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v<> TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL XIV, PART I

1902

WITH THIRTY-THREE PLATES

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

Published by Authority of Law

MADISON, WIS.

Democrat Printing Co., State Printer.

I903-

IfCloL//

OFFICERS.

President ,

JOHN J. DAVIS, Racine.

Vice-Presidents,

CHARLES H. CHANDLER, Ripon.

JOHN I. JEGI, Milwaukee.

DEXTER P. NICHOLSON, Appleton.

Secretary ,

ERNEST B. SKINNER, Madison.

Treasurer ,

HOMER W. HILLYER, Madison.

Librarian ,

WALTER M. SMITH, Madison.

Curator ,

ELLWOOD C. PERISHO, Platteville.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOL. XIV, PART I.

PAGE.

Recent criticism of American scholarship,

Charles S. Slichter , 1

Origin and meaning of Wisconsin place-names with

special reference to Indian nomenclature,

Henry E. Legler , 16

The vocabulary of Shakespeare, . James Davie Butler , 40

A study in longevity, . . Charles H. Chandler , 56

Nuclear divisions and nuclear fusion in Coleosporium

sonchi-arvensis, Lev.,

B. J. Holden and R. A. Harper , 63

Third supplementary list of parasitic fungi of Wisconsin,

J. J. Davis, 83

Arizona diatomite, . . . William P. Blake, 107

On a new species of Canthocamptus from Idaho,

C. Dwight Marsh, 112

Entocythere cambaria (nov. gen. et nov. spec.), a parasitic

ostracod, . . . . W. S. Marshall, 117

Ten species of Arrenuri belonging to the subgenus

megalurus Thon, . . . Ruth Marshall, 145

New species of the family Attidae from South Africa, with

notes on the distribution of the genera found in the

Ethiopian region,

George W. Peckham and Elizabeth G. Peckham, 173

vi

Table of Contents.

PAGE.

Variations in form and size of Cyclops brevispinosus Her¬

rick and Cyclops Americanus Marsh,

t Harriet Lehmann , 279

Action of metallic magnesium upon aqueous solutions,

Louis Kohlenberg , 299

Fluoride of gold, , Victor Lenher , 312

Action upon metals of solutions of hydrochloric acid in

various solvents, . [Harrison Eastman Patten , 316

LIST OF PLATES.

Plates. To face pages

I— II. Holden and Harper on Coleosporium

sonchi-arvensis . , , . 80, 82

III-VIII. Blake on Arizona diatomite . 108, 110

IX. Marsh on Canthocamptus . . 116

X-XIII. W. S. Marshall on a Parasitic Os-

tracod . . 138, 140, 142, 144

XIV-XVIII. Ruth Marshall on Arrenuri

164, 166, 168, 170, 172

XIX-XXIX. G. W. andE. G. Peckham on Attidae

258, 260, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 272, 274,

276, 278.

XXX-XXXIII. Lehmann on Cyclops . 288, 296, 298

RECENT CRITICISM OF AMERICAN SCHOLARSHIP.

Address of the Retiring President, Charles S. Slichter.

“In spite of much notable achievement, America’s position in

the world of Science is inferior.” This quotation from an arti¬

cle by Carl Snyder in a recent number of the Horth American

Review, may be taken as a concise statement of the main tenet

of that paper, as well as the final conclusion from the great

flood of denial, explanation and further criticism which the

original article has called forth in American and European

periodicals. A professional critic can always be distinguished

by the simple open-or-shut test which he applies to any propo¬

sition which comes under his critical eye. There is to him

no mean ground, no qualifying circumstance. His finely bal¬

anced judgment is like the litmus paper of the chemist; if it

be applied to one proposition and turn red, that means one con¬

clusion ; if it turn blue, that means the opposite conclusion. In

the rainbow of the true critic there are no colors but red and

blue. So in the paper referred to, we need not be surprised

if Ave fail to find a careful analysis of the subject under dis¬

cussion. A blue or red test is more to Mr. Snyder’s liking.

Hie adopts, therefore, the simple device of establishing his

proposition by a series of comparisons between American and

Continental achievement in selected lines of research, with no

attempt at explanation, or discussion of causes or present ten¬

dencies. Our attention is first directed to Pasteur’s memora¬

ble discovery of forty years ago, that the process of fermenta¬

tion is due to the action of micro-organisms. The culmina¬

tion of Pasteur’s researches in the germ theory of disease, and

the great army of workers in European states that took up

and extended Pasteur’s work is contrasted with the claim that

in all the brilliant list of discoveries and applications, not one

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

American name is to be found. There is not only no Lord

Lister, no Behring, no Koch, among the Americans, but no

name of even secondary importance.

Mr. Snyder’s second arraignment of American science has

the physicists as the culprits. The theoretical works of Clerk

Maxwell and the experimental work of Hertz on electrical

waves, called out an army of investigators abroad, including

such names as Branly of Paris, Bighi of Italy, Slaby, Count

Arco, and Braun of Germany, Preece and Lodge of Great

Britain, but not a single American.

Our critic next takes up a recent continental work on metal¬

lurgy. He finds it to be almost a dictionary of names of Bel¬

gians, Hollanders, Germans, Englishmen, Frenchmen, and

Russians. Two Americans appear in such a host, Professor

Gibbs and Professor Howe, and yet, the critic remarks, America

is the land of the steel industry and the home of the great trust

Considering research on. the phenomena of ultra-matter and

the aether, the writer finds no American worthy of note among

the disciples of Crooks, Roentgen, and J. J. Thompson.

Mr. Snyder next directs our attention to the work of the

past quarter century which lias been expended in the attempt

to unravel the mystery of the mechanism of the human brain.

A whole library could be filled with the monographs, memoirs

and treatises on this subject from Spain, Italy, Germany, Bel¬

gium, Switzerland and Austria, but in all of the many shelves

and stacks of this brain library there is not even a pamphlet

or reprint from America.

The critic, having gained enthusiasm with the sweeping char¬

acter of this last conclusion, now takes up a much larger sub¬

ject, that of chemistry. Obscure lands, he says, like Sweden,

Norway, Russia have often been to the fore, yet. the history

of this wonderful science could be written in full detail with¬

out mention of perhaps more than a single American name,

which according to our critic would be that of Professor Wolcott

Gibbs. In physical chemistry, or “electro chemistry” as our

ciitic calls it, the case is not much better. Not only has Amer¬

ica no name to place with Van’t Hoff, Arrhenius, Ostwald,

and Raoult, but a list which should include the names of even

Slichter — Recent Criticism of American Scholarship. 3

the lesser builders of this imposing fabric, would hardly con¬

tain a single American.

The critic says that it is easy to multiply examples, but cares

to note but a single additional case; namely, the theory of the

aether. Wise men from many lands have come offering gifts

at this issue of a happy union of experiment and imagination,

but in the long line from Kelvin and Helmholtz to Lorenz and

Poincare, you discover no faces out of the “desert of the west¬

ern continent.” The “desert of the western continent” is Mr.

Snyder’s name for that part- of the map of the scientific world

occupied by the United States.

The above are the' principal claim!s Set forth in the article.

The impression made by the criticisms, as a whole; is distinctly

that of unfairness. In some cases, as, for example, that of

chemistry, the references are decidedly unjust to the rapidly

expanding work and reputation of American scientists. It is

not our purpose, however, to set up in rebuttal an opposite

claim as to America’s position in the scientific world. It is

more profitable to consider the possible causes which have made

the situation what it is ; to note the character of present tenden¬

cies, and to see what hope can be found for the near future.

First, let us consider the situation in a, field of activity very

close to that of pure science. It is certain that no one need

apologize for America in the field of invention and technical

science. The steamboat, the telegraph, the telephone, are

enough of the fundamental inventions for any nation to contrib¬

ute in a single century. Even if one find credit for others than

Morse and Bell in the last named inventions, one must remem¬

ber that after all, the honors in technical science and inven¬

tion belong not so much to the one who makes a discovery,

as is the case in pure science; as to the one who makes a dis¬

covery and renders it a commercial success. On this basis

America can take a large share of honor in many lines of en¬

deavor. The vastness and novelty of the problems in a new

country have contributed to our success. The great rivers to

be spanned by bridges, the great mountain ranges to be crossed

by highways, the great canals to be built with high priced labor

have all resulted in great engineering advance and have placed

the rest of the world in the position of pupil to America. But

4 W isconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

America Las not only advanced engineering science in bridge

design, in railway construction and in canal digging, but Las

extended engineering science to entirely new fields. A famil¬

iar example is tLe complex development of tLe municipal rapid

transit systems of tLe American cities. Another example is

tLe American steel frame sky-scraper, witL tLe difficult asso¬

ciated problems of beating and sanitation. A less well known

example, but, nevertheless, one in wbicb the economic results

have been of international importance, is the application of

engineering science to the design of machine tools — such as

the lathes, boring-machines, shapers, planers, etc., used in ma¬

chine shops to give form to the" metal parts of a machine. Such

tools have not only been made highly versatile and highly auto¬

matic, but the theory of their design has been enormously elab¬

orated. The introduction of improved tool steel and scien¬

tifically designed cutting tools, permitting deeper cuts and

higher speed, has increased immensely the earning power of

all machine tools. Likewise the introduction of standard de¬

signs and dimensions in cutting tools and other parts and the

use of graduated indices have converted the machine tool into

an instrument of precision — a quantitative and not merely a

qualitative instrument. The further development of the de¬

sign so as to produce the maximum product in the minimum

time has made the cost of unit output nearly independent of

the operative and the rate of his daily wage. These achieve¬

ments are of the kind that has enabled this country to enter

successfully into international competition, notwithstanding the

much higher cost of labor.

It is unnecessary to multiply examples of American contri¬

bution to technical science, or to enumerate further additions

which American necessity has added to the recognized domain

of engineering practice, I use these facts to indicate that

American leadership in pure science is not hopeless, if in the

future there can be provided for the scientist an environment

as favorable as the past has allotted to the inventor and the

engineer. One must be blind if he can not see such indications

in the present situation. It is obvious that it is not the first

concern of the pioneer to cultivate science and scholarship.

Slick ter — Recent Criticism of American 8 cholarskip. 5

Speculation about the unknown must give way for a time to

attention to the more immediate necessities. The savage must

be driven back, the soil must be reclaimed, shelter must be pro¬

vided. Next, roads, canals, and means of communication must

be established, cities built, churches and schools erected. Then

business, commerce, and manufacturing must be fostered be¬

fore profits and surplus can accumulate wherewith to provide

for leisure and to sustain the arts and sciences. I take it that

it is the coming of age of commercialism in this country that

has brought technical science to its present commanding place;

unless things go quite wrong, the natural evolution of events

should next culminate in a like development of pure science.

The coming change is foreshadowed in the modified character

of technical science. In former days engineering technology

was founded chiefly upon current practice rather than upon

established principles; it was more closely allied to the crafts

than to science. Not only is that day past, but it is no longer

the case that technical science looks entirely to pure science

for its fundamental material. It has so grown that it is in¬

vestigating for itself and, in greater and greater measure,

developing basal principles for its many needs. There are

very few American treatises in pure science which will com¬

pare in scientific thoroughness with several treatises which have

lately issued from the engineering press. This is a very hope¬

ful sign in the growth of knowledge1 — to see applied science and

pure science approaching each other at numerous points, so

that it is increasingly difficult to distinguish any line of de¬

marcation between them. In this change, science is not sacri¬

ficing any of its strength nor compromising its ideals. It is

technology that is changing — that is becoming less empirical,

less conservative, more systematic, more quantitative, more

exact, more scientific.

The technical schools are planning their own departments for

research and higher work. The Massachusetts Institute of

Technology has organized such a department during the cur¬

rent year, while one of the plans dearest to the heart of the

late Dean Johnson was an endowment fund for technical re¬

search at Wisconsin.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

There are two results which naturally follow from the situa¬

tion as I have described it. First, applied science, by its ex¬

pansion into new fields, by its rapid approximation to a sounder

scientific basis, as well as by its great vitality and energy,

offers a most favorable opportunity for the rapid development

of pure science, if other conditions are favorable. Secondly,

unless the forces which are at present working against the high¬

est development of pure science in America are discovered and

removed, the greater share of productive energy will flow in

technical channels, to the detriment of the best interests of both

pure and applied science.

Let us now consider some of the facts in the present situation

which are unfavorable to the highest and best work in science.

The most fundamental defect, I believe, is to be found in the

peculiarities of our American educational system. The great

majority of scholars . must always rely for their support upon

the colleges and universities. The advancement of knowledge

is as much a function of a university as is the propagation

of learning. In fact, so many departments of scholarship in

this country have no home outside our educational institutions,

that it is highly important for the growth of knowledge that

conditions should be as favorable as possible in these higher

institutions. We find that the colleges instead of providing a

distinctly favorable environment, adhere to substantially the

same methods of education that are suited to elementary schools.

The American college and university system is largely a sys¬

tem of text book and recitation. Tasks are assigned in small

allotments and quizzes held, substantially as in the lower

schools. Even the lectures of Junior and Senior grade lack

the vitalizing principle appropriate to university or college

work. We may explain away this fact as much as we please,

we may draw as bright contrasts between the higher college

work and the work of the elementary schools as we can, yet

it is a fact that from the time the grade pupil begins his work

in spelling, arithmetic and geography until as university stu¬

dent he does his language, history, and science, he is kept con¬

stantly at a grind of chores, doing tasks for a taskmaster. The

taskmaster must consume much of his time in holding the

o

Slichter — Recent Criticism of American Scholarship. 7

student to account, in seeing that tilings are done at a specified

time and in specified amounts. It results that the work is ema¬

ciated and lifeless, both for instructor and student. The lec¬

turer gives in two or three lectures what should be given in

one, and the student has twelve to eighteen of these periods

per week instead of half a,s many — numerous lunches instead

of half as many substantial meals. Such a system I believe

to be disastrous to the best scholarship. Ao one working under

such a plan can give or receive the highest inspiration. There

is too much detail in instruction and too much detail in ad¬

ministration. The system has not produced scholars, and we

may doubt if it has adequately succeeded as an educational

scheme. Instruction of the higher undergraduates, as well as

of the graduate students, must depend, I am convinced, upon

inspiration rather than upon watchfulness. It must hope to

reflect culture upon the students from the fire of higher in¬

vestigative scholarship, rather than expect to force it upon them

by the pressure of an educational system,.

It is idle to expect any surrender of educational purpose in

our colleges and universities. They must exist for the educa¬

tion of youth quite as much in the future as in the past. The

change will come when it becomes apparent that this very work

can be better done by a different and no more expensive sys¬

tem. Associated with such change will come a broadening of

American scholarship. Instructional positions in American

colleges and universities will become more attractive to ambi¬

tious scholars, and our position in science materially advanced.

American scholarship seems to be content with the filling

in of details within boundaries outlined by continental mas¬

ters. Men from other countries have mapped out the new

regions and noted the chief features; American work has con¬

sisted in supplying particulars. This is a corollary to what

we have said about our peculiar educational system. The sci¬

entific work of young men, of graduate students, is amply en¬

couraged by scholarships and fellowships and the like. Their

theses, written in this country or abroad, are too often the

best pieces of work that they ever do, for our encouragement

stops when one of them begins instructional work. At the time

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of life when the scientist should be producing his best work,

say from 30 to 50 years of age, he is held down to mere in¬

structional routine by the American quality of his college or

university professorship. To take the lead in science our schol¬

arship must become catholic; we must contribute to knowl¬

edge a due share of the great generalizations, of the funda¬

mental principles. This requires that all professors in all in¬

stitutions should be engaged in productive work, so that in the

multitude the genius may be discovered and advanced to greater

opportunity.

Let; us attempt to name, as others have, the great scientific

truths which the 19th century added to the sum of knowledge."

The list is about as follows : —

1. The principle of evolution.

2. The atomic structure of matter.

3. The existence of the aether and the undulatory theory of

light and electricity.

4. The principles of electro-magnetic induction,

5. The principles of electrolytic action.

6. The discovery of micro-organisms and the germ theory

of contagious disease.

7. The principle of conservation of energy.

The question for us to raise is: — IIow much would the dis¬

covery of these truths have been retarded if America had not

existed ? What would be the loss to science and humanity if

the American contributions to these great principles could be

removed from the libraries of the world ? The answer must be

that America has not materially affected the general result.

Such is likely to be the case in the future if the position of

the scholar in the educational system is to remain as it is at

present.

Nearly every college and university instructor in the land

needs wider opportunity for productive scholarship than our

system permits. It is in the multitude of scientific workers

that there is hope. The man of genius is a rare bird, and

we must have a numerous class from which to produce him.

A few institutions with high ideals cannot raise America from

*1 have added 5 and 6 to the list of Sir William Preece.

Slichter — Recent Criticism of American Scholarship . 9

her present position, if the instructors in other institutions must

remain mere teachers, and view from afar the scientific work

of others. Matthew Arnold once said that the smallest Ger¬

man university contributed more to human knowledge than Ox¬

ford and Cambridge with all of their wealth. College trustees

and presidents in this country could well afford to ponder over

the significance of this criticism.

A very good indication that America’s inferior position in

science is due in large part to her higher educational system

is seen when we consider those, branches of pure science in

which America stands highest. I suppose that all will agree

that the United States is in the very front rank in astronomy,

geology, and meteorology. But. these are the very branches

which are freest from the influence of the American teaching

system. Astronomy has thrived in the National Observatory,

in the great university observatories, and in a few private or

independent observatories, like the Lick. In all of these cases,

instructional requirements are either absent altogether or are

at a minimum. Likewise geology has been fostered by the

great government bureau, and the best geologists in the uni¬

versities have had opportunity to work under its auspices, with

consequent curtailment of university instruction. Three past

presidents of the Wisconsin Academy, Chamberlin, Irving, and

Van Hise, have won international fame in this line of work.

This was not due to a helpful situation at Beloit or Madison,

but to the opportunity which the national survey afforded them.

In meteorology the sole patron has been the general govern¬

ment, and the service has honored American science with a

long list of names of international currency, — Espy, Bedfield,

Loomis, Ferrel, Abbe. Likewise, a few purely investigative

institutions, like Wood’s IIoll, The Museum of Comparative

Zoology, The Missouri Botanical Gardens, etc., all bring to

bear their share of proof that it is not lack of brains or scien¬

tific capacity that has kept higher scholarship out of our col¬

leges and universities.

Among the many discussions of the present subject which

fill the reviews of the current vear, there is one in a French

periodical, La Revue, written by Jean Jussieu. T'ihs writer

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

will not adrojit that America is too young to have attained dis¬

tinction in science and art. He has no doubt that the cause

of America’s scientific inferiority is the too great triumph of

democracy. He says: ‘‘The idea of the moral equality of

citizens brings about in most minds the idea of intellectual

equality, which is of course a profound error. The result is

the “bourgeoisisme” not only of a class, as in France, but of

the whole nation. Democracy assures the triumph of utilita¬

rianism. The formula of both is the greatest good for the

greatest number. How the value of a principle depends upon

the person who adopts it. In the mouth of the majority this

principle has come to mean: — ‘So long as I do not interfere

with another, there is no reason why I should honor him rather

than myself.’ It is easy to see what this means in the mouth

of one of average intelligence ; it is the end of all spirit of dis¬

interestedness, not only in science, but in art and in moral¬

ity. Men who will not sacrifice themselves for another man

will hardly do so for an idea,, a precept. Worldly success, the

money making ideal, has fettered and will continue to fetter

American science . In the United States, it

may be said, the school governs science, the masters govern the

school, the parents govern the masters, the children govern the

parents, — therefore the children govern science.”

“Again there is too much attention paid to athletics. A di¬

rector of football at an American university gets $6,000.00 a

year; a coach, $1,500,00 for ten or twelve weeks’ service, with

board and lodging. Sports occupy a proportional amount of

space in American newspapers.”

“The true scientific spirit, according to Herbert Spencer, is

the synthetic spirit, which sees likenesses where the common

mind only sees divergencies.” It is this which M. Jussieu

considers is almost lacking in America. Here scientific writ¬

ings are almost always merely analytical — statistics, compila¬

tions, observations, etc., requiring altogether a lower order of

intelligence.

The criticisms of M. Jussieu cannot be ignored or lightly

dismissed. It is hard, or impossible, for an American to admit

that science and democracy cannot both triumph on American

Slichter — -Recent Criticism of American Scholarship. 11

soil. We are too prejudiced to accept such a proposition even

if proved. ^Nevertheless, may we not agree that, after all, some

of our ideals have been fallacious ? Have we not gone too much

on the principle that every one must receive a higher educa¬

tion, whether he will or not? If in preparation for such an

education it is too difficult or too inconvenient to master Greek

and Latin, have we not accepted too eagerly such things as

civics and literary readings as equivalents ? Is it not true that

American colleges and universities have cared too much for

numbers and for athletic success ? It is not too much democ¬

racy that makes it relatively easy for colleges to get buildings ’

and so hard to get income, both from individuals and from the

state ? Is it not true that too much is made of newspaper pub¬

licity and too little of scholarly reputation ?

Answers to these questions show that Jussieu’s criticisms are

not without some force. Yet it seems to me that there is no in¬

dication that democracy is necessarily plebeian. The expe¬

rience of Greece and even of our own country seems to show

that democracy admits of sufficient refinement and that the

evils that the critic notes are not to be considered as essential

but merely incidental to certain phases of development. There

are also a number of facts of a contrary character to those

sought out by Jussieu. It is encouraging to know that the

people of Wisconsin have erected as their noblest public build¬

ing the Historical Library, a home for advanced scholarship

and research. It also is significant that as a class the state

universities, founded and endowed directly by the people, have

advanced more in investigative scholarship during the past

decade than in any other line of their growth.

There are some things inherent in democracy which should

naturally tend to foster the higher interests of science. There

are supposed to be, in republican institutions, no artificial re¬

straints to hold down and keep obscure the exceptional man,

the man of genius, no matter how obscure his origin. As

Professor Simon Uewcomb has well said: “The whole historv

e/

of modern progress, whether in science or industry, is a his¬

tory of the efforts of exceptional men.” .... “The

leader in science, the divinely inspired explorer of nature —

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

whom no university has made what he is, who has learned

for himself how knowledge can he advanced, whose main out¬

fit is the original genius with which nature has endowed him,

whose paramount motive is a native impulse,” should have the

fairest show in a democracy. But Professor fSTewcomb com¬

plains that in our failure to estimate and honor the individ¬

ual scientific investigator we stand far behind all other enlight¬

ened nations. Such honor as England showed to Lord Kel¬

vin and Sir George Gabriel Stokes in the impressive jubilees

held in recent years, the noble tribute paid by all Germany

to the venerable Helmholtz upon his seventieth birthday and

the recent tribute of Prance to Berthelot, seem quite impossi¬

ble in America. Such honor, suggests Professor Hewcomb,

is not needed so that each investigator may say “See what may

be done for me if I am successful” but so that all may say

“See what a high value my countrymen set upon the best kind

of intellectual work.”

The most favorable classification of the rank of modern na¬

tions in productive scholarship that I have seen places America

in the fourth place. This classification attempts to divide the

countries into groups of approximately equal population, and

is as follows:

1. Germany and Austria.

2. Great Britain and Colonies.

3. France and Belgium.

4. The United States.

5. Italy.

6. Scandinavia, Holland, and a miscellaneous group of states.

7. Spain and Spanish Colonies.

One cannot be satisfied with the position of America in this

scheme, but it seems impossible to challenge its truth. Yet

it is true that the difference between class 2, Great Britain

and Colonies, and class 3, France and Belgium, is exceedingly

slight: many would probably prefer to put France and Bel¬

gium in second place, so that America occupies a sort of third

place, the second position being nearly evenly divided. But

after all, it is not so much our actual grade that need concern

us, as the character of present tendencies and our rate of de-

Slichter — Recent Criticism of American 8 cholarship. 13

velopment. And in this aspect there is much encouragement.

The American scholar is now wide awake, both to his actual

position in the world and to the vast opportunities before him.

His ambition is kindled and he is beginning to insist upon op¬

portunity for work and for proper recognition for what is at¬

tained.

It is the hope of every American that the new Carnegie

Institution will have a marked influence upon the advance of

science in this country. This munificent foundation was of¬

fered to America at a most opportune time. The whole range

of American scholarship had just entered upon a season of

promising growth. Ho stimulus of greater power to vitalize

science can be imagined than the fortunate creation of this new

corporation for the fostering of research. It is amazing to

note, however, the lack of perspective, the inadequacy of ideals

among American scientists which have been disclosed by the

founding of this institution. The numerous discussions con¬

cerning the proper use of the Carnegie gift which have taken

up so much space in the weekly issues of “Science” during

the past autumn make one ashamed of the poverty of ambi¬

tion and smallness of scientific scope which many of the

scientific men of this country have displayed. If the advisory

committees of the Carnegie Institution do not act on higher

ideals than those presented by a majority of the suggestions

printed in Science, then all the new establishment can hope to

accomplish is to add to American science more of the same

material that is being abundantly accumulated at the present

time.

The Carnegie Institution should take its chief warning from

the unfortunate history of the Smithsonian Institution, which

at one time promised so much for American science. This

institution instead of becoming the one place in the United

States where the highest science could always find a home, has

become very largely a routine institution. It spends its money

for salaries and administration in true American fashion and

has a minimum to show for its more than fifty years of ex¬

istence. At the present time about four-fifths of its income

goes for salaries and expense of administration. The Ameri-

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

can is a great man for stipends, and stenographers, and card

catalogs. Fortunate would it have been if a Helmholtz had

had charge of this institution. He would have been so ab¬

sorbed in his science that he would have forgotten about his

clerks and type-writers, but his suggestions and plans, given

to his scientific workers, would have made at Washington an

institution conspicuous “for the increase and diffusion of knowl¬

edge among men.” It is one of the good signs of the times

that scientific journals have come to recognize the deficiences

in the work of the Smithsonian Institution and are loudly call¬

ing for a change of policy.

A question of much interest to us is: What part shall Wis¬

consin take in the new revival of learning which seems to be

upon us ? It has often seemed to me that Wisconsin was des¬

tined to become a sort of Scotland to the other states of the Mis¬

sissippi V alley, to be the home of a sturdy people, with high in¬

tellectual and moral ideals, even if it could not excel neighbor¬

ing states in commerce and wealth. Wisconsin is a state of roll¬

ing hills and partly drained valleys, marked out by nature for

dairying and diversified farming rather than for grain and corn

raising as it is found on the flat prairies of Illinois and Iowa.

Wisconsin has no great beds of coal beneath her soil, and her

manufacturing, instead of being of the cruder and grosser sort,

must in large part develop the more highly finished products

suitable to a more expensive cost of fuel. But these very facts

have a compensating advantage. There will be little attraction in

Wisconsin for the lower grade of immigrants which are brought

in by the coal mines and the less finished manufactures. In¬

stead of much wealth in the hands of a few, there is hope that

Wisconsin may enjoy a more equal division of the good things of

life, more contentment, and immeasurably greater refinement

and learning than will be the lot of her more populous

neighbors. Wisconsin will be satisfied if she can share in a

large way in the intellectual life of the nation and furnish her

country with scholars and statesmen. It must be the ambition

of every scholar in the state to do his part in building up the in¬

tellectual reputation of Wisconsin, and, more than all, for each

one to do all he can to bring about an elevation of ideals in all

Slichter — Recent Criticism, of American Scholarship. 15

institutions of learning within our borders, so that her scientific

men may enjoy wider opportunities for productive work. Our

ambition must extend beyond our individual work, and must

especially include the advancement of the best interests of the

state Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. It should be the

inspiration of every scholar in the state to have within our

borders a better Academy than is found in any neighboring state.

Our printed Transactions appear upon the shelves of practically

every library in the learned world. ~No publication within our

state has so wide a circulation, the original of a citation from

an Academy paper being instantly accessible in almost any seat

of learning in the world. It should be our pride, therefore,

that this society, which is the intellectual ambassador of the

state of Wisconsin to the learned world, should be maintained in

the highest possible position ; that its dignity should be com¬

mensurate with the honor of science as well as with the honor of

a great commonwealth. With such a purpose in his mind, let

every member of this Academy renew his allegiance and his ac¬

tivity. Let all the productive intellectual forces of the state be

united in this society as an instrument for the advancement of

investigation and the spread of knowledge.

ORIGIN AND MEANING OF WISCONSIN PLACE-NAMES;

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIAN NOMEN¬

CLATURE.

HEMY E. LEGLER.

In the names of water-ways and other geographical features

may be traced the history of colonization. Sometimes the

study is hindered by reason of complex transformations from

the primary simple form, rendering the origin and significance

of terms doubtful; sometimes the meaning is so obscure! as to

lead to unsatisfactory controversy ; but despite incongruities

and etymological guesswork, the study of the geographical

nomenclature of any country or political division is suscepti¬

ble of valuable result to the student of philology and of his¬

tory. This is especially true of the Western continent, where

the local names preserve, though often hidden by successive cor¬

ruption of the original terms, the migratory history and legend¬

ary lore of Indian tribes.1

The study of local names in America is attended, as in

Europe, with the difficulties that naturally arise from dialectic

changes. The Frenchmen, Dutch, Englishmen and Spaniards

altered the forms to make the meanings applicable to themselves

or to render the sound familiar to their own ears. The yel¬

lowed mjaps of the early cartographers become invaluable in this

connection, as the names there recorded indicate in chrono¬

logical sequence the displacement of the aborigines, by races

from the continent of Europe, who in turn gave, way to each

i “Local names — whether they belong to provinces, cities and villages,

or are the designations of rivers and mountains, — are never mere arbi¬

trary sounds, devoid of meaning. They may always be regarded as

records of the past, inviting and rewarding a careful historical inter¬

pretation.” Rev. Isaac Taylor’s Words and Places, London and Cam¬

bridge, 1865.

17

Legler ■ — Wisconsin Place-Names.

other. In this century, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Dutchmen and

Horsemen, who three hundred years ago collectively claimed

all of the Horth American continent, except a few Colonies

struggling for a, foothold in the thin tide-water strip between

the Atlantic and the Alleghenies, are left without an acre of

their vast domains; the story of their explorations, their for¬

est fortresses, their attempts to establish feudal empires, remains

recorded in the names that, still dot the, modern map from| ocean

to ocean.2

As a rule (which, however, has notable exceptions) it will

be found that the streams and lakes and mountains preserve

the names given therm by the red men, or their equivalents in

European tongues ; the cities and villages bear the names, trans¬

planted from European soil. Thus may be found scattered

over this continent, in juxtaposition to names of undoubted

Indian origin, a nomenclature whereby the immigrant exiles

sought to preserve in the wilderness the associations endeared

to them in youth.

Some striking feature in the landscape suggested to the im¬

aginative savage mind a term, descriptive of it. The analogous

mind of the trappers and pioneers who pushed the frontier

ever westward applied names on the same principle. Big Bone

Lick, Bad Axe, Hickory Flats, etc., may be cited in illustra¬

tion. It is to be regretted that the apt Indian names were

not permitted to remain in all cases., or that the, builders of

commonwealths and cities did not confine their selections for

christening to such old-world names as would suggest historical

significance. For instance, “the name of Louisiana reminds us

that, in the days of the Grand Monarque, France was the rival

of England in the colonization of the Western World; the

n antes of Virginia, of the Carolina# and of Georgia give us

the dates of the first foundation of England’s colonial empire.”

2 “How rapidly such a stratification of names can be effected is shown

in the case of North America, where we find a layer of Indian names,

like Massachusetts, Niagara, Canada, Quebec, Erie, or Ontario, overlaid

by Franco-Indian terms like Huron or Illinois, or pure French names

such as Vermont, lake Superior or Montreal, by Dutch names like

Brooklyn or Hoboken, with a Spanish stratum such as Florida, Col¬

orado, Montana or Rio Grande, and the whole overlaid by such pure

English names as Westpoint, Maryland, or Springfield — Taylor’s Names

and Their Histories, p. 3.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The liberal use of names derived from Greek and Roman

mythology, or the history of countries which have not even

a remote connection with the peopling of the New World, is

certainly out of place. Such names, for example, as Palmyra

in Wisconsin, Utica, Troy and Rome in New York, Athens

in Georgia, Cairo in Illinois, Memphis in Tennessee, etc., are

utterly inappropriate and have been deservedly criticised.8

Even Thomas Jefferson, when he proposed, to divide the Old

Northwest Territory into states, suggested such utterly inap¬

propriate names as Chersonesus, Assenisipia, Polypotamia and

Metropo tami a .* * * 4

Of the forty-five United States, none possesses a nomencla¬

ture more suggestive or historically significant than Wisconsin.

The leading phases of its history are indexed by the names that

appear on successive issues of its map: the French regime, the

establishment of mining camps in the lead region of South¬

western Wisconsin, the planting of pioneer settlements by hardy

frontiersmen from New York and New England, the subse¬

quent waves of immigration comprising the nationalities that

have made of Wisconsin a polyglot state. More than in most

states, too, the Indian names have been retained, as is meet

in a state where picturesque streams and lakes and rock form¬

ations abound in generous profusion.

The derivation of the names from so many different sources

renders the study of their origin and significance especially dif¬

ficult, despite the fact that the period of Wisconsin’s settlement

is so recent. Especially is this true of the Indian names, for

Wisconsin was the meeting place of the two greatest ethnological

divisions of red men located east of the Rocky Mountains —

Dakotan or Siouan, and Algic or Algonquin. The tribal dia¬

lectic differences add to the difficulties that beset the student

of Wisconsin’s Indian nomenclature and in a measure excuse

s “The incongruity between the names and the appearance of these

places is amusing. Thus Corinth consists of a wooden grogshop and

three log 'shanties; the Acropolis is represented by a grocery store.

All that can be seen of the city of Troy is a timber house, three log

huts, a saw mill and twenty negroes.” — Russell, Diary North and South,

vol ii, pp. 45, 46.

4 Doubtless these names were inspired by the desire for classic learn¬

ing which obtained about this period. In speech, as in writing, al¬

lusion to mythology and classic literature was regarded as the stamp

of learning.

19

Legler — Wisconsin Place-Names .

the different conclusions readied in many instances by author¬

ities of equal standing. Even the meaning of the name Wiscon¬

sin, which is an Englished version of the French rendering of

an Indian word, is in doubt.

But scant information concerning the etymology of Indian

place-names is to be gleaned from the printed narratives of

early day travelers. The records left by these keen pioneers

of forest commerce tell us much of the customs of the aborigi¬

nes, of their manners, their implements, their social relations,

their religions.* * 5 Such attention as was paid to their language

was limited to the compilation of vocabularies that would serve

the most practical purposes. Of these there are many, almost

every tribal dialect employed in Wisconsin being represented.

Some of the vocabularies are remarkably full and well attain to

the dignity of dictionaries.6 A study of these, however, gives

few clues to the derivation of place-names. Fancied resem¬

blances are more apt to mislead than to guide the searcher who

wishes to trace the geographical nomenclature derived from

Indian sources.

The names of this state, of the great river that borders it

on one side and the great fresh-water sea, that adjoins it on

the opposite side, of the largest stream that flows- within and

almost bisects it, of the largest lake wholly within its territory,

of the principal range, and the chief of its bustling city com¬

munities, are all of undoubted Indian origin. It is interest*

ing to compare the synonyms that appear on the early maps.

In the collection of Parkman maps in the Massachusetts His¬

torical Society is an undated manuscript map, which he says

shows “the earliest representation of the upper Mississippi,

based perhaps on the reports of the Indians/’ supposedly the

work of the Jesuits. The following names appear thereon:

Baye des Puans.

Lac des Illinois.

Lac Tracy ou Superieur. I

Riviere Colbert.

s The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 73 vols„ edited by

Reuben Gold Thwaites, are a veritable encyclopedia covering every

phase of Indian life.

6 Some of the rpost creditable work remains in manuscript in the

Wisconsin Historical Society and in the Bureau of Ethnology.

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Another map, supposed to be the' work of the engineer F'ran-

quelin (1681) calls Wisconsin “Miskous.” So does Joliet in

his Carte* Generate, where he defines the Riviere de Messissipi.

Joliet’s smaller map (in the Archives Marine' Paris) bears the

same nomenclature. Another anonymous map in the Parkman

collection designates Lake Mitchiganong ou des Illinois. Lake

Winnebago is designated as Lake Kitchigamenque, ou Lac St.

P rancois.

Joliet’s map of 1673-74, which is the earliest that includes

the Mississippi from actual knowledge!, bears these terms : Lac

Superieur. Baye des Puans. Lac des Illinois ou Missihi-

ganin. Riviere Miskonsing. Riviere de Buade. (Lake Win¬

nebago is not designated.)

Marquette’s map: R. de la Conception. Lac des Illinois.

Lac Superieur ou DeTracy. (Ho name is given the Wiscon¬

sin and none Lake Winnebago.) There is a map given in

Thevenot as Marquettes’s, but it is spurious.

Franquelin’s map, 1688 : Fleuve Messisipi. R. Ouiscon-

sing.

Coronelli map, 1688: Ouisconsing. Lac des Illinois, ou

Michigami, ou Lac Dauphin.

Hennepin, 1683 : Lac de Conde. Lac Dauphin, ou Illinois.

R. le Outonagamis (Pox river). R. de Ouisoonsins. R. Col¬

bert.

Hennepin, 1697 : Le Grand Pleuve Meschasipi. R. Ouis¬

consing. R. Yerte (Pox river1).

Hennepin, 1697 (engraved for the English editions of his

book) : Riviere Ouisconsing.

La Hontan, 1709: Lac des Ilinois. R. des Puants (Pox

river). R. d. Ouriconsing. Grand Pleuve de Missisipi.

La Hontan, 1703 (English edition): Upper Lake. Illi-

nese Lake. Ouisconsink.

The first time the name Mississippi appeared in print was

in a Jesuit Relation. Claude Allouez had heard from Indians

sojourning at his Chequamegon chapel of bark of a great stream

which they termed Me-sipi. The Irocuois Indians, whose

habitations were in what is now Hew York, called this river

Gastacha. In Priar Hennepin’s narrative, this river is called

Le gler — W isconsin Place-N ames.

21

Mechasipi. Joliet, when his canoe came from! the Wisconsin

river to the junction with the great river at the place where

later rose the city of Prairie du Chiien, christened the stream

Buade river, in honor of the family name of Count Fronte-

nac. His companion, Marquette, less worldly-minded, called

the river Conception, because it was on the day known by that

name in the calendar of his faith that he had received permis¬

sion to accompany Joliet. Eleven years later the Sieur de

La Salle gave to the noble river, which he descended to its

mouth, the name Colbert, in honor of the great minister of

France whose friendship he enjoyed. A century and a half

before the Spaniard De Soto had given to the river the name

Rio Grande del Espiritu Santo.

The name the Spaniard gave, the many namjes given by the

Frenchmen, are to be found only on maps yellow with age;

on the modern map there survives, as is meek the name given

by the aborigines. The orthography has been most varied, for

geographers who sought to convey in modern spelling the pro^

nunciation of the old Algonquin word rarely agreed. Thus the

old maps, and the old chronicles of travelers, have included

these forms of the word Mississippi: Mechisipi, Messasipi,

Miscissipy, Misasipi, Mischasippi, Missessipie, Mississippy.

The definition usually given of the word Mississippi is,

“father of waters.’7 This is far from a literal translation of

the word derived from the Algonquin language, one of the origi¬

nal tongues of the continent. The historian, Shea, who made

a study of aboriginal philology, says that the word Mississippi

is a compound of the word Missi, signifying “great,” and Sepe,

“a river.” The former is variously pronounced Missil, or

Michilj as in Michilimackinac ; Michi, as in Michigan; Missu,

as in Missouri, and Missi, as in Mississippi. The word Sipi

may be considered as the English pronunciation of Sepe, de¬

rived through the medium of the French, and “affords an in¬

stance of an Indian term of much melody being corrupted by

Europeans into one that has a harsh and hissing sound.”

An interesting, but apparently unauthentic version of the

meaning of the word Mississippi is given in The Magazine of

American History , Vol. I. The writer quotes a tradition given

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

in Heekewelder’s Indian JST ations, according to wliicli two large

tribes emigrated several centuries ago from west of the Mis¬

sissippi, giving to that stream the name of Hawoesi Sipu, or

River of Fish, whence the present name is derived.

Lake Michigan wras the last of the five great inland seas of

the continent concerning which the early cartographers derived

knowledge. The old maps call it Lake Illinois (Ilinovik, Ili-

nois etc.), after the tribe of Indians that dwelt on its southern

border ; and Lake Dauphin, after the heir to the throne of

France. Lake Mitchiganons is the term used in the old Jesuit

Relation (1670-71), and a Paris map of 1688 labels it Lake

Michigami. Most of the early French maps give preference

to the word Illinois and its variants.

This Indian word, which has outlived the European names,

is variously interpreted to mean “fish weir,” and “great lake.”

Some authorities maintain that the word is derived from

Mitchaw, “great,” and Sagiegan, “lake.” This seems to be the

most plausible explanation. The assumption that the mean¬

ing is weir, or fish-trap, is based on the shape of the lake.

As with other geographical names derived from Indian

sources, the real meaning of the word Wisconsin (Chippewa

origin) is so obscure as to be in dispute. The popular transr

lation is “wild, rushing channel,” a definition that accords well

with the nature of the stream, but which nevertheless is of

doubtful authenticity. Another rendering, “the gathering of

the waters,” is pronounced absurd by students of the Algon¬

quin tongue. Mrs. Charlotte Ouisconsin Van Cleve, in her

Three Score Years and Ten says that the Indians termed the

stream V ee-na-hoo-na-ninka (beautiful little river).

It is claimed by Consul W. Butterfield that the name is de¬

rived from the physical features of its lower course, where

are observable the high lands or river hills. “Some of these

hills present high and precipitous faces towards the water.

Others terminate in knobs The name is supposed to have been

taken from this feature, the word being derived from Missi,

‘great/ and Os-sin, ‘a stone, or rock.’ ”

The word Wisconsin is the result of considerable change from

the first rendering. On Marquette’s genuine map, where the

Legler — Wisconsin Place-Names.

23

stream is indicated for the first timle, no name is put down.

Joliet’s map gives it as Miskonsing. Friar Hennepin wrote it

Onisconsin and again Misconsin, and the French traveler Char¬

levoix, who visited this country early in the eighteenth century,

gave his preference to this form: Ouisconsing. It was not

long before the final letter was dropped, and this form was re¬

tained until the present English spelling superseded that of the

French.

From its source in Lake Vieux Desert, on the northern

boundary line, the stream hows through this state for four hun¬

dred and fifty miles. Its descent from the lake to where, at

Prairie du Chien, it debouches into the Mississippi, is about

a thousand feet. From the famous portage that has played

such an important part in Western history, where the Wiscon¬

sin turns to the southwest, the current is exceedingly rapid,

and the distance to the mouth a hundred and eighteen miles.

The Indian name for Lake Superior was Kitchi-Gami, or,

as Longfellow has rendered it, Gitcheef-Gumee. The name is

derived from the Ojibwa tongue, its English equivalent being

“big water.” Lac de Tracy was a French appellation given,

in honor of Gen. Tracy, but it was not sufficiently popular to

take firm; root. On some of the old maps of the seventeenth

century this great fresh -water sea is given the name of Grand

Lac des 1ST adouessis. The latter word was the appellation by

which the French usually designated the Sioux Indians. It

was at the western end of the lake that the Sioux were wont

, to come in war parties for sudden raids on the villages of their

old-time foes, the Ojibwas.

Lake Superior is the only one of the five great lakes that

has retained the name Frenchmen gave it, Superieur, or Upper

Lake. This is the more remarkable in that legendary lore is

associated with every island in this lake, and headland and bay

on its shores. The Indian fairies known as pukwud j inees had

their fabled home along the southern shore of Lake Superior,

amjong the great sand dunes. This pigmy folk is happily de¬

scribed in Longfellow’s “Hiawatha.”

Early travelers on Lake Superior ascribe the origin of the

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

legend of the pukwudjinees to the mirage, a, phenomenon that

can be observed frequently on this lake on summer days.7

It seems singular that of all the great lakes, the one most

closely identified with Indian tradition and legend alone bears

a name of European origin.

The1 name Milwaukee is regarded as of Pottawatomie origin.

As many meanings have been ascribed to the word as there

are modes of spelling — and these have been many. Mr. Henry

W. Bleyer has compiled the following list :

Melleoki — Father Hennepin, 1679.

Millioki— Father Zenobe Membre, 1679.

Meleki — Old French map of 1684.

Milwarik — John Buisson de St. Cosine, Oct. 7, 1699.

Mil wacky — Lieut. James Garrett, September, 1761.

Milwakie — Col. Arent S. DePeyster, July 4, 1779.

Millewackie — Samuel A. Storrow, September1 29, 1817.

Miiwahkiei — Dr. Jedediah Morse, in summer of 1820.

Milwalky — Maj. Irwin to Col. McKenney, October 6, 1821.

Milwaukiei — In headline of The Sentinel to Nov. 30, 1844.

Milwaukee — Nov. 30, 1844, to present time.

The most generally accepted version of the meaning of Mil¬

waukee is, that the original Indian word signified council

place, and that here was neutral ground. Old residents, say

that it is a fact that the Indians regarded the east side of the

river as a, sort of gathering place, the chosen spot, for their coun¬

cils being the hill that used to occupy the place where the St.

Charles hotel now stands.

7 The German traveler Kohl saw a tall, bluish island, with which the

mirage played in an infinity of ways. At times it “rose in the air to

a spectral height, then sank and faded away; again, islands appeared

hovering over one another in the air; islands appeared, turned upside

down; and the white surf of the beach, translated aloft, seemed like

the smoke of artillery blazing away from a fort.”

Another traveler in Western Woods and Waters describes imagery so

clearly defined as to be seeming reality. “It occurred just as the sun

was setting. The sky was overcast with such a thick haze as precedes

a storm; and the inverted images of twelve vessels — with the full out¬

lines of the rigging, as well as the sails and other parts — were most dis¬

tinctly visible on the darkened background.” Again, “a blue coast

stretched along the horizon in front of us. Surprised, I referred to

Bayfield’s accurate chart, and found, as I expected, no land so near in

that direction. The pilot told me it was a mirage.”

Legler — Wisconsin Place-Names.

25

In the reminiscences of Augustine Grignon, a, grandson, of

Charles de Langlade1, Wisconsin’s first permanent settler, oc¬

curs the following explanation of the word Milwaukee: “I

was once told by an old Indian that its name was derived from

a valuable aromatic root used by the natives for medicinal

purposes. The name of this root was ‘manwau,’ hence Man-

a-waukee, the land or place of the man-wan. The Indians rep¬

resented that it grew nowhere else', to their1 knowledge, and it

was regarded as very valuable among them. The Chippewas

on Lake Superior would give a beaver skin for a piece as large

as a man’s finger. It was not used as a medicine, but was

for its fine aroma put into all their medicine taken internally.

I have also understood, though without placing so much con¬

fidence in it as in the other definition, that Milwaukee meant

simply ‘good land.’ ”8

Grignon’s explanation would be a good one, but for the fact

that the aromatic root concerning which he speaks in his

memoirs seems to have existed largely in imagination. If it

ever existed, it must have become extinct, for Dr. Lapham and

others found no trace of it, and certainly none of it is to be

found in this vicinity now.

Most of the Indian names that dot the map of Wisconsin

are of Ojibwa or Winnebago origin, with scattering additions

attributable to the Pottawatomies, Sauks and Menomonees.

In the following list of Wisconsin place-names and their mean¬

ings, the initials in parentheses are given for convenience of

reference to authorities cited in the bibliography which follows :

Ablemian’s — In honor of Col. S. Y. P. Ableman, who settled

there in 1851. (History of Sauk Co., p. 631.)

Ahnapee (Ah-nup-pee) — When or at what time. (W)

Altoona — Platted as East Eau Claire in 1881 ; changed to

Altoona. (Chip1. Valley, p. 184.)

Aniwa — Corruption of Aniwi, “those.” (Hist. Colls., v. 12,

p. 390.)

® Mr. Benjamin Suite, of Ottawa, Can., writes me concerning a curious

coincidence: “If I remember well what an Algonquin told me one

day, the word Milwaukee means good land, bonneterre, or Terrebonne.

Solomon Juneau was a native of Terrebonne seigneurie, in the province

of Quebec.”

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Anti go — Evergreen .

Arcadia — Named by Mrs. David Bishop in 1856. The val¬

ley was an unbroken field of flowers when she first saw the

place.

Ashland — Indian name, Zhamawamik, meaning long-

stretched beaver.

Augusta — First called Bridge Creek; platted in ’57. (Ran¬

dall’s Chippewa Valley.)

Aztalan — According to Humboldt this is the ancient name of

the country from which the people: of Mexico, called Aztecs,

emigrated; and this is described as lying far to the north.

Hence a little fancy only is necessary to locate this country in

Wisconsin. (L)

Bangor — John Whelan gave the name on account of the

Welsh settlers there. (History LaCrosse Co., p. 723.)

Barron — After Henry D. Barron, of St. Croix Falls, judge

of the Eighth Judicial Circuit (Chippewa Valley, p. 311.)

Bayfield — Named in honor of Captain Bayfield, of the Brit¬

ish Royal Engineers.

Belmont — From three mounds called by early French Belle

Monte. (History Lafayette Co., p. 612.)

Boscobel — Named in 1855 by Mrs. John Mortimore as the

Spanish synonym for “beautiful grove.”

Buttes des Morts — Hill of the Dead. (L) The story of

this battlefield is given in Legler’s “Leading Events of Wiscon¬

sin History.”

Cassville — Named after Gov. Lewis Cass.

Chequamegon (Sha-gu-wa-mick-koong) — Place of shoal

water. (W)

- Shaguamikon means literally “something gnawed on

all sides.” (W W)

- A long narrow strip of land running into a body of

water. (V)

Chetek (Zha-da) — Pelican. (W)

Chilton — John Mary gold wished the town called Chillington

after his English home. The county clerk omitted the second

syllable in recording it.

Chippewa (Ojibway) — To roast till puckered up. (W)

- Indian name, Chenondae. (M)

Legler — Wisconsin Place-Names.

27

Crocodile River — A stream flowing into Lake Winnebago

from its southeastern side. So called by Ca.pt. Jonathan Car¬

ver from a story that prevailed among the neighboring Indians,

of their having destroyed an animial in its waters, which, from

their description, he supposed to be a crocodile or alligator.

Darlington — Yarned after Joshua Darlington, of Warsaw,

hr. y.

Delavan — In honor of E. C. Delavan, temperance advocate

of Albany, Y. Y. (Walworth Co. History, p. 657.)

De Per© — Called Rapids des Peres, “rapids of the Fathers.”

Claude Allouez established a mission here.

Dodgeville — In honor of Henry Dodge, first territorial gov¬

ernor.

Eau Claire ( Wahyawconuttaguayaw) — Clear water, now

known as Eau Claire.

Edgerton — Yarned after H. B. Edgerton of Milwaukee.

Fort Atkinson — In honor of Gen. Henry Atkinson. (Wis.

Hist. Proc., ?98.)

Fox Lake- — Indians called it Hosh-a-rac-ah-tah, meaning fox.

(Dodge Co. History, p. 465.)

Gogebic (Gu-gwa-gee-bing) — -The place of diving; probably

referred to the jumping out of water of schools of small fish.

(W)

— — - A body of water hanging on high.

Green Bay — Derives its name from a fancied deeper green

-colors of its waters than usual. (L)

- Marquette called it Bay of the Fetid; Hennepin and

Mernbre did the same. Marquette says the Indians called it

Salt Bay; St. Cosine called it Bay of Puants; on de LHsle’s

maps (1700, 1718) it appears Bay des Puans; sometimes it

was called Le Grand Bale; Mr. Burnett, 1798, called it Le

Bay. (Hurlbut’s Chicago Antiquities, p. 441.)

- - A corruption of La Grande Baie. (U)

Hazel Green- — First called Hardscrabble. Renamjed in ?38

by Capt. Okas. McCoy. (Grant Co. History, p. 735.)

Horicon — Clear or pure water. So called from the original

name. Lake George. (Dodge Co. History, p. 479.)

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Hudson — Called Buena Vista, Willow River, and finally

Hudson (Hall’s Hudson.)

Janesville — In honor of Henry Janes, first postmaster.

(Janesville Illustrated, p. 5.)

Kaukauna (Oh-ga-ka-ning) — The place of pike. (W)

- At the place where pickerel are caught. (K)

- Kawkawnin, literally “Can’t get up,” in Menominee

tongue. Called Cocolo by Canadians voyageurs “who ruin ev¬

ery Indian word they meet with.” (Featherstonhaugh, Vol. 1,

p. 162.)

Kegonsa, (Gee^-go-sug) — Little fishes. (W)

Kenosha (Gin-no-zha) — Pickerel. (W)

- Pickerel or pike. (V)

- Keinauehe. Algonquin name for the fish known as

pike ; applied to a clan of Ottawas having that fish as its totem.

From this is derived the name of Kenosha. (J. R., v. 54.)

Kewaskum— (Gee-way-skum) — His tracks are homeward.

(W)

- Kan led after an old chief who died there. (History

of Washington and Ozaukee Counties, p. 4-36.)

- The road is crooked. (V)

Kewaunee — Prairie hen (formerly known as Wood’s River).

(H)

- I cross a point of land by boat. (V)

Kishwake — Cottonwood. ( Long)

Koshkonong — The lake uTe live on. Black Hawk’s lurking

place in 1832. (II)

Lac Court Oreille — Short ears, from a hand of Ottawas,

who cut off the rims of their ears. (A B.)

La Crosse^ — Etymology doubtful. It is said that when the

pioneer Kathan Myrick ran his flat-boat ashore at the point now

known as the foot of Main street he found a cross fastened to a

pine stumps — doubtless an emblem planted there by some wan¬

dering Catholic priest. Thus the name Le Croix was given the

spot, afterwards anglicized into La, Crosse. The Winnebago

Indians knew the city only as the “Woman’s Bosom,” because

east of the city two cone-shaped points rear their heights from

the bluffs, and can be seen many miles from several directions.

Legler — W isconsin Place-Names.

29

Lac Flambeau — Torch lake., a. collection of five small lakes,;

they abound in fish which were formerly taken by torch light.

(A B)

Lake Geneva, — Flamed by John Brink, because the lake re^

minded him of Seneca Lake, near Geneva,, Y. Y. (Simmons,

Annals, p. 11.)

Lake Yieu Desert — See Jesuit Relations, Yol. 16, note.

Lapham/s Wisconsin, p. 95.

- Katakittekon (Lake) — Called by the French Lac

Yieux Desert, from the fact that on an island in this lake there

was an old deserted planting ground of the Indians. (L)

La Point — Monungw an a c an in g is the name applied to La

Point on Lake Superior, and signifies yellow woodpecker. (C)

Manawa — Chippewa word, he has no tobacco'. (Wis. Coll.

12, p. 392.)

Manitowoc — Spawm of spirits. Pagan Indians imagined

that spirits spawn like fish. (Y)

- Devils den, from a tradition. (H)

- Manitomvauk — The home or place of the spirits.

(Louis Moran.)

- ( Mun-nido-walk ) — Spirit woods. (W)

- Manitouwaukee, River of bad spirits. (Dr. Jed.

Morse)

- River of spirits. (L)

- Manitowokie,, from( Manito, a spirit; auk, a standing

or hollow tree that: is under a mysterious influence. (S)

Marinette. — From a Chippewa Indian, whose father was

French. (Marinette Eagle, July 15, 1876.)

Mattawran — On the sand. (W)

Mazomaniei — Moose berries. (Y)

Medford — FTaiued after Medford, Mass., by projectors of the

Wisconsin Central who lived there.

Menomonee — ( Oh-mun-no-min-eeg ) — Rice people. ( W )

Menong — Place of blue berries.

Mequon — A feather. (Y)

Michigami (Mich-chi-gum-mih) — Great body of water or

lake. (W)

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Michigan — Mitohaw, great; sagiegan, lake. (Blois, Michi¬

gan, p. 177.)

- Great lake or the weir, or fish-trap, from its shape.

(B)

- Probably a corrupt form of Michigami, meaning a

large body of water or great lake. The Ottawas and Pottawat-

tomies who lived along the shores of Lake M. may have given

it that name instead of the Chippewa word Kitchigami (pro¬

nounced Kee-chee-gau-mee) whereby the latter designated Lake

Superior or any other large body of water. (W)

Michipicoton — Big sandy bay. (S)

Milwaukee — A rich or beautiful land; pronounced by the

Xndiaus Me-ne-aw-kee. (Louis Moran.)

- - (Min-no-u-ki) — Good land. (W)

- The name of Milwaukie exhibits an instance of which

there are many others, in which the Prench have substituted the

sound of the letter 1 in place of n, in Indian words. Min in the

Algonquin languages signifies good. Waukie is a derivation

from aukie, earth or land, the fertility of the soil along the

banks of that stream being the characteristic trait which is de¬

scribed in the Indian compound. (S)

- - Mr. Gumoe of Court des Oreilles derives the word

from Minewaki (pronounced Mee-na-wau-kee), a high promom

tory such as may be found on both sides of the city now within

the city limits. (W)

- Minnoaki — Good land. (W) Min-no-a-ki. (See

Introduction. )

Mineral Point — In the early days of lead mining, the pla¬

teaus that abound in this region were called “points.”

Minocqua — Good woman.

Mississippi — The father of waters. (B)

- (Mihchi-zee-bih) — Big river. (W)

- The Indians never speak of the Mississippi as the

Father of Waters — that is rather fanciful, but invariably refer

to it as the Big River. The Winnebagoes called it FAkoonts-

Lla-ta-kah — Re-koonts mieaning “river,” ha-ta-kah “large.”

The Sioux called it Wat-pa-ton-ga — watpa, “river,” and tonga,

“large.” Sauks designated it as Mecha-Sapo; Menomonees,

Legler — Wisconsin Place-Names .

31

Mecha-Sepua ; Kickapoos, Meche-Sepe ; Chippewas, Meze-Zeibe;

Ottawas, Mis-sis-se-pi, all variations of the same. (Traditions

and Recollections of Prairie du Chien, by B. W. Brisbois, Wis.

Hist. Coll.. Vol. 9.)

- The name of the Mississippi River is derived from

the Algonquin language, through the medium of the P rench.

The term appears first in the early missionary letters from the

west end of Lake Superior, about 1660. Sippi, agreeably to

the early French annotation of the word, signifies a river. The

prefixed word Missi is an adjective denoting all, and, when ap¬

plied to various waters, means the collected or assembled mass

of them. The compound term is then, properly speaking, an

adverb. Thus, Missi-gago means all things; Missi-gago-gig-

jetod, He who has made all things — the Creator. It is a sm

perlative expression, of which great river simply would be a

most lean, impracticable and inadequate expression. It is only

symbolically that it can be called the father of American waters,

unless such sense occurs in the other Indian tongues, (School¬

craft’s Narrative, p. 140.)

Montello — Spanish for “the hill by the water.” Named by

a Mexican war veteran.

Mont Tremped’eau — The mountain that stands in the water.

(AB)

Mosinee (Mo-zin-eeg) — As given. (W)

- From Mosinig, Moose. (Hist. Coll., vol. 12, p.

394.)

Mukwonago — A ladle. (A)

- (Mauk-wau-wau-nan- gong) — The place where the

bear constellation is. (W)

Muscoda (Mush-koh-da) — Prairie. (W)

- Prairie. (C)

Mushkoda — Prairie (rapids) now known as Jenny Bull.

(C)

Muskego — Corrupt form of Mush-kee-gong, meaning at or

from a swamp. (W)

- Cranberry. (H)

N amiekagon — Place of the sturgeons. (V)

Nashota (neesh-zho-da) — One of a pair; a twin. (W)

32 ’ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Yecedah — Let there be three of us. (Y) (Hist. Coll., Vol.

12, p. 394.)

- Corruption of nissida, “let there be three of us.”

- Yellow. (Wis. Hist. Coll., Vol. 8, p. 396.)

Yeenah — Water. (Cunningham’s Yecedah, p. 45.)

- “Once Gov. Doty was walking with an Indian, and

pointing to Fox River, asked its native name. Supposing the

governor meant the element, and not its particular geographical

name, the Indian responded ‘Yee-nah/ water. Gov. Doty at

once applied the name.”

- Col. Petterol, an engineer sent by the Secretary of

War during Van Buren’s administration, gave the name Yee¬

nah in his report. (Morgan L. Martin in a letter to Lyman

C. Draper.)

Oconomowoc — Oh-kon-nim is a beaver dami. Oh-kun-nim-

muh-gag is the region of the beaver damjs. Oh-kun-nim-muh-

walk, the beaver dam woods. (W)

- Beaver Dam. (Y)

Oconto — Black bass.

Odan ah — Town. ( W )

Onalaska — Bright water.

Oshkosh — A hoof. (Louis Moran.)

- Yarned after Chief Oshkosh. The original word,

which in the Menomonee signifies brave, was pronounced with¬

out the h in the first syllable, and was accented on the last:

“Os-kosh.” The naming of the place was done at, a meeting

for the purpose held at the house of George Wright in 1840.

The names proposed were Athens, Fairview, Osceola, Stanford

and Oshkosh. Robert Grignon and a number of half -breeds

from up the river at Butte des Moris were the strong party and

formed a majority in favor of the name Oshkosh.

Ottawa ( O-daugh-waog) — The traders. (W)

Outagamie (A-dow-wi-ga-meeg) — Contracted to O-duh-ga-

meeg, on either side of the river dwellers. (W)

Ozaukee (Uh-za-geeg) — People of the mouth of the river.

(W)

Packwaukee — Forest opening. (Y)

- ( Bug-wau-keeng) — Thin land, oak openings. (W)

Legler — W isconsin Place-Names.

33

P ah j etakakening- — The water that falls over rocks, now

known as Little Bull Palls. (C)

Penokee ( O-pin-uh-keeng) — Land or country of potatoes.

(W)

P ewaubic ( Bee-wa-bick ) — Iron;. ( W )

Pewraukee — The flinty place; pronounced by the Indians

Pee-wau-naw-kee. (Louis Moran.)

- ( Pjewaukee-wee-ning ) — Lake of shells or snails. (L)

Pishtaka. — Pox. (L)

Plover — Indian name is Aupuhkirakanewe, Biver of Plags.

(C)

Plymouth — Pirst. called Springfield; renamed after Ply¬

mouth, Conn. (Plymouth Beporter, Dec. 10, 1872.)

Port Washington — Pirst called Wisconsin City, then Wash¬

ington City, in 1844 Port Washington.

Prairie du Chien — Dog’s prairie, from the namje of a Sauk

chief. (A B)

- Prairie des Chiens — Hear the mouth of the Ouiscon-

sin ; signifies dog plains. (Jonathan Carver.)

Puckaway — Perhaps a contraction of Bo-kuhn-za-wa, an un¬

clean disease. Indian names frequently betray shameless un¬

cleanness. (W)

Racine— -From the French equivalent for root. The river

was called Boot Biver.

- St. Cosme called the Boot Biver at Racine Kipikwi

and Kipikuskwi ; it has also been called Chippecotton or Schip-

icoten as Mrs. Storrow termed in it 1817, the signification of

which we have heard was “maskalonge.” We have seen it

called in print “Masquedon.” (Hurlbut’s Chicago Antiqui¬

ties, p. 441.)

Wisconsin — Gov. Doty, one of the territorial governors, used

to insist on the name being written Wiskonsan, but the mode

was unpopular, and the legislature irrevocably established the

form of its orthography as Wisconsin. (Hurlbut’s Chicago

Antiquities, p. 441.) (See Introduction.)

Shawano — In the South. (Y)

— — ( Zha-wun-no ) —The southerner. (W)

3

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Sheboygan — Any perforated object, as a pipe stem. (V)

- Expresses, a, tradition that a , great noise, coming un¬

derground from the region of Lake Superior, was heard at this

river. (H)

- (Zheedbod-gun) — That which one perforates or

pierces through ; hence zha-bun-ni-gun, a needle. Another

meaning possible is Zee-bwa-gun, a cane', like corn-cane, etc.

(W)

- A hollow bone. (Louis Moran. )

Sheshgemtaweschecan — Soft maple, now known as Eau

Pleine, or Full Water. (0)

Shiocton — Force of wind. (V)

- Doubtful derivation. A back tide or current induced

by wind is spelled u-zka-ya-tun. (W)

- It floats up stream.

Shullsburg — Mamed after John W. Shull.

Stevens Point — Kahkagewincheminitegong, Hemlock island,

a name applied to Stevens Point, on account of an island in the

Wisconsin Fiver opposite, covered with hemlock, a rare growth

in that region. (G)

Stoughton — Mamed by Luke Stoughton, who purchased the

site from Daniel Webster in 1847.

Suamico — Yellow beaver. (Y)

- (O-sa-wa-mick-kong) — The yellow residence place.

(VO

Tomah — Mamed in honor of a famous Menomonee chief.

Waubesa — Swan lake. (Y)

- (Wau-bih-sa.) — A white bird flies along. (W)

Waukesha (Wau-gosh-i-kag) — The place of foxes; barely

possible that as a totem designation it was shortened to Wau-

gosh-shag ; m|ay be a corruption of the plural form of wau-gosh-

shug, foxes, (W)

- Joshua Hathaway inscribed the name upon an old

tree. Waukesha had been known as Prairieville. “I was en¬

gaged in subdividing the townships now comprising Kacine

county, and from some Indian bovs lodged near my encamp¬

ments I made additions to my Indian vocabulary. With the

medium of my fox-skin collar I obtained this name, understand-

Legler ■ — Wisconsin Place-Names.

35

ing it to be Pottawattamie for fox, which is a fa,vorite name

with the natives for all crooked rivers whose; conrse resembles

the eccentric trail of that; animal. By giving the middle syl¬

lable a, thin, prolonged, decided accent, and leaving the last syl¬

lable but half aspirated, you have the original as given to me —

W au-kee-shaw.” (H)

- Foxes. (V)

- The little fox; pronounced by the Indians Waw-

goosh-sha. (Louis Moran.)

Waupaca (Wau-pug-ga) — White sand bottom. (W)

Waupaca — Tomorrow. Famed in connection with Weyau-

wega, which means “here we rest.” Ascending the slack waters

of the Wolf and Waupaca rivers to the former place, the red

men were wont to encamp! there for the night and on the mor¬

row would resume their journey. Hence the terms “resting-

place’'' and “tomorrow” bestowed by them on these places.

■ - (Wau-bun) — Dawn. (W)

- East. (V)

Wausau (Wau-suh) — Far away. (W)

Wausaukee (au-wuss-sa-kih) — Beyond the hill. (W)

Wauwatosa (Wah-wah-ta-sih) — Lightning hug. Wah-wah-

to-say, he shines as he walks. (W)

Weyauwega — Here we rest. (See Waupaca.)

- Lie makes it his body; probably derived from a leg¬

end. (V)

W innebago — F etid water.

- (Ween-nih-beeg-gog) — Dwellers by dirty water.

(W)

- - The meaning is placid, or beautiful. ( Historical

Magazine , Vol. 1, p. 317.)

- - Dirty water, (V)

- Original name was Winibi (dirty water). Winipeg

is a Oree word of the! same meaning.

Winneoonne — Doubtful derivation Kan-ing, a place where

something is obtained or produced; possibly derived from the

ween, meaning marrow, and kan-ing The marrow of deer

bones is a great delicacy with Indians, and above place may

have been a feasting place. (W)

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Winnibigoshish ( weemih-beeg-gohn-shi sh ) — The miserable

little lake. (W)

Wisconsin — Muskrat house ; no two Indians agree as to the

meaning of the word. (V) (See Introduction.)

- The Winnebagoes referred to the river as the Yeeb

koonts-Sa-ra or Gathering river: hence a river having many

tributaries. (Wis. Hist. Colls., Y. 9.)

Wonewoe ( W a-wo-nowug) — They howl, probably of Winne¬

bago origin. (W)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ahnapee’s Yew Yarne. Milwaukee Sentinel, Aug. 13, 1897.

American Lakes; their Indian Y antes. Yorfh American

Review, Vol. 39, p. 71.

Badger State — Derivation of the Yame. American Bibli-

oplist, September, 1874, p. 127; Wis. Historical Colls., X, p.

79, and XI, p. 69, footnote.

Blackie, C. Index of Place-Yames. London, 1887. ( B )

Bleyer, Hjenrv W. Derivation of the word Milwaukee.

Magazine of Western History, Vol. 6, p. 509.

Boyd, S. G. Indian Local Yames. York, Pa., 1885.

Includes Chippewa Names.

Brisbois, W. W. “Traditions and Recollections of Prairie

du Chien.” Wisconsin Historical Collections, Yol. 9.

Brunson, Alfred. “Wisconsin Geographical Yames,” in

Wisconsin Historical Collections, Yol. 1. ( A . B.)

Calkins, Hiram. “Indian Yomenclature of Yorthem Wis¬

consin,” in Wisconsin Historical Collections, Yol. 1. ((7)

Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of

Yew York. (A. Y.)

Doty, J. D. Indian Yames in Wisconsin. Yational Intel¬

ligencer, 1840.

Poster (J. W.) and Whitney (J. D.). Report on the Geol¬

ogy and Topography of the Lake Superior Land District.

Washington, 1850-51.

Origin of some of the proper names in the Lake Superior district,

pp. 396-400.

Legler — W isconsin Place-N ames.

37

Gilfillan, J. A. Minn. Geographical Names derived from

the Chippewa language. In Fifteenth Annual Report of the

Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey. St. Paul,

1887.

Gordon, H. L. Legends of the Northwest. St. Paul, 1881.

Appendix.

Haines, E. M. “Indian Names,” pp. 475-484, Blanchard’s

Discovery and Conquest of the Northwest. Chicago, 1880.

Hathaway, Joshua. “Indian Nomenclature of Northern

Wisconsin,” in Wisconsin Historical Collections, Vol. 1. (H)

Hoskyns-Abrahall, John. Western Woods and Waters.

London, 1864. (IF. IF.)

Contains numerous notes, pertaining principally to the lake Su¬

perior region.

“How the Names Came. Story of Wisconsin Counties and

their Titles.” Milwaukee Sentinel, December, 1895.

Hurlbut, H. H. Antiquities of Chicago.

Wisconsin geographical names, with meanings, pp. 436 and 441. Re¬

printed in part in Kelton’s Annals.

Kelt o n, Dwight IL. Indian Names of Places near the Great

Lakes. Detroit, 1888. (A.)

- Annals of Fort Mackinac. Detroit, 1884.

Indian and French geographical names with English meanings, pp.

145-158.

Kohl, J. G. Kitchi-Gami. Wanderings round Lake Su¬

perior. London, 1860.

Contains numerous explanations of local names of Indian origin.

Lapham, Increase A. Wisconsin : Its Geography and To¬

pography. Milwaukee, 1846. ( L )

Legler, Henry E. Leading* Events of Wisconsin History.

Milwaukee, 1897.

Chapter IV contains a brief list of Indian place-names and their

meanings.

- Nomenclature of Wisconsin Cities and Towns. A

series of articles printed in, the Milwaukee Sunday Sentinel.

Marshall, Orsamus H. Historical Writings Relating to the

Early History of the West. Albany, 1887. ( M )

Contains a valuable Index-Rerum of place-names.

McLean, J. The Indians, their Manners and Customs.

Toronto, 1889.

Includes Chippewa place-names.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

“Mineral Point — IIow it Came by its Sobriquet of Shake-

Rag.” Wis. Hist. Colls., Vol. 2, p. 486.

Moran, Louis M., interpreter of the Chippewas. See With-

erell.

“Haines of the Lakes” (Madison). State Journal, Jan. 21,

1895.

Schoolcraft, Henry R. Summary Narrative of an Explora¬

tory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi River in

1820. Philadelphia, 1855. (S)

Etymology of the words Wisconsin, Mississippi, etc., given in a

series of valuable footnotes.

- The Indian in His Wigwam). New York, 1848.

Geogaphic terms of Indian origin given with meanings.

- History of the Indian Tribes of the United States, 6

vols. Philadelphia, 1851-57.

Vols. 4 and 5 contain numerous definitions of Wisconsin geographi¬

cal terms.

Some Very Odd Names — Wisconsin Towns That are Badly

Handicapped. Milwaukee Sentinel, Jan. 3, 1897.

Suite, Benjamin. “The Name of Ottawa.” Extracts from

an address delivered Nov. 19, 1897.

Synonyms. Mississippi, Dawson’s Historical Magazine,

Vol. 1, p.342; Hurlbut’s Chicago Antiquities, p. 441.

- Menomonee, Bureau of Ethnology, 14th annual re¬

port, pp. 294 (84 variants).

- Green Bay, Hurlbut’s Chicago Antiquities, p. 441.

- Wisconsin, Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History,

Vol. 4.

- Milwaukee, History of Milwaukee, 1881, pp. 37-40.

Taylor, Stephen. “How Mineral Point Came by its Sobri¬

quet of ShakeRag-on-the-IIill.” Wis. Hist. Colls., Vol. 2, p.

486.

Thwaites, Mrs. R. G. “Indian Nomenclature in Wiscon¬

sin.” Milwaukee Sentinel, June 9, 1898.

Classified as distinctive names derived from fish, birds, animals,

water, etc.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, editor. Jesuit Relations and Allied

Documents, 73 vols. (J. R.)

Many of the notes refer to the etymology of Wisconsin place-names.

- “Badger Indian Names.” Milwaukee Sentinel, Oct.

5, 1898.

39

Legler — Wisconsin Place-NcMnes.

Verwyst, Chrysostom. “Geographical Names in Wiscon¬

sin,” in Wisconsin Historical Collections, Vol. 12. (F)

Wheeler, Rev. Charles H. Etymological Vocabulary of

Modern Geographical Names. In Webster’s Dictionary,

Springfield, 1868, appendix.

Wheeler, Rev. E. P. “Geographical Names of Chippewa

Origin.” (W)

MS. In possession of the Wisconsin Historical Society.

White, H. H. “French and Indian Names in Wisconsin.”

Sheboygan Falls News, May, 1898. Reprinted in the Carni¬

val edition of the Milwaukee Sentinel, May, 1898.

Wither ell, B. F. H. “Reminiscences of the Northwest,” in

Wisconsin Historical Collections, Vol. 3.

A few Chippewa names of places in Wisconsin, the meanings being

translated by Louis M. Moran.

In addition to the above, scattered references to the meanings

of place-names mjay be found in the following works: Mrs.

Kinzie’s Wau-Bun; Featherstonhaugh’s Canoe Voyage Up the

Minnay Sotor; Alexander Henry’s Travels; Capt. Marryatt’s

Diary in America: Jonathan Carver’s Travels; Butterfield’s

Discovery of the Northwest ; Shea’s Discovery of the Missis-

sippi, and Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi; Foster’s

Mississippi Valley; Margry’s Decouvertes, tc., 6 vols., contain¬

ing the memoirs of Tonty, La Salle, Ibervillei, Joliet, etc. ; Let-

tres Edifiantes, vol. 4 ; Le C'lerq’s First Establishment of the

Faith, containing the narrative of Father Membre; Shea’s

translation of Hennepin and his translation of Charlevoix, 6

vols., especially vols. 4 and 5 ; Martin and Neville’s Historic

Green Bay; Mrs. Van Cleve’s Three Score Years and Ten; Per-

rot’s Memoire; Long’s Expedition ; Atwater’s Tour to Prairie

du Chien; La Hontan’s Travels; Radisson’s Travels (Prince

Society publication).

THE VOCABULARY OF SHAKESPEARE.

JAMES DAVIE BUTLER.

No depredator of Shakespeare has denied that “the fool had

planted in his memory an army of good words.” It is inter¬

esting to ascertain, and even to inquire, where he recruited

those soldiers.

We know that he more or less borrowed all his structural

plots except one from preceding writers, and he would natur¬

ally borrow language also. That he did so borrow has been as¬

serted by most writers, and their statements led Boswell Stone

in his edition of those chronicles of Holinshed from which

Shakespeare learned the facts concerning his English histori¬

cal plays, with every word Shakespeare had in fact copied from

them printed in Italics. The words thus italicized proved to

be surprisingly far between. An extremje instance will hardly

make us overrate their fewness.

A man imprisoned in the Tower of London being found dead

the next morning was thought by some to have been strangled.

Strangled in the chronicle is the only word italicized of

all those in these following lines, and more after them :

But see, his face is black and full of blood,

His eyeballs further out than when be lived,

Staring full ghastly like a strangled man,

His hair upreared, his nostrils stretched with struggling,

His hands abroad displayed, &c.

Again, Sidney Lee declares that in the classical plays our

dramatist adhered to the translated text of Plutarch “with the

utmost literalness.” But there is a reprint of North’s trans¬

lation of 1587 — the edition which Shakespeare must have used,

which points out every line from which any word was actually

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare. 41

adopted and those lines are fewer than the pages. In support

of his statement Lee quotes the following passages: Plutarch’s

words are: “I am Cains Marcius who hath done to thee par¬

ticularly and to all the Voices generally, great hurt and mis¬

chief, wdiieh I cannot deny for the surname of Coriolanus

which I hear.” In Shakespeare’s lines we read:

My name is Cams Marcius, who hath done

To thee particularly and to all the Voices

Great hurt and mischief; thereto witness may

My sur-name Coriolanus. 4. 5. 71.

Ten words identical in scarcely four lines! What of that?

Vo matter how great the verbal similarities are in these cita¬

tions, for I can prove that the borrower had already used every

single word that is here quoted except “particularly.” He had

no need to borrow words for his diction was already better than

Plutarch or his translator could supply. Vew terms were to

him no temptation.

Vo book was kept before our youthful dramatist more than

the Bible. Translations were then numerous and widely cir¬

culated. There may have been a copy in his birth-house for

his kindred were not without Puritan leanings. At all events

the Scriptures were before him in church and in school where

attendance was alike obligatory. His “small Latin” was

largely learned from the Testament in Latin. The Great Bible

of 1539 was set up in the church of his baptism, and that wide

open and where the way-faring man could read. Scriptural

quotations are so numerous that a bishop has written a volume

about them. In fact no two books of the time had so many

words in common as Shakespeare and the Bible. Yet for the

most part neither borrowed from the other while both in comr

inon took up the words of common life. Hence quotations

from Holy Writ were not so literal as has been often believed,

they were adapted to Shakespearian purposes by Shakespear¬

ian words. In the locution, “He that doth the ravens feed yea

providently caters for the sparrow,” two most expressive words

are not Biblical, namely, providently and caters. Veither of

them had been before used by Shakespeare nor were they again,

and so they belong to his U7ra£ Xeyo/xeva. The Oxfordians

4:2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

have also discovered that cater as a verb is a Shakesperian

creation, for no writer had used it before, — and there

is reason to think they will find that providently too was of

Shakespearian birth. Of course neither of these terms occurs

in any verse of the Bible. Biblical doctrine it would seem

meets us in the dramatist much oftener than biblical diction.

In regard to dictionaries as word-sources it is clear that our

play-maker owed them very little. The most popular contem¬

porary works of that class were Palsgrave and Florio — the one

a teacher of French and the other of Italian. Florio’s work

entitled “A World of Words,’’ must have made somle new ones

known to Shakespeare. In 1611, however, when Florio' regis¬

tered the term arbee-cee-booke he could not have read King

I ohn in which Shakespeare had sixteen years before called the

same thing by its folk-name an absey-booke, (I. 1. 196) speak¬

ing of “answer following question as in an absey-book,” that is

ad>c book. Hot without reason do we find Florio’s peculiar

follies held up to ridicule under the name of Holofernes in

Love’s Labor Lost. On the whole1, one is more and more forced

to the conclusion that, the historical or bookish sources of

Shakespeare’s' vocables were a beggarly account of empty boxes,

— and can only be contrasted with the treasures which his own

writings display. A brief digression seems here more ex¬

cusable than may at first, be thought.

For the last half century a dictionary of English has been in

making in England. It is printed in instalments each no

larger than a single number in a leading magazine. It

abounds in illustrative citations which demonstrate the preemi¬

nence of Shakespeare’s vocabulary as it was impossible to see it

before. It will point out every word which he was first to use,

and every writer who used any word of his sooner than he.

This work which it is hoped will be half finished during the

present year, is called on its title pages, “A Hew English Dic¬

tionary on Historical Principles,” This title being too long

for every-day use has been abridged in more ways than I can

mention, and has at last dwindled to a monosyllable — that is

either H-E-D or H-E-D — PI-E-D being made up of the initials

of Historical English Dictionary, — and H-E-D of those begin-

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare.

43

ning the words Hew English Dictionary. H-E-D is preferred

by Dr. Murray who has been the chief editor from, the out¬

set, — and accordingly H-E-D is the name I shall use in the

present writing, and it is because I must iterate and reiterate

that word so often that this prefatory note was necessary.

Murray insists on the word New because he claims that his

work is absolutely new — old things are passed away and all

things are made new.

An idea, or it may be a phantasy possesses me that Shakes¬

peare who has so inimitably portrayed characters, began from a

child to distinguish them, and soon became aware that he could

see through his fellows while their eyes only beheld his outer

man. He was a clairvoyant of souls while Rontgen rays are

content to pierce bodies and that darkly. His inward light,

however, could not shine forth unless set free by outward aux¬

iliaries. It was hemmed in like Ariel pegged in the knotty en¬

trails of the oak. Words, or something like them, were help¬

ful to his own character-studies, and they were indispensable

whenever he would make known what he knew. Messengers vo¬

cal or written must tell others what his mind’s eye, his only,

could detect. The speech of each speaker was this speaker’s

counterpart or double and so that each seemed made for the

other. Words held a character as a carpenter’s vise holds a

block of wood while the youngling player surveyed and fash¬

ioned it at his pleasure.

Holing characteristic utterances only for the satisfaction of

his owm thought — no further harm, — would grow into a child¬

ish indulgence and custom. Then when among his fellows, lit¬

tle boys and girls, he was called on for a story that “storied” in¬

dividual who was made by the teller to paint himself most

deftly in his own natural terms was sure to be the favorite.

This and that; turn of his syllables, was declared to be just like

him. The more he abounded in such clear-cut portraits the

more, like Walter Scott, was he the ringleader of juveniles who

did converse and waste their time together. Hor did future

metropolitan homage steal over him, with such a, peace above

all dignities as had been his lullaby after the juvenile overflow

of clamors and kisses on their idol.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , Letters.

Tlhe genius of the wonder-child had full play in choosing

out of a crowd the words befitting the diversified natures he

had detected before he could read. His skill became as saga¬

cious as the hunter’s who distinguishes dogs — the swift, the

slow, the subtle, every one according to1 the gift which bounte¬

ous nature hath in him! closed. In discernment of diction he

must have been of an instinct as unerring as. Falstaff claimed

that his was when he recognized the royal heir-apparent in the

dark and where his last thought was of meeting him. Perhaps

his instincts ought to be called those which teach bees from

among flower's which are poisonous and hitter to select and

fasten upon only the honey-hearing for bringing home to their

tent-royal.

The child is father of the man. The infantile word-needer

and word-seeker became the greatest of word-masters, chiefly

in those very lines where he had ferreted out his characters, —

trees as it were which he pulled up with every rootlet and not

a little of the surrounding soil. In the world of language and

the corresponding world of human lineaments he was; alike orig¬

inal for he knit them into' a preestablished harmony. His

unique companionships had afforded him better materials than

any university could furnish, and his genius could so mould

them dramatically that, parts into parts reciprocally shot —

“They keep in one consent,

Congreeing in a full and natural close

Like music.”

But Shakespeare’s words, equally multitudinous and match¬

less, where did he get them? The first and chiefest founda¬

tion of his vocabulary was English undefiled, — pure from Out¬

side adulterations, — his mother tongue and preeminently his

mother’s tongue. While still mewling in his mother’s arms

some of her love-inspired lullabies may have been so imprinted

on his heart that in the fulness of time they relived in his own

scfngs. Among such warblings 1ST-E-D finds, that ding-drding is

an onomatope which has been caught up by no one before

Shakespeare in 1600, who was also foremost to register Ham¬

lets buz, buz ! and he will find that there were others as

Juliet’s repeated “Hist!,” but whether Tu-whit Tu-who of the

staring owl, and suum su of the cold wind were among those

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare. 45

infantile impressions the words stand too far down in the criss¬

cross-row for H-E-D to see as yet.

Half the words which are ever mastered by most people are

acquired unawares before the end. of the first, seven year cli¬

macteric. He who gave us the phrase “parlous hoy” was one

himself — and perhaps by heredity gained the gift of the gab

from both parents. Even if Mary Arden was not talkative she

must have been a good listener when babbling gossips came

from far and near, came together for a long afternoon — bring¬

ing their work — that by making nether-stocks or mending them

— no reproach might fall on their idle hands. Then surely

tongues were not idle. Men, women and things were discussed

with a zest which is only possible when cronies1 after long iso¬

lation have free course in an exchange and interchange of con¬

fidences. Hot one was languageless like a fish on land. All

shared in the sweet enlargement.

But little pitchers have great ears. The curious child with

open mouth, or certainly ears, among strange faces, devoured

the chit chats which X-E-D shows that he was perhaps the first

to call “vain bibble-babble” in 1601. Whether he would or

not, he let no word fall to the ground. See such a, couplet as

this:

Yet that which seems a wound to kill

Doth turn oh! oh! to ha! ha! he!

(Troi. 3 1. 132.)

The Ardens were of higher social standing than the Shakes-

peares and the bride had raised the standard of speech, or at

all events diversified it in the circle of her bridegroom. Among

her associates' too there were members' of decadent families who

had seen better days, and the most, long-lived relics of gentility

may be detected in language. Many linguistic peculiarities or

idioms were represented. The receptive urchin was not slow

to divine the true inwardness of what in default of a better

term) may be styled inarticulatives. That urchin is proved by

H-E-D to have brought some of those inter jectional words

which are no words, before all other writers into the light of

language. For instance he first wrote down “Hum” in three

senses ; the hum of either army that stilly sounded, the hum of

the cloudy messenger — no where before called cloudy — wjhose

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

hum was as if he would say, you’ll rue your answer: (Mac. 3.

6. 41.) and the hum and ha. — the petty bransd that calumny

with a shrug doth use.1 Another example which possibly

should come under the post-nursery period is afforded by

the root of the word “Hurry.” Hurry both as a noun and a

verb, like hundreds of other words was created by Shakespeare.

It is not found either in the Bible or in any other book before

him.2 How did he make it ? H-ErD’s answer is that he either

contracted and twisted it out of the more ancient hurly-burly,

or that he or some one of the gossips at his mother’s hearth

expanded it out of hurr, or whir an onomatope or mouthing

which is naturally used in many unconnected languages to

mean “rapidity in vibration and in the consequent motion.”

Analogous word-building every mother sees in her four year

old hopefuls. Oue outcome from such seances of tattling cro¬

nies was that the licensed eavesdropper came out of them like

the porcupine who in a vineyard rolling over and over on wind¬

falls carried off a grape on the point of every quill. But the

parlous boy’s grapes were words, often words which his own

quill was foremlost to write.

My conviction is firm that our greatest master of words se¬

cured his vast aggregations on the line I have now sketched by

observant watch, conscious and as often unconscious — of what

he heard, and not largely from reading of any kind. Two

books and no more have been made much of being believed to

show his name written by his own hand. But these autographs

are of doubtful genuineness. His best biographers tell us that

at his death he was owner of scarcely a single volume — for

otherwise his will would have mentioned such possessions.

H or can I ascertain that there existed in his contemporary Lon¬

don any such Library within his reach or I may add without

it as the commentators would persuade us that he studied and

1 Again, the little pitcher heard toadies defined as “pickthanks,” a

local word he was one day to explain to Londoners by the line, —

“Smiling pickthanks and (as epexegetical) base newsmongers.” I

Hen. iv, 3. 2. 25.

2 Venus and Adonis, line 904, 1592:

A second fear,

Which madly hurries her she knows not whither.

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare.

47

conned. No such oasis as yet in that Sahara. All the more

was his word-harvest rather from folks than from books.

No sooner did he step out of the nursery into his father’s

slaughter-house — or butchery as it was named in common par¬

lance — than he saw the fat of a beeve rolled up in a lump and

covered with its own caul — and was told that the mass wTas

called a “Keech,” — Without a thought of any use of the vocable

he kept it in hand — used it as a name for a butcher’s wife' —

but reached its highest use only in his latest play and that in

envenoming the keenest sarcasm on Wolsey who was both cor¬

pulent and the son of a butcher. The sarcasm was :

I wonder,

That such a keech can with his very bulk

Take up the rays of the beneficial sun (the king)

And keep A from the earth.

(H. VIII. I. I. 55)

Keech ! What a soul of wit. in the brevity of a syllable !

But his plays abound in vocables which were unknown in dic¬

tionaries till derived from his writings — and v7hich often tes¬

tify their origin to have been from the streets and not from the

schools Thus his words are: “gillivors which some call na¬

ture’s bastards.” “Long purples wdiich maids call dead men’s

fingers, and shepherds give a grosser name.” “The fearful

spout wdiich shipmen do the hurricano call.” This last word

hurricano wdthout dropping the Spanish termination and first

brought out the year after the Armada. Such locutions be¬

token a vocabulary gained more through ears than eyes, more

through hearing than through reading.

As in the sitting-room of the' birth-house and in busi¬

ness stands near it, the unfledged poet was elsewhere a word-

finder even where he wras by no means a word-seeker. Among

his unsought findings in the free-school were vocables which no¬

body before him had gathered up either there or anywhere.

One of these utterances seems to have been the expression Hon-

orifica bilitudini tatibus — his longest word, the longest too in

English or indeed in any tongue outside of Greek which dis¬

tances all competition in the Aristophanic mammoth — biggest

born of earth (Love’s Labor Lost, V. I, 44.)

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

More than half a century ago living next door to a Quaker¬

ess who was a nonagenarian or near it, I chanced to' ask her

about the dame-school she had attended in the prerevolutionary

era,. The last function every day she said was that, the chil¬

dren all stood up and intoned in chorus, two syllables by two,

— Hono-rifi-cabil-itu-dini-tati-busque. This, voicing from one

equally innocent of both Shakespeare and of Latin was rather

startling. Xor could I persuade the Quakeress to bate the final

syllable -que which seemed to me superfluous. She insisted

that the terminal busque was intoned with more gladsome em¬

phasis than any other couplet because it rang out, the breaking

up of school. In truth her polysyllable, — though she did not

know it, was a fitting daily valedictory to both teacher and

school-mates. It seems, to mean, “and with all highest compli¬

ments.” It is like Wohl bekommd’ es ihnen! at the close

of German schools. Can we believe that, the long word came

into a Puritan school directly from Shakespeare? It seems

more likely that it had descended by a sort, of apostolical suc¬

cession from the school in which Shakespeare had been taught

— or from one formed on the same model — and that, it had been

imported into the curriculum there from the form ding of the

establishment, for on the continent the term' is traceable in ear¬

lier centuries. X-E-D cannot ferret out this greeting in any

English book prior to Shakespeare who, however, while intro¬

ducing the monster assumes that it must be well-known to every

school master. Various other school words X-E-D tells us, are

found in no author earlier than Shakespeare. Among these

are “Accidence” meaning grammar, and exclamation denoting

a mark of punctuation, and “caret” showing that something

is wanting. “Hie jacet” learned either in school or from

tombstones on the wav thither, X-E-D says, has been read in no

English writing before Albs well that ends well, of 1601. iii, 6,

66. “Exit,” Latin for “he goes out” which the young school-boy

had learned in a, drilled dull lesson he at first employed, fol¬

lowing others, in the Latin sense, and afterward originated the

noun “exits” and at the same time1 its companion word en¬

trances. X-E-D shows that both words — originating with the

same player are both compounds of the same Latin verb, — one

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare. 49

exeo and the other ineo, the divergent form of “entrance” re¬

sulting from its coming through French, while exit was bor¬

rowed directly and bodily from1 Latin with no change of a let¬

ter. But both in English had the same father. That father

since neither of his parents could read, probably learned the

word “catechism” in school, but H-ErD sets him, down as be¬

fore any one else making it to signify “a course of question

and answer, in 1596, when Falstait says “and so ends my cate¬

chism.” Such are specimens of school words known to all

scholars alike but noted by H-EhD as first treasured up and

made literary words by the parlous boy. One crumb more is

Ignis fatuus which in my judgment was first picked up in the

school though it had been written before he was born in one

scientific book, Fulke on Meteors , a work which we cannot be¬

lieve to have been within Shakespeare’s reach in 1596 when he

used it. (Hen. iv, iii, iii, 38.)

A word seems called for regarding a host of bookish Shakes-

perian words which could not have been picked up among early

companions of Shakespeare — or indeed among those he was at

any time associated with. H-E-D makes it very probable that

this host were for the most part original creations. Many have

been sought in vain by a thousand eyes in any pre- Shakespear¬

ian writer — and others when found were traced out in writers

lie could not have read — or they were used in senses either un¬

known to him or unregarded. Instances crowd upon me but

my limits exclude mentioning even one. In H-E-D’s hundred

past issues he has never come empty-handed of words never

found before in Shakespeare, and in the hundred to come his

harvest will be as great. Whence came they? is a question

which volumes cannot answer.

Whenever I have noted a word in H-E-D set down as found

in no book earlier than in Shakespeare I credit him with en¬

riching our printed speech with that word — catching it up from

every day speech around him — or forming it as a variant of

older forms, — or elements — or coining it outright — or bringing

it in from some foreign tongue: — I could not do otherwise with¬

out holding that he discovered, in the few books within his

4

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

reach, vocables which have lain hid after a half century

of search from H-E-D’s legion of experts.

It has been fancied that H-E-D has too hastily decided us¬

ages to be earliest, — and no doubt he has sometimes erred in

this way. It is, however, an error he has watched against from

the beginning with perpetual vigilance. With this view he has

drawn up lists of his earliest usages so far as discovered by his

readers, and begged from every one who knew of instances yet

earlier the charity of making them known to him. Such lists

— and often single words — have for live decades appeared

among the queries in the London Weekly Notes and Queries.

They have also been sent to every subscriber of H-ErD’s be¬

tween the leaves of sections as they have been mailed all over

the world.

One of these lists — a specimen of the series in which it is

No. 12, contains 412 words, all between deacon and demonstra¬

tive, with the earliest date at which each one has been detected

in use, and an earnest appeal to all persons who should fall in

with earlier dates that they would forward those dates by let¬

ter or book-post to Oxford.

This painstaking to ferret out earliest usage makes it very

unlikely that words credited to Shakespeare as the first user can

be espied in any author before him.

It were easy to fill many pages in showing Shakespearian

coinages of vocables which not only out-lived their author’s

time but must for the most part pass current as long as our lan¬

guage lasts. The world has need of them and knows its need.

But at present I must content myself with a word about a sin¬

gle formation.

Many words with the suffix ment were made by Shakespeare.

The list may well be headed with allayment which has been

brought to light by H-E-D neither in any author before nor yet

after Shakespeare’s own two uses of that coinage. The same

may be said of cloyment. Hone of his predecessors had said

abodement or bodement or annexment or engrossment. He cre¬

ated bewitchment and blastment — which no one caught from

him before 1800. Cerement which he made in 1602 was not

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare. 51

picked up by Scott till 1820, definement a birth of the same

1602 first reappeared in 1867. Shakespeare’s “enfranchise¬

ment” of 1595 was adopted by Francis Bacon thirty-one years

afterward.

It is amazing that the word amazing is itself found nowhere

back of Shakespeare nor is amazement in three of its four

senses. It was used in a fourth sense, now obsolete, by Spen¬

ser, six years before the word occurs in Hamlet.

But in this and hundreds of other cases where Shakespeare

was not first to use a word it is easy to show that he was no bor¬

rower — but added a new and better sense of his own to an old

form — or knew nothing of any such old form. Congealment,

definement, hardiment, and interch aiigement are cases of this

nature.

In one instance I chance to notice that Shakespeare was first

to use a word which has eluded the argusreyes of IST-E-T).

Hist! Borneo, hist! cried Juliet. (2. 2. 159.) This was in

1591, while the earliest citation in H-E-D was twenty-six years

later, and that from a dictionary.

Among Shakespearian words of which I find no coiner but

him with the prefix en are end art, enfetter, enhearse, enmesh,

enrank, enrapt, enround, ennoble, ensconce, ensear, ensky, en-

tame, enthrone, enthrall, entreasure, enwheel, enguard, enjail,

etc.

But Shakespeare’s verbal creations; demand a treatise which

cannot be begun till A-E-l ) has dragged its slow length along

to the very end of its appendix. May its “finis” hasten on !

The school-day words he saved are presented in. evidence that

the incipient or growing play-wright before entering his teens

was already whether wittingly or unwillingly a snapper up of

trifies close at hand — and so became a word-monger — a word-

gatherer — a word-treasurer. His conceptions demanded con¬

stant kodak catches of words. It were easy to multiply illus¬

trations all pointing the same way and along many lines. Many

which I cannot mention have been shown me by N-E-D.

In 1569 strolling players had obtained permission from

Shakespeare’s father then High Bailiff to perform before him

seated in the place of honor with his five year old son standing

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

between bis knees. In 1572 Queen Bess was a guest in Ohar-

lecote and three years after w7as feted at Kenilworth — and the

festivities in both places were so near that the stripling might

have reached them: both on foot. Hot long afterward it is sup¬

posed that his holiday excursion to see a play in Coventry gave

birth to his phrase “out-herod Herod. ”3 Ho such glimpse of

high life would fail to enrich the word-hoarder or gleaner

with happy expressions — and more of them: than were dreamed

of by other observers who hearing heard not and seeing saw

not.

Verbal augmentations there must have been out of school-

hours in village gardens and rural walks, most of all when

school-years were over. What a gap between his last flogging

for playing truant and the flight to London. Deer stealing was

the crowming escapade of Bohemianism during much of the

seven years before it. How many a dramatic word betrays its

3 In connection wiih “out-herod” the section of N. E. D. issued in

April, 1903, shows such pervasive divergencies between the vocabulary

of Shakespeare and that of Bacon as will not let us believe that both

names can belong to the same man. It shows numerous verbs formed

with the prefix “out,” and cites illustrations from Shakespeare of

fifty-four of this number. For thirty-eight of these Shakespeare is the

earliest and for nine of them he is the only authority which has been

discovered. On the other hand in only one or at most two instances

has Bacon been found first to use any of these terms. It seems prob¬

able that the more we study N. E. D. the contrasts between the diction

of these two writers will make it very clear that the words of the one

were copied from books — while the other’s were original being brought

into books from speech that had not been before written — and often

not even coined from its primitive elements.

This remarkable series of verbs was furnished in advance of entire

publication to the Nation, as follows: Those in italic occur first in

Shakespeare; those in small capitals first and alone in him; outbed,

outbrag, outbrave (first in special sense) outbreath, outturn, oui-

crafty, outdare, outdo, outdweul, outface, outfly, outfrowx, outgo, out¬

grow, otjt-herod, out jest, outlaw, outlive, outlook , outlustre, outnight,

outparamour, outpeer, outpray, outprize, outride, outroar, outrun, out-

scold, outscorn, outsell, outshine, outsleep, outspeak, outsport, out-

stand, outstare, outsay, outstretch, outstrike, outstrip, outsweeten, out¬

weigh, outswear, outswell, outtalk, out-tongue, outvenom, outvie, out-

villian, outvoice, outwear, outwork, outworth. Bacon’s list is at most

only outcompass and outshoot.

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare . 53

writer as a youthful aud unhandled colt, stung by the hot con¬

dition of his blood, like his own prince Hal when he put off the

prince and put on the natural man. We see him up to every

thing and down about as low, a hail-fellow-well-met among vag¬

abonds more or less fools, tavernhaunters, priests of the old and

the new faith, sham soldiers, star-gazers, conjurers, witches,

minions of the moon. Though sharp to1 read the mind in the

face, yes, because he was thus sharp, he says to all, “Speak,

that I may know: you !” and was such a sponge that there was

not a word which fell from their tongues which he had not

made his own. His maxim was, “Hot a shop, church, court-

session, hanging, but yields a careful man work,” and words

to boot. Wearied and footsore on the tramp to London — fear¬

ing each bush an officer, and skulking in: by-ways — his pedes¬

trian talk was with more divergent types than we encounter

amjong Chaucer’s wayfarers to Canterbury or Bunyan’s pilgrims,

and he drank deep from wells which if not pure and undefiled

became for his genius the dramatic water of life. His vocabu¬

lary was thus like Lincoln’s from' first to last, a natural growth

compounded of many simples, extracted from many objects,

and its expansion was greater year by year like that of a tree in

which the present year’s increment overlaps all the past. It

was to be an unknown tongue to no- variety of auditors: for it

had come from many minds and many hearts but above all from!

heterogeneous humors, for it is in humor that Shakespeare is

first and the rest nowhere, — humor of which he snatched so

much that he left very little for Milton and other immortals.

Had the pre-London years been spent among stainless associates

content to dwell in decencies forever, they would have yielded

no word harvest either tragic or comic of the real world, out

of joint and full of knaves and fools who make it more so. In

fact, his walks and conversations while he was tried and tutored

in the world were all a repertory of dramatic speech. Some¬

thing of his word age he found, more of it found him.

In judging the youngster by the moral law, we may be mis¬

led through ignorance, as Prince Hal’s father was regarding

him. Phillipps, who more than any other man has wiped as¬

persions from his bard’s good name, declares “there was noth-

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ing discreditable in the circumstances of his marriage/’ and that

“even the bequest of his second-best bed was a token of affec¬

tion, not of indifference.” Stratford holds fast to his tradi¬

tionary song on Ann Hathaway:

She hath a way so to controll

To rapture the imprisoned soul

And sweetest heaven on earth display

That to be heaven she hath a way

To be heaven’s self she hath a way.

Few can walk through the Shakespearian gallery of true

lovers without assurance that so consummate a painter must

have been at some time himself imparadised in that purest of

passions. There may be a cryptic spelling of his name in Dor-

icles who speaks out to P'erdita the heart of every true lover, as

no other words can, and whether she speak, or sing or dance, so

crowns what she’s doing in the present deed that all her acts

are queens, — and that, too, queens created of every creature’s

best.

As the growing dramatist learned language from living voices

in childhood and upward, it was natural for him to push on

in the same linguistic training to the end. His persistence

in this self-educaton was favored by the new and cosmopolitan

companionships in London, by his annual pedestrian visits to

his birthplace for so many years, and vet more by the itinerary

of his theatrical troupe in a score of provincial centers, which

Phillipps was first to discover.

The ample interchange of sweet discourse in all varieties of

many-colored life which thus became inevitable, may best ac¬

count for the ultimate perfection in style of his latest dramas

in comparison with his earliest. This consummation is an ad¬

vancement so mjarvelous that critics call it “another morn risen

on mid-noon.” But this life-long linguistic progress, Time, who

stands still for no man, now forbids me to speak of at all.

Entrance into London was epoch-making for the fugitive.

It taught him that, while having nothing, he was possessing

all things. From a child his genius had been a discern er of

spirits and unlocked character with a master-key. But so long

as it lacked interpreting words, his genius — yes, his tongue, was

Butler — The Vocabulary of Shakespeare. 55

itself enj ailed. It must have remained mute and inglorious

forever but for his vocabulary. It makes no difference whether

he early realized that no genius can say to words any more

than a sculptor to marble: “I have no need of you.7’ His

whole course of action had been as if he had so realized, and

that he unjust work for words by wit, — and not by witchcraft —

and that wit depends on dilatory time. Thus his wit had free

course and was glorified along the highway of words.

In London he soon saw that his vocabulary was capital

enough. Ho matter how low the first labors of his hands.

Thanks to his words* he must have been almost at once lifted

up. Some hack playwriter who had well-nigh ended a task

would be too drunk or too lazy to give it his last hand, and the

country lad was laid hold of as Taek-atra-pinch.. Thrown into

water, She proved in a moment that he could swim,. In the

first retouching or bringing to a finish, his acceptable words

and honeyed sentences which no man could mend assured his

success, his indispensability. ILe never thereafter ceased to be

encored. Springing up and up, high, higher, highest, as as¬

sistant, co-worker, rival, and master of his masters, and even

of all masters in his art, he demonstrated that five words be¬

fitting any one of his countless characters would outweigh and

outlive and outshine ten thousand words in a tongue unknown

and therefore dead to the common folk.

Such in genesis may have been Shakespeare’s vocabulary.

A STUDY IN LONGEVITY.

CHARLES H. CHANDLER,

Professor of Mathematics, Ripon College.

Two years ago I presented to the Academy a few facts re¬

lating to the topic which I now offer for consideration, and

it may be desirable at this time to make a, brief restatement of

the line of thought.

There can be no doubt of the great advance which the pass¬

ing years have brought in the prevention and treatment of dis¬

ease in all civilized communities, with a resultant lengthening

of the mean period of human life. But apparently there has

been very little, if any, gain in respect to the proportion of

deaths among young children, a paradox which perhaps may

be explained by the recognition of an increase in the perils

to infant life due to an increasing proportion of urban popu¬

lation sufficient to balance all pathological advance. On the

other hand, census statistics seem to assure us that the median

age is advancing, a fact which can be reconciled with the one

previously stated only by assuming a, decrease of deaths, in

youth and early manhood. This consideration offers place

for the pessimistic view that the boasted advance in overcom¬

ing the power of disease is by no means a blessing, since many

who by the beneficent working of the law of the survival of

the fittest would have been removed at a comparatively early

age are now unduly preserved to becomje the progenitors, of a

race sadly deficient in physical vigor: a condition which is

asserted to be shown by a marked decrease in the proportion

of people attaining old age, despite the increased mean age at

death.

Chandler — A Study in Longevity.

57

It is claimed that a comparison of the vital statistics of suc¬

cessive periods of time sustains this assertion. But such com¬

parisons, as they are usually made1, give opportunity for a very

considerable error which has been avoided in the investigation

of which the results are here presented.

Obviously the records of recently organized communities are

not available for such comparisons, since they cover an insuffi¬

cient period of time; and therefore in American investigations

it has seemed necessary to confine attention to the records of

those sections of the country which were settled at the earlier

dates. But from these regions there has been a constant drain

of the most vigorous elem'ents for the settlement of new com¬

munities, with a resulting difference in the physical vigor of

the two sections sufficiently evidenced by the greater proportion

of the eastern volunteers in the days of the civil war who were

rejected by the examining surgeons than of those who were

thus found physically defective among their western comrades.

A marked deterioration in physique could hardly have been

avoided in the regions whence there had been a steady flow

of vigorous life.

My former paper presented the results of an examination

of the successive generations of three Hew England families

having their membership scattered throughout the country, an

examination evidently offering no place for the error which

has been mentioned. The results were such as suggested a

serious doubt of the correctness of the theory of decreasing

vigor; but the work did not cover a sufficiently extensive field

to justify anything more than a suggestion that the conclusion

based upon the statistics of successive periods taken from, the

same region had a serious probability of error.

My present paper is based upon a careful examination of the

records of eight, families extending back to the beginning of

the seventeenth century, and containing more than one hun¬

dred thousand names, although of course only a rather small

fraction of the entire number could rightly be used in the com¬

putation, not merely because in all genealogical records

there are numerous failures to give date of either birth or death,

but also because of the later, and of course much the larger,

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

generations, there are yet living members. Attention will he

given to the effect of the first of these conditions later in the

paper, and concerning the generations with record yet incom¬

plete it may he said that, as far as that record has yet been

made in the case of any family, it generally has a striking re¬

semblance to the completed records of earlier generations of

the same family.

An objection to the reliability of the conclusion drawn from

such records perhaps may be based upon an assumption that

histories are printed of only such families as occupy the more

prominent positions, and that therefore these records do not

present a just picture of the complete facts in question. But

a little consideration of the facility of intercourse beween the

different strata of the American people and of the frequency

of social ascents and descents will suggest the fallacy in such

an objection. In fact, in all the families whose records have

been examined, with possibly two exceptions, the close admix¬

ture of social strata is marked. It is not impossible that the

historian of one of these two families exercised what he be¬

lieved to be a judicious selection in omitting the less reputable

lines of descent from the common ancestor; and the record of

the other family extended only through three generations' from

the immigrant, who was a rather influential man of colonial

times, as were many of his descendants in their own genera¬

tions. Those two families, designated in the accompanying

table by the letters B and S, present the lowest mean ages of

the eight families examined. But they are the two smallest

families of the number, together comprising only three per cent,

of the. entire number of lives considered, and can therefore

cause but a very trilling modification of the result. They were

included on account of the exceptional care which seemed to

have been exercised in the preparation of the histories.

The largest of the eight families is that of the two presidents,

John and John Quincy Adams. But in this family, desig¬

nated by the letter A, there are branches which make it a typ¬

ical American family. The Loomis family is the second in

size, and its record was selected on account of the extreme care

exercised by its compiler, Prof. Elias Loomis, and also because

Chandler — A Study in Longevity. 59

it includes to a very unusual extent the descendants of female

members of the family. The four remaining families seem to

be of fairly representative character, containing a few well

known names, but largely composed of the hard-working aver¬

age citizens of our country.

For the purpose of facilitating the comparison and union

of the records, the successive generations are arranged in the

accompanying table opposite seven dates separated by intervals

of a third of a century and extending from 1600 to 1800,

each date being approximately the mean date of birth of the

members of the generation to which it is affixed. In the suc¬

cessive columns of the tabular record of each family are given

the percentage of deaths in each period of ten years, while the

last column gives the mean age of death in each generation.

The last table presents the same statistics for the memjbers of

the eight families together. Of course the term “mean age”

has no real place in the first line of each table, since the age

in the final column is that of the single common ancestor. And

the corresponding age in the second line has little weight on

the question under consideration, since in several of the fami¬

lies we are led to the conclusion that no mention is made of

those of the immigrant’s children who died young. And in

a careful examination of most early records it is difficult to

avoid the belief that certain conditions indicate no small num¬

ber of brief lives which left no record, and that on this ac¬

count the recorded percentage of deaths in the first decade is

very considerably too small, and that the mean age of the early

generations is made larger than the facts would justify.

It should also be stated that, although it was thought ad¬

visable to include in the tables of the greater part of the fami¬

lies the generation having the mean birth date 1800, yet at

the times of writing the different histories which were exam¬

ined that generation was not entirely extinct, and it is evident

that even a small number of survivors would make a very ap¬

preciable change in the percentage of deaths in the last two

decades. This is especially obvious in the case of family F, the

record of which was published twenty-three years ago, while the

fraction yet living of the generation of 1800 must have been

60

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Table showing Family Longevity.

Chandler — A. Study in Longevity ,

61

Table showing Family Longevity— continued.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

very considerable. Tbe small number recorded in family W

as having died when nonogenarians is explained by the publi¬

cation of the family history in 1883.

But despite these two conditions tending to make the statis¬

tics give support to the theory of deterioration in successive gen¬

erations, the investigation now presented makes no such re¬

sponse. We look in vain for evidence of a decreasing percent¬

age of octogenarians, or even those whose lives have extended

into the succeeding decade. The slight tendency in that direc¬

tion shown in the 1800 line of the general table including all

the families is no larger than may be easily explained by the

reference to the surviving members of the latest generation.

The percentage of deaths in each decade, as given for each

generation of each family and of the families taken as a whole,

has also been computed for the combined generations, and the

results are shown in the lowest lines of the separate family ta¬

bles and also that of the families combined. The near ap¬

proach to identity between those lines of figures and the lines

immediately above them to which attention has just been called,

is very striking, the most mlarked deviation from, agreement be¬

ing in the three smallest families, B, S, and B. The close

agreement in the two largest families, A and L, and in the closr

ing table including all the families suggests the probable result

of a more extended investigation, and gives no countenance to

the theory that the American is not living to be as old as of

yore on account of the wiser care which is taken lest he die

early in life.

NUCLEAR DIVISIONS AND NUCLEAR FUSION IN

COLEOSPORIUM SONCHI-ARVENSIS, LEV.

E. J. HOLDEN AND E. A. IIAEPEE.

The study of tlie nuclear phenomena in the rusts has led to

some very interesting and unexpected results. Sappin-Trouffy

(1) has shown that the mycelial cells are regularly binucleated

through a large portion of the life history of the fungus.

He investigated some ten genera of Uredineae and his results

on this point cannot be questioned. Dangeard and Sappin-

Trouffy (2) have shown that these pairs of nuclei lie side by

side in division and in such a fashion that the daughter nuclei,

for each new cell formed, are not sister nuclei, but maintain a

separate and distinct line of descent through the vegeta¬

tive growth of the fungus, including the formation of uredo-

spores and aecidiospores. This method of division has been

called conjugate division by Poirault and Raciborski (3).

As far back as 1880 Schmitz (11) observed that the vegeta¬

tive cells and the uredospores of the Uredineae were binucle¬

ated. He regarded the binucleated condition of these spores

as analogous to that of the pollen grains of phanerogams.

Rosen (12) in 1892 found that the binucleated condition ex¬

tended to the other spores. The “basidium” which bears the

aecidiospores he describes as uninucleated. The nuclar phe¬

nomena connected with the formation of the aecidiospores as he

observed them are as follows. The nucleus of the “basidium”

divides and the daughter nuclei separate in the direction of the

long axis of the cell. The upper of the daughter nuclei, thus

produced, then divides again. The spore is cut off by a wall

separating the upper portion of the “basidium,” containing the

two nuclei, from the lower portion, which is uninucleated.

04 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

From the lower portion of the spore, thus formed, a sterile cell

is cut off containing two. nuclei. He does, not give details of

this* division but from what he does say and from his figures, it

is evident that he had seen something of the so called conjugate

division but had failed to understand what he saw. In the

same way he describes the young teleutospore of Puccima as

containing two nuclei. It then becomes two1 celled by the for¬

mation of a wall between these two nuclei. Each of these cells

is thus at first uninucleated. This nucleus then divides.

There is then a two celled teleutospore, each cell containing two

nuclei. He regards it as probable that these two> nuclei in each

cell fuse, as they were' later found close together.

Dangeard and Sappin-Trouffy (4) observed that these two

nuclei which are found in the young teleutospore and which,

as a result of the conditions just, described, are widely sepa¬

rated in their nuclear parentage, fuse to form a single nucleus.

They interpret this as a sexual fusion and consider that the

ripe teleutospore cell is a fertilized egg. Sappin-Trouffy

pointed out the mistake of Rosen by showing that the two nu¬

clei in the teleutospore are not formed by the division of a single

nucleus.. Poirault and Raciborski attempt to. show that these

two nuclei, dividing side by side, form a, single spindle and

therefore at the time of division behave as a single nucleus.

These authors describe quite fully the formation of the

spores of C oleosporium. Poirault and Raciborski (3) de¬

scribed the aecidiospore of Peridermium Pini-acicolum and

Sappin-Trouffy (1) describes the uredospore of Coleosporium

senecionis. In Coloesporium it seems probable that the

so called uredospore is really an aecidiospore. (Fig. 2). The

mycelium which is to produce aecidiospores sends up perpen¬

dicular hyphal branches just beneath the epidermis. The api¬

cal cells of these branches contain two' nuclei, which usually lie

side by side in the long axis of the cell. These nuclei then take

an oblique position and finally a transverse position. They

next divide, going simultaneously through the phases of divis¬

ion. Then the cell divides, two nuclei going to each cell. In

these daughter cells the two nuclei come one from each of the

mother nuclei of the mother cell so that the nuclei in each cell

Holden and Harper — Nuclear Phenomena. 65

are not sister nuclei. The upper of the two cells then repeats

the process of division, hut this time the cell divides unequally.

The lower cell is much smaller and is cut off obliquely. The

upper cell, resulting from this latter division, is destined to be

an aecidiospore, while the lower is sterile and ultimately dis¬

appears. The lower cell, resulting from the first division, con¬

tinues to cut off cells above. Each of these cells, in turn, cuts

off a sterile cell. There is thus formed a row of cells, the al¬

ternate members of which are sterile. The disappearance of

the sterile cells, leaves a row of fertile cells, the aecidiospores,

each containing two nuclei. Ultimately the epidermis is rup¬

tured and the spores are free for dispersion. Sappin-Trouffy

(1) and Poirault and Eacihorski (3) have described the for¬

mation of the teleutospore and its germination to the promycel¬

ium in C oleosporium. The two accounts agree in general

The teleutospore is cut off from the mycelium, in a, manner sim¬

ilar to that of the first cell in the aecidiospore series. It thus

contains from, the start two nuclei, which soon place themselves

close together and fuse (Eig. 1). The teleutospore then in¬

creases in size to about four times its former dimensions and

thus becomes a promycelium. Uuclear and cell division fol¬

low, resulting in a row of four uninucleated cells. Erom each

of these cells a sterigma grows out toward the surface of the

sorus. When the tube emerges on the surface of the sorus, its

end expands and the nucleus and cytoplasm flow into the en¬

larged part, which is set free as a sporidium.

The process of conjugate division as described by Poirault

and Eacihorski involves some very unusual features when com¬

pared with the nuclear divisions in other fungi and must cer¬

tainly be further investigated before the results of these authors

can he accepted.

The most normal division they have observed is in the teleu¬

tospore. In one instance they found an anaphase with four

centrosomes and finely striated protoplasm in the equatorial re¬

gion. The division of the fusion nucleus in the promycelium

of C oleosporium Euphrasiae is described as follows^ The nu¬

cleus is provided with a network of thickset fibers and a single

nucleole with a large central vacoule. This stage lasts for a

5

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , ancl Letters.

considerable time, after which the membrane and the: nucleole

disappear. The network contracts and collects into two very

long and irregular chromosomes, which, they think, split longi¬

tudinally, though they have not seen the process very fully.

The two halves of the chromosomes immediately separate and

in passing to the poles become shortened and very irregularly

thickened. The daughter nuclei are then constructed at the

poles. As will be seen, the figures described further on differ

widely from those given by these authors.

Poirault and Raciborski (3) do not regard the fusion of nu¬

clei in the teleutospore as directly comparable: to the fusion of

differentiated male and female nuclei. Later Raciborski (5)

has suggested that it is similar to the delayed fusion in

the zygospore of Basidiobolus ranarum and proposes the term

zeugite for all such cells in which occurs a fusion of nuclei be¬

longing to the same cytoplasmic mass.

J uel ( 6 ) has more recently studied the division of the fusion

nucleus of Goleosporium campamdae. His figures of the nu¬

clear division differ widely from those of Poirault and Racibor¬

ski and Sappin-Trouffy. The figures which he shows are very

much like those in other fungi and algae. Instead of the axis

of colorless substance of Sappin-Trouffy he finds a red staining

spindle. At each pole he finds a small rounded red or violet

stained mass which sends out into the surrounding cytoplasm

delicate thread like processes, so that there is here formed a

characteristic polar aster. The chromatin lies in the equatorial

region as a finely granular or fire thready mass. Individ¬

ual chromosomes could not be distinguished. Later the spindle

body becomes drawn out; and thinner in the middle. The chro¬

matin mass becomes constricted in the middle and then sepa¬

rates and passes to the poles. The structure about the poles

remains unchanged.

The exceptional character of the karyokinetic figures as rep¬

resented by Poirault and Raciborski, as well as by Sap¬

pin-Trouffy, suggests the: necessity for further investigation of

nuclear division in the rusts, and we have undertaken a more

detailed study of a single form as promising the best results.

A cursory examination of some seventeen species of Puccinia,

Holden and Harper— Nuclear Phenomena. 67

Melampsora , Gy mno sporangium, , Coleosporium , TJromyces, Ae-

cidium and Phragmidimn has lead to the conclusion that Coleo¬

sporium sonchi-arv ensis is exceptionally favorable for a more

detailed study of the nuclear' phenomena. As. will be seen

from the figures, the karyokinetic division is far less aberrant

in type evert than might be expected from duel's figures. The

material was for the most part collected during the summer and

autumn of 1899. The material was fixed by placing it for

twenty-four hours in Flemming's stronger solution. It was

then washed in running water for four hours and hardened in

alcohol in the usual manner. Where the material was to re¬

main some time before being imbedded, it was transferred

through seventy per cent alcohol to a, mixture of equal parts of

glycerin, alcohol and water1. It was later imbedded and sec¬

tioned in the ordinary manner. The sections were bleached on

the slide for four hours in a three per cent solution of hydro¬

gen peroxide. The triple stain with safranin, gentian violet

and orange was used almjost exclusively. The fungus was

found on the host plants, Solidago Canadensis and ulmifolia >

Aster sagittifolius and Callisteplus sp. There seems to be

little or no difference in the rust from these different host

plants. It was perhaps a little more vigorous on the Calliste-

phus. On this plant only small patches of the leaves were af¬

fected, but the hvphae of the rust seemed to be a trifle larger.

The first uredospores were found on July third, but then in

such abundance that it was evident that they had been on the

host plant for some time. The uredospore material was abun¬

dant. throughout the remainder of the summer and was found

as late as the middle of November. Teleutospores were not

abundant and were found only in the middle of the season. In

autumn plants bearing uredospores were placed in the green¬

house. Here they continued to produce uredospores through¬

out the winter. But if left undisturbed the plants soon rid

themselves of the rust by the natural dying off of the leaves in¬

fected by it. The rust, seemed unable to spread from one. leaf

to another under the conditions in the greenhouse. The entire

plant was . at times covered with a mildew, Erysiphe cichora-

cearum. In the early part of the winter the rust was easily

68 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts ■, and Letters.

spread by artificial infection. Later it was only with the great¬

est care that new leaves conld be infected. Infection was more

often secured by clamping together with a light spring the un¬

dersides of two leaves, one of which contained ripe spores and

then covering the plant with a bell jar.

Our observations on the process of spore formation agree in

general with those of the authors cited. Rosen (12) says that

the wedge-shaped sterile cells in the aecidiospore rows are cut

off alternately on the opposite sides. In our material they

seem to be cut off quite irregularly. Cases were also observed

in which apparently no sterigmata were formed. The divisions

of the promyceliumi simply rounded themselves off and became

spores as frequently happens in Gy mnp sporangium.

Our preparations of the nuclear phenomena in the develop¬

ment of the uredospore agree with those of Poirault and Faci-

borski (3). It is perfectly certain that the nuclei lie at first

in the long axis of the cell and that later they lie side by side

in the transverse axis where they divide simultaneously. The

cell division always results in the cutting off in the daughter

cells of a pair of nuclei, each member of wflich is formed from

one of the pair in the mother cell. From this it is seen that

the pair of nuclei in the daughter cell are never sister nuclei.

By reference to Fig. 21, it will be seen that the two masses

which are to form the two nuclei in each new cell are still con¬

nected, not with each other, but with the corresponding mass in

what is to be the other daughter cell. As to whether a. single

spindle is formed for the two nuclei as claimed by Poirault and

Faeiborski, it is very difficult to say. However, their figures

do not seem to be conclusive on this point. Also as to the num¬

ber chromosomes the evidence given by Poirault and Pacibor¬

ski and S appin-Tr ouffy seems hardly conclusive. Our figures

show the chromatin as solid masses in all stages of division, but

it is quite likely that these appearances are due to poor fixation

and are not to be trusted as showing details either as to the

number of chromosomes or the spindle. Indeed for rea¬

sons which will be given later it seems highly probable that

there are more than two chromosomes in each division figure.

It is perfectly clear that the nuclei lie side by side to divide

Holden arid Harper — Nuclear Phenomena , 69

and that the daughter nuclei are distributed as indicated above.

More than this is not shown by the figures.

While it was impossible to study the details of the process of

cell division, it is clear that there is no formation of a cell plate

and that the cell divides by constriction (Fig. 22). The divis¬

ion is, in general, of the type described by Strasburger (13)

for Cladophora. There is nothing whatever in the cytoplasm to

indicate the direction in which the cleavage furrow is to pro¬

ceed and in this the process differs from that described by Mot-

tier for Dictyota \ (9).

In the teleutospore we find the conditions much more favor¬

able for the study of the nuclear phenomena. The young tel¬

eutospore is a single cell and contains two' nuclei formed by

the division of a pair of nuclei in the mother cell as described

above. Shortly after the young teleutospore is cut off from the

mycelium by a cross wall, the nuclei increase rapidly and con¬

siderably in size. In a majority of cases they probably

at least double their volume. They may lie in any position

whatever with reference to> the axis of the cell (Fig. 3). This

condition is in marked contrast to that, which we find when the

nuclei are about to divide when, as noted, they always lie side

by side in the transverse axis of the cell. The nuclei after in¬

creasing in size approach each other till they touch (Fig. 11).

At this stage they have lost the appearance, which is character¬

istic of the conjugate nuclei. They are much less dense and

seem to contain more of the so called nuclear sap. The threads

of chromatin, quite uniform in size, have become evenly dis¬

tributed so that there is no longer a clear space about the nu¬

cleoli (Fig. 11). The first step in actual fusion is the disap¬

pearance of the definite outline of the individual nuclei at their

point of contact. This is caused by the disappearance of the

nuclear membrane. By the loss of the membrane at this point

of contact the contents of the two nuclei come together and

mingle so that no line, of demarcation between them can be dis¬

covered. The nuclei continue to crowd closer together. The

area of contact is thus increased and as fast as contact is made

the membrane disappears. This process continues till we have

a single oval nuclear mass. At every other1 point except the

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

region of contact the membrane remains intact. In Fig. 12 the

fusion nucleus has not yet reached, the oval shape. The

chromatin threads still maintain a quite uniform size. They

seem to assume no particular direction but are somewhat

massed along the zone of contact of the nuclei (Fig. 12). In

this zone the threads seem to be slightly finer than those which

are found in the other parts of the nucleus. It seemjs that the

chromatin threads are also withdrawing from certain irregular

areas of the nuclear cavities. Some of the threads appear

much coarser than before, but they vary in diameter in differ¬

ent parts and are connected with each other and the nuclear

membrane by still finer threads. The coarser threads are

doubtless chromatin and the finer ones may represent the linin

network. Uu to this time there is no apparent change in the

nucleoli, either in their structure of position. In the next

later stage which I found there is a single nucleolus. It seems

entirely probable that the two nucleoles fuse. At a later stage

the nucleus appears still more swollen and less completely

filled with the chromatin thread. The threads tend also to be

more massed together. Frequently the masses are so dense that

the filaments are not recognizable as such. This stage (Fig.

14) is probably one of fairly long duration and may corres¬

pond to the so called synapsis stage in the nuclei of the higher

plants. At this stage no matter how deeply the surrounding

cytoplasm may be stained the nuclear sap is perfectly trans¬

parent. While these nuclear changes have been going on the

teleutospore has been increasing in size and this growth con¬

tinues till the promycelium is fully formed. The size of the

teleutospore varies considerably and Fig. 3 represents one

which is rather larger than the average. The resting fusion

nucleus is nearly spherical and occupies a quite constant posi¬

tion near the center of the cell. The nucleolus in this and the

following stages occupies a position near the periphery of the

nucleus. The next change, which the fusion nucleus under¬

goes, consists in the loosening up of the denser chromatin

masses. The threads become definite in outline and are more

readily traced (Fig. 15). They increase in thickness and

sharpness of outline. The increase in thickness is probably

Holden and Harper — Nuclear Phenomena . 71

due to shortening and this in turn reduces the number of coils

or loops, (Fig. 16). As the threads become thicker they stain

more deeply, while the nucleoli at this stage stain less deeply

and no longer preserve a smooth plump outline' but show mi¬

nute irregularities. At a later stage the nucleoli show still fur¬

ther changes of the same sort. They are less deeply stained

and instead of being irregularly oval, may show any irregular

shape and the smaller irregularities in the surface become more

prominent, (Fig. 17). At a little later stage the nucleolus disr

appears entirely and it seems probable that it has been gradu¬

ally broken up and dissolved. In the later spirem stages the

nuclear membrane disappears entirely and the chromatin

thread lies in a finely granular material, not sharply distin¬

guished from the surrounding cytoplasm, (Figs. 16 and 17).

The thread is seen now to have been split longitudinally, (Fig.

17). In some portions the halves are still in contact while in

others they are quite widely separated. That a longitudinal

splitting occurs thus in the prophases in this fungus nucleus,

is of considerable interest as establishing another point, of agree¬

ment between thallophyte nuclei and those of the higher plants.

The later separation of the daughter chromosomes on the spin¬

dle is merely a distribution of the split halves of the original

chromatin thread. It is very noticeable in preparations of this

stage that the spirem thread is not continuous. This is plainly

shown in Figs. 16 and 17, and it is quite probable that this con¬

dition indicates a segmentation into chromosomes. The stages

in the formation of the spindle have not. been found. The

equatorial plate stage on the other hand, here as in most, other

cases, is relatively easy to find. It is an interesting and char¬

acteristic figure and differs entirely from that given by Poirault

and Eaciborski for C oleosporium, Euphrasiae and also but in a

somewhat less degree from that given by Juel for C oleosporium

campanulae. The figures in our preparations are extremely

sharp and clear and agree much more nearly with those of other

mitoses than do those of the authors named. The characteris¬

tic structural features of this stage in fungi and algae gener¬

ally are all present. Polar radiations, central bodies, spindles

and chromosomes are all very sharply differentiated. The cen-

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tral bodies are conspicuous but apparently somewhat variable

in size. Occasionally they appear saucer shaped with the con¬

cave side toward the spindle. It is noticeable that the spindle

fibers seem thicker and more deeply stained toward the poles.

The polar radiations are short and rather few in number, but

are sharply differentiated. Among the bases of the polar rays,

the protoplasm) is denser, forming thus an oval mass, which lies

beyond rather than around the central body. The chromo¬

somes are quite irregular in shape and grouping. There ap¬

pears to be no stage in which they are aggregated in a flat plate.

They seem, always more or less strung out along the length of

the spindle (Figs. 18 and 19). Frequently two or more chro¬

mosomes overlap each other and lie so close together that they

cannot be clearly differentiated. It. is hence impossible to de¬

termine their number with certainty. Howrever there can be

no doubt that the number is greater than two as described by

Poirault and Raciborski for C oleosporium Euphrasiae and the

rusts generally. The evidence drawn from, our preparations

indicates that their number is somewhere between six and ten.

When the chromatin masses withdraw to the poles, which they

do quite irregularly, the axis of the spindle lengthens some¬

what. At this stage the polar radiations seem somewhat longer

than before and do not form so regular an aster. The daugh¬

ter nuclei are reconstructed in the usual manner and the promy-

celial cell now divides so that the two nuclei are separated and

we have a two celled stage as shown in Fig. 5. After the cell

division is complete the daughter nuclei divide almost immedi¬

ately. The division of the two is nearly simultaneous though

not entirely so (Fig. 23). These nuclei are very much smaller

than the original parent nucleus. Their mitotic figures are

also much smaller and consequently less favorable for study.

Still it can be seen that the stages of division are essentially the

same as in the division of the fusion nucleus. The chromosomes

are so massed that it is impossible to distinguish their individ¬

ual outlines. The central bodies and polar asters are however

very sharply differentiated. The rays of the latter are long,

reaching in some cases almost to the periphery of the cell and

in some cases curiously curved at their tips (Fig 23, the lower

Holden and Harper — Nuclear Phenomena* . 73

of the two nuclei). The upper of the two nuclei in Fig. 23 is

in a late prophase stage. The polar asters are present but the

outline of the nucleus between them is still intact. After the

second division of the nuclei cell division follows immediately

and we have the four celled promyceliumi.

If we compare now figures, IS, 19, and 20, with those of

Sappin-Trouffy and Poirault and Eaciborski, it becomes evi¬

dent that the contention of these authors that but two chro¬

mosomes are present at this stage in the development of the

rusts is not supported by the facts as found in Coleosporium

sonchi-arvensis. The curiously abnormal mitotic figure of

Coleosporium Euplirasiae as given by Poirault and Eaciborski,

consisting of only two long irregularly lobed threads, bears

scarcely the faintest resemblance to the corresponding stages as

we find them in Coleosporium' sonchi-arvensis. That such ex¬

treme differences can exist in such closely related forms is

hardly to be believed and as the figures in our own preparations

correspond so much more nearly with those in other fungi and

algae it seems probable that the preparations of Poirault

and Eaciborski were distorted in fixation. As noted above it is

not possible to give the number of chromosomes in Coleospor¬

ium sonchi-arvensis with exactness but it is plain that there are

many more than two, and in view of the unusual appearance of

the figures given by Poirault and Eaciborski, it is very ques¬

tionable whether they have determined the number correctly

for Coleosporium Euplirasiae.

The haustoria of C. sonchi-arvensis are normally binucue-

ated, while the portion of the cell of which the haustorium is

a part but which is outside of the cell of the host plant, usu¬

ally contains no nucleus (Fig. 26). Eosen and later Sappin-

Trouffy have maintained that the haustoria apparently seek out

the nuclei of the host plant and apply themselves to its surface.

There is little evidence of this iu Coleosporium sonchi-arven¬

sis. A host cell may contain, several haustoria but they all

seem indifferent to the host cell nucleus. The haustorium is

always the end of a hvphal cell, a large portion of which is out¬

side the host cell. As a rule the haustoria of Coleosporium

sonchi-arvensis are oval in form (Figs. 25 and 26). The

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

haustoria always present a turgid appearance even in old host

cells, which have become nearly empty. The protoplasm of the

haustorium proper usually seems quite dense', while that of the

rest of the cell of which it is a part, particularly the more dis¬

tant portion outside of the host cell, has a much looser struc¬

ture. The nuclei of the haustoria are at the usual short dis¬

tance from each other which is characteristic for the conjugate

nuclei. The nuclei are regularly of greater diameter than the

neck of the haustorium through which they must have passed

to reach their characteristic position inside the host, cell. But

there is noi question that they are plastic enough to be elonga¬

ted and narrowed in order to pass through such a small open¬

ing. It is noticeable that the opening in the wall of the host

cell is uniformly much larger than the neck of the haustorium.

This condition is in sharp contrast with that in the Erysipheae

as figured by Smith (7) and others'. Fig. 25 shows a case of

a young haustorium into which one of the two nuclei has not

yet penetrated.

Fig. 7 shows the formation of a sterigma, from! one of the

cells of a promycelium. The sterigma is rather thick and ir¬

regular and the nucleus is already well advanced toward its

tip. The sporidium soon becomes binucleated by the division

of its primary nucleus. The germination of the sporidium we

have not been able to trace.

If we summarize now the life history of the Coleosporium

rust, we shall find that at certain stages the cell contains two

and at other stages but one nucleus. The uredospore is a binu¬

cleated cell. When the uredospore germinates it gives rise to

a mycelium whose cells also contain two nuclei, which divide

by conjugate division. If this mycelium produces teleuto-

spores, they will be binucleated, and will get their nuclei from

the mycelium by the process of conjugate division. This will

be the last binucleated cell of this series. In the teleutospore

the conjugate nuclei fuse to produce an enlarged single

nucleus. After fusion the teleutospore is stimulated to growth

at once instead of after a resting stage as in Puccinia and forms

the promycelium. The fusion nucleus next divides and the

elongated teleutospore or promycelium divides, each daughter

Holden a?id Harper — Nuclear Phenomena. 75

cell receiving one of the daughter nuclei. The division of the

daughter nuclei is followed by further cell division. The

teleutospore has grown into a four celled promycelium, each cell

of which contains a single nucleus. From each of these divis¬

ions a sterigma arises on the end of which is produced a sporid-

ium and a pro mycelial nucleus passes out into each sporidium.

The sporidium is then unincleated but its nucleus divides.

This nuclear division is not followed by cell division and there

is thus constituted a binucleated sporidium. This is the first

hinucleated cell of the new generation. Starting with the

sporidiumj there is developed a mycelium of binucleated cells,

which divide by conjugate division. From the teleutospore to

the sporidium we find uninucleated cells. From the sporidium

to the teleutospore we have binucleated cells.

The regular presence of two and only two nuclei in the my¬

celial cells of the rusts presents a very unique condition among

plants. Coenocytic cells contain numerous nuclei but there is

much evidence that the nuclei of the binucleated cells of the

rust bear a very different relation to each other than do the nu¬

clei of multinucleated cells. Strasburger (8) has described nu¬

clear and cell division in such typical coenocytic cells as those

of Cladophora. The nuclei in these cells may amount to a

hundred or more in number. Nuclear division takes place by

the ordinary karyokinetic process. The division of the nuclei

is not necessarily simultaneous. Nuclei in various phases of

division as well as even resting nuclei occur in the same cell at

the same time. There seems to be no close time relation bet-

tween the division of one nucleus and that of its neigh¬

bor. Later the cell divides. There seems to be no direct and

constant relation between nuclear division and cell division.

With the conjugate nuclei the division is always simultane¬

ous and conjugate nuclear division is always followed by cell

division. The fusion of the conjugate nuclei in the teleuto¬

spore is then something different than a fusion between any two

nuclei of a coenocyte. Whether it is to« be interpreted as

equivalent to a typical sexual fusion is a very interesting ques¬

tion,

As we have seen the two nuclei which fuse in the teleutospore

can be traced back in separate series through binuclated cells

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

to the point where they originate by the division of a single nu¬

cleus in the germination of the sporidium accordng to the au¬

thors cited. The two nuclei which fuse maintain a separate

existence throughout almost the entire life cycle of the rust.

There can be no question as to the long continued separate ex¬

istence of the fusing nuclei nor as to the fusion itself. This

fusion results in Coleosporium in a, renewed tendency to growth

on the part of the cell containing the fusion nucleus.

In Closterium Klebahn (10) found that in the zygote the

pronuclei remained separate for some time. In Cosmarium he

found a similar condition. Hacker (13) has shown that in

Cyclops the two sexual nuclei maintain a relatively independ¬

ent existence at least through the early stages of the cleavage

of the egg. There is some evidence that the chromosomes in

the division of the fusion nucleus of the rust are collected into

groups on the spindle (Tigs. 18, 19 and 20). It is quite pos¬

sible that these two groups of chromosomes, are respectively the

chromosomes of male and female nuclei not yet combined.

Raeiborski (5), in view of the fact that a longer or shorter

period of development, exists between the fusion of the cyto¬

plasm and the fusion of the nuclei in the. cases mentioned above

and also even more notably in the case of Basidiobolus , holds

that the entire life cycle of the rust from, the germination of

the sporidium to the fusion of the nuclei in the teleutospore

is to be interpreted as an intercalation between cell fusion and

nuclear fusion in a single sexual act. The division of the

nuclei without cell division in, the young mycelium represents

for him a cell fusion, the nuclear fusion occurring long after

in the teleutospore. The evidence cannot be regarded as suf¬

ficient to establish this view. It is not yet established for a

sufficient, number of forms at what stage the binucleated cells

with conjugate nuclei first appear in the life cycle.

There is as yet no evidence of any proper cell fusion in the

rusts though the fusion of the nuclei in the teleutospore has the

essential characteristics of a sexual fertilization in the origin

of the nuclei and in the behavior of the teleutospore after

fusion as described above. The existence of nuclei in the

mycelial cells, maintaining independent, lines of descent, for in¬

definite periods, has perhaps made cell fusion unnecessary.

Holden and Harper — Nuclear Phenomena. 77

Sexual reproduction in tlie rusts may possibly dispense with

cell fusion, while retaining the more essential feature of the

union of nuclei more or less widely separated in origin. In

view of the abundant evidence in both plants and animals that

the fusion of the pronuclei is the more essential element in

all sexual reproductions, this condition in the rusts is seen to

be by no means out of harmony with our conceptions of sexual

reproduction in other groups. Certainly the fusing nuclei of

Vaucheria or Cysiopu s may be less distantly separated in their

origin than the fusing nuclei of the rusts and the sexual dif¬

ferentiation of the former is unquestioned. The fusing nuclei

in the zygospores of Spirogyra may be much more closely re¬

lated than those in the rusts. That the fusion of nuclei con¬

tained in the same mass, of cytoplasm for a long series of nu¬

clear generations, hay have the same effect for the cell in which

they are contained, as results from ordinary fertilization is,

however, a distinctly new idea and must modify our conceptions

correspondingly. As pointed out above, it emphasizes still fur¬

ther the doctrine that nuclear rather than cytoplasmic fusion

G the essential process of fertilization.

Index of Literature.

1. S a ppin-Trouff y . Becberches histologiques sur les Uredi¬

nees. Le Botaniste, ser. 5, 1896.

2. Dangeard, P. A., and S appin-Trouffy. Besponse a une

note de M. M. G. Poirault et M. Baciborski. Le

Botaniste, ler aout 1895.

8. Poirault, G., and Baciborski, M. Sur les noyeaux des

Uredinees. Journ. de Bot. tom. IX. 1895.

4. Dangeard, P. A, and S appin-Trouffy. Une pseudo-fecon-

dation c-hez les Uredinees. Comptes Bendus T'. 16,

p. 257.

5. Baciborski, M. Ueber den Einffuss ausserer Bedingungen

auf die Wachthumsweise des Basidiobolus ranarum.

Flora. 1896.

78

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

6. duel. Die Kerntheilung in den Basidien nnd die Phy lo¬

gon ie der Basidiomyceien. J ahrbiicher fiir wissen-

schaftliche Botanik. Bd. XXXII, lift. 2.

7. Smith, Grant. The Hanstoria; of the Erysipheae. Bot.

Gazette, Mch., 1900.

8. Strasbnrger. Zellbildnng nnd Zelltheilnng. p. 288.

9. Mottier, David M. Xnclear and cell division in Dictyota

dichotoma. Annals of Botany. June;, 1900.

10. Klebahn. Ueber die Zygosporen einiger Oonjugaten.

Bor. d. d. botan. Ges. 1888, p. 160.

11. Schmitz. Untersuchungen iiber die Struktnr des Pi*oto-

plasmas nnd d. Zellkerne d. Pflanzenzelle. Sitzb. d.

neiderrheinischen Gesellschaft fiir Xaitnr nnd Heil-

knnde in Bonn, 1880.

12. Rosen, E. Stndien iiber die Kerne nnd die Membranbild-

nng bei Myxomyceten nnd Pilzen. Cohn’s Beitr.

znr Biol. d. Pdanzen. Bd. VII, 1892.

13. Ilaecker. Die Vorstadien der Eireifnng. Archiv fiir

mikroskopische Anatomic. XLV., 2.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

All figures were drawn with the aid of the camera lncida.

Eig. 1. x 196. T'elentospore sorus of Coleosporium sonchi-

arvensis. The mycelium and hanstoria

are shown binncleated. At the extreme

left are shown two teleutospores in which

nuclear fusion has not yet occurred. At

the right is another teleutospore. In

most of the cells nuclear fusion has oc¬

curred and the teleutospore has developed

into a promyceliuin. In twoi instances

the promycelium, lias- become two celled.

In other cases it has become four celled.

In one case one of these divisions has al¬

ready formed a sterigma and passed

through the epidermal sorns cover and

the second division is in* the act of pass¬

ing.

Holden and Harper — Nuclear Phenomena.

79

PLATE I.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

x 606.

x 340.

x 685.

x 480.

x 1525

x 1175.

x 2285.

Portion of an uredospore sorus. The four

large cells at the bottom are the growing

cells from which cells are cut off above.

The second of these cells from the right

is in normal growing condition with the

nuclei lying longitudinally in the axis of

of the cell. The cell on the left has the

nuclei revolved to a horizontal position

and is ready for conjugate nuclear di¬

vision. In the cell on the right, nuclear

division has taken place and is about to

be followed by cell division. In the sec¬

ond cell from the left nuclear and cell

division are complete and nuclear division

has again occurred in the upper cell and

a sterile cell is about to be cut off from

the lower part of this upper cell. Be¬

neath the top row of cells the sterile cells

have disappeared.

Teleutospore.

Promycelium.

Two celled stage of the promycelium.

Four celled stage of the promycelium.

One of the divisions of the four celled stage

forming a sterigma.

A uninucleated sporidium.

A binucleated sporidium. Auclei close to¬

gether.

A normal binucleated sporidium.

Teleutospore nuclei ready for fusion. The

dark extra nuclear body is uniformly

present at this stage.

Early stage of fusion.

Later stage of fusion.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV,

Plate I,

PLATE IL

. . ^

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Resting fusion nucleus.

Early prophase of division.

Later propliase.

Later propliase showing the splitting of the

chromosomes. The nucleolus has lost

its rounded contour.

Equatorial plate stage showing central

bodies, chromosomes, spindle and polar

radiations.

Equatorial plate stage showing central

bodies, chromosomes, spindle and polar

radiations.

Anaphase showing chromosomes grouped

about the poles. Polar radiations are

present.

Conjugate division showing the dumbbell

shaped chromosome masses and the nu¬

cleoli occupying positions at the sides.

Conjugate division. ETuclear division is

complete and cell division is taking place

by constriction.

The second division in the promycelium.

Centrosomes and polar radiations are

present.

An apical mycelial cell showing the binu-

cleated condition.

Haustorium in cell of host plant One

nucleus only has entered the haustorium.

Cell of host plant showing binucleated

haustorium, nucleus of host plant and

chlorophyll bodies.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIY.

Plate II.

THIRD SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF PARASITIC FUNGI

OF WISCONSIN.

J. J. DAVIS.

In 1882 Dr. William T release, at that time occupying the

chair of Botany in the University of Wisconsin, prepared a

Preliminary List of the Parasitic Pungi of Wisconsin, enumer¬

ating 268 species. In 1893 the writer compiled a Supple¬

mentary List, and in 1897 a Second Supplementary List, carry¬

ing the number to 567. These lists were published in the

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters, in Yols. VI, IX, and XI, respectively. The present

enumeration is a record of those species not included in the

previous lists that have come under my notice. With a few

exceptions noted, it is founded on specimens in my herba¬

rium. They are enumerated under serial numbers continuous

with those of the preceding lists. This is preceded by a list

of hosts bearing fungi that were not recorded as growing upon

them in the previous lists. The numbers attached to these are

those under which the fungi were enumerated. The name of

the collector is given except in those cases in which the writer is

also the collector.

The collections that have furnished the basis for this list have

mostly been derived from two sources: the vicinity of Racine

and several vacation trips of a few days each in the northern

part of the state. As the first mentioned territory had already

been gleaned for the two preceding lists, it may be assumed

that the species from that locality are rare or scarce or that

they are only occasionally, or at most locally abundant. The

fluctuations of the fungus flora are striking and it will doubt¬

less be an interesting field for the ecologist. The observations

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

in northern Wisconsin are too limited to allow much comment

on the distribution or the abundance of the species.

In addition to those whose assistance has been acknowledged

in the previous supplementary lists, I wish to thank Dr. J. 0.

Arthur of Lafayette, Indiana, for the determination of some

of the Uredineae. Renewed thanks are due the veteran mycolo¬

gist, Mr. J. B. Ellis, of Hewfield, Hew Jersey.

The writer hopes to assist in the1 further extension of the

recorded parsitic fungus flora of Wisconsin, and would be

glad to have the aid of collectors.

J. J. Davis.

Racine, Wisconsin, January, 1903.

i

Jf fk,,,:

). . "

ADDITIONAL HOSTS.

Fungi occurring on hosts other than those upon which they

were reported in the previous lists.

10. Peasmopara haestedii^ (Earl.) Berl. and De Toni.

On Erechtites hieracifolia, Raf. Wind Lake.

On Helianthus sp. Racine and Kenosha county.

On the sunflowers, it sometimes appears' as early as

the latter part of Mlay and does considerable damage

to the host plants.

15. Bremia eactucae, Regel.

On Lactuca leucophaea , Gray. Racine.

17. Perojstospora pote'jmtillae, DBy.

On Geum macrophyllum , Willd. Wind Lake.

20. Peronospora effusa, (Grev.) Rabh.

On Chenopodium hyhridum , L. Racine.

22. Feronospora caeotheca, DBy.

On Galium lanceolatum, Torr. Genoa Junction.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin <. 85

40. Microsphaera aeni, (Wallr.) Winter.

( M. nemopanthis, Peck.) Oti N emopanthes fas-

cicularis , Raf. Three Lakes.

On Lonicera iatarica, L. (enlt.) Racine. Al¬

though the1 latter host hears in Europe' the var. lonr

icerae (DC.) the Racine material shows, when ma¬

ture', the1 well developed recurved appendage tips of

the type.

43. PODOSPHAERA OXYACANTHAE, (DO.) DBy.

On Spiraea salicifolia, L. Racine. Rather

scarce on this host.

45. Sphaerotheca iitjmuee, var. fuliginea^ (Schlect.) Sal¬

mon. ( Sphaerotheca castagnei, Lev. Prelim.

List. )

On Lophanthus scrophulariaefolius, Benth. and

Veronica serpylli folia, L. Racine. On the latter

host the cells of the perithecial walls are small as in

S. humuli, (PC.) Burr, but Prof. F. S. Earle of

the Hew York Botanical Garden, to whom a speci¬

men was sent, refers it to the variety because of

“the small size of the perithecia and a certain soft¬

ness of texture.”

In the Supplementary List Lactuca Floridana,

Gaert., is given as a host of Sphaerotheca castagnei ,

Lev., but examination of the specimen in my herba¬

rium shows only an Erysiphe.

49. Erysiphe poeygoni, DC.

( Erysiphe communis, (Wallr.) Fr. Prelim.

List.)

On Parnassia Caroliniana, Michx. Madison.

(Professors Tracy and Halsted.) This is Erysiph-

opsis parnassiae, Halsted. Salmon (A Monograph

of the Erysiphaceae) refers it to this species.

64. Epichloe typhhsta, (Pers.) Tul.

On Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauv. Genoa

Junction.

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

74. RhYTISMA IRICIS-CAKADENSXS, ScllW. ( ?)

Oil Nemopanthes fascicuiaris , Raf. Vilas

county. Collected in July and therefore imma¬

ture.

78. Didymarxa ungeri, Cerda.

On Ranunculus acris , L. Racine.

83. Ramuraria macrospora, Fres. var. seirecionis, Sacc.

On Aster cordifolius, L. and A. diffusus, Ait. ?

Somers.

145. Septoria porygoirorttm, Desm.

On Polygonum Convolvulus , L. Three Lakes;

Polygonum cilinode , Michx., Vilas county.

147. Uromyces brevipes, (B. & Eav.)

(U. terebinthi , (DC.) Prelim. List.) Accord¬

ing to Dietel, the uredospores are quite distinct

from those of U. terebinthi , (DC.) (Botanical Ga¬

zette, &4-1-24, 1897.)

154. Uromyces jxjnci, (Desm.) Till.

On Eleocharis palustris, E. Br. Racine. In

spite of the morphological resemblance I refer this

here with some doubt. If correctly placed, then

similarity of habit and structure of the hosts count

for more in this case than biological similarity

through kinship.

157- Uromyces caradii, (Schw.)

Aecidium and Uredo on Arisaema Dracontium.

Schott. Kenosha county.

169. Puccinia iRREGUR arts , Ellis & Tracy.

(Puccinia solidaginis , Pk. Prelim. List.) “An

examination of the material in the herbaria, of the

Missouri Botanical Garden and of the Iowa State

College leads to the belief that this is undoubtedly

the species referred to P. solidaginis , Pk., by Dr.

Trelease, Ho. 169, Preliminary list of parasitic

fungi of Wisconsin /’ II. Harold Hume, Botanical

Gazette, 28-6- 420, 1899.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 87

178. Puccinia podygoni-amphtbii, Pers.

Uredo and teleutospores abundant on Polygonum

Convolvulus , L. Kacine and Genoa Junction.

Uredo on Polygonum hydro piper oides, Michx. Ra¬

cine.

179. Puccinia pruni, Pers.

On Primus Pennsylvania , L. f. Three Lakes.

190. Puccinia gal.ii, (Pers.) Wint.

The Aecidiuini has been rather sparingly found

on Galium trifidnm, L. var. lati folium, Torr., at

Racine. The teleutospores have not been found

here on that host but are rather abundant on

Galium concinnum, Torr. & Gray.

218. Puccinia peckjana, Howe.

( Caeoma nitens, Schw. Prelim. List.) ( Puc¬

cinia interstitialis , (Schl.) Transchel.) The teleu¬

tospores were collected in small quantity on Bubus

villosus , Ait., in Vilas county.

222. Puccinia caricis — oenotherae, n. comb.

( Aecidium oenotherae, Pk. Preliminary List.

Aecidium peckii, He Toni. Puccinia peckii, (De

Toni) Kellenn.) Dr. Kellerman established the

relationship between the cluster cups on Oeno¬

thera biennis , L. and the teleutospores on Car ex

trichocarpa, Muhl. Dr. Arthur repeated the ex¬

periment with teleutospores on Car ex trichocarpa

collected at Racine. With reference to the name

used see Ho. 242.

225. Aecidium pedatatum, (Schw.) Arthur.

(Ae. petersii. B. & C. Prelim. List. Ae. mariae

wilsoni, Pk. Suppl. List.) On Viola pedata, L.

Racine.

227. Aecidium grossulariae, DC.

In the Journal of Mycology, VIII, June, 1902,

p. 58, Dr. Arthur described Puccinia albiperidia

having its aecidial stage on Ribes cynosbati L. and

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts } and Letters.

teleutospores on Car ex pubescens, Mulil. During

the spring of 1903 Dr. Arthur produced a similar

aecidium on Ribes gradle, Michx, using teleuto-

spores from Car ex graciXlima, Schw., collected at

Racine. I have not seen the pallid cluster cups

in the field and suspect that their peculiar appear¬

ance is due to the conditions under which they grew

and that the ordinary Aecdium grossulariae has

its rust stage on Car ex. For the reason stated un¬

der ISTo. 242 I should prefer the name Puecinia

caricis-grossulariae if that proves to be the case.

233. Puccini a fraxinata (Lk.) Arth.

(. Aecidium fraxini, Schw. Prelim. List; Puc-

cinia periderm, iospor a (Ell. & Tracy) Arthur.)

