by the sacrifice of the People’s cause for the

future. He does not yield, like Paracelsus to the tempter’s

suggestion that

’t were too absurd to slight

For the hereafter the today’s delight.

In what sense, then, does Sordello fail? Browning has

poured so much into the poem that the issue seems confused,

though a careful examination will, I think, make it clear. At

the end of the last book, Browning states Sordeilo’s problem

plainly enough

Here is a soul whom, to affect

Nature has plied with all her means, from trees

And flowers e’en to the Multitude! — and these,

Decides he save or no?

How obviously, at the final test, Sordello decides rightly/

i This seems clear enough from the poem itself; but it is made still

clearer by a letter written by Browning to Elizabeth Barrett on Decem¬

ber 22, 1845, in which the following passage occurs: —

“When we are together one day — the days I believe in — I mean to set

about that reconsidering ‘Sordello’ — it has always been rather on my

mind — but yesterday I was reading the ‘Purgatorio’ and the first speech

of the group of which Sordello makes one struck me with a new sig¬

nificance, as well describing the man and his purpose and fate in my

own poem — see; one of the burthened, contorted souls tells Virgil and

Dante —

Noi fummo gia tutti per forza morti,

E peccatori infin’ all’ ultim’ ora;

QUIVI — lume del ciel ne fece accorti;

Si che, pentendo e perdonando, fora

Di vita uscimmo a Dio pacificati

Che del disio di se veder n’accora.

Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

667

but tbe decision comes too late to be of as much service to the

Multitude as it might have been if he had earlier given himself

to a life of action* and so far he fails. This I take to be the

significance of the passage about the hermit bee, begun at the

end of Book V, and completed in Book VI, absurdly inter

preted by some of the commentators as having reference to

Palma :* 2

By this, the hermit-bee has stopped

His day’s toil at Goito: the new-cropped

Dead vine-leaf answers, now ’t is eve, he bit,

Twirled so, and filed all day: the mansion’s fit,

God counselled for. As easy guess the word

That passed betwixt them, and become the third

To the soft small unfrighted bee, as tax

Him with one fault — so, no remembrance racks

Of the stone maidens and the font of stone

He, creeping through the crevice, leaves alone.

Alas, my friend, alas Sordello, whom

Anon they laid within that old font-tomb,

And, yet again, alas! (VI. 621-633.)

The bee’s work was done — finished, complete, perfect — but

the work Sordello might have done for the people was alas!

left not only unaccomplished by him but untried. The imper¬

fection of human nature, as compared with the perfection of

mere animal instinct is, in Browning’s view, at once man’s

glory and his shame:

Which is just my Sordello’s story.” Browning proceeds to “do” the

passage offhand as follows: —

And sinners were we to the extreme hour;

Then, light from heaven fell, making us ware,

So that, repenting us and pardoned, out

Of life we passed to God, at peace with Him

Who fills the heart with yearning Him to see.

2 See Porter and Clarke, ad Toe. The true interpretation is simple

enough: the bee is a bee, and nothing more. The explanation, if any

be necessary, is supplied by a passage in one of Browning’s letters to

Elizabeth Barrett (1.369) : — “I always loved all those wild creatures

God ‘sets up for themselves ’ so independently of us, so successfully,

with their strange happy minute inch of a candle, as it were, to light

them; while we run about and against each other with our great cres¬

sets and fire-pots. I once saw a solitary bee nipping a leaf round till it

exactly fitted the front of a hole; his nest, no doubt; or tomb, per¬

haps. — * * * Well, it seemed awful to watch that bee — he seemed

so instantly from the teaching of God!”

668

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Let the mere star-fish in his vault

Crawl in a wash of weed, indeed,

Rose-jacynth to the finger-tips:

He, whole in body and soul, outstrips

Man, found with either in default.

{Bis Aliter Visum XXVIII.)

Yet we are bidden :

Rejoice we are allied

To That which doth provide

And not partake, effect and not receive!

A spark disturbs our clod;

Nearer we hold of God

Who gives, than of His tribes that take, I must believe.

{Rabbi Ben Ezra V.)

The bee receives its message “instantly from tlie teaching of

God” and has no choice but to obey. It is not so with Sordello ;

for him there is no divine revelation except through the need

of humanity. The underlying thought constantly suggested in

Sordello is the same as Professor Royce has insisted on as the

secret of Paracelsus in the paper already referred to, but here

again it is not “the meaning of the whole tale.” After the

statement of Sordello’s problem, near the end of the poem, as

quoted above, Browning steps forward to supply his own ex-

planation :

Ah, my Sordello, I this once befriend

And speak for you. Of a Power above you still

Which, utterly incomprehensible,

Is out of rivalry, which thus you can

Love, tho’ unloving all conceived by man —

What need! And of — none the minutest duct

To that out-nature, naught that would instruct

And so let rivalry begin to live —

But of a Power its representative

Who, being for authority the same,

Communication different, should claim

A course, the first chose but this last revealed —

This Human clear, as that Divine concealed —

What utter need!

(VI. 590-603.)

It is unfortunate that a passage so crucial to the under¬

standing of the whole poem should be so difficult, but like

many other passages in Sordello , it yields to a steady effort, if

the trend of the poet’s thinking in this .and other poems is kept

669

Gunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

in mind. The course chosen by God and revealed by man is

that of service to humanity. Human need and human sympa¬

thy are the only means of communication with the Divine.

The Power above is otherwise utterly incomprehensible, not

merely concealed but beyond all communication, and therefore

out of all rivalry with Man. Only in God as the object of as¬

piration, and only in human sympathy and service as the ex¬

pression of that aspiration can be found the solution of “the

SouTs attempt to

Fit to the finite his infinity.

(VI. 499.)

II. Belief in God.

It would be easy to show by numerous examples that Brown

ing held this idealistic standard in his judgment of men and

things throughout his life, but a quotation from one of his

later poems will be sufficient. Red Cotton Night Cap Country

is mainly a study of Miranda’s attempt to compromise with

his spiritual ideals, and the poet’s final summing up in judg¬

ment of the two principal characters puts very clearly and di¬

rectly what I have been trying to bring out with respect to the

earlier poems:

Clara, I hold the happier specimen,—

It may be, through that artist-preference

For work complete, inferiorly proposed,

To incompletion, though it aim aright.

Morally, no! Aspire, break bounds! I say,

Endeavor to be good, and better still,

And best! Success is naught, endeavor’s all.

But intellect adjusts the means to ends,

Tries the low thing, and leaves it done, at least;

No prejudice to high thing, intellect

Would do and will do, only give the means.

Miranda, in my picture gallery,

Presents a Blake; be Clara — Meissonier!

Merely considered so by artist, mind!

For, break through Art and rise to poetry,

Bring Art to tremble nearer, touch enough

The verge of vastness to inform our soul

What orb makes transit through the dark above,

And there’s the triumph! — there the incomplete,

More than completion, matches the immense, —

Then Michelagnolo against the world!

(IV. 760-780.)

670 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The point has now been sufficiently established for us to take

another step, and pursue the consequences of this primary po¬

sition in the poet’s system of thought. Herein, we shall do no

injustice, I hope, to Browning, who advanced his claim to “fig¬

ure as Metaphysic Poet”

though he forego his Promised Land

Thereby, have Satan claim his carcass.

(. Sordello III. 829-30.)

The difficult passage from the end of Sordello quoted at the

conclusion of my preceding section shows that it was upon

Man’s aspiration for the infinite and the inadequacy of this

world to satisfy it that Browning based the belief in God he

had already asserted in Pauline. The whole of Sordello’s final

meditation is as significant as the last words of Paracelsus. All

is at last known to him, and he sees the secret of his past de¬

spair; he has failed to adjust infinite inspiration to finite con¬

ditions. Man’s powers of action are limited, and his aim should

therefore be limited to some simple course ; but to limit the as¬

pirations of the soul is to brutalize and degrade it. How can

life be so ordered as to solve this dilemma ? Only by the power

of Love, -which places man in relation to the divine, and gives

him a compelling motive for service to humanity. The Power

above — God — is an absolute necessity if man’s infinite aspira¬

tions and limited faculties are to be reconciled. The point is

again more clearly brought out in the later poems, e. g. The

Inn A lbum 449-456 :

Better have failed in the high aim, as I,

Than vulgarly in the low aim succeed

As, God be thanked, I do not! Ugliness

Had I called beauty, falsehood — truth, and you

— My lover! No — this earth’s unchanged for me,

By his enchantment whom God made the Prince

O’ the Power o’ the Air, into a Heaven; there is

Heaven, since there is Heaven’s simulation — earth.

Browning, of course, did not advance this as a proof. It is

a postulate, a necessary hypothesis :

Question, answer presuppose

Two points: that the thing itself which questions, answers, — w, it

knows;

As it also knows the thing perceived outside itself, — a force

Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

671

Actual ere its own beginning, operative through its course,

Unaffected by its end, — that this thing likewise needs must be;

Call this — God, then, call that — soul, and both — the only facts for me.

Prove them facts? That they o’erpass my power of proving, proves them

such:

Fact it is I know I know not something which is fact as much.

( La Saisiaz 217-224.)

God, the infinite, is unknowable to Man, the finite — “utterly

incomprehensible

none the minutest duct

To that out-nature, naught that would instruct

And so let rivalry begin to live:

( Sordello u. s.)

Man cannot really know anything; he judges solely by appear¬

ances :

“To know of, think about —

Is all man’s sum of faculty effects

When exercised on earth’s least atom, Son !

What was, what is, what may such atom be ?

No answer! Still, what seems it to man’s sense?

An atom with some certain properties

Known about, thought of as occasion needs,

— Man’s — but occasions of the universe?

Unthinkable, unknowable to man.”

(A Bean Stripe 366-374.)

Still less can he know the infinite, and all ideas he forms of

God are in their degree like those of Caliban upon Setebos.

So prays the Pope in The Ring and the Booh:

O Thou, — as represented here to me

In such conception as my soul allows, —

Under Thy measureless, my atom width ! —

Man’s mind, what is it but a convex glass

Wherein are gathered all the scattered points

Picked out of the immensity of sky,

To re-unite there, be our heaven for earth,

Our known unknown, our God revealed to man ?

Existent somewhere, somehow, as a whole;

Here, as a whole proportioned to our sense, —

There, (which is nowhere, speech must babble thus !)

In the absolute immensity, the whole

Appreciable solely by Thyself.

(X. 1303-1315.)

672 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Man’s way to. God is not through knowledge (by which we

may understand Browning to mean aall intellectual and rea¬

soning processes”) hut through Love, “spiritual intuition and

perception.”1 This is indeed the whole significance of The

Ring and the Booh, fits heroine, Pompilia, is a mere child,

an uneducated girl of lowly birth and upbringing, who can

neither read nor write; yet the Pope pronounces her “first of

the first.”

Everywhere

I see in the world the intellect of man,

That sword, the energy his subtle spear,

The knowledge which defends him like a shield —

Everywhere: but they make not up, I think,

The marvel of a soul like thine, earth’s flower

She holds up to the softened gaze of God !

It was not given Pompilia to know much,

Speak much, to write a book, to move mankind,

Be memorized by who records my time.

Yet if in purity and patience, if

In faith held fast despite the plucking fiend,

Safe like the signet stone with the new name

That saints are known by, — if in right returned

For wrong, most pardon for worst injury,

If there be any virtue, any praise, —

Then will this woman-child have proved — who knows? —

Just the one prize vouchsafed unworthy me,

Seven years a gardener of the untoward ground,

I till, — this earth, my sweat and blood manure

All the long day that barrenly grows dusk:

At least one blossom makes me proud at eve

Born ’mid the briars of my enclosure !

(X. 1008-1030.)

She triumphs through Love alone, and so fulfils God’s purpose

for man, “To make him love in turn, and be beloved” (1381).

Caponsacchi, the “other rose” of the Pope’s garden of briars,

finds salvation too not through knowledge, but through Love.

His decision to help Pompilia is reached not through reason¬

ing but through feeling:

“Thought?” nay, Sirs, what shall follow was not thought:

I have thought sometimes, and thought long and hard,

I have stood before, gone round a serious thing,

Tasked my whole mind to touch and clasp it close,

i Browning's Philosophy by M. L. Lee in her edition of Paracelsus ,

1909).

Cunliffe — Browning ’s Idealism.

673

As I stretch forth my arm to touch this bar.

God and man, and what duty I owe both, —

I dare to say I have confronted these

In thought; but no such faculty helped here.

I put forth no thought, — powerless, all that night

I paced the city: it was the first Spring.

By the invasion I lay passive to,

In rushed new things, the old were rapt away.

(VI. 922-933.)

The same contrast between intellect and emotion lies at the

basis of Luria. Luria stands for the East, for feeling, for in¬

tuition :

My own East!

How nearer God we were! He glows above

With scarce an intervention, presses close

And palpitatingly, his soul o’er ours:

We feel him, nor by painful reason know!

And in the end Puecio, Jacopo, Domizia, Tiburzio, and

Braccio, who in different ways represent the thought of the

Horth and West, acknowledge the dominion of the higher

power. Once more, Browning’s view, implicit in the poems

of his earlier and middle period, is set forth plainly and di¬

rectly in his later work. In Feristah’s Fancies he says:

My curls were crowned

In youth with knowledge, — off, alas, crown slipped

Next moment, pushed by better knowledge still

Which nowise proved more constant: gain, to-day,

Was toppling loss to-morrow, lay at last

— Knowledge, the golden? — lacquered ignorance!

* * *

Wholly distrust thy knowledge, then, and trust

As wholly love allied to ignorance!

There lies thy truth and safety.

* * *

For why? The creature and creator stand

Rightly related so. Consider well!

Were knowledge all thy faculty, then God

Must be ignored: love gains him by first leap.

{A Pillar at Sebzevar, 10-15, 63-6, 132-5.)

674 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

If man had knowledge his moral nature would he destroyed::

No more than the passive clay

Disputes the potter’s act,

Could the whelmed mind disobey

Knowledge the cataract.

But, perfect in every part,

Has the potter’s moulded shape

Leap of man’s quickened heart,

Throe of his thought’s escape,

Stings of his soul which dart

Through the barrier of flesh, till keen

She climbs from the calm and clear,

Through turbidity all between,

From the known to the unknown here,

Heaven’s “Shall be,” from Earth’s “Has been”?

Then life is — to wake not sleep,

Rise and not rest, but press

From earth’s level where blindly creep

Things perfected, more or less,

To the heaven’s height, far and steep,

Where, amid what strifes and storms

May wait the adventurous quest,

Power is Love — transports, transforms

Who aspired from worst to best,

Sought the soul’s world, spurned the worms’.

{A Reverie , 186-210.)

III. Immortality.

Upon human aspiration and life’s imperfection rests equally

another cardinal doctrine of the poet — his belief in immortal¬

ity. This is indicated in the passage last quoted, and is ar¬

gued at length in La Saisiaz. If this life he all, the poet counts

it “a curse and not a blessing.”

I must say — or choke in silence — “Howsoever came my fate,

Sorrow did and joy did nowise, — life well weighed, — preponderate.”

* * *

I have lived, then, done and suffered, loved and hated, learnt and taught

This — there is no reconciling wisdom with a world distraught,

Goodness with triumphant evil, power with failure in the aim,

If — (to my own sense, remember! though none other feel the same!) —

If you bar me from assuming earth to be a pupil’s place,

And life, time, — with all their chances, changes, — just probation space

Mine, for me.

(333-4, 265-271.)

Cunliffe — Browning ’s Idealism.

675

It is in Browning’s view, a necessary condition of life as we

know it that future existence should be an assumption— not

knowledge. If it were knowledge, human life would be quite

different from what we find it. In the dialogue between Fancy

and Reason, he assumes for the purposes of argument that a

future life is known and certain ; and from this assumption he

draws consequences which are irreconcilable with experience.

So he returns to his first position that the only known facts are

God and the soul; the future life is not known fact, but mere

surmise.

So, I hope — no more than hope, but hope — no less than hope,

because

I can fathom, by no plumb-line sunk in life’s apparent laws,

How I may in any instance fix where change should meetly fall

Nor involve, by one revisal, abrogation of them all:

— Which again involves as utter change in life thus law- released,

Whence the good of goodness vanished when the ill of evil

ceased.

Whereas, life and laws apparent re-instated — all we know,

All we know not, — o’er our heaven again cloud closes, until, lo —

Hope the arrowy, just as ^constant, comes to pierce its gloom,

compelled

By a power and by a purpose which, if no one else beheld,

I behold in life, so — hope.

(535-545)

It is curious that this view should be regarded by Mrs. Orr as

irreconcilable with orthodox Christianity, for it seems to be

almost an echo of the Epistle to the Romans VIII. 24: “We

are saved by hope ; but hope that is seen, is not hope : for what

a man seeeth, why doth he yet hope for V9

As to the nature and extent of the future life, Browning

gives only scattered hints of his views, and it may be doubted

whether his characteristic agnosticism would allow us to re¬

gard what he has said as more than speculation. Bordello

once more, gives us the first clue. The conditions of the next

life may be entirely different, not only as to sorrow and joy,

but as to virtue and vice, with some new bond in place of flesh

(VI. 467-484), for some bond he suggests, both in this passage

and in 560, there will be. Evelyn Hope also implies a succes¬

sion of worlds, though one must not push a poetic fancy too hard.

In Old Pictures in Florence the fancy of “life after life in un~

676 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

limited series’7 with “new work for the soul” in each is discussed

in two playful stanzas, and a preference expressed for “rest/7

but the tone of the whole passage is such that it can hardly be

taken as a serious expression of opinion. The Epilogue to

Asolando, which sounds much more like a direct avowal of

Browning’s own view, expects a future life of strenuous exer¬

tion and contest. From the unsympathetic statement of the

doctrine of future punishment in Johannes Agricola ? The Inn

Album (369-502), and A Camel-Driver (90-111), it may be

concluded that Browning rejected the view of hell as a place of

torment which was current in his time, but was rapidly losing

ground during the latter part of his life: and the last stanza

of Apparent Failure indicates that he had reached this con¬

clusion, at any rate as early as 1863, when the poem was evi¬

dently written. The Pope in The Ring and the Booh has

faith in the ultimate salvation even of Guido:1

So may the truth be flashed out by one blow,

And Guido see, one instant, and be saved.

Else I avert my face, nor follow him

Into that sad obscure sequestered state

Where God unmakes but to remake the soul

He else made first in vain; which must not be.

(2120-5)

IV. The Problem of Evil.

Closely connected with Browning’s view of the future life is

his solution of the problem of evil. Bordello’s “closing truth”

showed

Ill and Well,

Sorrow and Joy, Beauty and Ugliness,

Virtue and Vice, the Larger and the Less,

All qualities, in fine, recorded here,

Might be but modes of Time and this one sphere,

Urgent on these, but not of force to bind

Eternity, as Time — as Matter — Mind.

(VI. 468-474.)

.From the point of view of the Eternal and Absolute, Good

and Evil are alike means for the perfection of man. “Earth

i The attribution to Browning of a belief in conditional immortality,

inferred from an obiter dictum in A Toccata of Galuppi’s, rests ob¬

viously upon insufficient foundation.

Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

677

at end, Wrong will prove right” (Bephan.) Evil is “no orb

itself” but merely the cloud thrown across the orb of good to

make it manifest (Reverie). “The evil is null, is naught, is

silence implying sound.” (Abt Vogler). Evil is merely an ap¬

pearance, not reality — a mode of Time, having no place in the

Eternal Mind. In a letter written in 18811 Browning de¬

scribes time and space as “purely conceptions of our own,

wholly inapplicable to intelligence of another kind — with

whom,, as I made Luria say, there is an everlasting moment of

creation, if one at all — past, present and future, one and the

same state.”2

All that is at all

Lasts ever past recall;

Earth changes, but thy soul and God stand sure.

{Rabbi Ben Ezra XXVII.)

But this absolute truth must not be used by man as a basis of

action in this life, in which he lives not by the absolute but by

the relative. Browning puts this knowledge into the mouths

of two very distinct classes — the opportunists like Prince

Hohenstiel-Schwangau, Bishop Blougram, and the Don Juan

of Fifine , to whom “evil proves good, wrong right;” to their

own undoing; and the dying seers who learn the absolute truth

at the very end of life, and when it is too late to apply it in ac¬

tion. When John the Evangelist is dying in the desert, the

truth, breaking bounds, o’erfloods his soul, and as he saw sin

and death, he sees now

the need yet transiency of both

The good and glory consummated thence.

( A Doathin the Desert 219-220.)

But to realize this in human life is fatal to the soul — it re¬

duces man to a state of apathy, like that of Lazarus after his

resurrection (Karshish) , or it ruins him by obliterating the

distinction between right and wrong, which, though non-exist¬

ent in the mind of God, is a necessary means to human pro-

1 Quoted in The Life of Robert Browning by W. Hall Griffin and H. C.

Minchin.

2 The reference to Luria is to V. 233-237.

678 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

gress. Don Juan, having learnt that good conies out of evil,

reaches the conclusion that

we must not fret

Nor fume, on altitudes of self-sufficiency,

But bid a frank farewell to what — we think should be,

And, with as good a grace, welcome what is— we find.

(. Fifine 1881-4.)

In other words he resigns all ideal standards and becomes an

opportunist and materialist — to Browning’s mind the greatest

of failures. Though Evil is to God a transient means, not an

end, to man his own conception of right and wrong is a' final

and absolute standard. A deliberate preference of perceived

evil to perceived good is in Browning’s opinion (An Essay on

Shelley) the sin against the Holy Ghost which shall not be for¬

given. In opposition to the opportunism of Don Juan, Brown¬

ing clearly indicates his acceptance of the view of popular

theology that

We come and go, outside there’s Somebody that stays;

A circumstance which ought to make us mind our ways,

Because, — whatever end we answer by this life, —

Next time, best chance must be for who, with toil and strife,

Manages now to live most like what he was meant

Become: since who succeeds so far, ’t is evident,

Stands foremost on the file; who fails, has less to hope

Prom new promotion.1

(Fifine 2082-2089.)

Francis Eurini suspects that all he sees is illusion, and that

evil is only “good disguised,” but he holds firmly that

Though wrong were right,

Could we but know — still wrong must needs seem wrong

To do right’s service, prove men weak or strong,

Choosers of evil or of good.

Man is, in Browning’s opinion, free to choose. A passage in

Andrea del Sarto expresses (only dramatically, I think) a mood

sympathetic with determinism ; but the balance of evidence is on

the other side. The crucial passages are Christmas Eve 288-328 ;

Prince Hohenstiel-Schivangau 120-130; Ferishtalis Fancies ,

Plot-Culture. But the doctrine of free-will is implied by

i Cf. A Soul’s Tragedy, Act I, 449-480. Ferishtah’s Fancies, TA Carnet-

Driver.

! ' Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism . 679

Browning’s whole view of life as a place of education and

probation, and the point need not be elaborated further.

V. Relation to Orthodox Christianity *

Tt is manifest that in liis leading ideas Browning had much

in common with orthodox Christianity as its tenets were pro¬

fessed by the more liberal section of the Congregationalism

body in which he was brought up. His attitude towards re¬

vealed religion was certainly sympathetic : this is clear from

his letter in reply to an inquiry on this point from Elizabeth

Barrett just before their marriage, and without this direct

testimony, the inference might be surely made from his poems.

He knew the Bible wTell and quoted from it frequently, put*

ting some passages in the original Hebrew into FerishtadPs

Fancies , as he himself wrote to a friend soon after, “as a di¬

rect acknowledgment that certain doctrines may be found in

the Old Book, wThich the Concoctors of Hovel Schemes of

Morality put forth as discoveries of their own.” He was hos¬

tile (as the picture of the Goettingen professor in Christmas

Fve plainly shows) to the German rationalistic criticism of the

Bible, and in the Epilogue to Dramatis Personae he described

Renan as “Witless alike of will and way divine;” he was no

more friendly to the more moderate liberal movement in Eng¬

land which made its voice heard in the Essays and Reviews of

1860. He wrote in Gold Hair (published in Dramatis Per¬

sonae. 1864):

The candid incline to surmise of late

That the Christian faith proves false, I find;

For our Essays-and-Reviews’ debate

Begins to tell on the public mind,

And Colenso’s words have weight:

I still, to suppose it true, for my part,

See reasons and reasons: this, to begin:

’T is the faith that launched point-blank her dart

At the head of a lie — taught Original Sin,

The Corruption of Man’s Heart.

(141-150)

The fullest and most direct expression of the poet’s faith

is to be found in Christmas Eve and Easter Day , in which

680 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

, the slight dramatic element does not veil his obvious preference

for the beliefs of English puritanism, even when alloyed with

crudity and ignorance. A Death in the Desert . though it also

has the dramatic setting, is hardly less direct:

I say, the acknowledgement of God in Christ

Accepted by thy reason, solves for thee

All questions in the earth and out of it,

And has so far advanced thee to be wise.

(474-7)

No less significant is the twist in favor of the Christian faith

given to the speculations of Browning’s unbelieving characters

—the Arab physician Karshish, the Greek poet-philosopher

Cleon, the Boman of <eImperante Augusto N\atus Est ” in which

a legend of the twelfth century is treated as if it were already

current at the beginning of the Christian era. Yet Mrs. Orr,

who ought to know, says explicitly that the poet “rejected or

^questioned the dogmatic teachings of Christianity.” It has

; already been suggested that La Saisiaz , which Mrs. Orr re-

. garded as “conclusive both in form and matter as to his hetero-

<dox attitude towards Christianity,” is not really so conclusive

tas she seems to think ; but she is no doubt speaking from per¬

sonal knowledge as well, and she appears to be right in her view

that while Browning believed in the divinity of Christ, Christ

remained for him “a mystery and a message of Divine Love,

but no messenger of Divine intention towards mankind.” Pro¬

fessor Boyce, who agrees with Mrs. Orr that “Browning was

certainly no orthodox believer,” makes still clearer the dis¬

tinction between the Christian doctrines Browning accepted

and those he rejected. It was only the doctrine of the Incar¬

nation that “immediately and personally appealed to Brown¬

ing;” it is the leading idea of Karshish , Saul and Cleon , and

he returns to it again and again to the very end of his work, as

in The Sun of Feristah’s Fancies. He conceives of it, not

as a historic fact, but as an abiding relation:

That one Face, far from vanish, rather grows,

Or decomposes but to recompose,

Become my universe that feels and knows.

( Epilogue to Dramatis Personae.)

Cunliffe — Browning’s Idealism.

681

In the doctrine of the atonement Browning had no such sym¬

pathetic interest; it was, in fact, inconsistent with his theory

of the nature of evil, which, whatever its origin, was obviously

non-Christian. Mr. Bury thinks that if Browning had been

“a philosopher proper he would have been a Hegelian ;” but I

am inclined to think 'that Browning’s idealism came to him

rather by way of Shelley than of German philosophers ; he has

a poem on the “Transcendentalism” (as he calls it) of Jacob

Boehme, and there is a reference to Kant in Prince Hohenstiel -

Schwangau , but neither reference shows sympathy or even ex¬

tensive knowledge. Boehme, indeed, a philosophical colleague

tells me, was not a transcendentalism at all, but a mystic; and

in the poem as originally published Browning by mistake de¬

scribed him as “Swedish” instead of German. In the case of

Shelley the evidence, though it does not amount to proof, is

more considerable; in his Essay on Shelley Browning drawT3

attention to the earlier poet’s “belief in the existence of Good,,

to which Evil is an accident” — a very characteristic doctrine,

as we have seen. The famous apostrophe in the Adonais:

The One remains, the many change and pass;

Heaven’s light forever shines, Earth’s shadows fly;

Life, like a dome of many-colored glass,

Stains the white radiance of Eternity,

Until Death tramples it to fragments — Die,

If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek!

has obviously much in common with Browning, e. g. Sordello

VI. 555.

Is the cloud of hindrance broke

But by the failing of the fleshy yoke,

Its loves and hates, as now when death lets soar

Sordello?

There are also obvious differences, but I must leave the analy¬

sis of them to minds better versed in metaphysical distinctions.

682 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, .Arts, and Letters.

THE LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT AS A FORM OF

LITERATURE.

Eber Carle Perrow;

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

The antiquity of the last will and testament as a social in¬

strument,1 its universal currency among all peoples and among

all ranks of society, and still more, the solemn character of the

document have all had an influence in making it especially

adapted to the purposes of those who have wished to express

in the form of parody a humorous conceit, a bit of biting satire,

i For the general subject of the Last Will and Testament the fol¬

lowing works may be consulted:

Thomas Jarman, A Treatise on Wills , fifth edition, London, 1861;

G. W. Kircheway, article in The Universal Cyclopedia , New York, 1900,

XIT, 444; The Jewish Encyclopedia, N. Y. and L.; 1906, XII, 522; A

Catholic Dictionary, London, 1884, p. 860; W. Smith and S, Cheetham,

A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, London, 1880, II, 2037.

For the study of the Will as a legal document see: G. Peignot, Chodx

de Testamens Anciens et Modernes, Remar quar hies par leur import¬

ance , leur singularity, ou leur bizarrerie, Paris, 1829; C. Gross, Sources

and Literature of English History, London, 1900; F. J. Furnival, Fifty

English Wills, (E. E. T. S.), London, 1882; James Raine, Testamenta

Eboracensis, 1836; Sir N. H. Nicholas, Testamenta Vetusta, London,

1826; H. Littlehales, The Mediaeval Records of a London Church,

(E. E. T. S. , London, 1904; L. L. Duncan, Testamenta Cantiana, Lon¬

don, 1906: Mathews and Mathews, Year Booh of Probates, London,

1902; Alfred Gibbons, Early Lincoln Wills, London, 1903; J. Nichols,

A Collection of Wills, London, 1780; H. R. Plomer, Abstracts of Wills

’from English Printers, London, 1903; R. R. Sharpe, Calendar of Wills

of Court Hustings, London, 1889; Henry Swinburne, A Treatise of

Testaments and Last Wills, London, 1667.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 683

or a consideration of some of the more serious aspects of hu¬

man life. But to its richness of content, more, perhaps, than

to any other single feature, the Last Will and Testament owes

the fact that it has become the parent of a considerable body of

literature.1 In this particular hardly another formal doom

ment can be thought of as a rival. Whenever we examine any

considerable body of wills belonging to centuries earlier than

our own, we come upon scraps of autobiography, confessions of

deeds and of faith, adieus to friends, advice to relatives and

successors, directions for burial, and dispositions of property.

Wot all are found in one will, nor is any one found in all wills.

These several elements play in and out of the will and the Lit¬

erary Testament in a very arbitrary manner. Any one of

these may monopolize the entire will, and each seems to have

given rise to a particular type of Literary Testament.2

1 For convenience the term Last Will and Testament, or simply the

term Will, will be used in this study to refer to the legal instrument,

while the term Literary Testament, or simply Testament, will he used

to apply to the document the motive of which is the literary impulse.

The word “page” or “pages” as used in the notes will refer to pages of

this study.

2 It is the purpose of this paper, in studying the Last Will and

Testament as a basis of a literary form, to separate the Testament into

several well-defined types, and to trace briefly, as far as it may be clear,

the history of each type. This I shall be able to do only imperfectly

with regard to the larger number of the types. A thorough investiga¬

tion of the history of each type would lead too far a-field for the limits

of this paper. The only part of the subject in which anything like a

thorough treatment, has been attempted is that devoted to the flourish¬

ing period of the Testament (PART II.), and even that is far from

being exhaustive. That division is written with especial reference to

the development of the form in France and England, but even here

nothing like a careful search has ben made for material. Much of the

material actually known to exist has been inaccessible to me. Even

of the material at hand much has been left untreated, since if was

thought best to discuss only that part of the material which seemed

useful for tracing the history of the form.

684 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

CHAPTER II.

§1 The first feature of the Last Will and Testament is usually

an attempt to tell who the testator is. This feature, at least in

a rudimentary form, survives in the legal document of today.1

In earlier times, when directories were unknown and proper

names themselves were often indefinite, there was a strong ten¬

dency to expand this explanation into a considerable account

of the testator, and when the testator thought he had reason

for commemorating his own works, he might take this occa¬

sion to give to posterity a record of his deeds. An example

of such a commemoration may be seen in the Will of Augustus

Caesar ,2 * This document has come to us in a somewhat frag¬

mentary state, but it gives, as it is, a good idea of what form the

Roman Will might take during the earlier years of our era.

In this will the succession of Tiberius is provided for, and a

considerable number of bequests both public and private are

made. Accompanying this part of the will were four other

books, one providing for the ceremonies of the testator’s funeral,

another containing an account of his deeds to be engraved on

his mausoleum, a third, a statement of the condition of the em¬

pire, and a fourth, a set of instructions for his successors. The

account of his life, called his Testament, was found actually in¬

scribed on a marble in a ruined temple in the town of Ancyre.®

The habit of incorporating an account of one’s life in one’s

will was not only common in ancient times but has persisted

down to a rather late day. It will suffice here to mention only

a few examples. The will of Michael de l’Hospital (1573)

is a history of his life together with a disposition of his prop¬

erty4. That of Pierre Pithou (1596)5 is purely an account of

his actions. The will of Brantome (1614) 6 as well as that of

i Furnivall passim. 2 Peignot, I., 11. 3 This was found and trans¬

lated by George Perrot in the xvi century. For analysis see P. La-

rousse, Dictionnaire Universelle, Paris, 1876, XV, 6. * Peignot, I, 224.

« Ibid, 261. e Ibid. 280.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 685

Jean Thiery (1650)1 contains a similar account in conjunction

with legacies.

This opportunity for biography was not neglected by those

who sought to utilize the Will as a form for literature. The Tes¬

tament of the Twelve Patriarchs , a work now existing in four

Greek manuscripts, and thought to have been written about the

first century of our era, is one of the earliest examples of the

autobiographical Testament. No Latin translation of this work

is known earlier than that made by Robert Grosseteste (died

3253), but the Testament seems to have been known to the

early western Church.2 Grosseteste’s translation became im¬

mensely popular. It was quoted, almost on its first appearance,

by Vincent of Beauvais in his Speculum Historiale , and during

the centuries immediately following it found its way into sev¬

eral of the modern languages.3

The English edition of 1811 contains in addition to the tes¬

taments of the twelve patriarchs an amplified version of the

Testament of Jacob , the prototype of which is found in Genesis.4

The account in Genesis is probably a good example of what the

Will was like among the early Hebrews: Jacob, about to die,

calls his sons about him and makes his will in their presence.

In the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs the sons of Jacob

are imagined as making their wills in the same way. All these

testaments seem to follow a common plan. The testator at the

hour of death, wishing to give his last instructions to his chil¬

dren (1) explains who he is and what is his character, (2) con¬

fesses some sin (or that his life has been free from some sin),

(3) warns his posterity against that sin, (4) prophesies that it

i Ibid. 348. 2 See B. B. Warfield, The Testament of the Twelve

Patriarchs ; Robt. Sinker, Testamentum XII Patriarcharum (appendix),

Cambridge, 1879; The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, London,

1811; The Jewish Encyclopedia, XII, 113; Cyclopedia of Biblical , Theo¬

logical, and Eccleciastical Literature, New York, 1886, X, 291.

s Versions occur in English (1557), in Welsh (1882), in French

(1548), in German (1539), in Dutch (1538), in Danish (1580), in

Bohemian (before 1376), and in Armenian (1388). There was also a

version in Icelandic. The sect known as the Muggletonians still ac¬

cept this Testament as canonical. Sinker, p. 8.

4 Gen. xlvii, 29, ff.; xlviii, 22.

686 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

will become a besetting sin among bis posterity, and (5) com¬

forts tbe despairing with a prophecy of Christ.

The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs is an excellent piece

of work. The characters of the patriarchs are kept consistent

throughout. Their feelings and emotions are entered into with

considerable sympathy. Particularly is this true with regard

to the characters of Judah and Joseph. The story of Poti-

phar’s Wife is told with great skill. In every case the writer

has shown care and tact in following closely the biblical narra¬

tive, and has made each character consistent with its biblical

prototype.

For the purpose immediately in hand it may be noted that in

these testaments every one of the testators tells of some event of

his past life, and that in as many as seven cases there is an ac¬

count of some event in the testator’s life which is not called for

by the confession which each makes.

The vogue of writing apocryphal literature was a very strong

one during the early centuries of our era. The Testament was

too good a form to neglect, and so various Bible characters be¬

sides the twelve patriachs had testaments made for them.

Among these is The Testament of J oh.1 The date of this docu¬

ment is uncertain. It is apparently Jewish in origin, and it

may antedate the birth of Christ. It is certainly as old as 476

A. D., for in that year it was condemned as apocryphal.2 The

body of the testament is made up of an account of Job’s life

which he is represented as delivering to his sons. A trace of

the confession is seen, but the autobiographical element is pre¬

dominant.

In a testament written in the same manner and put into the

mouth of Solomon the autobiographical element excludes all

others.3 This document is an account, as told by Solomon, of

how a demon hindered the building of the tmple, and how Solo-

1 Angelo Mai, Scriptorum Yeturum, Rome, 1883, VII, 180; see also,

J. Migne, Dictionnaire des Apocryphes , Paris, 1858, II, 403; M. R.

James, Texts and Studies, Cambridge; Apocrypha Anecdota, Cam¬

bridge, 1893; and Kohler in Koliut Memorial Volume , 1897, p. 264.

2 Decreta Gelasii papae , collect, concil. Mancii, T. VIII, col. 169.

s Zeit fiir die hist. Theolopie, 1844, XIV, iii, 9-6.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 687

mon by virtue of a ring given him of the Archangel Michael

brought this demon, together with others, into his power and

made them assist in the work of building the temple. The tale

looks like a waif from the Arabic fold of demon-story.

In The Testament of Christ Jhesu, in Guillaume De Guille-

ville’s Pelerinage de la Vie Humaine (1330) the autobiograph¬

ical element is again apparent. In this Jesus names himself

as “Ihesu, sone of Marye,” and declares himself the Truth, the

Life, and the Wav.1

So again in the English poem, the Testamentum Christi , pre¬

served in the Vernon Manuscript, a document of the first part

of the fourteenth century, Jesus tells how men were driven

from Paradise, how he came to give them back their heritage,

how he suffered on the cross, harried hell, and returned to

heaven, leaving man in the possession of his rightful property.2

Thomas TTsk’s Testament of Love (1387) also contains auto-

bigraphical elements.3

§2 Closely allied to the idea of telling who one is and wThat

worthy deeds one has done is that of stating what is one’s relig¬

ious creed and of confessing how far short one has come of ful¬

filling the obligations of such a creed. Nothing could be more

natural than the impulse at the hour of death to confess one’s

misdeeds, and often a worthy effort is made to right the wrongs

for which the testator feels himself responsible. Such a re¬

pentance could easily lead to a statement of a standard of con¬

duct thought to be ideal and a profession of faith in a Mercy

that would forgive its violation.4 '<

Still less are we surprised to find the confession as one of the

elements of the Will when we take into account that during the

Middle x\ges the representative of the church which heard the

1 Translated by Lydgate in 1426, ed. Loeock (E. E. T. S.), London,

1904, lines 4773 ff.

2 Ed. Furnivale (E. E. T. S.) 1901, No. LIV.

s Skeat, Chaucerian and other Pieces, Oxford. For other testaments

containing autobiography see pages 468, 469, 472, 485, 486, 489.

4 W. B. Jensen, attorney-at-law in Boston, Mass., told me recently of

a case which came into his hands which serves to illustrate the .preva¬

lence of the impulse to put religious matter into a will. The testator

wanted to put into his will a statement of his faith, and Mr. Jensen

Incorporated therein several things such as the Apostles’ Creed.

688 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

confession of the dying man also often wrote his last will. The

canon law still requires for the validity of the Will that it be

attested by two witnesses and the parish priest. In the absence

of the priest there must be four witnesses.1 We shall see in

the course of this study several examples of wills in which the

parish priest officiates.

The Will as an instrument for conveying property was un¬

known to the early Teutonic peoples. It was first brought to

them from Rome by the Roman church.2 It is not hard to see

then, how the church would naturally regard will-making as a

function peculiarly its own. In England the power of the

church was more or less curbed by the strong hand of the Nor¬

man kings. In the charter of Henry I, dated 1100, the civil

law is seen regulating the Will. That charter provided that a

will might be made only in favor of a wife, children, parents, or

legitimi homines. But the Great Charter (1215), though

based on that of Henry I, has nothing to say of the Will. By

that time it had passed under control of the church.3

It is not hard to see why the church was so anxious to con¬

trol the Will. No human organization, though professedly of a

spiritual character has ever been so concerned for the things of

the other world as for any great length of time to despise the

many opportunities for working good by means of temporal

things. Here was an excellent opportunity to get control of

property. A dying man is less careful about the disposal of his

goods than is one wffio has a lease on life, and it was very advan¬

tageous for a representative of the church to be nekr when the

property was disposed of. Especially likely is the church to

get a part of it if the man has faith in its teachings and believes

that it holds the keys of eternal life. So we find Dr. Eurnival

in his introduction to his volume of Early English Wills de¬

ploring the way in w7hich gifts were lavished upon the church

by testators who often left their wives and children to suffer.

One result of the ecclesiastical control of the will was the es¬

tablishing of the confession of faith in the doctrines of the

1 A Catholic Dictionary , p. 861.

2 Universal Cyclopedia , XII, 444.

®W. Stubbs, Select Charters , Oxford, 1900, p. 101.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 689

church as a regular part of the Will. Some of the best ex¬

amples of the way in which the church insisted on a testator’s

confessing its faith are found among the wills of repentant

Lollards who express repentance for their errors. Sir Thomas

Latimer (died 1401) and Lewis Clifford (died 1404) both in

their Last Wills regret their infidelity, and confess their faith

in the church.1 Because William , Trade in his will (1531) re¬

fused the intercession of the church in behalf of his soul, trust¬

ing only in Jesus Christ, his body was taken up after burial

and publicly burned by order of the Chancellor of Worcester.2

We may now examine a few wills in which the confession is

especially prominent. The will of Isabelle de Baviere, Queen

of France (143 5), 3 is a good example of the Will of the fif¬

teenth century. She confesses her faith in God and the Catho¬

lic Church and recommends her soul to God, Mary, Michael, the

angels, archangels and all the blessed company of heaven.

Philippe-le-Bon begins his will (1441) 4 by speaking of the un¬

certainty of life. As a good catholic he wishes to make his will.

He recommends his soul to St. Mary, to St. Andrew, and to all

the saints of Paradise. Charles, brother of King Louis XI,

died at the age of twenty-six, from poison. During his illness

he made his will in which there is a considerable space devoted

to the confession of faith.5 The will of Thomas Windham

(1522) 6 is interesting as one of the last wills in England before

the breaking in of the Deformation. Like a good catholic, the

testator recommends his soul to the saints. The schism of

Henry VIII (1532-4) broke the power of the Roman church

in England, and in the later English wills we find little trace of

its influence. The Testament of Melancthon (1560) 7 is purely

iF. C. Massingberd, The English Reformation , London, 1857, p. 163;

J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV., Ill, 296, N. 2; W.

Dugdale, The Baronage of England , London, 1675, I, 341; for the juris¬

diction of the church over Wills compare Chaucer, Canterbury Tales ,

D 1305.

2 Chambers Booh of Bays, II, 429; Massingberd, p. 531.

3 Peignot, I, 76.

4 Ibid., I, 101.

s Ibid'., I, 123.

6 Ibid., I, 172.

^ Ibid. I, 205; Seckendorff, Commentarius de Lutheranismo , Frank¬

fort and Leipsic, 1692, III, sec. 21, paragraph 78.