Teleutospores on Spartina cynosuroides , Willd.

Racine. I have collected this rust hut once. It

is probably more abundant in the western part of

the state where the Aecidium occurs on the ash.

234. Aecidium ranunculaceaeum, DO.

On Anemone nemorosa , L. Pelican Lake. Lo¬

cally abundant.

242. Aecidium compositarum, Mart.

On Bidens frondosa, L. Racine. On the coty¬

ledons and first leaves in early spring.

Aecidia on Aster and Erigeron have been pro¬

duced by Dr. Arthur from teleutospores on Car ex

foenea, Wild., and Carex festucacea, Wild., respec¬

tively, and the species designated as Puecinia

caricis-asteris , Arthur, and P. caricis-erigeroniis,

Arthur. Lie has also shown that aecidia on Solir

dago are produced from teleutospores on Carex and

given the name Puecinia caricis-solidaginis. As

it is becoming evident that there are a num¬

ber of species of rusts on Carices this method

of forming specific names from the generic names

of both aecidial and rust hosts would, if carried out,

be of much assistance in understanding them. This

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin . 89

is merely using the prior name with a prefix. No

cultures have been made, to my knowledge, with

Wisconsin material.

255. Ustilago striaeformi^; (West.) Niessl.

( Tillitia striae formis , West. (?) Preliminary

List.) On Poa pratensis , L. Racine. Poa de-

bilis, Torr. Somers. Fresh spores gathered in

May germinated readily in water.

256. Entyloma compositarum, Farl.

On Fj rig cron Philadelphians, L. Racine.

268. Exobasiiuttm vaccini, (Feld.) Wor.

On Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng, and Cassan¬

dra calyculata, Don. Three Lakes.

270. Synchytrium peuriahniteattjm, (B. & C.) Farlow.

Sanicula gregaria, Bicknell seems to1 he the host

of this species about Racine.

272. Peronospora ficariae, Tul.

On Ranunculus Pcnnsylvanieus , L. f. Genoa

Junction and Vilas county.

On Ranuncidus septentrionalis , Poir. Somers.

282. SpH AERO THECA MORS~UVAE, (Schw.) (B. & C.)

On Ribes cynosbati, L. Tabor.

301. Cercospora gaijx, Ellis & Holway.

On Galium Aparine, L. Vilas county.

314. Cercospora sagittariae, Ellis & Kell.

On SagiUaria heterophylla, Pursh. Racine.

Develops rarely and scantily on this host when

abundant on 8. variabilis. Engelrn, growing in the

same place.

330. Fusarium uredinum, E. & E.

On Salix longifolia , Muhl. Racine. The states

rnent in the Supplementary List that the willow is

the host of this fungus is probably not warranted

although it occurs upon leaves upon which no sori

of the Melampsora are to be seen,.

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

341. TJredinopsis scolopendrii, (Fokl.) Diet. ( Gloeospo -

rium phegopteridis, Frank, Second Suppl. List.)

On Osmunda regalis , L., 0. Claytoniana, L.,

0. cinnamomea , L., and Phegopteris Dryopteris ,

Fee. Vilas county. Abundant.

392. SCOLECOTRICTIUM GRAMINIS, Fckl.

On Poa compressa, L. and Asprella Hystrix ,

Willd. Racine. On Muhlenbergia sylvatica,

Torr. & Gr. Kenosha county.

413. Septoria cucurbitacearum, Sacc.

On leaves of watermelon, Citrullus vulgaris,

Schrad. (cult.) Racine.

421. Septoria eactucae. Pass.

On Lactuca sativa , L. (cult.) Racine.

444. Septoria scuteleariae, Thum.

On Scutellaria versicolor , Kutt. Racine.

450. Septoria soeidaoinicoea, Pk.

On Aster umbellatus, Mill. Wind Lake.

462. Uromyces sp.

( Puccinia caricis strict ae, Dietel, Supplementary

List. )

Dr. Arthur informs me that this is not the rust

described as Uromyces caricis by Peck and referred

to Puccinia by Dietel, but a true Uromyces not yet

described.

463. Puccinia cyperi, Arthur.

Uredo and teleutospores on Cyperus filiculmis,

Vahl. Madison.

(Prof. R. A. Harper and J". J. Davis.)

469. Puccinia heucherae, (Schr.) Diet.

(. Puccinia spreta, Pk. Supplementary List.)

On Mitella nuda , L. Pelican Lake.

470. Puccinia maryeandica, Lindr.

(. Puccinia saniculae, Grev., Supplementary List.)

This has been separated under the above name.

I have not seen it about Racine since 1886. The

host is probably not Sanicula Marylandica, L., as

that species is limited by Bicknell, but more likely

S. gregaria , Bicknell.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 91

473. Puccinia veronicarum, DC.

Erroneously referred to Puccinia veronica q,

Schroet. in the Supplementary List.

519. Cylindrospoeium leptospebmum, Pk.

On Aralia hispida , Yent. Vilas county. Ap¬

parently rare on this species. This is hardly a

good Cylindrosporium. Material collected at

Wind Lake on Aralia nudicaulis, L., shows immjar

ture superficial perithecia bearing the conidia.

523. Maesonia brunnea, Elk & Evht.

On Popidus tremtdoid.es, Michx. Paeine and

Genoa Junction. On Popidus balsamifera var.

candicans , Gray, (cult.). Paeine.

531. Phyelosticta decidua. Ell. & Kell.

On Nepeta Glechoma , Benth., Veronica Vir¬

ginia L., and Lactuca Canadensis , L. Paeine.

On Bidens frondosa, L. Kenosha county. This

fungus appears to attack young and tender leaves

of various species of plants on many of which it

seldom develops spores.

559. XT st id ago eongissima. (Sow.) Tul.

On Glycerin grandis, Watson. The ordinary

form of the species with spores mostly 5-6 microns

in diameter.

563. Sceeeotium. [ Doassansia obscura, S etch ell, Second

Supplementary List.) Doassansia obscura , Setch-

ell, was described as occurring in the petioles of

Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm, and characterized by

large globular sori, the central portion, of which

consisted of hyphae. In searching for it, I found

at Paeine and also at Kenosha what I took to be

the sori of that species especially as when crushed

on a slide it was to be seen that the central por¬

tion was composed of hyphae. It was therefore

noted with reference to the then forthcoming Sec¬

ond Supplementary List, with the expectation that

it would be examined in section before the list went

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .

to print. That expectation was not fulfilled, how¬

ever, and the sections were not made until after

the list was printed. It then developed that the

supposed sori were composed entirely of closely in¬

terwoven hpyhae with an outer layer of rind cells.

A white fleshy fungus growth in the crown of

Sagittaria is perhaps connected with these jsclerotia.

I have not seen it in a, spore hearing stage and

cannot say what it is. I have seen similar sclerotia

in the culms of Scirpus lacustris, L., Zizania

aquaiica , L., and Glyceria fluitans, K. Br.

565. Doassansia sagittaeiae, (West.) Fisch.

There has been collected near Genoa Junction

and in small quantity near Racine a Doassansia on

Sagittaria heterophylla , Pursh,, which differs from

the ordinary form of this species in the rather large

sori which are frequently confluent. At both of

these stations the host grew in the midst of Sagitta¬

ria variability Engelm, which was much the most

abundant but in neither place was I able to find

the fungus on the latter host. It seems probable,

therefore, that it is confined to Sagittaria hetero¬

phylla. In that case the question will arise as to

whether it is to be considered a biological race or

a distinct species. Following the practice which

has obtained, this would be considered of specific

importance among the smuts while the treatment

of the question is different when the rusts are con¬

sidered. For the present, I label it forma con-

fluens.

566. Bureileta geobueifera, Davis.

I have been unable1 to again secure the growth

described as due to the germination of the spores.

I suspect that it was adventitious — a contamina¬

tion. The character and relationships of this fun¬

gus are therefore to be considered as unknown at

present.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 93

Since this was written, Prof. G. P. Clinton, in

North American UstUagineae , lias referred to this

and Doassansia zizaniae, also a Wisconsin fungus,

as follows: u Doassansia zizaniae on old stems of

Zizania aquatica and BwTillia globulifera occur¬

ring on similar parts of Glyceria ftuitans

do not seem to be true Ustillagineae but are more

probably sclerotial stages of Ascomycetes.” ( Jour¬

nal of Mycology , £-63-130.) Both of these spe¬

cies I think are parasitic although the material dis¬

tribution would give a contrary impression. The

latter sometimes is found in leaves alone in which

case the affected leaves only suffer. When, how¬

ever, the culm is attacked, it seems to cause the

death of the plant before the sclerotia (?) are

formed.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES— NOT BECOEDED IN THE

PEEVIOUS LISTS.

568. Synchytrium asari, Arthur & Holway.

On Asa rum reflexum , Bicknell. Somers. A

single station where it was fairly abundant in 1897

and again in 1901. As far as I know, it has not

been reported since the original collection at Ver¬

million lake, Minnesota.

569. Peronospora aesinearum, Caspary.

Conidia and oospores on Cerastium nutans , Eaf.

E a, cine.

570. Peronospora orisea, Ung.

On Veronica Anagallis , L. Eacine.

571. Peronospora rumicis, Corda.

On Polygonum dumetorum, L. var scandens.

Gray. Kenosha county.

572. Peroxospora rube, Eabh.

On Bubus villosus , Ait. Vilas county, July.

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

573. Plasmopara ribicola, Schroeter.

On Bibes rubrum, L., var. subglandulosum.

Maxim. Bibes prostratum , L’Her. and Bibes oxy-

acanthoides, L. In alder thickets along creeks.

Vilas county. Sometimes abundant.

574. Podosphaera leucotricha, (E. & E.) Salmon.

(Sphaerotheca mail, Burrill.) I have seen no

specimens of this hut it is credited to Wisconsin

in Salmon’s Monograph of the Erysiphaceae. Its

host is the apple, Pyrus Mains, L. (cult.)

575. Dimerosporium conglobatum (B. & 0.), EL & E.

On Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi , Spreng. Collected

in small quantity near Three Lakes on the lower

surface of spots hearing an immature Phyllos -

ticta ( ?)

576. Venturia dickiel, (B. & Br.) Ces. & Be LNot.

On Linnaea borealis , Gron. Pelican Lake.

577. Daldinia vernicosa, (Schw.) Ces. & De ISTot.

On trunk of living Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt

Somers.

578. Pseudopeziza singularia^ Peck in litt. ( Peziza singular

ria, Peck.)

On Banunculus Pennsylvanicus, L. Vilas

county.

578a. Fabraea rousseauana, Sacc. & B.

On Caltha palustris, L. Vilas county. I am

indebted to Dr. Ei. J. Durand of Cornell Univer¬

sity for the determination.

579. Ascochyta alismatis, (Oud.) Trail.

On Alisma Plantago , L. Bacine and Kenosha

county.

580. Ascochyta coronaria. Ell. & Davis, n. sp.

Spots small, irregular, definite, subangular,

partly limited hy the veinlets, first reddish hrown,

then dark hrown, finally pallid, 1-3 mm. in diamen

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 95

ter. Peritheeia epiphyllous, globose, black, pierced

above, 150-200 microns. Sporules of two ellip¬

tical or oblong biguttulate cells placed at various

angles to each other ; each cell 9-15 x 5-8 microns.

On living leaves of Pyrus coronaria , Racine,

Wisconsin, September. Ascochyta pyricola , Sacc.,

has sporules only 10 x 2 microns.

580a. Ascochyta rophanthi, n. sp.

On Lophanthus scrophulariifo lius, Benth. Ra¬

cine and Kenosha county. Spots dark brown, defi¬

nite, round to oval, margin repand, 5-20 mm.

diameter. Peritheeia globose, usually innate but

sometimes formed just beneath the epidermis and

forming minute papillae, 50-150 microns in diam¬

eter. Sporules short-cylindrical with rounded ex¬

tremities, constricted at the septum, 20-30 x 10-12

microns. August and September.

581. Ascochyta rhei, E. & E.

On Rheum Rhaponticum , L. (cult.). Racine.

(Dr. Erwin E. Smith.)

582. Cercospora acarypitae, Peck.

On Acaiypha Virginica , L. Racine. Conidia

amphigenous but most abundant on the lower sur¬

face of the spots. Ilyphae about as long, as the

conidia which sometimes attain a length of 150

microns.

583. Cercospora arismatis, Ellis & llolway.

On Alisma Planbago, L. Racine. Collected

but once.

584. Cercospora boehmertae, Peck.

On Boehmeria cylindrical Willd., var. scabra,

Porter. Genoa Junction.

585. Cercospora carrae, Pk. & Cl.

On Calla palustris, L. Vilas county. In these

specimens the spots are often 5 or 6 cm in length

and the leaf is usually split through the spot. The

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

conidia are about 6 microns in diameter and semen

times 100 microns in length.

586. Cercospora caricixa, Ell. k Deam.

On Car ex rosea, Schkubr. Racine. Carex arc -

tat a, Booth Vilas county. Rather abundant over

a small area, at each of these stations.

587. Cercospora comari, Pk.

On Potentilla palustris , Scop. Vilas county.

588. Cercospora desmodii, Ell. k Kell.

On Desmodium acuminatum, DC. Somers.

589. Cercospora diffusa. Ell. k Evht.

On Physalis sp. on the prairie near Racine.

590. Cercospora gerardiae, Ell. k Dearness.

On Gerardia grandiflora, Somers. This has been

referred to Cercospora clavata (Gerard) Pk. ;

which it much resembles. It appears, however, to

be confined to Dasystoma.

591. Cercospora gxapelaleacea, Cke. ( ?).

On Gnaphalium polycephatum, Michx. Racine.

I have followed Earle (Bull. T'orr. Bot. Club, 25,

366. 1898.), in the disposition of this species.

592. Cercospora heterospora. Ell. k Evht., ined.

On Euphorbia corollata , L. Racine.

593. Cercospora eippiae. Ell. k E'vht.

Mr. S. C. Wadmond called my attention to this

fungus on herbarium specimens of Lippia lanceo-

lata , Michx., collected by him at Racine.

594. Cercospora dytiiri, (West.) Kiessl.

On Ly thrum alatum, Pursh. Racine.

595. Cercospora majanthemi, Eckl.

On Maianthemum Canadense, Desf., Pelican

Lake. Differs from the type in its smaller size, —

about one-half. More typical specimens have since

been collected in Vilas county.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 97

596. Cercospora nymphaeacea, Cke. & Ellis.

On Nymphaea. Madison. (Prof. 11. A. Har¬

per and J. J. Davis.

596a. Cercospora pustuea, Cke.

On Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Miclix. Pa cine.

597. Cercospora rhamxi, Fckl.

On Rhamnus cathartica, L. Pacino. Rhanmus

alnifolia, L’Her. Wind Lake.

598. Cercospora rosaecoea, Pass.

On Rosa Carolina,, L. Wind Lake. Llyphae

sometimes exceeding 100 microns in length.

599. Cercospora sympeocarpi, Peck.

On Symplocarpos foetidus, Salisb. Kenosha

county.

600. Cercospora umerata, Ell. & Holway.

On Bidens connata, Muhl. Pacine.

601. Cercospora viciae. Ell. & LTolway.

On Vicia Caroliniana, Walt. Somers.

602. Cylixdrosporiitm eryegii. Ell. & KelL

On Eryngium yuccaefolium, Michx. Racine.

Sometimes locally abundant.

603. Gloeosporitjm caryae, Ell. & Dearn.

On Cary a alba, Kutt. Pacine. Very abundant

604. Geo me rite aria corni^ Peck.

On Cormis Canadensis , L. Three Lakes. On

Lonicera ciliata, Muhl. Vilas county.

605. Marsonia deeastrei, (De Lacroix) Sacc.

On Silene stellata , Ait. Pacine.

606. Marsoxia eraxini, Ell. & Davis n. sp •

On leaves of Fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam. Vilas

county. (J. J. Davis, 028, July, 1902.) Acervuli

buried in the substance of the leaf on small, pale,

indefinite spots or scattered singly over the entire

lower surface of the leaf, the fusoid-cylindrical,

7

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

nearly straight conidia, 17-33 (mostly 24-27) X

2-3 microns, ©rumpent in pale, slightly flesh-colored

cirrhi on the lower surface of the leaf, which is

hut slightly changed in appearance. This comes

near Septogloeum fraxini , Hark., hut that is epiph-

yllous with larger acervuli and broader conidia 2-5

septate and curved. The conidia in Mar soma

fraxini are, as far as observed, only one septate.

607. Mastioosporium album, Riess , var. Oalvum, Ell. &

Davis, n. var.

On Calamagrostis Canadensis , Beauv. Vilas

county. (J. J. Davis, 0220.)

“It is Mastigosporium all hut the three bristles

arising from the upper septum, so that it is either

a variety or a new species,” J. B. Ellis in liit.

608. Ovularia montliodes, Ell. & Martin.

On Myrica asplemfolia, Endl., and Myrica Gale ,

L. Vilas county.

609. Passalora fasciculata, (0. & E.) Earle.

On Euphorbia coroll ala, L. Bacine. Thesym

onymy of this species is fully given by Earle in

Torreya, 2 , 10-159.

610. Phleospora reticulata. Ell. & Evht.

On Lathy rus venosus, Muhl. Bacine.

611. Phyllosticta lappae, Sacc.

On Arctium Lappa, L. Somers.

612. Phyllosticta similispora, Ell. & Davis.

On Solidago rigida, L. Bacine.

613. Phyllosticta spermoides, Pk.

On Vitis riparia, Michx. Madison. (Prof. B.

A. Harper.)

614. Bamularis effusa, Peck.

On V accinium Canadense, Kalm. Vilas county.

Apparently scarce.

615. Bamularia mitellae. Peek.

On Mitella diphylla , L. Bacine.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 99

616. Pamularia SAMBuemA, Peck.

On Sambuciis racemosa , L. Pelican Lake.

617. Pamularia subrufa, Ell. & Ilolway.

On Smilax ecirrhata, Watson. Paeine.

618. Pamularia virgaureae, Tlinm.

On Solidago latifolia, L. Somers.

619. Pamularia waldsteiniae, Ell. & Davis, n. sp.

On leaves of Waldsieima fragarioides, Tratt.

Vilas county. (July, 1902, Davis 0218.) Hy-

pliae hypophyllous in white punctiform tufts on

brown subindefinite spots straight or slightly

curved, somte times abruptly bent above, 25-35 x 2-

3 microns. Oonidia straight, cylindrical, continu¬

ous, 20-30 x 3 microns. The brown spots are vis¬

ible- on the upper side of the leaf and the leaf turns

yellow around them.

620. Septocyeindrium concomitans, (Ell. & Hoi.) Hal-

sted.

On Bidens frondosa, L. Genoa Junction.

621. Septogloeum apocyui. Peck.

On Apocynum androsaemifo Hum, L. Somers.

Abundant.

622. Septogloeum potentieeae, Allesch.

On Potentilla palustris, Scop. Vilas county.

623. Septoria aenifoeia, Ell. & Evht.

On Alnus viridis, DC. Vilas county.

624. Septoria brevispora. Ell. & Davis, n. sp.

On leaves of Bromus ciliatus , L. Paeine.

(J. J. Davis 025, July, 1902.) Spots elongated-

elliptical, brown, 1-2 cm x 2-5 mm, finally conflu¬

ent, the wrhole leaf becoming dead and dry. Peri-

thecia not confined to the spots, light colored, 120-

150 u in diameter, pierced above. Sporules clav-

ate-cylindrical, 15-18 x 2l/2~3 microns, quadri-nu-

cleate, straight. Differs from Septoria bromi,

Sacc., in its much shorter sporules.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

625. Septoria campanulae, (Lev.) Sacc.

On Campanula Americana , L. Racine, Very

abundant at one station in 1900.

626. Septoria cepi-ialantiii, Ell. & Kell.

On C ephalanthus occidentalism L. Kenosha

county. In these specimens the perithecia are fre¬

quently hypophyllous. The sporules are l-J-2 mi¬

crons thick.

627. Septoria corydaeis, Ell. & Davis.

On Corydalis glauca , Pursh. Vilas county.

Hardly a good Septoria.

628. Septoria erigerontis, B. & C., var. boetoniae,, Webber.

On Boltonia asteroides, L’Her. Kenosha county.

I am indebted to Prof. P. E. Clements for the com¬

parison of this with Nebraska specimens. Al¬

though Septoria erigeronlisj B. & C., is recorded in

the Preliminary List, I have thought it best to give

this variety a separate number.

629. Septoria gei, Bob. & Desm.

On Geum macro phyllum , Willd. Wind Lake.

630. Septoria haestedii, Ell. & Evlit., in herb. ( Septoria

chrysanthemum Llalsted. )

On Chrysanthemum Leucanitiemum, L. Kacine.

631. Septoria eiatridis. Ell. & Davis.

On Liatris scariosa , Willd, and Liatris spica'ta,

Willd. Racine, I have observed this species for

a number of years but never in any abundance.

632. Septoria menyanthis/ Desm.

On Menyanthes trifoliata, L. Madison and

Vilas county.

633. Septoria saccharin a. Ell. & Evht.

On A cer saccharinum , Wang. Vilas county.

In the specimen examined the sporules are shorter,

about 30 microns.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 101

634. Panoeolus epimyces, Pk.

On Coprinus atramentarius, Fr. Madison.

(Prof. P. A. Harper.)

635. Uromyces haestedii, De Toni.

On Leersia Virginica, Willd. Dells of the Wiscon¬

sin river. (Dr. J. C. Arthur.)

635a. Uromyces minor, Schroet.

Aecidium on Trifolium repens , L. La Crosse.

(Prof. L. LI. Parnmel.)

I am indebted to Dr. Arthur for the specimen,

which I presume was referred to under Ho. 152,

TJ. trifolii (A. & S.) of the Preliminary List.

636. PUCCINIA ASP A RAGE, DC.

On Asparagus officinalis, L. Racine.

637. Puccinia boeeeyana, Sacc.

I am indebted to Dr. J. C. Arthur for the de¬

tection of this rust on an unidentified host (Car ex ?)

collected in Kenosha county. This was collected

again in 1902 on sterile plants that were apparently

the same as the Car ex trichocarpa, Muhl. that was

abundant in the vicinity. Dr. Arthur has, by

means of cultures, established the fact that; Aecid¬

ium samhuci, Schw.' (Ho. 232) is the secidial stage

of this rust and has accordingly changed the name

to Puccinia samhuci , (Schw.) Arthur. I should

prefer to write it P. caricis-sambuci.

637a. Puccinia bueeata, (Pers.) Wint.

Uredo and teleutospores on Pimpinella integer-

rima, Bemth. & Hook. Kenosha county.

A single station of quite limited extent.

638. Puccinia cypripedii, Arthur & Holway.

Uredo and teleutospores on Cypripedium pubes-

cens, Willd. Somers.

639. Puccinia haleniae, Arthur & Holway.

On Halenia deflexa, Griseb. Banks of the St.

Louis river. (Prof. L. S'. Cheney.)

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

640. Puccinia hydropiiylli, Pk. & Clint.

On Hydrophyllum Virginicum, L. I have seen

this but one© and then in small quantity in Kenosha

county.

641. PUCCINIA NARDOSMII,, Ell. & Evht.

On Petasites palmata, Gray. Bark Bay, Bay-

field county. (Prof. L. S. Cheney.) Mouth of

the Blrule river, Douglas county. (Prof. L. S.

Cheney.)

642. Puccinia panics Dietel.

Teleutospores on Panicum virgatum , L. Racine.

643. Puccinia poarum, Kiels.

Uredo on Poa prat ensis, L. Madison (Seymour).

Racine. Referred to in Suppl. List under Kb. 199.

644. Puccinia seymoitriana, Arthur.

Teleutospores on Spartina cynosuroides, Willd.

Racine.

645. Puccinia simileima, Arthur.

On Phragmites communis. Trim, accompanying

Puccinia phragmitis (Schum.), Koern. This is

the rust that has been referred to Puccinia mag-

nusiana, Koern., in this country.

646. Puccinia waedsteiniae, M. A. Curtis.

On Waldsteinia fragarioides , T'ratt. Adanale

(Prof. L. S. Cheney.) Eorest and Yilas counties.

Locally abundant.

647. Chrysomyxa aebida, Kuhn.

On Rub us strigosus, Michx. Vilas county. Re¬

ported from Wisconsin on Rubus occidentals, L.,

by Tracy & Galloway. (Jour, of Mycol., J-7-62.)

648. Melampsora eini, (Pers.) Desm.

Uredo on Linum sulcatum , Riddell. Sauk City.

(Mr. LL E. Lueders.)

649. Melampsora vacciniorum, (Lk.) Schroet. ( Thecopsora

vacciniorum, (Lk.) Karst.)

Uredo on Yaccinium Canadense, Kalin, and

Vaccinium Pennsylvamcum, Lam. Three Lakes.

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin. 103

650. Aecidium epilobii, DC.

On Oenothera biennis , L. Pelican Lake.

651. Peridermium decolorans, Peck.

On Picea nigra, Lk. Oneida county. (Prof.

L. S. Cheney.) Vilas county. This is considered

a variety of Peridermium abietinum, (A. & S.) by

some botanists.

652. Doassansia intermedia, Setchell.

On 8 agittaria variabilis , Engelm. Vilas county.

Through the courtesy of Dr. Setchell, I have been

able to examine authentic material of this species,

the description of which appeared in the Botanical

Gazette , 19, 185-86, 1894. Doassansia affinis,

Ell. & Dearn., which I consider a synonym, was

published in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical

Club , 22, 364, 1895, consequently the name used

has prioritv and it is not invalidated by Doassansia

intermedia , Morot (on Alisma ), Journal Botanr

ique , 1895. Since this was written Prof. G. P.

Clinton has announced the same conclusion. Jour¬

nal of Mycology , 8 , 63, 129. This appears to have

a northern range: Shelburn, K. EL, Farlow ;

London, Canada, Dearness ; northern Wisconsin;

Port Arthur, Minn., Dewart , fide Setchell, and De¬

cor all, Iowa, Holivay.

653. Doassansia zizanae, Davis, occurring on Zizania

aquatica , L., at Racine, Kenosha and Madison, is

considered by Prof. G. P. Clinton toi be probably

a Sclerotium, loc. cit , 130. See note to Ko. 566.

654. Entyloma poeysporum, (Pk.) Earl.

On Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, L. Racine.

Sometimes abundant.

655. ScHIZONEEEA MELANOGRAMMA, (DC.) Schroet.

On Car ex. Madison. (Dr. K. LI. True.) Ra-

cine. (Dr. F. L. Stevens.) My thanks are due to

Dr. Stevens for calling my atention to the omission

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of tliis species from the previous lists. It some¬

times occurs in considerable abundance on Carex

Pennsylvania.

656. Tracya lemme, (Seteh.) Sydow.

( Cornuella l&mnae , Seteb.) On Spirodela poly-

rrhiza , Scbeid. Genoa Junction. Tbis occurred

on the inner margin of tbe “lagoon” at Powers

lake but I failed to find it at any other point around

tbe lake. A search for it tbe following year was

fruitless.

657. USTILAGO OLIVACEA, (DO.) Till.

On Carex utriculata, Boott, Vilas county. I

have not compared tbis witb authentic specimens.

In my copy of Sydow’s Ustilagineen tbe specimen

so labeled is Cintractia caricis , (Pers.) Magnus.

Prof. Clinton bas since authenticated a Wisconsin

specimen.

658. USTILAGO PEEEYS'ANS, Bostr.

On Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. Abun¬

dant in a field of Bromus inermis witb the seed of

which the host and smut bad apparently been in-

. troduced.

659. Ustilago utriculosa, (Bees.) Tul.

On Polygonum hydro piper oides, Micbx. Bacine.

This smut appears to be rare in Wisconsin.

659a. Ustilago macrospora, Desm. on^ Agropyrum repens,

Beauv. and

659b. Ustilago oxaldis. Ell. & Tracy.

On Oxalis corniculata, L. var. stricta, Sav. Be-

ported from1 Wisconsin in Clinton’s list of North

American U stilagineae. (Journal of Mycology,

8-63.

660. Clado c h ytrium mac glare, (Wallr.) ( Physoderma mac -

ulare, Wallr. Cladochytrium alismatis, Busgen.)

On Alisma Plant ago, L. Kenosha county and

Bacine. In 1898 about forty leaves bearing this

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

105

fungus were secured in a small button busk swamp

in Kenosha county, but I have not been able to find

it there since. Two or three leaves bearing the sori

were subsequently found near Kacine also growing

under Cephalanthus. There is also in my herba¬

rium a specimen (ex herb. Ellis) collected in the

state of Washington. Prof. G. P. Clinton in his

excellent account of the life1 history of this species

adopts Busgems name, but I have preferred to fol¬

low the custom prevailing at the present time.

661. CnADOCHYTEItTM MENIANTHIS, (DBy.)

On Menyanthes trifoliata , L. Genoa Junction

and Vilas county.

HSTDEX TO HOSTS.

Acalypha Virginica, 582.

Acer saccharinum, 633.

Agropyrum repens, 659a.

Alisma Plantago, 579, 583, 660.

Alnus viridis, 623.

Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, 654.

Ampelapsis quinquefolia, 596a.

Anemone nemorosa, 234, 263.

Apocynum androsaemifolium, 621.

Aralia hispida, 519.

Aralia medicaulio, 519.

Arctium Lappa, 611.

Arctostaphylous uva-ursi, 268, 575.

Arisaema Dracontium, 157.

Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 658.

Asarum reflexum, 568.

Asparagus officinalis, 636.

Asprella Hystrix, 392.

Aster, 242.

Aster cordifolius, 83.

Aster diffusus, 83.

Aster umbellatus, 450.

Bidens connata, 600.

Bidens frondosa, 242, 531, 620.

Boelimeria cylindrica, 584.

Boltonia asteroides, 628.

Bromus ciliatus, 624.

Call a palustris, 585.

Calamagrostis Canadensis, 64, 607.

Caltha palustris, 578a.

Campanula Americana, 625.

Carex arctata, 586.

Carex gracillima, 227, 462.

Carex Pennsulvanica, 655.

Carex rosea, 586.

Carex trichocarpa, 222, 637.

Carex utriculata, 657.

Carex, 242, 637, 655.

Carpinus Caroliniana, 577.

Carya alba, 603.

Cassandra calyculata, 268.

Cephalanthus occidentalis, 626.

Cerastium nutans, 569.

Chenopodium hybridum, 20.

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum,

630.

Citrullus vulgaris, 413.

Coprinus atramentarius, 634.

Cornus Canadensis, 604.

Corydalis glauca, 627.

Cyperus filiculmis, 463.

Cypripedium, pubescens, 638.

Desmodium acuminatum, 588.

Eleocharis palustris, 154.

Epilobium adenocaulon, 304.

Erechtites hieracifolia, 10.

Erigeron philadephicus, 256.

Erigeron, 242.

Eryngium yuccaefolium, 602.

Euphorbia corollata, 592, 609.

Fraxinus sambucifolia, 606.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Galium aparine, 301.

Galium concinnum, 190.

Galium lanceolatum, 22.

Galium trifidum, 190.

Gerardia grandiflora, 590.

Geum macrophyllum, 17, 629.

Glyceria fluitans, 563, 566.

Glyceria grandis, 559.

Gnaphalium polycephalum, 591.

Halenia deflexa, 639.

Helianthus, 10.

Hydrophyllum Virginicum, 640.

Laetuca Canadensis, 531.

Lactuea Floridana, 45.

Lactuca leucophaea, 15.

Laetuca sativa, 421.

Lathyrus venosus, 610.

Leersia Virginica, 635.

Liatris scariosa, 631.

Liatris spicata, 631.

Linnaea borealis, 576.

Lippia lanceolata, 593.

Linum sulcatum, 648.

Lonicera ciliata, 604. v

Lophanthus scrophulariaefolius, 45,

580a.

Lonicera tatarica, 40.

Lythrum alatum, 594.

Maianthexnum Canadense, 595.

Menyanthes trifoliata, 632, 661.

Mitella diphylla, 615.

Mitella nuda, 469.

Muhlenbergia sylvatica, 392.

Myrica asplenifolia, 608.

Myrica Gale, 608.

Nemopanthes fascicularis, 40, 74.

Nepeta Glechoma, 531.

Nymphaea, 596.

Oenothera biennis, 222, 650.

Osmunda cinnamomea, 341.

Osmunda Claytoniana, 341.

Osmunda regalis, 341.

Oxalis corniculata, 659&.

Panicum virgatum, 642.

Parnassia Caroliniana, 49.

Petasites palmata, 641.

Phegopteris Dryopteris, 341.

Phragmites communis, 645.

Physalis, 589.

Picea nigra, 651.

Pimpinella integerrima, 637a.

Poa compressa, 392.

Poa debilis, 255.

Poa pratensis, 255, 643.

Polygonum cilinode, 145.

Polygonum Convolvulus, 145, 178.

Polygonum dumetorum, 571.

Polygonum hydropiperoides, 178,

659.

Populus balsamifera, 523.

Populus tremuloides, 523.

Potentilla palustris, 587, 622.

Prunus Pennsylvanica, 179.

Pyrus coronaria, 580.

Pyrus Malus, 574.

Ranunculus acris, 78.

Ranunculus Pennsylvanicus, 263,

272, 578.

Ranunculus septentrionalis, 272.

Rhamnus alnifolia, 597.

Rhamnus cathartica, 597.

Rheum Rhaponticum, 581.

Rhus Toxicodendron, 147.

Ribes cynosbati, 282.

Ribes gracile, 227.

Ribes oxyacanthoides, 573.

Ribes prostratum, 573.

Ribes rubrum, 573.

Rosa Carolina, 598.

Rubus occidentalis, 647.

Rubus strigosus, 647.

Rubus villosus, 218, 572.

Sagittaria heterophylla, 314, 565.

Saggittaria variabilis, 563, 652.

Salix longifolia, 330.

Sambucus canadensis, 637.

Sambucus racemosa, 616.

Sanicula gregaria, 270, 470.

Sanicula Marylandica, 470.

Scirpus lacustris, 563.

Scutellaria versicolor, 444.

Silene stellata, 605.

Smilax ecirrhata, 617.

Solidago latifolia, 618.

Solidago nemoralis, 169.

Solidago rigida, 012.

Spartina cynosuroides, 233, 644.

Spiraea salicifolia, 43.

Spirodela polyrrhiza, 656.

Symplocarpos foetidus, 599.

Trifolium repens, 635a.

Vaccinium Canadense, 614, 649.

Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, 649.

Veronica Anagallis, 570.

Veronica serpyllifolia, 45.

Veronica Virginica, 473, 531.

Vicia Caroliniana, 601.

Viola pedata, 225.

Vitis riparia, 613.

Waldsteinia fragarioides, 619, 646.

Zizania aquatica, 563, 653.

ARIZONA DIATOM ITE.

BY WILLIAM P. BLAKE, E.G.S.,

Professor of Geology , University of Arizona.

In a recent paper1 descriptive of the occurrence, composition

and uses of the extensive beds of diatom-earth in the valley

of the San Pedro,2 Arizona, the paleontology of the deposits

was necessarily omitted. In this communication I attempt to

supply that deficiency and to illustrate some of the more im¬

portant and novel forms by micro-photography.

The fossils occur in thick beds many square miles in area,

in horizontal layers cut through by ravines, and probably one

hundred feet in thickness. These beds when freshly broken

are snow-white and chalk-like in appearance, but are siliceous

and not calcareous in composition. Under the microscope the

diatoms are seen to be distributed through, or mingled with,

nearly colorless vitreous particles, apparently a very finely di¬

vided volcanic ash or dust such as may have been wafted by

the wind and deposited in a lake or estuary of quiet water.

The siliceous shields or frustules are easily separated from this

vitreous magma and form beautifully perfect objects in the field

of a microscope of high power.

Full suites of samples were submitted to eminent specialists,

who have expressed great interest in this discovery, and have

1 Diatom Earth in Arizona. W. P. Blake. Trans. Am. Inst. Min.

Engrs. 1902.

2 The Rio San Pedro of the early explorers and fathers is the Rio

Quiburi of the aborigines. The valley was explored in 1697 by two

Spanish parties, united for the purpose, and accompanied by 30 Indian

auxiliaries. They marched down the river to the Gila, and thence to

Casa Grande, returning up the Santa Cruz. (See Bancroft's History ,

vol. xvii., p. 355.)

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

noted several apparently new forms, or, at least, variations from

types hitherto described.

I am indebted to Dr. D. B. Ward of Poughkeepsie, 1ST. Y.,

for the following list of species or forms recognized by him

and for the micro-photographs from which the illustrations have

been made.

List of Species Recognized. — Actinocyclus Ralfsii, var. Arir

zonae; Amphiprora pulchra (fragments) ; Amphora coffaefor-

mis, var. protracta (Pant. II, 5 ) \ A. lineata; A. proteus (abun¬

dant) ; Denticula tenuis ; also, var. Mesolepta (Grun.) ; Epithe-

mia gibba;* also, var. ventricosa; * E. gihberula ;* E. incisal

(Pant.) ; E. turgida ;* Fragilaria virescens ; Frustulia ( navic -

ula) interposita; Gomphonem.a suhclavatum ;* ILantzschia am-

phioxys, var. vivax ; Ilaynaldella (antiqua), var. Arizonae;

Ilyalodiscus scoticus; Mastogloia Braunii; M. elliptica, var.

(A. 8. At., 185, 8) ; M. lanceolate ; M. Smiihii; Melosira Bor-

rerii; M. nummuloides; Navicida Bohemica ;* N. divergens (f.

minor A. S. ; N. elliptica ; N. interrupted ; N. formosa; N. limr

osa ;* N. Macraeana (Pant.) ; N. peregrina; N. Sculpta ;*

Nitzchia vitrea; Af. sp. ?, ( ILantzschia f) Stour oneis aspera

(very narrow var.) ; Surirella striatula.

Dr. W ard writes :

“I enclose a list of the forms as I identify them. The actino¬

cyclus which I formerly called A. Ralfsii v. Monicae is not ex¬

actly that form, but pretty close to it. It might be called A.

Ralfsii v. Arizonae.

“The Haynaldella differs slightly from Pantoesek’s original

in having heavier markings and wanting a clear space in the

center. I have never seen this form in American material be¬

fore. The small Mastogloia is found also in Utah fossil ma¬

terial, and is figured in Schmidt’s atlas (PI. 185-8) as a variety

of M. elliptica — which I doubt.

“There is a Nitzschia , or ILantzschia, which I cannot

identify.

* ■*.*#.'**’■**

“You will find a good deal of variation in the Actinocyclus ;

but I believe it is all one species, as intermediate forms occur.

This deposit is marine, although it contains a, few fresh-water

forms, which I have noted in the list by an asterisk.”

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate III.

Actinocyclus ( Ralfsii var.? ) AH zonae.

Trans. Wis. AcacL, Vol. XIV

Plate IV.

Actinocyclus ( Ralfsii var.? ) Arizonae.

Amphora proteus. Greg.

'rails. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate V.

Denticula tenuis , var . mesoleptci. Grim.

Frustulia interposita, Lewis, frustules.

Blake — Arizona Diatomite.

109

Tlie following forms are illustrated :

1. Actinicyclus (Kalfsii var.?), Arizonae. ' \ /

2. Adinocyclus (Kalfsii) Arizonae., , /v^

3. Amphora proteus , Greg.

4. Denticular tenuis, var. mesolepta , Grum A

5. Frustulia interposita, Lewis ( frustules ).

6. Heynaldella anti qua, Kant. var. Arizonae.

7. Mastogloia elliptica, var. front and side views.

8. Mastogloia Braunii, Gv un.

9. Mastogloia Smithii, var, ,

10 Nitzschiu vitrea , .Norm, tr- * h> , , ^

11. Navicula Macraeana,V ant. jj-A

Dr. Arthur M. Edwards, E.L.S., of Newark, N. J., to whom

1 sent, specimens reported :

“Examined miscroscopic ally, this earth is found to he m^ide

up of the following forms of bacillaria: The commonest is

Denticula protea (P. A. C. N.). This is> called Denticula lauta

(J. W. B.), and is found in the celebrated Monterey earth

of California, which is marine. It is also found in the earth

of the Yellowstone Park, and likewise living there also. It

is beautifully figured by A. Grunow in Van IXeurck’s Synopsis

des Diatoraees de Belgique , Atlas, 1880-1881, where, on

Planche XLIX, it is given with various names, in just nine

of them altogether, but they can all be referred to Denticella

protea, PL A. C. X. There is also present (very common) a

form that is extremely interesting to students of the bacillaria.

This is a large disc, marked most beautifully with rays of small

dots, so that it looks almost like a sun. At first, this seems

to be a new form or ‘species;/ and was so ranked by me in

my report on the diatomaceous earths, of the Northwest Bound¬

ary Survey, published ten years ago. But it is not new, al¬

though it appears so. It is a Cyclotella or Stephano discus, and

is published by A. Grunow as S. carconensis, from Carson City,

Nevada, and Klamath Lake, Oregon. It is really Cyclotella

bevolinensis (C. G. E.), and is published in the Bericht for

1845, and includes Discoplea astrea (C. G. E.) and D. Eorcca,

C. G. E. They are the sporangia of Melosira granulata,

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

0. G. E., which is common — in fact, is the prevailing form of

the Occidental Sea,. See American Journal of Science , 1891.

“Mixed with these forms, although in small quantity, are

the following: Navicula appendiculata (C. A. A.) ; N. ob-

longa (F. T. K.), and Nitzschia scalaris (C G. E.) This last

is common in the brackish water of our coast. It is also seen

in the Glacial period clay, which is fresh-water.

“There is also present a form which looks like Mastogloia

lanceolata (C. K. T.).

“When we consider the origin of this ‘diatom-earth/ there

are present mostly fresh-water forms ; hut one form is decidedly

marine, as bacillaria grow now, and has not as yet been de¬

tected living in fresh water. This is what has been called

Uyalodiscus FranMinii (0. G. E.), and was orginally found

in the waters of the frozen Forth, but is common now every¬

where. It is also called Uyalodiscus subtilis (J. W. B.), and

is proposed by Bailey to be used as a Test’ for microscopic ob¬

jects. But it is also found in the mud of a brackish-water

swamp at Melbourne, Australia,, and perhaps was washed down

from fresh-water, ages ago.

“The Cyclolella bevolinensis (O. G. E.) which I have de¬

scribed looks very much like an Actinocyclus — in fact, is very

closely allied to A. Rolf six (W. $.), and is figured by Van Heurck

in his Synopsis (Blanche OXXIII, Eig. 6). In fact, it is

probably nearly allied to that form which is so common along

all coasts., and in the celebrated guano of Ichaboe, A pic a. It

is also common, along with fresh-water forms, in the clay of

Hatfield swamp, Few Jersey. This clay, by the way, is Upper

Pliocene.

“Epithemia musculus (E. T. X.l is present in small, or or¬

dinary-sized, frustules, and large and unusual-sized ones.”

The Monterey earth to which reference is made was discov¬

ered by me in 1853 and is described in my Keport,1 and in the

Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia.2 It

was partially examined by the late Professor J. W. Bailey.

1 Geological Reconnaissance in California, 4to. 1855, and also in vol¬

ume V, Pacific R. R. Reports.

2 Vol. vii, p. 328.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate VI,

Nitzschia vitrea. Norm.

Navicula Macrcieana .

Pant.

i=

Mastogloia elliptic a var., front and side views

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate VIII.

IJeynaldella antiqua Pant , var. Anzonae.

Mastogloia Braunii. Grun.

Blake — Arizona Diatomile.

Ill

Extensive deposits of this nature derive additional scientific

interest of late from, the suggested possible connection of these

microscopic organisms with the genesis of petroleum. Some

of the layers of compact silica in the Monterey series are highly

bituminous. Dr. Phillips, the Director of the Texas Geological

Survey, has observed globules of petroleum in diatoms from the

marine ooze off the Sabine Pass.1

The lacustrine or marine estuarine origin of the Arizona de¬

posits has been discussed by me in a recent paper on Lake

Quiburis,2

1 “ Texas Petr oleum” by Wm. Battle Phillips, Ph. D., Bull. No. 5 of

the Univ. of Texas (1901), pp. 20-28.

2 Arizona University Monthly. March, 1902.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF CANTHOCAMPTUS FROM

IDAHO.

BY C. DWIGHT MARSH,

Professor of Biology, Ripon College.

Canthocamptus idaiioensis sp. new.

This Canthocamptus was found in some material collected by

Professor B. W. Evermann in Altur as Inlet, Idaho.

There were only a few mature specimens of the form so that

the description which follows is somewhat imperfect, but is suf¬

ficiently complete, perhaps, to characterize the species, which

seems undoubtedly new.

Length of the male .7 mm. The abdominal segments are

nearly as broad as those of the thorax, and both abdominal and

thoracic segments are serrated on their posterior borders, and

armed with fine setae. Two dentations, one on each, side, are

especially prominent on the abdominal segments.

The branches of the furca (Plate IX, fig. 4) are slender, the

length being about four times the average width, and the api¬

cal extremity about half as wide as the base. At about half

the distance from the base to the apex there is a somewhat sud¬

den constriction in width, and at this point there is a group of

rather small setae. The apex is armed with a long central seta,

a short and weak external lateral seta, and a still shorter inter¬

nal lateral seta.

The first antennae of the female (Plate IX, fig. 5) are eight

jointed, and of the form typical for Canthocamptus. The first

four segments are much larger than those which succeed, and

are of approximately equal length. The relative lengths of the

segments, commencing with the first, are as follows: 25, 23,

21, 24, 7, 15, 8, 20. The first three segments have circlets of

Marsh — On a New Species of C anthocamptus. 113

small spines. The sensory seta of the fourth segment extends

beyond the end of the eighth segment. The seventh and eighth

segments are somewhat indistinctly separated. The first an¬

tenna of the male is composed of seven apparent segments, of

which the first three are very much swollen.

In the female the endopodite of the first swimming foot is

three jointed, and is longer than the exopodite. (Plate IX, fig.

6.) The endopodites of the second, third, and fourth feet are

two-jointed. The apical segment of the endopodite of the sec¬

ond foot is armed with two lateral and two terminal setae, that

of the third foot is armed with three laterals and two terminals,

while that of the fourth is armed with three terminal setae.

(Plate IX, figs. 7, 8, and 9.)

In the male the endopodites of the first and third feet are

three-jointed, and the second and fourth two-jointed. The ap¬

ical segment of the endopodite of the second foot is. armed with

three lateral and two terminal setae. (Plate IX, fig. 10.)

The second segment of the endopodite of the third foot is armed

with one long seta, and the apical segment with two terminal

setae. (Plate IX, fig. 11.) The apical segment of the endop¬

odite of the fourth foot is. armed with two lateral and three ter¬

minal setae.

The fifth feet in both male and female are unusually elon¬

gated. In the male (Plate IX, fig. 12) the outer part consists

of a slender segment armed on the exterior margin with two

stout spines, a short and a long spine at the apex, and a slender

seta about midway of the interior margin. The inner part of

the foot is quadrangular, and armed at the apex with two stout

spines of which the inner is twice as long as the outer.

The two parts of the fifth foot of the female (Plate IX, fig.

13) a, re nearly ectual in length, and are long and slender, the

length being about six times the width. The outer part is

armed like that of the male, but the spines are weaker and the

seta on the internal margin is on the apical portion of the

segment. The inner part of the foot is armed with six setae, of

which two are apical, one external, and three internal.

Habitat, Alturas Inlet.

8

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The marked characters by which the specie® is easily distin¬

guished are the slender furea and thei remjarkably slender fifth

feet of both sexes. In fact, it is possible that the peculiar char¬

acters of the fifth feet should be considered of generic value.

Marsh — On a New Species of Canthocamptus. 115

PLATE IX.

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Canthocamptus idahoensis , furca of female x 302.

Fig. 2. Canthocamptus idahoensis , antenna of female x302.

Fig. 3. Canthocamptus idahoensis , first foot of female x302.

Fig. 4. Canthocamptus idahoensis , endopodite of second foot

of female x 423.

Fig. 5. Canthocamptus idahoensis , endopodite of third foot of

female x 423.

Fig. 6. Canthocamptus idahoensis , endopodite of fourth foot

of female x 423.

Fig. 7. Canthocamptus idahoensis , third foot of male x 375.

Fig. 8. Canthocamptus idahoensis , second foot of male x 302.

Fig. 9. Canthocamptus idahoensis , fifth foot of mjale x 423.

Fig. 10. Canthocamptus idahoensis , fifth foot of female x

292.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

ENTOCYTHERE CAMBARIA {nov. gen. et nov. spec.),

A PARASITIC OSTRACOD.

BY WM. S. MAESHALL,

Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

While examining a number of branchiae taken from recently

killed crayfish, I noticed on one of themi a small crustacean,

which upon examination with a microscope, proved to he an

Ostracod. The peculiarity of its habitat at once struck me as

anomalous, and desiring to procure more specimens, I adopted

the following method which I found very satisfactory. When

any specimens of the Ostracod were wanted a, crayfish was

killed, the branchiae removed and placed in a large watch-glass

partially filled with water. The contents of this glass being

examined a few minutes later, the Ostracods, if present, were

found near the edge of the water at the side farthest from the

light, to which they appear very sensitive. As soon, as the

branchiae were placed in the water the parasites would leave

them] and reaching the glass would crawl along it until they

came to the edge of the water, where they would remain as far

from the source of light as possible.

The first crayfish (different species of Cambarus ) examined

were from the vicinity of Madison; of these, nearly half were

infected. Other crayfish were obtained through a dealer and

varied considerably in their infection ; some localities yielding

nearly as high a percentage as those near Madison, while cray¬

fish from other localities appeared to be entirely free. The

dealer obtained this material from different parts of Wiscon¬

sin, but I could get no definite locality other than Madison. At

no season of the year were the p fftes entirely absent although

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

both, eggs and young were present only during tbe warm

weather, being most abundant early in summer.

Tbe question of Entocy there being a parasite or a commensal

is one that could not be answered from its habitat alone. Liv¬

ing in tbe branchial chamber and on the branchiae and bran¬

chial filaments of the crayfish it might have no further connec¬

tion with its host than to obtain a sheltered abode. The num¬

ber of other animals found living in the branchial cham¬

ber could supply it with sufficient food, but these, being prin¬

cipally nematodes and rotifers, would leave traces of their iden¬

tity in the stomach contents. An examination of all my speci¬

mens showed that in most, of them the stomach was either empty

or filled with a nearly homogeneous, mass. While the mouth

parts of Entocy there are not modified for a parasitic life, I be¬

lieve that its food consists of the blood circulating in the bran¬

chiae of the host.

The method of infection appears difficult of elucidation. At

no stage in its lifeffiistory has Entocythere the power of swim¬

ming, so that it is unable to go through the water from one host

to another. During the copulation of the crayfish it, could eas¬

ily pass from one individual to another, or could reach the

young as long as they remained attached to the swimmers of the

mother. The latter view does not seem probable as I never

found any of the very young crayfish infected, always finding

the parasites most abundant in the largest individuals.

At one time I obtained from the same locality near Madison,

over thirty crayfish which were all placed in a; large sink. Fif¬

teen of them, killed within two days, were found to be well in¬

fected, more than half containing parasites. The remainder

of the loti were kept together for more than four weeks, and

when finally killed, every one was found infected ; the number

of parasites being greater than in any other crayfish I ever ex¬

amined. It seems improbable that the first lot of crayfish

were any less infected than those not selected, but more likely

that had they also been examined when first obtained, nearly

half of them would also have been free from) parasites. I do

not see why in taking half of the lot I should have selected those

in which the per cent of infected specimens was smallest, or in

Marshall — A Parasitic Osiracod.

119

which the parasites were less numerous. The probable means

of infection, other than during copulation, seems to me to be

as follows. In the daytime crayfish are found quite abun¬

dantly under the stones and logs in the streams and near the

shores of the lakes. They leave these retired places to feed and

then return to the same or similar localities. Here the para¬

sites could leave their hosts, the light being naturally excluded,

and reach other crayfish which camie under the same stone.

Lacking some of the larger systematic works, I have been un¬

able to definitely determine the position of Entocythere in the

family Cytheridae to which it belongs. Muller’s (8) work

gives but two genera of this family, to neither of which does our

species belong. From Linnicythere it differs in having six ter¬

minal setae on the first antenna instead of two; in having the

flabellum of the second antenna unsegmented, besides a marked

difference in the structure of the maxilla. The maxilla is also

quite different from1 that of the other genus, Metacypris ; be¬

sides the number of terminal setae on the first antenna, and the

segments of the mandibular palp not being the sam)e.

In the key given in Bronn’s (2) it is nearest to Loxochonca,

differing, however, from a species of the same genus figured by

Brady and Forman ( 1 ) , in the form*, both of the posterior part

of the abdomen and of the maxilla. It is alsoi very similar to

Sclerochilus contortus Sars, as figured by Kaufman (7), but

differs in the number of segments of both the second antenna

and the mandibular palp, as well as in the general appearance

of the maxilla.

A reference to> the systematic table given in Bronn’s (2) or

to those given by Sars (13) or Kaufmann (7) shows that Ento¬

cythere comes nearest to Loxochonca, but is enough different to

claim a new genus.

Methods : After their removal from the crayfish the speci¬

mens were killed in hot water, or in a mixture of equal parts of

hot water and sublimate. Picro-sulphuric was also used but

not considered as effective as either of the other methods. The

specimens killed in hot water were either brought directly into

alcohol, or, after their removal from) the water were first

allowed to remain for fifteen minutes in a nearly saturated so-

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

lution of sublimate. Tbei shells being chitinous, decalcification

was unnecessary. Delafield’s haematoxylin was found to be

the most satisfactory stain ; often following it with orange G.

Specimens which, I wished to mount entire were killed in a

dilute solution of Flemming, washed for several hours, and

mounted in balsam. The strength of the Flemming and the

time employed differed a great deal. Usually a solution of one

part Flemming to' five parts water was taken and the specimen

allowed to1 remain in this for twenty to thirty minutes.

ENTOCYTIIERE.

Shell sub-reniform, becoming, in old individuals, slightly

pointed anteriorly. Chitinous, thin and delicate; lateral com¬

pression very great. Bristles few and short. Eyes fused.

First antenna six-segmented, slender, gradually tapering ; the

first segment twice as large1 as any of the others. Setae thin

and many segmented. Second antenna four-segmented, ending

in large claws. First segment much broader than the others.

Flabellumj unsegmented, long and slightly curved. Mandible

strong, with masticatory teeth. Palp four-segmented having at

its base a small branchial plate from which arise three filar

ments.

Maxilla four times as long as broad, palp unsegmented.

Branchial plate on outer surface near base bearing thirteen se¬

tose filaments. Legs nearly similar increasing in length from

first to last pair. First leg bears, two bristles at; knee, others but

one; each ends in large, curved, divided claw. Abdominal

rami short and thick.

Males abundant, general form and appendages similar to fe¬

males. Length .6 mm.

The shell of Entocythere is smooth and fragile, being with¬

out any of the characteristic markings and outgrowths so com¬

mon in the Ostracods. The few setae present are short and re¬

stricted to the margin of the shell. In general, the shell

is closer in appearance to the figures of Paradoxostoma and Ma-

chaerina than any other forms I have seen. The shell is so

transparent that living specimens show a number of the inter-

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

121

nal parts, and in, specimens that have been cleaned and

mounted, the removal of the shell aids but little in, working out

the internal organization.

There is a slight variation in the shell of different individ¬

uals, also between the different sexes. In PI. XI, figs. 11 and

12 are figured three male and four female shells, all drawn to

the sarnie scale. It will be noticed that the youngest male shell

is very similar to all three of the youngest females. When,

however, the animals become older the anterior end shows a

tendency to become pointed, a characteristic much more notice-

able in the male than in the female. Again in the male the

comparative height is not at any part so great, and it lacks the

rounded edge present in the female.

In the shell duplicature, PI. XII, fig. 19, very nearly the

same structure is shown as figured by Claus. Taf. XII fig. 9,

for Pachycypris Leuclcarti. At either side the layer of hypo-

dermjal cells is present, those on the outer layer being larger

than the inner ones. The nuclei are small and scattered regu¬

larly but not so close together as figured by Claus. Connecting

the two sides were a, number of supporting fibres differing iu

structure from the hypodermal cells. They stain readily but

appear nearly homogeneous. The peculiar sub-hypodermal cells

which appear so numerous in the figure already cited from

Claus, are abundant, in Entocy there only in the anterior parti.

They stain very darkly and are especially noticeable in the great

number' of vacuoles they contain.

First antenna : — The insertion of the first antenna is directly

under the posterior margin of the eye. Its basal segment PL

X, fig. 1, is; much, larger than any of the others, possessing

two muscles which from their position, one dorsal and one ven¬

tral, appear to be used as extensor and flexor of the rest of the

antenna. The proximal part of this segmlent is encircled by a

chitinous ring-like band from which the muscles arise. The

other five segments are very similar in shape, differing in the

number of setae and in the size which decreases' toward the dis¬

tal end. The second segment has two small muscles which oc¬

cupy in it the same positions that the muscles did in the first

segment. In the four last segments nothing that could be dis-

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tingushed as a muscle was seen, but in each segment two or

three fine strands were present, these, however, mjight have been

processes from the muscles of the first, two segments or nerves

passing out to the terminal setae. The setae of the antenna

are all situated at thj distal end of the segment on which they

are borne. The first segment has two setae, one smaller, on the

inner dorsal, and one larger on the inner ventral surface, while

the following segment has but one near the middle line of the

inner surface. The third segment has two setae which have the

same relative position as those on the first. The five setae of

the next segment are longer than any so far mentioned; four

of them) are borne on the inner and two on the outer1 surface.

The fifth segment is without setae, but the last bears six ter¬

minal ones, slightly longer than those on the fourth. All these

are nearly similar in structure.

Second antenna: — S. Fischer (6) has called the second an¬

tennae the “Antennenfusse,” an exceedingly appropriate name

when one considers their1 use. They are used entirely in crawl¬

ing, their fitness for which is shown in the backwardly directed

claws and the exit through the flabellum of the secretion of the

adhesive gland.

Claus (3) mentions that the second antenna possesses a basal

piece which corresponds toi the protopodite and is formed by

two small pieces, coxa and trochanter, fusing together. This

basal piece is here not. present as a, separate segment, PI. X, fig.

2, but is very likely represented by a large chitinous piece which

is withdrawn entirely within the body, making the femur the

basal or first segment. Five muscles have their origin within

this segment, three on the dorsal wall, and two from the chitin¬

ous strands at its base. These latter two are inserted near each

other at the base of the next segment. Of the other three the

lowest is inserted at the base of the flabellum, the middle one

passes on to the base of the third segment, while the upper one

passes through the three' following segments to be inserted at

the base of the terminal claws. Xear the boundary of the third

and fourth segments this last muscle gives place to a strong ten¬

don which just before its insertion runs through a chitinous

pulley. This pulley makes possible the movement of the claw

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

123

without the direction of the tendon being changed and also

beeps it from, pressing on the two setae over which it passes.

Opposing this last muscle is one, the only other muscle in the

antenna., which, arising at the base of the third segment is in¬

serted above on the base of the claws; its insertion is also’ ten¬

dinous.

Of the three setae on this appendage two> are nearly similar

and are situated one at the distal end of the third, and the other

near the middle of the fourth segment. Each of these consists

of a large basal piece followed by numerous small segments;

they resemble the setae of the first antenna in all respects ex¬

cept their greater thickness.

Differing, however, from all other setae; is the one borne on

the distal end of the1 first segment, the flabellum or urticating

seta. It is curved, hollow, tapering and long; its length being

equal to that of the antenna minus the terminal claws. At its

base it receives the secretion from the adhesive gland ; this pass¬

ing through the seta exudes from the hollow end and is used to

help give a firm support when the animal is; crawling on smooth

surfaces where the claws would not take hold. When examin¬

ing living specimens under the microscope this use could eas¬

ily be seen. Wherever the flabellum was raised from the slide

or cover glass a small drop of a nearly transparent viscid mat¬

ter could be seen marking the spot where the end of the flabel¬

lum had been, while often a fine thread would be distinguished

connecting one drop with another. This secretion and its con¬

nection with the hollow flabellum has been, figured a number of

times, although the name used by Zemkeir (19), S. Eischer (6)

and others, poison-gland, does not signify its use. There can be

no doubt but that the secretion is used to enable! the Ostracod to

crawl on smjooth surfaces where the claws would be of no use,

and such being the case, a more significant name would be ad¬

hesive gland. At the end of the antenna are the three curved

claws each armed with a, number of stiff straight bristles. The

middle claw is much smaller than the others. They all appear

connected at their base with an irregular chitinous piece on

which the tendons of both, muscles are inserted. By this ar¬

rangement the three claws move in unison, making it possible

that two* muscles can move them all.

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Mandible : — This appendage, PL X, fig. 3, is. strong, the

chi tin of the basal part being very thick, especially along the

dorsal and ventral walls. Dors ally the base projects backward

forming a heavy blunt spur. The basal part (that back of the

insertion of the palp) contains two' muscles originating, one

above and one below, at the proximal end and passing forward

to be inserted, in the same relative position, on the base of the

palp. Beyond the point of attachment of the palp, the man¬

dible becomes much smaller, is. slightly curved, and ends in six

pairs of masticatory teeth. These are heavy, branched and in

part hollow; all are slightly curved, the upper and lower pairs

more so than the others. Between the teeth are small bristles

not at. all prominent and much smaller1 than any of those fig¬

ured by Claus (3). Xear the end of the mandible is a single

seta, differing from all others in being unsegmented and termi¬

nating in a short rod. The palp is four1 segmented and bears

setae at the distal end of the following segments; second, one

seta; third and fourth, each two setae. These are all similar

in structure to the setae of the antennae. The palp terminates

in a claw which towards the end is abruptly curved. A large

muscle passes from the base of the palp to the base of the ter¬

minal claw, and a second smaller muscle of doubtful origin is

inserted dorsally on the proximal end of the last segment.

The branchial plate ^reduced exopod, Claus) differs from all

those figured by Claus (3) in being very small and short, and

bearing but. three filaments. Each filament consists! of a. large

basal segment followed by numerous small ones.

Maxilla: — The elongated basal part of the maxilla, PL X,

fig. 4 (protopodit) bears on its outer surface near the base, the

gill-plate. Along the outer margin of this plate are thirteen

branchial filaments of the usual form. Between the insertion

of the gill-plate and of the palp the chitinous covering becomes

very much thickened to form, a supporting framework, the up¬

per and lower parts of which are connected on either side by

two oblique bands. At its tip the maxilla becomes much nar¬

rower ending in two slightly curved setae.

The palp arises just anterior to the two chitinous bands and

extends a, little beyond the end of the maxilla. It is un-

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

125

segmented and bears at its end two claws tlie lower of which is

sickle-shaped and nearly as long, as the palp itself.

Upper lip : — The chitinous supporting rods in the upper lip,

Pl. XII, fig. 12, have been described by Claus (3) in a number

of species of Ostracods and both he and Turner (16) have

worked out the other parts of both the upper and lower lips. In

Entocy there the supporting strands are not well developed.

Along the lower surface at the outer end are a number of small

hollow7 inwardly directed setae. These at their base communi¬

cate with a row of enlarged hypodermal cells which are con¬

nected by filaments with the labial nerve. Both this and the

sense organ which is directly under it in the lower lip have been

described by Turner (16). Just behind this setigorous portion

the lower wall of the lip bends slightly upward forming with an

opposed bend in the lower lip, an enlarged space, the atrium,

in which the masticatory teeth of the mandible meet. Back of

the roof of the atrium the wall suddenly bends toward the lower

lip and then after a short distance gradually upward again un¬

til the level of the rest of the lip is reached. This peculiar

pushed out portion makes the beginning of the oesophagus very

small. Just above this is the single labial gland’a multi-nu¬

clear mass in which the cell boundaries were not seen. This

gland is figured by Claus: (3) as paired, from each part of

which a duct passes downward to open into the oesophagus.

In Endocythere the gland is single, the duct which undoubt¬

edly is nresent I was unable to find.

Lower lip: — The skeletal framework is much stronger and

consists of more pieces than that of the upper lip. PI. XII,

figs. 12 and 13. Along the upper and lower margins are paired

strands, the upper one along each edge is continued at its front

end into a large upwardly projecting tooth, while those below

connect with the tooth through oblique lateral pieces. Prom

the base of each tooth small processes pass forward to> connect

each with a “reichenorgan,” the end of which is projected be¬

yond the margin of the lip. A row of hypodermal cells lies

just within the lining of the lip. These at the tip are modi¬

fied to form a sense organ which is situated just below the one

in the upper lip, and shows clearly the connection through the

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

labial nerve with the infra-oesophageal ganglion. Fig. 12h.

The upper lip is single, the lower lip paired.

Legs : — Thei three pairs of legs, PI. X, fig. 5, are so similar

that a, description of a single one will answer for all of them.

The only difference noticeable in the three pairs, are: first,

the terminal claws are largest in the first and smallest in the

third pair; second, the first hears two large setae at the distal

end of the femur, the second and third have but one each ; third,

a slight increase in length from the first to the third pair.

Each leg is firmly articulated to the internal skeletal frame¬

work and has inserted on its base two pairs of muscles. The

narrow base of the femur is encircled by an irregular chitinous

ring from which arises two muscles, an upper single1, and

a lower double one, which pass forward to be inserted at the

base of the tibia, ; insertion tendinous. The long, slightly

curved tibia is not more than half the thickness of the femur

and contains no muscles except the proximal half of one which

goes to the claw. The tarsus is two-segmented and contains

three muscles; two arise dorsally on the proximal end of the

first segment passing to the base of the claw, one above, and

one below, while the third has its origin along the dorsal wall

of the tibia a litte anterior to the center and is inserted above

on the claw’s base. This last muscle has a tendinous insertion

which passes near its end through a pulley similar to the one in

the second antenna. The femur, tibia and first segment of the

tarsus each bears at its distal end a seta. The terminal claw

is strongly curved, nearly at a, right angle', and bears four teeth

the comparative length of which varies somewhat in different

individuals and on different legs.

The legs are supported by an internal chitinous framework,

PI. XT, fig. 8, consisting of two longitudinal strands and six

vertical pieces arranged in three pairs. Each vertical strand

is at its upper end articulated to one of the horizontal pieces,

from which it passes downward to join the base of the nearest

leg. The longitudinal pieces are laterally compressed, each di¬

viding just posterior to the insertion of an upright into' an up¬

per and a lower part. The openings thus formed vary in size,

the anterior being largest, the posterior smallest.

Marshall — A. Parasitic Ostracod.

127

Anteriorly each longitudinal strand articulates with pieces

which support the antennae and the mouth parts while posteri¬

orly they are connected by a loop to which articulate the, sup¬

porting pieces of the copulatory organ. This loop in females

has the position as; given in fig. 8, but in the males is; more dor-

sally directed and has articulated to it the connecting pieces of

the copulatory apparatus. In young specimens all the support¬

ing strands are almost colorless and very fragile, becoming

stronger with the growth of the individual.

Alimentary tract : — The opening of the alimentary tract is

small being in part closed by the sensory setae projecting from

the upper and lower lips,, PI. XI, fig. 9. The cavity soon en¬

larges toi form the atrium in which the masticatory teeth of the

mandibles meet. Poliowing the atrium the passage, beginning

of the oesophagus, becomes much smaller the decrease in size

being due to a large outfolding of the dorsal wall. Back of

this growth there is a gradual increase in the width of the oe¬

sophagus until it passes into the crop.

The crop projects into the stomach and shows in longitud¬

inal section a marked difference between its dorsal and ventral

walls. The dorsal wall is much the thicker and has on its sur¬

face a chitinous lining covered with short rods. It shows, from

a depression seen on its anterior wall, that it is, formed by an

outfolding of the wall between the oesophagus and stomach.

The wall of the ventral part is also lined with chitin which ends

in a rod projecting back and beyond the cells. The ventral wall

is without the bristles or rods described in many other Ostrar

cods. Zenker (19). Claus (3).

The stomach, the largest part of the alimentary tract, has, its

two ends, nearly similar, the anterior end being slightly broader

due to the presence of the crop,. The cellular structure of the

crop and stomach is very similar, the cells of the former being

somewhat smaller and not showing the cell boundaries, dis¬

tinctly The wall of the stomach is composed of a layer of cells,

PL XII, figs. 15 and 16, which in some places, appear cubical,

in other parts the width is somewhat greater than the height.

The tissue at the base of the cells, is so thin that no differentia¬

tion could be distinguished, while their free ends were often

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

very irregular. This irregularity is due to the free ends being

out off by a process of strangulation already described for the

Ostracods by Claus (3). In Eniocy there nearly every section

of the stomach shows this process of strangulation, PL XII, fig.

15, the parts already cut off being easily seen. In many sections

the cells here and there were very much flattened as if they had

already thrown off a large part, of themselves, and near them

the lumen of the stomach contained a number1 of balls; some of

which showed a, distinct outline while others had begun to dis¬

integrate.

Posteriorly the stomach passes abruptly into the intestine,

the decrease in size being very noticeable1 as. is- also a change in

the structure of the wall. In the intestine the cell boundaries

were not discernible, the cells being grouped together into villi¬

like clusters. The nuclei are grouped together, PL XII, fig.

14, being proportionately very much smaller than those in the

cells of the stomach. I was unable to distinguish any cell boun¬

daries. At its posterior end the walls of the intestine becomes

thin and the lumen decreasing very much in size forms a long

thin passage which ends in the anus.

Glands: — Like other Cytheridae no mid-gut diverticula, di¬

gestive gland, is present in Entocythere.

Shell-gland : — The upper part of the shell-gland is situated

just in front of and on a level with the eye; extending from

here forward and downward the lower edge being equidistant

between the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the shell. A study

of sagittal and transverse sections shows only four large cells

on each side as belonging to the gland. Never more than two

of these cells were shown in any transverse section and in only

one sagittal section were all four present. PL XII, fig. 17.

These large cells appear more like the cells of the racemose por¬

tion of the shell-gland in Cypris muncronota than any of the

other figures of this gland given by Claus (3). The nucleus is

irregular in outline containing one or two small nucleoli and a

rather dense chromatic network scattered evenly through all its

parts. In each cell, especially near the outer margin, are a

number of vacuoles. The three cells which lie closest together,

the fourth being more ventral than any of these, contain within

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

129

their abutting sides, each, a spherical bladder-like cavity ; these,

in living specimens, are of a, light yellow color, clear and re¬

fractive, in section appearing as colorless vaeoules. They are

connected with each, other and in living specimens were seen to

he in communication with a long narrow tube. The fourth; and

most ventrally placed cell contains, instead of the bladder-like

portion, a wide, irregular duct which is nearly as long asi the

cell and in two slides was seen to open outside the body, PI.

XII, fig. 17', the opening being on a level with the insertion

of the second antenna.

Adhesive-gland : — Kaufmann (7) in his figures of Sclero ch¬

illis contortus (Plate XI, figs. 3 and 7) has shown a large gland

which he calls the antennal, which arising near the centre of the

body passes into the fiabellum of the second antenna,. The part

shown by Kaufmann (7) is; only the secretion of the gland

which, he did not figure. This is the “poison’ ’-gland or “spin-

ning”-gland of the Cytheridae. It is situated near the dorsal

wall of the shell just back of the eye, the glands of the right and

left sides nearly touching along; their inner surfaces. Each, PL

XII, fig. 18, is unicellular and laterally compressed; the nu¬

cleus is small with a large nucleolus. In stained specimens, or

those killed in Flemming’s solution, both the gland and its se¬

cretion were easily seen, the latter being readily followed to; the

tip of the fiabellum. The secretion is collected in the lower

part of the cell and passes through a, long duct which, gradu¬

ally decreasing in diameter opens at the tip of the fiabellum,

urticating seta,, of the second antenna. The use of the secre¬

tion I have already explained in the description of the append¬

age containing its outlet.

Claus (3) has described for the Ostraeods both labial and

maxillary glands and Vavra (17) says that besides these, large

glandular cells are found in the basal segments- of the appen¬

dages, In Entocythere there are two pairs of distinct glands

situated in front of the brain and extending into the antennae.

Those of the first: antennae; lie directly in front of the fore*-

brain, while those of the second antennae are in front of the

hind brain. Besides these and the gland of the upper lip sim¬

ilar structures are found below the second, third, and fourth

9

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ventral ganglia ; there are no doubt glands for the other appen¬

dages'.

Nervous System: — My account is restricted to. the brain and

ventral cord ; the nerves arising from these were so small that,

while in some instances I could distinguish their origin, I was

unable to follow them into' the parts' of the body they supplied.

Most of the nerves have already been worked out by Zenker

(19), Claus (3), Yavra (17), and Turner (16). The optic

nerves, the only ones I could trace-, arise from the anterior part

of the dorsal surface of the fore-brain and pass- directly up¬

ward to the eyei. The distance between the brain and eye is

very short and in only one section could I distinguish the optic

nerve. Tromj this section it was impossible for1 me to say

whether one or three nerves went to- the eye-.

Brain : — Sagittal sections, both median and lateral, through

the brain, supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows- a difference be¬

tween the anterior and the posterior surfaces, PI. XIII, figs. 21

and 23. The anterior face is convex and entirely covered with

nerve cells, the posterior concave face' shows the nerve cells cov¬

ering only the dorsal third of its surface'. The axis- of the brain

is inclined so that dorsally it runs slightly forward. The upper

end is rounded and continues into the optic ganglion (fore¬

brain, Yavra) which is slightly constricted off from that part

of the brain lying directly underneath it. In these lateral

views no other divisions of the- brain are seen; the nerve cells

on the anterior surface appear greatest in number' just above

the oesophagus, decreasing toward the optic ganglion.

In PL XIII, fig. 23 is shown a transverse section of the brain

cut as represented by the line ab in fig. 21. Here the fore¬

brain is shown quite distinctly, the fibrillar substance indicat¬

ing by its bi-lobed appearance its double origin ; the third gang¬

lion supposed to take part in its formation not being shown.

Just ventrad to this, along the lateral surface, are two small

groups of nerve cells which represent the antemnulary ganglia;

still more ventrad, near the oesophagus, the ant-ennary ganglia

can be seen. The short circum-oesophageal commissures con¬

verge towards each other as they pass; around the oesophagus

below which they unite to form the large infra-oesophageal

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

131

ganglion. This ganglion consists of an upper fibrillar half and

a lower part containing all of the nerve cells.

The ventral nerve cord, PI. XIII, figs. 24 and 27 is composed

of the infra-oesophageal and four other ganglia. The first and

second ganglia, are fused, the others being distinct and entirely

separated from each other. In both longitudinal and, trans¬

verse sections this separation is noticeable as is also the arrange¬

ment of the nerve cells. In the two nerves it is shown that the

nerve cells are not abundant in the' inter-ganglionic spaces but

that, excepting the first ganglion, they are present along both

the dorsal and the ventral surf acs. As already noticed the first

ganglion differs from the others in having the nerve cells en¬

tirely absent from its dorsal surface. The other ganglia, plainly

show the nerve cells more abundant dorsally than ventrally,

and it is in the dorsal masses that the separation of the ganglia

from each other is most distinctly seen, PI. XIII, figs. 25 and

27, as is also the division into a, right and a left. The fibrillar

part of the cord passes continuously from one end of the chain

to the other, PI. XIII, fig. 27. The nerve cells on the ventral

wall are nearly continuous a. few being found in transverse sec¬

tions of the inter-ganglionic space, PL XIII, fig. 26.

Eye : — The eye is situated equally distant from: the top' of the

brain and the dorsal surface of the shell : a plane, passed trans¬

versely through the body, which touched the posterior edge of

the eye would pass through the middle of the fore-brain. The

triune structure is readily seen in a dorsal view, PI. XIII, fig.

29, the two lateral parts being slightly larger than the median

one. The basal surface of each of the three parts of the eye

is covered with a layer of pigment, PL XIII, fig. 28, composed

of a number of dark brown and black spherical granules, which

are in some places massed so that they touch each other, while

in other parts; they are more scattered. These cover the next

layer, tapetum, fig. 28 t p (Claus, Exner) which is quite thick

and composed of many minute' lamellae1 so- close together that

seen under a low power, the layer appears light yellow and ho¬

mogeneous. The lamellar structure is, however, easily made

out under a high power and is; most distinct at the edge. The

remaining space;, from the; outer surface of the tapeitumj to' the

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

periphery is filled with a number of retinal cells, each one of

which has a large nucleus. A lens was not seen.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

Female: — As characteristic for the Cytheridae the ovaries do

not lie within the shell duplicature. They are found at either

side of the intestine occupying nearly all the space between it

and the shell but varying somewhat in that they may be either

partially above or partially below it. Woltereck18 separated

the ovary of the Ostraeod into four zones which he has distin¬

guished as: 1. Ileimzone; 2. Synapsiszone ; 3. Differenzi-

rungszone; 4. Wachthumiszone. We find in Entocy there that

the parts corresponding to these zones are present although

from! the shortening of the: ovary and the massing of the cells

together, the divisions between them are by no means distinct.

PL XIII, fig. 30. The first zone does not show any cell boun¬

daries, the nuclei are numerous;, each containing several deeply

stained granules arranged near the periphery. The change from

the first to the second zone is so gradual that it is impossible to

place any boundary between the two. The nuclei are slightly

larger in the “Synapsiszone,” containing the deeply stained

granules, which are, however, more scattered. A number of

division figures are seen here which are not present in any of

the other zones. Cell boundaries are indistinctly seen. The

cells of the third zone are separated from each other and are be¬

ginning to assume the elongated form which is characteristic

further on in the ovary. The nucleus has changed very much

becoming nearly filled with a large homogeneous nucleolus. At

the beginning of the fourth zone the eggs do not reach more

than half way across the ovary; they soon elongate until they

are arranged in a single row which completely fills it. Until

the middle of this zone is reached the eggs are very thin but be¬

yond this they gradually enlarge and shortly after entering the

oviduct they assume a nearly spherical shape. A gradual

change also takes place in the nucleus its size increasing with

that of the egg. The nucleolus not increasing as rapidly as

the nucleus becomes relatively much smaller.

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

133

Male : — My knowledge of the male productive organs is very

fragmentary. In none of the series of sections, did I succeed in

getting a clear view of the relation of the parts to each other1 or

he sure even that they all had been made out. All the parts

were paired, the vas-defferentia undoubtedly uniting some¬

where in the copulatory apparatus. The testis, PL XII, fig.

20, appears to be a single wide lobe containing cells, in the dif¬

ferent stages of spermatogenesis. The posterior part of the

testis unites with a slightly larger portion which I took to be a

seminal vesicle, principally from the fact that within it the cells

did not show the. different forms noticeable in the testis* and

also from a failure to differentiate in it the various zones.

Both the testis and the seminal vesicle before their1 union pass

into a peculiar ovoid body. It is slightly inclined, the poster¬

ior end being somewhat higher than the anterior, and appears

filled with a granular mass resembling very much the yolk in

the eggs. Through this body, from, end to end, runs* the vas

deferens which upon its exit swells* slightly, and beginning to

turn ventrad enters the base1 of the copulatory apparatus. In

nearly all specimens it was filled with spermatozoa,, but I was

unable to trace it to* its* exit.

COPULALATORY APPARATUS.

Kaufmann (7) has already called attention to* thei large size

of this apparatus in the Cytheridae , it being at first sight; one of

the most noticeable parts. It is, very complicated, consisting of

a number of chitinous pieces, both main, parts and connecting

strands, and a system of muscles which are nearly all of them

connected entirely with the organ. All the parts are! paired.

Zenker (19) divides the entire apparatus into three parts:

1. Basal piece to* join inner and outer parts.

2. Copulatory tube.

3. Clasping apparatus.

In Entocythere the basal piece is by far the largest part

(shown in the figure as two pieces which are, however, firmly

united) its length being more than half the height of the* ani¬

mal, PI. XI, fig. 10. The anterior half has a rounded surface

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

which in a natural position lies parallel to and almost touching

the last upright strand of the chitinous framlework which sup¬

ports the legs. The posterior part, which is not more than half

the length of the anterior, has all the other pieces articulated

to it.

What I have taken to he the oopulatory tube, fig. 10 F, arises

from the basal piece just back of the clasping apparatus. It

is abruptly curved and ends in a sharp-pointed piece. Being

unable to follow the vas deferens I could not establish any con¬

nection between it and this tube and am not sure whether it or

the shorter tube, fig. 10G, is the true oopulatory one. The

clasping apparatus consists of a single piece which is joined to

the basal part just below the copulatory tube and is normally

pointed in the same direction. The position and shape of this

piece is. shown plainly in the figure. To these parts. I would

add a connecting piece which passes from the upper part of the

basal piece to connect with the loop of the framework already

described.

I was able to observe several pairs in copula but did not see

the animals unite or determine the length of time they remained

together. The shell of the male is open clasping that of the fe¬

male at least one-third of which is concealed. The mouth parts

of the male lie along the dorsal edge of the female’s shell; its

legs are inactive, somewhat drawn up, and lie on either side.

The second antennae of the male clasp the shell of the female,

the large claws being inserted between the valvesi, reaching

nearly to the eye. The first antennae remain free and most of

the time beat slowly up and down. Naturally the clasping or¬

gans and copulatory tube point backward but they are now re¬

versed and together with most of the basal past entirely within

the shell of the female, entering a little above the middle of

the posterior margin. During copulation the female crawls

around carrying the male on her back.

The eggs are laid singly, attached to the basal part of the

gills or to the long hairs near their base; sometimes, however,

they are arranged in groups of front six to eight. The young

when they leave the egg have the two pairs of antennae and the

mandibles fully developed. Well back on the body are a pair

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

135

of appendages, and near them, two long setae which finally dis¬

appear. Clans in hist description of the metamorphosis of Cy-

pris figures the first larval, nauplius, stage as being without a

fully developed mandible. In all the earliest stage's of Ento -

cy there, PI. XI, fig. 7, I found the first three pairs of append¬

ages similar, execpt in size, to the same appendages of the ma¬

ture individual. The pair of appendages on the body, the pro-

legs., disappear but I am unable to say whether they disappear

entirely or become changed into' the: first pair of permanent legs.

Their position on the body is not so far forward as that of the

first pair of legs.

Zoological Laboratory,

University of Wisconsin ,

Madison, January 15, 1903.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Beady and Hoe man — A monograph of the marine and

freshwater Ostracods. Royal Dublin Society, 1889-

1896.

2. BroniPs — Thier Reich, Y Band, A. Ger stacker, Crustacea.

3. C. Claus — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Siisswasser-Ostra-

cod. Arbeiten aus demj zoolog. Institut zu Wien.

1892-1895.

4. C. Claus — Das Medianange der Crustaceen. Ibid. Bd.

IX-1891.

5. E. Daday — Uber die feinere Struktur der quergestreiften

Muskelfasem der Ostracod. Mathembnaturw. Bericht

aus ITngarn. Bd. XII.

6. S. Fischer — Beitrag zur Iventniss der Ostracoden. Ab-

handl der bayer. Akademie d. W. Bd. YII. 1855.

7. A. Kaufmann — Beitrage zur Kentniss der Cytheriden.

Recueil Zool. Suisse. Bd. III.

8. G. W. Mueller — Duetschlands Susswasser-Ostracoden.

Zoologica. Bd. XII.

136 Wisconsin. Academy of Sciences f Arts , and Letters.

9. W. Muel:ler — Zur naheren Kentniss der Cytheriden.

Arch. f. Faturgesch, Bd. L.

10. W. Mueller — Tiber die Function der antennendruse der

Cytheriden. Arch. f. FT aturgeseh. Bd. L.

11. W. Mueller — Beitrage zur Kentniss der Fortpflanzung

und der Geschledhts verhaltnisse der Ostracoden. Zeit.

f. d. gesammte Faturw. Bd. V. 1880.

12. O. Fordquist — Beitrage zur Kentniss der Inner en Mann

lichen Geschlechtsorgane der Cypriden. Acta. Soci-

etatis Scientiarum Fennieae. XY. 1885.

13. G. O. Sars — Oversigt of Forges marine Ostracoder.

14. K. W. Sharpe — Contribution to a knowledge of the Forth

American fresh-water Ostracoda included in the famil¬

ies Cytheridae. Bull. — Illinois State Lab. of Fat.

Hist. Vo-1. IV. 1897.

15. F. Stuhlmann — Beitrage zur Anatomie der inneren

mannlichen Geschlechtsorgane und zur Sperm atogenese

der Cypriden. Zeit. f. Wise. Zool. Bd. XLIY.

16. C. H. Turner — Morphology of the central nervous system

of Cypris. Journ. of Comparative Feurology. Yol.

YI. ^

17. W. Yavra — Monographic des Ostracoden Bohmens.

Archiv. d. Faturwissensch. Landesdurchforschung von

Bohmien. Bd. VIII.

18. R. Woltereck — Zur Bildung und Entwicklung des Ostra¬

coden, Eres. Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool. Bd. LXIY.

19. W. Zenker — Anatomisch-Systematische Studien uber die

Krebsthiere. Berlin, 1854.

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

137

PLATE X.

All figures were drawn with a camera, Zeiss microscope.

138

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION' OF PLATE X.

Eig. 1. Eirst antenna. D. 2. To the right a seta enlarged.

Eig. 2. Second antenna. D. 3. Outer view of right one.

Eig. 3. Mandible. D. 3. Same view as second antenna.

The masticatory teeth are: much thicker and heavier

than here represented.

Eig. 4. Maxilla. D. 3. Same view as second antenna.

Eig. 5. Third leg. D. 3. Same view as second antenna.

Eig. 6. Muscle scars. D. dorsal A. anterior.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIV. Plate X.

W. S. Marshall, del.

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

139

PLATE XI.

140

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION QF PLATE XI.

Fig. 7. Youngest stage. D. 2. The first three appendages,

first antenna, second antenna^ mandibles, have been

drawn from one side only and the setae omitted.

Of the fourth appendage both right and left have

been drawn.

Fig. 8. Chitinous supporting framework of the legs. A. 2.

A. anterior. D. dorsal.

Fig. 9. Diagrammatic view to show the relation of the vari¬

ous parts to each other. S. G., shell-gland. E.,

eye. A. G., adhesive gland. B., brain. IT. L.,

upper lip. L. L., lower lip. Ovary dotted. The

different regions of the alimentary tract have not

been lettered. They can easily be distinguished as

can the different parts of the nerve cord.

Fig. 10. Copulatory apparatus. D. 2. D., dorsal. A., an¬

terior. C, connecting piece. B. B., two halves of

basal piece. E., Clasping piece. F,, probable cop¬

ulatory duct.

Fig. 11. Four outline views of shells of females. All A. 3,

D., dorsal. A., anterior.

Fig. 11. Three similar views of males. A. 3.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIY.

W. 8. Marshall, del.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fig. 12. Slightly diagrammatic, showing lateral view of upper

and lower lips. D. 3. lg., Labial gland, so.,

sense-organ of upper and so, of lower lip. oes.,

oesophagus, mt., masticatory teeth of mandible,

at., atrium, m, Zenker’s “rechenformige Ifauor-

gan.” ing., infran-oesophageal ganglion connected

by a, nerve, In., to sense organ of lower1 lip, so.

Fig. 12. Lower lip. D. 3., showing the chitinous supports.

Fig. 13. Zenker’s “rechenformige Kaunorgane.”

Fig. 14. Part of wall of intestine. 1-12 Im. 3.

Figs. 15 and 16. Part, of wall of stomach. 1-12 Im. 3.

Fig. 17. Shell gland. A., anterior. D. 3

Fig. 17. Slightly enlarged view of bottom) cell to show open¬

ing.

Fig. 18. Unicellular adhesive gland showing gland cell with

its nucleus^ 1ST., and part of the secretion just below

it. D. 2.

Fig. 19. Section through shell duplicature at anterior part of

body. 0., outer, and I., inner wall. S. Gr., shell-

gland. Hyp., hypodermal cells. S. Hyp., large

sub-hypodermal cells.

Fig. 20. Male reproductive organs. L>., dorsal. A., anterior.

S. V., seminal vesicle. V., vas deferens.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XII.

W. S. Marshall, del.

Marshall — A Parasitic Ostracod.

143

PLATE XIII.

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

Sagittal section of brain through, the center. D. 3.

opt. g., optic ganglion, supr. g., supra-oesopha-

geal ganglion, oes., oesophagus'.

Section through brain, but a little to one side of the

preceding. D. 3.

Section of brain cut in line drawn from; a to> b in fig.

21. D. 3. s. g., supr a-o esophageal ganglion,

ant. gl., antennulary ganglion, o. c., circum-

oesophageal commissures, oes., oesophagus, ant.

g2., antennary ganglion, inf. g., infra-oesopha-

geal ganglion.

Dorsal view of ventral cord, ganglion cells only show¬

ing. B. 3.

Transverse section of second ganglion. B., dorsal.

D. 3.

Transverse section just a little anterior to the preced¬

ing.

Ventral nerve cord, lateral view. B. 3.

Section of eye. D. 3. rt, retinal cells, tp., tapetum.

pg., pigment.

Fig. 29. Section of eye from above. D. 3. ant., anterior.

pg., pigment cells, nu., nuclei of retinal cells.

Fig. 30 Ovary, d., dorsal, a., anterior. The figures repre*

sent the four different zones.

W. S. Marshall, del.

TEN SPECIES OF ARRENURI BELONGING TO THE

SUBGENUS MEGALURUS THON.

BY RUTH MARSHALL.

The work upon the genus Arrenurus Duges has been carried

on from] the spring of 1893 up to the present time, with many

interruptions. Collections have been made at several places

in Wisconsin and one in Massachusetts. This paper embodies

the results of the studies upon the species of the subgenus Mega-

lurus Thon, most of the work having been centered on this

group.

The Arrenuri form one of the most easily recognizable genera

of the Hydrachnidae. They form' a sharply defined, highly

organized and well differentiated group, very rich in species.

They are characterized by the possessession of a very hard,

transparent, porous integument, an area of which is separated

on the back by a circular furrow from the rest to form the

so-called “dorsal shield” ; and by great secxual diamorphism.

The females have a more or less rounded form and closely

resemble each other ; while the ntales have a peculiar1 prolonga¬

tion of the posterior end of the body, presenting numberless

modifications in the different species and offering the chief spe¬

cific characters.

Then (1900) mjakes three subgenera of the Arrenuri. Petio-

lurus embraces species in which the posterior appendage is

short, or altogether wanting and represented by humps on the

dorsal side of the body ; and in which there is a peculiar and

characteristic structure, the “petiole,” a small oblong chitinous

structure at the extreme posterior end of the body. Arrenurus

pustidator Muller is an illustration. Subgenus Micrurus has

10

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

a short appendage as wide as the body; at the end of it is a

deep incision in which lies a small petiole. Arrenurus for pica-

tus Neuman belongs to the group. The third subgenus, Mega*-

turns, includes forms having a very dong appendage, but the

petiole is absent, or represented by a very small transparent

projection. The species described in this paper all belong to-

this subgenus.

Thor erects still a fourth subgenus, Truncaturus , to include

species which like Arrenurus truncatellus (Muller), A. Knan-

thei Koenikei, A. oblongus Piersig, have neither petiole nor dis¬

tinct body appendage, and so ap" "ach the females in form.

This subgenus represents the least differentiated branch of the

genus.

The appendage, the petiole, and the humps on the appendage

and posterior part of the body which contain large glands and

their openings, are probably all sexual characters. The

area containing the openings of the genital organs is very simi¬

lar in all species and. both sexes of the Arrenuri. The open¬

ings are small slits; on the ventral side of the body near the

end, and are largest in the female. On each side is a. semi¬

circular plate in the female1, and a narrow rim in the male;

from these run wing-shaped lateral areas, the so-called “Napf-

platten,” large and broad in the female, narrow and long in

the male, and often forming characteristic rolls between body

and appendage.

In all Arrenuri the epimera, or ventral leg plates, are in

three groups, and in the different species show no very strik¬

ing differences. The palpi are claw-like. The legs bear long

fine hairs and short bristles. The fourth pair are longest, and

the fourth segment in the mules bears a short process whose

use is not clear. Besides having a probable use in sexual in¬

tercourse in the male, they are used somewhat differently than

the other appendages in both sexes. They are often seen bent

up close to the body and they have ai great range of movement.

They are often jerked violently backward, while the anterior

three pairs are used as walking legs or oars. The last pair are

sometimes used to remove debris from the body.

Arrenuri were collected at various times from the first of

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

147

April until tiie first of December. They are found in small

numbers in bodies of shallow still waters where Crustacea and

water plants abound and where there is not too much, decom¬

position. Spring-fed pools where the water1 is cold, like some

of those at Big Springs in Adams County, flowing water, like

the Wiseonsini River, deep waters like Devil’s Lake1, are not fre¬

quented by these mites. They are often found in ponds where

there is great fluctuation in the depth of the water; in one in¬

stance they were found again when the pond filled after hav¬

ing dried up. They prefer the ooze at the bottom, as shown

by the actions of those kept in aquaria. They are seen to* feed

on small Crustacea. Dull blue green is the predominating

eblor. They are not, very sensitive to drying, being protected

by their thick skins.

The females are most abundant in the spring, the males not

appearing till late spring or summer. In the fall more males

are collected than females. Eggs are laid in dense masses of

from ten to forty, surrounded by a gelatinous; mass1. The

young hatch in a week or ten days, but have not been kept be¬

yond the second larval stage. The adults are easily kept in

aquaria,.

There have already been described and recognized for the

subgenus Megalurus the following species:

Arrenurus adnatus Koenike,

Art'enurus caudatus D!e Geer,

Arrenurus concavus Koenike,

An'enurus conicus Piersig,

Arrenurus corniger Koenike,

Arrenurus coronator Thor,

Amnwrus cylindratus Piersig,

Arrenurus Dahli Piersig,

Arrenurus geminus George,

Arrenurus geniculalus Koenike,

Arrenurus globator Muller,

Arrenurus Koenihei Daday,

Arrenurus Kramer i Koenike,

Arrenurus membranator Thor,

Arrenurus Moebii Piersig,

i

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Arrenurus Mulleri Koenike,

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig (= A. festivus Koen. =

A. buccinator Koch and Kramer) ,

Arrenurus Soari George,

Arrenurus Stjordaliensis Thor (var. A. caudatus) ,

Arrenurus tubulator Miiller (— A. medio-rotundus Thor),

Arrenurus Zachariae Koenike.

T’en species of Arrenuri belonging to the subgenus Megalurus

were collected, five of which appear to he new. The results of

the study of this material will now be considered.

Arrenurus globator (Miiller).

Fig. 1, ar—e, Pis. XIV— XV.

Arrenurus globator Henman, 1879 ; S. 88, Fig. 2, Tab. X.

Arrenurus globator Haller, 1882 ; S. 44.

Arrenurus globator Barrios et Moniez, 1887 ; S. 24-25.

Arrenurus globator Koenike, 1893 ; S. 12-16, Taf. I, Fig.

11-12.

Arrenurus globator Koenike, 1894 (a) ; S. 260.

Arrenurus globator Protz, 1895; S. 265.

Arrenurus globator Piersig, 1896 (b) ; S. 58.

Arrenurus globator Koenike, 1896; S. 212.

Arrenurus globator Pisarovic, 1896; S. 3.

Arrenurus globator Piersig, 1897 ; S. 279, Taf. XXVIII,

Fig. 72.

Arrenurus globator Croneberg, 1899 ; Xr. 27, Fig. 26.

Arrenurus globator Thon, 1900 ; S. 108, Fig. 2, 6.

Arrenurus globator Piersig, 1901 ; S. 82, Fig. 18.

This is the most widely distributed and abundant of the

Arrenuri collected ; consequently it has been, possible to study

a large amjount of material. It was one of the earliest forms

described and one very widely mentioned in the accounts of all

hydrachnologists. It has been found in all parts of Europe

where collections have been made, and it is reported from

Africa.

Arrenurus globator is characterized first by the long cylin¬

drical appendage, slightly constricted at the base all around.

The posterior end, where it widens out a little, is rounded with

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenwri.

149

a slight indentation in the middle. A lateral view shows that

the top of the appendage is nearly flat, hut slopes suddenly down

in the posterior third. Near the rounded side corners are two

small conical elevations ; these and two other pairs of slight

mounds, one in front and one hack of the first mentioned, to¬

gether with the position of the stout hairs., is seen in fig. 1,

a and c (H,2 H,1 H3).

The body is rounded, viewed either from above or below,

with a slight bowing-in in the middle, line and a little conical

elevation in front of each eye. A lateral view shows that the

anterior edges of the body are elevated and bear humps and sev¬

eral hairs. The genital areas form prominent rolls between

body and appendage. The dorsal shield is almost circular.

The color is blue-green with brown streaks and flecks. The

entire length is 1.06 mm; the width, 0.56 mm; the appendage,

0.4 mm.

Neuman’s figures (1879) and Piersig’s (1897) show the ap¬

pendage strongly humped up in the anterior part, a feature

characteristic of the next species. The second joint of the pal¬

pus in the specimens examined bears on the inner face a patch

of short blunt, bristles. In other smaller points., such as the

shape of the end of the appendage and the humps near the

eyes, these individuals did not agree with figures of the hy-

drachnologists mentioned. But their abundance and wide disr

tribution, together with the fact that there is a general agree¬

ment in the form of the body and appendage in a dorsal view,

seems to justify the identification of these specimens with

A. globator. A small amount of variation was found in this

material.

A. globator feim. The body is broadly oval and the dorsal

shield has the same form. Very characteristic are the small

humps on the back as shown in fig. 1, f. In this it disagrees

with earlier descriptions. The length is 0.8 mm, the width

0.66 mm.

Collections extending over several years were made in Lake

Wingra and the.Yahara Biver, Madison; small pools near Kil-

bourn ; ponds near Big Springs ; shallows of Lake Mason near

Briggsvillei ; Goo-se Pond near Jordan Lake, Adams County;

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Mirror Lake at Belton; pools near Fond dn Lae; stagnant

waters near Lake Winnebago and other places near Appleton;

Twin Islands and Mud Creek at Lake Spooner; and in small

bodies of fresh water at Tarpaulin Cove and Hobska Light,

near Wood’s Hole, Mass.

Arrenurus megalurus, nov. var. of A. glob at or Mull.

Fig. 2, ar-f , Pis. XIV— XV.

In collections containing A. globator there were often found

closely related individuals with stouter bodies and appendages.

They also show strong resemblance to A. caudatus Be Geer and

A. Stjordalensis Thor.

The body is longer than wide and slightly angular, and is

depressed between the eyes. The most characteristic feature

is a conical projection in front, of each eye, larger than the

same humps noted in A. globator. The dorsal shield is slightly

eight-sided. A lateral view shows the anterior side walls

strongly arched; in this it resembles A. globator and differs

from A. caudatus. The appendage differs from the nearest re¬

lated forms in being greatly arched up in the middle1 ; and in the

shape of the end, the middle part of which here runs out beyond

the side corners with a slight rounded incision. In lateral view

the form is like that figured by Piersig and Henman for A.

globator. In other details it closely resembles the form here

identified as A. globator. The differences between A. megar

lurus and A. caudatus are best seen by comparing the lateral

views. In the latter, the region inside the dorsal line is strongly

arched and the appendage is lower. In both dorsal and ventral

views, the 'appendage of A. megalurus is seen to be constricted

at the base, narrower here than at the end, the difference being

greater than in A. globator , and forming in this respect a

marked contrast to A. caudatus. The same thing is true of the

genital areas which here form rolls extending beyond the body

walls. In legs, palpi, epimera and hairs the variety closely re¬

sembles the species.

The difficulty of identifying these individuals has been in¬

creased by finding some degree of variation among them.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

151

These variations were in the structures already mentioned

(Fig. 2, e and /). There fir ere several gradations in the size

of the conical elevations in front, of the eyes, from small ones

like those found in .4. globator scarcely projecting beyond the

body edge, to the large horns of the more decided types of A.

megalurus. There were likewise gradations between the flat-

topped appendage with rounded and slightly indented end of

the one type, and the strongly arched appendage with bowed-

out. and more deeply indented end of the other. The flat-topped

form predominated. Some individuals in dorsal view resemble

A. globator most; in lateral view, the variety. There is a good

deal of likeness here to A. tabulator Muller. In view, of these

considerations, it seems best, to regard these Arrenuri as a va¬

riety of A. globator and connected with it by intermediate

forms.

The length of A. megalurus is 1.12 mm ; width, 0.6 nun;

appendage, 0.45 mm. The color is dark brown-green with in¬

distinct darker markings.

A. megalurus fern, is hardly to be distinguished from A.

globator fern.

Arrenurus manubriator, nov. spec.

Fig. 3, ci— e. Pis. XV— XVII.

Several individuals found in collections with A. globator have

been erected into' this new species. The namei, referring to the

resemblance of the appendage to a handle, has been suggested

by Dr. Wolcott of the University of Nebraska. In dorsal as¬

pect these mites closely resemble A. globator but lack the little

horns in front of the eyes ; and the appendage is nearly the

same width throughout. Viewed laterally it is not so high nor

its humps so pronounced ; the dorsal shield is higher and the

side walls of the body do not rise up so high. A. manubriator

more nearly resembles the forms described as intermediate be¬

tween A. globator and A. megalurus.

The form of the body, its epimera, dorsal shield and genital

area resemble these structures in Piersig’s figures, for A. tubur

lator. The appendage here, however, is a trifle wider at the

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

end than anywhere else, and is usually slightly bowed-in in

the middle line. The middle of the appendage is slightly

arched as seen laterally. There is some variation in the form

of this structure.

A peculiarity of the palpi is the nearly oblong form of the

fourth segment; the fifth is small and forked. The whole limb

resembles that of A. Birgei nov. spec. The first and second

pairs of legs bear the usual stiff hairs and spines; their last

joints are peculiar in being the longest and in bearing many

fine short hairs. The third pair of legs have long fine hairs

on the third, fourth and fifth joints. In the fourth pair of

legs, all segments but the first and the last bear many long

hairs; the process on the fourth is long and bears the usual

bunch of hairs.

The color is dull blue-green with indistinct flecks of brown

as in A. glob at or. The entire length is 0.9 mm; the width,

0.57 mm; the length of the appendage, 0.37 mm.

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig.

Fig. 4, a— c, PL XVIII.

Arrenurus buccinator Piersig, 1894 (a) ; S. 414.

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig, 1894 (b) ; S. 378.

Arrenurus buccinator Kramer, 1895; S. 1-5, Fig. 1.

Arrenurus festivus Koenike, 1895; S. 378, Fig. 2.

Arrenurus festivus Koenike, 1896; S. 213.

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig, 1896; S. 58.

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig, 1897 ; S. 282-84, Fig. 75.

Arrenurus securiformis Piersig, 1901 ; S. 83.

Fine individuals found in a small pond near Xobska Light,

Wood’s Hole, Mass., in August, 1899, are clearly to be identi¬

fied as A. securiformis Piersig. The form of the appendage

is the most distinguishing feature. The prominent hump near

the posterior end has a semicircular form (fig. 4, a and c,

H1). Just back of it are two little projections close together,

and lying back and between them is a very small conical pro¬

jection (E). In the slight indentation at the eixtreme end is

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

153

another tiny pointed process which m]ay represent the petiole

(r).

The length is 1*2 man:; the width, 0.6 mmj; and the height,

0.55 mm. The color is a light bine-green with dark flecks and

a touch of red on the dorsal shield.

Arrenurus cardiacus , nov. spec.

Fig. 5, or-e. Pis. XVII, XVIII.

This form is most closely related to A. securiformis Piersig

and A. cylindratus Piersig, from both of which it differs in the

structure of the posterior part, of the appendage.

In form the body is much like A. securiformis. The dorsal

shield is oblong and the genital area forms prominent rolls

between body and appendage. The fourth pair of epimera

are scarcely wider than the third and the posterior border is

concave, corresponding with the position of two little stigmata

bearing hairs lying just back. When viewed laterally the body

is seen to be strongly arched on the dorsal side.

The appendage is much lower than the body from which it

is sharply marked off. There is a constriction at the base and

another in the last third. It is widest near the end and the

side corners are prominent. From this point there is a strong

bowing-out posteriorly with a deep' and wide bay in the cen¬

ter. A slight rounded mound lies in the bottom of this bay,

and other small ones lie in this region as shown in the figures

(fig. 5, a and c, IT,2 H,3 H4). Anterior to this deep and wide

bay is the second distinguishing feature of this species and the

one which has suggested its name: it is a broad heart-shaped

hump, the point directed forward (H1). This hump is simi¬

lar to that in A. cylindratus in the same place, but is wider.

It is the point of this hump which forms the prominent eleva¬

tion on the appendage in the lateral view. The position of the

numerous hairs is seen in the figures.

The palpi show the usual structure. The inner edge of the

fourth joint is drawn out into a broad process on which grows

a broad bladeTike hair. The small curved claw-like fifth seg¬

ment is bifurcated. The mandibles are shown in fig. 5, e.

154 Wisconsin A cademy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The three anterior pairs of legs are like those of A. secnri-

formis. The fourth legs are characterized by the presence of

many little thorn-like bristles on the fonrth and fifth joints,

and by the shortness of the last two joints. The longest and

most numerous hairs are on the fifth joint, and the fonrth has

a prominent process bearing a small bunch of stiff curved hairs.

Five males of A. cardiacus were found in Goose Pond,

Adams County, a small, shallow, stagnant body of water filled

up with water plants. The color of the specimens was deep

indigo blue with lighter brown patches on the anterior end

of the body and the middle of the appendage.

The length is 1.3 mm; width, 0.66 mm; appendage, 0.5

mm; first leg, 0.78 mm; fourth leg, 1.05 mm.

A few females were found. They have the usual form; and

structure of female Arrenuri. The body is ovate with slight

indentations. The dorsal shield is oval and reaches nearly to

the posterior edge of the body. The epimera, are like those in

the males. The genital area, is large and of nearly uniform

width and extends nearly straight out. There are numerous

hairs as shown in Fig. 5, g and h. The color is the same as

in the male. The length of the body is 1.06 mm; the width,

0.94.

Arrenurus parallellatus nov. spec.

Fig. 6, a—e, Pis. XVI— XVIII.

The name of this new species is suggested by the form of

the appendage, the sides of which are nearly parallel. The

and has two low humps on each side projecting back equally

(Fig. 6, a and c, H,1 H2). In the middle line is a deep rounded

bay, narrowest at the mouth* into which projects a little fing¬

er-like process curved up dors ally (P). In a lateral view of

the animal it can sometimes be seen through the semi-trans¬

parent rounded corners of the appendage, like the figure given

by Piersig for the petiole of A. globator (Deut. Hydrach., fig.

72, e). This structure may represent a petiole here. Just

anterior to it lies a pair of little projections rising each from

the summit of a little hump, the points of which turn outward

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri. 155

in the form! of little hooks (X). Again, jnst forward of these

is a pair of long triangular thickenings of the integument, the

points toward the little projections just described (T1). A lat¬

eral view shows that the appendage is moderately low, the high¬

est point a slight hump in the anterior half. There are five

pairs of stiff hairs on the appendage.

The form of the body corresponds closely with that of A.

securiformis. The dorsal line runs over on the appendage and

encloses an obovate area. The body is arched in the middle

and has no large humps. There are numerous short stiff hairs.

The fourth pair of epimera are unusually wide. The genital

area forms outstanding rolls at the base of the appendage.

The limbs show the characteristics common to Arrenurus

males. The third, fourth and fifth segments of the last legs

bear a great many long fine hairs, as well as many short, er

bristles. The usual process is found on the fourth joint. The

last segment of the palpi is forked, and the fourth is the longest.

The color is pale dull green. The length of the body is 1.15

mm; width, 0.725 mm; the height, 0.625 mm.

Eight specimens of A. parallellatus were found in July and

August, 1899, with A. securiformis at Wood’s Hole, Mass.

Arrenurus comiger Koenike.

Fig. 7, a— e, PI. XV.

Arrenurus comiger Koenike, 1894 (b) ; S. 276, Eig. 1.

Arrenurus comiger Piersig, 1901 ; S. 84.

This form is easily recognized by the large cone-shaped hump

on the anterior dorsal part of the appendage (Fig. 7, a and c,

H1). The horn-like projections on the anterior borders of

the first two pairs of epimera are alsoi characteristic features.

The petiole mentioned by Koenike was not found. The poste¬

rior of the three little humps near the end of the appendage

(H3) are pointed. The slighter form of the appendage, the

slanting position of the genital areas, the more numerous hairs,

are details in which the individuals examined do not conform

exactly to Koenike’ s text-figure. The body isi 1.02 mm. long,

0.57 mm wide, and the appendage is 0.42 mm long. The

color is light blue green.

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Koenike’s paper did not include any account of the limbs ; a

description is therefore added here.

The palpi show no striking peculiarities. The fifth segment

is unforked and hears a bristle; the fourth is. the largest and

has a blade-like bristle on the outer edge. The legs increase

in size from the first to» the fourth. Each ends in two pointed

claws. The first and second pairs bear a few bristles' and

thorns with short fine hairs on the1 last joint. The third pair

of legs resemble the anterior pairs but have more bristles, be¬

side® a few long swimming hairs on the third, fourth and fifth

segments. The fourth pair of legs have thorns or bristles on

all segments; the third, fourth and fifth segments having in

addition long swimming hairs. The fourth segment is nearly

twice as long as the relatively short sixth; ; the process so char¬

acteristic of male Arrenuri is hardly developed. The first

leg is 0.56 mm. long; the fourth, 0.77 mm.

This is one of the rarer Arrenuri, only five individuals hav¬

ing been found, and the females are unknown. These speci¬

mens were collected in Lake Wingra, Lake Mason shallows,

and the borders of Green Lake.

Arrenurus cylindratus Piersig.

Eig. 8, a—d, PI. XVII.

Arrenurus cylindraius Piersig, 1896 (a) ; S. 441.

Arrenurus cylindratus Piersig, 1897 ; S. 288-289, Eig. 112.

Arrenurus cylindratus Piersig, 1901; S. 84-85.

This specie® has a large stout body with an appendage less

than half as long. It resembles A. Krameri Koenike and A.

securiformis Piersig in general form and in the structures on

the appendage, but differs from both in the longer body and in

the details of the shorter appendage. It is one of the largest

as well as rarest of the Arrenuri. Only one individual was

found; this was in Mirror Lake, September, 1893. The color

was a dull brownish green. The entire length was 1.15 mm;

width, 0.7 mm; length of the appendage, 0.53 mlmi.

The body is slightly arched, and the dorsal shield is higher

than the side walls. Several short hairs were found here. The

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

157

dorsal lino runs over on the appendage. The first and fourth

pairs of ventral plates are the largest. The first are closely

united, all are fully outlined, and no peculiar pores or mark¬

ings were found, — in all of these points differing from Pier-

sig’s figure (Dent. Hvdrach., fig. 112, a). The genital areas

are large, pear-shaped, and extend straight outward to form

rolls at the base of the appendage.

The appendage is constricted a little at the base, broadens

out and becomes slightly higher in the middle, and then nar¬

rows conspicuously near the end where it is again slightly

wider. The end bows out a little and has a small depression

in the middle line where lies a little low rounded hump. Small

elevations which show as light scallops in dorsal or ventral view

form, when viewed laterally, a conspicuous comer projection

on each side of the appendage (Eg. 8, a and c, H,3 E). Just

in front of the last constriction of the appendage is a pair of

small round-topped humps close together in the middle line

(H2).

The palpi are short and stout. There are a. few hairs, most

of them] on the second joint, with three bristles in a bunch at

the anterior end on the convex side, while another is found on

the inner side. The fourth segment has a broad curved bristle

on the anterior edge.

The first pair of legs have a few short coarse hairs and thorns

on every segment but the last, which is provided with a row

of finer short hairs. The second pair of legs resemble the first,

but have a few fine hairs on the fourth and fifth segments as well

as some short ones on the sixth. The third pair of legs bear

longer hairs and bristles, the former confined mostly to the third

and fourth segments. On the last pair of legs all segments

have several bristles and thorns. The third, fourth and fifth

joints have many fine hairs. The process on the fourth joint

is moderately stout and bears four short, curved, stiff hairs.

The length of this pair of legs is 1.15 nun. All of the joints

except the last are stout.

158 Wisconsin 'Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Arrenurus conicus Piersig.

Pig. 9, a—d, PL XVIII.

Arrenurus spec. Piersig, 1893 ; S. 311.

Arrenurus conicus Piersig, 1894 (a) ; S. 413.

Arrenurus conicus Piersig, 1897 ; S. 291-294, Pig. 73.

Arrenurus conicus Piersig, 1901; S. 86-87, Pig, 19-20.

Only one individual belonging to this species was found, and

this was in Lake Wingra, August 6th, 1902. It was readly

identified with Piersig’s form! by the broad, stout appendage

with constricted base and very narrow end. But instead of

four little scallops, it ended in three', the middle one longest.

As seen from the side, the region inside of the dorsal line is

depressed, and the appendage is higher than shown by Piersig.

On the dorsal side of the appendage were found two little oval,

light colored spots just before the lateral constriction near the

end (Pig. 9, a, d). The last segment of the fourth leg is

slightly curved ; the fourth bears the usual process. The length

was found to be 1.16 mm. ; the width, 0.7 man.

Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec.

Pig. 10, Or-f, Pis. XVI— XVII.

This form with its moderately long appendage stands be¬

tween the forms like A. glob at or with this organ enormously

developed, and species like A. oblongus Piersig and A. truncar

iellus Muller, where the short appendage and body are not

sharply marked off from each other. However, the appendage

in A. Birgei though short, is much narrower than the body and

clearly marked oh from! it in the dorsal and ventral aspects.

The body is rounded and bowed in a little between the eyes.

The middle lateral walls are nearly parallel as seen dorsally.

The body is moderately elevated, highest in the middle, where

it is nearly flat. The area of the dorsal shield is slightly

broader than long and is a little depressed. Prom here on

the body slopes gradually to the posterior end of the appen¬

dage, the only interruptions being a rounded hump just be¬

fore the end of the appendage, and a pair of low humps in

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

159

the last half of the appendage (fig. 10, a and c, h). The end

of the appendage is bowed out a little in the middle, scarcely

scalloped. The sides of the appendage are nearly parallel.

There are several stout hairs whose positions are indicated

by the accompanying figures. The epimera show no peculiari¬

ties. The genital area is narrow, though not always as narrow

as shown in Fig. 10, b, and resembles that of A. truncatellus ;

the outline is indistinct.

The distinguishing feature of the palpi is the great length

of the fourth joint. The fifth is double^pointed. Bristles are

not numerous. The legs named in order of length are the

first, the third, the second, the fourth, with the greatest in¬

terval between the last two. The first and second are much

alike, the segments increasing in length from the first to the

sixth. All, especially the second and third, bear1 bristles and

short curved hairs', excepting the sixth, which has many short

fine hairs. The third pair of legs have more bristles and long

hairs on the fifth segment. The last pair of legs are stout with

the exception of the last segment ; the fourth is longest and has

the usual process with a tuft of hairs. The third segment has

unusually long, hairs and a short point on its distal extremity.

The color is light greenish blue, with indistinct markings

a:s in A. globaior. The length is 0.8 mmi; the width, 0.5 mm.

Arrenurus Birgei is rather common. Several individuals

were found in the following places: Lake Wingra,, Mirror

Lake, borders of Green; Lake and Lake Spooner, pond at Tar¬

paulin Cove near Wood’s Hole.

This species has been named for Dr. E. A. Birge of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin, at whose suggestion this work on the Ar¬

renuri was begun, and without whose continued assistance it

could not have been carried on.

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

BIBLIOGRAHY.

Koch, C. L.

1842. Uebersicht der Arachnidemsystems. Heft III, S.

7-39, Taf. I — IV, Riirnberg.

Reamer, P.

1875. Beitrage zur R aturgeschichte der Hydrachniden..

Archiv fur R aturgeschichte, Bd. I, S. 263-332,

Taf. VIII— IX.

1895. Ueber die Benennung einiger Arrenurus-Arten.

Zool. Anz. Rr. 465, S. 1-5.

Retjmah, 0. J.

1879. Om Sveriges Hydrachnider. Kongl. Sv. Vet.

Akad. Handlgr., Bd. 17, Rr. 3 (123 pp., 14

pis.).

Haller, G.

1882. Die Hydrachniden der Schweitz. Mitth. der na-

turforsch. Ges. in Bern. S. 18-43, PI. I — IV.

Krendowsky, M. E.

1884. [Les Acarieus d’eau douce (Hydrachnides) de la

Russie meridional©.] (Russian.) [Arb. Ra-

turf. Ges. Charkow.] p. 1-150.

Barrios et Moniez.

1887. Catalogue des Hydrachnides reeueillies dans le

nord de la France. Lille. S. 23-25.

Koenike, E.

1889. Zur Entwicklung der Hydrachniden. Zool. Anz.,

Rr. 323, S. 652.

1893. Die von Herrn Dr. E. Stuhlmann in Ostafrika

gesammelten Hydrachniden, etc. Jahrb. Wise.

Anst. Hamburg. X. S. 12-16.

1894. (a) Mitteldeutseh Hydrachniden, gesammjelt

durch Herrn Dr. Ph. Made. Zool Ang. Rr. 452,

S, 259-264.

1894. (b) Zur Hydrachniden — Synonymie. Zool. Anz.

R. 453, S. 269-278.

1895. Ueber bekannte und neue Wassermilben. Zool.

Anz., Rr. 485-6, S. 376-392.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

161

Koestike, F.

Zacharias, O.

1892. Die Hydracliniden, Thier — u. Pflanzenwelt des

Stisswassers. Bd. II.

PlERSIG, K.

1895. Schriften der naturforschenden Gesell. ins Danzig.

Hr. 3, Bd. 9, S. 265.

PlSAROVIC, K.

1896. Zur Kenntnis der Hydrachniden Bohmens. Lit-

zungsberichte der k. Bohm. Ges. der Wiss.

Math. Haturw. KL XVII.

11

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Croneberg, A.

1899. Hydrachnidenfauna der Ungegend von Moskau.

Bull. Soc. Mosc. X. S. T.

Thor, S.

1899. Tredie Bidrag til Kundskaben om Xorges Hy-

draclmider. Archiv for Math, og Xaturvidens-

kab. B. XXI, Xr. 5.

1900. Hydrachnologische Xotizen IV — VIII. Xyt.

Mag. f. Xaturv., XXXVII, IV, S. 379-388.

Thobt, 0. K.

1900. Ueber die Copulation Organe des Hydrach. — Gat-

tung Arrenurus Duges. Verband. der Deui>

schen Zool. Gesell. S. 108. Leipzig.

George, C. F.

1901. British Fresh Water Mites. Science Gossip, Ser.

2, VII, Xos. 80 and 82.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

163

PLATE XIV.

All drawings are made with, a camera lucida.

164

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

1 a, Arrenurus globator Miill., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus globator Miill., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus globator Miill., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus globator Miill., 2d leg.

f, Arrenurus globator Miill., fem., dorsal view.

g, Arrenurus globator Miill., fem., ventral view.

2 b, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., lateral view,

c, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., palpi.

e, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., intermediate form, dorsal

t, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., intermediate form, lateral

Trans, Wis. Acad., Yol. XIV.

Marshall

: ■ ' 1 ' V

-Ten Species of Arrenuri.

PLATE XV.

166

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.

1 e, Arrenurus globator Mull., 4th leg.

2 a, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., dorsal view,

d, Arrenurus megalurus nov. var., 4th leg.

3 b, Arrenurus manubriator nov. spec., epimera.

7 a, Arrenurus corniger Koen., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus corniger Koen., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus corniger Koen., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus corniger Koen., palpi.

e, Arrenurus corniger Koen., 4th leg.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

PLATE XVI.

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XYI.

3 a, Arrenurus manubriator nov. spec., dorsal view.

c, Arrenurus manu'briator nov. spec., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus manubriator nov. spec., palpi.

6 a, Arrenurus parallellatus nov. spec., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus parallelatus nov. spec., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus parallellatus nov spec., lateral view.

10 a, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., palpi,

f, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., 4th leg.

Plate XVI.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrermri.

PLATE XVII.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

3 e, Arrenurus manubriator nov. spec., 1st leg.

f, Arrenurus manubriator nov. spec., 4th leg.

5 d, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., palpi.

e, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., mandibles.

f, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., 1st leg.

g, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., 4th leg.

h, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., fem., dorsal view.

i, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., fem., ventral view.

6 d, Arrenurus parallellatus nov. spec., palpi.

8 a, Arrenurus cylindratus Piers., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus cylindratus Piers., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus cylindratus Piers., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus cylindratus Piers., 4th leg.

10 e, Arrenurus Birgei nov. spec., 1st leg.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIY.

Plate XVII.

Marshall — Ten Species of Arrenuri.

171

PLATE XVIII.

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

4 a, Arrenurus securiformis Piers., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus securiformis Piers., epimera.

c, Arrenurus securiformis Piers., lateral view.

5 a, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus cardiacus nov. spec., lateral view.

6 e, Arrenurus paralleilatus nov. spec., 4th leg.

9 a, Arrenurus conicus Piers., dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus conicus Piers., ventral view.

c, Arrenurus conicus Piers., lateral view.

d, Arrenurus conicus Piers., 4th leg.

ii'twa. vv is. V<M. JUV. ^ : r Plate xvilf

■

NEW SPECIES OF THE FAMILY ATTIDAE FROM SOUTH

AFRICA, WITH NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF

THE GENERA FOUND IN THE ETHIOPIAN REGION

BY GEORGE W. PECKHAM AND ELIZABETH G* PECKHAM.

K

INTRODUCTION.

For several years we have "been receiving collections of At-

tidae from South Africa, the largest ones coining fromj Mr.

Guy A. K. Marshall, Mashonaland, Dr. H. Brauns, Cape Col¬

ony, and Mr. George F. Leigh and Mr. J. F. Quekett, Durban.

We have also had loan collections, for description, from Mr.

W. F. Purcell, South African Museum, Cape Town.

Up to the present time, representatives of thirty families of

spiders have been found in the Ethiopian Region, using that

term in the sense in which it is employed by Mr. Wallace, in

his Geographical Distribution of Animals', to include all of

Africa south of the Desert of Sahara, Madagascar and the

neighboring islands. A study of the eighty-six genera and two

hundred and eleven species of Attidae found in this region con¬

firms the soundness of the divisions proposed by Mr. Wallace,

there being few instances of the disconnected distribution of

genera, and not one instance of importance. We give, in Ta¬

ble I, the distribution in detail of the Ethiopian genera of the

family.

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , Letters.

Table I. — Showing distribution of genera of Attidae found in Ethio¬

pian region.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae,

175

Table I. — Showing distribution of genera of Attidae found in Ethio¬

pian region — Continued.

Range beyond the region.

Cosmopolitan.

Europe. India.

Oriental. Australian.

Mediterranean Region. Central

Asia.

Syria. India.

Oriental.

Cosmopolitan.

Malaysia.

.Europe. Red Sea.

New Caledonia.

Taprobane. Java.

Palaearctic. Nearctio. Neo¬

tropical.

Palaearctic. Nearctic. Neo¬

tropical.

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Table I. — Showing distribution of genera o f Attidae found in Ethio¬

pian region— Continued.

Pedcham — -Spiders of the Family Attidae.

177

Table II shows the distribution of spiders by families. In

examining those that have genera in the Ethiopian Region we

find the following cases of anomalous distribution.

Aviculariidae, 33 genera in Ethiopian Region, of which 6

have a disconnected distribution.

Aporopiychus, West Africa, South America.

Bolostromus, South Africa, South America.

Hermacka , South Africa, South America.

Cydosturnum, West Africa, Central and South America.

Hapalothele , Madagascar, Australia, Central and South

America.

Thelechoris , Madagascar, Central and South America.

Uloboridae, 4 genera in Eth. Reg., 2 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Dynopis , Ethiopian Region, Australian Region, North and

South America.

Menneus, Ethiopian Region, Australian Region.

Zoropsidae. 1 genus in Eth. Reg. Distribution discon¬

nected.

Scotolathys , 1 species in Ethiopian Region and 1 species in

North America.

Eiresidae. 4 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Eilistatidae. 1 genus in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Sicariidae. 4 genera in Eth. Reg., 2 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Sicarius , South Africa, South America, Galapagos.

Dymusck > 1 species in South Africa, 1 species in Antilles.

Leptonetidae. 1 genus in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Oonopidae. 6 genera in Eth. Reg., 2 with disconnected dis^

tribution.

Ischnothyreus , West Africa, Philippines, Antilles.

Opopaea , South and West Africa, Philippines, South Amer¬

ica, West Indies.

Dysderidae. 3 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Caponiidae. This family has, in all, only 3 genera. One of

these is found in the Ethiopian Region, and nowhere else.

Prodidomidae. This family has, in all, 3 genera, 2 of them

being Ethiopian, with normal distribution.

12

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Drassidae. 18 genera in Eitih. Reg., 3 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Megamyrmecion , South and North Africa, North America.

Aphantaulax , Ethiopian Region, East Indies, J amaica.

Laronia, West Africa, South America.

Palpimanidae. 3 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution nor¬

mal.

Zodariidae. 11 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Hersiliidae. 2 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Urocteidae. 1 genus in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Ammioxenidaa This family has 1 genus and 3 species, and

is confined to South Africa.

Pholcidae. 7 genera in Eth. Reg., 1 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Micromerys , West Africa, Madagascar, Philippines, New

Holland, Venezuela.

Theridiidae. 23 genera in Eth. Reg., 2 with disconnected

distribution.

Thwaitesia, Madagascar, North Africa, Sumatra, South

America.

Histagonia , South Africa, North America.

Argiopidae. 52 genera in Eth. Reg., 9 with disconnected

distribution.

Brattia , West Africa, Philippines, South America.

Cyatholipus , South Africa, West Indies.

Orsinome, Madagascar, Polynesia, Malaysia.

Landana , West Africa, South America.

Dolichognatha , West Africa, South America, Taprobane.

Pronous, Madagascar, Taprobane, Central and South Amen

ica.

Glyptogona, South Africa, Mediterranean Region, Central

and South America.

Ursa j, South Africa^, Taprobane, South America.

Ana pis. North and West Africa, South America, New Cale¬

donia.

Mimetidae. This family has, in all, 6 genera and 30 spe¬

cies. 2 genera in Eth. Reg., with normal distribution.

Thomisidae. 49 genera in Eth. Reg., 1 with disconnected

distribution.

PecJcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 179

Stephanopsis, Madagascar, Malaysia, Australia, South Amer¬

ica.

Clubionidae. 47 genera in Eth. Keg., 4 with disconnected

distribution.

Calodenus, West Africa, South America, Malaysia.

Syrisca, Ethiopian Region, North and South America, West

Indies.

Apochinomma, Ethiopian Region, Asia, Central and South

America.

Ceto , Southeast Africa, Europe, Brazil.

Agclenidae. 10 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal

Pisauridae. 13 genera in E'+1~ ^eg., 2 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Ischalea , Madagascar, Mauritius, New Zealand.

Maypacius , Madagascar, Africa, North America.

Lycosidae. 9 genera in Eth. Reg. Distribution normal.

Oxopidae. 4 genera in Eth. Reg,, 1 with disconnected dis¬

tribution.

Hamalaliva , East Africa, India, North and South America,

West Indies.

It appears, from these observations, that the distribution of

spiders presents no greater difficulties than the large groups

of insects. The anomalous cases may be explained by sup¬

posing that the isolated species are the remains of genera which

had, formerly, a wider distribution, the intermediate species

having become extinct. It is probable that many difficulties

will disappear when spiders have been thoroughly collected.

We shall then have better opportunities for classification and

many gaps will be filled. All deductions from the material

at present available are tentative. Although ten thousand spe¬

cies have been described, there are doubtless twice as many

that have not yet been discovered.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Table II.- Showing the Distribution of Spiut,. 5, by Families.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family AUidae. 181

Table II. — Showing the Distribution of Spiders , by Families— Cont.

The distribution of spiders must depend very largely upon

their habit of ballooning. On warm breezy days in the fall

of the year, the young of many species may be seen, often in

immense numbers, poised upon somje elevated spot, a post, a

rock, or perhaps a tall blade of grass, with spinnerets uplifted.

In this position threads of gossamer are emitted and are

drawn out to a great length by the wind, which finally lifts

them and bears them away to fresh fields. TWo cases have

been observed which show that, under favorable conditions,

spiders may be carried several hundred miles. Darwin notes

that at a distance of sixty miles from land, while the “Beagle”

was sailing before a steady, light breeze', the rigging was cow

ered with numbers of small spiders with their webs;1 and

Capt. George H. Dodge, when more than two hundred miles

from land, once found the masts and rigging of his vessel

covered with innumerable little ballooning spiders.2 In this

instance the voyagers, after a pause, disappeared as they had

come, on the wings of the wind. These migrations occasionally

take place on a scale of astonishing magnitude. Quantities of

wasted webs, — filaments snapped off by the breeze before the

spider succeeds in mounting, are carried high into the air,

where they become tangled together in flocculent masses, to fall

again to the earth in showers of gossamer. One of these is

described by Gilbert White,3 as covering eight miles of terri-

1 Voyage of the Beagle, Vol. Ill, p. 187.

2 McCook, American Spiders and their Spinning-work. Vol. II, p. 273.

3 Natural History of Selbourne, Letter LXV.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , md Letters.

tory. W. H. Hudson tells of how he once found a band of

gossamer on the ground, twenty yards wide and more than

two miles long, so thickly covered with spiders that were at-

tempting to fly that they were unable to get off comfortably.

As soon as one threw out its lines they became entangled with

those of another, lanced out at the same moment, but notwith¬

standing this difficulty numbers were continually floating off

on the breeze.1

In the light of these facts it seems probable that Madagascar

received its spider fauna from Africa, two hundred and fifty

miles away. While it has some affinities with the Oriental

Region, they are not of sufficient importance to require the hy¬

pothesis of an intervening continent.

In Psyche for April 1902, we published descriptions of some

South African Attidae, without illustrations. These descrip¬

tions are repeated below, with figures illustrating the genera

and species.

SOUTH AFRICAN ATTIDAE.

PLUUIDEXTATI.

Macopaeus madagascarensis sp. nov.

Plate XIX, fig. 5.

9. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 423, first pair missing; metatarsi

and tarsi very slender.

We have one badly damaged specimen. The eyerregion is

covered with long bright red hairs, the rest of the cephalotho-

rax being rubbed bare excepting a white band which runs

around the mjargin and across the clypeus. The brown falcea

are, on the front faces, thickly set with short, stiff, project¬

ing white hairs. The abdomen is dark, with a lighter patch

on each side in front, and seemis to have been covered with

beautiful iridescent scales, the reflections being purple and

blue. The legs are long and not especially slender, excepting

the terminal joints; they are brown and show patches of the

i Naturalist in La Plata, p. 186.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 183

same brilliant scale®. The superior margin of the falx has

three teeth, one near the insertion of the fang, and two opposite

its tip. The inferior margin has five smlall teeth, close to¬

gether.

We have one female from; Madagascar. M. Simon has com¬

pared this with the type, spinosus, and finds it to be a different

species. The two must be distinguished by the epigynes.

Portia dmrhanii sp. nov.

Plate XIX, figs. 2, 2 a, 2b.

$. Length 7mm. Legs 1423, first and second pairs thickened

and first pair fringed.

In this species the highest point of the cephalothorax is at

the second row of eyes, the third row being placed well down

on the posterior slope.

The general color is brown. The eye-region, clypeus and

falces are covered with brownish-white hairs. The thoracic

part and sides are rubbed nearly bare in our specimens, but

seem to have been covered with yellow hairs. The abdomen

has a uniform covering of yellow iridescent hairs, and over

this a scattering of long black hairs. The legs are brown with

short yellow hairs and black spines. The first leg has a very

heavy black fringe on the tibia, a shorter, thinner fringe on

the femur, and a still slighter one on the patella. The pal¬

pus is brown with black hairs, and has apophyses on the femur

and patella. The falces are ^ong and vertical. The venter has

yellow metallic hairs on the sides and a wide longitudinal black

band down the middle.

We have three males from Durban, sent by Mr. Quekett.

Sonoita gen. nov.

Plate XIX, figs. 4, 4a, 4b, 4c.

The cephalothorax is moderately high, with the sides round¬

ing out- from the front end to the widest point which is in

the middle of the thoracic part. They also round out from

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

above downward, the lower part being wider than the upper.

The highest point is at the dorsal eyes, there being a fall in

both directions, that of the cephalic part, being steeper than

the thoracic. The front half of the thoracic part is very full

and convex on top, giving a rounded upper surface, while the

second half slopes off abruptly. The quadrangle of the eyes

occupies nearly one-half of the cephalothorax, is only one-fifth

wider than long, and is about equally wide in front and be¬

hind. The front row of eyes is strongly curved downward.

The middle are less than twice as large as the lateral, and

all are subtouching. The eyes of the second row are larger than

is usual in this family, and are placed nearer the first than

the third row. The third row is plainly narrower than the

cephalothorax. The falces are short and vertical, the lower

margin being armed with several teeth. The sternum is rather

long, is contracted in front and behind, and truncated in front.

The first coxae are separated by the width of the labium which

is as wide as long. The palpus has all the joints short, the

tarsus being palette-shaped.

The large eyes of the second row bring this genus into re¬

lation with several general which Simon groups under Boetheae s

Cocalodeae , Cocaleae and Lineae, but Boethus and Portia have

the first row of eyes curved upward. Cocalodes is quite differ¬

ently shaped, resembling Lyssomanes; Cocalus and Phaeacius

have abnormally long spinnerets, and in Linus the thoracic part

falls in one very steep slant, from the third row of eyes.

The type of Sonoita is a new species from] South Africa.

Sonoita Lightfootii sp. nov.

Plate XIX, figs. 4-4c.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 4312, the first pair a little the stout¬

est, with a ridge of stiff spiny dark hairs under the tibia.

Our single specimen has been rubbed nearly bare. The dark

cephalothorax shows some patches of white hairs around the

eyes and on the side's, and brownish-white hairs grow thickly

on the clypeus, on the broadened upper surface of the palpus,

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. S 185

in patches on the mottled brown and yellow legs, and on the

lower sides of the abdomen. There is a thick bunch of these

hairs at the front end of the abdomen, and the bare integument

shows two golden-brown bands, beginning at this point and di¬

verging a little as they pass backward to beyond the middle of

the dorsum. Further back, just in front of the spinnerets^ is

a central patch of the same color. The rest of the abdomen is

dark brown.

We have one male of this species from Gape Colony. We

have named it for Mr. E. M. Lightfoot of Cape Town.

Cyrba, dotata\ spi nov.

Plate XIX, fig. 6.

$. Length 6.7 mm. Legs 4132, first pair stoutest, second

next.

The front eyes form a straight row, the lateral being plainly

further back than the middle, and more than half as large. The

second row is a little nearer the third than the first. The

third is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax at that place.

The tibia of the first leg has three pairs' of spines, and that of

the second three posterior and two anterior spines. The meta¬

tarsi of the first and second have two pairs of very long spines.

Our specimen seems to have been covered with short yellow

and long white hairs, but as these are nearly all rubbed away

we describe it as it appears under alcohol. The cephalothorax

is black, with a central longitudinal brown band on the tho¬

racic part. The legs are brown excepting some blackish patches

on the undersides of the first and second. The abdomen has

the sides brown, streaked and mottled with black. The front

central part is white. A black herring-bone stripe begins just

in front of the middle and runs to the end, the spaces on the

sides being occupied by five pairs of white spots. The clypeus

has a thin fringe of whitish-brown hairs. The f alces are brown,

stout, and vertical. The palpi are thickly covered with brown

and white hairs.

We have one female from Xewlands, Cape Peninsula, col¬

lected by Mr. Purcell.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Massagris mirijicus sp. nov.

Plate XIX, figs. 1, la.

This species has the quadrangle of the eyes as long as wide.

The cephalic plate is golden, marked with two1 black spots.

$. Length 4 mm. Legs, 4132, first pair a little thickest.

The cephalothorax is moderately high, and is flattened above.

The cephalic part has a constriction behind the first row of

eyes from] which the sides widen out to a point just back of

the third row. The quadrangle of the eyes is as long as wide,

is plainly wider in front than behind, and occupies one-half

of the cephalothorax. The front row is curved downward,

with the eyes all close together, the middle being twice as large

as the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the first than

the third, and the third is much narrower than the cephalo¬

thorax at that place. The falces project slightly, and are mod¬

erately long and stout. The clypeus is narrow. The sternum

is long, truncated in front and pointed behind. The coxae of

the first pair are separated by more than the width of the lar

bium, which is as wide as long, and less than half as long as

the maxillae. The first and second legs have a single spine on

the tibia. The metatarsus of the first has one pair and the meta¬

tarsus of the second, a single spine. In M- constrictus E. S'.,

there are no spines on the tibiae of the first and second, while the

metatarsi have one pair.

We have a rubbed specimen. The cephalothorax is dark

brown excepting black spots around the eyes and a reddish-

yellow region on the cephalic plate, on which are two black

spots. There are some pale yellow hairs on the thoracic part,

and yellowish-white hairs on the clypeus. The abdomen is

pale brown, with dark brown mottling on the sides, and two

rows of white patches on the dorsumj. There is a thin cover¬

ing of white hairs. The palpi are dusky brown, the falces dark

brown. The legs are light yellow, excepting the femoral joints

which are dusky.

We have one male from Mr. Quekett, Durban.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 187

Copocrossa bimaculata sp. no v.

Plate XIX, figs. 7, 7 a.

Tlie abdomen is yellowish with a round black spot, on each

side, behind the middle.

$, (not quite mature). Length 4.5 mm. Legs 1423, first

pair much the stoutest, second next.

Both cephalothorax and abdomen are low and flattened.

The cephalic and thoracic parts form a flat plate which nar¬

rows to a blunt point at the posterior end, and from this the

sides slant outward, the fall in the eye-region being not far

from vertical. There is a slight widening out of the cephalo¬

thorax behind the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle of the eyes

is one-fifth wider than long, is wider behind than in front, and

occupies a little more than one-third of the cephalothorax. The

anterior eyes are close together in a row that is very slightly

bent downward, the middle eyes being more than twice as large

as the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the first than

the third, and the third is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax

at that place. The cephalothorax is about twice as long as

wide. The clypeus is very narrow, and the falces are short

and weak. The sternum is long and narrow. The labium is

as wide as long and the coxae of the first pair of legs are sepa¬

rated by less than its width. The first leg has the femur and

tibia much enlarged. The spines are rather long and stout.

The tibia has two above and three below, those underneath

having stiff black hairs between the rows, and the metatarsus

has two pairs. The second leg has lighter spines, two, one

behind the other, on the tibia, and one pair and one single spine

on the metatarsus; the third and fourth are almost unarmed.

The spinnerets are underneath the abdomen, the posterior end

of which projects over them in an obtuse point, very much as. in

Simon’s drawing of Copocrossa tenmlineata (Hist. Hat. des

Araignees, p. 474).

Our specimen has been rubbed bare, the only hairs remain¬

ing being some whitish ones along the line of the eyes. The

cephalothorax is yellowish-brown above and a shade darker on

the sides, and seems to have had two black spots above on a line

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

with the eyes of tlie second row. Tlie abdomen is yellowish with

two parallel, longitudinal hands, on each of which, just hack

of the middle, is a perfectly circular black spot. The con¬

tour of the abdomen is such that only the inner edges of these

spots are on the flattened upper surface. The legs are yellow,

the first pair being the darkest.

We have a single male from Durban, Natal, sent to us by

Mr. Quekett.

mSTDENTATI.*

Telemonia aequipes sp. nov.

Plate XIX, figs. 3-3c.

$. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 1432, first and second a little the

stoutest, first, third and fourth nearly equal in length.

The cephalothorax is. high and convex, the highest point

being between the second and third rows of eyes. The cephalic

part is only very slightly inclined, but the thoracic falls in a

steep rounded slope. The sides are gently rounded out so that

the cephalothorax is nearly as wide as long. The quadrangle

of the eyes is nearly equally wide in front and behind. The

first row is straight, with the middle eyes subtouching and less

than twice as large as the lateral, which are separated from

them. The second row is halfway between the others and the

third is narrower than the cephalothorax. The clypeiis is

rather high. The f aloes' are strong, projecting, and divergent,

with a single slender tooth near the distal end, on the inferior

margin, and a long fang. The tibiae of the first and second

legs have three pairs of long slender spines, underneath, and

the metatarsi have lateral as well as inferior spines. The ster¬

num is rounded in front and slightly pointed behind. The

first coxae are separated by more than the width of the labium

which is about as wide as long.

We have two rubbed specimens. Both cephalathorax and ab¬

domen show patches of brilliantly iridescent white scales, and

* While Thyene is included in the Unidentati, one species, crudelisy

has a compound tooth on the lower margin of the falx.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family AUidae. 189

there are short white hairs on the clypeus. The general ground

color is dark, although one abdomen has a pale central streak.

The palpi are dark, and the legs dark with pale spots, which

seem! to* have been covered with white hairs. The falces are

light brown, and faintly iridescent.

We have two males from Mr. Quekett, Durban.

Heliophanus Marshii sp nov.

Plate XX, figs. 4, 4a.

$. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 1423, first pair stoutest.

The front eyes are near together in a slightly curved row,

the middle being about twice as large as the lateral.

In our specimen the cephalothorax is dark brown, rubbed

almost bare, but showing some thinly set white scales on the

sides. The abdomen is black, encircled by a pure white band,

and having three pairs, of white spots on the back. The venter

has a thin covering of white hairs. The legs are brown, plainly

lighter in color than the body. The palpus is darker brown.

The falces project slightly, are rather long, and are brown in

color.

This species is named for Prof. Marsh of Pipon, Wisconsin.

We have one male from Camp’s Bay, Cape Peninsula, collected

by Mr. Treleaven.

Heliophanais Beardvi sp. nov.

Plate XX, figs. 6, 6a.

$. Length 6 mm. Legs 4312, nearly equal in stoutness.

The cephalothorax is darker than the abdomen, bronzed-brown

in color, and has a narrow white transverse band behind the

dorsal eyes. There is a narrow white band around the mar¬

gin of the cephalothorax, and above this, on the cephalic part,

the sides are white as far back as the transverse band. The

abdomen is bronzed-brown with metallic scales. There is a white

basal band which runs back on the sides beyond the middle

of the abdomen and is thickened at the ends. Further back

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

on the sides, just in front of the spinnerets, is a pair of white

spots. These are almost united by a narrow white line. On

the middle of the dorsum are two white bars which are some-

times broken. These extend downward, on the sides, to meet

the basal band. The palpi are dark at the proximal end, and

light yellow in the distal half. The legs have the femora

dark. The patellae and tibiae are light yellow above with a

longitudinal dark band on each side. This coloring is most

distinct on the first and second pairs. The metatarsi and tarsi

are light. All the legs; have white hairs.

This species has been collected at Signal Hill by Mr. Pur¬

cell and Mr. Lightfoot, at Bergvliet and Cape Town by Mr.

Purcell, and at Camp’s Bay and Retreat Plats by Mr. Tre-

leaven. It is named for Mr. H. Beard, who has collected

Attidae at Wynberg.

Heliophamis deamatus sp. nov.

Plate XX, figs. 3-3 c.

<3. Length 5 mm. Legs 1432, first pair stoutest.

We have but one specimen. It is black and seems to have

been covered with yellow hairs which have a slight metallic

luster. The margin of the cephalothorax has a pure white

line. The clypeus is narrow and bare. The legs are dark,

the tarsi and metatarsi being lighter. The falces are vertical

and rather long and brown in color. The palpus has a long

curved apophysis on the femur and a shorter one on the tibia,

the tarsus being covered with yellowish hairs.

Collected by Mr. Marshall in Mashonaland.

lleliophanus clarus sp. nov.

Plate XXI, figs. 6, 6a.

9. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 4312, pale, with fine black spines,

and equally thick.

The markings are black on a ground color of snow-white

hairs, the cephalothorax having two conspicuous black spots in

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 191

the middle of the thoracic part and, around the margin, a black

hand which widens out at the posterior end. When the hairs

are nibbed off the eyenregion is seen to be jet-black, and the

other parts reddish-brown. Around the eyes, and on the re¬

treating clypeus are some bright reddish hairs. On the ab¬

domen there is a wavy black band down each side of the dor¬

sum, and, between these, an elongated spot on the anterior

parti, another at the spinnerets, and a pair of black spots just

behind the middle. A black band passes around the base and

ends, on each side, in a short oblique band, and parallel with

this, a little further back is another short band. At the poste¬

rior end there is, on each side, a pair of short transverse black

bands. These marks are much blacker and more distinct in

one specimen than in the other. Where the white hairs are

rubbed off from the other parts the color is pale brown. The

venter is pale brown with a spear-shaped black mark at the

posterior end. One specimen has also a pair of oblique spots,

one on each side of the spinnerets. The legs are pure white

with delicate black spines, and the palpi and falces are yel¬

lowish. The sternum is black and the mouth-parts light

brown.

We have two females from Salisbury, Mashonaland, sent to

us by Mr. Marshall.

Heliophanus Prattii sp. nov.

Plate XX, figs, r-Tb.

$. Length 3 mm. Legs 1432, femur of the first thickened.

Of this very brilliant little species we have but a single speci¬

men, which has suffered from' rubbing. The integument is

black, covered with bright red and green metallic scales, varied

by snow-white spots and lines, the pattern being indistinguish¬

able, The legs are black as far as the tarsi, which are light

brown. On the upper part, of each leg are two fine white lines

running throughout its length. The palpus is black with a line

of white hairs above. The clypeus and the weak parallel falces

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

slant backward. Tbe femur of the palpus has a double apophy¬

sis.

We have one male from Willowmore, South Africa, sent to us

by Dr. Brauns.

»

Heliophanus Marshallii sp. nov.

Plate XX, figs. 5-5b.

<$. Length 5 mm. Legs 4132, nearly equal in thickness.

This species has a long, straight, stout apophysis on the pa¬

tella of the palpus.

In our specimens the cephalothorax, which has a black and

glistening integument, has been rubbed, so that only a few

white hairs on the thoracic part, and in a band around the

sides, remain. The abdomen has three white bands, one in the

middle and one on each side, all reaching the spinnerets. The

spaces between the bands are black but seemj to havei been cov¬

ered with yellow hairs. The legs are dark brown except the

tarsi, which are yellow. The palpus is black with snow-white

hairs. The falces are short, and moderately stout, and are

brown in color.

II. Marshallii is almost exactly like II. debilis E. S. and

H. patellaris E. S. in color, and each of these species has a

pateliary apophysis. In debilis and patellaris , however, the

apophysis stands out at a wide angle, while in Marshallii it

extends in a line with the palpus. Marshallii, is larger than the

other species and has dark legs with yellow tarsi. In debilis

the legs are all light yellow, and in patellaris they are either

entirely yellow, or entirely brown.

This species is named for Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall, who' has

made most valuable investigations in Mimicry and Warning

Colors. We have two males from Durban.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

193

Heliophanm modicus sp. nov.

Plate XX; fig. 2.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 4312.

The ground color is black on the cephalothorax, brown on

the abdomen. The cephalothorax has white bands low down

on the sides, while the upper surface seems to have been thinly

covered with yellowish-white hairs. The rings around the

eyes of the front row are white. The abdomen [has a wide

herring-bone stripe and an encircling band, white. The legs

and palpi are pale brown. The falces are weak and vertical,

and dark brown in color. The very narrow clypeus is marked

by a white line.

We have several females from Algoa Bay and Durban.

Almota gen. nov.

Plate XX, figs. 1-1 c.

The cephalothorax is high with the sides parallel and ver¬

tical in front, and widening out very slightly behind. The

cephalic plate is not inclined, but the thoracic part slopes

rather steeply from the third row of eyes. The quadrangle of

the eyes is one-third wider than long, is wider behind than in

front, and occupies fully onedialf of the cephalothorax. The

front eyes are rather large and close together, in a straight

row, the middle being twice as large as the lateral. The sec¬

ond row is halfway between the other two, and the dorsal eyes,

which are uncommonly largei, form a row as wide as the cephalo¬

thorax at that place. The clypeus is only a line. The ster¬

num is truncated in front. The anterior coxae are separated

by fully the width of the labium, which is about as wide as

long. The first leg has three pairs of spines under the tibia

and two pairs under the metatarsus. The spines on the other

legs are sparse and weak, the metatarsi of the third and fourth

having apical circles. On the tibiae of these legs the circles are

incomplete. The falx has a single tooth on the lower margin.

This genus differs from Cosmophasis in having the front

18

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

eyes relatively much larger, and close together, instead of sepa¬

rated, with the middle less than twice as large as the lateral.

In Cosmo phasis, moreover, the dorsal eyes are smaller than the

lateral and form a row plainly narrower than the caphalothorax,

which widens out below'.

Almota Quinii sp. nov.

Plate XX, figs. 1-le.

$. Length 3.5 mm. Legs 4132, first a little the stoutest.

This species; has; the body and the palpi dark, while the legs

are pale. Our specimen has been rubbed. The cephalothorax

seems to have been covered with short yellow hairs excepting

on the face, under the lateral eyes, where the hairs are white.

The abdomen is cylindrical, and has a wide band of yellow

hairs down the middle and a wide black region on each side.

The whole seems to have been, covered with silvery iridescent

scales, which extend on to the venter. The palpi are black

with white hairs. The legs are pale yellow, the first pair hav¬

ing a smoky brown band underneath the; femur and along the

outer side of the patella, tibia, and metatarsus. The falces are

small, and are pale brown in color.

We have one male from Cape Colony, Africa.

Cyllobelus australis sp. nov.

Plate XXI, figs. 2, 2a.

The abdomen is dark, prettily marked with white dots and

lines.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 4132, first pair somewhat stouter

than the others,. The fourth exceeds the third by the; tarsus

and nearly all of the metatarsus.

The cephalothorax is moderately high, and is narrow in front,

widening from the second row of eyes to a point a little in

front, of the posterior end, and well behind the dorsal eyes.

The cephalic part is but slightly inclined, while the thoracic

falls in a rounded slope from the third row of eyes. The quad-

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 195

rangle of the ©yes occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax.

The anterior eyes are close together in a curved row, the mid¬

dle being less than twice as large as the lateral. The second

row is a little nearer the first than the third which is nearly

as wide as the cephalothorax at that place. The sternum is

oval. The first coxae are separated by more than the width

of the labium, which is a, bout as wide as long. The falces are

vertical and parallel, with a single tooth on the lower margin.

The clypeus is dark, edged with short white hairs. Under

each lateral eye are two fine white lines running horizontally

outward, which have a very ornamental effect. The cephalo¬

thorax is dark brown with a covering of yellowish hairs and

a pure white marginal band. The abdomen is covered with

metallic yellowish scales, which give a dark effect, and rather

long brown hairs, the pattern being in snow-white spots and

dashes. There is a spot in the middle of the front end, with

some oblique lines a little further back, on each side. Down

the length of the dorsum are two rows of white dots made up

of six pairs. On each side, halfway of the length, is a triangu¬

lar spot, pointing backward, and further back, another white

spot, so low down as to be nearly invisible front above. The

palpus is dark brown with white spots on the patella and tar¬

sus. The legs are brown, the first pair darker than the others

and having three bright white spots on the inner side, one on

the patella, one at the distal end of the tibia, and one on the

tarsus. The under parts are of a dull silvery color.

We have one female from Algoa Bay, sent by Dr. Brauns.

Cyllohelus chionog aster El. S'.

Plate XXI, figs. 1-lc.

Length, 6 4.5-6 mm. $ 6-7.3 mm. Legs, S 4132, first pair

darkest and stoutest, with fringes; ? 4132, femur of the first

with a small tuft of dark hairs at the distal end.

The cephalothorax has rufus hairs above and a wide snow-

white band which runs across the clypeus and along the sides,

but is broken behind. The abdomen is glistening bronze-brown

on the dorsum, whitish on the lower sides. The male has a

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

single white spot above the spinnerets. In the femjale there are

some white scales at the front end, one, two, or three pairs

of oblique white bars on the middle of the back, a white spot on

each side, low down, at the posterior end, and a single white spot

just in front of the spinnerets. In the male the first legs are

dark, excepting the metatarsus and tarsus which are pale1, and

there is a single fringe of dark hairs on the femur and a double

fringe, also dark, on the tibia. The other legs are pale, more or

less distinctly marked, with two longitudinal dark lines. In the

female the legs are of medium brown. The falces project a

little, and are brown in color, as are the mouth-parts and ster¬

num, but the coxae are pale.

This species, which closely resembles C. australis , is very

common in South Africa, and we have many specimens from

Algo a Bay, Cape Colony and Mashonaland.

Saitis sapiens sp. nov.

Plate XXI, figs. 5, 5a.

$. Length 4.8 mm. Legs 1342, first pair stoutest, second

next.

The cephalothorax is high, with the cephalic plate inclined

forward. The thoracic part slopes very little in the first half,

and then miueh miore abruptly. The sides slant outward but

little, and are plainly widest behind the dorsal eyes. The quad¬

rangle of the eyes is a little wider in front than behind, is

one-fourth wider than long, and occupies two-fifths of the

cephalothorax. The front eyes are a little separated and form

a curved row. The lateral eyes are rather small for this genus,

but are more than half as large as the mjiddle eyes. The sec¬

ond row is a little nearer the first than the third, and the third

is almost as wide as the cephalothorax. The sternum is rounded

behind and truncated in front. The anterior coxse are sepa¬

rated by more than the width of the labium, which is as wide

as long. The elypeus is one-half as wide as the middle eyes.

The falces are vertical, and rather long and stout.

The upper part of the cephalothorax is covered with bright

red hairs, A curved white band, just below the eyes, runs

Pcckhamr — Sliders of the Family Aitidae. 197

along the upper sides and crosses the thoracic part, and from

this a central white band passes forward on the cephalic plate.

The hairs around the eyes are very bright. In onr specimens

the lower sidls of the cephalothorax are rubbed bare, except?

ing a white band around the margin. Some white hairs are

left on the clypeus, and on the front faces of the falces. The

abdomen has a wide white band at the base which curves down¬

ward over the sides, and a central white band connects this

with a second and third curved transverse white band. On

either side is a black band, sometimes broken into spots, and

all around and among the black and white markings, and cov¬

ering the back of the abdomen behind the middle, are bright

red hairs. The upper surface of the palpus is covered with

white hairs. The legs are dark with some pale spots, and have

a good many white and red hairs.

We have seven males from Mashonaland, sent by Hr. Mar¬

shall. The figure shows the spider as it appears under alcohol.

Bait is Leighii sp. no v.

Plate XXI, figs. 4, 4a.

The cephalothorax is longer and heavier than the abdomen,

and both cephalothorax and abdomen are darker in the middle

than on the sides.

$. Length 6.5 mm. Legs 1342, first pair heaviest, second

next.

The cephalothorax is high and convex, rounding from the

dorsal eyes forward to the first row, and backward through half

the thoracic part, the posterior slope, behind this point, being-

much steeper. The sides are widest at about the point of the

third row of eyes, where they are parallel for a. little distance,,

the contraction in front and behind, being inconsiderable.

The quadrangle of the eyes is one-third wider than long, is

wider in front than behind, and occupies about two-fifths of the

cephalothorax. The front eyes are large and close together in

a curved row, the middle eyes being less than twice as large as

the lateral. The clypeus is two-thirds as wide as the middle

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

eyes. The second row is halfway between the first and the

third, and the third is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax. The

f aloes are moderately long and stout and the labium is wider

than long. The first leg has three pairs of spines on the tibia

and two pairs on the metatarsus.

The cephalothorax has the cephalic plate and the lower sides

black, and the thoracic part reddish brown, while the upper

sides are covered with a mixture of white and red hairs. The

front eyes are surrounded by rings of red hairs, and above this

row is a band of white hairs. The middle of the abdomen is

occupied by a wide, dark brown, velvety band which has a chev¬

ron in the posterior part and ends in a point at the spinnerets.

The sides are covered by wide bands of white hairs with which

somie bright red hairs are intermixed. The legs are of a me¬

dium brown color, those of the first pair being darkest, and hav¬

ing the femoral joints black.

We have a single male sent to us by Mr. George F. Leigh,

from Durban, Natal.

Saitis mundus sp. nov.

Plate XXI, figs. 3, 3a.

&. Length 4.3 mm. Legs 3142, nearly equal in thickness.

The cephalothorax is high and slopes in both directions from

the dorsal eyes, the cephalic slope being more rounded than the

thoracic. The sides, which are vertical and parallel in front,

widen out at a point well back of the dorsal eyes. The quad¬

rangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, is wider in front

than behind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The

front eyes are large and close together, in a straight row, the

middle being less than twice as large as the lateral. The sec¬

ond row is halfway between the first and the third, and the third

row is as wide as the cephalothorax at that place. The sternum

is1 truncated in front, and the anterior coxae are separated by

more than the width of the labium, which is as wide as long.

The cephalothorax has a black ground with a covering, above,

of rich red hairs. The thoracic part has a yellowish spot just

Peclcham — Spiders of the Family Aftidae. 199

back of tb© dorsal eyes, and the sides are covered with yellow¬

ish-white hairs. Around the front eyes are rings of red hairs,

and the clypeus has a tuft of white hairs in the middle. The

abdomen is dark on the sides and has a pale band down the

middle, the whole being covered with yellow hairs. In a rub¬

bed specimen there is a double row of dark dots down the mid¬

dle band, and the base and sides have streaks of black which

curve up over the posterior part to form chevrons, on the dor¬

sum. The legs are pale with dark rings. In one specimen the

first pair has a black streak along the inner faces, of the meta¬

tarsus, tibia, and distal end of the patella. The palpus is light

colored with yellow hairs.

We have two males from Gnzaland, Mashonaland, sent by

Mr. Marshall.

i

Pochyta solers sp. nov.

Plate XXII, figs. 1-lb.

$. Length 4 mm. Legs 1432, first pair slightly stoutest.

This is a dark species the legs being black with pale marks.

The anterior eyes form a straight row, the middle being twice

as large as the lateral. The sternum is narrow behind and

broad in front where it is widely truncated. The front coxae

are separated by more than the width of the labium. The tibia

of the first leg has three pairs, and the tibia, of the second two

pairs of spines besides laterals. The metatarsus of the. first

and second have two pairs and laterals.

Our single specimen is somewhat, rubbed, especially on the

cephalothorax, which appears black, with a white band around

the margin and reddish hairs about the eyes. The retreating

clypeus has some white hairs. The abdomlen is slender and

pointed, the color being dark with a covering of dull golden

metallic scales. At the middle point of the back is a trans¬

versely elongated white spot. The lower sides are whitish.

The venter and sternum are black. The falces are brown in

color and are oblique and divergent, with a curved fang. The

palpus is dark with snow-white hairs on the upper side of the

patella. In the first and second legs the coxa, and trochanter

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

are brownish., in the others, white. The first leg is. black ex¬

cepting a brownish spot in the middle of the tibia, and the

proximal half of the metatarsus, which is white. Tin all the

other legs the proximal half of the femur, a spot in the middle

of the tibia, and the metatarsus and tarsus are white, the other

parts being black.

We have one male from Gazaland, Mashonaland, sent to us

by Mr. Marshall.

Parajotus gen. nov.

Plate XXII, figs. 2-2 d.

The cephalothorax is rather high and convex, the highest

point being a rounded elevation in front of the dorsal eyes.

From this point it falls, in a very long slope, to near the pos¬

terior end, the upper surface being narrowed behind to form

a horse-shoe shaped plate from which the thorax slopes on the

sides and behind. The cephalic part is also inclined forward.

The sides are a little contracted in front and behind, the wid¬

est point being behind the dorsal eyes. It is but little wider

below than above. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-third

wider than long, is wider behind than in front, and occupies

two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front eyes are all large,

and form a straight row in wliich the middle eyes are close to¬

gether and plainly less than twice as large as the lateral, which

are a little separated from them. The second row is halfway

between the other two. The dorsal eyes are as large as the lat¬

eral and form! a row which is nearly as wide as the cephalo¬

thorax. The males, as in Tusitala , have ridges of long, stiff

hairs on the front of the falces. There are both inferior and

lateral spines on all the legs, the tibiae of the first and second

having three pairs below, and the metatarsi two pairs, besides

lateral spines. The sternum is oval. The coxae are separated

by fully the width of the labium1, which is a little longer than

wide.

Parajotus resembles Jotus and the allied genera but differs

in having the quadrangle of the eyes plainly wider behind than

in frcnt.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

201

Parajotus obscurofemomtus sp. nov.

Plate XXII, figs. 2-2 d.

The femur of the first leg is dark and iridescent, in contrast

with the other joints.

$. Length, 6.5-8 mm. Legs 1432, nearly equally stout.

Our specimens are badly rubbed, so that we can form no clear

idea of the markings. There! are some reddish hairs left

around the eyes and on the cephalic plate. On the sides of the

thoracic part are wide bands of white hairs, sharply outlined

by black bands above and below, and. ending abruptly at the

dorsal eyes, while the hairs on the sides of the cephalic part are

black. The clypeus is brown and is onerthird as wide as the

large middle eyes. The falces are long, stout, projecting,

brown in color, and have, on the front faces, ridges of long stiff

black hairs. The abdomen has some long white and reddish

hairs at the front, end, and has white bands on the sides. In

the middle there seems to have been a band of reddish hairs

running backward for two-thirds the length of the dorsum, and

behind this are indistinct dark and light chevrons. The sides

are more or less streaked. The first legs have the femoral joints

dark and iridescent in whole or in part, making a contrast with

the other joints, which are much lighter, and this is true in a

less marked degree of the second legs. The first and second

pairs have fringes of black hairs under the femur and of light

yellow hairs under the patella and tibia,. The third and fourth

legs are light yellow with dark spots. The palpi are usually

dark and are covered with long stiff black hairs.

We have several males from Durban.

Euophrys Purcellii sp. nov.

Plate XXII, figs. 5, 5 a.

The males of this species have, under alcohol, a central light

colored longitudinal streak throughout the length of the ceph-

alothorax, and a wide light band on the abdomen.

S. Length 3.6 mm. Legs 1423, first pair plainly stoutest, sec¬

ond next.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The distinct light colored longitudinal hand which is seen

down the middle of both cephalothorax and abdomen when the

spider is under alcohol, disappears when it is dry. The whole

integument is brown with a slight covering of white or yellow¬

ish hairs on the upper surface, growing thicker on the sides of

the abdomen. The retreating clypeus is covered thickly with

bright yellow hairs which grow also1 on the sides as far around

as the third row of ©yes. The falces are parallel, short and

rather stout. Their color is brown, and they have fine, trans¬

verse, white lines across the front faces, each line being made

of a succession of single hairs. The palpi are brown, the tarsi

a little paler than the other joints and covered with white hairs.

The legs are brown, lightest on the mletatarsi and tarsi. The

first and second legs show a bluish, iridescent sheen on the pa¬

tella and tibia, these two joints and the femur being much

stouter than the metatarsus and tarsus, especially in the first

leg. The front eyes form a straight row, the middle being less

than twice as large as the lateral.

We have two males from Signal ITill, Cape Peninsula, col¬

lected by Mr. ft. M. Lightfoot. The species is named for Mr.

W. F. Purcell, of the South African Museum, who has made

valuable contributions to the knowledge of Arachnology in

South Africa.

Euophrys Simonii sp. nov.

Plate XXII, figs. 4-4b.

Length 5 mm. Legs 4312, those ol the first pair stoutest

and having a double fringe.

The cephalothorax is moderately high and is narrow in front,

widening rather sharply behind the first row of eyes to its wid¬

est point, at the third row. Behind this it contracts in a

rounded line to the posterior end. The highest point is at the

third row of eyes from which the fall is rather steeper in front

than behind. The front half of the thoracic part is convex and

rounded. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies about two-fifths

of the cephalothorax, is one-fourth wider than long, and is

Pechham > — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 203

plainly wider behind than in front. The eyes of the first row

are rather large, the middle being less than twice the lateral,

subtouching, and form a straight row. The second row is

about halfway between the others. The third, is but little nar¬

rower than the cephalothorax. The sternum is rounded, and

truncated in front. The anterior coxse are separated by a lit¬

tle less than the width of the labium, which is about as wide as

long, and only half as long as the maxillae. The falces are

long, oblique, and strongly divergent, with a long curved fang,

and one strong tooth on the lower margin. They are light

brown and iridescent.

We have but one specimen. There is a band of pure white

hairs around the lower sides of the cephalothorax, a central

white spot on the cephalic, and another on the thoracic part.

The rest of the cephalothorax seems to> have been covered with

rufus hairs. The clypeus has long white hairs. The falces,

pale brown in color, are nearly bare. The abdomen is rufus

with a whitish band down the middle and one on each side.

The legs and palpi are mottled with lighter and darker brown,

and have a good many white hairs. The first leg has a black

line on the upper1 face of the femtur, and a fringe of mixed

black and white hairs on each side of the femjur, patella, and

tarsus.

We have one male from Cape Colony, South Africa, sent to

us by Dr. Brauns. The species is named for our friend M.

Eugene Simon.

Euophrys Leipoldtii sp. nov.

Plate XXII, fig. 6.

$. Length 6 mm. Legs 3412, nearly equal in thickness.

The cephalothorax is dark colored with wide white marginal

bands on the sides which do not meet behind. The clypeus has

white and red hairs which grow also around the eyes of the first

row. A white band runs back on each side including the three

lateral eyes, uniting with its fellow behind the dorsal eyes and

extending for a short distance on the middle of the thoracic

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

part. The abdomen has a covering of red hairs, and a white

basal band. The legs have the femora, dark colored, as are also

the patella and tibia in the first pair, the metatarsus and tarsus

being light colored. The other legs have the patella and tibia

barred with light and dark, while the metatarsus and tarsus are

light. All the legs have short white hairs.

We have four females from Clanwilliam, Cape Colony, col¬

lected by Mr. C. M. Leipoldt, for whom we have named the

species,

Euophrys infaustus sp. nov.

Plate XXII, fig. 7.

?. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 4312, first pair a little the stoutest.

The dark cephalothorax is covered with white hairs, while

the abdomen is clothed with silky, golden hairs. There are

three pairs of black dots on the back. The legs, clypeus and

falces are brown with a good many short white hairs.

We have one female from Mashonaland, sent by Mr. Mar¬

shall.

Mendoza Carlinii sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs. 6-6e.

Length, $ 5.5 mm; ? 10.7 mm. Legs, S 4132, $ 4312. first

pair stoutest.

This is a flat gray species with the light, foliated, abdominal

band characteristic of the Marptusa Group.

The quadrangle of the eyes occupies onedhird of the ceph¬

alothorax. The tibia of the first leg has two pairs of spines

with laterals, the tibia, of the second, two serial spines. The

mtetatarsi have two pairs in both first and second.

In the male the cephalothorax has a dark background, with

reddish hairs on the sides and bright red hairs around the eyes.

There are three longitudinal white streaks on the cehpalic part,

and on the thoracic there is a large central patch of white. The

band around the margin and across the clypeus is pure white,

and there is a bunch of white hairs at the insertion of the falces.

Peclcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 205

The abdomen has a scalloped white band low on the sides, which

is edged, above, with velvety black. The upper part of the

back is covered with white and reddish hairs, the white ones

concentrating to form a central patch at the front end, two

curved bands in the middle, and a series of chevrons on the pos¬

terior part. The legs have patches of white and red hairs, and

the upper surface of the femur of the palpus is covered with

snow-white hairs.

In the female the cephalothorax is black with a snow-white

band around the margin and a longitudinal white band on the

thoracic part. The abdomen is black with a wide longitudinal,

foliated band of mixed white and red hairs. On this band is

a series of black chevrons. The legs are black with some short

light-colored hairs. The palpus has the proximal end of the

femur black, and the other parts light yellowish brown, with

long, white hairs. The clypeus is dark and is almost hidden

by the heavy, projecting, darkly iridescent falces. The under

parts are brown excepting the sternum, which is black, with

long, yellowish-white hairs.

We have a male and a female from Mashonaland, sent by

Mr. Marshall.

Philaeus manicus sp. nov.

Plate XXI Y, figs. 1, la.

<3. Length 8 mm. Legs 1342, stout and hairy.

In its general appearance this species strongly resembles

Phidippus , but. its characteristics bring it into the genus Phil¬

aeus. There is one conical tooth on the inferior margin of the

falx.

The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long,

is a little wider behind than in front, and occupies two^fifths

of the cephalothorax. The front row is a little curved, all the

eyes being small, the lateral being more than half as large as

the middle and separated from them:. The thoracic part is

plane through half its length, and then falls. The second row

of eyes is half way between the others, and the third is much

narrower than the cephalothorax. The lip is longer than wide.

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The whole spider is black covered with grayish-rufus hairs.

There are some white hairs over the first row of eyes and on

the clypeus, and the abdomen has stiff black hairs sprinkled

over it. The first and second legs are black excepting the pa¬

tellae, which are reddish. The third and fourth are covered

with rufus hairs. The palpi are black excepting the tarsi,

which are brown with white hairs. The falces are black, with¬

out iridescence.

We have one male from Manica. Mts., Mashonaland, sent by

Mr. Marshall.

Dendryphantes Purcellii sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, figs. 11-1 lb.

Length, $, $, 4.5 mm. Legs, $ 1423, $ 4123, first pair stout¬

est, especially in the male.

The general color is bright rufus, resulting from a mixture

of white and yellowish-red hairs. When these are rubbed off

the cephalothorax is dark, almost black on the sides, golden,

with two black spots, on the eye region, while the abdomen is

light colored with dark specks and blackish lines. In perfect

specimens the cephalothorax is bright rufus with a band of snow-

white hairs around the margin ; these hairs grow longer on the

clypeus. The abdomen is rufus with a whitish basal band, two

longitudinal white bands on the anterior part and three pairs

of white transverse bands, alternating with black, behind. The

legs are yellowish in the female and brown in the male, the first

and second pairs much darker than the others.

The tibia of the first leg has three pairs of spines ; of the sec¬

ond, two uniserial and two subapical spines. The metatarsi of

the first and second have two pairs. The palpi are yellow in

the female and dark brown in the male. The falces are small

and vertical in both sexes.

We have two males and two females from Bergvliet, Gape Pe¬

ninsula, sent by Mr. W. P. Purcell, for whom we have named

the species.

Peeldiam — Spiders of the Fdimily Attidae.

207

Baryphas akenus E. S.

Plate XXIV, fig's. 2-2b.

Length, $ $, 6-10 mm. Legs, $ 1342, stout, black and hairy,

? 3412.

This species varies greatly in color, size and marking’. The

ground color is black. The male has the upper part, the mar¬

gin of the cephalothorax and the clypeus covered with white

scales, sometimes tinged with red. The falces are -dark and iri¬

descent. The female has the whole cephalothorax, the clypeus,

the palpi, the front faces of the falces, and a great part of the

first and second pairs of legs covered with red scale-like hairs,

the front face of the femur, in the first and second legs of both

male and female, being sown with tiny white scales. The ab¬

domen is dark with white, reddish, or red marks, consisting of

a central spot, a band around the front end which sometimes

runs halfway, and sometimes all the way along the sides, and

two pairs of bars on the sides, continuous with the encircling

band, one at the middle point and one farther back. These

bars are somletimes transverse, and sometimes oblique, and often

one pair is transverse and the other oblique. The legs are black

with black hairs, which are especially long on the first and sec¬

ond pairs.

We have many specimens from Mashon aland, Natal, and

Cape Colony.

Hyllus Treleavenii P.

Plate XXIII, figs. 3, 3 a.

$. Length 13 mm. Legs 3412.

In our specimen the cephalothorax is rubbed almost bare,

showing the integument to be dark red on the sides and lighter

above. There seem to have been many light yellow and red¬

dish hairs on the sides and over the back. Around the eyes of

the first row and on the clypeus are long reddish hairs, and

white hairs with a yellow tinge cover the front faces of the

falces. The abdomen has a covering, of short reddish-gray

hairs with long white hairs scattered over it. Down the mid-

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

die is a herring-bone stripe of white, and a white band around

the base is continued on the sides to the middle point, where it

ends in a conspicuous somewhat triangular white spot. Fur¬

ther back, on each side, is a crescent-shaped white spot. The

legs are all hairy, especially the first pair, which has long black

and white hairs below. Their general color is dark, but the

metatarsi and tarsi of the first legs, as well as the distal ends

of the m/etatarsi and the whole of the tarsi of the third and

fourth, are lighter colored.

We have a single female from Mashonaland sent by Mr.

Guy A. K. Marshall. We have named the species for Mr. F.

Treleaven of Cape Town.

Hyllus moestus sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs. 5, 5a..

$. Length 14.3 mm. Legs 3412, first and second stoutest.

The color of the integument of the cephalothorax is bright

red on the sides, where there are alternating bands of black and

yellowish white hairs, and dark red on the upper surface, with

black spots around the eyes. Down the middle of the thoracic

part is a wide band of yellow hairs, and long yellow hairs cover

the clypeus, falces, and palpus. The front end of the abodmen

is streaked with black and yellow. Down the middle the color

of the integument is bright red, and on this band are four pairs

of oblique yellowish spots (the hinder ones uniting to form

chevrons), from the center of each of which there comes off a

long white bristle. The sides are black, each with four large

yellow spots. The legs are dark reddish-brown covered wdth

short black and yellow hairs and long whitish hairs. The

venter is of a uniform light brown color.

We have one female from Durban, sent by Mr. Quekett.

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 209

Ilyllus perspicuus sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs. 2-2b.

Length, $ 8-10*5 mm; $ 9-10.5 mm. Legs, <3 1342, first pair

plainly longest; $ 3412.

We have one very dark female from Durban in which the

markings are perfectly preserved. The cephalothorax is black

with narrow white bands around the lower sides, which do not

meet behind. There is a white bar just below each dorsal eye:,

and a median white band beginning between the dorsal eyes

and passing back for two-thirds the length of the throaeic part.

There is a white spot near the middle of the cephalic part, and

a white patch in front of each dorsal eye. Over the first row

of eyes are some grayish white hairs. The clypeus has whitish

hairs and under each lateral eye are three white lines alter¬

nating with dark lines. The abdomen is velvety black with a

white median spot at the front end and a pair of longitudinal

snow-white lines on the anterior part of the dorsum. Behind

this is a series of four white spots. In some lights the abdomen

shows green reflections. Each side has a short oblique white

line in front and a scalloped white band behind. The legs are

dark with longitudinal white lines.

Our other specimens, which are more or less rubbed, have the

black intermixed with dark reddish-brown. In the male the

white bars below the dorsal eye are continued and meet on the

thoracic part. The abdomen is dark brown, or black and has a

broken white band down the middle, which, in the females,

forms white chevrons alternating with black ones. The falces

are heavy, projecting, dark reddish-brown in color, with some

short white hairs. The palpus is dark, that of the female hav¬

ing a. bunch of white hairs at the tip.

Besides the female from Durban we have three specimens

from Mashonaland and two> from Zanzibar, the latter being the

larger.

14

210 Wisconsin A cademy of Sciences , Arts , and' Letters.

Hyllus natalii sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs. 4, 4a,

?. Length 12 mm. Legs 3412, all stout and rather -hairy.

The cephalothorax is reddish-brown with black spots around

the eyes. The sides are thinly clothed with whit© hairs and

there seems to have been a median white band on the thoracic

part. On the clypeus, falces and palpi are long whitish hairs.

The abdomen is black with a whitish band down the middle, on

which is a pattern in fine black lines. On each side, are three

yellowish- white spots. The legs are dark brown, with a good

many long white and black hairs. There are ridges of black

hairs under the tibia in the first and second. The venter is

black in the middle with a light band on each side.

The dark venter in natalii and the light venter in moestus

distinguish these two species from each other. In the female

of perspicuus the venter is light with a dark line down the mid¬

dle, and in Treleavenii it is covered with silvery hairs.

We have one female from Xatal, sent by Mr. Quekett,

Modunda aperta sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs. 9, 9a.

S. Length 6 mm. Legs 1342, first heavily thickened.

The quadrangle of the eyes is about one-fourth wider than

long, is a little wider behind than in front, and occupies only

two-fifths of the cephalothorax. In the type of this genus the

quadrangle occupies about half of the cephalothorax. The

cephalothorax is long, rather low, and very flat, the sides round¬

ing out slightly from in front backward and from above below.

The first row of eyes is straight, the eyes being close together,

the middle nearly three times as large as the lateral. The sec¬

ond row is a little nearer the first than the third. The third

row is a little narrower than the cephalothorax. The sternum

is attenuated in front. The anterior coxa? are separated by the

width of the labium, which is about as wide as long. The

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidcoe. 211

f aloes are thick, vertical and parallel, with small fangs, and have

a single conical tooth on the inferior margin.

This is a slender, brilliant species. The ground color1 is

black with iridescent reflections, and the markings are formed

of thick white scales wThich are also iridescent. The cephalic

part is covered with these scales and there is a central longitud¬

inal band on the thoracic part. A band in the middle of each

side extends from the lateral eye halfway through the1 thoracic

part. The abdomen, wdiich is narrow and tapering, has a cen¬

tral band throughout half its length, from the end of which a

bright pink and green iridescent band extends to the spinnerets.

On the sides are two or three parallel pairs of oblique white

bands, the ends of the first pair meeting the central band at an

angle, at the front end of the abdomen. On the sides of the

iridescent band which occupies the posterior half of the dorsum

are two pairs of transversely elongated spots, which are pure

white, without iridescence. The external spinnerets are long

and rather hairy. The clypeus has some long white hairs.

The palpi are covered with white scales above. The legs are

dark with mjany patches of white iridescent scales. In the

third and fourth pairs the tarsi are pure white tipped with

black. The first leg has the femur, patella and tibia much

enlarged, and the patella, tibia and tarsus have a short fringe

of black and white hairs below. Under the tibia are three pairs

of stout spines, and under the metatarsus, two pairs. The third

and fourth pairs have some small spines, unlike the type of this

genus, M. phragmitis, in which these legs are unarmed.

We have two males and one female from Gazaland, Mashona-

land, sent by Mr. Marshall.

Pseudicius Braunsii sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs, 1, la.

S. $. Length 5 mm. Legs 1432, first much the stoutest in

both sexes, and longer in the male than in the female.

The cephalothorax is dark with a white marginal band which

crosses the clypeus. Above this, on the sides, are reddish hairs.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

There is a median longitudinal white band on the upper sur¬

face of both cephalic and thoracic parts. The abdomen has a

central white band, on each side of which are reddish brown

bands, and below these again, white bands. The legs are all

dark colored except the tarsi which are light. The first leg in

the female has the femur, patella and tibia very much enlarged,

with one or two short spines under the tibia. In the male there

is one spine on the tibia, and two pairs of spines under the meta¬

tarsus.

We have one male and one female from Willowmore, Cape

of Good Hope, sent to us by Dr. Brauns.

Pseudicius africanus sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs. 2, 2a.

Length 5.5 mm. Legs -432 . The first pair, which is

lacking, was probably the longest.

The cephalothorax is covered with white hairs. The abdo¬

men is also white with three pairs of large dark brown spots

which grow smjaller toward the posterior end. The legs are

light yellow.

We have one female from Cape Colony, sent to us by Dr.

Brauns.

Pseudicius bipunctatus sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs. 3, 3a.

$. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 4132, first pair stoutest.

The cephalothorax is low and flat, slightly wider in the tho¬

racic than in the cephalic part. The front eyes are all sepa¬

rated and form a row that is curved downward, the middle

being twice as large as; the lateral. The second row is about

halfway between the other two1, and the third row is as wide

as the cephalothorax. The tibia of the first leg has a, single

spine below. The metatarsus has two pairs and a lateral spine.

The tibia of the second is unarmed. The metatarsus of the

second has a row of two spines.

Peclcham— Spiders of the Family Attidae . 213

The cephalothorax is covered with mixed, white and rufus

hairs except two red hands, one on each side of the cephalic

part. There is a black line around the margin. The hairs

around the front eyes and on the clypeus are white. The ab¬

domen has indistinct, transverse bands of black alternating with

bands of mixed white and rufus hairs. Near the posterior end

is a large white spot on which is a dark crescent, and behind this

are two oblique! black spots each bearing a snow-white dot. The

legs arid palpi are pale brown ydth white hairs.

We have a single female from Willowmjore, Cape Colony,

sent by Dr. Brauns.

Sittacus designatus sp. nov.

Plate XXII, fig. 3.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 4312, first and second pairs stouter

than the others.

The cephalothorax is only moderately high and is rather

flat above, slanting off in front of the third row of eyes, and

behind the middle of the thoracic part. It is long and has

the sides nearly parallel, there being a slight widening from

front to back. The front eyes are a little separated and form a

curved row, the middle being less than twice as large as the

lateral. The second row is slightly nearer the third than the

first, and the third row is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax

at that place. The tibiae of the first and second legs have three

pairs of spines, and the metatarsi two pairs, without lateral

spines. The labium is as long as wide.

The cephalothorax is dark colored, and, in our single speci¬

men, is rubbed bare with the exception of the cephalic parti,

which seems to have been covered with bright red hairs. The

coloring of the abdomen is very rich. The central part of

the dorsum is black, with an intermixture of red hairs. A band

which crosses the anterior end and runs back on each side be¬

yond the middle, a slender central longitudinal line on the

anterior part, and a pair of spots at about the middle point of

the dorsum, are all light yellow edged with red, and on each

side of the spinnerets is a bright snow-white spot. The legs

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ihave the proximal joints dark brown, and the metatarsi and

tarsi lighter. The palpus has nearly all of the femur dark

brown, but the very end of this joint, and the patella,, tibia, and

tarsus, are light yellow. There are white hairs on all the j oints,

but on. the tarsus these are found only on the outer side, while

within, and at the end, there is a short fringe of black hairs.

The falees are parallel and moderately long and stout, dark

and glistening in color. The clypeus is rather wide, and slants

backward. The first row of eyes is slightly curved, the middle

being less than twice as large as the lateral.

We have one female from Willowmore, Cape of Good Hope,

sent to us by Dr. Brauns.

We put this, and the following species, into the genus Sitta,-

cus with some hesitation, since the inferior margin of the falx

is armed with a conical tooth.

Sittacus Uphami/i sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs. 1-lc.

Length, $ 5.5 mm; $ 7.5 mm. Legs, $ 1432, first pair much

the longest but scarcely stouter than the others; $ 4312, first

slightly stoutest-

The cephalothorax is rather high. The cephalic part is in¬

clined. The thoracic is nearly level for the first half, and

then slopes rather steeply. The sides round out rather widely

behind. The front, eyes form a straight row, the middle being

less than twice as large as the lateral. The second row is half

way between the others and the third row is nearly as, wide

as the cephalothorax at that place. The maxilla? are narrowed

and bluntly pointed on the outer edge. The labium! is a little

longer than wide. The tibiae of the first and second legs have

three pairs of spines below besides laterals, and the metatarsi

have two pairs and laterals.

So far as can be judged from our specimens the male has

a, dark cephalothorax with bright yellow or rufus hairs on the

sides and around the eyes and a longitudinal band of white

hairs down, the middle of the thoracic part. The abdomen is

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 215

of a light brown colon and has a series of dark brown chev¬

rons, not formed by hairs, on the posterior half, while the an¬

terior part has a dark region on each side, with a pale: central

band between. In one specimen these dark regions are reduced

to outlines, and two pairs of black dots appear in the middle.

On the sides the light ground color is. speckled with brown.

Over all is a sparse growth of rather long pale hairs. The

legs are light colored with a smioky brown tinge on the femur,

tibia and metatarsus of the first. The palpus is brown, with

light hairs. The clypeus has a border of short white hairs..

The f aloes are oblique and rather long, of a dark brown color,

with some whitish scales.

In the female the upper surface of the cephalothorax is cov¬

ered with brilliant golden-red hairs, and the sides with pale

yellow hairs. The central band is pale yellow, and is prolonged

on to the cephalic part in a, long point. The hairs, around the

eyes are yellowish- white. The abdomen has a. pale brown

ground color and is covered with a rather indistinct pattern of

bright red spots and white streaks, all formed of hairs, this

being, probably, the condition of the males also, when well

preserved, since the red spots follow the pattern of the dark

parts on the abdomen of the male, although the chevrons on

the posterior part are not distinct. The legs and palpi are

light brown. The fa Ices are vertical, and paler than in the

male. The hairs on the edge of the clypeus are long and white.

We have a male from Kalk Bay Mountains, Cape Peninsula,

collected by Mr. R. M. Lightfoot, a second male from Wynberg,

Cape Peninsula, collected by Mr. II. Beard, and a female from

Xewlands, Cape Peninsula, collected by Mr. W. F. Purcell.

Bianor rusticulus sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, fig. 12.

$. Length 6.3 mm. Legs 1432, all short, first plainly stout¬

est, second next.

The eyes of the first row are close together in a slightly curved

line, the middle being twice as large as the lateral. The see-

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ond row is plainly nearer the first than the third. The quad¬

rangle occupies three-fifths of the cephalothorax.

We have but one specimen, which is badly rubbed and has

the abdomen crushed. The body seems to have been, nearly

covered with hairs of a reddish golden color. The cephalotho¬

rax has a white line around the lower margin; The face pre¬

sents a rather striking appearance, since the golden hairs sur¬

round the eyes and form bands under the lateral eyes, while

the lower part of the clypeps is covered with long white hairs

which extend to the lower edges of the middle eyes, pass below

the yellow bands as far as the second row, and grow down over

the front faces of the falces. The palpus is brown covered with

white hairs, and the legs are dark brown.

The tibia of the first leg has three long spines on the anterior

side and two short ones on the posterior. The tibia of the sec¬

ond has a row of two spines. The metatarsi of the first and

second have two pairs.

We have a single female, collected by Mr. R. M. Lightfoot,

at Clanwilliam, Cape Colony.

Vallou gen. nov.

Plate XXIV, figs. 9-9 c.

The cephalothorax is high with the cephalic part plane and

inclined forward, while the thoracic drops abruptly from the

third row of eyes. Prom above, the cephalic part appears to

occupy nearly the whole cephalothorax. The sides are verti¬

cal, and are widest at the dorsal eye© and narrow in front,

the angle being rather sharp. The quadrangle of the eyes

occupies plainly more than half of the cephalothorax, is much

wider behind than in front, and at its widest point is from

one-fourth to one-third wider than long. The front eyes are

close together in a very slightly curved row, the middle being

twice as large as the lateral. The second row is a little nearer

the first than the third, and the dorsal eyes are placed on the

angles, forming a row as wide as the cephalothorax. The falces

are short and vertical. The sternum is pointed behind and

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 217

truncated in front. The anterior coxae are separated by more

than the width of the labium, which is wider than long and

half as long as the maxillae, which are short. The tibia of the

first leg has three pairs of long, stout spines. The tibia of the

second has a row of two or three spines. The metatarsi of the

first and second have two pairs of long spines.

This genus differs from Rhene and Homalattus in the an¬

gular sides of the cephalothorax, in having the first row of

eyes curved upward, the tibia, of the first leg longer than the

patella, and armed, and the metatarsus of the first leg longer

than the tarsus. We have two species from Cape Colony,

V. modest a, the type, and V. elegans.

Velloa modest a sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, figs. 9-9c.

$. Length 3.2 mm. Legs 1432, first much the stoutest, with

a brush of hairs under patella and tibia.

The cephalothorax seems to have been covered with short,

scale-like bronze hairs. There are a few white hairs on the

sides. The abdomen is rubbed. It is glabrous, of a bluish

color, and seems to have had a large white spot, at the base.

The first leg is dark excepting the metatarsus and tarsus, which

are light. There is a stout bunch of dark hairs under the pa¬

tella and tibia. The tibia, has a single row of three stout spines

below, and the metatarsus two pairs of spines. The other legs

have a longitudinal light streak on the upper surface of all the

joints excepting the metatarsus and tarsus, with a dark streak

on each side. The patellae and tibiae are also slightly darkened

at the ends.

We have one male from Kalk Bay, Cape Colony, collected by

Mr. Lightfoot.

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Velloa elegans sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, fig. 10.

$. Length 3.6 mm. Legs 1423, first much the stoutest, with

a fringe of black hairs under the fenrnr, patella and tibia.

Both cephaio thorax and abdomen seem1 to have been covered

with rosy, iridescent scales. The first leg has the first three

joints black and the metatarsus and tarsus yellow. There is

a short black fringe on the upper side of the tibia,, and a longer

one under the femur, tibia and patella. The tibia has a sin¬

gle row of three spines, and the metatarsus a. double row of

two spines below. In the other legs the femur is dark and the

other joints light.

We have one female from Retreat Flats, Cape Colony, col¬

lected by Mr. Purcell.

Homalattus Marshallii sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, fig. 6.

Length, 6. ?. 4 mm. Legs, $ 1423, $ 4132, first much the

stoutest in both sexes.

The whole spider is covered with yellowish hairs. The

first leg has a fringe of dark hairs under the tibia, where there

are also two spines. The1 metatarsus of the first leg has two

pairs of spines below, and is about as long the the tarsus.

The male is easily recognized by the tibia of the palpus, which

has a very long, blunt apophysis, on the sides and end of which

are long, dark brown hairs. The middle eyes of the first row

are subtouching, and the lateral are a little separated front

them. This row is straight.

We have a male and female from Mashonaland, sent to us

by Mr. Marshall.

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

219

HomalaUus similis sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, fig. 7.

?. Length 5 mm. Legs 4132, first pair stoutest, with a slight

fringe and two spines under the tibia.

This species is close to Marshallii , being covered with yellow¬

ish-white hairs, but around the eyes and on the clypeus the

hairs are bright red, and the middle eyes of the first row are

plainly separated from each other, while the lateral are widely

separated from them. This row is straight.

We have a single female from Mashonaland.

HomalaUus ohscurus sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, fig. 8.

$. Length 4 mm. Legs 4123, first pair stoutest.

The cepixalo thorax is black, and the abdomen, legs, palpi,

and falces, dark brown. The whole spider seems to have been

covered with white hairs, which grow thick on the upper part

of the falces and around the eyes. The metatarsus of the first

leg has two spines below, but the tibia has neither fringe nor

spine. The first row of eyes is slightly curved downward and

the lateral are well separated from the middle eyes.

We have a female from Burgvliet Flats, collected by Mr.

Purcell.

HomalaUus punctatus sp. nov.

Plate XXIV, figs. 5, 5 a.

9. Length 6-8 mm. Legs 4123, first pair very stout, with

black fringes.

The body and legs are of a. bright reddish-brown color, cov¬

ered with golden hairs. On the cephalothorax these hairs are

long and look as though they had been brushed upward and

forward. Just above the first row of eyes is a narrow line of

white hairs, but on the clypeus, and the front faces of the falces,

they are yellow. On the abdomen the golden hairs are shorter.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

There are three pairs of impressed dots down the middle, and

the whole surface is covered with small white spots, each with

a brown ring around it. These white spots are arranged in

six curved transverse hands, with a few extra ones in the mid¬

dle line. The legs and palpi are thickly covered with yellow

hairs. The metatarsi and tarsi of the first pair are black.

The first leg has the femur, tibia, and distal end of patella

thickened, while the proximal end of the patella is slender.

On the upper side of the femur is a, single fringe, which is

white at the proximal end and black further along; and unr

der the patella and tibia is a double fringe, yellow on the inner,

and black on the outer side. In some specimens the yellow hairs

on the legs and clypeus have a distinctly reddish tinge. The

first row of eyes is straight, with the lateral well separated from

the middle eyes.

We have five females from Durban, three sent by Mr. J. F.

Quekett, and tw'o by Mr. G*. F. Leigh.

Rhene Banksii P.

Plate XXIV, figs. 4-4b.

9. Length 4.5. Legs 1423, first plainly stoutest, with short

fringe of hairs on under side of patella and tibia.

The cephalothorax is a little wider than long, and slants

upward from the anterior eyes. The quadrangle is plainly

wider behind than in front, is much wider than long, and oc¬

cupies two-thirds of the cephalothorax. The anterior eyes form

a straight row, and are close together, the middle being less than

twice as large as the lateral. The second row is close to the

first. The sternum is widest in the miiddle, pointed behind,

and truncated in front. The anterior coxse are separated by

barely the width of the labium, which is longer than wide. The

falces are short, vertical and parallel.

The cephalothorax is dark with two white spots on the ceph¬

alic plate just in front of the dorsal eyes, and a curved white

band on the front part. There is a white longitudinal line on

the middle of the thoracic part, and a good many white hairs

are seen on the sides. The abdomen is dark, with six white

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 221

dots forming a curved line around the anterior end, and a transr

verse line of white dots in front of the middle of the dorsum.

Near the posterior end is a large central white spot, from which

a curved white line runs down on each side. There are some

scattered white hairs on the* clypeus. The first leg is dark with

a short dark fringe under the patella and tibia, and a white spot

at the distal end of the femur. The other legs have; white

rings at the ends of the joints, and are dark colored, exceptr

ing the tarsi and the proximal halves of the metatarsi, which

are light.

This species is named for Mr. Nathan Banks. We have a

single male from Cape Town, sent by Dr. Brauns.

Phene higuUata sp. nov.

Plate XXIY, figs. 3-3c.

A brown species with two white spots on the posterior part

of the abdomen.

$. Length 5.3 mm. Legs 1423, first pair much the stoutest.

The cephalothorax and abdomen are of a dark reddish-brown

color. A small plate, on the front upper cephalic part, has the

integument roughened by punctate indentations. This plate

shows most distinctly under alcohol. There is a narrow line

of white hairs above the first row of eyes, the sides are covered

with white hairs, and a central white line runs up on the tho¬

racic part between the dorsal eyes. The abdomen has whitish

hairs around the front end. There are four indented dots on

the dorsum, in front- of the middle, and toward the posterior

end are two large, round, snow-white spots, well separated from

each other. The clypeus is brown, and is two-thirds as wide

as the middle eyes of the first row. The falces are longer than

the face, stout, and brown in color. The palpi are very dark

brown. The first leg has the joints mluch thickened, especially

the tibia and patella, which have, underneath, a long fringe

of black hairs. This leg is very dark, especially toward the

end. The other legs are reddish brown with rings of white

hairs at the joints.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

It may bei that this specimen has lost, by rubbing, hairs which

would form other marks upon cephalothorax and abdomen.

W e have one male:, sent by Mr. Leigh, from Durban.

Jasoda P. 1902.

Plate XXVI, figs. 10, 10a.

The cephalothorax is high, with the sides nearly vertical and

not far from parallel, although there is a slight swelling at the

dorsal eyes, beyond which there is a very gradual contraction

toward the posterior end. The cephalic part is a, little inclined

forward and the thoracic rounds off directly behind the dor¬

sal eyes, falling more steeply after the first half. The quad¬

rangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax, is

nearly twice as wide as long, and is a very little wider behind

than in front. The first row is curved downward, the eyes

being small, and all separated, the1 lateral by nearly their diam¬

eter from the middle. The middle eyes are less than twice

as large as the lateral. The second row is a little nearer the

first than the third, and the third is nearly as wide as the cepha¬

lothorax. The falces are vertical, long, heavy, and parallel,

with a short fang. There is one conical tooth on the inferior

margin. The sternum is oblong, narrowing in front and be¬

hind and truncated in front. The first coxae are separated by

about the width of the labium, which is longer than wide.

In the type species the inferior spines on the tibia of the

first leg are 3-2, on the tibia of the second, 3-1, and on the

metatarsi of the first and second, 2-2. All four joints have

lateral spines.

The eyes of this genus resemble those of Euryattus and

Simaetha , but these genera belong respectively to the Pluri-

dentati and the Dissident ati. Moreover, the joints of the pal¬

pus are differently formed and proportioned, being flattened,

with the tibia much longer than the tarsus, in Euryattus and

Simaetha .

The type is a new species from Mashonaland.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 223

Jasoda Woodii P.

Plate XXVI, %s. 10-10b.

$. Length 7 mm. Legs 1342, not slender, nearly equal in

thickness.

In onr single specimen the cephalothorax and abdomen are

both rubbed so that no idea of the markings can be formed.

The cephalothorax is dark, almost black, with violet reflections.

The abdomen is also dark but not glistening, and shows some

long white hairs at the anterior end and on the sides. There

are some long whitish hairs on the falees at the lower outer cor¬

ner. The legs are light brown with slender black spines. The

palpi are covered with white hairs.

We have one male sent to us by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall,

from Mashonaland, South Africa. The species is named for

Mr. J. Wood, who has collected Attidae at East London, Cape

Colony.

Key to Species of Thyene Found in South Africa.

MALES.

. / Abdomen marked with longitudinal bands . . 2

\ Abdomen marked with transverse bands . . natalii

o ( Cephalic part swollen in front, but not widely. ..... 3

( Cephalic part widely swollen in front . . bucculentum

o J Lower margin of falx with a single conical tooth. ... 4

\ Lower margin of falx with a compound tooth . . crudelis

a ( Tube of the palpus not notched . . 5

\ Tube of the palpus distinctly notched in front . australis

g ( Median abdominal band edged with red ........ _ Ogdenii

( Median abdominal band not edged with red . L< ighii

Ogdenii , Leighii , crudelis and australis are easily distinguished by

the mouth parts, or by the apophyses on the palpi.

FEMALES.

a ( Abdomen marked with longitudinal bands . . . 2

( Abdomen marked with transverse bands . . natalii

2 J Femur I with transverse striae. .................... 3

l Femur I without transverse striae. _ ............. bucculentum

^ ( Legs 1342 . . . . . . pule hr a

Legs 34 12

Ogdenii

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts } and Letters.

Thyene Ogdenii sp. nov.

Plate XXV, figs. 2-2 d.

Length, 3 7 mm, ? 8 mm. Legs, 3 1342, ? 3412, first and

second pairs stoutest.

The quadrangle of the eyes is wider behind than in front

and the middle eyes of the first row are fully twice as large

as the lateral, which are separated from them. This row is

straight. The third row is narrower than the cephalothorax.

In the male the cephalothorax is brown with a transverse

patch of yellowish hairs just above the eyes of the first row.

These eyes are surrounded by reddish hairs.. There is also,

just below the lateral eyes, on the sides, a narrow band of yel¬

lowish hairs., and a median longitudinal band of the same

color passes backward from between the dorsal eyes., but does

not reach the lower border. There * are bunches of scattered

hairs just behind the lateral eyes. The first legs are darker

in some specimens than, in others, varying from yellowish-brown

to blackish-yellow. The femur is light above, and dark below,

with transverse dark bands in front. The tarsi are lighter than

the other joints. The second leg is lighter colored than the

first, the femur being light above and dark below, and the rest

light yellow. The other legs are yellow. In some specimens

the tarsi and metatarsi of the three posterior pairs are white.

The abdomen has the sides brown, deeper in front than behind.

There is a median longitudinal yellowish-golden band — the an¬

terior half being more yellowish, and the posterior more golden.

On either side of this band is a narrow reddish line. In the

posterior half, in the reddish line, are three pairs of small white

spots. So<m|e specimens have the brown color on the sides

tending to break up into large spots. Low down on the pos¬

terior sides are some oblique white bands. The falces are dark

brown, moderately long and stout, and slightly projecting.

In the female, of which we have only rubbed specimens, the

cephalothorax is yellow. Above the first row of eyes, the

whole cephalic plate seems to have been covered with golden-

yellow hairs, the first eyes being surrounded by lighter yellow

225

PecJcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

hairs. There are narrow bands of red hairs on each side, be-

]ow the eyes, and some scattering long black hairs behind the

anterior lateral eyes. The abdomen is yellow marked with a

number of small black spots. There is a yellowish golden,

median longitudinal band, on either side of which are red

bands. Just above the spinnerets the two bands unite. In

the posterior half, in the red hands, are three or four pairs

of white spots. In some specimens the red bands are absent.

The legs are yellow, the1 femjur of the first having transverse

dark striae in front.

This species is nearest Leighii , from which it is distinguished

by the following points : Ogdenii is a smaller and lighter col¬

ored species with the relative length of the legs 1342 instead

of 1324; in Ogdenii the spines under the tibia of the first are

placed, along the length of the joint, at nearly equal distances,

while in Leighii the two at the proximal end (one on the an¬

terior and one on the posterior face), are much more widely

separated from those at the distal end than these are from

each other, those at the distal end being also separated from

each other by unequal distances. Both species have two small

lateral spines on the tibia of the second.

We have this species from Mashonaland (Mr. Marshall),

Durban (Mr. Quekett), and Algoa Bay (Dr. Brauns). It is

named for Dr. H. Y. Ogden, of Milwaukee.

Thyene Leighii sp1. nov.

Plate XXY, figs. 1-lc.

This species has a light and a dark variety, and varies con¬

siderably in size.

$. Length 9.5 mm. Legs 1324, first pair stoutest, second

next.

The quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the Cephas

lothorax and is equally wide in front and behind. The front

eyes are a little separated and form a straight row, the mid¬

dle being twice as large as the lateral. The second row is

plainly nearer the first than the third, and the third is much

narrower than the cephalothorax.

15

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The lephalothorax is dark brown with a patch of white hairs

above the first row of eyes. A white band runs along the

upper side of the lateral eye of the first row, and below and be¬

hind the dorsal eye, and a patch of white on the thoracic part

extends only halfway down the slope. When not rubbed the

cephalothorax has reddish hairs around the white spots and

around the eyes. The abdomen on the sides is dark, or is pale

brown with black hairs. In the middle of the first half is

a white band, and behind this is a metallic brown band with

three or four small white spots on each edge. When the ab¬

domen is looked at from the side a curved white band is seen,

which starts low down at about the middle point and runs back¬

ward and downward to the end of the venter. The legs and

palpi are brown, the front face of the femur of the first leg

being marked with dark, transverse striae, which are faintly

repeated on the femur of the second. The falces project and

are short and broad, of a dark brown, somewhat iridescent color,

and thinly covered with short white hairs. The fangs are

strong. The spines on the tibia of the first leg are in two

rows, four in front and three behind (see drawing), or, in

some individuals, four in front and two behind. The tibia of

the second leg has the spines 3-3 or 3-2. The metatarsus

of the first has two pairs.

We have several mules from Durban. The species is named

for Mr. George F. Leigh of that city.

Thyene pulchra sp. nov.

Plate XXV, figs, 3, 3a.

A brilliant species with red, white and black markings.

$. Length 8 mm. Legs 1342, first and second pairs stoutest.

The general color of the integument is dark reddish-brown.

The cephalic plate is covered with red and white scales’, while

the thoracic part and the sides have streaks of black and white

hairs, with some red intermixed, running upward from the

margin. The front eyes have white hairs around the lower

half of their circumference and reddish hairs above. The mid¬

dle of the clypeus has long, bristly white hairs, and on each

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 227

side, under the lateral eyes, are three white streaks on a red

ground. The falces are dark brown with white scales on the

front faces. There are tufts of long black hairs behind the lat¬

eral eyes. The abdomen has the front end and the lower sides

covered with black hairs, more or less streaked with white.

The middle of the dorsumi, in front, is covered with a mixture

of white and red hairs, while behind is a short central white

band, with wide bands of rich red on each side, cut by two pairs

of white bars, edged with black. The red bands join behind

to form a red region above the spinnerets. The palpi are light

colored and are thickly covered with long white hairs. The

legs are brown or yellow, sometimes having dark spots. The

femoral joints in the first, second and third pairs are marked

with dark transverse striae on their front faces, and the first

and second legs have a good many white scales, besides thin

fringes underneath, which are white under the femora and

black under the patellae and tibiae. The tibia of the first leg

has three pairs of spines, and the metatarsus two pairs.

The quadrangle of the eyes is equally wide in front and

behind. The front eyes are in a slightly curved row with

the middle twice as large as the lateral, which are a little sepa¬

rated from them.

We have five females from Durban.

Thyene natalii sp. nov.

Plate XXV, figs. 4-4b.

$. Length 5-8 mm. Legs 1342, first plainly stoutest and

longest.

?. Length 7.5 mm. Legs 3412, first plainly stoutest, third

and fourth plainly longest.

The quadrangle of the eyes occupies about one-half of the

cephalothorax and has the sides nearly parallel. The anterior

eyes are close together in a straight row, the middle being twice

as large as the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the

first than the third, and the third is a little narrower than the

cephalothorax.

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

We have several specimens, but all of them are rubbed. The

cephalothorax, in the male, is dark brown on the cephalic plate

and in a wide band around the lower sides and back,

and has a light yellowish brown band around the upper sides

and across the anterior thoracic part,. The eye-region and the

anterior thoracic part seem to have been covered with gold

and silver iridescent scales, and the face is marked with three

lines of the same scales which run around below the lateral

eyes on to the thoracic part. There are rings of red hairs

around the middle eyes, and tufts of black hairs behind the lat¬

eral eves. The cephalothorax of the female is like that of the

male excepting that the color of the integument is light brown,

with some black spots on the eye region, and that, it lacks the

tufts. The abdomen in both sexes is marked with transverse

bands of bright red hairs and silvery iridescent scales. Under!

alcohol, somie black chevrons appear on the posterior part. In

the male the femur of the first leg is dark and glistening, the

tibia and patella are lighter, the metatarsus is light at the

proximal and dark at the distal end, and the tarsus is dark.

The femur of the second is light at the proximal and dark

at the distal end, and from this point the leg shades from dark

to light at the tip. The third and fourth legs are light. The

tibia of the first leg has seven inferior, serial spines, four in

front and three behind, and the metatarsus has two pairs. In

the female the legs are yellow, the femur of the first being

marked, on the front face, with dark strise, which are repeated,

with less distinctness, on the femur of the second. The tibia

of the first has four anterior and three posterior spines and

the metatarsus has two pairs. The falces are vertical, stout,

and rather long. They are dark colored in the male and yel¬

low in the female. The tube of the male palpus is much coiled.

We have one female and several males from Durban.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

229

Thyene crudelis sp. nov.

Plate XXV, figs. 5-5d.

$. Length 7.5 mm. Legs 1324, first pair stoutest, second

next.

The quadrangle of the eyes is plainly wider in front than

behind. The first row is curved, with the lateral separated1

from the middle eyes, which are scarcely twice as large. The

third row is much narrower than the cephalothorax.

The coloring is almost identical with that of Ogdenii. The

cephalothorax is dark brown with tufts of long black hairs be¬

hind the lateral eyes of the first row. There are yellowish-

white iridescent scales arranged in a band above the first row

of eyes, in bands along the upper sides, and in a large central

spot on the thoracic part. The abdomen is very dark on the

sides, with a central band on the anterior part made up of

whitish scales like those on the cephalothorax, and, behind this,

a dark green metallic band. The whole of this central region

is1 edged! with bright red, and in the red, on the posterior part,

are several pairs of white spots. The white curved lines on

the lower sides are like those in the other species. The falces

project slightly, and are broad and strong, with a stout com¬

pound tooth below. They are dark brown, and have white iri¬

descent scales and long white hairs on the front faces toward

the inner sides. The legs are of a medium] brown color, the

first pair scarcely darker than the others, the femoral joints

of the first and second with dark transverse stria? in front.

The tibia of the first has, underneath, four spines on one side

and three on the other, placed at nearly equal distances, more

like those of Ogdenii than of Leighii. The metatarsus has two

pairs. The maxilhe differ in shape from those of the other'

species (see drawing), and are light brown with the inner upper

edges white. The palpi are light brown with white iridescent

scales on the femur and tibia.

We have two males from Durban.

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters. ;

Thyene australis sp. nov.

Plate XXV, fig. 6.

$. Length 6.5 mm. Legs 1342, first pair stoutest and dark¬

est, second next.

The quadrangle of the eyes occupies nearly one-half of the

eephalothorax and is a, little wider behind than in front. The

front lateral eyes are a little separated from the middle eyes,

and with them form a curved row, the middle being scarcely

twice as large as the lateral. The third row of eyes is much

narrower than the eephalothorax.

The eephalothorax is dark brown with yellowish-white hairs

in a band above the first row of eyes, in a central spot on the

thoracic part., and in bands along the upper sides. There are

red rings around the front eyes. The abdomen has a, central

band which is covered with yellowish-white hairs in front and

is brown and metallic behind. This band is edged with red,

and in this color, in the posterior half, are several pairs of white

dots. The sides are dark, almost black, where they meet the red

bands, and have curved white bands low down behind. The

palpi are dark brown. The falces are stout, slightly project¬

ing, and iridescent brown in color, with some white hairs in

front. The first legs are dark brown, the others yellow. The

front face of the femur, in the first and second pairs, is black,

'without striae. The tibia of the first has, below, three spines

behind, and four in front, placed at nearly equal distances;

the tibia of the second has two in front and three behind.

The metatarsi have two pairs. The venter is dark, the coxae

are yellow, and the maxillae brown with white on the inner

front edges.

We have a single male from Algoa Bay.

Klamathia gen. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs. 4-4c.

The eephalothorax is high and not very convex, highest at

the dorsal eyes, from which point it slopes a very little for¬

ward, and more decidedly, but still gradually, backward, the

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Atiidae. 231

fall becoming steeper after the first half of the thoracic part.

The narrowest point is in front, the sides spreading out widely

to the middle of the thoracic part, so that the cephalothorax has

a rounded appearance. The quadrangle of the eyes is nearly

twice as wide as long, is wider behind than in front, and oc¬

cupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front eyes are

moderately large and form a straight row. The middle eyes

are close together and are twice as large as the lateral, which

are separated from them. The second row is slightly nearer

the first than the third, and the third row is plainly narrower

than the cephalothorax. The sternum is round. The anterior

^ coxae are separated by the width of the labium which is longer

than wide. The falces are strong and are rounded out in front.

All tiie legs are spined. The first pair has, besides lateral

spines, three pairs under the tibia, and two pairs under the meta¬

tarsus.

Klamathia is most, nearly related to Thyene, but differs from

that genus in having the quadrangle of the eyes nearly twice as

wide as long.

Klamathia ftava sp. nov.

Plate XXYI, figs. 4-4d.

$. Length 8 mm. Legs 1342, second, third and fourth not

differing much in length ; first pair stoutest.

This is a yellow species with black spines., black spots around

the eyes, and four indented dots on the abdomen.

The body, legs, palpi and falces are yellow or yellowish-

brown. Our specimens are rubbed nearly bare but there re¬

main. thick white hairs on the clypeus and around all the eyes,

while above the eyes, both in front and on the sides, there are

bright red hairs. There is a white line around the lower mar¬

gin of the cephalothorax. The abdomen and legs have a thin

scattering of black and white hairs. The palpus has some

rather long white hairs. The falces are stout and bulge out

in front ; they have a single tooth on the lower margin. On the

inner and lower edges are long white hairs.

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The first, leg has, besides lateral spines, three pairs under the

tibia, and two under the metatarsus, this latter joint having

no lateral spines. The tibia of the second has two pairs below,

besides a single spine near the proximal end, and lateral spines.

The metatarsus has two pairs and lateral spines.

We have several males from Durban.

Viciria morigera sp. nov.

Plate XXYI, figs. 6-6b.

$. Length 9 mm. Legs 3421, first and second pairs stoutest.

This is a light colored species, ornamented with red and

white bands.

The cephalothorax is light yellowish-brown. The hairs on

the eye-region form a, white ground with a bright red V in the

middle, the apex being between the large eyes of the first row,

and a red band on each side. The hairs around the eyes of

the first row are bright red. The middle of the clypeus is

white, hut from under the lateral eyes three bands, a red be¬

tween two white ones, pass backward below' the side eyes and

curve upward over the thoracic part. The white bands meet,

but the red ones end in two large dark spots within and be¬

hind the dorsal eyes. On the lower sides are some scanty black

and white hairs. The striking and handsome appearance pro¬

duced by the bands is so unlike anything found in other South

African species of Viciria as to easily distinguish morigera.

The abdomen, in our specimens, is rubbed, hut the marking

seems to have been two transverse curved bands and a median

longitudinal band, all red, on a ground of white hairs. The

falces are light brown. The legs are yellow, with black hairs

and long spines. The tibiae of the first and second have, bed¬

sides lateral spines, four pairs below, and of these, the two

spines nearest the proximal end are double, two coming out

from the same point of insertion. The inner spine next in

order is also double, although its mate on the other side is

single. This peculiarity marks off morigera from V. alba ,

V. flavipes, V. parm.ata and V. niveimana, all of which have

three pairs of ordinary spines under the tibia of the first. The

Pechham— -Spiders of the Family Attidae. 233

metatarsus of the first has two pairs of inferior, and two pairs

of lateral spines. On the third and fourth legs the spines are

numerous hut irregular. The palpi are yellow with white

hairs. The under surface of the body is pale yellow with a

dark central streak on the venter, and brownish mouth-parts.

We have two females from Durban.

Viciria flaw ipes sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, fig. 7.

This is a yellow species with a red V on the cephalic plate

and pink iridescent scales on the abdomen.

$. Length 8.2 mm. Legs 3142, nearly equal in thickness.

There are white hairs on the cephalic plate which contrast

with a red V which has its apex between the middle eyes of

the first row7, and a red band on each side, passing from between

the lateral and middle eyes back around the small eye of the

second row, and below it on to the side. There is also a small

red spot in front of each dorsal eye. The sides and thoracic

part seem to have been covered with white hairs. The abdo¬

men has a white band across the front end, and behind this

a transverse band of pink iridescent scales. From this a

median band of light brown metallic scales, growing darker

as it goes backward, and edged with wdiite in the posterior

part, passes to the spinnerets. On either side are alternate

bands of white hairs and light brown metallic scales. The cly-

peus is covered with white hairs. The legs are yellow with

dark punctate dots and brown spines. On the tibia of the first

are inferior and lateral spines, the former being sometimes

slightly irregular, and sometimes arranged in three pairs. The

tibia of the second has three on the posterior and two on the

anterior side, with lateral spines. The metatarsi of the first

and second have two pairs. The palpi are white, the falces

yellow7. The under surface is yellow7 with a broad sooty-black

band throughout the length of the venter. Flavipes resembles

morigera but the double spines of that species serve to distin¬

guish it.

We have females from Durban and Willowmore.

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Viciria alba sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, fig. 8.

A rather large, pale species.

$. Length 10.3 mm. Legs 3124, nearly equal in length, first

and second pairs slightly stouter than the others.

The eephalothorax, with the exception of the eye region, is

smooth and pale. The region enclosed by the eyes is covered

with light, silky, iridescent hairs, and is surrounded by a ring

of beautiful red spots which are placed around and between the

eyes, two of them appearing between the eyes of the third row.

The abdomen, in our specimen, has been rubbed, and shows

a pale, smooth surface, covered with reticulating dark lines,

and some patches of silky hairs like those on the eye region.

Just in front of the spinnerets there is a dark spot. The venter,

which is pale with reticulating lines., shows a similar dark spot

at the posterior end. The sternum is yellow. The mouth-

parts are white, tipped with black. The falces are large, long

and vertical, and are pale, with, reddish fangs. The legs are

white tipped with black and have many black spines, the tibia

of the first and second having three, and the metatarsi two pairs

without lateral spines. The palpi are white with dark specks

and long white hairs.

We have one female from Salisbury, Mashonaland, sent by

Mr. Marshall.

Viciria par mat a sp. nov.

Plate XXVI, figs. 5, 5a,

$. Length 9.5 mm. Legs 1234, first and second pairs plainly

stoutest, and third pair stouter than fourth.

This is a dark species with white markings. The legs are

dark and hairy excepting the metatarsi and tarsi which are yel¬

low.

In one of our specimens the third and fourth pairs of legs

are light, and the abdomen is pale brown with a black band

around the front end, but as a usual thing the body, legs and

Peckhamr— Spiders of the Family Attidae. 235

palpi are dark brown or black. So far as we can judge of the

markings, the upper surface of the cephalic plate is dark with a

central white band, while bright red hairs surround the eyes.

The sides have wide black bands at the lower margin, and,

above these, wide white bands which curve up on to the thoracic

part. The abdomen has a median longitudinal band of silvery

metallic scales', which become iridescent in the posterior half.

The legs of the first pair have, on the patella and tibia, moder¬

ately long black fringes above and below, and the first and sec¬

ond legs have the femur iridescent. The third and fourth legs

are more brownish than the first and second, and all four pairs

have the metatarsi and tarsi yellow or white. The f aloes pro¬

ject a little, and are long and strong. They are black, with

slight iridescence, and have some long white hairs on the inner

sides, and a bunch of white hairs opposite the fang. The cly-

peus has a few long white hairs.

In the light brown variety the coxae and trochanters grow

pale from the first to the fourth pair, while in the dark variety

these joints are black.

We have several males from Durban.

Pellenes rufoclypeata sp. nov.

Plate XXVII, figs, 1, la.

In this species the high clypeus is red.

$. Length 4.9 mm. Legs 1342, first and second stoutest.

The cephalothorax is high and convex, rounding off in both

directions from the dorsal eyes. It is a little the widest in the

middle of the thoracic part. The quadrangle of the eyes is

about equally wide in front and behind. The front middle

eyes are close together, the lateral being more than half as large

and a little separated from them. This row is slightly bent.

The second row is about halfway between the others, and the

third row is nearly as wide as the cephalothorax. The falces

are moderately long and strong, with one tooth on the inferior

margin. The sternum is rounded and truncated in front.

The anterior coxae are separated by more than the width of the

labium, which is as wide as long.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters *

The ground color of the cephalothorax is brown, darker in

the thoracic than in the cephalic part. From the hairs that are

left on our specimen the upper surface and sides must have

been covered with white and bright red hairs, and there are

two white bars on the thoracic part. Around the front eyes,

and covering the high clypeus are short hairs of a crimson

color, quite different from that of the red on the back of the

spider, which has a shade of yellow.. The abdomen is paler

than the cephalothorax and is more or less mottled with black*

It seems to have been covered with red and white hairs, but

with the exception of a white band around the front end and

three white bars on the sides, the pattern is indistinguishable.

The palpus is dark with a spot of white hairs on the tibia and

one on the patella. The first and second legs are dark brown

with slight black fringes under the tibiae. The third and

fourth legs are light brown, barred with dark.

We have one male from Durban, sent by Mr. Leigh.

Pellenes Beami sp. nov.

Plate XXVII, figs. 2— 2c.

Length, 6 $ 4.5 mm. Legs, 1342, first much the stoutest.

The cephalothorax is moderately high, the cephalic and thor¬

acic parts being nearly on the same plane, the cephalic part

slanting forward a little, while the thoracic falls very slightly

in the first half, and then abruptly. It is a little narrower in

front than behind, the sides being parallel in the middle. The

quadrangle of the eyes occupies about two-fifths of the length,

is one-third wider than long, and wider behind than in front.

The anterior eyes are all subtouching, and form a straight row,

the middle being twice as large as the lateral. The second row

is halfway between the other two, and the third is as wide as

the cephalothorax at that place. The falces are short, vertical

and parallel, with a short fang and one tooth on the lower mar¬

gin. The sternum is oval, and truncated in front. The coxse

of the first legs are separated by the width of the labium, which

is as wide as long.

In the male the cephalothorax has a dark ground color. A

Peckham* — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 237

white hand crosses the clypeus, just above the f aloes, and wid¬

ening as it goes backward, extends around the lower margin.

A second white band passes along the upper sides of the ceph¬

alic part, just below the eyes, and crosses the upper surface be¬

hind the dorsal eyes. On the cephalic plate is a white region

which is wide over the first row of eyes, and narrows to a point,

between the dorsal eyes. On the front faces of the falces are

two or three fine lines of white hairs. The abdomen is of a

dark reddish-brown color with three curved transverse white

bands across the dorsum. Behind the second band is a central

white spot, and a central longitudinal white line connects the

third band with the spinnerets. The sides are streaked with

yellowish-white hairs, which are also found on the venter and

sternum. The palpus has the femur, patella and tibia covered

with white hairs, while the tarsus is dark. The legs of the

first pair, which are much stouter than the others, have the fe¬

mur, patella and most of the tibia light yellowish-brown, while

the extreme end of the tibia, the metatarsus and the tarsus are

darker colored. There is a light fringe of white hairs running

along the under face of the femur and the inner face of the

patella and part of the tibia, black hairs being intermixed on

these latter joints, and there is a short fringe of light and dark

hairs on the upper edges of the patella and tibia. The other

legs are dark brown with sparse short white hairs.

In the female the ground color is darker, the cephalic region

has the sides entirely covered with white hairs, and the shape

of the white region on the cephalic plate, is reversed, since it

begins in a point between the anterior middle eyes and has its

broad end in front of the dorsal eyes. The sides of the abdo¬

men are white. In other respects it resembles the male.

We have one male and one female from Algoa Bay, South

Africa, sent to us by Dr. Brauns.

Habrocestum.

We have four new species of Habrocestum from South Af-

rica2 dotatum from Mashonaland, luculentum from Cape Col¬

ony, Laurae and Annae from Durban. They all have the

mouth-parts small, and the labium as wide as long; and in all,

the quadrangle of the eyes is a little wider in front than behind.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Habrocestum Lauras sp. nov.

Plate XXVII, figs. 5, 5a.

9. Length 5.1 mm. Legs 3412, about equal in thickness.

The first row of eyes is curved upward, the middle eyes be¬

ing nearly twice as large as the lateral, which are separated

from them. The second row is halfway between the other two.

The sternum is oval and not much longer than wide.

The cephalothorax and abdomen are thickly covered with a

mixture of short white, red and black hairs, the markings being

formed by a concentration of one or another of the colors. On

the cephalothorax, between the dorsal eyes, are two white spots,

close together, and just in front of these, two more, which are

a little separated. The abdomen has fine black points on the

base and sides, a white spot edged with black on the middle of

the dorsum, and back of this two curved dark bands, like a par

renthesis. There are white rings around the eyes, and long

snow-white hairs on the wide clypeus. The falces, which are

moderately long and stout, are brown with a few white hairs.

The palpi are pale with white hairs. The legs, with the ex¬

ception of the proximal ends, which are pale and hairless, are

rather dark, and are covered with hairs like those on the body.

We have two females from! Durban.

Habrocestum Annas sp. nov.

Plate XXVII, figs. 4, 4a.

9. Length 6 mm. Legs 3412, first and second a little stout¬

est.

The first row of eyes is straight with the middle eyes less

than twice as large as the lateral, which are scarcely separated

from them. The second row is nearer the first than the third.

The sternum is oval and long.

The cephalothorax is covered with a mixture of red and white

hairs, the white predominating on the sides and the red above.

On the upper sides, just below the eyes, these hairs form two

short longitudinal white bands, with red between. The face

Peclcliam — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 239

has, below the lateral eyes, four white lines on a dark back¬

ground, the lower two of which cross the wide clypeus. These

lines pass around, on the sides, to a point just behind the lat¬

eral eyes. The falces are rather short and stout, brown in

color, with some long white hairs. The abdomen is also cov¬

ered with white and red hairs, the front end being whitish.

Two slender white lines run back, on the dorsum], to the middle

point, and behind this is a series of lighter and darker chevrons.

On each side are two curved white bands. The palpi are brown

with white hairs. The legs have the proximal ends pale, but

are otherwise brown with a good covering of white and red

hairs.

We have two females from Durban.

Hahro cesium dotatum sp. nov.

Plate XXVII, figs. 6, 6f.

Length, £ 6.5 mm., $ 7 mm. Legs, $ 1342, $ 3412; first and

second stoutest.

The sternum is oval in the female, round in the male. The

falces are long and rather stout. The first row of eyes is curved

downward, with the middle twice as large as the lateral in the

male, and nearly twice in the female. The lateral are a little

separated from the middle eyes. The second row is nearer the

first than the third.

The male is brown, much darker than the female. The eye-

region is covered with dull golden hairs. On the thoracic part

are some patches of yellow hairs and six white spots, one under

each dorsal eye, a smaller one further back, and two behind,,

on the thoracic slope. There are bristly white hairs on the cly¬

peus and also on the falces, particularly running down the

outer sides. Under the lateral eyes are short white hairs

marked by two dark lines. The abdomen is black on each side,

above, with white hairs at the base and in a central band, the

latter being edged with yellow. It is crossed by a curved yel¬

low band, behind the middle. The sides are covered with yel¬

low hairs, and have three oblique snow-white spots. The legs

are dark brown with black hairs underneath. Above there are

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

patches of short yellow hairs, and spots of pure white hairs at

the proximal ends of the joints. On the tarsi of the first and

second legs these white hairs grow upon a yellow ring. The

palpus has some white hairs, hut many more black ones. The

venter is pale, with a dark line down the middle, and dark sides.

In the female the eye-region is covered with dull golden

hairs. On the sides and thoracic part streaks of yellow and

black hairs run upward from the margin. The middle of the

clypeus, the falces and the palpi are covered with bristly white

"hairs, the falces having also some short black bristles. Under

the lateral eyes, running backward, are alternate lines of white

and yellow hairs, very characteristic and striking in appear¬

ance. The abdomen is mottled with black and yellowish hairs,

there being a darkening of color on each side of the middle.

The sides are marked with three oblique white bands.

Under alcohol the abdomen has a light colored longitudinal

band, of irregular outline, down the middle, and mottled black¬

ish bands, which are more or less broken into large spots, on

the sides. In the posterior third a curved yellow line comes

up over each side and runs into the central band, which, be¬

hind this point, is broken into two or three chevrons by the

crossing of dark lines. Just above the spinnerets is a large

dark spot. Below the dark side bands the abdomen is light

colored. The venter is light with three fine longitudinal dark

lines. The palpi are light, with long light hairs, and two small

dark spots on the dorsal face. The legs are yellowish-brown

with a few dark spots. Under the tibiae of the first and sec¬

ond are three pairs of spines, and under the metatarsi, two

pairs. The third and ‘fourth legs have strong spines., not in

pairs.

We have one male and several females from Mashonaland,

received from Mr. Workman, and Mr. Marshall.

Pechham — Sliders of the Family Attidae.

241

Habrocesfu'm luculentum sp. nov.

Plat© XXVII, figs. 3, 3a.

$. Length 3.5 mm. Legs 3142, first pair stoutest, third much

the longest.

This is a small species with the cephalothorax longer than

the abdomen. The first row of eyes is a little curved upward,

the middle eyes being less than twice as large as the lateral,

which are close to them. The second row is nearer the third

than the first. The sternum is small and almost round. The

clypeus is wide.

The integument is black. The eye-region is covered with

reddish hairs, excepting a wide white central spot which runs

forward between the large eyes of the first row. The thoracic

part, in our specimen, is rubbed bare. The abdomen is also

somewhat rubbed, but seems to have, had the back covered with

reddish hairs, a white band around the base and sides, and a

wide transverse white band a little way in front, of the spinnerets.

The front faces of the first and second legs are black. The legs

are otherwise brown, and seem to have been well covered with

short white and red hairs. The palpi are entirely covered with

long, snow-white hairs. The falces are short and weak, and

brown in color.

We have one male from Cape Colony.

Langona avara sp. nov.

Plate XXVIII, figs. 5, 5a.

$. Length 5 mm. Legs 3412, almost equal in thickness.

The cephalothorax is long and rather narrow in front. The

front row of eyes is plainly curved, the second row is nearer

the third than the first, and the third is nearly as wide as the

cephalothorax. Our specimen is damaged so that we cannot

be sure of the color. The whole spider is black with a covering

of mixed white and red hairs on the cephalothorax and three

longitudinal bands of the same hairs on the abdomen, one cen¬

tral, which in our specimen is interrupted, perhaps from the

16

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

rubbing away of hairs, and the others low on the sides. The

face view is very striking. The four anterior eyes, instead of

being of the usual dull, opaque hue, are bright, emerald green

in a setting of pale red hairs, which surround them and cover

the wide clypeus. Above the red hairs, forming a sort of eye¬

brow, is a projecting ridge of stiff black hairs. The legs are

light brown, with black and white hairs and pale spines. The

palpi are covered with light brownish hairs. The falces are

weak and pale.

We have one male front Manica Mts., Mashonaland, sent by

Mr. Marshall.

Phlegra imperiosa sp. nov.

Plate XXIII, figs 7, 7a.

$. Length 5.8 mm. Legs 4312, first pair stoutest, second

next. Fourth longer than third by metatarsus and tarsus.

Tibiae of first and second with three inferior spines and one

lateral ; metatarsi with two pairs below.

This is a brown species, the cephalothorax being a little

darker in color than the abdomen and legs.

The quadrangle of the eyes is very short, occupying scarcely

one- third of the cephalo thorax. The anterior eyes are sub¬

touching, in a curved row, the middle being less than twice as

large as the lateral. The second row is plainly nearer the first

than the third. The third row is nearly as wide as the ceph-

a.lothorax at that place, the eyes being large and promi¬

nent, The cephalothorax, abdomen, and legs are covered with

a mixture of red, black, and white hairs, giving a uniform

bright brown tint. Around the lower edge of the cephalothorax

is a white line edged with black, and on the clypeus the hairs

are white. The under parts are brown, the labium1 and m, ax¬

illae being tipped with white. The small, retreating falces are

brown.

We have two females from Robben Island, Table Bay, Cape

Peninsula, collected by Mr. R. M. Lightfoot.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

243

FISSIDENTATT.

Tusitala P. 1902.

Plate XVIII, fig's. 2-2b.

The cephalothorax is high, with the sides sloping outward

from the upper surface and widening in a gentle curve from

front to hack, the widest point being behind the dorsal eyes.

The cephalic part is inclined forward, and the thoracic rounds

off rather steeply from the third row of eyes. The quadrangle

occupies from two-fifths to nearly one-half of the cephalothorax,

is one-third wider than long and is wider behind than in front.

The first row of eyes is straight or a little curved down ; the eyes

are large, the middle being less than twice the size of the lat¬

eral and subtouching, while the lateral are well separated from

them. The second row is equally distant from, the first and

third or is a little nearer the first, and the third is narrower

than the cephalothorax. The falces are long, strong, and ver¬

tical, and are bowed, with a compound tooth on the inferior

margin. The males have a stiff ridge of hairs on the front

face. The sternum is oblong and truncated. The first coxa)

are separated by about the width of the labium', which is longer

than wide.

This genus is founded upon T. barbata and includes T. hir-

suta and T. Braunsii , both from South Africa.

Tusitala barbata P.

Plate XVIII, figs. 2-2d.

$. Length 6.5 mm. Legs 1432, about equal in thickness.

The first pair is plainly the longest but the others do not differ

much in length.

The cephalothorax is covered with a mixture of red, yellow

and white hairs, the red predominating on the sides, and the

white on the upper surface. The clypeus is less than half as

wide as the middle eyes of the first row, and is yellow with a

few white hairs. The falces are light brown, and have a re-

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

miarkable ornammt in the shape of a long ridge; of stiff hairs

down the front face. These hairs stand out stiffly, but their

tips curve inward to meet those of the opposite; side in the mid¬

dle line. Their color is snowy-white on the upper half and

deep black on the lower. The palpus is slender with long

joints, the tibia much exceeding the tarsus. The femur and

tarsus are dark colored, the patella and tibia, pale1. The legs

are brown with darker bars. The abdomen is covered with a

mixture of gray and brown hairs. There is a white band

around the base, and the posterior dorsum has some indistinct

white chevrons.

We have six males from Algoa Bay, South Africa., sent to

us by Dr. Brauns.

Tusitala hirsuta P.

Plate XXVIII, figs. 3, 3a.

$. Length 8 mm. Legs 1234, first and second a little the

stoutest.

In our single specimen the cephalothorax is much darker

than the abdomen but both are rubbed quite bare of m'arkings

excepting some long white hairs at the front end of the abdo-

mjen. The clypeus is as wide as the large eyes of the first row,

and is brown with long white hairs. The falces are long and

strongly bowed, approaching each other at the extremities.

They have ridges of stiff hairs, as in T. barb at a, on the front

faces., which are light brown in color and grow longer and

thicker in the lower than in the upper half. The palpus is

long and slender, the tibia, being much longer than the tarsus.

The patella and tibia are much lighter in color than the femur

and tarsus. The legs are brown, the first and second pairs be¬

ing darker than the third and fourth.

We have one male from Zululand, given to us by Rev. Henry

C. McCook.

PecJcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

245

Tusitala Braunsii , P.

Syn. Monclova Braunsii P., 1902. Upon further study we

believe that Monclova P. should he included in the genus

Tusitala.

Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, Id.

$. Length 7 mm. Legs 4312, the third and fourth plainly

longer than the first and second.

The spider is covered with a mixture of white, black, and

bright rufus hairs, the different colors predominating on dif¬

ferent parts so as to form the markings. Thus the cephalic

plate is bright rufus and the middle line on the thoracic part

pure white, while the abdomen shows a white band around the

anterior end, and, on the posterior part of the dorsum, wide al¬

ternating transverse bands of rufus and black. These bands

are not parallel but run upward and forward from the sides.

The clypeus ' lias long white hairs, and these are continued,

rather sparsely, on to the falces. The legs are not conspicuous,

being of a light brown color with darker rings and white hairs.

The light brown palpus is covered with white hairs.

We have four females, sent by Dr. Brauns, from Cape Col¬

ony.

Tularosa gen. nov.

Plate XXVIII, figs 4-4c.

This genus belongs to the Fissidentati, as the inferior mar¬

gin of the falx bears a, compound tooth. The indentation on

one side, however, is sometimes more marked than on the other.

The species are of medium; size. The cephalothorax is

rather high, and, in the males, is so widely rounded as to make

the outline almost circular, while in the females it is plainly

longer than wide, and is widest in the thoracic part. The high¬

est point is at the dorsal eyes, the slope in the cephalic and in

the anterior thoracic parts being very slight. The quadrangle

of the eyes is one-third wider than long, is a little wider in front

than behind, and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax.

The front eyes are large, close together, and form' a straight

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

row, the middle eyes being twice as large as the lateral in the

males, and less than twice in the females. The second row is

halfway between the first and the third, or is nearer to the first.

The third row is narrower than the cephalothorax, especially

in the males. The sternum is oval and is truncated in front.

The front coxae are separated by the width of the labium, which

is longer than wide in the male, and about as long as wide in

the female. On the first and second legs the tibia has three

pairs of inferior spines and the metatarsus two pairs. There

are lateral spines excepting on the metatarsus of the first, where

they are lacking. The third and fourth legs have numerous

spines. We have two species of Tularosa , Ogdenii , and a sec¬

ond one, still unpublished.

Tularosa Ogdenii sp. nov.

Plate XXVIII, figs 4-4d.

?. Length 8.5 mm. Legs 3412, first pair a little the stoutest,

third and fourth plainly longest.

The cephalothorax is. not at all convex but slopes gradually

in both directions, from the dorsal eyes.

Under alcohol the sides and back of the cephalothorax are

yellow, with a black margin and a band of dark spots which

crosses the thoracic part and passes forward along the sides,

while the eye-region is bright reddish-brown, with a black bor¬

der, which forms a deep scallop between the dorsal eyes. The

abdomen appears yellow, mottled with brown.

Our specimens are somewhat rubbed. When dry, patches of

yellow and red hairs appear on the cephalothorax, the red com¬

ing out brightly around the dorsal eyes. Above the front eyes

the hairs are yellow, on the clypeus they are white, and on the

yellowr palpus they are yellowish-wrhite mixed with black. The

falces are reddish-brown, like the eyerregion. The abdomen

seems to have been covered with light yellow hairs, a curved

transverse band of red hairs crossing the back behind the mid¬

dle. Back of this, on each side, is an elongated spot of dark

brown hairs, surrounded by red hairs. The legs are yellow,

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 247

with short yellow hairs and black spines. The first leg has

one dark spot under the femur, and two under the tibia. The

venter is yellow with some dark specks.

We have numerous females from Mashonaland and Durban.

The species is named for our friend Dr. H. V. Ogden, of Mil¬

waukee.

Mexcala P. 1902.

Plate XXIX, figs. 1-ld.

The cephalothorax is moderately high. It widens out more

below than above, and is broader in the posterior part than in

front. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies a little more than

one-third of the cephalothorax, is one-sixth wider than long,

and is equally wide in front and behind. The anterior eyes

are moderately large, the middle being less than twice as large

as the lateral, and form a slightly curved row. The middle

eves are subtouching, with the lateral a little separated from

them. The second row is halfway between the other two.

The third row is a little narrower than the1 cephalothorax. The

falces are vertical and stout, with a short fang, and have one

conical tooth on the inferior margin. The sternum is trunc¬

ated in front. The first coxae are separated by about the width

of the labium, which is longer than, wide. The pedicle is not

visible. There are no constrictions. The abdomen is narrow

in front and then widens.

Mexcala is distinguished from the other ant-like genera of

this region by having a single conical tooth on the inferior mar¬

gin of the falx.

Mexcala rufa P.

Plate XXIX, figs. 1-ld.

$. Length 8 mm. Legs 4132, almost equal in stoutness, fe¬

mora slightly thickened.

The cephalothorax is dark colored with a few black hairs

on the eye-region, and some tiny white scale-like hairs on the

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

front of the falces, and the lower edge of the clypeus, which

pass around a little way, on to the sides of the cephalic part.

The legs and palpi are black. The abdomen in our specimen

is rubbed, but seems to have been entirely covered with golden-

yellow hairs which shade to white on the venter.

We have one male from, Cape Colony, sent to us by Dr.

Brauns.

Mexcala* elegans sp. nov.

Plate XXIX, figs, 2-2d.

6. Length 6 mm. Legs 4132, all slender.

This species is not strikingly ant-like. It differs from rufa

in having the first row of eyes straight, and in the coloring and

size, but the palpi of the two are alike.

The body is covered with bluish-gray hairs, which look, under

the microscope, like elongated scales. There are three trans¬

verse black bands on the cylindrical abdomen, which show best

under alcohol. The front faces of the f aloes are covered with

white, ricerlike scales. The legs have the femoral joints dark

colored while the patella), tibiae and metatarsi are marked with

longitudinal black and white lines, most distinct on the first

and second pairs. In the first leg the tarsi are pure white,

but in the others they have the longitudinal lines through a

part of their length. The palpus has white hairs on the pa¬

tella, tibia and tarsus, and a dark band on the upper side of

the patella and tibia.

We have one mature and one immature male from Manica

Mountains, Mashonaland, sent to us by Mr. Marshall.

Pechham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 249’

Myrmarvachne Marshallii sp. nov.

Plate XXIX, figs. 6-6b.

$. Length 6.5 mm. Length of cephalothorax 3 mm. Length

of f aloes 2.7 mm. Legs 4132.

?. Length 6 mm. Legs 4132.

The whole spider is black, covered with fine yellowish pubes¬

cence. There is a deep constriction in the cephalothorax be¬

tween the cephalic and thoracic parts, and a slighter one in

the abdomen, near the anterior end. The female has two white

rings on the abdomen, one in the constriction and one behind

the middle. In the male the first leg has the femur, metatar¬

sus and tarsus dark, while the patella and tibia are light with

a dark line on each side. The second leg is yellow with black

lines along the sides, more distinct in front, than behind. The

third leg has the coxa,, trochanter and femur black and the

other joints brown, with faint lines. In the fourth leg the

coxa and trochanter are white, the femur is black, and the other

joints are brown. The male has the palpus black and the

falces brown, long, and horizontal, with a long curved fang,

which has a hook near the base. The teeth on the lower margin

are short and small, while on the upper they are long and nu¬

merous. The upper surface is rugose.

In the female the falces are short,, vertical, parallel, and of

a light reddish color. The palpi are light brown and have the

tarsi enlarged. The first and second legs are light yellow with

black lines on their front faces. The third leg is dark as far

as the end of the patella, the other parts being light. The

fourth leg has the coxa, trochanter, and proximal end of patella

light yellow, and the rest dark.

We have a male and female and several immature specimens

from Mashonaland, sent to us by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall, for

whom, we have named the species.

In the genus Myrmarachne we have three males ( Marshallii ,

solitarius, ichneumon )7 and two females ( Marshallii , ichneu¬

mon). These are distinguished as follows: Of the males,.

Marshallii and ichneumon have at least seven teeth on the upper

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

margin of the falx, while solitarius has three large teeth. In

Marshallii the total length is 6.5 mm, and the fourth leg 9

mm. In ichneumon the total length is nearly 8 mm, and

the fourth leg 6 mm. In solitarius the total length and the

length of the fourth leg are both 4.5 mm. The two females are

distinguished by their color and the epigynes.

Myrmarachne ichneumon E. S.

$. Length 6.6 mm. Legs 4132.

The front eyes are close together, in a row which is curved

downward, the middle being nearly twice as large as the lat¬

eral.

The spider as a whole is yellow. The eye-region is black,

and there seems to have been a white band in the postrocular

constriction. The pedicle is long. The first third of the ab¬

domen, which is square, and ends in a raised ridge, seems to

have been covered with white hairs. The middle third is cov¬

ered with white hairs, and the posterior third is dark in front

and covered with white hairs behind, excepting a dark line

around the base of the spinnerets. The legs are yellow, with

a longitudinal black line on the anterior faces of the patellae

and tibia?., and a similar but less distinct line behind.

We believe that only the male of this species has been de¬

scribed, up to this time. We have several females, as well as

a male, from Mashonaland, where they were collected by Mr.

Marshall.

Myrmarachne solitarius sp. nov.

Plate. XXIX, figs. 5, 5a.

Length, 3. 4.5 mm. 9. 5 mm. Legs 4132.

The front eyes are close together in a row which is a little

bent downward, the middle being nearly twice as large as the

lateral. The pedicle is long.

The whole spider is dark colored. There are two constric¬

tions, one just behind the third row of eyes and one near the

front end of the abdomen, and each of these is encircled with

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 251

a band of white hairs. Where the hairs are rubbed off, in the

female, the color below is yellow. In the male the cephalic

part is darker than the rest of the cephalothorax, and the ab¬

domen, which is a good deal rubhed, is black and glabrous with

a thin scattering of white hairs. Under alcohol the coloring

of the legs is as follow's : In the male all the femora are dark,

those of the third pair being a little lighter than the others.

The first leg has the patella and tibia yellow, the metatarsus

dark, and the tarsus pale yellow. There are indistinct, longi¬

tudinal dark lines on the front and back sides of the patella

and tibia. The second leg, excepting the femur, is light. The

third leg has the patella yellowish-brown with a dark line in

front, and the tibia, metatarsus and tarsus yellow. In the

fourth leg the proximal half of the patella is light and the

distal half is brown. The tibia, and metatarsus are brownish

yellow and the tarsus paler. The coxss of the first and sec¬

ond pairs are light, of the third and fourth, dark. The tro¬

chanters of the first, second and fourth are light, the third, dark.

In the femjale the first leg has the proximal two-thirds of the

femur and the whole of the metatarsus dark. The other parts

are yellow with a narrow, dark, longitudinal line on each side,

running as far as the metatarsus. The second leg is yellow,

with a wide, dark, longitudinal band on each side, running as

far as the metatarsus. The third leg has the femur dark and

the other joints yellow. There is one longitudinal dark hand

on the patella, and a dark line on each side of the tibia and

metatarsus. The fourth leg has the femur dark, the patella

dark at the ends with a yellow ring in the middle, the tibia

and metatarsus brown, but not so dark as the ends of the pa¬

tella, and the tarsi yellowr. The coxse of the first and second

legs are light; of the third, dark; and of the fourth, part dark

and part light. The sternum, maxillge and labium are brown.

The falces are brown, and nearly vertical. The palpus is brown

with a palette-shaped tarsus.

We have one female, collected by Mr. Lightfoot at Retreat

Flats, and one male, collected by Mr. Purcell at Devil’s Moun¬

tain, Cape Colony.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Kima P. 1902.

Plate XXIX, figs. 3-3d.

This genus belongs to the Ant-like Group. The cephalo tho¬

rax is moderately high in the cephalic part, the thoracic falling

gradually from a groove behind the dorsal eyes. The sides-,

nearly parallel throughout most of their length, contract, more

or less, behind. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths

of the cephalothorax, is nearly as long as wide, and is equally

wide in front and behind, or wider behind. The front row

of eyes is straight or bent downward. The second row is plainly

nearer the first than the third, and the third is nearly as wide

as the cephalothorax. The falces are long, slightly divergent,

and nearly horizontal, with a short fang. The inferior mar¬

gin is unarmed, but the superior has a large compound tooth

which is visible from above. The front coxae are sepiarated

by more than the width of the labium, which is plainly longer

than wide. The sternum has a long point behind and is trun¬

cated in front. There is a long pedicle, and the abdomen has

a constriction in the middle.

The metatarsus of the first leg has two- nairs of inferior

spines, and the tibia three pairs, one near the proximal, and

two near the distal end.

This genus is distinguished from Quekettia by its more ant¬

like shape and by the abdominal constriction, as well as by the

difference in the spines. Kima and Queleettia differ from Arae -

geus E. S., which also has no tooth on the inferior margin of

the falx, by the shape of the sternum, which in Araegeus has

a long point in front. The type species, K. africana , differs

from variahilis in the following points : the sides of the cephal¬

othorax contract suddenly, at the posterior end, forming a

rather sharp angle, while in variahilis they round off gently;

the quadrangle of the eyes is equally wide in front and be¬

hind, the front row being a little curved downward with the

middle eyes about twice as large as the lateral; the relative

length of the legs is different, and the coxa? of the first legs are

black.

Peckham — Sliders of the Family Attidae.

253

Kima africana P.

Plate XXIX, figs, 3-3d.

A large, ant-like species, with long slender legs and a long

pedicle.

3. Length 8 mm. Legs 4132, fourth much the longest.

We have but one specimen. The cephalothorax is without

hairs, the color being dark reddish brown, deepening to black

on the cephalic plate. The fourth legs are black throughout

their length, but the others, although black near the body, shade

to brown at the extremities'. They are equal in thickness and

are but scantily haired. The first leg has three pairs of spines

under the tibia, and two pairs under the metatarsus. The

palpi are black. The rather high black clypeus has a few short

white hairs. The abdomen, which has a constriction in the

middle, is covered with rich golden-yellow hairs, wdiich shade

to white on the venter. The f aloes are reddish-brown, and! are

flattened, with two teeth on the superior margin, at the distal

end.

We have one male from Cape Colony, sent to us by Dr.

Brauns.

Kima variabilis sp. nov.

Plate XXIX, figs, 4-4b.

A dark species, with long thin legs. The entire under sur¬

face is black; excepting the coxse of the first and second pairs

of legs, which are perfectly colorless.

We have two males, one of which measures 11 mm!, and the

other 7.5 mm. in length. The relative length of the legs is

1432, the first and fourth being very much longer than the

second and third, but all are equal in thickness.

The cephalic part is rather high. There is a groove behind

the dorsal eyes, and from this point the thoracic part slopes

gradually backward. The quadrangle of the eyes is a little

wider behind than in front. The face is narrow, the front eyes

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

forming a straight row, the middle being close together, while

the lateral are somewhat separated from them and are more

than half as large.

In onr larger specimen the hairs are white, having perhaps,,

lost their color in the alcohol. The smaller one has the cephalo¬

thorax covered with yellowish- white hairs and the abdomen with

yellow hairs, excepting a pure white band in the constriction,

which runs down on each side of the venter. The first and

second legs have the femur dark with pale streaks, the tibia

and patella pale with a black band on each side, and the meta¬

tarsus and tarsus dark in the first pair and pale in the second.

The third and fourth legs are mostly dark. The palpus is dark

and the falces slightly bronze-colored. The under surface is-

dark, excepting the first and second pairs of coxae, which are

white, and make a striking contrast.

From Cape Town and Pt. St. John’s.

Qnelcettia P. 1902.

The cephalothorax is rather low, and is narrow in front, wid¬

ening out behind the third row of eyes and then contracting

behind. The upper surface is fiat and almost entirely on the

same plane, there being the gentlest possible rise from the two

ends to the dorsal eyes. It is a little wider below than above.

The quadrangle of the eyes is very slightly wider than long,

is wider behind than in front, and occupies two-fifths of the

cephalothorax. The anterior eyes are subtouching, in a straight

row, the middle being twice as large as the lateral. The sec¬

ond row is much nearer the first than the third, and the third

row is not quite so wide as the cephalothorax. The falces are

very short, vertical and parallel, with no tooth on the inferior

margin. The sternum is oval, truncated in front. The first

coxae are separated bv a little more than the width of the la¬

bium, which is as wide as long. The pedicle is not visible from

above. The relative length of the legs is 4123, the first and

second being short and much thickened, especially as to the

femur and tibia. The type species is 6.5 mm. long.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 255

The short chubby front legs are enough to distinguish Que-

kettia from others of the group. The type is our Leptorchestes

georgii from Madagascar, Ant-like Attidae , p. 52.

This genus is named for Mr. J. F. Quekett, Curator of the

Durban Museum, Matal, South Africa.

256

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

INDEX.

Almota Quinii . 194

Baryphas ahenus . . 207

Bianor rusticulus . 215

Copocrossa bimaculata . 187

Cyllobelus australis . 194

chionogaster . 195

Cyrba dotata . 185

Dendryphantes Purcellii . 206

Ruophrys inf austus . 204

Leipoldtii . 203

Purcellii . 201

Simonii . 202

Habrocestum Annee . 238

dotatum . 239

Laurae . 238

luculentum . 241

Heliophanus Beardii . 189

clarus . . . 190

deamatus . 190

Marshallii . . 192

Marshii . 189

modicus . ... 193

Prattii. . 191

Horn alattus Marshallii . . 218

obscurus . 219

punctatus . 219

similis . 219

Hyllus moestus . 208

natalii . 210

perspicuus . 209

Treleavenii . 207

Jasoda Woodii . 223

Kima africana . 253

variabilis . 253

Klamathia flava . 231

Langona avara . 241

Macopaeus madagascarensis . 182

Massagris mirificus . 186

Mendoza Carlinii . 204

Mexcala elegans . 248

rufa . 247

Modunda aperta . 210

Myrmarachne Marshallii . 249

solitarius . 250

Parajotus obscurofemoratus . 201

Pellenes Beanii . . 236

rufoclypeata . 235

Philseus manicus . 205

Phlegra imperiosa . 242

Pochyta solers . 199

Portia durbanii . 183

Pseudicius africanus . 212

bipunctatus . 212

Braunsii . 211

Quekettia georgii . 254

Rhene Banksii. . 220

biguttata . 221

Saitis Leighii . 197

mundus . 198

sapiens . 196

Sitticus designatus . 213

Upbamii . 214

Sonoita Lierhtfootii . 184

Telemonia sequipes . . 188

Thyene australis . 230

crudelis . 229

Leighii . 225

natalii . 227

Ogdenii . 224

pulchra . 226

Tularosa Ogdenii . . . 246

Tusitala barbata . 243

Braunsii . 245

hirsuta . 244

Yelloa elegans . 218

modesta . 217

Yiciria alba . . . 234

flavipes . 233

morigera . 232

parmata . 234

258

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences L Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XIX.

Pig. 1, Massagris mirificus, male X 6; la, palpus.

Fig. 2, Portia durbanii, male X 4; 2a and 2b, palpus.

Fig. 3, Telemonia sequipes, male X 6; 3a, face and falces; 3b, mouth-

parts and underside of falces; 3c, palpus. The first row of

eyes is really curved downward. The cephalothorax is

drawn in a tilted position.

Fig. 4, Sonoita Lightfootii, male palpus; 4a, face and falces; 4b»

side view of cephalothorax; 4c, sternum and mouthparts.

Fig. 5, Macopseus madagascarensis, epigynum.

Fig. 6, Cyrba dotata, epigynum.

Figs. 7 and 7a, Copocrossa bimaculata X 6.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIY.

Plate XIX.

5

6

259

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences L Arts , and Letters .

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

Fig. 1, Almota Quinii, male X 8; la, face and falces; lb, side of

cephalothorax ; lc, sternum and mouthparts; Id and le,

palpus.

Fig. 2, Heliophanus modicus, female X 8.

Fig. 3, Heliophanus deamatus, tibia of palpus, dorsal view tilted to

one side; 3a, dorsal view of palpus; 3b, femur of palpus;

3c, under side of palpus.

Fig. 4, Heliophanus Marshii, male X 6; 4a, palpus.

Fig. 5, Heliophanus Marshallii, side view of palpus; 5a, under side

of palpus; 5b, tibia of palpus.

Fig. 6, Heliophanus Beardii, abdomen of female X 8; 6a, epigynum.

Fig. 7, Heliophanus Prattii, palpus showing femur; 7a, under side

of palpus; 7b, side of palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XX.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fig. 1, Cyllobelus chionogaster, male X 8; la, female X 8; lb, pal

pus; lc epigynum.

Fig. 2, Cyllobelus australis, female X 6; 2a, epigynum.

Fig. 3, Saitis mundus, male X 6; 3a, palpus.

Fig. 4, Saitis Leighii, male X 6; 4a, palpus.

Fig. 5, Saitis sapiens, male X 6; 5a, palpus.

Fig. 6, Heliophanus elarus, female X 6; 6a, epigynum.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXI.

264

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXII.

Fig. 1, Pochyta solers, abdomen of male X 6; la, palpus; lb, face

and falces.

Fig. 2, Parajotus obscurofemoratus, male under alcohol, X 4; 2a,

palpus; 2b, sternum and mouth-parts ; 2c, side of cephalo-

thorax; 2d, face and falces. The last figure is incomplete

because the hairs on the front of the falces have been

omitted.

Fig. 3, Sittacus designatus, abdomen of female X 8.

Fig. 4, Euophrys Simonii, faces and falces of male; 4a and 4b, pal¬

pus.

Fig. 5, Euophrys Purcellii, male X 6; 5a, palpus.

Fig. 6, Euophrys Leipoldtii, epigynum.

Fig. 7, Euophrys infaustus, epigynum.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIY.

Plate XXII.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae. 265

PLATE XXIIL

266

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXIII.

Pig. 1, Sittacus Uphamii, abdomen of female X 8; la and lb, palpus;

lc, epigynum.

Fig. 2a, Hyllus perspicuus, abdomen of male X 4; 2b, abdomen of fe¬

male X 4; 2b, palpus.

Fig. 3, Hyllus Treleavenii, female X 3; 3a, epigynum.

Pig. 4, Hyllus natalii, abdomen of female X 4; 4a, epigynum.

Fig. 5, Hyllus moestus, abdomen of female X 4; 5a, epigynum.

Fig. 6, Mendoza Carlinii, male X 6; 6a, female X 4; 6b, palpus; 6c,

epigynum.

Figs. 7 and 7a, Phlegra imperiosa, two varieties of epigynum.

Tranb4. Wis. Acad., VoL XIV.

Plate XXIII.

3a

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

PLATE XXIV,

268

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXIV.

Fig. 1, Philaeus manicus, male X 4; la, palpus.

Fig. 2, Baryphas alienus E. S., male X 4; 2a, palpus; 2b, face and

falces.

Fig. 3, Rhene biguttata, male X 6; 3a, falx from below; 3b and 3c,

palpus.

Pig. 4, Rbene Banksii, male X 6; 4a and 4b, palpus.

Fig. 5, Homalattus punctatus, abdomen of female X 8; 5a, epigy-

num.

Fig. 6, Homalattus Marshallii, epigynum.

Fig. 7, Homalattus similis, epigynum.

Fig. 8, Homalattus obscurus, epigynum.

Fig. 9, Velloa modesta, male X 8; 9a, face and falces; 9b, sternum

and mouthparts; 9c, side of cephalotborax.

Fig. 10, Velloa elegans, epigynum.

Fig. 11, Dendrypbantes Purcellii, male X 6; 11a, palpus; lib, epigy¬

num.

Fig. 12, Bianor rusticulus, epigynum.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIY.

Plate XXIV.

PLATE XXV.

270

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV.

Fig. 1, Thyene Leighii, male X 3; la, tibia of first leg; lb, palpus;

1c, tibia of palpus.

Fig. 2, Thyene Ogdenii young female X 3; 2a, tibia of first leg of

male; 2b, tibia of male palpus; 2c, mouthparts and falces

from below; 2d, epigynum.

Fig. 3, Thyene pulchra, abdomen of female X 3; 3a, epigynum.

Fig. 4, Thyene natalii, female X 3; 4a, tibia of male palpus; 4b,

epigynum.

Fig. 5, Thyene crudelis, abdomen of male X 3; 5a palpus; 5b, mouth-

parts and falces from below; 5c, tibia of palpus; 5d, tibia

of first leg.

Fig. 6, Thyene australis, male palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIY.

Plate XXV.

5c

271

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae .

PLATE XXVI.

272

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI.

Fig. 1, Pseudicius Braunsii, female X 8; la, male palpus.

Fig. 2, Pseudicius africanus, female X 8; 2a, epigynum.

Fig. 3, Pseudicius bipunctatus, male X 8; 3a, epigynum.

Fig. 4, Klamathia flava, male X 3; 4a, side view of cephalothorax;

4b, face and falces (the cephalothorax is drawn in a tilted

position; the first row of eyes is really straight). 4c. ster¬

num and mouthparts; 4d, palpus.

Fig. 5, Viciria parmata, male X 4; 5a, palpus.

Fig. 6, Viciria morigera, female X 4; 6a, epigynum; 6b, first leg

from below, showing double spines on tibia.

Fig. 7, Viciria flavipes, epigynum.

Fig. 8, Viciria alba, epigynum.

Fig. 9, Modunda aperta, male X 6; 9a, palpus.

Fig. 10, Jasoda Woodii, face and falces of male; 10a, side of cephalo¬

thorax; 10b, palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXVI.

Peckham — Spiders of the Family Attidae.

273

PLATE, XXVII.

18

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXVII.

Fig. 1, Pellenes rufoclypeata, male X 3; la, palpus.

Fig. 2, Pellenes Beanii, female X 8; 2a, male palpus; 2b and 2c,

varieties of epigynum.

Fig. 3, Habrocestum luculentum, abdomen of male, X 12; 3a, palpus.

Fig. 4, Habrocestum Annse, abdomen of female X 4; 4a, epigynum.

Fig. 5, Habrocestum Lauras, abdomen of female X 4; 5a, epigynum.

Fig. 6, Habrocestum dotatum, abdomen of female, under alcohol,

X 6; 6a and 6b, varieties of epigynum; 6c, abdomen of male

X 6; 6d, 6e and 6f, three views of palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIV.

Plate XXVII.

Peclcham — Spiders of the Family Attidae .

plate: xxviii.

276

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVIII.

Fig. 1, Tusitala Braunsii, female X 4; la, side of cephalothorax; lb,

mouthparts and falces from below; lc', face and falces; Id,

epigynum.

Fig. 2, Tusitala barbata, male X 5; 2a, face and falces; 2b, sternum,

mouthparts and falces from below; 2c, palpus, showing

bulb; 2d, palpus, showing relative length of joints.

Fig. 3, Tusitala hirsuta, palpus, showing relative length of joints; 3a,

palpus, showing bulb.

Fig. 4, Tularosa Ogdenii, female X 4; 4a, side of cephalothorax; 4b,

cephalothorax from in front; 4c, falces from below; 4d,

epigynum.

Fig. 5, Langona avara, male X 6; 5a, palpus.

Pechhamr — Spiders of the Family Attidae

PLATE XXIX.

278

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1 1

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX.

Fig. 1, Mexcala rufa, male X 4; la, palpus; lb, side of cephalothorax ;

1c, sternum and mouthparts; Id, mouthparts and falces.

Fig. 2, Mexcala elegans, male X 4; 2a, sternum and mouthparts; 2b,

side of cephalothorax; 2c, palpus; 2d, young female X 4,

under alcohol.

Fig. 3, Kima africana, male X 4; 3a, palpus; 3b, sternum and mouth¬

parts; 3c, side of cephalothorax; 3d, first row of eyes.

Fig. 4, Kima variabilis, male X 5; 4a, sternum and mouthparts; 4b,

palpus.

Fig. 5, Myrmarachne solitarius, palpus; 5a, falx of male from below.

Fig. 6, Myrmarachne Marshallii, falx of male from below; 6a, epigy-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. X1Y.

Plate XXIX.

VARIATIONS IN FORM AND SIZE OF CYCLOPS BREVI-

SPINOSUS HERRICK AND CYCLOPS

AMERICANUS MARSH.

BY HARRIET LEHMANN.

This investigation was undertaken under the direction of

Professor CL Dwight Marsh of Ripon College, to determine

the extent of variation in C. brevispinosus Herrick and C. amer-

icanus Marsh, particularly with reference to the question of

specific distinction between these forms in the form and meas¬

urements of the furca, and the outer terminal spine of the

furca, and in the armature of the terminal joint of the inner

ramus of the fourth swimming foot.

The results obtained cannot, however, be considered con¬

clusive, since the number of specimens examined was insuffi¬

cient to permit exact conclusions. The variations were also

found to be so wide in a, small number of specimens that even

greater variation might be possible in a, large number.

Different investigators do not agree as to the characters of the

genus Cyclops important for specific distinction. Brady, J78,

gives, “the characters of the first antennae and fifth pair of feet.

As offering subsidiary characters;, the spinous armature of the

swimming feet, together with the tail segments and setae, are

also important.” S'chmeil, ?92, says, “Die sichersten und

einfachsten Erkennungsmerkmale sind das rudimentare Eiis-

schen und der Bau des Receptaculum seminis. * * *Die

Anzahl der Borsten und Domen ist. fur die Individuen einer

Art durchaus nicht konstant, so das allien heira,ufgegriindete

Arten hinfallig werden. Hiermit soil natiirlichi nicht ausge-

sprochein sein dass die Beriicksichtigung der Bewehrung der

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Schwimmfiisse absolut werthlos sei, es schoint vielmehr, als

ob die Bedornungsverhaltnisse der Spitze des Innenastes wor-

auf S'ars und Richard so grossen Wert legen, noch nicbt genii-

gend beriicksichtigt waren. Die Anzahl der Dornen ist aber

sicber grossen Sehw ankungen unterworfen, und die Angabe

derselben bat nur einen sebr beschranken Wert.” Forbes, in

bis paper of ?97, says.: “The number of antennal segments

may be depended upon as fairly constant. * * The length

of the antennae, while constant in some species, is remarkably

variable in others, notably C. sefrulatus. * * Sensory

structures and the hyaline plates of the distal antennal segments

are reliable characters. In certain species, C. plialeratus for

instance, the proportions of the stylets are quite constant, but

in C. viridis, serrulatus , and bicuspidatus , the range of varia¬

tion is very great; consequently such measurements are not of

the highest specific value. The apical bristles of the stylets

are not very variable as to comparative lengths, but the minute

details of their structure are not constant. This fact is illus¬

trated by the variation in the shape of the outer apical spine of

C. viridis var. brevispinosus. (PI. XI, Fig, 1.) The

armature of the swimming feet is of considerable value in cer¬

tain cases, and is. constant as a rule. Sometimes, however, the

presence or absence of a spine or seta is not accompanied by

other perceptible differences. The general character of the

armature1 with regard to- strength, etc., may usually be relied

upon ; but I have often seen in a. single specimen all the grada¬

tions between spines and setae, and it would be impossible from

this character to' say which of the two names should be applied.

Of the easily observable structures, the fifth foot is the most

valuable for distinction. * * Of all the specific characters,

the most valuable are those derivable from the receptaculum

seminis.” I quote also1 the specific descriptions of C . brevispi¬

nosus , given by Herrick, ?84, and Marsh, ?92, and that of C.

americamis , by Marsh, ?92. Herrick describes brevispinosus

as follows: “Sp. 10. C. brevispinosus Sp. nov . (PI. S,

Figs 7-11.) The form for which this name is proposed takes

the place of the above C. parcus Herrick in the larger lakes.

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops . 281

It appears to be but a modified condition of the above species,

from which it differs in its slender form and especially in the

very slender caudal stylets. The outer caudal seta is reduced

to a short ciliate thorn. The fourth foot is also modified by

the great enlargement of the spines and the reduction of the

setae. The number of the setae is the same, but they are differ¬

ently disposed.” Marsh describes this same species: “Plate

IV. Tigs, 11 and 12, Turca slender, longer than the last two

abdominal segments, lateral spine at two-thirds the distance

from base to extremity. Of the terminal setae, the outer is a

short blunt spine, the inner slender and somewhat longer. * *

The armature of the terminal joints of the swimming feet is

as follows :**

Fourth foot

Inner hr.

ex. ‘1 sp.

ap. 2 sp.

in. 2 setae.

**The fifth foot is two-jointed. The basal joint is very broad

and is armed with one seta. The terminal joint is armed with

one seta and a short spine.** It is widely distributed in lakes

and ponds, and is a pelagic species, though sometimes occurring

in littoral collections. /

“I have had some doubt as to whether this should be consid¬

ered a distinct species. In most of its structural features it

closely resembles americanus, and I have suspected it to be a

pelagic variety of that species. I have specimens of ameri¬

canus with elongated furca like brevispinosus , and I have speci¬

mens of brevispinosus in which the outer terminal seta of the

furca is slender and plumose as in americanus. Tor the differ¬

ence in the armature of the swimming feet, however, I have as

yet found no intermediate forms, and so must, for the present,

at least, consider the two as distinct,” Marsh’s description of

americanus is as follows: “Plate IV, Tigs 8-10. Turca

about three times as long as its average breadth, the lateral

spine situated well toward the end. The first and fourth ter¬

minal setae are short, slender and plumose, nearly equal in

length—**

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Fourth foot

Inner hr.

ex. 1 seta-

ap. 2 sp.

in. 2 setae.

Fifth foot two- jointed) basal joint very broad, armed with one

seta. Terminal joint armed with a seta and a blunt spine.

This takes the place in our fauna that is occupied by C. viridis

Fischer in Europe. In general form and appearance the two

forms seem identical, and have been so considered by Herrick

and Cr agin. I have hesitated to propound a new species name,

but it seems necessary. So far is Uljanin and Vosseler have

figured viridis it corresponds to our species ; but neither gives

figures of the swimming feet. From the original description

by Fischer our species differs markedly. * * He gives a

figure of a foot, not designating which, but it corresponds to no

one of the four in our species. * * In an examination of

a large number of specimens from widely separated localities

I have found no variation in the number and arrangement of

the spines and setae of americanus, and until such variation is

shown, there seems to be no alternative but to institute a new

species for the American form.”

These: statements show that investigators, with reference to

the species of the genus Cyclops in general, regard the arma¬

ture of the swimming feet and the form and measurements of

the furca and its apical bristles, as of varying, but usually of

secondary importance for specific distinction. The variability

in these features seems to be considered as lessening their dis¬

tinctive value. However, if definite limits of variation can be

established for a variable feature, it seems reasonable that it

might prove as valuable for specific distinction as one showing

almost no variation.

With reference to the particular species C. brevispinosus both

Herrick and Marsh consider the form of the caudal stylets and

their outer apical spines as important for distinction, and

Marsh gives special importance to the armature of the swim¬

ming feet. Marsh also considers the armature of the 4th

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 283

swimming feet of C. americanus as of chief importance for spe¬

cific distinction. Forbes, ?97, regards the features under con¬

sideration as often of doubtful value even for varietal distinc¬

tion. He says: “So variable is C. insectus, [(7. americanus

Marsh], found as it is in an endless variety of situations and

localities, that the lack of a single spine on the distal segment

of the outer ramus of the first and fourth feet is not sufficient

ground for the distinction of even a variety, for I find, as does

Dr. Schmeil, that the armature of the swimming feet is not in

all species absolutely constant.” It may be noted here', how¬

ever, that a constant armature of the swimming feet is not of

necessity more valuable for specific distinction than a variable

one, if only definite limits of variation can be established for

the armature in question. Marsh has distinguished between

C. brevispinosus and C. ameHcanus by a supposed constantly

different armature of the fourth swimming feet in either

•species.

The specimens from which the accompanying measurements

and plates were obtained, were taken entirely from the collect

tions of Professor Marsh. The prepared slides in his posses¬

sion were considered, and a fairly large number of specimens

were selected from his bottled collections.

Only egg-bearing females of either species were considered,

these giving the typical form of the fully developed individual.

All the specimens of C. brevispinosus came from comparatively

large bodies of water, of varying depths, but in no sense pools.

They came also entirely from the region of the' Great Lakes,

thus perhaps not representing the whole species. The C. amer¬

icanus examined came with but few exceptions', from pools,

usually small and weedy, and varying greatly in depth and

character with the changes' in temperature and the seasons.

They were obtained from widely different parts of the United

States, and thus give a more general idea of the extent of varia¬

tion.

The specimens of C. americanus represent a wider area than

those of C. brevispinosus, but, on the other hand, are fewer in

number.

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Table I shows a record of measurements of thirty-five speci¬

mens of brevispinosus. The date and place of collection was

indicated when possible, and a record was taken (1) of the

length of the furca along an axis ah, as represented in the ac¬

companying diagram; (2) the width of the furca along the line

cd; (3) the width of the furca along the

Yline xy; (4) the form and length of the

outer apical spine of the furca; and (5) the

armature of the terminal joint of the inner

branch of the fourth swimming foot. Table

II shows a record of the same features in

eleven specimens of C. americanus having a

constant armature of the fourth swimming

feet as described by Professor Marsh. Plates

XXXII and XXXIII show drawings of the

furca and its outer apical spine, and of the

terminal joint of the inner branch of the fourth swim¬

ming foot of eight specimens supposed to be C. americanus ,

but not answering to Marsh’s description. Diagrams 1, 2,

3, and 4 of Plates: XXX and XXXI show the curves

of variation for the furca and the outer apical spine of

the furca of C. brevispinosus. It was impossible to rep¬

resent in this; manner the variations: in C. americanus on ac¬

count of the extensive variation in the small number of speci¬

mens attainable. Plate XXXIII, Fig. 5, shows a fourth

swimming foot of C. brevispinosus , and Fig. 6, a fourth foot

of C. americanus of the type described by Marsh, ’92. Fig.

1 of Plate XXXIII shows an extreme form of furca in G.

brevispinosus, and Fig. 8 shows an extreme form for C. ameri¬

canus.

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 285

Table I. — Variations in form and size of C. brevispinosus.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Table 1. — Variations in form and size of C. brevispinosus — Cont.

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 287

Table I. — Variations in form and size of C. brevispinosu. — Cont.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Table II.— Variations in form and size of C. americanus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXX.

’^OyOsXjSxCfV^ A/W XUAC 4 ^UAt-COL.

G V 7UT&W&

I.

b sn \t> ,

Y-Enqj^s \y\ 'mm

£)x-a^a^vt TL

iWmWr

f

»f$cm£7\s

.105

.u

.ns

•1SL

.us

.\3

•135

.14

.145

.15

.155

.!£>

.155

•17

J75

M/OJ^GvXa.OV^ AfW -^WLgX^ -^U/GCCL

Q). V^QAr^ ^WVLCJc)AJL /& -

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXI.

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size i of Cyclops. 289

In all the specimens of C. brevispinosus , the one constant

quantity among the characters under consideration is the arma¬

ture of the fourth swimming foot, the terminal joint of the

inner branch bearing always upon its external side a distinct

spine, whereas C. americanus hears: frequently at this point a

seta. The furca of brevispinosus varies greatly in length, the

limits of the specimens examined being .096 mm., and .175

mm., the greatest number of any one length being at .15 mm.,

whereas an average length would be .135 mm. The width of

the furca at its base varies from .037 mm. to .054 mm., the

greatest number of any one width being at .045 mm., which is

about an average width. The width of the terminal end of the

furca varies from .02* mm. to .035 mm., the greatest number

of any one width being at .025 mm., which is also nearly an

average width. These figures show a greater variation in

length than in width. The outer terminal spine of the furca,

claimed by Herrick to be a distinctive feature, shows great

variation, first in length, from .038 mm. to .07 mm., the great¬

est number measuring .065 mm., whereas an average length

would be .054 mm. ; and second, it varies in form from a thick,

very blunt spine to a slender, seta-like spine, the1 greatest num¬

ber being thick at the base but tapering rapidly toward the

apex. The two extreme forms are least in number, the thick,

blunt spine being least frequent of all the forms. Hone of the

specimens examined bear a distinct seta at this point, such as is

occasionally found on americanus; and no specimens of amer¬

icanus examined bear a thick, blunt spine such as is sometimes

found on brevispinosus. However, these two forms are ex¬

tremes and may easily have been developed by peculiar' condi¬

tions from a common form, since the slender tapering spine

common, to both species is found most frequently in both.

Forbes, ’97, has noted similar variations in this spine; he says:

“I have seen considerable variations in this spine and have ob¬

served all the gradations between it and the usual slender spine

of C. insectus. I think, however, that. C. brevispinosus should

be considered a good variety.”

19

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The small number of specimens examined and the limited

range of the localities from which they were obtained, must of

course! prevent, the1 drawing of absolute conclusions from these

figures.

That, the armature of the fourth swimming foot is not con¬

stant in C. americamis, is shown in Plates. XXXII and

XXXIII, distinct spines, distinct setae, and intermediate

forms being found on the external side of the terminal joint of

the inner branch. The seta, is the form of armature found

most frequently, but the- presence of the other1 forms indicates

that this cannot be considered a constant feature.

The variations in the length of the furca in the specimens of

americanus measured, are wide, the limits being .052 mm. and

.19 mm., thus including the limits for this character of brevis¬

pinosus. The width of the furca is generally greater in amer¬

icanus than in brevispinosus and varies less widely than the

measurements of length, the limits for basal width being .025

mm. and .0625 mm.; and those for the width at, the terminal

end .015 mm. and .04 mm., thus also including the limits of

variation in width of the furca of brevispinosus. The outer

terminal seta of the furca of americanus is most frequently

moderately slender, sometimes considerably thickened at, the

base, and frequently almost impossible to distinguish from the

so-called spine of brevispinosus.

The comparative relation of the length of the last two or

three abdominal segments to the length of the furca is also vari¬

able in each species. The furca is in some cases, hardly longer

than the last abdominal segment, and in others is as long as the

last three segments.

The descriptions of Marsh and Herrick for these forms of

Cyclops make the characters considered in this paper of con¬

siderable importance for specific distinction. It seems impos¬

sible, however, from the data, gathered in this investigation, to

prove these characters constant for either of the two so-called

species, or to establish definite limits of variation for them.

The limits obtained for both forms in the features under con¬

sideration overlap each other, which leaves, of course, no spe-

Lehmann i — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 291

cific limits for either form!. These characters' must then he con¬

sidered as unreliable for specific distinction between C. brevis-

pinosus and C. americanus. Of course if other features of suf¬

ficient importance for distinction prove reliable, the two species

may stand.

The great variation found in the specimens obtained from

pools subject to marked changes, and the greater uniformity

found among those living under comparatively uniform con¬

ditions, indicates that there is a tendency toward at least vari¬

etal distinctions through constant peculiar environment. The

uniformity in tbe armature of the fourth swimming feet of

specimens living in large bodies of water illustrates this. This

armature is, however, not peculiar to those forms. It is of in¬

terest also to note that of the specimens obtained from large

bodies of water, the greatest number of any one length or

width of furca are of a measurement near an average of the

limits of variation.

The dividing lines between species are very difficult to con¬

struct, but it is certain that approximate limits of variation in

variable features, as dependent on environment and habits of

the animal, are of much determinative value; and a careful

study of these would probably result in a re-classification of

many species and varieties.

I am greatly indebted to Professor Marsh for material, liter¬

ature, and kindly assistance in the preparation of this paper.

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Beady, 0. S.

’78. A Monograph of the Free and Semi-Parasitic Cope-

poda of the British Islands. Yol. I, pp. 97-100 ;

105-106; PL XX, Figs. 1-16.

’91. A Revision of the British Species of Fresh-water

Cyclopidae and Calanidae. From the Natural

History Transactions of Northumberland, Dur¬

ham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Yol. XI, Part

I, pp. 68-120 ; Plates I-XIY ; pp. 3-5, 17 ; Plate

Y, Figs. 6-10.

Beeweb, A. D.

’98. A Study of the Cope poda found in the Yicinity of

Lincoln> Nebraska. The Journal of the Cincin¬

nati Society of Natural History. Yol. XIX,

No. 4, Article XIII, p. 132.

Claus, C.

’57. Das Genus Cyclops und seine einheimischen Arten.

40 pp., 3 Plates. Marburg.

*63. Die frie lebenden Copepoden mit besonderer Be-

riicksichtigung der Fauna Deutschlands, der

Nordsee und des Mittelmeeres. 230 pp., 37

Plates. Leipzig.

Fobbes, E'. B.

’97. A Contribution to a Knowledge of North American

Fresh-Water Cyclopidae. Bulletin of the Illinois

State Laboratory of Natural History. Yol. Y,

Article II, pp. 27-82, Plates YIII-XX.

Habtog, M. M.

’88. The Morphology of Cyclops and the Relations of the

Copepods. Transactions of the. Linnean Society

of London. Yol. Y, Part I. London.

Lehmann \ — Variations in Form and Size' of Cyclops. 293

Herrick, 0. L.

’82a. Papers on the Crustacea of the Fresh Waters of

Minnesota. Tenth Annual Report of the Geo¬

logical and Natural History Survey of Minnesota.

I. Cyclopidae of Minnesota with Notes on other

Copepods. Pp. 228-229, Plate IV, Figs. 1-8.

’84. A Final Report; on the Crustacea of Minnesota in¬

cluded in the Orders Cladocera and Copepocta.

Twelfth Annual Report of the Geological and

Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Pp. 144,

145, 146, 148, Plate S, Figs. 7-11 ; p. 152, Plate

IT, Fig. 9.

Hoek, P. P. C.

’76. Zur Kenntniss der frielehenden Siisswasser- (7 opepo-

den der Niederlandischen Fauna. Niederland-

isches Archiv fur Zoologie III. Pp. 127-140,

Plates VII-IX.

Marsh, C. D.

’92. On the Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Central Wis-

consin. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Vol. IX, pp.

202-206, Plate IV ; Figs. 8-10; Plate IV ; Figs.

11 and 12.

’95. On the Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Lake St. Clair,

Lake Michigan and Certain of the Inland Lakes

of Michigan. Bulletin of the Michigan Fish

Commission No. 5, pp. 3-6, 12-13, 14; Plate

VII, Fig. 12.

’97. On the Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. From

the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters. Pp. 202-203, 217.

Nachtrieb, H. F.

’95. Second Report of the State Zoologist including a

Synopsis of the Eniomostraca of Minnesota. Zo¬

ological Series II, pp. 88-89; 90-91, PI. XIV;

91-92, PI. XIV; 95, PI. XXIII, Figs. 1-7, PI.

XXIV, Figs. 7-12.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Rehberg, II.

*80a. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Sussy/asser-C opepoden.

Abhandl. naturw. Yer. zu Bremen YI. Taf.

YI., pp. 53-541.

Schmeil, Otto.

;92. Dentschlands frielebende Siisswasser-0 opepoden. I.

Theil; Cyclopidae. Bibliotheca Zoologica. Heft

II, pp. 1-38, 97-101.

Lehmann — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 295

PLATE XXXII.

296

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII.

Fig. 1. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 1499.

Fig. 2. No. 1499, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Fig. 3. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 1482.

Fig. 4. No. 1482, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Fig. 5. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 566.

Fig. 6. No. 566, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Fig. 7. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 1008.

Fig. 8. No. 1008, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Fig. 9. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 269.

Fig. 10. No. 269, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Fig. 11. C. americanus Marsh (?). Caudal stylet X 295. No. 536.

Fig. 12. No. 536, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XIV.

Plate XXXII.

Lehmann, — Variations in Form and Size of Cyclops. 297

PLATE XXXIII.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2,

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7,

Fig. 8

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIII.

C. americanus Marsh (?). No. 565. Caudal stylet X 295.

No. 565, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

C. americanus Marsh (?). No. 784. Caudal stylet X 295.

No. 784, external armature terminal joint of inner branch of

4th swimming foot X 295.

C. brevispinosus Herrick, 4th swimming foot X 295. No. 20.

C. americanus Marsh, 4th swimming foot X 295. No. 1501.

C. brevispinosus Herrick. Furca X 167. Extreme type. No. 22.

C. americanus Marsh. Furca X 165. Extreme type. No. 1502

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXIII.

ACTION OF METALLIC MAGNESIUM UPON AQUEOUS

SOLUTIONS.

BY LOUIS KxAIILENBERG.

It has long been known that metallic magnesium acts ex¬

tremely slowly upon distilled water, and that it practically does

not act at all upon solutions of the caustic alkalies. In 1899

Tbmmasi1 made qualitative investigations of the action of

magnesium on aqueous solutions of the following salts : KC1,

HH4C1, CaCl2, MgOL, Had, Lid, BaCl2, SrCl2, Oud2,

Odd 2, PbCl2, HgCl2, Feds,. CrCl3, Ptd4, AuC13, CuS04,

ZnS04, FeS04, MnSO'4. He found that from solutions of

Had, Kd, and LiGl magnesium liberates hydrogen more rap¬

idly than from pure water, magnesium hydroxide being formed.

Solutions of the chlorides of barium, strontium and calcium

were acted upon but feebly by magnesium, but amjmonium chlo¬

ride solution was attacked at a lively rate. From solutions of

the salts of the heavy metals mentioned above, hydrogen was

liberated by magnesium, the chloride or sulphate of that metal

being formed, and a basic salt or hydroxide of the heavy metal,

or the latter in the metallic state, being precipitated. Ho theo¬

retical explanations were attempted. In the same! year Gr. Le-

moine2 called particular attention to the action of magnesium

upon aqueous solutions of magnesium salts. He used solutions

of the nitrate, chloride, sulphate and acetate of magnesium,

but worked especially with the last three salts. From aqueous

solutions of these salts magnesium liberates hydrogen rapidly

and continuously. Hsing magnesium in formi of powder, he

found that about 0.4 the calculated amount of hydrogen was

iBull. Soc. Chim. (3) 21, 885-887, 1899.

2Comptes rend. 29, 291, 1899.

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

liberated from a magnesium! chloride solution when the powder

was present in excess, the action being finally checked by the

accumulation of the precipitate formed; but up to the maxi¬

mum, the quantity of hydrogen disengaged was nearly propor¬

tional to the amount of magnesium added. After magnesium

had acted upon the solutions' of the chloride and acetate, these

latter were found to contain but a relatively slight excess of

base. The analytical data, show that the precipitates formed

were very basic chloride and acetate of magnesium respect¬

ively. In the case of the sulphate of mjagnesium the solution

was much weaker after the magnesium had acted upon it, a

very considerable portion of the salt having been, thrown down

in combination with the hydroxide of magnesium in form of

a basis sulphate of magnesium. Lemjoine’s explanation of the

action of magnesium on solutions of magnesium salts is that in

these solutions the salts are slightly decomposed into hydroxide

of magnesium and free acid. This acid acts on the metal form¬

ing hydrogen and a basic salt which breaks up into the nor¬

mal salt and hydroxide of magnesium; the latter finally drops

out of solution and the reaction begins anew. In advancing

this explanation it would certainly seem that Lemjoine did not

give due weight to the fact that the reaction of the solutions

of the magnesium salts toward indicators is perfectly neutral

at the outset, and that soon after introducing the magnesium

it becomes alkaline and remains so while the liberation of hy¬

drogen continues unabated. There are thus no facts upon

which to base the assumption that the salts he used are even

slightly decomposed by water into free acid and magnesium hy¬

droxide.

H. Mouraour1 again directed attention to the fact that mjag¬

nesium liberates hydrogen readily not only from solutions of

its own Salts, but from solutions of other salts as well. He

found solutions of the carbonate1, chloride1, oxalate and sulphide

of ammonia strongly acted upon ; but no action was observed

in the case of solution of fluoride of ammonium. Sodium car¬

bonate, acetate and tetraborate solutions were strongly acted

iComptes rend. 130, 140, 1900.

Kohlenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 301

upon, as were also solutions of ordinary and chrom alum. On

the other hand the action was feeble on solutions of sodium

phosphate, nitrate, thiosulphate, potassium ferrocyanide and

the chlorides of barium, calcium and potassium. The work was

entirely qualitative in charcter. Mouraour states that while

LemJoine’s explanation of the action may hold good in the case

of solutions of chloride of magnesium, for instance, for most

of the salts last; mentioned it is inadequate. In the case

of the ammonium salts Mouraour ascribes the action to the

fact that solutions of these salts dissolve magnesium hydroxide.

But he states that in the case of the salts of Pb, Cu, Hg, Co,

from which magnesium precipitates the heavy metals and simul¬

taneously liberates hydrogen, we have a secondary action of the

magnesium! on the water of the solution. He deems it very dif¬

ficult to explain the phenomena, in the cases last mentioned,

stating that it is not probable that salts of these heavy metals

favor the solubility of magnesia. Mouraour was apparently

not aware of the work of Tommasi. As a matter of fact mag¬

nesium hydroxide is not formed at all when solutions of the

heavy metals named are acted upon by magnesium; the salt

of the latter metal forms and remains dissolved, the basic salt

or hydroxide of the heavy metal being precipitated. In fact,

the cases which Mouraour finds difficult to explain are really

most readily explained; for the salts of the heavy metals are

indeed slightly decomposed by water, a small quantity of free

acid being liberated as the acid reaction of such solutions clearly

shows. This acid acts on the magnesium evolving hydrogen

and forming the corresponding magnesium salt, a basic salt or

hydroxide of the heavy metal resulting simultanously.

In presenting to my students the various ideas that have from

time to tim/e been entertained by scientific men regarding the

nature of solutions, I have always laid considerable stress upon

the view that the process of solution depends upon a mutual in¬

teraction of solvent and solute, and that solutions are chem¬

ical combinations1 of solvent and solute according to variable

1 ‘Compare Mendelejew, Principles of Chemistrj'-, Vol. I; Pickering, on

Solutions, Watts Chemical Dictionary; Horstmann, Graham-Otto, Lehr-

buch der Physikalischen und Theoretischen Chemie, Yol II.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

proportions. Although, this view has of recent years been

relegated to the background by many, it certainly has a for¬

midable array of facts to support it ; and such facts have really

been accumulating more and more, though the investigations

yielding them have been guided to a considerable extent by the

analogy between gases and solutions. If when a substance is

dissolved in water chemical combination between that substance

and water takes place, the liberation of hydrogen from the solu¬

tion ought to result with a different degree of readiness than

from pure water. With this as the guiding idea, Mr. O. W.

Brown and Dr. II. V. Black at my suggestion m|ade some pre¬

liminary experiments in this laboratory last summer, compar¬

ing the rate with which hydrogen is evolved from various

aqueous solutions by the action of magnesium upon them. In

the course of these experiments (among which many of the ob¬

servations of the above named Drench investigators were con¬

firmed, though at the tim'e their researches had not been looked

up) it was found that hydrogen was liberated with different

rapidity in the case of each solution tested, and that this rate

was different from that observed when pure water was used.

To my regret Messrs. Brown and Black were unable to con¬

tinue these investigations, much as they were inclined to* do

so. It seemed to me well worth while to follow out somewhat

farther the wTork thus begun, and the results obtained in in¬

vestigating the subject will now be presented.

The metallic magnesium used was of Schuchardt’s manu¬

facture. It was carefully tested and was found to be free from

carbon, and from alkali and alkaline earth metals. 0.8593:

grams of the mjetal yielded 0.0036 grams of the mixed sesqui-

oxides of iron and aluminum. Other metals were not present

in the magnesium. The latter was cut into bars of square

cross section measuring 5 mm. on an edge:, and having a length

of 51.5 mm,., thus presenting a surface of 1,200 sq. mm. A

large number of such bars was prepared. In each liquid to be

tested, such a bar was immersed, its surface being first care¬

fully cleaned with fine emery cloth. The action of the metal

upon the liquid was noted and the volume of hydrogen evolved

at different times was observed. The experiments were con-

Kohlenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 303

ducted at room temperature which, was nearly 20°. The or¬

dinary distilled water of the laboratory was used. The chem¬

icals were either of Kahlbaum’s or Schuchardt’s manufacture;

they were tested as to their purity, special care being taken to

see that they were free from traces of heavy metals, and in the

case of the salts employed, that they were perfectly neutral.

Although only one series of results will be given in each case,

each series was checked by at least one additional independent

series. In the tables that follow, the first column indicates the

solution employed, the heading of each succeeding column in¬

dicates the time that a bar of magnesium acted upon the solu¬

tion in order to liberate the volume of hydrogen given in that

column.

Table 1.

(Solutions contained two gram. -mols. per liter except the mannite and sodium sul¬

phate solutions, which contained one gram. -mol- per liter.)

1 The word “discontinued” where used in the tables means that the experiment was

discontinued, not that the hydrogen ceased to be evolved. The experiments in these

cases had to be stopped because more gas could not be held in the tube used.

In the case of the urea solution, ammonia as well as. hydros

gen was liberated. When sodium nitrate solution is treated

with magnesium only a slight amount of hydrogen is actually

evolved; this is due to the fact that the salt is reduced to ni¬

trite. From a solution of ammonium chloride containing 2

gram-mols. per liter, over 50 cc of gas consisting of hydrogen

and ammonia was liberated by one of the bars of magnesium in

five minutes.

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Table 2.

(Solutions contain one gram-mol. per liter.)

Table 3.

(Solutions contain 1-10 gram-mol. per liter.)

Table 4.

(Solutions contain 1-100 gram-mol. per liter.)

Table 5.

(Solutions contain one gram-mol. per liter.)

Kablenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 305

Table 6.

'Solutions contain 1-10 gram equivalent per liter.)

It was found that in normal KOFI or Ha OH solutions no

measurable amount of hydrogen was evolved in 24 hours, the

magnesium remaining perfectly bright. Solutions of magnesium

nitrate when treated with magnesium yield nitrite and finally

ammonia, which accounts for the small amount of hydrogen lib¬

erated by this salt as compared with other salts of mlagnesiunn

From solutions of magnesium acetate and iodide magnesium

also evolves hydrogen rapidly. A magnesium sulphate solution

was treated with a large excess of finely divided magnesium,

hut no reduction of the salt to sulphite took place. From a

solution of crystals of MgCl2 + 6H20 in glycerine of sp. gr. 1.27

magnesium evolves hydrogen; the action is m]uch increased

upon heating. Anhydrous magnesium chloride (prepared from

the double magnesium ammonium chloride) dissolved in gly¬

cerine of sp. gr. 1.27 acts slowly on magnesium; this action is

greatly increased upon raising the temperature. The glycerine

itself acts only very slightly on magnesium even on heating.

From! MgCl2 +6H20 melted in its crystal water magnesium

evolves hydrogen readily. A saturated solution of MgCl2 +

6H20 in ether does not attack magnesium.

From a solution of 1 gram-mol. Mg012 + 6 FLO in 99.5 per

cent, alcohol a bar of m)agnesium the size above described,

20

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

evolved 2.5 cc hdrogen in 23 hours and 47 minutes, while from

99.5 per cent, alcohol alone a like bar of magnesium liberated

0.9 cc gas in 20 hours and 44 minutes. Table 1 shows that

from distilled water there was evolved under like conditions

only 0.1 cc in 23.5 hours.

The results in table 1 show that during the first 23.5 hours

all the solutions except, that of glycerine act more vigorously on

magnesium than does water alone. Throughout the experiment

the glycerine solution lags behind water. After 47.5 hours

more gas has been evolved from the water than from the so¬

lutions of glycerine, sugar and mannite, and the same holds

true after 53 hours. It is especially interesting t© note that

the alcohol solution is much more vigorous in its action on mag¬

nesium than is pure water. The urea solution is relatively

vigorously attacked, though as. has been stated, ammonia is also

formed in this case. Again sodium chloride solution is much

more vigorous in its action than sodium sulphate solution of

equivalent strength.

Tables 2, 3, and 4 show that magnesium' evolves hydrogen

from solutions of magnesium salts at a fairly rapid rate. The

solutions of the chloride of magnesium are the* mjost vigorously

attacked in all cases. In the solutions containing 1 gram-mol.

per liter (table 2) the sulphate solution is acted upon more

vigorously than that of the bromide; in the solutions containing

0.1 gram-mol. per liter (table 3) hydrogen is evolved from the

bromide and sulphate solutions at an equal rate for about five

hours within the limits of experimental error, while in the so¬

lutions containing 0.01 gram-mol. per liter (table 4) hydro¬

gen is again evolved more rapidly from the sulphate solution

than fromi that of the bromide. In the solution of nitrate of

magnesium nitrite is formed, as mentioned above, which ac¬

counts for the fact that but little gas appears in the case of this

salt. Table 5 shows that the KOI solution containing 1 gram-

mol. per liter acts fully as vigorously as MgCl2 solution of 1

gram-mol. per liter. The double potassium magnesium chlo¬

ride acts still more strongly, as the table indicates. The ob¬

servation that KOI solutions act readily on miagnesium agrees

with that of Tommasi ; Mouarour called the action feeble.

Kohlenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 307

At my request Mr. W. E. Mott measured the so-called sin¬

gle differences of potential between magnesium) and some of

the salt solutions in question. The measurements were made

against the normal calomel electrode, the potential of which

was taken to be — 0.56 volts. He found that at 20° O. the

single potential between magnesium and HaCI solution (2 gram-

nfols. per liter) is +1.163 volts between magnesium! and HaOH

(1 gram-mot per liter) +1.111 volts; between magnesium! and

KOH (1 gram-mol. per liter) +1.140 volts; between magne¬

sium and KOH (0.1 gram-mol. per liter) 1.105 volts ; and be¬

tween magnesium and MgS04 (1 gram-mol. per liter) +1.366

volts. Each result represents the average of four determina¬

tions in which different bars of mjagnesium were used. In the

sodium chloride solution the E. M. E. changes but slightly with

the time; in the caustic alkali solutions the E. M. E. tends to

fall with lapse of time; while in the magnesium sulphate so¬

lution the E. M. E. increases on standing.

The explanation of the above described phenomena of the

action of metallic magnesium upon aqueous solutions will now

be considered. In the case of the saline solutions one might

feel inclined to assume that the salt acts upon the water liber¬

ating a certain amount of free acid which attacks the magne¬

sium resulting in the liberation of hydrogen and the formation

of a normal or basic salt or hydroxide of magnesium, accord¬

ing to the nature of the solution under treatment.1 This would

be an attempt to extend Lemoine’s interpretation of the action

of magnesium upon aqueous solutions of its salts to' all aqueous

saline solutions. As stated above there is ground for1 this ex¬

planation in the case of salts of the heavy metals, whose aqueous

solutions, as is well known, have acid reactions indicating that

they are indeed slightly decomposed by water yielding free-

acid. But in the case of salts of Mg, Ca, Ba, Sr. K, Ha, Li„

i.In the language of the dissociation theory, preferred by some, it

would mean that that in saline aqueous solutions from which magne¬

sium liberates hydrogen more readily than from pure water, the salt

reacts upon the water slightly, liberating some free acid which in turn

is el'ectrolytically dissociated yielding free hydrogen ions. The concen¬

tration of hydrogen ions in such solutions would then he greater than

in pure water (which is supposed to he only slightly electrolytically

dissociated) and this would account for the more vigorous action of

magnesium upon saline solutions.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tiiere is no experimental evidence upon which to base the as¬

sumption that in their aqueous solutions there is any free acid

present. Moreover, an. alkaline reaction is imparted to the so¬

lutions of these salts by the magnesium soon after it has been

immersed in them, and yet this alkalinity does not interfere

with the evolution of hydrogen.2

There are no facts upon which to base the assumption that

magnesium chloride in aqueous solution suffers greater hydro¬

lytic decomposition (of which free hydrochloric acid is one

of the products) than do the chlorides of calcium, barium and

strontium), for instance; and yet solutions of the last three

salts are acted upon but feebly by magnesium, while from the

magnesium chloride solution hydrogen is rapidly evolved. This

point is illustrated still more strikingly by the fact that solu¬

tions of sodium and potassium chlorides are relatively strongly

attacked by magnesium ; what reasons are there to assume that

these salts are decomposed more by water than those of the

alkaline earth metals ? And again, would it be rational to sup¬

pose that because KOI solutions attack magnesium more read¬

ily than sodium chloride solutions that the former salt is de-

composed more by water than the latter ? But the difficulty of

this mode of explanation becomes even greater in the case of

the non-saline solutions. So for instance the alcoholic solu¬

tion is acted upon more vigorously than pure water, clearly

there is no chance for assuming free acid to be the active agent

in the case of this solution.1

The idea that Mouraour advances in the case of solutions

of ammonium salts, namely, that the solubility of magnesium

hydroxide in them determines the liberation of hydrogen from

them by action of magnesium, might possibly be applied to

2 According to the dissociation theory, such an alkaline solution would

contain less hydrogen ions than pure water, and yet hydrogen is evolved

faster from them than from water.

1,'Indeed from the standpoint of the dissociation theory one would

have to hold that the alcohol solution contains fewer hydrogen ions

than are present in pure water, and hence action ought to be less than

in the latter. Moreover from the point of view of this theory, magne¬

sium ought to act rather less on solutions of magnesium! salts, for the

presence of Mg ions would militate against the formation of more of

them. And again the difference of potential between magnesium and

an MgS04 solution ought to he less than between magnesium and a

NaCl solution; the facts show that just the opposite is true.

Kohlenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 309

other solutions and so the attempt he made to generalize this

explanation. In addition to the ammonium] salts, there are

several eases that might he considered to favor this view. So

magnesium hydroxide is less soluble in KOH and HaOH so¬

lutions than in pure water, and the fact that these solutions do

not attack the mjetal as much as does water might he regarded

as a support for the view advanced. Again, since ammonium

fluoride solution is not acted upon by magnesium, and since the

hydroxide and the fluoride of magnesium are insoluble in so¬

lution of ammonium fluoride, this might he. urged as another

striking instance of the same kind. It would, however, he a

delusion to think that the insolubility of magnesium hydroxide

in these solutions is what prevents the magnesium from acting

upon them'. This becomes evident from the following experi¬

ment: On making magnesium amalgam (by heating magne¬

sium and mercury together) and treating normal solutions of

KOH and HaOH with the same, I found that hydrogen, is very

rapidly evolved, hydroxide of magnesium) is formed and mer¬

cury set free from] the amalgam. Solution of fluoride of am¬

monium is also violently attacked by magnesium amalgam with

concomitant liberation of hydrogen. Mere contact of magne¬

sium and mercury in these solutions will not bring about this

action ; the amalgam must be used.

At a given temperature and pressure the course that a chem

ical reaction will take is determined (1) by the chemical affin¬

ity between the reacting substances and (2) by the relative

masses of these substances. If the product is an insoluble one

and closely envelops the surface of the solid that is being acted

upon, the rate of the action will be diminished because of dimi¬

nution of the surface exposed. This effect of the accumula¬

tion of the insoluble product of the. reaction increases, the

longer the reaction goes on, and may finally practically check

the process ; which is clearly shown by the results of Lemoine

cited above. While there can be no doubt of this effect, never¬

theless, the differences in the rates of evolution of hydrogen

during the times recorded above are in general too great to be

accountd for solely on the basis of accumulation of the precipi¬

tate. Of this I became especially convinced by treating aque-

310 Wisconsin, Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ous solutions with, sodium amalgam ; in those cases where no

precipitate forms., similar large differences in the rate of evo*

lution of hydrogen occur.1 Again it is well to bear in mind

in this connection that during the time of duration of the

above experiments hut small quantities of magnesium hydrox¬

ide or basic magnesium salts were formed; in. fact, in many

cases a precipitate was not at all discernible. I assured my¬

self that from a bar of magnesium that had remained in, a nor¬

mal solution of NaCl long enough to be visibly covered with

a white coating, hydrogen was nevertheless much more rapidly

evolved than from a fresh bar of magnesium just placed in

water.

One might further be inclined to ascribe the action of mag:

nesium on these aqueous solutions to mere contact action, i. e.,

to so-called catalytic action of the solute or some of its ingre¬

dients. Tomassi2 states that in the case of the KC1 solution

we apparently have the best instance of such contact action;

for here the KOI remains unchanged and the magnesium hy¬

droxide only is formed. Nevertheless, even here it is not an

easy matter to free the latter from “adhering chlorides” by

washing. It would scarcely be helpful to dismiss the matter

by saying that in these diverse solutions the rate of evolution

of hydrogen is increased by the catalytic action of the solute

when the hydrogen is liberated more rapidlv than from water,

and that the rate is diminished by the negative catalytic action

of the solute, when the formation of hydrogen takes, place less

rapidly than from water.

All the facts above presented are very readily explained on

the basis of the view of solutions which suggested this research ;

namely, that solutions are chemical combinations, of solvent and

solute according to variable proportions.3 It is clear that if

iThis most interesting problem of the action of alkali metals and

their amalgams upon aqueous solutions is being studied in this labora¬

tory by Mr. Gustav Fernekes at present. His work is already well

advanced.

21. c.

3The view that solutions are chemical combinations according to

variable proportions, does not detract one particle from the law of

definite proportions which is well established in the case of so very

many compounds. Horstman (1. c.) presents the whole matter so well

that it is unnecessary to dwell further upon it here.

Kahlenberg — Action of Metallic Magnesium , Etc. 311

water is chemically bound to the substance dissolved in it, the

readiness with which metallic magnesium or sodium amalgam

will liberate hydrogen from different solutions will in general

be different. Again the difference of potential between mag¬

nesium and the solutions would be expected to be higher in

the case of solutions that are vigorouslv attacked than in solu¬

tions in which the action is slight. The experimental data are

in accord with this. If the chemical affinity existing between

magnesium and the solution (regarded as a chemical combi¬

nation off solvent with solute) is sufficient to overcome the co¬

hesion of the magnesium, the latter is attacked ; from the result¬

ing compound hydrogen splits off, and the rest m)a;y all remain

as a homogeneous liquid (i. e.. all may remain dissolved) or

further decomposition into a precipitate, the hydroxide or basic

salt, and a solution may occur and usually does occur after the

action has progressed for a, sufficient time. If no precipitate

forms, the rate of change is not diminished by a decrease of

the surface off metal exposed, and so the reaction is apparently

aided. The more readily the dissolved products are removed

from proximity off the surface of the metal by diffusion aided

by mechanical stirring of some kind, the more rapidly the

change progresses. Usually as the gas is rapidly evolved the

liquid receives considerable stirring from this source. If the

specific attraction called chemical affinity existing between mag¬

nesium and the solution, is not sufficient at the temperature

of experiment, to overcome the cohesion of the mjagnesium, no

action will take place, as in normal KOI! solution, for instance;

if the affinity is barely able to overcome the cohesion, the ac¬

tion will go* on very slowly, as in the case off water. As stated

above, magnesium amalgam does act on normal KOH solution

with vigor, liberating hydrogen, forming magnesium hydrox¬

ide and setting mercury free. The explanation of the action

is similar to the one just given. Here the affinity between the

solution and the amalgam is sufficient to disintegrate the latter,

and magnesium hydroxide forms in spite of the fact that it

is difficultly soluble. Under the conditions off the experiment,

it is evidently easier to abstract magnesium from magnesium

amalgam than to overcome the cohesion off pure magnesium.

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

This is in harmony with the fact that magnesium, amalgam does

not form when magnesium and mercury are brought together

at ordinary temperatures f it requires a higher temperature in

order that the union of the metals will take place.

The view that solutions are chemical combinations of solvent

and solute may seem, somewhat antiquated at the present time

when purely physical conceptions of solutions are in predomi-

nence. But this older view is still held by eminent chemists

and physicists, for it gives an adequate cause for the process of

solution, for the thermal changes accompanying the latter, and

for the fact that (exclusive of the mass) the properties of a

solution are never found to be quite equal to the sum of the

properties of solvent and solute. Moreover, facts known at

present concerning both dilute and concentrated solutions are

entirely compatible1 with it, and it will no doubt prove a most

valuable aid in further research.

Laboratory of Physical Chemistry ,

University of Wisconsin , Madison.

iAt ordinary temperatures the affinity between the metals is not

able to overcome their cohesions. Compare the work of Wanklyn and

Chapman on magnesium amalgam in the Jour. Chem. Soc. (2) 4, 141.

FLUORIDE OF GOLD.

BY VICTOR LENHER.

Inasmuch as fluorspar i$ frequently associated with gold in

nature, and quite notably so in the deposits of the telluride ores,

it has seemed important to study gold fluoride in order to de¬

termine if possible whether this substance can play any part

in the genesis of these deposits.

The known compounds of gold with the halogens, chlorine,

bromine and iodine, are, as a rule, fairly well defined. In

the trivalent condition gold forms the relatively stable chloride

while the bromide and iodide show greater tendency to break

down into the lower state of valence of gold.

The halides in which gold shows a monovalence have received

considerable attention, and it is known with a reasonable de¬

gree of certainty under what conditions aureus chloride, brom¬

ide, and iodide are capable of existence.

While the chlorides, bromides and iodides of gold have re¬

ceived more or less studv, comparatively little is known of fluo¬

ride of gold. Prat (Comptes Rendus, 70, 843) has prepared

an intermediate oxide of gold, Au2 02, by the incomplete so¬

lution of gold in aqua regia, in which the hydrochloric acid is

in excess, treated the solution with sufficient bicarbonate of po¬

tassium to dissolve the precipitate formed and warmed the clear

orange-yellow solution to 95° when a dark olive green precipi¬

tate was obtained which when dried showed the composition

Au202. In studying the properties of this oxide, Prat states

that hydrofluoric acid combines with it but without dissolving

it. In his study of the action of fluorine on the various metals,

Moissan states that at a red heat, gold is attacked by fluorine

314 Wisconsin. Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

gas, a yellow hydroscopic substance being fannied and that this

substance is readily decomposed into gold and fluorine.

These two experiments give practically what is known of the

fluoride of gold:

The activity of the halogens toward other elements is, as a

rule, inversely proportional to their atomic weights. The first

member of this group of active elements, fluorine, is certainly

the most active of all the elements, be they halogens or not;

yet, as will be demonstrated later, it appears to have little if

any affinity for gold.

In studying the chemistry of gold, it should always be borne

in mind that it is the most inactive of the metals, but the

relative stability of the most of its salts, notably with the halo¬

gens, would appear to make probable the relative stability of

the compound with the most active of the elements, fluorine.

On the other hand, we have the marked difference of fluorine

from the other halogens in the insoluble fluorides of calcium,

strontium and barium, as contrasted with the very soluble

chlorides, bromides, and iodides ; and the soluble fluorides of

silver and thallium as compared with the insoluble chlorides,

bromides and iodides.

In order to study the relations between fluorine and gold, ex¬

periments were conducted with the view of bringing about if

possible the formation of gold fluoride under various possible

conditions.

The first experiment made was a study of the action of hy¬

drofluoric acid on the oxide of gold. To this end, oxide of gold

was prepared by the action of magnesium oxide on a solution

of chloride of gold and the excess of magnesia removed with ni¬

tric acid. The oxide of gold thus obtained was finely divided

and hence in the most suitable condition to be susceptible to any

chemical action. This oxide of gold can remain in contact with

hydrofluoric acid indefinitely or as has been the case, can be

boiled for weeks with either hydrofluoric acid alone or with a

mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids without suffering any

change whatever. These experiments have been repeated sev¬

eral times but in no case has gold been found to enter into solu¬

tion nor has it been possible to detect fluorine in the precipitate.