690 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

a confession of his Protestant faith. It frankly professes to be

following the example of ancient worthies who wrote for their

children and successors a confession of their faith.1 P. Pithou

in a will dated 1617 confesses his sins and his faith.2 An¬

toine Arnauld in 1694, makes an addition to his will concern¬

ing temporal affairs, a separate confession testament. He calls

it a “Testament spirituel, on declaration en forme de testament

des veritables dispositions de mon ame dans toutes les reeontres

de ma vie.”3 The testament of Jean Meslier (died 1753) is an

example of a confession of disbelief in the church.4

If we turn now to the literary form w^e shall find there, too,

examples enough of the confession element. We have already

seen that the confession vras a prominent feature of the Testa¬

ment of the Twelve Patriarchs. Indeed it is. found in ten of

the twelve testaments. Space is also found for it in the Testa¬

ment of J oh.

In the Vision of Piers Plowman , Text A, dated 1362, there

is a testament which Piers is supposed to make as a real will.5

In this the confession of faith is a fairly prominent feature.

The testator bequeaths his soul to “Him who defende hit fro the

feende.” The church is to have his body. He has paid his

tithes regularly and deserves the offices of the church. His

wife and children shall have his goods. His ideas of what a

righteous life should he are distinctly set forth, and the whole

testament is replete with expressions of his steadfast religious

faith.6

Hoccleve’s Le Mai Regie , a poem written in 1406, is really

1 Melancthon regarded the Testament as a Confession of Faith a

well established form: “Apparent, initio praecipue condita testimenta,

prppter hanc causam, ut patres relinquerent liberis certum testimon

ium suae sententiae derreligione, quam volebant gravi auctoritate

quasi obsignatam propagari ad posteros.”

2 Peignot, I, 301.

s Ibid., II, 447.

^ Larousse, s. v. Meslier.

sW. W. Skeat, The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plow¬

man , Oxford, 1886, I, 201; II, 109.

6 The fact that Piers makes his will before setting out on his journey

calls to mind a practice rather common in the Middle ages. Travel

was then so perilous that it was often worth almost a man’s life to

take a journey of any considerable length. If one were embarking on

a Crusade the duty of making one’s will was especially incumbent.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 691

a confession testament although the word testament is not used

therein.1 The author deplores his loss of health and the fact

that he is ripe for the grave. His disease has been brought on

by a dissolute life. He gives an account of his youthful ex¬

cesses. If he can recover he will try to lead a better life.

Of similar character is the same author’s How to Learn to

Hie which he says he translated from a Latin treatise.2 Its

date is about 1421. In this piece is introduced a dying man

who makes a confession. He sees that he cannot escape death

and bewails his misspent life. He tells at length of his excesses.,

warns others to avoid his fate, and concludes with a farewell to

his friends.3

§3 Another form of literature to which the Last Will and

Testament easily relates itself is the Adieu. The Adieu is

usually indulged in when one is going on a journey or is about to

die, both of which situations may give rise to the Last Will and

Testament.4 We are not surprised, then, to find that the Adieu

often plays no inconsiderable part both in the legal document

and in the literary parody. Especially was the Adieu likely

to find a place in the Will during the period in which last wishes

were expressed in spoken words rather than in a set document.5

But even in later times when the Will has become a rather cold

and formal document there is constantly rising in the heart

of the testator the impulse to say farewell to his friends and his

family. So we find the Last Will and Testament of Louis XYI

and again that of Marie Antoinette almost entirely taken up

with adieux.6

The Adieu is a form that could develop independently at al¬

most any time. There are examples enough of its existing

without implication of the Testament. Theocritus in his first

Idyl makes Daphnis, who is dying of disappointed love, com¬

plain of his woes and say adieux to the things with which his

iF. J. Furnival, Hoccleve's Works (E. E. T. S.), London, 1892, p. 25.

2 Ibid., p. 178.

3 For later examples containing the confession element cf. pages 471,

473, 479, 483.

4 See pages 467, 471.

s Cf. Genesis XLIX, 1, and Homer's Iliad , bk. VI, 11. 486.

e Peignot, II, 45 and 61.

692 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

shepherd life was most closely associated. . Vergil in his tenth

Eclogue imitates this poem and includes another element of the

Will, the direction for burial. In a document of the fifth cen¬

tury we have a farewell that Eutilius Humantius addressed

to Eome on the occasion of his journey to Gaul.1 The Conge

of Adam de la Halle addressed to the city of Arras, and simi¬

lar Conges by Baude Fastoul and Jehan Bodel belong also to

this type.2 We are not, then, to think of the Adieu as an off¬

spring of the Last Will and Testament but as an independent

form that influenced and often coalesced with both the Will and

the Testament.3

§4 Farewells addressed to one’s friends and relatives could

easily lead to the giving of moral instruction. The impulse to

give advice with regard to the conduct of life, at all times strong

in the human heart, is all the more powerful when one is about

to leave those in whose future welfare one is especially inter¬

ested.4 Moreover it is felt as rather the privilege of one who

has seen the world and is at last taking leave of it to pass on the

results of his experience to those who shall come after him. It

is not unusual, then, to find a clause of moral advice included in

the Last Will and Testament.5

In the Testament as literature much has been made of the

moral element The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs is

replete with it.6 Hot a single one of the twelve omits his warn-

1 In De Reditu suo Itinerarium (N. E. Lemaire, Poetae Latini

minores, 1824). IV, 82-205.

2 Barbazan, Fabliaux et Contes , Paris, 1808. I, 106-135.

s For examples of the Testament containing the Adieu see pages

471 ff.

4 Cf. Genesis xlix and 1. Chronicles xxviii, 8.

s So common is the practice of giving moral advice in the Will that

I shall quote here but one example. The will of Jacques Cujas of Tou¬

louse (1590) contains the following clause: “Passez cette vie en paix,

louans et craignans Dieu sans cesse; ne faites mal a nul. faites bien a.

tous sans distinction de personne. Fuyez r Anti-Christ et les inventions

et suppotes d’iceluy qui, sous de nom d’Eglise, gourmandent, brigandent,

corrompent et persecutent la vraye Eglise, de laquelle la pierre fonda-

mentale et Jesus-Christ seul, notre Sauveur et Seigneur Dieu, et suivez

la sainte parole de point en point, sans y rien ajouter ny diminuer.

Dieu soit avec vous et vous conduise aprez cette vie temporelle a l’eter-

nelle par sa sainte grace, comme je le supplie au nom de Jesus son fils

notre Sauveur bientot me faire jouir d’icelle, prenant garde k ses

misericordes, et non a mes merites. Ainsi soit-il.” — Peignot, I, 260.

® Cf. page 441.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 693

There was also a tradition among eastern peoples that Adam,

finding himself about to die, called his sons about him and made

his testament. According to the report of an Arab writer,

Elamcin (died 1273), Adam advised his sons not to descend

from Mount Horeb but to remain there and keep unmixed with

the race of Cain. If they should find it necessary to depart

from Horeb, they were to take with them Adam’s body and bury

it at the center of the earth (Jerusalem).1

The Testament of Abraham, found both in Greek and Arabic

versions, together with The Testament of Isaac and The Testa¬

ment of Jacob which are found only in the Arabic, may be

classed as moral testaments.2 They have in the process of time

suffered much mutilation and confusion, but it is easy to see

that the main purpose of these documents is to convey moral in¬

struction.

The Testament of Abraham is thought to have been put to¬

gether during the second century by a Jewish Christian using

a Jewish legend. The main body of the work has little to do

with testation, being an account of an apocalypse shown to

Abraham just before his death. But the fact that it is called a

Testament shows the tendency to apply this term to apocryphal

accounts of Bible characters.3 In the companion pieces, The

Testament of J acoh , and The Testament of Isaac, the moral ele¬

ment is very prominent. The Testament of Jacob follows first

the account given in Genesis, then an apocalypse is introduced,

and this is followed by a long moral exhortation. The Testa-

1 See Dictionnaire des Apocryphes, ed. L’Abbe Migne, Paris, 1858,

II, 42: Migne cites Fabricius, Cod. Apoc. Vet. Test., I, 35; and tbe

Universal History of Eutychius (died 940 A. D.) in the Latin version

published by Pococke in 1658.

2 M. R. James, Texts and Studies, Cambridge, 1892, vol. II no. 2,

pp. 55, 140, and 152. James mentions also a Testament of Moses, a

Testament of Hezekiah and a Testament of Our Lord (Texts and Stu¬

dies, V, no. 1.). E. H. Palmer, Journal of Philol. Ill, 223, speaks of a

“Testamentary address of our Lord to his diciples on the Mount of

Olives before his ascension * * * In this after a series of precepts

repeated from the Gospels, Our Savior is made to predict the future

of His church and the fate of His diciples.” Prof. Palmer points out,

also, that besides in Jewish writings the moral Testament flourished

as well in non-Jewish literatures of the East.

• See page 441.

694 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ment of Isaac tells how Isaac is told by an angel to make his tes¬

tament and to set his house in order for his death. Then fol¬

lows the apocalypse. In this, as in the Arabic version of The

Testament of Abraham , the story is told in the words of the tes¬

tator.

In The Testament of the Forty Martyrs (308 A. D.) in¬

tended to represent a real will, the moral element is also pres¬

Christ that he may receive such a reward as they have received.

Among the Byzantine Greeks the Moral Testament was a fav¬

orite form of literature.2 A good example is The Testament

of Theodoros.3 The testator was an abbot of Constantinople

who died in 826 A. D. This testament was accustomed for a

long time to be read each year on the day of his feast. G. A.

Schneider4 in enumerating his works says, “Als letze Schrift

mag sich die AiaOrjKy oder das Testamentum anreihem worm

Theodor sein Glaubensbekenntnis niedergelegt hat und seinen

Haehfolger sowie den Monchen nochmals ihre verschiedenen

Phichten einscharft.”5

There were in the Middle Ages many such documents of in¬

struction which did not call themselves Testaments. Such is

the Mordta ad Filium of Stephen I, King of Hungary, ivho died

in 1038.6 With such books are also to be compared the numer¬

ous books of etiquette which were so popular throughout the

Middle Ages. As examples we may mention How the goode

wyfe taught her Doughter and II ow the wise man taught his

son, both printed in Caxton’s Booh of Curtesye.7

1 Edited by G. N. Bonwetsch in Studien zur Geschichte der Theo-

Togie und KircTie , erster Band, Heft 1, Leipsic, 1897, p. 71. See also

Neue Kirchliche Zt.y 1892, p. 705, and p. 978.

2 See Leo Wiener, Anthology of Russian Literature, New York, 1902,

p. 50.

3 Krumbacher, Geschichte der Byzantinischen Litteratur, Miinchen,

1897, p. 147.

4 Der HI. Theodor von Studion: Sein Lehen und Wirlcen, Munster*

i. W., 1900, p. 6.

s It is not to be doubted that the application of the word AiaBr/urf

to the New Testament had so little to do with its application to such a

document of instruction written by a Church Father. Cf. page

e Printed in J. P. Migne, Patrologae , Paris, 1853, CLI ; cf. also Louis

IX’s dying instructions to his son. Peignot, II, 363.

7 Ed. Furnival, for E. E. T. S., London, 1868.

Perrow—The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 695

Following the Byzantine Greeks, the Russians at an early

period took up the Moral Testament as a form of literature.

One of the earliest examples is The Testament of Yaroslav

which was written about 105 6. 1 The Testament of Vladimir

Monomahh (1112) 2 is a book of instruction which Vladimir

wrote for his children. It is primarily a Moral Testament giv¬

ing such advice as is calculated to lead to a safe and virtuous

life. It also contains an account of some of the wonderful

deeds of the testator in which particular it is related to the

Autobiographical Testament.3

The Moral Testament flourished for a long time in Russian

Literature. The Domostroy . ascribed to Sylvester, the ad¬

viser of Ivan the Terrible, is a sixteenth century member of this

group.4 It is a compilation of a code of conduct in which great

emphasis is laid on keeping up appearances. Ivan Tikhonovich

Pososhkov, who died in 1726, wrote A Father s Testament to

his son with a moral in confirmation of Holy Writ.5 Vasili

Nikitich Tatishev’s Spiritual Testament and Instruction to my

Son Eugraf is the last of the long line of Russian Moral Testa¬

ments.6

In the literature of Western Europe one of the earliest ex¬

amples of this type is the Testament of Jean de Meung written

about the year ,12 9 6. 7 In this the author reviews the various

classes of society in the world, criticises their short-comings, and

offers moral advice. His purpose in calling this his Testament

seems to be that he considered this the only legacy he could

1 See Peter Vladimirovitch Vladimirof, Drevnaia russkaia liter atura

kievskago perioda, Kiev, 1900, p. 247.

2 Translated by Frof. Wiener in his Anthology, p. 51; in A. P. Stan¬

ley’s Lectures, London, 1861; and in N. H. Dole’s Young Folk's History

of Russia, Chicago, 1895.

s The model for Vladimir’s Testament, says Prof. Wiener (page 11 of

the Anthology), was Svyatoslav’s Collection made for Svyatoslav in

1073, ultimately translated from the Greek of Simeon of Bulgaria.

“It is an enclyclopedia of ecclesiastical and moral themes culled from

the church fathers.”

4 Wiener, I, 126.

5 Ibid., I, 205.

e Ibid., I, 219.

7 M. Meon, Le Roman de la Rose, Paris, 1814, IV, 1.

696 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

leave to posterity.1 At the end of some manuscripts are found

the following verses :

Ci fineray mon dit, je Jehande Mehun,

Que je por Testament laiz a tout le commun.

Car je n’ai pas avoir por lassier a chascun,

Si pregne ci leur part li autre et li un.

The Codicil attached to this document also concerns itself

with morals.2

§5. When the testator happened to be a ruler or was inter¬

ested in the government, the advice given in the will was apt to

take a political turn and become advice to his successors or to his

prince.3 We have already seen how one division of the will

of Augustus (14 A. D.) concerned itself with instructions to

successors.4 $o also The Testament of Philippe Auguste

(1223) was nothing other than an ordinance for the adminis¬

tration of the interior,5 6 7

In the Testament as literature we are not surprise to find a

parallel tendency One of the earliest examples of this is The

Testament of our Lord* This was written in Greek about 400

A. D., possibly in Syria or Asia Minor. It was translated into

Syriac by James, of Edessa in the seventh century. It is from

this translation that the book is known to us. It professes to

be the Last Will and Testament of Jesus, given to his disciples

as a guide to the management of the church and its services.5

1 The idea of leaving one’s writings as a legacy goes back to a con¬

siderable degree of antiquity. “Orpheus vero carmen illud, quod ut

apologetae veteres significant, quasi mortalium operum postremum

Musaeo suo hereditatis loco relinquere constituit, AiaOjjxa? inscripsit.”

(C. A. Lobeck. Aglaophamus, 1829, I, 366.) Later examples are num¬

erous. The Last Will and Testament of Valentin , a treatise on metals,

is, according to the preface of the English translation of 1671, a legacy

left to posterity by the half mythical Mediaeval alchemist. Cf. also

pages 479, 494.

2 For other examples of testaments in which moral advice occur see

pages 468 ff.

3 Since the Political Testament in its later development became a

type so distinct from the Literary Testament with which this paper

is more directly concerned, it is thought best to trace in this connec¬

tion the later as well as the earlier history of the form.

4 See page 440.

s Nouveau Larousse, ed. Claude Augne, Paris, 1904, p. 977.

6 See translation by A. J. MacLean, Edinburgh, 1902.

7 For its use of the word testament (SiaQr/urj) see in this study

pages 463 ff. The word is here used in the same sense in which it was

first applied to the Old and New Testaments. It also carries with it

something of the idea of the Will.

f Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 697

The Middle Irish Booh of Leinster , compiled about 1150

A. D., contains the Audacht Morainn meic mom , do Feradach

Find T'echtnach.1 This is a will sent by the dying Morainn,

the son of the usurper Caipre Cend-Chait, to Ferdach who, at

the head of a body of troops, had come back from exile in Scot¬

land to reclaim his kingdom of Ireland. It is a combination

of moral and political advice. The writer urges the king “to

perform all moral and kingly duties, to love all truth, to do all

good, and to rule righteously and firmly, for the truthful deal¬

ing of a prince brings all blessings on his people.'’

Fordun in his Scotichronicon2 , written about 1360, quotes a

L'atin rime which he calls King Robert's Testament. In this

Robert Bruce is supposed to advise the Scots to pursue a policy

of guerilla warfare.

Grasse gives the following description of a book which is no

doubt a testament giving advice as to the rule of a religious

order: “Sensuyt la confirmation et approbation de la pre¬

miere regie de madame Saincte Clere, vierge. Avecques le

Testament; Constitutions: Estatus: 7 Declarations de la dicte

“Regie, etc.” 3 4

The Political Testament had a great vogue in France during

the seventeenth century. It became a favorite form for express¬

ing political theories. It was usually attached to the name of

some eminent statesman and often passed for his work. Such

a work is the Testament du Cardinal Richelieu A This work

makes an octavo volume of four hundred and seventy-four pages.

In the prefatory letter to the king the author tells us why he

calls his work a Testament: “Cette Piece verra le jour sous

le titre de Mon Testament Politique parce qu’elle est faite pour

servir apres ma mort a la Police et a la conduite de votre Roy-

1 Fac Similes of the Book of Leinster , ed. Robt. Atkinson, Dublin,

1880 p 293

2 Edited by Walter Goodall, Edinburgh, 1759, II, 232.

3 J. G. T. Grasse, Tresor de Livres Hares et Pregieux, Dresde, 1859,

s. v. Clere.

4 Amsterdam, 1788. Written according to Voltaire, ( Oeuvres Com¬

pletes, p. 1879, XIX, 31) about 1645 by l’abbe de Bourzeis. See also

Gustave Brunet, Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonyw.es, Paris, 1889,

p. 249.

698 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

aume si V. M. Ten juge digne. Parce qu’elle contiendra mes

derniers desirs a cet egard, et qu’en vous la laissant, je consigne

a Y. M. tout ce que lui puis leguer de meilleur, quand il plaira

a Dieu m’appeller de eette vie.” The book is devoted to a re¬

view of the conditions of church and state in the earliest seven¬

teenth century and to suggestions of measures to be adopted

for the advancement of the interests of each.

Le Testament de Colbert (1693)/ is a mediocre work by

sieur Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras, who, according to Vol¬

taire, flooded Europe with impostures.1 2 The same author is

responsible for the Testament of Louvois (3695). Le Detail

de la France (1695) by Bois-Guillebert was reproduced by the

author under the title Le Testament 'politique de M. Vauban.

There is also Le Testament politique de Charles V, duce

de Lorraine et de Bar en faveur du roi de Hongerie , written in

1696 by Henry Straatman, counsellor of the emperor, and

edited by l’abbe de Chevremont. In Italian there is a ^Testa¬

ment politico di un accademico fiorentino (Leone Pascoli pern-

gino ) in cui con nuovi e ben fondati principjsi fanno varj e

diver si progetti per istabulire un ben regolato commercio nello

State della Chiesa. Col. per gli eredi di corn, di Egemond

(Perugia, Constantini) 1783, in-4.” Maubert of Gouvest pro¬

duced a. Testament politique de Walpole 3 (died 1745) and a

Testament de Alberoni .4 The latter is interesting in that it

contains besides advice as to internal political arrangements

some actual bequests : “Le cardinal donne et legue la Boheme

a Felecteur de Saxe; le duche de Zell au due de Cumberland:

le Tyrol et la Carinthie dTelecteur de Baviere; le Brisgau, avec

les villes forestieres, au due des Deux-Ponts ; et le duche des

Deux-Ponts a Felecteur palatin.” The Testament politique et

■moral du Prince Balcoczi (a la Haye, 1751) is a combination

of political and moral instruction.

1 La Haye, 1693.

2 Voltaire, ed. Gamier Freres, XIV, 57.

s Nouveau Larousse, s. v. Testament.

4 Le Testament politique du cardinal Alberoni , 1753, in-12. Com¬

posed by Durey de Morsan, revised and published by Maubert de Gou¬

vest Cf. Voltaire XXIV, 11.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 699

The Political Testament continued to flourish in France and

neighboring countries during the eighteenth century. Among

these may be mentioned : Le Testament 'politique de Louis Man -

drin (1755), Analyse du Testament politique de L. Mandrin

(1789),1 Testament histori-morali-politique de M . R.2 3 4 * * (1760),

Le Testament du mare chal de Belle-Isle 3 (1761) by Cherrier,

Le Testament politique de M. de V. (1770), 4 Le Testament pol¬

itique de M. de Silhouette (1772), 5 Le Testament politique de

Angleterre (1779), 6 Le Testament politique de Mesmer (178 5), 7

Le Testament du Publiciste patriote (1789), 8 Testament poli-

ctyzny synowi cyczyzny zostawionyz planem bespieczuey formy

republikanskiego rzadu (a. polish Testament of 1789) 9 Testa¬

ment polique de Mercy Argenteau (1794). 8 9

The Testament de Pierre le Grand appeared first in France

in 18 12. 10 Although the document is a fiction, it has had no lit¬

tle part in helping to shape European politics. It was claimed

for this Testament that it was dicovered among the emperoPs

private papers in the palace at St. Petersburg, and that from

this a copy was made by an attache of the French Legation and

sent in 1757 to the French minister, Cardinal Bernis. In the

Testament the emperor is represented as ordering for his suc¬

cessors a line of action which will lead ultimately to the subjuga¬

tion of both Europe and Asia.

1 Peignot, II, 290.

2 A. A. Barbier, Dictionnaire des Anonymes, Paris, 1872, s. v. Testa¬

ment.

3 Voltaire XLI, 522.

4 Barbier, s. v. Testament.

e Ibid.

7 Ibid. Mention is also made of a Testament Litteraire which claims

for its author Jean Jacques Rousseau. E. Ritter says it is a forgery

probably by Marchand, the author of several Political Testaments.