Lenlier — Fluoride of Gold.

315

It is obvious that fluoride of gold cannot be prepared by the ac¬

tion of hydrofluoric acid on the oxide. The next most natural

method to try for the preparation of the fluoride would be that

of double decomposition.

Silver fluoride and gold chloride, both being soluble salts, on

being brought in contact in solution should yield theoretically:

Au Oh + 3 Ag F = Au F3 + 3 Ag CL

The actual case is that when solutions of these two salts are

brought in contact, hydrate of gold is quantitatively thrown out

of solution along with silver chloride, thus:

Au Cl3 + 3 Ag F + 3 H20 = 3 Ag Cl + Au (OH)s + 3 TIE.

The accuracy of this reaction has been carefully established in

the laboratory.

If gold fluoride is even momentarily formed it is immedi¬

ately decomposed by water.

The method yet remaining for the preparation of a substance

incapable of existence in presence of water would be the use of

anhydrous solvents. A large number of organic solvents have

been tried with this end in view but no substance has been found

which would dissolve both gold chloride and silver fluor¬

ide; either these salts are insoluble or are: decomposed by the

substances worked with. Among the solvents examined, men¬

tion may be made of the following: alcohol, ether, carbon bi¬

sulphide, benzene', turpentine1, pentane, hexane, chloroform, car¬

bon tetrachloride, ethyl nitrate, nitrobenzene, ethyl acetate,

ethyl propionate, and pyridine.

It thus appears that fluoride of gold is incapable of existence

not only in presence of water but under the ordinary conditions

met with in the laboratory and in nature.

ACTION UPON METALS OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDRO¬

CHLORIC ACID IN VARIOUS SOLVENTS.1

BY HARRISON EASTMAN PATTEN.

INTRODUCTION.

There is an erroneously prevailing idea that chemical action

cannot take place unless the substances which are to react consti¬

tute a system capable of conducting the electric current. Lit¬

tle is said as to the limits, either of the E. 1\L F. to be employed

to pass this current, or of the quantity of current which this

E. M. F. must produce in order that the system may be in a

proper condition to undergo chemical action. The function of

temperature in facilitating chemical action is left somewhat

vague, too ; especially as to the range of temperature within

which substances are or are not “ionized.” Some go so far as

to assert that no chemical action can take place without “ioniza¬

tion,” meaning by the term “ion,” a small body, an element or a

complex, which bears a charge of electricity. On this basis it

would follow that chemical action must take place whenever a

system is capable of conducting electricity, whether a current

be actually passing through the system or not. Other chemists

use the term “ion” in the sense that it is that part of a chemical

compound which retains its identity while undergoing chemical

change. Thus, ferrous iron is not to be called a radicle, yet to

say that iron is reacting does not express the whole truth. The

word “ion,” used in this sense, may be helpful, but is sure to

be confused with the conception of free charged ions, as put

forth by Arrhenius, unless careful discrimination be made.

1 Read before the Academy December 26, 1902; also read before the

Washington meeting of the American Chemical Society, December 30,

1902.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 317

The facts that water gives numerous solutions which conduct

electricity, and that certain reactions were found to he peculiar

to aqueous solution, lead O'stwald to state1 without adequate

investigation that non-aqueous solutions do not conduct the elec¬

tric current. The fact that a number of reactions take place

instantaneously in aqueous solutions which conduct, has lead

others to promulgate the idea (very slightly qualified) first,

that chemical action cannot go on in absence of water, since

water alone gives “ions” and “ions” are needed for reaction to

take place; and then when it was shown that instantaneous

chemical reaction2 takes place in solutions which conduct less

than a dry air-gap, it was suggested3 that benzene itself pos¬

sesses dissociating properties ; and that the evidence is not clear

that every precaution was taken to dry the substances and ex¬

clude moisture in Prof. Kahlenberg’s experiments ; and finally

that “the experiments have no bearing on the theory of electro¬

lytic dissociation.” *

HISTORICAL.

In this connection a review of the work done upon the influ¬

ence of moisture upon chemical reaction is of interest. In 1802

Mrs. Fulhame1 observed that presence of moisture is necessary

for the reduction of salts of gold by “phosphorated ether” or

by hydrogen. Higgins2 in 1814 found that “dry muriatic acid

has no action on dry calcareous earth, while these substances

readily unite if moisture is present.” In 1837 Bonsdorf3

showed that dry air free from: carbondioxide does not act upon

clean, dry, potassium, arsenic,4 bismuth, lead (commercial or

pure), zinc, cadmium, iron, or copper. In 1838 Begnault5

found that dry chlorine and dry olefiant gas would not unite in

1 Grundriss der Allgemeinen Chemie, 390 and 391.

2L. Kahlenberg, Jour. Phys. Chem. 6, 1, 1.

3 Lectures delivered before the Brooklyn Institute and published in the

American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record, October 27, 1902. By

H. C. Jones.

1 Thomson. A System of Chemistry, Vol. ii, 544, 1802.

2 Higgins’ Experiments and Observations on the Atomic Theory, 1814.

3 Ann. Phys. Chem. 1837, 41, 293; 42, 325.

4 Bergman is given the priority in the case of arsenic.

5 Ann. Chim. Phys. 1838 (ii), 60, 176.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

diffused daylight. It. was shown by Ei. A. Parnell6 that dry

hydrogen sulphide will not act upon dry salts of lead, mercury

or copper. In a footnote Andrews7 states that dry chlorine at

ordinary temperature does not act upon zinc, copper, or iron fil¬

ings ; and that dry bromine at ordinary temperatures does not

act upon dry metals. In 1867 Kolb8 found that dry oxides

and hydroxides of calcium, barium, magnesium, sodium, and

potassium do not gain weight in an atmosphere of dry carbon-

dioxide.

Wanklyn* 1 in 1869 noted that sodium and chlorine do not

unite, but did not state whether moisture alone added would

cause combination. Dubrunfaut2 thought that water favors the

combustion of carbon; but Dumas3 showed that pure graphite

is completely consumed in oxygen dried by sulphuric acid.

The work of Dumas, however, loses significance since it has

been experimentally demonstrated4 that gases dried over sul¬

phuric acid still give up a weighable amount of water to phos¬

phorous pent oxide. In 1876 Oowper1 allowed dry chlorine to

act upon metals and found that presence of moisture was neces¬

sary for action to take place. Pringsheim2 in 1887, and Dixon

and Harker3 in 1890, showed that dry hydrogen does act upon

dry chlorine in absence of moisture, though more slowly than

with water present. Dixon4 and Victor Meyer5 6 7 have shown

that the union of hydrogen and oxygen is facilitated by pres¬

ence of water vapor. Holt and Simms6 find that dry oxygen

does not act upon dry sodium or dry potassium; and Baker7

finds the same for carbon, phosphorous, sulphur and tellurium,

6 B. A. Reports, 1841, 51.

7 Trans. Royal Irish Acad. 1842, 19, 398; also Scientific Memoirs, 1889,

p. 90.

8 Compt. Rend. 1867, 64, 861; also DeBray, Ibid. 1848, 26, 603.

i Chem. News, 1869, 20, 271.

* Compt. Rend. 1871, 73, 1895.

3 Compt. Rend. 1872, 74, 13.

4 .000002 gr. water per litre of air. Morley. Am. Jr. Sci. 1885 [iii] 30,140.

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1876.

2 Ann. Chim. Phys. 1887, 421.

3 Owens College Researches 1.

4 Phil. Trans. 1884.

5 Berichte d. D. C. Gs. 1893.

6 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1894.

7 Phil. Tran. 1888.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 319

while he also finds that boron, arsenic, antimony and selenium

are acted upon by oxygen in absence of moisture.

Sabatier and Sender ens1 in 1893 found that dry nitrogen

peroxide does not act upon dry sodium at ordinary tempera¬

tures, but on heating, the sodium is gently oxidized. Dickie,

cobalt, and iron reduced by hydrogen burn wih incandescence

in dry nitrogen peroxide to Fe203, C'o405 and USTiO' + !N’i20,3 ;

while copper, cobalt and nickle give with dry D204 — greatly

diluted with dry nitrogen to avoid the oxidation mentioned

above— the compounds Cu2D 02, Co2D02 and Di2D02 ; iron is

acted on similarly but the compound is not well established as

yet. The copper used may be reduced by carbon, or by hydro¬

gen, so* that the action is not due to the formation of a hydride

of the metals. The authors state definitely that moist air im¬

mediately acts upon thes metallic nitroxyls giving nitrous

vapors.

In 1884 Dixon2 observed that the union of carbon monoxide

with oxygen is influenced by the presence of moisture, but in

1896 found3 that freshly prepared carbon monoxide unites with

oxygen in absence of mjoisture. In 1894 4 Baker showed that

dry nitric oxide and oxygen will not combine. Dixon5 first

found that moisture is necessary for the decomposition of cyan¬

ogen by oxygen, but later6 succeeded in exploding a mixture

of dry cyanogen and dry oxygen. Baker7 was able to* burn dry

carbon bisulphide in dry oxygen ; he also showed that dry car¬

bon unites with dry oxygen but with no accompanying glow.8

Cohen9 states that dry hydrogen chloride is without action

upon aluminium or sodium.

In 1892 Veley1 showed that calcium oxide does not com¬

bine to any appreciable degree with carbon dioxide or with sul-

1 Bull. Soc. Chim. 9, 669, 1893.

2 Phil. Trans. 1884; B. A. Report 1880, 503; J. Chem. Soc. (Abstr. 1893.)

8 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1896.

4 Ibid. 1894. 611.

5 Ibid. 1884.

6 Ibid. 1896.

7 Phil. Trans. 1888.

8 Ibid. 1888; (Abstr) 571.

9 Chem. News, 54, 102.

1 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1893, 831-833.

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

phur trioxide at temperatures below 300° O'. And in 1894 be

found that dry chlorine does not combine with dry calcium

oxide at ordinary temperatures to form the so-called bleaching

powder, up to 300° CL, at which temperature a partial replace¬

ment of oxygen by chlorine takes place.2 Baker3 states that

moisture is needed in order that the following substances may

unite; limei with sulphur trioxide; cupric oxide with sulphur

trioxide; ammonia with hydrogen chloride. Hughes and Wil¬

son4 showed that dry hydrogen chloride does not act upon cal¬

cium carbonate, and Hughes5 showed that dry hydrogen sul¬

phide does not act upon metallic salts, and that dry hydrogen

chloride does act upon manganese dioxide. Baker6 sublimed

dry ammonium chloride from dry lime without liberating am¬

monia, but in the same research showed that dry nitrogen

tetroxide decomposes on heating; likewise he decomposed dry

carbon disulphide, potassium chlorate, silver oxide, and lead

acetate, and changed dry amorphous phosphorous to the yellow

modification by heat, and the dry yellow phosphorous back to

the amorphous state by action of sunlight. Shenstone and

Cundall7 changed dry oxygen to ozone by application of elec¬

trical energy.

In January 1902 Kahlenberg8 showed that the oleates of cop¬

per, nickle and cobalt dissolve in benzene to form highly con¬

ducting solutions and that dry hydrochloric acid gas precipi¬

tates instantly the chlorides of these metals; ; the same result is

obtained by adding a benzene solution of SnCl4, PC13, AsC13,

or SiCl4 although all of these solutions are as good insulators

as benzene itself. Dry hydrogen sulphide passed into these

dry oleate solutions precipitates the sulphide of the metal;

arsenic and tin sulphides were similarly formed by action of

dry H2,Si on a benzene solution of AsC13 and of SnCl4 ; a petro¬

leum ether solution of AsC13 gives with H2S' arsenic sulphide

2 See also F. Winteler, Zeit. f. Anorg. Chem., 33, Heft 2, 1 61, 1902.

3 Ibid. 1894, 611.

4 Phil. Mag. 1892.

5 Ibid. 1893, 533.

6 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1894, 611.

’ Ibid. 1887.

8 Jour. Phys. Chem., 6, 1, 1902.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 321

more readily than the benzene solution. Dry hydrogen chlor¬

ide does not unite with dry ammonia, but in the presence of dry

benzene) vapor ammonium chloride is instantly formed. Simi¬

larly dry pyridine unites with dry hydrogen chloride in ben¬

zene solution. He does not state whether dry hydrogen chlor¬

ide will not unite with dry pyridine; in absence of a third sub¬

stance.

In 1902 W. D. Patton1 showed that dry hydrogen chloride

dissolved in dry benzene will not react with dry soda lime ; and

that an infinitesimal amount of water is not sufficient to cause

the reaction to go. J. W. Mellor and E. J. Russel2 find that

an electric spark causes combination of dry hydrogen with dry

chlorine instantaneously and completely. While neither heat

nor sunshine cause this action, action between the two dried

gases does go on, though slowly. Clearly moisture is not needed.

Jatindrath Sen3 has shown that dry ammonia gas acts upon dry

mercurous chloride.

To study further the question as to the action of chemicals

upon each other in solutions where the conduction of electricity

is extremely slight I have dissolved, gaseous hydrochloric acid

in various solvents and brought the resulting solutions into con-

1 Mr. W. D. Patton describes his experiments as follows: While prepar¬

ing anhydrous solutions of HC1 gas in benzene, various dehydrating agents

were used. Soda lime was placed in one bottle containing benzene, HC1

gas run in and the action noted. The benzene used was Schuchard’s thio¬

phene free preparation which had stood over P205 for six months. It

was then transferred to a dry bottle and well shaken with Pa05, after

which it was treated a second time in the same manner. The dry benzene

was then forced into a bottle containing soda lime, made by Merck, pre¬

viously heated, and allowed to stand for a day. The HC1 gas was prepared

in a flask from NaCl, C. P. and H2S04, C. P. concentrated. The gas, as

soon as evolved, was passed through two drying bottles containing H2S04,

concentrated, gand then through two U tubes, containing anhydrous Ca Cl2.

The U tubes were from entrance to exit, 50 cm. long, with an internal dia¬

meter of 2 cm. From these the gas was passed directly into the prepared

benzene. The HC1 gas was evolved continuously, until the benzene was

saturated, the tube conducting the gas reaching to within 2 cm. of the

soda lime. During the introduction of the HOI gas, from the beginning

to the close of the experiment no action was observed on the soda lime.

The rough corners of the lumps were as sharp and well defined as when

introduced, and after standing for two days with a layer of air above the

benzene, no change was perceptible. But when some of the soda lime

and benzene were poured together into a vessel containing water, the reac¬

tion began with great energy.

2 Trans. Chem. Soc. 1902, 1273.

3 Zeit. Anorg Chem. 33, 201, 1902.

21

322 Wisconsin , Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

tact with a number of metals and carbonates. In some cases

hydrogen or other gas was e-volved from the metal and a chloride

of the metal formed. In others one metal was attacked, and

this metal deposited from solution upon a. second metal. In

still others, no gas appeared and no deposition of metals upon

each other was observed but still some metals were corroded.

Some solvents of themselves attack the metals.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND APPARATUS.

The experimental work was conducted as follows :

The hydrochloric acid gas was evolved by dropping an aque¬

ous solution into concentrated sulphuric acid; the gas then

passed through two wash bottles containing concentrated sul¬

phuric acid; over fused calcium chloride contained in a tower

30 cm. high and 3 cm. in diameter; over phosphorous pentoxide

spread on dry pumice stone contained in (1) a tower 40 cm.

high and 4 cm. in diameter, (2) a bottle 10 cm. high and 5 cm.

in diameter and (3) through a tower of the same dimensions as

ISTo. 1. From here the gas was passed into the bottle which

contained the clean, dry metals and the anhydrous solvent.

From this bottle the gas was led away through three tubes 2 cm.

in diameter and 15 cm. long, containing phosphorous pentoxide,

connected in series, then through a sulphuric acid wash bottle

and finally absorbed in potassium hydrate solution. M> cot¬

ton was used in any of this work since phosphorous pentoxide

decomposes it. Where necessary, glass wool, which had pre¬

viously been heated, served to keep particles of phosphorous

pentoxide from being carried by the gas.

Two methods of preparing the solvent were used. 1. The

dehydrated, redistilled solvent was sealed up in a test-tube,

placed in a clean, dry bottle which contained the clean dry

metals and the bottle closed with a rubber stopper through

which passed two tubes ; one reached to the bottom of the bottle

so that the hydrochloride acid gas when passed in might bub¬

ble through the solvent ; the other tube served as an exit for the

gas. Before any hydrochloric acid gas was run through, a

stream of hydrogen purified by the usual means and dried over

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 323

sulphuric acid, calcium chloride and phosphorous pemtoxide as

rigorously as the hydrocloric acid gas just described was run

into' this bottle with the test-tube containing the solvent still

unbroken. This hydrogen was left running all night and the

experiment finished in the morning, when the bottle was closed

by screwing down the pinchcocks, connected to the hydrochloric

acid generator and the pinchcocks next the generator opened

first and allowed to stand for fifteen minutes in order that any

moisture from the air in the tube by which connection had been

made might be absorbed.

Before taking any hydrochloric acid from the generator the

gas was allowed to run through all the train, with the bottle

containing the solvent and metals cut out, until there could be

no question that all air had been displaced. Then the gas was

run into the bottle under considerable pressure in order to pre¬

vent the solvent rushing back into the drying towers — hydro-

chloic acid gas is much more soluble in some of the solvents

used than might be supposed.

2. The second method of preparing the solvent is that given

in detail under the experiment in which benzene is used as solv¬

ent. Owing to the controversy concerning the action of a solu¬

tion of hydrochloric acid gas in this solvent, I have given every

point. To save repetition, the reader is referred to' this experi¬

ment. In other cases, to' relieve all doubt as to the conditions

of experiment I have been very explicit even at the risk of repe¬

tition.

Method 1 is more satisfactory for solvents which are self-

dehydrating; that is, which decompose water with formation

of oxychlorides and hydrogen chloride gas. While it is true

that the oxychlorides might promote chemical action, the con¬

ductivity measurements show that at least no electrolytic dis¬

sociation exists in these solutions.1

1 I mean simply that it would be carrying the theory of electrolytic dis¬

sociation to an extremity to claim ionization in a solution or solvent which

conducts electricity less well than a dry air gap. That we do get a cur¬

rent even across the air-gap is unquestionable, since the voltmeter used

as ammeter is deflected. But that this current is carried electrolytically

is a point which requires experimental proof more rigid than any yet at

hand.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Method 2 was used for solvents which dissolve water with¬

out undergoing decomposition. It was found that method 1

was not satisfactory for these liquids. The first, second and

third experiments with chloroform were carried out according

to method 1 ; also the first experiment with carbon tetrachloride.

The action of the hydrogen chloride solutions upon magnesium

and aluminum indicates that all moisture had not been elimin¬

ated, especially as the last experiments with carbon tetrachloride

and chloroform as solvents gave evolution of gas upon zinc

alone; and the electrical conductivity of the last solutions was

much less than that of the solutions prepared by method 1.

RESULTS.

Chloroform as Solvent. — Chloroform from Kahlbaum was

dried for seme weeks over a large surface of fused calcium

chloride and distilled from a dry flask and condenser into a re¬

ceiver protected by a calcium chloride tube. The first runnings

of the chloroform were rejected and the final portion which

boiled at 60° C. under 741.7 mm. was quickly sealed up in dry

glass tubes. The moisture taken up during the necessary trans¬

fer through the air is extremely slight. The metals used were

carefully cleaned by scraping with a sharp knife, heated, and

placed in the bottle along with a tube of the sealed up chloro¬

form and treated as described in full under method 1.

The chloroform had no action upon the metals. When hydro¬

chloric acid gas was run in, gas was evolved upon zinc, cad¬

mium, and magnesium. The approximate degree of violence of

this action as estimated by my eye is given in table I Hy the

subscripts to the TPs used to denote evolution of gas. As this

action progressed a black deposit, fine and sooty, appeared on

magnesium, aluminum, chromium, manganese, lead, tin, bis¬

muth, and antimony, and small aggregations of this black de¬

posit floated about in the solution. Doubtless it was carbon.

This black deposit did not appear in either of the other three

chloroform experiments. An accident happened in carrying

out this experiment: The hydrochloric acid gas was admitted

under slightly reduced pressure so that the solvent was drawn

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 325

back up the tube by which the gas entered, into the P205 drying

tower. When extra pressure was put on to force the solvent

back into its flask, the stopper was blown from one of the drying

towers and some air got in, but no moisture could have reached

to the flask containing the metals and chloroform, since it was

well protected by the remaining phosphorous pentoxide drying

towers, two on each side. The chloroform came for a short

time in contact with the rubber tube connecting the flask to the

drying tower; however, the negative results of this experiment

will stand: Iron, nickel, copper, silver, gold, platinum, ar¬

senic, tellurium, and palladium remain perfectly bright in pres¬

ence of the chloroform solution of hydrogen chloride; alumi¬

num, chromium, manganese, lead, tin, and antimony evolve no

gas. Magnesium gives off very much less gas than comes from

the zinc. Oalcite and witherite are not attacked. Contact of

the metals with each other makes no1 difference in the rate at

which gas is evolved. This experiment was carried out at room

temperature, 22° C. Finally the solution was siphoned out of

the flask under pressure into a platinum crucible and its electri¬

cal conductivity tested. Using a direct current of 110 volts

pressure and a Jewell voltmeter of 20,000 resistance as an am¬

meter, I got a deflection of 5 volt divisions, which corresponds

to a current of 0.00025 ampere. The bottom of the crucible

served as one electrode; the platinum disk serving as the other

electrode was 1.75 cm. in diameter, and the distance between

electrodes was about one millimeter.

Experiment 2. A second sample of dried chloroform was

treated exactly as in the first experiment. The results are

given in table I. Zinc, aluminum, magnesium, tin and lead

are acted upon by HC1 solution with evolution of gas. The

violence of action is in the order just given. Mo black deposit

was observed; possibly it came from dissolved rubber in the

first experiment. The other metals were not acted upon.

Experiment 3. A third sample of dried chloroform was

treated as in experiments 1 and 2. The hydrogen chloride so¬

lution acted upon zinc, aluminum, magnesium, tin and lead, in

the order given, with evolution of gas. Nickel, lead and tin

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

are very slightly corroded. Antimony turns black. See

Table I.

Experiment 4. This sample of chloroform was prepared in¬

dependently of the other three samples just described. It was

dried, two weeks over a large surface of fused calcium chloride,

the edges of which remained perfectly sharp, and then distilled

from fresh fused calcium chloride out of contact with air in

an apparatus which had been dried in a current of clean air and

then allowed to stand twenty-four hours in contact with the

phosphorous pentoxide drying train. The metals, magnesium,

aluminum, zinc and cadmium used were polished by scraping,

and left in the receiver (into which the chloroform distilled)

during the process of drying. Ho tarnish was observed on any

one of them. The chloroform distilled at 5 9°. 9 c. under

746 mm.

Thus the solvent was prepared dry and by means of tubes

fitted with glass stopcocks attached to the receiver dry hydros

chloric acid gas was run in and its action upon the metals ob¬

served. Magnesium and aluminum show no evolution of gas;

a very minute quantity of gas comes off upon cadmium ; zinc is

vigorously attacked, rather more hydrogen being evolved than

in a normal HC1 solution in water. The conductivity of this

solution is very much less than that of a dry air-gap. Using

the platinum crucible before described, 110 volts sent 0.00003

ampere through it. On standing twenty-four hours both mag¬

nesium and aluminum were considerably corroded, though I saw

no evidence of evolution of gas upon them at any time. A quali¬

tative analysis of the cholorform solution — which was siphoned

off by pressure of dry air — showed zinc and aluminum in quan¬

tity, a fair amount of magnesium, and a slight trace of cad¬

mium. This indicates that the corrosion of magnesium and

aluminum is facilitated by the solution of zinc chloride in the

chloroform.1 Probably the hydrogen is united with the carbon

of the chloroform to give hydrocarbons. See Table I.

1 Compare this with the action of aqueous solutions upon magnesium,

aluminum, sodium, and sodium and potassium amalgams as treated by

L. Kahlenberg in the Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 1903, and an unpublished

paper by G. Ferneckes.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 327

Carton Tetrachloride as Solvent. — Schuchardt’s c. p. car-

bontetrachloride was dried over fused calcium chloride

for three days. It boiled at 75°.0 O. under 741.7 mm.,

and was sealed up in a glass tube as described under

“Method 1.” The solvent itself is without action upon the

metals used. As soon as the hydrogen chloride gas was run in

an active evolution of gas upon the zinc was noticed. Magne¬

sium was not acted upon, remaining perfectly bright for two

hours, when a black deposit appeared upon it. Aluminum was

attacked less: vigorously than the zinc, but maintained a steadier

evolution of gas. The evolution of gas upon zinc gradually de¬

creased, a white coating forming upon the metal. At first tin

was merely corroded but after about twenty minutes gas was

given off upon it and finally a brisk evolution set in which

proved to be steadier than that upon the zinc. Lead was cor¬

roded, a white crust, doubtless PbCl2 forming upon it. Iron

was: attacked with the formation of a red crust — E'eCl3. Cad¬

mium was very slightly attacked, some minute bubbles rising

from it at long intervals. Hickel, copper, silver, antimony,

bismuth, manganese, chromium, arsenic, tellurium, platinum,

palladium, gold, and calcite and witherito were not acted upon ;

no gas was evolved, and their lustre remained undimmed. The

conductivity of this solution, after being siphoned off through

the air was; less than that of a dry air-gap. Contact of one

metal with another made no difference in any of the above re¬

actions.

Experiment 2. A sample of the same carbon tetrachloride

was left drying for two weeks over fused calcium chloride and

then distilled from fresh calcium chloride in a dried apparatus

(as given in method 2), and dry hydrogen chloride run in.

The metals magnesium, zinc cadmium and aluminum were

used. Zinc is immediately attacked and evolves gas with con¬

siderable rapidity, but after an hour a protective coating begins

to form on the zinc, ZnCl2 in all probability. After twenty-

four hours the metals, except zinc, are still unacted upon, while

the zinc is completely coated over with a white crust. The so-

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

lution was siphoned off and its conductivity tested: 110 volts

across one millimeter in the platinum crucible passed a current

of 0.000066 ampere; a dry air-gap allows 0.0001 ampere to

pass, using the same pressure and electrodes. Before this test

it is unquestionable that a trace of moisture was taken up while

the solution was being poured through the air into the crucible

where the conductivity was tested. The anhydrous solution

which acted upon the metals had in all likelihood a still lower

conductivity.

Ethyl Chloride as Solvent — 1. Schuchardt’s c. p. ethyl chlor¬

ide was treated as in method 1. The bottle containing the

metals and the ethyl chloride tube was cooled to 0° C. and the

ethyl chloride broken from the tube. Of itself ethyl chloride

has no action upon the metals at that temperature. When dry

hydrogen chloride gas is passed in, the solution acts upon zinc

at once with brisk evolution of hydrogen. Magnesium is at¬

tacked, but gas is not given off from it so fast as from the zinc.

Gas comes off upon cadmium in small quantity, somewhat more

than comes from the aluminum, which at first showed no action

at all. A slight bubbling was observed upon the manganese.

The following metals remained perfectly bright : iron, nickel,

bismuth, tin, copper, silver, gold, platinum, and palladium.

Lead was slightly tarnished. Oalcite and witherite were not

acted upon. The flask was opened to the air so that a trace of

moisture might get in, but no more metals were corroded, and

no acceleration in the liberation of gas upon any metal was ob¬

served. The order of violence with which the gas is evolved

upon each metal is given in table I. The conductivity of the

ethyl chloride and of the solution of hydrogen chloride in ethyl

chloride is less than that of a dry air-gap.

2. Lest question be raised as to the dryness of Sohuchardt’s

preparation of ethyl chloride, a second experiment was under¬

taken. The ethyl chloride was distilled and passed in gas form

through c. p. sulphuric acid of specific gravity about 1.8, then

through four wide-mouth eight-ounce bottles connected in series

Pattern — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 329

and containing phosphorous pentoxide and dry pumice, and

finally condensed by a freezing mixture of ice and salt in a

glass bottle with a double stop-cock ground in. The dry metals

scraped bright had been placed in this dried bottle and allowed

to stand in connection with the phosphorous pentoxide drying

tubes for six hours before the ethyl chloride was distilled in

upon them. The HOI was dried through two sulphuric acid

wash bottles, one calcium chloride tower, and two phosphorous

pentoxide towers (of the dimensions given in the first paragraph

under the head “experimental” ) , four eight-ounce wide-mouth

bottles, and three six inch calcium chloride tubes all filled with

phosphorous pentoxide. When the HC1 was run into the ethyl

chloride zinc was rapidly tarnished, a white coating, undoubt¬

edly ZnC'l2 formed, and a steady evolution of gas was observed.

Lead was corroded to a marked degree, but no gas was evolved.

Tin was covered with a white coating — SnCl2. Magnesium was

blackened in spots but no evolution of gas was observed for one

hour, when minute bubbles began to come off, and at the end of

eleven hours the magnesium was very considerably corroded.

Aluminum was first merely corroded, but after ten minutes an

evolution of gas began which was steadily maintained. Dtiring

the first two hours manganese, chromium, silver, antimony, and

copper remained bright but the next day after eleven hours had

elapsed, pink CrC'l3 appeared on the chromium ; manganese was

covered with a dark coating; antimony was slightly darkened;

silver was black in spots ; and copper had a very slight tarnish,

such that its lustre was merely dimmed. Shortly after running

in the HC1, iron began to corrode red (FeCl3) in spots but no

gas was evolved. Cadmium also was corroded white. Cobalt

was tarnished but no action whatever was observed upon nickel.

Arsenic, bismuth, gold, palladium, platinum and tellurium re¬

mained perfectly bright after standing eleven hours. Wither-

ite and calcite were not attacked by the HC1 solution in ethyl

chloride.

The conductivity of the ethyl chloride and of a saturated so¬

lution of HC1 in ethyl chloride was tested as follows : — Ethyl

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.

chloride was distilled over through the drying apparatus con¬

taining phosphorous pentoxide (mentioned in the paragraph

above) and condensed in a conductivity cell of special pattern

which had been dried by hot, clean air and by standing five

hours in contact with phosphorous pentoxide. One hundred

twenty volts from a direct current dynamo was then applied to

the terminals of this cell and a Jewell voltmeter of 20,000 ohms

resistance was placed in series and used as an ammeter. The

deflection of the voltmeter was the same for the pure solvent

and for the HOI solution, i. e., one-third of a volt division

which corresponds to 0.0000165 ampere. Opening the HC1

solution to the air for a few seconds did not increase the con¬

ductivity. It still remained onerthird of a volt deflection. The

insulating material between the electrodes of this cell was the

glass of the cell, and upon the outside an insulating wax ordi¬

narily used for induction coils. The insulation was tested with

120 volts, but the voltmeter in series, showed no deflection what¬

ever.

Benzene as Solvent. — To ascertain if HC1 gas dissolved in

benzene will act upon zinc, cadmium, aluminum or magnesium,

Schuehardt’s c. p. benzene was treated with phosphorus pent-

oxide in quantity and allowed to stand 48 hours. Meanwhile a

distillation apparatus, dried by clean hot air, wras set up with

tightly fitting connections ; the receiver was protected by a. phos¬

phorous pentoxide tube, which in turn was protected by two

more phosphorus pentoxide tubes and beyond them was a wash

bottle' containing concentrated sulphuric acid. This appara¬

tus was put together hot and stood forty-eight hours, thus re¬

moving the last trace of moisture. Then the benzene was poured

off from the phosphorus pentoxide, over1 which it had been

standing, into the distilling flask, and the stopper quickly re¬

placed.

Sodium was taken from the petroleum in which it is ordinar¬

ily kept, thoroughly freed from petroleum by washing repeat¬

edly with Schuchardt’s c. p. benzene, and finally cut into small

bright; pieces under benzene and quickly transferred to the; dis-

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 331

tilling flask which contained the benzene to be used in the ex¬

periment. About four grams of sodium was taken to 50 cc. of

benzene and the distilling apparatus was allowed to stand in

contact with phosphorus pentoxide drying tubes for seventy-two

hours before distilling the benzene.

In making the distillation the joints of the apparatus proved

to be so tight that on removing the flame below the distilling

flask a vacuum was caused by the condensing of the benzene

vapors. When the receiver containing the benzene was discon¬

nected from the distillation apparatus some benzene was left in

the part of the glass tubes beyond the glass stop-cocks. This

was evaporated off by heating and blowing in air through a

capillary tube. Then the receiver was connected to the hydro¬

gen chloride apparatus and allowed to stand one half hour in

connection with the phosphorus pentoxide towers on each side

before the stop-cocks of the receiver were opened to let in the

HC1 gas. Thus it is not possible that any moisture from the

air entered the receiver.

The HC1 gas was now run in under pressure. Zinc was acted

upon in one minute from the opening of the stop-cock, a gas,

presumably hydrogen, being evolved with considerable vigor.

Magnesium and aluminum were not touched but remained per¬

fectly bright. Contact with the metals makes no difference in

the rate of action on zinc. After one and one-third hours the

zinc was still being acted upon with a steady evolution of gas

and showed signs of corrosion, a white crust forming on it,

doubtless ZnCl2.

Cadmium gave off no bubbles of gas at any time but after two

hours showed a very faint white tarnish. Heather magnesium

nor aluminum showed signs of corrosion after standing twenty-

four hours. A trace of water let in by opening the receiver to

the air did not cause action upon the aluminum or magnesium.

The benzene solution was siphoned off under pressure without

coming into contact with the air before it left the metals, evap¬

orated to dryness and left not the slightest solid residue. This

shows that the action upon metals of these non-aqueous solutions

of TIC1 does not depend solely upon the solubility of the salt

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

of the metal in the solvent used, hut rather is to he attributed

primarily to the chemical individuality of the metal, as well as

that of the solution.1

The solution of HOI in benzene conducts the electric current

approximately one-fifth as well as a dry air gap, when tested

with 110 volts direct current with electrodes one millimeter

apart.

Tin i Tetrachloride as Solvent. — Schuchardt’s SnCl4 was

treated as described in method 1. The pure solvent is without

action upon magnesium, chromium, manganese, aluminum,

zinc, cadmium, iron, nickel, tin, lead, copper, antimony, bis¬

muth, arsenic, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, tellurium,

calcite, or witherite. The solution of HC1 in this solvent is

also without action upon the above metals and carbonates. The

conductivity of the HC1 solution was tested with 110 volts

across one millimeter and gave a deflection of one volt division

on the Jewell voltmeter corresponding to a current of 0.00005.

Attention is called to the fact that this solution exhibits a higher

conductivity than either benzene or ethyl chloride, and yet the

benzene solution and the ethyl chloride solution act vigorously

upon the zinc and slightly upon the cadmium, while the SnCl4

solution of HOI is entirely without action.

Silicon Tetrachloride as Solvent. — Schuchardt’s Si014 was

treated as described in method 1. The pure solvent does not

act upon magnesium, aluminum, zinc, cadmium, iron, nickel,

tin, lead, cobalt, silver, platinum, palladium, or tellurium. Hb

gas was evolved upon any of the metals when HC1 was run in.

Copper was blackened and after standing three and three-

fourths hours lead was corroded white. All the other metals

remained perfectly blight during eight and one-fourth hours

after the HOI was run in. The SiCl4 alone, and the HOI solu¬

tion conduct electricity less than a dry air gap as tested by 110

volts across one millimeter.

Calcite and witherite are not acted upon by the HOI solution.

1 Compare. L. Kahlenberg Jour, Phys. Chem. 6, 1, 1902, pp. 1-14; also

M. Gomberg, Amer. Chem. Jour. 25, 324 (1901).

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 333

Phosphorus Trichloride as Solvent. — Schuchardt’s phos¬

phorus trichloride was distilled over phosphorus pentoxide from

a dry retort into a dry erlenmeyer eight-ounce flask containing

the metals. The pure solvent has no action upon any of the

metals used. See summary in Table I. When dry HC1 gas

is run in lead is slightly tarnished, tin is very slightly dark¬

ened, bismuth is darkened, but beyond this there is no action

upon any of the metals used. The conductivity of the pure

solvent and of its HC1 solution is less than that of a dry air gap

as tested by 110 volts across one millimeter.

Arsenic Trichloride as Solvent. — Schu chard’s AsC13 was

treated as in method I. Magnesium is blackened by AsC13

alone, very likely by a deposit of arsenic. Aluminum, chro¬

mium, manganese, zinc, cadmium, tin, copper, silver, gold,

platinum, palladium are turned black by the solvent alone.

Iron is corroded red, but the coating is not very thick. A white

crust, doubtless PbCl2, is formed on lead. When the HC1 gas

was run in, gas was evolved upon magnesium and zinc in about

equal amount, but only about one-seventh as fast as from zinc

or aluminum when acted upon by a solution of HC1 in chloro¬

form. This is simply my judgment as to the respective rates

as observed by my eye , and is not to be thought of as a rigid

quantitative relation. Ho further action was observed upon

the other metals except bismuth and nickel, which were very

slightly corroded. Calcite and witherite were not acted upon.

The arsenic trichloride alone allowed a current of 0.00274 am¬

pere to> pass when subjected to 65 volts pressure. The elec¬

trodes were about 5 mm. apart and approximately 1 cm. square.

Antimony Pentchloride as Solvent. — EL de ITaen’s SbCl5 was

treated as described in Method 1. The pure solvent acted upon

iron, coating it red ; tin was slightly darkened ; bismuth, copper,

and antimony were blackened ; the other metals remained bright.

When HOI gas was run in, lead was very slightly tarnished;

silver was blackened ; beyond this there was no action upon any

of the other metals. Those which were bright in the pure sol¬

vent remained bright; those which were corroded or deposited

upon by the solvent alone appeared to undergo no further

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

action when HOI was present. Ho gas was evolved upon any

metal. Oalcite and witherite were not acted upon. See sum¬

mary in Table* I.

2. A second sample of SbCl5 w7as treated as in Method 1.

The pure solvent acted upon iron, coating it red; upon tin,

forming a white crust. Bismuth, copper, antimony and tellu¬

rium were darkened ; arsenic turned gray. Magnesium, alu¬

minum, chromium, manganese, zinc, nickel, cadmium, silver,

gold, platinum, and palladium were not acted upon, as was the

case in Experiment 1 above. When the HOI gas was run in,

the corrosion on the iron was increased slightly. Ho further

action was observed on any of the metals except silver, which

was blackened. By a separate experiment it was shown that

no silver goes into solution in this antimony pentachloride and

HOI solution. A qualitative analysis of this solution showed

mere traces of lead, cadmium, iron, zinc and magnesium. A

large quantity of the solution was operated upon — 10 cc — so

that the test shows that the solubility of chlorides of the* metals

found is extremely slight. By another experiment it was

shown that silver may be kept indefinitely without blackening

in a solution of EGO in SbC:l4 provided no other metal be pres¬

ent. This means that we have here a case of plating out of

one* metal upon another from a solution which is as non-conduct¬

ing towards the electric current as a dry air-gap. Oalcite and

witherite were not attacked. Ho bubbles, of gas were given

off from any of the metals. This may be explained by assum¬

ing that nascent hydrogen reduces, the Sb015 regenerating HC1

which dissolves in the solvent.

Sulphur Monochloride as Solvent. — Bchuchardt’s S2C12 was

treated as described, in method 1. The pure solvent blackened

antimony immediately ; copper is blackened and tellurium

turned dark. Magnesium at first was coated a yellowish white

and aften ten minutes the action upon the magnesium became

so violent that sufficient heat was generated to crack the bottle

containing the solvent and the metals. A separate experiment

showed that magnesium alone acts upon S:2C12 when both are

dry giving free sulphur and the chloride of magnesium.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 335

A second experiment (with! Si2012 was' undertaken, leaving out

magnesium,, cobalt, copper, antimjony and tellurium, which were

acted upon by the pure solvent. In this second experiment

S2C12 did not act upon aluminum, chromium, manganese', zinc,

iron, nickel, lead, cadmium, tin, bismuth, silver, gold, plat¬

inum, palladium, which metals also remained bright in the first

experiment with Si2Cl2, as shown in Table I. When the HC1

gas was run in, aluminum was coated white; zinc was slightly

corroded white; cadmium showed a white crust; there was a

red coating upon iron; tin was corroded white; and bismuth

was darkened. The other metals remained bright. The solu¬

tion of HOI in S'2C12 shows a conductivity less than that of dry

air. One hundred ten volts direct current across one milli¬

meter gave one and one-half volt deflection of a Jewell volt¬

meter, corresponding to a current of 0.000075 ampere. Cal-

cite and witherite are not acted upon.

Thionyl Chloride as Solvent. — Schuchardt’s SOCl2 was

treated as in method 1. The pure solvent acted upon magne¬

sium, coating it gray; aluminum, lead, and tin were coated

white ; iron, copper, bismuth, and antimony were coated black ;

arsenic was coated gray, and a very slight evolution of gas was

noticed; tellurium was corroded; chromium, manganese, zinc,

nickel, cadmium, silver, gold, platinum, and palladium re¬

mained bright. The solution of HOI in SoC:l2 gave zinc a

white coating, slightly darkened silver, and dissolved away the

black coating which had been formed upon the iron by the

SOCl2 alone. Probably this coating was FeS and gave FeCl2

+ H2S. Very likely the silver was darkened by the H2S: thus

formed. Ho further action upon any of the metals mentioned

above was noticed. Both calcite and witherite were vigorously

attacked with evolution of gas. 73 volts caused 0.00235 am¬

pere to flow through the S0‘012 above, with electrodes approxi¬

mately 5 mm apart and 1 cm square.

All of the above experiments were carried out at room tem¬

perature (22° C) except the one with ethyl chloride, which

necessarily was done at zero degrees C. on account of its low

boiling point. With the exception of As013 and SO’OL, none

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of tlie above solvents or solutions conduct electricity, rather

they are most excellent insulators. It is established beyond

question that chemical action may and does take place in solu¬

tion at ordinary temperature without the presence of moisture

and without concomitant electrolytic conduction. Contact of

one metal with another has no effect upon any of the above

actions. I he colors of the coatings formed upon the various

metals indicate that the chlorides of the metals have been

formed. In many cases the formation of a protective chloride

coating causes the corrosion of the metal to cease.

TABTjE I.

Table I contains a summary of the results obtained in this

research. At the topi of each column is given the formula for

the solvent used. Above this formula is given the number of

the experiment with that solvent. The symbols placed in the

squares directly below the solvent formula denote what action

the pure solvent had upon the metal which stands in the hori¬

zontal column with this square. The symbols in the squares

below the formula HCl indicate the action of the solution of

HOI in that solvent upon the respective metals.

The following symbols are used to indicate what action took

place upon the metal : —

Square left blank — Metal remained bright.

C = Metal corroded ; no gas given off. An ! after the 0

means that the action is instantaneous.

W u White. B — Black. R = Red. D — Darkened.

G = Gray. Pk Pink. I If Corrosion increased.

T — Slight tarnish. HP = Ho further action.

P = Metal seems to be plated upon. — = Metal not present.

X = Solvent is broken down.

H — Bubbles of gas given off.

The subscripts H a, H /?, Hr, etc., indicate the order of vio¬

lence of action, H^, being most violent and Hj the least. The

estimation was made by my eye, and is merely my judgment

as to the rate at which gas was evolved.

Table I.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 337

H. F. == Heat of formation of anhydrous chlorides for

chemical equivalents, taken from Thomsen.* 1

\/B = Bllack coating removed upon running in HC1 gas.

DISCUSSION.

The results given in Table I show that solutions of hydro¬

chloric acid which are good insulators will in some cases act

vigorously upon metals, and even permit the deposition of one

metal upon another. Further investigation would in all like¬

lihood show that for each solvent there exists a definite concen¬

tration of HOI for which the action upon the metal is a maxi¬

mum. That this concentration would be the same for all metals

is unlikely. The factors which determine whether or not action

will take place1 * * * * * * at the temperature:, pressure, and concentration

studied are. the metal and the solvent.

The conductivity of these solutions, slight as it is, gives no

basis for predicting action upon the metals. As an instance

of this, compare the action of the ethyl chloride solution and

of the benzene solution with that of the tin tetrachloride solu¬

tion and of the silicon tetrachloride solution, taking into con¬

sideration the conductivity of these solutions as given under the

detailed description of each solvent’s action.

1 Thermochemische Untersuchungen, 3, 503-522.

1 The conductivity of 0.1 N. HOI in water is 3,250X10~9 * * *. In the first

chloroform experiment where the conductivity was greatest (save for the

arsenic trichloride and for the thionyl chloride which solvents themselves

exhibit a slight conductivity), 0.00025 ampere was obtained with 120 volts

across 1mm. This gives for the conductivity of this solution of HC1 in

chloroform 8,700X10 — 13 approximately. If 120 volts were kept on this solu¬

tion for 10 hours, according to Faraday’s law, we should get 2.06 cc. of

hydrogen. A 0.1 n. HCi solution in water would give under the same

conditions 7,700 cc. of hydrogen, assuming no counter e. m. f., since the

aqueous solution has a conductivity 3,750 times that of the chloroform

solution. If now the action of the chloroform solution of HCI upon zinc

were in proportion to its conductivity, we should expect hydrogen to be

evolved upon the zinc 3,750 times slower than in 0.1 n. HCI in water.

The fact is, the aqueous solution of HCI acts slower than the chloroform

solution. But this chloroform solution was not dried to my entire satis¬

faction. The conductivity of the fourth chloroform solution was 34 of

that given above. In this case hydrogen should be evolved 30,000 times

slower in the chloroform than in the aqueous solution of HCI, speaking in

round numbers. (Compare L. Kahlenberg, J. Phys. Chem. 6, 1, 1902.)

Approximately the same figures and reasoning apply to the other sol¬

vents in which zinc or other metal was acted upon. The so-called period

of induction appears to be of slight duration in these nonaqueous solu

22

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences t Arts , and Letters.

The heat of formation of the chloride of the metal also does

not- determine the action upon that metal, or even the order of

violence of the action.

The solubility of the chloride in the solvent used does not of

itself enable prediction as to action upon the metal. This is

shown by the experiment with benzene as solvent, in which zinc

is attacked although its chloride is insoluble in benzene to any

appreciable extent. Chemical individuality — the fact that dif¬

ferent substances act differently — appears vividly throughout

this work.

The tendency of the so-called new chemistry, the chemistry

of infinitely dilute solutions and the gas equation PY = fRT,

is to separate the particles of matter in solution so far from

tions. The metals are acted upon, where action takes place, with great

promptness, although slower action was noted in the case of some metals.

The part played by protective coating on the metal in bringing the action

to a stop is important. Even in solvents where the chloride of the metal

is soluble, the solution becomes saturated with that metallic chloride, re¬

fuses to clear away the freshly formed chloride from the surface of the

metal, and in consequence a coating is formed. The acid solution cannot

get at the metal, and corrosion ceases. Mr. G. Ferneckes has recently

shown that an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide which has been sat¬

urated with the caustic will not act upon sodium continuously. A coating

forms and the action ceases. (Part of an unpublished research now in

progress in this laboratory.)

The fact that speed of reaction is not proportional to the electrical con¬

ductivity has been noted in many cases. For example ammonium cyanate

is transformed into urea 30 times faster in ethyl alcohol than in water, al¬

though the conductivity of the alcoholic solution is considerably lower

than that of the aqueous solution. Certainly the degree of electrolytic

dissociation here is not even a main factor in the reaction; yet on the

basis of that theory we ought to find our main explanation in the activity

of the ions.

T. Erickson-Auren found that the speed with which zinc dissolves in

aqueous solutions of HC1 and of SOs is not proportional to the electrical

conductivity of these solutions; that presence of non-electrolytes in solu¬

tion lessens the speed of solution of zinc, but not in proportion to the mass

of non-electrolyte added, rather in the proportion of the number of gram-

molecules added; and that the presence of the zinc salt in solution in¬

creases the speed of reaction. (Zeit. Anorg. Chem. 27, 251, 1901.) He at¬

tributes this acceleration produced by the zinc salt to the increased con¬

ductivity of the solution; but when it appears that presence of zinc chloride

in chloroform solution facilitates the corrosion of magnesium and alumi¬

num by dissolved HC1, it seems that this explanation is not sufficient. The

conductivity of the chloroform solution containing ZnCl2 and HC1 was

approximately 30,000 times less than that of the 0.1. n HC1 in water with

which Erickson-Auren worked. According to the idea of solution tension

of metals, the more zinc chloride dissolved the less should be the solution

tension, and the slower the solution of the metal. The facts indicate that

this is not the case either in electrolytes or in non-electrolytes. The exist¬

ence of chemical affinity between the zinc and the solution seems to be the

simplest explanation of the facts. If it be objected that the very object

of our researches is to analyse chemical affinity, it may be said that a sat¬

isfactory explanation or analysis must fit the salient facts.

Pattern — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 339

each other that whatever characteristic individual attraction

(chemical affinity) they may possess for each other may be minr

imized. Then every substance' in solution is to act like every

other substance since there will be so little of its own peculiar

attraction, for its neighbors exerted when it is so far from them.

Any attraction which the particle of matter may have for the

particles of solvent about it is neglected.

It is true the mathematician or physicist argues that the

simple laws of motion and of attraction grow complicated when

the bodies acting are numerous and close together. But in the

case of solution, this diluting of chemical affinity does not de¬

stroy it and when we begin to concentrate we get back chemical

affinity as certainly as if it had not been cast away. The prob¬

lem may be complicated, but it must be faced. Furthermore,

these laws which were developed to hold for infinitely dilute

solution, by neglecting chemical affinity, do not serve even rea¬

sonably wrell for concentrated solutions, in spite of numerous

additional assumptions. However much the physicist or math¬

ematician may desire to get all matter to act alike, the fact of

chemical individuality remains to be dealt with.

The facts show that presence of water is not a necessity in

order that chemicals may react upon each other. A chemical

system need not conduct electricity electrolytically in order that

chemical action take place. Chemical individuality and chem¬

ical affinity are the main factors in chemical reactions, while

temperature, pressure, surface conditions, and the masses of the

acting substances also exert great influence upon the nature,

direction and extent of the reaction. In general a chemical

action goes, on in such a way that the potential energy of the

system is reduced to a minimum. The impulses which initiate

chemical action require further study; the probability is that

a vibration of proper period must be set up in the system before

chemical reaction will take place. On this basis we can under¬

stand why certain reactions require a definite temperature;

likewise, why substances are stable between definite limits of

temperature.

Some have taken the position that two pure substances can¬

not unite — an easy thesis to defend if one assumes that man

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

cannot make pure substances. Water has been conceived of as

forming a complex electrolyte with, the reacting substances.

Where it was found that water would not cause chemical reac¬

tion to go on, it was suggested that the proper impurity to

cause water to conduct was not at hand.

In order to conceive of water as forming an electrolyte in the

case of gaseous systems where presence of moisture facilitates

reaction, it was found necessary to suppose the water to be

liquefied, thus forming a little globule of solution. This at¬

tempt to reduce all chemical action to a case of electrolytic dis¬

sociation in aqueous solution loses its point when it is shown

that chemical action in solution is not dependent upon the elec¬

trical conductivity of that solution.1

In a recent address, Prof. H. El. Armstrong2 says: “It is

premature to conclude that gases undergo ionization — using the

word in its modem sense:. I also venture to think that the ques¬

tion whether mere molecules cannot form conducting systems

has not yet received in any way the attention it deserves from

those engaged in these inquiries.” His suggestion that radio¬

activity may be due to ether vibrations induced by a rapidly

vibrating atom of the radioactive substance, is full of interest,

too.

Regarding the presence of ions during the union of gaseous

hydrogen with gaseous chlorine, Prof. J. J. Thomson3 says :

“The object of these experiments was to see whether there were

any free ions present either in the preliminary stage when the

expansion discovered by Draper is occurring, or (2) when the

hydrogen chloride is being produced (from Cl2 and H2). At

neither stage could I detect any free ions amounting to any¬

thing like one in 10 of the molecules present. I then tried

whether the rate of combination was affected when ions were

produced by external means, e. g., Rontgen rays, thorium radi¬

ation, etc. The results were negative. I could not detect the

slightest effect.” Evidently, then, it is well established that

1 Kelvin’s researches on contact E. M. F. show that an electrolite is not

necessary to produce a difference of potential between substances.

s Chem. News 85, ”2.218, 254; see also H. E. Patten J. Phys. Chem. 6,

554, 1902. Also Phil. Mag. 45, 172, 1898.

3 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1901, 11, 90.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 341

hydrogen and chlorine unite without ionization, and even when

actually conducting an electric current no increase in their rate

of combination is observed. Also, as Mellor and Russell4 have

shown, these gases unite when dried by the best known means.

Changes of color such as chromium and cobalt salts exhibit in

aqueous solution have been attributed to changes in their ioniza¬

tion. But- Kahlenberg* 1 has shown that cobalt oleate dissolved

in benzene shows the same color change on heating and cooling

as in aqueous solution, though the benzene solution is a most

excellent insulator. Similarly it has been claimed that the

absorption spectra of solutions depend only upon one colored

ion. But G. D. Liveing2 in a most careful research has shown

that the absorption spectra of erbium salts in aqueous solution

do not change with changing concentration in the manner re¬

quired by the theory of Arrhenius. He found, too, that the

spectra varied with the acid radicle and with the solvent used.

The mass of evidence, then, effectually disposes of the idea

that chemical reactions go on, even in the commonest instances,

because of the previous splitting up of the substance into ions.3

It remains to< explain the fact that a third substance facilitates

chemical action. In many cases the union of reacting sub¬

stances into a complex compound, and their subsequent split¬

ting off in altered form is a demonstrated fact. The union of

solvent and solute in solution, and the many reactions which

take place in solution fall directly in line with this explanation

of the function of a third substance.

In conclusion I wish to thank Prof. Kahlenberg for valuable

suggestions given during the progress of this work. Also Mr-

Wm. Brinsmaid, Mr. Eckern and Mr. Mott for careful assist¬

ance rendered me.

Laboratory of Physical Chemistry ,

University of Wisconsin,

December 25, 1902.

4 Loc. Cit.

1 Loc. Cit. See also Lachman, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 25, 1, 50, 1903.

2 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1899.

3 Consult further, L. Kahlenberg, Jour. Phys. Chem. 6, 1. 1; also Bull.

Univ. Wis. 47, Science Series, Vol. 2, No. 5, 297-351; also H. E. Patten,

J. Phys. Chem. 6, 554, 1902.

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

NOTE ADDED JAN. 19, 1903.

At the Washington Meeting of the American Chemical So¬

ciety, December 30, 1902, President Ira Pemsen stated that

he had been unable to get hydrogen by acting upon dry zinc

with hydrogen chloride dissolved in dry benzene. He said that

the zinc was acted upon very slightly for a period not exceeding

two minutes, after which the zinc remained unacted upon. His

interpretation was that as soon as the surface layer of moisture

on the zinc1 was used up the action ceased for lack of ions.2 3

He further stated that upon opening the flask containing the

benzene solution to the air, moisture was at once taken up and

action upon the zinc recommenced but stopped again when the

moisture was gone.

After the close of that session I told Dr. Kemsen that I

should be in Baltimore during the next week and would be

pleased to see wherein the difference in our experiments lay.

Oil Monday, Jan. 5, I presented myself to Dr. Bemsen and he

sent me into the laboratory to meet Mr. K. Gr. Falk who had

done the experimental work. Mr. Falk put together the appa¬

ratus given in Figure 1.

Flask 1 contained e. p. concentrated sulphuric acid into which

c. p. concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid was dropped. The

hydrogen chloride gas evolved passed through washbottles 2, 3,

and 4, which contained c. p. concentrated sulphuric acid ; and

then through a phosphorus pentoxide drying tube, 5, into the

bottle, 6, about two inches in diameter and three inches high

containing the benzene and the zinc and other metals. Tube 7

is a phosphorus pentoxide protection tube, and 8 is a washbottle

containing c. p. concentrated sulphuric acid.

1 The zinc had been heated to 120s C. for at least half an hour, as I

afterward learned from Mr. Falk, a graduate student at Johns Hopkins

University, who did the experimental work.

3 If the water ionizes the hydrochloric acid gas we should expect the

action to continue indefinitely as in the case of the union of dry ammonia

with dry hydrogen chloride when a trace of moisture is introduced. The

mere formation of zinc chloride and its solution in a small amount of

water should not stop the action.

Patten i — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 343

The sulphuric acid used was the ordinary c. p. concentrated

acid and the phosphorus pentoxide was a sample from Bender

& Hobein which had been standing sometime in a common stock

bottle and was balled together in spots from having taken up

moisture. Mr. Falk was unable to get a better sample and so

used this one. The benzene had been shaken with concentrated

acid till the thiophene was removed, as shown by the isatine

test, washed with dilute aqueous caustic soda, then with water,

then dried over calcium chloride. The benzene was then

frozen, the residual liquid discarded and the crystals of ben¬

zene melted and allowed to stand over phosphorus pentoxide

(commercial from Bender & Hobein) for at least four months.

For this experiment a portion (about 600 cc) of the: above ben¬

zene stood over sodium chips till used; in addition, bright

sodium chips were introduced a few hours before the experi¬

ment. The benzene was poured off through the air into the

bottle (6 in Figure 1) still hot after being dried at 120° 0. in

an air bath for an hour or more. The zinc was quickly intro-

344 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

duced into' the benzene and the bottle (6) fitted in place as

shown in Figure 1, and the hydrogen chloride gas run into1 the

benzene.

In order that the train might be filled with hydrogen chloride

gas, the lower ends of the tubes 5 and 7 were joined (before

inserting them in bottle 6) by a glass tube connected on by rub¬

ber tubes and the gas passed until the air in the apparatus

might reasonably be considered expelled. When bottle 6 con¬

taining the benzene was placed in position this glass tube was

removed and the hydrogen chloride gas necessarily came in con¬

tact with the air and took moisture from it.

I have described this manipulation carefully because it

makes clear that moisture was not excluded in this experiment.

The phosphorus pentoxide drying tubes used were not longer

than six inches and about one inch in diameter and cotton plugs

of about % to y2 inch depth were used between the layers of

pentoxide. The hydrogen chloride was run in at a rapid rate,

too1. Mr. Falk assured Dr. Jones in my presence that the ex¬

periment was conducted in every way like the one Dr. Eemsen

described at the Washington meeting, and Dr. Eemsen himself,

on seeing the apparatus, passed no criticism.

The zinc used was c. p. wire from Merck. One piece,

cleaned with emery •cloth, was cut in two, and one-half heated

half an hour at 120° G. in an air bath. The other piece was

not heated. This variation was made to see if the action upon

the zinc were due to a surface layer of moisture upon it.

The results obtained were as follows : At first- the zinc was

vigorously attacked, no difference in action being observed upon

the heated or the unheated samples. This evolution of gas

gradually decreased and at the same time a white coating

formed on the zinc, growing thicker and thicker. Aften ten

minutes the action had abated considerably, and after thirty

minutes very minute bubbles were coming off at long intervals.

I detected these bubbles rising from the zinc after forty min¬

utes had elapsed, and without the aid of a lense, but Mr. Falk

could not see them so I have set aside the forty minute period,

though I am not at all sure that the action ceased even then.

That is as long as I watched it.

Pattern* — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents . 345

The bottle wag then opened to the air, but the zinc was not

acted upon immediately after opening, as Dr. Remsen stated

at Washington; in this first experiment I did not take time by a

watch, but it took several minutes of contact with the air before

the zinc was attacked. This long time and considerable

amount of moisture required to start the action upon zinc is not

due to slow diffusion of water from the top of the benzene solu¬

tion down to the zinc- — as I showed in an experiment to be de¬

scribed later, by shaking up the solution from time to time.

The bottle was then corked and left till Tuesday morning when

all action had ceased. The bottle was again opened and after

about five or six minutes’ contact with the air, gas began to come

off from the zinc ; as more and more water came in, this action

increased in violence. The water is used up here before the

hydrogen chloride is exhausted.1

On Tfiesday morning, at my suggestion, Mr. Falk platinized

one end of a piece of zinc wire (Merck’s) and dried it for two

hours at 120° O. in an air bath; magnesium from Bender &

Hobein was scraped clean, but not heated ; aluminum and cad¬

mium, obtained from Elmer & Amend, were treated like the

magnesium and all four metals were placed in benzene dried

over sodium as before described, all the manipulations being

exactly the same as on the preceding day (Monday, Jan. 5,

1903) ; and hydrogen chloride gas was passed into the benzene.

The phosphorus pentoxide in the drying and protection tubes

was not renewed ; the same had been used the day previous and

a considerable quantity of gas passed through it. Eo one in

the laboratory would maintain that it was efficient in removing

the moisture from the hydrogen chloride gas.

The Results.— Zinc was acted upon vigorously for three min¬

utes, then the evolution of gas decreased till in ten minutes no

1 In my first experiment upon the action of hydrogen chloride upon zinc

in benzene solution, in this paper, I stated that upon opening the flask to

the air no acceleration in the rate at which zinc is attacked was observed.

This observation is correct, I merely took out the stopper [of the flask

containing the benzene and immediately replaced the stopper. The in¬

terior of the flask filled with the white cloud usually seen when dry hydro¬

gen chloride is brought in contacr with moisture, so that presence of

water is certain. And yet I could detect no further action upon the zinc.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

action upon the zinc could be detected by Mr. Falk. Tbe zinc

was covered by an even white coating. Fo greater evolution of

gas was observed near tbe platinized portion of tbe zinc than

upon the rest of it. Magnesium, aluminum, and cadmium

were^ not acted upon ; no gas was evolved and tbe metals re¬

mained perfectly bright. During the experiment the hydrogen

chloride gas passed into the benzene very rapidly.

At 12 :28 p. m. the bottle containing the metals and the ben¬

zene solution of hydrogen chloride was opened to the air.

After two minutes’ standing no action on the zinc was seen ; at

12 :31 no action on the zinc, although I shook up the benzene

solution to distribute the moisture taken up from the air evenly

throughout the liquid. At 12 :32%, on shaking up the solu¬

tion, evolution of hydrogen upon the zinc commences, but mag¬

nesium aluminum and cadmium remain bright for a long

while; gradually the magnesium appears tarnished.

As the bottle remained open to the air, up till 12 mASy2 zinc

gave off gas with increasing rapidity, but thereafter less and

less gas came from it, till at 1 :12 p. m. the rate of gas evolution

was quite slow. Up till this time the magnesium, aluminum

and cadmium still appeared bright.

The thought immediately occurs, that the hydrochloric acid

was exhausted, consequently further addition of water did not

accelerate the rate of gas evolution. But addition of a drop of

water caused an immediate and vigorous evolution of hydrogen

upon zinc while no hydrogen was given off from the other

metals. The hydrochloric acid, then, was present in quantity,

but with moisture being absorbed from the air at a steady rate

at the surface of the benzene solution, we get first an increased

action and then a decrease.

The explanation of all this is at hand: The hydrochloric

acid solution in benzene acts upon zinc, forms zinc chloride

and this forms a protective coating upon the zinc. In this

same paper I have shown that zinc chloride is insoluble in ben¬

zene; When moisture is allowed to enter the solution slowly

no action is observed till four and one-half minutes have

elapsed, since sufficient moisture must be present to dissolve

Patten i — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 347

away the protective coating and allow the hydrochloric acid so¬

lution to attack fresh zinc surface.

The tendency of zinc chloride to unite with water is well

known. The first portions of water added, then, do not clear

away the zinc chloride but unite with it. The latter portions

of water dissolve off the coating, fresh zinc is acted upon and

the zinc chloride thus formed again coats the zinc and the ac¬

tion ceases.

It is worthy of note that the zinc was acted upon for a shorter

time on Tuesday than on Monday in the experiments conducted

by Mr. Falk. The first day the drying materials were less

saturated with moisture than on the second day. This is why

the action was shorter: the less moisture, the better the action

went, since there was less chance to form the compound of zinc

chloride and water, which is a more sticky coat than the dry

zinc chloride. Reference to my first experiment with zinc, ben¬

zene and hydrogen chloride will show the excessive precautions

taken to dry all apparatus and materials, and that the time

during which gas is evolved from the zinc is one hour and

twenty minutes certainly, but much longer in reality, since I

neglected to watch the experiment to' see exactly when the ac¬

tion stopped, being at that time unaware of the part duration

of action was to play in the present needs of the discussion.

From the work of Mr. Falk, then, it appears that the action

upon zinc of hydrochloric acid gas dissolved in benzene does

not cease because of lack of moisture to form HC'l into H and

01 ions, but simply because the zinc coats over and the acid

solution cannot get at it. Mr. Falk thought this coating too

thin to protect the zinc, but it is well known that extremely thin

coatings serve as impervious coverings on some metals ; for ex¬

ample, the coat which forms upon metallic aluminum when ex¬

posed to the air. In fairness to Mr. Falk it should be said

that he approached this problem from the standpoint of utility,

wishing to perform an organic reduction under Dr. Remsen’s

guidance. While' I have criticised severely the method used by

him in its bearing upon this discussion, I would not be under¬

stood as reflecting in the least upon Mr. Falk’s efficiency as an

open-minded, clear-thinking, painstaking chemist.

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

It is a fact that at the present writing no worker in the Johns

Hopkins University chemical laboratory has brought dry ben¬

zene into contact with dry hydrogen chlorides and dry zinc.

Consequently any statement from that laboratory can be only

speculation.

There is then no difference in our results save the length of

time during which the zinc is acted upon. I took back to Mad¬

ison with me samples of the zinc used at J ohns Hopkins by Mr.

Falk, and using them with my zinc and with a bright bar of

magnesium from Schuchardt repeated my experiment using an

entirely new set of apparatus, in which extraordinary pre¬

cautions were taken to dry all the parts. The only possible

points open to criticism were the use of rubber connections

where glass tubes join, of rubber stoppers, and of phosphorus

pentoxide from E. de Haen which had not been resublimed.

Dr. Uernsen thought the use of pumice (which had been

thoroughly heated) in the drying towers might account for

the action I got upon zinc in my first experimlent. So

in this last one I used glass wool in all my phosphorus

pentoxide drying tubes, first heating it nearly to the melt¬

ing point of glass before loading the tubes and towers.

All the glass with which the benzene and metals came into con¬

tact was steamed, treated with sulphuric acid and chromic acid,

washed with distilled water repeatedly and dried by heating

the outside and blowing dust-free air through it. The dried

containers were allowed to cool in contact with phosphorus

pentoxide tubes after the metals had been introduced hot. A

stream of air dried by the phosphorus pentoxide train was

drawn through while the containers were cooling.

A photograph of the apparatus is given in figure 2. Hum¬

ber 1 is the evolution flask containing c. p. concentrated sul¬

phuric acid into which concentrated c. p. aqueous hydrochloric

acid is allowed to drop. Z is a two-way stopcock for relieving

pressure; 2, 3 and 4 are wash bottles containing c. p. concen¬

trated sulphuric acid. Q is a stopcock protect the towers 5,

6, and 7 from moisture if it be desired to break the train.

These towers 5, 6 and 7 are of the same dimensions: 40 c. m.

high and 4 c. m. in diameter and were filled with alternate

Fig.

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 349

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

layers of phosphorus pentoxide and glass wool rammed fairly

tight and approximately 2 c. m. in depth each. At V is a by¬

pass, Opening of stopcock Y permits the gas to go through 8,

a tube 15 c. m. long and 2 c. m. in diameter filled with alternate

layers of phosphorus pentoxide and glass wool, then through

pinckcock R into the protection train 14, 15, 16, and 17, which

consists of empty trap bottles alternated with concentrated sul¬

phuric acid and caustic soda solution. The end of the train is

attached to a suction pump. When the train is filled with

hydrochloric acid gas, cocks Y and R are closed, X, Sj, T! and

X opened and the gas absorbed in the benzene in flask 9, which

was fitted with a securely fitting three-hole pure gum rubber

stopper. The benzene had previously been gently distilled over

from the retort 10, into flask 9, where it was condensed by ex¬

ternal application of snow. The benzene used was Schu-

chardt’s thiophene-free preparation. It stood one month over

a large quantity of phosphorus pentoxide from E, de Haen and

then was poured into retort 10, where it stood twenty-four

hours over bright sodium chips before being distilled from

them. In order to displace the air in the retort 10 and flask 9,

suction was applied to the end of the train and benzene evapor¬

ated to take its place. Oxidation of the metals which remained

in flask 9 over night was thus prevented. The stopper of re¬

tort 10 was specially ground in by myself, set in with vaseline

and wired tightly to the retort. The distillation was conducted

with a, very small flame. The phosphorus pentoxide tubes 11,

12, and 13, protect flask 9. They are of the same dimensions

and filled in the same manner as tube. 8 already described.

The hydrogen chloride1 was passed slowly into the benzene

after running for fifteen minutes through the by-pass. At 9 :42

a. m. Thursday, Jan. 15, all the zinc — both the c. p. wire and

stick given me by Mr. Falk and the Schuchardt’s stick zinc

which I used originally — gave off gas. For a time gas came

off faster and faster, the platinized zinc acting exactly like the

other zinc except where the platinum coating protected it, and

there no gas was evolved. Xo action was visible upon the mag¬

nesium, neither a tarnish nor gas evolution. The gradual

Patten — Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in Solvents. 351

formation of a protective coating upon all the zinc was seen,

not a mere tarnish but a thick white coat.

At 10 :04 — 22 minutes from the start — there was still a de¬

cidedly brisk evolution of gas upon all the zinc.

At 10:10 — 28 minutes — less gas was coming off.

At 10:20 — 38 — minutes — very slow evolution of hydrogen.

By shaking the flask about and getting a fresh zinc surface by

abrasion of one piece of metal upon another, gas was again

evolved upon all the zinc in spots, not uniformly, showing that

the zinc ceased acting because of this protective coating and not

because there was an insufficient quantity of water present to

“ionize” the hydrochloric acid.

At 10 :30 gas still came slowly from all the zinc in spots

showing that where the coating was open the acid solution

acted upon the zinc. The coating upon the zinc is thicker.

At 10 :40 gas coming from all the zinc at intervals of about

20 seconds between bubbles.

At 11 :00 minute bubbles from all the zinc at long intervals.

At 1 :45 p. m. gas still coming slowly in tiny bubbles from

all the zinc.

At 3 :18 p. m. gas was evolved in small bubbles at long inter¬

vals, on all the zinc. Confirmed by G. M. Wilcox of Armour

Institute and L. Kahlenberg.

At 5 p. m. all the zinc was covered with a thick even coating

of white zinc chloride, which could not be dislodged by shaking

the metals together, since no further action of zinc on the acid

solution could be detected.

During all this time a slow steady current of hydrogen chlo¬

ride was passed into' the benzene. The magnesium is not acted

upon, so far as could be detected by use of a large hand lense,

either as to' gas evolution or diminution of lustre, after seven

days’ contact with the acid solution. In view of the important

part which thin films play in the corrosion of metals it would

be advisable to- subject the magnesium, and aluminum to the

more delicate optical methods while in contact with this acid

solution. So' far as my observation goes the magnesium is not

acted upon. The reason for this lack of action appears to me —

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences. Arts , and Letters.

in the absence of further experimental proof to the contrary —

to be due to the same cause which underlies all differentiation

of substances and which, the better to conceal our lack of knowl¬

edge, we call chemical affinity.

This action of hydrochloric acid gas dissolved in dry ben¬

zene upon dry zinc endured then five hours and thirty-six min¬

utes, possibly longer. Dr. Rem sen wished to get nascent hy¬

drogen for reducing purposes in a solvent containing neither

water, oxygen nor chlorine. While the hydrogen produced in

my experiments may or may not serve this purpose,1 the fact is

established that we do get a gas evolved from the zinc; and

within certain limits the dryer the materials the longer the

action endures.

The following gentlemen were present at this last experi¬

ment: — Prof. W. W. Daniells, Prof. L. Kahlenberg, Prof. G.

M. Wilcox, of Armour Institute, M,r. Shinn, Mr. Femeckes,

Mr. Huddle, and Mr. Brinsmaid. Prof. Lenlier and Prof.

C. F. Burgess examined the coating on the metals after the

action had ceased.

Laboratory of Physical Chemistry,

University of Wisconsin,

Madison, Wis.,

Jan. 19, 1903.

1 1 purpose to try the reducing power of the hydrogen thus obtained at

an early date.

TRANSACTIONS

e

V

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XIV, PART II

1903

WITH TWENTY-TWO PLATES

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY.

Published by Amtliority of Law

MADISON, WIS.

Democrat Printing Co., State Printer.

1904.

LIST OF PLATES.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

LIST OF PUBLISHED PAPERS.

PAGE

Interrogative thought and the means of its expression,

Edward T. Owen ; 353

A Wisconsin group of German poets, Henry E. Legler , 471

Some Hepaticae of the Apostle Islands, Charles E. Allen , 484 ^

Some points in the anatomy of Ranantra fusca (with three

plates), . Wbi, S. Marshall and Henry Severin , 486

Auditory memory-span for numbers in school children,

John I. Jegi , 509 ^

A treatment of instant angular and linear velocities in com¬

plex mechanisms (with three plates),

Oliver B. Zimmerman , 513

A new Arrenurws (with one plate), . Ruth Marshall , 520

The structure of the starch grain, . R. II. Denniston , 527 ^

The diurnal movement of plankton Crustacea,

Chauncy Juday , 534

Saskatchewan birds (with eight plates),

Russell T. Congdon •, 569

Variations in the distribution of the cat Fells domesticus

(with one plate and two text figures), 17. S. Miller , 621"

A study in the variations of proportions in bats, with brief

notes on some of the species mentioned (with six

plates), .... Ilenry L. Ward , 630

On the conformal representation of plane curves, particu¬

larly for the cases p == 4, 5, and 6,

Charlotte E. Pengra , 655 y

Table of Contents.

iv

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

PAGE

Charles Kendall Adams, . Charles Forster Smith, 670

George McKendree Steele, . . Samuel Plantz , 678

John Butler Johnson, . . F. E. Turneaure , 683

Samuel Dexter Hastings, . John B. Parkinson , 686

Hamilton Greenwood Timberlake, R. II. Harper, 690

Frederick Pabst, . Compiled by the Secretary, 693

John I. Jegi, . . . 1. W . Mitchell, 695

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

Officers and Standing Committees . . . . 697

Past Presidents . . . . . . .698

Honorary Members . . . . . .699

Life Members . . . . . . .700

Active Members . . . . . . .701

Corresponding Members . . . . .717

Members Deceased . . . . . .7 2.2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

Report of the Secretary —

Thirty-third annual meeting, 1902 . . . 723

Thirty-fourth annual meeting, 1903 . . . 729

Report of the Treasurer, 1902 . . . 735

Report of the Treasurer, 1903 . . . . 736

Report of the Librarian, 1902 . . . . 738

Report of the Librarian, 1903 . . . .738

RULES AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE ACADEMY.

Extracts from the Charter . . . . .740

Extracts from the Wisconsin Statutes . . . 742

'Constitution of the Academy . . . . .743

Resolutions by the Academy . . . . .746

Errata ......... 748

General Index, VoL XIV, Parts 1 and 2 . . . 749

INTERROGATIVE THOUGHT AND THE MEANS OF ITS

EXPRESSION.

EDWARD T. OWEN, PH. D.,

Professor of the French Language and Literature in the

University of Wisconsin.

GENERAL PURPOSE.

The main results of the following investigation were sub¬

mitted to the academy at the meeting of December, 1901. They

exhibit the question as the final term in a crescendo consisting of

expressions

A, Suggestive, giving only what is conceived ; e. g. “You to be

industrious.”

B, Assertive, giving assurance of (vouching for) what is con¬

ceived ; e. g. “You are industrious.”

O, Imperative, giving assurance of desire (etc.) for what is

conceived ; e. g. “Be industrious !”

D, Interrogative, giving assurance of desire for information

as to what is conceived ; e. g. “Are you industrious ?”*

The question being regarded as a demand for information (or

a command that information be given) — that is, as an impera-

*A fifth term may he found in the questioned question, giving as¬

surance of desire for information as to your desire for information as

to what is conceived; e. g., to the question, “Are you industrious?” I

answer “ rAm I industrious?’?”

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tive — and the imperative itself being regarded as a form of

statement or assertion (of a wish, etc.), the question also is re¬

garded as a form of statement or assertion.

Argument will he conducted along the lines suggested by the

following Table of Contents.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

Words Or Idea-Symbols. page

Words express ideas versus things . . . 359

A word may express one idea . 359

A word may express more than one idea . 359

A word may express less than one idea . 359

Sentences Or Thought-Symbols.

Sentences express thoughts versus ideas . 360

Sentences express thoughts versus extra-mental facts . 360

Sentences express thoughts versus other mental facts . 360

Sentences express thoughts formed in a particular way . 361

Sentences presuppose analysis and synthesis of thought .... 363

Different Analyses of Thought.

Usual analysis reveals two elements and copula . 365

(a) not always plausible . 366

(b) sometimes unavailable . 366

(c) often not made . 366

Adopted analysis reveals at least three elements . 367

Comparative merits of different analyses . 368

Equivalence of conclusions based on different analyses . . . 369

Danger of underestimating the vagueness of thought- elements . 369

Danger of underestimating the freedom of thought . 371

(a) freedom in choice of relation . 371

(b) freedom in choice of relation-aspect — proverse or reverse. . 372

(c) freedom in choice of relation-phase — static or dynamic . . 373

Thought-Elements Versus Thought- Attendants.

Primary or essential thought-elements . 374

Associate thought-elements . 375

Associate of thought versus associate of idea . 375

Tho ught- Asso ci ates .

( Thought-reality ) . 376

Thought-truth . 376

Thought-untruth . 3g^

Mental Reactions on Thought-Associates.

e. g. fear , hope, desire , expectation, belief , disbelief. . . . 381

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

CHAPTER II.

INTERROGATIVE AND OTHER THOUGHT COMPARED.

PAGE

Each kind of thought may vary in extension . 384

Each kind of thought examined in its minimal form.. . . 384

A. The Conception ( expressed by a. suggestion ).

( Its essential content . 385

( Is two ideas and their relation.

Its associate truth or untruth . . . 385

j Its distinctive . 387

( Is absence of belief.

B. The Ordinary Judgment [expressed by a statement).

( Its essential content . 388

( Is belief in truth [or untruth) of what is conceived.

( Its distinctive . 389

( Is belief.

General nature of belief . 390

Linguistic neglect of disbelief . 391

On what belief bears . 392

Scope of belief . 393

Intensity of belief . 394

Expression of belief . 396

C. The Imperative Judgment ( expressed by a command).

The fallacy of the imperative mode . 397

( Its essential content . 399

( Is belief in truth of desire for what is conceived.

j Its distinctive . 401

( Is an intercalated element of desire.

D. The Interrogative Judgment [expressed by a question).

Limitation of field considered . . . . . 401

Indications offered by tradition . 402

Indications offered by concurrent mind-phenomena - - - 404

Its occasion . . 405

Is the insufficiency of a conception.

Its motive . 406

Is desire to make a conception sufficient.

Owen— Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 357

D. The Interrogative Judgment — continued. page

Means of making a conception sufficient . 406

(a) By one’s own effort . 406

(b) By the effort of another:

f Extra- linguistic . 406

( Linguistic . 406

The effort of another implies solicitation:

( Extra-linguistic . 407

1 Linguistic . 407

Linguistic solicitation may be

{ (a) Inferential . 407

( (b) Explicit . . 408

( Its control . 408

{ Is the elected means of making a conception sufficient.

( Its essential content . 409

| Is belief in desire that , by linguistic means , another

make a conception sufficient.

( Its distinctive . 410

Is the intercalated element of another's making suffi¬

cient by linguistic means.

Its genera — based upon different kinds of insufficiency

are: . 410

( The judgment interrogative as to a term or adjunct.

( The judgment interrogative as to belief.

CHAPTER III.

THE JUDGMENT INTERROGATIVE AS TO A TERM OR

' ADJUNCT.

Its Elements.

The missing element . 414

The desideratum . 414

Description of desideratum . . 415

Assertion of description . 417

Desire to be told desideratum . . . 420

Assertion of desire . 421

Precedents for double assertion . 424

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

PAGE

Its Structure . 425

Its Operation on the Hearer’s Mind . . . 426

Its Expression by a Sentence . 429

The Specially Question- Asking Word . 432

Its meaning . . . 432

Precedents for bulky meaning . 441

Its rank . 441

CHAPTER IV.

THE JUDGMENT INTERROGATIVE AS TO BELIEF.

Its Elements.

The missing element— belief . 445

The desideratum — belief- or -disbelief . 447

Description of desideratum . 449

Assertion of description . 450

Desire to be told desideratum . 450

Assertion of desire . . . 450

Truth instead of untruth — and vice versa . 450

Its Peculiarities.

Fails to distinguish belief -or -disbelief as meum or tuum. .... 452

Expects answer in terms of belief only . 453

Its Structure . 454

Its Operation on the Hearer’s Mind . 458

Its Expression by a Sentence . 458

The Specially Question-Asking Word . i . 464

Its meaning . 467

Its rank . 468

In the following pages I several times refer to my articles— here cited

once for all completely — on

“The Meaning and Function of Thought Connectives”— published in

the “Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Let¬

ters,” Vol. XII, pp. 1-48, and

“A Revision of the Pronoun, with Special Examination of Relatives

and Relative Clauses,” 1. c. Vol. XIII, pp. 1-140.

INTERROGATIVE THOUGHT AND THE MEANS OF

ITS EXPRESSION.

CHAPTER I.

IlNTtROBlU OTOiRY OBSEBVATIOOSrS.

WORDS OR IDEA-SYMBOLS.

Words express ideas versus things.

When, as often happens, an idea is the mental counterpart of

a thing, it is true that the sign of the idea is also, indirectly, the

sign of the thing., Bint it is more accurate and, in close exami¬

nation of language, quite essential, to recognize in words the

immediate signs of what is mental only.

A word mag express one idea.

As to what constitutes a single idea, opinion may vary. But

presumably the idea suggested by “blue” or “blueness” will be

accepted as single. Its presentation by a single word may be

described as Integral symbolization.

A word may express more than one idea.

Bor instance “ate” expresses not only the idea of eating, but

also a time idea, and quite as effectively as the phrase “in past

time.” Such symbolization may be known as Multiple.

A word may express less than one idea.

That is, in particular, it may co-operate with another word in

expressing one idea. Thus in French the symbols “ne” and

“pas” accomplish together no more than the English “not.”

The symbolization of each may be distinguished as Fractional.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

SENTENCES OR THOEQHT-SYMBOLS.

Sentences express thoughts versus ideas.

The single word being normally the expression of a single

idea, that combination of words which is called a sentence will

normally express a, plurality of ideas. Hot every such plurality

is however available for sentential expression. Without discus¬

sion it may be merely postulated for the present, that no aggre¬

gation of words is a sentence, unless it expresses a thought;

and that no aggregation of ideas is a thought, unless it contains

two ideas and a relation of some sort between them. (See pp.

362 and 367.) For instance, given “Grange exceeds lem¬

on’’, if any word be omitted, the remainder is not a sentence ; and

what that remainder expresses is not a thought.

Sentences express thoughts versus extra-mental facts.

When I say, for instance, that the sun has passed behind a

cloud, I doubly violate the presumable physical truth. The

“passage” is not that of the sun ; and what I suggest by the word

“behind” has no' existence, except, in the mind of an observer

specially situated. But my expression successfully indicates

what I have thought ; and that :is all that language intends. It

is true that I strive to harmonize my thoughts with external

facts. It may then be admitted that these facts are what the

sentence indirectly aims to present. But. it is more accurate

and, in close examination of language, quite essential to recognize

in sentences the immediate symbols, on a, larger scale than words,

of mental phenomena only.*

Sentences express thoughts versus other mental facts.

Among the actual phenomena of mind, must doubtless be

included desires and emotions. These, and also the sensations

of the body, are undeniably the frequent burden of speech. But

they are such only indirectly. I am likely enough, for instance,

*That these mental phenomena themselves are facts is obvious. They

are however subjective facts, being readily differentiated from the ob¬

jective facts of the extra-mental universe. Also even the thought of

one instant may become objective or external to the thought of the

next, as when one makes a thought of his own the theme of further

mental operation.

Owen i — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 361

to tell you of my fear. A sentence by which I do so will not,

however, express a fear itself, hut rather my idea of fear.

To illustrate, compare! the sentences “Brown fears your dog”,

“I do not fear him”, “I should dislike to fear him”, “I shall

fear him”. In all of these the idea of fear may be distinguished

from the emotion of fear, as clearly as the idea of the dog can be

distinguished from the dog himself. It is plainly also the idea

of fear, and not the emotion itself, that is expressed by what I

say. When now I say, “I fear your dog”, I see no reason to sup^

pose that the meaning of the symbol “fear” has changed. The

fact that, in the present illustration, I am actually afraid (while

speaking) is no more a proof that I express the fear itself, than

the fact that my teeth are at the same time aching, is a proof

that the words “I fear your dog” express the tooth-ache.*

Sentences express thoughts formed in a particular ivay.

T'o illustrate, seeing the contractor, Mr. Brown, and also an

Italian workman, and being curious to learn in what way, if

any, they are in relation, I discover that their relation is that of

employer to employee. My discovery I announce by the sentence

“Brown employs an Italian.”

In the thought which I thus express, the ideas named by

“Brown” and “Italian” are preliminary data. What I express

by “employs” is a resultant, to which I naturally accord a domi¬

nant importance. Given “Brown” and the “Italian,” I develop

“employs.” They being my condition, this is my conclusion.

“Employs” depicts the most important figure of my mental

picture.

I may, however, derive my mental stimulus from' a primary

juxtaposition of “Brown” and “employs.” Thinking first of

these two, I may institute a search of a different order. Perhaps

from memory, perhaps from other sources, I find that the proper

element to put with the given two is “Italian.” This element,

unpleasantly missing at the: outset, sought with effort, found with

satisfaction, is naturally of dominant importance. Brown and

the relation of employer to employee are preliminary data.

*The immediate vocal sequel of emotion, like that of sensation, is the

purely reflex cry. But cries, although they very likely pointed the way

to speech by suggesting the possibility of using sound as a means of

stimulating another’s mental action, are not admitted to rank as

strictly language, which implies intention.

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.

Italian is my resultant. Tie first two being my condition,

Italian is my conclusion, the most important figure of my

thought.

But I make no effort to show this by the form of my

sentence. I give to “Italian” no such form or position as I gave

to “employs” in the sentence which announced the discovery of

a relation. I do not say that “Brown Italians the employment,”

(that is, the relation of employer to employee). I say, as be¬

fore, “Brown employs an Italian.” That is, I express, as before,

the thought-form which is; developed by finding a relation

between terms! — .not the form developed by finding a term to fit

a relation and another term.

So also starting with “employs” and “Italian” I may arrive at

“Brown.” Bbt I shall not say that “The employing Browns the

Italian” or that “The Italian is Browned by the employment.”

I shall say, as before, that “Brown employs an Italian.”

It is true that different emphases may indicate the different

forms of thought which first of all I form. The discovery of the

relation may be announced by “Brown employs an Italian ;”

that of the Italian, by “Brown employs an Italian' ; that of

Brown, by “Broivn employs an Italian.” But when, for

instance, I emphasize “Italian”, the emphasis is an admission

that my sentence is strictly inaccurate — that it fails to express

the particular form of thought which I should like to express if

language gave me the power. The emphasis tolls you that in

that particular form “Italian” is my resultant, though not

appearing as such in the form of thought which my sentence

expresses. It warns you that “Italian” should have the emi¬

nence which belongs to “employs” in “Brown employs an

Italian”.

The sort of thought revealed by the last expression becomes

moreover the linguistic norm — employed even when the sort of

thought originally formed is very different. Thus, examining in

detail the impression produced by a red rose, and wishing to set

before you the detailed impression, I say that “The rose is red”,

which I interpret as meaning that the rose and the redness are in

the relation of object to its own quality. That is, the thought

expressed is precisely that which I should have formed, had I

passed from the successive ideas of object and color to: the dis¬

covery of a qualitative relation between them.

Without examining further, I offer, merely as a, working hypo¬

thesis, the assumption that, whatever be the form originally

0 wen — Interrogate e Thought — M eans of Its Expression, 3 6 3

assumed by a, thought, before it is expressed by a sentence it

takes the form of a pair of ideas and the relation between them.*

Sentences presuppose analysis and synthesis of thought.

While using for convenience the term analysis, I wish to be

understood as omitting from its meaning any idea of separation.

Also from the meaning of synthesis I wish to exclude the idea of

junction. By the former I mean the recognition, the special

perception, of a whole as consisting of members — not its division

into separate parts. By the latter I mean the recognition of mem¬

bers as constituting a whole; I do not mean a combining of

separate elements.

It is believed and, I doubt not, rightly, that in the beginnings

of speech the single symbol stood for a total un analyzed thought.

Indeed survivals of this method exist at the present time. It is

the basis of the cable code. It crops out. in such expressions as

“Pluit”, in which the word performis the function of the sen¬

tence. It is recognized in “Yes” and “ISTo,” which, by reinstat¬

ing previously mentioned elements of thought, attain the values,

of affirmative and negative statements. (See further, p. 441.)

B)ut the difficulty of this method led to its abrogation, as the

number of thoughts to be expressed grew larger. For the num¬

ber of symbols which the mind can remember must be reckoned

by thousands only ; while the number of different thoughts which

the mind may form, is quite beyond reckoning. On the other

hand, the number of ideas or thought-elements which the mind

has thus far developed is comparatively small. Yet by co-think-

*Anotlier view of the sentence, preferred by some, I mention only in

order to discard it. According to this view I centrally announce what I

conceive as an action, by the word “employs.” With this employing I

at the same time think of Brown as standing in the relation of actor

to his own act (one of the relations covered by the phrase, “relation of

subject to verb”). At the same time I am supposed to think of the em¬

ploying and the Italian as standing in the relation of action to its own

actee (“the relation of verb to its object”). But I believe that we ac¬

tually make a short cut. Just as I hardly think all at once of A as the

brother of B, and of B as the father of C, but rather of A as the uncle

of C; so also I hardly think of “Brown” as related in one way with

“employing,” and “employing” as related in another way with the

“Italian.” I rather think of “Brown” as related with the “Italian;”"

and the relation I conceive as that of employer to employee. That is,.

I make over relations to suit the direct relationship required.

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ing these elements, comparatively few in number, it plainly must

be possible to form essentially all thoughts of which the mind is

thus far capable. A method, then, which can symbolize thought-

elements, is obviously available for the ultimate symbolization

of thought-totals ; and, as it lays the lighter and more endurable

burden on memory, such symbolization of elements has been pre¬

ferred. Accordingly the symbols which language uses — that is,

words — are, with few exceptions, not the signs of thoughts, but

the signs of thought-elements, or ideas.

Although then it may safely be admitted that, in some stage of

its history, a thought exists in mind as a unit, a cod scions whole,

an “Anschauung,” withbut distinct perception of its members,

without recognition even that it consists of members, neverthe¬

less, as there are practically no symbols, for wholes, but only for

members, it is obviously only thought-members that can be

expressed. The first condition, then, of well developed speech,

is the existence in mind of what such speech can express, that

is, thought-members.. In other words thought must be regarded

by the mind as not a simple whole, but as consisting of recog¬

nized members.

The case is quite analogous to that of • sense-perception. I

see my horse at one moment as a somewhat vague unit. At the

next I specially perceive his head, neck, body, legs and tail. But

I do not feel that I have developed any lack of continuity in the

structure of the animal. Suppose now that I wish to show you

this horse. It is night, and my only light, is that, of a, dark

lantern. At the close range enforced by the smallness of the

stable, I cannot exhibit him all at once. Accordingly I flash

the light upon his head and then successively upon the other parts

of his body. You do not at any moment see the animal as a

whole. Yet the mental picture of him which you form, is. the

picture of a whole. Indeed I suppose you had this wholeness in

mind at the first appearance of the head. You did not regard

that head as a fragment which might, or might not be followed by

other fragments, which in case of their appearance you would

join together. Yor did I feel that I was exhibiting fragments,

which would require any union. I made a revelation of the

animal, it is true, in successive installments; but each install¬

ment was given and received rather as a partial revelation than

as the revelation of a part. In short we agreed that we were

examining members, indeed, but members of a body whose

wholeness was unimpaired.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 365

The ca,se of linguistic thinking is analogous. Forced by the

limitations! of existing linguistic methods, I regard each member

of my thought with special attention ; hut I do not thereby break

its union with other members. Indeed I do not see how I could

do so, except by dropping such other members out of mind ; and

this would mean the destruction of my thought ; for my thought

is no longer my thought, if deprived of even one of its members.

Your attitude I take to be like my own. Since people talk

for the purpose of expressing: thoughts, you assume, asl soon as I

begin to speak, that what I intend to express, is a thought — that

is, a whole. You do not therefore feel that you are receiving

fragments, which you are to join together.

I regard the sentence., therefore, not as the presenter of

thoughbfragments which need to be joined, but as a successive

revealer of thought-members, never conceived by speaker or

hearer as other than a. whole. The fact, that each thought-mem¬

ber is a member, I regard as always present in the mind, though

never prominent — that is, as taken for granted.

The “life-history” of a thought expressed in words I accord¬

ingly take to be as follows : In the first, of its stages it is recog¬

nized in the speaker’s mind as a unit. In the second stage it is

recognized as consisting of members, each of which is commonly

presented by a single word. In a third stage, the (^presentation

of these words as a sentential unit is matched in the speaker’s

mind by a synthesis or recognition that thought-members, though

individually noted, still continue to constitute a whole. To the

hearer the words of the sentence — coming, as they must, one

after another — present, in a. fourth stage, an analyzed thought ;

and this., in its final stage, the hearer synthesizes.

DIFFERENT ANALYSES OF THOUGHT.

It is obvious that all analyses of thought, if carried out com¬

pletely, will specially recognize each member of whatever

thought be analyzed ; and so far all will be alike1. But. they may

differ, even with thought of the smallest possible membership, in

the perspective or relative prominence in which they put the

individual thought-members.

Usual analysis reveals tivo elements and copula.

It is obviously possible to regard even the trio of ideas, which

appears in every thought, as consisting of two members, one of

'366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

which again consists of two sub-members. Thus “a equals b”

may be regarded as consisting of a subject “a” and a predicate

"“equals b” , itself composed of two> sub-members., a verb and its

object. The subject and the predicate may further be distinctly

recognized as co-members of a unit. This co-membership or

mutual belonging is, in the traditions of Logic and Grammar,

strongly emphasized — augmented, it may be, by an idea of

existence — and its symbol, whether found in an “is” or conceived

to be embodied in “equals”, is called a copula.

This analysis., always possible, is

(cii) not always plausible.

In “Brown struck me”, I may indeed regard the “striking

me” as something to be thought of in connection with Brown.

But I may also, and much more naturally, regard “Brown’s

striking” as something to be thought of in connection with

myself.

The analysis noted is

(b) sometimes unavailable.

In “Here is the book which you lost,” to use grammatical par¬

lance, “you” is subject of the relative clause, and “lost which”

the predicate. But the structure indicated by this analysis, has

no value for the speaker’s purpose. The aim of the relative

clause is to confine your thinking to a particular book. I invite

you, therefore, to think of “book,” in connection with “your

losing.” I do not invite you to think of “book-losing” in con¬

nection with yourself. The relative clause must accordingly

be analyzed into “which” and “you lost,” to make it available

for my restrictive purpose. (Siee “A Revision of the Pronoun”

Chap. IY-III-& full face.)

The analysis noted is

(c) often not made.

If you ask me to state the size of A in terms, of B, I naturally

answer that “A — is — equal to B”. You asked for a predicate ;

and there you have it ! But if you ask for the bulk-relation

between A and B, I answer “A equals B”. In this statement I

do not intend “equals Bi” a.s a predicate of “A”. If a predicate

must be found, I should look for it in “equals” only, regarding

A and Bi together, not perhaps exactly as a subject, but as that

with which the predicate is associated.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 367

It is possible then to analyze the idea-trio of thought in at

least three different ways. “A equals B” may be regarded as

consisting (1) of “A” and “equals B”, (2) of “A equals” and

“B”, (3) of “A — B” and “equals”. Elach of these analyses is

primarily bipartite. Eiaeh regards the sentence as, so to speak,

binomial.

Adopted analysis reveals at least three elements.

It is possible also to recognize initially that a thought consists

of three members — is tripartite — and that the corresponding

sentence is trinomial. In “A equals B” such recognition, or

analysis, develops three thought-members, a first term “A”, a last

term “B”, a mid-term “equals” — a relation, that is, between

the first and the last. If any one insist upon it, I admit a relation

of mutual belonging between each part of this mental whole and

the remainder — or between each part, and every other — or simul¬

taneously between all parts. That is, if copulas be desired, my

thought, to my perception, simply bristles with them. But as

mutual belonging seems to me, as said before, to be taken for

granted, I content myself with the trio of terms directly revealed

by my analysis. This analysis I propose to use on account of

its special convenience, or rather its actual need, in the effort to

interpret the sentence.

Meantime I lay some stress upon the claim that the number

of elements revealed by the adopted thought-analysis will at the

least be three. To support this claim, suppose the number of

elements revealed to be less, than three. Let “A” for instance be

omitted. The remainder, namely what is expressed by “equals

B”, I should simply regard as not a thought. Agreement with

this opinion will largely depend on what is meant by thought.

But I suppose that the adherents of the subject-predicate analysis

would also hold that what is expressed by “equals B” is not a

thought, but a fragment of a thought. A recognition of equality

is the result of a comparison ; and a comparison implies two ele¬

ments compared. I cannot think of an “equaling B,” except

as an equaling on the part of something. I must then fill the

place of the absent “A” at least, by an indefinite ; and so soon as

I do this, my mental total becomes again a thought complete,

though obviously a thought of inferior value.

Elqual thought-destruction) would) be wrought by the omission

of “B” or “equals”. I therefore venture to call the relation

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

element of thought, and also the related elements, essential — and

to call their total an essential thought.

Comparative merits of different analyses.

On these I do not insist. I argue only for the right to choose

the analysis adapted to my needs — a right belonging to every

type of thought-investigator. In the analysis which exhibits a

subject, copula and predicate, the copula is after all the mid¬

term, merely reduced to a constant meaning — an obvious con¬

venience in operations involving a pair of thoughts, or more.

The first and last terms of thought are moreover in Logic some¬

times so made over that each may be put in the place of the

other. “A equals B” is invested with the meaning expressed

by “A — is — equal to B” ; and this meaning is further modified

into that expressed by “A- — is — a B equaller”. By such manip¬

ulation the sentence is made to present a thought whose first and

last terms may, with proper caution, be: interchanged — a great

convenience in forming deductions, since what is said of one

term may be said of the other. For instance, given “John eats

turnips” and “A person who eats turnips presumably is hungry”,

if I change my thoughts to the forms expressed by “John — is — a

turnip-eating person” and “A turnip-eating person — is — a pre¬

sumably hungry person”, the way is made easy for “John — is — a

presumably hungry person,” or “John is presumably hungry.”

Shich modifications of thought are also at times a valuable

safeguard. For instance, given “John — is — 'walking” and

“Walking — is — good exercise,” if the first thought expressed be

modified to suit the expression “John — is — a walking person,”

the temptation to false deduction is removed.

Such modifications seem to me, in the interest of deduction, to

be not only justifiable, but also very much to be desired. Indeed

it is Logic’s business to make them. But in making them, I do

not understand that Logic claims the) resultant thoughtrforms to

be what we have in mind in the ordinary use of speech. This

last, however, is exactly what it is the language-student’s business

to discover. With what might be in mind, and even with what

had better be in mind, when I use a given sentence, he has noth¬

ing to do. His business is to find out what I actually have in

mind ; and if he supposes that I have in mind what should not

be there, it is his even more imperative duty to verify his sup¬

position — not to argue for the presence in my mind of that which

isn’t there. He is the searcher for what is — not the imaginer of

Owen i — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 369

what would be nice, if only it were; for otherwise he becomes

the merest sentimentalist. In short., his aim is not the reforma¬

tion of sentential meaning, but rather exact sentential interpre¬

tation.

Equivalence of conclusions based on different analyses.

The view of thought which regards it as consisting of subject, predi¬

cate and copula, should lead, I think, to ultimate results the same as

those to be obtained from a recognition of linguistic thought as con¬

sisting of a pair of terms and their relation. For the copula itself, or

the idea which the word regarded as copula stands for, is a relation —

a relation, to my own mind, of little practical importance, but still a

relation (a relation, at the least, of mutal belonging) between subject

and predicate.* The adopted analysis, on the other hand, develops a

relation of maximum importance and accordingly more tangible. This

tangibility will lighten the labor of further investigation, without, as I

hope, invalidating its results, even for him who may regard the particu¬

lar relation which I employ, as imaginary. The conclusions more easily

reached by the study of a tangible relation, will be found available, I

think, for the more elusive relation expressed by the copula.

Banger of underestimating the vagueness of thought-elements.

The effort to interpret is in danger of reading into words a meaning

which they do not distinctly have in ordinary usage. Indeed, the more

the interpreter studies the sentence, the more certain he is to find for

it values more precise than those which even he himself has in mind,

in his ordinary use of speech. This result might roughly be explained

by the current assumption that language reveals but a part of thought,

and that part vaguely. I believe, however, that what is defective is

often rather thought to be revealed, than the means of revelation.

Such thought is, in one or more of its factors, commonly undeveloped.

What the speaker wishes to be learned from his words is not, in many

cases, what he actually thinks, but what he might think, if he took the

trouble to do so.

To illustrate, when I say in ordinary conversation “John is my

father,” “John is honest,” “John is walking,” “Walking is good exer¬

cise,” the meanings of “is” are so undeveloped, even to myself, that I

do not fully notice the difference between them. In each case what I

have in mind is little more than this, that the other terms of my propo¬

sition have something to do with each other. That is, I am conscious

that they are related; but I only incipiently particularize their relation.

*For the idea of “existence,” so often alleged as the meaning of the

the copula, see p. 380, note.

24

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

My mental status is roughly indicated by the children’s formula:

“John goes with man” or “John and man go together,” etc.

If now I accept this vagueness as final, I can go no further in the

study of the “is.” But I do not so accept the vagueness; for more was

doubtless in my mind, and more intended, than was at the outset fully

apparent, even to my own observation. For suppose I put together

“John is walking” and “Walking is good exercise,” endeavoring to

reach the deduction customary with proposition-couples of these forms.

I perceive at once that I did not mean by “is,” in one case, what I

meant by it in the other. Indeed, as I review my illustrations with

more care, I am very sure that they differ as follows: In “John is my

father,” the relation to which I invite your attention is essentially that

of equivalence. The person distinguished by the symbol “John” is,

in a merely different aspect, the person distinguished by paternal rela¬

tion to myself. In “John is honest,” relation is that of object to its

own quality. In “John is walking,” it is that of actor to his action.

In “Walking is good exercise,” and more distinctly in “Men are ani¬

mals,” it is that of species to genus or class to larger class, a relation

conveniently distinguished as that of inclusion.

My initial carelessness with these relations may better be understood,

perhaps, by the aid of an objective illustration. Let relations be re¬

placed by Christmas gifts. As each relation belongs with a particular

pair of terms, let each gift be intended for a particular pair of persons:

for Brown and his chum a chafing-dish; for the Robinson twins a

Noah’s ark; for my servant and wife a five dollar gold-piece. All of

these objects lie on the dining-room table. I ring for my servant and

his wife; and, as they enter, I say “You will find a present on the table

in the dining-room.” For the moment “present” stands to me for no

particular gift. At a former time I did some careful plan¬

ning, and distinctly sensed the individuality of each particular

gift. In the future I am likely to repeat the process. Just

now, however, I am busy with other matters, and do not think of any

particular object, as I utter the symbol “present.” I am all the more

willing to be indefinite in my mental picturing, because I know that

“present” stands for something suitable to my servant and his wife.

Moreover, I am confident that my servant’s sense of fitness will pre¬

clude his making any error. In short, I am indisposed to the effort of

making a detailed mental picture; and, being assured that a less oner¬

ous rough-sketch is all that the occasion requires, I let it go at that.

Moreover my servant, knowing my mental methods, though momenta¬

rily somewhat baffled by the numerous possibilities offered by the word

“present,” is confident that when occasion requires he will be able to

make a right selection among them. On reaching the objects indis¬

criminately suggested by “present,” he appreciates the unsuitableness,

to himself and wife, of the chafing-dish or the Noah’s ark, and pre-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 371

sumably takes the money as what I intended. Suppose, however, that

he makes a mistake and, coming to thank me, appears with the Noah’s

ark. I should tell him that I meant the money. That is, I pass beyond

what in saying “present’' I did think of, reaching what I was able to

think of with further effort, and intended him to think of. And so, too,

with the idea expressed by “is,” it seems to me by no means, in the

usual sense, indefinite or unknown, but rather, dim, because exposed

to the feeble light of partial attention, and yet intended and expected

to become clear in the brighter light of an attention which will be

more complete when occasion requires.

While then I cannot say that the idea expressed by “is” appears in

the speaker’s mind in full distinctness at the moment the word is used,

I believe that this idea is expected to become distinct in both his mind

and that of the hearer, whenever necessary. Such an idea is obviously

very different from the ordinary indefinite, which is expected not to

become distinct. For instance, note the value of “somewhere” in “I

somewhere heard that you have been ill.”

Accordingly I make the somewhat precarious assumption that words

should often be interpreted not merely by what is at the moment in

the speaker’s mind, but rather by what would be in his mind, if he

thought more carefully — what moreover he intends to be in the

hearer’s mind, whenever occasion requires. In other words I regard

ideas expressed as often germs, and propose to investigate them, when

the need arises, in a developed stage.

For the above conclusions, independently reached, support is offered

by Stout — See. Analytic Psychology, ed. ’96, Chap. IV, Implicit Appre¬

hension, especially pp. 95-96.

Banger of underestimating the freedom of thought.

By this title I mean to indicate my belief that thought of the sort

expressed by speech does not in every case respect the bounds set up

by some psychologists. These will have it that every judgment is

association of attribute with substance, or a recognition of association.

For one, I should carry deference to this opinion so far as to admit

that every judgment may be so remodeled as to be exactly of the indi¬

cated type — that possibly every judgment ought to be so remodeled.

But that every judgment is of the indicated type, is quite another mat¬

ter.

(a) Freedom in choice of relation.

Overlooking the wider deviations from that type (see p. 361) I note

that, given “A exceeds B,” I can conceive (and possibly ought to con¬

ceive) excess over B as predicate of A. That is, I can conceive of A

and excess over B as in the relation of substance to its own attribute.

I believe, however, that i commonly think of excess as a sequel to the

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

successive consciousness of A and B. My sentence is to me an ab¬

breviated mental history, which may be more completely told as fol¬

lows: First I thought of A. Then I thought of B. But while the

idea of A was growing weak or waning, and that of B was growing

strong or waxing, and I had them simultaneously in mind, I felt a

difference named by the word “exceeds.” That is, my thought consists

by no means of a substance, an attribute, and their mutual belonging,

but rather of two ideas (which I do not seem to take the trouble to

recognize as substance, attribute, or anything else) and a bulk relation

between them.

Given again the preliminary A and B, I am by no means confined to

their difference in bulk. I may, for instance, be impressed by their

similarity in contour, or their separation in space. That is, one pair

of terms may develop different relations.

Moreover, if one or both of the terms be changed, the way is opened

for an even larger number of relations. While the bulk relation of

A and B can be one only (that for instance expressed in A>B) the

bulk relation of A and C may be that expressed in A>C; and the re¬

lation of A and D may be that expressed in A=D.

The variety of thinkable relations being obviously very great, the

variety of thoughts in whose formation they have a share must also

itself be great — and that independently of further variety which may

be based upon the special nature of related terms. The opportunity to

establish species and even genera additional to the substance-attribute

type I, however, neglect, insisting only on the existence of multiple

types of relation, and therefore of thought itself.

(b) Freedom in choice of relation-aspect — proverse or reverse.

To illustrate, if I pass from a hill to the valley which lies beside it, I

am conscious of a change which I call descent. Conversely, in pass¬

ing between identical terminals, but in the opposite direction, I ex¬

perience a change which I call ascent. Again, in passing mentally

from A to B, I experience a difference which I express by excess, or say

superiority. Accordingly “A>B”. But, in making a thought-transit

from B to A, I develop “B<A”.

Now so far as there be in the physical universe aught that corre¬

sponds to the mind-sensation expressed by > or <, — that is, so far as

bulk-relation exist apart from mind — it must be unaffected by any act

of mine, unaffected in particular by the direction in which I make my

mental transit between A and B. Compared with such a relation out¬

side of mind, my ideas of superiority and inferiority may as well be

ranked as merely different subjective impressions caused by a single

objective relation seen from different points of approach — or say as

different aspects of a single relation. These aspects being, so to speak,

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 373

the one the converse of the other, I call them for convenience pro-

verse and reverse.

In a sense I have the power to choose between them. For though

a mental transit from A to B will compel me to experience the relation

of superiority, still I am free to choose the reverse transit, which would

compel the reverse relation. Being then free to choose the direction

of thought-transit, I am virtually free to choose the aspect of my rela¬

tion.

This conclusion I have reached from an assumption contradictory to

the claim of some psychologists, who would have it, not only that in

forming a judgment I must associate substance and attribute, but also

that I must associate attribute with substance— never substance with

attribute. For instance, such would have it that, in mentally coupling

John and honesty, I must think as indicated by “John is honest,” and

not begin with honesty.

Now such a claim, it seems to me, is far from being respected in

actual practice. Personally I feel quite free to begin with honesty and

end with John. I do not, however, expect to reach the same relation

that I reached when I began with John. It is true that in dealing with

John and my father I may reach the relation of identity, whichever be

the direction in which I think from one to the other. But that is be¬

cause the relation is not one of difference. On the other hand the rela¬

tion between John and honesty is one of very obvious difference, being

that of substance to its own attribute. Accordingly, when I reverse the

direction of thought-transit, I expect to reverse the aspect of the rela¬

tion experienced. Thinking then from honesty to John I am by no

means surprised to encounter the relation of attribute to its own sub¬

stance, which is precisely what I express, and most distinctly, by “Hon¬

esty characterizes John.”

Moreover, active and passive voices being specially intended for the

differentiated expression of proverse and reverse relations, if a second

time I turn my proposition end for end, resuming the original direction

of thought-transit, I obtain “John is characterized by honesty” — a sen¬

tence which I take to be the exact expression of what I mean by “John

is honest.”

(c) Freedom in choice of relation-phase — static or dynamic.

As so much stress will be put on the relation, and as it will be rec¬

ognized in several disguises, a further suggestion may be of value.

Thus, in such expressions as “Roses are red,” the relation (of object to

its own quality) is conceived as established and, so far as considered,

permanent. In “The rose became red,” the same relation is viewed as

developing, as formative, as passing from non-existence to existence..

In the former case, in lack of a better name, the relation may be known

as static; in the latter, as dynamic. So also “to have” expresses a rela-

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tion (say that of owner to property) in the static phase, while “to get”

and “to acquire” express the same relation in the dynamic phase. More

over a -single word may express, on one occasion, one, and, on another,

the other phase — as in “A exceeds B,” which may be taken as meaning

either “A is greater than B” or “A is becoming greater than B.”

It is the dynamic relation which is commonly expressed by the verb

of action, when attended by its object. Thus in ‘A killed B” the

relation of slayer to victim is considered in the formative phase — a

phase which in “A was killing B” is dwelt upon or, so to speak,

stretched out in temporal length. Action then may be interpreted as

formative relation, thus facilitating the recognition of the general prin¬

ciple, that every thought of the linguistic type consists of at least two

terms and their relation.

THOUGHT-ELEMENTS VERSUS THOUGHT-ATTENDANTS.

By thought-attendants, elsewhere described as instructional

(See p. 431, etc.), I mean a variety of suggestions commonly

offered by sentences, but forming no1 part of centrally intended

thought. Given, for instance, “Orange1 exceeds lemon”, I find

in the verb a; person and number value. Blut this I regard as

merely helping the association of the relation with the right first

term, in case the sentence, by exhibiting several possible first

terms, creates an opportunity for error. I also find that

“orange” and “lemon” may have casfr endings which would locate

the idea of each as either first or last term of thought expressed.

But this idea of position in thought-structure, like the idea of

association noted just before, is not a part of the thought to be

constructed, but merely a guide to the proper construction of that

thought. Such ideas compare with actual thought-members

much as the plans and specifications of a building compare with

the materials of which it is made. Accordingly in the present

investigation I neglect them.

Primary or essential thought-elements.

By these I mean the terms thus far revealed (See p. 367)

by thought analysis. For instance, in the thought expressed by

“Orange exceeds lemon”, I discover, thus far, only the idea

expressed by “orange”, that expressed by “lemon” and a rela¬

tion of bulk-superiority expressible by “excess.” As none of

these can be omitted without my thought’s surrender of its

claim to be a thought, they may be ranked as the essential ele¬

ments of the given thought.

0 wen — Interrogativ e Though t — M earn of Its Expression. 375

Of other elements that may he added to that thought, I should

maintain that, however useful they may he, they still do not suc¬

ceed in making1 thought more truly thought, than it was without

them. These accordingly I rank as unessential under the title

Associate thought-elements.

Stich elements may he found nbt only in “Barge oranges exceed

small lemons”, hut also- in, the expression “Orange exceeded

lemon”. In this, besides the naming of a particular bulk-rela¬

tion, “exceeded” plainly symbolizes an idea otherwise expressible

by “in the past.” I find moreover that, antagonistically to the

passive voice, “exceeded” names the relation of superior to

inferior and not the relation of inferior to superior. “Orange”

too, and “lemon”, may exhibit ideas of number and of sex — the

latter degraded, it may be, into gender. But such ideas of time,

voice, gender and number occur in all expressions that I shall

examine. Being then by no means peculiar to particular ex-

pressional types, they do not aid the differentiation of these types

from one another. So I discard them from all thought to be

discussed, and do so with especial satisfaction, since every added

detail aggravates the difficulty of investigation.

Associate of thought versus associate of idea.

By suggesting in this title that an adjunct may bear upon a

total thought, I break completely with traditions commonly

accepted. I have been taught to believe that, once the skeleton

of a thought to be formed is established in the mind — a skeleton

consisting, at the most, of three parts only — any addition thereto

must be an addition to a single one of those parts. I am how¬

ever forced, with doubtless many others (e. g. Paul and Sweet),

to believe that some ideas are added to the whole of the skeleton

at once.

The nature of these ideas, and the argument in favor of their

annexation to the total thought, I take up later. Meantime, to

change my figure, let it be enough to note that my attention has

been, up to date, confined to trowsers, coat and cap — the garment,

each, of part only of my body. I must now extend my mental

vision to my cloak, with which I may invest my body all at

once.

376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Aids, and Letters.

THOUGHT-ASSOCIATES.

( Thought-reality. )

Examining the thought engrossed by “Orange exceeds lemon,”

I find that it is real. But, in saying this, I must use the utmost

care, to avoid misunderstanding. I mean, and only mean, that

the thought is actually formed in my mind. It goes also with¬

out saying that each element of the thought, each idea thereof,

is also in my mind. In other words I merely hold with others,

that even intellectual phenomena are facts. As reality thus

defined is characteristic of all our thoughts and all thought-

elements, it may be neglected in their comparative study.*

Thought-truth.

By truth I mean accordance, so far as may be, with reality

external to the momentary action of the mind — a being-matched

by external reality.**

*It is true that reality might be conceived by the mind along with

one thought or a part thereof, and not with another thought or any

of its parts. But I do not find that such is the fact. For instance,

when I say that “Orange exceeds lemon,” I do not tell myself that

thinking of an orange is with me a real occurrence. I draw no con¬

trast between my real thinking of the orange, and an unreal think¬

ing of an apple — or anything else of which I simply am not thinking.

** It is possible of course to associate such truth with an individual

thought-mem&er — that is, to make it the adjunct of an idea. For in¬

stance, given again the expression “Orange exceeds lemon,” I feel that

my idea of the greater fruit is fairly accordant v/ith an existing exter¬

nal object, as is also my idea of the less. How far the idea of excess

is matched by aught that outlies thought, is debatable. But as much

as this, at least, is obvious: that the idea of excess does vary with varia¬

tions in external data. It may then be asumed that this idea is as true

as it can be to that which is external. Each idea, that is each member

of my thought, possesses then its maximum degree of truth attainable

by mind.

Such excellence of detail does not, however, mainly interest me. As

I taste my soup, I care not greatly for the nature of its individual ele¬

ments. What I desire is that the soup itself be good; and if in this

desire I am disappointed, I shall not be comforted by any eulogizing of

the soup materials. Toward thought my behavior is quite analagous.

For instance, the idea expressed by “Booth” is matched by a counter-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 377

To illustrate, suppose that I have made a mental transit be¬

tween the ideas expressed by A and B, and that I have further

experienced a mind-sensation expressible by the word “excess.”

These three elements of consciousness together form a. unit ; and

to this unit each element is indispensable. Regarded thus only,

all elements rank as equal in importance. That they may, from

other points of view, appear unequal in importance, has been

conceded. (See the preceding note.) In the interest of sim¬

plicity, I elect to consider only the obviously possible case of

parity.

Suppose me further to feel that the mental status just de¬

scribed is matched in the outer world by two objects and their

bulk-relation. In other words. I regard my whole thought as

true. If now I wish to add to my thought this idea of truth,

forming thereby a thought of greater complexity, I may say that

“A truly exceeds Bl”

Row most grammarians will tell me, I suppose, that “truly”

is an adverb. — that is, that the idea of truth is treated as an

part in physical reality, or, in other words, is true; so also are the ideas

expressed by ‘'killed” and “Garfield.” It is even true that Booth killed;

and a killing of Garfield actually happened. But from all these truths

of detail I derive but scanty satisfaction; indeed I heed them little in

the presence of the total “Booth killed Garfield.” Truth, in short, as

an idea-adjunct, is commonly neglected, to the point at least of failing

to be a part of what I mean to say.

A peculiar modification of truth is, however, very commonly associ¬

ated with the individual thought-member or idea. To illustrate, if you

ask me what is the relation between A and B, I answer, emphasizing

the relation, “A exceecis B;” and to this idea of excess I specially attach

an idea, roughly speaking, of truth. I mean, however, this time some¬

thing more than that the idea of excess is matched, outside of my

thought, by what is real. What this something is, I can seek to better

advantage in a more objective illustration. Let it then be conceded

that fire and gunpow'der, being assembled, produce, by means entirely

unknown to me, an explosion. Reasoning along the well-known psy¬

chological highway, I conceive a faculty of explosion-causing, or say the

quality of explosiveness. Strictly speaking, I ought to predicate this

explosiveness of the combination fire and gunpowder. But in actual

practice I use the expression “Powder is explosive.” This explosive¬

ness is not, however, on a par with other qualities of powder, for in¬

stance its blackness. It is black unaidedly. It is explosive only with

the aid of fire. It is not productive of explosion peculiar to itself. It

is co-productive, with fire, of an explosion peculiar to powder and fire

378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

attribute of tb,e excess. Again, if I leave; the idea of truth,

without a special expression, I suppose it would he held that,

so far as truth is still a part of my meaning, it still attaches

itself to the idea of excess. That is, in “A exceeds B” (Gonf.

“A does not exceed Bi”) any truth regarded as part of what I

mean, is an incorporated limiter of “exceeds” — a part of the

total meaning of “exceeds” and limiter of another part, of that

meaning, namely the idea of excess alone.

Blut, as I have argued above (She the preceding note) any

truth proper, which is associable with a single idea, will be that

single idea’s being-matched by a, single element! of external real¬

ity ; with truth of this sort, however, I do not think my sentence

deals. On the; other hand, the truth of my total thought, with

which my sentence does deal, cannot, if I have rightly argued,

appear as the attribute of a particular thought-member, except

in the modified form of rightness, or co-productiveness (with

other members) of true thought. Sluch modified truth, how-

combined. So also when I say that “A exceeds B” or, more laboriously,

“The excess of A over B is true,” I really mean that the excess is co-

productive, with A and B, of a truth peculiar to the combination “A

exceeds B.”

Nov/ in the thought before me A and B are postulates, accepted with¬

out approval, without a mental vote — the charter members of an idea

society. “Exceeds” on the other hand is offered as a later candidate.

Truth being the aim of the society, it is important that the prospective

new member co-operate effectively with the charter members, in truth-

production. The intrinsic merit of the candidate is of less importance

than his suitableness to members already enrolled. Accordingly, in the

sentence “A exceeds B,” I should say that what I associate with excess

is not precisely the idea of truth, but rather an idea of suitableness to

A and B in true-thought production — or, in a word, rightness.

By similar reasoning I should argue that, if in the same expression

A be emphasized (or B), an idea of rightness is associated with A

(or B). It appears accordingly that any member of that idea trio

which constitutes an essential thought, may be regarded as an accession

to the others, and further also as suitable to those others, in true-

thought production — in other words as right — in other words as, very

roughly speaking, true. I have accordingly carried one step further

the thought-forms presented on pages 361-362.

All of these thought-forms I propose from now on to neglect in favor

of another, not that they are uncommon or inferior, but merely because

they promise no addition to what may be gained from the examination

of that other, which has the advantage of being simpler.

. Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 379

ever, I dismiss, because, so far as I know myself, I do not at

present ba,ve it in mind. I am not just now thinking that, in

the production of true thought, “exceeds” is. a right addition to

A — B, any more than I am thinking that A is a right addition

to “exceeds B,” or B is a right addition to “A exceeds.” That

is, I am not dealing with “A exceeds B,” “A exceeds B” or “A

exceeds BE I am dealing with the unemphasized “A exceeds

B.”* In this last expression I am merely thinking that what

I express is true, regarded a,s a whole ; and to this truth of total

thought I wish to confine attention, because it has the advantage

of maximum simplicity.

That I do thus actually think of truth as bearing on total

thought, is, in some cases, apparently beyond a doubt. Suppose,

for instance', that, you say “The air is very cold,” and that to

this I answer “That is. true.” My “That” revives before our

minds the total thought (consisting of the. air, the extreme cold¬

ness and the qualitative relation between them) which you ex¬

pressed, but without a recognition of any particular member.

It is accordingly in this case impossible that what we think of

as true be any single member of thought. It must be then that

what we think of as true is a total thought.

The mental feat which we perform in this case I seem to

myself to perform again, when I say that “A truly exceeds B,”

or when I incorporate the idea of truth in the meaning of “ex¬

ceeds” and confine myself to saying “A exceeds Bl.” I confess,

however, that thus far I see' no means' of proving such to be my

mental act, and therefore must appeal, in support of my opinion,

to the self -introspection of others.

* I am aware that in actual practice a wholly unemphasized sentence

is rare, the tendency being to put a vocal stress upon the final word,

even when there is no thought-dominance of the corresponding idea.

I suspect that this tendency is initiated by the habit of giving the final

position to the word for the dominant idea. Conversely the final word

is commonly a dominant and properly emphatic word. By the unre¬

flecting, what is common is made universal. At the same time the cus¬

tomary fall (in pitch) of the voice at the sentence end, is rather advan¬

tageously offset by an increased loudness, the danger of a failure to be

heard being thus avoided. Be the reason what it may, as a matter of

fact the final word is often emphasized, even to the complete neglect of

the rational emphasis. E. G.: “I am no longer a young man” “If

thy father and thy mother forsake thee, the Lord will take thee up'9

(a Sunday-school reminiscence).

380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Tlie truth which is conceived of thought can not, of course, be

absolute. Xt is, after1 all, the mind’s impression of agreement

between a picture which it forms, and an external reality, which

may be posed as the original of the picture, blow this original

itself is far from being, certainly known. What appears to be

reality may not deserve to do so. In such a case what I regard

as matched by external reality will merely be matched by what

wrongly seems to me to be reality. Blearing in mind the pos¬

sibility of such a mistake, X redefine the truth of thought as a

being-matched by supposed' reality outside of thought.

Such truth is all that language contemplates. XX o doubt, in

thinking, we desire and strive to be correct ; but in speaking we

endeavor only to reveal what actually is in our minds, correct

or incorrect. The lie, as not a use of speech, but plainly an

abuse, may be set aside as utterly nan-linguistic. The aim of

speech is communication — a begetting in another mind of a

counterpart to what is in one’s own — a reproduction of the mo¬

mentary mental self. In the case of a lie the should-be parent

thought is childless, but charged with bastard offspring. The

liar is mentally a self-made cuckold. On the other hand, the

issue of error is legitimate. The statement unintentionally

false is to the full degree linguistic. Brother Jasper’s aThe sun

do move” is; as truly and properly language as any utterance

more acceptable to science. Truth, then, so far as it concerns

the language student, is subjective truth. Accordingly, in a

sense more extended than that employed on p. 360, it may be

said that sentences deal with thought alone — never directly with

extra-mental fact.*

*It is obvious that my “truth” of thought is merely a substitute for

that element of “existence,” which is often regarded as part of what is

meant by an affirmative assertion. Thus “The rose is red” is com¬

monly paraphrased by “The rose exists red,” “The red rose exists” or

“There exists such a thing as a red rose.”

In such an interpretation, it seems to me that existence is synony¬

mous with reality, being thinkable either of my thought itself (or a

part thereof) or of that external status of which my thought is the

internal correlative. Now the reality of my own mental act appears to

me unimportant, for reasons given above. I can hardly feel it worth

my while to vouch for it, that I am actually thinking the whole or any

part of my thought. If then I do vouch for any reality, it seems to me

it must be the reality of that to which my thought is correlated, namely

some fragment of an outer universe or status. Accordingly the “exist-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 381

Thought-untruth.

By untruth I mean a failure to be matched, or a being-un¬

matched, by external reality.** T'o argue that untruth takes its

place in mental structure as the attribute of a total thought re¬

garded as a unit, and to contend that untruth is quite as subjec¬

tive as truth, would be an essential repeating of pp. 377-380.

MENTAL REACTIONS ON THOUGHT-ASSOCIATES.

Such mind-activity as language aims to reveal contains an

element which thus far has not been considered. To illustrate,

- — _ i . ,

i

ence” which I am supposed to incorporate in “The rose is red” would

seem to be a portion of the outer-world’s reality. That is, my sentence

would be regarded as declaring that, in the outer world, the mate to

what I think of exists or is. Personally, however, I construe my sen¬

tence as declaring that what I think of is matched or mated in the outer

world.

The difference between the two I admit to have its analogy with that

of tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee. Yet, as the mental state presumably

copies the outer world, if that which language deals with be the copy,

it would seem more natural to say “The copy is that of a real original,

or is matched by such an original,” than to say “The original of the

copy is real, or exists.” My special reason for preferring the idea of

truth to that of existence is, however, the possibility of greater brevity,

and at the same time the ability to distinguish readily between the

reality (= mere actual occcurrence in mind) of thought and that agree¬

ment with the outer world which I mean by truth. As I seem to take

account of all thought-elements or adjuncts considered by the sup¬

porters of the “existence” theory, in a merely different perspective, I

hope that even to those supporters the conclusions reached will be

available.

In all the above I am naturally not to be understood as denying that

“is” occasionally has the meaning of “exists” or “is existent,” as in

“Whatever is is right.”

**It is possible of course to associate untruth with an individual

thought-mem&er — that is, to make it the adjunct of an idea. With idea-

untruth, I should however argue, the sentence deals as little as with

idea-truth.

To the modification of idea-truth, described on p. 377 (note) and

known as rightness, there corresponds a modified idea-untruth, a

wrongness, an unsuitableness to fellow terms in true-thought produc¬

tion. This wrongness, however, I neglect for reasons similar to those

which seemed to justify the neglect of rightness.

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

suppose that, as you sit in my study, your attention is caught

by a painting, on which you invite my comment. If I should

say “That painting is a portrait,” you would understand me to

vouch for its being matched by a real person. If on the other

hand I should say “(Some claim) the painting to be a portrait,”

you would understand me to do all that I did before, except that

I should no longer vouch for the matching. That ia, you would

understand that I have merely thought of the matching — that, so

to speak, I have not felt it.

So also, if I should say “My son to lead his class,” you would

understand that a mental picture of my son’s leading his class

is in my mental visual field, along with a being-matched by fact

— or, in other words, along with truth (Compare “My son not

to lead his class”) ; but this truth again I do not feel; I only

think of it. I put before you, so to speak, the1 elements of a men¬

tal experiment ; but what ultimately happens, or say the reaction,

I do -not exhibit. ISTow it seems; to me that the reaction is

precisely what you most of all would wish to know. If I put

a slice of lemon in my mouth, I shall hardly thereby greatly

interest you. But if you can learn how this experiment affects

me, you may find it worth your while to do so. Again, if from

my words yon merely know that certain ideas assemble in my

mind, your knowledge has for you but little value. But if you

learn the effect which they produce upon me, you may feel re¬

paid for your share of the effort incident to thought-communi¬

cation. Given then the truth or the untruth of “My son’s lead¬

ing his class” — or given, say, “My son to lead his class” or “My

son not to lead his class” — if you can learn that I fear or hope

for either — that I like or dislike, desire, regret, expect, believe

or disbelieve the one or the other — you may esteem such learn¬

ing worth your effort.

How any one of the reactions noted — and others also — may be

expressed by speech. But most of them require the aid of

special words. For instance, given “My son to lead his class,”

if I wish you understand that my reaction is what is known as

hope, or expectation, I am obliged to say that “I hope, or expect,

my son to lead his class.” That is, the reaction requires a spe¬

cial word for its expression..

Suppose however that, given “My son to1 lead his class,” my

reaction is belief. In this case I merely say that “My son leads

his class.” That is, the word “leads” expresses all that was

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 383

expressed by “to lead/’ and also all that might be expressed by

“I believe” (or say “I know”).

It is obvious that, by further loading sueh a word as “leads,”

a sentence might, without increasing its bulk, be made to express

an even larger volume of thought. Indeed, as I believe, it is

by exactly such an increase of the single word’s expressional

burden, that the question-forms of speech have been developed.

To me then obviously the study of interrogative expressions is —

to imitate the agriculturalist’s “intensive farming”— a study of

intensive symbolism.

How symbolism of this order has, in question-forms, attained

perhaps its: highest development. It can best be understood

after examining those other grades of symbolism, of which it

forms the climax. Such examination should be based, I think,

upon a comparative study of thoughts expressed, to which ac¬

cordingly I pass in the following chapter.

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

CHAPTER II.

INTERROGATIVE AND OTHER THOUGHT COM¬

PARED.

Each Tcind o f thought may vary in extension.

By this I mean, not only that, in general, thoughts have dif¬

ferent numbers of constituent ideas, but also', in particular, that

every kind or grade of thought to be examined may so vary ‘with¬

out becoming a thought of another kind. That is, I wish to

emphasize the distinction between mere difference in size and

difference in, kind. T'o> illustrate, “Brown is certainly very

honest” stands for, so to speak, a bigger thought than “Brown

is honest ;” but, for my present purpose, these two' thoughts will

rank as of one kind. On the other hand the thoughts expressed

by “Brown is honest” and “Is Brown honest ?” might seem, to

a hasty view, to differ little, if at all, in size; but I shall rank

them as very different in kind.

Each hind of thought examined in its minimal form* .

By this I mean that, for the sake of clearness and convenience,

I shall deal with, thoughts containing only the ideas required

to make each one of them a thought of a particular kind. For

instance, “Brown is honest” will suit my purposes better than

“My friend Brown is undoubtedly a very honest gentleman.”

The kinds of thought to be examined under the following A,

B, O and D, may be regarded as interpreting respectively the

kinds of expression illustrated in connection with those letters

on p. 354.

a. the conception ( expressed by a suggestion ) .

By this I mean the lowest grade of thought — such thought as

would be thought no longer, if deprived of any element. This

I offer to attention merely as a convenient background on which

to project the judgment.

0 wen — Interrogative Though t — M eans of Its Expression . 385

Conceptions are expressed by what may be roughly called sug¬

gestive phrases. In illustration all needs will be met by the in¬

finitive phrase, which alone accordingly will be considered. For

the sake of saving labor, I select an infinitive phrase which offers

a pair of terms and a relation named with maximum distinct-

ness ; and I choose a relation as simple and tangible as may be. I

omit the “article” for the sake of brevity, and treat the English

infinitive as a single word. It will express in my illustrations

no more or less than what is expressed by the one-word infinitives

of other languages. Indeed the “to” may be regarded as the in¬

finitive inflection, merely isolated and prepositive.

My immediate purpose, stated from the sentence-student’s

point of view, is to determine how much meaning there may be in

a typical suggestive phrase, for instance, “Orange to exceed

lemon.” ISText I strive to find what further meaning lies in an

expression assertive, but otherwise equivalent to the suggestive,

for instance, “Orange exceeds lemon.” That is, a sort of sub¬

traction is expected to reveal, as a remainder, the distinctive as¬

sertive element of meaning, or in other words the element whose

presence makes a judgment such.

Its essential content. *

This I find to be a duo of ideas, and their relation. For

instance, in the thought expressed by “Orange to exceed lemon,”

I find an idea of the first named fruit, an idea of the last named

fruit, and a bulk-relation between them. I observe that, if any

one of this idea-trio were omitted, the remainder would not con¬

stitute an idea-total worthy in my opinion to be ranked as

thought. I also observe that, while other ideas might be added

with advantage, their presence would not make the total a whit

more worthy to rank as a thought of the lowest grade — that is,

as a conception.

Its associate truth or untruth.

Examining further, I find in the conception an adjunctive

idea of truth or untruth, put as an attribute of a total which con¬

sists of two ideas and their relation. To illustrate, I offer the

two expressions :

(1) “Lemon to exceed orange,” and

(2) “Lemon not to exceed orange.”

I cannot admit, and shall elsewhere antagonize, the opinion

that “not to exceed” is meant to call up the idea of equality or in-

25

386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

feriority, one or both, or any other substitute for tbe idea of ex¬

cess. For the moment it may be enough to remark that, in the

expression “Lemon doesn’t exceed orange,” the inclination which

the enclitic “n’t” exhibits towards its neighbor “does,” or say

its aversion shown to “exceed,” affords some indication that the

mind does not associate the negative with the excess. Indeed,

were it to do so, the strictly proper word would not be “not,”

but “non.”

I regard the “not” as suggesting solely the idea of untruth.

Thus construed, expression (2) reveals a thought attended by the

idea of its untruth. The obvious antagonism of one thought to

the other strongly intimates that expression (1) should be taken

as standing for a thought attended by its truth.*

This idea of truth, or untruth, I expect to find in every thought

to be examined. I have, however, given it somewhat careful

attention, because it seems to me that, without it, thought of

greater complexity cannot thoroughly be understood.

*1 admit that (1) might sometimes better be interpreted as not sug¬

gesting either truth or untruth — sometimes, again, as calling up to

mind the categorical idea of truth-or-untruth. With such occasions

however I am not dealing. In “I believe lemon to exceed orange”, that

which I believe is, as it seems to me, the truth of my thought — just

as what I believe, in saying “I oelieve lemon not to exceed orange”,

is the untruth of my thought. It is thus and thus only that I elect to

construe the expression ‘‘Lemon to exceed orange”. That is, of

thoughts which might be indicated by it, I choose that one which is

ready for the accession of my belief. In that one accordingly I find

the adjunctive idea of thought-truth.

This idea of truth is however easily overlooked, for the following

reason. Affirmative expressions are, in linguistic practice, much more

common than negative. The truth which ordinarily attends a thought,

becomes a matter of course, and easily fails to be noted. Were you

to ask me what I wish you to think of when I utter (1), I should be

very apt to answer: ‘‘the relation between lemon and orange”. But

suppose you repeat the question with (2). I must now put in the idea

of untruth, and answer:, “the untruth of the relation, etc.” If now

you repeat your question with (1), I shall answer: “ the truth of the

relation, etc.” That is, I am so used to the idea of truth, that I or¬

dinarily overlook it. But if you sharpen my attention by directing it

first to the untruth, which I do not intend, I become aware, and

keenly, of the truth which I do intend.

Oiven i — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression, 387

Its distinctive.

Ill© idea of truth which I seem, to find in the conception when

it is not negative, is far from being an endorsement, I meet the

thought arising in my mind, as the bank-official meets the bank¬

note submitted to his expert judgment. He may be asked to

decide upon its genuineness ; or, on the contrary, he may be asked

to decide upon its spuriousness. The; idea, of the note will ac¬

cordingly be attended in his mind by an idea: of either1 genuine¬

ness or spuriousness — say the idea of genuineness. But this at¬

tendant idea is merely the aspect in which the idea, of the note is

offered. It does not predetermine ultimate opinion. And so

it is with the truth which forms a part of what is expressed by

“Lemon to exceed orange.” Thinking of such truth does not

commit me. I still am free to reject, (or accept) this truth,

precisely as, I still am free to reject (or accept) the untruth

which forms a part of what is expressel by “Lemon not to exceed

orange.” That such is the fact, I think appears in the expres¬

sion “I disbelieve the lemon to exceed the orange,” in which I

reject what seems to be presented in the aspect, of truth — and in

“I disbelieve the lemon not to exceed the orange,” in which I

reject what is obviously presented in the aspect of untruth. The

presence then of the idea of truth, as thus far noted, is far from

implying that anything is true ; it only implies a preference to

regard a thought in its, possibility of being true, rather than in

its possibility of being untrue. Conversely the presence of the

idea of untruth implies only a preference to regard a thought

in the possibility of being untrue.

The significance of my examination is less in what I have

found, than in what I have not found. In particular I have not

found any personal endorsement of the conception — its truth or

its untruth. I have found, in other words, no element, of belief.

As I expect to find this element in other forms of thought to be

examined, I make the provisory claim, that the distinctive of

the conception is the absence of belief.

As you are likely to decide on the validity of any conception

I reveal, you might prefer me to pose it unattended by ideas of

truth or untruth, leaving you to form1 the verdict “That is true”

or “That, is untrue.” But in linguistic practice I disregard

such preference', and submit my thought in the aspect of truth

or untruth, inviting the verdict, “I accept that,” or “I reject

that.” Offering however no verdict, of my own, I also do not

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

bias jours. My conception is merely a preliminary datum, a

theme, a topic. Had you asked me “Of what shall we think V\

I might have answered “Lemons.” In precisely the same spirit

I might answer “The truth (or, it may be, the untruth) of lemon

to exceed orange.” The conception then is far from being a

verdict., or say a judgment. It is merely that upon which a

judgment may be formed ; or perhaps it would be better to say :

it is a mere beginning, which will become a judgment when com¬

pleted by an element of acceptance, endorsement, or say belief.

Of, to change my figure, the members of a judgment are assem¬

bled ; but the breath of life is not yet in them.

b. the oedinary judgment ( expressed by a statement ).

Its essential content.

The forming of a judgment is commonly held to be, or at least

to contain, a mental act of knowing. But I prefer to follow the

hint, confessedly unreliable, offered by language-history. Look¬

ing backward, I find that, the primary meaning of “sententia”

was “an opinion.” The sentence might then be defined as an

opinion or, more exactly, the expression of an opinion. Since

what is expressed by a sentence is commonly also called a judg¬

ment, the hint is given to regard all judgments as opinions ; and

this it; seems to me is safer than to think of them as knowledge.

For what is supposed to be knowledge, in the ordinary sense,

is often found to be no knowledge.

The word opinion itself is not however fully adequate. It

names a mental status as much too weak, as knowledge is too

strong. I prefer as a rule the word belief, by which I mean the

act of knowing, but without distinction between knowing rightly

and knowing wrongly, the latter being an extra-linguistic acci¬

dent. Indeed I expect, to use “to-believe” and “to-know” as

synonymous, choosing the former when greater distinctness is

required, and preferring the latter when its greater convention¬

ality favors the momentary need. Accordingly what is expressed

by a sentence, in other words a judgment, I regard as consisting

essentially of belief in a conception.

I neglect moreover unbelief, in the sense of failure to reach

belief. I also at present pass over disbelief — an embarrassing

quasi-synonym for belief in the untruth of thought. It is well

Owenr— Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 389

enough, no doubt, to say that (1) “Orange exceeds lemon” ex¬

presses belief, and that (2) “Lemon not exceeds orange” ex¬

presses disbelief. But when I strive to differentiate expression

(2) from (3) “Lemon not to exceed orange,” I find myself in

trouble. For, though the thought expressed in (3) no doubt

may be distinguished adequately from the thought expressed in

(1) and (2) by calling it a conception, (3) should further be

distinguished from (4) “Orange to exceed lemon” by calling

the thought of (3) — I know not what — perhaps a ^conception.

But the word is lacking ; and the idea; which it indicates is un¬

familiar. Again, for disbelief I shall find no approximately

synonymous acknowledge. I shall accordingly work to better

advantage by confining myself, so far as possible', to conceptions

attended now by truth and now by untruth, and to judgments

containing belief in one or the other.*

Its distinctive.

To make this obvious, I write, the' one above the other, a

sentence or expression of a judgment, and a suggestive phrase or

expression of a conception — both of the essential type — both con¬

taining, that is, only the ideas needed to make them, one a con¬

ception, the other a judgment. Accordingly

*In such expressions as “I doubt”, “I do not believe”, “I believe”,

etc., the mental act of doubting or believing is itself conceived as true

or untrue, and a secondary belief is brought to bear on this truth or

untruth, as is clearly indicated by the comparison of such expressions

with “me to doubt,” “me not to doubt”, etc. Such expressions may

however be discarded, attention being confined to the briefer sentential

forms in which belief, when part of what is meant, is left without any

special word to express it, or is in other words incorporated in the

meaning of the verb, as in “Orange exceeds lemon.”

The presence, in every judgment, of the speaker’s belief may vin¬

dicate the sentence “Seeing that it rains, a walk will not be pleasant”.

He who cannot tolerate the “seeing that” as a subconscious synonym

of “since” — he who feels that something there must be, to which the

adjunctive “seeing” may cling — will find this something in the incor¬

porated “I” of assertion; for every original assertion is first-personal,

just as every (directly) quoted assertion is third-personal — or some¬

times second-personal. So, too, in “Seeing it rains, don’t go,” the

purist may choose between “I, who am aware of the rain, wish you

not to go.” and “I wish you, who are aware of the rain, not to go.”, or

even associate the seeing with both “I” and “you.”

390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

(1) “Orange exceeds lemon”, and

(2) “Orange to exceed lemon.”

Interpreting these as indicating

(1) My belief in a conception, and

(2) a conception (and nothing more),

I, so to speak, subtract the lower from the! upper. I thus ob¬

tain a remainder of belief, which was part of (1) but not a part

of (2). Pending further examination, I postulate that, as the

distinctive of coneption was, so to put it, the belief which it does

not have, per contra the distinctive of a judgment is the belief

which it has.

General nature of belief. ,

Of this a working idea may be reached, I think, most easily

through disbelief; and both will be appreciated better after an

objective illustration. Suppose then that, in my walk, as I am

just about to set upon the ground my leading foot, I see beneath

it a rattlesnake!. The somewhat energetic withdrawal of foot — -

and general self — I can indicate perhaps to best advantage by the

word recoil. But for the opposite of this withdrawal, which I

also wish to consider, I can not find an equally effective word.

Such opposite action I seem to conceive with sufficient clearness ;

indeed I find it picturesquely detailed, as I read in the gospel

of St. Luke the father’s reception of the homing prodigal. “His

father saw him: and had compassion and ran and fell on his

neck and kissed him.” Something of this sort I wish to express

by the word occurrence, that is, an eager running toward what is

attractive — antagonistic to an equally eager running away from

what is repulsive.

In the field of thought, belief and disbelief impress me as

closey analogous to these actions of the body. Speaking very

roughly, if you set before my mental vision the thought expressed

by “Men are vegetables,” I recoil from1 it. I do not care at this

moment to investigate the ground of this recoil, aesthetic, ethical,

rational or any other; enough, in general, that I repel or reject

the thought — that I disapprove it or dissent from it- — that in

particular I disbelieve it. If on the other hand you put before

my mind the thought expressed by “Men are animals,” I occur

to it ; I embrace or adopt it ; I approve it or assent to it — more

particularly I believe it.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 391

That belief is more than I have indicated — that it is attended

by a feeling that it is inevitable, that others share or ought to

share it, that it is a, proper and even necessary corollary of the

existing order of things — I admit, but do. not think it necessary

to consider for the present purpose.

Linguistic neglect of disbelief.

Of the two phenomena, belief is the recognition of agreement

or harmony between thought and fact, between: self and the outer

world, or better perhaps between the special self of the moment

and the general, permanent self. Disbelief is the recognition of

discord. Belief is satisfaction. Disbelief is dissatisfaction.

The former is the more agreeable — the more human. In

Goethe’s Faust the Devil is objection personified — “der Geist der

stets verneint.” Belief is success; disbelief is failure — reason

in itself enough for the linguistic predominance of expressions

for belief. Indeed, for the sake, it may be, of being able to

believe, we change to a believable form that even which we dis¬

believe.

T'o show this, I note that, in my objective illustration, the aim

of recoil is strictly to be far from the rattlesnake. But the act

of recoil incidentally brings me nearer to another object. — say

a, honeysuckle now in all its bloom and fragrance. It is not

true that my jump with might and main was prompted by a

longing toi be near that, object. True it is, however, that I did

most energetically reach that object. I may say with perfect ad¬

herence to fact that, not liking the snake, I changed my course,

approaching something else that I like better.

So also when there looms, up in my mental path a thought

which I cannot approve, instead of disapproving it I can ap¬

prove something else. Instead of disbelieving it, I can believe

its untruth. Accordingly, if you say that “Mien are vegetables,”

exhibiting, as I take it, your belief in the truth of mens being

vegetables , instead of taking sides against the thought which you

oblige me to think, and saying that “I disbelieve it,” I say “Men

are not vegetables,” meaning that I believe the untruth of mens

being vegetables , thus siding with what I think of, but thinking

now of something different from that of which I was initially

obliged to think.

Siich considerations have by no means cogency enough to ex¬

plain complete neglect of disbelief, although they seem to me

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

sufficient to occasion a. preponderating inclination toward belief.

But if one only of the two, belief or disbelief, could be expressed

by speech, considerations of the sort described would seem to me

sufficient to determine choice. Now just that “if” is realized in

all expressions taken up in this investigation. In these there is

no separate symbol for belief or disbelief. Whichever I experi¬

ence must be incorporated in the meaning of my verb. For

instance, given “Orange to exceed lemon,” all that I do to express

belief is to substitute the word “exceeds.” If now I wish instead

to incorporate in the verb my disbelief, I need a form analogous

to “exceeds,” but meaning “I disbelieve ... to ex¬

ceed . . . .” But such a word I do not find. I might

indeed require the form “exceeds” to do double duty, now for be¬

lief and now for disbelief. But if “exceeds” should sometimes

mean “I believe to exceed,” and sometimes “I disbelieve to ex¬

ceed,” my hearer would be hopelessly confused; the aim of

speech would be completely thwarted. By one of those two

meanings I must then unswervingly abide. Accordingly, from

what is meant by words of the assertive type, linguistic usage

utterly excludes the idea of disbelief, admitting only belief,

which however has its election between truth, which commonly

is not expressed by any special word, and untruth, which is

specially expressed by such a word as “not.”

On what belief bears.

The main importance of this topic appears in the study of

negative expressions. In them] indeed the bearing of belief may

be most surely and most easily determined. At present I shall

exhibit this bearing merely as indicated by introspection.

Belief, as it appears in language, is an adhesion to one of two

alternatives, truth or untruth. Neglecting, as before, the indi¬

vidual thought-member, and spreading attention over the total

thought, I feel that, whatever be my thought, it is either true or

untrue. With one of these possibilities, truth or untruth, I may

ally myself, but not with both. “No man can serve two mas¬

ters . . . .he will hold fast to the one and despise the

other.”

To this truth then (or untruth) it is, that I add my belief,

procedure being somewhat as may be indicated by answers to

questions: Q. “What is your thought?” A. “Orange to ex¬

ceed lemon.” Q. “In which aspect do you regard this thought

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 393

— as true or untrue ?” A. “As true.” Q. “Do you believe tbis

truth?” A. “Yes.”

Scope of belief.

By this I mean the extent of that to which belief applies, there

being opportunity for variation of that extent, in the case of

general or multiple propositions. Thus the general thought ex¬

pressed by “Lemons to exceed oranges” may be regarded as a

group of individual thoughts, consisting of “The lemon a to

exceed the orange: f” “The lemon a to exceed the orange g”

“The lemon b to exceed the orange h” etc. Yow when I say

that “Lemons occasionally exceed oranges,” I mean to indicate

that some only of these individual thoughts are true.

If I said that “Some lemons exceed oranges,” I should ob¬

viously be cutting down the number of lemons available in my

multiple thought. If I said “Lemons exceed some oranges,” I

should do the same by the oranges. In saying “Lemons oc¬

casionally exceed oranges,” it might be that I should similarly

cut down the number of lemon-orange relations to be thought of.

Each individual thought, however, being associable with its own

respective idea, of truth (or untruth), it seems to me that what

I have cut down is rather the total of these truths. That is,

among the ideas associated with my individual thoughts, I

reckon some truths (as also some untruths). Or, changing per¬

spective, I may say that the associated truth is occasional. That

is, the occasionalness, or variation from universalness, belongs to

the truth of my multiple thought.

So far as I know myself, it is thus that I do my thinking.

But on this I do not insist, my contention being merely that

either the thought conceived as true, or the truth conceived of

that thought, may vary in extension. With a personal prefer¬

ence however for the latter, I add the following illustrations:

“That lemons exceed oranges I believe to be true in actual cases

(when the lemons are very large), true in possible cases (if the

lemons be very large), true in impossible cases (if the lemons

be grape-fruits), true in all cases, many cases, some cases, few

cases, no cases.”

IVIJy immediate purpose in presenting this variation in the

scope of belief, is to use it as a back-ground on which to pro¬

ject

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Intensity of belief.

While conceding that, as an initial mental act, belief is com¬

monly subject to great variation, I claim that, in linguistic ex¬

pressions of the type considered, the intensity of belief does not

vary. To illustrate, suppose a cube and a, sphere of approxi¬

mately equal bulk; and suppose I find it hard to determine

whether they be equal or not and, if not, which is the larger.

Suppose that, on the whole I incline to regard the cube as

greater than the sphere, but am still unwilling to risk the asser¬

tion: “Cube exceeds sphere.”

As I have not reached a fully developed belief, it would be

most rational for me to renounce all dealing with such belief,

and. to seek an expression for my actual mental status. This I

might describe as a half, quarter or thirty-seven per cent, belief,

an opinion, a doubt, a suspicion. But all of these require spe¬

cial indication and in linguistic practice become in turn the

theme of full belief itself. Thus, in the expression “I suppose

C to exceed S,” what is centrally announced as believed to be

true is the supposing, and not the excess, etc. That is, the full

expression of my thought would be : “I believe in the truth of

my supposing — O to be greater than S.” And this belief, of

course, is complete.

With an expression so obtrusive of oneself, the sentence is

however by no means always satisfied. It seeks a form appa¬

rently more self-effacing or impersonal — a parallel to that

afforded by “C exceeds S.” In this expression a full belief and

a believing self are indicated by a trifling modification of the

relation word. (Conf. “C to exceed S.”) That is, myself and

my belief are part of what is meant by “exceeds.” I should like

very much to express m:y incomplete' belief in the same way.

But obviously, if what I incorporate in my verb (by its trifling

modification) be sometimes complete belief and sometimes be¬

lief that is incomplete, I shall fall into hopless ambiguity.

In some way the incomplete belief must be plainly indi¬

cated. Such indication, as noted above, may be ac¬

complished by a, special word for incomplete belief (e. g.,

“suppose”) or by the ordinary word for belief plus a word of

description (e. g., “partly believe”). If neither expedient he

adopted, it remains possible to use a describer or modifier1, under¬

stood to bear on the belief (which is incorporated in the verb,

but otherwise unexpressed) ; e. g., instead of “O exceeds S’” I

might say “Partly O exceeds S,” meaning that what is partial

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 395

is the belief in C’s excess over S — a belief incorporated in the

meaning of “exceeds.” This possibility however we plainly do

not utilize.

There seems then to be no further available expedient except

(renouncing the modification of belief itself) to modify that on

which belief is operative — either the thought conceived as true

(or untrue) or the truth (or untruth) conceived of that thought.

Of the former expedient language does not, to my knowledge,

avail itself. To illustrate, believing incompletely that “C ex¬

ceeds S:,” I do not say “(I believe it to be true that) an incom¬

plete C exceeds S,” “C exceeds an incomplete S,” or “C exceeds

incompletely S.” That is, I do not make the incompleteness the

adjunct of any individual thought-element. Also I do not say

“(I believe it to be true that) incompletely C exceeds S.” That

is, I do not make the incompleteness the adjunct of the total

thought.

There remains the expedient of regarding the truth itself as

incomplete or partial. To this. it. will be objected that truth

cannot be partial — that, there is no intermediate between truth

and untruth. To> this, objection, founded on unquestionable

fact, I answer that the impossibility of an intermediate is no bar

to its conception by the mind.* Truth itself and untruth, and

even reality, do not., as I take it, occur outside of mind. The

mind creates them. The creation of partial truth would seem

as feasible as the creation of truth complete (or untruth).

Partial truth, is variously and ambiguously expressed by

probability, possibility, likelihood, etc. These words I am

using now without attendant idea of futurity. By what is prob¬

able I do not mean what I expect to happen in the future, nor

what I expect to be shown to have happened now or in the past.