See E. Ritter, in archiv f. d. St. dcr neu. Spr. 99: 223; who cites an edi¬

tion by O. Schultz-Gora, Halle, 1897.

s Barbier, s. v. Testament.

9 Catalogue of the British Museum, s. v. Testament.

10 It was not till the time of its second publication, in 1836, that this

document assumed the title of Testament. Critics have not been able

to determine whether the document is really Russian or French in its

origin. See ZJnsere Zeit, Leipsic, 1872, VIII, 1, 379.

700 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

The practice of writing Political Testaments continued

among the French until as late as 1889.9

§6 One of the most important elements of the Will is the

provision for the disposition of the body after death. About

one out of every two wills makes such a provision. As earlier

examples of this tendency we may cite the will of Favonius, a

Roman soldier who, dying in the Spanish peninsular (B. C.

144), begged that his body be taken back to Roman soil for

burial;1 2 the will of Augustus Caesar also makes provisions for

the details of his funeral (A. D. 14) ;3 and in the will of Arbo-

gaste, (678) bishop of Strassburg, the testator asks that he be

buried under the gibbets of malefactors.4

This tendency finds place also in literary documents. Jacob

is represented, in the book of Genesis, as very careful to instruct

his sons to carry his bones back from Egypt to be buried in the

cave of Macpelah.5 In the Testament of Adam the testator is

made to ask that his bones be buried at Jerusalem,6 and The

Testament of the Forty Martyrs is primarily a request for

burial.7 i

The feeling that the soul as well as the body should be dis¬

posed of by will was a natural one. So there grew up the cus¬

tom of bequeathing the soul to God and the body to the earth

or worms.6 This feature naturally found its way into the Lit¬

erary Testament as well.7

1 Barbier, s. v. Testament, quotes the following titles: Testament

politique d’un vieux soldat jrancais, royal , republicain, et consulaire ,

ou revue de la Revolution francaise, (1819); Testament politique de

Vannee 1821, ou avis et lecons a ma fille (1872); Testament d’un

emigre (1800); Testament politique (Par le comte Revel) (1826);

Testament d'un republieain (1858); the Catalogue of the British Mu¬

seum notes Le Testament politique d'un ancien Legitimiste, Paris,

1889.

2 Peignot, I, 4.

s See page 440'.

4 Peignot, I, 42.

s Genesis, XLIX, 29.

e See page 449.

7. See page 450. CT. Robin Hood’s Death, Child, No. 120.

s See Peignot, I, 56, 70, 123, 138, 172. The Boston Traveler of March

17, 1908, give an account of a modern will in which this formula sur¬

vives. The will is that of A. M. Russel of Washington County, Pennsyl¬

vania. After disposing of his property he mlakes the following provi¬

sion : “I hereby direct that my soul shall be returned to the God who

gave it, and that my body shall be consigned to the earth whence it

came.” Russel then moralizes on the shortness of life, and urges upon

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 701

Sometimes the parts of one's body were allegorically willed

away to one’s friends. An example of this is seen in the Tes¬

tament of Christ Jhesu (1330).* 1 There the heart and other

parts of his body Jesus is made to bequeath to his followers.

The habit of disposing of the parts of one’s body to one’s

friends may have arisen from the testaments put in the mouths

of certain animals. It early occurred to the European mind

that some amusement might be got out of making certain lower

animals draw up their testaments. But when the testator came

to the disposition of the body, there was necessarily a marked

difference between the testament of the animal and the form

from which it was parodied. The animal was not buried, but

its body was made use of for various purposes. The disposition

of the body became, then, a distribution of its several parts.

As early as the fourth century we have a humorous Latin

piece, Testamentum Porcelli , in which a pig is represented as

making his testament.2 The pig, about to be killed by the cook,

sets forth his last will as follows: “Patri meo Verrino Lardino

do lego dari glandis modios XXX, et matri meae Veturinae

scrofae do lego dari Laconicae siliginis modios XL, et sorori

meae Quirinae in cuius votum interesse non potui, do lego dari

hordei modios XXX, et de meis visceribus dabo donabo sutori-

bus setas, rixatoribus capitinas, surdis auriculas, causidicis et

verbosis linguam, botulariis intestina, esiciariis femora, mulier-

ibus lumbulos, pueris visicam, puellis caudam cinaedis muscu-

los, cursoribus et venatoribus talos, latronibus ungulas, et nec

his wife and children the importance of following the “straight and

narrow path.” The Norfolk (Va.) Landmark of January 19, 1908,

gives an account of the will of Henry Sullivan of New York City in

which the testator wills away parts of his body. Closely allied to this

feature of the will are the frequent parodies of the In manus. Cf. the

pretty little poem (MS. Arundel 292, Fol. 3ro and Vo) of the earlier

XIII century beginning:

Loverd Godd, in hondes tine

I biquethe soule mine.

1 See pages 443 and 465.

2 This testament is referred to by St. Jerome in his preface to his

commentary on Isaiah. It is also mentioned by Rufmus. It was

brought to light by Fani in 1505. It is mentioned by Burton in the

Anatomy as well-known (ed. Shilleto, London, 1893, III, 6). It was

translated into Tuscan in 1548 (Peignot, II, 249). For text see Mau-

riccii Haupti, Opuscula, Leipsic, 1876, II, 175.

702 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

nominando coco legato dimitto popiam et pistillum, quae mecum

attuleram de Tebeste usque ad Tergeste: liget sibi collo de reste.

et volo mibi fieri monumentum ex litteris aureis scrip-turn, 7M.

Grunnius Corocotta porcellus yixit annis DCCCC. XC. VIII

et semis, quod si semis vixisset, mdlle annos implessit.1 op*

timi amatores mei vel consules vitae, rogo vos ut cum corpora

meo benefactiatis, bene candiates de bonis condimentis nuclei

piperis et metis, ut nomen meum in sepiternum nominetur.

mei dornini vel consobrini mei, qui in medio testamento inter -

fuistis, iubete signari.”

Another testament of similar character is the Testamentum

Asini a Latin poem, ascribed by Xovati to the thirteenth cen¬

tury.1 It seems to have been very popular and to have paissed

through many editions and transformations. There are two

versions belonging to the fourteenth century. Other redac¬

tions followed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In

this piece an Ass, seeing himself about to die makes his testa¬

ment as follows :

Crucem do papalibus,

Aures cardinalibus,

Caudamque minoribus.

Caput meum iudicantibus,

vocem meam cantantibus,

linguamque predicantibus.

Dorsum meum portantibus,

carnes meas ieiunantibus,

pedes autem ambulantibus.

Pellum meam sutoribus,

crines sellatoribus,

ossa quoque canibus.

Viscera vulturibus,

priamumque viduis,

una cum testiculis.”

Rutebeuf in Le Testament de VAne, written about 1280, tells

in verse a story of an ass which is represented as having made

i Francesco Novati, Carmina Medii Aevi, Firenze, 1883, p. 71; Wat-

tenbach, Die Anfdnge lateinischer profaner Rythmen des Mittelalters

(Zt. f. deutscheS Alterthum, Band III, Heft, III, 1872, p. 469; I. Fei-

falik, Amohmische Lieder, (Sitzungsberichte der phil. hist. Classe der

Wiener Accademie, XXXVI, 1861, p. 172; Romania , vol. XII, no. 45,

p. 26.

Perrow—The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 703

his testament.1 The animal testament continued to flourish as

late as the middle of the eighteenth century.

§7. The most important element of the Will is the disposition

of property. This element also easily lends itself to literary

treatment. The calling together of one’s relatives and friends

and the distribution among them of one’s property is a situation

upon the effectiveness of which a writer may always count. The

writer of the hook of Genesis makes use of this situation when

he represents the dying patriarch as dividing the promised land

among his sons. Eusebius (died c. 338 A. D.) in his Chroni-

con tells of a testament that Hoah made dividing the world

among his three sons.2

A. chronicle account shows us Dagobert (died 638) calling

his men around him and making in their presence his Last Will

and Testament.3 He also had his will preserved in written

form.

Marbans Testament is included in an Irish dialogue poem

written about the tenth century.4 Marban is trying to justify

his simple life to Guaire, the king. He repeats the provisions

of his will.

“Thou hast already heard my bequest,

At the hour of leaving the world:

This cup of mine to the hermit,

My household pet to Laidgen, the leper.

My knife and my “spedud hud”,

My dwelling in Tuaim Aidchi,

My cudgel, my pet, my cup,

My leathern satchel, my musical instrument.

1 Barbazan. Fables et Contes, 1756, III, 70. This tendency to repre¬

sent animals as making their testaments is related to the general

tendency so strong in Europe during the Middle Ages to make ani¬

mals do the same things men do. Out of this general animistic im¬

pulse came the Beast Fable and the Beast Epic. See G. L. Kittrdge

in the Universal Cyclopedia s. v. Beast Fable, and F. B. Gummere in

the same s. v. Reynard the Fox. Analagous to the animistic tendency

is the tendency to make inanimate objects act as men. So we get

testaments of cities, statues, trees, etc. Cf. pages 483, 494.

2 Cedrene gives a fuller account of this testament. See Compendium

Historiarum, Paris, 1647, I, 12; also Peignot, I, xi.

s Peignot, II, 349.

4 King and Hermit , trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1901.

704 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The Roman <T Alexandre, written about 1150, tells in the

chapter next the last how Alexander the Great made his testa¬

ment.1 He is represented as making bequests to his several

generals. Among these is the bequest of his wife1, Roxana, andi

her unborn child to his general Perdiccas.2

Of peculiar interest is the V ermdchtniss of Walther von der

Vbgelweide, written about 1227.3 As far as I can determine

this testament stands alone in the German literature of that per¬

iod. His commentators can find no parallels, Wilmanns is

forced to cite an instance far enough away from the testament in

question. He points out in Roger von Hovenden a story of King

Richard I of England who, being told by a priest that he had

three wicked daughters whom he must marry off his hands,

namely Pride, Avarice, and Sensuality, replied: “Do igitur

superbiam meam superbis Templariis, et cupiditatem meam

monachis de ordine Cisterciensis, et luxuriam meam praelatis

ecclesiarum.”

The significance of Walther ?s testament lies for us in the fact

that it contains bequests of intangible property, certain abstract

things. He leaves his ill-luck to the envious, his unhappiness,

and sorrow to the liars, his stupidity to false lovers, and to

women the pain of love-longing. In the Testamentum Porcelli

we saw how certain tangible things were left satirically, as, for

example, the bristles to the shoemakers, the jaws to the wrang¬

lers, the tongue to the lawyers, but this is the first Testament we

have noted in which abstract things were left in this way.

1 Alexandriade de Lambert le Court et Alexandre de Bernay, ed.

E. Talbot Paris, 1861, p. 442.

2 One’s relatives have always been regarded as property. Today

parents still dispose of children by will. As a classic example of the

disposition of relatives by will Lucian’s story of Eudamias of Corinth

may be cited. It will also be remembered that we are told in the

New Testament that Our Lord bequeathed his mother to St. John.

3 W. Wilmanns, Walther van der Yogelweide, Halle, 1883, p. 258.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 705

PART II.

During the later Middle Ages the Testament became in West¬

ern Europe, and especially in France and England, a favorite

form of literature. The vogue began in the fourteenth and

fifteenth centuries and continued until as late as the eighteenth

century. It is the purpose of this study to trace as far as pos¬

sible the beginnings and development of this vogue, and to ex¬

amine incidentally some of the more important examples of the

genre with a view to classifying them according to the elements

which predominate.

The rise of the Testament during the centuries mentioned

seems to be related to the general parody tendencies which at

that time were so prevalent among European peoples.1 Parody

is a very ancient form of literature. It flourished in Greece side

by side with the classic literature, and was copied by the Rom¬

ans, who made no small use of it both to burlesque . Greek

models and to tease each other. ~No t much parody has survived

from the earlier centuries of our era, but now and then a bit

comes to light to show us that the spirit was not dead. When

the affairs of Europe began to clear after the ferment of the

dark ages, when customs became stable enough to endure par¬

ody and pieces of literature well enough known to invite it, and

when a more critical and skeptical spirit began to develop among

the young nations of Western Europe, the impulse to write par¬

ody not only came again to its own but became even a prevail¬

ing fashion in literature, and almost everything that was well

known was imitated either seriously or in a spirit of burlesque.2

The first signs of this vogue for parody may be seen obscurely

in the twelfth century; by the thirteenth it had gathered some

force; and by the fourteenth it was well established. The fash-

1 For the general subject of parody see A. S. Martin, On Parody , New

York, 1896; also Francesco Novati, Studii Critici e letterari, Torino,

1889, p. 177.

2 Studii Critici , p. 188.

706 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ion continued till as late as the middle of the seventeenth cen¬

tury. The tract literature of the time of Cromwell is full of

parodies.

The first form in which parody showed itself as a decided

fashion was in imitations of parts of the Bible and of the of¬

fices of the church. These were things most universally known,

and parodies based on them have the widest appeal. These par¬

odies began first about the twelfth century in Trance, “la madre

patria di tutta codesta letteratura di chierci scapestrati e di

studenti libertini.” Thence they spread to neighboring coun¬

tries. They took the form of parodies (1) of the Old and New

Testaments or of passages from these, (2) of prayers, (3) of the

Credo, (4) of the Litany, (5) of the Mass, (6) of hymns, (7)

of the Confession, (8) of the Dirige, (9) of the Epitaph, and

of other well-known forms, more or less connected with the

church.1

Another institution that easily lent itself to parody was the

State and its laws. So we find parodies of both the feudal

court and the court of justice. Examples of these are the Mid¬

dle English Court of Love2 and Martial de Auvem’s Les Arrests

d’ Amours.3 Several legal forms were also parodied such as the

Bill in Chaucer’s Pitee and the inventory in Linveniaire des

biens demorez du deces de lamant trespasse de dueil .4 5 6 7 8 9 This is

1 See for examples of some of these: (1) James Maidment, Scottish

Pasquils, Edinburgh, 1868, pp. 297, 348; Montaiglon, Recueil, I, 210;

S07hers Tracts, London, 1810, VII, 61.

(2) Barbazan, IV, 99 and 441; Montaiglon, I, 68 and 125;

(3) Maidment. p. 159; Barbazan, IV, 106 and 445; Montaiglon, XIII,

186.

(4) Maidment, pp.^ 51, 251, 263, 292, 386; James Hogg, The Jacobite

Relics of Scotland . Edinburgh, 1819, I, 393; Studii Critici, p. 189.

(5) Studii Critici, pp. 187 ff.; Martin, pp. 7, 10; “As early as the

thirtenth century the Council of Treves forbade clerks and students

to parody certain parts of the Mass.” — Martin.

(6) Martin, p. 10.

(7) Gower’s Confessio Amantis.

(8) J. Schipper, The Poems of William Dunbar , Vienna, 1891, p. 41.

(9) Montaiglon, IV, 304; VI, 157; VIII, 5 and 91; Reliquae Scot-

icae, Edinburgh, 1828, passim; Maidment, Pasquils, pp. 8, 108, 193,

361, 370, 407; Maidment, Court of Session Garlands, Edinburgh, 1839,

pp. 19, 68, 100; Poems of Gascoigne, ed. Hazlitt, 1819, I, 75.

2 W. A. Neilson, The Origin and Sources of the Court of Love ,

(Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature), Boston, 1889.

3 Edited by Lenglet-Dufresney, Amsterdam, 1731.

4 H. A. von Keller, Romvart, Paris, 1844, p. 180.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 707

a piece in verse of the latter part of the fifteenth century. It

introduces allegorical figures, Pittee and Amitie, as appraisers

aud gives a list of personal property found in the house of the

deceased lover. In the Testamentum Christi (early XIV Cen¬

tury), we have a parody of the Deed used seriously for a moral

purpose.5 Though it is a deed in form, any one of several facts

might justify its being called a Testament, for it not only con¬

tains the autobiographical and moral elements, and deals with

the same subject with which the Hew Testament deals, but it

also contains a last will of Jesus. There were also numerous

parodies of recipes and prescriptions.1 2 Romances also were

sometimes parodied when they became unreasonable or tire¬

some.3

In the midst of this passion for parody we are not sur¬

prised to find that the Will was eagerly seized upon both as a

vehicle of serious literature, and for humorous or satirical pur¬

poses. The fact that it had a two-fold nature, being both a

legal and an ecclesiastical institution, easily led to its becoming

a favorite form. There was, as it were, an approach to it from

two different sides.

But it is most probable that the idea of the testament as a re¬

ligious document was uppermost in the minds of those who used

it. It is quite certain that the Middle Ages misunderstood the

word Testament as applied to the New Testament. They re¬

garded it as the Last Will and Testament of our Lord. The

word ScaOrjKr) in classic Greek meant a disposition, an arrange¬

ment of any kind, and, more specifically, a last will. The word

is often used in the translation of the Old Testament for the

Hebrew word meaning covenant.4 So we have the Old

and Hew Testament or Covenants which God arranged with

men. How the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews in the

sixteenth verse of the ninth chapter plays on this word and

1 See page 443.

2 Wright and Halliwell, Reliquae Antiquae L. 1845, I, 250; D'Urfey’s

Pills , II, 3; III, 149; VI, 111.

s Cf. Chaucer’s Sir Topas.

* J. H. Thayer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, New

York, 1886, s. v. 6iaBr/Krj\ see also the Century Dictionary , s. v. Tester

ment.

708 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

“likens Christ to a testator — not only because the author regards

eternal blessedness as an inheritance bequeathed by Christ, but

also because he is endeavoring to show, both that the attainment

of eternal salvation is made possible for the disciples of Christ

by his death (IX, 15) and that even the Mosaic creed had been

consecrated by blood (verses 18 and following). This appar¬

ently led the Latin Vulgate to render the word wher¬

ever it occurred in the Bible, i. e. in the Hew Testament. . . .

by the word T est amentum. * * 1 The use of this word, occur¬

ring as it does several times, enforced on the Mediaeval mind

the idea that this was Jesus* last Will.1 2 Moreover they easily

saw features of this document that carried out the idea of a

testament. The entire life of Christ was a confession of his

faith. He called his disciples around him on the last night

to bid them farewell. He even went so far as to use on this

occasion the word in question, “This is the blood of the new tes¬

tament which is shed for many.’* He also takes this oppor¬

tunity to give them certain moral advice, and later, at the as¬

cension, he gives directions for the future work of his disciples.3

More than once in the book he refers to his death and burial.

His gifts may easily be thought of as bequests. He died leav¬

ing us eternal life and his very words, “Peace I leave with you ;

my peace I give unto you,** strongly suggest the bequest of the

Last Will.4 On the cross he bequeaths his miother.to John,5

and finally he bequeaths his soul to God, “Father, into thy

hands I commend my spirit.** 6

It is no wonder then that the people of the Middle Ages

thought of the Hew Testament as Christ’s Last Will, and it is

not unreasonable to suppose that when they parodied the Will

as an institution of the church they sometimes had in mind the

Testament of Jesus.

A marked feature of many of the testaments which we shall

1 Thayer, s. v. SiaQyuy

2 Mark, XIV, 24 and Luke, XXII, 20.

3 Luke, XXIV, 49.

*John, XIV, 27. ! ' f

5 John. XIX, 27.

QLuke, XXIII, 46.

Per row — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 709

examine later is the use of the metaphor in making bequests.

This feature may assume one of two forms. It may be (1) the

willing of tangible property with metaphorical significance

(either seriously, as when Villon wills his foster father his

tents and pavilions, or satirically, as when he leaves his night¬

caps to the watch), or it may be intangible things such as love,

hate, diseases, and the like that are bequeathed. Sometimes

the metaphor is applied to only one or two of the bequests, and

at other times it is carried throughout the testament so consist¬

ently as to approach allegory.

This metaphorical turn is purely an accident of the Testa¬

ment and may take place at any moment. So in the fourth

century we see the pig leaving his jaws to the wranglers,1 and as

early as about 1227 we see Walther von der Vogelweide willing

his infirmities to his enemies.2 But as a well-defined fashion

this metaphorical turn had no great place either in the Will cr

the Testament until the fourteenth century.

The use of metaphorical bequests may have arisen largely

from the suggestions offered by the New Testament, which as

we have seen, was considered as the Last’ Will of Jesus. We

have seen how he gave certain intangible gifts such as his sal¬

vation and his peace.3 Now as early as 475 A. D. we find that

the will of Perpetuus, bishop of Tours, contained this bequest,

“Presbyteris diaconibus, et clericis eeclesiae meae pacem Dom¬

ini Jesu Christ! do, lego, amen,”4 In the Ayeiibite of Inwyt ,

translated from an original of 1279, the bread of life is ex¬

plained as a bequest of Christ, “Hit is oure. Vor hit is ous let

at his yleave nvminge and at his last bequide.”5 It is not im¬

possible that Walther von der Vogelweide may have for bis

V erm'dchtniss received some sort of suggestion from this eccle¬

siastical tradition.

We come now to what seems to me an excellent starting place

for the Testament vogue. In 1330 Guillaume de Guillevilie

1 Cf. page 457.

2 Cf. page 460.

s Cf. page 464.

^Peignot, I, 28.

5 Ed. Morris E. E. T. S. p. 112.

710 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

wrote Ms P elei'inojge de la vie Jiumaine which he revised in

1335.1 This was translated into English verse in 1426 by

John Lydgate.2 The book is a kind of Pilgrim’s progress giv¬

ing an account of the journey of Man from this world to the ce¬

lestial city. In the course of this journey the pilgrim is met by

Charity who tells him of Christ’s sufferings and of how he made

before his death his testament, which Charity says she wrote

down and named “The trewe testament off pes.” This testa¬

ment she proceeds to recite for the instruction of the pilgrim.