I mean that which, regarded as of the present only, I really

approximate: to believing — that which, figuratively speaking, I

believe h> be approximately or partially true. That is, I regard

the probable:, not as completely true or untrue, but as lying some¬

where in a. quite imaginary region between the two. In saying

“0 probably exceeds S” I am, without question, really in some

phase of partial belief. But in using the linguistic mechanism,

I remodel my mental status into a. belief in the partial truth of

♦Students of French Grammar have accomplished the equally diffi¬

cult feat of conceiving “ne — pas” as two semi-negatives, forming to¬

gether one complete negative.

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

my thought. Partial truth, in other words, under the title prob¬

ability, displaces or reduces that complete truth which is a not

specially expressed, but certainly incorporated element of what

is meant by “C exceeds S.” (Conversely “probably not” ex¬

hibits partial untruth.) Accordingly I interpret “C probably

exceeds S” as meaning “I fully believe in the partial truth of

the conception, C to exceed S.” Whatever be then, in the mind,

the actual variation of what is called belief, I conclude that, in

thought prepared for linguistic expression, belief does not vary.

Or, playing upon a current locution, I would have it that Soft¬

ened assertion” is really the hard assertion of softened truth (or

untruth). That, accordingly, which makes an expression

assertive, is the presence (in its meaning) of the speaker’s full

belief — a belief it may be in the truth, the untruth or the partial

truth of a thought — such truth consisting in the thought’s being-

paralleled, matched or duplicated, it may be by a phenomenon

of the external uni verses, it may be even by a phenomenon of the

speaker’s mind itself — such phenomenon being regarded as ex¬

ternal to the thought of the moment.*

Expression of belief.

The question by what element of the sentence the belief, or

say the assertion, is expressed, is of small immediate impor¬

tance. The opinion that this element is the personal ending of

the indicative mode, is obviously inaccurate; for the same sign

of person, is often used in other modes, without assertive effect.

On the other hand the “modal vowel,” when it occurs, is doubt¬

less distinctive. In its absence, it may be said that whatever in

actual practice enables the assertive form to be recognized as

such (e. g., the indicative flection al ending’s difference from

that of other modes) is the element which expresses assertion.

So far as my observation reaches, the verb-forms which possess

such assertive element are ranked as indicative.” Assertion,

then, or belief (in truth or untruth), is part of the meaning of

the indicative mode** — indeed, its exclusive privilege ; for it is

*For instance, in “I doubt, fear, desire”, etc., in which assertions the

mere thought of my doubting is felt to be matched by actual doubt

itself.

**That the indicative form is often used without indicative meaning,

or as a pseudo-indicative (as in “I deny that Brown is honest”, in

which sentence the “is” cannot assert, as it does in the isolated

“Brown is honest”), is merely one of many inconsistencies of speech.

Owen — - Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 397

possible, I think, to exhibit, as apparent only, all exceptions*

and especially the exception offered by the imperative.

c. the imperative judgment (expressed by a command) .

The fallacy of the imperative mode.

By ranking imperative expressions as modally different from

the assertive forms of the' indicative, grammarians create an em¬

barrassment, of' which I wish to rid myself, so far as may be, by

discrediting the authority of Grammar. As an indication that

this authority ought not to be trusted, I note that forms like “to

fell” are, in the grammars of some languages, ranked as the

causative mode of “to fall.” As “to fall” and “to fell” have

each its own indicative, subjunctive, etc. ; and as some gram¬

marians further recognize “conditional” modes of both indica¬

tive and subjunctive value (as in some Spanish Grammars) ; it

may be imagined how a rational mind will fare with modes of

modes, continuable, if fortitude fail not, to the nth degree of

absurdity.

Again, if “to fell” must rank as a mode of some other verb,

I cannot confine myself to conceiving it as the causal mode of

falling. So far as. meaning goes — and even also mental domi¬

nance — it seems to me that felling (and raising) are much more

modes of causing, than of falling (and rising) — modes

which, at a. pinch, might bear the names of cadent and ascendant

modes of causing. So too with “Move !” ; I cannot perceive it

solely as the imperative or commanding mode of motion ; I must

also see it as the mobile mode of command.

*Thus the subjunctive (or other mode) in the conclusion of a com

dition, I should rank as a pseudo-subjunctive with really full assertive

“intensity”. For, even at its weakest, the conclusion is what I be¬

lieve to be true in impossible cases (see p. 393) ; and such restriction of

cases can hardly more invalidate assertion (or belief in truth) than

restriction to no cases at all, as in “Lemons never exceed oranges”.

Yet, so far as I have observed, no claim is made that in this sentence

“exceed” is stripped of any assertive intensity, although the scope of

assertion is obviously reduced to zero. Again, as the merest piece of

introspection, I note that, answering your “If you were three men, you

wouldn’t eat more”, my “Yes, I should” appears to me to be as dis¬

tinctly an assertion as any “shall” or “did” that I could utter.

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Moreover7 if one accession of meaning puts a verb into a differ¬

ent mode', fair play would seem to call for change of modal rank

with other accessions. I see no reason for laying greater stress

upon an added idea of -command; than on the more effective, and

so far more important, idea of aid. If an expression meaning

“I command you to climb” have modal recognition, much more

an expression meaning “I assist you to climb” would seem in

ordinary justice to require modal recognition also1. With the

courage of this conviction, given “I help you over the fence”

(meaning “I assist you to1 climb,” etc.), I might announce this

“help” as the cooperative mode of climbing, except that I mis¬

trust me it should rather rank as the transcendental mode of

cooperation.

Once started in the role of “modiste,” I should hardly know

when to stop. What is allowed with a first accession of mean¬

ing might also be allowed with a second — a third — a thirtieth.

But as the vistas open — as there rise to view the modal possi¬

bilities offered for instance by “I desire to help to persuade you

to attempt to cause to fall” — I renounce the' effort to establish

as modal what are obviously mere agglomerations of meaning —

occur with the utmost frequency — in the greatest variety — with

every sort of word. If, coexisting with the word “to fall,” I

ever find another word of similar form invested with the com¬

plex meaning of my illustration, I shall say that this word and

“to fall” are merely different words. So also, given “Come!”'

and “I come,” the meaning-difference between the “come” of

one case and the “come” of the other might, in the interest of

clearness and convenience, justify their recognition as two dif¬

ferent words, alike in form alone. Indeed it would be well per¬

haps to do the like: with every so-called mode which adds to the

dictionary meaning of a, verb any other meaning than the assert¬

ive element expressible by “I believe.”

Or rather, to be even more consistent, I would with others

rank the assertive form — that is the so-called indicative mode —

as alone a, verb. The so-called imperative, which I shall try to

exhibit as the maker of a merely complex assertion — that is, as

ai so-called indicative with complex meaning — I would also rank

as a, verb, but as another verb.

The unassertive forms of conjugation might be ranked as members

of an extra-verbal word-class — as what might well enough be known

as hybrid parts of speech — more or less verbal in their power of gov-

Owen i — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 399

erning other words — more or less something else in their government

by other words.*

Regarding the imperative, not as a mode, but as an individual verb,

I observe that its conjugation is defective, especially in comparison

with what it might have been. Starting with a form for “I desire you

to come” (say “Come!”), it was obviously possible for language to de¬

velop form-varieties meaning subjunctively “(that) I desire you to

come,” infinitively “me to desire you to come,” and so on through the

total range of verbal nouns, adjectives and adverbs. Variation for

time, say tense, ( may occur not only with desire, but also with that

which is desired; and the two variations may agree or disagree. The

like is true of variation for person and number. In short all conjuga-

tional possibilities are open to the imperative, and each is often doubly

available. Among the permutations and combinations mus produc¬

ible I shall not take the risk of losing my way. Enough that speech

has been contented with an insignificant part of their disheartening

number.**

Its essential content.

This is plainly subject to variation. Some indeed have

divided imperative expressions into many species — precatory,

hortatory, mandatory, etc. These however may he overlooked

in an investigation which more especially aims to discover the

method of idea combination, than to increase the precision of

ideas combined. I center attention on the general admission

that imperative sentences stand for something more than the

expressions hitherto examined.

To make that “something more” completely obvious, let an

imperative expression be set in the light which may be shed by

a contextual neighbor. Accordingly, “Eat that apple! For I

am not hungry ”

*Thus “I prefer your wearing black — you to wear black — that you

wear black” exhibits the verbal substantive in turn as verbal noun,

infinitive and subjunctive used as noun. In “I prefer persons wearing

black — who wear black” the verbal adjective appears in turn as par¬

ticiple and as (in some languages) subjunctive used as adjective.

“She sang ear-splittingly” exemplifies a verbal adverb, which at the

same time takes an object and is operative as an adjunct to a verb.

In Greek this usage may be found outside of compounds.

**I note, as somewhat interesting,” that “May he go!” (not “May he

go?”) lies without the strictly imperative limit, as it fails to implicate

the person addressed. On the other hand “Let him go!” is strictly

enough imperative, but imperative of “Let” — and not or “go.”

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

That my lack of appetite, is used, in this expression, to explain

or account for “Elat that apple !”, may be assumed as granted by

every one. So much indeed is clearly indicated by the “For.”

Plainly also the accounting is for something other than your

eating of the apple. For to put. my lack of appetite as explana¬

tion of your eating is hardly rational. If however “Eat that

apple!” be taken to mean “I desire you to eat that apple,” or

“That you eat that, apple is my desire,” the situation is allevi¬

ated. My lack of appetite at least relieves my wish (that you

exhaust the visible food supply) of any opposition which might

offer, in case I were hungry myself. That is, what is explained

(at least, negatively) by “I am not hungry” is my desire that

you eat the apple.*

The imperative expression being thus interpreted, the struct

ture of thought expressed is. easily perceived. The desire (that

you eat the apple) is conceived as true ; for otherwise the inter¬

pretation would be “I not desire, (or don’t desire), etc.” This

truth, moreover, is believed ; for otherwise the interpretation

would be “me to desire, etc.” How neither of these last imag¬

ined interpretations, would, as I suppose, be satisfactory to any

one. I feel accordingly that what is meant in full by “Eat that

apple!” is essentially expressed by “I believe in the truth of my

desire (that you eat that apple, or) for your eating that

apple). ”t

^Whether ideas express by “I”, “desire” and “you” be regarded as

part of what is expressed by “eat”, or as inferred by the hearer, does

not seem to me important enough to warrant argument.

fl also perceive that when I use an imperative, for instance “Come!”,

I have in mind not merely a desire for your coming, but rather a de¬

sire that you put forth the energy required to bring about your com¬

ing. But so far as that I do not think it necessary to extend investi¬

gation.

Or again, as Sigwart will have it (Trans. Dendy — ’95, Vol. I, p. 17),

the imperative aim is iiot to express a wish, but to bring about the

realization of a wish — an opinion quite incontrovertible, so long as

“aim” is understood to be ultimate purpose. For when I say to you

“Come!”, no doubc the mere informing you of my desire is of too small

importance to account for the evolution of a special form for impera¬

tive expression. No doubt moreover I have some expectation, or at

least some hope, that you will be caused to come. But such causation

is not, so far as I can see, a part of what I actually express. It (the

causation) may be effected by influences of my own, coercive, intim-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 401

Its distinctive.

Comparing “You eat that apple/7 interpreted as

(1) “I believe the truth of your eating that apple/7 and

“Elat that apple !77, interpreted as

(2) “I believe the truth of my desire for your eating that

apple/7

I note that, in the imperative judgment (2), an idea of my

desire is thrust in between the belief in truth and the apple¬

eating of (1) — or say intercalated. The imperative sentence

then is merely the assertion of a thought increased a trifle in comr

plexity. In other words, to use a, compact grammatical phrase,

the imperative is a pregnant assertion.

Regarding rather thought expressed than its expression, I

would have it that the imperative judgment is distinguished

from an ordinary judgment by the presence of an idea of per¬

sonal desire injected between belief in truth and the conception

which, in ordinary judgment, is itself believed to be true.

d. the interrogative judgment (expressed by a question ).

Limitation of field considered.

The scope of interrogative operations is far too great to permit

their exhaustive investigation. Like the statement, the ques¬

tion may be embarrassed by negative elements. It may bewilder

idating, persuasive. But all such I regard as strictly extra-linguistic.

So far as I can see, the immediate aim of imperative speech is confined

to letting you know what I desire, and that I desire it.

In making belief the foundation of the imperative thought, truth

(or untruth) the basement of the mental edifice, desire the first and

your coming the second story, I do not mean that, in the mind of

speaker or hearer, the lower courses of thought-masonry are histor¬

ically older. I imagine that the early thought-constructor was con¬

tented with the upper stories — 'that the lower ones are of more recent

date, put in at great expense of effort, to meet a modern demand for

thought-completeness and stability. Nor do I conceive them as men¬

tally dominant. They are indeed more or less underground, below the

level of completest consciousness. The superstructure is most in view,

most in esteem. It realizes the preeminent purpose; all else is dis¬

tinctly subordinate. On the other band, not only in the architecture

of stones, but also in that of ideas, the foundations cannot be neg¬

lected, if the building is to stand securely.

26

402 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

itself with alternatives. It may be overwhelmed by adjunctive

clauses, adjective or adverbial, restrictive or informational.

That too wbicb prompts a question, and that which is merely

surprising, are mentally so near of kin, that often it is far from

easy to differentiate the question from the exclamation. That

again which I do not know but wish to know, and what I neither

know nor care to know, are enough alike to permit the symbol of

one to replace the symbol of the other — to allow the two to act

as interchangeable indefinites. Moreover the interrogative has

all the degrees of vagueness that belong to the ordinary indefi¬

nite ; and this vagueness may be that of kind, of number, of par¬

ticular individual. [To illustrate, compare the questions

“What killed Lincoln?” — “How many V’ — “What actor?”,

“Which Booth ?” and, in obsolete phraseology, “Whether of the

two Booths?”] The question moreover may be doubled, as

in “Who killed Lincoln when T’ Question and simple command

may coalesce, as in the French interrogative-imperative

“Venez?” The question, as used by examiners and cross-ex¬

aminers, becomes inquisitorial, aiming to test the knowledge or

voracity of their victims', while the ordinary question is rather

inquisitive or zetetic. The question may seek to mislead by

false dilemma, to confuse by distorted perspective; or on the

other hand it may take on the hermeneutic quality, being aimed

to aid the hearer’s cerebration. As indicated on p>. 354, the ques¬

tion may appear as a questioned question — and also' as a ques¬

tioned factor of a question. Indeed it is obvious that, however

difficult it be for the mind to form a given judgment of any sort,

by reason of its extent and intricacy, and however awkward be

the linguistic means of expressing that judgment, nevertheless

any element thereof may be precisely that at which a question is

aimed. In short there does not promise to be any difficulty of

thought or speech, in which some form of question may not be

involved. The question however offers ample difficulty of its

own. Tbi this accordingly I shall, so far as may be, confine

attention, examining interrogation only as it appears in the

simpler and more easily expressible forms of thought.

Indications offered by tradition.

These are few and disappointing. That “ interrogative sen¬

tences are such as ask a question,” and that “interrogative words

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 403

are used in asking questions/’ the naked eye can perceive.*

To rank such words among the pronouns confuses the idea of the

pronoun, as well as that of the interrogative word. The dis¬

tinctive characteristic of a genuine pronoun (and I do not here

consider any pseudo-pronoun — such, for instance, as the mere

indefinite) I hold to be the restriction of its symbolizing power

to the reinstatement (or anticipation) of a part or parts or all

of a thought, which has been (or will be) expressed by another

more effective word or combination. In “ Yesterday I dined on

mutton. It was very good,” the pronominal “It” revives in mind

the waning idea suggested first by “mutton.” In “Yesterday

I dined on mutton. What will the cook provide to-day?,” the

interrogative “What,” with an eatable named by “mutton” di¬

rectly at hand, neglects it absolutely. In “Though he is ill, Mr.

Brown is at work,” the “he” prefigures in the vague an idea

which I inferentially promise to express more distinctly, ful¬

filling this promise by the words “M]r. Birown.” In “What

will the cook provide to-day ?,” I offer no such promise, for the

excellent reason that I see no hope of fulfilling it.**

The distinctive feature of interrogation is sometimes said to

be the “rising inflection.” But this does not belong to questions

only. If you ask me “Shall you go to the play ?,” I answer with

rising inflection “I think I shall go ;” indeed I may use through¬

out precisely the variations of pitch which the cockney uses in

“To which house shall I go ?” Again the question is not always

put with rising inflection,. In American Ehglish, although the

voice is raised at the end of “Are you there ?”, it falls at the

end of “Where are you ?”

*That language students universally endorse such definitions, mainly

offered by Grammar, I do not for a moment suppose. That real in¬

vestigators are discontented, many of them ready to revolt, some in¬

dependently holding to rational views, and giving them welcome ex¬

pression, would seem to be a foregone conclusion. To the opinions of

such I hope only to bring the merest confirmation. Their opinions are

not what I mean by Grammar. I mean the body of observations,

definitions, classifications and explanations, adopted as creed or en¬

dured as fashion by teachers and writers, with rare exceptions.

**The “What” in a sense anticipates the answer; so too in “Lend me

five dollars!” the “Lend” anticipates your act of lending; but such an¬

ticipation is far too different from that of the pronouns, to furnish

ground for entrance into their category.

404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Equally futile is the effort to establish, as distinctive feature

of interrogation, an inverted order of words. On the one hand

questions are asked without its aid, as for instance “Who is

there?” On the other hand, inversion does not always make a

sentence interrogative. In the closing lines of Lockslev Hall

the inverted expression “Comes a vapor from the margin” does

not intend a question.

While then it must, be: admitted that rising inflection and in¬

version are used as helps to indicate the interrogative meaning,

it seems to be proper, in view of their frequent omission, to rank

them as only helps.

Discarding these and other purely formal characteristics, I

propose to look for1 one substantial and essential, expecting to

find it, as a matter of course, in the thought itself, which inter¬

rogative expression embodies. I turn accordingly to interroga¬

tive thought, and, first of all, to

Indications offered by concurrent mind-phenomena.

Under this title I wish to repeat the experiment performed

upon the Imperative — to examine the* mental status pictured by

the question, ini the light which may be shed by a contextual

neighbor.

In Hugo’s “Toilers of the Sea” I find that Captain Lethierry,

overflowing with gratitude to one Grilliatt, a sailor, picturesquely

asks “Where is he ? that I may eat him.” Examining the mental

status of the questioner, I find an intention to eat Grilliatt, con¬

current or coincident with whatever other mental state may be

expressed by the question. The question itself is apparently

aimed to aid that intention. Conversely the intention explains

or accounts for the question. Taking inventory of the latter, I

find, at first sight, only that “Where” conveys the idea of unspe¬

cified place; that “he,” otherwise Grilliatt, suggests a person;

that “is” encourages some faith in that person’s being in that un¬

specified place. In short, the utmost that I can rightly or

wrongly develop from the dictionary values of words employed,

is that Grilliatt is somewhere. This is hardly definite enough to

invite explanation ; and even if it did, the explanation offered by

“that I may eat him” would hardly be sufficient or appropriate.

Accordingly I feel obliged to find in “Where is he?” more

meaning than at first appeared. The like is true of the follow¬

ing illustrations: “Where is the water-pitcher? — for I am

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 405

thirsty.” “Since I can’t eat cake, haven’t you any bread?”

“Where is your pencil, if you can’t find a pen?” With all of

these I feel obliged to find, in the meaning of the question, some¬

thing more than at first appears. Of what this something is, I

hope to find an indication in the next succeeding sections.

Its occasion.

This I take to be the conscious insufficiency of a previous

conception. In a later section I shall try to show that what

creates the insufficiency of a conception is at times the absence or

offensive indefiniteness of a conception-element — e. g. (1)

“Booth to have killed . . . . ” or “Booth to have killed

some one,” as compared with “Booth to have killed Lincoln”—

and at other times the lack of that belief which, if experienced,

would change the conception into a judgment — e. g. (2) “Booth

to have killed Lincoln” as compared with “Booth killed Lin¬

coln.” Strictly speaking, the mental total assembled (before

the asking of a question) in case (1) is hardly an actual concep¬

tion at all, but rather a would-be conception, or a make-shift

for a conception ; and in case (2) the mental total is insuffi¬

cient, only when appraised as if it were a judgment — which in¬

deed the thinker may have wished it to be, but which it is not.

The fact of immediate importance is however that in either case

the mental total, as compared with what the speaker is assumed

to wish it were, is distinctly insufficient. Accordingly, as I am

planning to present that, only, for the moment, which is common

to the two varieties of insufficient thought — common to their

natures, and common to their augmentations into interrogative

judgments^ — I venture to use for both that single name (i. e.

insufficient conception) which most will help me to maintain them

both in mind together — help me also clearly to distinguish them,

as wfill appear, from other forms of thought already examined.

Meantime I do not wish to be understood as implying that the

less one knows about a matter, the more he will strive to know.

For while it is generally true that what I know I shall not ask,

it seems to be universally true that I shall ask nothing in re¬

gard to that of which I know nothing. Thus, in the matter of

Catiline’s banishment, if I have never heard of Catiline, of

Rome, or of banishment, I am certain not to ask a question as

to either one, or any combination of them ; and even if I had

heard of Catiline, but nothing further, I should be more apt, to

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

request you to tell me about Catiline, than to ask you a specific

question. But if I knew that Catiline had suffered banishment*

I might inquire what city banished him. In short, the question

may occur when knowledge is incomplete, but not when it is

null — and rather when that which is missing is a single element,

than when it is two or more.*

Its motive.

This appears to be the desire for knowledge — the desire to

make sufficient a conception consciously insufficient. Such in¬

sufficiency alone can hardly lead to a question. It must be at¬

tended by that dissatisfaction, of which a desire to mend the in¬

sufficiency may be regarded as the active phase. To illustrate,

“Brown has gone somewhere.” Admitting that I do not know

where he has gone, so long as I am personally satisfied with my

absolutely rather insufficient statement, I shall not ask a ques¬

tion. I don’t know, don’t care and shall not try to learn. When,

however, I not only do not know, but also care to know, then

and then only shall I try to know.

Means of making a conception sufficient.

(a) By one’s own effort:

To illustrate, not knowing the number of your house, and

wishing to know it, I may go to your house and find out for my¬

self. Such expedients I discard, as plainly foreign to the mat¬

ter in hand.

(b) By the effort of another :

(1) extra-linguistic.

(2) linguistic.

The former I neglect entirely. The latter I consider, but

only when direct and special. Your diary, for instance, and

your published theses, constitute linguistic efforts eminently

helpful, on occasion, to the seeker after knowledge. But you

did not make them specially to meet my need, nor did you aim

them; directly at me. Valuable as they are, they do not prom¬

ise to illuminate the problem of interrogation any more com¬

pletely or effectively than linguistic efforts made by you espe¬

cially in my behalf, and in my mental presence.

*The case of momentary failure to remember — that is, momentary

ignorance — may be dismissed as promising nothing of special value

to the present investigation.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 407

TTie effort of another implies solicitation :

( 1 ) extra-linguistic.

(2) linguistic.

In other words, the chance that you will help me mend a con¬

ception without request (or some equivalent) from me to do so,

is too small to be considered. Extra-linguistic means of prompt¬

ing you to effort, I neglect in favor of the linguistic; and of

these again I shall examine those alone which are direct and

special, excluding every indirect appeal “to whomsoever it may

concern” and every standing, hourly operative “Please help the

blind !”

Linguistic solicitation may be inferential or explicit.

(а) Inferential:

That human ingenuity, under stimulus of sore need, should

hit upon many ways of obtaining knowledge, without over-step¬

ping the bounds above established, would seem to be a foregone

conclusion. Of possible expedients I wall exhibit a few, mak¬

ing use of an illustration which, easily bends itself to different

forms. Supposing then that I do not know, but wish to know

from you, the cause of Brown’s ill-humor, I might say merely

that

(1) “Brown is ill-humored,” relying on this announcement

to stimulate you to an explanation of his temper. Better yet 1

might say that

(2) “I don’t know the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” or

(3) “T doubt the cause of Brown’s ill-humor.” I might also

succeed with

(4) “Something is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” or

(5) “ - is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” or merely

(б) “The cause of Brown’s ill-humor.” I might, moreover,

start, you with a proposition of alternatives, as

(7) “Grout to be or not to be the cause of Brown’s ill-humor.”

I might also feebly announce that

(8) “I suppose that gout is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,”

or flatly declare that

(9) “Gout is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor.” If neither

of these aroused, you, because you share the opinion expressed,

I might rely on your antagonism to bring you out of your shell,

on substituting

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

(10) “Gout is not the cause of Brown’s ill-humor.” If none

of these things moved you, I might put you on your defense by

(11) “You think gout is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” or

(12) “You think gout is not the cause of Brown’s ill-humor.”

Or I might tickle you into an answer by the Irishman’s combina¬

tion of (9) and (2)

(13) “Gout is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor, I dunno.”

Or, becoming more emotional, I might try you with

(14) “I’m sorry I don’t know the cause of Brown’s ill-

humor,”

(15) “I wish I knew the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,”

(16) “(Oh) that I knew the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” or

(17) “The cause! The cause of Brown’s ill-humor!”

By these and doubtless other means you might, be led to infer

my general desire for information, and even my particular de¬

sire that you inform me, especially if you are of an obliging

disposition, and keenly on the watch for a chance to show it.

The uncertainty of such expedients, however, justifies the ex¬

pectation that there will be found in language methods more

(b) Explicit.

Outside of the question itself, for instance

(1) “What is the cause of Brown’s ill-humor?,” I recall but

two expressions which make an explicit appeal to another’s lin¬

guistic aid in making a conception sufficient. These are

(2) “I wish you to tell mje the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,”

and its imperative abbreviation,

(3) “Tell me the cause of Brown’s ill-humor,” both of which

will be examined somewhat closely in. juxtaposition with strictly

interrogative forms.

Answering now the possible query ‘What interrogation is,’ I

feel it safe to say, in a general way, that it is one of several di¬

rect and explicit linguistic means of inducing another mind to

give particular information. An exacter comprehension I hope

to reach in chapters III and IV.

Its control.

By this I mean the influences which mould the interrogative

judgment to a particular form; and these I find in the elected

means of making a conception sufficient.

To illustrate: If I do not know but wish to know the num-

Owenr— Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 409

her of your house, and plan to mend my ignorance by personal

investigation, I meantime hardly feel the need of forming any

judgment whatsoever, beyond the judgment which I may have

based upon conception altogether insufficient — an imperfect

judgment which may be expressed by “The number of your

house is - .”

But if I plan to utilize your aid to mend my ignorance, I

must be conscious in the first place of my plan. Moreover, in

order with success to operate my plan, I am forced to reveal it

to you. Again, to accomplish this revelation, I must meet the

usual conditions of communication ; and these require that first

of all I make you of my plan a mental picture of the sort that

language is constructed to express. That is, I need to form for

you a judgment descriptive of my mental status.

Its essential content.

Such a judgment must contain the element of my belief or

knowledge. Bor if what I set before you seemed to you to be

uncertain even to myself, you very well might turn your back

on me at once, as one who very strictly “does not hnoiv what he

is talking about.”

In the present case my belief must, be in the truth of my

description. For descriptions which are not true — that is, de¬

scriptions to which my mental status or experience does not

correspond — are plainly quite irrelevant.

M]y mental state is, in the rough, and roughly speaking, a

desire. That is, I experience a quasi-emotion with respect to

an effort (conceived as to be made by you) to make sufficient a

prior conception which was insufficient.

Obviously this desire and that effort must appear in the

mental picture to be set before you.

As that effort is to take linguistic form and be a revelation

to myself, it may be known as a “telling me by you,” or as “your

telling me,” or “that you tell me.” Accordingly my judgment,

thus far constructed, is expressible byi “I believe to be true my

desire that you tell me - .”

Plainly this is not enough. I must put myself in your place

— realize your ignorance' of my mental status, your inability to

know that, status otherwise than by nay aid — particulaidy I must

somehow help you to discover what it is that I desire you to

tell me.

410 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Proposing to discuss the means of suck a helping in the fol¬

lowing chapter, for the moment I describe the telling and what

is to be told, as another person’s making a conception sufficient,

by linguistic means. Accordingly, as the essential content of

an interrogative judgment, I rather vaguely nominate “belief

in truth of desire that by linguistic means another make a con¬

ception sufficient.”

Its distinctive.

The forms of thought thus far compared — conception, ordi¬

nary judgment and imperative — have constituted a crescendo,

each except, the first containing an element foreign to the form

preceding. Expecting now, as indicated in my second sentence

(on p. 354) to find another term for this crescendo, I compare the

essential content of (1) interrogative with that of (2) impera¬

tive. Accordingly,

(1) “belief in truth of desiring that by linguistic means an¬

other make a conception sufficient.”

(2) “belief in truth of desiring (what is conceived, or say) a

conception.”

Subtracting (2) from (1), I obtain as a remainder, “that by

linguistic means another make sufficient,” or say “another’s

making sufficient by linguistic means.” This remaining ele¬

ment of thought being, as I must believe, in every case an element

of the interrogative judgment, and never of the imperative or

any other uninterrogative form of thought, I nominate it as

distinctive of the interrogative judgment.

The interrogative accordingly is merely an imperative in¬

creased a trifle in complexity — in other words, a pregnant im¬

perative.

Its genera.

These are naturally based upon the different kinds of insuf¬

ficiency which may exist, in a prior conception.

These kinds of insufficiency — -impedimenta necessary to a

line of mental march which thus far has been single — it has been

convenient hitherto to carry in a single' bundle. Henceforth

lines of reasoning on which I need them are divergent. Let then

the contents of the bundle be divided.

These contents, or these kinds of insufficiency, are two. A

conception may be insufficient because it lacks a conception-

Owen— Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression 411

element; for instance “Booth to have killed - .” In such a

case it is obviously insufficient, not only as a conception, but also

as a judgment. Again, a conception may be insufficient because,

though quite sufficing as conception, it fails, to be the judgment

which the thinker wishes that it might be ; for instance “Booth

to have killed Lincoln.” In either case accordingly the thought-

form ranked thus far as an insufficient conception may, from

a different point of view, rank also' as an insufficient judgment.

How as a judgment is a conception plus belief, and as — in

theory at least — belief may be added to any conception, possible

kinds of judgment-insufficiency include all possible kinds of in¬

sufficiency in a conception. Accordingly we may drop the con¬

sideration of conception-insufficiency and take up that of judg¬

ment-insufficiency, without any danger of overlooking any ele¬

ment of judgment or conception.

Of judgment-insufficiency there plainly may be reckoned as

many kinds as there are kinds of judgment-elements ; for the

absence of any element is possible and constitutes, if actual,

what may be felt as insufficiency ; and insufficiency in each case

may be recognized, if so elected, as a special type.

Of judgment-elements I recognized, in the simplest case, the

following kinds :

(1) A primary mental unit or thought — or say a conception —

consisting of two ideas and their relation ;

(2) The truth (or untruth) of this thought ;

(3) Belief in this truth (or untruth).

Whether (2) is ever absent from a would-be judgment, be¬

coming what a. question aims to supply, may bei examined later.

(See p. 446.) That (3) may fail to attend a thought, has

been sufficiently indicated in the treatment of conception

(pp. 387-388 ) . Assuming for the moment that belief may some

times be what a question aims to establish; assuming the like

of each primary idea., or term-, of (1) ; assuming the like of

every adjunct possible to any term of (1) ; I see that the inter¬

rogative judgment may be interrogative as to — •

genus (1) — a term or adjunct,

genus (2) — belief.

The former genus is intended by the current expression, “the

interrogative sentence with (specially recognized) interrogative

word ;” e. g. “Who saw you “Whom) saw you “What man

saw him ?,” “What man saw he “Where saw you me ?” etc.

412 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The latter genus is intended by the current expression “the

interrogative sentence without (specially recognized) interroga¬

tive word;” e. g., “Saw you my brother?,” “Are you tired?”

Any danger that these genera fail of mutual exclusion* — that

some question will at the same time ask for a term or adjunct,

and for belief — is unimportant. There will probably not be any

serious asking of a question such as “Saw you my brother

where ?” or “Is who tired ?” Mental modesty may be expected

to inhibit the display of mental nakedness so extensive. Such

nudity — or, dropping figure of speech, such ignorance — will

rather be revealed on the installment plan, by successive single

questions.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 413

CHAPTER III.

THE JUDGMENT INTERROGATIVE; AS TO A TEEM

OR ADJUNCT.

To illustrate this, recalling the assassination of Lincoln, and

wishing to form a judgment containing the actor, the action

and the victim, or say the actee, I can get no further than

what might be expressed by “ — — < killed Lincoln.” But, hav¬

ing faith in your superior power or knowledge, I am going to

ask you to put into my mind an idea which, shall fill what may

be called a thus far vacant mental space.

My case has some analogy with that of Nebuchadnezzar, re¬

quiring “the magicians and the astrologers and the sorcerers

and the Chaldeans” to tell him a dream unknown to them and

forgotten by himself — or that of Huckleberry Finn, who expects

the dictionary to give him the spelling of a word which he can

not, however, indicate, because he does not know its spelling.

To me accordingly the linguistic feat to be accomplished by

a question is simply astounding. Before you can aid me by

an answer to my question, I must cause you to think of an idea

which is not in your mind ; and this idea I can not arouse in

your mind by the usual verbal stimulus, because the word for

that idea, and even the idea itself are absent from my own mind.

Though difficulties^ to1 be met are extraordinarily great, the

means employed to meet them are absurdly small (Conf. “Who

killed Lincoln?”). Their success — overriding, as it does, all

adverse probability — seems to me a challenge to investigation,

which the languagenstudent can not honorably decline.

ITS ELEMENTS.

In trying to' establish these a little1 more exactly than was done

above (pp. 409-410) it is well to begin with what apparently de¬

termines the selection and arrangement of the others, namely,

that which roughly may be called

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

The missing element.

The interrogative operation has its analogy with the making

of a cannon — described, in a. well-worn story, as accomplished

by taking a hole and putting some iron around it. For the

moment, I pursue this analogy only so far as to remark that the

interrogative judgment also1 starts with, so to speak, a hole. The

absence of- an element from a previously attempted judgment

strictly constitutes a mental zero, a vacuum, or say, a void. For

instance, given the expression “■ - killed Lincoln/’ it may be

assumed that initially no idea whatever is in the mirid, to cor¬

respond to what is indicated by the blank.* In using then the

phrase “the missing element,” or “absent element,” I really wish

to suggest the void left by the absence of that element.

The desideratum.

By this I mean the desired element. Having realized that in

my attempted judgment there is a void, I next experience, if I

am to develop an interrogative judgment, a desire for what will

fill that void. I certainly do not desire the void itself. What

I do desire is, so to speak, a void-filler. Thus, given “ -

killed Lincoln,” if I base thereon a question, what I shall wish

to learn and what I shall ask you to tell me, will not be a blank,

but that which suitably may take the place of the blank.

That which the blank expresses may be well enough described

by calling it nothing. That, on the other hand, with which I

hope in the end to fill the void, is to me quite positively some¬

thing. The difference between the two is the difference between

not being and not being known. The desideratum accordingly

is to me an indefinite. Expecting to develop this doctrine, I

note for the moment that, any interrogative word may be ex¬

pected to appear as merely a somewhat peculiar modification of

a corresponding indefinite.

*Though I be able to say that “Some one killed Lincoln”, or even “An

actor killed Lincoln”, still, if I ask “Who killed Lincoln?”, it is obvious

that, so far as compared with any desired judgment — and with this I

ultimately have to deal — a void exists when I can only say that “Some

one killed Lincoln”, quite as truly and distinctly as if I were only able

to say that “ - killed Lincoln.”

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 415

Description of desideratum.

The asking of a question presupposes that my effort to fill the

void in a prior defective judgment will not assume the form of

personal investigation, but will begin with an attempt to obtain

from you a void-filler. The ultimate filling of the void will

naturally be done by me ; but what I use, to fill it, you must first

supply me.

In the eases to' be examined, what you are to furnish — that,

in other words, for which I come to you — is a single idea. But,

in coming to you for this, I bring along the ideas which I al¬

ready have. For instance, if on “ - killed Lincoln” I base

a question, it will take the form of “Who killed Lincoln ?” That

is, in begging material to complete “ - killed Lincoln,” I

bring with me “killed” and “Lincoln.”

The superficial oddity of this may be emphasized by the fol¬

lowing illustration : Proposing to breakfast on ham, eggs and

coffee, but having no eggs, I enact a quest for them, going to

your market-stall, basket on arm, to get, them. But I do not put

in the basket the ham and the coffee. For why should I bring

you the already collected elements of my breakfast, when trying

to get from; you an element wliich as yet I do not have ?

On closer examination my illustration proves to be mislead¬

ing. As a seller of eggs, you will ordinarily learn that I want

them, from a verbal exhibition of my wish, quite independent

of eggs themselves, or coffee or ham. To make my objective il¬

lustration parallel to that exhibition of ideas only, to which we

give the name of speech, I must make the former an exhibition

of things only. Let then my effort, to get the eggs be a “dumb

show.” Accordingly I present myself with my basket. Were

X proposing to sell, I should be more likely to bring my wagon.

From the smaller receptacle you may succeed in deducing the

stronger probability, that I wish to obtain and not to deliver.

If now, looking into the basket, you find the already purchased

coffee, you may further infer that what I have in view is a

breakfast. The sight of the ham will partly strengthen this in¬

ference, and partly further suggest the remaining element of the

breakfast which I contemplate, namely, eggs. In short, from

what I have you may infer what I wish to have.

In coming to you for material to fill the void in a thought, my

case is quite analogous. To illustrate: I have the elements

“killed” and “Lincoln,” or say “ - killed Lincoln.” The

other required element I indicate for the present by a blank, for

416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the excellent reason that it is not in my mind. That is, in my

attempted judgment there is a void.

Suppose now that I come to you with this void alone, without

surrounding elements, and a,sk you to fill it. In the beginning,

says the Scripture, “The earth was without form and void.’7

Likewise what I bring you is not only void, but also without

form. I offer you vacant mental space without its contours.

To fill this space, however, as I would have it filled, not every

form of thought-material can, be used ; nor is there any universal

stop-gap for mental emptiness — no answer suitable to every

question. To enable you to* choose aright, I must, to speak with

the utmost objectivity, establish for you the contours of the void.

This I do by imitating the fantastic building of the cannon.

Around a hole I put some iron. About the mental void I gather

elements, which serve as boundaries. I establish, so to speak,

the edges of the void — in other words, its mental environment.

This environment consists of those thought-members which al¬

ready are in mind. The void and this environment being then

coterminal, the existing thought-members may be said to furnish

the boundaries of the void.

How the void is not, of course, what I wish to obtain from

you. But, as the void must be exactly filled, its boundaries are

those of the element which is to fill it — the desired element —

the element which the question aims; to obtain ; and these bound¬

aries — or ideas which I already have — the question does ex¬

press. Accordingly I may say that in asking you a question—

that is, in asking you for a void-filler — I give you the void-filler’s

boundaries.

How boundaries are in the strictest sense a definition. We

are then prepared to learn that, when an interrogative judg¬

ment is formed, ideas already found will be used as definition

of an, idea yet to be found. Thus, given the uncompleted

thought expressed by “ - killed Lincoln,” it is quite impossi¬

ble for you to think of the required thought-element, except so

far as you be guided by a definition (description or determina¬

tion). But the only definition I can give you is that afforded

by “killed Lincoln.” That is, the mental desideratum must be

distinguished from other thinkables by its fitting what may be

summed up as “Lincoln-killing.”*

*With a little anticipation I can further indicate that ideas already

in the questioner’s mind are offered and accepted, as defining the idea

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 417

Postponing the effort to determine how the definition, or

description, operates to realize its purpose, I take up next the

Assertion of description.

The indications that description is asserted, so far as I can

find them;, are derived from introspection. To illustrate, sup¬

pose that one of several persons standing behind me strikes me

on the back. Turning toward them, I ask “Who dared do

that V’ While I shall argue that every question affirms my de¬

sire to be' informed, I am sure that in this question I also mean

no less to announce miy conviction that he who struck me was

very daring. Indeed, my emphasis, so far as it may be trusted,

which the question aims to obtain. To illustrate, suppose that, as we

enter the clubroom, you notice on the rack a very striking hat, and ask

“Who owns that hat?” I answer “He has remarkable taste!”

By this “He” it seems to me I plainly mean the person distinguished

from others by owning that hat; and though, after thinking of such per¬

son, I have wandered off to matters altogether foreign to your purpose,

still, in using your “owns that hat,” as definition of the person to be

thought of, it seems to me I have done precisely what you wished.

Now had the remainder of my answer been exactly what you wanted;

had I, for instance, said “He is the mayor”, or “He who owns that hat

is the mayor”, it seems to me my use of your “owns that hat” would

still have been precisely the same— -and, surely, the very use that you

intended.

With a little change this illustration will throw further light on the

“Extent of Vicarious Usage”, examined on pp. 32, etc., of the “Revision

of the Pronouns.” Suppose accordingly that, on the occasion just

imagined, you ask, “Whose hat is that?” and that I answer as before

“He has remarkable taste.”

Roughly speaking, “Whose” and “He”, as I take it, contemplate one

person. Moreover “He” can have no sufficiently definite meaning, ex¬

cept so far as it presents to mind a second time ideas first presented by

other words. Accordingly the idea-presenting power of “He” is what

may be known as vicarious, and in this case reinstative, as distinguished

from anticipative. The reinstative act howrever is, in the present case,

of a most peculiar type.

While the awkward expression “Whose hat is that?” no doubt intends

me to distinguish a person from others by his owning the hat, the form

in which the expression is put is that adopted to distinguish the hat as

owned by a person, just as in the expressions “his hat”, “John's hat”,

“the hat of John” or “the hat owned by John.” That is, the impression

2/

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

seems to indicate that I even more intend to assert my opin¬

ion of my assailant, than to find out who he is.

This dominant intention, seems to me to be a survival from an

earlier state of mind. Reviewing the mental history which cul¬

minates in a more ordinary question, e. g., “Who killed Lin¬

coln I find a moment at which the thought which the ques¬

tion aims to complete, was an attempted, though a. baffled judg¬

ment, I should not ask you to tell me who killed Lincoln, ex¬

cept as I feel sure of an occurrence in which Lincoln met his

death. Although this occurrence* is ultimately used to describe

its missing protagonist, I come to the description in the as¬

sertive state of mind.

This state of mind continues while I make my description. I

do believe in a. phenomenon, perceived as an ideal trinity com¬

posed of actor, act of murder, and victim — and not a whit the

strictly offered by “Whose hat” is the one conveyed by “the hat owned

by whom”, or say “ the hat of a whom."

When now I answer “He has peculiar taste,” the person meant by

“He” is the person meant by “Whose”, appearing a second time upon

the mental stage. But the actor, so to speak, in the mental drama has,

on this second appearance, lost his former fellows. “Whose”, like the

“Who” of other examples, was attended by interrogative elements; but

by these the “He” is quite deserted. Again the “Whose” not only meant

“a person ’, but also meant “possessed by”, and this latter meaning also

has forsaken the person meant by “He.”

But these defections are offset by considerable reinforcements. As

introduced by “He” the person reappears upon the mental stage in

quite a goodly company, of which it is moreover chief — a principal

term, with a retinue of adjuncts. For “He”, as I take it, means “the

person owning the hat”, or say “ the He of a hat"

If then “He” be accepted as the reinstater of “Whose”, the following

changes have occurred:

(1) The interrogative power of “Whose” is lost.

(2) The relation named by “owned by” (that is, the relation of prop¬

erty to owner) has been replaced by (the relation of owner to property,

that is) the relation named by “owning.”

(3) The idea named by “hat” is introduced by a second reinstative

effort.

That is, in the process of reinstatement, while a fundamental identity

remains intact, a large contingent of ideas has been lost (that is, the

numerous ideas wThich constitute interrogation) — a relation reversed — a

new idea added.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 419

less Completely, from having no particular actor in mind. In

short, the incompleteness of a thought is not a bar to my believ¬

ing it to be true. The superficial implausibility of this doctrine

is relieved by the sentence “Lincoln was killed.” In this I have,

as before, no doer of the killing — strictly, then, no actor. Yet

I declare my belief in the truth of my substantially no less

defective thought, without a trace of embarrassment.*

I have moreover a special motive for’ holding fast to my belief

and revealing this belief to you. For it is, ordinarily, as im¬

plicated in an actual occurrence, that I wish you to conceive that

actor of whom! I ami myself unable to think. What I wish to

learn is not who might have killed Lincoln, but who as a matter

of fact did kill Lincoln. But actual fact, as I have argued, can¬

not be expressed by words. The nearest linguistic approxima¬

tion is thought believed to be true. Wishing then to put before

your mind the killing of Lincoln as a fact, the best that I can do

is to express to you my mental correlative of this fact, or say my

thought, and add to this thought my belief that it is true — in

other words, that it is matched by fact. I conclude accordingly

that my defining is assertive — that “killed,” beyond the naming

of a particular act, expresses what I might express by the words

“I believe to be true,” which would apply, of course, to the total

thought expressed by “ - to have killed Lincoln.”

I do not, however, claim that, the defining element of a ques¬

tion is asserted always. Indeed, there are cases in which I see

an excellent motive for non-assertion. To illustrate, I will util¬

ize a very neat distinction between assertion and non-assertion,

which is revealed by French in the expression of the following

tli oughts :

(1) I seek a servant (e. g., one John Brown), whom I believe

to be faithful.

(2) I seek a servant (as yet an unknown quantity) whom I

merely conceive as faithful.

Of these the first is regularly expressed, by a sentence exactly

*The fact that the current of my thought is, when I make my state¬

ment in the passive voice, reversed, involving the substitution of the

reverse relation, seems to me in the present case to be without impor¬

tance, although this passive statement differs from my “ - killed Lin¬

coln” in this respect, that while in either case I know not who killed

Lincoln, in one case I do not care (or even perhaps consider) hut in the

other I do.

420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

equivalent to “I seek a servant — who is faithful ” wlxicli is a

mere variation upon “I seek a servant. He is faithful.” The

second is, however, regularly expressed by a sentence exactly

equivalent to “I seek a servant who be faithful that is, I seek

a particular kind of servant. How it is natural to expect that

what is meant by each italicised expression will be made the

basis of a question. Such a question, once reduced to> the usual

brevity, would appear in either one of the following forms:

“Who is faithful ?” and

“Who be faithful ?”

I cannot, however, see that my desire to be informed is any

less completely felt, or any less surely vouched for (as I shall

later argue) in the subjunctive question, than in the other. I

therefore hold to merely this, that the descriptive element of the

question may be unassertive — a possibility sometimes realized in

several languages.

The special importance of this usage is the guidance which

it offers to the search for that member of a question which as¬

serts desire. Tf it be; true (as I shall argue) that a question

always does assert desire — and also true that the defining ele¬

ment of the question sometimes does not assert — then surely

desire-assertion will at least sometimes be found outside of the

descriptive verb. For instance, in the question, “Who killed

Lincoln ?,” I shall surely sometimes find outside of “killed” the

assertion of my desire (that you tell me who killed Lincoln).

Desire to be told desideratum

When the desired element of thought has been identified, no

doubt the major difficulty of the question is overcome. But the

wish to be told this element should also be made evident. The

words “killed Lincoln” may succeed in causing you to fix your

attention on the idea (e. g., that expressed bv “Booth”) which

I wish you to put into my mind. But, in fixing thus your at¬

tention, you merely parallel the act of him who obligingly car¬

ries1 out my request to “stick my fork into the biggest one of

those potatoes yonder.” What I wish to obtain is, in each case,

selected from its fellows; but I do not in either case make it

unignorably clear that what has been selected I also wish to ob¬

tain. Unless my hearer be sufficiently acute and obliging, the

potato may remain in the dish, and the desired idea may remain

in another mind. Its revelation to me could only be the result

Owens — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 421

of an inference, on which so important a linguistic act, as the

question, can hardly be supposed to rely.* It may then rank as

a foregone conclusion, that the speaker's desire to be informed

will be accepted by the hearer, as part of what a question is in¬

tended to' express. Accordingly, in the question “Who killed

Lincoln I feel sure that words employed will not only express

that definition of my desideratum,, which resides in “killed Lin¬

coln/’ but will also in some way express as much, at least, as

what might be expressed by “my desire that you tell me that

desideratum.”

Assertion of desire.

Language is commonly defined as a means of conveying in*

formation. To the student of interrogation it is, however, ob¬

vious that language is also a means of soliciting information.

Of these two operations, the latter seems to me to presuppose

the former. For surely I shall not conceive the extremely com¬

plex act of asking you to give me information, until I have con¬

ceived the vastly simpler act of merely giving information ; and

my conception of information-giving can hardly be supposed to

have become availably distinct, until developed by realization in

actual practice. If then one of the two (the ordinary statement

and the question) be derived from the' other, the question is pre¬

sumably derived from the statement. Moreover, that a deriva-

*That the question did at first rely on precisely such an inference, I

regard as essentially beyond a doubt. The history of the compactor

language-forms and those which express ideas of major difficulty, ex¬

hibits commonly an early stage in which even the dominant idea is left

to inference. Thus, in “It rains. I shall however take a walk”, the an¬

tagonistic relation between the walking and the raining could not at

first be felt as part of what is meant by “however” — a word initially ex¬

pressing only manner or condition indefinite to the utmost degree, beingt

merely an essential synonym of “anyhow.” But in time this antago¬

nism, being constantly intended by the speaker, and constantly inferred

by the hearer, came to be felt as part of what was actually expressed,,

and elected the word “however” as its symbol, forcing that word to

mean “in spite thereof” or “nevertheless.” So, too, in the case of the?

question, what at one time was nothing more than occasional inference,

came to be regular, was next accepted as part of meaning expressed, and

finally elected, as I hope to show, a particular sentence-member as it®

symbol.

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tion of one from the other should occur, is somewhat to he ex¬

pected. The development of speech being a successive adapta¬

tion of old means to new ends, it is a priori likely that the

question he an, adaptation of a preexisting means of expression.

I shall not therefore be surprised, if the interrogation prove to

be merely an adaptation of the statement. I feel, however,

that such proving must come from further indications.

Of these, the practical indication has some value; I mean

that the mental cargo' carried by the verbal vehicle must be as¬

sertive, to justify the expense of transportation. Such is peculi¬

arly the feeling of the hearer, whose share of the effort entailed

by thought-communication is even greater than the speaker’s.

Given, for instance, the assertion “I believe it to be raining” —

or, more briefly, “It rains” — you find some value in the personal

quasi-knowledge which it offers you. But to the expression

“It to be raining” (and nothing more) you very properly object

that, if the speaker is without assurance that the figment of his

brain is matched by something more substantial, he might as

well — or even better — 'maintain a golden silence.

This proposition obviously holds of language, only in its

service of the understanding. Undoubtedly it does not hold of

poetic utterance, in which the extra-utilitarian value of a mere

imagining — say, to go no further, its sublimity or beauty — is

ground enough for its exhibition, altogether independently of

any one’s belief that it is true. Admitting then that, in a

frequent, valid and important usage, speech is free of any

obligation to assert, I merely claim the right to examine ex¬

clusively the other usage, believing that in it the operative

method of the question will be most easily discovered, and also

thatl whatever be discovered will be quite available with what is

not examined. Accordingly, in every independent expression

of the type to be examined, the interrogative as well as any

other, I expect to find the speaker’s knowledge or, to be more

accurate, his supposition that he knows — 'that is, his belief. In

other words the question itself will presumably be assertive.

The indications thus far noted in this section would, so far

as valid, establish only this— that, in the thought expressed by

a question, there is assertion somewhere. That assertion bears

upon the particular element of desire, can be established only,

so far as I can see, by the speaker’s introspective study of the

thought which, by a question, he proposes to express. The effort

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 423

of the moment being to determine whether desire be or be not

asserted in the question, suppose we paraphrase the question by

two different expressions, one assertive of desire and the other

not, and ask ourselves which one thei better shows our meaning.

Accordingly, given the question “Who killed Lincoln ?,”I para¬

phrase by

(1) “I desire you to tell me who killed Lincoln,” and

(2) “Me to desire you to tell me who killed Lincoln.”

For myself, I am as sure as I can be, that I mean the former.

I wish you to think of my desire not merely as imagined on my

part, but as actually occurring in my mind. Appreciating the

difference between merely entertaining a thought of desire, and

actually experiencing desire, I wish you to understand that the

latter is my present status. Being, however, confined by lan¬

guage to the expression of the former (Conf. pp. 360 and 380),

I can virtually transform it for you into’ the latter, only by

putting it as matched by the latter, and adding my belief in its

being so- matched. In short I think, in full, what I express by

“I believe it to be true that I desire, etc,” — or, more briefly,

“I desire, etc.” When then I ask you “Who killed Lin¬

coln I shall surely be dissatisfied, unless in some way

you understand from my question, not only what it is that

I desire, but also- my mental state of desiring — a state not merely

imagined on my part, but actually experienced, or, by linguistic

transformation, believed by me to be true. I must therefore

conclude that in a question I assert desire.

Indeed I cannot think that, in a formula doubtless adopted

for the very purpose of ultimately gratifying a desire to know,

the actuality of that desire could be put with less distinctness

than the actuality of ordinary statement — that is, the revelation

of what I know already — the announcement largely, so to speak,

of desire already gratified. I might almost as well expect my

dog to show his satisfaction with the recollected bone I gave

him yesterday, more eagerly than his longing for the one he

expects me to- give him, as I go to the cupboard now.

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Precedents for double assertion.

Though frequent in form,* two assertions in substance are not ex¬

tremely common within the limits of a single sentence. One charge at

a time is the rule for guns and for statements. Yet double assertion

is distinctly recognizable in “I have a letter from my wife, who is in

New York”, in which expression the relative clause is obviously pro¬

pounded by reason of its self-sufficient informational value, quite as

certainly as the separate sentence “She is in New York.” But this

asserted relative clause is not employed for the purpose of telling you

what wife I mean. That is, it is not restrictive, or definitive — not on a

par with the “who killed Lincoln” in “I wish you to tell me who killed

Lincoln (or the person distinguished by killing Lincoln).” To parallel

the interrogative expression, as interpreted, I must find a case in which

the relative clause, asserted because informational, is also of a restrict¬

ive or definitive character.

Such a case I think I find in the following illustration: “I want a

book which you will find on the newel post.” This sentence is quite

inadequate, if I stop with “book”; for what I want is far from being a

book; it is the particular book distinguished by its being on the newel

post. To this book I confine your thought by a description which iso¬

lates it from all others. I am sure then that my relative clause is re¬

strictive, descriptive or definitive. I feel also sure that it is asserted. I

admit that on such occasions I commonly prefer, in my description, to

draw upon what you already know — what I therefore do not need to as¬

sert. But in the present case I stipulate that you know nothing of the

book’s location. It is natural therefore that I give you the missing

knowledge and by the usual means — that is, by an assertion. I might

no doubt rely on merely associating in your mind the idea of location

with that of the book. I might accomplish this by the expression

“Bring me the book on the newel post.” But so far as I know myself,

I choose the usual course. As you don’t know where to find the book,

1 declare outright that you will find it on the newel post, expecting you

to use this newly given knowledge, to guide you to a particular book.

That is, my asserted informational clause is at the same time distinctly

restrictive. There being also an obvious assertion in “I want,” my

illustration offers two assertions, one of which restricts an element of

the other. The illustration therefore seems to me to countenance the

precisely parallel assumption that, in “Who killed Lincoln?”, I assert a

desire that you tell me a to me unknown person whom I assert to have

killed Lincoln.

♦Thus, given “I don’t believe that Brown is ill,” though indicative in

form, the “is” has no indicative or assertive value. Otherwise I am in

the embarrassing position of vouching for Brown’s illness in the very

breath in which I deny my belief therein.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 425

ITS STRUCTURE.

The materials of the judgment (interrogative as to term or

adjunct) being now collected or close at hand, it remains to bo

determined how they are put together.

Having, for instance, begun a judgment which, if completed,

would have been expressed by ‘'Booth killed Lincoln, ” I have

accomplished only what may be expressed by “ - killed Lin¬

coln.” Discontented with this result, I have experienced a

desire that you furnish me what shall fill the void indicated by

the blank. Being unable directly to express desire itself — able

only to express an intellectual operation on desire — I have

formed the judgment “I believe in the truth of miy desire that

you furnish me what shall fill the void” — or, more briefly, “I

desire you to tell me the void-filler.”

As you, however, cannot know what idea is suitable to act as

void-filler, except so far as I may aid you, I do the best I can,

by giving you the void’s mental environment, which serves you

as its boundaries and therefore also1 as a quasi-description of the

void-filler.

How this description will operate upon your mind, I shall

try to show in the next-succeeding section. Meantime I note

that for reasons indicated on pp. 417-420 the description itself

is formed as a judgment.

I have then, as the materials of an interrogative judgment, two

defective judgments (defective in so far as a term of each is

ruinously indefinite) expressible by

(1) “I desire you to tell me void-filler.”

(2) “Void-filler killed Lincoln.”

It is obvious that what I mean by “void-filler” in one of these

expressions, I also mean in the other. Also, when you come to

think my thoughts after me, if you are to do so exactly, you too

must hold fast to precisely the same idea in each of the judg¬

ments which you form.

How ideas are quite unstable. If, having led you to form one

in your mind, I let it slip an instant from your mental field, I

cannot rely upon' its reappearing exactly as it was at first. In

the argument of Mr. Joseph Cook, that life continues after or¬

ganization ceases, he had in mind sometimes the life of constitu¬

ent cells, and sometimes the life of the constituted individual.

426 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

That is, tlie idea expressed by “life” was not the same at differ^-

ent stages of his thinking.

To avoid in your case any chance of such an accident — to

make sure that in your mind the idea of a, void-filler undergoes

no variation — my surest course will be to form1 that idea in your

mind once only. Moreover, as your thinking will be, so far as

may be, like my own, I also1 restrict myself to a single thinking

of the void-filler. Nevertheless, as argued on pp. 421-423,

417-420, 1 must somehow form in your mind both judgments —

the one, that I desire you to tell me the void-filler — the other,

serving to describe the void-filler.

Under these requirements, the only course I think of is the

following — a course, moreover, favored by considerations of

economy. Before one judgment containing the ideia of the void-

filler fades at all from mind, I must use that idea, in the other

judgment. That is, I must combine my separate acts of judg¬

ing into' one continuous mental operation, consisting of two

judgments with a simultaneous common factor — that factor be¬

ing the idea, of the void-filler. The mental action, in the case

of my illustration, will accordingly be indicated by the diagram

I desire you to tell me void-filler

killed

Lincoln.*

ITS OPERATION ON THE HEARER’S MIND.

Postponing the problem of sententially expressing an inter¬

rogative judgment of the present type1, let it for the moment be

assumed that expression is sufficiently effected by my diagram' —

that I do thereby succeed in revealing to you such a judgment.

Accordingly you have in mind the interrogative judgment, or

*The power thus to use an idea, thought of only once, as simulta¬

neous element of two different thoughts (a power which, in a Revision

of the Pronoun, pp. 49-52 I made a somewhat protracted effort to estab¬

lish) I will at present merely illustrate objectively, by the case of a

north-east corner-stone, which is at the same time part of an east wall,

and part of a north wall, but remains in its double membership a single

stone. Indeed it seems to me it can be sensed as corner — sensed, I

mean, with full appreciation — only as it is, by a single mental act,

appreciated in its two-fold membership of north wall and of south wall.

Owen — -Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 427

say the interlocking pair of judgments, which I have sought to

diagram, by

I wish you to tell me void-filler

killed

Lincoln

At first sight all our effort, yours as well as mine, may seem

to be hardly worth the while. The common, factor of the judg¬

ments is, in a first condition of my mind, a mental zero, and

later merely an unknown quantity, blow zero once is zero

again; and an unknown quantity is not made known by repeti¬

tion. Yet everyone remembers that the value of an algebraic

x, though unrevealed by either of two equations, may some times

be obtained from their cooperation. Indeed, the case presented by

my diagram is to a certain extent analogous. I use an unknown

quantity in each one of two judgments. In one of these1 1 expect

you to obtain for the unknown term a substitute in terms of the

known — and, having done so, to1 use it in the other judgment.

But, dropping algebraic illustration, I wish to center attention

on the case in hand.

I concede that my pair of judgments would disappoint my

purpose, were your knowledge no greater than my own. But

what is unknown to me is supposed to be known to you. On

my side the desired idea forms no part of mental stock. But on

your side it is a part of mental stock. Your only difficulty is to

find it — to select it from its fellows. If then, while letting you

know that I wish you to tell me an idea, I successfully direct

you to its selection among the ideas in your possession, you will

be enabled to fulfill my wish. What needs to be established,

then, is your susceptibility to such direction.

In the effort to exhibit this, I substitute for ‘Void-filler” the

convenient x, and diagram the chosen illustration of the inter¬

rogative judgment now considered, by

I desire you to tell me x

killed

Lincoln

On reading this, I assume that you admit to mind what I will

call a horizontal thought (because expressed by words in hori¬

zontal series), and also a perpendicular thought. Under the in-

428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

fluence of the latter you experience, I suppose, a mental reaction,

which I wish to examine with some care, as it seems to me to give

the key to the solution of the interrogative problem.

To appreciate this reaction, let it first, of all be remembered

(see p. 367) that every thought may be seen by the mental eye

as a combination of any single constituent and a remainder. In

the thought expressed by “x killed Lincoln/’ the very indefinite¬

ness of the “x” antagonizing the definiteness of “killed Lin¬

coln/’ tends to pose the. thought before your mind as consisting

of an indefinite idea and a. definite remainder. This tendency

is strengthened by the fact, that the indefinite idea, having al¬

ready served in a former thought, appears in the present thought

as old material, while what is offered bv “killed Lincoln” is new.

In short, regarding thought as a mental unit, you specially re¬

gard the unlit of the moment as made up of two sub-units, respec¬

tively expressed by “x” and “killed Lincoln.” Of these, you

probably accept the latter without disfavor. With the one ex¬

pressed by “x” you are, I suppose, dissatisfied as much as I.

Moreover each of us would like to pass to the more agreeable

mood of satisfaction, as the sequel to a successful restoration of

our defective mental statuary. The question is : Can you effect

the restoration % 1 think you can ; indeed, I think you must.

I continue, of course, to assume that what is needed for the

restoration, is part of your mental stock — that you very well

know that Booth killed Lincoln. In all your knowledge there is,

moreover, no other item which can be confused with this — none

such, for instance, as Smith or Brown or Robinson killed Lin¬

coln. If then the present factor of thought, expressed by

“killed Lincoln,” can by any means suggest the absent factor,

there is no* danger of mistake; for there is nothing but, Booth to

be suggested.

That, in a rightly working mind, the absent factor Booth

will be suggested, is, I believe, the consensus of theory and ex¬

perience. Whether we say that the explosion of the brain cells

which register “killed Lincoln,” is followed by an overflow of

energy along a well-worn channel to* the cells which register

Booth, exploding them, and projecting into consciousness the

idea named by Booth — or content ourselves with saying that

the entrance into* mind of one thought-factor entails, by associa¬

tion of ideas, the entrance of the other factor — to you, who have

already formed the thought expressed by “Booth killed Lin-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 429

coin/7 thei suggestion, of what is named by “killed Lincoln77 is

enough to bring into your mind what is named by “Booth.77

Accordingly, if so disposed, you answer “The slayer of Lin¬

coln was Booth,77 or “Booth killed Lincoln,77 or simply “Booth.77

To me1, indeed, this name may be only a name, a “vox et praeterea

nihil ;77 and I may or may not be contented with it. If not, I

can by further questions ask of you further details, which you

in turn can give me, until you build up in my mind an idea

which satisfies me, or until your mental supply is exhausted.

All this I neglect, as it, seems 'to me that what I contend for is

established — namely, that the interrogative judgment will effect

the speaker’s purpose, if only it can be revealed to the hearer.

The feasibility of thus revealing such a judgment I hope to es¬

tablish under the title

ITS EXPRESSION BY A SENTENCE.

In effecting this my greatest difficulty will be offered by the

void-filler — what, in diagram I indicated by an x. My mental

image of this void-filler is, indeed, about as lean as may be. I

have, however, considerable faith that such a void-filler there

is (otherwise I should stultify myself by trying to induce you

to reveal it). But that is essentially all. I cannot distinguish

it from other thinkables. I cannot tell its qualities. In short

it stands before my mind as substance bare of attributes, an

idea, however, by no means rare in linguistic experience.

The word for naming this idea, is “something/7 taken for the

moment in its broadest meaning. Were I therefore to say that

“Something killed Lincoln/7 the “something77 might cover any

one of the following: a man, an animal, an herb, a stone — an

illness, an accident, an evil spirit — in short., essentially any idea

that the mind may admit. “Something77 is accordingly what is

called indefinite, which means in the present case not merely

that the word is unable to point your attention to one of many

definite ideas which might be: in my mind, but that the idea

which is actually in my mind (expressed by “something77) is

in this case substance without attribute — in other words, itself

as indefinite as it can be.

The indefiniteness of such an idea is usually less extreme.

To the idea expressed by “something77 there is ordinarily joined

enough of attribute to exclude, for instance, both animal and

430 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

spiritual being. The far more special “Some one” restricts

tbe field to persons, or even human beings. Gender inflection

may still further confine it to men or to women. But within

the narrowed field indefiniteness remains complete.

In such a narrowed field interrogation commonly operates.

In asking “Who killed Lincoln ?,” the fact that the desired idea

is clothed with attributes enough to fix it perhaps in the cate¬

gory “Man,” has little practical value. I am still so far from

having the idea which I wish to have, that, within my present

universe of desire, I may surely go so far as to call the desired

idea substance short of attribute or, in that special sense, indefi¬

nite.

Without examining further these and other differences be¬

tween indefinites, I venture to use the “Some one” instead of

“x” and to express the horizontal thought of my diagram by

the sentence “I desire you to tell me some one.”

I think it also proper to use the “Some one” in expressing

the perpendicular thought. For obviously the person whom I

wish you toi tell me, and the person thought of as killing Lin¬

coln, are the same. Accordingly,

I desire you to tell me some one

killed

Lincoln.

Crude as it is, this diagram appears to me to express an

interrogative judgment with sufficient clearness to enable an

actively cooperating and intelligent mind to find a desired idea,

and to induce such a mind to tell the said idea, if so disposed.

The only peculiarity of the diagram is a slight peculiarity in

the use of the indefinite. From this may be inferred the con¬

clusion, later to be reached, that every so-called “interrogative

word” is based upon merely a somewhat peculiarly used indefi¬

nite.

In this diagram I note that the idea expressed by “some one,”

being simultaneously part of the horizontal thought and part

of the perpendicular, stands in need of twice as much aid from

inflection as it would require, if used in only one of its two

thought-factorships. The word is on the one hand used as direct

object in the horizontal sentence ; and this it would be well

to indicate by accusative inflection. On the other hand the

word is used as subject in the perpendicular sentence; and this

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 431

it would be also well to indicate by nominative inflection. But

language does not seem to furnish double inflection of the sort

required by this double factorship. The linguistic expedient

adopted to meet this exigency is the relative, in the present case

the so-called relative pronoun “who.” I therefore reconstruct

my diagram, utilizing this “who” and also displacing the indefi¬

nite “some one” by the more convenient “him,” which in this

case is also indefinite. Accordingly,

I wish you to tell me him

who

killed

Lincoln.

This diagram I later utilize as the interpretation of the ques¬

tion “Who killed Lincoln ?” Meantime, inspecting the opera¬

tive method of the diagram in thoughtrexpression, I find no

obscurity, unless it be in the case of “who.” Examining as

closely as I can, I note that the idea expressed by “him” is not

repeated or varied in its nature by “who.” I conclude accord¬

ingly that “who” is strictly void of meaning — that is, it stands

for no idea which forms a part, of intended thought. Its use is

that of plans and specifications, which, helpful as they are in

the construction of a building, form no part of the building

constructed. It may then be distinguished as instructional, but

by no means structural.

Reviewing its instructional activity, I find that it warns my

hearer not to> allow the idea introduced by “him” to slip away

from his attention, but to hold it fast in mind while a new en¬

vironment of ideas is gathered around it. Accordingly, for my

personal convenience, I call it a continuative. But the more

important function of this “who” I take to be its indication

that the idea, shown by the special form of “him” to be already

the object in a first environment, is to be the subject in the yet

to be assembled second environment. To me accordingly “who,”

in its more conspicuous aspect, is merely a “case-ending,” iso¬

lated from its stem, the sign of a single idea’s particular mem¬

bership in one of two thoughts into which it enters. (For an

elaboration of this theory, see “A Revision of the Pronoun” —

Chap. III.)

Wishing further to condense my diagram, I utilize the power

of multiple symbolization. Just as “what” may be invested

432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

with, the values proper to both “that” and “which,” so also I

force the “who” to do- the double duty of “him” and “who.”

That is, a pregnant “who” shall be made to act as relative and

antecedent both, but not completely. The idea-naming power

of “him” the pregnant “who” acquires; of case-exhibiting

power, it holds fast that of the merely relative “who ;” but that

of “him” it relinquishes. Availing myself of this still in-

creasedly effective pregnant “who,” I reconstruct my diagram,

obtaining

I wish you to tell me who

killed

Lincoln.

Needing now no longer the depictive power of a diagram, I

substitute the sentence

“I wish you to tell me who killed Lincoln,.”

This sentence, and the briefer

“Tell me who killed Lincoln,”

I regard as expressing an interrogative judgment of the now-

considered genus — that is, a judgment interrogative as to a term

(in the present case, the first term or subject of the insufficient

prior judgment “ - killed Lincoln”) or adjunct. These

sentences, however, are by no means questions in the usual sense

of the word. T'o become a question, even the briefer sentence re¬

quires further bulk-reduction; and such reduction is accom¬

plished by what I will examine under the title

THE SPECIALTY QUESTION-ASKING WrORI>.

Let it be assumed that, in the illustration “WliO' killed Lin¬

coln ?,” “Who ?” is that word. This assumption I hope to justify

in the remaining sections of this chapter, especially the follow¬

ing, devoted to

Its meaning.

Not finding the meaning of such a word as “Who ?” in cur¬

rent definitions and descriptions, in my opinion both defective

and misleading, and being quite unable to suppose a confidence

in my own ability to extort the meaning from the word itself,

I have assumed that, at any rate, the meaning of the total sen¬

tence of which it is a member, might be established with essen-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 433

tial accuracy — and that, in that total meaning, the particular

meaning of the question-asking word would necessarily be in¬

cluded.

That total meaning, reached by a priori reasoning upon the

influences which mould an interrogative judgment, was, in the

case of my illustration, claimed (on p. 431) to he

“I wish you to tell me him who killed Lincoln.”

In support of this claim I have mainly relied on personal

introspection, appealing for confirmation to the introspection of

others. If a consensus ha.s been reached, it is presumably not

only gratifying, but also correct — and more surely so than I

have thus far indicated ; for we have been half-wittingly sub¬

mitting our interpretation of the question; to tests severe and

numerous, derived from our linguistic experience. Of these

the most conspicuous is the required agreement of interpreta¬

tion with the indications offered by the speaker’s gesture, facial

expression, tone of voice, and by the environment of the sen¬

tence, either circumstantial or contextual — that is, objective or

ideal. These, repeated thousands of times, establish the total

meaning of the question, as it seems to me, beyond a peradven-

ture.

To illustrate the force of these indications, suppose that, an¬

swering my invitation to meet me at my house, my hearer say,

“I don’t know but what I’ll come,” or “I don’t know as I will,

and I don’t know as I will.” Some of the words employed in

these illustrations are quite beyond my understanding; yet I

am absolutely certain of the total thought intended by either

expression.

In the case of the question, I regard the absoluteness of our

certainty as even greater. For I do not concede that any mem¬

ber of a question is beyond the ordinary understanding. If any

member were so, it would doubtless be the specially interrogative

word — or say the “Who ? but even this, I believe to have a

meaning, accurate and recognized. Our perception of this mean¬

ing, I suppose, like that of countless other such, to have faded

somewhat, becoming rather indistinct — and largely because the

interrogative act is performed so often, and so easily, that we

have ceased to heed its details. In exhibiting this meaning, I

shall w7ork, however, to the best advantage by treating it first as

if it were unknown, and seeking to deduce it from the known—

that is, from the interpretation which I have assumed as known.

28

434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Let accordingly the question and interpretation take their

places together, as follows:

“I desire you to tell me him who killed Lincoln,” and

“Who killed Lincoln ?”

It is postulated that the three words of the question do in

some way express the total thought presented by the ten of inter¬

pretation. It is required to determine how the duties of the

ten are divided up among the three.

My own opinion is that, of the three, the first is made to tell

the messages entrusted to the first eight of the ten. This opin¬

ion — superficially, at least, implausible — will perhaps be ren¬

dered somewhat less so by the following considerations.

It is not extremely difficult for a single word to tell a multiple

message — to stand for a cluster of ideas — provided the num¬

ber and the nature of the messages' be constant. Putting myself

in the messenger’s place, I had rather be the bearer of half a

hundred messages the same from day to day, than to tell a single

message daily, now of one sort, and again of another altogether

different. I had vastly rather undertake the indicated business

of “Who?” as agent for the bearers of eight single messages, pro¬

vided that the eight-fold duty be the same from day to day, than

to act as single-message carrier myself, embarrassed with an

ever-changing message — such a message as, for instance, that

entrusted to the sore ill-treated “post.” The burden put upon

that word is only partly indicated in the following sentence:

“They want some iron posts at the post (military) where my

brother has his post (station), and I am going to post this letter

at the post (office), in order to post him post-haste as to prices.”

I he embarrassment occasioned by such change of message is not

inflicted on the “Who ?” of a question. It obviously makes no

difference whether I ask you “Who killed Lincoln?” or “Who

stole my umbrella ?” or any similar question. The message

which I claim to be imposed upon the “Who ?” is in every case

the same.

Again, if the duty entrusted to the eight words of the interpre¬

tation “1I2wish8you4to5tell 6me7him 8who killed Lincoln” shall

still be done when I restrict myself to the question “Who killed

Lincoln ?,” I do not see that, in that- duty, any word but “Who ?”

can share. ISTot only the1 ideas expressed by “killed” and “Lin¬

coln” may be replaced by those expressed by “stole” and “um¬

brella,” or a thousand other words, without effect upon the re-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 435

mainder of interrogative thought; but also I cannot discover

any element of meaning common to both “killed” and “stole,”

or to “Lincoln” and “umbrella,” which might he a part of what

I claim to be expressed by “Who?” Indeed, I may dismiss

without replacement, “killed” or “Lincoln,” or even both at

once ; and still I do not find that “Who ?” is in this instance

called upon for any increase of exertion as a messenger. In

short, no part of what is meant by the eight interpreting words

appears to be expressed by any word of the question but “Who ?”

Accordingly, if this meaning be expressed by any member of the

question “Who killed Lincoln ?,” the expressing must be done by

“Who?” alone. This is, the interrogative “Who?” must mean

“I wish you to tell me him who.”

A probability that any message given to the “Who?” of the

question will in some way differ from that entrusted to the

“who” of the interpretation, is moreover indicated by the differ¬

ence in the vocal treatments of the words themselves. As merely

one of ten, the “who” is uttered feebly and in a somewhat lower

pitch than its fellows. As one of three, the “Who ?” is uttered

very differently. In the present state of vocal usage (and its

explanation) I admit its general insecurity as basis for an argu¬

ment; yet, for the difference in these particular vocal render¬

ings, I think there is a rational motive, explanatory of the case

in hand.

As one of ten, as a relative: — that is, an isolated case-inflec¬

tion — “who” is not on a par of importance with attendant fully

empowered words. These are the bearers, each, of a part of the

thought to' be constructed — each the bringer of a special mesr

sage. “Who” is the merest badge of one particular message-

bringer — the. indication of his rank in the embassy of thought.

Properly, in such a case, this “who” is vocally subordinate.

Vocal treatment varies little when, by the use of a pregnant

“who” (see p. 432) interpretation is reduced to

“I wish you to tell me who killed Lincoln.”

Little variation is, indeed, to be expected, since the pregnant

“who” is so much more appreciably the heir of the formally

identical relative “who,” than of the utterly different “him.”

But when the “Who ?” is one of three, becoming interrogative,

its pitch and loudness equal in American English, and surpass

in British English, those of any other sentence-member; and

this I take: to be because it bears a. message1 even weightier than

that of either fellow-messenger.

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Taking a hint from. Chinese, I infer that the “Who ?” of the

verbal trio1 — that is, the interrogative “Who?” — is intended as

a different word from the “who” of either interpretation — in

particular, the pregnant “who,” whose vocal treatment is the

less dissimilar. This inference is strengthened by the practice

of other languages, in which the interrogative and relative (both

simple relative and pregnant relative) are given altogether dif¬

ferent forms, and ranked as absolutely different words. As

such, there is ground for expecting them to show a. difference in

their values.

By “value” I intend not only meaning — that is, (1) con¬

tribution of thought-elements — but also guidance — that is, (2)

contribution of knowledge how thought-elements are to be put

together. Value, in other words, shall stand for thought-con¬

tingents of two kinds, structural and instructional — the latter

being extra-structural. (See p. 431.)

As for differences of meaning in the sense of (1), I noted on

p. 432 that the pregnant “who” has only the meaning of the

indefinite sometimes antecedent “him,” which it has incorpo¬

rated. On the other hand the interrogative “Who ?” has all the

meaning of “I desire you to tell me him (or the person).” In

a search, exhausting if not exhaustive, I have discovered nothing

more. This total — big enough, no doubt, without expansion — •

I believe to be what is meant by “Who?” I cannot see that

it is merely inferred, or say supplied. I believe that, when I

use the interrogative “Who?,” I regularly think, though doubt¬

less somewhat dimly, of what is expressed by “I desire you to

tell me him ;” that I wish you also to think of the same ; that

I succeed in bringing you to do so. Believing thus, I must rank

what each of us regularly thinks of, as actually expressed by

“Who?” — as what indeed the dictionary should exhibit as its

meaning.*

As for differences in guidance, I find none. The power en¬

trusted to the pregnant “who” is handed over to the interroga¬

tive, it seems to me, intact. T!o make this clear, compare

*1 was myself somewhat dismayed, at first, by this result of a quite

uncompromising argument. I venture however to hope that those who

must regard a part of this meaning (of Who?) as inferred, can charge

up to an unimportant “personal equation” what they deem excess of

meaning proper, without regarding my conclusions as otherwise in¬

valid*

Owen — Inten'ogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 437

(1)

) “I wish you to tell me himi who- killed Lincoln” and

\ “I wish you to tell me him whom Booth killed.”

The indefinite “him” is, in each expression, shown by the

form of “him” to be the object of “tell.” Whatever is meant

by “him” is, however, in the one case, shown to be also the sub¬

ject of “killed” — shown, in the other, to be also the object of

“killed.” These latter showing’s are respectively effected by the

relatives “who” and “whom.”

In

( . j “I wish you tell me who killed Lincoln” and

' ' } “I wish you to tell me whom Booth killed.”

the guidance, offered in the previous illustrations by the merely

relative “who” and “whom,” is still afforded by the “who” and

“whom,” now pregnant. But the guidance, offered in the pre¬

vious illustrations by “him,” is no longer given.

Let now the last expressions be replaced by formal interro¬

gations. Accordingly,

. . j “Who killed Lincoln ?” and

^ ) “Whom killed Booth?” (or “Whom did B, kill?”).

Plainly the showings effected by the pregnant relatives of ( 2 )

are effected also by the interrogatives of (3). That is, in ad¬

dition to its meaning already noted, the interrogative offers

guidance in the form of warning that an idea, already used as

factor of one thought, is to' continue in attention, while further

ideas join, with it in forming another thought; and the said

idea’s particular factorship in that other thought, the interroga¬

tive (e. g. “Who?”) distinctly indicates.

Moreover I do not see that, in the matter of guidance, the

interrogative exhibits any addition to the power possessed by the

relative and the pregnant “who” alike. Bjecapitulating then I

find in the interrogative “Who?” the guidance offered by the

relative “who;” but, instead of the no meaning proper of the

relative “who,” I find in the interrogative “Who?” the very

bulky meaning expressible by “I desire you to tell me him.”

I am far from claiming that the interrogative word was, strictly

speaking, derived from the relative. The former means to me too

much, and the latter too little, to encourage such a theory. Moreover,

-fat the date of developing the interrogative word, it remains to be

proven that the language-maker found the relative word in existence;

and in some languages he never found it. That in many languages he

438 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters. -

would find a word predestined to become a relative, is obvious; but be

might find it in a stage of development at that time only indefinite, and

not yet advanced to relative rank. To me the relative and interroga¬

tive are collateral descendants of the indefinite. My purely personal

guess, indeed, is that the interrogative antedates the distinctly rela¬

tive word.

Values of other interrogative words may be outlined as fob

lows.

“What?” in the sense of the German “Was?” — indefinite as

to kind and individuality, but commonly not as to number —

means “I wish you to tell me that (which).” As for guidance,

it directs the hearer to continue in mind the thought-factor ex¬

pressed by “that,” and to use it as a factor (not specified by its

form as subject or object) in a sentence yet to come. El g.

“Tell me that (which) killed Lincoln.”

“What?” in the sense of the German “Welch er ?” — indefi¬

nite as to individuality but not as to1 kind or number — may be

illustrated by “What actor killed Lincoln ?” This I interpret

as meaning “Tell me the actor (distinguished from others by

having killed Lincoln, i. e.) who killed Lincoln.” In this ex¬

pression “the,” though commonly known as definite article,

stands for what is in my thought decidedly indefinite, serving

only to suggest that category of particularity, which I am

unable to fill. I am virtually asking you to fix that individual¬

ity to which I can make no nearer approach than by saying “An

actor killed Lincoln” or “ Some actor killed Lincoln.” With

this stipulation, I interpret “What?” as meaning “Tell me the

who.”

As to guidance, the fact that “the” is adjunctive to an object

of “Tell,” is overlooked. The fact that “who” will figure as

subject (or object) in a following sentence', dominates. Ac¬

cordingly when inflection exists, as with “Welcher ?,” it indicates

the function which the object of “Tell” shall have in the follow¬

ing sentence.

Plainly “What?,” in such a usage, offers systematic grammar

opportunity to' recognize an interrogative article. Eor a rela¬

tive article conf. “An actor — which actor for the time escaped —

assassinated Lincoln.”

“Which?” in many usages is like the just preceding “What ?,”

except that commonly a somewhat smaller group is contemplated,

indefiniteness of individuality being thereby correspondingly

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 439

reduced, as in “Which Booth (i. e., which, member of a family)

killed Lincoln ?”

“Whether?” (obsolescent) merely reduces the scope of unde¬

termined individuality to a pair of terms — e. g. “Whether of

the two (the older and the younger Booths) killed Lincoln ?”

“ Qualis?3 ’ — indefinite as to' attribute— -specially deals with

attributes of substantive ideas, being accordingly, in one of its

simultaneous functions, ranked as an adjective. To illustrate,

“Qualis est Julius V’ I interpret as meaning “Tell me the attri¬

bute — or quality — (which) Julius is characterized by.”

In reducing this expression to the form, “Qualis est Julius?”

I note that we might, if we chose, say “Tell me the quality

(which) characterizes Julius,” thereby reducing thought and

expression to already considered types. But instead of doing

so, we adopt the thought-form expressible by “Tell me that (sub¬

stantive) which (adjective) Julius is.”

This use of a single idea, as simultaneously substantive in one

thought; and adjective in another, may be led up to by the exhi¬

bition of successive substantive and adjective function, which

though little observed and less commended, is nevertheless* a. lin¬

guistic procedure by no means rare, and, as it seems to me, by

no means unwarrantable'. Thus, following the statement that

“Her dress is red” I do not hesitate to use the expression “ That

is a beautiful color,” passing without warning from; adjective

to substantive use of an idea. The converse change, though

more uncommon, is hardly subject rationally to* any harsher

criticism. Accordingly, having said) that “Red is a beautiful

color,” my linguistic instinct will not be severely shocked, if I

get the answer “My party-dress is that.” Indeed, instead of

two appearances of one idea in functions successively substan¬

tive and adjective, I may encounter the idea in, a, single appear¬

ance, but as simultaneously factor of two thoughts, in the first

of which it is substantive, while adjective in the other. This

will happen if the answer be “That’s the color my dress is,”

meaning “That color is the color (substantive) which (adjec¬

tive) my dress is.”

Simultaneous different functions are indeed a foregone con¬

clusion, so soon as thought develops some complexity. For,

granted that an, idea is to serve as factor in each of two idea com¬

binations, it is not to be expected that it should hold in each pre¬

cisely the same position — that its rank in one should always tally

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

with its rank in the other. “Verbal nouns” and “verbal adjec¬

tives” are witness by their very titles to the difference of simul¬

taneous functions. Admit the neglected “adjective noun” and

the present case is covered. Thus, in “Her dress is bright red,”

“red,” in its fellowship with “dress is,” ranks as adjective; but

as term to the adjunct “bright” the same “red” must pose as

substantive. (Cent. “Studying, lessons aloud is forbidden,” etc.)

Accordingly, interpreting “Qualis est JuliusT” as meaning

“Tell me what (=that which) Julius is,” I define the “Qualis ?”

as meaning “Tell me that (substantive) which (adjective)

In guidance, as with “Welcher the first of the two functions

is neglected, the case-ending being used to indicate; the second.

“Where?” “Whither?” “When?” “How?,” etc.— indefinite

like “Qualis ?” as to attribute — have special dealing with the

attribute1 of a. verb. Neglecting such a question as “Where is

Brown ?”, in which location is presumably rather predicate ad¬

jective to “Brown is” than adverbial, I elect as typical the sen¬

tence “Whither go you ?” This I interpret as meaning “Tell me

the direction which characterizes your going.” But instead of

using thought of the form thus indicated, we commonly substi¬

tute the form, expressed by “Tell me the direction (substantive)

which (adverbial) you are going.”

This use of one idea in simultaneously substantive and adver¬

bial functions may be familiarized by the sentence “What sur¬

prises me is the little you are influenced by your friends.”

I forbear to tax already wearied patience with my own interpreta¬

tion of other specially question-asking words, or the legionary cases of

their usage in distorted thought-perspective, e. g., “How old a man did

you meet?”, instead of “What was the age of the man yon

met?” Nor shall I seek to determine what parts of speech may

be embodied in the interrogative words. It is obvious that any element

of any, the most complex, thought may utilize its fellows as a descrip¬

tion of itself — that any element, thus described, I may ask you to tell

me; that is, any element may form the nucleus of a question; that is,

again, the way is open for each one of the parts of speech to develop an

interrogative form. The actual non-development of some is merely

one of many linguistic inactions to be explained by the absence of suf¬

ficient action-causing motive. The interrogatives which language actu¬

ally has developed, suffice, with a little ingenuity, for all linguistic

needs. Suppose, for instance, that I do not know whether my grammar

is on my reader or under it, before it or behind it, “rechts Oder links."

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 441

In short, the prepositional idea is absent or indefinite. Having no in¬

terrogative of prepositional aspect, with which to ask your help, I re¬

construct my thought in such a way as to bring the space relation which

a preposition commonly renders, into such a region of my thought, that

I can express it by a substantive. Accordingly, “The position (space

relation to my reader) of my grammar is what?” or “What is the

position of my grammar?” Again, not knowing the action in which

Booth was actor and Lincoln actee, and not possessing an interrogative

symbol for it — say an interrogative verb, as in “Booth whatted Lin¬

coln?” — 'I generalize the action under the symbol “do,” and formally

particularize it as “a doing something;” and this something I make

the nucleus of a question, using the expression, “What did Booth do

to Lincoln?” meaning, “Tell me something Booth did to Lincoln.”

Precedents for bulky meaning.

That a single word should have the total meaning commonly ex¬

pressed by many, need occasion no surprise. In the beginnings of

speech the single word is believed to have performed the duty nowa¬

days assigned to the sentence. Indeed, survivals such as “Pluit” are

familiar. Looking for illustration nearer home, suppose you ask

“Did Booth kill Lincoln?”, and I answer “Yes.” My single word is

conceded to express as much as “Booth killed Lincoln.” By reinstate¬

ment it assembles what ideas I need, and adds to them what is further

required, to form a judgment. The monosyllable “Come!” is generally

held to assert whatever is asserted by “I desire you to come.” Meaning:

is not less multiple or complex in the sentence “Please!” (Conf. pp.

434, etc.)

The sentences, however, thus far cited, do not appear as parts of

larger sentences. For such as do, I look to other languages. “Un je

ne sais quoi me trouble” means “An I-do-not-know-what-it-is agitates

me.” Examining the meaning of this group of words, employed in

French to express the subject of intended thought, I find they form a

sentence, while serving at the same time in a larger sentence precisely

as a single word. Indeed, they form an available definition of “quelque

chose,” “(et)was” or “something.”

Its rank.

In examining the “relative pronoun” I was forced to conclude-

that it is not, in any proper sense, a pronoun — that, in the ordi¬

nary sense, it is not a word, because it does not stand for any ele¬

ment of thought. — that it! is merely a sign that an idea, already

named by its antecedent and put thereby in one environment, is

to remain in mind while a second environment gathers about it —

commonly also a sign that, in this second environment, the said

442 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences > Arts, and Letters.

idea is to serve as a particular thought-member. I called it, in

this last symbolic activity, an isolated case-ending, the sign of a

second case-usage.

Of the interrogative I also claim that it is not a pronoun, and

that, in the ordinary sense, it is not a word — not however bo-

cause it means too little, but because it means by far too much.

To call it on the other hand a sentence, ranking it with “Yes”

or “Pluit,” may at first sight seem improper ; for it offers more

than even these. This more, however, I have sought to exhibit

as not a more: of meaning, but merely a more of what do with

meaning. So far as meaning , only is concerned, I Claim for

“Who ?” an exact equivalence to “I wish you to tell me him.”

That- is, I claim that “Who ?” is a sentence* — strictly no more — ■

surely no less.

From its fellow' one- word sentences, T differentiate the

“WTio ?” as follows : Condensing the expression of its total

*The judgment expressed by this sentence has a first term “I”, a

mid-term “wish” and a last term “to tell”. (See diagram below.)

This last term is moreover mid-term in a second environment. In

this, the “you” appears as first term of “to tell.” Of last terms there

are two, one direct and the other indirect; for the current of the action

has, like that of many rivers, a lateral effluent. The indirect last term

is “me”; the direct is “him”, with the formally definite but substan¬

tially indefinite meaning of “the person”. Following the hint afforded

by the relative power which abides in the interrogative “Who?” I per¬

ceive that “the person” is to serve as subject in a new environment,

yet to gather about it. Supplying such an environment, I find “the per¬

son” further used as first term to a mid-term, e. g., “killed”, and a

last term, e. g., “Lincoln”, which together act as its restricter. Dia¬

graming I accordingly obtain

You

I - wish - to — tell

- (killed - Lincoln)

me

the person

Owen i — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 443

value (structural and instructional) from “I wish you to tell

me the person (him) who” into “Tell me the person who/’ I see

that it should rank as an imperative sentence. I further note

that the idea named by “person” — that is, a part of the meaning

of “Who?” — is to serve, without an intervening disappearance

from attention, as particular factor (subject) in a coming

thought/ — a thought expressible/, for instance, by “the person

killed Lincoln.” Generalizing on my observation, I rank the

interrogative word as ordinarily a one-word imperative sentence,

one factor of which is signalized as also simultaneously a partic¬

ular factor in another sentence yet to come.

The ordinary value of the interrogative word is often re¬

duced, such word renouncing the indication of particular second

factorship, as in “What killed Lincoln ?” (that is, “I wish you to

tell me that which killed Lincoln”) an expression in which the

interrogative “What?” does not announce its indefinite element

“that,” as either subject or object of “killed.”

The ordinary value of the interrogative word is also some¬

times much augmented. For instance, when used alone, as

sequel to a statement such as “Some one killed Lincoln,” the

“Who ?” alone not only means “Tell me the person (,him)”, but

also (with a power now for the first time strictly pronominal)

reinstates ideas expressed by “killed” and “Lincoln.” That is,

the “Who ?” has all the meaning of the expression “Tell me the

person (,him) killed Lincoln.” In such a case the so-called in¬

terrogative word should rank as a pair of sentences with a simul¬

taneous factor marked for particular service in the second

sentence.

To ask ‘What part of speech is “Who ?” 9 must therefore seem

to me an idle question. This “Who?” is not a part, of speech,

but as others, I think, have said, a speech in itself — the pre¬

sentation of a thought which is always complete in form, and,

in the case, last noted, complete in substance also. With still

broader generality it may then be concluded, that the interroga¬

tive word is the linguistic equivalent of always one and some¬

times both of a pair of sentences linked by a factor signalized

as simultaneous, and often marked for a particular service in the

second sentence.

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters *

CHAPTER IV.

THE JTJBHMJEET IETEEjEOGATIVE AS TO BELIEF.

Part of the reasoning which I bring to hear upon the inter¬

rogative problem;, in the aspect now to be; considered, is so close

a duplicate of that already followed in preceding chapters, that

it need not he repeated. The remainder may he introduced hy

the illustration: aAre you coming? — because I have to make

my plans accordingly.”

Assuming my interpretation of these words to he that of

everyone, I note that what, follows the: question “Are you com¬

ing ?” — namely my necessary planning, or my need of planning

— is the cause, as seen hy me, of whatever I mean by “Are you

coming?” Accordingly, to find out what my need (in my

opinion) causes, is to find out more or less completely what is

meant hy “Are you coming ?”

Examining the: words of this question, if I give: them only the

meanings which they have in extra-interrogative usage, I obtain

at the most a conception (which may he expressed hy “your com¬

ing”) plus, it may be, a personal conviction of its truth; hut

this conviction, in the present case, is plainly not intended. Let

it therefore he excluded. What is left — that is, “Your coming”

— is obviously by no means what my need of planning causes.

Accordingly I have not thus far discovered what my need of

planning causes.

That miy need however causes something, must be regarded as

my own opinion, since I use the word “because.” Moreover I

am sure' I know right well just what, as seen hy me, it causes —

namely, a desire to' know whether you will come or not. Which

one of the two you do, is comparatively unimportant, provided

only that I know which one it is going to be. How this I hope

to know as the result of information to he given hy you. Think¬

ing dominantly then of your primary informing, rather than of

my own thereby to he developed secondary knowing, I experi¬

ence my desire: as a desire that you tell me something — some-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 445

iking whick of course requires telling — sometking which, with¬

out jour telling, is not in my mind. This something, as preemi¬

nently part of interrogative judgment, I examine under the gen¬

eral title of

ITS ELEMENTS

and, in its primary aspect, under the special title of

The missing element — belief .

The examination of this may begin with the classification of

essential judgment-elements (brought forward from Chap. I)

- — which alone I propose to consider — as

(1) Primary or essential elements of thought (or concep¬

tion), i. e., first term, mid-term or relation, last term,;

(2) Truth or untruth of the thought consisting thereof;

(3) Belief in such truth or untruth.

In the judgment which the now considered form of question

aims to make sufficient, all terms of (1) are present. To exhibit

this, I choose an illustration in which the mid-term is ex¬

pressed by the word “to-be.” For, although this mid-term or re¬

lation is somewhat embarrassing by reason of its vagueness, this

word has the advantage, in the now considered usage, of avoid¬

ing that even more embarrassing auxiliary which appears in

suck a sentence as “Does A equal B ?” or “Did Booth kill Lin¬

coln ?” * Accordingly, “Is Brown honest ?”

*In the question-asking sentence of the type considered in this chap¬

ter, it has been claimed that the question-asking power resides in

"“Does” or “Did.” Among the many reasons why this claim should be

disregarded, I note that no more interrogative force would seem to

reside in “Did,” than might be claimed for other so-called auxiliaries

in “Was Booth killing Lincoln?”, “ Has he killed him?”, “Will he kill

Itim?” or even “Whom did he kill?”, although in the last expression the

supporters of the “Did” hypothesis agree to put the interrogative bur¬

den on the “Whom?”

Moreover, other languages in general have no word like “Did;” and

even in English its aid is abrogated in poetic or exalted diction — for

instance, “Saw ye him whom my soul loveth?” (Cant. Ill, 3). Accord¬

ingly the expression “Did Booth kill Lincoln?” should be ranked, I

think, as merely a local and fortuitous variation from the prevalent

interrogative type exemplified in English by “Killed Booth Lincoln?” —

■a variation obviously explainable by whatever principles be found ex¬

planatory of the norm.

446 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

By this question I am plainly trying to find out something

about Brown’s being honest; that is, a thought expressible by

“Brown to be honest” is merely part of an intended larger men¬

tal structure', say a judgment. This part contains however all

that is required of it, regarded as a mere conception, i. e., a first

term and a last term named respectively by “Brown” and “hon¬

est,” and a mid-term or relation named by “to-be” — a relation

which may be known as that of substance to its own attribute.

Further detail might be added, but none is indispensable to

formal thought-completeness. Accordingly the missing judg¬

ment-element is not an essential element of a conception.

The remaining judgment-elements which may be missing, are

truth or untruth of thought, and belief. Examining first the

former, I juxtapose the expressions. “Brown to be honest” and

“Brown not. to be honest.” Of these, the latter presents a mental

picture, as if it were unmatched by reality external to itself.

That is, thei thought expressed is put in the aspect of untruth.

Such being the case, as argued on p. 385-386, 1 conclude that the

antagonistic “Blrown to be honest” expresses a thought appear¬

ing on my mental stage in the antagonistic aspect of truth ; that

I intend it to appear on the mental stage of my hearer in that

aspect ; that my intention is realized. And what I claim for the

expression “Brown to be honest,” I also claim for the expres¬

sion “Is Brown honest ?,” antagonizing it with “Isn’t Brown

honest?” That is, I succeed in establishing in your mind the

thought of “Brown’s being honest” — attended, as in my own,

by its truth. (See however pp. 451, etc.) I conclude accord¬

ingly that, in the judgment, which the present form of question

aims to make sufficient, all elements are present, except belief.

Belief is absent. Were it not. absent, the occasion for a ques¬

tion would itself be absent. An interrogative status would not

develop in my mind. What would develop would be expressible

by “Brown is honest,” or more fully by “I believe in the truth

of Brown’s being honest.” That is, I should form an affirmative

judgment. As I cannot do this, I conclude that what is absent

from such judgment is belief — a belief which, if present, would

bear upon the truth of Brown’s being honest (or, in a negative

judgment, upon the untruth of Brown’s being honest).

It is obvious that also' disbelief is absent from the mind. Its

absence however is not felt. ; for its presence was not planned for,

any more than that of fear or gladness. Considering the judg-

Owen — Inten'ogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 447

ment-void as the void in a judgment intended — a judgment lin¬

guistically restricted to belief in truth or untruth of a thought —

I hold that in the speaker’s consciousness belief alone is missing.

The desideratum — belief-or-disbelief.

In making the desideratum cover that very disbelief so care¬

fully excluded from assertion, there is a seeming inconsistency^

which may however be relieved as follows :

If the argument conducted on p. 421 be correct, assertion —

that is, the expression of belief that a thought is true (or un¬

true) — ^antedates interrogation. To this proposition it is the

merest corollary, that, before interrogation is attempted, the prac¬

tice of assertion develops what may be called an assertive mental

habit. It is then quite conceivable, that the special form as¬

sumed by the judgment interrogative as to belief, will not be

determined solely by desire for information, but will also be

affected by the operative method of assertion. That it is in

fact so influenced — and that most oddly — may appear as fol¬

lows.

In following the assertive method, I form a mental pic¬

ture — say a mere conception — in the expectation of believing,

therefore discarding disbelief. I expect to believe that my

picture is true:, or else untrue. Sometimes however my expecta¬

tion comes to naught ; and at these' times it is, that I ask a ques¬

tion of the order now considered, e. g. “Is Brown honest ?” That

is, as the result of being disappointed in my expectation to be¬

lieve, I develop a desire that you make good my failure. The

special mental form of what I desire you to do, is accordingly

determined for me1 by my disappointed expectation — is cast in

the mould of a belief arrested in development. To change my

figure, the question must be1 studied as an: effort, so to speak, to

float a stranded assertion ; and much depends on when the asser¬

tion runs aground.

(1) It may be that, having formed a mental picture, and con¬

templated its possible truth and untruth, I feel exactly equal

inclinations toward the two, but no preponderating inclination —

or say propension; — toward either one:. That is, my failure to

believe the one or the other is a consciously double failure.

Suppose that, in this mental state, I appeal to you for aid.

This aid you might afford, if I should set before you the two

alternatives (truth and untruth), both of which I fail to believe,.

448 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and- Letters.

and invite you to name the one believed by you. This indeed

I can easily do by means of interrogative words of the type

already considered, propounding such a question as “Which of

the two, the truth or the untruth of Brown’s being honest, do

you believe?,” or “Whether of the two, that Btrown he honest, or

that Brown be not honest, do you believe ?” Indeed, when both

• alternatives are somewhat equally distinct in consciousness, such

forms of speech are actually employed, being known as double

questions. These moreover often are reduced by ellipsis, serv¬

ing thus as virtual questions of the single type.* They may

however be neglected, as introducing no principle new to the

interrogative syntax examined in Chap. III.

(2) It may be on the other hand that, having formed a mental

picture, and contemplated its possible truth, and untruth, I feel a

propension toward the one or the other — say the truth. This

propension — strong enough perhaps to give promise of becoming

full belief — may so preoccupy me, that I quite neglect the al¬

ternative untruth, letting it slip from my attention. It may

however happen, that the promise fails to be fulfilled — that my

propension does not grow into belief. In that event I am

brought again to a mental stand-still, but somewhat later than in

the former case; in other words, the mental structure which I

have begun, though uncompleted, has reached a stage more near

completion. As in case (1), so also in this case, I have failed —

but with this difference: in the former case my failure was

consciously double ; in this case it is consciously single. That is,

I am aware of failing to believe only a mental picture’s truth.

If now you are to help' me, you must do better than I have

done. By dint of greater mental power, or greater knowledge,

you may perhaps succeed where I have failed — that is, in be¬

lieving truth. But on the other hand it may be that you cannot

succeed,, except in what I did not try — that is, in believing un¬

truth, or else in disbelieving. To give you all the chances of

succeeding, I must reopen choice, either between believing truth

and believing untruth, or else between believing and disbeliev-

ing.

That I do not do the former, is indicated by the coexistence

of the question forms “Is Brown honest?” and “Isn’t Brown

honest?,” in one of which Brown’s being honest is put in the

* Compare the Latin “(utrum) — an,” and the German tcob — (Oder),”

etc.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 449

single aspect of truth, while in the other the single aspect of

untruth is elected. Accordingly the only course available is to

reopen for you the choice between belief and disbelief. That

is, I must violate what I have striven to establish as a funda¬

mental law of assertive thinking — a violation into which I seem

to have been led by the very impulsiveness of my effort to con¬

form.

Accordingly, in asking you a question of the present order,

it must be that I invite you to form for me a mental structure

consisting of a thought like mine, presented like my own in the

aspect of truth (or it may be untruth), and augmented by belief

or disbelief therein. What this augment will be, belief or dis¬

belief, I do not know’ ; but, whichever it be, it is what I partic¬

ularly wish to learn. Accordingly my desideratum, if once

obtained in the form requested, would prove to be your belief

or else your disbelief.

Meantime the desideratum stands to me for whatever is meant

by belief and also' whatever is meant; by disbelief, being merely

an indefinite of no extraordinary type. Thus, proposing to

settle by a thesis, whether strikes are advantageous or the con¬

trary, I present both attributes by a single indefinite word, in

the title “The Advantageousness of Strikes.” That an equally

effective symbol for both belief and disbelief, will offer at the

proper moment, I do not doubt. Meantime I content myself

with expressing the desideratum of the interrogative sentence

by the phrase “belief-or-disbelief.”

Description of desideratum.

That the desideratum, needs to be described, may be argued,

in a general way, essentially as on pages 415-416. More

specially, I note that, in addressing you a question of the present

kind, I am not moved by any curiosity about your mental at¬

titude as such, be it present, past or future. That you did or

do or will believe, disbelieve or doubt — hope or fear — like, de¬

sire, purpose or the contrary — is nothing, of itself, to me.

Otherwise I might ask you such a question as this : “How do

you feel about your thought of this moment?” — or, more rele¬

vantly to the present case, “Which of the two, belief or disbelief

are you experiencing at this moment ?” — or “did you experience

at half past three yesterday afternoon ?” To me it plainly

makes the utmost difference what it is that you believe or dis-

29

450 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

believe (to be true or untrue) ; and all that I care to know is

tbe mental reaction which you experience when confronted with

a thought the duplicate of mine. That is, I wish to know your

belief or disbelief in a particular thought — 'accordingly, a par¬

ticular belief or disbelief, distinguishable from others by its

being experienced in the presence of a particular thought. In

a sense then my desideratum' — that is, your belief-or-disbelief —

requires description; and description is accomplished by the

exhibition of the thought, belief-or-disbelief in which you are

to experience. The exposition of desideratum seems then pre¬

determined as the nomination of a belief-or-disbelief which, in

the presence of a particular thought, you are to experience.

The nomination of belief-or-disbelief is indispensable, because

without it you might suppose my desideratum to be some other

mental reaction of which you are capable — for instance, hope,

fear, joy, distress, etc. The expression of the thought in which

your belief-or-disbelief is to be experienced, is also indispensa¬

ble, because without it you might tell me some belief-or-disbelief

in which I have no interest. Accordingly, to satisfy the desire

which my question aims to1 realize, I must not only name my

desideratum, belief-or-disbelief, but also restrict, describe or

define it, by adding the thought on which it is to operate.

Assertion of description.

The little which I have to say upon this topic will be said to

best advantage on pp. 455-456.

Desire to be told desideratum.

Under this title I have nothing to add to arguments advanced

on pp. 420-421, from which I concluded that a question must

be understood as distinctly announcing the speaker’s desire to be

told the required conception-element of the judgment which he

has vainly sought to form.

Assertion of desire.

Argument supporting such assertion would essentially repeat

considerations indicated on pp. 421-423.

Truth instead of untruth and vice versa.

In forming an interrogative judgment of the present type,

I have argued that I am somewhat nearer to believing the truth

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 451

of a prior conception, than I am to believing its untruth (or

vice-versa). It might accordingly be expected, that I should

present my thought: in the dress — or say the; aspect of truth or

of untruth — in which it more attracts my belief. This, however,

is precisely what, I usually do not do. In the expression “Brown

is honest, isn’t he?” I am so near to believing the truth of

Brown’s being honest, that I even risk a tentative assertion.

Following this with a more seriously intended question, I ask

you to express yourself upon the: untruth of Brown’s being

honest. In “Brown isn’t, honest, is he ?” assertion and question

are equally antagonistic. It appears then that, if I more in¬

cline to the truth of my thought, I put in question its untruth,

and vice versa.

Why I do this, I do not claim to know, though several motives

are conceivable. For instance, it is obvious that, in putting

my thought before you in one only of its possible aspects (as

true or as untrue), I expose it to a virtual contradiction by your

answer. Such being the case, I may rather naturally prefer to

imperil that aspect of my thought, whose contradiction will the

less distress or mortify me.

Again, that aspect, of my thought which I myself find less

alluring, has presumably the lesser chance of satisfying you —

the greater chance of rousing your antagonism ; and in the latter

lies perhaps my gain. I suppose that, a statement such as “Two*

and two* are five” is more* likely to evoke an expression of yo-ur

opinion, than the more acceptable “Two and two are four.”

The exhibition of the1 less attractive aspect of a thought, ac¬

cordingly, might, be defended, as an interrogative expedient, on

the ground of its major effectivity as provoker of an answer.

Such explanations regard the speaker’s action as a choice.

Some ground, however, may be* found for ranking what, occurs

as quite involuntary. As there forms in mind a thought con¬

sisting of the elements expressible by “Brown,” “honest” and

“to be,” before belief arrives upon the scene, at least in all its

fullness, one* of the alternatives (truth or untruth) develops in

me some propension toward itself. By just so much, however,

as I lean toward one* alternative, I lean away from the other.

If belief develops,, it finds the one in the very focus of the

mental eye1 — the other in the margin of the visual field. Per¬

haps belief is nothing more than the focalization of one alter¬

native, and the final disappearance of the other from the mental

452 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

view. The usages of speech, however, indicate that, whatever

he the actual mental process, it is conceived hy the language¬

using mind as first, the posing of two alternatives, and second,

a siding with one of them. Doubtless, however, the neglected

alternative does not disappear beyond recall. Should its pres¬

ence become! more welcome, it can reappear. It may be de¬

scribed as standing just across the threshold of consciousness,

waiting its opportunity to reenter. This opportunity seems to

me to come. Of two occupants of my mental field, I was im¬

pelled at first to hold to the one and despise the other. In the

instant of my disappointment comes a strong revulsion. For a

moment I feel the reactionary impulse not only to despise the

one, but also to hold to the other. It is nothing new in the

history of inclinations, if that other, taking advantage of

my momentary pique, possess me quite completely — for a mo¬

ment. If now it be at just this moment, that I shape my

thought for the interrogative act, it will be the at the outset

less attractive of my two alternatives, that will be offered to my

hearer.

These explanations I wish to be understood to put forward as

mere suggestions, more in the hope that they may lead some

other person to the proper explanation, than in any faith that

they themselves are adequate. I believe that all the noted in¬

fluences are operative; but frankly, I distrust their sufficiency.

Fortunately they do not seem to be needed in the solution of

other interrogative difficulties.

ITS PECULIARITIES.

Among these, which might include the interchange of truth

and untruth, just described, I note in the first place that it

Fails to distinguish belief -or-disbelief as meum or tuum.

By this title I mean to indicate that belief-or-disbelief is

virtually dissociated from a particular believer — you or me.

To recapitulate, I am blocked in the effort to form a judgment; —

a judgment which, if completed on lines begun, would be my

belief in the truth (or the untruth) of a particular thought. In

my embarrassment, I wish you to exhibit, the element which

would correspond in your mind to the void in my own, sup¬

posing you to build with my blocks, plus one which I do not

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 453

have. This corresponding element being unknown to me, I

can conceive it only vaguely as a belief -or-disbelief, at some time

to be experienced by me, but in the mean time experienced by

you. The situation is, accordingly, rather intricate. I do not

doubt, indeed, that language can be made to deal with it dis¬

tinctly and completely. But I do extremely doubt, whether the

game would be worth the candle — whether, indeed, the candle

could have been supplied by the earlier players of the game. It

seems to me that the believing I and you are retired from: the

fore-ground of consciousness to such a distance, that they are no

longer separated by the mental eye. So far, at least, as further

examination is concerned, I think that any consciously differ¬

entiated I and you may be regarded as automatically inter¬

changing when required, without the need of special symbols —

without, indeed, the need of special recognition.

Expects answer in terms of* belief only.

In my own attempt to form a judgment — say upon the honesty

of Brown— I recognized that, in the condensed assertion now

considered, disbelief is barred by linguistic practice — that I

must choose between belief in truth of thought and belief in its

untruth. Neglecting say the latter, the only course remaining

open to me was. to believe the truth ; but this I could not do.

Turning to you for help, and realizing that you must in some

way be free to approve or disapprove my thought, I ignored

linguistic bounds, inviting you to express your belief-or -dis¬

belief.

Now if it happen that belief is that, which you in fact ex¬

perience, you can carry out my programme. But if it happen

that you disbelieve, you cannot. That is, while, in condensed

assertion, you can express belief, you cannot express disbelief.

Indeed, I have no expectation that you will. I am after all

aware of your linguistic limitation. In case you disbelieve, I

appreciate that you will reconstruct your judgment into a belief

in the truth, or untruth of my offered thought. Thus, to my

question “Is Brown honest.?/7 I expect that you will answer

either “Brown is honest77 (or an equivalent), meaning that you

believe in the truth of Brown’s being honest, or “Brown is not

honest,77 meaning that you believe in the untruth of Brown’s

being honest. That is, although in my embarrassment I ask

an expression of belief -or-disbelief, I expect in answer only the

454 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

expression of belief. Or, vice versa, although the question of

the now considered kind expects and even aims to obtain its

answer in the form of a belief that a particular thought is true,

or that it is untrue, nevertheless such question actually invites

a belief or a disbelief in a thought already posed as true, or a

thought already posed as untrue.

ITS STRUCTURE.

Reviewing the mental operations which lead to the now con¬

sidered form of the interrogative act, I find that, in attempting

to form a judgment, although I successfully assembled all ma¬

terials of a mere conception plus its truth, I was unable to add

that belief or disbelief, which is indispensable to a judgment;

that, from the perception of a void in my would-be judgment,

I passed to the imagination of a void-filler formable; though not

by me, presumably by you ; that this void-filler was necessarily

indefinite; that, from the scope of this indefinite, I excluded

fear, liking, purpose and other mental attitudes which might be

taken by you toward a thought, reducing the scope of the indefi¬

nite to belief or disbelief ; that this belief or disbelief, to be

of use to me, I felt must be experienced by you in the presence

of a thought the duplicate of my own ; that finally I wished you

to tell me this belief or disbelief.

Before attempting an interrogative sentence, I must build, as

what it shall express, a mental structure — & somewhat complex

interrogative judgment — which shall resume the scattered

mental acts described.

In doing this, I note that, from every point of view, the most

important element of my interrogative judgment will be the

judgment-element with which I expect you, so to speak, to fill

the void in my first attempted, unsuccessful judgment — that is,

belief or disbelief experienced by you. As I do not know which

one of the two you will actually experience, I can picture it

only as indefinitely one or the other. As first constituent then

of my interrogative mental total, I bring in what may be ex¬

pressed by “belief-or-disbelief experienced by you” — or, more

simply, “your belief-or-disbelief. ”

As this belief-or-disbelief must be: the one which you experi¬

ence under the influence of a particular thought conceived as

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 455

true (or else as ■untrue), you need this thought to furnish you

that influence. Therefore I bring in this thought. In the

chosen illustration, my interrogative mental structure becomes

accordingly, as thus far developed, what may be expressed by

“your belief -or-disbelief in the truth of Brown’s being honest.”

This belief -or-disbelief I obviously wish you to tell me. This

wish accordingly I also bring in, completing my interrogative

mental structure, which may be expressed by “I wish you to tell

me your belief -or-disbelief in the truth of Brown’s being honest”

— or, more conveniently to further argument, by “I wish you

to tell me your believing-or-disbelieving the truth of Brown to

be honest,”*

This expression I propose as exhibiting my thought in a form

which it may assume, unbiased by the exigencies of adopted lin¬

guistic methods. Such thought, however, is apparently some¬

what modified, before a sentence is attempted. I do not mean

that modification is necessary; for no doubt that expression,

though offered merely as a broad description of my mental state,

is also quite available as it stands, for practical linguistic pur¬

poses. It suffers, however, from undue length. Condensation

is to be expected. In preparation for the condensation actually

reached by the interrogative sentence, modification seems to me

to occur as follows:

In the first place, a judgment is substituted for the mere con¬

ception indicated by “believing-or-disbelieving, etc,” As previ¬

ously argued, the current judgment-forms of speech are highly

condensed — more so, I think, than any others. To remodel con¬

ception into judgment, promises then the best of chances to

condense.

The judgment contemplated is your own, not mine. But

*It is plain that I might resort to the expedient of analyzing yonr

indefinite mental action (believing-or-disbelieving) into a comparatively

definite doing of something indefinite. I might by this means change

my interrogative judgment into the form expressible by “I wish you to

tell me something (i. e. that which = what) you think of the truth,

etc.” This judgment I might express by “What do you think, etc,?”

Similar analysed would enable me ito utilize other interrogative words

examined in Chap. III. For instance, interrogative ends would be met

by “What opinion have you, etc.?” or “How do regard, etc.? ' Enough,

however, that I may and often do elect the special form of interrogative

judgment indicated just above.

456 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

I can not form the judgments of other people — only my own.*

But, again, in the present case I cannot form a judgment of my

own. That is, I cannot really believe, or disbelieve. In this

strait, I resort to a linguistic fiction. Though in fact I neither

believe nor disbelieve, I put it that I either believe or disbelieve.

This presentation, though strictly false, is practically harmless,

as it does not favor any particular untrue thought, I am more¬

over naturally disposed to make it, as it merely looks beyond

my actual indecision, to decision which, by your aid, I expect to

reach. I offer then, as mine, what is already mine in wish, and

is expected in a moment to be really mine. Moreover I am not

in any danger of deceiving you. It is plain to you that I am

merely putting myself in your place — merely making for you

a show of that judging which you will really achieve. Without

haggling over the “I,” you put yourself in my place — that is,

you substitute yourself for me as judgment-former — the “I,”

which stood for me, now symbolizing you. That is, as indi¬

cated once before (p. 452), we sink the difference between

“meum and tuum.”

Developing now a little the argument of p. 449, I note that

the use of an indefinite “believe-or-disbelieve” may seem less

implausible!, if it be remembered that, after all, it is quite

analogous to what. was. done in leading up to recognize dly inter¬

rogative words (p. 430). When I formed the imperfect judg¬

ment u . killed Lincoln” — imperfect through the absence

of a primary judgment-term — I provisionally filled the void

with an indefinite “some one.” So also now7 1 fill the void created

*1 could form indeed a judgment to the effect that you have formed

(are forming or will form) a judgment — that is, I could form a belief

that you believe a thought to be true; and such a judgment I could ex¬

press by a sentence, e. g., “You believe Brown to be honest.” Such a

judgment also I might effectively handle as a constituent element of

the interrogative judgment. But I could not find for it, in any lan¬

guage that I know of, a condensed expression like the “Brown is

honest,” which I use to express my own belief in his being honest.

That is, no variant or single substitute for “is” will change “Brown is

honest” from the expression of my belief into the expression of my

belief (or hope, or expectation, etc.) that you believe. In short, there

seems to be no opportunity for condensation, such as is required to

change “I wish you to tell me your believing-or-disbelieving the truth

of Brown to be honest” into a question, e. g., ‘■Is Brown honest?”

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 457

by my failure to believe or disbelieve, with a very similar indefi¬

nite. Indeed, if “something” be allowed the verbal power,

I may say “I something Brown to be honest.” It is true that

the proper word would be “nothing.” Yet it would hardly

stretch the power of symbolism to the breaking point, were I

to insist that in this case “something” should cover “nothing,”

just as the algebraic x includes all values, even that of zero.*

Returning to my illustration, I propose accordingly to change

“your believing-or-disbelieving the truth of Brown to be honest”

into the form of a judgment, really yours, but linguistically

feigned to be my own, or put as indifferently yours or mine.

This judgment will appear, then, as mv (for your) believing-

or-disbelieving, etc. To avoid confusion, I deal for a moment with

only the former of the two alternatives, believing and disbeliev¬

ing. Accordingly, “my (for your) believing the truth of

Brown to be honest” is to be so changed, as to have the meaning

expressed by “Brown is honest.” ISTow, without puzzling over

such a refinement of self-examination as contemplates belief (or

its absence) in one’s own believing, it is perhaps enough to put

it roughly that, in the expression “my for your believing, etc.,”

I am merely talking about believing. On the other hand the

expressions “Brown is honest” and “I believe Brown to be

honest,” each of which stands for a judgment, represent me as

■experiencing that believing which I talk about. I will accord¬

ingly make use of this experiencing, to effect the change of “my

(for your) believing, etc.” into' the form of a judgment. That

is, instead of “my (for your — or, say, my or your) believing-

or-disbelieving the truth of Brown to< be honest,” I will sub¬

stitute “I (for you) experience believing-or-disbelieving the

truth of Brown to be honest.”

How this believing-or-disbelieving is not only what I (for you)

experience, but also at the same time what I wish you to tell me.

That is, it is a simultaneous factor of two judgments, which,

by the very simultaneous presence of that factor in each one,

* In fact I might develop the indefinite judgment into “I either or

neither believe or disbelieve.” But this would be presumably going

quite beyond what may be conceived as likely to happen in the lin¬

guistic thinking of minds at the stage of development marked by the

creation of the judgment interrogative as to belief.

458 Wisconsin A cademy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

become a mental unit. This can be most easily shown by a

diagram ; accordingly,

I (for yon)

experience

I wish yon to tell me the believing-or-disbelieving

the truth of

Brown

to be

honest.

{

ITS OPERATION ON THE HEARERS MIND.

As previously argued (See p. 428) any thought may be con¬

ceived as consisting of any one of its parts, plus the remainder ;

and that remainder may serve as restricter or distinguisher of

that part. Applying this doctrine to what may be called the per¬

pendicular thought, as diagramed above, and conceiving that

thought as constituted of “believing-or-disbelieving” and a re¬

mainder, I regard the former constituent as restricted or dis¬

tinguished by the latter. That is, the particular believing-or-

disbelieving which I wish you to tell me, is separated for you

from others, by its being, the one experienced ini connection with

the truth of Brown’s being honest.* Accordingly, if you suc¬

ceed in thinking after me my perpendicular thought, you will

know what I wish you to tell. At the same time you will know

that I wish you to tell it to me, if you succeed in thinking after

me what may be called the horizontal thought.

Now vour success in thinking my thoughts after me is my

success in expressing them. Accordingly, interrogative needs

will be met, if I can change my diagram into a successful sen¬

tence — that is, if, given a judgment interrogative as to belief, I

succeed in

ITS EXPRESSION BY A SENTENCE.

What is offered by the last diagram (see above) — that- is a

judgment interrogative as to belief — is in my opinion roughly

what is meant by the interrogative sentence “Is Brown honest ?”

*Any argument supporting this proposition would be an essential

repetition of pp. 415-416, 426-428.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 459

To establish this opinion, I might begin with the sentence, striv¬

ing to develop the meanings of its members to snch an extent,

that the total of their meanings would tally with that of the

diagram. It will be however simpler, and presumably more sat¬

isfactory, to proceed in the inverse direction. I assume then

that, in using the question “Is Brown honest I mean what was

meant by the diagram. Next I endeavour to show how the

meaning of the diagram can be expressed by the words of the

question.

In the first place, the diagram, contains by far too many words.

The practical need of greater brevity may be accepted as the

final cause, or the “raison d’etre,” of the conventional interroga¬

tive sentence. For the latter, I will first prepare the way, by a

series of reductions in the diagram.

In order to have the believing-or-disbelieving in convenient

shape to be the object of “I wish you to tell,” I contrived to intro¬

duce it into the diagram, in substantive form. But obviously

the “believing” will still be there, and still be conceivable as the

object of “tell,” even if I incorporate it with “experience” in the

total meaning expressed by “I believe ;” and the like is true, if I

substitute “I disbelieve” for “I experience disbelieving.” Ac¬

cordingly I change my diagram into

I (for you)

I wish you to tell me believe-or-disbelieve

the truth of

Brown

to be

honest

To reduce this diagram further still, I utilize the brevity of

the imperative, obtaining

I (for you)

Tell me believe-or disbelieve

the truth of

Brown

to be

honest

To effect a further reduction, I need a single word which can

express the meanings of two or more of the words thus far em-

460 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

ployed. Confining attention for the moment to the perpen¬

dicular expression, I note that “Brown” and “honest” will ap¬

pear in the conventional question “Is Brown honest?” That is,

the ideas expressed by these words will have, each one, its spe¬

cial symbol : neither of them will be incorporated in the mean¬

ing of any substitute for words employed in the diagram. There

remain then, subject to possible incorporation, the more or less

composite ideas expressed by “I,” “believe-or-disbelieve,” “the

truth of” and “to be.”

How all these four ideas together could be expressed by a

single word, if only, instead of the meaning expressed by

“believe-or-disbelieve,” I had the meaning expressed by “believe”

alone. For instance, in “Brown is honest” (Qonf. illustration

p. 392 ; also p. 394) the “is” expresses all that is expressed by “I

believe the truth of Brown to be honest,” except what is ex¬

pressed by “Brown” and “honest.” The “is” in this case may

then be defined as meaning “I,” “believe,” “the truth of” .

“to he” .

Let now a, different “is” be conceived, with the partly inde¬

finite meaning expressed as follows: “I,” “believe-or-dis¬

believe,” “the truth of” . “to be” . This indefinite

“is,” which I am going to try to develop into an interrogative

“is,” may be distinguished by writing it with italics — according^

ly, is.

The use of such an is will effect, of course, an important gain

in brevity; but it will sacrifice by just so much the power of

directing special attention to any particular one of the elements

wdiich it expresses. It can not indicate which one of these I

wish you to regard as simultaneous judgment-factor. But it

does not need to do this. It is true that, of all these elements —

namely, “I,” “believe-or-disbelieve,” “the truth” and “to-be” —

I wish you to use, as simultaneous factor, only a particular one.

But that one is clearly indicated by the very nature of the case.

Being what I wish you tot tell me, it will surely not be what is

already in my mind and quite distinct — mot, that is, a definite

element — not an element expressible by “I,” “the truth” or “to

be.” It can therefore only be the element expressible by

“believe-or-disbelieve. ”

I propose, accordingly, to substitute the indefinite is for the

“I believe-or-disbelieve the truth of .... to be” of the preced¬

ing diagram. As to the place in which to put this is, I note

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 461

that, when I reduce “I believe the truth -of Brown to he honest”

to “Brown is honest,” the ordinary “is” elects the place of “to

he.” Giving for the moment the like position to the indefinite

“is,” I make the diagram

Brown

Tell me is

honest.

In this I intend the “is” as member of the perpendicular

sentence, to stand for the four meanings of “I,” “helieve-or-dis-

believe,” “the truth of” and “to-be;” hut in its membership of

the horizontal sentence' — that is, as the object of “Tell” in

“Tell me” — I heed exclusively that one of the four expressed

by ‘ ‘believe-or-di sbel i eve. 7 7

For this diagram I wish to substitute a presentation, of the

usual linguistic type — a change which must be made with some

precaution. For language, be it written or spoken, will be

confined to, so to speak, a single line. I am to pass, accordingly,

from presentation in two dimensions, to presentation in one

dimension only. In doing so, I wish, if possible, to retain for

any new expression the advantages afforded by the old. How the

particular advantage of the old was this, that each of its two

sentences, in even their most highly complex form, appeared as

a continuous', unbroken whole. I do not therefore wish to sub¬

stitute, for. instance, “Tell me Brown is honest;” for, in such

an expression, I break the horizontal “Tell me is” of my dia¬

gram, by interpolating “Brown,77 a part of the perpendicular

“Brown is honest.77 To maintain the continuity of both the

horizontal and the perpendicular, as they range themselves upon

a single line, I must make their simultaneous factor, at the same

time, the end of one and the beginning of the other.

In doing so, I merely repeat the arrangement of ideas employed

with an interrogative thought expressed by the aid of a recog-

nizedly interrogative word, for instance, “Who?77 — a thought,

that is, in which the desideratum is an essential element of a

mere conception (Cbnf. p. 411). In expressing such a thought,

I framed the sentence “Tell me some one (=him [who] =who)

killed Lincoln.77 In the sentence thus arranged, the “some

one,77 viewed as desideratum — that is, as object of “Tell (me)77 —

was put in its natural position after “Tell me.77 At the same

462 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

time the “some one/’ viewed as an indefinite, was in a position

eminently suitable for being defined by “killed Lincoln.”

The case of the “is” impresses me as quite analogous — capable

of the same advantageous treatment. One element of its mean¬

ing figures as the desideratum — namely, believing-or-disbeliev-

ing. As symbolizing that desideratum, the “is” will naturally

take position immediately after “T'ell me,” as a direct object.

That element of meaning is, moreover, also an indefinite. As

symbol of that indefinite, the “is” will naturally not mingle with

the elements which are to define it. ; that is, it will take position

immediately before (or immediately after) the words by which

it must be defined — that is, before or after “Brown” and

“honest.” But it cannot come after them, without losing its

well nigh indispensable connection with “Tell me.” Accord¬

ingly it shall come before them.

Apparently then, in changing from diagramatic to •senten¬

tial presentation, all old advantages may be retained, analogy

preserved, and new advantages acquired. I therefore do not

hesitate to substitute the sentence

(Tell me [is) Brown honest].

In writing this, I use the parenthetic signs as well as brack¬

ets, to show that my sentence is really two, being the expression

of two judgments; and that a part of what is meant by “is”

should be regarded as at the same time factor of one and factor

of the other judgment. This simultaneous factorship I also

believe to be, at the outset, the only operative motive for the

chosen verbal order. I do not indeed forget that, when my

sentence shall become the question “Is Brown honest?”, some

will have it, that the question, -form has been developed by “in¬

version” operating on the statement “B'rown is honest.” But

I can not regard the interrogative order of words as reached by

any pu ss-in-the-corner game between the verb and subject; nor

can I regard the so-called inversion as, at the outset, any con¬

scious warning of interrogative purpose. I believe that, what¬

soever might, in assertion, have been the order followed by

“Brown,” “honest” and “is,” the “is” would, in a question, go

to the head of the sentence, irrespective of any apparent place-

exchange with either of the other words. In short, I believe that

it takes its place according to fundamental principles of thought-

construction, adapted to the special limitations of sentential

presentation.

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression . 463

Incidentally I note that the position of “Is,” as sentence-head in “Is

Brown honest?”, tallies exactly with that of “Who?” in “Who killed

Lincoln?” That is, the “Is” and the “Who?” which I shall claim to be,

each one of them, a question-asking word, agree in being put in the

initial position.

Now it is an accepted tendency of untutored minds, to place at the

sentence head the word for whatever idea is momentarily of dominant

interest; and as such I rank desired ideas indicated (along with other

ideas) by “Who?” and “Is.” Accordingly, though I for one should not

incline to regard this tendency as actually accounting for the position

of either “Who?” or “Is,” I nevertheless perceive that this position emi¬

nently satisfies that tendency; and I conclude that such position, once

elected for the reasons indicated, is approved, confirmed, convention¬

alized by such a tendency.

Tli© expression “Tell me is Brown honest,” though in actual

use and for an interrogative purpose, does not rank as an “inter¬

rogative sentence'.” To he so ranked, it must still further be

reduced in bulk. Indeed a further reduction is to be expected.

Just as in “Tbll me who killed Lincoln,” I found that the strictly

indefinite “who” was pitched upon to do the question-asking ; so

also in “Tell me is Brown honest” I expect that the “is” on

account of its partial indefiniteness, will be selected to perform

the interrogative duty. It is almost, also, a foregone conclusion

that, just as “Who?” equipped itself for this duty, by assuming

the meanings of all sentence-elements except those of restrictive

value, so also the indefinite “is” should fit itself for larger func¬

tion, by corresponding augmentation of its meaning. That is,

reduction is to be effected by incorporation.

Accordingly, by a supreme effort of multiple symbolization,

the already heavily loaded “is” shall be made to bear the further

burden of what is meant by “Tell me” — what is meant, that is,

by “I wish you to tell me.” In short, the indefinite “is” be¬

comes an interrogative IS' — a word which, in this augmented

meaning, I find it convenient to write in capitals.

If the reasoning followed be correct, it appears that, just as

in “Who killed Lincoln?” the “Who?” is regarded as the spe¬

cially interrogative symbol, so also in “IS Brown honest ?” the

“IS may be regarded as

464 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

THE SPECIALTY QUESTION-ASKING WORD.

Tlie duty of such a word I can not regard as done by inver¬

sion, for reasons indicated on pp. 462 and 404, or by the rise

of voice at the sentence-end, for reasons indicated on p. 403.*

I must regard such duty as done by what. I have called the

interrogative IS.

That, in the sentence “IS Brown honest ?,” the IS performs a

duty quite analogous to that of “Who ?” in “Who killed Lincoln ?”

— that also the difference between this I Si and the is of “Tell me

is Brown honest” tallies closely with the difference between the

“Who?” of a question and the “(him) who” of “Tell me (him)

*The actual value and the operative method of the “rising inflec¬

tion” may be suggested here as well, perhaps, as elsewhere. Suppose

for a moment the information-seeking sentence of p. 462 to be formed

in the inverse order of thought, and expressed as follows: (Honest

Brown [is) me tell] — or, more simply, “Brown is honest — tell me.” If

now the imperative phrase (“tell me”) be dropped, it will be felt that

the speaker has stopped before his sentence is completed. The same

impression was no doubt at first produced, when “Tell me is Brown

honest?” was reduced to “IS Brown honest?” Presumably some time

elapsed before the originators of the interrogative sentence came to

feel that what, at first, had been expressed by “Tell me,” was incorpor¬

ated into the meaning of “IS Brown honest?” Meantime the latter

expression was felt to be elliptical, or incomplete.

Now the completion of a sentence is commonly attended by a fall in

vocal pitch. Neglecting other causes, I observe that, when a muscular

activity is near its end, it is commonly somewhat lessened. In speak¬

ing, when the linguistic purpose of the moment nears fulfillment, the

talking muscles are relaxed, including those which regulate the tension

of the vocal chords. As the latter muscles abate their effort, the vocal

chords themselves are slackened, and the vocal pitch descends. Pre¬

sumably this unintended fall of pitch, when once familiarly associated

with completion of the sentence, was deliberately utilized to indicate

sentential close, and exaggerated for the sake of easy recognition.

On the other hand, until the sentence end is reached, the average

vocal pitch is naturally maintained. Pitch-maintenance would there¬

fore properly become the sign, that the speaker has not finished what

he has to say — that, even though he ceases speaking, what he has said

is incomplete. Moreover, just as fall of pitch, the sign of completeness,

was exaggerated downward, so also maintenance of pitch, the antago¬

nistic sign of incompleteness, would naturally suffer, so to speak, exag-

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 465

who killed Lincoln5” — will perhaps appear more plausibly, if I

may put the operation, of the IS in the light afforded by another

means of symbolizing, purely theoretical. Let it then be seen

how interrogative purpose might be accomplished by a quite

imaginary symbol, built on the lines of an interrogative pro¬

noun.

To break the way for such a symbol, I note that words in¬

cluded by Grammar in the pronominal word-class have, with

little formal variation, quite a range as parts of speech, or say

in sentential function,, though they do not, so far as I have noted,

operate as verbs. For instance, the demonstrative may act as

substantive or adjective or adverb (e. g. “there,55 “thus55 etc.).

It does not, however, appear as verb, though obviously it has the

geration upward — that is, sentential incompleteness would be marked

by rising inflection.

When once, however, the omitted “Tell me” is understood to be a part

of what the interrogative sentence means, the rising inflection would

seem to be no longer needed. If, indeed, the interrogative “IS” were

different in form frotn the “is” of ordinary assertion, I should

say that rising inflection would be entirely superfluous. But, as such

is not the case, the rising inflection, and also the interrogative order

of words (“inversion”) continue an auxiliary service in establishing the

interrogative IS as such, in distinction from the commoner assertive

“is.”

Both expedients, however, are frequently used for other purposes.

(See pp. 403-404.) Both are, in American English, renounced with

questions which employ recognizedly interrogative words (e. g., “Who

killed Lincoln?”) Indeed, the rising inflection is sometimes neglected

even when no recognizedly interrogative word is present. To illus¬

trate, “The question before us is the following: Is Brown honest?”

So also sometimes in a contrasted sentence-pair, consisting of a state¬

ment and a question, the statement is uttered with the rising inflec¬

tion — the question with the falling: e. g., “ Jones is honest. Is Brown

honest?” “Brown is agreeable. Is he also honest f” Also the inver¬

sion is sometimes neglected, as in the so-called statement with rising

inflection: e. g., “Brown is honest?” I do not, however, think of a case

in which the question (without especially recognized interrogative

word) omits both inversion and rising inflection. Nor should I expect

the omission of both these interrogative indications, until some substi¬

tute shall be provided, to distinguish the interrogative IS from the

“is” of ordinary assertion. Meantime these two indications, either

alone or both combined, appear to me to do for the IS precisely what

the acute accent does for the Ti? of' Greek.

30

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

latent power to do so, as in “Booth thissed or thatted Lincoln.”

The indefinite has no1 less range, and no greater ambition, fail¬

ing to develop the plainly possible “Booth somethinged Lin¬

coln.” The relative has equal freedom, but also does not assume

the verbal function, though it might be forced to do so, as in

“This is the carpenter who mends the stables, and also whiches

(c==meaads) the fences of the neighborhood.” With the even

subtler interrogative, a verbal usage would be even less expected.

Yet the interrogative pronoun itself may be compelled to act as

verb, for instance in “Booth whatted Lincoln ?”.

The question asked, however, by the words of the last illus¬

tration, is not by any means the sort, of question examined in this

chapter. What these words do ask for — that is, the indefinite

desideratum, or say the desired indefinite — is the relation be¬

tween a subject and an object, or say the action in which a sub¬

ject and an object both are implicated. The desideratum then

is an element of essential thought, as also is the case with “Who

killed Lincoln?” and “Whom killed Booth?”. On the other

hand, the interrogative sentence “IS1 Blrown honest?” operates

in a deeper mental stratum. Its desired indefinite is the sec¬

ondary process of believing or disbelieving, which bears upon

the truth: of a thought complete in every essential — the thought

expressible by “Blrown to be honest,”

Now this indefinite, even when merely indefinite and not also

desired, is much more difficult to symbolize, than the indefinite

action or relation above considered. “Booth somethinged Lin¬

coln” seemed the merest and altogether natural extension of

existing language means and methods. But, in saying “I some¬

thing (— believe-or-disbelieve) Booth to have killed Lincoln,”

I seem to be going quite beyond all precedent. Yet, in the in¬

vention of my proposed imaginary symbol, a start with essen¬

tially such an indefinite, I seem obliged to make. Indeed, in all

development of interrogative words, I am personally unable to

Conceive a start from anything, but the unknown ; and this can

be mentally pictured only as indefinite. In order then to coin

an interrogative word, which shall take the place of IS in “IS

Brown honest?” — a word which plainly must, like “IS,” be

operative as a verb — I must have, to start with, a verb which,

also like the I Si, shall be indefinite, and indefinite as to belief

or disbelief. Accordingly I begin with an is which (as described

on p. 460) I pose as meaning, not simply “I believe to be. .,”

Owen — Interrogative Thought — Means of Its Expression. 467

but rather “I believe-or-disbelieve to be. . . . ” — that is, “I some¬

thing to be. . . . .” If now I can by usual means transform this

indefinite verb into an interrogative verb, my immediate purpose

will be accomplished.

How languages very often have, among their stock of ele¬

ments for word-construction, one which makes an interrogative

out of the indefinite word to which it is applied. Thus, abso¬

lutely slighting historical origin, I may say that, when the mean¬

ing of the Latin “id” (— it or that) is not sufficiently definite,

becoming that of which I wish you to give me information, by

the simple addition of “qu” I turn it into “quid,” which I

should define as meaning “I wish you to tell me that (which).”

Sb, too, in English, so soon as an idea of place, suggested by

“here,” is too indefinite for toleration, becoming that of which

I wish you to give me information, by the simple addition of

“wh” I turn it into “where ?,” which I might define as meaning

“I wish you to tell me the place in which.” That is, by means

of a prefix, I change an indefinite into' an interrogative.

Given now “Blrown is honest,” and extending the meaning of

the “is” to cover for the moment not merely belief, but indefi¬

nite belief -or-disbelief (in the truth of . to be ....,..),

by the addition of the “wh” I could change this indefinite “is*

into “Whis,” a word which should by analogy be not only indefi¬

nite, but also interrogative, meaning “I wish you to tell me

your belief -or-disbelief (in the truth of .... to be ....,). Ac¬

cordingly I develop “Whis Brown honest?” — an expression

which I offer, not because I greatly hope that it may prove a

successful neologism, but because it formally exhibits the IS! of

the question “IS Brown honest?” in that analogy with other

question words, to which it seems to me to have a rational claim.

Its meaning.

Betracing now the steps of argument — and in the inverse

order — starting with the interrogative sentence, e. g. “IS' Brown

honest ?,” I have found its meaning to be

“I wish you to tell me is Brown honest” (is being indefinite)

or, in a diagramatic exhibition,

Brown

I wish you to tell me is

honest

or more fully,

468 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

I (standing for yon)

I wish you to tell me believe-or-disbelieve

the truth of

Brown

to be

honest.

Now the “Brown” and “honest” of the last diagram tally

exactly with the “Brown” and “honest” of the interrogative sen¬

tence “IS Brown honest;?” So far then as cancellation of

equivalent terms can be trusted to reveal equivalence of remain¬

ing terms, it appears that the remaining IS of “IS Brown

honest ?” is equivalent to what remains of the diagram — 'namely,

“I wish you to tell me you believe etc.,” or more smoothly, “Tell

me your believing-or-disbelieving the truth of .... to be . . . . ”

(Conf. note, p. 436).

As the relation expressed by “to be” is only one of many

relations with which the interrogative sentence may deal (Conf.

“Equals A B?,” “Killed Booth Lincoln?” etc.), therefore a

general definition of the specially question-asking word of the af¬

firmative interrogation now considered, would take the form “I

wish you to tell me your believing-or-disbelieving the truth of

. to — — ......” On the other hand, as the negative

interrogation “Is n’t Brown honest ?” asks for belief -orRsbelief

in untruth, that untruth might be expected to take the place of

truth in definition ; but as that untruth is specially expressed by

“not,” therefore a, proper definition of the negative interroga¬

tion’s question-asking word will not contain that element of un¬

truth, which would correspond to the truth contained in the

above definition of the question-asking word of affirmative inter¬

rogation.

Passing by a number of interesting expressions even more

densely packed with meaning,* I close examination of the spe¬

cially question-asking word, with a comment on

Its rank.

Like the interrogative “Who ?” the closely analogous inter¬

rogative “IS” compels me to regard as idle any effort to rank

it as a “part of speech.” It is obviously not a part of speech,

*E. G., in answer to the statement “Brown isn’t honest,” the follow¬

ing: “Nicht?”, “Vraiment?”, “So?”, “Isn’t he?” etc.

Owen — Interrogative * Thought — Means of Its Expression . 469

bait again a speech: complete — and more. It is, on the one hand,

the assertion of my desire that yon tell me something. That is,

in meaning, it is not a word, but a sentence. On the other

hand, in form, it is not a sentence, but a word. It is, with

many like expressions, most conveniently known as a one-word

sentence.

From the main body of its fellows I differentiate it as follows :

it operates not merely as a single sentence, but also as part of

a second sentence. Given two* judgments with a common factor,

it symbolizes all of one and a considerable part of the other — is,

roughly estimated, a sesqui-sentence.

From its nearest of kin, for instance “Who*?,” it is distin¬

guishable by the nature of the special void which it aims to fill.

Likening the act of judgment to the objective act of weighing, I

note that the question of the “Who?” type seeks for an object

to put in the balance. The question of the “IS” type seeks for

a reading on the dial. They are respectively question of cause

and question of effect — question of datum and question of con¬

clusion.

Those who think of words as always sentence-factors — as

“parts,” that is, “of speech” — have opportunity to add a species

to the genus known as verb*. For, granting that, the question

“IS Brown honest ?” means “1 1wish you 2to tell me your 3believ-

ing-or-disbelieving Brown 4 to be honest” — and that all the mean¬

ing of the paraphrase (that of “Brown” and “honest” excepted)

is expressed by the IS of the question — it is plain that, in many

conjugational systems, the I Si might four times over claim the

verbal rank ; and, as it also does what may be specially known as

the question-asking, the IS might claim, a, special rank as an

interrogative verb.

Those, again, who hesitate to form new species, may elect

to rank the verb* of the interrogative sentence as a, mere variety,

or say a mode. Grammarians rank one form of the unassertive

verb as the infinitive mode:. The verb which merely asserts,

they call the indicative mode. The verb which asserts desire,

they call the imperative mode. The verb which asserts desire

to be informed, they may consistly call, as some* indeed have

called it, the interrogative mode.

This brings me back to my initial propositions. Neglecting

classification of expressional elements into modes and parts of

470 Wisconsin, Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

speech, and centering attention on mental totals expressed, I find

the simplest form of thought considered, to be the mere con¬

ception of two terms and their relation, commonly further posed

as true, or else untrue, and expressed by a merely suggestive

(that is, an unassertive) phrase. The addition of personal

belief produces the ordinary judgment, expressed by the merely

assertive sentence. The intercalation of desire produces the

imperative judgment, expressed by a pregnantly assertive sen¬

tence, or command. The further intercalation, expanding de¬

sire into desire to be told an indefinite judgment element, pro¬

duces an interrogative judgment, commonly expressed, according

to the nature of the indefinite element, by one or the other of

the examined forms of the question — both of which, however,

rank as merely still more pregnantly assertive sentences — or, say,

as pregnantly imperative.*

In closing, I wish to express the keenest appreciation, that

my own line of groping amid the obscurities offered by inter¬

rogation, may be very ill adapted to another mind -whose light

is stronger. On such a mind I venture only to urge attention

to the following probabilities: that every question (asked for

information) presupposes that an element is more or less entirely

missing from what might have been a prior judgment; that the

desideratum of a question is, in the asker’s mind, an unknown

or an ill known substitute for that missing element — that is, an

indefinite; that the question must provide the hearer with a

clue to this indefinite, and cannot do so, as it would appear, ex¬

cept by naming its definite fellow judgment-members ; that

every question naturally also exhibits the desire to be told the

indefinite substitute; that this desire is presented as not merely

thought of, but also actually felt ; in short, it is circumstantially

probable, that the question should in some way assert desire to

be told the indefinite element of a thought exhibited in the form

of a judgment.

Madison , Wis July , 1903.

* I should perhaps have added elsewhere, that an imperative value

of the question is rather strongly hinted by the tone in which it is

sometimes uttered. Thus, to the disturber of my peace, I shout “Who ’a

there?” in just the tones that I should use in saying “Go away!”

A WISCONSIN GROUP OF GERMAN POETS.

WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY.

HENRY E. EEGELER.

In th© making! of the social and political life of the United

States as found at this day, two notable tides of immigration

from Europe have had a part greater than all others. Spanish

and French influences were as waves upon the sand ; the ideas

and customs of the Puritan and Pilgrim forefathers in the early

years of the Seventeenth century, and those of the German immi¬

grants two centuries later have been graven deep, and in the

modifications due to constant contact may be traced the growth

of the institutional conditions' existing at the dawn of this new

century.

Hew England’s radiating influences have been employed as a

topic by many able historians, but the importance of German

influence as permanently a, fleeting American life has up to this

time received but scant mention. That importance must be

ascribed primarily to the remarkable contingent termed the

Forty-Eighters. Unlike the simple pastoral people who followed

Johannes Heckewelder, David Zeisberger, George Heinrich Las^-

kiel, Franz Daniel Pastorius and other religious shepherds of

the Seventeenth century to* a Hew Canaan, the Forty-Eighters

of the Nineteenth century were men of rank and education.1

Among them! were many college professors, journalists, men of

high literary attainments, university students of noble families,

who sacrificed home, fortune, position, brilliant prospects — all

iThe Germans in Wisconsin Politics, by Ernest Bruncken, Park-

man Club Publications , 2Vo. 9, gives an excellent brief sketch of the

aims, purposes and characteristics of the Forty-Eighters, p. 225-227.

472 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and. Letters.

the material advantages that men ordinarily cherish, in an effort

to bring to their distracted countrymen liberty of thought and

action. A hundred thousand of these political refugees and

their sympathizers came to America in that stirring period of

storm and stress when Die Wacht am Rhein became the expres¬

sion of nationalist spirit. They were young; they were fired

with enthusiasm, with energy; they possessed skill of pen and

of speech. In all the leading cities of the United States east

of the Mississippi they exerted a potential influence in the edu¬

cational movements of the time, and naturally their activity soon

extended to the significant political movements that fore¬

shadowed the great struggle of the Sixties'.

For reas'ons which it is necessary to mention but briefly here,

Wisconsin attracted a large element of the political exiles.2 In

1844 Moritz Sbhoeffler established a German printing office in

Milwaukee, and his press turned out thousands of pamphlets

descriptive of Wisconsin’s attractiveness. These were distrib¬

uted in the various provinces of Germany and guided thousands

of immigrants hither.3 The state seconded these efforts a little

later on by establishing a bureau of immigration, whose repre¬

sentatives met the newcomers in Hew York City and encouraged

them to proceed to Wisconsin. In Milwaukee, German immi¬

grants arrived by the hundreds every week. German newspapers

multiplied ; German schools' were established ; German art, Ger¬

man song, German literature and German social life received

an impetus that caused Milwaukee to become known as the a Ger¬

man Athens of America,.” The Banner und Yolksf round estab¬

lished a department which it called a Wisconsin’s Deutsche Dich-

terhalle” (Wisconsin’s German Temple of Poesy), and the ready

pens of the Forty-Eighters contributed thereto a mass of litera¬

ture of great originality, richness and beauty.4 About the same

2 Carl Schurz became the most noted among them. He was a candi¬

date for lieutenant governor on the Republican ticket in Wisconsin in

1856. In 1859 he tried unsuccessfully to secure the Republican nomina¬

tion for governor. See letters of Carl Schurz to Congressman John F.

Potter printed in The Milwaukee Sentinel April 1, 1900 (edited by

Henry E. Legler). See also A. M. Thomson’s Political History of Wis¬

consin.

3 Letter of Moritz Schoeffler to the Wisconsin Editorial Association

at Oshkosh, 1869. Proceedings , p. 19.

4 Wisconsin’s Deutsch-Amerikaner, Vol. 2. p. 5.

Legler — A Wisconsin Group of German Poets. 473

time Bernhard Denis dike issued the initial numbers of the

Corsar and Christian E'sselen launched his high-class periodical

called Atlantis, The most intellectual and gifted German-

Americans were spurred to renewed literary endeavor, and

naturally an interesting literary group was formed in Wiscon¬

sin. Some of its members, have found a permanent niche in the

German hall of letters. A curious' literary war was waged about

this time in the United States, with the storm center in Mil¬

waukee, known as the war of the Grays and the Greens.5 The

former were represented by the old conservative Germans, lead¬

ers of the earlier immigration, whose ideas were rooted in

religion. The Greens were the Forty-Eighters, chiefly idealists

and extreme radicals whose bitter sarcasm and vitriolic humor

disturbed, but did not vanquish, the less ready-tongued Grays.

Old residents of Milwaukee will recall a , favorite tavern on

M]arket street where the Grays and Greens were wont, to for¬

gather to pursue with tongue the arguments begun with pen.

The Grays did not lack earnestness and faith, but. what they

wrote was not literature. The Greens clothed their effusions in

form to please the ear as well as to appeal to reason.

It was indeed a notable group of literary writers. Some' years

ago, under the auspices of the leading Chicago German- Amer¬

icans, there was compiled a critical anthology of German- Amer¬

ican. literature.6 In the period devoted to the Forty-Eighters,

thirty-one poets have been deemed worthy of representation.

Sbven of them were residents of Wisconsin, including Miadame

Mathilde Anneke, Konrad Krez, Edmund Mlaerklin, Ernst An¬

ton Zuendt, Augustus Steinlein, Budolph Puchner and Henricus

vom See (Wilhelm Dilg). The heart and soul of this notable

group, which included many other member s of minor poetic t alent,

was Madame Anneke. This gifted woman, whose energetic nature

and rare sympathies were freely at the disposal of the weary

and heavy-laden, exerted an influence upon those who came

within her circle that was truly remarkable. Sorrow and dis¬

appointment pursued her from childhood, but. she faced every

succeeding misfortune with cheerful courage, inspiring her asso-

s Wilhelm Otto Soubron in The Sunday Sentinel, May 10, 1903.

c Zimmermann’s Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Beutsch-Amerikan-

ischen Literatur. Chicago, 1902.

474 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters,

ciates to like spirit. But in her verses she poured out the feel¬

ings of her heart. They are

Short swallow flights of song

That dip their wings in tears.

An unhappy early marriage and consequent legal struggle to

obtain possession of her child led her to become a warm advocate

of equal legal rights for women. She established in Germany

what was doubtless the pioneer woman’s rights journal — which

the government promptly suppressed. Her second husband,

Fritz Ann eke, was a Prussian officer whose sympathies became

enlisted in the cause of the revolutionists of ’48. When Anneke

was imprisoned at Cologne awaiting trial on the charge of

treason., Madame Anneke sold furniture and carpets and re¬

placed them with a printing press, editing a revolutionary news¬

paper till forced to fly for safety. In the meantime her husband

had been liberated, and she joined him in the field. She ac¬

cepted a place on his staff, of which Carl S'ehurz was also a

member. Madame Anneke served till the end of the' struggle,

saw many battlefields and was in the thickest of the fray, doing

a soldier’s duty and sharing all the hardships of her soldier hus¬

band. They were forced to flee for their lives, finding haven

first in France, then in Switzerland. In 1849 they came to

America. Madame Anneke lectured to large audiences in Bos¬

ton, Hew York and Philadelphia, In the ’50’s she began the

publication of the Framenz e i tung. The latter period of her life

was devoted to educational work.7

Interesting as are the careers of the other members of Madame

Anneke’s circle, the limits of this paper will not permit extended

mention. Eldmund Maerklin Was a, member of Franz Sigel’s

staff in the Revolution of ’48. He was a personal friend of

such well-known German literary men as IJhland, Gustav

Schwab, Justinus Kerner, Nicolas Mliiller and Herwegh. He

was the author of many keen satires. His celebrated poem

“Der Deutsche Cavallerist,” written when Vicksburg capitu¬

lated, is said to' have been printed at the time in every German

newspaper published in North America,.8

t A sketch of Madame Anneke’s interesting career was printed in The

Milwaukee Sentinel Nov. 26, 1884.

s Carl Anneke contributed a long and excellent sketch’ of Maerklin to

Im Strom, e der Zeit , Milwaukee, 1886, p. 4-8.