J esus explains who he is and proceeds to make bequests. His

soul he bequeaths to his Eather. His body he bequeaths to tlie

sepulchre for three days and to true pilgrims as their chief re¬

past. His heart he gives to all that keep his statutes. His

mother he leaves to St. John, and to the same disciple, his per¬

severance. His blood, his wounds, and his laws he leaves to

those who have compassion of his death. Finally, his peace

he bequeaths to all the wTorld. The testament then closes with

a discussion of the value of peace, and urges that all testaments

should be signed in peace and unity. This is the earliest tes¬

tament I know which is anything like complete. It contains

several elements of the Will treated with considerable literary

elaboration. One of its chief characteristics is its metaphori¬

cal turn. From this time forward we shall see more and more

made of this feature.

A passage in Gower’s Mirrour de V Homme (c. 1378) shows

the influence of the idea that the Hew Testament was Christ’s

Will in w7hich he left metaphorical gifts :

Le fis de dieu, qant il fesoit

Son testament, sa peas lessoit

Au bon Saint Pierre, qu’il ama,

Si qu’il ne se contourberoit

Du sieole; et 1’ autre en tiel endroit

La rescut et molt bien garda,

Qe puis apres long temps dura:

Mais ore est change tout cela . 3 *

i Edited by J. J. Sturzinger and Petit.

* The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man, ed. Locock, (E. E. T. S.), Lon¬

don, 1904, lines 4752 ff.

3 Macaulay, The Complete Works of John Gower, Oxford, 1899, lines

18649 ft.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 711

Again in the poem called Praise of Peace (1399) Gower tells

ns :

And er Crist wente out of this erthe hiere,

And stigh to hevene, he made his testament,

Wher he bequath to his diciples there

And yaf his pes, which is the foundement

Of charite, withouten whos assent

The worldes pes mai nevere wel be tried,

Ne Jove kept, ne lawe justified.”1

1 Again in the Confessio Amantis (1390), Gower tells us that:

. . . Crist him self hath bode pes

And set it in his testament.”2

Hoccleve in the Tale of Jonathan (c. 1421) gives expression

to somewhat the same idea.3 He interprets a story taken from

the Gesta Romanorum as representing the Lord making his will

and leaving bequests of Faith, the Holy Spirit, and Perfect

Charity.4

The same conception appears in The Pilgrimage of Perfec¬

tion where we hear of the “Testament of Peace . .

given and bequest to thy disciples.” 5

What influence the Testament in the Pelerinage may have

exerted on the literatures of France and England during the

fourteenth century I am unable to say. Perhaps very little

direct influence was exerted. But it is not impossible that it

may have suggested to literary men the effectiveness of intro¬

ducing into their works a testament wherever opportunity of¬

fered. In the latter part of the fourteenth century there seems

to have been such a practice among the writers in England.

In the Vision concerning Piers Plowman, (written about

1362), Piers is made to make his testament.6 The occasion is

his setting out on his pilgrimage.7 He bequeaths his isoul to

1 Ibid., English Works, II, 481.

2 Prologue, lines 244-5.

sFurnival, (E. E. T. S.) p. 215.

4 It will alsoi be remembered in this connection that Swift’s Tale of

a. Tub is based on the conception of the Bible as a will.

5 Edition of 1526. Printed by W. de W. in 1531.

c W. W. Skeat, The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman,

Oxford, 1886, I, 201.

7 The making of one’s will before setting out on a journey was not

an infrequent practice in the Middle Ages. Louis IX of France was

careful to make his will before setting out for a crusade (Peignot, II,

360) and it will be remembered that Villon wrote his Petit Testament

on the occasion of his leaving Paris for Aquitaine.

712 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

“Him who defende hit fro the feend.” The church is to have

his body. He has paid his tithes regularly and deserves its

offices. His wife aud children shall have his goods. His ideas

of what a religious life should be are distinctly set forth, and

the whole is replete with expressions of the testator’s faith.

Chaucer in his Troilus and Criseyde (c. 1380) 1 has Criseyde

make her testament before leaving Troy. She declares that

her clothes shall be black in token of what she thinks of as her

death her leaving Troilus, and to her lover she bequeaths her

heart and her “woful goost.”

We have the Testament again in the Knightes Tale (c.

1385). Arcite dying bequeaths the service of his spirit to his

love.1 2

In Gower’s Confessio Amantis (1390), Venus is made to send

by Gower a message to Chaucer urging him to make his testa¬

ment of love.3 Here Chaucer is told in his old age to make, as

his iinal service to Venus, his last will and testament of love

just as Gower to crown his service has made a confession of

love. This testament Venus promises to have recorded in her

court. It must, then, have been something like the legal docu¬

ment that she wanted.

Thomas ITsk’s Testament of Love, written about 1387, is

rather a testament of divine love.4 It attempts to teach fidelity

to religious principles as taught by the church. It also con¬

tains something of the autobiographical and the confession ele¬

ments of the Testament.

Hoccl eve’s Le Mai Regie ,5 a poem written in 1406, is really

a confession testament, although the word testament is not used

therein. The author deplores his loss of health and the fact

that he is ripe for the grave. Hjis disease has been brought on

by a dissolute life. He gives an account of his youthful ex¬

cesses and promises if he recovers to try to lead a better life.

1 Book IV, lines 778 ft There is no idea of bequest in the Italian

original. The word “testimonio” may have suggested the testament to

Chaucer. See II Filostrato, book IV, stanzas xc, xci.

2 Canterbury Tales, A, lines 2768 ft There is again no idea of be¬

quest in the original. Cf. Lo Teseide, X, stanza 64.

3 Bk. VIII, lines 2941 ft

4 See Skeat’s edition of Chaucer, vol. VII.

6 F. J. Furnival, Hoccleve's Works, (E. E. T. S.), p. 25.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 713

Of similar character is the same author’s How to Lerne to

Die / written about 1421. In this piece is introduced a dying

man who makes a confession. He sees that he cannot escape

death and bewails his misspent life. He tells at length of his

excesses, and concludes with a farewell to his friends.

In the summer of 1907 Dr. II. H. MacCracken was kind

enough to copy for me the following quotation from the manu-.

script of a balade probably by Lydgate.1 2 It is an indication that

the Literary Testament was a device well known in England

several years before Villon. The first stanza of the balade is as

follows :

Knelyng allon ryght thus I may make my wylle

As your servaunt in euery maner wyse

To whom I giue myn hert and myn gode

Euer to be sujet to your seruyse

Ryght as ye lyst to ordeyn and deuyse

I wyl be yours and that I you ensure

Not for to chaunge for erthely creature.

The rest of the balade is not concerned with the Testament.

Lydgates Testament , written about 1445, is a poem of eight

hundred and ninety-seven lines.3 The poem begins with an

extended passage in praise of Jesus. All this is prefatory to

his asking Jesus to be “cheef surveyor of my laste wyl set in my

Testament.” The poet feels that age is creeping upon him,

and ere he leaves the world he wishes to write a “tretys of

surfetys” done Jesus and to call it his Last Testament. He

tells how old age and death are creeping upon him. As he lies

on his bed he sees a vision of springtime with all its wanton

riot. This suggests to him the wanton carelessness of his own

childhood, and he proceeds to describe his youthful misdeeds

and to tell of his wonderful conversion. He then inserts a

poem which he says he composed on that occasion. This poem

concludes the Testament as we have it.4

1 Ibid. p. 178.

2 MS. Bodl., Fairfax, 16 fol. 319b-320a.

3 J. O. Halliwell for the Percy Soc., Early English Poetry , II, 232.

^ “It is evident that the poet intended to go on and tell the rest of

his misdeeds, to make a full profession of faith, and to leave his soul

to Jesus. His life was to he divided into Ver, childhood; Summer,

youth; Autumn, manhood; and Winter, age. The parallel had been

suggested by the decrees in his own rendition. I fancy that he turned

714 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This piece, then, as we have it, is purely a confession testa¬

ment. But that it is a legitimate descendant of the Last Will

and Testament, the author’s own words, “my laste wyl set in

my Testament,” leave no doubt. Considered in its entirety

the Testament is a mediocre performance. The meter is often

irregular and in many cases disagreeable. But in the descrip¬

tion of his wayward youth and in the passage on his conversion

Lydgate has attained no small degree of success. The descrip¬

tion of Spring is done with excellent taste.

During the early part of the fifteenth century the Literary

Testament had patrons in France as well as in England.

Charles d’Orleans has among his ballads, written in prison be¬

tween 1415 and 1440, a very pretty testament.* 1 He says that

his mistress is dead and that he too will die, but first he will

make his testament. He bequeaths his spirit to the God of

Love, asking that it be carried to Paradise. The goods which

he has received from the God of Love, he leaves to all true lov¬

ers. He then directs that his body be fittingly interred in the

chapel of the God of Love.

A piece which may not have been without influence on the

literature with which we are concerned is a testament followed

by adieus which closes the Fortunes et Adversites of Jehan

Begnier, Seigneur de Gnerchy.2 This was composed in 1431

but not printed till 1536. Begnier, in order to amuse himself

while he was a prisoner of war, wrote of his fortunes and ad¬

versities. In an hour of depression he composed his testament.2

The poet feels the obligation resting on all good Christians to

write a testament, but he has nothing to give. He commends

his soul to Hotre Dame and St. Michael, and calls to his aid the

patriarchs, prophets, apostles, evangelists, confessors, martyrs,

from that unprofitable task to this, and that this is the very last piece

he wrote. Each biographical section was to be marked off by a hymn.

But Lydgate never got beyond Ver. The completed poem would have

been one of the most famous poems of Early England.” H. N. Mac-

Cracken, Harvard dissertation, 1907. It is also probable that Lydgate

got a suggestion from De Guilleville, whose Pelerinage, with its Testa¬

ment of Jesus, he translated in 1426.

1 C. d’Hericault, Poesies Completes de Charles d’Orleans, Paris, 1874,

Balade LXX, p. 89.

2 A. Campaux, Francis Villon, Paris, 1859, p. 25.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 715

and all the saints of Paradise. He wishes to die “en la foy de

Dieu.” He then provides for his burial. Everything is ar¬

ranged to the minutest details. He does not want his funeral

a sad affair. The bier is to be borne by laborers and attended

by musicians. These he wishes well paid for their service.

He prescribes the form of mass which he wishes sung for him

and names his executors. He closes by extending numerous

farewells to relatives and friends.

“Le Testament de Monseigneur des Barres. a piece in verse

of the middle of the fifteenth century, is an example of how the

testament might be used for political purpose.1 It represents

Louis des Barres, who had made war against his sovereign, the

king of Prance, as now standing on the scaffold, telling of his

deeds, confessing his crimes, warning others not to fall into his

way, and giving political advice. The loyalist writer saw a

good chance to drive home the lesson of des Barres’ fate and

adopted the testament as a good vehicle for his instruction.

The two Testaments which of all the genre had, perhaps, the

widest popularity and the greatest influence were the two by

Villon, Le Petit Testament (1456) and Le Grand Testament

(1461). 2 In Le Petit Testament Villon complains of a fair

one who takes no pity on his love suit. Without any fault on

his part she has doomed him to death. He sees no escape but

flight. So he determines to go to Angiers. But human life is

uncertain and his return may never be made; so he wishes to

establish this his legacy before he leaves.

He bequeaths to his foster father his fame and the right to

use his tents and pavilions.3 Then to the fair one who has

brought him to all this evil he bequeaths his heart and begs

God’s nuercy on her. 'Numerous bequests then follow, distri¬

buted among many friends, acquaintances, and enemies. Some

are tangible things which Villon possibly owned, some tangible

things that he did not own, and some are intangible things.

Of these some are willed seriously and some satirically. Pi-

1 Montaiglon, Recueil , VI, 102.

2 Paul Lacroix, OEuvres de Frangois Villon , Paris, 1877.

s It was customary for a knight to leave these to his next of kin.

716 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

nally, hearing the bell ring the angelus, he stops for prayers

and closes his testament.

Le Grand Testament , written seven years later, tells more of

the author’s life, the bequests are more elaborated, and the poem

is used as a framework in which a number of balades are in¬

serted. It was written when the author was in a wretched

state of poverty and disease with the hand of death already

heavy upon him.

The testament begins with a complaint against Bishop Thi-

bault who had made him suffer much in prison. The author

then praises the king who had been his friend, bewails his mis¬

spent life, wonders where have gone the companions of his fol¬

lies, confirms his last testament, and proceeds to make another

one.

He gives his soul to the Trinity, and his body to the earth,

to his foster father he leaves his library and to his mother a

balade which he inserts. Then follow numerous satirical be¬

quests to various people. The Testament closes with satirical

directions for his funeral. To the Testament is annexed what

the author calls a codicile. This is made up mostly of balades*

Imitations of Villon followed thick and fast. The Jardin

de Plaisance, ends with a Testament du Chevalier oultre a qui

sa Dame est trespasse (1460). 3 It is a series of instructions

to the relative testator’s funeral. Goujet says of this and the

confession that accompanies it,. “La Confession et le Testament

sent deux pieces tres-libres qu’on ne peut excuser d’obscenite et

d’impiete.

An imitation of Villon’s Testament is Le Grand Testament

de Taste-Yin , Boy des Pions (1488).1 2 The reveller is repre¬

sented as making many humorous and satirical bequests. For

example his staff is left to those who have troublesome wives,

with the wish that it be well used, his shirt, which has served him

only nine years is left to the beggars, and his bottles are left to

his children with the instruction that they follow drinking all

their lives. He bids adieux to his friends, and closes the Testa¬

ment with farewells to his favorite wines.

1 BiTjliotJiecque Frangoise , Paris, 1745, X, 396-408.

2 Montaiglon, III, 77.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 717

Le Testament et epitaphe de maistre Pierre de Quignet

(1491) seems also to be an imitation of Villon.1 La Confes¬

sion et le Testament de lamant trespass de Dueil, (of the lat¬

ter part of the XV century) is serious rather than satirical.2 *

Le Testament de Perre de Nesson (XV century) is decidedly

pious in tone.5

Le Testament de Pathelin , probably of the last half of the

fifteenth century, is a farce of four characters, Pathelin, his

wife Guillemette, an apothecary, and the cure, master Jehan.

Pathelin is sick unto death, and the apothecary and cure are at

his bedside where they have been brought by his wife. With

some difficulty Jehan extracts a confession from, Pathelin and

a somewhat doubtful repentance for his evil deeds. Jehan

then suggests that the dying man make his testament. Before

entering upon his task Pathelin demands a drink. After a gen¬

erous draught of wine he proceeds to make his will, the provi¬

sions of which are of a satirical character. He then asks to be

buried under a hogshead of wine and provides for himself a

satirical epitaph.4

What interests us most in this piece is the fact that we see

the confession and the disposition of property brought together

side by side in the same ceremony, and both made in the pres¬

ence of the same man, a representative of the church. Given

that this took place regularly, it is not hard to see how the two

things might have come to to be regarded as parts of the same

ceremony.

Quite independent of the Villon influence, the tradition of

the Animal Testament was still alive in France during the fif¬

teenth century. Peignot cites a Testamehtum Canis, “Facetie

du Pogge,” which seems to belong to the earlier part of the

century.5

Le Testament de la Mule de Barbeau (1465) by Henri

Baude is the testament of a mule that for twenty years has trod

1 Grasse, s. v. Testament.

2 Heinrich Adalbert von Keller, Romvart, Paris, 1844, pp. 180 and 626.

s Modern Language Notes, XX, 70.

4 La Farce de maistre Pierre Pathelin, avec son Testament d quatre

personnages, Paris, chez Durand, 1762, p. 115.

s II, 281.

718 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the streets of Paris, carrying on her back great lords of finance

and justice.1 She begins by commemorating the masters

whom she has served before she became the property of Bar-

beau. She complains of having been so loaded and spurred by

him that her back and belly are all flayed. Now she is old and

emaciated. They have filled her teeth and she has contracted

the pleurisy. Under these circumstances she decides to make

her will. The vultures shall have her body, Barbeau, her

voice, and his cure, her song. Barbeau shall have also her tail

to keep the flies from him. The Bailly shall have her ears.

Her saddle shall go to Baude, who swears he cannot do without

it. Three large dogs from the butchery of St. Germain she

wishes to be her executors.

In England also during the second half of the century the

testament was beginning to be used for satirical purposes. The

Sage Fool’s Testament , written about 1475, is an account of a

testament made by a fool who, after his lord had died, fell sick

and left his goods as follows:

1. His soul he bequeathed to the devil, for he wanted to be

with his deceased master.

2. His hood to the young lord’s steward, for it had four ears

and the steward was hard of hearing the complaints of the poor.

3. His bauble to the Almoner, for the Almoner often beat the

poor with his staff, and the fool thought the bauble softer than

the staff.

4. His bed to his young lord’s wife, for she found her own

so soft that she frequently lay till noon.

5.. His money to his young lord, for both the lord’s money

and the fool’s would not suffice to pay for the harm that the de¬

ceased lord had Wrought.2

Of a serious nature is the Testament of a Christian , a very

pretty English poem belonging to the fifteenth century.3 In

this the testator bequeaths his body to the earth, his sins to the

Fiend, his goods to the world, and his spirit to heaven.

Bobert Henryson in his Testament of Cresseid (1493) puts

1 See Campaux, p. 279; Romania , XXXVI, 38-77, and 78-86.

2 Caxton's Book of Courtesy e, ed. Furnival, (E. E. T. S.) 1868.

s Wright and Halliwell, Reliquae, Antiquae I, 260.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 719

into Creseid’s mouth a very pretty testament.1 The beautiful,

ill-starred heroine of Trojan story is dying of grief, exposure,

and disease. Her wretched body she bequeaths to the worms.

Her few worldly possessions the rest of the leper-folk are to

have in pay for burying her. The ring that her lover had given

she sends back to him in token of her repentance. Her spirit

she bequeaths to Diana. lAt last overcome with the thought of

her faithlessness, she dies with her Testament unfinished.

Just where in the history of the Testament one should place

those found in the popular ballads is a difficult matter to de¬

termine. Although the writing down of the ballad material

has been comparatively late, it is very probable that some of

the testaments found therein go back fully as far as the fif¬

teenth century. The connection of the testament found in the

ballad with that found in the more sophisticated literature is

another difficult problem. It is not inconceivable that the

testament feature of the ballad may, in same cases, have been

inspired by examples in literature less popular in origin. But

it seems to me more likely that this feature goes back in its

origin to a much earlier period than that in which the testa¬

ment of literature rose into prominence.

Aside from the fact that there is always a possibility for the

testament to arise whenever the ballad makers were trying to

represent just what the person dying actually did say, the fact

that the testament is a widely spread feature of the ballad

points also to a vulgar rather than a literary origin. While

only three of Child’s collection of English and Scottish ballads

eontain the testament, Prof. Child points out a large number

of ballads in other languages that contain this feature, and he

says that the testament “is highly characteristic of ballad

poetry.” 2 It is probable that the testament in the ballad goes

back to a period falling shortly after the Church had brought

to western Europe a knowledge of the legal document, and the

feature may go back still further to the last words and fare¬

wells that must have been customary even in very primitive so-

1 Skeat’s Oxford Chaucer, vol. 7, p. 327.

2 F. J. Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, Boston and

New York, 1882-1898, no. 11, Introduction.

720 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ciety. It will be noted, too, that in the testament of the ballad

the untamed emotions of the human heart are freer to work.

Good things and blessings are left to loved ones, and ill things

and curses to those who are hated. In the more sophisticated

will the curse element is softened or wholly eliminated. The

influence of the church was almost always felt directly or indi¬

rectly in the making of the conventional will, and its repre*

sentative,who was usually present, could not well let the testa¬

tor die with curses on his lips.

The English ballads in which the testaments are found are

The Gruel Brother y Lord Randal , and Edward L1 In these

both tangible and intangible property are left to relatives.

The animal, too, is frequently represented in the ballad as

making his testament. Grundtvig reports a testament of a fox

in a Danish ballad which he thinks goes back as far as the six¬

teenth century.2 Jurkschat reports from Lithuania a similar

ballad in which a hare makes his testament.3 Doth the fox and

the hare will away parts of their body to appropriate legatees.

Turning again to the Testament of literature we note Colyn

Blowhol’s Testament as belonging to the first part of the six¬

teenth century.4 It is a stupid attempt at satire, wretched

with regard to verse structure, needlessly obscene in language,

and inartistic in design. Colyn Blowbol gets drunk and is

about to die. A companion announces himself as a priest of

Venus and advises Colyn to make his testament. Having

called in a secretary to write the testament, Colyn makes a cer¬

tain satirical bequests and provides for a funeral of which

feasting and drinking are to be the chief features.

Among the poems of William Dunbar is one called The

Testament of Mr. Andro Kennedy (1508). 5 It was written to

satirize some disposition contemporary of Dunbar’s, apparently

a quack physician. The verses are alternately Scottish and

1 Ibid., nos. 11, 12, and 13.

2 Gamle danske Minder i Folkemunde, 1854 ; see also* Kristensen.

Gamle Jyske Folkeviser, 1876, p. 324; and M. B. Lanstad, Norske Folke-

vise , 1883, pp. 637 and 639.

3 In his Litauische Mdrchen.

4 W. C. Hazlitt, Early Popular Poetry of England, London, 1864, I, 91.

5 David Laing, The Poems of William "Dunbar , Edinburgh, 1834. See

also J. Schipper, The Poems of William Dunbar, Vienna. 1891.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 721

Latin. In the first stanza the testator explains his character.

He makes several satirical bequests and provides for his fu¬

neral, taking care that his body be buried.

Quhair drink and draff may ilka day

Be cassyne super facem meam.1

This testament is alive with wit. Few satirical testaments

equal it in incisiveness. It shows decided influences of the

Villon school.

A very pretty testament comes at the end of the King Hart ,

written by Gavin Douglas about 1510. The poem is an alle¬

gory of the human heart, of its struggles with the temptations

of youth and its final triumph in old age. When the king sees

his end approach he sends for Death and makes his testament,

in which he takes occasion to reward the sins that have attended

his youth by leaving them severally the weaknesses and misfor¬

tunes for which they have been responsible.