Legler — A W isconsin Group of German Poets. 475

Konrad Krez was a young1 exile who left his fatherland under

sentence of death at the age of 20, hut whose heartstrings re¬

mained rooted in German soil to the day of his death — and he

lived to nearly the allotted six score years and ten. His ex¬

quisite lyric “An mein Vaterland” has been reprinted in every

German anthology that has appeared since the day the poem

was first, published. There is not in the German language a

poenu that conveys so poignantly the feeling of Ileimareh. The

chaste and simple words stir one powerfully with the pathos of

the exile’s cherished love for a fatherland which he can never

see again. The verses have been set to music by two composers.

One version, by Th. Randolph Reese, was published in Milwau¬

kee in 1898. The other composition, by Richard Ferber of Eau

Olaire, was awarded first prize at one of the great sangerfests.

At least two translations of the poem into Elnglish have appeared.

I venture to give one by Wilhelm Otto Soubron. Excellent as

this translation is, it fails to express fully the intense fervor and

pathetic cadence conveyed by the original tongue.

TO MY FATHERLAND.

Mine was no tree within thy forests old,

Mine not a sheaf of all thy grain fields gold,

And without pity thou didst bid me go,

The unprotected, to a foreign strand —

Because for thee my soul, and not for self did glow —

And yet I love thee, O my Fatherland!

Beats there a heart, that of the youthful dream,

Its first sweet love, does not retain a gleam?

Ah! holier was the flame within my breast

Than lovers e’er with ardor fanned;

Ne’er bride, nor bridegroom e’er so blest,

Held faith like mine, dear Fatherland!

No “manna” heaven poured on thee, I know,

Yet many were the gifts it did bestow:

I saw the wonders of a Southern clime

Since last I on thy soil did stand,

Yet fairer seemed to me than palm and lime,

The apple blossom of my Fatherland!

476 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and' Letters.

Land of my fathers! though no longer mine.

If any soil is sacred it is thine!

Thy image, always bright, is in my mind,

And if no tie were wrought by living hand,

My cherished dead would me to thee still bind —

Thy holy graves — O thou, my Fatherland!

O, if thy children all, who stayed at home,

Did love thee like the ones thou badest roam,

A Union soon, an empire would have birth,

And thou wouldst see thy children hand in hand

Make thee the mightiest land on earth,

As thou’rt the best, my Fatherland!

Tlie story is told that the German emperor chanced upon

Erez’s poem in a German publication, and was so affected that

he caused the restrictions applicable to the return of the Forty-

Elighters to be greatly modified. Whether well-founded or not,

the story might well be true. All of these Forty-Elighters

poured out their aching hearts in verse', and naturally what they

wrote rang true. Any of these outbursts stirs the pulses of him

who reads :

“Farewell to Germany,” by Puchner.

“At Parting,” by Maerklin.

“To Mjy Fatherland,” by Krez.

Of the few writers who antedated the Forty-Eighters, mention

may be limited to Oarl de Haas of Fond du Lac, and Alexander

Oonze of Milwaukee. Oonze gave promise of a great poetic gift,

but he found a soldier’s grave in Mexico when but 28 years of

age.9 Desire to- die on the battlefield, due to personal disap^

pointments, is said to' have prompted his enlistment in the

Mexican War.

The names that most readily occur of the recent school of

German poets are those of Frank Siller, Otto William Sbubron

and Julius Gugler. Mention must not be omitted, in even a

brief review of Wisconsin German poets, of the excellent trans¬

lations which American poetry has been given at their hands —

chiefly by Siller and Sbubron. Longfellow’s poems have been

» His well-known “Oregon Lied” is reproduced in Milwaukee, by R. A.

Koss, Milwaukee, 1871, p. 194. Several others of his poems are given,

p. 224-228.

Legler — A Wisconsin Group of German Poets. 477

favorites in this particular. William Dilg translated “Hia¬

watha/’ and Frank Siller “Evangeline.” In the latter, Long¬

fellow recognized the best German version of his Acadian poem.

It preserves not only the spirit of the original, but renders in

like meter practically a literal translation of the story, with all

its idioms and characteristics. Siller translated from many

languages. His paraphrases of thirteen quatrains from Omar

Khayyam (printed in 1889) were the first attempt of the kind

in America.10 Among other translations deserving mention are

the following:

“Paradise and Peri” (Moore), by Dr. M|ax Doerfling.

“Abou Pen Ahdem” (Leigh Hunt), by Augustus Steinlein.

“America” (Smith’s patriotic anthem), by Carl Doerflinger.

“Excelsior” (Longfellow), by Franz Siller; also “The

Angelus at Dolores” (Bret Hart©) ; “Laugh and the World

Laughs with You” (Ella Wheeler) ; “To Maria Glemm” (Poe).

“The Arrow and the! Song” (Longfellow), by Herman Buh-

land.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Anneke, Mathilda Franciska.

B. April 3, 1817, in Blankenstein. D. Nov. 25, 1884. She had fine

literary talent, her youthful contributions in prose and verse at¬

tracting the attention of the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath. Many

of her poems were translated into English by Mrs. Mary H. C.

Booth, wife of Sherman Booth (Wayside Blossoms Among Flowers

from German Gardens, Milwaukee, 1864). A tender friendship ex¬

isted between these two women. Mrs. Anneke’s eventful career is

narrated in an article printed by Henry E. Legler in The Milwau¬

kee Sentinel of Nov. 26, 1884.

- - Oithono, Oder die Tempelweihe. Milwaukee, 1844.

A poem in dramatic form. The drama was performed in Mil¬

waukee in 1882.

Bielfeld, Henry A.

B. in Bremen, 1818. D. Nov. 16, 1882. Usually classed as one of

the minor poets of the ’48 group, but not correctly so. R. in Mil¬

waukee, where he held many positions of trust.

10 An account of Siller’s literary work (by Henry E. Legler) was

printed in The Milwaukee Record, March 4, 1893.

478 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .

Bielfeld, Henry A.

Gedichte. Milwaukee: Freidenker Pub. Co., 1889. 196 p.

Many of the verses are local in character.

[Dilg, William] “Henricus vom See.”

B. in Bingen on the Rhein in 1837. Followed his father into

exile in 1849. Died in 1903 in Wiesbaden, Germany. His transla¬

tion into German of Longfellow’s “Hiawatha” has been much

praised.

- Gedichte. Milwaukee: J. B. Hoeger & Son, 1866. 238 p.

Eleven of the poems pertain to Indian legends, the titles (trans¬

lated) being as follows: The White Canoe. The Last of His Race.

Devil’s Lake. Return of Spring. Schenanska. Minnehaha. Wi¬

nona. Marieton Rock. Unktahee. Meuni-boschon’s River.

Doerfling, Max.

Dr. Doerfiing is a journalist. For a number of years he was an

editorial writer on the Milwaukee Herold. Now r. in New York.

- Paradies und Peri. Translated into German from the English of

Thomas Moore. New York, 1887. 20 p.

Doerflinger, Carl.

R. in Milwaukee, where he has filled many positions of trust and

honor. As an editor and publisher he gave literary aspirants much

encouragement, and many books of poetry came from his press

when financial loss was almost’ a certainty. He has contributed

much to stimulate literature, art and education in Milwaukee.

- Onkel Karl. Milwaukee, 1881.

A juvenile publication, as also the title which follows. Mr. Doer¬

flinger contributed numerous poems to each.

■ - - Herzblattchen’s Spielwinkel. Milwaukee: Doerflinger Book and

Pub. Co., 1881. Ills. 63 p.

- America. Aus dem Amerikanischen. Milwaukee, 1897. 8 p.

Translation of the national anthem, sung at the reunion of the

Twenty-sixth Wisconsin Regiment, July 10, 1897.

Ende, Henrtch von.

Von Ende was a writer of romance, as well as verse. A few

years prior to his death he removed to Cincinnati. His widow,

Amalia von Ende, is also a well-known writer. Prior to her mar¬

riage to von Ende, Amalia Kemper was a. well-known Milwaukee

educator. For some years past she has made New York her home.

She is a frequent contributor in prose and verse to the leading

German magazines.

- Mississippi und Rhein, Centennial-Phantasie. Milwaukee: Carl

Doerflinger, publisher, 1876. 20 p.

Legler — A Wisconsin Group of German Poets.

479

Giegold, Georg.

R. of Marinette. Formerly a woodsman, his muse is dedicated

to the spirit of the trackless forests. “Tannenreis und Flatter-

rosen” is his best effort.

- Aus dem Urwald. Kenosha, Wis., 1898. Portrait and ills. 121 p.

Guden, Sophie C. [Mrs.]

R. in Oshkosh. Active in literary movements, and for a time

identified with the publication of the Wisconsin Literary Independ¬

ent, a monthly magazine.

- Festival Days. Stuttgart, 1891.

Georg Ebers praised this book warmly.

I

Gugler, Julius.

R. in Milwaukee. Author of an operetta and a drama, the latter

entitled “For Mayor, Godfrey Buehler.”

- Der Stern des Westens: Episches Gedicht. Published by the

author. Milwaukee, 1900. 75 p.

Kiiez, Ko?srad.

B. in Landau, Rheinpfalz, April 27, 1828. D. in Milwaukee.

From 1850 till 1888 r. in Sheboygan. Next to Madame Anneke,

Krez became the best-known German poet of Wisconsin, though

Marklin’s poetry as a whole ranks higher. Two poems established

the fame of Krez — “To My Fatherland” and “Renunciation and

Solace.”

- Aus Wiskonsin. New York: F. Steiger, 1875. v-{-139 p.

- Second edition. Geo. Brumder, Milwaukee, 1895. 192 p.

Contains additional poems.

- Dornen und Rosen von den Vogesen. Landau, 1846.

- Gesangbuch. Strassburg, 1848.

The two last titles are given on the authority of Zimmermann’s

Deutsch in America. I have not seen copies of the books.

[Lociiemes, Michael Joseph.] “Meik Fuchs.”

In addition to contributions to several collections of poems, Prof.

Lochemes (r. in Milwaukee) has published poems and sketches in

German and Pennsylvania-German in European and American

magazines. He is especially happy in his dialect sketches.

- Dreiguds un Noschens, vim Meik Fuchs. Milwaukee: M. H.

Wiltzius & Co., 1898. 170 p.

Maerklin, Edmund.

B. in Calw, Wurtemberg, Jan. 22, 1816. His poems, contributed

to the leading periodicals of Germany, led to a warm friendship

480 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences } Arts , and Letters.

with such men as Ludwig Uhland and G. Herwegh. He took an

active part in the revolutionary movement in Baden, and sought an

asylum in Switzerland, and later in America. In Wisconsin he

became a leading journalist and with Carl Schurz led the move¬

ment which attached many of the leading Germans to the Repub¬

lican party. In his poetry, Marklin’s lyric note is strong and

vibrant.

- Familien-Bilder. Ein poetischer Blumenstrauss ftir die deutsch-

amerikanischen Frauen gebunden von Edmund Marklin. Milwau¬

kee: Carl Doerflinger, 1877. 30 p.

- In Sattel und Meeresgrund. Schilderungen aus dem amerika-

nischen Biirgerkrieg, von 1860-1865. Milwaukee: Doerflinger Book

& Publishing Co., 1880. 15 p.

Separate publication of Marklin’s famous poem, “Der deutsche

Cavallerist.”

- Im Strome der Zeit. Milwaukee, 1885. 224 p.

Selections of his best poems published as a memorial volume by

Milwaukee friends, with a sketch of the author’s eventful career

by his comrade-in-arms, the gallant C. Anneke.

Nies, Konrad.

B. in Rheinhessen, 1862. Identified with the German theater in

Milwaukee for a time. At present r. in New York. Has contrib¬

uted frequently to Puck, Frank Leslie’s, Rundschau and numerous

magazines. Established the monthly magazine Deiitsch-Amerika-

nische Dichtung.

- Funken. Gedichte von Konrad Nies. Grossenhain u. Leipzig:

Baumert u. Konge. n. d. 186 p.

Puchner, Rudolph.

R. in New Holstein. Puchner is the last surviving member of

the ’48 group of poets. B. in Suabia, 1829.

- Klange aus dem Westen. Milwaukee: Carl Doerflinger, 1879.

132 p.

- Aglaja. Milwaukee: Freidenker Pub. Co., 1887. 71 p.

Puls, [Mrs.] Marie.

R. of Milwaukee, wife of Dr. A. J. Puls. The book is dedicated to

her daughter, and was issued for private distribution. There are

sixty poems, chiefly of tender sentiment and love of nature.

- Gedichte. Milwaukee, 1903. 79 p.

Ruhland, Herman. (“Arminius.”)

B. in Hanover, 1833. Came to Milwaukee in 1863. Later became

a teacher in Illinois and Indiana.

Legler—A Wisconsin Gh'oup of German Poets. 481

- Aehrenlese. Gedichte. Milwaukee, 1878. 274 p.

- Gedenke Mein. Gedichte fur Schule und Haus. Chicago, 1883.

- Deutsch-Amerikanische Feldblumen. Chicago, 1892.

Sillee, Frank.

B. of German parents in St. Petersburg. Siller came to Milwau¬

kee in 1850. His early life was one of hard struggle. In 1854 he

went to Nebraska with a party of hot-headed enthusiasts to pre¬

vent that territory from becoming slave territory. The party dis¬

banded and he lived a year among the Indians. In 1863 he became

a grain broker, and at one time was regarded one of the leading

grain operators in the country. He has written both English and

German verse, and has rendered translations from many lan¬

guages. His most enduring work is a translation into German of

Longfellow’s “Evangeline.”

- Lieder und Spriiche aus dem Volke fur das Volk. Miinchen:

J. A. Finsterlin, 1887. 128 p.

Contains five Indian legends. Also numerous translations of

leading American poets.

- The Song of Manitoba and other Poems. Milwaukee: T. S.

Gray Co., 1888. 86 p.

In addition to translations from the German of Heine, Freiligrath,

Zuendt, Bodenstedt, Burger and others, there are translations from

the Spanish, Panhellenic and Persian.

- — Evangeline. Translated from the English of Henry W. Long¬

fellow. Milwaukee: Doerflinger & Co. Leipzig: Ernst & Keil,

1879. 92 p.

Mr. Siller knew of no other translations of this poem into Ger¬

man until informed of their existence by Mr. Longfellow, who gave

his preference for the Siller version.

- - Ein Blick in dem Amerikanischen Dichterwald. Sonder Abdruck

aus dem Magazin fur die Litteratur des In und Auslandes. Dres¬

den, n. d. 28 p.

Includes translations of the following poems: Bryant, “Spring”;

Longfellow, “Excelsior”; Poe, “To Maria Clemm”; Stoddard,

“Love”; Holmes, “The Sculptor”; Bret Harte, “The Angelus of

Dolores”; Ella Wheeler, “Laugh and the World Laughs With You.”

Sotjbron, Wilhelm Otto.

R. in Milwaukee. B. in Bremen in 1846. Has made literature

his profession for many years. His education was acquired through

his own unaided efforts, his younger days having been spent as

a confectioner and later as a cigarmaker. His evenings were de¬

voted to literary effort and study. His play “Asa Groot” has been

translated into Danish. Soubron is a skilled translator.

31

482 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

- Souvenir. Milwaukee, 1878. 253 p.

English title: Poems, by William Otto Soubron. Divided into

five parts: 1. Lieder (German). 2. Poems (English). 3. Indi-

ana-Keahsa. 4. Songs. 5. Vermischte Gedichte. The sub-title of

Keahsa is “Phantasien am Lake Michigan.”

Steinlein, Augustus.

B. in Trier, 1825. D. at La Crosse, where he had resided since

1856. He was a printer by trade, but drifted into journalism. For

many years served as justice of the peace in La Crosse.

— * — Bunte Bliithen. Port. La Crosse: John Ulrich, 1884. 198 p.

- - Second edition. Winona, Minn.: Jos. Leicht, 1892. 160 p.

Thormaehlen, Anton [“Fridolin vom Wald.”]

B. in Oldenburg, 1829. Came to Milwaukee in 1856, and lived

here to the time of his death.

- Lenzbliithen und Herbstblatter. Milwaukee, 1890. Port. 240 p.

Voigt, Anna [Mrs.].

R. of Plymouth.

- Vergissmeinnicht. Ein Strauss Geistlicher Gedankenbliithen.

Chicago: North American Pub. Co., 1896. Port. 348 p.

Chiefly poems of religious sentiment.

Wallich, Adolph.

R. in Manitowoc. Formerly editor of the Wisconsin Demokrat.

- Alpha. Milwaukee, 1872.

Wittmann, Anna Christine [Mrs.].

R. of Manitowoc.

- Phantasien in der Dammerstunde. Manitowoc: A. Piening,

1879.

Zuendt, Ernst A.

B. in Suabia, 1819. He was the son of an Austrian count, but

sacrificed title and ancestral estates to his convictions. He was

thirty-two when he came to America. Founded the Green Bay

Post, but his venture was not financially successful. He became

“a dweller in Bohemia,” eking out a precarious living in dramatic

and journalistic work. D. in 1900. Zuendt possessed poetic tal¬

ent. “At Lincoln’s Grave” is a noble poem.

- Lyrische und Dramatische Dichtungen. St. Louis: F. B. Meiss¬

ner, 1871.

“The Song of the German-American” is given in both English

and German.

Legler — A Wisconsin Group of German Poets.

483

* Ebbe und Fluth: Gesammelte lyrisebe Dichtungen und Jugur-

tha, Trauerspiel in fiinf akten. Milwaukee: Freidenker Pub. Co.,

1894 Port. 563 p.

A sumptuous volume. In the final part of the book is given

a bibliography of the numerous dramas written by Zuendt from

1843 to 1880.

- [Anonymous] Ein Leben in Liedern, Gediehte eines Heimath-

losen. Milwaukee: Freidenker Pub. Co., 1886. 184 p.

Anthologies.

Heimathgrusse aus Amerika. New York, 1870. 59 p.

Selections from the poems of Konrad Krez and E. A. Ziindt.

Dornrosen. Erstlingsbltithen deutscher Lyrik in America. New

York, 1871, 160 p.

Selections from the poems of Mathilde Franziska Anneke,

Rudolph Puchner, Anton Thormaehlen and E. A. Ziindt.

Deutsch in Amerika. Beitrage zur Geschichte der Deutsch-Ameri-

kanischer Literatur. 1. Episch-lyrische Poesie. Chicago, 1892.

265 p.

Selections from the poems of Carl de Haas, Heinrich A. Biel-

feld, Mathilde Franziska Anneke, Konrad Krez, Edmund Marklin,

Henricus vom See [Wm. Dilg], Augustus Steinlein, Rudolph

Puchner, Ernst A. Ziindt, Anton Thormaehlen, Franz Siller, Otto

Soubron, Julius Gugler, Henrich Ende, Adolf Wallich, Emil A.

Knotser, Herman Ruhland, Konrad Nies, Bella Fiebing.

Wisconsin’s Deutsch-Amerikaner, by Wilhelm Hense-Jensen and Er¬

nest Bruncken. Milwaukee, 1902. 2 vols. 389 and 306 p.

Chapters I. and II. of Vol. 2 contain selections from the poem®

of Augustus Steinlein, Adolph Wallich, Rudolph Puchner, Wilhelm

Dilg, Konrad Krez, Edmund Marklin, Ernst A. Ziindt, Madame

Anneke, Henrich von Ende, Julius Gugler, Georg Giegold, Louis

Kindt.

Freidenker-Almanach. Milwaukee, Wis., 1878-1900, 23 vols.

Contains a large number of poetic, as well as prose contributions

by Wisconsin writers.

484 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts 3 and Letters .

The following comprises a list of the more prominent Wisconsin

writers of German verse whose productions have not been gathered

for publication in book form:

Anneke, Carl (Milwaukee).

Conze, Alexander (Milwaukee).

De Haas, Carl (Fond du Lac).

Ende, Amalia von (Milwaukee).

Fiebing, Bella (Milwaukee).

Grahamer, J. (Milwaukee).

Hotschick, George (Madison).

Huhn, Heinrich (Milwaukee).

Kindt, Louis (Racine).

Knotser, Emil (Milwaukee).

Pflaume, Karl (Manitowoc).

Ruppius, Otto (Milwaukee).

Trumpf, Gustav (Milwaukee).

Wintermeyer, Valentin (Manitowoc).

Pen Names.

(For a complete list of Wisconsin noms-de-plume, see Milwaukee

Sunday Free Press, September 27, 1903.)

“Henricus vom See” — William Dilg.

“Onkel Karl” — Carl Doerflinger.

“Meik Fuchs” — Michael Jos. Lochemes.

“Arminius” — Herman Ruhland.

“Fridolin vom Wald — Anton Thormaehlen.

“Ein Heimathloser” — Ernst Anton Ziindt.

SOME HEPATICAE OF THE APOSTLE ISLANDS.

CHARLES E. ALLEN,

Assistant Professor of Botany , University of Wisconsin.

The following is a list of Hepaticae collected on two of the

Apostle Islands, Lake Superior, between the 18th and the 28th

of August, 1902. One day was spent on Presque Isle, the rest

of the time on Mjadaline Island. Though this list by no means

pretends to be complete, it is of interest to note, as showing the

need of work with this group of plants, that of the twenty-

one species enumerated below, six, 'Nos. 5, 6, 8, 13, 18 and 19,

have not previously been reported to occur in Wisconsin.

Where the specific name used differs from that given by

Underwood in the sixth edition of Gray’s Manual, the latter is

added as a synonym. “M.” indicates the collection of the

species in question on Ma d aline Island, “P1.” its collect ion on

Presque Isle.

1. Cyatkophom quadrata (Scop.) Trevis. (Preissia comrnur

laid Nee®. ) P.

2. Marchantm polymorpha L. Abundant. Mi.

3. Riccardia laUfrons Lindb. ( Aneura latifrons Lindb.) On

a decaying log, with other Hepaticae. M.

4. Pellia endiviae folio (Dicks.) Dum. P.

5. Blasia pnsilla L. Oh damp clay in roadside ditches. M.

6. Fossombronm foveolata Lindb. (F. Dumortieri Lindb.)

Oh damp rocks along shore. P.

7. J unger manma autumnalis DC. (J. Schraderi Mart.)

Common. Ml ; P.

8. Lophozia ventricosa (Dicks.) Dum. (Jungermannia verir

tricosa Dicks.) Oh soil and damp rocks. P.

9. Lophocolea heteroplvylld (Schrad.) Dum. Common. M. ; P.

P.

486 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

10. Chiloscyphus polyanthos (L.) Gorda. Growing with

Mnium on damp soil. M.

11. Cephalozia curvifolia (Dicks.) Dtam. M.

12. Cephalozm media Lindb. (C. multiflora Spruce.) P.

13. Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dum. On a damp stone in

a bog. P.

14. Bazzania trilobata (L.) S. F. Gray. M. ; P.

15. Lepidozia reptans (L.) Dtim. M. ; P.

16. Blepharostoma trichopkyllum (LL) Dtam, M. ; P.

17. Ptilidium ciliare (L.) Fees. M. ; P.

18. Scapanm nemorosa (L.) Dum, Ota. damp rocks, ground

and decaying wood. ML ; P.

19. Scapania undulata (L.) Dum. Carpeting rocks along the

shore. P.

20. Porella platyphylla (L.) Lindb. P.

21. Frullania Eboracensis Gottsche. Ml

SOME POINTS IN THE ANATOMY OF RANANTRA

FUSCA P. BEAUV.

WM. S. MARSHALL AND HENRY SEVERIN.

Although the anatomy of Ranantra has already been described

by Dufour (2) and by Locy (5) it appeared to ns, after work¬

ing for some time on this Hem ip ter on, that a further contribu¬

tion could well be made, correcting some statements of these two

workers, and on some points extending their observations. The

specimens used were R. fusca and were all obtained near and in

the city of Madison. They were all collected late in the autumn

or early in the winter, the winter collecting requiring much

time, it being found that at this time of the year R (mantra

buries itself in the mud at the bottom of pools or creeks. The

specimens were prepared by injecting alcohol into! them, a hypo¬

dermic syringe being used, or cutting the body open before

throwing them into the preserving fluid. With a few specimens

a nearly saturated aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate was

used which was well washed out before finally placing them in

alcohol.

Alimentary Tract . — (PI. XXXIV, Figs. 1 and 2.) The

very thin oesophagus extends straight through the head and

entire thorax, the diameter remaining the same throughout its

entire length. At the posterior end of the metathorax there is

a rather abrupt enlargement which marks the end of thel oeso¬

phagus and the beginning of the mid-intestine. This second

division of the alimentary canal is separable1 into two part's, the

anterior extending in a straight course through the first three

abdominal segments, the posterior being entirely within tbe

fourth segment and longitudinally folded tiwo or three timjes.

These folds while, in general the same in their arrangement in

all specimens, yet show quite an amount of individual variation.

The next division, the ileum, passes through parts of the fourth

488 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

and of the fifth segments and opens into the posterior part of

the rectum. The rectum extends forward beyond its' union

with the ileum almost to the preceding segment; in all fresh

specimens it was filled with air.

A closer examination of the different parts of the alimentary

canal, especially a study of sections, shows that there is at some

places a sharply marked histological differentiation between

them. The long thread-like oesophagus is of very nearly the

same structure throughout its entire length ; its diameter is at

all parts very small and varies only at the extreme posterior

end. The epithelial cells vary somewhat as to their relative

length and breadth becoming very much longer at the posterior

end, until finally just before the commencement of the mid¬

intestine, they are very long and narrow. (PI. XXXIV, Fig. 3.)

Internally the oesophagus is lined with a layer of chitin; ex¬

ternally there are two muscular layers. The outer of these, the

longitudinal, varies in thickness in different parts of the oesoph¬

agus and is follwoed by the inner circular layer. Besides

these two muscular layers there is a small amount of connective

tissue scattered between the muscles, separating the two muscular

layers from each other or from the layer of epithelial cells.

This muscular layer shows quite a change in its thickness at or

very near the point which marks the boundary between oesoph¬

agus and mid-intestine. In a longitudinal section of this

part (PL XXXIV, Fig. 3) if one follows the muscular layer a

sudden decrease in its thickness is noticeable, the change due

apparently to a loss of connective tissue more than of the muscles

themselves. In all specimens examined this change occurs very

near the spot where the internal chitinous layer stops and where

there is also a marked change in the structure of the epithelial

cells. This point does not coincide with that at which the

oesophagus begins to widen but is a short distance posterior to

this, so what one would naturally consider, from an exterior

view, as the boundary between the oesophagus and mid-intestine

is in fact anterior to it. The cells of the oesophagus (PL

XXXIV, Fig. 4), excepting the variations in shape, are similar,

containing each a spherical nucleus and very often a number of

vacuoles in the basal part of the cell.

The mid-intestine as seen in a dissection is readily divisible

into two quite distinct portions, an anterior thicker part extend¬

ing straight through the first three abdominal segments, and a

Marshall and Sever in; — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca. 489

posterior one, lying witldn the fourth segment, which is much

thinner and is thrown into longitudinal folds. (PL XXXI Y,

Fig. 5.) The anterior portion is laterally compressed and appears

two or three times as wide from a lateral as from a dorsal view.

The stomach has somewhat the appearance of being spirally

coiled ; this appearance is given to it by indentations arranged

in part alternately on either side. The entire surface when

examined with a lens has a roughened appearance, due to small

papillae-like outfoldings which are very close together and cover

the entire surface. In sectioning this part of the alimentary

tract the layer of epithelial cells is found to he very much folded

and it is the outpushing of these folds that causes the roughening

of the surface. The epithelial cells are different from those of

the oesophagus in that they have a general appearance of secre¬

tory cells and stain darker. The folding of the epithelial layer

is characteristic for the entire mid-intestine and is found else¬

where in the canal, only in the posterior end of the oesophagus

and here hut slightly. The two muscle layers are present, the

inner circular one has the fibres arranged in little groups and

not in bands, as in the oesophagus. The posterior narrower

part of the mid-intestine has the same external appearance as

the anterior part, there being, however, a very abrupt decrease

in the diameter of the canal where the two parts join. The

folding of the epithelial cells is here not quite so marked as in

the preceding part ; the cells have the same appearance through¬

out the entire mid-intestine. Towards the posterior end of this

section of the alimentary canal the circular muscles increase

considerably in number, making this layer much thicker here

than at any other part of the mid-intestine.

The next section, the hind-intestine, is easily separable into

a thin anterior portion, the ileum, and a thicker posterior part,

the rectum. At its anterior end, the ileum receives the Mal¬

pighian tubes and their entrance marks the boundary between

mid- and hind-intestine. The thickness of the two divisions is

about the same. The roughened external appearance is also

missing, and the folding of the epithelial layer disappears rather

abruptly with the ending of the mid-intestine. Histologically,

there is a marked difference between^ this and the preceding

division. The external muscular layers are both present, but

very slightly developed ; internally a thin cuticle is present.

The epithelial cells show towards their free ends a marked longi-

490 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

tudinal striation which may be restricted to this part or extend

further into the cell. The ovoid nuclei lie in the center of the

cells, the basal end being normally rounded, but the end towards

the free edge of the cell often has the nuclear membrane crum¬

pled, giving to it the appearance of having been shrunken at

this point by the preserving fluid. It is, however, noticeable

that this irregularity when present is always at the same end.

Each nucleus contains one or more nucleoli, and what is more

noticeable, a peculiar hollow or cavity extending through it.

(PL XXXIV, Pig. 6.) In transverse sections of the nucleus this

appears as a large vacuole lying near its center ; in longitudinal

sections it varies somewhat, often extending straight through

the nucleus, but more frequently it was curved, and if longer

than the nucleus, bent upon itself. Within this hollow there

was alwaysi present a brown rod-like body lying free within the

cavity ; it extended through it or was bent upon itself and then

longer than the nucleus. In specimens stained with haematoxy-

lin or with the safranin, gentian and orange triple stain, it

remained of a light brown color. The whole nucleus reminded

one of a gland, the wall of which would be represented by the

body of the nucleus, the lumen, the hollow central cavity, while

the rod-like body could be compared to the mass of secretion

which had been contracted from the wall.

The rectum is in length nearly equal to the fifth segment of

the abdomen ; it lies ventral to the ileum and functions as an air

bladder, being filled with air in all the fresh specimens we dis¬

sected. The ileum enters the rectum somlwhat posterior to its

center, the two being sharply contrasted both in external appear¬

ance and microscopic structure. A section shows that the wall

of the rectum is composed of a layer of epithelial cells external

to which is a thin coating of connective tissue. The epithelial

cells contain each a nucleus but very little else, some having a

small mass of protoplasm but never enough to fill the cell. The

wall of the rectum in preserved specimens is irregularly folded,

having the appearance of being easily distended and enlarged

when filled with air.

Ranantra when free in water always rises to the surface with

the posterior end much higher than the; head. The end of the

respiratory tube is then at the surface of the water, its normal

position being one in which the tip of the tube reaches the sur¬

face, the rest of the insect remaining submerged. It retains this

Marshall and Severin. — Anatomy of Ranantm fuscaL 491

position for some time and then may descend, or, allowing the

body to rise, occupy a position nearly parallel to the surface of

the water. The rectum filled with air acts as a hydrostatic blad¬

der to carry the posterior part, of the body up first. We do not

see that there can he any other use for the rectum. The cells

from their structure and evident lack of protoplasm could not

serve any active function, and the absence of any except very

small trachae would preclude the possibility of a respiratory

function.

Salivary glands. — In a general dissection, dorsal view, the

salivary glands appear as two tubes extending irregularly from

a position near the center of the prothorax hack to the anterior

end of the thoracic ganglion. (PL XXXIV, Fig. 1. ) An exami¬

nation of a number of specimens shows that the glands vary as to

their relative position to each other and to their1 entire length,

some ending before the thoracic ganglion is reached, and others

extending beyond its posterior margin, or in exceptional cases,

to near the beginning of the abdomen. At the anterior end of

each of these glands, there is a smaller one lying, in a dorsal

view, entirely or partially concealed. E!ach small gland appar¬

ently unites with the large one near its anterior end, and from

this union a single tube passes forward. A closer examination

shows, as Dufour (2) has figured, that wdiile each gland has its

own duct and these join, yet they separate again and pass for¬

ward distinct from each other. An examination of glands,

mounted m to to , and of sections, shows that each # one consists of

a median, longitudinal tube passing from one end to the other

and surrounded by a single layer of acini, all sessile and opening

into the central duct. The shape of the acini vary from those

in the thicker parts of the gland with a round outline, to the

elongated ones found in its narrower parts. Eiach acinus (PL

XXXIV, Fig. 9 ) consists of a large central lumen partially or

entirely filled with a, granular secretion, and a wall composed of a

number of flattened cells each of wdiich contains a large nucleus.

In the sections we studied it was impossible to distinguish any

cell boundaries; the nuclei w7ere very large, from one to four oc¬

curring in each section. Besides the cells of the smaller gland

having a shorter diameter than those of the large one, there is

noticeable in stained specimens a difference in color. In sec¬

tions stained in haematoxylin followed by eosin, the contents of

the smaller gland is nearly colorless but in the larger gland the

492 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

eosin has stained this part. This. might lead one to hold that

each gland secreted a different fluid, which view would he

further shown by the presence of the two ducts, even if they did

join at one point. We were unable to trace either duct further

than the anterior part of the head and do not know whether they

empty into the same or different places. From the anterior end

of each gland (PI. XXXIY, Fig. 7) there arises a duct which is a

continuation of the longitudinal median tube already mentioned.

The tube from the large gland, soon after its exit, widens, and

in this widened part is a mass of cells, the nature of which we

were unable to determine ; it soon narrows again and at this

point received the duct from the smaller gland. The single

duct formed by the union is very short and divides to form the

two long ducts passing forward into the head.

Locy (5) called attention to the similarity between the ducts

of the salivary glands and the trachea, a comparison which at

first is very striking. There is the transverse striation, due ap¬

parently to the taenidia winding spirally around the duct and

having the glistening appearance so characteristic of the trachea.

A longitudinal section shows, however, that this similarity does

not remain. There is an internal chitinous layer (PI. XXXIY,

Fig. 8) quite wide and rigid internally, the alternate thick and

thin layers giving of course the appearance of the taenidia, but

yet quite different. Externally there is a thin chitinous layer

and between the two a single row of flattened cells.

In the figures given both by Dufour (2) and Locy (5) there

is seen on either side between the oesophagus and the salivary

glands a long narrow tube extending for quite a distance back¬

wards on the alimentary tract. On these tubes, at a place near

the posterior end of the salivary glands, there is shown an en¬

largement which in the figures of both authors, is very notice¬

able. These are figured as the non-glandular portions of the

salivary glands. In a general dissection these long tube-like

bodies are seen at either side of the anterior portion of the mid-

intestine and extend as far as the posterior end of the second

abdominal segment. (PI. XXXIY, Fig. 1.) They can be traced

forward at either side of the oesophagus to the thoracic gang¬

lion where each bends outward to pass around it. From here

they run forward a short distance and then pass into a very

long, thin duct, similar to those of the salivary glands, which

extends into the head. Xear the thoracic ganglion there is an

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca. 493

enlargement similar to that figured by Dufour (2) and by

Locy (5), but not nearly so great.

A closer examination of one of these tubes shows that it can¬

not be a non-glandular portion of the silivary glands but is either

an active part of this gland or a, separate one, the use of which

we could not determine. There are! three distinct1 parts of the

tube, the enlargement near th ganglion and the thinner parts

lying in front of and back of this. The distal portion which ex¬

tends through most of the metathorax and the first two abdominal

segments is a narrow tube having the lumen about as thick as the

two walls. PL XXXIV, Fig. 10 D1.) The wall is composed of a

single layer of what are apparently secretory cells resembling in

general the structure of a, Malpighian tube. The proximal por¬

tion, extending through the meso- and pro-thoacic segments is the

narrowest part and closely resembles the ducts leading from the

salivary glands. It extends forward into the head, but its out¬

let we were unable to discover.

The enlarged middle portion is peculiar in its structure and

differs from either of the other parts. A view of a mounted

specimen shows, us that the distal portion gradually passes into

it with very little change in the general appearance except an in¬

crease in size. There are, however, a number of longitudinal

strands passing partially through it. (PL XXXIV, Fig. 10 Str. )

Towards its proximal end these strands in part disappear, the

cells become smaller and more closely packed together, and this

entire part is stained very much darker than, any other portion

of the tube. A longitudinal section of this median portion (PL

XXXV, Fig. 11) shows the wall to be continuous throughout.

The strands pass forward into the darkly stained part where

they apparently become closely packed together and lost. The

cells and the nuclei become smaller and a mass of cells is formed

which fills the lumen and even extends for a short distance into

the tube. There is certainly no. structure similar to this in the

salivary glands, and whatever the function of this tube may be it

does not act as a reservoir for the salivary glands, but is more

likely a part of the salivary gland or a special gland.

Respiralory System. — (Pl. XXXV, Fig. 12.) One of the most

noticeable features of Ranantra is the presence at the posterior

end of the two long caudal filaments which together form the so

called “respiratory tube.” As already explained, when the in¬

sect rises to the surface the posterior end is much higher than the

494 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

anterior and the tip of the “tube” reaches the surface of the

water first. If a specimen of Banantm in this position is

watched, it is noticed that soon after the tips of the caudal fila¬

ments reach the surface a film of air is seen between them and

this can be either the air expelled from the body or the fresh air

being drawn into the trachae. We carried on a few experiments

to determine the necessity of the “respiratory tube” and what

effect an injury to this part would have upon the insect. Sev¬

eral specimens were first taken and the “tube” of each cut par¬

tially off, the amount removed being different in each case.

These were then replaced in small aquaria and all of them lived

for several days, no difference in the length of life being notice¬

able between these and normal specimens living in the same or

similar aquaria. Two specimens had the entire “tube” re¬

moved, and also the stigmata on the filaments and a small part of

the trachea and yet the insects lived for a number of days. Two

normal specimens were placed each in a bottle of water and in one

case a cork was placed so that it rested on the surface of the water,

in the other paper was used. One- of these died in four or five

hours and the other was not: seen again until the next day, when'

it too was dead. The length of the “tube” allows the insects to

remain farther away from the surface and the better concealed,

but respiration can be carried on just as well with a very short

as with a long “tube.” An examination of the caudal filaments

after they have been cleared and mounted shows that the stig¬

mata which are used by the insect when submerged are situated

one near the proximal end of each filament:. Comstock (1) says

that the filaments conduct “the air to two spiracles situated at

the caudal end of the abdomen,” a view not given by Locy (5)

who correctly says that the stigmata are on the filaments.

From the stigma at the base of each filament there passes

forward a trachea which, surrounded by a, part, of the fat body,

extends through the abdomen, giving off a number of branches

to supply the different parts of the body. (PI. XXXV, Fig. 12.)

There are on the abdomen three pairs of stigmata, a pair to

each of the following segments ; the third, fourth and fifth.

When the abdominal tracheal tubes reach the posterior end of

the metathorax, each divides into1 two branches, the outer of

which bends towards the side of the body and connects with a

stigma which is situated at the posterior lateral edge of the meta-

thorax. The inner loops bending slightly towards the central

Marshall and Severity — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca, 4-95

part of the body pass, forward and, just before reaching the

mesothorax, they in their turn curve towards the sides of the

body. At this; point each gives) off a, branch which passes for¬

ward through the muscles to which they give off a. great many

small branches. After this branch is given off, the trachea con¬

tinue in their course towards the side of the body, but before

reaching it each divides into two branches, one passing backward

to join the metathoracic stigma, the other branch passing for¬

ward to enter another stigmla situated at the posterior lateral

edge of the mesothorax. From each of the last stigmata a large

trachea passes forward along the side of the body and in the

posterior end of the prothorax joins with the branch we have al¬

ready mentioned as passing through the muscles. There is thus

formed at either side a large dark trachea which passes through

the prothorax, and at its. anterior end divides into; two branches,

the inner of which passes forward into' the head, the outer enter¬

ing the anterior pair of legs.

The connection between the trachea of the abdomen and the

stigmata is not clear. When the stigmata were cut out, cleared

and mounted, a small trachea could be seen coming from each,

which undoubtedly led into* the main trunk.

We have already mentioned that the rectum is filled with air

and has a hydrostatic function. There are also present in Ra-

nantm two pairs of air sacs very noticeable when fresh speci¬

mens are used. We were unable to trace these to their origin

and do1 not know from what part of the; tracheal system they

arise. Each is a thin walled sac easily collapsable and without

any resemblance to a trachea. The anterior pair, as far as we

could make out, arise ventrally in the anterior part of the head

and extend backward to near the middle of the prothorax. The

posterior pair we could trace forward to about the middle of the

prothorax and near its ventral wall. From here they pass back¬

ward above the intestine often extending as far as the fourth

abdominal segment.

Locy (5) mentions that when Ranantra is preparing for

flight, these air sacs are filled. As to this we can not say but

know that all specimens taken from the water had the sacs par¬

tially or entirely filled with air. In reaching the surface of the

water, the* insects rise with the head down, but do not always

remain in this position. We noticed that many in a short time

assumed a position very nearly parallel to the surface of the

496 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

water, and it may be that these sacs are used to bring the insect

to this position.

Nervous System. — -(PI. XXXV, Fig. 13.) The supra-oesopha-

geal ganglion is situated in the posterior part of the head ; it

shows dorsally a median longitudinal furrow which makes it easy

to distinguish a right and a left lobe. From the posterior end

of each lobe passes a circum-oesophageal commissure, the two

uniting in the infra-oesophageal ganglion which lies at the ex¬

treme anterior margin of the prothorax. The remaining gang¬

lionic system of Ranantra is represented by but one other large

ganglion situated mostly within the mesothorax but extending

backward for some distance into the metathorax. This single

thoracic ganglion is connected with the infra-oesophageal gang¬

lion by two long, thin cords while from its posterior end arise the

two nerve bundles which, passing backward, supply nearly all

parts of the abdomen.

In a general dissection there: is but little to notice except the

branches coming from the thoracic ganglion, and the nerves given

off from the two> main trunks of the abdomen, all of which is

shown in PI. XXXV, Fig. 13. In a microscopic preparation of

the entire nervous system, each of the two strands leaving the

posterior partiof the thoracic ganglion appears single and not di¬

vided into parts. After the first nerve has been given off, the

main strand shows a distinct division into four parallel strands,

the presence of which is only seen in stained and mounted

preparations. Soon another nerve is given off and then the

main branch shows three separate strands for some distance, a

fourth, however, appearing. These four remain together until

the next branching, when there appears a division into two parts,

each containing two of the four strands. This is really a split¬

ting of the main nerve, but one is larger than the other and re¬

mains as the main trunk, the other appearing as a branch which

leaves as the other branches have done and passes towards the

side of the body. Between this branch and the main nerve, the

oviduct passes. The main trunk with its two remaining strands

continues towards the posterior part of the body and when the

next nerve is given off divides so that one strand remains as the

main nerve and the other passes off as a branch. The single

strand of which the main nerve is composed divides so that there

are again two strands in it before the next and last noticeable

nerve is given off.

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Ranantra fnsca. 497

The thoracic ganglion cleared and mounted whole or sectioned

horizontally shows that it is composed of three fused ganglia.

(PL XXXV, Fig. 14. ) The first and second of these are similar

in shape, showing quite an anterior-posterior compression and

differing but little in size, the: anterior slightly the smaller. Each

give® off three rather large nerves from either size, the first re¬

ceiving the two long nerve® from the infra-oesophageal ganglion,

and the third giving off the two main trunks from its posterior

end. The last (third) part of the ganglion is elongated along

its longitudinal axis. The two large nerves coming from it do not

arise from a single root as shown, (PI. XXXV, Fig. 14) but

each has as its origin several small roots, most of which arise

from the posterior margin of the ganglion, but at least one fur¬

ther forward than these, and on the side. The position of the

ganglion cells is shown in the cut-

in connection with the nervous system, we would mention the

sense-organs in the antenna. (PI. XXXV, Fig. 15.) In endeav¬

oring to make a section of the head, the tip of one of the antennae,

which had been cut partially open, was noticed on the slide.

Along one edge there was. a row of setae closed at their tip, but

eachresting on a little papilla slightly raisedfrom the surface. At

the base of each seta was a sac hanging free within the antenna.

These sacs each received at its base a, fine nerve which came from

a ganglion in the base of the terminal joint of the antenna.

Within each sac was a structure having the appearance of a small

ganglion. At the base were a number of nuclei, the rest of the

sac being filled with fibrillar substance from which fibrils en¬

tered the base of the seta. (PI. XXXV, Fig. 16.)

Reproductive organs; male. — The two testes are found prin¬

cipally wfithin the second abdominal segment but generally ex¬

tend a short • distance forward into the preceding one. (PI.

XXXV, Fig, 17.) From a dorsal view each testis appears as an

elongated body pointed at both ends, the posterior blunter than

the anterior, with a vas deferens arising from the posterior end of

each. A closer examination shows at once that the dorsal view

doe® not, as a rule, reveal the true shape, because, in most speci¬

mens examined, one part of the testis is concealed. When all the

parts are seen (PL XXXVI, Fig. 18), the general shape does not

become changed but we find that about two-thirds the distance

from the anterior end there is a large projection from the wall

of the testis, and that it is here the vas deferens has it® origin.

32

498 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The vas deferens passes backward as a narrow tube nearly

through the third segment, when it widens considerably and re¬

mains so as far as the middle of the fourth segment. This en¬

larged part, the seminal vesicle (PL XXXVI, Pig. 19), becomes

very much twisted and often forms for its entire length an irreg¬

ular spiral. The duct leaving the seminal vesicle is: thicker than

when it enters it, and in a, short distance unties in the median

line, with the duct from the other testis. The short single tube

thus formed, the ductus ej aculatorius, enters the base of the

penis. ! i ' ' :t|

Each testis shows the two ends somewhat different, the an¬

terior is the more pointed and often ends in a short thread-like

terminal filament; the posterior end is much blunter and in

some specimens it had the appearance of being spirally coiled,

but only once as markedly so as represented in (PL XXXVI, Fig.

18). The projection from the ventral surface of the testis which

we have: mentioned, is a little nearer the posterior than the ante¬

rior end ; it is mlade up of six parts, the bases: of the seminal folli¬

cles, which disappear in the body of the testis, and at their proxi¬

mal ends unite to form the vas deferens. The testis is composed of

the six follicles enclosed in a common scrotal membrane. When

separated from one another, each follicle consists of this thick¬

ened, projecting, basal piece and an elongated thinner tube,

which in sections, is seen to contain the different stages of the

developing spermatozoa. The relative: lengths of these two parts

we were unable, from our alcoholic specimens, to determine, but

from the figures given by both Dufour (2) and Locy (5), the

thick basal portion is but a very small part of the entire follicle.

A section through the testis shows these follicles to be packed

closely together.

In the seminal vesicle we found that the wall changed very

little but that the lumen became much enlarged and was, in all

specimens examined, filled with spermatozoa. The tube might

coil somewhat regularly for its entire distance or loop back and

forth on itself from one end to the other, the most common oc¬

currence being, however, a mixture of the two1, with the coils

predominating. Sections showed the wall to consist of a single

row of epithelial cells (PL XXXVI, P'ig. 20 A) with a thin

layer of connective tissue at their base. The nuclei were fairly

large and spherical.

The vas deferens emerging from the posterior end of the

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca . 499

seminal vesicle differs from the anterior section both in thickness

and in its cellular structure. In sections (PL XXXVI, Fig. 21)

it is seen that two muscular layers are present, an outer longitu¬

dinal, and an inner circular one. There is a single layer of epi¬

thelial cells, each with a small spherical nucleus near its base and

cell boundaries which were discernible only for about one-third

the distance from the basal membrane to the free end of the cell.

Here the boundaries disappeared, some at a greater distance from

the base than others,, so that no limit to the cells could be dis¬

tinguished. There was- apparently quite a difference in the

structure of the cell at different parts, the distal half showing a

number of large vacuoles which are not present near the base,

and also showing very distinctly a longitudinal striation. The

lumen of the tube was very small or often not discernible.

Where the lumen had disappeared, its position was filled with a

mass which was seemingly a, continuation of the cells and dif¬

fered from them only in the direction of the striation. When

a longitudinal section of part of the tube is seen, the striations

nearest the base are at right angles to the wall of the tube, but.

towards the center they all turn in one direction as if there was a

flowing out from the tube. The cells have a glandular appear¬

ance and it would seem that the secretion; formed was filling or

had filled the lumen of the tube1 and was being carried slowly to

the outside.

This last part of the vas deferens is short, and, uniting with

the one from the other testis, forms- a short, median tube, the

ejaculatory duct, which passes into the base of the penis. The

structure is here different from any other part, of the tube. The

epithelial cells are small and nucleated and between them we

were unable to distinguish any boundaries. The free ends of

the cells were lined with a wrinkled layer of chitin, while at

their base was a thick layer of circular muscles. These entirely

surrounded the epithelial layer and made up most of the thick¬

ness of the wall.

Reproductive organs ; female. — -(PL XXXVI, Figs. 23, 24.)

Each ovary consists o-f five ovarian tubules each with a terminal

nutritive chamber followed by a number of egg chambers. The

five nutritive chambers are situated within the first abdominal

segment ; they are held together by tracheal tubes and connective

tissue, making it very easy to remove the tubules of each ovary as

one piece. In all our specimens, collected in autumn, the tubules

500 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

were empty for about the posterior third of their length and none

contained any fully formed eggs. Near the posterior end of the

third abdominal segment the tubules of each ovary unite to form

the oviduct, each tubule, just before its union with the others,

forming a loop or bend. The two oviducts gradually converge

and meet at the posterior end of the fourth segment where they

join and form the larger common oviduct which extends back¬

ward to the end of the body. Within the fifth segment and

generally to the right of the oviduct is a partially coiled tubular

gland which empties ventrally into the oviduct near its end.

Each ovarian tubule shows that, anterior to the nutritive cham¬

ber there is a long terminal filament passing forward into the

thorax and attached to the muscles in the mesothoracic segment.

Korschelt (4) has described the minute structure of the ovary of

Ranantra linearis , and we will give but a brief description of our

species. The nutritive chamber (PL XXXVI, Fig. 25) excepting

a small space near the proximal end is filled with a mass of cells.

These are smallest at the terminal end, they gradually increase

in size towards the basal end, and within a short distance of the

first egg chamber several very large cells are noticed, each one

undoubtedly destined to become an egg. The arrangement of the

cells in a definite epithelial layer was noticeable only near the

basal end. Xear the center of the basal end there is a granular

mass which has a number of processes extending towards each

end of the egg. Those towards the anterior part become lost in

the cell mass, but those going in the opposite direction form the

nutritive tubes, each one of which passes to an egg-chamber.

The nutritive chamber is quite similar to that described by

Gross (3) for asopns bidens. The first of the egg chambers is

very small but they gradually increase in size. Besides the fol¬

licular layer surrounding' the string of egg chambers, there are

two thin layers surrounding each tubule. The gland passing

into the oviduct is very narrow. Its wall (PI. XXXVI, Fig. 26)

consists of an external layer of longitudinal muscles and con¬

nective tissue and an internal layer of epithelial cells. These

are of two kinds, differing apparently only in their thickness.

Xear the free edge of the cells there is a peculiar serrated ap¬

pearance showing a lighter margin into which processes of the

more deeply stained protoplasm protude.

Within the prothorax there are a number of muscles which

are very noticeable when this part of the body is opened. (PL

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca. 501

XXXVI, Fig. 27). There are two pairs near the center of the

body (figured by Dufour (2) ) both arising on the chitinous plate

which partially separates the pro- from the meso-thorax. One

pair has a dorsal, the other a ventral origin, and from them ten¬

dons run forward to be inserted at the base of the head. They

are used in lifting and lowering the head. At each side of the

prothorax are two other muscles arising from two> chitinous pro¬

tuberances at the posterior end of the pro thorax. E,ach muscle

has a tendon running through it, they being inserted at the base

of the first pair of legs. They are used in extending and flex¬

ing the front legs.

Zoological Laboratory ;

University of Wisconsin ,

Madison , February, 190

502 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.1

1. Comstock, J. H. An Introduction to Entomology. 1888.

2. Dufour, L. Recherches anatomiques et Physiologiques sur

les Hemipteres.

3. Gross, J. Untersuchungen iiber das Ovarium der Ilemi-

pteren, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Amitosen frage. Zeit-

schrift fiir Wissenschaf tliche Zoologie, Bd. LXIX —

1901.

4. Korsciielt, E. fiber einige interessante Yorgange bei der

Bildung der Insekteneier. Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaf f-

liche Zoologie. Bd., XLY, 1887.

5. Loot, W. A. Anatomy and Physiology of the Family Xep-

idae. American Haturalist, Yol. XYIII, 1884.

6. Packard, A. S. A Text Book of Entomology, 1898.

i This bibliography is very incomplete there being a number of papers

to which we did not have access.

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Eanmdra fusca. 503

PLATE XXXIV.

'504 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIV.

All figures except general dissections drawn with a camera. Magni¬

fication in diameters given after explanation of each figure.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of alimentary tract and salivary glands; oes.,

oesophagus; SI. G., salivary gland; the smaller one seen at

its anterior end. G. F., so-called receptacle of salivary gland.

ML I., mid-intestine. Mlp., Malpighian tubes. II., ileum; P.,

rectum. X 3.

Fig. 2. Alimentary tract without the oesophagus, showing relative

length of different parts. Lettering as above. X 3.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section through posterior end of oesophagus with

a very small part of the mid-intestine the epithelial cells

of which have not been drawn, ch., chitinous layer. C. M.,

Circular muscles. L. M., longitudinal muscles. X 220.

Fig. 4. Three cells of the oesophagus, the muscular and chitinous

layers omitted ext., external surface. X 1000.

Fig. 5. Longitudinal section through part of mid-intestine, larger an¬

terior part, to show folding of epithelial layer. L. M., longi¬

tudinal muscles. C. M., circular muscles, ext,, external sur¬

face. X 220.

Fig. 6. Three cells of the ileum, ext., external surface. X 315.

Fig. 7. Showing the anterior ends of a salivary gland with the two

terminal acini of L. G., the larger, and S. G., the smaller

gland. The duct from the larger gland is seen to receive

that from the smaller one and then to divide again. X 02.

Fig. 8. A longitudinal section of the duct of the salivary gland. The

part cut is between the two lines marked a in fig. 7. The

chitinous layer having the serrated appearance is internal.

X 1000.

Fig. 9. Section of a single acinus of the salivary gland. X 150.

Fig. 10. Part of the so-called receptacle of the salivary gland; above

the terminal portion (sectional view); at D, the distal por¬

tion. M., the enlarged median portion, showing the strands,

Str. P., part of the proximal portion. X 26.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXIV.

W. S. Marshall, del.

Marshall and Severin — Anatomy of Ranantra fusca.

PLATE XXXV.

506 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXV.

Fig. 11. Longitudinal section of same, str., strands passing through

the center. D., distal; M., median, and P., proximal por¬

tions. Just below the center the massing of the cells is

shown and their gradual decrease in size. X 300.

Fig. 12. Dorsal view showing the tracheal system and the two pairs

of sacs which are dotted, a., mesothoracic stigmata; b,

metathoracic stigmata; c, d, e., the three pairs of abdominal

stigmata, f., stigmata on caudal filaments, tr., 1, trachea

to head; tr., 2, to front pair of legs, tr., 3, to intestine,

tr., 4, to reproductive organs. tr., 5, trachea, the upper

branch of which goes to the fat body, the lower branch to

the intestine, tr., 6, to intestine. X 3.

Fig. 13. S. 0. Cl., supra-oesophageal ganglion. I. O. G., infra-oesopha-

geai ganglion. T. G„ thoracic ganglion. P., prothorax. Me.,

mesothorax. Mt., inetathorax. Ov., where ovary passes be¬

tween main nerve trunk and the largest branch. X 3.

Fig. 14. Horizontal section of thoracic ganglion, showing the three

ganglia of which it is composed and the principal nerves

arising from it. A., anterior. B., posterior. X 46.

Fig. 15. Terminal joint of antenna showing sense-organs. X 92.

Fig. 16. Single sense organ. X 630.

Fig. 17. Male reproductive organs. T., testes. V. D., vas deferens.

S. V., seminal vesicles. D. J., ejaculatory duct. X 2.

Fig. 18. Testis. F., basal portion of seminal follicle. V. D., vas def-

X 26.

erens.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXV.

W. S. Marshall, del.

Marshall and Sever in — Anatomy of Rmiantra fusca. 507

PLATE XXXVI.

508

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXVI.

Fig. 19. Seminal vesicle. X 26.

Fig. 20. Basal portion of seminal follicles. Only four of the six seen.

X 20.

Fig. 20 A. Section through wall of seminal vesicle, base of cells to left.

X 1000.

Fig. 21. Longitudinal section of wall of the vas deferens below the

seminal vesicle. To the left base of cells; the longitudinal

and the circular muscular layers are shown. X630.

Fig. 22. Transverse section through the ejaculatory duct — but half the

duct shown. Within, to the left, the chitinous layer fol¬

lowed by the layer of epithelial cells and the circular mus¬

cles. X 630.

Fig. 23. Dorsal view showing female reproductive organs. T. F., ter¬

minal filaments. N. C., nutritive chambers. E. C., egg cham¬

bers. Gv., oviduct. G., gland. X 2.

Fig. 24. The five ovarian tubules of an ovary dissected apart. X 2.

Fig. 25. Longitudinal section of a nutritive chamber and of the first of

the egg chambers. N. C., nutritive chamber. Y., central

yolk mass. N. T., nutritive tube leading from yolk mass to

one of the egg chambers. X 37.

Fig. 26. Longitudinal section of wall of the gland, G., in figure 23.

ext., external surface. X 630.

Fig. 27. Dissection of muscles of the prothorax. V. M., the dorsal pair

of central muscles which raise the head. D. M., the ventral

pair. On either side are seen the two muscles which pass to

the anterior legs. X 6.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXVI

W. S. Marshal], del.

AUDITORY MEMORY SPAN FOR NUMBERS IN

SCHOOL CHILDREN.

JOHN I. JEGI.

Late Professor of Physiology and Psychology, Milwaukee Normal School.

\

The problem for this study was to determine the native mem¬

ory power in children between the ages of five and fifteen years,

or as we find them in the grades from the first to the eighth in¬

clusive. Does memory power increase at a uniform rate from

age to age as shown by the number of different things a child

can retain and reproduce? Does it increase more rapidly at

some ages than at others ? Do the many things a child has to

remember increase his native memory power ? What may we

regard as the actual memory span in children throughout the

grades ? Is there a “memory period’7 as such during which this

power suddenly and rapidly blossoms out and shows itself in a

remarkable increase of native power? This investigation was

undertaken to throw some light on these and kindred questions

relating to this very important power of the human mind. The

study is limited, however, to a single one of the six modes or

forms of impression — the auditory, and to a single one of the

scores of objects that may be remembered — numbers.

Several studies have been made which throw some light on

some of these questions, but memory span as such in school chil¬

dren has not been studied directly so far as I know. Mr. P. W.

Smedley, Director of the Department of Child Study and Peda¬

gogical Investigation, of the Chicago Public Schools, gives a

table of memory span in the third report (1900-1901), but the

method he' used could not be expected to yield very accurate

results, and besides he attempted only to determine some simple

standard for comparing memory power in abnormal children

whom he was studying and not to ascertain the actual span for

510 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

large groups of normal children by methods devised expressly

for this purpose., In the other studies on memory no attempt

whatever was made to ascertain the comparative strength of

memory or the rate of growth of memory power for the various

ages represented in the school period.

Method. The nine significant digits were grouped in series

of various lengths ranging from four to nine figures each. An

effort was made to avoid as far as possible all previously estab¬

lished associations in arranging the digits for these series, and

a sufficient number of series was prepared to avoid repeating

any series with the same pupil.

All of the tests were made on a single child at a time; and

no visitors, listeners, or lookers on were permitted to be present

at any time. In this particular my study differs from the others

thus far reported in which all of the pupils of a room wefe

tested at the same time. Series; of numbers were read to each

child in a pleasant, agreeable, but firm, and business-like tone

of voice, and at a rate that seemed to suit each child best, a

metronome being used to keep the rate absolutely uniform

after it had once been established for each child. I may say

that the rate did not vary widely as a general rule and yet there

were some marked deviations from the' rate used in the room-

tests made by Prof. Smedley. Children show their individ¬

uality in this as well as in all other matters.

Short series were used at first, so as to' keep clearly within the

memory span of the child and thus serve to call his attention

to his own power to reproduce numbers; in this way the child

was encouraged to do his very best in the subsequent longer

series which were gradually introduced. Five series of a set

of given length were read in succession and then the next! longer

was used in the same way and this was continued until a set

was reached which the child was unable to reproduce accurately,

i. e., in five successful trials — making no error in the figures

nor in their order. The longest series; that a, child could repro¬

duce correctly in five consecutive tests was taken as his memory

span. In many cases a longer series was occasionally correctly

repeated, but in every case the next shorter series was regarded

as his limit unless on a subsequent day he reproduced the longer

series correctly five times in succession.

Each child was tested on two different days and in some cases

a third and even a fourth test was made. An effort was made

J egi — Auditory Memory Span for Numbers. 511

to catch each child at his very best, and then to inspire him to

do his very best to reproduce correctly the longest possible series.

The children seemed greatly pleased with the experiment and

expressed considerable interest in their native power of memory.

I may safely say that these children did the best they could.

In this way about three hundred children were tested, ranging

in age from five to fifteen years inclusive.

It may be of interest to say that in the beginning it was my

purpose to test each child in the morning before school opened

and again immediately after the close of the afternoon session

so that the difference due to the fatigue of the regular school

work might be taken into account. At the same time I was

carrying on another investigation on quickness and accuracy of

number perception using another group of school children. In

both of these studies it was very evident from the first that the

results were just as good at the close of the school day as at the

beginning, and where there was a perceptible difference the

afternoon tests were in the lead. The fatigue resulting from

the school work seemed to have no effect whatever on the mem¬

ory span, or on the quickness and accuracy of number percep¬

tion, as revealed by the results of these two investigations.

Most of the children, however, preferred the morning tests and

thought that they did better in these than in the evening tests,

and they were quite unanimous in saying that it was much easier

in the morning. The evening tests seemed to require greater

effort on the part of the children, but in no case were the re¬

sults inferior to those obtained in the morning tests.

Results. The actual memory span as obtained in this inves¬

tigation is indicated on the charts and in the tables below.

1. The reader will observe that the rate of increase in mem¬

ory power is practically uniform from 7 or 8 to 15 years of age,

and that it is somewhat more rapid in the earlier years.

2. The reader will notice further that these curves do not

indicate that there is a time in the child’s development when

there is a great or sudden increase in memory power, no “period

of memory” so far as rapid growth of this power is concerned.

3. The curve shows that the memory span increases from 4

at the age of five to 8 at the age of fifteen, i. e., the memory span

is doubled during the eleven years from five to fifteen. Group¬

ing the children as we found them in the eight grades, the in¬

crease is from 5.2 in the first grade to 7.9 in the eighth grade.

512 Wisconsin* Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Auditory Memory Span bij Grades

4. The actual memory span by ages is as follows:

4 at the age of five years.

5.6 at the age of six years.

5.7 at the age of seven years.

6.1 at the age of eight years.

6.6 at the age of nine years.

6.4 at the age of ten years.

7.2 at the age of eleven years.

7.4 at the age of twelve years.

7.6 at the age of thirteen years.

6.9 at the age of fourteen years.

8.0 at the age of fifteen years.

Jegi — Auditory Memory Spun for Numbers . 513

5. Tlie actual memory span by grades is as follows :

5.2 for the first grade.

6.1 for the second grade.

6.5 for the third grade.

6.2 for the fourth grade.

7.0 for the fifth grade.

7.3 for the sixth grade.

7.5 for the seventh grade.

7.9 for the eighth grade.

6. This test has to do only with mechanical memory and not

with rational, logical, or assooiational memory; with native,

crude, inherited power and not with skill resulting from school

training or previous acquirements; with power or capacity as

such and not with knowledge or facts the resultants of individ¬

ual experience.

7. In this study and in all similar investigations it is quite

impossible to abstract attention from native capacity to retain

and recall, and hence we must make an allowance for or take

into account the child’s increase in power of close attention ; and

it may be that the increase in memory power is little more than

ability to hold the mind more and more closely to the work to

be done ; if this view be accepted then we are testing native mem¬

ory power as colored by the gain in attention from age to age

and from grade to grade.

Milwaukee Normal School, Dec. SO, 1903.

33

A TREATMENT OF INSTANT ANGULAR AND LINEAR

VELOCITIES IN COMPLEX MECHANISMS.

OLIVER B. ZIMMERMAN,

Assistant Professor of Machine Design , University of Wisconsin.

To the engineer, it is usually desirable, in the treatment of

kinematic motions, to obtain as simple and direct a solution of

the problem as is possible. This simplicity requires either a

rapid graphical solution or the simplest of equations to represent

the relations that exist between parts of a mechanism, whatever

these relations may be.

It is to present a treatment of angular and linear velocities,

somewhat different from that usually given that I submit the

following. This method of solving such problems, especially

those of a. complex nature, has been used by the classes in engi¬

neering kinematics for the past three years, and has been found

more satisfactory than the older geometrical solutions.

In Fig. I, take the four link, crossed link mechanism A. B.

C. D., links A and B equal in length to G and D respectively,

hold A stationary and follow the motion of O, keeping links B

and I) crossed throughout the motion.

We understand from our knowledge of centros that all points

in C roll with respect to A about the instant center ac. Follow

the path of this instant center and it will be found to describe,

under the conditions named, the two elliptical centrodes, the

body centrode and the space centrode.

We. know further that if the two links B and D be removed,

we can produce the same relative motion between links A and

O if we replace links B and D by the two centrodes which point

ac describes during its motion, and roll them together without

slip. We can state also that links A and O are lines upon the

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXVII.

\

V

>\

/

FI 6. 1

Zimmerman — Instant Angular and Linear Velocities. 515

centrodes of A and C, or that links A and O are in form the

same as that of the rolling centrodes moving one upon the other

without slip.

The case of relative motion of links A and O in this mechan¬

ism is simple ; but if we attempt to see the relative motion be¬

tween the two links B and D — the exceedingly complex cen¬

trodes make it quite out of the question to follow the rolling

motion as such. The centrodes pass to infinity plus and minusy

and do not show outwardly the angular motion. The various

possible ways of passing the dead centers produce various curves

between the points lettered c' and e', also Id and n\ of space

centre de bd; and in the body centrode bd, between the points

d and e, also, l and m.

When three bodies move in the same plane, as A; B and D,

each moves with respect to the1 other about some point, and the

three centers or centres ab, ad and bd must lie in the same

straight line.

The point bd, is the point of contact of the two centrodes of

B and D, or as was stated above, the centrodes may be considered

expanded links, point bd may be said to be the contact point, or

common point of the two links B and D. As a point in each link

it must of necessity travel about the center of rotation of that

link with respect to the stationary body.. Also, since bd is a

common point to the two links, bd must be a point, when con¬

sidered in each, which has the same velocity about either center

of rotation. In general, then: — the directional motion and

velocity of points in the centrodes which come in contact, are

the same.

During the motion of any mechanism, two facts, first : — that

the directional motion of the contact points of the centrodes

which roll together, is perpendicular to the; line of centers, and

secondly, that their velocity is the same, as each of these points

of the centrodes comes in contact at the centro, enable us to

make this deduction : —

“We may replace the complex centrodes by a simple pair of

centrodes in the form of circles, which circles roll together

without slip and have the property of expanding and contract¬

ing, each independently, opposite to one another, or together

according to the same law as the contact points of the regular

centrodes.”

The above named circles will always be in contact at the

516 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

common point of the two moving links under consideration, and

will have their centers at the centers of rotation of these links

with respect to the stationary link.

To illustrate: In Fig, 1. Take the three links A, B and

D. Let A be stationary. Then B and D will be the two mov¬

ing links. All points in D' revolve about ad with respect to the

stationary link, all points in B about ab, and all points in B

and D revolve about the point bd with respect to each other, bd

being the point common to the two moving links.

I may substitute then, for the two complex centrodes, the

two circular centrodes, which will also be in contact at bd and

will rotate about the centres ad and ab respectively.

Fully grasping this relation enables one to more readily

understand this type of problems, and one can therefore read,

with equal ease, the relative angular velocity ratios of any two

links in any mechanism, however complicated, however widely

separated the links may be and whatever link may be held sta¬

tionary.

When the centros do not. fall within the limits of the drawing,

an application of the more common geometrical solutions is

employed with greater facility when the above development is

understood.

The relative directional rotation of the two links is also

instantly recognized by noting the position of the contact points

of the two moving links with respect to their centers of rotation.

In Fig. 2 as the mechanism moves from position 3 to position

1, the two rolling circles or centrodes, which are substituted for

the more complex ones, expand from the two circles in contact

at bV , through position aaf to IV, and as in rolling circles “The

angular velocity ratios of the two centrodes (hence of the two

links) are to each other inversely as the radii of the rolling

centrodes measured from their common centre to their respective

centers of rotation.” Ratio V°V : V°b : : Distance between

points bbr and ab : Distance between points bb' and ab' or

_bb' — ad

~~bb' — ab'

the sign — meaning “distance between.”

Likewise since in position l and V the point IV has the same

velocity whether considered a point in link l or V, “the velocity

of any two points in any two links may be compared by finding

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXVIII.

Zimmerman — Instant Angular and Linear Velocities. 517

from tli© velocity of the given point the velocity of the common

point, then the velocity of the required point from that of the

common point.” This rule enables ns to omit from considera¬

tion all intermediate links in the more complex mechanisms, as

will be shown later. In Mg. 3, the rocker arm B and cam D

move with respect to each other. At this position of the mech¬

anism

V°B bd—ad

V°D bd—ab

when A is stationary. In Big. 4, the same equation holds, the

difference being that here the directional motion of the two

links is opposite, whereas in Fig. 3 it is the same. The relative

directional rotation is very clear after noting the position of the

common point with respect to the centros of rotation. In this

position of the mechanism, the two centrodes vary in opposite

direction when motion occurs. The dotted position indicates

where the directional motion is changing from one to another

hence Bi has a zero angular velocity for the instant.

Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 represent the slides crank chain with

various links held stationary and with comparisons made of

angular and linear velocities.

In Fig. 5, A is stationary.

V°B bc—ae

V°C as be— ab

The linear velocity of point

QY)

y — - V velocity of x,

mn

the velocities being compared through that of the common point.

The centrode of B has a constant diameter, while the centrode

of C varies.

In Fig. 6 B is stationary.

V°C ac-ab

V°A ac—bc

Here the t\Vo centrodes vary together, the distance between

centers being a constant.

In Fig. 7, O is stationary.

y°D _ bd — be

V°B ~bd-de

518 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.

Tli is case is usually a troublesome one to students but bere in¬

volves no complexity. Both centrodes vary together as in Fig. 6.

In Fig. 8, D is held stationary.

V°B _ab—ad_

V°A~ab-bd -Q°

that is the Y°B is infinitely greater than that of A, as we have

here a small centrode rolling up one of infinite radius. Here

the small centrode though it changes in diameter proves that

B is always infinitely greater in angular velocity than is A.

Thus far no really complex case has been taken up, but the

application of the method will be shown to be as simple as in

any of those already given.

Take the complex eight link mechanism, the Peaucellier Cell.

E'ach link moves with respect to every other one. Usually link

A is stationary, but it might be desirable to compare the Y° of

O to that of Ei when F is held stationary. From what has

gone before we have

V°C ce—ef

V°E ce— cf

C and Ei are therefore rotating in the same direction with

respect to F about cf and ef respectively.

Let point n be any extended point in link E, and with a

known velocity, what will be the velocity of point, m in link C

when F is held stationary ?

It may be found by determining from, the given velocity of

n, the velocity of the point common to the two moving links, ce,

and from this, the velocity of m, by means of the triangles of

velocities.

Take the three links B, D and H, well separated, and let B

be stationary. Then

Y°T>_dh— hh

V°H ~dh=bd

Here again dh (named from the two moving links D and H,)

is the point of contact of the two links or centrodes, and the

points bh and bd are respectively the centers of rotation! of

links H and D with respect to B. The directional rotation of

H and I> are opposite — a point not readily seen by imagining

the links moving about B.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XXXIX.

Zimmermmii — Instant Angular a/nd Linear Velocities. 519

Take the three links B, G and O. Let O be stationary, then

we have

V°B Jbg—cg

V°G~bg—bc

the two links B and G have opposite directional rotation with

respect to the stationary link C.

When considering

V°E

V°H

when A is held stationary we have

V°E _eh—ah

V°H ~eh—ae

the four points ah and ae at the top of the plate are the centers

of the rotation and the common point of the two links is at °o

hence the angular velocities of E; and H with respect to A show

themselves to he equal.

In conclusion then, we employ here a more simple set of

centrodes ; we have a rapid graphical solution in which a direct

method of comparing angular and linear velocities is involved,

a method where directional rotation is made less intricate, where

the relative value of instant angular and linear velocities can

be represented by a simple equation and where solutions of a

complex nature are brought down to a plane with those less

complex.

University of Wisconsin, December , 190S.

A NEW ARRENURUS AND NOTES ON COLLECTIONS

MADE IN 1903.

RUTH MARSH AUL.

During the summer and fall of 1903, dredgings were made

in several new places in the state for Arrenuri ; the results have

been disappointing in the number of individuals found, hut two

species having been added to the list reported a year ago (Trans,

of Wis. Acad, of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 1903, Vol. XIV,

Part I, p. 145-172, PI. XIV-XVIII). One of these species

appears to be new ; both are here described. Only Arrenuri

belonging to the subgenus Megalurus Then were studied. Most

of the collections were made in July and August in Washburn

County. This region is richly supplied with small lakes and

ponds, most of them seemingly of glacial origin. All but one

of those visited are: shallow, and have more or less extensive

zones of marsh. The season was unusually cool, and during

the latter part of the summer there were heavy rains. The

bodies of water having similar features in southern and eastern

Wisconsin have rarely failed, when examined, to yield Arrenuri.

But in most cases none were found in these northern waters.

A large number of collections were made in the shallows

bordering the islands in Lake Spooner. Here were found, in

small numbers, A. globator Mull., A. megalurus Mar., and A.

manubriator Mar. In Pea sleeps Pond, a small pool on shore,

were found A. globator Mull, and several individuals of the

species A. Birgei Mar., whose color was rusty red instead of

the usual blue green. The same species were found in Mud

Creek, the outlet of Lake Spooner, a spring-fed stream!, the

lower end of which is choked with water plants. Her© also was

found, for the first time, A. caudatus (de Geer). On a trip

about twelve miles to the northeast from Lake Spooner to the

Little McKinzie Liver, collections were made in three small

Marshall — A New Arrenurus.

521

ponds: Tadpole Pond, near Hie village of the same name; a

smaller pond two miles west ; and Morrison’s Pond. All

seemed particularly well suited for water-mites ; but none were

found excepting in Morrison’s Pond, and there only three in¬

dividuals.

Shell Lake, which is very deep, gave no mites at all. One

specimen, A. Birgei , was found in Rice Lake, Barron Cbunty,

a lake which has been made partly artificial by the erection of

a dam. Rone were found in a small mill-pond in the village of

St. Croix Falls, St, Croix County. In late August A. globator

Mull, and A. me galurus Mar. were found in Mirror Lake, Sauk

County. A collection was made in September in: the mill-pond

at Whitewater; and another at Tustin, on Lake Poygan, west

of Oshkosh. In both were found A. globator , A. megalurus,

and A. Birgei in small numbers.

Arrenurus caudatus (de Geer).

Plate XL, Figs, la — lc.

1879. Arrenurus caudatus Xeuman, Om Sveriges Hydr., Sv.

Handlingar, Bd. 17, Xv. 3, S'. 85, tab. XII, Fig. 2.

1882. Arrenurus caudatus Haller, Die Hydrachniden der

Schweiz, S. 43.

1887. Arrenurus caudatus Barrels et Moniez, Catalogue des

Ilydrachnides, S. 24.

1892. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Fine neue Hydrachniden-

gattung aus dem sach. Erzgebirge, Zool. Anz. Xr.

405, S. 420.

1892. Arrenurus caudatus Kramer, Die Tier- und Pflanzen-

welt des Susswassers, Bd. II, S. 24, Fig. 2 b.

1893. Arrenurus caudatus Koenike, Hydra chnologische Be-

richtigungen, Zool. Anz. Xr. 410, S. 20.

1893. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Beitrage zur Hydrach-

nidenkunde, Zool. Anz. Xr. 431, Si 398.

1893. Arrenurus caudatus Koenike, Weitere Anmerkungen

zu Piersigs Beitragen zur Hydrachnidenkunden,

Zool. Anz. Xr. 435, S. 463.

1894. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Ueber Hydrachniden,

Zool. Anz. Xr. 443, S'. 109.

1895. Arrenurus caudatus Kramer, Ueber Benennung eini-

ger Arrenurus- Arten, Zool. Anz. Xr. 465, S. 1-5.

522 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

1895. Arrenurus caudatus Koenike, X ordamericanische Hy-

drachniden, Abhandlung des 11 a turwissenschaf tlichen

Vereins zu Bremen, Bd. 13, S. 184.

1895. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Beitrag zur Kenntnis der

in Sachsen, etc., Diss. S. 58.

1896. Arrenurus caudatus Koenike, Holsteinische Hydrachni-

den, Forschungsbericht IV der Ploner Station, S.

212.

1896. Arrenurus caudatus Pisarovic, Zur Kenntnis der Hv-

draehniden Bohmens, Sitzungsbericht, etc., S. 3.

1897. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Deut. Hydrachniden,

Heft 22, Lfg. IV, S. 285-288, Pig. 74.

1899. Arrenurus caudatus Thor, Tredie Bidrag til Kunds-

kaben om Horges Hydrach., S. 24, PI. IX, Fig. 88.

1901. Arrenurus caudatus Piersig, Das Tierreich, 13 Liefer-

ung. Hydrach. und Halacaridae, S. 87-88.

1902-3. Arrenurus caudatus Soar, A Few Words on Fresh¬

water Mites, Trans, of the Edinburgh Field Natural¬

ists’ and Microscopical Society.

This species, described so often by Eiuropean hydrachnologists,

has been found but once by the writer, although many collec¬

tions have been made during the past ten years in various parts

of Wisconsin and elsewhere. But a single individual was

found ; this was in Mud Creek, the inlet of Lake Spooner, near

Spooner, Wis., on July 1st, 1903. It was at once recognized

by its bright colors and its general conformity to the detailed

figures of Piersig and Koenike. The area near the end of the

body and the anterior part of the appendage was deep blue;

there were brownish blue bands on the front part of the body,

while the remaining areas were pale orange, and the legs bluish

green. The entire length was 1.26 mm. ; the greatest width,

which is in the middle of the body, is 0.7 mm. It is readily

distinguished from other Arrenuri of the sub-genus Megalurus

by the shape of the appendage. This is constricted at the base,

broadest in the middle where there is a slight hump, and nar¬

rowed at the end. Here it is slightly indented ; on either side

of the incision are two slight scallops, on this specimen not as

pronounced as in Piersig’s and Koenike’s figures. In the last

third are some peculiar structures. There is a small, some¬

what heart-shaped, bluntly pointed elevation (H1) ; posterior to

it is a pair of low rounded humps (H2), between which is a de-

Marshall — A New- Arrenurus.

523

pression. There are a number of hairs on this part of the

appendage, as shown by the figures. In general these structures

agree with those of Koenike’s detailed figures. The body is

moderately elevated inside the dorsal line, though not as much

so as Piersig shows. The dorsal line runs over on the append¬

age and is unclosed. The genital areas form scarcely percepti¬

ble rolls on the dorsal side. At their ends are four hairs on

each side. The epimera are of the usual form, and the legs pre¬

sent no striking peculiarities distinct from other Arrenurus

males.

Through the kindness of Dr. C. F. George, identified speci¬

mens of A. caudatus from England were obtained for compari¬

son. The Wisconsin form was found to differ from these in the

same details that it differed from the descriptions of the German

hydraehnologists. From the same source were received also

specimens of A. globator Miill., A. cylindratus Piers., and A.

securiformis Pier. (= A. festivus Koen. ) . Here again, in sev¬

eral details of structure, they did not agree with the forms

already identified by the author (1903). However, the differ¬

ences have not seemed great enough, without further compari¬

son with European forms, to justify the formation of four new

species.

Arrenurus Morrisoni nov. spec.

Plate XL, Figs. 2a — -2d.

This new species is represented in the author’s collection by

only one individual. It was found July 30, 1903, in Morri¬

son’s Pond, near the Little McKinzie Hiver in Washburn

County, Wisconsin. This pond is perhaps one-fourth of a mile

long, and nearly filled up with water-lilies and other plants.

Collections were made at various points; but A. Morrisoni and

A. Birgei Mar., with one female unidentified, were the only

Arrenuri found, and of these but a single individual each.

The new form was not examined until after it had been a few

days in Koenike’s preserving fluid; it had then a pale yellow¬

ish hue, probably not differing much from the color in the fresh

specimen. It measured 1.23 mm. in length and 0.68 mm. in

width. Its most striking feature is the appendage which is

nearly two-thirds as long as the body. It is rather low, mod¬

erately constricted at the base; then it rounds out considerably

t.

524 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

and lias a slight dorsal rounded hump, becoming rapidly con¬

stricted at the end to half the width at the base. The end is

richly supplied with hairs and has some peculiar structures.

It may best be described as consisting of two terraces, both with

scalloped corners (IT1, IT2). Between the humps forming the

rounded corners of the upper is a depression, from the depth of

which rises a small elevation (A). Between the side humps

of the lower terrace, in the depression, is a little point (B).

The middle depressed part extends out a little: beyond the cor¬

ners. The form of the body is rather peculiar, being broadest

anteriorally, in the region, of the second pair of epimera ; there

are no humps or small elevations, and the anterior border is

bowed out strongly. The area inside: the dorsal line has about

the same elevation as the rest of the body. The whole dorsal

side is moderately arched, and much higher than the appendage.

The epimera, have the usual form, the fourth being broadest.

The genital areas are unusually large, oval in shape, and form

conspicuous rolls projecting out beyond the body wall. The

fourth leg is like: that of other males of this group: of Arrenuri ;

the third, fourth and fifth joints being richly provided with

swimming hairs, and the fourth bearing the usual short process.

The fourth segment of the palpus is longest, and has a sickle-

shaped bristle ; the fifth is small and forked, and the second has

one or more stout barbed bristles.

Marshall — A New Arrenurus.

525

PLATE XL,

526 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

la, Arrenurus caudatus (de Geer), dorsal view.

b, Arrenurus caudatus (de Geer), ventral view.

c, Arrenurus caudatus , (de Geer), lateral view.

2a, Arrenurus Morrisoni nov. spec., ventral view.

b, Arrenurus Morrisoni nov. spec., lateral view.

c, Arrenurus Morrisoni nov. spec., dorsal view of the appendage.

d, Arrenurus Morrisoni nov. spec., palpus.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE STARCH GRAIN.

R. IT. DENNISTON,

Instructor in Pharmaceutical Botany, University of Wisconsin.

It has been pointed out by Nageli and others that tlie per¬

ipheral part of certain varieties of starch shows a somewhat

different reaction to stains than the central portions. The

large eccentric grains from the rhizome of Ganna, for example,

when treated with the safranin, gentian voilet, orange triple

stain, show, besides the light and dark violet layers making up

the body of the grain, an outer layer which is fairly uniform in

width and which takes the orange stain.

There are but few data in the literature on the differential

staining of the various portions of starch grains, but this does

not seem so remarkable when we consider that the more exact

methods of fixing and staining technique are of comparatively

recent introduction.

In 1847, Yageli (1) published an article on the structure of

the starch grain in which he held that there is an outer layer of

the starch grain which is composed of cellulose, or the substance

of which cell membranes consist. This view was soon dis¬

proved, however, by Yon M'ohl (2) who showed that the test

used by 1ST ageli to distinguish starch from cellulose was unre¬

liable.

Cf tiger (3) found a layer between the protoplasm and the

starch grain, which “did not stain blue with iodine, nor did it

stain brown so rapidly as the surrounding protoplasm.” As he

makes no mention of the plastid, this is probably what he saw

and his figures1 bear out this view.

In 1885, Mikosch (4) thought he found evidence of the exist¬

ence of an intermediate region, between the grain and the plas¬

tid which is filled with what he called a “mother substance for

the grain.”

kleyer (5) states that normal starch grains do not possess a

528 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

specially differentiated outer layer, but that be found such a

layer in a few cases, in starch from the tuber of a potato.

Sfich a layer is described by Salter (6) who believed that it is

composed of starch, but that it is much more dense than the

remainder of the grain, hence its different staining qualities.

I have taken up the study of this outer differentiated layer

with special reference to the question of its chemical nature

and its relation to the growth of the starch grain.

I have studied material from the rhizome of Ganna, tuber

of potato', leaves and stems of Pellionia Daveauana, grains of

com, wheat, barley, rye and sugar-cane, seeds of bean and pea.

A number of fixatives were tried but Flemming’s weaker and

stronger chrom-osmic-acetic acid mixture gave the best results.

The staining was done in all cases where other stains are not

mentioned, by the safranin, gentian violet, orange and triple

stain method.

If one examines sections stained by this method, containing

hundreds of starch grains large and small, the striking fact is

noticed that the mass of each grain is a, bright violet, the strata

being respectively lighter or darker, while1 around the violet

mass and inside the leucoplast, a sharply defined orange layer

is apparent.

In order to determine in how far the staining reactions were

due to different lengths of exposure to the individual stains, a

series of slides was prepared. In all cases they were exposed

to safranin for five minutes ; after washing in water, six slides

were exposed to a saturated solution of gentian violet for five

minutes each, then treated with orange for the following differ¬

ent lengths of time: one minute, five1 minutes, ten minutes,

twenty minutes, sixty minutes, three hours. These prepara¬

tions will be referred to by fractions, the numerator represent¬

ing the time of exposure to violet in minutes and the denom¬

inator the time of exposure to orange.

In 5/1 the body of the grain is made up of deeply stained

violet layers. The outer layer is also violet but very pale in

color. The leucoplasts do not appear on all grains, but when

visible are grayish in color.

In 5/ 5 the body of the grain is again stained dark violet but

an orange layer at the outside is plainly marked and extends

entirely around the violet portion, beneath the leucoplast.

This is the pale violet layer of the 5/1 preparation.

Denniskon — The Structure of the Starch Grain. 529

In 5/10 the staining, is essentially as in the latter ease with

the exception that here we often get the orange layer divided

by a dark line. This line, in some cases, extends entirely

around the grain, in others it is seen on the posterior end and

part way down the sides.

In 5/20 the violet has been removed to greater extent in some

of the layers in the body of the grain than in others. Certain

broad bands seem to be not at all affected by the orange1. In

some grains, two dark blue layers exist as separate broad bands

in the body of the grain; these apparently run out into the

orange layer where they continue as separate dark lines around

the hilum.

5/60 and 5/100 show no changes which can be referred to

a longer exposure to orange. T'he layers of the inside of the

grain are stained a pale blue in these preparations. Those im¬

mediately surrounding the hilum are white’.

In 5/180 it was found that only a few layers still hold any

violet stains. These are situated midway between the hilum

and the posterior end of the: grain.

It is seen by this series of slides that we may stain the whole

grain orange in some cases where the time, of exposure to this

stain has been of sufficient duration, but that by applying the

stains, each for an approximately equal length of time, we get

but a single layer of orange and that surrounding the violet

portions of the grain. The difference in appearance of the two

portions of the grain, the, dark violet stained body and the sur¬

rounding orange layer, is so striking and clearly marked that

it seems improbable that it is due simply to* lack of penetration

of the orange. When once the grain is stained violet, a long

exposure to orange is necessary to remove the violet from any

of the grain but the layer in question, while but a few minutes

suffice to remove all traces of violet from this layer and replace

it by orange. A short: exposure to the violet stain will often

leave this outer layer perfectly colorless, while the inner parts

are stained deep violet. These differences in staining proper¬

ties would seem to indicate that certain differences either of a

chemical or physical nature! exist between the body of the starch

grain and the outer layer.

A single section from the rhizome of Ganna will often show

all the stages in growth of the starch grains. Frequently the

34

530 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

small grains are found as small round orange colored bodies,

and are always surrounded at this stage by a large leucoplast.

Certain of these young grains show no signs of lamination,

others no larger in size show one or two pale violet circles

toward the center but no violet layers. Still other grains show

a pale violet region at the center around the dark violet hilum.

Grains in the same region and slightly larger show a central

region stained dark violet, surrounded by a pale violet layer

and this, surrounded by an orange layer. Preparations of this

kind show that the violet layers at the center are the first to be

formed.

As an eccentric grain grows the plastid becomes stretched

and the mass of it remains at one end of the grain. It is be¬

neath this mass of the leucoplast that the broader portions of the

eccentric layers are deposited. The orange layer is usually of

fairly uniform width around the grain. In some cases where

the orange layer was not found, the grains showed evidences of

solution on the outside.

The starch of a number of other plants was examined and

with similar staining the orange layer found to be, present.

In barley and wheat the starch grains are concentric and in both

we find an orange layer at the outside. In the leaves and stems

of Pellonia Daveauana large eccentric starch grains are present

which show the orange staining layer beneath the chloroplast.

In starch from Dieffenbaehia Seguina , Phajus grandifolius

Oxalis viola and Bicentra cueullaria, orange staining outer lay¬

ers are found.

This constancy of the orange layer, occurring as it does, from

the very young to the very old grains, seems to point to the fact

that we have in the starch grain two substances, differing in

their properties, one staining violet and the other orange. One

striking fact noted was that while the outer orange staining

layer completely surrounded the grain, the violet layer next to

it runs only part way around. If the outer layer is simply

denser starch, as is claimed by Salter, it is difficult to account

for the formation of eccentric layers of starch inside the so-

called dense layer.

The following experiment gives strong evidence that the vio¬

let stain passes through the orange layer readily but is not

absorbed by it. In microtome sections, the staining of a large

eccentric Ganna grain may be watched under the microscope

Dennision — The Structure of the Starch Gram. 531

by allowing a dilute solution of gentian violet to run under the

cover. The layers inside this outer layer begin to absorb the

stain at once but the outer layer is not at all affected. The

violet stain passes through the outer layer without being ab¬

sorbed. Of the layers inside, some are stained a deep violet,

others take up only a small amount of stain and appear pale

violet in color.

Starch grains artificially corroded by diastase were also

studied to learn if possible which part of the grain, the violet

or the orange layers', would be affected more readily.

In starch grains which have been treated with diastase for a

number of days, characteristic corrosion figures appear. Large

eccentric Ganna grains corroded in this manner show the outer

orange layer still intact except for one or two small areas usu¬

ally at the posterior end. The outer violet layers have been

dissolved in a number of places, but remain, fairly intact. Con¬

siderable substance has been removed from the interior of the

grain, and other parts remaining in the center are stained

orange.

In, some cases the center of the grain has been, completely dis¬

solved and there is only a shell remaining made up of parts of

the outer violet; layers.

In the case of barley grains when corroded in this manner,

the solution takes place in interrupted concentric circles, cer¬

tain layers appear to be more easily dissolved by the diastase

than others. Here, also, the center of the' grain seems to be

most susceptible to diastase action. Ho orange material is

present outside the violet layers in these corroded grains, but

the parts remaining in the center take the orange stain.

It is noticeable that in a corroded grain, the portions of the

layers bordering upon corrosion channels show a, margin of

orange stained material, which blends gradually into the violet

of the unaffected portions.

In many cases in starch grains the outer orange layer is

divided into; a number of separate layers. These are rarely

uniform either in extent or staining qualities. The inner lay¬

ers grow thinner as they pass towards and around the hilum.

Where there are several orange staining layers, the inner ones

invariably show a. trace of violet, although predominantly

orange in color. This would seem to indicate that the orange

staining material surrounding the grain passes gradually and

532 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

not suddenly into tlie inner layers. The orange layers are of

fairly uniform width around the grain, being slightly wider

on the posterior end, while the outermost violet layers are in¬

complete, that is, are broad curved bands on the posterior end

of the grain, but extend but a short distance down the sides of

the grain towards the hilum, and in only a, few instances were

seen to pass entirely around it. This makes, it evident that the

orange layer does not pass; over in toto into the violet. Still

even in such cases of transition it is difficult to say to what the

change is due by which the orange pass into the violet staining

layers. It may be due to a condensation of the carbohydrate

material, brought about by the abstraction of water, or to a

more deeply seated chemical change.

It is possible that this orange staining substance is carbohy¬

drate material which has been brought inside the leucoplast

but which has not yet fully taken on the nature! of starch and

the capacity to fix the violet stain. This would seem to be

more natural than the assumption that starch can show such a

variable reaction to the same stains.

In the: development of the cell plate in the onion; root-tip, the

equatorial zone was found by Timberlake (7) to- become filled

with a sub-stance that stains strongly with the orange of the tri¬

ple stain. This substance appeared to be entirely homogeneous

and with ruthenium red or iron haematoxylin appeared colorless

while the cell wall was stained.

Timberlake says, “The similarity of this substance to that

of the cell wall, together with its presence in the region of the

spindle in which the cell wall appears later, I have taken to

signify the presence of a carbohydrate substance destined for

the formation of the new cell wall.”

Wei have thus two cases in which a. transition substance in the

formation of solid carbohydrates appears, taking the orange

stain. In, both cases it is formative in nature, the one passing

over into' the cellulose wall, the other forming starch.

Wei find the very young starch grains either staining entirely

or showing a. large proportion of orange. We find an outer

layer of orange in the older grains, and by following the course

of development of the starch grain, we are led to believe that

the orange staining substance in young and old grains is identi¬

cal. We also find that the action of diastase causes a larger

proportion of the grain to take the orange stain. It is further

Denniston — The Structure of the Starch Grain. 533

possible that the substance first formed from starch by the a.Cr

tion of diastase is the same that is present in the orange layer

in the formation of the grain. As an hypothesis it may he

suggested that a. viscid mother substance, as Mikosch believed,

which becomes more and more concentrated by additions' from

without, until layers of starch are laid down on its inner sur¬

face. In the young grains starch is deposited equally all round,

but soon the grain by its growth stretches the plastid, and the

granular substance inside is too viscid to allow the addi¬

tions from the thicker part, to spread readily to the mother

substance at the opposite end of the grain, under the thinner

part of the plastid. In this manner the mother substance un¬

der the thicker part of the plastid, soon becomes saturated and

it is on this side) that the thick portions of the starch, layers' are

deposited. This assumption is in harmony with the fact that

when the eccentric layers begin to' form they are simply thin¬

ner on the anterior end, then they become incomplete and fin¬

ally are laid down on the posterior end only.

REFERENCES.

1. Hageli, 0. : Zeit. fur Wiss. Bob, 1847, p. 119.

2. von Mohl: Bob Zeit., 1859, p. 225.

3. Gffiger: Bob Zeit., 1854, p. 41.

4. Mikosch: Sitzungsbericht d. Wiener Akad., 1885.

5. Meyer, A. : Untersuchungen fiber die Starkekorner,

1895.

6. Salter: Jahr. Wiss. Bob, 1898, p. 117.

7. Timberlake: Bob Gazette, 1900, p. 97.

THE DIURNAL MOVEMENT OF PLANKTON

CRUSTACEA.

CHANCEY JUDAY.

INTRODUCTION.

The following paper on the diurnal movement of plankton

Crustacea is based upon observations made for the Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey between JulyjL, 1900

and June 30, 1901. The work was planned to continue for a

longer period but it became necessary to discontinue it at the

end of a year. This left the work in a rather unsatisfactory

condition for it had scarcely passed the experimental stage. As

a result, this report is preliminary in nature but it is written

with the hope that it may contain helpful suggestions for future

work along this line.

Enough, however, was accomplished during the year to show

that diurnal movement is not a simple, unchangeable phenome¬

non which may be determined for the various crustacean forms

of a, lake by a single set of observations. On the contrary, the

results show not only that the movement of a single species is

not the same in all the lakes in which it is found but also that

the movement of a species may change from time to time in the

same lake. To determine the extent and nature of these

changes, iti would be necessary to make regular observations on

a lake covering the period from early spring till late fall. Such

a study would contribute much, m> doubt, to a better under¬

standing of the factors instrumental in the production and

modification of diurnal movement.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. El. A. Birge,

Director of the Survey, for the plan of the work, as well as for

his direction and helpful counsel during its progress.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 535

LOCATION OF THE LAKES.

Observations were made on thirty of the lakes of southeast¬

ern Wisconsin. Twenty-five of these lakes lie in two groups,

fifteen belong to The Chain o’ Lakes in Waupaca County and

ten belong to the Oconomowoc-Waukesha lakes in Waukesha

County. The five lakes not included in these two groups are

Mendota, Geneva, Green, Big Cedar, and Elkhart. Only ten

of these thirty lakes, however, were studied with special refer¬

ence to diurnal movement: Beasley and Rainbow of The

Chain o’ Lakes, Okauchee, Oconomowoc, Nagawicka, and Pe-

waukee of the Oconomowoc-Waukesha lakes; and all the in¬

dividual lakes named above except Elkhart.

The physical features of these lakes have been fully discussed

by Fenneman (5) in Bulletin No. 8 of the Wisconsin Geolog¬

ical and Natural History Survey, so that little need be said here

on that point. Suffice it to say that these, ten lakes represent

various physical, as well as biological conditions. They differ

widely in area, the largest lake having over seven hundred times

the area of the smallest. The maximum depth ranges from, a

little less than fourteen meters in Pewaukee lake to seventy-two

meters in Green lake, but it is less than thirty meters in seven

of the ten lakes.

There was also a very marked difference in the amount of

aquatic vegetation found in the lakes.

APPARATUS AND METHODS.

The pump method was used in making the catches. A num¬

ber three clock pump and garden hose with a diameter of two

and a half centimeters, were used. A quantity of water, ten

to fifteen liters, was pumped from each depth and strained

through, a plankton net whose straining cone was made of Du-

four’s No. 20 bolting cloth. During the process of straining,

the net was: submerged so that the stream of water from- the

pump would not strike the bolting cloth directly.

A complete set of observations consisted of four series : a

day, an evening, a night, and a morning series. These were

made during clear weather, with the exception of one day

series, and at a time when the surface water was disturbed as

little as possible by waves. The day and night catches were

made at intervals of one to three meters and they covered the

536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts f and Letters.

entire depth of each lake with the exception of Green lake. The

day catches were made not earlier than three hours, after sun¬

rise and, with one exception, not later than three hours before

sunset; the night catches, two to three hours after sunset.

The evening and morning catches extended to a, depth of two

to eight meters. They were made at half hour intervals and

usually covered the period from about half an: hour before sun¬

set to two hours after sunset. Some observations, however,

were begun as early a,s an hour and a. half before sunset. The

morning series were begun an hour and a half to three1 hours

before sunrise and continued until sunrise., or sometimes an

hour' after sunrise. The purpose of these observations was to

determine approximately the. time at which the various forms

showing diurnal movement, reached the surface in the evening

and left it- in the morning.

The depth of all the surface catches varied from about three

centimeters, when the water was calm, to. seven or eight centi¬

meters when it was disturbed by waves.

The time was too. limited to permit a count of the smaller

forms for nearly nine hundred catches were made during the

year. So each catch was examined under the low power of a

microscope and the relative number of individuals of each of

the smaller forms was indicated by the five terms, absent, rare,

few, many, or abundant. The larger1 forms were counted. The

results for each form in the day catches and in the night catches

were then tabulated in parallel columns so that the depth to

which diurnal movement affected the. day distribution could be

determined readily. In making these comparisons, however,

one must constantly remember the fact that two catches from

the same depth and separated by only a brief interval of time,

may show a considerable, difference in the number of crusta¬

ceans. Therefore, unless the difference between a day catch

and a night catch at the. same depth was great enough to exclude

all doubt, it was counted as no change.. But at and near the

surface, there, was little danger of a mistake, especially in those

forms which were absent from this region in the. day time but

occupied it at night.

Separate but similar tabulations were made, for the evening

and morning catches. Some of the genera represented, such as

Diaptomus and Cyclops, were tabulated as a whole and not sep¬

arated into species.

Juday ■ — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 537

In. stating the time at which the various forms reached the

surface in the evening and left it in the morning, the exact hour

of the day is not given. The time is reckoned in; half hours

with respect to the time of sunset and sunrise. This is done

because the time of the movement is closely related to the time

of sunset and sunrise and this latter time is constantly chang¬

ing with respect to the hours of the day.

The following results are given in, considerable detail for

each lake in order to indicate whatever change there may be in

the movement of any form at different times in the same lake.

Then: the results are given for each form for all the lakes in

which it is found, so as to show the differences in the move¬

ment of the same form in different lakes.

BEASLEY LAKE.

The observations on this lake consisted of a day and a night

series the last of July and a complete set of observations early

in September, 1900. The lake was comparatively poor in

phytoplankton.

Daphnia hyalind. — In July, young were found at the surface

during the day and adults at a depth of one meter. In the

flight catch made an hour and three quarters after sunset, adults

were very numerous at the surface, apparently indicating the

presence of a “swarm.”

In September, the' day position of both young and adults was

the same as in July. Adults appeared at the surface during

the second half hour after sunset and disappeared about half

an hour before sunrise.

Diaptomus. — In July, both young and adults were absent

from the upper four meters in the daytime but both were found

at the surface an hour and three-quarters after sunset.

Only adults were found in September. They were at a

depth of one meter during the day. They appeared at the: sur¬

face during the' first half hour after sunset and were not found

in the surface catch made' nearly two hours before; sunrise.

Cyclops. — This form did not show any diurnal movement

either in July or September.

Nauplii. — There was no diurnal movement of the nauplii.

Corethra larvae. — In the day catches of July they were not

found above a depth of eight meters but were- found at a depth

-538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of only four meters at night. In September, their day and

night positions were practically the same.

RAINBOW LAKE.

A day, a night, and an early morning series were made late

in July and a complete set of observations early in September,

1900. Comparatively little phytoplankton was found on both

occasions.

Daphnia hyalina. — Two varieties of this form were found.

One variety had round helmets and the other had rather long,

pointed helmets. The former remained in the region of the

thermocline both day and night in July and also in September.

Young of the variety having pointed helmets were found at

the surface in the day catches of July and adults at a depth of

two meters. The latter were present in the surface catch made

two and a half hours after sunset.

In September, young were not found in the upper four

meters and adults not in the upper six meters in the day

catches. Both appeared at the surface during the second half

hour after sunset and both left the surface about one hour

before sunrise.

Daphnia retrocurva. — Adults were absent from the upper

two meters in the daytime in July but were present in the sur¬

face catch at night. They were at a depth of six meters in the

daytime in September. They came to the1 surface a little more

than an hour after sunset and were not found at the surface

two hours before sunrise. Young were not noted in either

month.

C erio daphnia. — This forms was rare both in July and Septem¬

ber but showed no diurnal movement.

Diaphanosama hrachyurum. — Young and adults were not

found above a depth of five meters in the day catches of July

but both were at the surface at night. In September, young

were at the surface and adults at a, depth of two meters in the

day catches. The latter appeared at the surface during the

first half hour after sunset and disappeared again during the

second half hour before sunrise.

Leptodora hyalina. — In July, this form was not found in the

upper nine meters in the daytime but was taken at a depth of

only one meter at night. The September day and night posi¬

tions were six and four meters respectively.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 539

Bosmina. — This form was rare and no diurnal movement

was apparent.

Holopedium gibber um. — In July, this species was found in

the region of the thermocline but there was no movement. It

was not found in September.

Epischura lacustris. — In July, this form was at a depth of

two meters in the day catches but was present in the surface

catch at night. It was not above four meters in the daytime

in September but appeared at the surface near the end of the

first half hour after sunset and was not found in the surface

catch made an hour and a half before sunrise'.

Diaptornus. — Young were at the surface and adults at a

depth of one meter in the day catches of July. The latter

came to the surface at night. In September, adults were at a

depth of two meters in the daytime. They reached the surface

during the first half hour after sunset and left the surface again

during the second half hour before sunrise.

Cyclops nauplii, and Corethra larvae. — Yo diurnal move¬

ment was shown by these forms in either month.

BIG CEDAK BAKE.

The observation on this lake consisted of a day and a night

series made on August 1, 1900.

Daphnia hyalina. — This form was not found in the upper

three meters in the day catches but it was present in the surface

catch at night.

C erio daphnia. — This form was rare and showed no diurnal

movement.

Diaphanosoma b raehyurum. — The day and night positions of

this species were the same.

Bosmina. — This form was rare and showed no diurnal move¬

ment.

Epischura lacustHs. — This species was found at a depth of

four meters in the day time but it was present in the surface

catch at night.

Diaptornus. — Both young and adults of this form were found

at a depth of four meters in the day time but both came to the

surface at night.

Cyclops. — The young of this genus were found at the sur¬

face in the day catches but the adults were at a depth of four

meters. The latter came to the surface at night.

540 'Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

OKAUCIIEE LAKE.

A complete set of observations was made on this lake in

August, 1900, a day and a night series in October, and a com¬

plete set in June, 1901. The phytoplankton was rather abun¬

dant.

Daphnia hyalina. — Two varieties of this form were found in

August and October, those with round and those with pointed

helmets. Only the round helmeted ones occurred in June.

Young of the round helmeted variety were found a,t the sur¬

face and adults at a depth of two meters in the day catches of

August. The latter appeared at the surface during the second

half hour after sunset and disappeared during the second half

hour before sunrise. Young were at the surface in Octo¬

ber and adults at a depth of one meter. The- latter were pres¬

ent in the surface catch at night. In June, both young and

adults were at a depth of one meter in the daytime. The for¬

mer reached the surface about half an hour before sunset and

the latter about sunset. Both disappeared from the surface

about sunrise.

The variety with pointed helmets did not show diurnal move¬

ment.

Daphnia retrocurva. — This species was found in August and

October but not in J une. There was no diurnal movement.

Daphnia pulicaria. — In August^ young were found at a

depth of eight meters and adults at nine meters in the daytime.

Two and a. quarter hours after sunset young were found at a

depth of only two meters and adults four meters.

In October, young were at a depth of six and adults twelve

meters in the daytime. Three and a quarter hours after sunset

the former were, at the surface and the latter at two meters.

In June, the day catches showed young at a depth of one meter

and adults at three meters. The former appeared at the sur¬

face about half an hour before sunset and the latter about two

hours after sunset. Both disappeared from the surface during

the fifth half hour before sunrise.

Daphnia longiremis. — This species remained in the region

below the thermocline or below twelve' meters, both day and

night during these observations. It was most abundant within

two or three meters of the bottom. About the middle of No¬

vember, however, after the disappearance of the thermocline, it

was found at a depth, of only two meters on a cloudy day.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 541

Ceriodaphnia. — This form was rare and did not show diurnal

movement.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum. — This species did not show di¬

urnal movement in August and only a slight change in October.

It was not found in June.

Leptodora hyalina. — In August, young were found at the

surface in the daytime1 and adults at a depth of nine meters.

The latter appeared at the surface during the second half hour

after sunset and left the surface during the second half hour

before sunrise. Ho definite movement was observed in Octo¬

ber.

Both young and adults were found at a depth of seven meters

in the daytime in June. The former appeared at the surface

during the first half hour after sunset and adults about an hour

later. Bloth left the surface during the third half hour before

sunrise.

Bosmina. — Bosmina was at a depth of one meter in the day-

timje in August. It appeared at the surface during the second

half hour after sunset but did not leave the surface until after

sunrise. Ho diurnal movement was observed in October and

J une.

Cliydorus. — This form was not found in August. It was

rare in October and common in June but it did not show diur¬

nal movement on either occasion.

Epischura lacustris. — This species was not found in any of

the day catches! in August. It appeared at the surface, how¬

ever, during the second half hour after sunset and disappeared

again during the second half hour before sunrise. It was not

found in October. In June, it was not. present, in any of the

day catches but it appeared at the surface during the1 second half

hour after sunset and disappeared during the second half hour

before sunrise.

Diaptomus, Cyclops , and nauplii did not show diurnal move¬

ment.

Corethra larvae. — Larval Corethra showed no diurnal move¬

ment in August. It was not found above a depth of twenty

meters in any of the day catches in October but it was found at

a depth of only one meter at night. Only one individual was

observed in all the catches made in June.

542 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

OCONOMOWOC LAKE.

A complete set of observations was made on this lake in Aug¬

ust, 1900, a day and a night series in October, and a complete

set in June, 1901. The lake was poor in phytoplankton.

Daphnia hyalina. — In August, young of this species were

rare in the upper five meters in the daytime and adults were at

a depth of seven meters. The former appeared at the surface

during the second half hour after sunset and adults half an

hour later. Yo adults were at the surface an hour and a half

before sunrise and the young left the surface during the second

half hour before sunrise. Only young were found in the Oc¬

tober catches. They were at a depth of five meters in the day¬

time but were found at the surface two hours after sunset.

In J une, only adults were found. They were at a, depth of

two meters in the daytime but came to the surface about an,

hour and a half after sunset and were not found in the surface

catch made two and a. half hours before sunrise.

Daphnia pulicaria. — Young were at a depth of six meters

and adults ten meters in the day catches of August. The for¬

mer came to the surface about half an hour after sunset and

adults half an hour later. Y either young nor adults were

found in the surface catch made an hour and a half before sun¬

rise. Adults only were found in October. They were at a

depth of twelve meters in the daytime but were taken in a sur¬

face catch made two hours after sunset.

In June, both young and adults were found at a depth of

only one meter in the daytime. The former came to the sur¬

face during the first half hour after sunset and adults half an

hour later. Both left the surface during the second half hour

before sunrise.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum. — There was no diurnal move¬

ment of this form.

Leptodora Jiyalina. — Only the young of this species were

found in August. They were not present in the surface catch

made two hours after sunset but were in some of the morning

surface catches. They left the surface during the second half

hour before sunrise. Leptodora was not found in June.

Bosmina. — There was no diurnal movement of Bosmina.

Chydorus. — This form! was not found in August and Octo¬

ber. In June, it was rare but showed no diurnal movement.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 543

Epischura lacustris. — This species was not taken in the day

catches in August but it appeared at the surface during the first

half hour after sunset and disappeared during the second half

hour before sunrise. It was not found in October.

In June, it was found at the surface only in the morning

catches and it disappeared during the second half hour before

sunrise.

Diaptomus. — In August, young were at the surface and

adults at a depth of two meters in the daytime. The latter ap¬

peared at the surface about sunset and left the surface again

about sunrise. There was no diurnal movement in October

and June.

Cyclops and nauplii. — There was no diurnal movement of

these forms.

Corethra larvae. — In August, Coretkra larvae were not found

in the upper eight meters in the daytime but were at five meters

in the night catches. In October, they were at a depth of four¬

teen meters in the daytime but were at three meters at night.

Only one individual was found in all the catches made in June.

NAGAWICKA LAKE.

Two complete sets of observations were made on this lake,

one in August, 1900 and another in June, 1901. Phytoplank¬

ton was rather abundant.

Daphnia hyalina. — Two varieties of this species were pres¬

ent. Those with round and those with pointed helmets were

found in August but only the former in J une. In August, the

young of the round helmeted variety were at a depth of six

meters and adults at three meters in the daytime. The for¬

mer appeared at the surface about sunset and adults during the

second half hour after sunset, ]STo adults were found at the

surface one and a half hours before sunrise and the young left

the surface during the third half hour before sunrise.

In June, young were at the surface and adults at one meter

in the daytime. The latter appeared at the surface during the

second half hour before sunset and disappeared again about

sunrise.

Young with pointed helmets were at the surface and adults

at one meter in the daytime in August, The latter came to the

surface during the first half hour after sunset and were not

544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts, and Letters.

found in the surface catch made an hour and a half before

sunrise.

C eriodaphnia. — This form was rare and showed no diurnal

movement.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum ... — In August, both young and

adults were at a, depth of one meter! in the daytime. The for¬

mer appeared at the surface more than half an hour before sun¬

set and adults during the first half hour after sunset. Both

were absent from the surface catch made an hour and a half

before sunrise. Diaphanosoma \ was not found in June.

Leptodora hyalina. — Young and adults were at a depth of

five meters in the day catches of August. Both appeared at

the surface during the first half hour after sunset. Adults left

the surface during the third half hour before sunrise and young

half an hour later.

Y either young nor adults were found in the day catches in

June. The former appeared at the surface during the first

half hour after sunset and adults half an hour later. Adults

left the surface during the second half hour before sunrise: and

young not until the second half hour after sunrise.

Bosmina. — In the day catches of August, this form was at a

depth of one meter. It appeared at the surface during the sec¬

ond half hour before sunset and did not leave the surface until

later than the first half hour after sunrise.

In J une, it was found ati a, depth of four meters in the day¬

time. It came to the surface during the second half hour be¬

fore sunset and was still present half an hour after sunrise.

Chydorus. — This form was present only in the catches made

in June. Yo diurnal movement was noted.

Epischura lacustris. — This species was not found in August

and only one individual was found in the June catches. It

was in a surface catch made one hour after sunset.

Diaptomus. — Young were at the surface in the day catches

in August and adults at one meter. The: latter came to the

surface during the first half hour after sunset and disappeared

again during the second half hour before sunrise;. There was

no movement in June.

Cyclops and nauplii. — There was no movement of these

forms.

Corethra larvae. — In August, they were not found above

seven meters in the day catches. They came to the surface

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 545

during the third half hour after sunset and were not present in

a surface catch made an hour and a, half before sunrise. They

were not found in June.

PEWAUKEE LAKE.

This lake is the shallowest of the ten on which observations

were made for diurnal movement. The eastern half of the

lake scarcely exceeds two meters in depth. This part was orig¬

inally a swamp and the water is maintained at its present depth

by means of a dam about two meters high at the outlet. The

whole of the eastern, half supported a dense growth of the larger

forms of aquatic plants and the entire lake' was the richest of

the ten in phytoplankton.’

The observations were made in the western half of the lake

which has a maximum depth of thirteen meters. They con¬

sisted of a single day and a single night series.

Daphnia hyalina. — There was no diurnal movement of this

species.

C eriodaphnia. — This form1 showed no movement.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum. — This species was at a depth of

one meter in the day catches but was present in the surface

catch at night.

Diaptomus. — In the daytime, this form was at a depth of one

meter but. it came to the surface at night.

Cyclops. — The young of this form were at the surface and

adults at a depth of one meter in the day catches. The latter

came to the surface at night.

Nauplii. — There was no diurnal movement of the nauplii.

LAKE GENEVA.

A complete set of observations was made in August, 1900.

This lake was comparatively poor in phytoplankton.

Daphnia hyalina. — Both young and adults were absent from

the upper five meters in the day catches. The former reached

the surface during the second half hour after sunset and adults

half an hour later. Both left the surface about one hour be¬

fore sunrise.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum. ^Neither young nor adults were

found above five meters in the day catches but both came to the

35

546 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

surface during the fourth half hour after sunset No adults

were present in, the surface catch made an hour and a half be¬

fore sunrise while the young disappeared during the second

half hour before sunrise.

Leptodora hyalina.— Only three young of this form were

found in all the catches, so no definite movement could be deter¬

mined.

Epischura lacustris. — This form was not found above a depth

of ten meters in the day catches. It appeared at the surface

during the second half hour after sunset and disappeared again

during the third half hour before sunrise.

Limnocalanus macrurus. — Only one individual of this species

was found and this was in the surface catch of the night series.

Diaptomus. — Young were at a depth of three meters and

adults five meters in the daytime. Both reached the surface

during the first half hour after sunset. The adults left the

surface during the second half hour before sunrise and the

young half an hour later.

Cyclops. — Young were at a depth of three and adults eight

meters in the daytime. The former appeared at the surface

shortly before sunset and adults had not reached the surface

two and a half hours after sunset. The latter, however, were

found in some of the surface catches made in the morning.

They left the surface during the second half hour before sun¬

rise and the young not until after sunrise.

Nauplii. — There was no> diurnal movement of the nauplii.

GREEN LAKE.

A complete set of observations was made on this lake in

September, 1900. The day series was made while the sun was

partly obscured by clouds. The lake was poor in phytoplank¬

ton.

DapJmia retrocurva. — The young of this species were at a

depth of six meters and adults ten meters in the daytime. The

former appeared at the surface during the first half hour before

sunset and the latter during the second half hour after sunset.

A surface catch mjade one and a half hours before sunrise con¬

tained neither young nor adults.

Diaplianosoma brachyurum. — This form was not found in

the upper four meters in the daytime. It appeared at the sur-

J uday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 547

face during the first half hour after sunset and left again dur¬

ing the second half hour before sunrise.

Leptodora hyalina. — This species was at a depth of six

meters in the day catches. It came to the surface during the

first half hour after sunset but left the surface earlier than one

and a half hours before sunrise.

Bosmma.— This form was at a depth of one meter in the day

series but came to the surface shortly before sunset. It was

not present in the surface catch made as early as one and a half

hours before sunrise.

Epischura lacustris .- — This species was not found above a

depth of twelve meters in the day catches. It reached the sur¬

face during the first half hour after sunset and left again earlier

than an hour and a, half before sunrise.

Limnocalanus macrurus. — Only one individual of this form

was found above a depth of fifty meters in the day catches. In

the night series, ten were present in the catch made at fifteen

meters and others were found in the catches made between fif¬

teen and fifty meters. No individuals were found in any of

the night catches made above the thermocline, that is, above

fifteen meters.

Diaptomus. — The young of this form were found at the sur¬

face in the daytime and adults at a depth of four meters. The

latter appeared at the surface shortly before sunset and disap¬

peared during the first half hour after sunrise.

Cyclops. — Young were at a depth of two meters and adults

eight- meters in the day series. The former reached the surface

shortly before sunset and the latter during the third half hour

after sunset. Both left the surface about sunrise.

Nauplii. — There was no diurnal movement of the nauplii.

Marsh also (9a, p. 217) noted diurnal migrations of Daphnia

retrocurva, Diaphanosoma, Diaptomus , Epischura, and Lim~

nocalanus in Green lake.

LAKE MENDOTA.

The observations on lake Mendota were made during the

month of October, 1900 and between April 24 and June 27,

1901. Over three hundred catches were made during these two

periods.

Daphnia hyalina. — In October, young were found at the sur¬

face in the daytime except for a brief period in the middle of

548 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

bright, sunny days. During the first half of the month, adults

were at a depth of three-fourths to one meter in the daytime.

On the 5 th, they came to the surface during the: first half hour

after sunset but, on the 8th, they were found in the surface

catch made half an hour before sunset. On the 12th, they left

the surface during the second half hour1 before sunrise. In the

day series of the 25th, adults were at a, depth of only a quar¬

ter of a meter and they had not yet appeared at the surface

three and a quarter1 hours after sunset.

In 1901, diurnal movement was noted as early as April 24,

only twelve days after the disappearance of the ice. At this

time the water had a temperature of 7.2° C. at the surface and

4.8° at the bottom, eighteen meters. April 24, 25, 29 and May

3, young were rare and there was practically no difference be¬

tween day and night conditions. On these dates, adults were

found at a depth of one meter in the day catches but they came

to the surface at night. In the day catches of May 15, young

were at a, depth of one meter and adults half a meter1 deeper.

Both appeared at the surface about sunset. The adults left

the surface about an hour before sunrise and young were still

present one hour after sunrise. On May 28, young were at

the surface and adults at a depth of one meter in the daytime.

The latter came to the surface at night.

In June, young I), hyalina were found at a depth of half a

meter in two day series. They were: found at. the surface: at

the beginning of each of the three evening series and one of

these was begun as early as three hours before sunset. In the

meming catches they were at the surface as late as an hour and

a half after sunrise. In the two day series:, adults were at a

depth of one meter. In two1 evening series, they came to the

surface nearly an hour before sunset and not until the second

half hour after sunset in the third series. In the1 two morning

series, adults left the surface during the first half hour after

sunrise.

Daphnia retrocurva . — This species was found in October and

June but no diurnal movement was noted. It was found at a

greater depth, however, in the daytime than Daphnia hyalina ,

the same as noted by Birgei (2b, p. 402).

Daphnia pulicaria. — There was no movement of this species.

Ceriodaphni-a. — This form was rare and showed no move¬

ment.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 549

Diaphanosoma brachyurum. — There was no diurnal move¬

ment of this species.

Leptodora Lyalina. — This species was found in October,

May, and June. It was found in only one of the six day series

of these three months and that was October 25, in the catch

made at a depth of six meters. Birge (2b, p. 405) found the

movement of this form to be less than three meters in extent.

In October, young came to the surface during the first half

hour after sunset on the 5th and adults; half an hour later.

Young appeared at the surface during the second half hour1 be¬

fore sunset on the 8th and adults during the first half hour

after sunset. In the morning series of the 12th, adults left

the surface during the third half hour before sunrise and

young were still present in the surface catch made just at sun¬

rise.

In May, Leptodora came to the surface during the fourth

half hour after sunset in an evening series and left, the surface

during the third half hour before sunrise in a morning series.

It was not found in the other evening and morning observa¬

tions.

In June, adults appeared at the surface about half an hour

after sunset on the 3rd and young had not yet appeared half an

hour later. On the 11th, young came to the surface about an

hour after sunset and adults had not yet appeared as late as an

hour and a half after sunset. In the morning series of the

12th, neither young nor adults were found as early as two and

a half hours before sunrise. Adults came to the surface during

the third half hour after sunset on the 24th but no young were

found as late as an hour and a half after sunset. In the morn¬

ing catches of the 25th, adults left, the surface during the sec¬

ond half hour before sunrise and young about sunrise.

Bosmina. — This form1 was found in June but there was no

diurnal movement.

Chydorus. — There was no movement of this form.

Epischura lacustris. — Epischura was not found in any of

the day catches' but was present in the evening, night, and morn¬

ing catches of October and June. In October, it appeared at

the surface about half an hour after sunset on the 8th. On

the 12th, it left the surface about two hours before sunrise. In

June, this species came to the surface during the second half

hour after sunset in both of the evening series. In the morn-

550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

mg series of the 12 th, it left the surface during the first half

hour before sunrise and, on the 25th, half an hour earlier.

Diaptomus.— There was no diurnal movement of this form

in October and April. In May, both young and adults showed

a movement of half a meter on the 3rd and also on the 15th.

On the latter date, young came to the surface about sunset and

adults half an hour later. On the 17 th, adults left the surface

during the second half hour before sunrise and young were still

present in the surface catch made one hour after sunrise. On

the 28th there was no movement of either young or adults, as

both were found at the surface in the daytime. In June, young

were found at the surface in the daytime and adults at a depth

of a quarter of a meter. The latter came to the surface an hour

or more before sunset. On one occasion, they did not leave the

surface until the second half hour after sunrise and, at another

time, they were still found in the surface catch made an, hour

and a half after sunrise.

Cyclops. — This form was regularly found at the surface in

the daytime and there was comparatively little increase in num¬

ber at night.

Nauplii. — There was no diurnal movement of the nauplii.

The above results show that the upper meter of Lake Men-

dota is well populated in the daytime and that the movement,

therefore, is confined within very narrow limits. In this

respect, they are in complete agreement with the results ob¬

tained by Birge (2b). With the exception of Corethra larvae

which were not found in my observations, the following state-

ements of his results apply equally well to mine :

1. “On calm sunny days, the upper ten centimeters of the

lake miay be almost devoid of crustacea. At a depth of half a

meter, however, the numbers become considerable and may be

very great.”

2. “The population of the upper meter is largely composed

of immature crustacea, the percentage of young varying in dif¬

ferent species.”

3. “A far larger proportion of Cyclops is usually obtained

from the upper five or ten centimeters than comes from any of

the other forms of limnetic crustacea and it may be present at

the very surface on hot, calm, sunny days.”

4. “In windy and cloudy weather, the crustacea approach

nearer the surface, the numbers of Diaptomns and Cyclops be-

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 551

ing especially increased by the change in the condition of the

sky. Daphnia liyalina also may come nearer the surface.”

5. “At night, the population of the upper meter changes in

character. The young, instead of being concentrated in swarms

in this layer, become more evenly distributed and the adults,

which were found below the one-meter level, rise toward the

surface. Leptodora and larval Corethra have been regularly

taken at the surface in considerable numbers at night. During

the day, these animals are rarely, if ever, found close to the

surface, although they may be abundant enough above the three-

meter line. It would appear, therefore, that these animals

move toward the surface at night, together with the Crustacea

on which they feed. Epischura seems to have the same habit”

(Birge 2b. pp. 407-410.)

MOVEMENTS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CRUSTACEA.

Daphnia hyalina Leydig.

This species was found in nine of the ten lakes. Two varie¬

ties of individuals, those with round and those with pointed

helmets, were found in three lakes. There was a diurnal move¬

ment of the adults in eight of the nine lakes, ranging in extent

from a quarter of a meter to seven meters. With one exception,

the young did not show so great a movement as the adults for

they were nearer the surface in the daytime. Where the extent

of migration of the adults did not exceed a meter, young were

usually found at the surface in the daytime, and in some cases

they wrere at the surface when the adults showed a movement

of two meters.

This is a very small movement as compared1 with that ob¬

served by Burckhardt (4) for this species in V ierwaldstattersee,

a lake which is deeper than any of these nine Wisconsin lakes.

He found diurnal movements of twenty to thirty meters in

March, while a maximum of fifty meters was noted.

The variety having round helmets did not show diurnal move¬

ment in Bainbow lake while that with pointed helmets did.

The reverse of this was true in Okauchee lake and there was

a movement of both varieties in Hagawicka lake.

In the eight lakes in wdiich there was movement, the time

of arrival at the surface varied from the third half hour before

552 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

sunset to the third half hour after sunset. In Lake Mendota

alone, the time of reaching the surface changed from the second

half hour after1 sunset to the second half hour before sunset in

a single month, June, 1901. The time of leaving the surface

in the morning varied from1 more than two and a half hours be¬

fore sunrise to the first half hour after sunrise. Where there was

a diurnal movement of the young, they generally came to the

surface earlier in the evening and remained later in the morn¬

ing than the adults.

Dapjtnia retrocurva Forbes.

This species was found in four lakes and there was diurnal

movement in two, Rainbow and Green lakes. In the former,

there was a movement of two meters in July and six meters in

September. In the latter, the young showed a, movement of

six and adults ten meters.

In Rainbow lake, adults came to the surface a little more

than an hour after sunset and were not present in the surface

catch made two hours; before, sunrise. In Green lake, adults

came to the surface during the second half hour after sunset and

were not found in the surface catch made an hour and a half

before sunrise.

Daphnia pulex De G. var. pulicarim Forbes.

There was a movement of this form in two of the three lakes

in which it occurred. In Oconomowoc lake, the movement of

the adults varied in extent from twelve meters in October to one

meter in June and in Okauchee lake, for the same months,

from, ten to three meters. The young showed a movement

ranging in extent from one meter to six meters. This variation

in the extent of the movement was undoubtedly due to the

change in the temperature of the water. D. pulicaria pre¬

ferred to remain in cool water in the daytime so1, when the

upper stratum of water became too warm, it moved down to a

greater depth. Thus the deserted zone near the surface gradu¬

ally grew in thickness as the water became warmer. After the

formation of the thermocline, it occupied the lower part of this

stratum and the region below and moved downward as the

thermocline worked downward. For instance, the thermocline

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 553

was two meters deeper in October than, in August in Oconomo-

woc lake and it was found that the day position of D. pulicaria

was two meters deeper. The same results were obtained in

Okauchee lake with the exception that both were three meters

deeper in October than in August. About the middle of J une,

it was found much nearer the surface because only a compara¬

tively thin stratum of water had become too warm for it.

Also Birge (2b, p. 401) found that the center of population for

this form in Lake Mendota rose from fourteen meters in late

September to four meters in the first part, of November, wdiile

in the latter part of December1 it lay only about two meters be¬

low the surface. He also states that a reversal of this diagram

“would serve fairly well to indicate the downward migration

of the species in the spring.” There was no diurnal movement

of D. pulicaria in Lake Mendota, but the above serves to show

how temperature would have affected the extent of such a daily

migration if there had been one.

In coming to the surface in Oconomowoc lake in August, this

form moved up into the water that was at least 15° 0. warmer

than that occupied by it during the daytime. In October, the

difference in temperature did not exceed 7° or 8°. In Okau¬

chee lake, the difference in temperature was not So great in

August as in Oconomowoc lake but it was about the same in

Oetober.

In Oconomowoc lake, adult D. pulicaria appeared at the sur¬

face during the second half hour after sunset and then disap¬

peared during the second half hour before sunrise. In Okau¬

chee lake, they were not found at the surface in August and

October, but in' June they came to the surface about two hours

after sunset and left again during the fifth half hour before

sunrise. In both lakes, the young preceded the adults in the

evening by a half hour to two hours. In one instance, the young

left the surface about the same time in the morning as the adults

and again at least an hour later than the adults,

Daphnia longirenns Sars.

This species was found in only one lake, Okauchee. There

was no diurnal movement.

554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

C eriodaphnia.

This form was found in five lakes but no diurnal movement

was noted in any of them.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum Lievin.

This speeies was present in nine lakes. There was a move¬

ment in five of these which varied in extent front one meter to

five meters. In three lakes, adults appeared at the surface dur¬

ing the first half hour after sunset and in another, during the

fourth half hour after sunset. In two lakes, they left the sur¬

face more than an hour and a half before sunrise, while in two

others they left during the second half hour before sunrise.

Morning and evening observations were not made in the fifth

lake.

Leptodora hyalina Lilljeborg.

Leptodora was obtained in eight of the ten lakes and a defi¬

nite movement was noted in five of them. In the other three

lakes so few individuals were found that it was impossible to

determine with certainty that there was a movement, although

there doubtless was. In four lakes, there was a diurnal migra-r

tion of five to nine meters. It was not taken in the day catches

of the fifth lake. For this species, also, this movement is much

smaller than was found by Burckhardt (4), twenty meters.

There was considerable irregularity in the movement of this

form and this* agrees with Burckhardt’s observations.

Concerning the time of arrival at and departure from the

surface, Marsh (9b) states that Leptodora appears at the sur¬

face “at almost exactly forty-five minutes after sunset, remains

at the surface during the night, and disappears again at just

three-quarters of an hour before sunrise.” My observations

did not yield such definite results. Taking all five of the lakes

into account, the time of arrival at the surface varied between

the limits of less than half an hour after sunset and almost two

hours after sunset. In observations on Lake Mendota, adults

reached the surface during the first half hour after sunset on

June 3, 1901, and not till the third half hour after sunset on

June 24, while the young showed even a greater range of varia¬

tion. Both young and adults showed almost, if not quite as

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 555

great variations in the time of leaving the surface in the morn¬

ing.

Bosmina.

This form occurred in seven lakes and it showed diurnal

movement in three of them. There was a movement of one

meter in two lakes and four meters in the third.

Bosmina was irregular in its time of arrival at the surface,

the limits being the second half hour before sunset and the sec¬

ond half hour after sunset. The difference in the time of its

leaving the surface in the morning varied from more than an

hour and a half before sunrise to more than half an hour after

sunrise.

• Chydorus.

This form was found in four lakes but it showed no diurnal

movement in any of them:.

Epischura lacnstris Forbes.

Epischura was present in eight lakes but only one individual

was taken in two sets of observations in one lake. It was not

found in the day catches of three lakes so that the extent of its

movement in them could not be determined. In the other four,

the migration ranged from two to twelve meters.

It came to the surface during the first and second half hours

after sunset and disappeared again from the fourth to the first

half hour before sunrise.

Limnocalanus macrurus Sars.

Limnocalanus was found only in the two deep lakes, Green

and Geneva. Only one individual, however, was taken in all the

catches made in the latter lake. In Green lake, this was the

predominant crustacean' below a depth of fifty meters. It

showed an, apparent movement of thirty-five meters in this lake.

Only one individual was found above fifty meters in the day

catches but several were present in the night catch made just

below the thermocline, fifteen meters. The thermocline seemed

to prevent a further upward movement for not a single indi-

556 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts f and Letters.

vidual was found in the night catches above this region. On

the contrary, the only individual found in Lake Geneva was

taken in a surface catch at night.

Diaptomvs.

This genus was represented in each of the ten lakes. Diur¬

nal movement was . noted in seven, ranging in extent from a

quarter of a meter to five meters. The time' of arrival of the

adults at the surface in the evening varied between the ex¬

tremes of an hour before sunset and half an hour after sunset.

In the morning, they left the surface as early as two hours be¬

fore sunrise in one case, while in another they remained as late

as an hour and a, half after sunrise.

Cyclops.

Representatives of this genus were' found in all the lakes.

Diurnal movement was observed in four, ranging in extent from

one meter to eight meters.

Morning and evening catches were made in two of the four

lakes in which there was a movement of Cyclops. In one lake,

adults came to the surface during the third half hour after sun¬

set and in the other they had not appeared as late as twP and a

half hours after sunset. In one case1, they left the surface dur¬

ing the second half hour before sunrise and in the other about

sunrise.

Nauplii.

Nauplii were present in all the lakes. They showed no diur¬

nal movement.

Corethra larvae.-

Corethra larvae were found in six lakes. There was a move¬

ment of them in five lakes ranging in extent from two to nine¬

teen meters.

WHAT DIURNAL MOVEMENT IS.

In a previous paper (8b, p. 128), the statement is made that

diurnal movement does not mean that the various forms core

gregate at the surface at night in swarms. This is shown by

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 557

the fact that the species exhibiting this phenomenon in its

most typical form are found in as great abundance at a depth of

a meter or two, or even deeper, as at the surface. In fact these

forms- are usually more abundant some distance below the sur¬

face than at the surface. It means that some forms desert the

upper strata' of water during the day but move up into these

strata at night. In other words, they spread out into this

region which is deserted by them during the day, for there is

no general upward migration of the whole body of Crustacea.

With rare exceptions, some individuals of each form continue

their ascent until they reach the surface. Under this phenom¬

enon we also include instances where the Crustacea are found

in very limited numbers near the surface in the daytime but

occupy this region in much greater abundance at night.

EXTEXT OF DIURXAL MOVEMENT.

The foregoing results show a wide range in the extent of

these daily migrations. The variation is no> greater, however,

than one should expect from the great diversity of the ecolog¬

ical factors involved. Each lake possesses factors peculiar to

itself and the Crustacea respond to these differences in environ¬

ment in a greater or lesser degree. As a result, the diurnal

movement in each lake has certain individual characteristics.

Thus in the various lakes, the zone deserted by Daphnia hya-

lina during the day varies in thickness from a quarter of a

meter to seven meters while there was no movement at all in

one lake. Also the changes in the environment of a single lake

during the seasons in which diurnal movements occur, may

affect the extent of these migrations very materially. That is,

there may be a seasonal variation in the extent of this move¬

ment. To mention only two instances, the movement of Daph-

nia pulicaria changed from twelve meters in October to one

meter in June in Oconomowoc lake and that of D. hyalina in¬

creased from two meters in July to six meters in September in

Rainbow lake.

The various forms of Crustacea are not equally sensitive to

the- factors instrumental in the production of this phenomenon

for they do not all show migrations of equal extent in the same

lake. For example*, in Okauchee lake Daphnia hyalina showed

a movement of two, D. pulicaria five, and Leptodora nine

558 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

meters in August while in J une the migrations were one, three,

and seven meters respectively. With few exceptions, the young

were nearer the surface in the daytime than the adults and as

a result their migrations were not so great. In fact, young

were frequently found at the surface in the daytime in cases

where the movement of the adults did not exceed a meter or two.

Burckhardt (4) also found that adult Daphnia hyalina moved

down about five meters deeper in the daytime than the young.

In cases where there was a migration of both young and adults,

the former usually reached the surface earlier in the evening

and remained later in the morning than the adults.

Marsh (9b, p. 381) says, “Most of the movement is within

one meter of the surface, the most marked changes being

within one-half meter of the surface and below three meters

the amount of movement is very slight.” In only three of the

ten lakes were the migrations confined within these narrow

limits. In the other seven, they varied in extent from two to

twelve meters and in these cases, of course, the changes extended

below three meters. The movement of any species, however,

rarely affected the day vertical distribution in a noticeable

degree more than three or four meters below the upper limit of

adults in the daytime.

The greatest movement shown by any species was the appa¬

rent movement of thirty-five meters of Limnocalanus. While

there is some doubt as to the: exact extent of the movement of this

form, it could easily make such extensive migrations because it

is a very good swimmer. Daphnia hyalina showed a, maximum

movement of seven meters; D. retrocurva, ten meters; D. puli-

caria, twelve meters; Diaphanosoma brachyurum, five meters;

Leptodora hyalina, nine meters ; Bosmina , four meters ; Epis-

chura lacustris, twelve meters; Diaptomus, five meters; Cy¬

clops, ten meters.

HORIZONTAL MIGRATION.

In several instances there were evidences of a considerable

horizontal migration of some of the littoral Crustacea.. Such

forms as Gammarus, Alona, and Cypris were taken in surface

catches at night in the limnetic region where the water was

eighteen meters or more in depth. That is, they were found at

the regular stations for observations at night but never in the

Juday— Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 559

daytime. The horizontal migration of Cypris was also noted

by the author in Winona lake (8b, p. 127).

TIME OF MAXIMUM NUMBER AT THE SURFACE.

Blanc (3) found the Crustacea most abundant at the surface

at 4 a. m. in lac Leman. Fordyce (6) obtained the same result

for Leydigia fimbriata. Fuhrman (7) states that in his obser¬

vations the Crustacea reached1 a maximum at the surface shortly

before sunrise. As none of my observations extended through

the entire night, it is impossible to say at what time the maxi¬

mum number was present at the surface. However, some of

the morning observations were made early enough to show that

the maximum period was not as late as 4 a. m., especially dur¬

ing the months of June;, July, and August. In many instances,

the D'aphnias, Leptodora and Epischura disappeared entirely

from the surface before this hour and when they were present

so late as this, they were found to be fewer in number than an

hour or two earlier. In general, the Crustacea were not so abun¬

dant in the morning catches, and some of them were made as

early as 2 a. m., as in the evening catches, especially those made

from one to two hours after sunset. These facts go to show

that the maximum period probably came in the early part of the

night rather than toward morning. Such a condition would be

in harmony with the results obtained for Winona lake (8b,

p. 128) where most of the Crustacea were found in greatest

abundance at the surface from 7 :30 to 8 p. mi. in August.

ORDER OF REACHING THE SURFACE AND LEAVING IT.

The order in which the Crustacea appeared at the surface in

the evening varied somewhat but in general the Copepoda pre¬

ceded the Cladocera. This agrees with Blanc’s (3) observa¬

tions. Cyclops seemed to be affected least by the factors that

are responsible for this movement. It was found in all ten of

the lakes but there were daily migrations in only four. Even¬

ing catches in two of these four lakes, however, show that Cy¬

clops ranked about the same as Daphnia hyalina in the order of

reaching the surface. The following three are named in the

order of their appearance, Diaptomus , Daphnia hyalina >, and

D. pulicaria. Diaphanosoma ranked about the same as Diap -

560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tomus and Epischura about the same as D. hyalina. Tbe order

of leaving the surface in the morning was substantially the re¬

verse of the order of appearance in the evening.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED.

Diurnal movement has been attributed to several causes.

Food, temperature, and light have probably been cited most fre¬

quently. Each has been supported more or less strongly as

being the chief cause of the phenomenon because of the different

results obtained by various plankton observers. It has been

considered a food phenomenon because the phytoplankton has

been found most abundant near the surface, thus making this a

good region for food. As a result the Crustacea move up into

this region so that they may obtain an abundance of food. In

general it may be said that these results do not support this

idea. For example, some forms moved up from depths where

food was nearly, if not quite as abundant as at the surface. In

several instances, crustaceans rose from regions where the

greater part of a catch was made up of phytoplankton and this

phytoplankton consisted of the same plant forms as found at

the surface.

Then, too, some Crustacea, were able to obtain a sufficient

amount of food at considerable depths to enable them to remain

at these depths both day and night, while other forms nearer

the surface, and thus in a region more plentifully supplied with

food, moved up regularly at night. In Okauchee lake Daphnia

longiremis remained below twelve meters both day and night

from August to October while1 other Crustacea much nearer the

surface, hence in a, region where food was more plentiful, came

to the surface at night. Also in Lake Mendota, D. pulicaria

remained in the region of the thermocline both day and night

where food was not nearly so abundant as near the surface

while other forms near the surface moved up at night. Fuhr-

man (7) states that it could not be considered a food phenom¬

enon in the lake on which he made observations because phyto¬

plankton'; was scarce at the surface.

Considering the phenomenon from the standpoint of tempera¬

ture Ostwald (9) has given a very interesting theory to account

for it. He believes that the descent is due to the lowering of

the viscosity or the internal friction of the water (die innere

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea . 561

Beibung des Wassers) through its increase in temperature.

This lowering of the internal friction of the water through its

increase in temperature, affects the speed of sinking of the

plankton and thereby calls forth a descent of the pelagic forms

during the early hours of the day. An increase of the internal

friction by cooling will not, however, cause a movement toward

the surface. Diffusion streams and active wandering bring

about the ascent during the second half of the night, toward

morning. The active wandering varies according to the swim¬

ming ability of the different forms. My observations do not

lend support to this theory. The forms showing diurnal move¬

ment came to the surface early in the evening instead of toward

morning. In fact, they came to the surface so early in the

evening that the water had cooled comparatively little so that

the internal friction at this time was near its minimum for the

day. In the morning, also, many Crustacea left the surface an

hour or two before sunrise. This means that they descended

during a period while the water was still cooling and therefore

while the internal friction was increasing instead of decreasing.

With very few exceptions, the migrating Crustacea left the sur¬

face in the morning before the sun had affected the tempera¬

ture of the water in the least. Therefore temperature can not

be regarded as either a direct or an indirect cause of the diurnal

movement noted in these observations. As1 stated above, how¬

ever, temperature did affect the extent of these daily migrations

in a very marked degree in some instances. Waldvogel (14)

states that in the two lakes on which he made observations the

Crustacea ceased their diurnal movements during the strongest

warming of the water in August and did not resume them again

until the water had cooled below 20° C. In this instance tem¬

perature acted as an inhibitory factor rather than as a cause of

migration. Burckhardt (4) says also that temperature is not

the cause of the phenomenon because he observed diurnal migra¬

tions in J anuary during a snow storm and at this time the water

of the lake was practically of a uniform! temperature. Parker

(11) found that the migration of Labidocera aestiva did not de¬

pend primarily on temperature.

A number of observers have attributed the diurnal movement

of Crustacea to light. That is, the forms showing this phe¬

nomenon are negatively phototropic and therefore move down

36

562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

from the upper stratum of water on the approach of day in

order to avoid the intense light. The weight of evidence in

these observations favors this explanation. The results show

pretty conclusively that light, is the primary factor in causing

the descent of the Crustacea in the morning and in keeping them

from the surface during the day. It is more difficult to state,

however, just why they move upward so promptly when the in¬

tensity of the light is sufficiently decreased.

The importance of light is shown by the fact that the time at

which the upward movement takes place in the evening and the

time of the. downward movement ini the morning are re¬

lated more or less closely to the time of sunset and of

sunrise. Some Crustacea also were found nearer the sur¬

face on cloudy than on clear days. In some instances

forms which were absent, from the upper stratum of water

on clear days were found there on cloudy days in nearly

as great abundance as at night. This was also found to

be true of the Daphnias in Winona lake (8b). In this connec¬

tion, Birge (2b, p. 426) describes a set of observations on Lake

Mendota made .on a, day when there was, an alternation of cloud

and sun. During the sunny periods, the Daphnias were at a

depth, of one meter and during the cloudy periods one-half

meter. ITe says, “It was as though the Daphnias were de¬

pressed by a force against which they were contending, and

they rose with the promptness of a, compressed spring relieved

of weight. ” Burckhardt (4) also found that the poor zone of

Daphnia hyalina increased directly proportional to the strength

of the daylight. In my results,, the limnetic Crustacea fall into

two groups with respect to the effect of sun and cloud on their

vertical distribution in the daytime in the upper stratum.

Daphnia hyalina and D. retrocurva , were nearer the surface on

cloudy than on clear days. Also the distribution of Diaptomus

and Cyclops in the upper stratum was affected by the obscuring

of the sun by clouds, for they frequently occupied this region

in nearly as great, numbers on cloudy days as at night. The

day position of Daphnia pulicaria, Leptodora, and Epischura ,

however, was the same on cloudy as on clear days. This seems

to show that light is a more important factor in producing diur¬

nal movements in the former group than in the latter, or per¬

haps it is better to say that the influence of light is modified by

other factors not so much in the former as in the latter group.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 563

It is evident that the effect of light is modified more or less

by other factors. It has been noted above that temperature

affected the depth migration of Daphnia pulicaria very mate¬

rially, changing it from; twelve meters in October to one meter

in June. In three lakes, temperature apparently affected the

extent of the movement of D . hyalina as it moved down deeper

in the daytime as the water grew warmer so that the difference

in temperature at the lower limit of the deserted stratum did

not exceed 2° C., while the change in temperature at the surface

was very much greater. In Rainbow lake, for example, the

depth of the migration of this form changed from two meters

in J uly to six meters in September. This increase was not due

to the fact that the water was more transparent because the

transparency was practically the same' on both occasions;. These

conditions agree with Birge’s statement (2b, p. 426) that a

high temperature increases the* negative action of light and a

low temperature lessens or reverses it. In three other lakes,

however, temperature did not affect the extent of the migration

of D. hyalina. In Okauchee lake, for example, it was found at

a depth of one meter in the day catches of August, October, and

June and the temperature at this depth was 27°, 15°, and 21°

respectively.

The quantity of phytoplankton in a lake affects diurnal move¬

ment. Fuhrman (7) says that, where phytoplankton is abun¬

dant at the surface, it forms a, veil or covering which absorbs

very much light. Under cover of this, the organisms may come

close to the surface without being exposed to direct sunlight.

With two exceptions, my observations show that the Crustacea, re¬

mained closer to the surface in the daytime in those lakes which

were rich in phytoplankton than in those which were poor in

phytoplankton. As a result, the movement was not so great in

the former class of lakes as in the latter. It seems probable

that the various substances dissolved in the water exert an in¬

fluence on diurnal movement. These substances affect the

amount of light absorbed by the water and also1 modify, in a

slight degree at least, the character of the light transmitted.

If diurnal movement were purely a light phenomenon, there

ought to be a direct relation between the transparency of the

water and the depth to which the Crustacea, descend in the day¬

time. Burckhardt (4) found that this was true for Daphnia

hyalina in V ierwaldstattersee. My results show no such rela-

SeasMy Rainbow . 3m? . (fengm 0m/? . ' /faGa&k&a Mmmm

r~~*' ' if"”~'i T r . . "l ' .* r— — - — ■ — r— — — — — . f r1 -n

Sept dug. dug. Sept dug. Oct June dug. Oct June dug. June Aug.

/300 /90O . / 900 1300 1300 /300 J900 J900 /300 190/ /900 / 900 / 90 / /900 1901 / 900

564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

^ ^ VO !>.. CQ

Fig. 1. — Vertical distribution of Crustacea in Wisconsin Lakes. For explanation see text, p. 565.

Juday — Diurnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 565

tion, however, for any of the migrating forms. The accom¬

panying diagrams, Figures 1 and 2, bear upon this point. The

transparency of the water was determined by means of a

Secchi’s disk and the line marked Tr., representing transpar¬

ency, shows the depth at which the disk just disappeared from

4

Fig. 2. — Vertical distribution of Crustacea in Lake Mendota. For explanation

see text, p. 565.

view. The position of Daphma hyalina (D. h.), Diaptomus

(Di.), and Cyclops (Cy.) is indicated in the figures and shows

the upper limits of adults in the daytime. Daphma hyalina

is omitted in two cases, as it was not found in Green lake and

only young were taken in Oconomowoc lake in October. These

figures show that the depth to which, the adults of these genera

descended in the daytime was practically independent of the

degree of transparency of the water. This was true not only

of the different lakes but also of the same lake at different times.

In Okauchee lake, the transparency was fifty per cent, greater

in October and June than in August, yet the day position of

Daphma hyalina was the same in the three months. Ini Ocono-

566 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

mowoc lake, this crustacean was five meters nearer the surface

in the day catches of June than in August notwithstanding the

fact that the transparency was fifteen per cent, greater in J une.

The fact that some species of Crustacea left the surface two

hours or more before sunrise, seems to indicate also that light is

not the only factor involved. At this early hour, there was

little if any more light than at midnight. Certainly the differ¬

ence in the amount of light between midnight and two hours

before sunrise was not as great as that between a dark night and

a moonlight one, yet moonlight had no noticeable effect, on diur¬

nal movement. With comparatively few exceptions, however,

light was the primary factor in causing the Crustacea to descend

in the morning.

It seems probable that several factors are instrumental in

causing the upward movement of the migrating Crustacea when

the intensity of the light becomes sufficiently low. A negative

geotropic reaction would cause a movement toward the surface

as soon as the repelling force of light becomes so small that it

does not counteract the upward tendency resulting from nega¬

tive geotropism. As Ostwald (10) has suggested also, it may

be due in part to active wandering. It seems appropriate also

to apply the term “nocturnal habit” to the movements of some

forms. This term is especially applicable to the horizontal

migrations of the littoral forms.

In conclusion, it may be said that these results show that

diurnal movement is not a simple phenomenon which may be

attributed to a single factor. On the contrary, the movement

in each lake presents complexities which can be solved only by

complete observations that cover a considerable period of time.

Light is the chief factor causing the downward movement of

the Crustacea, and other factors are probably responsible for

their upward movement,. The effects of light are modified by

temperature, the quantity of phytoplankton present, and the

substances held in solution by the water.

Juday — Diimnal Movement of Plankton Crustacea. 567

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

1. Apstein, Carl.

tate der quantitative U nteirsuchungen. Kiel,

1896.

2. Birge, Ei. A.

a. ’95. — Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota, I. Trans.

Wia. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, Vol. X, pp.

421-484, 1895.

h. ’97. — Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota, II.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, Vol.

XI, pp. 274-448, 1897.

3. Blanc, Henri.

’98. — Le Plankton nocturne du Leman. Arch, des sci.

physiq. et nat., T. 6, 1898.

4. Burckhardt, G.

’00. — Quantitative St-udien ueber das Zooplankton des

Vierwaldstattersees. Separatabdruck, 309 pp.

Mittheil d. naturf. Ges. Luzern, 1900, Heft 3,

pp. 129-439.

5. Eenneman, X. M.

’02. — Lakes of Southeastern Wisconsin. Bull. No.

VIII, Wis. Geolog. and Nat. Hist. Survey,

178 pp., 1902.

6. Fordyce, Charles.

’00. — The Cladocera of Nebraska. Trans. Amer.

Micro. See., Vol. XXII, pp. 119-174, 1900.

7. Euiirman, O.

’00. — Beitrag zur Biologic des Neuenbergersees. Bi¬

olog. Centralbl., Bd. XX, pp. 85-96 and 120-

128, 1900.

8. Juday, Ciiancey.

a. ’97. — The Plankton of Turkey Lake. Proc. Ind.

Acad. Sci., 1896, pp. 287-296.

b. ’03. — The Plankton of Winona Lake. Proc. Ind.

Acad. Sci., 1902, pp. 120-133.

568 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

9. Marsh, C. Dwight.

a. ’97. — On the Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, Yol.

XI, pp. 179-224, 1897.

b. ’00. — The Plankton of Fresh Water Lakes. Science,

Yol. XI, pp. 374-389, 1900. Trans. Wis.

Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, Yol. XIII, pp.

163-187, 1901.

10. OsTWALD, W.

’03. — Leber eine neue theoretische Betrachtungsweise

in der Planktologie, insbesondere ueber die Be-

deutung des Begriffs “der inneren Reibung des

Wassers” fiir dieselbe. Forschungsber. Biol.

Stati. Plon, Teil 10, 1903, pp. 1-49. Reviewed

by F. Zschokke, Zoolog. Centralbl., Jahrg. X,

1903, pp. 403-409.

11. Parker, G. II.

?01. — The Beactions of Copepods to Yarious Stimuli

and the Bearing of This on Daily Depth Migra¬

tions. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., for 1901, pp.

103-123.

12. Pitard, Eugene.

Migration des Eintomostraces pelagique. Arch, des sci.

physiq. et nat. Geneve.

13. S'TEUER, A.

?01. — Die Entomostrakenfauna der “alten Donau” bei

Wien. Zoolog. Jahrb., Abth. f. Syst. Geog. u.

Biol. deT Thiere, Bd. XY, pp. 1-156, 1901.

14. Waldvogel, T.

’00. — Das Lautikerried und der Liitzelsee, ein Beitrag

zur Landeskunde. Yierteljahrschr. naturf. Ges.

Zurich, Jahrg. 45, 1900. Reviewed by F.

Zschokke, Zoolog. Centralbl. Jahrg. 8, pp. 261-

262, 1901.

15. Zacharias, O.

’96. — Quantitative Lntersuchungen ueber das Limno-

plankton. Forschungsber. a. d. Biol. Station

zu Plon, Theil IY, pp. 1-64, 1896.

Trans. Wis' Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLI.

Waterhen Lake, Kinistino, N. W. T., Canada.

Marsh Hawk, wounded.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

SASKATCHEWAN BIRDS.

RUSSELL T. CONGDQN.

EXPLANATORY.

The observations recorded in this paper were made during

part of the spring and summer of 1902, in the Saskatchewan

River region, X. W. T., Canada.