In France imitations of Villon continued to appear. Among

such satirical imitations may be placed Le Testament fin Ruby

de Turcquie , written about 15 10, 2 Le Testament de Jenin de

lesche, written about 15 20, 3 4 and Le Testament de la Guerre J

of about the same date. The latter is an allegory showing how

War bequeaths blessings on those who have called her justly and

curses to those who unjustly have invoked her.

Le Testament de Lucifer (c. T521),5 by Pierre Gringoire, is

also an allegory. The devil, wishing to engender malice, leaves ‘

as his daughters forty-four Vices to be wedded to appropriate

1 With this compare a popular rime I picked up in E. Tennessee dur¬

ing the summer of 1907

When I die don’ bury me a taH,

But soak my body in alcohol.

When I die bury me deep

En put a quart u’ licker at my head en feet.

And this from Mississippi:

When I die bury me deep;

Tell all the gamblers I’ve gone to sleep.

Put a pair of bones in my right hand

And I’ll throw seven in the promised land.

2 Montaiglon, XIII, 1.

s Montaiglon, X, 369 ; see also J. C. Brunet, Manual du Lxbraire et

de Vamateur de Limes , Paris, 1864.

4 Campaux, p. 283.

s “Nouvellement imprime,” Paris, 1845.

722 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

classes of people. Among the more appropriate arrangements

may be mentioned the wedding of Curiosity to women, Flattery

to the court, Discord to musicians, and Blindness to lovers.

Le Testament d’un Amoreux qui mourut par amours . En¬

semble son Epitaphe (printed about 1520), is the title of a

very pretty poem found in Montaiglon’s collection.1 The

author, sad for the loss of his love, wanders alone in the forest.

He hears cries of distress and comes upon a young man pierced

through with a dart. The youth asks him to receive his testa¬

ment. The author has thought himself the only one who has

reason to mourn and asks who this can he. The youth replies

that he is the son of a lawyer. He claims the right of the mili¬

tary testament as under Homan law. He is a servant to the

God of Love for whom he has suffered many griefs and through

whom he is now brought to this condition. He sees that he must

die but he is comforted by remembering that many others have

had to suffer the same pains. He then recalls the stories of

gods and famous persons who have suffered for love. Regrets,

Sighs, and Weeping are to he the witnesses of his testament.

He directs his soul to go to the mansions of those who have

died for love. Since it has been unhappy on earth, it should

seek the abode of the unhappy in the world beyond. He gives

his heart to her who has caused it so much grief. Perhaps she

will now weep over it. He asks that his body be buried among

thorns. He wishes no requiem sung for his departed soul.

The crows, ever messengers of had news, shall hear to his lady

the news of his death. The slave-earnings which he has ac¬

quired in the service of love he leaves to certain friends of like

trade in Turin. The youth then dies and the author writes

down the testament and sends it to Turin. The author closes

with an epitaph for the tomb of the unhappy youth.

Of like character is Le premier Testament du Martyr Amo¬

reux , a poem which also belongs to the sixteenth century.2 It

is a rather pretty testament in which opportunity is given to a

lover to bequeath his heart to his mistress and to make the

usual arrangements for his funeral.

1 Montaiglon, IV, 193.

2 Fournier, Varietes Historiques et Litteraires, Paris 1855, III, 349.

Per row — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 723

Das Testament der Messe (1526) is a tract belonging to tbe

controversy waged between German Protestants and Catholics

of the early sixteenth century.1 It is a satire in which the

Mass, represented as about to die, makes its last will and testa¬

ment.

. .The Testament of the Papyngo (1530) by David Lyndsay is

a poem of more than eleven hundred lines1 arranged in rime

royal.2 It is a satire directed against the court and the church.

The poet tells how he saw the king’s parrot blown from the

topmost branch of a tree which she had tried to ascend. She

is represented as dying as the result of her fall. She com¬

plains against ambition and shows how it has been her ruin.

She directs a! letter to King James I, bequeathing to himj her

heart and a document advising him how to live and rule.3 A

second letter is addressed to her brother at court. This con¬

tains a tirade against the dangers and abuses of the court with

extended examples of men who have met disaster from ambi¬

tion.4 The letter closes with adieus to several Scottish towns.

Kow come to her side the magpie, the kite, and the raven, all

professing to be ecclesiastics and urging her to make her con¬

fession. The parrot has noted their wicked lives and does not

want to trust her soul’s welfare to them. She takes occasion to

recount to them many abuses that she has noted in the church.

At last she trusts the kite to shrive her, and she makes him and

his companions the executors of her will. She then divides up

her body among several birds, reserving her heart for the king.

Her spirit she gives to the queen of the fairies. She is no

sooner dead than the greedy pretenders fall on her body and

devour it.

The poem is cleverly conceived but shows some faults of con¬

struction. The long letters dealing with questions of state and

society seem undramatic, as does also, though to a less degree,

the extended criticism of the church. The scene in which the

1 Printed in Baechtold und Vetter’s Bihliothek dlterer Schriftwerke

der deutcTien Schweiz, IL 232.

2 David Laing, The Poetical Works of Sir David Lyndsay, Edin¬

burgh, 1879, T, 61.

3 Cf. page 452 and following.

4 Really a collection of tragedies. Cf. note on page 485.

724 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

birds of prey gather about the dying parrot professing them¬

selves ministers of religion is well done. The satire throughout

is sharp and effective.

The Testament of Squyer Meldrum (1550), also by Lynd-

say, is a poem of two hundred and fifty-one lines in rime royal.1

It was written for a friend of Lyndsay’s whose history in the

form of a biographical romance Lyndsay also wrote.

In this testament the author moralizes on the transient na¬

ture of life, commits his soul to God and his wealth to his next

of kin, makes elaborate provisions for his funeral, prescribes

his epitaph, and says adieux to his friends. The piece is a

dull conventional performance without a glimmer of anything

like poetry. The mixture of pagan mythology with certain

Christian conceptions is inartistic, and the funeral directions

and the epitaph are characterized by a cheap vanity not at all

consistent with the idea of a hero.

The Wyll of the Deuyll and last Testament is a prose piece

written about 1550.2 It is a satire against the abuses practiced

by various professions and the vices of various classes of so¬

ciety. It is especially severe in its attack on the priesthood of

the Roman church. It is admirably conceived and well worked

out, and must have been very effective.

In this piece mention is twice made of Heresy's Testament.

ISTothing further is known of this tract, but we can infer some¬

thing of its character from the statement of the deuyll that it

attacked the true doctrine of Jesus.

Cosmo Innes in Sketches of Early Scotch History analyzes,

and in part quotes, a Scottish poem called Duncan Laideus*

alias Makgregouris Testament .3 4 This poem was written about

1550 in the blank leaves of a manuscript copy of The Bulk of

King A lexander the Conquer oureA The supposed testator was

an historical character, but the poet who wrote the testament is

unknown. First comes a long account of the testator’s life and

1 J. Small, for the E. E. T. S., London, 1883, p. 321.

2 Edited by Furnivall with Jyl of Brentford's Testament for private

circulation, London, 1871.

s Edinburgh, 1861, p. 355.

4 A translation of Sir Gilbert Hay’s Roman d'Mexandre.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 725

adventures. Wlien this is ended the testator makes some sati¬

rical legacies. Among these we find negligence, sloth, and ig¬

norance left to his curate, despoilment of the poor for burial

charges left to the vicar, oppression, to the parson, pride and an¬

noyance, to the abbot, and flattery, to the friars. The testator

then indulges in adieux to his native land and closes with an

In manus tuas. The poem is written in rime royal, the usual

measure for Scottish testaments.

Jyl of Brentford's Testament , by Robert Copland, belongs

also the first half of the sixteenth century.1 It was apparently

written as a humorous explanation of a common proverb. The

poem relates how Jyl invited several neighbors to a banquet

and sent for the curate to make her testament. After calling

on her neighbors to take note of her penitence, she bequeaths

her soul to God and her body to the earth. Her sins she com¬

mits to the devil and her goods to the world. She then makes

satirical bequests to some twenty-five classes of fools and a like

bequest to the curate for his services in drawing up her will.

The piece is inexcusably obscene, and it is without a sparkle

of wit. For our purpose it is useful as showing the close

relation of the Testament and the Confession. The curate

himself draws up the will and the neighbors witness J yl’s peni¬

tence at the time of her testation.

Le Testament de Carmentrant, a farce of eight characters,

by Jehan d’ Abundance, written about 1540, though called a

Testament, is really an Adieu.2 In this piece Carmentrant, the

king of Glottons, address adieux to his past life and the per¬

sons and places with which he has been associated.

Montaiglon prints in his Eecueil a piece called Le Yin du

Notaire qui a passe le Testament de Quatre-Toum'oys .3 In

this poem, written about the first half of the sixteenth century,

a reply is made to another piece, a testament which was attri¬

buted to one, Quatre-Tournoys, who is represented “comme une

folle et drolesse a legs qui n’etaient pas a son honneur. As far

as I know, this testament has not been found.

1 Edited by Furnivall for private circulation, 1871.

2 Campaux, 280.

s X, 0.

726 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Le Testament de Martin Leuter , is an attack on Luther and

his teachings made by some orthodox writer of the middle of

the sixteenth century.1 In this testament Luther is made to

proaching and knows that he is going to hell. It is now neces¬

sary for him to make his testament and to ordain his habitation.

He wishes his sepulchre to be in hell where Cain by his mur¬

der, .Judas by his treason, and many other sinners by their

crimes have been brought. He foresees his own torture in pain

unending and is glad of his approaching suffering. He prays

for Atropos to sever the thread of his life, for he lias no rest in

this world, which he has destroyed with his wicked doctrines.

He confesses how he has sinned in perverting the law and in

trying to abolish confession. He wants his sad story put into

writing for the warning of others. He wants to go to Lucifer

and calls on all the devils both above and below to help put his

soul in hell. For him there is no repentance. Hell is the

portion of heretics. Let all take warning and avoid it.2

This poem has little to commend it. It is undramatic and

is very much confused. What might have been made a telling

satire has lost i|s force by its very violence.

Of very different character is the Testament of Hawthorne ,

a poem appearing in Lottie’s Miscellany (1557). 3 The testa¬

tor, seeing his death approaching, commends himself to his mis¬

tress and begs her to visit his tomb and “bathe the frozen stone

with tears.” He makes the Service Tree his executor and

gives direction for his burial under an oak entwined with ivy.

His epitaph is to record his services “to her for whom he lieth

in the grave.” Two lamps ever burning above his tomb shall

signify his undying love, and instead of the ringing of bells

1 Ibid., I, 194.

2 Testaments of this class are closely related to the monologue of

self-exposure of which there are many examples in English literature.

Among these we may here note Barabbas’ confession of his villainies

in the Jew of Malta (II, iii, 175); the Pardoner’s confession in The

Canterbury Tales (C., 329 ff.); confessions by Shakspere’s Aaron and

his Richard III (T. A.. Act. V., scene 1 and Richard 111, Act I, scene 1) ;

and the numerous confessions of similar character in De Guilleville’s

Pelerinage. Compare also the self-vilifying epitaph inserted for Gue-

nais in the Testament de levrault (page 484).

s See also Chalmers’ English Poets , II, 437, London, 1810.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature . 727

there, he wishes only that his mistress’ name be repeated again

and again.

“And even with my last bequest,

When I shall from this life depart,

I geve to her I loved best

My iust, my true, and faithful hart;

Signed with hand as cold as stone

Of him that living was her owne.

The poem is gracefully written and is not without poetic

merit. But the allegory of the tree is not carried out consist¬

ently.

Turning to the continent for examples of the Testament of

this period, we come first to Le Biscours du testament de la

prinse de la ville de Guines (1558), 1 a satirical piece of verse

by Anthoine Fauquel, a priest and native of Amiens. It is a

satire against the English heretics. The writer takes his text

from the book of Lamentations , “Vocavi amicos meos et ipsi

deeeperunt me,”2. and makes the city tell of its desolate condi¬

tion and confess that its miseries are a retribution for its hav¬

ing acted dishonestly.

The Testament of Melancthon (1560) is purely a confession

of his Protestant faith. The testament frankly professes to be

following the example of ancient worthies who wrote for their

children and successors a “certum testimonium suae sententiate

de religione.”3

('Le Testament de Henri de Valoys (1589), cited by Peig-

not, has on its title page the note: “Satyre rare et virulente

centre Uenrv III.”4 Le Testament de Claude de Trellon

(1597) is also described as satirical.5 The Testament de Jean

Clerberg (1594) makes a statue bequeath to its friend and

neighbor, another statute, all the stones that had been thrown

at it by the children of the town.6

Le Testament June jeune Courtesans and Le Testament

1 Montaiglon, Recueil, IV, 314.

2 Lam, I, 19.

3 Peignot, I, 205; Commentarius de LutTieranismo, ed. Seckendorff,

Frankfort and Leipsic, 1692. Ill, see. 21, par. 78, p. 269.

4 Peignot, II, 282.

s Peignot, II, 284.

6 Peignot, II, 262.

728 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

d’un Verole belong, according to Toldo, to the sixteenth cen¬

tury.1 Le Testament de Jehan Ragot, of the same period, is

an imitation of Villon. Compared with its model the piece is

a wretched performance.2 3 Of greater merit is Le Testament

et Epitaphe de Maistre Francoys de Levrault belonging to the

same period.’"' The testator leaves his soul to God; he does not

care what becomes of his body. He has no money to bestow on

prayers for his soul, for he cannot even pay his debts. The

testament is made up of satirical bequests to his son, to his

friends, and to his enemies. To one Jehan le Guenais, “the

most cursed, infected, and detestable liar that was ever born on

earth, hated of the people and loved of the devil,” he gives

mischance, a wretched life, a cable for his neck, and the curse

of Sodom and Gomorrah.

Of similar character is the Legat testamentaire du Prince

des Sots , a prose piece belonging apparently to the later six¬

teenth century.4 In this the Prince of Fools is made to leave

his dominion to one whom he considers eminently worthy of

it. La Terrible Vie , Testament, et fin de VOyson, a piece of

verse belonging to the same period, is an example of the animal

testament.5 It is characterized by a monstrous exaggeration

that recalls the methods of the Irish saga-teller. The Testa¬

ment of a Usurer, reported by Drexelius, seems to have been in¬

vented by some moralist to emphasize the sin of usury.6 The

testator instead of giving his soul to God is made to bequeath

it to the devil, to whom he also recommends the souls of his

wife and children who through their extravagance have led him

to usurv.

Le Testament de la IAgue belongs to the last decade of the

sixteenth century.7 The Ligue, a combination of catholics

formed to combat Protestantism, gives an account of her rise

and fall. How she lies dying and wishes to make her testa -

1 Zt. f. Rom. ph., XXV, 217 and 218.

2 Montaiglon, V, 147.

3 Montaiglon, X, 128.

4 E. Fournier, Varietes Historiques et Litteraires , Paris, 1855, III, 353.

s Montaiglon, X, 159.

e Peignot, II, 270.

7 See Campaux, p. 284.

r Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 729

ment. Among other metaphorical bequests she leaves to the

people of France all the disasters that she can enumerate.

In Scotland, too, during the latter half of the century, this

type of literature Was not without its representatives. The Testa¬

ment and Tragedie of umquhile King Henrie Stewart , a poem

printed in Edinburgh in 1567, represents Henry Stewart, Lord

Darnley, as telling after his death how he was lured into Scot¬

land and flattered by the queen’s offer of marriage, how he had

loved and admired the queen, how her love had grown cold,,

and how she had treacherously murdered him. He then ex¬

claims against the treachery of women and warns others to be¬

ware of them. His babe he leaves to the care of the Lords ; for

revenge he leaves “My saikless bluid, my murther and iniure.”

He closes by urging the Scots to look to God and their liberties.1

In the Bischoffs Lyf and Testament (1571) the confession

element is the most prominent.2 In this John Hamilton, arch¬

bishop of St. Andrews, is made to give an account of his life

and to confess his many crimes. The author represents him¬

self as meeting the archbishop’s spirit in the park, where the

latter makes his testament. When the apparition has con¬

cluded the confession, it vanishes, and the author returns to the

castle to see the body of the archbishop swinging from the gib¬

bet. The poem is both well conceived and wrell executed.

There is a kind of grimness about these verses which makes one

feel that he has been listening to a strong bold spirit that with

wide open eyes chose its own bad way and never once faltered

therein.

As evidence of the fact that the testament was regarded in

1 By Robert Sempill. Printed by T. G. Stevenson in the Sempill Sat¬

iates, Edinburgh, 1872; also by J. G. Dalyell, Scottish Poets of the Six -

tetnth Century, Edinburgh, 1801. This poem, as its title indicates, is

related to another familiar type of mediaeval literature, the Tragedie,

of which Chaucer’s Monk's Tale, Boccaccio’s De Casihus, Lydgate’s

Fall of Princes, and the Mirrour for Magistrates furnish examples.

For discussion of the Tragedie see Wilhelm Cloetta, Beitrsige zur lit¬

ter aturgeschichte des mittelalters und der renaissance, Halle, 1890, vol.

I. As it was customary in this form of literature to let the sufferer

of the tragedie tell his own story, it was almost inevitable that this

form should, in some cases, amalgamate with the autobiographical

testament.

2 Sempill Ballatee, p. 133.

730 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Scotland at this time as a well established form of literature,

it may be mentioned here that James VI in his Treatise of

Scottis Poesie (1581) recommended afor tragicall rnatres,

Complaintis, or Testamentis this kynde of verse following,

callyt Troylus verse.” 1 i

In The delectable history of sundry adventures passed by

Dan Bartholmew of Bathe (1573), George Gascoigne intro¬

duces Bartholmew’s ^last wyll and Testament.” 2 The poem

is an account of Bartholmew’s love for an undeserving woman

and of his helplessness in her hands. Although the name of

Bartholmew is used, the poem is really an account of the poet’s

own experience. Bartholmew meets a girl of Cressid’s kind

and falls into her snare. He is transported with joy, and, los¬

ing all caution, vows eternal fidelity to her. One day he finds

indications that she is false, and cold suspect creeps into his

mind. His worst fears are realized, and, sick at heart, he

gives himself up to die. Here it is lie introduces his testa¬

ment. He bequeaths his soul to wait on Charon’s boat; till his

love he weary of earthly vanities and join him to cross the

river. His body is to be interred near that of his love in order

to protect her from the greedy worms. His heart is bequeathed

to Care. Various provisions are made for his funeral, and

various metaphorical bequests are made to friends and attend¬

ants. Wet Eyes and Wailing Words are made his executors,

each of whom are to have ten pounds of tears for their pay.

Sorrow is to be his last supervisor. Following the testament

comes a “ Subscription and seale” which tells the testator’s

name and place.

The testament is one of the most beautiful in the literature.

The phrasing is good and the verse excellent. The poem is a

strong psychological study of the weakness of the human heart.

A Will or Testament is the title of a very pretty poem of

thirty lines, written by Humphrey Gifford about 1530.3 The

poet’s friends are made his executors; to the world he leaves

1 E. Arber, English Reprints, London, 1869, p. 67.

2 W. C. Hazlitt, The Complete Poems of George Gascoigne (Roxburgh

Library), 1869, I, 99.

» Grossart, Miscellanies (Fuller Worthies Library) vol. I, Gifford:

Posie of Gilliflowers, 1870, p. 65.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 731

his wealth, his woes, and his jovs “commixt with care;” to

Satan he leaves his sins, to the earth his body, and to Jesus, his

soul.

In the Woodstock entertainment for Queen Elizabeth (1575)

there is a Testament of Loricus. In this a knight, presumably

Sir Henry Lee, bequeaths to the queen “the whole mannor of

loue.” 1 <

Belonging also to the sixteenth century is a . poem called Wyl

Bucke, His Testament , by John Lacy (London).2 The writer

tells how he brought a wounded buck to bay and how the buck

asked permission to make his testament. The permission hav¬

ing been granted, the animal proceeded:

I bequeth mi body to the colde seler;

I wold that a lady take the save of me;

And I bequethe mi skin to your bowe-berer;

The rewarde of mi throte to your houndes, perde;

The right shoulder is the persones quantitie;

The left shoulder to the perker that is fal in age;

Mi suet to the faire ladyis visage.

The poem is continued for seven stanzas, and when all the

parts of the body have been bestowed, Robin Redbreast is made

executor. The whole is written in a serious vein and is pre¬

fixed to a treatise on how to prepare venison. The poem has

little or no merit as a literary production, but it serves to show

that the tradition of the animal testament was still alive in

England during the sixteenth century.3

So popular a form of expression as the testament could

hardly fail to find its way into the work of Shakespeare. In

the Rape of Lucre ce, written about 1594, Lucrece is made to

make a testament which occupies some thirty-five lines.4 Again

in Richard II (1594), Richard contemplates making his will

but is deterred by the thought that he has nothing to bequeath.5

i J. W. Cunliffe, The Queenes Majesties Entertainment, Pub. of the

Mod. Lang. Assn, of America, XXVI, 1.

2J. O. Halliwell, Literature of the XVI and XVII Centuries , 1851',

p. 51.

3 This testament is closely related to that class of literature written

for instruction in the arts of hunting. Compare the deer passages in

Tristan and Iseult and in Gawain and the Green Knight.

4 Lines 1181-1211.

s III, ii, 148.

732 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

In the Merry Wives of Windsor (1598-99) we have an echo

of the animal testament.1 Falstaff disguised as Herne is wait¬

ing to meet Mrs. Ford. The park and his own dress suggest

to him a comparison with a stag. Mrs. Ford appears and ad¬

dresses him as her male deer, and then tells him that Mrs.

Page has come with her. Falstaff then humorously makes

his testament as a deer brought to bay might be expected to do :

“Divide me like a bribe buck, each a haunch: I will keep

my sides to myself, my shoulders for the fellow of this walk,

and my horns I bequeath to your husbands.”

Again there is a suggestion of the animal testament in As

You Like It (1599). There Jacques sees the dying deer and

says : “Thou makest a testament as worldlings do.” 2

At the end of the same play Jacques’ disposition of his

friends strongly suggests the testament. As he is about to

renounce the world he makes bequests of his several friends.3

At the close of Troilus and Cressida (1601-02), Pandarus

proposes to make his will in which he promises to bequeath his

to try the riddle of Antiochus, makes a testament in which we

are interested to find that peace is one of the bequests.5 In

Anthony and Cleopatra (c. 1608) there is a suggestion of the

testament. Cleopatra in her dying speech bequeathes to the

earth all of herself except the fire and air.6 The idea of the

testament seems still to have been haunting Shakespere’s mind

when in the Winter's Tale (1611) Paulina, awakening the

statue of Hermione, is made to say: “Bequeath to death your

numbness.” 7 Here we have the situation of the ordinary will

reversed, for the testator is coming back from death to life and

is supposed while yet in the realm of death to be making a will

before returning. Again in the Passionate Pilgrim , some*

1 V, v, 27. I think that none of the commentators has explained this

passage as a testament. If my interpretation is correct, “bequeath”

has the regular testamentary sense instead of meaning “commit” as

glossed hy Schmidt.

2 II, i, 47.

3 V, iv, 192.

4 V, x, 51.

e I, i, 47.

e V, ii, 292.

7 V, iii, 102.

Per row — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 733

times attributed to Shakespere, there is something more than

a mere suggestion of the testament :1

I weep for thee, and yet no cause I have;

For why thou left’st me nothing in thy will;

And yet thou left’st me more than I did crave;

For why I crave nothing of thee still:

O yes, dear friend, I pardon crave of thee,

Thy discontent thou didst bequeath to me.

Eobert Greene’s Groatsworth of Wit, written in 1692, al¬

though not called a testament, is identical in subject matter

with many compositions that passed under that title.2 It is an

allegorical account of the author’s own life. Seeing the ap¬

proach of death, he bewails his own wickedness, warns others

not to follow his example, and proceeds to give sundry rules

for the conduct of life. He closes by beseeching his friends

that they bury his body and publish this his last farewell writ¬

ten with his own wrretched hand. The same author’s Repent¬

ance of even date is a document of like character.3 In this,

however, the autobiographical element is overshadowed by the

confession of sin. He tells how7 bad has been his life, repents

of his wicked deeds and lewd writings,4 * * introduces his auto¬

biography to wrarn others, and concludes with a considerable

body of moral instruction.

In the year 1598 we find John Lyly also imitating the testa¬

ment. In a letter to Queen Elizabeth the poverty-stricken

dramatist complains of his ill-treatment:

“Thirteen yeares, yor : Highness Servant ; Butt yett nothinge,

Twenty fTrindes, that though they say, they wilbee sure, I

ffinde them sure to slowe, A thowsand hopes, butt all, noe~

thinge: A hundred promises, butt yett noethinge, Thus Cast-

inge vpp: an Inventorye of my ffrindes, hopes, promises, and

Tym.es. the; Suma, Total : Amounteth to Just nothinge. My

Last Will, is shorter, then myne Invention; Butt, three Leg-

1 Division X, line 7.

2 A. B. Grossart, The Life and Complete Works of Robert Greene ,

London, 1881-3, XII, 95.

3 Ibid. XII, 151.

^ It will be remembered in this connection that Jean de Meung,

Gower, Chaucer and Herrick also “repented” of their writings. Was

this a literary convention?

734 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

acyes, I Bequeath Patience to my Creditors: Mellanchollie,

Wtbout Measure to my ffrindes, And Beggery wtbout shame to

my ffamilye, . ” 1

One of the prettiest of the testaments is that of Sumner in

Thomas Hash’s Summer's Last Will and Testament (1600). 2

In this play Summer is represented as king of the year, al¬

ready old and feeble and leaning for support on Autumn and

Winter. Summer’s end is approaching. It has been delayed

eo far only by the authority of Elizabeth which has been keep¬

ing him in power till her progress be finished. The old king

calls his servants together and makes his testament. Autumn

is made his heir, and appropriate bequests are made to differ¬

ent classes of people. His withered flowers are given to strew

the corses of the dead, his heat and warmth to toiling laborers,

bis long days to bondmen and prisoners, and his drought and

thirst to drunkards’ quenchless throats. The best gifts are for

Elizabeth :

Vnto Eliza that most sacred dame,

Whom none but saints and angels ought to name;

All my faire dayes remaining, I bequeath

To waite vpon her till she be returned.

Autumne, I charge thee, when that I am dead,

Be prest and seruiceable at her beck,

Present her with thy goodliest ripened fruites;

Vnclothe no Arbors where she euer sate,

Touch not a tree, thou thinkst she may passe by.

And Winter, with thy wrythen frostie face.

Smoothe vp thy visage, when thou lookst on her,

Thou neuer lookst on such bright maiestie:

A charmed circle draw about her court,

Wherein warme dayes may daunce, and no cold come;

On seas let winds make warre, not vexe her rest,

Quiet inclose her bed, thought flye her brest.

When the dying Summer has made an end, satyrs and wood

nymphs carry him away singing as they go a parody of the lit¬

any ; the refrain of which is,

From Winter, plague, and pestilence, Good Lord deliuer vs!

In The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington (1601) Robert

iR. W. Bond, The Complete Works of John Lyly , Oxford, 1902, I, 70.

2 Grossart, The Complete Works of Th. Nash, 1885, VI, 80.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 735

makes liis testament.1 2 He arranges for his burial and leaves

his plate and other goods to his followers. His followers, in

turn, are left to his king, Richard I.

As an example of the satirical use of the testament in the

XVI Century we have Lawrence Lucifer's Last Will and Testa¬

ment as given in The Black Book of Thomas Middleton, a

prose tract printed in 1604. 2 ‘In this the devil is made to make

his testament, in which appropriate metaphorical gifts, to¬

gether with many wicked instructions, are given to certain in¬

dividuals representing different classes of evil-doers.

A prose piece of like character is The Testament of the Devil

included in Thomas Dekker’s A Strange Horse Pace (1613). 3

The devil is represented as falling sick and making his will.

He leaves appropriate legacies to wanton ladies, usurers, gal¬

lants, punks, bawds, bankrupts, brokers, corrupt officers, and

others. All the infernal states are called to witness the will,

and it is dated “in the yeare of our Ranging in the World,

5574.”

The testament as a form of literary expression was not by

any means neglected by English writers during the half cen¬

tury following Shakspere’s death. With Donne it seems to

have been a favorite form. Doctor Donne's Farewell to the

World, (c. 1630), which has been attributed to John Donne,

may be classed with the adieu testament.4 In the Anatomy of

the World (Of the Progress of the Soul, The Second Anniver¬

sary,)5 Donne urges a contemplation of the death bed:

Think that thou hear’st thy knell, and think no more

But that, as bells called thee to church before,

So this to the triumphant church calls thee;

Think Satan’s sergeants round about thee be,

And think that but for legacies they thrust,

Give one thy pride, to another give thy lust;

Give them those sins, which they gave thee before,

And trust the immaculate blood to wash thy score. . . .

In the touching little poem, The Funeral (1633), Donne

1 W. C. Hazlitt, Old English Plays. VIII, 247.

2 A. H. Bullen, The Works of Thomas Middleton, L., 1886, VIII, 1.

s Grossart, The Non-Dramatic Works of Th. Dekker, 1885, III, 351.

4. E. K. Chambers, Poems of John Donne, L., 1896, II, 273.

5 Ibid. II, 130, lines, 105 ff.

736 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

makes what is practically a burial testament.1 In this he gives

directions how a lock of his sweetheart’s hair shall he buried

with him. The Legacy (1633) is a testament in which the

same author bequeaths his heart to his mistress.2 The Will

(1633) is the best representative of the testament among

Donne’s poems.3 In this piece of fifty-four lines numerous be¬

quests, more or less satirical, are made to several classes of

people.

In the drama, too, during these years, the testament found

its place. Thomas Middleton in the Inner Temple Masque

(1619) introduces a Testament of Kersmas ,4 In this Christ¬

mas makes bequests to his children, who are named from cer¬

tain games of cards. The testament is a poor piece of work;

the allegory is overdone, and the bequests are rather pointless.5

John Ford in The Brohen Heart (1633) has one of the char¬

acters, Penthea, make her testament.6 After confessing that

her life has not been free from vanity, she begs Calantha to

hear her testament and to be her executrix.

Penthea. I have left me

But three poor jewels to bequeath. The first is

My youth; for though I am much old in griefs,

In years I am a child.

Calantha. To whom that?

Penthea. To virgin-wives, such as abuse not wedlock

By freedom of desires, but covet chiefly

The pledges of chaste beds for ties of love,

Rather than raging of their blood; and next

To married maids, such as prefer the number

Of honorable issue in their virtues

Before the flattery of delights by marriage;

May those be ever young !

Calantha. A second jewel

You mean to part with.

Penthea. !Tis my fame; I trust

By scandal yet untouched: this I bequeath

To Memory, and Time’s old daughter, Truth.

If ever my unhappy name find mention,

When I am fall’n to dust, may it deserve

Beseeming charity without dishonour.

1 Ibid., I, 61.

2 Ibid., I, 18.

3 Ibid., I, 59.

4 Bullen, The Works of Thomas Middleton , Boston, 1876, VII, 201.

5 Ben Jonson in his Maske of Xmas introduces the figure of Christ¬

mas with his ten children.

6 HI, V.

Perrow—The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 737

Galantha. How handsomely thou play’st with harmless

sport

Of mere imagination! Speak the last.

I strangely like thy will.

Penthea. This jewel, madam,

Is dearly precious to me; you must use

The best of your descretion to employ

This gift as I intend it.

Galantha. Do not doubt me.

Penthea. ’Tis long agone since I first lost my heart:

Long have I liv’d without it, else for certain

I should have given that too; but instead

Of it, to great Calantha, Sparta’s heir,

By service bound, and by affection bow’d,

I do bequeath in holiest rites of love

Mine only brother, Ithocles.

This testament is admirably introduced. It is well phrased,

and it adds to the scene a touch of pathos that perhaps no

other device could have given.

In Love's Sacnfice (1633) the same author again uses the

testament.1 The Duke Caralfa has found his wife, Bianca,

with his friend Fernando. Bianco boldly defends her conduct

on the ground that she is true to her love Fernando. The Duke

stabs her, and she, with her dying breath makes her testament,

leaving the tragedy to her husband and her heart to Fernando.

Sir Walter Raleigh's Farewell to his Lady (1644) is a tes¬

tament though it is not so called2 * * He sends his wife his love

and his counsel that she may keep the one and remember the

other when he is dead. “I would not/’ he says, “with my

will present you sorrows: let them go to the grave with me.’7

He urges her to love God and to train their son to do so. He

advises her to give to the poor. His body he hopes she will

beg and bury beside his father and mother.

A little poem called An Elegy (1646), .written by Henry

Vaughn, opens as a testament :

’Tis true I am undone: yet ere I die,

I’le leave these sighes and teares, a legacye

To after-lovers, s

iV, i.

2 E. W. Ashbee, Occasional Facsimile Reprints , London, 1868, II,

No. 26.

s Grossart, Henry Vaughn's Works , 1871, II, 18.

738 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Herrick’s poem, His Daughter's Dowry, written about 1 648,

is a very pretty testament.1 It contains some moral advice

very prettily phrased and a legacy of several enviable virtues.

The Departure , a very short poem of even date, is a good ex¬

ample of the adieu.2

Phineas Flechter’s Father's Testament (c. 1650) is a book

written partly in verse and partly in prose.3 It is intended

as a handbook of moral instruction for the author’s children

and relatives. The writer says that this is an elaboration of a

similar legacy of advice left him by his father, Giles Fletcher.

During these years the writers of satire were also making

use of the testament. The Last Will and Testament of the

Doctor's Commons is the title of a prose tract called out by

the suppression in 1641 of the English spiritual jurisdictions.4

The Ijast Will and Testament of Charing Crosse is a prose

tract belonging to 1646.5 The Cross gives an account of her

own life, and complains of the way in which she has been

lately neglected. Foreseeing that she must soon be taken

down, she makes her testament, in which the chief bequests

are satirical gifts of parts of her body. Some idea of the na¬

ture of a testament printed in The Fall of Tyranny and the

Resurrection of Royalty (1650) may be gathered from the

title: “The Last Will and Testament of Philip Herbat, Bur-

gesse for Barkshire, vulgarly called Earl of Pembroke and

Montgomery , ivho died, of Foole-age, Ja. 23, 1650, with his

life and death and several legacies to the Parliament and Coun¬

cil of State, also his elegy, taken verbatim in the time of his

sickness and publisht to prevent false copies by Michael Oldis-

worth . Of nearly the same date is The Last Will and Testa¬

ment of the Earl of Pembroke, a testament the contents of

which do not correspond to the description given of the preced¬

ing one.6 This represents the Earl of Pembroke as impiously

1 A. Pollard, Robert Herrick: The Hesperides and Noble Numbers ,

London and N. Y., 1891. II, 260.

2 Ibid., I, 223.

s Grossart, Phineas Fletcher's Poems (Fuller Worthies Library)

1869, I, lx, and clix; III, pp. 273 ff.

4 Somers’ Tracts, IV, 297.

s Ashbee, Occasional Facsimile Reprints.

e Somers’ Tracts; VII, 89.

Per row — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 739

declaring his lack of faith in holy things and confessing that

he has been a professional turncoat:

“Imprimis. For mv soul, I have heard very much of souls,

but what they are, or whom they are for, God knows, I know

not; they tell me now of another world, where I never was nor

do I know one foot of the way thither. While the king

stood, I was of his religion; made my son wear a cassock, and

thought to make him a bishop. Then came the Scots and made

me a Presbyterian; and since Cromwell entered I have been

an independent.”

The remainder of the testament, except for two paragraphs

devoted to funeral arrangements, is made up of satirical be

quests.

The Marquis of Ar gyle’s Last Will and Testament , with

his Character (1661) is the title of a tract directed against

Archibald Campbell.1 The marquis is made to confess his

manifold wickedness, to divide up his body among his friends,

and to make numerous satirical bequests. The following may

serve as examples of the latter:

“Item, I give 1000 marks for the building of a hospital or

pest-house, for all such as are or shall be infected with the

Scctch-plague ; that is, such as want clothes, money, and

friends.

'“Item, to the poor of my parish, for every curse they give

me, the sum of 000.”

The testament is bitter but not clever, and rather indecent

than witty.

Still more bitter and indecent is The last Will and Testa¬

ment of Father Peters (1660). 2 After disposing of his soul

the testator makes bequests of parts of his body and of his

wearing apparel. All this is done in the coarsest manner

possible. Provision is made for his burial and bequests made

to promote crime. After an inventory of his goods has been

made the document closes with a satirical prayer.

1 Harleian Miscellany, L., 1811, VIII, 28. On the Character see a

thesis presented by C. N. Greenough at Harvard University in 1904,

Studies in the Development of Character-writing in England.

2 Harleian Miscellany, V, 829. Hugh Peters was a hypocritical

preacher who was executed in 1660.

740 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

There w&s also (published in 1651) a “Last Will and Testa¬

ment of Captain James Hind, the noted outlaw, “full of va¬

rious conceits beyond expectation.”1

In France, too, we find several examples of the testament

during this century. Le Testament et dernier e volente du

sieur Conchini Conchino (1617) is described by Peignot as a

diatribe against the Marshall of Ancre and his wife.2 Le Tes¬

tament de Theophile (1626) is found in a collection of pieces

for and against the poet Theophile Viaud.3 Among other

things the poet is made to will away, in satirical mood, his

pen, ink, and writings. Of Le Testament de fen Gualtier Gar-

guille and Le Testament de Gros-Gillaume , both of 1634, Peig¬

not remarks: “Ces faceties populaires n’out de prix que par

leur rarete.”3 5 Le Testament de Bacchus / recommended

as a cure for melancholy, and Le Testament du Viable

d’ Argent, “diatribe qui fait partie des Mazarinades,” 6 both be¬

long to the year 1649. To the same year belongs the Codicile

Tres-veritdble de Jules Mazarin.7 The cardinal is represented

as realizing that he must flee from France. He takes this occa¬

sion to make his will. He is represented as making most lav¬

ish bequests from his store of ill-gotten goods. Several satiri¬

cal bequests are made to charities ; among these a gift of 100,000

livres to marriageable girls, to be distributed as the Jesuit

Fathers see fit. In Le De Profuhdis de Jules Mazarin (Paris,

1649) the cardinal is made to confess his wicked deeds, ex¬

press regret for his ill-spent life, and to ask pardon of God, of

the king, and of France.

Under the year 1660 we have the Testament de Scarron.8

It is written in rimed couplets with eight syllables to the line.

In a spirit of daring raillery Scarron contemplates death and

makes his testament. Apollo and the muses take the place of

1 Chandler, Literature of Roguery , I, 150.

2 Peignot, II, 284.

s Ibid. II, 285. See also K. Schirmacher, Theophile de Viau: Sew,

Lehen und seine WerTce. Leipsig and Paris, 1897.p. 167.

4 Peignot, II, 285.

5 Brunet, s. v. Testament.

e Peignot, II, 286. i,

7 Printed in a volume of Mazarinades, Paris, 1649.

s Oeuvres de Scarron, Paris, 1787.

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 741

God and the saints. He has nothing to leave his children, but

he has a few gifts to bestow upon deserving friends. The cod¬

icil makes some additions to his bequests, and at last he appends

his epitaph. The testament is an excellent piece of work.

The satire goes straight to the mark. The whole poem is per¬

vaded by an air of jesting carelessness that reminds one of

Shakespere’s Mercutio.

Lalement’s Testament Spirituel (1674) belongs evidently to

the class of moral testaments.1 ‘From the citation by Barbier

of the Testament de M. le Marechal de Schombert, a piece of

verse belonging to 1689, I have not been able to determine to

what class it belongs.2

About the middle of the century the testament in England

began to find a place in the broadside ballad. The Hunting of

the Hare with his last Will and Testament is the title of a broad¬

side printed in London in 1660.3 The hare is brought to bay

by the huntsman, and, having been refused its life, it makes

its testament. The testament is very cleverly worked out and

contains some very keen satire. There is a similar Testament

of a Hare in a piece of verse called The Huntsman in Wit and

Drollery (1661). 4 The hounds and the hare indulge in a dia¬

logue, and, at the bidding of the hounds, the hare makes his

testament. In the Roxburgh Ballads is printed a broadside of

1689 in which the pope is represented as making his will.5 He

leaves St. Peter’s old wornout chair to Cardinal Hick, to¬

gether with other relics such as Judas’ halter, the Patriarch’s

ladder, a boot of St. Luke’s, and St. Anthony’s offence.

Considerable use is made of the testament at the end of

Pilgrim's Progress (1684). Christiana calls her children

about her just before she dies and gives them her blessing. She

bequeaths all she has to the poor. She advises her children to

To the care of Valiant she leaves her children. She bids

adieu to Standfast, Honest, and Ready-to-halt, and gives ad-

1 Louis Brun’s Catalogue de limes * * * sur la mort, No. 848.

2 Barbier, s. v. Testament.

s J. B. Ebswortb, The Roxhurghe Ballads, VII, 87.

4 The Huntsman in Wit and Drollery, 1661, p. 214.

e VII, 726.

742 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

vice to Despondency, Much-afraid, and Feeble-mind. Ready-

to-halt in his testament leaves his crutches to his son, together

with his good wishes. Feeble-mind makes no will. He will

leave his feeble mind, but will not bestow it upon anyone. De¬

spondency and his daughter Much-afraid direct in their testa¬

ment that no man receive their desponds and slavish fears.

They advise all to shut their doors against such unwelcome

guests. Honest makes no will; he will take his honesty with

him. Valiant makes a confession of his faith in the worth of

the life he has led. His sword he gives to him who shall come

after him, and his courage and skill to him who can acquire

it. Stand-fast leaves his wife and live children to the care of

Great-heart. He has nothing to leave his family but his pray¬

ers and tears. He concludes by confessing his faith in God

and his hope in immortality.

The testament as political satire comes to light again in The

Last Will and Testament of the Charter of London (1683).1

In this satirical bequests are left to several politicians of the

day, and a hope expressed that a new charter may succeed

which shall be better than the one now passing away.

In the catalogue of Francis Edwards is mentioned The Last

Will and Testament of Anthony , King of Poland , (1682), a

political satire upon the Earl of Shaftesbury, by S. Ward.2

John Bull's Ijast Will and Testament , a prose tract belong¬

ing to Queen Anne’s reign, is a very clever political satire.3 It

seems to have been called out by Dr. Arbuthnot’s History of

John Bull. 'It is written by a Whig to satirize certain meas¬

ures of the Tories. The preface occupies three folio pages, and

isan appeal to the Archbishop of Canterbury to set aside the will

which the writer of the preface believes to have been made by

John Bull while in a state of insanity. He adduces facts of

the testator’s life to prove this point and then submits the will

which he claims is itself the best evidence of the testator’s in¬

sanity. John Bull is made to bequeath his life and spirit to

Jacobitism and Infatuation, and his body is given to be buried

1 Somers' Tracts, VIII, 392.

2 P. 24, No. 433.

3 Somers' Tracts, XIII, 140.

r Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 748

in the churchyard of slavery. To Louis the Fourteenth of

France is bequeathed most of the property, and the same mon¬

arch is made executor of the will. To John Bull’s children is

left nothing but the evil effects of the Tory policies. To the

will is also attached a codicil full of outrageous bequests to the

enemies of England’s welfare.