Starting from Prince Albert, H. W. T., as a center, the greater

part of the work was done in the territory lying from thirty to

seventy-five miles southeast of Prince Albert. In general, this

is prairie country with an abundance of small timber, mostly

stunted poplar, growing in small tracts, or groves called by the

inhabitants, “bluffs.” Scattered over almost the whole of this

territory are innumerable sloughs, — shallow rush- or grass-

grown ponds or pools, — and small marshy lakes. On the lower

tracts, where the sloughs are most numerous, bush willows grow

profusely, bordering almost every slough, and gathering in

clumps in the marshy spots. Located in this strip of country

are several fair-sized lakes: Water-hen Lake, frequently re¬

ferred to later on, is very shallow, probably not more than eight

or nine feet deep in any place. It consists of two arms of about

equal length which, together, measure nearly twelve miles. It

is probably not more than three' miles across at the widest point.

Almost the whole lake is grown up with reeds, and, during a

dry year, it is practically a large marsh. A picture of this lake

is shown in Plate XLI. It is drained by the Carrot River which

enters at the head of one arm and leaves near the elbow. In the

southeastern part of the district are situated Basin Lake,

Middle Lake, and Lake Lenore. Here the country is more

broken and. hilly and the lakes are deep. There is more and

larger timber, too, the lakes being surrounded by it. Basin

Lake is six miles across, almost round, and the land rises con-

570 W iscomin Academy of Sciences , Avis , and Letters.

siderably as it recedes from the shores. The water of the lake

has apparently risen in recent years., for the timber does not

stop at the water’s edge but extends out for some distance, so that

almost the whole lake is bordered by the bark-denuded trunks of

trees long dead, standing with five or six feet of their bases below

the surface of the lake. From Basin Lake there is a narrow strip

of low, marshy land extending to Middle Lake, less than half

a mile away. Through this low; strip a well-marked creek bed,

filled with water, extends from Basin Lake to within a very few

rods of Middle Lake and there abruptly ends, disappearing

where there is a slightly higher strip of land on the edge of

Middle Lake. The last named lake is smaller and there are

numerous low islands in it. Lake Lenore, a few miles farther

southeast, is the largest of the three, being about twelve miles long

including the arm on the north, and about four miles across.

The lake is surrounded on two sides by high hills. The shores

of the arm,, differing from the shores of the main body of the

lake and of the other lakes, are thickly strewn with a mass

of large and small boulders. The water in Basin and Middle

Lake is very bad, being hardly fit for use in making tea, to say

nothing of drinking purposes. As Lake Lenore has an outlet

during rainy years, the water is better. Crooked Lake, at the

head of the Carrot River, is long, narrow and, as its name signi¬

fies, crooked. Its shores are high and covered, in great part, by

timber. It has much the appearance of a, large river, and may

possibly have been formed from an old river bed.

Such, roughly, is the character of the region investigated. As

may be imagined, many water-fowl resort annually, for breeding

purposes, to this locality, where there is an abundance of suitable

food and, as yet, little disturbance from the inroads of man.

Of course, no claim is made as to completeness of the list.

Many species were overlooked, no doubt, and others which were

observed are not included in the list because of the unfamiliarity

with them, and failure to secure specimens.

It should be mentioned that the spring of 1902 was considered

by the inhabitants of this region very wet,, cold, and backward,

and this doubtless had much to do with the late and scattered

nesting of many of the birds.

The descriptions and measurements of nests and eggs given

in this report were either made in the field, as in the case of the

bulkier nests, or taken from specimens collected in the region in

C ongclon — Saskatchewan Birds.

571

question during the season of 1902. In a few cases where speci¬

mens of uncertain identity were taken, these were sent to W ash-

ington, D. C. and the Smithsonian Institution very kindly identi¬

fied them as nearly as possible. Mention is made of this under

the headings of the species in question.

The nomenclature followed is that of the American Ornitholo¬

gists7 Union Check List of North American Birds. I wish to

express my thanks for valuable assistance rendered by Prof. R.

Ridgeway, and Prof. O. Dwight Marsh of Rjipon College.

Russell T1. Congdon.

Ripon, Wisconsin , February 2, 1903.

1. Western Grebe.

Aemophorus occidenDalis (Lawr.).

The Western Grebe is by no means a common bird in the local¬

ity designated. Only three individuals were observed and no

nests of the species were found. In Prince Albert there is a

specimen, mounted, which was caught by some section men after

it had flown against a telegraph wire in the neighborhood of

Saskatoon, M W. T. The individuals observed Were seen

swimming low in the water with only their long necks, white in

front, and their heads, above the surface. On being followed

by a boat, they immediately dived from view.

2. Holboell's Grebe.

Colymbus holboellii (Rienh.).

This large Grebe is a common summer resident in the region

under discussion. It makes its home in the large and small

lakes, not often being found in the sloughs, where the smaller

Grebes are nearly always present. It was found nesting in large

numbers at Water-hen Lake, Lake Lenore, Crooked Lake and

other smaller lakes.

The bird has a peculiar hoarse cry which can be heard at

most all hours of the day or night, but is heard most commonly

when one approaches a nesting colony. The Grebe, however, is

572 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

very retiring in its habits, hiding in the reeds, or seeking a more

distant part of the lake when approached, rarely allowing one

to come within gun-shot of it. It may he present in considerable

numbers and be unnoticed except by the more careful observer.

It is an excellent diver like others of the family.

The nest of Holboell’s Grebe is similar in construction and

situation to that of other Grebes, but much larger. The upper

picture in Plate XLII shows one of these nests. It is a mass of

water-soaked and half-decayed grass, reeds, and other vegetation,

mixed with mud and other debris. The nest is fastened to the

rushes or grass in which it is built, and is sometimes very well

concealed, but many of the nests observed were very openly

situated. Although floating, the larger part of the nest is sub¬

merged, the upper part being just enough above the surface to

keep the eggs out of the water. * The size of these nests as would

be expected, varies much. Of several nests measured at Crooked

Lake, the average seemed to be about nineteen inches outside di¬

ameter, and six and one-half inches inside diameter. The

depth, outside, two and one-half inches; inside, one and three-

fourths inches. The depth was measured above the surface of

the water, the nest extending several inches below the surface.

Nests in a colony of about thirty pairs of birds at Glen Lake,

averaged much larger, one measuring three feet, four inches, out¬

side, and nine inches inside diameter; and two and three-fourths

inches outside, and two and one-fourth inches inside depth.

The birds were found nesting both in isolated pairs and in colo¬

nies of considerable extent. At Crooked Lake, the nests were

placed in the narrow belt of rushes, bordering the lake at

different points. At Glen Lake, where there was a colony

of considerable extent, the nests were fastened to the grass

growing in the water on the border of a low island. Here, on

approaching the colony in a boat, the birds were seen through a

field-glass, standing on their nests and drawing debris over the

eggs to hide them from view. Part of the nests were found un¬

covered, probably because the birds were compelled to take too

hurried departure. A crow had a nest on the island in close

proximity to the colony, and the broken, empty egg shells lying

about gave sufficient evidence of his ravages among his neigh¬

bors, the Grebes.

The number of eggs found in a nest ranged from one to six,

none containing more than that number, while four and five

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLII.

Nest of Holboell’s Grebe.

Nest of Forster’s Tern.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

573

seemed to be the usual nest complement. Sets containing less

than four were probably incomplete and none such were found in

which incubation had commenced. The shape of the eggs is

oval or elliptical, somewhat larger at one end than at the other.

In color they are bluish or greenish white when freshly laid, but

they become stained light brown, by contact with the decomposing

vegetable material used in the construction of the nest. They

vary greatly in size, specimens measuring from 1.89 inches to

2.26 inches long, by 1.32 inches to 1.45 inches broad. The

average size of thirty-five specimens measured is 2.14 inches by

1.40 inches.

The first eggs were taken May 23, when none but fresh eggs

were found. Fresh eggs were also taken June 4, and several

nests containing eggs were observed as late as July 6.

3. Horned Grebe.

C o lymbus anritus ( Linn. ) .

This little Grebe was also found to be a common summer resi¬

dent. Its favorite home seems to be the smaller grass-grown

lakes and sloughs. In common with the other Grebes, it has

wonderful powers as a diver. It is very interesting to see one

suddenly disappear below the surface of a body of water, leaving

hardly a ripple to show where it formerly rested.

The nest of the Homed Grebe is very similar in construction

and situation to that of the next species, — the Eared Grebe, no

general difference being observed. This Grebe, like the others,

generally covers its eggs with debris, when it leaves the nest.

This apparently, is to protect them from the Grows and other

enemies who enjoy a feast of fresh eggs ; or it may be, as some

suppose, that the decaying vegetation with which the eggs are

covered supplies heat which aids in the process of incubation.

Hests containing eggs were observed from the first of June to

the middle of July. A set of five eggs, taken June 7, at Water-

hen Lake, measure 1.65x1.17, 1.66x1.19, 1.67x1.18, 1.65x1.16.

Many of the eggs of the Homed Grebe, observed, seem to be

of a more greenish tint when fresh than those of the Eared

Grebe, and more of a coppery color, or duller, after they have

remained in the nest for some time. Eggs of the two species,

however, cannot be distinguished, with any certainty, from

each other.

574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

4. American Eared Grebe.

Coiymbus nigricollis calif ornicus (Heerm.).

The Elared Grebe was found in considerable numbers in the

numerous reed- and grass-grown sloughs and, also, in the larger

lakes of the territory investigated. At Water-hen Lake it is a

common bird, making its home in the thickly growing rushes

near the shore of the lake, often building its nest in close prox¬

imity to the nest of the Holboelhs Grebe. The Elared Grebe,

like other Grebes, often forms extensive colonies during the nest¬

ing season. At Water-hen Lake, one colony observed contained

hundreds of nests and these were situated so close to one another

that between thirty and forty could be seen without changing

the position of the boat, and it required much care to force the

boat through the “bird-town” without destroying some of the

“homes.” The nests were built by piling up decayed and water-

soaked reeds, grass and other material, apparently brought from

the bottom of the lake by the birds, this material being placed

on a few reed stalks bent down to the water level and serving to

support the nest and moor it among the reeds. One of the

nests observed, is shown in Plate XLIIL The nature of the

material used in constructing the nest causes it to sink low in the

water so that the depression in the top, which contains the eggs,

is only a little above the water level. In fact, some of the nests

were so low in the water that a little water stood in the nest.

The nests varied much in size. A nest which may be taken as

a fair example, measured eleven inches, outside diameter ; four

and one-half inches, inside diameter ; two and one-half outside

depth, and one and one-fourth inside depth. Many of the nests

were so situated that they were quite well hidden by reeds and

rushes, while others were more openly placed and could be seen

at some distance. When this colony was first visited, July 6,

most of the nests contained three or four eggs while a few held

but one or two. Of several sets taken on this date, the eggs were

either fresh or incubation had just commenced. Pe turning

again, August 4, most, of the nests were found deserted, the eggs

having hatched ; but several still contained eggs advanced in in¬

cubation. Pests containing fresh eggs were also found as early

as the 5th and 11th of June. This shows a range of two months

in the time of nesting. The number of eggs laid by this bird

ranges from three to seven but most of the nests observed con-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLIII.

Nest of American Eared Grebe.

Nest of Coot.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

Trans. Wis. Acad.. Vol. XIV.

Plate XLIV.

Floating nest of Loon

Nest of Canada Goose.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

575

tained four or five. These eggs are a pretty bluish or greenish

white when laid, but soon become stained brown and often have

numerous bits of the nest material adhering to the shell. Fre¬

quently a nest is found in which the egg most recently laid is

light blue and unsoiled, while the remaining eggs of the set are

stained light brown. The eggs are oval in shape, and, as a com¬

parison of many specimens taken seems to show, of a more elon¬

gated oval than eggs of the Horned Grebe. The average size, of

ten eggs taken from a number of different sets, is 1.7 6"xl.l8".

7. Look.

Grama, imber (Gunn.).

Although the Great Northern Diver, as the Loon is often

called, is not a common bird in this locality, several pairs were

seen on the larger lakes. On Crooked Lake there were two or

three pairs, and their peculiar and piercing cry could frequently

be heard. The actions of the birds seemed to show that they

had nests on this lake but none were found here. At Glen Lake,

a smaller lake about seven miles from Crooked Lake, two nests

were found. The first one found on Mjay 26, contained but one

egg and was not disturbed ; the second, found on the same day,

contained two eggs which, on being blown, proved to be slightly

incubated. While the nest was being examined, the pair of

Loons swam about., a little distance out in the lake. The nest

was similar to that of Holboctl’s Grebe, being composed of

reeds, Jrass-roots, mud and rushes, floating in the water, with

much of the mass below the1 surface. It was moored to a stump

or stake, in open water near the edge of a low island'. It was in

a very exposed situation, not being hidden by any grass or rushes

whatever. This nest is pictured in Plate XLIV. The nest

measured twenty-three inches in outside diameter and ten inches

inside diameter. The height of the nest from the top to the

water was two and one-half inches, and the depth of the hollow,

one and one-half inches.

When the first nest was again visited eight days later, June 3,

it still held but one egg, which was cold. On blowing, it was

found to be fresh. Apparently the nest had been deserted by the

birds. This nest was similar to the other, being a floating mass

of partly water-soaked vegetation, moored among grass near the

edge of a small, low island. It differed from the other in that

576 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

there was some grass growing about it, affording, however, very

little concealment. In size, it measured the same as the other

nest, with the exception of its being three-fourths of an inch

deep. When first observed, the nest was on the southwest shore

of the island. The following week, a storm drove the waves

against the side of the island and, when the place was visited

again, on June 3, the nest had been moved to the north east

side of the island, where it was found fastened among the

grasses. This was rather surprising, and no plausible explana¬

tion was offered other than that the birds had moved it to obtain

shelter from the storm*.

One Loon was winged with a shotgun and could not take to

flight with its mate ; but it dove, apparently with as great ease

as ever, and kept out of gunshot.

The eggs of the Loon are very dark in appearance, the ground

color being olivaceous brown, spotted with very dark brown or

almost black. The spots are* small, mainly under one-eighth

inch diameter, and scattered evenly over the whole shell. The

three eggs measured: 3.29x2.01; 3.53x2.12; 3.46x2.16.

69. Forster's Tern.

Sterna forsteri (Nutt.).

This bird was found to be very abundant, especially in the

neighborhood of the larger lakes of the region. It is an easy

and graceful flyer and very expert in catching its food, which it

does by dropping rapidly to the water’s surface to rise again with

the morsel in its bill. These Terns always congregate in colonies

when the time for nesting arrives. They are, in general, late

nesters; for, several sets of eggs taken July 6 were fresh and

some nests were found containing incubated eggs as late as July

29. However, young birds were observed on the wing on the

last date, July 29, and a few nests containing eggs were seen as

early as Hay 26. Thus there seems to be a probability that two

broods are raised in a season. The Forster’s Tern was partic¬

ularly numerous at Water-hen Lake where* two separate colonies

were observed. The nests were built on masses of dead, floating

reeds, among the thick rushes growing in the water. They were

made of reed stems, rushes, and other debris, with a saucer-

shaped depression in the top, sometimes lined with finer ma¬

terial such as grass. A good example of the nest of this bird is

Congdoiv — Saskatchewan Birds.

577

shown in Plate XLII. A typical nest measured twenty-eight

inches, outside diameter; and four and three-fourths inches, in¬

side diameter. The outside depth was four inches; and inside

depth, one and one-half inches. Often several nests were so

closely placed as to join one another and generally these groups

were situated in small, open patches of water where no reeds were

growing for an area of a, square rod or a little less. Several of

these nests were found in the colony of the Eared Grebes, before

spoken of, and the nests of the two species were situated within

two or three feet of each other.

The nest complement seems to be three eggs although several

nests held four. However, the variety of markings in such nests

seemed to' point, to the probability that the eggs were laid by more

than one bird.

The eggs of the Forster’s Tern vary from brownish to green¬

ish in ground color, more or less thickly spotted and blotched

with dark brown and pale black, generally with obscure shell

markings of lilac. The marks are, as a rule, rounded and uni¬

form in shape, but on some specimens they take the form of very

irregular scratches and blotches. One specimen is of a very

light blue color and almost entirely unmarked except for a black¬

ish scroll encircling the larger end like the letter '“0.”

When a colony is approached, the birds rise from their nests

and fly about, sometimes making dashes at the intruder and com¬

ing into uncomfortably close proximity to his head. They con¬

tinue to keep up the chorus of harsh, grating cries while one re¬

mains in the neighborhood of the nests. If one of their number

is shot, they hover and dart with increased noise just above the

spot where the bird has fallen to the water, and continue this

until the wounded bird ceases to show signs of life.

77. Black Tekx.

Ilydrochelidon nigra surinamensis (Gmel.).

The Black Tern, or Black Gull as it is called in this locality,

is by far the most numerous representative of the Tern family.

Hot only is it common about the larger reed or grass bordered

lakes, but almost every slough of any size, also, has its Black

Terns, continually dashing about on the wing and darting after

the insects which constitute their food.

37

578 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

This Tern, too, nests in colonies though these are not often of

so great extent as those of the Forster’s Tern. Most of the nests

of this bird were found in grassy sloughs, from six to fifteen

being the number of nests in a colony. They were placed on

masses of dead grass, reeds, or other vegetable substance, floating

among the grass or reeds of the slough. The material used in

building the nests is generally grass, but, when the nest is sit¬

uated in a reed and rush grown slough, the material used is small

pieces and bits of rushes with a lining of finer material. A

slight depression in the top of the pile serves to keep the eggs

from rolling off into the water. An average of several nests

measured is: diameter, outside, seven inches, inside, three and

three-fourths inches ; depth, outside, one and one-half inches, in¬

side, one inch. Some of the nests observed were very flimsy

affairs, apparently only a slight hollow being scraped out in a

mass of floating debris. Unlike the Forster’s Tern, no nests

of the Black Tern were found placed in very close proximity to

each other. Elach nest had its own little area, at a distance of

several feet from the other nests of the colony. Like the Fors¬

ter’s Tern, these birds also make a great disturbance when their

breeding grounds are approached. One day when a duck was

shot in the neighborhood of a, colony of Black Terns, these birds

immediately gathered in numbers and hovered about above the

wounded duck, making a great disturbance until the bird ceased

splashing in the water.

At Water-hen Lake, the Black Tern could be seen at all hours

of the day, flying up and down over the rushes bordering the

shore, in search of food. In the evening they habitually came

ashore and flew about over the fields in great numbers, apparently

after the mosquitoes which were particularly numerous at that

time. Sometimes they were seen to gather near one spot along

the shore of the lake, and circle about in the air like a swarm of

bees.

The number of eggs laid by this bird is generally three, but

nests were found containing only two eggs, in which incubation

had commenced. A few nests were found containing four eggs,

the eggs of a nest bearing a close resemblance to each other. Al¬

though it is possible that the eggs of such sets were laid by more

than one bird, it seems probable that the Black Tern occasionally

lays four eggs at one brooding. The eggs of this bird are too

well known to need description here. The first nests containing

C ongdon — S ashatchewan B irds.

579

eggs were found on June 8, and fresh, eggs were also taken June

20 and July 2. Young of the Black Tern were observed flying,

on July 26. Frequently one can see two or three of the young,

resting on broken down rushes or floating debris, while the parent

birds fly about near at hand, searching for food to bring to tbeir

infants. If one approaches' the spot, the parent birds make a

great fuss as if fearing for the welfare of the young ; but when

closely approached, the young birds take to wing and join in the

cries of the old birds as if to show that they are well able to look

out for themselves.

120. Double-Chested Cormorant.

Phalacrocorax dilophus (Swains.).

The Double-crested Cormorant was found in considerable

numbers in suitable places throughout this region. It was gen¬

erally observed about the shores of the larger, more open lakes,

perched on the limbs of dead trees, or on rocks near the water’s

edge. When approached, it usually takes to- wing, alighting in

the water a short distance from the shore. The Crow-duck, as

it is called by the natives, is very much like the Loon in shape,

and is a good diver. It frequently flies a considerable distance

from one body of water to another, in its search for food, which

consists mainly of fish.

At Crooked Lake the birds were seen in considerable numbers,

but a search failed to reveal their nests. At Basin Lake, how¬

ever, better success was met with, for at that place, some thirty

or more nests were found in a colony on the lake shore. Their

choice of a nesting place was somewhat peculiar. Most of the

lake is bordered by timber which reaches to the water’s edge, and

in many places extends out into the water for some distance.

Picture, if you can, a slashing of dead timber, standing in water

six or eight feet deep, many of the trees fallen, with their

branches just above the surface; others half fallen, with their

trunks crossing and resting on other fallen or standing trees. It

was such a tangle, almost impenetrable, that the Cbrmorants had

chosen as the site of their rookery. Here the nests were built,

placed in the low branches or on the slanting tree-trunks when a

crossed trunk or a projecting limb afforded a sufficient support.

The nests were situated at a height of from three to nine feet

above the surface of the water. The place could be reached only

580 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

by water, and it was a difficult matter to work the boat through

the tangle and get at the nests. In some places, three or four

nests were situated within a yard or so of each other but, as a

rule, they were more scattered. The nests, were made princi¬

pally of sticks and twigs measuring from eight inches to a foot

and a half in length. The materials used to line the depression

were grass and weeds. A nest which may be taken as one of

average size, measured twenty-four inches, outside diameter;

eleven inches inside diameter ; ten inches outside depth ; and four

inches inside depth. Most of the nests contained four eggs, only

one containing as many as live. In sets containing this num¬

ber, four, incubation had commenced, while eggs from nests con¬

taining a smaller number than four proved to be fresh. In color

they are light, blue. There is deposited on the surface, a layer

of whitish chalky substance which can easily be chipped off>

They are elongated in shape and slightly larger at one end.

After becoming nest-stained they resemble eggs of HolboelTs

Grebe. The average size of fifteen specimens measured is:

2.41 xl.49. They vary from 2.28 to 2.01 in length, and from

1.39 to 1.58 in width.

The Cormorants kept up a continual squawking or chattering

noise which could be heard at some distance from the rookery.

When the observer approached to within a couple of rods of the

rookery, the birds flopped off the nests into the water, and, with

a great noise, scrambled to the open and took wing. They

continued to fly about over the place while their domain was

being disturbed.

125. American White Pelican.

Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (Gmel.).

A few of these birds were seen on some of the larger lakes, but

the only place where they were found in any number was Lake

Lenore. Here a flock of one hundred or more was seen. They

were swimming about at the inlet, of a creek emptying into the

lake, apparently searching for fish. On being approached, they

took to wing, breaking up into several smaller flocks, part of

them settling on the lake a short distance away and others flying

to a considerable distance. They were seen continually coming

to and leaving the lake, in flocks of eight or ten, or by twos and

threes or, occasionally, one alone. Their manner of flying is

Cong don - — Saskatchewan Birds.

581

somewhat peculiar: A few measured flaps of the wings are

given and then the bird sails for a short interval, this change be¬

ing made at regular intervals. It is amusing to see the Pelicans

take to wing from the surface of a body of water. They cannot

rise immediately but must paddle along the surface for a little

distance, somewhat after the manner of the Coot or some of the

Pucks. The Pelicans do not strike the water rapidly with one

foot after the other, like these birds, but the two feet are moved

together six or seven slow strokes aiding the bird in rising. The

favorite fishing ground of the Pelicans seems to be at the mouth

of a creek flowing into' a lake. They were observed swimming

about such places as late as twelve o’clock at night.

The breeding grounds- of this bird were not discovered.

132. Aiken ard.

Anas boschas (Linn.).

The Mallard, or Stock Puck as it is more commonly called by

the inhabitants, is a common summer resident. The first nest

of the Mallard was found on May 22. It was. situated on the

ground near a grass-grown slough, and was partially hidden

from view by an overhanging bunch of grass. The hollow was

lined with grass and a} few dried leaves, and held nine slightly

incubated eggs. Another nest, found on June 6, contained four

little ducks, just out of the shell, and six eggs chipped and about

to hatch. The female ACallard left the1 nest when it was ap¬

proached, thus betraying its situation. The nest was built at

the base of a clump of willows-, on slightly raised ground, over

the willow roots. It was a slight affair, being merely a hollow

lined with grass. The willows- were about ten feet high and sur¬

rounded by many similar clumps. The place was low, near a

lake shore, and had recently been flooded so that water reached

almost to the level of the nest.

The eggs of the Mallard are light olive green in color. The

sizes of some of the specimens measured are as follows : 2. 2 Ox

1.61; 2.29x1.59; 2.35x1.62; 2.29x1.63 and 2.31x1.62.

582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

139. Green-Winged Tear.

A nas carolinensis ( X ettion. ) .

This pretty little duck, though not as common as the Blue-

winged variety, is by no means scarce. Although a good table

duck, it is not especially sought after by the hunter because1 of

its small size.

The nest is built on the prairie, usually not far from a slough

or other body of water. Often a slight knoll is selected, a hol¬

low scratched out, and down from the breast of the bird used

for a lining. A tuft of tall grass or some weeds hides the nest

from view. The female is a very close sitter especially when

incubation is far advanced. In one case, a team of horses and

Wagon was driven over a nest, a horse passing each side of it,

and the duck flew out between the horses feet. This nest was

placed at the base of a cluster of raspberry bushes, about thirty

inches high, and was entirely hidden from view. The nest was

only a few feet from a field of grain. A hollow had been scraped

out and lined with small twigs from the berry bush, grass, and

a layer of down particularly thick about the rim. The nest con¬

tained nine eggs which were far advanced in incubation. Two

pictures of this nest are shown in Plate XLV.

On two occasions, when the nest was visited late in the after¬

noon, the bird was away and the eggs were entirely hidden from

view by a covering of down and bits of grass. When the bird

was found on the nest, she would not leave until one approached

within about three feet of the nest, when she would flutter off

and fly for a short distance then drop into the grass as if

wounded. Eggs from this nest measure: 1.70x1.23; 1.7 lx

1.22; 1.76x1.20. The eggs of the Green-winged Teal are of a

buff or cream color and, probably not distinguishable from the

eggs of the Blue-wing.

140. Blue-Winged Teal.

Querquedula discors (Linn.).

The Blue-winged Teal is perhaps the most numerous of the

ducks observed. During the nesting season, single males were

frequently seen feeding in the sloughs, probably not at a great

distance from the little wife so> busily engaged in her household

duties. 1

Trans Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLV.

Nest of Green-winged Teal.

Same nest as above removed from original position.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

583

The nest of this Teal is very similar to that of its near relative,

the Green-wing. The place chosen for a site is usually on the

prairie where the preceding year’s growth of grass has not been

burned over. Here, not far from a slough or other body of

water, a hollow is scratched out beneath an overhanging bunch

of grass. This is lined with line grass and a warm bed of

down from the breast of the duck. One nest observed was sit¬

uated on a knoll between two sloughs. The! long, dry prairie

grass almost hid the nest from view. The hollow lined with

down, was six inches in diameter and two inches deep. It con¬

tained eight eggs and another, broken, was lying on1 the ground

about two feet from the nest. The nest, was near a badger’s den

and apparently had been disturbed by that animal. The earliest

date on which eggs of the Blue-winged Teal were found was

May 31. The nest was situated under a low bush and held

eleven fresh eggs. On June 27, a female Teal was seen to

leave her nest with four or live young just hatched, three eggs

being left in the nest. On July 2, a duck of this variety was

seen with a brood of eight young about two weeks old. The

Teals, both the Green-winged and the Blue-winged varieties, re¬

ceive more than their share of annoyance from the Crows and

some of the animals which now and then feast on eggs. Many

nests were found with the egg shells scattered about, emptied of

their contents.

The eggs of the Blue:-winged Teal are very similar to those of

the Green-winged variety. Their color is buff or light cream.

The average size of thirteen eggs measured is : 1.83x1.32.

142. Shoveller.

Spatula clypmta (Linn.).

The Shoveller is one of the most handsome ducks of this

locality. The beautiful attire of the male with its glossy, green¬

ish black head and neck, silvery white fore-breast, blue-wing

coverts, and brown under parts, contrasting so strongly with

the plain dress of the female, is very striking. The bill, long

and rounded, and with many large liminae, is altogether pe¬

culiar, and gives the bird the name of Spoonbill among the in¬

habitants.

A nest found on June 5, was thought to belong to this bird.

It was situated on the ground in long, dry grass near the edge

584 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of a small body of water. The hollow' was. lined with grass and

a little down. The nine eggs which the nest contained, wTere

fresh. They are greenish buff in color, and average 2.09x1.44.

The smallest measure, 1.99x1.40; the largest, 2.15x1.47. Spe¬

cimens of these eggs were sent to the Smithsonian Institution

and identified as probably eggs of the Shoveller.

143. Pintail.

Dafila acuta* (Linn.).

This Duck is easily identified by its long, slender neck and

very long, sharply pointed tail., The nest is usually built in

the tall prairie grass in close proximity to water, though some-

times it may be at a considerable distance from any creek or

other body of water.

A nest of the Pintail was found on May 14, containing nine

eggs, in which incubation had commenced. The site chosen was

on the prairie under a low bush. The nest was well lined with

down, mixed with a little grass and bits of dry leaves. The

color of the eggs from] this nest is light bluish or greenish, and

the surface of the shell is very smooth. Several of the eggs

measured as follows: 2.10x1.52, 2.16x1.48, 2.17x1.50, 2.22x

1.46, and 2.20x1.48.

146. Redhead.

Ay thy a americana (Eyt.).

This large and rather handsome Duck was found to be not

uncommon on the sloughs and shallow lakes of this region. In

general appearance, it is very similar to the Canvas-back and is

sometimes confounded with it. Among other features, how¬

ever, the shape of the bill and head, alone, will serve to distin¬

guish them,. The bill of the Redhead is considerably shorter

than that of the Can v ass-back and the forehead rises from the

base of the bill in an abrupt arch while the Canvas-back’s fore¬

head rises in a gradual slope, following the line of the bill.

The nests of the Redhead were invariably found in grass or

reed grown sloughs, or among the rushes on the border of shal¬

low lakes. They are situated similarly to the nests of the Coot,

being basketrshaped piles of rushes or grass, or both, resting

partly in the water. The Redhead’s nest is situated in shal-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLVI.

Redhead Duck.

Nest containing eggs of both Redhead and Canvas-back.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

585

lower water than that of the Coot, as a, rule1, and in a thicker

growth of grass or rushes which afford it better concealment. A

mass of vegetation is heaped npi on some broken-down rushes or

grass, a rather deep hollow is made and! lined with grass and a

little down. The nest will rise and fall with the water to a

certain extent, but this motion is usually limited by those rushes,

used in its construction, whose roots are still fast in, the bottom

of the slough or lake. A nest of the Redhead is shown in

Plate XLVI.

147. Caxvas-back:.

Ay thy a vallisneria (Wils.).

The Canvas-back is conspicuous among the ducks observed,

commonly frequenting during the nesting season the sloughs

bordered by grass or rushes with an area of open water in the

center. Frequently the male bird would be seen swimming

about in the open water in the neighborhood of a nest, and the

female, on being flushed from the nest, would join her mate. A

big drake was shot on August 6, and the throat and crop con¬

tained water snails.

The nesting site chosen by the Canvas-back is very similar to

that of the Rjedhead and the nest itself differs from the nest

of the Redhead but little, if any. The place generally chosen

is a clump of tall grass growing in a slough where the water is

from a foot to two or three feet deep, or it may be a cluster of

rushes in the deeper water of a slough or shallow lake. Here,

some of the grass or rushes are broken down and a large amount

of dead grass or reeds is piled up and deeply hollowed. Then

a cosy lining and rim of down is added. The nest may be well

hidden by surrounding clumps of grass, but usually it is built

near small, open stretches of water. A typical nest is pictured

in Plate XLVII. One nest, situated among the rushes of a deep

slough, could be seen from a distance of three or four rods. It

was rather larger than most of the nests of the Canvas-back,

measuring thirty-six inches outside diameter; eleven inches in¬

side diameter ; eight and one-half inches outside depth and four

and one-half inches depth inside. Another nest was built up

from the bottom1 of a slough where the water was about a foot

deep. It was but slightly hidden by the bunch of grass in which

it was built. A nest of the Canvas-back containing eight eggs

of that bird and eight of the Redhead, is shown in Plate XLVI.

586 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

One nest observed, was rather odd in its location. It was

built in a bunch of low bush willows growing in tall grass in the

edge of a slough. The willows and grass supported the sides

of the nest, the lower part of which rested in the water.

There seems to be considerable range in the time of nesting.

The first nest was found on May 23, and contained seven fresh

eggs ; the last nest, containing eggs, was found on July 2 and

five of the six eggs it held were chipped and about to hatch.

E'ggs but slightly incubated were taken as late as June 21. The

number of eggs found in a nest was from five to eleven. Only

one nest contained as many as eleven, the majority containing

six or seven.

The eggs of the Oanvas-back are oval, slightly larger at one

end. The surface is smooth. In color, they are very light

green or bluish green. Of forty specimens measured, the sizes

vary from 2.31 to 2.60 long; and from 1.63 to 1.83 broad. The

average size of these specimens is 2.53x1.12.

149. Lesser Scaup Duck.

Ay thy a afftnis (Eyt.).

The Lesser Scaup or Blue-bill as it is commonly called, is a

common duck in this region. The nest of the Blue-bill is usually

situated on the ground, near a marshy place or slough. A de¬

pression is made in the sod and lined with grass and a little

down. 0!ne nest observed was situated on a mound, probably

an old ant-hill, about nine inches above the surrounding prairie.

It was only a few feet from a trail and the bird left the nest

every morning, for a period of several days, as one of the settlers

passed on the trail. The nest was about two rods from the edge

of a slough, bordered by bush willows. The bird was taken

that the identity might be certain. On June 20 the nest con¬

tained eleven eggs sightly incubated. The hollow, lined with

a little grass and down, was eight inches in diameter and two

and one-half inches deep. Grass growing on the mound bid

the nest from view.

The eggs of the Lesser Scaup Duck are elliptical in shape

and of an olive-gray or buff color. The average size of the

eleven eggs taken from the nest, described above, is 2.29x1.60.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLVIT.

Nest of Ruddy Duck.

Nest of Canvas-back Duck.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

Congdon* — Saskatchewan Birds.

587

153. Buffle-head.

Charitonetta albeola (Linn.).

The Buffle-head, or Bhtter-ball as it is called by many, is a

common bird in this region, particularly about some of the

timber-bordered lakes. The nesting site of this duck is, like

that of the Wood Duck, the hollow of a tree or stub. Xo nests

were discovered.

167. Buddy Duck.

Erismatum rubida (Wils.).

The Buddy is another of the more beautiful ducks observed.

The general color of the male, chestnut, with the contrast of

black and white, make him a beautiful bird. The Buddy

seemed rather more wary than some of the birds and rarely

allowed one L> approach within gun range. The nest of this

duck is a basket-like affair of rushes or grass half floating on

the water, and partly supported by the reeds among which it is

built. It is deeply hollowed and lined with grass of finer

rushes and a little down from the bird’s breast. It is very

similar in situation and construction to the nests of both the

Canvas-back and1 the Bedhead. In no case was the parent bird

seen leaving the nest, and some of the nests were almost stepped

on before they were seen because of their nearly complete con¬

cealment in the thick, tall grass. Perhaps it is safe to say that,

in general, the nests of the Buddy Duck were found in taller,

thicker grass, nearer the borders of sloughs, than the Canvas-

back’s and Bedhead’s nests, and more perfectly hidden from

view. A nest, found June 27, containing ten eggs, was of an

average size. It measured eighteen inches outside diameter,

seven and one-half inches inside diameter ; seven inches outside

depth, and four inches inside depth. The nest shown in Plate

XLYII is hardly a typical nest of the Buddy, being too flat.

The number of eggs found in a set was from six to ten. In

most cases, incubation had begun by the middle of June. The

eggs of the Buddy are rather peculiar, for duck’s eggs. In color

they are almost pure white when freshly laid, but become stained

and soiled from contact with the nest. The shell is coarse¬

grained and pitted. Their shape is oval, slightly larger at one

588 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

end. The sizes range from 2.32x1.77 to 2.63x1.83, the average

size of specimens measured being 2.49x1.80.

On several occasions, two or three eggs of the Ruddy were

found in nests which were merely low platforms of broken-

down grass, resembling closely the nest of the bittern. In one

nest of the Rjuddy, there were two, and in another, three eggs

much smaller than Ruddy’s eggs and of a greenish color. They

were evidently laid by some other variety of Duck. Plate

XLVIII shows a nest of the Bittern containing two eggs of that

bird and one of the Ruddy.

172. Canada Goose.

Branta canadensis (Linn.).

.Although most of the geese go> farther north to spend the sum¬

mer and rear their young, a few were found nesting about some

of the lakes of this region,. At a ranch on the shore of Glen

Lake, where a stop was made, there was a Canada, Goose which

had been captured the year before, when only a few days old.

Its wings were clipped and it wandered about in and out of the

cabin at will. It was at this place, Glen Lake, that the first

nests of the Canada Goose were found. On a low, gravelly

island in the Lake, two eggs were found and parts of the shell

of two others. The tw4 eggs were partly chipped and contained

goslings, ready to hatch but dead. The eggs lay on a mass of

rubbish which had, probably, been the nest. The water had

recently risen and submerged most of the island, flooding the

nest. The same day, May 26, on another island near by a nest

was found containing three eggs in which incubation was ad¬

vanced. The island was rather low and was overgrown with

short grass and weeds. There were numerous small logs and

stumps scattered about and among these — about three rods from

the water’s edge — the nest had been built. The base of the nest

was a platform of small, long sticks and twigs. On this was

placed a mat of fine grasses, the hollow being lined with a

good supply of grayish down in which was mixed a little grass.

The nest measured twenty-nine inches outside diameter, eleven

inches inside diameter; five and one-half inches outside depth,

and three and one-fourth inches inside depth. It was not hidden

by grass or weeds and could easily be seen at the distance of a

rod. The goose left the nest when the spot was approached,

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLVIII.

Nest containing two eggs of Bittern and one of Ruddy Duck.

Nest of American Bittern.

Photo by R. T. Congdon.

Cong don — Saskatchewan Birds. 589

and joined her mate out on the lake. The nest is shown in

Plate XLIV.

At Middle Lake, on May 29, three nests were found contain-

ig four, six, and nine eggs respectively. The nest containing

six eggs was situated near the central part of a low island. It

was placed in a clump of very low bushes and close by a log and

stump. Its presence was betrayed by the bird’s flying up as

the nest was approached. Grass and a few pieces of rotten wood

were used in its construction, the lining being of grass and down.

The eggs were advanced in incubation. On a low but dry

island, about two rods across, was situated the nest containing

nine eggs. It was built within two feet of the water’s edge, but,

as the water of the lake had recently risen, it is probable that

it had been originally farther from the water. This nest was

similar to the others but had only a little down in the lining.

The eggs were far advanced in incubation. The bird left the

nest as the island was approached and, alighting in the water a

short distance away, was joined by her mate. They kept up

their honking for some time.

The Canada Geese are early nesters and generally the eggs

are laid soon after the ice is gone out of the lakes in the spring.

On M|ay 27, six yellow, downy little goslings two or three days

old were caught along the shores of Glen Lake and taken to a

ranch house. Two or three of them lived to reach maturity.

There seems to be considerable range in the nesting time, how¬

ever, for eggs not more than half incubated were taken as late

as May 29.

The position of the nest was usually betrayed by the goose

flying from the spot, uttering the peculiar honk-honk. Some¬

times the goose was seen leaving the island before a landing was

made. Through the nesting season flocks of five or six birds

were observed flying from place to place to feed. It is probable

that these birds were the young of the two previous seasons ; for,

it is held that the goose does not lay until it is three years old.

The birds are rather wary and frequently two or three indi¬

viduals would be seen waddling ofl across the prairie or through

the long grass of a marshy place, with their long necks stretched

and heads up, watching every move of the intruder.

The eggs of the Clanada Goose are a soiled white in color.

E'ggs taken in this locality were much larger at one end, and

rather pointed at the other. The average size of twenty eggs

590 Yvisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

taken at Glen Lake and Middle Lake is: 3.37x2.25. The

largest measures 3.50x2.35; the smallest, 3.22x2.13. Eggs

which have been in the nest some time are generally more or less

stained and streaked with light brown.

190. American Bittern.

Botuurus lentiginosus (Montag.).

The Bittern, or Bog-pump, as it is appropriately called by

some, is a common summer bird in the region, and its peculiar

gutteral chunk-chunk can frequently be heard in the neighbor¬

hood of sloughs and swampy places. When flying, the crooked

position of its neck, forming a hump below, gives it a peculiar

appearance. Often, when closely approached, the bird stands

erect with its neck outstretched and bill pointing straight up¬

ward. In this position it closely resembles a stick and is fre¬

quently mistaken for one.

The Bittern is retiring in his habits, and for a nesting site

chooses some lonely place such as the tall grass of a slough,

bordered by bush willows. Unlike their near relatives, the

Herons, the Bitterns do not congregate in colonies to breed, but

the pairs nest singly and the nests are difficult to discover. A

rather crude affair serves the purpose of a nest. Where the tall

grass grows thickly in the border of a slough, some of the blades

are bent down to the water and on these, dead grass is piled. So

the nest is merely a platform of grass or rushes, only a few

inches above the water, and with but a slight depression to hold

the eggs and prevent their rolling offi. A nest of the Bittern is

shown in Plate XLVIII. Sometimes, when the nest is built

among rushes, the material used in the construction is rushes.

Part of the material used in the nest lies in the water and the re¬

maining part rests on this foundation. 'Nests observed were in

water from eight to fourteen inches deep. The nests measure

from fifteen to nineteen inches outside diameter and the top of

the nest is from three and one-half to five inches above the surface

of the water. The bird is a rather late breeder ; for nests contain¬

ing fresh eggs were taken as late as June 9 and 18. Five was

the largest number of eggs found in ia nest, while sets of three

or four were more frequently found. The eggs are drab, with

perhaps a greenish tint. They are elliptical in shape, some of

C ongdo n — S askatchew an B irds.

591

the specimens taken, being very short, almost round. The sizes

vary from 1.81 to 2.30 in length; and from 1.43 to 1.52 in

breadth.

194. Great Blue Heron.

Ardea herodias (Linn.).

Although this bird was not found in great numbers, indi¬

viduals were occasionally seen following the courses of creeks

or feeding along the borders of streams or lakes. As the bird

flies by, overhead, with its long neck and its longer legs — the

latter projecting behind on a downward slant — it presents an

odd appearance. One of the settlers stated that large numbers

of these birds nested in a colony at a small lake near Crooked

Lake, but the place was not visited. The only nest of this Heron

that came under observation was situated in the Cormorant

colony at Basin Lake. The nest was similar to the Cormorant’s

nest but somewhat larger. It was situated in the crotch of a

half -fallen tree, about, nine feet from the surface of the water

in which the timber was standing. The bird was seen to leave

the nest. The material used in constructing the nest was sticks

and twigs, the depression being lined with grass and weeds.

The tree in which the nest was built was in a tangle of dead

timber standing in several feet of water at the1 border of the

lake. The nest contained five eggs which were well started in

incubation. The eggs are greenish-blue in color, and elliptical

in shape. The five eggs taken measure: 2.23x1.71; 2.30x

1.72; 2.38x1.75; 2.39x1.75, and 2.41x1.74.

202. Black-crowned Higiit Heron.

Nycticorax nycticorax naevius (Bodd.).

A hundred or more of these birds were found nesting in a

colony at Water-hen Lake. Often about sundown ten or fifteen

of the birds were seen standing in the shallow water along the

edge of the Carrot Elver, or wading about on the muddy banks

in search of food. This Heron is more stocky in build and has

shorter legs and neck than most of the Herons and is not as un¬

gainly in appearance.

The rookery of these birds was situated in the thick rushes

not far from the shore of the lake. The rushes grew so thickly

592 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , Letters.

that it was almost impossible to force a way among them with

a boat.. A few nests containing eggs, however, were examined.

The nests were large piles of rushes placed among thick clumps

of rushes, A depression in the top held the eggs. The nests

rested on rushes, with the lower part in the water. They were

eight or ten inches high, above the water. In diameter they

measured from nine to fourteen inches, and the depth of the

hollow was about two inches. When the colony was visited,

July 6, the eggs examined were well advanced in incubation.

Four was apparently the number most commonly laid. As the

rookery was approached, the birds rose from their nests and

flew about in a cloud, at a safe distance from the intruder. The

eggs are oval-elliptical, and bluish-green in color. Specimens

taken measure from 1.99x1.46 to 1.87x1.40. Ho eggs taken

were as large as eggs of this Heron from Wisconsin.

206. SlANDHILL OrANE.

Grus mexicana (Mull.).

Saadhill Cranes were occasionally seen flying over, or feeding

in small flocks in the grain fields. Sometimes their antics, strut¬

ting about with outstretched wings and an up and down “bow¬

ing” movement, are very amusing.

Ho nests were observed, but one was reported by a native. It

was said to be built near a spring in a marshy meadow.

212. Virginia Hail.

Ballus virginianus (Linn.).

This little Rail was frequently seen running about on the mud

and vegetation in the edge of sloughs, in search of food. The

bird has a peculiar walk, or run, moving its head and neck for¬

ward and backward and its tail up and down, in time with its

•steps. The shrill cry uttered by the Rail is sometimes rather

startling. If one walks carefully through the tall, thick grass in

the edge of a slough he may come upon a nest of the Virginia

Rail with Mrs. Rail at home. If the bird is found on her nest,

she will quickly and quietly slide off into the water and sneak

away through the grass. When she has got away a little dis-

C ongdon — 8 aslcaicheiuan Birds.

503

intended to allure the intruder away from the nest.

The nest is situated in a thick clump of tall grass, just above

the water, and] the grass-blades come together above the nest so

as to conceal it from view, in a manner so natural as to attract

no attention. The materials used in constructing the nest are

grass-blades or rushes, with a lining of grass. The number of

eggs found in a nest was from eight to twelve. A set of ten

eggs, in which incubation was well advanced, was taken on

June 17. The ground color of the eggs varies from cream or

buff to almost pure white, spotted mainly about the large end

with reddish brown and a few markings of obscure lilac. The

average size of the specimens taken is 1.29x.92.

214. Sora.

Porzana Carolina (Linn.).

The Sora was observed to be more numerous than the

Virginia Rail in this locality. About the edge of almost every

grassy slough or reed-grown pool, a, pair or more of these birds

had their nest. In situation and construction, the nest of the

Sora is very similar to that of the Virginia Rail. It is gen¬

erally placed in a tuft of tall grass, over five or six inches of

water. S'ometimes the nest is built in a clump of reeds, when

the material used in its structure is largely reed-stems with a

lining of grass. An average nest, measures eight inches in out¬

side diameter, four inches in inside diameter; outside depth

five inches, and inside depth two and one-fourth inches. The

rim of the nest slopes gradually on the inside so that the hollow

is much the shape of a saucer. The base of the nest is. about

on the water level; and the top of the rim, five or six inches

above the water.

Rresh eggs of the Sora Rail were taken as late as June 17.

The earliest date on which eggs were observed is May 31. On

June 18, a, nest was found containing one young bird and eight

eggs. The number of eggs constituting a set was found to be

from eight to sixteen, the latter number being the largest ob¬

served in a nest.

38

594 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

221. American Ooqt.

Fulica americana Gmel.

this region, was found in large numbers. There is hardly a

slough of any size but is inhabited by one pair, or more, of

these birds. At Water-hen Lake, they congregate by the thou¬

sands to build their nests and rear their young. The nests are

frequently placed in very open situations. While passing along

a trail, they are often observed floating on the surface of sloughs,

moored among short, scattered grass-blades, and could be seen

for a, distance of several rods. At Water-hen Lake they were

commonly built in the tall rushes growing about the border of

the lake. The nests are composed of reeds and rushes, with a

lining of the same material. The picture of a nest, taken at

Water-hen Lake, is shown in Plate XLIII.

The first nest observed was found on May 23 and contained

ten eggs, incubation just commenced. It measured seventeen

inches, outside diameter, eight inches, inside diameter ; six and

one-half inches outside depth, three inches inside depth. It was

moored among cattail rushes iu a large slough close to a, lake.

The nesting period seems to extend over •considerable time, as

fresh eggs were taken as late as July 6, and, on August 4, a nest

was found containing four eggs chipped and about to hatch.

From six to eleven eggs were found in a nest. Twenty eggs

from this region average 1.93x1.33.

Frequently, when the nest of the Cdot is approached, the

parent bird may be seen to slip off into the water and sneak

away through the rushes, uttering her single but oft repeated

note, apparently to distract the attention^ of the intruder from

the nest. When the Coot with a brood of young is suddenly

come upon, she flutters along the water as though very severely

wounded, in an attempt to allure you into pursuing her, that

her chicks may escape. The eight or ten little chicks scatter

and disappear among the rushes in a surprising manner.

224. Wilson's Phalarope.

Phalaropns tricolor (Vieill.).

This bird was seen in considerable numbers, generally in1 low

meadows or in the; neighborhood of sloughs or swampy places.

C ongdonr — Saskatchewan Birds.

595

The only nest observed was found on May 27, when it contained

only one egg. The bird flew from its nest, hidden by grass,

almost at the feet of the investigator. When the place was

visited one week later, June 4, the nest still held only one egg

which was cold and apparently deserted.

The nest, was situated on a slight rise of ground, partly sur¬

rounded by a grass-grown slough. A slight depression had been

made and the egg rseted on the bare earth, there being no lining

whatever. The nest was well hidden by the grass blades among

which it was built and was difficult to discover.

The egg which the nest contained is of a brownish yellow,

ground color, very thickly spotted all over the surface with dark

brown. About the larger end there are numerous blotches, giv¬

ing the eggs a very dark appearance. The egg is smaller than

eggs of the same variety from Wisconsin, measuring only 1.15x

.91. While the nest was being examined, the pair of Phalaropes

could be seen swimming about in a, slough close at hand. Ap¬

parently they were little disturbed by the intrusion.

230. Wilson's Snipe.

Gallinago delicata (Ord.).

The Jack Snipe was frequently seen feeding on the mud

banks along Water-hen Lake, and about muddy pools. When

flushed, it utters a sharp, almost startling, note and hastens to

get out of gun range, using a method of flight sufficiently erratic

to keep the best shot guessing.

A set of four eggs, thought to be those of Wilson’s Snipe, were

taken on June 5. These eggs were afterwards sent to the

Stnithsonian Institution at Washington, for identification, and

it was decided that they were probably eggs of the Wilson’s

Sinipe.

The nest was situated on the ground, at the base of, and

partly hidden by, a bunch of grass. It was merely a depression

in the earth with a lining of grass. The situation was on the

low prairie, not far from water. When the nest was found,

June 5, the eggs were fresh.

The ground color of the eggs is light brown with a greenish

tinge. One of the four is more of a drab color. They are

boldly marked with spots and blotches of dark reddish brown,

with a very few spots and scratches of black. The blotches are

596 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

gathered about the larger end and in two of the eggs run to¬

gether so as to entirely conceal the ground color. They bear a

close resemblance to some eggs of the Black Tern. In shape

they are pyriform, and measure as follows: 1:44x1.11; 1.47x

1.09; 1.48x1.07, and 1.48x1.10.

242. Least Sandpiper.

Tringa minutilla Yieill.

This little Sandpiper was not uncommon about the shores of

the numerous lakes of the region. Many flocks, of from five

or six to a dozen or more, were observed on the banks of Water-

hen Lake. They are not timid, and allow one to come within a

short distance of them. Often, they were seen feeding in com¬

pany with other shore birds.

KSTo nests of the Sandpiper were found. On July 12, how¬

ever, along the gravelly, sloping shore of an arm of Lake Lenore,

the shells of two broken eggs much resembling eggs of the Least

Sandpiper were found. Several Least Sandpipers were seen

near the place designated.

251. Hudsonian G-odwit.

Limosa haemastica (Linn.).

Several pairs of Marbled Grodwits make the muddy shores of

Water-hen Lake, and the prairie about the lake, their summer

home. They seem to prefer the low, mud shores of the lake

and the neighboring pools, and here may often be seen feeding.

Being large, they are conspicuous. The bill is very long and

slightly upturned. The bill of one specimen from Water-hen

Lake measured four and one-eighth inches in length.

Ho nest of the God wit was found. A pair of birds, whose

actions showed that they had a nest in the vicinity of a certain

spot on the prairie, not far from a stream of water, were careu

fully watched, but the nest was not discovered. When the ob¬

server approached the place, on different occasions', one of the

birds appeared on the scene, first, and flew about uttering a

peculiar cry of warning; then the mate appeared, having ap¬

parently just left the nest, and the two birds continued to fly

about and utter their cries while the observer remained in the

neighborhood. On one occasion, the observer retired a little

C ongdofb- — S askaich ewan Birds.

597

distance from the place, and hid behind a clump of willows,

hoping that the birds would settle. One of the birds, however,

followed to the hush, flew1 about, and repeatedly dashed directly

towards the observer, rising just in time to avoid the willows.

The attempt to discover the nest was finally given up.

Oh July 14, a pair of Marbled Grodwits and four nearly full-

grown, young were seen feeding on the shore of a muddy pooh

Both a mature and a young bird were taken. The plumage of

the young bird is markedly different from that of the mature

bird. It is generally lighter colored, being marked on the wing

by a white bar and, at the base of the tail, by a band of white.

By the middle of August the Godwits had formed flocks and,

in company with other shore birds, were observed feeding on the

mud flats about the outlet of Water-hen Lake.

273. Kilrdeer.

Aegialitis vocifem (Linn.).

This noisy Plover was everywhere abundant, generally being

seen about the shore of a lake or other body of water. The bird

is very wary and rarely, if ever, allows itself to be approached

while on the nest. Therefore, it is rather difficult to discover

the spot where the eggs are laid. Little attempt is made at nest-

building; a slight depression in the earth, with perhaps a few

blades of grass for a lining, serving as a nest. The place chosen

is often a grass-covered knoll or rise of ground not far from

water. Otoe nest observed was merely a hollow in the sandy

shore of an island, there being no lining whatever. Another

nest was situated on a chip pile only a rod or so from a house.

This nest contained young birds on J uly 20. On June 6, eggs

were found almost ready to hatch. The number laid is gen¬

erally four.

In shape the eggs are pyriform, quite pointed at the small

end. Their color varies from dirty white to drab, more or less

heavily marked with different shades of brown often verging

almost into black. Their size is about 1.55x1.10.

598 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .

298. Canada Crouse.

Dendragapus canadensis (Linn.).

The Canada Crouse, more commonly called Spruce Partridge

in this region, was not observed. It is reported by the natives,

however, as not uncommon in the spruce swamps north of Prince

Albert, across the north branch of the Saskatchewan Raver, and

is no doubt a resident.

300a. Canadian Ruffed Crouse. .

Bonasa umbeilus icgeda (Linn.).

The Canadian Ruffed Crouse is a rather common bird in the

region visited. It was generally found in the strips of poplar

bordering the Saskatchewan River, and in poplar bluffs. The

drumming of the male was a familiar sound in the woods. One

fallen log was observed which was frequently resorted to by

one of the birds for this purpose, and the marks on a certain

area of it gave evidence of long use.

The nest of this variety differs but little, if any, from the nest

of the Ruffed Crouse, — Bonasa umbeilus. It is a slight de¬

pression in the ground, beside a fallen tree or stump or in a

brush pile. Leaves or bits of bark serve for a lining. One

nest was situated at the base of a standing poplar tree. The

hollow measured six inches in diameter and two inches in depth.

It was thinly lined with dead leaves. The nest was only eight

feet from the side of a trail by which one of the settlers passed

daily. The parent bird did not leave the nest as it was passed,

but sat always with her tail against the base of the tree, and

sharply eyed the passer-by. Ob one occasion, she remained on

the nest until approached within two feet. The nest was. but

little hidden, the remarkable resemblance of the bird, on the

nest, to the surroundings, affording much protection.

On June 20, this nest contained nine eggs which were almost

fresh. On May 7, a female of this species was shot and, on

skinning, was found to contain a completely developed egg. On

the following day, another bird of this variety was taken, which

also held a fully developed egg and many others in different

stages of development. On May 24, several broken eggs were

observed lying on the sandy shore of a point running out into

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

599

Crooked Lake. The eggs had holes in their sides, large enough

to admit a man’s finger, and had been emptied of their contents,

probably by some animal.

The eggs are of a rich cream color. Some sets are thinly

spotted with brown. One egg, from the set of nine previously

mentioned, has several large blotches of reddish brown on the

surface. The average size of several eggs, taken from different

nests, is 1.57x1.14.

308. Sharp-tailed Grouse.

Pediocaetes phasianellus (Linn.).

The Pin-tail Grouse or Prairie Hen was found to be a com¬

mon bird in the more open prairie districts of the region under

consideration. At the beginning of the nesting season, about

the middle of May, it was a frequent occurrence to come upon

seven or eight pairs of these birds, lined up for a courting or

wedding dance. The manner in which the cocks strut- back and

forth before the hens is as amusing as it is undescribable.

The nest of the Sharp-tailed Grouse is situated on the prairie,

at the foot of a tuft of dry grass or a; low bunch of weeds. The

slight hollow, which holds the eggs, is lined with dry grass. A

favorite place seems to be that- portion of the prairie which has

not been burned over by the previous year’s fires. Here, among

the long, matted grass, the nest is well concealed. The bird is

a close sitter and will frequently remain on the nest until one

almost steps on her.

Many nests of eggs- of this bird are destroyed annually by

prairie fires. As early as May 12, a nest- was found containing

the scorched and blackened shells of eight or ten eggs ; and many

other nests which had been burned were found on later dates.

The crows too, and some of the prairie animals, do much in the

wav of destroying eggs of this bird as well as eggs of the various

prairie nesting ducks. Some of the birds, apparently, nest

again after their first clutch is destroyed ; for fresh eggs were

taken as late as June 19. On July 31, two broods- of young

were seen, of which the first were but a few days old and the

second almost full-grown. By the third week in August, many

of the young birds had about attained their growth.

From eight- to- twelve-1 eggs were found in a, nest, but it- is re¬

ported that as many as fifteen are sometimes laid. They are

000 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

greenish or olive brown in color; minutely, but often thickly,

speckled over the entire shell with brown of a reddish or darker

shade. Several specimens taken in the Saskatchewan River

region average 1.70x1.30.

325. Turkey Vultuee.

Cathartes arara (Linn.).

Occasional individuals of this, bird were seen sailing about

high in air, scanning the surrounding country. One specimen

was seen which had been caught in a trap. No nests were found

but, doubtless, a few pairs nest in this region as they were seen

at different times throughout the spring and summer.

331. Marsh Hawk.

Circus hudsonius (Linn.).

The Marsh Hawk is one of the most numerous of the hawks

in this region. Its favorite haunts are in the neighborhood of

swamps and sloughs and the marshy parts, of the prairie where

there is a scattered growth of low bushes. About such places it

may be seen for hours at a time, sailing back and forth near the

ground in its search for small quadrupeds and other morsels of

food. No nests of this bird were discovered. The picture of a

wounded Marsh Hawk is shown in Plate XLL

337a. KriderT Hawk.

Buieo borealis hriderii ILoopes.

Note. — Krider’s Hawk was usually observed in the vicinity

of bodies of water. When seen on the prairie, it. was generally

in the neighborhood of sloughs.

For a nesting site, this Hawk selects one of the taller trees in

a poplar bluff, or occasionally a tree standing almost alone on the

prairie is chosen. In the case of a dozen or more nests observed,

the site was close to a body of water. Several nests were built

in small bluffs on the edge of sloughs. Two nests were placed

near the top of tall trees growing only a few feet from the shore

of Crooked Lake, and could be seen from the lake, at a distance

of a mile or more. Another nest, was built in a poplar standing

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

601

on the sloping bank of the Saskatchewan River, while still another

was perched on the very top of a poplar stub, on an island in the

same river. The stub holding the last nest had no limbs what¬

ever, the nest resting on the upper part of the stub where the

tree-trunk had broken. Most of the nests were situated at a

height of from thirty to forty feet from the ground. One was

forty-five feet up, while another was only fifteen feet from the

ground. The nest is large, measuring from thirty to thirty-six

inches, outside diameter, and from eighteen to twenty-four

inches outside depth. The depression which holds the eggs is

shallow, several nests showing measurements of from seven to

ten inches diameter, inside; and from three to three and three-

fourths inches depth, inside. The materials used in the construc¬

tion of the nests observed were, mainly, sticks and twigs, with

occasional pieces of bark, sod or a few leaves. The hollow is

lined with shreds and bits of bark, a few small twigs and some¬

times a little grass. Most of the nests had a few twigs of poplar

with buds or green leaves scattered about the rim of the nest.

In this region the eggs are laid during the: first week or two

of Mlay. Several sets taken the last week of May were far ad¬

vanced in incubation. On Mlay 27, a nest; was found containing

two, yellowish, downy young, two or three days old. T'wo seems

to be the number of eggs most commonly laid, for, of the ten

nests observed, seven contained two eggs, one contained two

young birds, and the remaining two contained one egg each.

The two single eggs were far advanced in incubation.

The eggs of Krider’s Hawk vary greatly in appearance.

The ground color is a pale bluish-white. Some of the eggs are

entirely unmarked, while on others the shell is so crowded with

splashes and blotches as to almost obscure the ground color.

Eggs range all the way between these extremes, though the ma¬

jority seem to be not heavily marked. The markings are gen¬

erally some shade of brown. Some of the specimens are

rather evenly spotted, while others look as though the color

had been unevenly daubed on with a brush. On some of the

eggs the markings are clouded and splashed. Elven in the same

set, the eggs frequently differ widely. One may be entirely un¬

marked, and the other spotted and streaked; or, one may be

much more heavily marked than the other, the markings in one,

perhaps, clustering about the smaller end and in the other

about the larger. A few specimens show faint markings of light

002 \ ! 'isconsin A cademy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

brown and purple. The average size of thirteen eggs from Sas¬

katchewan, 1ST. W. T., is 2.33x1.82. The smallest measure

2.17x1.77 ; the largest, 2.46x1.85.

Several times as the observer approached a nest, the Hawk

was seen standing half upright on the nest, watching the in¬

truder. The bird always left the nest before the tree was

reached, generally soon enough to he out of gun range. Com¬

monly, on leaving the nest the bird was joined by her mate and

the two circled about at a safe distance uttering, at frequent

intervals, their piercing, whistle-like cries of alarm.

348. Ferruginous Rough-Leg.

Archibuteo ferrugineus (Licht.).

0'n Hay 5, a pair of these birds was found to have a nest

along the bank of the Saskatchewan River near Saskatoon, Sask.

The nest was situated in the fork of a large birch tree, at a dis¬

tance of forty feet from the ground. The tree stood only live or

six feet from the water’s edge. Large sticks, pieces of drift¬

wood, twigs and bark were the principal materials used in the

construction of the nest. The lining consisted of small twigs,

strips of bark, pieces of turf, grass, and three large black feath¬

ers. A squirrel’s head, on the edge of the nest, gave evidence

that the birds had not gone hungry. This nest was considerably

larger than any nest of Krider’s Hawk observed. It measured

forty inches outside diameter, twelve inches inside diameter,

twenty inches outside depth, four inches inside depth.

When the observer approached the nest, both birds flew from

it, one of them leaving the place, the other remaining for some

time, hying about or quietly perched in a tree close at hand,

watching the intruder’s every move.

The three handsome eggs which the nest held were very slight¬

ly incubated. Their ground color is bluish white, but they differ

widely in marking. The first one is quite sparingly marked with

spots, small, with the exception of two or three, of a light choco*-

late brown. The second egg is heavily marked with large and

small spots and, about the larger end, bold blotches of dark red¬

dish brown. This is the most striking and handsome egg of the

set. The third egg is a sort, of “go-between,” of the other two.

A great number of reddish brown spots and specks are evenly

scattered over the whole surface. Most of them are so minute,

C ongdon — 8 ashatcbewan Birds.

603

however, that the eggs has not the appearance of being heavily

marked. Only a few obscure marks of purple show on the first

two eggs, while on the third they are very numerous. Thus we

have, from the same set, three eggs which, at first sight, show

little if any resemblance to- each other. The eggs measure re¬

spectively, 2.50x 2.00 ; 2.44x1.98 ; 2.46x1.97.

352. Bald EIag-le.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linn.).

The Bald Eagle does not inhabit this region in great numbers.

The few individuals observed were seen about rivers or lakes.

In May 29, a nest of this bird was observed at Middle Lake. It

was situated on the top- of a tall poplar stub, on a wooded island

in the lake, and could be seen at a, distance of two miles or more.

The nest was an immense structure made of large branches,

pieces of drift-wood, and bark. It was practically impossible to

reach the nest as the stub on which it was built was decayed, and

so small, for some distance below the nest, that it seemed a very

poor support for so large a nest.

On the ground, about the foot of the stub, was a great mass

of half-decayed branches and sticks which had apparently been

accumulating for many years.

The birds retreated to a safe distance when the nest was ap¬

proached, but their actions seemed to show that there were young

birds in the nest.

360. American Sip arrow Hawk.

Faico sparverius Linn.

The little Sparrow Hawk is very common in this region. It

is quite fearless and frequently makes its abode in close prox¬

imity to- the habitation of man. Often, as one passes along the

railroad, one or more of these birds may be seen flying low over

the prairie in search of food, or, occasionally, alighting on the

telegraph poles or wires. On the wing, they are easy and

graceful, and expert in catching their food which consists mainly

of insects and small rodents.

On the open prairie the Sparrow Hawk resorts to the scatter¬

ing strips of timber along water courses. For a nesting site,

the bird selects some hollow in a tree or dead stub. Frequently

604 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

tlie deserted nest of a Woodpecker is taken. Sometimes, when

there is a scarcity of suitable trees, a cavity in a telegraph pole

is made to serve the purpose. There is no lining to the nest

unless the bottom of the cavity happens to be covered with hits

of wood. One nest observed was situated in a dead stub stand¬

ing in a strip of small timber bordering a creek. The cavity

had, apparently, been made by a Woodpecker. It was about

two and one-half feet deep and contained four fresh eggs on

J une 6. The ground color of the eggs is creamy white, marked

with numerous small dots, spots, and splashes of chestnut brown.

The eggs measure about 1.35x1.11.

367. Short-EIared Owl.

Asia accipitrinus (Pall.).

Only one or two of these birds were seen and no nests were

found. One of the inhabitants of the region stated that he had

seen several nests of the bird in the past two or three years.

They were situated on the ground, generally on the low, marshy

prairie where there was a scattering growth of bush willows.

375a. Western Horned Owl.

Bubo virginianus subarcticus (Hoy).

Two young Horned Owls about two-thirds grown, were found

May 30, perched on a rude platform of sticks which was ap¬

parently the remains of the nest. The tree which held the nest

was in a growth of poplars near the edge of Basin Lake. The

height at which the nest was built was about twenty-five feet.

The parent O'wls were not far off and made their appearance

when the observer approached the young birds. They alighted

on trees close at hand and expressed their disapproval of the in¬

trusion by sharply snapping their beaks. The observer had

partly ascended the tree, in order to get one of the young owls,

when he was very forcibly surprised by a sharp blow on the

head. Turning quickly, he saw that one of the old Owls was

the offender. The bird made repeated dashes but did not repeat

its first act, preferring to keep out of reach of a. branch which

the intruder had broken off for self -protection.

Congdon — Saskatchewan Birds .

605

37 6. Snowy Owl.

Nyctea nyctea (Linn.).

A pair of Snowy Owls was seen at Saskatoon on M!ay 4, and 5.

They were found in a rather dense fringe of timber on the bank

of the Saskatchewan River. A careful search was made but no

nest containing eggs or young was found, although there was a

rather large nest of sticks; in the vicinity which appeared to have

had recent use and, possibly, had belonged to these birds. The

birds were rather wild and would not allow one to come within

gun shot of them.

388. BLack-billed Cuckoo.

Coccyzus erykhrophthalmus (Wils.).

A bird seen on August 2 was probably a Black-billed Cuckoo

but identity was not positive. No specimen of this species

was taken.

390. Belted Kingfisher.

Ceryle alcyon (Linn.).

The Kingfisher was occasionally seen along streams of water

or the borders of lakes, often perched on a dead limb overhanging

the water. From this vantage point, the bird darts into the

water -after its m'eal of fish. The head and bill of the bird are

strikingly large in comparison with the size of its body.

At Basin Lake a Kingfisher was seen about a freshly excavated

hole in a high bank on the lake shore. This was on May 30 ;

and, as the excavation seemed to have been just completed, it is

probable that the complement of eggs had not been laid.

393a. Northern Hairy Woodpecker.

Dryobaies villosus leucomelas (Bodd).

This bird was frequently seen, generally in poplar bluffs,

searching the trees and stubs for insects. One; was sometimes

seen about the wood-yard and stable at the1 home of one of the

inhabitants. Although no nests were found, it doubtless breeds

in this region, for it was observed throughout the spring and

summer. 1 i,

606 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Aids, and Letters.

402. Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker.

Sphympicus varius (Linn.).

A few specimens of this bird were observed. No nest was

found, though it doubtless breeds.

405. Pileated Woodpecker.

Ceophloeus pileatus (Linn.).

The Pileated Woodpecker, or Logcock, is occasionally met.

with in the more densely-wooded district north of Prince Albert,

across the north branch of the Saskatchewan. It was not seen

in the scattered timber south of Prince Albert.

412. Flicker.

Colaptes auratus (Linn.).

The Flicker was found to be a common bird. It was par¬

ticularly so about Prince Albert, in the timber along the Sas¬

katchewan Liver. Many were also seen in the poplar bluffs

scattered over the prairie south of Prince Albert.

The nest is an excavation in a dead or partly dead, tree-trunk.

There is no lining unless it be a few bits of wood left in the cav¬

ity after excavation. I he same cavity is often used several

successive years. The height at which the cavity is made

varies greatly, some being as high as forty or fifty feet, while

others are not more than eight feet from the ground.

In this region, the bird begins to lay, generally, by the first

of June. The number of eggs in a set varies considerably,

from five to nine being the usual number. More than that, how¬

ever, are sometimes laid.

420. Nightiiawk.

Chordeiles virginiamis (GmeL).

This bird is also common in this region. Through the day it

usually resorts to the cover of woods and may sometimes be seen

resting flat on the horizontal limb of a tree. About evening, or

on cloudy days, it spends its time flying through the air in1 pur¬

suit of insects. They often hunt in companies of half a dozen or

Congdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

607

more, and their peculiar cries, uttered while sailing through

the air, are frequently heard. Occasionally one will swoop

dowTn towards the earth and rise up again, describing in its

course an arc of a circle. The peculiar booming sound which is

heard seems to' come from the wings.

The Highthawk builds no nest, but lavs its two eggs on the

bare ground, — sometimes' on the open prairie and sometimes in

the edge of woods.

428. Ruby-Throated Hummingbird.

Trochilus colubris (Linn.).

A pair of these birds was seen at Crooked Lake and another

pair was seen at different times near Water-hen Lake. Ho

nest was found.

444. Kingbird.

Tyramms tyr annus (Linn.).

The Kingbird was very common especially in the low prairie

districts where there are numerous sloughs surrounded by a

fringe of bush willows. In such localities there is an abundance

of insect food and this, no doubt, is a great attraction for this

flycatcher.

The nest is built in trees or bushes, not far from the ground.

A nest found on Tune 27 was situated in a willow bush growing

in the edge of a slough where the water was a foot deep. The

nest was fastened to the twigs, which were woven into the walls

of the structure. The height of the nest above water was four

feet. The nest measured four and one-half inches outside diam¬

eter, three inches inside diameter, four and one-fourth inches

outside depth and two> inches inside depth. It was closely

woven of grasses with a lining of finer grasses and a little down

from the willows.

Three eggs, taken from the nest described, measure .7 Ox. 90;

.69x90; .71x93.

608 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

456. Phoebe.

S ayornis phoe be ( Lath. ) .

The Phoebe was occasionally seen. On May 21, a nest was

found in a. shed on the bank of the South branch of the Saskat¬

chewan at St. Louis crossing. The nest was built on a cross¬

beam and composed of mud and grass, lined with grass and hair.

The three eggs which the nest contained were fresh.

474a. Paeeid Horhed Lark.

Octocoris alpestris leucolaema (Cones).

This bird was very common in the prairie portion of the

region. It is an early neater, the set of eggs often being com¬

pleted before the snow has melted and left the ground entirely

bare. A nest found on May 16, contained four good sized

young. It was openly situated on a grassy slope. The top of

the nest was just a little above the surface of the surrounding

earth. The cup^-shaped hollow was thinly lined with grass

stems. A nest found May 27 was sunk into the ground at the

base of a bunch of grass, on a gradual slope close to the shore of

a small lake. The depression was substantially lined with grass.

There were also a few bits of downy vegetable material in the

lining. The measurements of the nest are as follows : diameter,

outside, three and one-half inches ; inside, two and three-eighths

inches ; depth, outside, two and one-half inches, inside, one and

three-fourths inches. The nest contained three eggs so far ad¬

vanced in incubation- that it was impossible to preserve them.

In appearance they differed little, if any, from the better known

variety, — the Prairie Horned Lark.

484. Gahada Jay.

Perisoreus canadensis (Linn.).

The Whiskey Jack, as the bird is called, is reported as com¬

mon in the spruce timber north of Prince Albert. They oc¬

casionally hang about the lumber camps and feast on the leav¬

ings from the table. This bird was not observed south of Prince

Albert.

Gong don — Saskatchewun Birds . 609

488. American Grow.

Corvus americanus Aud.

This black robber was always in evidence. It was a common

sight to see eggs of the various water birds, emptied of their

contents and scattered along the edge of a slough or lake. In

one case a pair of Crows had built their nest on an island, close

to the edge of which a colony of HolboelFs Grebes were nesting.

The number of egg shells scattered about gave evidence of the

work of the Grows.

The nest of the Grow was frequently found built in one of the

trees of a poplar bluff or in tall willows. The situation was

generally not more than ten or fifteen feet from the ground.

Several nests were built in scrubby clumps of trees growing in

pools of water, the nests being situated in the branches nine or

ten feet above the water. A nest found at Saskatoon, hT. W. T.,

on May 3, contained four fresh eggs. The tree in which the

nest was built was growing on the steep, wooded bank of the

Saskatchewan Elver. The nest was situated in the crotch of a

poplar, at a height of eleven feet. It was composed of sticks,

twigs, rootlets and binding twine, lined with strips of bark,

binding twine, grass and a large amount of hair. The bird re¬

mained on the nest, as is usually the case, until the tree was

struck with a stick. One nest observed was lined almost entirely

with cow’s hair which had been taken from a dead cow lying on

the prairie near the poplar bluff in which the nest was situated.

It certainly did make a cosy nest. The site chosen by the pair

of birds spoken of as nesting near the colony of Grebes was

rather novel. The island on which the nest was built was low

and, at one end of it, a large number of overturned stumps and

small logs were strewn over the ground. One of the stumps

stood upright, propped up by its roots, and under this crude

arch the Grows had built their nest.

Several nests were found from May 3 h> May 19, and in most

cases the eggs — four or five in number — were either fresh or

slightly incubated.

39

610 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts } and Letters.

494. Bobolink.

Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linn.).

This beautiful songster was frequently seen and heard about

the meadow lands and prairie. The plain brown dress of the

female contrasts so strongly with the brilliant attire of the male

that, for one not acquainted with the Bobolink, it is hard to-

believe they are the same species.

One pair of birds was watched at differnet times, but the

whereabouts of their carefully hidden nest was never revealed.

495. Cowbird.

Molothrus ater (Bodd.).

The Clowbird was found in large numbers. Flocks were often

seen about cattle or horses and some of the birds were invariably

perched on the backs of the animals ; both parties, apparently,

being contented with the arrangement.

The Cowbird builds no nest but lays its eggs in other birds’

nests. Eggs of this tramp were found in nests of the Vireo

and some of the Sparrows. One or two eggs- are found in a

nest. Two eggs, found in a nest with three pretty eggs of the

Vireo, looked very much out of place.

After the breeding season, the Chwbirds were seen in large

flocks feeding in the fields and on the prairie.

497. Yellow-Headed BIlackbird.

Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus ( Bo-nap. ) .

This handsome bird, although not as common as the next spe¬

cies, the Red-wing, was found in considerable numbers. The

small grassrgrown sloughs do- not seem to suit the tastes of the

Yellow-head and he is not commonly found here where the Red¬

wing is always present. He seems to prefer the large sloughs,

especially those which have tall reeds or cat-tail rushes growing in

them, and the lakes which are bordered with a growth of rushes.

In such places the male in his gaudy attire of bright yellow and

black may be seen, balanced on a swaying reed and uttering, at

intervals, his harsh, grating note. The female, more modestly

C ongdon^-Sasha Icheivan Birds. 611

attired. is> probably not far away, engaged in her domestic

duties.

Tlie nest of the Yellow-beaded Blackbird is a well built, cup-

sbaped affair fastened to several closely growing rushes at a

height of from six to fourteen inches above the water. It is

closely woven of grass and narrow strips of rushes. The wall is

thick and the hollow deep. Many nests observed were lined

with broad grass blades or strips of rushes which gave the in¬

terior of the nest a rather bright yellow color while the exterior

was the color of the dry grass. These nests were particularly

attractive. The Yellow-heads usually nest in colonies, some¬

times of only five or six pairs, but ordinarily of much greater

extent. Tall, thickly growing rushes of a slough or shallow,

marshy lake afford a suitable location for a colony.

The number of eggs laid is three, four or five; the usual

nest complement, however, is four. The eggs show little or no

resemblance to the eggs of most Blackbirds. The ground color

is light gray and the whole surface is quite thickly covered with

spots of brown and umber. In an occasional specimen the

markings have gathered in a wreath about, one end. The ground

color in some specimens is of a greenish shade. Their size is

about 1.05x.72.

498. Bed-Winged Blackbird.

Agelaius phoeniceus fortis (Linn.).

This noisy denizen of the marshes was everywhere abundant.

Hot as hard to suit as the previous species) the Yellow-head, it

was found on the borders of almost every slough and marshy

lake. Often the two species nest in close proximity. When a

nest is approached while the female is sitting, the bird hurries

off just before you get within reach, and her cries soon bring the

male to the spot. The pair circle about and give evidence; of

their disapproval of the intrusion, in a very noisy fashion.

The nest is similar to that of the Yellow-headed Blackbird but

not as attractive by far. It is more rounded and less deeply

hollowed. The lining of broad, yellowish strips found in the

Yellow-head’s nest is not present, finer grasses being used. The

situation chosen may be a clump of rushes, a bunch of tall

grass or, sometimes, a low bush on the edge of a slough. One

nest observed wras built in a willow, eight feet from the ground.

612 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The eggs, three to five in number, are very different from those

of the preceding species. In color they are light blue, variously

spotted and streaked with purple and black. The size is about

1.04x.75. Nests containing eggs were observed from the last

week in May to June 17.

501b. Western Meadowlark.

Stw'nella magna neglecta (Aud.).

The Western Meadowlark was ever present in the low prairie

tracts. The bird seems to delight in perching on a fence or more

elevated stand, as a telegraph wire, and giving its clear, whistling

note.

The nest of the Western Meadowlark is rather hard to dis¬

cover, so carefully is if hidden in the long grass ; but the bird is a

close sitter and frequently reveals the situation of her treasures

by flying from; the nest almost at your feet. It is generally

situated at the base of a bunch of grass and, frequently, some

of the grass blades are so bent over as to form a more or less

complete covering or dome. The nest is not a bulky, thick-

walled affair but is rather frail, the walls being closely woven of

grass blades. It is occasionally sunk into a slight depression

at the side of a hummock.

The eggs are five or six in number. A nest found on May 17

contained six eggs in which incubation had commenced. The

color of the eggs is white, thickly spotted with different shades

of reddish-brown and purple. The spots are, with the exception

of a few, quite small and scattered over the whole surface but

rather more thickly about the larger end. The six eggs measure,

respectively, 1.10x.85; 1.15x.86; 1.15x.85; 1.16x.82, 1.17x.87

and 1.16x88 inches.

511b. Bronzed Grackle.

Quiscalus quiscula aeneus (Itidgw.).

The Crow Blackbird, as the Grackle is commonly called, was

found in large numbers. About the numerous sloughs fringed

with willows the hoarse note of the Grackle could be heard

mingling with the shriller notes of the Bjed-wing. The birds

frequently nest in colonies, the low scrubby trees and bushes on

C ongdowr — Saskatchewan Birds .

613

the edge of sloughs serving the purpose of nesting sites. The

nest is a bulky, rather rough looking affair composed of weeds

and grass, frequently with a layer of mud in the walls. The

hollow is lined with finer grasses. The Grackle is an early

nester. A nest observed June 17, near Water-hen Lake, held

four young birds almost large enough to leave the nest.

529. American Goldfinch.

Astragalinus tristis (Linn.).

The bright-colored little Goldfinch, or Wild Canary as it is

often called, was occasionally seen during the summer but no

nests were found.

534. Snowflake.

Passer ina nivalis (Linn.).

Several small flocks of Snow Birds were observed during the

first two weeks of May. Specimens were taken on May 8, and

13, but none were seen after the 13th of May, they having de¬

parted for their northern home. The specimens taken were not

in the pure white dress, the upper parts and wings being marked

with brown and blackish.

538. Chestnut-collared Longspur.

Calcarius ornatus (Towns.).

Three birds which were probably Longspurs were seen, but

not positively identified. ~Ro nests were found.

558. W HITE-THROATED SPARROW.

Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmel.).

The clear, whistling note of this bird was often heard ringing

through the woods. This Sparrow is a common bird in the

more wooded portions. It was frequently observed quietly

scratching away on the ground beneath the underbrush, search¬

ing for food. The note is usually given when the bird is high

up in a tree. These birds are seen throughout the summer and,

though no nests were found, doubtless breed in this locality.

614 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

560. Chipping Sparrow.

Spizella socialis (Wils.).

The Chipping Sparrow was occasionally observed, generally

not far from shrubbery or bushes. On May 21 one of these

birds was seen building a nest. The site chosen was a low bush

in a grove of scattered timber. The nest, about half com¬

pleted, was made of grass, the usual lining of hair not yet hav¬

ing been added. No nest containing eggs was found.

561. Clay-c ohored Sparrow.

Spizella pallida (Swains,).

The Clay-colored Sparrow is a common bird in the region

visited. Its favorite haunts seem to be the portions of prairie

where there are numerous, low willows and bushes growing in

scattered clumps. In such localities the nest may be found.

It is situated on the ground at the base of a tuft of the long,

dry grass of the previous year. Occasionally it is built ini the

matted grass at the foot of a small bush. The1 nests observed

were not sunk into the earth but were built on the surface. The

body of the nest is composed of comparatively coarse grass

stems, while the cavity — which is deeply cupped and rounded —

is lined with very "fine grasses and a small amount of hair. The

walls of the nest bend inward near the top, thus making the

inside diameter less at the top than it is farther down in the

cavity. 0'ne nest, which was built at the foot of a bush and

closely hidden in the grass, is rather peculiar in that on one side

the wall bends in over the hollow, forming quite an arch. Of

the nests examined, the cavities vary but little in size, measur¬

ing very close to two inches in diameter and one and one-half

inches in depth. In outside measurements, however, the nests

differ considerably, some being much bulkier than others. Gen¬

erally the nest is considerably longer in one diameter. Two

specimens measure, respectively : two and three-fourths by three

and one-half inches; and three by four and one-half inches, in

outside diameters, the first one being near the average size. The

outside depth of the nest is, in specimens measured, about two

inches. On the whole, the nest of this bird is an attractive and

cozy little structure. So securely hidden are they in the grass

C ongdon — S aslcatcheivan Birds.

615

that they can he found only by flushing the bird. In some cases

when the bird was scared from the nest, almost under the feet

of the observer, a continued search was necessary to find the

spot where the nest was situated. The bird usually left the

vicinity of the nest when disturbed, but on two1 occasions, re¬

turned at the expiration of fifteen or twenty minutes time.

The eggs of the CHay-colored Sparrow are a pretty light blue,

in color, not thickly spotted with dull, reddish brown, some of

the spots being almost black. The markings are gathered main¬

ly about the larger end. Eggs taken, vary in size from .65x.51

to .73x.54. The number of eggs found in a nest was four or

five, most of the nests containing the latter number, five. Fresh

eggs were found the last week of May and the first two weeks

of June.

567. S'clate-colored Junco.

Junco hy emails (Linn,).

This bird was frequently seen near Prince Albert in the tim¬

ber along the Saskatchewan Fiver. On June 12, a nest con¬

taining three young birds and an addled egg was found, the bird

revealing its position by flying ofl when approached. The local¬

ity was a low, swampy tract covered with spruce timber, and

the roots and vegetation seemed to be the only support for the

feet. The nest was almost hidden from view by the long, dry

grass covering a slight mound on which the nest was situated.

The little birds were several days old and it is surprising that

the addled egg had not been broken or thrown from the nest by

the parent. The egg is white, marked with spots and specks of

reddish brown, particularly numerous about the larger end

where they form a wreath. It measures .70x.53.

581. Soxo Sparrow.

Cinerea melodia (Wils.).

The Song Sparrow is a common bird in this region. The

nests found were built on the ground, hidden in the long, dry

prairie grass or at the base of a bush. One was situated close

beside a log; another was almost covered over by an arch of

grass. The last nest contained young birds about half-grown,

616 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

on June 17. The material used in the construction of the nest

is coarse grass with a lining of finer grass.

584. Swamp Sparrow.

Melospiza georgiana (Lath.).

On May 26, a nest and five eggs, thought to belong to this

bird, were found hut the identification was not satisfactory.

Eggs from the set were sent to the1 Smithsonian Institution, how¬

ever, and it was decided that they were probably eggs of the

Swamp Sparrow.

The nest was situated on the ground, hidden in a clump of

grass. Low prairie, not far from the border of a slough, was

the locality chosen. The body of the nest is composed of coarse

grass-stems and sticks, while the lining consists entirely of very

fine grasses, the branching ends of which show them to be the

tops. Although sunk a little way into the earth, the nest is sub¬

stantially built and is compact.

The hollow is well rounded and rather deep. The measure¬

ments of the nest are : inside depth, one and three-eighths inches ;

inside diameter, two and one-fourth inches ; outside depth, two

and one-fourth inches ; outside diameter, three and one-fourth

by four inches.

When the eggs were found, May 26, incubation had not com¬

menced. In color they are of a light bluish tint rather thickly

spotted with reddish brown and a few obscure markings of pur¬

ple. The eggs are much more heavily marked at the larger end

and, on three of the specimens, the spots so near together as to

entirely cover the bluish ground-color. The spots are clouded,

not clear and distinct. The five eggs measure: .75x.54; .75x

.54; .74x.54; .74-X.54; .75x56.

595. Dose-breasted Grosbeak.

Zamelodia ludoviciana (Linn.).

This rather handsome bird, though not at all common, was

occasionally seen. Two individuals were observed about the

border of a lake surrounded by timber. Ho nests wTere found.

Congdon > — Saskatchewan Birds.

617

611. Purple Martin.

P rogue suhis (Linn.).

In this, region the Martin still follows its primitive custom in

the selection of a nesting site. The settlers are so few that bird

houses and suitable nooks about buildings are practically want¬

ing and the hollows of trees are made to answer for nesting pur¬

poses. The majority of the cavities are probably made by

Woodpeckers, originally, and when deserted fall to the Martin

or to the Tree Swallows. Many nests of the Martin were found

in dead stubs standing in timber bordering a lake. At Basin

Lake, where much of the shore is bordered by the standing

trunks of dead trees, the Martins were especially numerous.

Some of the nests were in trees which stood in several feet of

water. The nest cavity was usually lined with such materials

as twigs, leaves and grass. One nest was situated in a tree

standing only a few feet from a tree in which there was a. nest

of I\ rider’s Hawk. Both nests were occupied but the Hawks

seemed to pay little or no attention to their near neighbors.

612. Cliff Swallow.

Petrochelidon lunifrons (Say.).

Two colonies of the Cliff or Have Swallows were seen. The

odd nests, made entirely of mud by the little plasterers, were

arranged in rows under the eaves of buildings. Many of the

nests were so close to each other that they joined, only the double

wall intervening. At one house the nests had just been torn

down and the Swallows seemed to be in great dismay. Many

were flying about in the air while others were clinging to the

wall where the nests had been, apparently making a very close

examination. These birds were aided in keeping this position

on the face of the building by bracing their tails against the

wall. Ho nests were disturbed.

614. Tree Swallow.

Tachycineta bicolor (Vieill.).

The little White-bellied Swallow was frequently observed

often in company with the Purple Martin. The nests were

618 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

quite similar in situation to those of that bird, — a hollow in a

stub or tree-trunk usually serving the purpose. Sometimes the

nests are built in a hollow at the top of a stump standing partly

in water. The hollow is lined with a thick bed of feathers on

which the crystal white eggs rest. In number they range from

five to eight or nine. Hosts containing eggs were found the last

of May and after the middle of June. Large numbers of these

birds were often seen, skimming along just above the, rushes of

sloughs or marshy lakes, searching for their insect food.

619. Cedar Wax wing.

Ampelis cedrorum (Vieill.).

Several of these birds were seen in a strip of small scrubby

timber on the edge of a lake, but no nests were found. As they

were seen here both in June and July, there is no doubt, but that

they were nesting.

622a. White-rumped Shrike.

Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides (Swains.)

The favorite haunt of the Butcher-bird, as the Shrike is often

called, is a portion of the1 prairie where there is an abundance

of low, scrubby trees and shrubbery. It was observed, however,

scattered over the region generally. The nest, is situated in a

bush or in the thick branches of a tree not, far from the ground.

It is a bulky structure, the materials comprising it being twigs,

grass, weeds and rubbish in general, with a thick lining of feath¬

ers. Oh May 21, a nest was found, apparently completed, but

it contained no eggs. It was built in a bush-willow near a trail.

Oh July 3 a pair of Shrikes were seen feeding four young which

had left the nest but were not quite able to fly.

624. Bed-eyed Vireo.

Vireo olivaceous (Linn.).

On June 17, a, nest was found and a Vireo slipped off and

flew away when closely approached. Although it was probably

a Bed-eyed Vireo, it is not certain as the bird was not secured.

The nest was a beautiful little cup-shaped structure woven of

C ongdon — Saskatchewan Birds.

619

vegetable fibers, fine shreds of bark and small grasses, and sus¬

pended from the fork of a small branch about six feet from the

ground. The nest contained three eggs of the Vireo, pure white,

finely spotted with reddish brown, and two eggs of the Cbw-bird.

When the nest was visited a week after it was found, only a small

part of the rim still remained clinging to the fork. The nest,

eggs and bird had disappeared.

7 04. Catbird.

Galeoscoptes carolinensis (Linn.).

The Catbird was occasionally seen, usually in shrubbery or

bush-willows bordering a slough. No nests came under observa¬

tion.

705. Brown Thrasher.

H arporhynch u s rufus (Linn.).

Several of these birds were seen at different times during the

summer. No careful search was made for their nests and none

were found.

721b. W estern House W ren.

Troglodytes aedon aztecus Baird.

This lively little' bird is rather common in this region. Its

nest may be found tucked away in a great variety of places, gen¬

erally in nooks and comers about buildings. One found on

May 21 was built under the cornice of a building. It was com¬

plete, apparently, but contained no eggs. Another nest, ob¬

served late in July, was built in the crevice between the logs of

an unfinished cabin. This nest contained young birds about

half grown.

725. Long-billed Marsh Wren.

Cistothorus palustris (Wils.).

About the larger sloughs and shallow, rush-grown lakes this

noisy little Marsh Wren makes its home. Perched on a bended

reed with its tail standing nearly straight up, it presents a very

620 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

amusing appearance. These birds are peculiar in tbeir nesting

habits in that one pair of birds construct five or six nests and

use only one. These nests are located in close proximity to each

other ami resemble each other in every respect except that the one

containing the eggs is the only one lined. The nest is an almost

round, hollow ball, closely woven of dry grass, with a little wil¬

low-down intermingled. The hollow is usually lined with wil¬

low-down. Grass or rushes growing in water are woven into

the sides of the nest and support it a few inches above the water

of the marsh or slough. One nest measured four and three-

fourths inches outside diameter, and six inches outside depth.

The entrance, so small as to almost escape observation, was situ¬

ated in the side considerably nearer the topi than the bottom.

On June 20 a nest containing six eggs slightly incubated was

found. The eggs are heavily marked over the entire surface

with chocolate brown, giving them a very dark appearance.

Eggs measure : .63x.50 ; .66x.51 ; and, .67x/51.

761. American Robin.

Merida migratoria (Linn.).

Though not as common as farther south, the Robin is present

in considerable numbers. The first nest was found on May 19,

and contained one egg. It was built in a willow only two feet

from the ground.

Nothing of special interest was noted in regard to its habits.

English Sparrow.

Passer domesticus (Linn.).

This little pest has wandered to the Saskatchewan region, but

does not yet exist in such large numbers as to be the nuisance

that it is farther south.

VARIATIONS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE BILE

DUCT OF THE CAT (Felis domesticus).

W. S. MILLER, M. D.

Associate Professor of Anatomy, University of Wisconsin.

MATERIAL.

The results of the following investigation are based on a study

of one hundred animals which were obtained for use in the Com¬

parative Anatomy Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin.

It is highly improbable that there was any close relationship be¬

tween the different individuals for they came from all parts of

the city of Madison and the surrounding country. All the ani¬

mals were full grown. Ao record was kept in regard to sex or

sex variations.

NOMENCLATURE.

Lobes: — The liver of the cat is divided by the Ligamentum

falciforme hepatis into a right and left half ; each half is further

subdivided into secondary portions termed lobes. The number

and names of the various lobes differ according to the author one

may be reading.

In aecor dance with the results of this study the liver of the

cat is subdivided into six lobes, viz., quadrate , right median,

right lateral, left median, left lateral and caudate (Fig. 1). I

have named the median division of the right lateral “quadrate”

because, as will be seen, its ducts have a separate distribution

from that of the lateral division and because it is homologous

with the quadrate lobe of the human liver. I have also consid¬

ered the cranial and caudal divisions of the right lateral lobe as

divisions, rather than separate lobes, because their ducts usually

unite and because there is always present more or less fusion of

the two divisions.

622 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Ducts: — For the purpose of analysis the following nomencla¬

ture of the ducts is made use of, viz., ducti hepatici, ductus he¬

paticus dexter, ductus hepaticus sinister, ductus hepaticus pro-

prius, ductus cysticus, ductus choledochus (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1— Case No. 62. The distribution of the ducts' is typical. R. M., Right

median lobe; R. L., Right lateral lobe; C., Caudate lobe; L. L., Left lateral

lobe; L. M., Left median lobe; Q., Quadrate lobe.

Fig. 2. — Case No. 33. A ductus hepaticus proprius is present. D. H. D., Duc¬

tus hepaticus dexter; D. H. S., Ductus hepaticus sinister; D. H. P., Ductus

hepaticus proprius; D. Cy., Ductus cysticus; D. Ch., Ductus choledochus.

Ducts from the lobes of the- liver toi the ductus cysticus or to

the ductus choledochus are called ducti hepatici.

A duct formed by blanches coming from the right median and

right lateral lobe is called the ductus hepaticus dexter.

Miller — Distribution of the Bile Ducts of the Cat. 623

A duct formed by branches coming from the left median and

the left lateral lobe is called the ductus hepaticus sinister.

The ductus hepaticus dexter et sinister may continue as sep^

arate ducts and join, either the ductus cystieus or the ductus

choledochus. If, however, they should unite into a single duct,

the resulting duct is called the ductus hepaticus proprius.

The ductus choledochus is considered as beginning at the point

of entrance of the ductus hepaticus dexter et sinister. If either

of these ducts enters below the other, then the ductus choledochus

is considered as beginning at the point of entrance of the lower

duct.

The duct leading out of the vesica fellea is called the ductus

cystieus.

vMET.HOD OF STUDY.

After the ductus choledochus and the ducti hepatici had been

exposed by a careful dissection the bile (fel) w7as expressed

from the vesica fellea and the exposed ducti hepatici by direct

pressure with the finger. The duodenum was next opened, its

surface washed clean and the cannula of a syringe filled with a

vermilion starch injecting mass was inserted into the orifice of

the ductus choledochus and the' injection was continued until the

ducts were well filled with the mass.

Each liver was carefully dissected and a drawing of each dis¬

section was made upon a standard diagram of the lobes of the

liver. The very small anastomoses which were occasionally

seen ( PI. XLIX, Fig. 1 ) were ignored in the analysis. When two

or more ducts were found leaving one lobe for different desti¬

nations, each destination was recorded. (See ducts from qua¬

drate lobe in Plate XLIX, Fig. 2.) If, however, two or more

ducts from one lobe had the same destination, they were recorded

as one. (See in text, Fig. 2, the ducts from the left median

lobe.) In general a smaller duct was said to join a larger, but

in one case an arbitrary ruling had to be made. The ducts from

the cranial and caudal divisions of the right lateral lobe were

often apparently of equal size. When they were unequal in size

the duct from the caudal division was generally the larger. The

ruling was therefore made that when these two ducts joined, the

cranial duct was always considered as joining the caudal duct.

624 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

RESULTS.

The number of dueti hepatici varied from one to nine. The

curve (Fig. 3) shows the mode to be two, this condition being

present in thirty-eight cases.

38

Fig. 3. — Curve of the number of ducti hepatici.

A ductus hepaticus proprius was found in twelve cases (Fig.

2 ). In five other cases the component ducts of the ductus hepat¬

icus dexter joined the ductus hepaticus sinister independently

( PL XLIX, Fig. 3 ) . The ductus hepaticus sinister was present in

ninety-nine cases; the ductus hepaticus dexter in only fifty-five

cases. This great difference is due to the frequency with which

the ducts from the right median lobe entered the ductus cvsticus

separately. The high percentage in the case of the ductus he¬

paticus sinister is undoubtedly due to the fact that it is formed

by ducts from two large lobes, fianked on either side by a smaller

lobe. The lobes which contribute to the formation of the ductus

hepaticus dexter et sinister are shown in Table I.

Miller — Distribution of the Bile Ducts of the Cat. 625

Table I.

The destination of the ductus hepaticus dexter et sinister is

shown in Table II.

Table II.

The analysis of the ducts from each lobe is given in Table III.

The destinations given are the immediate ones, the ultimate des¬

tinations have been shown in Table I.

Table III.

Note. — In the preparation of the above tables, my laboratory assist¬

ant, Mr. R. H. Johnson, gave me efficient aid.

40

626 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

It will be observed that both the quadrate and caudate lobes

although intimately connected with the lobes of the right half

of the liver send their ducts to the ductus hepaticus sinister in

the majority of cases. Reighard and Jennings have erred in

stating that the ductus hepaticus dexter is “formed by smaller

ducts from the right half of the cystic lobe, from both divisions

of the right lateral lobe and from the caudate lobe.”1

The typical condition of the ducts of the cat’s liver must be

that in which each duct is disposed according to the greatest

frequency for that particular duct. Only three livers wTere

found which met this condition ( Fig. 1). Four others deviated

only in not having the ductus hepaticus dexter et sinister oppo¬

site.

The vesica fellea was found to be bilobed in five instances and

in one trilobed. One case was found in which two vesicae felleae,

each provided with a ductus cysticus, were present (PI. XLIX,

Fig. 4). One case presented a remarkable variation in that the

vesica fellea was bilobed while the ductus cysticus presented a

dilatation which formed an accessory vesica fellea. (PI. XLIX,

Fig. 2.) One ductus heputo-cystiem was found (PI. XLIX,

Fig. 1). In no case was a ductus hepaio-entericus found al¬

though each case was carefully examined for its presence.

The livers of several dogs and guinea pigs were also examined,

but in the light of the variability here shown it is evident that

a description of a few cases would possess little value. The con¬

ditions found can only warrant the statement that the individual

variation often exceeded the specific differences between these

three species, for some of the cats resembled the condition found

in both the dog and guinea pig, while other cats w^ere still more

aberrant from the cat type.

It is evident that the diagram given by Reighard and Jen¬

nings for the ducts of the cat’s liver and by Ellenberger and

Baum2 for the dog’s liver cannot be accepted as typical of the

respective species.

It is also evident that the ducts of the cat’s liver are variable

to an unusual degree, the individual variation exceeding, family

and ordinal differences and that the relation of the ducts does

not conform to the relation of the lobes.

i Reighard and Jennings. The Anatomy of the Cat. New York, 1901.

2 Ellenberger und Baum. Anatomie des Hundes. Berlin, 1891.

Miller — Distribution of the Bile Ducts of the Cat. 627

PLATE XLIX.

628 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Fig. 1,

Fig. 2

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLIX.

Distribution of ducts in case No. 17; one of the cases which

presented a great variation in the arrangement of the ducts.

It will be noted that the greatest variation is found on the

right side; all the ducts coming from the various lobes en¬

ter the ductus cysticus or the ductus choledochus separately.

Note especially the duct coming from the upper part of the

right median lobe and emptying into the vesica fellea: —

the only instance of a ductus hepato-cysticus found in the

series. A number of small anastomosing ducts are also

shown.

Case 27. The peculiarities of this case have been mentioned

in the text. It may oe well to state that there was no ob¬

struction present to the free flow of the bile and the walls

of all parts of the ducts and dilatation were perfectly nor¬

mal. That the anomaly is not an artifact was shown by the

fact that the peculiarity was noted before the ducts were in¬

jected.

Case 30. The ductus hepaticus dexter is absent. The ducts

which usually form the ductus hepaticus dexter join inde¬

pendently the ductus hepaticus sinister.

Case 34. This specimen shows a wide divergence from the

normal. Two vesicae felleae and ducti cystici are present.

The ducts from the right half of the liver join independently

the right ductus cysticus, while the ducts from the left half

form a ductus hepaticus sinister in the normal manner.

Case 19. No ductus hepaticus dexter present. The following

variations are especially noteworthy: — a duct passes from

the lower part of the caudal division of the right lateral

lobe forward and joins the ductus cysticus; the duct from

the quadrate lobe passes behind the ductus hepaticus sinis¬

ter and extending nearly the whole length of the caudate

lobe joins the ductus choledochus at the porta hepatis; the

duct from the caudate lobe passes forward, behind the duc¬

tus hepaticus sinister and joins the ductus cysticus.

Case 10. No ductus hepaticus dexter present. The duct from

the cranial division of the lateral lobe joins the ductus

Trans. Wis, Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate XLIX

■

■r ••

(

Miller — Distribution of the Bile Ducts of the Cat. 629

cysticus. The duct from the caudate lobe joins the ductus

cysticus, the same as in figure five.

Fig. 7. Case 11. No ductus hepaticus dexter present. The ducts

from the lobes of the right half of the liver are independent

of each other; those coming from the right median and the

cranial division of the caudate lobe join the ductus cysticus,

while the duct from the caudal division of the right lateral

lobe joins the ductus choledochus within the folds of the

lig amentum hepatoduodenale. On the left side the duct

from the caudate lobe joins the ductus choledochus and the

ducts from the caudal portion of the left lateral lobe unite

to form a single duct which passes through the caudate lobe

and joins the ductus choledochus within the folds of the

ligamentum hepatoduodenale.

Fig. 8. Case 70. The ductus hepaticus dexter et sinister is present.

The ductus cysticus joins the ductus hepaticus dexter some

distance before it unites with the ductus hepaticus sinister.

The duct coming from the caudal division of the right lat¬

eral lobe passes behind the ductus hepaticus dexter and

joins the main duct coming from the left lateral lobe.

A STUDY IN THE VARIATIONS OF PROPORTIONS IN

BATS, WITH BRIEF NOTES ON SOME OF

THE SPECIES MENTIONED.

BY HENRY L. WARJ>.

Custodian of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee.

In recent years much attention has been given to the verte¬

brate fauna of North America, and the number of more or less

authoritatively recognized species has multiplied with great

rapidity. In mammals this increase, as well as a general over¬

hauling of the nomenclature, has been accelerating from year to

year.

In 1885 there were recognized 363 land mammals from the

North American Region; in August of the present year this

number had increased to about 1,700 of which 304 were the

result of the last twenty months.

Much of this increase is due to the recognition of subspecies

founded on more or less marked peculiarities shown by geo¬

graphical races. To clearly distinguish characters due to a

particular habitat from those due to individual variation is con¬

sequently a matter of prime importance. To study individual

variation successfully it is important that a large series of

specimens from a particular locality be examined, and it is bet¬

ter that one person make all of the observations, measurements,

etc., and as nearly as possible at one and the same time so that

the conditions governing their accuracy may be as uniform as

possible.

Some years ago, when living in Mexico, my interest in bats

was particularly active as I had several new species to describe.

I had made considerable collections in various places, particu¬

larly in the states of Morelos and Veracruz, and the opportunity

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 631

to make a study of individual variation was furnished by an

accident that confined me to my room for several weeks. The

variations noticed were mostly such as could best be recorded in

measurements.

The specimens measured were all preserved in alcohol, used as

weak as possible, and were mostly examined within a compara¬

tively short time after collection. The measurements, excepting

length of head, were taken with a needle-point compass and ap¬

plied to a diagonal scale giving tenths of a millimeter; but in

the record fractions were disregarded and the nearest whole

number used. The length of head was measured between the

parallel jaws of a caliper registering millimeters. Every meas¬

urement was taken at least twice to guard against possible error

and all were taken in as nearly as possible the same manner.

The length of body and the measurements of the ear would

naturally be the most liable to variation and probably would

not be repeated by another person with exact correspondence ;

but the measurements of the metacarpals and phalanges of the

wings allow of no increase or diminution due to degrees of

extension and so may be considered wholly reliable, subject only

to the error of personal equation. Where peculiarities, such as

marked differences in proportion, were noted, the specimens

were again subjected to examination for possible error. All

specimens showing malformations due to injury were excluded

so that the series may be relied upon as normal. A large num¬

ber of the specimens were captured by hand thereby avoiding

broken bones. Where specimens were shot and bones were

broken measurements of these broken members were not taken

and the blanks in the lists are accounted for by this or other

accidents rendering such measurements unreliable. The list

numbers used are those with which the specimens are recorded

in the museum in Tacubaya of the Obmision Geografico Explora-

dora de Mexico; and my thanks are due to Prof. F. Ferrari-

Perez, chief of the Natural History Section of this commission

for allowing me to use these specimens as well as for many

other favors.

As a study in individual variation in this group of mammals,

the making of the lists seemed worth my while and as some

species were represented by a larger number of specimens than

are usually at the disposition of naturalists for examination, the

publication of the tables may be of interest.

632 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

In a recent paper on “Racial Variations in Plants and Ani¬

mals with special reference to the Violets of Philadelphia and

Vicinity/’ Witmer Stone says: “In birds and mammals the

individual variation in size, after making due allowance for

age and sex, is exceedingly slight, and the same may he said of

color, provided the additional allowance for season is made, so

that very slight differences in measurements or in shades of

color, which might appear trivial, are really constant and per¬

fectly reliable as indications of the differentiation of a distinct

form.” Pro. Acad, of Natl. Sci. of Philadelphia, Oct. 1903,

p. 658. The italics are mine.

The general truth of this statement I do not wish to dispute,

hut it is a question whether zoologists possess sufficient data to

enable them to determine the extent of these “very slight dif¬

ferences” in many species or groups of mammals ; in other

words, whether the range of individual variation in measure¬

ments has been sufficiently exactly determined for practical

application. At all events any additional data, such as is here¬

with presented, can only serve as a farther aid towards the

clearing up of this point which, to the best of my knowledge,

requires still farther elucidation.

The exact amount of variation in the measurement of any

member in any of the species of bats here tabulated is readily

obtained at the left margin of the tables.

How near my localities represent the centers of habitat of the

different species I am unable to say ; though from the large

numbers of some of the species resident in the localities where

collections were made the presumption is that they were well

within their proper territory.

In order to facilitate comparisons between the different mem¬

bers of any individual or the measurements of any member

between the different individuals of the same species, I have

graphically plotted them in the manner I think best adapted for

this purpose. Reading down from any individual, as noted by

number and sex at the top of the diagram, we find in succession

the measurements of the different parts, each of which can be

read in millimeters by referring to the left margin where is

noted the scale in millimeters for each member.

At the right of the diagram showing the measurements of

any member in all of the individuals of a species is a binomial

curve which shows the number of individuals having a given

Ward- — The V aviations in Pro port i ons in Bats. 633

length for each of the several measurements noted. In some

instances these curves present indentations suggestive that an

insufficient number of individuals were measured. It will he

noted, however, that this irregularity of curve is not always

more marked where the number of individuals is the more re¬

stricted. Were the specimens from different localities some of

the curves with double or multiple apices would suggest geo¬

graphical races with differing maxima of measurements ; but

under the circumstances the dearth or occasional absence of

certain intermediate measurements seems to be fortuitous.

In this study care has been taken to restrict the specimens

examined to one locality, and frequently to a single cave, except

in the case of Nyctinomm hmziliensis which is generally recog¬

nized to have a rather wide distribution. There is not over

75 miles distance between the extremes of the localities repre¬

sented in the tabulated specimens of this species. The differences

in altitude would perhaps be the factor most apt to produce

variation among these, but the diagram does not seem to indi¬

cate that such has been the case. Although for my own pur¬

poses I noted the measurements of several other species and of

some additional small lots from other localities of the species

herein tabulated, I have not considered it advisable to use these

measurements in this connection.

In the present study the eight species are represented by 415

specimens which afford a total of 6,863 measurements.

In scanning any of these tables the general similarity of many

of the graphs is readily seen. Vertices and nadirs are usually

found to follow their kind in any given specimen though minor

variations somewhat obscure the apparent correspondence in

trend of the graphs. Those of length of head and body com¬

pared with those of length of tail appear the most dissimilar

because of the more extensive range in actual length in these

than in other measurements ; though in examining the propor¬

tionate amount of variation it is found to be less than between

some other measurements.

In most of the measurements of parts the variation in actual

length is moderate, though were this computed on the mean or

average length it would be found in some instances to be pro¬

portionally as much as 33 per cent. In a considerable number

of instances the binomial curves following the graphs show that

the maximum number of measurements recorded corresponds

634 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

very well with the mean of these measurements ; that their

apices are approximately perpendicular to the centers of their

bases. The smaller the number of specimens used in any table

the less, as a general thing, do the binomial curves approximate

this correct proportion; although, in some instances, curves of

multiple apices show in measurements of considerable series.

Notwithstanding the general correspondence in proportions

among these specimens, exceptions are not rare; and in some

instances the graphs have nearly reversed themselves. A re¬

markable instance is seen in M or mo ops megalophylla between

the specimens from number 814 to 822 in which the proportions

of length and tail show great discrepancies. Various instances

can be found in any of the tables where a member considerably

above the mean of its class is coupled with another decidedly

below its mean.

Mormoops megalophylla • Peters.

Thirty-three specimens collected near Jalapa, Veracruz, Feb¬

ruary 23, 1891, by H. L. Ward and 0. M. T'eran.

Other specimens of this species were taken at Cerro de Jojutla,

District of Juarez, Morelos.

This species, Natailus stramineus , Chilonycteris rubiginosa,

and Dermonotus daojyi were found in a remarkable lava tunnel

some miles northeast of Jalapa, Veracruz, in the bottom of the

canon of Actopan, within the tierra caliente or hot zone. The

nearest place that the lava could have come from was the vol¬

cano of Perote about 30 miles west, and some 3,000 feet above,

near which similar lava tunnels occur. .The only apparent

entrance to this one was through a hole about a yard in diameter

formed by the breaking through of the roof at one point. The

cave or tunnel is known to the inhabitants of this district be¬

cause of the great number of bats that nightly issue from this

hole in the nearly level ground, and from them has received the

not inappropriate name of El Infernillo, or the little hell. As

far as I could ascertain no one had entered the tunnel previous

to my visit. My assistant, T'eran, and myself let ourselves down

by a rope, which we tied to a piece of wood placed across the

opening, until we reached a conical pile of rocks formed by the

breaking down of the roof some 20 or 30 feet above. At this

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 635

point is a sort of rotunda about 200 feet in diameter by perhaps

50 feet in height. Slanting down at a moderately steep grade

is a tunnel extending only a few rods before it is choked with

soil that apparently has been deposited by water entering the

hole in the roof. In the opposite direction the tunnel, sloping

upward, extends for an unknown distance and is of ample di¬

mensions, perhaps 30 feet in width by the same in height, very

regular in section and but slightly serpentine in direction. The

temperature was decidedly hot and the atmosphere close and

oppressive. For some distance a faint glimmer of light, re¬

flected from the rotunda, furnished sufficient illumination until

a change in the pitch of the tunnel shut off this supply and we

were forced to light our candles. A few desultory squeaks, now

near, now far away, increasing in number as we advanced, the

flitting of shadowy wings and an occasional swish as one came

near our ears, showed that the bats were alive to our presence.

Shading our candles, we could see a short distance ahead,

and there, clinging feet uppermost to the sides of the cave, from

roof almost to the floor, were bats as far as we could see. Those

near by and on the lower levels, with their heads thrown up,

were standing on their wrists with bodies clear of the walls,

ready to let loose and fly away at a moment’s warning. By

making stealthy, rapid sorties we were able to capture a number

with our hands ; but were more interested in noting the method¬

ical manner in which they disposed themselves — each species

in a band of some feet or yards in width ; then a slight vacant

space, followed by a band of another species. Hand collecting

was rather slow, and time was pressing ; so we tried a few shots

to good effect. The roar and concussion started the bats by the

myriad, and in a moment the air was filled with thousands of

flying forms. Instantly our candles were blown out by the

wind from their wings, and in the Stygian darkness we were

continually struck severe blows in the face and body by these

living missiles, the roar of whose wings mingled with their

shrieks was as deafening as the passage of an express train in

a railway tunnel. For a moment it seemed impossible to stand

against the storm of swirling and eddying bats that in their

wild career seemed to have entirely lost their usual knack of

avoiding objects. Soon the roar quieted so that I could hear

T'eran shouting to me not over twenty feet away. He was a

high-strung, nervous lad, and that moment’s experience had put

636 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

him on the verge of hysterics ; but a few suggestions on my part

shamed him into self-control.

Then we tried to re-light our candles, but every match seemed

to attract more bats to blow it out, until we both sat down, put

the candles between us, held our big sombreros at the sides and

lit up.

We then discerned that the very ground on which we sa't was

literally a mass of moving, crawling spiders or spider-shaped

insects. Taking more careful note of our surroundings, we

found that the rock, so apparent at the entrance, was nowhere

exposed, unless, perhaps, on the roof, which we could not see

distinctly. The floor for at least two feet deep — how much

deeper we had no way of telling — was composed of a dry, spongy

guano, into which we sunk at least a foot at every step. The

sides were the same ; and some places where it had warped away

from the walls, showed it to be not less than eighteen inches

thick.

Anxious to see what there was beyond, we went on, and time

after time experienced repetitions of the bat storm. The squeak¬

ing would swell into a shrill piping, augmented, echoed and re¬

echoed by the walls of the cavern ; the scarcely audible swish

of wings would grow into a roar; the zigzag flight of a few

hundred bats, dodging one another in intricate flight, would, by

increase, become blurred into a seeming stream of dark bodies

and then our lights and even our hats would succumb to their hur¬

ricane, and we would patiently stand and take our punishment

until the wave swept by with its mad swirl of shrieking bats,

and we could light up again. In this way we went on until we

reached a steep incline that would be difficult and exceedingly

disagreeable to climb, on account of the peculiar nature of the

floor. ITow far we had come I do not know, probably not over

1,000 feet after getting into the bat territory, but that they ex¬

tended still farther was evinced by the guano and the multitudes

of bats on the walls that apparently had not been disturbed.

My experience with hats has been that while some few species

seem to prefer only a mild sort of twilight, where the human

eye has no difficulty in seeing, others will penetrate to such dark

recesses that the eye cannot discern the faintest indication

of light; though I doubt not that the bats are still able to see.

When the caves have been long enough and passable I have

many times gone heyond the range of the bats, and have fancied

JLIcWk. U W Acciu., v oi. A iv.

ria'te L.

*S£SSS&.3£S'kaS22 2S2SaS8 5SS5SSs5 5S2

3?$$n$3U$?$£$nS233$S$9$9<m39S • x * i f * r r i »» *a » *n n «* u*, *«

Measurements of 33 specimens of Mormoops megcUophylla.

■

'

■

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 637

that their position seemed to bear certain relations to the con¬

figuration of the caverns, and, consequently, to the distance to

which it was possible for some faint trace of light to be re¬

flected.

I would not dare hazard a guess at the number of bats then

in the cave ; but it was apparent that many millions must have

lived there during the time that the guano had been accumulat¬

ing.

On returning our experiences were much the same as when

coming in. Approaching the entrance we found that a large

number of bats had been driven before us and had clustered to¬

gether in a high, dark portion of the roof just before the tunnel

debouched into the rotunda. Swinging my gun rapidly, so as to

cover as large an area as possible, I fired both barrels, upon which

a perfect shower of dead and wounded bats fell to the ground.

The result of this double shot was 171 bats picked up, while

probably many wounded ones escaped us, and a number too

badly shot were not taken. We were soon out of the cave, and

when I procured a collecting bottle to put insects in my surprise

was great to find that there was not one of the myriads covering

the floor of the cave to be found anywhere about our persons or

paraphernalia.

I have seldom found more than two species of bats inhabiting

the same cave, and they generally belonged to different families.

In this case the attractiveness of the situation and the abund¬

ance of insect life in the tropical vegetation surrounding the

cave seem to have lessened the strife for existence to such a low

ebb that thousands of each of these four species could live in

harmony together in “the Tittle hell.”

The opposite graph exhibits, the correspondences and discrep¬

ancies in proportions as found in the thirty-three specimens

measured. The more striking ones between length and tail as

shown by the specimens from 814 to 822 have been alluded to.

Although these two curves have, in reality, a pood many points

of similarity, their differences are so striking as to convey at

the first glance the impression that they have little in common.

In some instances, such as from number 832 to 839, in com¬

paring the first and second phalanges of the third digit, the lack

of agreement would suggest the possibility of the first measure¬

ments having by accident been advanced one place or of the

second having been carried back an equal distance. There ap-

638 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

pears to be no possibility of sucb mistakes having been made as

all the measurements of each individual were made and re¬

corded one after the other before the next specimen was taken

in hand. These were written in figures from left to right across

the ruled pages and are now in my possession. Where such

anomalies appear in the graphs I have reproved them from the

original sheets to assure myself that errors have not been made

in the plotting.

The third metacarpal may be as long as the forearm or it may

be 7 mm. shorter. The second phalanx of the fourth digit may

equal the first or be only two-thirds as long. The thumb may

equal the first phalanx of the third digit or be only seventy

per cent, of its length. In the usual points of comparison there

is so much difference in the lengths of the various members that

their measurements do not overlap but merely approach or recede

in varying degrees.

It may be considered that hTo. 809 has an abnormally short

second phalanx to its fourth digit as the next shortest one is

3 mm. longer. However, as this joint showed no signs of injury

and the other phalanges indicate no tendency towards abnor¬

mality, we are not warranted in excluding it or considering it

other than a normal variation whose isolation a larger series

probably would bridge.

Natalus stramineus Gray.

Seventy-three specimens collected near Jalapa, Veracruz, Feb¬

ruary 23, 1891, by H. L. Ward and OL M. T'eran.

With the exception of the graphs of length and tail, which

are rather remarkably dissimilar, there is a considerable corre¬

spondence between those of this species. Those of the head and

ear show rather less of similarity than any of the others, yet as

the range of variation in these measurements is so slight, three

and four millimeters respectively, the real amount of propor¬

tional variation between these two members is considerably less

than in others in which the trends of the graphs more closely

coincide. The first and second phalanges of the fourth digit

as plotted are rather exceptionally parallel ; yet the extremes' of

proportional differences is five per cent, greater than between

Trans-TV

Trans. U is!. .‘H'h

tt eaact t a t tt iggS £££ ££ k § S S S g' g £ S * £ 3 5 3 r£ S 3 Ska 34 3S£3kE e a S £ £ £ S S&S S ES S SkS£^ 6 a

Ji?|*riiiijij»««»88i»9i9i9ii983siaa888SSS88SSJ82SS88988SSSSS8iSSSS8SSSSS8 / is h r till mm

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 639

the ear and head. However, the lesser lengths dealt with in

the case of the phalanges, rather than a greater diversity of

measurements, accounts for this disparity in per cent, of varia¬

tion. The variation in relative as well as absolute length of

the tail are considerable. This organ may be but 96^ the length

of the head and body or it may be 124 per cent, of its length.

There is an absolute difference of 12 mm. on bodies differing in

length by only 1 mm., viz., Nos. 699 and 742, both males. Dob¬

son says : “Tail much longer than the head and body.”

Comparing the forearm and second metacarpal we find in No.

699 that a forearm of 36 mm. may bear a metacarpal of 41 mm.,

while in No. 695 a forearm of 40 mm. may have a metacarpal

only 39 mm. in length, a reversal of proportions.

The third, fourth and fifth metacarpals are about equal and in

many cases measure the same, but either the third or fourth may

be the longest or the shortest, while the fifth may be the shortest

but never appears in these measurements as the longest. The

proportions between the first and second phalanges of the third

digit vary from 17 :20 to 15 :23, those of the fourth digit from

equal to 9 :11 and of the fifth digit from equal to 9 :12.

The measurement of the second metacarpal of No. 747 is

omitted because of its abnormality; measuring but 32 mm. in

length and having joined to it, by a synovial joint, a phalanx 10

mm. in length. Although the average length more nearly corre¬

sponds with Dobson’s “Var. a.” than with true stramineus yet

in other points it agrees best with the latter.

In the museum in T'acubaya were one or more specimens of

this species collected in “southern Puebla.”

Chilonycteris rubiginosa Wagner.

Forty-one specimens collected near Jalapa, Veracruz, Feb¬

ruary 23, 1891, by H. L. Ward and O. M. Tehran.

There is a considerably greater agreement in the graphs of

length and of tail of this species than in either of the two species

already examined ; and the proportionate amount of variation is

less than in them. The fifth metacarpal is usually the shortest

but may equal the fourth. The third is usually the longest but

may be equaled by the fourth.

640 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

It will be noticed that four of the binomial curves are ab¬

normal ; and that the one of length of head and body is par¬

ticularly ill-formed. In neither of them does either of the sev¬

eral vertices coincide with the mean of the measurements. It is

quite evident that a larger number of specimens should have

been compared in order to furnish normal curves for the various

members and determine their average lengths. A larger series

of specimens would probably have increased not only the range

of variation in measurements of the several members but would

also presumably have shown greater individual variation than

the small series shows.

A young male, Ho. 786, is noticeable on account of the re¬

tarded growth of its phalanges. Its measurements are: length

49 ; tail 16 ; head 17 ; ear 13 ; forearm 41 ; third metacarpal 40 ;

first phalanx of third digit 7 ; second 12 ; third 10 ; fourth meta¬

carpal 34 ; first phalanx of fourth digit 8 ; second 9 ; fifth meta¬

carpal 33 ; first phalanx of fifth digit 9 ; second 7 ; tibia 17 ;

foot 11.

Nyctinorrms braziliensis I. Goff.

Fifty-nine specimens taken from the following localities:

Hos. 394 to 433 and 435 to 441 inclusive, collected in various

parts of the state of Morelos between Sept. 29 and Oct. 31, 1890,

by H. L. Ward and O. M. T'eran. Ho. 434 at Ixtapalapa, Fed¬

eral District, June 29, 1890, by H. L. Ward. Hos. 442 to 452

inclusive, were collected March 8, 1888, at Taeubaya, Federal

District, by A. Samaneigo.

The specimens listed, although from several localities, were all

taken within a radius of 75 miles and are probably quite free

from geographical variation, in fact the greatest variations are

sometimes found to occur between specimens from the same lo¬

cality.

The proportions of body and tail lengths show a moderate

amount of variation. The longest and shortest measurements of

the tails of the 59 specimens are found coupled with a body

length of medium size; 57 mm. bodies bearing tails 31 and 38

mm. long. The extent of tail extending beyond the inter-

femoral membrane, as would naturally be supposed, is subject

to much variation ; a tail 32 mm. long having 21 mm. free while

Trans. Wis. Acad., vol. Alv.

5: s s EJ r 3:

9999999999SSS99?

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Measurements of 41 specimens of Chilonycteris rubiginosa.

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 641

a tail of 35 mm. may have only 14 mm. free. Tlie ear shows an

extraordinary amount of variation in a few individuals ; rang¬

ing from 12 to 20 mm. in height on heads respectively 20 and 22

mm. in length. The 12 mm. length is isolated but as the ear

shows no signs of malformation it is therefore presumable that a

larger series of specimens would show the connection and also

straighten up the base of the binomial curve. Between the

graphs of the head and the ear there is more disagreement than

agreement in the trend of the lines. Isolated measurements are

seen by the binomial curves to also occur in the third metacarpal,

its first phalanx and in the fourth metacarpal, and only misses

by one of occurring in the fifth.

A 39 mm. forearm carries an 8 mm. thumb while a fore¬

arm 42 mm. has a thumb only 6 mm. in length. Comparing

the forearms to the second metacarpal we find that the forearm

usually is the longer with an extreme of 45 :39 ; in several cases

they are equal and in two cases the forearm is the shorter, i. e.,

40 :41 and 41 :42. The second metacarpal is usually shorter

than the third but may be equal. The first phalanx of the third

digit frequently exceeds the second but in various cases is equal

and in three instances, showing no appearance of injury, the sec¬

ond phalanx is the longer. Comparing the second to the fourth

metaearpals we find that they are equal in many cases, that the

fourth averages larger but that in a few instances this is reversed.

The fourth metacarpal runs very evenly at from 1 to 3 mm.

shorter than the third. The disproportion between the first and

second phalahges of the fourth digit is shown by 12 :8 and 15 :8.

In his diagnosis of the species in “The Bats of North Amer¬

ica, ” 1893, Dr. Harrison Allen says: “The first phalanx in the

third, fourth and fifth digits, exceeds in length the second.” We

have noted that in the third digit it may be equal to the second

and in three specimens it is shorter, in one considerably shorter.

Of the 33 males examined 13 possessed gular sacs but none of

the 26 females showed this peculiarity which Dobson in his

monographic catalogue of the Chiroptera in the British Museum

says is absent in both sexes of the species.

No. 434, taken at Ixtapalapa in the Valley of Mexico, June

29th, contained a foetus nearly ready for parturition indicating

that July is the probable date of birth of this species in that

region.

The specimens taken, in March at Tacubaya, about three miles

4i

642 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

from the City of Mexico, were hibernating; but I failed to note

the beginning or ending of this period.

When not in a lethargic state this bat is quite savage when

handled, making strenuous efforts to bite and emitting querulous,

high-pitched squeaks. Failing to reach my restraining fingers

it was frequently seen to bite its own wing during what appeared

to be paroxysms of anger.

With this species I various times repeated the experiment of

Spallanzani, made 200 years previous, in which he found that

blinded bats avoided delicate objects, as silken threads, stretched

across their line of flight with a facility equal to that of those

that could see. My results were not equal to Spallanzani’s for

although my bats certainly showed remarkable powers of detect¬

ing an approach to< an object, yet they occasionally would strike

against a No. 18 wire. However, I fancy that had I, like Spal¬

lanzani, used silk threads I might not have noted this ; but the

wire gave an audible record of each touch no matter how light it

was. It is quite possible, also, that this species is less adept on

the wing than some others. Something about its makeup seemed

to suggest a sort of chiropterine bulldog.

It is a familiar species, commonly found about buildings and

in this respect appears to occupy among bats somewhat the posi¬

tion in relation to man that the house sparrow does among

birds. It will tolerate considerable light. At the museum in

Tacubaya it regularly lived in large numbers between rafters,

set an inch or two apart, supporting the cement roof of a long

portico open to the light for the entire length of one side. It has

a strong, disagreeable odor and is apparently more infested with

vermine than any of the other species noted.

Molossus rufus EL Goeff.

Elia’ht specimens collected at Tetecala, Morelos, October 5th

and 6th, 1890, by H. L. Ward and O. M. T'erax.

The length measurements show a considerable range which,

because of the very small number of specimens under considera¬

tion, run very unevenly. Agreements and discrepancies in the

trend of the graphs are more or less evenly divided and the ex¬

tent to which individual variation exists in the species could

only by extraordinary chance be indicated by so small a number

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

?§*?*•* mmmm mu mnsl

SS99a8S98999S9SS9999S999SSSSSa

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate LIII.

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 643

of specimens. While the amount of variation is in all prob¬

ability most imperfectly shown the series is sufficient to indicate

that numerous disproportions exist; probably to approximately

the same extent as in the other species.

The forearm is greater or less than either the second or fourth

metacarpals and is equal to or less than the third metacarpal, the

second is less than the third and greater or less than the fourth,

the third is greater than the fourth in the few specimens recorded.

Two young and one adult in the museum were collected

by R. Montes de Ctea in Soconusco, Chiapas. The adult, a

male, is remarkable for its exceedingly short tail. The length

of head and body is 83 mm. and that of the tail only 42 mm.

Its other measurements are in all cases paralleled by the Morelos

specimens with the one exception that the first phalanx of the

fourth digit measures but 19 mm. which is one mm. below the

minimum of the Morelos specimens.

Two young males collected in Tetecala with the other speci¬

mens from that locality were apparently recently born and would

indicate that the latter part of September or first of October is

about the time of birth of this species in Morelos. They were

both entirely naked except for a slight fuzz about the muzzle and

bristles, nearly as large as in adults, on the sides of the feet.

When taken, the ears were closely adpressed so as to tightly cover

thy eyes. The sexual organs and the gular pouches were well

developed. The retarded development of the metacarpals and

phalanges is noticeable in them.

Their measurements are as follows : lengths respectively 58

and 57 ; tail 32 and 30 ; head 22 and 21 ; ear 9 and 10 ; forearm

30 and 28 ; thumb 7 and 7 ; second metacarpal 20 and 20 ; third

metacarpal 23 and 20; first phalanx, third digit £ and 8; second

phalanx 6 and 5 ; fourth metacarpal 22 and 19 ; first phalanx,

fourth digit 7 and 7 ; second phalanx 3 and 2 ; fifth metacarpal

17 and 14 ; first phalanx, fifth digit 7 and 6 ; second phalanx 4

and 5 ; tibia 13 and 12 ; foot 11 and 12.

These specimens were taken at the hacienda of Cocoyotla, Dis¬

trict of Tetecala, from between the closely placed rafters of one

of the buildings.

644 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

S3SS9S99 /xiHfiit

SI

SO

Hf

vy

2

7

So

HI

Hi

HI

si

so

Hf

li

13

U

11

10

so

Hf

HS

21

JJ)

&

s

31

Jl

30

msms

8SsS9SS9

Measurements of 8 specimens of Molossus rufus.

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats.

645

Desmcdus rotundas EL Geoff.

Nine specimens taken from a small cavern near Zacoalpan

Amilpas, District of Jonacatapec, Morelos, October 26, 1890, by

H. L. Ward and O. M T'erax.

This series is altogether too small to show anything definite

except that there is a considerable degree of variation in abso¬

lute lengths of several of the members and a moderate amount

of individual variation. Between the length and ear we find a

complete reversal of proportions, i. e., the shortest individual has

one of the longest ears and one of the longest individuals has one

of the shortest ears. Lesser discrepancies occur in comparisons

of other members. The females appear to rather exceed the

males in size though this may be only due to an insufficient series.

Dobson, Oath Chiroptera, Brit. Mus., p. 547, says : “Thumb

very long and strong, much longer than the foot, . . . ”

My series of specimens indicates that the foot is equal to or

longer than the thumb. In Dobson’s diagnosis we also read

“metacarpal bones of the fourth and fifth fingers progressively

slightly shorter than that of the middle finger.” In hTo. 502 we

find that tbe fourth metacarpal slightly exceeds the third.

This vampire was probably responsible for the depredations

on our saddle and pack animals that were of almost nightly

occurrence in central and southern Morelos ; for, I believe, no

other vampire is known to inhabit that region.

A peculiarity that I have not noted in any other species of

bat is that its excrement is a thiokish black fluid, very likely

due to its probably exclusively blood diet. On emerging from

the shallow cave in which they were taken I found my tan col¬

ored boots smeared as if with liquid blacking.

The time of parturition is probably early in November, for

No. 499 contained a nearly ripe foetus. The weight of the pre¬

served (alcoholic) female was 27.2 gnus, and of the foetus 7.1

gnus. The species was found in only semi-darkness; but dis¬

liked to escape into the strong sunlight outside the cavern and

so kept circling back and fourth. They bit viciously when

handled. Four immature specimens were taken at the same

time. They are not greatly smaller than the: adults in most of

their measurements ; the difference being chiefly noticeable in

their distal phalanges.

646 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

X £

5T- >

3

N»

? 5

5$s-?$$a$a

I i 3 H t (, ! J

;2 5r~' s*' ^ c't

<i- *>» (5. O Q a o

^ ^ *o *o *<> *<> *o

9 $ 3 9 $ 9 3 $ $ im

Measurements of 9 specimens of Desmodus rotundus.

Trans. Wist. Acad., Vol. XIV.

Plate LIV.

113 i S' 6 7 r 1 JO II- n 13 !H IS lb v ft

Measurements' of 25 specimens of Glossopliaga soricina.

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats.

647

Glossophaga soricina (Pallas).

Twenty-five specimens collected in the District of Cuernavaca,

Morelos, Oct. 1st, 1890, by H. L. Ward and C. M. Terait.

The variations in proportions in this species are nearly all

quite moderate, probably not more than would naturally be ex¬

pected in a mammal of its size. Slight discreoancies in the

graphs showing measurements will be noticed in many instances.

Length of head and body to that of head alone varies from

57 :22 to 50 :22 ; of length to forearm from 50:37 to 57 :34; of

head to ear from 22:15 to 22:13; of forearm to thumb from

33 :11 to 35 :9.

The forearm in eight specimens is longer than the third meta¬

carpal, in nine specimens it is equal and in eight specimens it is

shorter.

The fourth metacarpal may be 3 mm. longer than the fifth,

or of the same length.

In the fourth and fifth digits the first phalanx may exceed,

equal or be less than the second.

These bats were found clinging to the roofs and sides of the

artificial galleries penetrating the large mound upon the summit

of which is situated the massive stone ruins of Xoxicolco.

Myotis velifer (J. A. Allen).

One hundred and sixty-seven specimens collected at Las Yegas,

Veracruz, Feb. 19^21, 1891, by H. L. Ward and O. M. T'eran.

Comparing the length of head and body with that of the tail,

we find a 57 mm. body with a 35 mm. tail and a 52 mm. body

bearing a 47 mm. fail, both males. Between the head and ear

we find the extreme between 19 :14 and 18 :16. Comparing the

length of head and body with the forearm we find a 51 mm.

body with a 46 mm. forearm and a 60 mm. body with a 42

mm. forearm. The forearm usually exceeds the 3rd metacarpal

but in one instance is found to be equal. Between the third

metacarpal and its first phalanx the greatest variation is be¬

tween 39:14 and 40:12. Comparing the first and second

phalanges of the third digit we find the variation expressed by

648 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

15 :11 and 13 :12. The third metacarpal may he longer, eqnal

to or shorter than either the fourth or fifth. Between the fourth

metacarpal and its first phalanx the extremes are between 42 :11

and 38 :12. Between the first and second phalanges of this

fourth digit the variation is 11 :10 and 11 :7. The fourth meta¬

carpal is usually slightly longer than the fifth but may be the

same length. The variation between the fifth metacarpal and

its first phalanx is expressed by 36 :11 and 39 :9. Between the

first and second phalanges of the fifth digit the extremes are 10 :7

and 10 :5.

This species I also collected at Cuernavaca, Morelos and at Ix-

tapalapa, Federal District, where it occurred in small numbers.

At Las Vegas, a little hamlet on the northern slope of the Vol¬

cano of Perote, not far from Jalapa, Veracruz, I found this bat

in great numbers and my collecting wTas limited only by my

desires.

Here was a lava field honeycombed by tunnels formed by the

running out of the molten interior after the surface had become

too cool to flow. The tunnels were approximately parallel and

were frequently superimposed. Three were the largest number

that were noted in the same vertical plane. In many cases the

vertical diameters were thirty-five feet or more. The floors w7ere

comparatively smooth and flat, with the walls springing at about

right angles from them. Some of these tunnels were fifty feet

or more in width and in section nearly as regular and with as

finely arched roofs as if artificially constructed. Entrance was

had through holes in the roofs that were probably caused by

earthquakes breaking the thin shells. Frequently superimposed

tunnels were united in the same manner, and rapid walking with

the faint and uncertain light of unprotected candles was some¬

what dangerous, as it was not easy to see that the bottom of a

tunnel had fallen out until one was close to the brim. The

temperature of these tunnels was quite low and the bats were

mostly found clinging to the ceilings in a state of lethargy.

They were not much disturbed by our lights nor was it necessary

to be cautious in approaching them. The gun was used only to

determine the identity of those out of reach. When held in the

hand for a few moments they woke up, gave utterance to high

pitched squeaks and struggled to escape. They were mild man¬

nered and not inclined to bite.

Although during the three days that I hunted this region I

649

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats.

visited many tunnels and saw many colonies of bats, some of

them probably containing several thousand individuals, all be¬

longed to this one species with the exception of a few individuals

of a then undescribed form, Pipistrellus veraecrusis (Ward),

found living in close proximity to M. velifer , and a few indi¬

viduals of C orynorhinus macrotis (Le Cbnte) living separate

from each other as well as from the other species.

In the foregoing diagrams and notes are presented the com¬

plete data of the observed variability of these eight species of

bats. From it the reader may judge for himself how much

variation appears to be normal and how much may be consid¬

ered exceptional.

In order to present the amount of proportional variation in

these various .species of bats, to facilitate a comparison of one

species with another and to exhibit the degrees of average of

maximum variability of the several comparisons, the following

table has been constructed.

It will be noticed that the relative amount of maximum vari¬

ation of any comparison varies more or less in the different spe¬

cies so that a comparison that may be subject to little variation

in one species may be less stable in another.

The percentage of the first term of the comparison is calcu¬

lated upon the second ; thus with a head of 22 mm. and a length

of 50 mm., the former is computed as 44, while a 22 mm. length

of head with a 57 mm. length of head and body is computed as

38.5 and the range of variation is the difference, or 5.5 per cent.

When a member is compared with a shorter one a variation in

absolute length will make a much greater variation in percentage

than were the comparison made with a member of equal or

greater length. I have followed the order of comparing a mem¬

ber with its proximal supporting member, or in case of metacar-

pals, considering the second as proximal to the third, etc..

650 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters ,

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Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 651

In the above table, in the column of averages, we find that the

least variation is shown by the proportion of the first phalanx

of the fourth digit compared to its metacarpal and next by the

thumb to the forearm. In both these cases a short member is

compared to a long one and the percentage would naturally be

low. It is also noticeable that there is comparatively little dis¬

proportion shown in the comparisons of the metacarpals with

one another because although while the lengths are considerable

they are approximately equal. Wherever a long member is

compared to a short one the percentage of variation becomes at

once more elevated, a fact that must be borne in mind in order

not to misinterpret this table. Although this method of show¬

ing the comparative variations of parts is faulty and liable to be

misleading, yet after all it seems to me to be the fairest way

to treat the matter. A comparison of these by differences in

actual measurement expressed in millimeters would probably be

more misleading as a few millimeters more or less on a long bone

counts for little, whereas it may greatly alter the proportions of

a short one. It should also be borne in mind that this table

does not show the proportionate variation for the species but only

for individuals. There are several other forms of comparison

that it would be interesting to make; but my original object in

making these measurements was to determine, for my own use,

the value of such common descriptive terms as “ - three-

fifths the length of - ,” “ - slightly longer than -

etc. Most of them are found to be unwarranted by the facts

in the case.

As the second metacarpal normally bears no phalanges it

would be expected that its proportionate length would be less

constant than the others and this we find to be the case.

That the length of the tail compared to that of the head and

body does not show as great variation as do the proportions of

the first two phalanges of the digits is rather surprising. These

latter show the greatest variations of any of the parts compared

and the maximum of variation in five of the eight species com¬

pared, as well as in the average for all, is found in the proportion

of the second phalanx to the first in the third digit, a measure¬

ment not unfrequently given by authors as among those diagnos¬

tic of species.

From the various tables of species and the remarks under

them, it will be seen that it is quite unwarranted to make com¬

parisons of the relative measurements of bones of bats for specific

652 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

distinctions when the parts compared are of only a few milli¬

meters difference in length ; for the probabilities seem to be that

an examination of a sufficiently large number of specimens will

show some individuals that reverse the proportions.

Of the measurements taken a number are omitted from some

of the species. Selecting the sixteen comparisons summarized

in the above table that are common to all of the species, and ob¬

taining the average of the extremes of all of these for each

species, they arrange themselves as follows (to which, for con¬

venience, I have added the number of specimens of each species

used in the computation) :

Molossus rufus .........

Desmodus rotundus . . . .

Qlossophaga soricina . . .

Chilonycteris ruMginosa

Myotis velifer .

ISJyctinomus braziliensis

Natalus stramineus

Mormoops megalophylla

No. Av. per cent.

Specimens, of variation.

The above table shows that with the exception of Myotis veli¬

fer and Mormoops megalophylla , the species have been arranged

in the order of the number of specimens examined at the same

time that they were arranged in the order of their average of ex¬

tremes of variation in proportions.

If the amount of variation per species was equal we would ex¬

pect that the larger the number of specimens examined of any

one species, the greater would be found to be the extremes of

variation of proportions.

The fact that this table so nearly parallels in these two com¬

parisons suggests the possibility that the variation in the eight

species under consideration is approximately equal, and that

were a sufficiently large and equal number of specimens of each

of them examined the results would have been less diverse.

It is doubtful if measurements of any other group of mammals

would show, much less individual variation in proportions. It

is my belief that no working zoologist really takes seriously the

fine differences in measurements so frequently oven as diagnos¬

tic of species that are known by only a few specimens ; but

Ward — The Variations in Proportions in Bats. 653

many such descriptions read as though the authors actually con¬

sidered them of prime importance. All hunters are aware that

they frequently can recognize individual wild animals from

others of their kind. I am inclined to believe, from observa¬

tion, that these distinctive characters are frequently those of

proportion ; that the long legged animal that we learn to know

appears long of limb not because he is less fat than others but

because his legs are actually disproportionally long so that their

peculiarity strikes the eye, and that individualities of form are

probably more common than are generally recognized.

Mensuration is assuredly of great value in mammalogy, but

it is well to keep in mind that there is a considerable and un¬

known amount of individual variation afTecting each species.

As a matter of record of localities I would mention the fol¬

lowing other species of bats, mostly collected by myself or my

assistant in Mexico and contained in the museum of the Comi-

sion Geografico-Exploradora at T'aoubaya where they were de¬

termined by myself :

Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois),

Jalapa, Veracruz.

Corynorhinus macrotis (Le Conte),

Las Vigas, Veracruz; Ixtapalapa and El Convento in

“Diserto,” Federal District.

. Saccopteryx plicata (Peters),

Six specimens from a hole in a Penon on the Oerro de

Jojutla, District of Juarez, Morelos, and one from un¬

der the roof of a church at Cuernavaca, Morelos.

Nyctinomops depressns (Ward),

Tacubaya, Federal District.

Octopterus hulleri (H. Allen),

“Southern Puebla.”

Micronycteris megalotis (Gray),

Cueva de la Leona, District of Juarez, Morelos and

Cuesta de Don Lino near J alapa, Veracruz.

Ilemiderma hrevicaudum (Wied),

Ouesta de Don Lino near Jalapa, Veracruz.

Leptonycteris nivalis (Saussure),

“Veracruz.”

654 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Dermanura cinereum (Gervais),

Cave in Cerro Frio, hacienda of San Gabriel, District of

T'etecala, Morelos.

Vampyrops Jielteri (Peters),

Soconusco, Chiapas.

Centurio senex (Gray),

Cerro de Los Pajaros, Las Vegas, Veracruz.

ON THE CONFORMAL REPRESENTATION OF PLANE

CURVES, PARTICULARLY FOR THE CASES

p = 4, 5, and 6.

CHARLOTTE E. PENGRA.

A given non-homogeneous function of x and y

n m

F {x, y)~o

of degree n in x and m in y may, we know, be regarded either

as a plane curve or as a Riemann’s surface. Klein reaches a

number of important results here briefly outlined by consider¬

ations based on the latter view.

Let

n m

F (x, y) = o

be an irreducible algebraic equation defining the surface Fn

which is an n-leaved surface spread over the y plane. The de¬

ficiency of the surface, p, is fixed by the number of cuts, 2 p,

which is necessary to reduce Fn to a simply connected sur¬

face. The deficiency so arrived at is numerically the same as

the deficiency of the plane curve

F(x , y)~o

which is precisely the number representing the number of

double points which the curve lacks of having the maximum.

An algebraic function or an integral of the first or second

kind belongs to a surface when it has but one value for each

point on the surface, and when it has only a finite number of

infinities and these only algebraic infinities of finite integral

order.* Klein proves that upon Fn exist integrals of the first

and second kinds. With this work as a basis the surface Fn

may be conformally represented by another much simpler sur-

* See Klein Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfucctionen, Vol. I., p. 499.

656 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

face. In order to do this we must classify surfaces according

to their deficiencies and treat each class separately.

In the case p = o there are no cuts on the surface and no in¬

tegrals of the first kind. Integrals of the second kind exist on

all surfaces. Let us select one of these, w, which has a single

algebraic infinity. Since there are no period paths on the sur¬

face, w assumes only one value for each point of Fn and since w

has the one infinity, and only one, it is a function of “ weight ”

one belonging to Fn where the weight of a function is defined

the number of times which it assumes any assigned value, for

points on Fn. The function w being of weight one assumes one

and only one value corresponding to each point of the n-leaved

surface

F{x, y) = o.

These values, real and complex, may be represented by the

points in a plane by the ordinary representation of complex

numbers. The given w-leaved surface can then be conformally

represented upon a plane by means of the real and complex

values assumed by w.

I f p = 1 two cuts are required to make the surface simply

connected. We know that on any surface of deficiency p, there

exist p linearly independent integrals of the first kind. Here

then there exists only one which we will call u. Let the

periods across the cuts be Wi and w-2. If u has the value u0 at a

given point, for all the region around containing no branch

point the u will vary continuously, and since u can be no¬

where infinite, and since its values may be represented by

points of a plane just as any complex number is represented,

these points must all be within a parallelogram whose bound¬

aries are determined by the limits of the values of the real and

imaginary parts of u as it varies over the surface, never cross¬

ing a boundary.

If we seek then to represent our entire surface by means of

the integral u which has an infinite number of values we get

corresponding to a given point of Fn an infinite number of

homologous points in similar parallelograms. We will form

the doubly periodic functions

P (u | wlf w2) and P' ( u | ivL, w2)

We know that all doubly periodic functions of u, wi, and^ may

be expressed rationally in terms of these two,

Pengm — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 657

P (U I W,, Wo) = i + 2 — — — - - - -77,—; - - rz

1 ” J u 2 ( a — 7n1w1—m2w2)i [m1w1 -j- m2 w2r

P (u j w19 u).>) = — 22

{u — tn± wx — in 3 w2)3 ‘

These two are everywhere finite except for w = o, where the

former is infinite of the second order. Hence P ( u | wi, wi ) is

a function of weight two belonging to Fn. By means of it we

can represent Fn conformally upon a two leaved Riemann’s

surface.

In case p > 1 we desire to build up a function of weight m

which shall belong to the surface, by means of which the sur¬

face Fn may be conformally represented upon a simpler surface.

Suppose that one such function of weight m exists on the sur¬

face and let it be represented by w and its m infinities by

2/i, 2/2, y-s , . 2 h%. Let these infinities be of the nature

y—vi

Let

Vyt = h - v% h . jP

where the v’s are the periods of w for the cuts ai and the fs are

the normal integrals of the first kind, the periods of jk for the

cuts ai being all zero except the period for au which is unity,

and the periods for the cuts hi being Ki,

■i yv — o9 yv — c3 yv

y l -2 ■' :

is everywhere finite, the possible infinities disappearing by sub¬

traction, and since it has periods for the 2 p cuts, it is an in¬

tegral of the first kind. Moreover, according to definition, the

periods for the cuts ai are all zeros, and therefore this integral

can be put equal to a constant,* and

w ~ Q0 + cx yy^ + c2 yy* + c3 yy ^ +

In order then for u to have but one value for each point on the

surface, the periods across the cuts bt must be equal to zero and

II

cq A/fc 4- Cg X2k + c» XSk . + Cm Xmk ~ °‘

If m > p + 1 the c’s can be found and Fn can be conformally

represented upon an m leaved Riemann’s surface spread over the

w plane by means of a function of weight m belonging to Fn.

* See Klein Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfunctionen, Vol. I., p. £24.

42

658 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

L3t the p linearly independent integrals of the first kind of

Fa be wi, wi, ws, . Wp and their derivatives with respect

to y be (f>L, <t>i, <£j, . 4>f,. It is easy to show that the

Fs so found are linearly independent and that any p -f* 1

can be expressed linearly in terms of the other p. By expand¬

ing w in the region of the zero points, and the branch points,

and then differentiating to find the value of the <t>’s we deduce

the fact that the Fs have 2 p — 2 variable zeros on Fa and

2 n zeros at the infinite points of Fn .

This work offers an easy proof of the Riemann-Roch Theo¬

rem, for the equations (II) become in terms of the <t>’s

f Cl <Pi (y i) + c8 (p1 (y2) + c3 4>t(y a)

I

IIH

I 02 icy A + 02 (y2) + c3 02 (y 3

d -Cm, 0! ( ym ) = o

. + Cm 02 (ym) = O

l ci <t>p (y\)-\-c2 0 p (y2) + c3 <t>p (y 3)

+ Crn<f>p (ym) — o

since A, = — 2 7r i

fi,

dkj \ *

ci y )y — yo

If t of these equations are dependent upon the rest it is pos¬

sible to combine the other p — r in such a manner as to get

these dependent ones, and indeed to get r equations which

shall be linear in the Fs and which vanish in all the points

Vu yi, ys, . ym, which proves that there are r linearly

independent functions which vanish in all the points y 1, yz, ys,

. y>n.

By solving the system (III) we can express p — rof the c’s in

terms of the other m — p -f r. These m — p + t variables en¬

able us to fix the totality of algebraic functions belonging to

Fa which are of weight m or less. The most general function

of weight m belonging to Fa contains in general m — p + r + 1

arbitrary constants.

The Riemann-Roch Theorem so proved would hold only for

p > 1. Klein extends it to the cases p = 0 and p = 1. He con¬

structs a function

w — o.()

Cm

W — W,n

which is evidently a function of weight m belonging to the sur¬

face. Since there are no Fs, r = 0 and the number of arbitrary

* See Klein Theorie der Elliptischen Modulfunctionen, Vol. I., p. 532.

Pengra - — Conformal Represent mtion of Plane Curves . 659

constants is m+ 1, which is the number which the Riemann-

Roch Theorem would give. Similarly for p — 1 one <f> function

exists and one equation of the set (III) T = o’ and the Riemann-

Roch Theorem holds here also.

To take up the language of the analytic geometry, we have

selected a complete set of linearly independent functions each

of weight m belonging to Fn and we use these as co-ordinates,

this fixing some sort of curve. Every point of Fn gives rise to

a set of values of these functions, or to a point, hence the whole

surface Fn may be conformally represented by the points of

some curve. The functions which we select for this purpose

are the Fs of which there are p linearly independent.

Their ratios are functions belonging to the surface for they

have only a finite number of infinities and these algebraic, and

the ratios have one and only one value corresponding to each

4>i

point of Fn. For if one of them, say^ assumed the same

value for two different points of Fn, we should have a relation

existing among the coefficients of and Fi, but by hypothesis

the Fs are independent and hence their ratios belong to the

surfaced,,. Since, as before shown, each becomes zero in

2 p — 2 variable points of Fn, each ratio may become °o in

2 p — 2 points, and zero in as many more, and hence the func¬

tions which are ratios of the Fs are of weight 2 p — 2.

Although the Fs are linearly independent certain relations

of higher order exist among them. For the case p = o, no <f>

function exists and F„, as we saw, is representable by the points

of a plane singly covered, or if we consider only the real points,

by the points of a straight line.

For p = 1 one function exists. We found that the simplest

function which will represent Fn in this case is a function

P (u | wi w> ) of weight two. According to the Riemann-Roch

Theorem there are m — p + t 4-1 or two homogeneous arbi¬

trary constants in our representative function. Hence, since

it is represented on a two-leaved Riemann’s surface, in the lan¬

guage of curves the simplest representation of F (x, y) — o is a

doubly covered straight line.

For p =2 two <f> curves exist. Our normal curve then is a

doubly covered straight line since it exists in space of one

dimension and the ratio of the Fs is a two valued function.

No relation can exist between the Fs.

660 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

For p = 3 one quartic relation exists among the <£’ s so that

our normal curve is a plain quartic. For we know from

the Riemann-Roch Theorem that the most general quartic

relation among the <£’s contains 4 (2 p — 2) — p-f-r -f 1= 14 ar¬

bitrary constants which are just enough to give the most general

quartic relation among the <Fs since if we write out a quartic

relation it will contain fifteen terms and by a selection of the

fourteen arbitrary constants the function is completely fixed.

For p=4 two relations of higher order exist, one of the second

degree and one of the third degree. This may be proved as

follows: We write out all the homogeneous functions of the

second degree obtained by taking the squares of the different 4>?s

and their products taken two at a time. Divide each of these by

some homogeneous function of the second degree in the <£’s.