Willie Wirikie’s Testament (c. 1702) is another bit of politic

cal satire.1 2 This song, attacking William III of England, is a

parody of an older song, a testament describing the effects of a

poor country man. It is cast in an attempt at Dutch-English

dialect. William is represented as talking to his confessor,

“Fader Dennison.” To him he leaves various articles includ¬

ing books in which are directions as to “vat man shall die and

vat must live.” Thinking himself arbiter of European poli¬

tics, William arranges “vat kings must keep deir kingdoms

still.” To Dennison is left the horse that caused the testator’s

death, a ragged coat, and all the curses of the Scot. To Anne

William leaves his crown with all the torments incident thereto,

and advises her to keep the Scots beyond the Twped.

In Geordie Whelp's Testament (c. 1727) the speaker, who

is supposed to be George I of England, begins with a confes¬

sion of his sins. He tells how he has robbed Count Konings-

mark and has wasted Young Jamie’s possessions. He then

leaves satirical bequests to successors, closing with,

To a’ my friends, where’er they be.

The curse of God eternally. 2

A Young Man's Will (1707) is one of the best examples of

the testament as found in the broadside.3 It is a very clever

testament of one hundred and twenty-four lines in which many

sharp hits are made at various classes of society.

The Nuova Testamento che fa una Gatto, printed in Bo¬

logna, in 1712, shows that the tradition of the animal testa¬

ment was still alive in Italy.4 In England the same type is

1 James Hogg, The Jacobite Relics of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1819, I,

40, and 210.

2 Ibid., I, 116.

s D’Urfey’s PUlls, IV, 84.

4 See British Museum Catalogue , s. v. Testament.

744 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

represented during the earlier eighteenth century by the Testa¬

ment of Easy's Mare1 and the Testament of the Norfolk Cock,2

both printed in 1714. In these the animals make satirical be¬

quests of parts of their bodies.

As early as 1730 the literary testament makes its appear¬

ance in American literature. Matthew Abdy, bedmaker and

sweeper to Harvard College from 1717-1730, died in 1730.

The Rev. John Seccombe a graduate of Harvard wrote in rime

a testament for him which became popular both in America and

England.3 It was printed in The Gentleman's Magazine, The

London Magazine, and The Massachusetts Magazine . It also

appeared as a broadside. The testator in Father Ahdy's Tes¬

tament leaves to his dear wife his entire estate which he men¬

tions piece by piece. Its spirit is rather humorous than satiri¬

cal. This testament evoked several imitations. One of these

took the form of a letter of courtship addressed to F ather

Abdy’s widow by a bedmaker at Yale.

A poem that seems to have been rather popular in Scotland

during the eighteenth century is reported by Herd in 1776. 4

In Bohin's Testament the robin is made to bequeath parts of

his body, some for the benefit of certain persons and some for

the benefit of certain public works. On the several versions

of this song Lina Echenstein has commented and has tried to

connect it with some ancient chants used in pagan bird sacri¬

fices.5 It seems to me to be only another manifestation of the

widespread tendency to make animals draw up their testa¬

ments.6

The April number of the Town and Country Magazine for

1 D’Urfey’s Pills, I, 309.

2 Ibid., I, 344.

s J. L. Sibley, Father Abdy’s Will, Cambridge, Mass., 1854.

4 David Herd, Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs, Edinburgh, 1776;

another edition 1870, II, 166; Robt. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of

Scotland , London and Edinburgh, 1870, p. 38.

5 Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes, London, 1906, p. 192.

e Peter Buchan, Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland,

Edinburgh, 1828, T, 273. “This little piece, I am convinced, is very old,

as its style and language, although modernized, will testify. I have

every reason to think it has been composed under a cloud of disguise,

upon some great family, and on some particular event, though now

unknown; as was the ballad of the “Wren” composed on Lord Len¬

nox’s love to a daughter of Lord Blantyre’s.”

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 745

1769 contains a humorous and satirical account of the life of

Samuel Derrick. Into this is introduced his testament. It

contains many satirical bequests, most of which are intended

to make fun of the ridiculous spirit of self-importance which

he seems to have shown and his fruitless attempts to make a

place for himself in literature. It has' been thought that this

piece, published in the magazine in which Chatterton pub¬

lished, may have suggested to the latter the idea of writing

his own last will and testament.

Chatterton’s Will is dated April 14, 1770.1 In straightened

circumstances the seventeen year old lad had applied for help

to Burgam to whom he looked as a patron. This help was re¬

fused, and Chatterton, plunged into despair, wrote for him¬

self a suicide’s last will and testament. Although he did not

take his life till the night of August 24, 1770, this piece shows

that he had already been playing with the idea of suicide.

The piece opens with fifty-four and a half lines of heroic

couplet in which the poet commends a few friends and satirizes

several who have failed to aid him. The testament proper is

written in prose. Tie sets forth the fact of his approaching

death and directs his burial in accordance with the rites of

chivalry. Many satirical bequests are left to certain acquaint¬

ances who for one reason or another have earned Chatterton’ s

dislike. The testament closes with the pathetic clause: “I

leave my mother and sister to the protection of my friends, if I

have any.”

Such is the testament of the unhappy boy. Other testa¬

ments which he may have seen in his reading probably sugges¬

ted to him the use of this form to give expression to the despair

that was rapidly closing about his young life. With regard

to its value as literature I feel that, incoherent as it is, this

testament gives artistic expression to a contest of feeling that

we do not often find revealed in even much longer pieces. In

it we see all Chatterton’ s aspiration for an ideal world as typi¬

fied to his mind by the chivalrous past, a past that he had loved

i Skeat and Bell, The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton , London,

1871, I, 267.

746 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

from his infancy, a past that occupied alike his dreams and his

poetry, a past the insignia of which he wished to mark his

last resting place. How sharp was the contrast of this ideal

world with the life in a city where “scarce twenty could read,”

where few knew how to keep an honorable promise, where a

man like Burgam could deny aid to a suffering lad, and where

even a woman’s heart could turn a starving boy out of lodging

because she feared he might kill himself in her house.

The satire is bitter and mocking. Gne feels that Chatterton

was despising the mean mercenary world that was letting a

gifted spirit starve in its midst. And yet through it all, be¬

hind the light jests with which he mocks the neglectfulness of

men who might have helped, we feel his intense love for his

life and his art and the despairing agony that comes to him

when he realizes that he must die and take with him unex¬

pressed the message which, as it seemed to him, the stupidity

and selfishness of the world would not give him a chance to

speak.

About 1773 Robert Fergusson wrote his Last Will / a poem

of some seventy-eight lines. It is half humorous, half serious

in character. There is nothing satirical about it; it is rather

good-humored, playing with the idea of his poverty and the

passing of compliments to several friends.

“While sober folk, in humble prose,

Estate, and goods, and gear dispose,

A poet surely may disperse

His moveables in doggerel verse;”

To Nature he leaves his poetic lore to be passed on to other

bards as they deserve it. To Jamie Rae, a lawyer friend, he

leaves his snuff-box. To Oliphant, an Edinburgh bookseller,

he leaves his verses in manuscript. To Hamilton, another

lawyer, he leaves the task of collecting his outstanding debts.

To his friend Woods he leaves his Shakspere. He asks Hutch¬

inson, the tavern keeper, to attend his funeral and to see that

there be generous draughts of wine at the wake. To the will is

appendid a codicil making similar bequests.

i Grossart, The Works of Robert Ferguson, Edinburgh, London, and

Dublin, 1851, p. 252.

Perrow—The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 747

It is not unlikely that the testament idea was suggested to

Fergusson by some of the many real wills .that as clerk he

found it his duty to copy.

The Calf’s Will, published with the permission of his Exec¬

utors (1777), a satire on leading characters of the day, serves

to show the continuance of the animal testament tradition.

A testament of moral advice well worthy of mention is Ga¬

briel Harley’s A Legacy of Love (1795), addressed to his son.1 2

It is a poem of about two thousand lines of blank verse. In

spite of the aridness of the subject, and the discursive method

of the author, the poem is not without merit. The sentiment is

genuine and healthful, many lines are struck out with consid¬

erable power, and the figures used are very apt. The influence

of both Milton and Shakspere is very apparent.

In the American literature of this period the satirical testa¬

ment is represented bv Rivingtori’s Last Will and Testament *

a piece of verse written in 1782 by Philip Freneau for James

Rivington, a Hew York journalist who, during the American

revolution, was zealous in his support of the Tories. With re¬

gard both to subject matter and versification it is a rather poor

performance.

Among the French satirical testaments of the eighteenth

centry may be noted: Testament de Mantoue (c. 1732); in

which a city makes bequests to the powers of Europe ;3 Adieux

et Testament de Robin , (1734) in which a dog wills away part3

of his body and his ravenous disposition ;4 Le Testament de

Bertholde (1750), 3 Testament de galanterie de Dorilas (1775), 3

Testament de Messire Alexandre Hercule Epaminondas

(1760) ;3 Testament de Rose Beline (1768), in which a dying

courtesan leaves satirical gifts to her friends and partners in

crime;5 Le Testament de sieur cles Brugnieres (1788) ;G Retires

et aventurcs d’ Alexandre de Schell (1789). 6

Of a more serious character are Aigubelle’s, Testament

1 Poems by G. D. Harley , London, 1796, p. 219.

2 P. L. Pattee, The Poems of Philip Freneau, Princeton, 1902, II, 120.

3 Peignot, II, 289-90.

4 Ibid. II, 255.

s Londres, 1768.

e Peignot, II, 291-2.

748 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Spirituel on Dernier s adieux d’un Pere M our ant d ses enfanis

(1776) Testament Spirituel on avis d’un Pere a ses enfants

(1779) ;1 2 Testament du pere (c. 1779) j1 Testament moral

(e. 1789) ;3 and Le Testament spirituel ou dernier es instruc¬

tions de Mgr. Bonal (1800). 4

Passing into the nineteenth century we find among the

French the following of a satirical nature: Le Testament du

Viable (1822) ;5 the Mon Testament of Cizos (1815) ;6 7 Testa¬

ment serieux et Burlesque d’un maitre Savetier (1830). 7 The

moral testament reappears in the Testament ou conseils fideles

d’un bon pere a ses enfants, by Fortin de la Hoguette, pub¬

lished in a fifth edition in 1851. 8

Among the Spanish and Portuguese peoples the animal testa¬

ment has during the past two centuries, been a very popular

form. In the catalogue of the British Museum may be seen

a list of testaments ascribed to no less than twenty-one different

animials.9

ment found its way into literature. In Ludwig Tieck’s drama,

Ver Blaubart, written in the first decade of the century, Claus,

the fool, is made to make his testament.10 Heine, too, about

1856 wrote a Term'd chtniss in which he takes occasion not to

spare his enemies.11

Among the English-speaking people the testament has during

the XIX century from time to time made its appearance.

Daniel Martinett, dying in Calcutta about 1825, saw fit to in¬

sert in his will directions for his burial and satirical gifts for

his enemies.12 One of the American school readers contains a

1 Ibid. II, 292.

2 Ibid. II, 281.

s Barbier, s. v. Testament.

Brim’s Cat de Livres, No. 97.

s Barbier, s. v. Testament. Barbier also cites a Testament poetique

d'un Beige (1824).

6 Brim, Cat. de Livres.

7 Brit. Museum. Cat. s. v. Testament.

s P. Toldo, Archiv fur das Studium der neu. Sprach. und Lit ., 105.

9 Brit. Museum Cat., s. v. Testament.

10 Tieck’s Phantasmus, Berlin, 1845.

n G. Karpeles, Heinrich Heines Gesammelte Werke, Berlin, 1887, II,

378.

isPeignot, II, 219.

Perroiv — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 749

very pretty testament under the title, The Dying Boy (,4857). 1

Mr. G. W. Robinson, registrar of the Graduate School of Har¬

vard University, informs me that when he was in school in ISTew

Hampton Institute, about 1890, it had then for- a long time

been customary for the literary societies there to have presented

at its meetings a comic newspaper, and that usually as often as

three times a year one article would be a Last Will and Testa¬

dent’s expense. Mr. Robinson was kind enough to secure for

me a copy of one of these testaments, The Last W ill and Testa¬

ment of Waterman Spalding Chapman Alphabet Andso forth

Scot Russell , Esquire , Junior (1890). 2 I also understand

from Mr. J. K. Ronnell, a former student at Leland Stanford,

Jr. University, that a humorous will is presented there every

year as a part of the class day exercises1. The burial testament,

both serious and satirical in character, I have found present in

several songs of popular origin that are yet in the .mouths of

the mountaineers of East Tennessee.3

From time to time there still appear in the newspapers and

magazines testaments that are ascribed to some interesting

character. One of the prettiest testaments ever written was

printed in a number of newspapers in the spring of 1907.

Whatever may be the facts with regard to its authenticity, it

serves to illustrate the fact that this form as .literature is not

dead even yet. In conclusion I am glad of the opportunity to

quote in entirety the Testament of Charles Ijounsbury as re¬

ported in The Boston Transcript of June 5, 1907.4

Remarkable Document.

Charles Lounsbury, Poor and Insane, Leaves a Beautiful Will.

“I Charles Lounsbury, being of sound mind and disposing memory, do

hereby make and publish this, my last will and testament, in order as

justly as may be to distribute my interest in the world among succeeding

men.

“That part of my interest which is known in law and recognized in the

1 McGuffey’s Fifth Reader, Cincinnati, 1857.

2 The Hautilus, 1890.

3 See a MSS. collection in Harvard College Library.

4 This testament was said to have been written by an insane man

who died in the Cook County Asylum at Dunning, Illinois.

750 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sheep-bound volumes as my property, being inconsiderable and of no ac¬

count, I make no disposal of it in this my will.

“My right to live being but a life estate, is not at my disposal, but,

these things accepted all else in the world I now proceed to devise and

bequeath:

“Item: I give to good fathers and mothers, in trust for their children,

all good little words of praise and encouragement, and all quaint pet

names and endearments, and I charge said parents to use them justly

and generously, as the needs of their children may require.

“Item: I leave to children inclusively, but only for the term of their

childhood, all and every, the flowers of the fields and the blossoms of the

woods, with the right to play among them freely according to the cus¬

toms of children, warning them at the same time against thistles and

thorns. And I devise to children the banks of the brooks and the golden

sands beneath the waters thereof, and the odors of the willows that dip

therein, and the white clouds that float high over the giant trees. And I

leave the children the long, long days to be merry in, in a thousand ways,

and the night and the moon and the train of the Milky Way to wonder

at, but subject, nevertheless, to the rights hereinafter given to lovers.

“Item: I devise to boys jointly all the useful idle fields and commons

where ball may be played; all pleassnt waters where one may swim; all

snowclad hills where one may coast, and all streams and ponds where

one may fish, or where, when grim winter comes, one may skate; to have

and to hold the same for the period of their boyhood. And all meadows

with the clover blossoms and butterflies thereof, the woods and their ap¬

purtenances, the squirrels and birds, and echoes of the strange noises, and

all distant places which may be visited, together with the adventures

there found. And I give to said boys each his own place at the fireside at

night, with all pictures that may be seen in the burning wood, to enjoy

without let or hinderance and without any incumberance or care.

“Item: To lovers I devise their imaginary world, with whatever they

may need, as the stars of the sky, the red roses by the wall, the bloom of

the hawthorn, the sweet strains of music, and aught else by which they

may desire to figure to each other the lastingness and beauty of their

love.

“Item: To young men jointly I devise and bequeath all boisterous, in¬

spiring sports of rivalry, and give to them the disdain of weakness and

undaunted confidence in their own strength, though they are rude; I give

them the power to make lasting friendships, and of possessing com¬

panions, and to them exclusively I give all merry songs and brave chor¬

uses, to sing with lusty voices.

“Item: And to those who are no longer children or youths or lovers, I

leave memory, and I bequeath to them the volumes of the poems of Burns

and Shakespeare and of other poets, if there be others, to the end that

they may live over the old days again, freely and fully, without tithe or

diminution.

“Item: To our loved ones with snowy crowns I bequeath the happiness

of old age, the love and gratitude of their children until they fall asleep.”

Perrow — The Last 'Will and Testament in Literature. 751

INDEX.

Page

Abdy . . . 497 Cock .

Abraham . 446, 447 Colbert .

Accademic . 451 Conchino .

Adam . 446, 453 Confessio .

Adam de la Halle . . . 445 Courtesane .

Aiguibelles . 500 Cresseid .

Alberoni . 451 Criseydet .

Alexander . 457 Cruel Broher .

Amereux . 475 Cujas .

Ane . 455 Dagobert .

Angleterre . i . 452 Daphnis .

Animals . 501 David .

Annde 1821 . 453 Deer .

Anthony.. . 495 Derrick .

Arbogaste . 453 Despondency .

Arcite . . . 465 Devil .

Argenteau. . . 452 Deuyll .

Argyle . 493 Diable . . .

Arnauld . 443 Diable d Argent. . .

Asinus . 455 Doctor’s Commons,

Augustus . 437, 449, 453 Domostroy .

Ayenbite . 462 Donne .

Bacchus . 493 Dorilas .

Barres . 468 Edward .

Bartholomew . 483 Emigre .

Beige . 501 Epaminondas .

Beline . . . . 500 Eudamias .

Bertholde . 500 Falstaff .

Bianca . 490 Fastoul .

Bischoff . . . 482 Father (Eng.) .

Blowbal . 473 Father (Russian). .

Canis . 470 Favonius .

Bodel . 445 Feeble-mind .

Boy . 502 Fergusson .

Brantome . 437 Fletcher .

Brugnifcres . 500 Fox .

Bucke . 487 Garguille .

Calf . 500 Gatto .

Carmentrant . 478 Gifford .

Charing Cross . 491 Greene .

Charles (of France) . 442 Gros-Guillaume . . .

Charles V . 441 Guerre .

Charter . 495 Guines .

Chatterton . 498 Hare (Eng.) .

Chaucer . 465 Hare (Lithuanian).

Chevalier . 469 Harley .

Christus . . . 440,, 460 Hawthorne .

Christian . 471 Heine .

Christiana . 494 Herbat .

Cizos . 501 Heresy .

Claus . 501 Hermione .

Cleopatra . 485 Herrick . .

Clerberg . 480 Hezekiah .

Clifford . 442 Hind .

Page

. 497

. 451

. 493

. 465

. 480

. 471

. 465

. 473

. 445

. 456

, 444

. 445

. 485

. 497

. 495

. 488

. 477

. 501

. 493

. 491

. 448

. 488

501

. 473

. 453

. 501

. 457

. 445

. 485

. 491

. 448

. 453

. 495

. 499

. 491

. 473

. 493

. 496

. 483

. 486

. 493

. 474

. 480

. 494

. 473

. 500

. 479

. 501

. 491

. 477

. 485

. 491

. 446

. 493

752 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Page.

Hoguette . 501

Huntington . 487

In Manus . 454

Isaac . 446

Isabolle de Baviere . . . 442

Jacob . 488, 456

Jacob (Apoc.) . 446

Jaques . 485

Jean de Meung. . . 448

Jhesu . . 440. 454, 462

Job . 489, 443

John Bull . 495

Jonathan . 464

Jyl . 478

Kennedy . .. 473

Kersmas . 489

King Hart . 474

Knelyng . 466

Laideus . 477

Lamant . 470

Latimar . 442

Learn to Die . 444, 466

Legitimate . . 453

Lesche . 464

Leuter. . 479

Levrault . 481

Ligue . 481

Linventaire . 459

Lord Randal . 473

Loricus . 484

Louis IX . 464

Louis XYI . 444

Lounsbury . 502

Louvois . 451

Lucifer... . 474

Lucifer (Lawrence) . 488

Lucrece . 484

Lydgate . 466

Lyly . 486

Mai Regie . 443, 465

Mandrin . 452

Mantoue . 501

Marban . 456

Mare . 497

Marechal dQ Belle-Isle . 452

Marechal de Schombert . . 494

Marie Antoinette . 443

Martinett.. . 501

Martyr . 475

Martyrs . 447, 443

Mazarin . 493

Melancthon . 442, 480

Meldrun . 477

Meslier . 443

Mesmer. . 452

Messe . 476

Michel . 437

Mirrour . 463

Morainn . 450

Moral . 499

Moses . 446

Page.

Mule . 470

Nesson . 470

New Testament . 460

Noah . 456

Numantius . 445

Orleans . 469

Orpheus . 445

Our Lord . . 449

Our Lord (Testamentary Address 446

Oyson . 487

Pandarus . . . 48

Papyngo . 47

Passionate Pilgrim . 485

Pathelin . 476

Patriarchs . 438, 443, 445

Pembroke . 491

Penthea . 489

Pfcre . 401

P&re (avis d’ un) . 501

Pericles . 485

Perpetuus . 462

Peters . 492

Philippe Auguste . 449

Philippe-le-Bon . 442

Pierre le Grand . 452

Piers . . 443, 464

Pilgrimage of Perfection . 464

Pithou F . 443

Pithou P . 437

Polityczny . 452

Pope . 494

Porcellus . 454, 457, 462

Praise of Peace . 464

Prince des Sots . 481

Publiciste . 452

Quatre-Tournoys . 478

Quignet . 470

Ragot . . . . . .... 481

R[amponeau] . 452

Rakoczi . 451

Raleigh . 490

Ready-to-halt . 495

Regneier . 467

Republicain . 453

Revel . 453

Richard I . 457

Richard II . 484

Richelieu . 450

Rivington . 500

Robert . 450

Robin Eng . 497

Robin French . 500

Russel, A. M . 453

Russel, Scot . 502

Sage Fool . 471

Saincte Clere . 450

Savetier . 501

Scarron . 493

Schell . 501

Silhouette . 452

Soldat . 453

Perrow — The Last Will and Testament in Literature. 753

Page.

V . 452

Valentin . 449

Valiant . 495

Valoys . 480

Vauban . 451

Vaughn . 490

Veriole . 480

Villon . 368

Vladimer . 448

Walpole . 451

Walther . 457,462

Whelp . 396

When I die . 474

Windham . 443

Winkie . . 496

Yaroslav . 448

Young Man . 496

A'