According to Riemann such functions like branched on a surface

T can be expressed linearly in terms of 3 p — 2 of them which

make 3p — 3 linearly independent ones. There are — % — ■

different combinations of the <£’s mentioned above and these can

be expressed in terms of 3 p — 3 independent ones, so there

must exist at least M3p-3> or - quadratic

relations among the <f> s. Similarly there are P ^ ^ -- )

combinations of the <£’s of the third degree. Divide each of

these combinations by the same cubic relation among the <A’s.

of these quotients 5 (p — 1) are independent of each other.*

There must exist then at least

p (p 4- 1) (p 4-2)

5 (p — 1) cubic

relations among them. But we know from the preceding that

there are at least

(p —2) (p — 3)

quadratic relations among the

<£’ s. Cubic relations among the <t>’ s could consist of these quad¬

ratic relations multiplied by any one of p linearly independent

equations of the first degree among the <£’s. To get the number

ot cubic relations which do not break up thus we shall have to

* Jahresbericht der Dautschen Matheuoatikor Ysrainigung, Vol- III, p.

445. Math. Ann. Vol. XII, pp. 268-310.

Pengrti — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 661

subtract these — — from the number previously ar¬

rived at. There are therefore at least

p (p + 1) (p 4- 2)

6

—5 (p— 1)—

p {p ~ 2) (p — 3]

or

|-p3 + 9p2 — 23p+15

cubic relations among the F s independent of the quadratic re¬

lations. This result is in accordance with Weber for the case

p = 4,* and it does not contradict Noether’s statement that

there are + 2) — 5 (p — D since I say that there are

at least — p 4 -9 j>?) — my formula always giving a

smaller number than his.

If p = 4 we select two functions belonging to the surface,

one of weight twelve, the other of weight eighteen, the former

of degree two, the latter of degree three in the 4>’s. For the

normal curve representing F(x,y) = o we have then a twisted

sextic in space of three dimensions and defined by the intersec¬

tion of these surfaces of second and third degree respectively

in the Fs. Conversely, any twisted sextic which is the inter¬

section of such surfaces is the normal curve of some F (x, y) — o

of deficiency four. For at some point of the common intersec¬

tion pass a plane tangent to the quadratic surface. It will cut

the quadratic in two straight lines real or imaginary, and the

cubic surface in a plane cubic. The lines each meet the cubic

twice beside the original point. Projecting the twisted sextic

from the original point on a plane we get a quintic with two

double points which is a curve of deficiency 4 and hence the

proposition is proved.

If the quadric surface is an ellipsoid, by projecting the twisted

sextic from the highest point the quintic obtained will have no

infinite points. Its double points will be the projection of one

real and one imaginary point of the sextic, and hence will look

like an ordinary point on the curve. If the quadric be a

cone one of the double points of the quintic may be real and if

the surface be an hyperboloid or paraboloid both double points

of the quintic may be real. If the quadric become a cone, by

* Math. Ann., VoL XIII’, p. 47.

662 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

projecting the twisted sextic from the vertex of the cone we get

a conic three times repeated since each generator of the cone

will cut the sextic in three points. This case is referred to

later.

Noether has published some work in Vol. 26 of the Mathe-

matische Annalen in which he actually works out the rela¬

tions which may exist among the Fs for the cases p = 5, 6 and

7. Kasbohrer has a dissertation on the case p — 8.

If p — 5 our function of the second degree in the <f>’s contains

fifteen homogeneous linear constants. According to the Rie-

mann-Roch Theorem it should contain only 16 — 5 + 1 = 12

When we fix these twelve there are left then three more, homo¬

geneous and linear. So we see the three linearly independent

quadratic relations among the The normal curve in this

case is a twisted curve of eighth degree in space of four dimen¬

sions. Weber proves* that if we take any three homogeneous

functions of degree two in the <f>’s and eliminate two of the

variables we shall get a curve of deficiency five, thus proving

that any twisted curve of degree eight formed by the intersec¬

tion of three quadrics in space of four dimensions, represents a

F (x, y) = o of deficiency five.

It is very easy to get some properties of curves of higher or¬

der out of the properties of the normal curves. To illustrate

this take the case p =3 where the normal curve is, as we know,

a quartic with no double points. We will prove that a curve

of order n and deficiency three may be regarded as the envelope

of sixty-three different quadratic sheaves of curves of order

2 (n — 3.) Six in each set break up into two curves each of

order n — 3 which pass through all of the double points of the

curve of the nth degree and have their other intersection on a

curve of degree 2 (n — 3). In particular a sextic of deficiency

three possesses 28 tangent cubics which pass through the

double- points of the sextic and such that they can be arranged

into sixty-three sets of twelve each, such that the points of in¬

tersection of corresponding cubics in each set shall lie on a

curve of order six having the same double points as the origi¬

nal sextic. For if we transform a given curve of deficiency

three and order n by means of a net of adjoint curves of order

n — 3 we get a quartic of defiency three and to the adjoints

correspond straight lines. We know that such a quartic has

* Math. Ann., Vol. XIII, p. 44.

Pengra<- — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 663

t wenty-eight bitangents which may be divided into sixty-three

s ets of twelve each such that the points of intersection of cor¬

responding pairs lie on a conic. This quartic may be regarded

as being the envelope of sixteen different quadratic sheaves of

conics — each sheaf containing six conics which break up into

two straight lines, forming a Steiner complex. Moreover all

of these double points lie on the Jacobian of the net to which

all of the sheaves belong, this Jacobian being of order six. The

proposition then follows as the result of the correspondence be-

t he curve and the nth degree and the quartic.

Another illustration is here taken from the case p — 4. We

will prove that there are twenty-seven different pairs of points

o n a curve of degree n and deficiency four wrhich can be taken

in sets of three in forty-five different ways to lie on as many

adjoint <t> functions of the original function.

For in this case the normal curve is the twisted sextic — the

intersection of a quadric with a cubic surface. We know that

through any straight line on a cubic surface can be passed

five planes each of which cuts the surface in two or more lines,

s o that each line is intersected by ten others — eight outside a

plane containing three of them.

Considering then three lines in a plane and the eight lines

w hich cut each, we have twenty-seven lines in all. Each line

i nter sects the quadric surface in two points thus giving two

p oints of the normal curve. There are, therefore, fifty-four

different points on the twisted sextic such that they lie by sixes

in forty-five different planes since the twenty-seven lines lie

by threes in forty-five different planes. Carried over by

transformation to a curve of order n we get the proposition

above.

In the work hitherto, we have been considering the curves

represented as perfectly general. We will now examine some

special cases. In order to do this we take up some 0 functions.

In

6\v i, v2, Vg, . . . . vp)

on

=

_ QO

Tt i(an2 — (— 2 n v)

let an 2 be a complete quadratic function of the n’s. and n a com¬

plete linear function of the v’s of which there are p. We will

now put for the a’s the period moduli of the normal integrals

* Salmon’s Geometry of Three Dimensions, p. 769.

664 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

along the cuts ai of a surface T defined by Fn=o and of defi¬

ciency p. We will put for the v9s the normal integrals dimin¬

ished each by a constant e. We shall then have

O'v i, v,.

V

= 02

0 C

Zh \

1 J

<p

dUr

— e,

where the s and c’s are arbitrary points and <p’s are variable.

These integrals of the first kind exist in the original surface

Fn and therefore this 0 function is like branched with the sur¬

face. If it does not vanish identically we know from the prop •

erties of 0 functions that it has p zeros on the surface. If how¬

ever, this $ function does vanish identically one or more of these

zeros become arbitrary.

Suppose that the e’s are so chosen that #is different from zero.

Then

i=P rxt

'6&= 2 I

i — 1 £

where xt are zero points of the 0 function and kh is independ-

pendent of etl. If moreover, the e’s are so chosen that

0 («„ e1,....ep )=o,

then 0(»i, . vp)=o,

and for an arbitrary point and we put

where the point systems xi and x\ belong to an equation <$> = o

besides lying on the surface Fn =o. The quotient of the pro¬

duct

(iu

and the product

Pengrd' — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 665

may be put equal to — , <t> i and each having like branches

<P 2

(f>.

with the original function. — - is a function of weight 2 p — 2

<t>>

since it is zero in 3 p — 2 variable points and in as many.

The <f>’s are then adjoint curves of the original function and are

of order n — 3.

Introducing the 0 functions with characteristics we know

that there are 2°-l(2'° — 1) odd theta functions and

2 v ~ 1 (2P 4- 1 ) even theta functions. In general only the odd

theta functions vanish for the zero values of the arguments.*

If we assume now that eh ~ — eh and fh =~ — fh we get the

zeros of our function before considered to fall together in pairs

and there exist p — 1 points at which the Ps are zero of order

two. V<£ is an Abelian function and there are 2P~1 (2P ± 1)

of these together, one for each different characteristic. In the

case of the odd theta functions there are 2P~1(2P — 1) <£ curves

tangent to the original curve.

Let us make the assumption that up to any number m our

function

vanishes identically for all the points, xitx*t . xm—\ and

does not vanish.

According to Riemann’s work before referred to, the condi¬

tion is that

0 [w] (vj, — .... vp)

with all its derivatives up to and including the (m — l)s£ but

not all the mth derivatives must vanish for the zero value of

the arguments.

*Ueber das Verschwioden der Theta FuDction.en, Riemann’s Werke,

p. 198.

666 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The functions

will not vanish identically for the points Xi, % taken arbitrar¬

ily, and therefore each of them will vanish in p — 1 points beside

e and both together in 2 p — 2 points on a function <f>. Now

among the zeros of the first functions are xi, X2 . xm-i

and let the rest be y,n, ym+ i . yo- i and let the zeros of the

second one be “i, a2, a3> ... am_h Pm+i, . ftp- i. There

exists then a function <t> with the zeros xi , X2 , _ xm—h Vm,

2/ra-H, Up— 1, al» a2. • • • - am— 1, 1, .... ftp— 1.

2/ra-H, Up— al> a2. • • • - am— 1, 1, .... fip—1.

Moreover since the zeros must satisfy the congruences

Combining the last two by substraction we obtain

dun —0

It follows from Abel's theorem that there exists a rational

function <f> which is infinitely small of the first order at the

Pengra — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 667

points a* Pi and infinitely great of the first order at the points

Xi yi and otherwise continuous and different from zero. This

function is expressible as the quotient of two functions <£.

But since there is a function <f> which vanishes in all the 2p — 2

0 _

points we have the two functions t <£=<£[ and ^ — </>* the first

infinitely small of the second order in the points

^11 ^3, ^3 . Xm-v ym+n . yp-U

the second infinitely small of the second order in the points.

<xx, (X%, (Xs , . . . . e •»»<Xrn — 1, Pm, 1, 2, . fip—1.

These functions are then squares of Abelian functions. Elimi¬

nating r we obtain Vp p = <t> or 4>\ Pi = <A2.

If we choose the points xi otherwise we obtain an arbitrary

number of Abelian functions V</>i, V<£2, etc., which have the

property that the square root of the product of two of them is

again an Abelian function. Since m — 1 zeros are arbitrary

we get m linearly independent Ps of this sort.

I wish now to examine some special cases which arise here

in the vanishing of the 0 functions. For surfaces of deficiency

0, 1 or 2 no such relations can exist. For the case p=S there

are three linearly independent P s. Ordinarily as we have seen

no relation exists among them of lower degree than the fourth.

The normal curve in the general case is a quartic which is

fixed when we stipulate that it shall be a function belonging

to the surface defined by the origir al equation, and fix its in¬

finities.

If now an even 0 function belonging to the surface vanishes

identically we get, as we have seen, the relation

Pi 4> > — P=0

We may regard this as the formal curve and, for the sake of

continuity, say that it is doubly covered, thus our quartic rela¬

tion degenerates into two identical equations of the second degree

and the normal curve is a conic doubly covered. This equation

may be put into the form

(A2<£ 2+</>) (/<2<£1+2/o£2+0)— [A//<^1+(A-f-//)^>3+</,l2-o

thus showing up the tangent lines if we regard the Ps as co¬

ordinates, In the case then that an even 0 function vanishes

668 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

identically the normal curve is such that it has an infinite

number of tangent <t> curves. Any curve then of the same de¬

ficiency, in case the even theta function vanishes identically,

has an infinite number of tangent curves. In particular the

sextic of deficiency 3 can be put into the form

(A2<£f2A4>3-M>3)

thus showing the sextic as the envelope of a quadratic sheaf

of adjoint curves of order three. Conversely if we get any sort

of a quadratic relation among the </>’ s in the case p=3 an even

theta function most vanish identically, for we can construct a

system of such Abelian functions by putting the conic in the form

LxL2 — LI -o and Weber has proved* that if such a system can be

constructed linearly and homogeneously from m independent

Abelian functions then there can be found a characteristic w

possessing the property that the function 0 [w] together with

all its derivatives up to and including those of order m — 1 must

vanish identically.

In case then that one quadratic relation exists among the

<£s for p= 3 the normal curve is a doubly covered conic and the

case is hyper elliptic.

For p=4 suppose that one even 0 function vanishes identi¬

cally. We then get the relation

For a general curve of deficiency four the normal curve is, as

we know, a twisted sextic made by the intersection of a quad¬

ric surface with a cubic surface. Now with the vanishing of

the 0 functions the quadric surface becomes a cone and the

representation is characterized by the fact that the tangent

<t> curves to the original curve correspond to the planes

tangent to the cone, and so to the points of tangency of </> curves

correspond three points on the generator of a cone. The nor¬

mal curve is a twisted sextic such that it has a G'J or a singly

infinite system of points three in a set, such that each group of

three lies in a straight line.

Suppose another quadratic relation to exist among the <f> s.

This means • that the quadratic relation as determined to

represent the surface Fn contains a variable parameter by

* Weber in Vol. XIII. Math. Ann., pp. 34-38.

Pengra \ — Conformal Representation of Plane Curves. 069

means of which the quadric can be expressed as a cone in four

different ways. Our normal curve, the twisted sextic, must lie

on both quadric surfaces as well as on the cubic surface.

Hence it degenerates into a twisted cubic twice repeated. The

two cones being evidently of the form

<j) f <f> t — cj)

</> 4 ( Fx ( </> ’ s ) ] — [ F2 i 4> ’ 8 ) ]: 3 = o

containing a straight line in common. This gives the hyper-

elliptic case for p= 4.

For the case p=5 we know that there exist three quadratic

relations among the <f>’ s. Let one of these give a cone in space

of four dimensions. To the infinite number of curves which

are tangent to the original curve at one point correspond the in¬

finite number of three flats tangent to the cone, and to the

point of tangency correspond the four points of the normal

curve found on each of the planes along which the three flats

are tangent to the cone. The normal curve, which is a twisted

curve of eighth order in space of four dimensions, is character¬

ized in this way by a G\ of points lying on a plane.

If two of the three quadrics are cones the normal has two

Gl’s and for three cones three Gl’s.

If four quadratic relations exist the case is hyperelliptic.

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the kindness of all the

Professors of Mathematics at Wisconsin, and particularly my

indebtedness to Dr. Dowling for his valuable suggestions and

assistance in connection with the preparation of this paper.

University of Wisconsin, July 14, 1903.

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

PRESIDENT CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS.

For the presidency of the University of Wisconsin, which

was doubtless the most important work of his life, Dr. Charles

Kendall Adams was peculiarly fitted by circumstances as well

as training. Born in Vermont Jan. 24, 1835, of a, family that

was old, but, like the typical Few England farm, poor, he had

in his boyhood meager opportunities for study, in summer

working on the farm, in winter first attending and later teach¬

ing district schools. But he was always eager to learn, and his

brother used to* tell how with a* hook on his plow he sometimes

let his beast; make a* furrow at its will till aroused from, his pre¬

occupation. Perhaps it was significant that this youth who was

after a while to become a! torch-bearer of learning started West

carrying in his hand a copy of Shakespeare which had been

overlooked in the packing up. Having migrated to Iowa in

1855 he began to study Latin and Greek after his 21st birth¬

day, and entered the University of Michigan in 1857.

He entered from a private academy after hurried prepara,-

tion, and gave me long afterwards the impression that only

kindly leniency on the part of his examiners let him into the

university. It was only necessary to get in “by the skin of his

teeth ability, zeal, and industry did the rest. I have heard

him say that only the helpful human sympathy of Professor

Boise on his first recitation encouraged himi to hold up his head

after that first failure. Doubtless this encouragement, that

never failed afterwards, made the man, and how grateful he

always was to Boise ! Perhaps even his lifelong partiality for

Greek studies was due to that. He worked his way through

college by manual labor and service in the library, but found

time to read as well as to work and study, for in his freshman

Memorial Address — Charles Keridall Adams.

671

year — as he said once to the students of the University of Wis¬

consin — he saved money enough to buy a dozen good books in

general literature, and read them.

Graduated in 1861, he went on to the Master’s degree in

1862, was then appointed instructor in Latin and history, as¬

sistant professor of history in 1863, and in 1867 full professor

of history, with the privilege of spending a year and a half in

German arid French universities. The man he succeeded in

the chair of history was the then young Andrew D. White, who

had perhaps chiefly influenced his student career, determined

his choice of a specialty, nominated him for1 his own chair on

leaving, suggested him, I think, as his successor ini the presi¬

dency of Cornell, and remained all through life his closest

friend. Connected with the University of Michigan twenty-

eight years! — five as student, twenty-three1 as: member of the fac¬

ulty — he came to be regarded perhaps as its most eminent pro¬

fessor, and was dean of the school of political science from its

establishment in 1881. First, as non-resident lecturer on his¬

tory at Cornell (1881-5), and later as president (1885-92),

he became thoroughly familiar with that Eastern institution

which is doubtless most nearly of the style of the Western state

university. He* had been chairman, too, of the building com¬

mittees1 of the great libraries of the University of Michigan

and of Cornell, something significant in view of his later con¬

nection with that beautiful structure which will remain as his

chief monument at Madison — the Historical Library. At the

age of fifty-seven, in the maturity of his powers, learning, and

experience in affairs, he came in the autumn of 1892 to the

LTniversity of Wisconsin.

A paragraph from a paper which I prepared for local use

at the time of his resignation last autumn sums up some of the

qualities of the man as well as the striking results of his nine

years’ administration : “Dr. Bascom’s thirteen-year adminis¬

tration had put the young institution on a sound basis of schol¬

arship, had filled the state with a fine body of alumni loyal to

their president and fond of their alma mater, and had made

inevitable and easy the transition from a small college to a big

university. Dr. Chamberlin’s* five-year regime had been

marked by greatly accelerated growth in numbers and develop¬

ment of university temper and spirit. The latter found Sci¬

ence Hall built, and he began and all but finished the Dairy

672 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Building, Law Building, and Gymnasium. The legislatures of

1889 and 1891 had made notable! and noble appropriations. In

1893, $140,000 was added, making possible the adequate com¬

pletion and outfit of the edifices already under construction.

In 1895 came the phenomenal appropriation — one-fifth of a

mill tax additional (i. e., interest on $2,000,000) for two

years, and $180,000 for the Historical Library.

“In 1897 the one-fifth mill tax was made permanent and the

amount for the Historical Library was increased to $420,000 ;

ml899 $135,000 was appropriated for a, new Engineering

Building and for the agricultural heating plant and to com¬

plete and equip the Historical Library $200,000 more. In

1901 about $200,000 was appropriated, of which $150,000 was

to go to the construction of Agricultural Hall, the remainder

to the general university fund and to' engineering improvements.

From! 1890 to 1900 was the building era of the university.

* * * The increase of the students and faculty has been

quite commensurate with the improvements in building. In

1892 the number of students was 1,092, now 2,800; of instruc¬

tors, and other officers in 1892, 73 ; now, 168. * * * He

is a man of fine presence and distinguished bearing, affable, a

good conversationalist, has for many years been given to enter¬

taining notable people, and so, while utterly unassuming, has

the air of one who is at home in the best company. People

who do not know him well have sometimes called him an aris¬

tocrat. On the platform lie never makes a poor speech, and

sometimes a great one. As presiding officer at a banquet he

has few equals within my knowledge. In social matters his

administration has been a pronounced success. * * * But

he is also a great executive officer. I have heard him say that

American people do big things better than they do little ones.

Lesser men can turn off routine business quite as well as he ; his

pre-eminence is in planning and accomplishing large things.

“The best evidence of this outwardly is the great Historical

Library ; the best proof of it inwardly is the vast extension of

facilities, not simply to inleet the great increase in the number

of students, but to make possible the most advanced work and

to cause the ablest men to feel that Wisconsin is the best place

to stay and labor in. Some of the newspapers have criticised

sharply at tim.es, and some legislators have come from: the peo¬

ple to make a fight; but in the end the majority of the legislar

Memorial Address — Charles Kendall Adams .

673

ture: and of tlie people have come over to his ideas and his ideals,

and civic pride in the university has enormously increased.

The friction which a few years ago existed between the authori¬

ties of the lower schools and the university seems now to have

disappeared entirely, and a cordial and helpful relation has

taken its place.”

President Adams was passionately loyal to and enthusiasti¬

cally confident of the great future of the University of Wiscon¬

sin. He showed remarkable capacity in choosing members of

the faculty as well as in uniting and harmonizing them in the

common work, fostered and stimulated the spirit of research

among the instructors, and yet would remind them that “the

university is for the students,” whose instruction should not

he sacrificed to investigation. His zeal for athletics came

mainly from the conviction that a maximum of clear and sane

thinking as well as the most moral living is not to be expected

from men in poor health. His manifest and well known sym¬

pathy with all that made for real religion in the university was

but the outward expression, of inward belief and consistent home

living.

An estimate of the service rendered by President Adams to

the university and to the cause of higher education, made by

Dr. Birge at the time of his resignation, pleased President

Adams above all appreciations then made public. It is as fol¬

lows :

“President Adams was one of the first men in this country

to catch the spirit and temper of true university study and ad¬

ministration. This spirit hei embodied, first, in his own teach¬

ing, and this temper, as larger opportunities were afforded him,

he carried into the institutions of which he has been the head.

The university temper expresses itself, when it is1 present, in

every department of university work from1 the freshman classes

to the graduate courses. It was by no means absent from, our

University in the years before 1892, yet, it has received a mighty

impulse and stimulus from the example and teachings of Presi¬

dent Adams. This internal growth, this development of a

higher standard of scholarship ini the university, has been Presi¬

dent Adams’ great contribution to the intellectual life of the

state. By a higher standard of scholarship I do not mean the

exaction of more work from' the student or the mere ‘raising

of the standard’ in the technical sense, but a lifting of the insti-

43

674 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tution to a truer and higher intellectual position. This is the

greatest service that a president can render to- his university,

and this President Adamsi has fully rendered to us. To- this

end all his measures have tended. In carrying out this main

purpose, President Adams has shown; great breadth and large¬

ness of view. He has been, able to' conceive large plans for the

university, which he has boldly executed. Yet he has never

striven to enforce his own ideas upon the various departments,

aiming rather to inspire unity and harmony of spirit and pur¬

pose than to secure a similarity in method. Thus he has been

able to win and hold the sympathy of the faculty for his plans

and their co-operation in working them out and applying them

in. the administration and the teaching of the university.”.

President Adams was stricken down, about February 1, 1900,

and was never at the helm for more than1 a day or two at a time

after that. After weeks of suffering at home he was sent by

his physicians, first to Virginia, then to' Battle Creek, Mich.,

and finally for a year to Italy and Germany. During all that

period I was in constant correspondence with him, and some

extracts from his letters may be used to' illustrate his absorbing

devotion to the university, and to indicate some of his plans and

ideals in educational work. He was trying to' get well for the

sake of the work he felt he had still to do at Madison, and every

movement for a, year and a, half was determined by that. He

abandoned a contemplated trip from1 Italy to' Egypt, “for the

reasons,” he wrote, “of the twofold fact of my continued im¬

provement and the opinion of the doctor that I should probably

not return from Egypt as well as I might be on going. I hope

that in the spring we may go to Athens and, perhaps, to Sicily.”

By J anuary 1, 1901, he1 had reached his normal weight again

and the physician who had accompanied himi from Battle Creek

returned home, saying that it was “absurd for him to remain

longer.” “I should call myself entirely well,” he wrote, “but

for a little nervous weakness-, which, I suppose, is the last rem¬

nant of the illness.” Nature just, then was in sympathy with

their returning health. “The climate here is charming,” he

wrote. “Boses, heliotropes and oleanders seem1 not to' know

any such thing as winter. Their blossoms are now upon every

wall and along every roadside. Today we sat with our win¬

dows wide open to- the floor, and many have sat among the

flowers in the garden.” “What a country it is!” he wrote again

Memorial Address — Charles Kendall Adams.

675

in February. “As I write at midday we are having the third

concert tinder the window1 — not the hand organ, which seems to

be good enough only for America — but by a violin and a singer,

both fit for the stage. There are tears and laughter and exulta¬

tion, all expressed with the fire of an operatic training. Of

such concerts we must have about five a day, and, strangely

enough, do not quite tire of them. There is a picturesqueness

about the whole matter that is almost bewitching.”

Some extracts from letters of that period illustrate one of

President Adams’ abiding interests in matters of higher educa.-

tion, i. e., classical studies. When urging me to come to Madi¬

son in 1894, he said that in a college' course one language at least

was especially deserving of favor as embodying and represent¬

ing pure culture of the highest kind, and that language to his

mind had always been the Greek. “I invite you to a larger

field, and it is your duty to come,” he said with great emphasis;

and I was practically won at once. Some time later1 Dr. B. I.

Wheeler wrote me : “President Adams will give the most ear¬

nest support. You will find him a loyal, sound, wise man.”

During the eight years that followed I found his zeal for clas¬

sical studies always unabated. The last thing he did for the

university was to organize the school of commerce and it might

have seemed that he, too, was swamped by the wave of commer¬

cialism that was sweeping over the country. But he sent Dean

Johnson of the college of engineering, his chief agent in the

new venture, to consult with me, and called me to1 his sick bed

to say that “he did not want some of us who stood for ideal

things to think that the university was to be wholly given over

to the material and practical.” And a year later he wrote me

from Italy (March 22, 1901) : “I note all you say in regard

to its being a technical year. But I want the university not to

be swamped by a spirit of commercialism!. Every interest

should be encouraged. What men have accomplished is quite

as important as what they are accomplishing.”

In 1894 he had led me to> hope that we might have some day

at the University of Wisconsin a classical museum, and this

matter was much on his mind when he was abroad — without any

urging from! me, it may be said, for I never found it necessary

to remind him of promises. February 7, 1901, he said in a

postscript to a letter : “I came within an inch of forgetting one

of my errands in writing. -Before I left Madison I asked the

676 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

regents to allow me to use the balance of my salary, i. e., what

was really saved by my absence, in the purchase of plaster casts

for a classical museum in the new library building. The an¬

swer was that I must not trouble myself with anything of the

kind till I was really well. In so far as this was prompted by

a consideration for me, I appreciated it, and of course there was

no answer to give. But the time has come when no such answer

suffices. All the manufactories in the world are glad to deco¬

rate Johnson’s building [Engineering Hall] ; but Socrates and

Demosthenes can’t send their photographs, nor can Phidias send

his architectural designs. Consequently such things either have

to be bought, or we are in danger of being snowed completely

under by a spirit of commercialism. Carnegie and Rockefeller

will perish, but there are some others that will remain. I re¬

cently wrote - tli at I should be greatly disappointed if I

were not permitted to make the expenditures. If I could

spend, say, $1,000 for photographs and $2,500, or such a mat¬

ter, for statuary, my illness will not have been without advan¬

tage.”

Meanwhile a change had taken place. Winter came sud¬

denly ; Mrs. Adams was stricken down with asthma ; her illness

was long and his sympathy intense, so that he was never quite

so well again. Still he maintained the struggle for health.

Seven months later, when, under the impression that his health

was far better than it was, I had urged his being here to meet

the board of regents in September, he replied: “Ever since

J anuary 5 we have been fighting the battle to get into condition

to resume work at the beginning of the year. In the case of my

wife the battle cannot be said to have been successful — at least

the improvement has been so capricious and slow that up to the

arrival of your letter it seemed uncertain what the true course

should be. I have been confronted with the dilemma of either

going back without her or delaying the voyage in the hope of

further improvement. I have too much dread of an avenging

iSTemesis- to undertake the former course.” They decided to

come home together, and that last letter from Germany con¬

cluded thus: “Of one thing I wish to assure you. Every

movement, except my shortest possible journey to Glasgow, has

been dictated by considerations of health. * * * It has,

beyond all question, been the most anxious and disappointing

year of my life. In spite of all these facts I shall attempt to

be present at the meeting of the board.”

Memorial Address — Charles Kendall Adams.

677

The provision ini his last will and testament directing that

five of the fifteen five-hundred dollar fellowships, to the establ¬

ishment of which he devoted his entire estate, should go to the

department of Greek is the final proof of his belief in the value

of Greek culture.

He and Mrs. Adams reached Madison, in September in time

for the meeting of the hoard. Dean Johnson, Mr. Hiestand,

and I met; them at the station. Waiting by the car for them to

get off, I said to Mr. Hiestand, as I heard the President’s voice,

“It has the old ring!” But, when his face appeared, I was

shocked to see how he had aged in a single year. That was

Saturday night. The next morning he telephoned me to come

and dine with himi and Mrs.. Adams. When I went at noon I

found he had already been conferring with Dean Henry about

Professor F. H. King’s call to Washington. With such vigor

he instantly resumed his duties. He felt, equal to. and eager for

the accustomed burdens. “I could run two universities !” he

said to Mr. Stevens. But he was apprehensive about Mrs.

Adams.

The first severe test of his powers came shortly — the opening

Convocation address to the students, an occasion to which he

had been looking forward for months. The meeting was held

in the Armory, and he spoke for forty-five minutes connectedly,

clearly, and logically. It was a good speech, but it seems he

came through by sheer force of will. He looked somewhat

dazed at the conclusion, but I felt no uneasiness at the moment.

But his wife’s; womanly instinct divined instantly what had

happened, for as he approached the house she said she knew it

was all over. Under the first severe strain he had broken down.

Serious illness followed and the old trouble returned. As soon

as the regents could be got together1 he resigned. The night

before the resignation was formally laid before; the board he

telephoned for me to come and told me what he; had done.

Tears fell as he spoke, and he looked a gray and aged and

broken man. It was very hard. He had hoped to> serve the

university till he was seventy-five, nine years longer, and he had

great plans for it, How it was all over. I knew his heart was

broken, but he did not murmur. When a few weeks later his

train had started for California, and Dr. Birge and I turned

[homeward, I said, “We shall see his face no more!”

His last letter to me is pathetic, in view of what happened so

678 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

shortly after. “We are beginning to get ready to move into the

new house,” he wrote, June 21. “Probably in, two weeks we

shall be in our own home. My wife looks forward with great

pleasure to the new life, and I hope it will be in every way bene¬

ficial. * * * Neither of us is in the best condition.”

Early in July they moved into the new house they had built,

and on the 26th he passed away.

In, one of his later letters there is a reference to the book of

resolutions — with signatures of all the faculty — prepared in

consequence of his resignation, and with that I may close:

“The Cardinal book touched me so deeply I have hardly dared

to venture on a formal acknowledgment ; but I must do so! with¬

out much delay. Especially gratifying was the note preceding

the signatures themselves. As a whole I believe the work to be

unique. Surely our dear old Patrick (janitor) would have

called it a ‘wonderful char-ac-ter from me last place!’ God

bless you all!”

Charles Eorster Smith.

DP. GEORGE McKENDREE STEELE.

In comparatively inconspicuous positions there have often

beeni princes. Some men are great enough to do large work in

humble fields. Usually the place surpasses the man, but some¬

times the man, relatively speaking, surpasses the place. Such

seems to have been the case with George McKendree Steele to

whose life and service we are today to pay respect.

Dr. Steele was built on a large scale. Physically, he stood

Achilles like among men. His stalwart frame was full of

rugged strength. Of his leonine head, President Warren of

Boston University has said, “Surrounded with a diadem it

would have reminded men of Charlemagne.” He was a man

who conquered where he stood, for there was about him such

weight and power, such a dominance of personality, that others

instinctively gave him the right of way. He possessed what

Emerson has named character, “a reserved force which acts

directly by presence and without means.”

He was nobly born, for his cradle was rocked in a home where

there was no confusion of material and moral values, but where

Memorial Address — Dr. George M. Steele. 679

father was a pioneer itinerant preacher who delivered his

message in twenty-four appointments scattered through six

states. When on April 13th, 1823, at Stratford, Vermont, a

boy child came to the parsonage, the father gave him the bap¬

tismal names of George and McKendree in honor of two of the

early bishops of the Methodist Episcopal church.

In that day the circuit rider’s salary was a mere pittance and

it was necessary for the children to be put to work. Thus

George early learned the valuable lessons of labor, economy, and

self denial, and was hardened for the later experiences of a

strenuous life.

His education was obtained at Wesleyan University, which

he entered in 1846. Stephen Olin was president, a man of im¬

perial intellect, of magnetic eloquence and of lofty Christian

character. The influence of this powerful personality upon

young Steele was formative and put a high idealism back of all

of his work. His college course was the product of indom¬

itable resolution, and was begun in poverty and completed with¬

out financial assistance.

After his graduation he entered the ministry of the Methodist

Episcopal church and served various charges for twelve years

in the Hew England Conference. He soon won a reputation

as a logical and scholarly preacher. It was at this time that he

became a member of “The Triangle,” a club celebrated in the

traditions of Methodism. The other members were Fales Hew-

. hall, the critical scholar and brilliant divine, and Gilbert

Haven, later a celebrated bishop of the Methodist church.

These three met weekly to read Greek and Hebrew together and

discuss the various problems of knowledge. This intellectual

brotherhood soon became, as has been said, “A new and trans¬

forming leaven in Hew England Methodism and in the broader

arena of Hew England life.” Their scholarly labors soon

found expression in magazine articles, pamphlets and books,

and above all in broadening, uniting, and liberalizing the relig¬

ious spirit of the church with which they were connected. One

who was close to him in these days of intellectual acquisition

and quickening says, “Probably, where a clear judgment was

needed for some deep question, Steele had no1 superior in the

Triangle, even if he had a peer.”

In 1865 he was called to the presidency of Lawrence Univer-

080 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

sity, where he labored for fourteen years. During this time he

became an active member of this association. The institution,

when he became president, demanded a man of great resources,

for he had to act as financial agent, administrator, and teacher.

Dr. Steele bore these burdens with remarkable self sacrifice

and great efficiency. He developed the finances of the institu¬

tion and impressed upon it the loftiest moral and intellectual

ideals. He took an active part in the public life of the com¬

monwealth, and it is doubtful if any Wisconsin educator, dur¬

ing the same number of years, has exerted a more potent influ¬

ence for good.

When he resigned at Lawrence, he became president of Wil-

berham Academy, one of the most historic seminaries of the

country. Here he became a veritable Arnold of Rugby in his

sympathy with growing life and his ability to inspire and direct

it. After thirteen years of service in this institution, he re¬

signed to spend the evening of his life in less arduous labors.

He took up his residence at Auburndale, Massachusetts, where

he was again pressed into service and for five years acted as vice^

president and professor of philosophy at La Salle Seminary.

Here disease laid its heavy hand upon him and having lost his

wife, whom he loved as few men know how to' love, he moved to

Chicago to spend his remaining days in the home of his only

son, who did all that affection and wealth could do to bless his

failing years. The last few months of his life were spent in

severest suffering, but the gladness and vigor of his imperial

spirit rose above the pains of the flesh and made him an example

and a blessing to all who1 came within the sphere of his influence.

At last the end came quietly and his visions of faith became

realities.

“Dead he lay among his books

The peace of God in all his looks.”

In concluding this sketch I wish to say a few words about

Dr. Steele as a teacher, an author, and a man. Dr. Charles

Little has said the intellectual problem of every age is not to

found schools, but to find the school master. Dr. Steele was a

great school master. To establish this I wish to quote testi¬

mony from two of his pupils. Dr. Olin A. Curtis, professor

of Systematic Theology in Drew Theological Seminary, him¬

self one of the most brilliant scholars and inspiring teachers

in our country, speaks as follows: aIn twelve years of stu-

Memorial Address— Dr. George M. Steele. 681

dent life in four countries, I had twenty-eight teachers, but I

have not the least hesitation in saying that George M. Steele

was the greatest teacher of them all. He was not remarkable

as a scholar, nor as a pedagogical tactician, nor as an enthusias¬

tic specialist, lifting one study into fascinating dignity, but,

precisely like Thomas Arnold, he could create for a student a

new world. This he did by a peculiar combination in method.

On the one side by the most natural, penetrating, and stimulat¬

ing sympathy he entered the student’s person and vitalized all

kinds of noble motives — in fact, made the man all over in

heart. On the other side, he had an efficient way of relating

scholarship to life. His class room was a place of large hori¬

zons. It was like climbing a mountain in a clear day and look¬

ing down upon your little door-yard. Coming out of a, class one

day a boy said, ‘He makes a fellow see forty miles.’ ”

The second testimony is from that queenly and cultured

woman, .Margaret J. Evans of Carleton College, who graduated

under him and taught with him for four years at Lawrence.

She says: “By his great personality he transformed dullards

into scholars, weaklings into robust students, frivolous girls

into earnest women, selfish boys into ministers and mission¬

aries — even incipient criminals into noble citizens.” Another

of his pupils affirms, “his class room was one of the way stations

on the pathway of truth and integrity.” Unquestionably we

may say that as a teacher he lives immortal in “souls made bet¬

ter by his presence.”

As a,n author, considering the distracting character of his

peculiar work, he rendered no inconsiderable service. The

ripe fruit of his thought found its way into' our foremost maga¬

zines: the Atlantic Monthly, the Forth American Review, the

Methodist Review, and many other leading periodicals. For

forty years but few weeks went by when the public was not

treated to something from his busy pen. He discussed with

apparent ease the most varied subjects — literary, biographical,

theological, political, social, historical, and educational. Sev¬

eral papers written by him are printed in the Transactions of

this society. His books are as follows: Outlines of Bible

Study for Colleges, a volume of college sermons, Elementary

Psychology, Ethics, and a work on political economy. All of

his publications manifest independence of thought, logical

power, and vigorous expression. He was not an accumulator

682 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of other men’s thoughts', but an original force in the Republic

of Letters.

But it was as a man tbat Dr. Steele was greatest. Rectitude

won with him a perpetual victory. “To be and not to seem”

was his controlling thought. His rugged honesty hated every

thing that savored of pretense or sham. He was the embodi¬

ment of moral and intellectual integrity. Gentle and kindly

in disposition, he became rigid as granite when asked to com¬

promise a principle. His moral earnestness, however, never

led him to dogmatism, depreciation, or censoriousness. He was

saved from these by “his uncommon common sense and his keen

humor.” He had a fine balance of judgment, got hold of the

gist of things as by intuition, and rendered decisions from the

standpoint of comprehensive consideration. His wit was an

ever-flowing fountain. He had almost as much facility with

stories as Lincoln. He made each day bright and sunny by

the spirit with which he entered it. He was above all a man

of sympathy and heart. His office door was always swinging

open to those who wanted a word of encouragement and they

never went away empty. Even his severity was hearted with

kindness. He belonged not to that inferior rank which

“vaunteth itself,” but rather counted his life not dear unto

himself if he could by any means render a helpful service. He

attached men to him by bands of steel. His students loved and

revered him. Says one of them, “Natural, simple, the great

soul made one ashamed of littleness, meanness or deceit. To be

even a trifle like him was the noblest longing of all our hearts

as we watched That best portion of a good man’s life, his little,,

nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and love.’ ” One

who knew him well has thus summed up his character: “Large¬

ness, courage, kindness, piety, radicalness in principles, mag¬

nanimity, tremendous moral earnestness1, hostility to shams,

hopefulness, good nature, tolerance, intellectual honesty, humor,

unfaltering Christian faith, power to enrich other lives than

his own.” Dr. Steele certainly belonged to the number of the

true and noble if not to the great.

Samuel Plantz.

By courtesy of Wisconsin State Historical Society.

Memorial Address — John Butler Johnson,

683

JOHN BUTLER JOHNSON.

By the accidental death of Dean J. B. Johnson, on June 23rd,

last, the University of Wisconsin, and the engineering and edu¬

cational world suffered a very great loss ; a loss not only of a

highly efficient and active worker, but to an unusual extent of

a strong personality.

John Butler Johnson was born of Quaker parentage on a

farm' near Marlboro, Stark county, Ohio, on June 11, 1850.

For a number of years his schooling was obtained at the ordi¬

nary country school, but when he was sixteen years of age the

family moved to Kokomo, Indiana, where he was able to attend

Howard College. Later, he went to the Holbrook Normal

School for a short time. From 1868 to 1872 he taught school

in Arkansas and Indiana, and in the latter year became secre¬

tary of the Indianapolis school board. He also- taught for a

time in the Indianapolis high school.

. In 1874 he entered the Civil Engineering course at the Uni¬

versity of Michigan, from’ which he graduated in 1878 at the

age of twenty-eight. During his college course he spent his

vacations in work along the line of his chosen profession, both

for the sake of the experience and for1 money to assist in pay¬

ing his expenses. In carrying out this summer work he was

obliged nearly every year of his course to- enter school late and

leave early; and yet he found time to do that which he so

strongly advised all his students, — attend occasional lectures in

other departments and to take part in the college activities.

Doubtless his mature age and experience enabled him to profit

much more by his college course than the average student, and

the position! he has since won has been a great encouragement

to any young man who, like himself, has begun his college edu¬

cation somewhat late in life.

After graduating, Professor Johnson was engaged until 1881

on the survey of the Great Lakes, and from 1881 to 1883 he

was assistant engineer on the Mississippi Biver Commission, in

which position he accomplished considerable work of impor¬

tance. During one of the greatest floods ever experienced on

the lower Mississippi, he was commissioned to- measure the dis¬

charge through various crevasses, a somewhat dangerous and dif-

684 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ficult task. As a result of these measurements and of studies

made at that time, he made several recommendations regarding

the method of river control, which, although considered radical

at the time, have since proved to have been wise' and peculiarly

foresigh ted.

In 1883 he became professor of Civil Engineering at Wash¬

ington University, St. Louis, where he remained for sixteen

years. During the years spent in this position he gained a

world-wide reputation by his valuable contributions to engi¬

neering literature and by his active work in connection with

engineering and scientific societies. Probably his greatest con¬

tribution to the engineering profession1 has been his four pub¬

lished works on, engineering subjects, all of which he prepared

while at St. Louis. The Index to Engineering Periodical Lit¬

erature, which he originated and to which he gave a large

amount of his time, is scarcely less important. The encourage¬

ment of this work well illustrates one of his chief aims, which

was, as has been well said, “the promotion, of the cause of good

engineering in America.” During the years from 1892 to 1895

he also carried out important investigations on the strength of

timber for the Forestry Division of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, which have been of great value to> builders and

engineers. The results there obtained are now quoted in all

handbooks of engineering data.

Professor Johnson’s greatest activities were in engineering

education, and his reputation as an, educator was at this time

so well established that when, he was. called to the Deanship of

the College of Engineering of the University of Wisconsin, in

1899, it was confidently felt by all whoi knew1 him that the

right man had been found for the place. And this feeling has

been more than justified by the service he has done the Col¬

lege of Engineering and the University during his short admin¬

istration. The large growth in the attendance in the College,

the increase in equipment, and the construction of the new

Engineering Building, are the more evident signs of progress

which have been in great measure due to- his labor. But it is

not too much to say that Professor Johnson’s greatest service

to the University was in the influence he exerted in broadening

the spirit of the Engineering College and in cultivating a

healthy esprit de corps among the student body. His attitude

towards engineering education was of the broadest, and he fre-

Memoidal Address — John Butler Johnson. 685

quently urged upon his students the desirability of utilizing

every opportunity for extending their horizons while in col¬

lege. He had great faith in young men and believed thor¬

oughly in the policy of placing upon them a large measure of

responsibility. His influence with his students was due in no

small measure to this attitude of confidence in them, together

with a readiness to aid them, with words of encouragement and

advice.

Professor C. M. Woodward, a colleague of Professor John¬

son for many years, says of him, “As a teacher Professor John¬

son was sympathetic, painstaking, progressive, and very

thorough. He was never content with what he did last year.

He never found it possible to repeat an old lecture. Study

and experience added largely to his value, and his students are

most emphatic in their praise of his influence upon their lives,

both technically and morally. The ‘Professor’ had a whole¬

some disrespect for mere authority. His mind was pre-emi¬

nently free from prejudice and always rational. He was a

hard worker and his students learned to work hard with him.

Whether in the class room or in the field, he was indefatigable.”

While, first of all, an inspiring teacher, Professor Johnson

was also deeply interested in all that contributed to the welfare

of society. He was a member of many engineering and other

societies and in all these his activity and helpfulness were al¬

most remarkable. In the church he was equally active and in

all worthy enterprises of the community was always ready to

lend a hand. He was exceedingly optimistic and his mind was

full of plans and projects. While not always successful in

these plans, he never had time to worry over failures ; he lived

in the future, never in the past. It seems most unfortunate

that a man should be taken away in the prime of life with such

great promise for future work ; and yet it was in one sense, as

he would have wished, — that as long as he lived he would be

able to do with vigor his full part in society. His loss is felt

by a very wide circle of friends and by many interests, but by

none more keenly than his students and the younger generation

of engineers to whom he was an inspiration and guide.

686 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

LIST OF IMPORTANT WRITINGS OF PROFESSOR JOHNSON.

Recently Improved Methods of Sewage Disposal, Bulletin, Eng.

Series, Univ. of Wis., Vol. II, 'No. 7, 1900.

The Strength of a Ration,-— Unity. June 16, 1900.

American Industrial Education, What Shall It Be? A Com¬

mittee Report written by Professor Johnson, as chairman.

Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Engineer¬

ing Education, Vol. VIII, 1900.

Engineering Contracts and Specifications. Hew York, Engi¬

neering Rows Pub. Co.

Materials of Construction. Rew York, John Wiley & Sons.

Joint Author, Modern Framed Structures. John Wiley & Sons.

Theory and Practice of Surveying. John Wiley & Sons.

Editor, Index of Current Engineering Literature', Volumes I

and II.

F. E1. Turneatjre.

SAMUEL DEXTER HASTIRGS.

Samuel Dexter Hastings was born at Leicester, Worcester

county, Massachusetts, July 24, 1816. ILis father, Simon

Hastings, was of English blood, a lineal descendant of Thomas

Hastings, who emigrated from England, in 1634, and settled in

Watertown, Mass., and who long held important positions both

in church and state. His mother, Betsy (McIntosh,) Hastings,

was of Scotch descent, the daughter1 of Peter McIntosh, of Bos¬

ton, who served in the war of the American revolution under

the command of General Washington.

The subject of this sketch spent his earlier years in, Boston,

and his regular school training was limited to the first thirteen

years of his life. At the age of fourteen he went to Philadel¬

phia,, and made that city his home for the: next sixteen years.

The early part of this period was mainly devoted to a course of

study in preparation for a mercantile career, and we find him

actually engaged in business on his own account before he had

reached the age of twenty-one.

This sojourn at Philadelphia was the formative period of

young Hastings’ life, but his innate sense of justice, and his

Memorial Address — Samuel D. Hastings. 687

deeply sympathetic nature — those qualities of head and heart

which grew and strengthened with his years — Avere never satis¬

fied with mere money making. In 1835, he became deeply in¬

terested in the anti-slavery movement. He was one of the

founders of the “Liberty” party in Pennsylvania, and, at the

age of twenty-four, was made chairman of its state central com¬

mittee. Through his zeal and activity in this movement he

became intimately associated with such men as James G-. Bir-

ney, William Lloyd Garrison, John G. Whittier, Gerritt Smith,

Wendell Phillips, and with many others of national fame. His

attitude, at so early an age, toward slavery, and his activity in

this organized movement, against it, was but a. single illustra¬

tion of his inborn, hatred of oppression, and of his sympathy

with the unfortunate everywhere, as shown in so- many ways

throughout his entire life.

In 1846, Mr. Hastings' removed to Wisconsin Territory and

settled in Walworth county. He at once became identified as

an active citizen with the public interests of the territory, and

soon after, with those of the state. Lie was immediately placed

in positions of public trust, and yet never through his own seek¬

ing. He was called to act as town clerk, justice of the peace,

chairman of his town and county boards, and was elected to

the legislaturei of 1849, and sat as a member of that body at its

first winter session after the territory became a state. He was

regarded as one of the able members of the assembly, and was

held in high esteem' by his associates. The excitement over the

subject of slavery and its. extension into1 the territories was then

running high, and Mr. Ha, stings5 speech, made before the as¬

sembly in support, of certain resolutions, upon this subject, was

widely circulated by the newspaper press, and was afterwards

republished and further circulated as one of the documents of

the Anti-Slavery Society. These resolutions, of which Mr.

Hastings was the author, were, with slight alterations, passed

by the two1 houses, and thus committed the state, for the time

being at least,, toi the views therein contained.

In 1852, Mr. Hastings removed to the city of La Crosse, but

soon after took up his residence in the village of Trempealeau,

near by, where he had already acquired property. Here he

was again called into political life. He was chosen a member

of the assembly in 1856, and in the year following was nomi¬

nated and elected treasurer of the: state. This responsible office

688 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

lie lield during four successive terms of two years each, thus

outranking any other treasurer of* the state in length of service,

and perhaps equaling any in the efficiency of the service. This

period, too, extended over those trying years of the civil war

when the resources of the state were taxed, in every sense, to

their utmost.

But Mr. Hastings was never ambitious for political prefer¬

ment. He was a true lover of mankind, and, as such, he stood

ready to enlist in every movement which he believed was cal¬

culated to serve humanity. He was a leading spirit in the or¬

ganization of the national board of charities and reform, and

also of the Wisconsin state board of charities of which he was

for several years the efficient secretary.

But it is, perhaps, in connection with temperance reform

that Mr. Hastings’ name is most closely associated and most

widely known. He enlisted early in this cause, and never for

a moment permitted his zeal to flag or his courage to falter.

He became identified with all the great temperance organiza¬

tions, national and international. He assisted in organizing

the “Hational Temperance Society and Publication House,”

with headquarters at Hew York City, and served as its vice-

president from the inception of the organization: until his death.

He was a member of the national order of the “Sons of Tem¬

perance,” and was for several years the chief officer of the Wis¬

consin branch of that body. He was also a, member of the “In¬

dependent Order of Good Templars,” and for six years he held

the highest office in the gift of this international organization.

In the interest of these orders, and of the general cause of

temperance, he lectured through every county of Wisconsin, in

nearly every state of the Union, and also in Canada, England,

Scotland and Ireland. Ini this work of lecturing and organiz¬

ing he crossed the Atlantic six times, made two trips around

the world, and spent sixteen months in Australia, Hew Zealand

and Tasmania. He assisted in organizing the “Prohibition”

party, and was a member and the treasurer of its national ex¬

ecutive committee for twenty years. He was also his party’s

candidate in Wisconsin for member of congress, in 1882, and

for governor of the state in 1884.

It is hardly necessary to add, what is clearly implied in the

sketch already given, that Mr. Hastings was, throughout his

life, an earnest Christian. It was the very catholic spirit of his

Memorial Address — Samuel D. Hastings. t>89

religion which led him to join in every movement which he be¬

lieved was calculated to benefit mankind and help “lead in the

kingdom of righteousness.”

He united, at an early age, with the Presbyterian church,

but his unyielding attitude upon the slavery question soon led

to a severance of this relationship'. He then became a member

of the Congregational church, and maintained his connection

with that organization through the remainder of his life. He

entered into all of its activities, religious, charitable and educa¬

tional, with his characteristic zeal. He believed his church was

organized to work as well as to worship, or rather, to worship

through work — that its mission was to help uplift humanity,

and that whatever tended to* that end — whatever made men

healthier, happier and better — was legitimate Christian work.

A man with such views cannot well be a laggard. His place is

at the front. Mr. Hastings was always a, leader in his church,

and, as a result, he was honored with every position of trust and

confidence to* which a lay member is eligible.

He was a firm believer in the Chautauqua, method of reach¬

ing and educating the public, and was active in helping to or¬

ganize and maintain the “Monona Lake Sunday School

Assembly.” He served, at different times, as its secretary and

treasurer, and, at the time of his death, held the office of presi¬

dent. The work of this Assembly lay near to his heart. He

entered into it with an enthusiasm born of faith in the good

ends he believed it would subserve. These restful mid-summer

meetings were well suited to the afternoon of his long and ac¬

tive life. His presence upon the grounds was; always a sort of

benediction, and no other face there was quite so familiar as his.

Mr. Hastings was not an educated mian in the ordinary sense,

but was a diligent student of men and things, and a true friend

of liberal culture. He was willing to serve wherever his service

was most effective. He made no claim of proficiency in the

sciences, or in arts or letters, yet he was a charter member of

this Academy, and, for nearly twenty years, was its faithful

and efficient treasurer. He gave much time to the study of so¬

ciological problems, and sought to interest others in their solu¬

tion — in fact, his whole life illustrates the value of industry

and perseverance stimulated by a high moral purpose. The prin¬

ciples he advocated were exemplified in his own walk and char¬

acter. He was no pessimist ; he believed the world was grow-

44

690 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ing better, but, too slowly. As a true reformer, be was always

buffeted, often disappointed, but never disheartened. He

hated slavery and was a foe to intemperance, and in waging war

against them he was impatient of compromise. Honest men

may have differed with him at times as to the means of reaching

the end desired, but no breath of suspicion ever rested upon his

honesty of motive or integrity of purpose'. He tried to make

the world a little better than he found it, and it succeeded. His

was the life of an earnest, active, Christian citizen — well-

rounded and symmetrical, — and this is the richest legacy he

could have left to his family, or to the world.

J. B. Parkinson.

HAMILTON GREENWOOD TIMBERLAKE.

Mr. Hamilton Greenwood. Timberlake was born Dec. 8, 1871,

at Medley Springs, Berkeley county, West Virginia. In 1884

his widowed mother removed with her family to Port Byron,

Ill., and it was there that Mr. Timberlake received his early

education and preparation for college.

He was a quiet boy, much over his books, and in the Port

Byron Academy his studies were mainly in Greek and Latin

and mathematics, perhaps because there was little opportunity

for work in scientific lines and the animus of the school was

strongly in favor of the then so-called regular college prepara¬

tory course, which was framed to meet the requirements of the

classical course in the denominational colleges. His determin¬

ation at that time was to take a college and seminary course

preparatory to entering the ministry. From the start he was

largely dependent on his own resources, and after graduating

from the academy he taught for a year in the district schools

and a second year as principal in the town of New Bedford, Ill.

In the fall of 1893 he entered the classical course in Lake

Forest University. Under the influence of the then new presi¬

dent of Lake Forest, Dr. John M. Coulter, and in the atmos¬

phere of transition from a rigid course system to that of freer

electives which was brought in with the new administration,

Mr. Timberlake’ s interests gradually changed and while con¬

tinuing his studies in the classics, he devoted more time to the

By courtesy of Wisconsin Alumni Magazine.

Memorial Address — Hamilton G. Timbei'lake .

691

sciences and came to the determination to pursue more ad¬

vanced studies in Botany after graduation.

In college, though he impressed his fellow students as rather

reserved, he still found himself drawn into taking an active

part in many of the lines of student activity outside of the class

room. He was prominent in the work of the literary societies,

and during his senior year was editor of the college paper.

After graduating from Lake Forest with the degree of A. B.

in 1897, he spent two years in graduate work in Botany in the

University of Michigan, holding first the position of assistant,

and later that of instructor in Botany.

In 1899 he took his Master’s degree, presenting a thesis on a

subject in the line of the cell studies, to which he had deter¬

mined to devote himself. In the same year he was made in¬

structor in Botany in the University of Wisconsin and in 1903

was promoted to an assistant professorship. On June 30 of

this same year he was married to Miss Violet Slack of Madison.

He had also received an appointment as a research assistant un¬

der the Carnegie Institution and was granted leave of absence

by the University for a year to devote himself to research under

the Carnegie appointment.

His death, July 19, 1903, resulted from a fall due, possibly

in part, to a recurrence of an inherited heart trouble from

which he had suffered as a child, but from which he had appar¬

ently entirely recovered in later years.

On coming to Madison Mr. Timberlake devoted himself to

the study of the cytology of the algae, for which the region of¬

fers especial advantages, and in the few short years of his work

here he had already attained results which are of permanent

and fundamental value to botanical science. His work on the

processes of starch formation not only gives us for the first

time an account of the remarkable processes which go on in

the starch-forming centers in the alga cell, but opens up the

whole field of the study of metabolism by a new method and

from a new standpoint.

It is, of course, especially difficult to judge of scientific work,

so much of which was incomplete and in the making, but it is

not too much to sav that Mr. Timberlake’s work had already

given evidence that he possessed to an unusual degree the qual¬

ity of genuine critical insight which discerns the real prob¬

lems, the crucial points, for whose solution scientific progress

692 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

in any particular line waits, and that his interest centered in

such fundamental work. He was a keen observer, but frag¬

mentary observations of merely curious or unrelated details

won little attention or interest from him. Chance dis¬

coveries of this sort in his field and experimental work served

only as point of remarks or discussion in class or with his

friends. He was singularly free from that tendency to pub¬

lish as a form, of advertising which leads to the deluge of frag¬

mentary undigested work with which our minor scientific

journals are sometimes loaded.

Mr. Tlimberlake had very little of that zeal for collecting

and accumulating herbarium specimens which has been at least

the starting point in the work of many botanists. He was an

enthusiastic student of plant life in the fields, but his search

was always for special material which should serve in the solu¬

tion of some one of the biological problems with which his

mind was full. In his chosen field of work on the algae, he

has enlarged our knowledge of the local flora by the discovery

of some of the most interesting and important forms for1 physi¬

ological study and he had accumulated a very large amount of

carefully preserved material for liis further researches. The

most characteristic feature in his method of work was perhaps

his tireless patience and persistency and an unusual capacity

for taking pains in all the details of his experimental work.

As a teacher, Mr. Timiberlake won the love and respect of

all who knew him, both at Ann Arbor and in Madison.

Though quiet and unostentatious he none- the1 less impressed

his methods and standpoints both on his pupils and associates

to an unusual degree. He was especially successful in giving

the sort of personal help1 and inspiration which counts for more

than the mere formal work of the class room;, and his clear¬

ness in explanation and force in impressing the essential points

on his students in the laboratory, were his most marked char¬

acteristics as a teacher.

Personally Mr. Timberlake endeared himself to all who

came to know him well. His evenness of disposition and un¬

failing good humor, together with an ever-ready hut unos¬

tentatious helpfulness, made him friends everywhere. Those

who knew him; best and longest learned to rely most fully on

his thorough sincerity. The circle of his most intimate

friends mourn his death as an irreparable personal loss.

Memorial Address — Frederick Pabst.

693

The following is a list of the titles of his published papers.

A very large amount of work was left in an unfinished con¬

dition, and it is hoped that of this at least the portions relat¬

ing to his further studies on starch formation in the algae, for

which the drawings' were' largely completed, may he prepared

for publication.

“The Development and Function of the Cell-Plate in Higher

Plants.” — The Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXX, p. 73, 1900.

“Swarmspore Formation in Hydrodictyon Utriculatum Roth.”

— The Botanical Gazette, March, 1901.

“Starch Formation in Hydrodictyon Utriculatum.” — Annals

of Botany, Vol. XV, p. 619, 1901.

“Starch Formation in Cladophora.” — Science, March 21,

1902.

“Cell Division in Riccia Fluitans.” — Science, March 21, 1902.

“Development and Structure of the Swarmspores of Hydro¬

dictyon.” — Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sci., Arts, and Letters,

Vol. XIII, p. 486, 1902.

“The Xature and Function of the Pyrenoid.” — Science,

March 20, 1903.

R. A. Harper.

FREDERICK PABST.

Frederick Pabst, the son of Gottlieb and Frederika Pabst,

was born in Thuringen in Saxony, Germany, March 28, 1836,

and died at his home at 2000 Grand Ave., Milwaukee, on Xew

Year’s day, 1904. With hi$ father and miother he came to

Milwaukee in 1848, and a few months later accompanied them

to Chicago, where the mother died in 1849. About this time

the father accepted a position as cook in a, Chicago' hotel and

Frederick waited on the table for five dollars a month. Soon

after he obtained a similar position in another hotel, and about

the year 1850 went aboard one of the Goodrich steamers, plying

upon. Lake Michigan, as cabin boy. From: this humble position

he rose rapidly, and at the age of twenty-one he was made cap^

tain of the steamer Huron.

In 1862 Captain Pabst was married to Marie, the daughter

of Philip Best, son of the founder of the brewing firm of Jacob

604 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Best & Sons. His marriage into the Best family proved to

be tbe turning point in his career, for the ties of home and fam¬

ily soon became stronger than bis liking for tbe life of a lake

captain, and be transferred all bis interests to tbe brewing busi¬

ness of Philip Best who bad become tbe owner of tbe brewery

founded by bis father.

With the same energy and ability that bad brought about

bis rapid rise in tbe steamboat business, Captain Pabst set

about, learning tbe brewing business, beginning at the bottom

and mastering every detail. He introduced new methods and

new machinery and greatly increased the output while reduc¬

ing the cost of manufacture. Under his direction the busi¬

ness of tbe company increased enormously and in 1889 tbe

name was changed from the Philip Best Brewing Company to

the Pabst Brewing Company. Captain Pabst’ s great business

ability was shown not less in the conduct of the mammoth es¬

tablishment in Milwaukee than in tbe extension of its trade

to all parts of the United States and even to. foreign countries.

At tbe time of bis death the Pabst Brewing Company was the

largest concern of the kind in the world.

Captain Pabst was admired by all who knew him as a man of

sterling honesty and line public spirit. He was chiefly instru¬

mental in the building of the Stadt theater, the predecessor of

present Pabst theater, one of the best appointed theaters in the

country, devoted to the cultivation of the Herman drama. His

private charities are said to have been large and to have been

bestowed with care and discrimination. He was a member of

many fraternal, social and business organizations. Among

these are the Milwaukee Musical Society, Aurora Lodge, Ho.

30, Free and Accepted Masons, Ivanhoe Commandery, Ho. 24,

Knights Templar. He became a member of the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters at the annual meet¬

ing December, 1896.

Compiled by the Secretary.

Memorial Address — John I. Jegi .

695

JOHN I. JEGI.

John I. Jegi was born in Buffalo county, Wisconsin, on De¬

cember 3rd, 1866. His education was begun in the district

schools of his native county. Later on he attended the high

school at Arcadia, where he prepared himself to teach in the

public schools. He began his career as a teacher at Court-

land, Wisconsin in 1882. From this place he went to Arcadia

and then to Osseo, at which place he remained until 1888.

During the years 1888-1889 he was a student at the Northern

Illinois Normal School at Dixon. For two years he was prin¬

cipal at Blair, Wisconsin, and this was followed by a three

year term in the same capacity at Arcadia where he had pre¬

viously taught. Leaving Arcadia in the summer of 1894, he

entered the University of Chicago, which institution conferred

upon him the degree of Bachelor of Science in 1896. In the

same year he was called to the chair of Psychology and Physi¬

ology in the State Normal School at Milwaukee, which posi¬

tion he filled acceptably until the time of his death, which

occurred on January 7, 1904. The degree of Master of Sci¬

ence was conferred upon him by the Northern Illinois Normal

School in 1898.

Professor Jegi was elected to membership in the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters in December, 1896.

From the beginning he took an active interest in the work of

the Academy. In 1901 he was made a member of the Library

committee, and in 1902 was elected one of the vice-presidents

to serve for three years. He did much to arouse interest in

the work of the Academy among the citizens of Milwaukee,

and almost the last work that he was able to do was to assist in

perfecting arrangements for the December meeting in 1903.

Professor Jegi’s published papers are as follows :

A Comparative Study of Auditory and Visual Memory. Con¬

tributions to Philosophy — -University of Chicago Press.

Children’s Ambitions. Illinois Society for Child-Study. Oc¬

tober, 1898.

A Two- Year-Old Child’s Vocabulary. Child Study Monthly.

Auditory Memory-Span for Numbers in School Children.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,

and Letters, 1904.

696 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Besides his published papers he has written a considerable

number of short papers, most of which have been read before

various educational and scientific associations.

He has also published two text hooks in physiology. These

are:

A Syllabus of Human Physiology. S. Y. Gillan & Co., Mil¬

waukee, 1901.

Practical Lessons in Human Physiology. The MacMillan

Co., Yew York, 1903.

I. W. Mitchell.

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

OFFICERS.

President ,

John J. Davis, Racine.

Vice-President of Sciences ,

Dexter P. Nicholson, Lawrence University, Appleton.

Vice-Presidents of Arts ,

Charles H. Chandler, Ripon College, Ripon.

Vice-President of Letters ,

John I. Jegi.1*

Secretary ,

Ernest B. Skinner, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Treasurer ,

Homer W. Hillyer, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Librarian ,

Walter M. Smith, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Curator,

Ellwood C. Perisho, University of South Dakota, Vermil¬

ion, S. D. ,

Council ,

The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and

Past Presidents retaining their residence in Wisconsin.

t Deceased, January, 1904.

698 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Committee on Publication,

John J. Davis, Racine, President.

Ernest B. Skinner, Madison,, Secretary.

Albert S. Flint, Madison.

Committee on Library ,

Walter M. Smith, Madison, Librarian.

O. Dwigiit Marsh, Chicago, Ill.

George W. Peckham, Milwaukee.

IIiram D. Densmore, Beloit.

Reuben G. T'hwaites, Madison.

Committee on Membership ,

Ernest B. Skinner, Madison, Secretary.

Rufus PI. Halsey, Oshkosh.

Ermine O. Case, Milwaukee.

William P. Starr, Eau Claire.

Louis Kahlenberg, Madison.

Past Presidents,

Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington,

D. O., 1870-75.

Professor P. R. Hoy, M. D.,* 1876-78.

President A. L. Chapin, D. D.,* 1879-81.

Professor Roland D. Irving, Ph. D.,* 1882-84.

Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, Ph. D., LL. D., Chi¬

cago, Ill., 1885-87.

Professor William F. Allen,** 1888-89.

Professor Edward A. Birge, Ph. D., LL. D., Madison,

1889-90.

Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. D., Milwaukee,

1891-93.

President Charles R. Van Hise, Ph. D'., LL. D., Madison,

1894-96.

Professor C. Dwight Marsh, A. M., Ripon, Ph. D., Chi¬

cago, 1897-99.

Professor Charles S. Slighter, M. S., Madison, 1900-

1903.

* Deceased. ** Deceased December 9, 1899. Professor Birge elected

to fill unexpired term.

Honorary Members.

699

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Agassiz, Alexander,

Cambridge, Mass.

A. B., S. B., LL. D. (Harvard). Director of the Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Emeritus, and Director of the University Museum,

Harvard University.

Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, Hyde Park Hotel,

Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Beloit); Ph. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan); LL. D. (Michigan, Beloit,

Columbian, Wisconsin). Head of Geological Department and Director

of Walker Museum, University of Chicago; Geologist in charge of

Pleistocene Section, U. S. Geological Survey; Consulting Geol¬

ogist, Wisconsin Natural History Survey; Editor,

Journal of Geology.

Gilman, Daniel Coit, 614 Park Av., Baltimore, Md.

A. B., A. M. (Yale) : LL. D. (Yale, Harvard, Princeton, St. Johns', Colum¬

bia, North Carolina, Toronto, Wisconsin). President, Emeritus, of

Johns Hopkins University; President, Carnegie Institution.

Harris, William Torrey, 1360 Yale St., N. W.,

Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Yale); Ph. D. (Brown, Jena); LL. D. (Missouri, Yale, Princeton,

Pennsylvania). United States Commissioner of Education; Officier

d’Instruction Publique, France; Editor, Journal of Specula¬

tive Philosophy; Editor in Chief, Webster’s Inter¬

national Dictionary of the English Language.

Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate, 25 Quincy St.,

Cambridge, Mass.

S. B., S. D. (Harvard). Professor of Geology, Harvard University; Dean

of the Lawrence Scientific School.

Whitman, Charles Otis, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin); Ph. D. (Leipzig); LL. D. (Nebraska). Head

Professor of Zoology, University o± Chicago; Director of Marine

Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.

700 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

LIFE MEMBERS.

Barnes, Charles Redd, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover). Professor of Plant Physiology, University

of Chicago.

Birge, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); Ph. D. (Harvard); Sc. D. (Western University of

Pennsylvania); LL. D. (Williams). Professor of Zoology and Dean

of the College of Letters and Science, University of Wiscon¬

sin; Secretary of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wis¬

consin; Director and Superintendent Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey.

Flint, Albert Stowell, 450 Charter St., Madison.

A. B. (Harvard); A. M. (Cincinnati). Assistant Astronomer, Washburn

Observatory, University of Wisconsin.

Hobbs, William Herbert, 519 FT. Pinckney St., Madison.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute); A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).

Professor of Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Wisconsin;

Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

Hoyt, John Wesley, The Victoria, Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan); M. D. (Cincinnati); LL. D. (Missouri). Chairman

tif the National Committee to Promote the Establishment of the

University of the United States.

Marsh, Charles Dwight, 6047 Ellis Av., Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Amherst) : Ph. D. (Chicago). Dean and Professor of Biol¬

ogy, Ripon College; Biologist Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey.

Mitchell, John Lendrum* Milwaukee.

Ex-U. S. Senator from Wisconsin; First Vice-President of Board of Man¬

agers of National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers.

Peckham, George Williams, 646 Marshall St., Milwaukee.

LL. D. (Wisconsin). Librarian, Public Library.

Sharp, Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court., Madison.

A. B. (Amherst) ; Ph. D. (Berlin). Assistant Professor of Philosophy,

University of Wisconsin.

Active Members. 701

Slighter, Charles Sumner, 636 Francis St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin.

Van Cleef, Frank Louis, 39 Fort Greene PL,

Brooklyn, H. Y.

A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard); Ph. D. (Bonn). Expert in Office of Commis¬

sioner of Records, Kings Co.

Van Hise, Charles Riichard, 772 Langdon St., Madison.

B. Met. E., B. ,S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin); LL. D. (Chicago), President

of the University of Wisconsin; Geologist in charge of Division

of pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology, United States

Geological Survey"; President Board of Commissioners,

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Allen, Charles Elmer, 810 W. Johnson St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. Assistant Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Anthony, Gertrude, 324 Emerson St., Palo Alto, Cal.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Student, Leland Stanford, Jr., University.

Armstrong, Mary, Wauwatosa.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Science, Wauwatosa High School.

Baetz, Henry, 2820 Highland Boulevard, Milwaukee.

Ex-Treasurer, State of Wisconsin; Purchasing Agent, Pabst Brewing

Company.

Bennett, William Chase, 936 Haokett Av., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Rush). Professor of Embryology, Wisconsin

College of Physicians and Surgeons; Registrar of Vital Statistics,

Milwaukee Health Department.

Blackstone, Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin St, Berlin.

A. B„ A. M., C. E. (Union).

Blair, Emma Helen, 450 Charter St., Madison.

B. S., A. M. (Ripon). Editor of “The Philippines, 1493-1898.”

702 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Blake, William Phipps, Mill Bock, New Haven, Conn.,

and Tucson, Arizona,

A. M., Hon. (Dartmouth); Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Geology and Min¬

ing, University of Arizona; Director, Arizona School of Mines;

State Geologist, Arizona; Consulting Engineer and Mine

Manager.

Bleyer, Willard Grosvenor, 625 Langdon St., Madison.

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in English, University

of Wisconsin.

Branded, Irving Walter, 135 EL Johnson St., Madison,

Ph. G., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Pharmaceutical Technique,

University of Wisconsin.

Brinckley, William Joshua, 524 Meade St., Appleton.

A. B. (Salina); B. S., A. M., Ph. D. (De Pauw). Professor of Biology,

Lawrence University.

Brown, Charles E., Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.

Curator of Entomology, Milwaukee Public Museum.

Brown, Charles Newton, Langdon St., Madison.

LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Member of City Council, Madison.

Brown, Eugene Anson, 152 EL Johnson St., Madison.

M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician and Surgeon; Secretary of Board

'i of Federal Pension Examiners, Madison District.

Buckley, Ernest Bohertson, Bolla, Mo.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). State Geologist and Director of the Missouri

Bureau of Geology and Mines.

Burgess, Arthur Joseph, 1102 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Harvard). Physician.

Burke, John E., 904 Pabst Building, Milwaukee.

Butler, James Davie, 518 Wisconsin Av., Madison.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Midd-lebury) . Minister and Teacher.

Cairns, William B., 710 Madison St., Madison.

A. B., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant professor of American Literature,

University of Wisconsin.

Active Members.

703

Case, Ermine C., Milwaukee.

Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Physics, Physiography and Geology,

State Normal School.

Chandler, Charles Henry, Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy,

Ripon College.

Chandler, Elwyn Francis, University, U. D.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of

Nofrth Dakota; Assistant Engineer, U. S. Geological Survey.

Chapin, Robert Colt, 709 College St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit); D. B. (Yale). Professor of Political Economy,

Beloit College.

Cheney, Lellen Sterling, Barron.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Farmer; Teacher of Agricultural Botany,

University of Minnesota.

Clas, Alfred Charles, 640 Van Ruren St., Milwaukee.

Architect (Ferry & Clas), 419 Broadway, Milwaukee; Member, Board of

Park Commissioners; Director, Merchants and Manufacturers

Association, Milwaukee : Director, Milwaukee

Industrial Exposition.

Comstock, George Cary, Observatory Hill, Madison.

Ph. B. (Michigan); LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Astronomy and

Director of Washburn Observatory, University of Wisconsin;

Secretary of the Astronomical and Astrophysical

Society of America.

Congdon, Russell T., 11 Columbus Sq., Boston, Mass.

A. B. (Ripon). Student, Harvard Medical School.

Copeland, Edwin Bingham, Manila, P. I.

A. B. (Leland Stanford Jr.); A. M., Ph. D. (Halle). Botanist, Bureau

of Government Laboratories.

Crosby, Henry A., 453 Van Buren St., Milwaukee.

Culver, Garry Eugene, 1103 Main St., Stevens Point.

A M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal Sbhool.

Daniells, William Willard, 515 H. Carroll St., Madison.

M. S., Sc. D. (Michigan Agricultural). Professor of Chemistry, University

of Wisconsin.

704 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences 3 Arts , and Letters .

Davis, John Jefferson, 504 Monument Sq., Bacine.

B. S. (Illinois); M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician.

Densmore, Hiram Doles, 718 Clary St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit). Professor of Botany, Beloit College.

Dekneiil, Paul Herman, 042 Second St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Student, Johns Hopkins University Medical School.

Desmond, Humphrey J., 305 E. Water St, Milwaukee,

B. L. (Wisconsin); A. M. (Notre Dame). Lawyer.

Dietkich, Otto, Sit. James Court, 85 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

Ph. D. (Halle). Director, Milwaukee University School.

Dowling, Linnaeus Way land, University Heights, Madison.

Ph. D. (Clark). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of

Wisconsin.

Downes, Bobert Hugh, 53 W. Algoma St., Oshkosh.

B. L. (Wisconsin).

Dudley, Williams EL, Platteville.

Instructor in Biology, State Normal School.

Eaton, Edward Dwight, 847 College Av., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit) ; B. D. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D. (North¬

western, Yale). President and Professor of Ethics, Beloit College.

Ely, Bichard Theodore, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Columbia); Ph. D. (Heidelberg); LL. D. (Hobart). Profes¬

sor of Political Economy, University of Wisconsin.

Erickson, Frank Morton, Bipon.

A. M. (Wabash). Professor of Greek, Ripon College.

Ewing, Addison Luther, Biver Falls.

B. S., M. S. (Cornell). Professor of Natural Science, State Normal School.

Farley, Herbert John,

Appleton.

M. S. (Lawrence). Instructor in Philosophy, Lawrence University.

Active Members.

705

Architect (Perry and Clas).

Fischer, Richard, Madison.

Ph. C., B. S. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Marburg). Assistant Professor of the

Theory and Practice of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin;

State Chemist, Wisconsin.

Folkmar, Daniel, Bontoc, P. I.

A. B., A. M. (Western); S. D. (Brussels); D. O. (Paris). Lieutenant

Governor, Leponto, Bontoc, P. I.

Frankenburger, Da,vid Bower, 115 W. Gilman St., Madison.

Ph. B., LL. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory,

University of Wisconsin.

Frost, William Dodge, 310 Bruen St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Minnesota); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of

Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin.

Gapen, Clarke, Madison.

M. D. ( . ). Physician.

Giese, William Frederick, 426 Bruen St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Associate Professor of Romance Languages,

University of Wisconsin.

Gordon, Mrs. George, 1144 Humboldt Ay., Milwaukee.

Graenicher, Sigmund, 551 Seventh; St., Milwaukee.

Ph. D. (Basel); M. D. (Munich). Physician.

Gregory, John Goadby, 717 Jefferson St., Milwaukee.

Associate Editor, The Evening Wisconsin.

Haessler, Luise, 474 Walker St, Milwaukee.

Teacher of Modern Languages and Librarian, South Division High School.

Halsey, Rufus H., Oshkosh.

A. B. (Williams). President, State Normal School.

Hancock, Edward Lee, La Fayette, Ind.

B! S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Applied Mechanics, Purdue

University.

45

706 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Harper, Robert Aimer, 324 H. Carroll St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Harvey, Hafhan Albert, 613 W. 67tb St., Chicago.

Ph. D. Vice-Principal, Chicago Normal School.

Harwood, Mary Corintbia, Ripen.

B. L., M. L. (Lawrence). Professor of French and German, and Dean of

Women, Ripon College.

Henry", William Arnon, University Farm, Madison.

B. Agr. (Cornell). Dean of the College of Agriculture and Director of the

Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin.

Hillyer, Homer Winthrop, University Heights, Madison.

B. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Or¬

ganic Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Hodge, Willard Addison, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon).

Hohlfeld, Alexander Rudolph, 145 W. Gilman St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German, University of Wisconsin; member

of the Executive Council and Chairman of Central Division,

Modern Language Association of America. ■

Hollister, Albert Henry, 17 Langdon St., Madison.

Pharmacist.

Hook, Edward Alfred, Columbia University, Hew York, H. Y.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Tutor in Mathematics, Columbia University.

Hubbard, Frank Gaylord, 227 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of the English Lan¬

guage, University of Wisconsin.

Huntington, Ellsworth,

A. B. (Beloit); A. M. (Harvard). Geologist, Geological Exploration Expedi¬

tion in Central and Southern Asia Under Carnegie Institution.

J astro w, Joseph, 247 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Pennsylvania); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Psy¬

chology, University of Wisconsin.

Milton, Mass.

Active Members.

707

Jennings, John Thompson Wilson, Univ. Heights, Madison.

B. S. (Cornell). Superintending Architect of Buildings and Grounds,

University of Wisconsin.

Johnson, Roswell Hill,

B. S. (Chicago).

Johnson, Warren Seymour, Milwaukee Club, Milwaukee.

Mechanical Engineer.

Jolliffe, William! Morley, 604 Elmore St., Escanaba, Mich.

B. S. (Lawrence). Superintendent, Public Schools.

Juday, Chaneey, 1060 Twelfth St., Boulder, Colo.

M. A. (Indiana). Assistant, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History

Survey.

Kahlenberg, Louis, 234 Lathrop St., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of Physical Chem¬

istry, University of Wisconsin.

Kimball, Mather Dean, 528 Frederick St., Milwaukee.

A. B., A. M. (Northwestern).

King, Franklin Hiram, 1540 University Av., Madison.

Chief of Division of Soil Management, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department

Agriculture.

Kling, Henry E., 33rd St. and Wentworth Av., Chicago', Ill.

Ph. B., A. M. (Upper Iowa). Principal, Webster School, Chicago.

Knowlton, Amos Arnold, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin).

Kremers, Edward, 320 Jackson St., Wingra Park, Madison.

Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Pharmaceut¬

ical Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Krueger, Henry, 385 Twenty-seventh Av., Milwaukee.

Principal, Twelfth District School, No. 1.

Kuhn, Harry,

ClerE, with Franc, Heyn and Company.

Toledo, Ohio.

708 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Laikd? Arthur Gordon, 619 Langdon St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of Ancient Languages, University of

Wisconsin.

Lamb, Francis Jones, 212 FT. Carroll St., Madison.

Leavenworth, William Stowell, Olivet, Mich.

M. Sc. (Hamilton). Professor of Chemistry, Olivet College.

Legler, Henry E., Madison.

Secretary, Free Library Commission.

Lehmann, Harriet, 1906 Sherman Av., Evanston, Ill.

A. B. (Ripon). Graduate Student, Northwestern University.

Lenher, Victor, 148 W. Gorham St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Associate Professor of General and Theoretical

Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Leith, Charles Kenneth, 240 Langdon St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Economic and Structural Geology,

University of Wisconsin; Assistant Geologist, United States Geo¬

logical Survey.

Libby, Grin Grant, University, H. I).

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of History,

University of North Dakota.

Lloyd- Jones, Thomas II. , Menomonie.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Principal, Menomonie High School.

Lueders, Herman Frederick, Sauk City.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Magnusson, Carl Edward, Albuquerque, Hew Mexico.

B. E. E., M. S. (Minnesota); Pli. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mathe¬

matics and Physics, University of New Mexico.

Marks, Solon, 6 Prospect Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Rush). Professor of Fractures and Dislocations hnd Military Sur¬

gery, Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons.

Marshall, Ruth, Appleton.

M. S. (Wisconsin). Teacher, Ryan High School.

Active Members.

709

Marshall, William Stanley, 116 E. Gorham St., Madison.

B. S. (Swarthmore); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Assistant Professor of Zoology,

University of Wisconsin.

Maurer, Edward Rose, University Heights, Madison.

B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.

McKenna, Maurice, 78 Third St, Pond du Lac.

Attorney at Law; President of the Bar Association of Fond du Lac

County.

McMinn, Amelia, 172 Twenty-first St, Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, West Side High School.

Meachem, John Goldsborough, Jr., 745 College Av., Racine.

M. D. (Rush). Physician.

Merrill, Harriet Bell,

Milwaukee Public Museum^ Milwaukee.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Lecturer to Schools.

Merrill, J. A., State Morrnal School, West Superior.

B. S. (Harvard). Director of Science Courses, State Normal School.

Merrill, Mrs. Sherburne S., 3355 Grand Av., Milwaukee.

First Vice-President, Wisconsin Humane Society; Second Vice-Presi¬

dent Woman's Club of Wisconsin; President, Public School

Art League.

Meyer, Balthasar Henry, University Heights, Madison.

B. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Institutes of Commerce, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin; Member State Board of Examiners.

Miller, William Snow, 422 1ST. Henry St., Madison.

M. D. (Yale). Associate Professor of Vertebrate Anatomy, University of

Wisconsin.

Mitchell, Irving M., 2921 Cedar St., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Michigan). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.

Monroe, C. EL,

Milwaukee.

710 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts „ and Letters.

Morris, William Augustus Pringle,

1 Howard Place, Madison.

A. B. (Hamilton). Attorney at Law.

Nader, John, 302 W. Main St., Madison.

Architect and Civil Engineer.

Nehrling, Henry, Palm Cottage Experiment Garden,

Gotha, Orange County, Ela.

Neilson, Walter Hopper, 114 Garfield Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Rush). Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of the

Principles and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine,

Milwaukee Medical College.

Nicholson, Dtexter Putnam, 504 John, St;., Appleton.

B. S., M. S. (Lawrence). Professor of Geology, Lawrence University.

Norton, Richard Greenleaf, 117 W. Mifflin St. , Madison.

Mechanician.

Noyes, George Henry, 204 Prospect Av., Milwaukee.

A. B., LL. B., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Attorney; Ex-Judge, Superior Court.

0;Shea, M. Vincent, 140 Langdon St., Madison.

B. L. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin.

Owen, Edward Thomas, 614 State St., Madison.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of the French Language and Literature,

University of Wisconsin.

Palmer, Bernard Morey, Janesville.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Attorney at Law.

Parker, Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Gilmtan St., Madison.

Professor of Music and Director of School of Music, University of Wis¬

consin; Vice-President, Music Teachers’ National Association.

Parkinson, John Barber, 803 State St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Vice-President and Professor of Constitutional

and International Law, University of Wisconsin.

Active Members.

711

Pauly, Hugo Albert, 536 29th St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Peppell, S. V., 431 W. Main St., Louisville, Kentucky.

Proprietor, U. S. Bureau of Consulting Chemists and Engineers.

Peebles, James M., 529 Aster St., Milwaukee.

LL. B. Lawyer. Ex-President, Public School Board; President, Public

Library; ex-C'ounty Judge, Milwaukee Co.; Regent, University

of Wisconsin.

Pereles, Jennie W. (Mrs. J. M.), 529 Aster St., Milwaukee.

Secretary, Milwaukee Flower Mission and Mission Kindergarten.

Peebles, Kellie W. (Mrs. T. J.), 535 Aster St. Milwaukee.

Pereles, Thomas Jefferson, 535 Aster St., Milwaukee.

LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney at Law (Nath. Pereles and Sons); Presi¬

dent, Milwaukee Bar Association.

Perisho, Ellwood Chappelle, Vermilion, S. I).

B. S., M. S. (Earlham); M. S. (Chicago). Professor of Geology, Univer¬

sity of South Dakota; State Geologist, South Dakota.

Plantz, S annuel, 545 Union St., Appleton.

A. M. (Lawrence); Ph. D. (Boston); D. D. (Albion). President,

Lawrence University.

Porter, William, 735 College St., Beloit.

A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor of Latin, Beloit College.

Post, Harriet L., 1182 Humboldt Av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Woman’s Medical College of New York Infirmary). Instructor in

Biology, East Side High School.

Pretts, William Walter, 620 Tower Av., Superior.

B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Northwestern). Physician and Surgeon.

Pringle, Ralph W., Appleton.

A. B. (Harvard); M. S. (St. Lawrence). Principal, Ryan High School;

Supervisor, Second District.

Puls, Arthur John, Wells Bldg., Milwaukee.

B. L. (Wisconsin) ; M. D. (Heidelberg). Physician; Regent, University of

Wisconsin.

712 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Putney, Frank Howell, 215 Wisconsin Av., W aukesha.

Attorney at Law. President, Waukesha Malleable Iron Company; Presi¬

dent, Waukesha Gas and Electric Company; Vice-President,

Waukesha National Hank.

Rankin, Walter L., 201 East Av., Waukesha.

A. M., Ph. D. (Princeton). Vice-President and Professor of Latin,

Carroll College.

Regan, Katherine Patricia, 123 H. Butler St, Madison.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Assistant Principal, Jefferson High School.

Reul, Miss Matilda E., 138 First St, Baraboo.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin).

Rice, Ole St, Deerfield.

B. S. ^Wisconsin). Principal, Deerfield High School.

Richter, Arthur William, 929 University Av., Madison.

B. M. E.. M. E. (Wisconsin) ; M. M. E. (Cornell). Professor of Experi¬

mental Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Rohde, Hugo W., 635 Second St., Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Chemist, with Industrial Chemical Institute.

Roessler, John Samuel, 316 Arlington St, Waukesha.

B. L. (Wisconsin). Principal, State Industrial School for Boys.

Rogers, Augustus J., 318 Ogden Av., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Cornell). Principal, South Division High School.

Ruenzel, Henry Gottlieb, 753 Third St, Milwaukee.

Ph. G. (Wisconsin). Pharmacist; Member, State Board of Pharmacy.

Russell, Harry Luman, 1532 Uniiv. Av., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Bacter¬

iology, University of Wisconsin; Director, State Hygienic Laboratory.

Salmon, Edward Payson, 618 Church St, Beloit

A. M. (Beloit). Congregational Minister; Second Vice-President of Board

of Trustees, Beloit College.

Sanborn, John Bell, Madison.

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Lawyer.

Active Members.

713

Sanford, Albert Hart, 1052 Clark St., Stevens Point.

B. L. (Wisconsin); A. B. (Harvard). Instructor in History and Civics,

State Normal School.

Schlundt, Herman, Columbia, Mo.

B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Physical Chemistry,

University of Missouri.

Scott, William Amasa, 520 K. Pinckney St, Madison.

A. B., A. M., (Rochester); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Director of the Course

in Commerce and Professor of Economic History and Theory,

University of Wisconsin.

Scott, Winfield G., 1109 Park Av., Racine.

Director, Private Testing Laboratory.

Sessinghaus, Gustavus, 1360 Columbine St, Denver, Colo.

E. M. (Columbia); M. S. (Wisconsin).

Shearin, Hubert Gilson, Ripen.

A. B. (Central) ; Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of English, Ripon College.

Sherman, Lewis, 448 Jackson St, Milwaukee.

B. S., A. M. (Union); M. D. (New York).

Sieker, William Christian, 251 Seventeenth St, Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Skinner, Ernest Brown, 414 Charter St, Madison.

A. B. (Ohio); Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Mathematics,

University of Wisconsin.

Slaughter, Moses Stephen, 633 Francis St, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (De Pauw) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin,

University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Erastus Gilbert, 649 Harrison Av., Beloit

A. B., A. M. (Amherst); A. M., Ph. D. (GOttingen). Professor of Chem¬

istry, Beloit College.

Smith, Howard Leslie, 222 Langdon St, Madison.

A. B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin.

714 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Smith, Leonard Sewell, 939 University Av., Madison.

B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Topographic and

Geodetic Engineering, University of Wisconsin; Engineer State

LTevee Commission; in charge of Hydrography, Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey; Hydro-

grapher, U. S. Geological Survey.

Smith, Walter McMynn, 218 Park St., Madison.

A. B. (Wisconsin). Librarian, University of Wisconsin.

Snow, Benjamin Warner, 518 Wisconsin Ave., Madison.

Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin.

Sparling, Samuel Edward, 505 A. Carroll St., Madison.

A. B. (Indiana); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Political

Science, University of Wisconsin; Member, National Municipal

League; Member of Committee on Administration, Amer¬

ican Political Science Association; Editor, The Mu¬

nicipality. Secretary, League of Wisconsin Mu¬

nicipalities; Member of Common Council,

Madison.

Starr, William J., 135 Marston Av., Eau Claire.

LL. B. (Columbia). Member, Board of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wis¬

consin; President of the Eau Claire Public Library.

Suydam, Vernon Andrew,

Ripon.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Supervising Principal, Ripon High School.

Talbert, G. A., 1060 Main St., Stevens Point.

B. S., M. S. (Ohio Wesleyan). Instructor in Biology, State Normal

School.

T'awney, Guy Allan, Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Squier Professor of Mental

Science and Philosophy, Beloit College.

Teller, Edgar E., 170 Twenty-ninth St., Milwaukee.

President, Wisconsin Natural History Society.

Th waites, Reuben Gold, 260 Langdon St., Madison.

LL. D. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Superintendent, State Historical So¬

ciety of Wisconsin; Chairman, Wisconsin Free Library Commission.

Tibbals, Charles A., Jr., 604 Francis St.^ Madison.

Assistant in Chemistry and Assaying, University of Wisconsin.

A ctive Members.

715

True, Rodney Howard, Washington, D. 0.

B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Leipzig).

Turneaure, Frederick Eugene, University Ave., Madison.

C E. (Cornell). Professor of Bridge and Sanitary Engineering and Dean

of the College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 629 Francis St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Ameri¬

can History, University of Wisconsin; Member of Council, Ameri¬

can Historical Association.

Uihlein, August, 332 Galena St., Milwaukee.

President, Second Ward Savings Bank; Secretary, Jos. Schlitz Brewing

Company.

Updike, Eugene Grover, 148 Langdon St., Madison.

B. S., M. S., D. D. (Lawrence). Pastor, First Congregational Church.

Upham, Arthur Aquila, 106 Conger St., Whitewater.

Professor of Natural Sciences, State Normal School.

Van Velzer, Charles Ambrose, 134 W. Gorham St., Madison.

B. S. (Cornell); Ph. D. (Hillsdale). Professor of Mathematics, University

of Wisconsin.

Viebahn Charles Frederick, 703 Western Av., Watertown.

Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School.

Vogel, Guido Charles, Milwaukee.

B. S. (Wisconsin).

Voss, Ernst . Karl Johann Heinrich,

23 E. Johnson St., Madison.

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German Philology, University of Wisconsin.

Wadmond, Samuel C., 312 H. First St., Minneapolis, Minn.

Assistant Manager, Racine-Sattley Manufacturing Company.

Wagner, George, 15 W. Gorham St., Madison.

Ph. C. (Michigan); A. B. (Kansas); A. M. (Michigan). Instructor in

Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

716 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Ward, Henry Levi, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.

Custodian, Milwaukee Public Museum.

Watson, Walter S., . Whitewater.

Ph. B., M. S. (Wesley). Professor of Biology and German, State Normal

School.

Weidman, Samuel, 229 W. Gilman St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey.

Whitcomb, Ann a, bell Cook (Mrs. Henry F'.),

721 Franklin, St., Milwaukee.

President, Board of Directors of Boys’ Busy Life Club.

Whitson, Andrew Robinson, 420 Charter St., Madison.

B. S. (Chicago). Professor of Agricultural Physics, University of Wiscon¬

sin; Expert in Irrigation, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Wilson, William: M.,

jShx 416 U. S. Post Office Bldg., Milwaukee.

Section Director, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Climate and Crop

Service of the Weather Bureau.

Winslow, John Bradley, 131 Langdon St., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Racine); LL. B., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Justice, Supreme

Court of Wisconsin; President, Board of Visitors, University of

Wisconsin; Trustee, Racine College.

Wingate, Uranus O. B., 204 Biddle St., Milwaukee.

M. I> (Dartmouth). Professor of Nervous and Mental Diseases, Wiscon¬

sin College of Physicians and Surgeons.

W inken werder, Hugo August, Sheboygan.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, Sheboygan High School.

Wolcott, Edson Ray, Golden, Cblo.

" B. S , M. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Physics, Colorado School of Mines.

Wolef, Henry C., 504 W. Washington Ave., Madison.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, University of "Wis¬

consin.

C o rres'p onding Memb ers.

717

Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, 424 Charter St., Madison.

B. S., Ph. B. (Christiania); M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Pro¬

fessor of Agricultural Chemistry ancf Chemist to the Agricultural

Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin.

Wright, Clement Blake Bergin, 796 Astor Sit., Milwaukee.

A. B., A. M. (Trinity); B. D. (Nashotah); Ph. D. (Kansas' City); F. S., Sc.

(London, Eng.); F. R. S. L. Clergyman; Secretary, Diocese of Mil¬

waukee; Librarian, Diocesan Library; Examining Chaplain;

Editor, Church Times.

Youtz, Lewis Addison, Appleton.

Ph. B. (Simpson); Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of Chemistry, Lawrence

University.

Zimmerman, Charles Frederick A., 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee,

Ph. B. (Illinois Wesleyan); A. M. (Charles City). Principal, Seventeenth

District School.

Zimmerman, Oliver Bruner, 222 Charter St., Madison.

B. M. E., M. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Machine Design and

Descriptive Geometry, University of Wisconsin; President, Wiscon¬

sin Audubon Society.

OORRESP OHDHsT Gr MEMBERS.

Abbott, Charles Conrad, Trenton, 1ST. J.

M. D. (Pennsylvania).

Andrews, Edmund, 100 State St., Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., M. D., LL. D. (Michigan). Professor of Clinical Surgery,

Northwestern University; Surgeon, Mercy Hospital; Consulting Sur¬

geon, Michael Reese Hospital and Illinois Hospital for Women

and Children.

Armsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic); Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale); LL. D. (Wiscon¬

sin). Director of Experiment Station; Expert in Animal Nutri¬

tion, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Bascom, John, Park St., Williamstown, Mass.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); D. D. (Iowa)^LL. D. (Amherst, Williams).

Greylock Commissioner.

718 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Bennett, diaries Edwin, 1 Grove Place Ithaca, 1ST. Y.

A. R. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Literature, Cornell

University; Examiner in Latin, College Entrance Examination

Board.

Bridge, Norman,

217 Si Broadway, Los Angeles, Cal. ; October each year,

Bush Medical College, Chicago1, Ill.

A. M. (Lake Forest); M. D. (Northwestern, Rush). Emeritus Professor

of Medicine, Rush Medical College.

Caverno, Charles, Lombard, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth) ; LL. D. (Colorado). Clergyman, retired.

Coulter, J ohn Merle, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover); Ph. D. (Indiana). Head Professor of

Botany, University of Chicago.

Crooker, Joseph Henry, 110 N. State St., Ann Arbor, Mich.

D. D. (St. Lawrence, Nashville). Minister, Unitarian Church.

Davis, Eloyd, 317 Iowa Loan and Trust Bldg., Des Moines, la.

Ph. B., C. E., E. M. (Missouri); Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and Consult¬

ing Chemist.

EIckels, William Alexander, Oxford, Ohio.

A. B., A. M. (Dickinson); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Greek,

Miami University.

Fallows, Samuel, 967 W. Monroe St., Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin); D. D. (Lawrence, Marietta). Presid¬

ing Bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church: President of Board

of Managers, Illinois State Reformatory.

Hendrickson, George Lincoln, 5515 Woodlawn Av., Chicago.

A. B. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin, University of Chicago.

Higley, William Kerr, Lincoln Park, Chicago, Ill.

Ph. M. (Michigan). Secretary. Chicago Academy of Sciences; Editor,

Birds and Nature.

Hodge, Clifton Fremont, 3 Charlotte St, Worcester, Mass.

A. B. (Ripon) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Physiology

and Neurology, and Professor of Biology in the Collegiate De¬

partment, Clark University.

Corresponding Members .

719

Holden, Edward Singleton, XJ. SI Military Academy,

West Point, U. Y.

B. S., A. M. (Washington); S. D. (Pacific); LL. D. (Wisconsin and Colum¬

bia). Astronomer.

Holland, Frederic May, Main St., Concord, Mass.

A. B. (Harvard).

Hoskins, Leander Miller, 365 Lincoln Av., Palo Alto, Cal.

M. S., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Leland

Stanford Jr. University.

Iddings, Joseph Paxson, 5730 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, Ill.

Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago.

Finley, David, Urban a, Ill.

A. B. (Yale); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the College of Literature and

Arts, and Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.

Leveret t, Frank, Ann Arbor, Mich.

B. Sc. (Iowa Agricultural). Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey,

Lurton, Freeman Ellsworth, Preston, Minn.

B. S., M. S. (Carleton); Ph. D. (Gale). Superintendent of Public Schools.

Luther, George Elmer,

260 SL College Av., Grand Fapids, Mich.

Cashier, Peoples Savings Bank, Treasurer, Historical Society of Grand

Rapids; President, Board of Poor Commissioners of Grand Rapids.

Marx, Charles David, Palo Alto, Cal.

B. C. E. (Cornell) ; C. E. (Carlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering, Le¬

land Stanford Jr. University.

McClumpha, Charles Flint, Minneapolis, Minn.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of English Language

and Literature, University of Minnesota.

Moorehouse, George Wilton, 842 Logan Av., Cleveland, O.

B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Harvard). Physician to the Dispensary

of Lakeside Hospital and Western Reserve University.

Peet, Stephen Denison, 5817 Madison Av., Chicago.

A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian and

Oriental Journal.

720 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts 1 and Letters.

Potter, William Bleecker, 1225 Spruce Sit, Sit. Louis, Mk>.

A. B., A. M., M. E. (Columbia). Mining Engineer and Metallurgist.

Power, Frederick Belding, 535 Warren St, Hudson, N. Y.

Ph. G. (Phila. Coll, of Pharm.); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Director of Well¬

come Chemical Research Laboratories, London, Eng.

Raymond, Jerome Hall, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Nonnwestern) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Associate Professor of

Sociology, University of Chicago.

Salisbury, Bollin D., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. M. (Beloit). Professor of Geographic Geology; Head of the Depart¬

ment of Geography, and Dean of the Graduate School of Science,

University of Chicago; Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey

and State Geological Survey of New Jersey.

Sawyer, Wesley Caleb, Elm and Asbury Sts., San Jose, Cal.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of French

and German and Lecturer on Teutonic Mythology, University of

the Pacific.

Shipman, Stephen Vaughn, 269 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Colonel U. S. Volunteers, Civil War; Architect.

Stone, Ormond, University Station, Charlottesville, Va.

M. A. (Chicago). Director of the Leander McCormick Observatory and

Professor of Practical Astronomy, University of Virginia.

Tatloce:, John, Jr., 32 Nassau St, New York, N. Y.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); F. R. A. S. Assistant Actuary, Mutual Life

Insurance Co.

T'olman, Albert Harris, 5750 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, Ill.

' B., A. M. (Williams) ; F. R. A. S. Assistant Actuary, Mutual Life

Literature, University of Chicago.

T'olman, Herbert Cushing, Nashville, Tenn.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale); D. D. (Nashville). Professor of Greek, Vanderbilt

University.

Townley, Sidney Dean, Ukiah, Cal.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin); S. D. (Michigan). Observer in charge of Inter¬

national Latitude Observatory; First Vice-President of the Astro¬

nomical Society of the Pacific.

Corresponding Members .

721

Trelease, William, Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Me.

B. S. (Cornell); S. D. (Harvard); LL. D. (Wisconsin, Missouri). Director

of Missouri Botanical Garden and Henry Shaw School of Botany;

Engelmann Professor of Botany, Washington University;

Vice-President, Academy of Science of St. Louis;

Secretary, The Round Table, St. Louis; Honorary

President, Engelmann Botanical Club, St. Louis.

.'Van de Warker, Ely, 404 Fayette Park, Syracuse, N. Y.

M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon Central New York Hospital

for W|omen; Consulting Physician St. Ann’s Maternity Hospital;

Senior Surgeon Women’s and Children’s Hospital; Commis¬

sioner of Education, Syracuse; Member of the Holland

Society.

Van Vleck, Eidward Burr, Middletown, Conn.

A. B., A M. (.Wesleyan) ; Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Mathematics,

Wesleyan University.

Verrill, Addison Emory, 86 Whalley Av., New Haven, Conn.

S. B. (Harvard); A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale University;

Curator of Zoology, "Sale University Museum; President, Connecticut

Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Winchell, Newton Horace,

113 State St., Minneapolis, Minn.

A. M. (Michigan). Editor of the American Geologist.

Young, Albert Adams, 531 SL Claremont Av., Chicago, HI.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); D. B. (Andover). Clergyman; Member of the

Chicago Academy of Science.

46

722

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

MEMBERS DECEASED.

Information of whose decease has been received since the issue of

volumes XIII .

Hastings, Samuel Dexter, April, 1903, at Evanston, Ill.

Ex-Treasurer of the State of Wisconsin; ex-Secretary of State Board' of

Charities; ex-Treasurer, Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters.

Timbeklake, Hamilton Greenwood, July 19, 1903, at Madison.

Assistant Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Fabst, Frederick, January 1, 1904, at Milwaukee.

President, Pabst Brewing Company.

Jegi, John I., January 7, 1904, at Milwaukee.

Professor of Physiology and Psychology, State Normal School; Vice-Pres¬

ident, Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Mitchell, John Lendrum, June 30, 1904, at Milwaukee.

Ex-United States Senator.

PROCEEDINGS.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 1902.

The thirty-third annual meeting was held in the lecture

room of the Historical Library Building, Friday and Saturday,

December 26 and 27, 1902. The meeting was called to order

at 9:15 A. M. by President Slichter. About thirty members

were present, and this number was increased to near forty be¬

fore the close of the forenoon. The average attendance at the

four sessions was about thirty-five. In. all about forty-five

members were present. The following program was carried out

with no change except in the order of the papers and! the omis¬

sion of H os. 12, 14, 15, 16 and 28, which were omitted on ac¬

count of the absence of the authors :

Friday, December 26.

Morning Session , 9:00 O'clock.

Beading of papers at 9:15.

1. Fluoride of gold. Victor Lenher.

2. Some new tellurium compounds. Victor Lenher.

3. Glycerophosphoric acid and glycerophosphates. Edward

Kremers.

4. Action of metallic magnesium upon aqueous solutions.

Louis Kohlenberg.

5. Action of sodium amalgam upon aqueous solutions. Gus¬

tave Femekes.

6. Action upon metals of solutions of hydrochloric acid in

various solvents. Hcnrison E. Patten.

7. The; quantitative determination of antimony. Lewis A.

Youtz.

8. Botes on the red slate deposit of southwestern Arkansas.

W. W. Daniells.

724 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Afternoon Session ,, 2:30 O’clock.

9. The relations of metamorphism to the redistribution of

the chemical elements. Charles R. Van Rise.

10. The erosion history of southwestern Wisconsin. Ell-

wood C. Perisho.

11. On a record of post Newark subsidence and subsequent

elevation within the area of southwestern New England.

W. H. Hobbs.

12. Notes on the Kansas City pre-historie skeleton. Daniel

Folkmar.

13. New or little known extinct vertebrates from the Per¬

mian Beds of Texas. E. C. Case.

14. Prehistoric migrations into the territory now compris¬

ing the state of Wisconsin. Stephen D. Peet.

15. Chloroform and consciousness. C. Cavemo .

16. Incipient pseudopeia. C. Cavemo.

Evening Session at the Unitarian Church.

Academy banquet complimentary to visiting members at 6 :30

o’clock.

Address of the retiring president, Professor Charles Sum¬

ner Sliehter of the University of Wisconsin, at 8 :00 o’clock,

on “Recent criticism of American scholarship.”

Saturday, Decembes 2* ; ' ;

Morning Session/ 9 :00 O’clock. U

Election of officers and other business.

Reading of papers at 9 :30 o’clock.

17. Nuclear fusion and nuclear division in a mildew, Phyl-

lactinia suffulta. R. A. Harper.

18. Observation on cell structure and nuclear division in

masses. Charles E. Allen.

19. Attidae of South Africa. G. W. and E. G. Peckham.

(By title.)

20. Ten species of Arrenuri belonging to the subgenus meg-

alurus Thom Ruth Marshall.

21 On variations in form and size of Cyclops brevispinosus

Herrick and Cyclops Americanus Marsh. Harriet Lehmann.

Secretary’s Report.

725

22. Three eases of pancreatic bladder in the cat. W. S.

Miller.

23. The pancreatic ducts of the cat. G. H. Heuer.

24. Variation and individuality in the pyloric caeca of the

rock bass. R. H. Johnson.

25. Variation and correlation in necturus maculatus. E. G.

Birge.

26. A parisitic Ostracod. W. S. Marshall.

27. Some notes on the food and on the parasites of a few

freshwater fish. W. S. Marshall.

Afternoon Session.

28. Language at the age of four. John I. Jegi.

29. The vocabulary of Shakespeare. Edward T. Given.

Memorial Addresses :

George McKendree Steele — Samuel Plantz.

John Butler Johnson — F. E. Turneaure.

Charles Kendall Adams — C. F. Smith.

A very pleasant feature of the meeting was the banquet com¬

plimentary to the visiting members, held in the Unitarian

church on Friday evening. Forty persons were present at the

banquet, including nine visiting members, twenty-four resi¬

dent members and seven guests. Short after dinner speeches

were made by Messrs. Birge, Marsh, Davis, Perisho and Case.

At 8 o’clock the company repaired to the parlor of the church

to listen to the excellent address of the retiring president on

“Decent Criticism of American Scholarship.”

A detailed account of the morning and afternoon sessions is

herewith given :

Friday, December 26.

Morning Session.

President Slichter in the chair.

The secretary’s report was read and ordered placed on file.

The following is a brief synopsis of the report.

The first item! of business was the report of the Secretary.

After indicating that the minutes of the last meeting had been

published in Vol. XIII of the Transactions, the report men-

726 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

9

tioned the fact that during the year Part II of Vol. XIII had

been printed and distributed, and that preparations were under

way for the publication of tbe first part of Vol. XIV. Attenr

tion was called to the fact that during the administration of

President S-lichter some' important, changes had been effected

by which the cost of all illustrations are now borne by tbe state

and that illustrations made by the most approved processes had

been furnished. Mr. A. A. Meggett, printing clerk, during

this period, rendered efficient service in securing these ends.

The report spoke also of the fact that a greater effort had

been made to bring the work of the Academy to- the notice of

the people of the state than had been made heretofore1. Prior

to the meetings of 1901 and 1902 about one thousand programs,

each accompanied by a card of invitation, had been sent out

principally to persons engaged in educational work.

The report of the librarian was read and ordered filed. It

appears ini full below.

Papers 1 and 2 were then read. These papers were dis¬

cussed by Messrs. Kahlenberg, Atherton and Hillyer.

Papers 4, 5 and .6 were all read by Professor Kahlenberg.

They were further discussed by Messrs. Kremers, Lenher and

Hillyer. Ho. 7 was deferred till the afternoon, as the author

was unable to reach Madison in time for the morning session.

The reading of papers for the morning was concluded with

Ho-. 8. The treasurer’s report was then read. Messrs. 0. H.

Chandler and W. S. Miller were appointed as auditing commit¬

tee. The report is printed in full below.

A ftemoon S ession.

Papers 9, 10 and 11 were read and Ho. 10 was discussed by

Messrs. Van Hise and Hobbs. Ho. 18 was next read and Hos.

12, 14, 15 and 16 were omitted owing to the absence of the

authors. Paper 7 was read at this point and discussed by Pro¬

fessor Lenher.

The president announced the appointment of Messrs. Kahlen¬

berg, Marsh and Case as a nominating committee, with in¬

structions to report Saturday morning.

Secretary's Report .

m

Saturday, December 27.

Morning Session.

The auditing committee reported that they had examined the

boohs of the Treasurer and found them correct ini every respect.

The following resolution, offered by Professor Marsh, was

unanimously adopted.

Resolved , That the Academy hereby appropriates the sum of

seventy-five dollars per annum as an allowance for secretary’s

expenses, for which a single voucher shall be required.

The nominating committee reported the following nominees :

nees:

For President, John J. Davis.

For Vice-Presidents, Charles H. Chandler, John I. Jegi,

Dexter P. Nicholson.

For Secretary, Ernest B. Skinner.

For Treasurer, Homer W. Hillyer.

For Librarian, Walter M. Smith.

For Curator, Ellwood C. Perisho.

For Publication Committee, the President and the Secre¬

tary, ex-officio , A. S. Flint.

For Library Committee, the Librarian, ex-officio , C. Dwight

Marsh, George W. Peckham, Hiram D. Densmore and Reu¬

ben G. Thwaites.

For Membership Committee, the Secretary, ex-officio, Ru¬

fus H. Halsey, Ermine C!. Case, W. J. Starr, Louis Kahlen-

berg.

It was voted that the Secretary be ordered to cast the ballot

of the Academy for the persons nominated and when the ballot

was reported cast, they were declared elected to the several of¬

fices named.

The membership committee reported, recommending the elec¬

tion of the following persons to active membership :

Mr. W. M. Wilson, Milwaukee.

Professor Frederick Eugene Tumeaure, Madison.

Mr. Hugo Albert Pauly, Madison.

Professor Victor Coffin, Madison.

Mr. Charles Newton Brown, Madison.

Mr. Winfield G. Scott, Racine.

Mr. Samuel C. Wadmond, Racine.

728 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Professor Prank Morton Erickson, Eipon.

Professor Hubert Gibson Shearin, Eipon.

Mr. A. Herman Pfund, Madison.

Mr. A. B. Newell, Madison.

Mr. Wiley Jerome Huddle, Madison.

Mr. Charles Austin Tibbals, Madison.

Mr. Henry F. Kling, Evansville.

Mr. Edward Grant Birge.

Miss Harriet Lehmann, Neosho.

Professor Lewis Addison Youtz, Appleton.

Mr. Herbert John Farley, Appleton.

Mr. Lewis Oliver Atherton, Oshkosh.

Eev. Clement Blake Bergin Wright, Milwaukee.

Mr. Charles E. Brown, Milwaukee.

Judge John B. Winslow, Madison.

The secretary was ordered to cast the ballot of the Academy

for these persons and they were declared elected.

The committee also1 recommended that Professor Charles

Sumner Slichter, past president, and Professor Frank Chapman

Sharp, past secretary, be elected life members in view of their

services to the Academy.

This recommendation was voted by the Academy.

Paper No. 25 was placed first on the program for the morn¬

ing and No. 26 was read by title. Otherwise the program for

the remainder of the forenoon! was carried out as printed. No.

21 was discussed by Messrs. Harper and Marsh, No. 23 by Pro¬

fessor Miller, and No. 25 by Professor Miller and Mr. E. HI

Johnson.

Afternoon Session.

Paper No. 28 was omitted, the author having been called

away from Madison. No. 29 was discussed at length by Pro¬

fessor Hubbard. The address in memory of the late President

Adams was prepared and read by Professor Charles Foster

Smith instead of Dr. EL A. Birge as announced on the program.

Dr. Davis, president elect, was called to the chair and made

a few appropriate remarks. The Academy then adjourned

sine die.

E. B. Skinner,

Secretary.

Secretary's Report.

729

REPORT OF SECRETARY, 1903.

Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting.

Milwaukee, Wis., Dec. 29-30, 1903.

The meetings of the Academy were held in Room B — 3 of the

Milwaukee Formal School building. The following program

was carried out with some changes in the order of the papers :

Tuesday, December 29.

Morning Session , 10:80 o'clock.

Reports of officers and general business.

Reading of papers.

1. A query concerning the longevity of college graduates.

Chas. H. Chandler.

2. A problem in conformal representation. II. C. Wolff.

3. The probable accuracy of estimates and guesses. E. F.

Chandler .

4. A simple treatment of the relative angular and linear ve¬

locities in compleex mechanisms. 0. B. Zimmerman .

5. Waves peculiar to ground water movements. C. S.

Slichter.

6. An apparatus designed for teaching celestial geography.

W. L. Rankin.

Afternoon Session , 2:00 o'clock.

7. The collective theory of mind. S. Plantz.

8. Auditory memory-span for numbers in school children.

J ohn I. J egi.

9. How children learn to spell. C. E. Patzer.

10. A Wisconsin group of German poets. Henry E. Legler.

11. Some factors in the pej oration of English words. W. G.

Bleyer.

12. The quinhydrone hypothesis of plant pigmentation.

Edward Kremers.

730 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

13. The Monardas : a comparative study of their volatile con¬

stituents. I. W. Brandel.

14. On the nature of osmosis and osmotic pressure* L. Koh¬

lenberg.

15. On the composition of underground waters in the Bara-

boo iron region. W. W. Daniells.

16. Erosion in southwestern Wisconsin. E. C. Perisho. . .

17. An interesting fossil Unio from Wisconsin. George

Wagner.

18. An exhibition of fossil vertebrates from the Permian

Beds of Texas. E. C.- Case.

19. An exhibition of a relief model of Milwaukee and vicin¬

ity. E. C. Case.

Wednesday, December 30.

Morning Session, 9:00 o'clock.

General business.

Beading of papers.

20. Some Hepaticae of the Apostle Islands. C. E. Allen.

(By title.)

21. Migrating nuclei in anthers of Lilium Canadense. C. E.

Allen.

22. The structure of the starch grain. R. H. Denmiston.

23. Mushrooms considered from a scientific and commercial

standpoint. Frank A. Thompson.

24. Variations of the brachial and sacral plexus of the frog.

G. A. Talbert.

25. Variations in the appendages of the frog. G. A. Talbert.

26. A clinical study of cerebral localization. G. A. Talbert.

27. Beport of a case of hydrophobia. Otto Fiedler.

Memorial addresses :

Samuel Dexter Hastings- — J . B. Parkinson.

Hamilton Greenwood Timberlake — R. A. Harper.

I

Secretary's Report.

731

Afternoon Session, 2:00 o'clock.

28. Some Cladocera of South America. Harriet B. Merrill.

29. Some new Diaptomi from' the western states. C . Dwight

Marsh.

30. A new Arrenurus and notes on collections. Ruth Mar¬

shall.

31. The birds seen on a Milwaukee home garden in 1903.

I. N. Mitchell.

32. The summer birds of Stony Lake, Oceana County,

Michigan. I. N. Mitchell.

33. On Milwaukee County Odomata, Charles E. Brown.

34. The re- awakening of the interest in Wisconsin antiqui¬

ties. Henry A. Crosby arid Charles E. Brown.

35. A study in the variation of proportions in bats. Henry

L. Ward.

36. The Polyporeae of Wisconsin. J. J. Neumann. (By

title. )

37. Saskatchewan Birds. Russell T. Cong don. (By title.)

38. Conformal representation of plane curves, particularly

for the cases, p — 4, 5 and 6. Charlotte E. Pengra. (By title.)

39. Shakespeare as a cicerone in girdling the globe. James

Davie Butler. (By title.)

A more detailed account of the various sessions is given be¬

low:

Tuesday, December 29.

Morning Session.

The Academy was called to order at 10:30 by President

Davis. The reading of the minutes of the last session was dis¬

pensed with. The Secretary reported that since the last meet¬

ing Volume XIV, Part I, of the Transactions of the Academy,

containing fifteen papers and thirty-three plates, had been pub¬

lished and distributed. He reported also* that the printing com¬

missioners had permitted the employment of engravers outside

-of the state, a circumstance which would allow much greater

choice of methods in the re-production of illustrations for

papers printed in the Transactions. The Secretary asked that

the Academy define the term, Secretary’s expenses, in the reso¬

lution of December 27, 1903. He asked also that a committee

732 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

be appointed to determine the status of corresponding members,

stating at the same time that under the present practice, the

rights and privileges of such members are practically the same

as those of life and honorary members. A preliminary report

of the Treasurer was read. This report showed that there are

at present 187 paying members on the roll. The report further

showed that the amount of the permanent fund now invested in

Madison street improvement bonds is $1,614.40; that during

the year the receipts have been $367.25 and expenditures

$233.73, leaving a balance in the treasury of $133.52. The

Treasurer asked for the appointment of an Auditing committee

who shall in the near future examine the detailed report. By

vote the Council was authorized to accept the report for publi¬

cation when approved by the Auditing committee. The Presi¬

dent appointed as Auditing committee Messrs. Slichter, Flint,

and C. El Allen.

The Treasurer recommended the dropping of certain mem¬

bers for non-payment of dues. This matter was referred to the

Secretary and the Treasurer with power to act under the resolu¬

tion of December 29, 1892.

The reading of papers was taken up at this point. The first

paper was discussed by Messrs. Davis and Flint. 'Nos. 2, 3

and 4 were discussed by Messrs. Slichter, Chandler, Skinner,

and others.

About eighteen persons were in attendance at the morning

session.

Afternoon Session.

President Davis was in the chair. The session began with

the reading of the paper of President Plantz. The papers of

the afternoon were read for the most part without discussion.

Owing to the absence of the authors, Nos. 12, 14 and 16 were

omitted. The meeting adjourned to the physiographic labora¬

tory of the Normal School to listen to the reading of papers

18 and 19.

The attendance at the afternoon session reached a total of

some sixty persons.

Secretary's Report.

733

Wednesday, December 30.

Morning Session.

The Membership committee reported recommending the fol¬

lowing persons for membership in the Academy:

Henry Levi W ard, Milwaukee.

Carl Spencer Milliken, Ripon.

Oliver J ones Marston, Ripon.

Conrad E. Patzer, Milwaukee.

Harold B. Shinn, Menomonie.

Dana Carlton Munro, Madison.

J onathan Risser, Beloit.

George Wagner, Madison.

Russell T. Congdon, Ripon.

Otto Fiedler, Milwaukee.

Henry A. Crosby, Milwaukee.

William Joshua Brinckley, Appleton.

The ballot of the Academy was ordered cast, by the Secretary

and the persons named were declared elected to active member¬

ship.

Professor Flint introduced an amendment to the constitution

which would make the first clause of Article VII to read, “The

annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such time and

place as the Council may designate.”

The reading of papers was then taken up. Professor Kahl-

enberg, who had not been able to be present on Tuesday, pre¬

sented his paper on the Theory of Osmosis. This paper deal¬

ing with a very important subject, was discussed at length by

the President, Messrs. Wagner, Flint and others. Ho. 21 was

discussed by the President and Professor Kahlenberg, both of

whom expressed the opinion that the forces acting in this case

might be akin to the forces discussed by Professor Kahlenberg.

Professor Talbert’s papers evoked discussion by Messrs. Wag¬

ner and Marshall. Hos. 22, 27 and the memorial address for

Professor T'imberlake were; omitted owing to the absence of the

author. The address for Mr. Hastings was read by Professor

Kahlenberg.

734 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Afternoon Session.

The afternoon session was devoted in large measure to the

discussion of zoological topics. Professor Marsh’s paper repre¬

sented in a manner the continuation of work already published

in the Transactions. The same is also true of the work of

Miss Marshall. Nos. 31 and 32 were of considerable popular

interest. In No. 33 Mr. Brown presented the results of sev¬

eral years’ collections by himself and others in the immediate

vicinity of Milwaukee. No. 34 was a plea for a larger interest

in Wisconsin Antiquities and the work of the Wisconsin

Archaeological Society. Mr. Ward presented in No. 35 miuch

interesting data in the measurements of bats. The paper was

discussed by Dr. Kahlenberg.

Resolutions thanking Mr. W. F. Sell, railway manager of

the State Teachers’ Association, and the authorities of the Mil¬

waukee Normal School for courtesies extended to the Academy

were introduced by Professor Flint, and passed by unanimous

vote.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

E. B. Skinner,

Secretary.

REPORTS OF THE TREASURER.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 1902.

During the past year one hundred forty-one members have

paid dues for one or more years. There are thirty-five members

in arrears for one year, two for two years, five for three years

and three for four years. In accordance with the custom of the

Academy the names of those who are now in arrears for four

years will be read that they may be stricken from the rolls un¬

less cause is shown for retaining them. The total number on

the rolls is now one hundred eighty-three.

The accounts for the year 1902 stand as follows:

Receipts.

1901. Dec. 27. Balance on hand in general fund . $17 20

Expenditures.

Vouchers

Nos.

1, 10, IB Secretary, incidental expenses . $19 48

2, 14, 17 Clerk hire . 13 20

5, 16 Printing . 32 25

6 Express . . . 25

7 Typewriting . 5 97

736 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Voucher Nos.

4, 8, 9 Stationery . 5 20

3, 10', 12, 13 Postage . 15 75

Total expenditures . $92 10

Net balance general fund . 149 80

Balance on hand . $57 70

Balance in permanent fund . . 1,614 40

Grand total . $1,672 10

The permanent fund of the Academy is now invested in

fifteen Madison City Special Street Improvement bonds of one

hundred dollars each. These bonds are now at a premium and

draw about 4.6 per cent, interest on the investment.

Respectfully submitted,

H. W. HlLLYER,

Treasurer .

The undersigned, auditing committee on the report of the

Treasurer, have examined said report and vouchers submitted

therewith and find it correctly vouched and balanced.

Okas. H. Chandler,

Wm. S. Miller,

Auditing Committee.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 1903.

The Treasurer of the Academy begs, to submit the following

report :

There are on the roll of the Academy as paying members one

hundred eighty-seven persons. In accordance with the by-laws

of the Academy a list of names of those members more than

two years in arrears is herewith presented to be read to the

Academy. The names of such persons may, under the resolu¬

tion of December, 1892, be stricken from the roll.

Treasurer' s Report. 737

The account of the academy stands as below:

Receipts.

Balance in General fund . $58 70

Interest on Permanent fund . 90 00

Membership and initiation dues . . . 197 00

Insurance, $.55; and sales, $1.00 . 1 55

Total receipts . . . . . $347 25

Expenditures.

No. of

Voucher.

1 E. B. Skinner . $17 15

1, 10 Tracy, Gibbs & Co . 55 75

2 Capital City Paper Co . 4 33

3 Photographs of past presidents . 30 00

4, 5-5', 8, 11 Postage . 14 00

6 A. Haswell & Co . 8 20

7 W. T. Leonard . 21 30

9 E. B. Skinner . 75 00

Total expenditures . $225 73

Balance in General fund . . 121 52

Permanent fund . 1,614 40

Grand Total . . $1,735 92

Respectfully submitted,

H. W. Hillyer,

Treasurer.

The undersigned, appointed to audit the accounts of the treas-

The undersigned, appointed to audit the accounts of the Treas¬

urer, find them correct in every particular.

Charles S. Slichter,

Albert S. Flint,

Auditing Committee .

47

REPORTS OF THE LIBRARIAN.

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN, 1902.

Since thei last report, the work done on the library of the

Academy has' consisted largely of the regular distribution of the

Transactions of the Academy, the acknowledging of the ex¬

changes received, and the binding of the latter1. Three hundred

and five volumes; have recently been bound. The work of get¬

ting the books ready for the bindery is greatly retarded by the

fact that back numbers belonging to some of the volumes are

lacking and must first be secured. Members of the Academy

having in their possession any such unbound parts of volumes

are earnestly requested to send them in as soon as possible;.

It is a source of gratification that the library of the Academy

is now safely housed and that its volumes are readily accessible.

To W. M. Smith, Librarian of the University, who has superin¬

tended the work done on the; library since its removal to the new

building, the Academy is greatly indebted.

Louis Kaheexberg,

Librarian.

Madison , December 2 6 , 1902.

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN, 1903.

The ordinary routine1 work connected with the library of the

Academy has been performed the past year ' as heretofore, but

press of work in other directions has prevented the librarian

from carrying out as yet plans to increase greatly the value and

efficiency of the library. A thorough revision of the exchange

Librarian 's Report.

739

list is needed and a systematic effort should he made to- extend

onr exchange relations. It is planned to take up this work dur¬

ing the coming year, in connection with similar efforts on the

part of the: Wisconsin State Historical Society and the Library

of the University of Wisconsin, and the librarian hopes to be

able to record in his next report substantial progress in this and

other directions.

While it has not been feasible as yet to recatalogue the library^

the collection is so arr anged as to be thoroughly accessible to all

members and other students.

Walter M. Smith,

Librarian.

Madison , Wis., December 26, 1903.

EXTRACTS FROM THE CHARTER.

An Act to incorporate the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters.

The people of the state of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assem¬

bly, do enact as follows:

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase

A. Lapham, * * *1 at present being members and officers of an

association known the “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters,” located at the city of Madison, together with their future

associates and successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate

by the name and style of the “Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters,” and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall

be capable in law of contracting and being contracted with, of suing

and being sued, of pleading and being impleaded in all courts of com¬

petent jurisdiction; and may do and perform such acts as are usually

performed by like corporate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encour¬

age investigation and disseminate correct views in the various depart¬

ments of science, literature, and the arts. Among the specific objects

of the Academy shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the

material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological, and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state with a

view of determining its mineral, agricultural, and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of

science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes

awarded to artists for original -works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economic, and art museums.

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the

collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a

general library.

i Here follow the names of forty others. Sections 5, 6, 8, and 9 are here

omitted as of no present interest. For the charter in full see Transactions,

Vol. viii, p. xi, or earlier volumes.

Extracts from the Charter.

741

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original con¬

tributions to science, literature, and the arts.

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the

same at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regula¬

tions, and by-laws as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure;

may receive and hold real and personal property, and may use and

dispose of the same at pleasure; provided, that it shall not divert any

donation or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor,

and that none of the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be

alienated other than in the way of exchange of duplicate specimens,

books, and other effects, with similar institutions and in the manner

specified in the next section of this act, without the consent of the

legislature.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the

same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,

at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects

in natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other

schools and colleges of the state.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects

embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof,

or be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to

the governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or

institution.

Approved March 16, 1870.

EXTRACTS FROM THE WISCONSIN STATUTES.

STATUTES OF 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.

Section 341. There shall be printed by the state printer biennially

in pamphlet form two thousand copies of the transactions of the Wis¬

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, uniform in style with

the volumes heretofore printed for said society.

Note. — The Academy allows each author one hundred separates' of his paper

from the Transactions without expense to the author, except a small charge for

printed covers when desired.— Editor.

CHAPTER 22.

OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS.

Section 365. The transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sci¬

ences, Arts, and Letters shall be distributed as follows: One copy to

each member of the legislature, one copy to the librarian of each state

institution; one hundred copies to the State Agricultural Society; one

hundred copies to the State Historical Society; one hundred copies to

the State University, and the remainder to said Academy.

Section 366. In the distribution of books or other packages, if such

packages are too large or would cost too much to be sent by mail, they

shall be sent by express or freight, and the accounts for such express

or freight charges, properly certified to, shall be paid out of the state

treasury.

STATUTES OF 1901.

CHAPTER 447.

BINDING OF EXCHANGES.

Section 1. Section 341 of the revised statutes of 1898 is hereby

amended by adding thereto the following: The secretary of state may

authorize the state printer to bind in suitable binding all periodicals

and other exchanges which the Society shall hereafter receive, at a

cost not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars per annum. The

secretary of state shall audit the accounts for such binding.

CONSTITUTION

OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

[As amended in Articles V, VI and IX at the regular meetings of Decem¬

ber, 1899, and December, 1901.]

Article I. — Name and Location.

This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sci¬

ences, Arts, and Letters, and shall be located at the city of Madison.

Article II. — Object.

The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts,

and letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall

be the publication of the results of investigation and the formation of

a library.

Article III. — Membership.

The Academy shall include four classes of members, viz.: life mem¬

bers, honorary members, corresponding members, and active members,

to be elected by ballot.

1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services ren¬

dered the Academy. Life membership in the Academy may also be

obtained by the payment of one hundred dollars and election by the

Academy. Life members shall be allowed to vote and to hold office.

2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be

men who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts, or letters.

3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been

active members of the Academy, but have removed from the state. By

special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters

may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in

the meetings of the Academy.

4. Active members shall be elected by the Academy and shall enter

upon membership on the payment of an initiation fee of two dollars

which shall include the first annual assessment of one dollar. The an¬

nual assessment shall be omitted for the president, secretary, treasurer,

and librarian during their term of office.

744 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Article IV. — Officers.

The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for

each of the three departments, sciences, arts, and letters, a secretary, a

librarian, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers shall be chosen

by ballot, on recommendation of the committee on nomination of offi¬

cers, by the Academy at an annual meeting and shall hold office for

three years. Their duties shall be those usually performed by officers

thus named in scientific societies. It shall be one of the duties of the

president to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the

Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires.

Article V. — Council.

The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the manage¬

ment of its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and

shall consist of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary,

the treasurer, the librarian, and the past presidents who retain their

residence in Wisconsin. Three members of the council shall constitute

a quorum for the transaction of business, provided the secretary and

one of the presiding officers be included in the number.

Article VI. — Committees.

The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on

publication, a library committee, and a committee on the nomination

of members. These committees shall be elected at the annual meeting

of the Academy in the same manner as the other officers of the Acad¬

emy, and shall hold office for the same term.

1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and

secretary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall de¬

termine the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the

Academy. They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful

character to specialists for their opinion as to scientific value and

relevancy.

2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the

librarian shall be ex officio chairman, and of which a majority shall

not be from the same city.

3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of five

members, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.

Article VII. — Meetings.

The annual meetings of the Academy shall be held between Christ¬

mas and New Year, at such place as the council may designate; but all

regular meetings for the election of the board of officers shall be held

at Madison. Summer field meetings shall be held at such times and

places as the Academy or the council may decide. Special meetings

may be called by the council.

Constitution.

745

Article VIII. — Publications.

The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its

Transactions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its pro¬

ceedings, and any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall

be printed by the state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin. All

members of the Academy shall receive gratis the current issues of its

Transactions.

Article IX— Amendments.

Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meet¬

ing by a vote of three-fourths of all the members present; provided,

that the amendment has been proposed by five members, and that no¬

tice has been sent to all the members at least one month before the

meeting.

RESOLUTIONS

REGULATIVE OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

THE TKANS ACTIONS OF TI1E ACADEMY.

[By the Academy , December 28, 1882. Transactions, Vol. VI, p. 350.]

2. The secretary of the Academy shall be charged with the special

duty of overseeing and editing the publication of future volumes of the

Transactions.

3. The Transactions of the Academy hereafter published shall con¬

tain: (a) a list of officers and members of the Academy; (b) the char¬

ter, by-laws and constitution of the Academy as amended to date; (c)

the proceedings of the meetings; and (d) such papers as are duly cer¬

tified in writing to the secretary as accepted for publication in accord¬

ance with the following regulations, and no other.

6. In deciding as to the papers to be selected for publication, the

committee shall have special regard to their value as genuine, original

contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.

9. The Sub-Committee on Publication shall be charged with insisting

upon the correction of errors in grammar, phraseology, etc., on the part

of authors, and shall call the attention of authors to any other points

in their papers, which their judgment appear to need revision.

\By the Academy, June 2, 1892, Vol. IX, p. ii .]

The secretary was given authority to allow as much as ten dollars

for the illustrations of a paper when the contribution was of sufficient

value to warrant it. A larger amount than this might be allowed by

the Committee on Publication.

[By the Academy, December 29, 1896, Vol. XI, p. 558.]

The secretary was directed to add to the date of publication as

printed on the outside of author’s separates the words, “Issued in ad¬

vance of general publication.”

Resolutions Relating to the Academy.

747

FEES OF LIFE MEMBERS.

[By the Academy , July 19, 1870, Yol. I, p. 187.]

Resolved, That the fees from members for life be set apart as a per¬

manent endowment fund to be invested in Wisconsin state bonds, or

other equally safe securities, and that the proceeds of said fund, only,

be used for the general purposes of the Academy.

ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Academy, December 29, 1892, Yol. IX, p. vi .]

Resolved, That the secretary and treasurer be instructed to strike

from the list of active members of the Academy the names of all who

are in arrears in the payment of annual dues, except in those cases

where, in their judgment, it is desirable to retain such members for a

longer time.

ARREARS OF ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Council, December 29, 1897. ]

Resolved, That the treasurer be requested to send out the notices of

annual dues as soon as possible after each annual meeting and to ex¬

tend the notice to the second or third time within a period of four

months where required.

SECRETARY’S EXPENSES.

[By the Academy, December 27, 1902.]

Resolved, That the Academy hereby appropriates the sum of seventy-

live dollars per annum as an allowance for secretary’s expenses, for

which a single voucher shall be required.

Note.— The Printing Commissioners of the State of Wisconsin now require all

copy to be at hand ready for the printer before the permit for printing shall

be issued by the Secretary of State. But, under a ruling of the Commissioners,

made in response to a presentation by the Committee of the Academy appointed

December 29, 1897, each volume of the Transactions may be issued in two con¬

secutive parts; so that a publication may thus be issued each year covering

the papers accepted after the previous annual meeting.

748 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ERRATA.

Page 289, 1. 9, read “144 mm” instead of “135 mm.”

Page 289, 1. 20, read “.0576 mm” instead of “.054 mmi.”

Page 293 at bottom should indicate that 0. L. Herrick

author and H. P. Hachtrieb (?95) is merely editor.

Page 289, line 9, read “144 mm” instead of “135 mm.”

Page! 289, line 20, read “.0576 mm” instead of “.054mm.”

Page 372, line 18, for “A> O” read “A< O.”

Page 435, line 12, for “This is” read “That is.”

Page 465, line 27, for “recognized by” read “recognizedly.”

GENERAL INDEX, VOLUME XIV, PARTS I AND II.

Actinicyclus Arizonae, figure for, 109.

Adams, Charles Kendall, memorial

address for, 670.

Adams family, longevity of, 58.

Aecidium, nuclear phenomena in, 67.

Aegialitis vocifera (Linn.), 597.

Aemaphorus occidentalis (Lawr.), 511.

Agleaius phoenicus portis (Linn.). 611.

Allen, C. E. — Some Hepaticae of the

Apostle Islands, 485.

American educational system, defects

in, 6.

American scholarship, recent criticism

of, 1.

Ampelis cedrorum (Vieill.), 618.

Amphora proteus, figure for, 109.

Anas boschas (Linn.), 581.

Anas carolinensis (Nettion.), 582.

Anneke, Madame (German poet), 473,

475, 477.

Antimony pentchloride as solvent, 333.

Apostle Islands, hepaticae of, 485.

Aqueous solutions, action of metallic

magnesium upon, 299.

Archbuteo ferruginous (Licht.), 602.

Ardea herodias (Linn.), 591.

Arizona Diatomite, 107.

Armstrong, H. E., on ionization of

gases, quoted, 340.

Arrenuri, ten species of, 145; subgen¬

era of, 145 : enumeration of spe¬

cies of subgenus Megalurus, 147 ;

bibliography of, 160 ; plates for,

163-172.

Arsenic trichloride as solvent, 333.

Arrenurus, a new, 520.

Arrenurus Birgei, description of, 158 ;

figures, 168, 170; occurrence of,

520, 521, 523.

Arrenurus cardiacus , description of

153; figures, 170, 172.

Arrenurus candatus, description of,

521 : figures for, 526 ; occurrence

of, 520, 521.

Arrenurus conicus, description of, 158 ;

figures, 172.

Arrenurus corniger , description of, 155 ;

figures, 166.

Arrenurus cylindratus, description of,

156 ; figures, 170 ; occurrence of,

523.

Arrenurus globator, description of, 148 ;

figures. 164, 166 ; occurrence of,

520, 521, 523.

Arrenurus manubriator, description of,

151 ; figures, 168, 170 ; occurrence

of, 520.

Arrenurus megalurus, description of,

150 ; figures, 164, 166 ; occurrence

of, 520, 521.

Arrenurus Morrisoni . description of,

523 ; figures for, 526.

Arrenurus parallellatus, description of,

154 ; figures. 168, 170, 172.

Arrenurus pustulator, 145.

Arrenurus securiformis , description of,

152 ; figures, 172 ; occurrence of,

523.

Asio acciptrinus (Pall.), 604.

Aster sagittifolius, rust on, 67.

Astragalinus tristis (Linn.), 613.

“Atlantis,” 473.

Attidae, new species of, 173 ; distribu¬

tion of in Ethiopian region, 174,

175, 176 ; index to new species of,

256 ; plates for, 258-278.

Auditory memory span for numbers in

school children, 509.

Aythya americana (Eyt.), 584.

Aythya vallisneria (Wils.), 585.

Basidiobolus, nuclear phenomena in, 76.

Bats, a study in the variations of pro¬

portions in, 630.

Bats, species collected in Mexico by H.

L. Ward, 653.

Baum, see Ellenburger and Baum.

Beagle, voyage of, cited, 181.

Beasley Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton Crustacea in, 537.

Belief, bears on what, 392 ; expression

of, 396 ; general nature of, 390 ;

intensity of, 394 ; scope of, 393.

Benzene as solvent, 330.

Bible, influence of on Shakspeare, 41.

Bielfield, Henry A., (German poet),

477, 478.

Big Cedar Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton Crustacea in, 539.

Bile duct of the cat, figures showing

distribution of, 622 ; variations in

the distribution of, 621 : plate

showing variations in distribution

of, 628.

Birds, Saskatchewan, 569.

Birge, E. A., on movements of daphnia,

quoted, 562, 563.

Bittern, American, 590.

Bittern, nest Of, Plate XLVIII.

Blackbird, red-winged, 611 ; yellow-

headed, 610.

Blake, William P., Arizona Diatomite,

107-111.

Blue-bill duck, 586.

Bobolink, 610.

Bonasa umbellus togata (Linn.), 598.

Bonsdorf, on action of dry air upon

metals, cited, 317.

Bosnina, diurnal movement of, 539,

540, 542, 544, 547, 549, 555.

Botaurus lentiginosus (Montag.), 590.

750 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Brady,, G. S., on Copepoda , Cyclopediae

and Calanidae, cited, 279.

Brady and Norman, on Ostracods,

cited, 119.

Branta canadensis (Linn.), 588.

Bronn’s Thier-Reich, cited, 119.

Bronzed grackle, 612.

Bubo i Virginianus subarcticus (Hoy),

604.

Buffle-head duck, 587.

Burckhardt, G., on diurnal movement of

plankton Crustacea, cited, 561, 562,

563.

Buteo borealis Kriderii Hoopes, 600.

Butler, James Davie, The Vocabulary

of Shakespeare, 40-55.

Butter-ball duck, 587.

Calcarius ornatus (Towns.), 613.

Callistephus sp., rust on, 67.

Canada goose, nest of, Plate XDIV.

CanthocoAnptus Idahoensis , sp. nov.,

112 ; figures for, 116.

Canvas-back duck, 585 ; nest of, Plates

XLVI and XLVII.

Carbon tetrachloride as solvent, 327.

Carnegie Institution, influence of upon

science, 13.

Catbird, 619.

Cathartes aura (Linn.), 600.

Cat, variation in the distribution of the

bile duct of the, 621.

Ceriodaphnia , diurnal movement of, 538,

539, 541, 544, 545, 548, 554.

Ceryle alcyon (Linn.), 605.

Chandler, Charles H. — A Study in

Longevity, 56-62.

Chapman and Wanklyn on magnesium

amalgam, cited, 312.

Charitonetta albeola (Linn.), 587.

Chemical reaction, history of influence

of moisture upon, 317.

CMlionycteris rubiginosa , 639.

Chloroform as solvent, 324.

Chordeiles virginianus (Gmel.), 606.

Chydorus, diurnal movement of, 541,

542, 544, 549, 555.

Cinerea melodia (Wils.), 615.

Circus hudsonius (Linn.). 600.

Cistothorus palustrius (Wils.), 619.

Colaptes auratus (Linn.), 606.

Coleosporium campanulae, nuclear phe¬

nomena in, 71.

Coleosporium Euphrasiae, nuclear phe¬

nomena in, 65, 71, 72, 73.

Coleosporium senecionis, uredospore of,

64.

Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis, nuclear

phenomena in, 63.

Columbus anritus (Linn.). 573.

Columbus holboellii (Rie'nh.), 571.

Colymbus nigricollis calif ornicus,

(Heerm.), 574.

Conception, associate truth or untruth

of. 385 : essential content of, 385 :

expressed by a suggestion, 384 ; its

distinctive, 387.

Conformal representation of plane

curves, <655.

Congpon. Russell T. — Saskatchewan

Birds'. 569-620.

Coot, American, 594.

Coot, nest of. Plate XLIII.

Coccuzus erythrophthalmus (Wils.),

605.

Corethra, diurnal movement of, 537,.

539, 541, 543, 544, 548, 555.'

Corialanus, quotation from, 41.

Cormorant, double-crested, 579.

Corsar, the, 473.

Corvus arnericanus (And.), 609.

Cosmarium , nuclear phenomena in, 76.

Cowbird, 610.

Cruger on the structure of the starch.

grain, cited, 527.

Crow, American, 609.

Crustacea, plankton, diurnal movement

of, 524.

Cuckoo, black-billed, 605.

Curves, plane, 655.

Cyclops arnericanus, variation in form

and size of, 179 ; figures for, 296,

298 ; table showing variations in,

288.

Cyclops brevispinosus, variation in form

and size of, 279 ; figures for, 296,

298 ; tables showing, 285.

Cyclops, cleavage in egg of, 76.

Cyclops, diurnal movement of, 537, 539,

540, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 555.

Cypris nuncronata, relation of to En-

tocythere, 128.

Cystopus, nuclear phenomena in, 77.

Dangeard, on nuclear phenomena, cited,

63.

Dafila acuta (Linn.), 584.

Daphnia hyalina, 537, 538 ; diurnal

movement of, 5401, 542, 543, 545,

549, 551, 562, 563.

Daphnia longiremis, diurnal movement

of, 540. 552.

Daphnia pulicaria, diurnal movement of,

540, 542, 548, 552, 562, 563.

Daphnia retrocurva, diurnal movement

of, 538, 540, 546, 547, 548, 552,

562.

Davis, J. J. — Third Supplementary Lis#

of Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin,

83.

Dendraga/pus Canadensis (Linn.), 598.

Denniston, R. H. — The structure of the

starch grain, 527-533.

Denticula proteus, var. mesolepta, fig¬

ure for, 109.

Desmodus rotundus, diagram showing

variation in, 646 ; measurements of,

645.

“Deutsch in Amerika,” 483.

Deutsche Dichterhalle, Wisconsin’s, 472.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum, diurnal

movement of, 538, 539, 541, 542,

544, 545. 546, 549, 554.

Diaptomns , diurnal movement of, 537,

539, 541, 543, 544, 545, 547, 550,

555.

Diatom! Earth in Arizona, by W. P.

Blake, cited, 107.

Diatoms of San Pedro valley, list of

species, 108.

Diatoms, list of recognized species in

Arizona. 108.

Diatomite, Arizona. 107.

Dictyota, nuclear division in, 69.

Dilg. William (German poet), 478.

Disbelief, linguistic neglect of, 391.

Dissociation theory, 307.

Diurnal movement of plankton Crusta¬

cea. bibliography, 567: ecological

factors involved in, 560 ; extent of,

557.

General Index,

751

Doerfling., Max, 478.

Doerflinger, Carl (German poet), 478.

Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linn.), 610.

“Dorarosen,” 483.

Dryobates villosus leucomelus (Bodd.),

605.

Ducti hepatici in the liver of the cat,

curve showing number of, 624.

Dufour, L., on anatomy of Ranantra

fusca, cited, 487, 492, 493, 498,

501.

Eagle, bald, 603.

Edwards, Dr. Arthur M., report of on

diatom earth, 109.

Electrolytic dissociation, theory of, 317.

Ellenburger and Baum, Anatomie des

Hundes, cited, 626.

Ende, Heinrich, v, 478.

Entocythere, Cambaria, 117 ; description

of, 120.

Epischura lacustris, diurnal movement

of, 539, 539, 541, 543, 544, 546,

549, 555, 562.

Erismatura rubida (Wils.), 587.

Erysipheae, nuclear phenomena in, 74.

Ethyl chloride as solvent, 328 ; conduc¬

tivity of, 329.

Evermann, B. W. — Canthocamptus col¬

lected by, 112.

Falco sparverius Linn, 603.

Falk, K. G., experiments of with hy¬

drogen chloride and zinc, 342.

Fatherland, to my, (poem), 475.

Felis domesticus, 621.

Fenneman, N. M., on physical features

of Wisconsin Lakes, cited, 535.

Fernekes, Gustav, on Action of Alkali

metals and their Amalgams' upon

aqueous solutions, cited, 310. 338.

Fischer, S., on ostracods, cited, 122,

123

Flicker, * 606.

Fluoride of gold, 313.

283.

Forbes, E. B., on Cyclopidae, cited, 280.

“Forty-Eighters,” the, 471 ; poets

among the, 473 ; writers antedating

the, 476.

Fractional symbolization, 359.

“Frauenzeitung, die,” 474.

“Freidenker-Almanach,” 483.

Frustulia interposita, figure for, 109.

Fuhrman, O., on movement of plank¬

ton Crustacea, cited, 560, 562.

Fulhamb, Mrs., on reduction of salts

of gold, 317.

Fulica americana (Gruel), 594.

Galcoscoptes Carolinensis (Linn.), 619.

Gallinago delicata (Ord.), 595.

Geneva Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton in, 545.

German Poets, a Wisconsin group of,

471 : bibliography, 477 ; noms-de-

plume for. 484.

Germans, in Wisconsin politics, 471.

GiegoLd, Georg (German poet), 479.

Glossophaga soricina , measurements of,

647.

Godwit, Hudsonian, 596.

Goldfinch, American, 613.

Gold, fluoride of, 313.

Goose, Canada, 588.

Gravid imber (Gunn.), 575.

Grebe, American eared, 574.

Grebe, American eared, nest of, Plate

XLIII.

Grebe, Holboell’s, 571 ; nest of, Plate

XLII.

Grebe, horned, 573 ; western, 571.

Green Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton in, 546.

Grignon, Augustine, reminiscences of,

quoted, 25.

Grosbeak, rose-breasted, 616.

Gross, J., on das Ovarium der Hermip-

teren, cited, 500.

Grouse, Canadian ruffed, 598.

Grouse, sharp-tailed, 599.

Gbunow, A., figures of Denticular lauta

by, cited, 109.

Grus mexicama (Mull.), 592.

Guden, Mrs. Sophie C., 479.

Gugler, Julius, 479.

Gymnosporangium, nuclear phenomena

in, 67, 68.

Hacker, on nuclear phenomena, cited,

76.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linn.), 603,

Holopedium gibberum , diurnal move¬

ment of, 539.

Harper, R. A. — Memorial address on H.

G. Timberlake, 690.

Harper, R. A. and R. J. Holden — Nu¬

clear divisions and nuclear fusion

in Coleosporium sonc hi-arv en sis.

Lev. 63-82.

Harporhynchus rufus (Linn.), 619.

Hastings, Samuel Dexter, memorial

address on, 686.

Hawk, American sparrow, 603.

Hawk, ferruginous rough-leg, 602 ;

Krider’s, 600; marsh, 600.

“Heimath grtisse aus Amerika,” 483.

“Heimweh,” 475.

“Henricus vom See,” <nom de plume of

William Dilg, 478.

Henry VIII, quotation from, 41.

Herrick, C. L., on Cladocera and Cope-

poda, cited, 280.

Heynaldella antiqua, figure for, 109.

Hepaticae of the Apostle Islands, 485.

Heron, black crowned night, 591 ; great

blue, 591.

Higgins, Experiments and Observations

on the Atomic Theory, cited, 317.

Holden, R. T., and R. A. Harper. — -

Nuclear divisions and nuclear fu¬

sion in Coleosporium , 63-82.

Horned lark, pallid, 608.

Hosts for parasitic fungi in Wisconsin,

index to, 105.

Hudson, W. H., naturalist in La Plata,

cited, 182.

Human life, mean period of, 56.

Humming bird, ruby-throated, 607.

Hydrachnidae, 145.

Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis (Gru¬

el.), 577.

Hydrochloric acid, action of upon met¬

als, 316 ; table showing, 336.

752 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Idea-symbols, 359.

Imperative judgment, 397 ; its distinc¬

tive, 4ul ; its essential content,

399.

Imperative mode, fallacy of, 397.

Indian nomenclature, with reference to

Wisconsin place-names, It).

Instant angular and linear velocities in.

complex mechanisms, 514.

Integral symbolization, 359.

Interrogative judgment* 401; as to a

term or adjunct, 413 ; its control,

408 ; its distinctive, 410 ; its ele¬

ments, 413 ; its essential content,

409 ; its expression, 429 ; its gen¬

era, 410 ; limitation of field con¬

sidered, 401 ; its motive, 406 ; its

occasion, 405 ; its operation, 426 ;

its structure, 425.

Interrogative thought, and its expres¬

sion, 353 ; table of contents for,

355.

Interrogative thought, compared with

other thought, 384.

Invention, rise of in America, 3.

Jay, Canada, 608.

Jean Jussieu, in La Revue, quoted, 9.

Jegi, John I. — Auditory Memory Span

for Numbers in School Children,

509-513.

Jegi John I., list of published papers

of, 695 ; memorial address on.

Jennings, see Reighard and Jennings.

Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents,

cited, 19.

Johnson, John Butleb, memorial ad¬

dress on, 683 : list of important

writings of, 686.

Juday, Chancey — The Diurnal Move

ment of Plankton Crustacea, 524-

568.

Judgment, the ordinary, 388 ; essen¬

tial content of, 388 ; its distinc¬

tive, 389; imperative, 397; inter¬

rogative, 401. .

Judgment, interrogative as to belief,

444 ; its elements', 445 ; its expres¬

sion. 458 : its operation, 458 ; its

peculiarities, 452 ; its structure,

454.

Juel, on nuclear phenomena, cited, 67.

Junco hy emails (Linn.), 615.

Junco, slate-colored, 615.

Kahlenbekg, L. — Action of Metallic

Magnesium upon Aqueous Solu¬

tions,' 299-312.

Kauffmann, A., on Cy thermae, cited,

119, 129, 132.

Killdeer. 597.

Kingbird, 607.

Kingfisher, belted, 605.

Klebahn, on nuclear phenomena, cited,

75. 76.

Kkez, Konbad, history of, 475, 479.

LaMdocera aestiva , migration of, 561.

Lake Mendota, diurnal movement of

plankton in, 547.

L a n iu s ludovicianus excubit orides

(Swains), 618.

Least sand piper, 596.

Legleb, Henby E. — A Wisconsin Group

of German Poets : with a Bibliogra¬

phy, 471 — 184.

Legleb, Henby E. — Origin and Meaning

of Wisconsin place-names, with

Special Reference to Indian Nomen¬

clature, 16-39.

Lehmann, Habbiet : Variations in form

and size of Cyclops brevispinosus

Herrick and Cyclops americanus

Marsh, 279-298.

Lemoine, G., on action of magnesium,

cited, 299.

Lehnee, Victob — Fluoride of Gold, 313-

315.

Leptodora hyalina, diurnal movement of,

538, 541, 542, 544, 546, 547, 549,

554, 562.

Lesser scaup duck, 586.

Liy amentum falciforme hepatis, in liver

of cat, 621.

Limnocy there, relation of, to Entocy-

there, 119.

Limnocalanus macrurus, diurnal move¬

ment of, 546, 547, 555.

Limosa haemastica (Linn), 596.

Lochemes, Michael J. (German poet),

479.

Locy, W. A., on anatomy of Ranantra

fusca, cited, 487, 492, 493, 495,

498.

Longevity, a study in, 586 ; tables' show¬

ing, 60.

Longspur, chestnut-collared, 613.

Loomis family, longevity of, 58.

Loon, 575 ; floating nest of, plate XLIV.

Loxonchonca, relation of, to Entocy-

there, 119.

Machaerina, relation of, to Entocythere,

120.

Maeeklin, Edmund, 480.

Magnesium, metallic, action upon aque¬

ous solutions, 299.

Mallard, 581.

Maesh, C. Dwight : On a new species

of Canthocamptus from Idaho, 112-

116.

Mabsh, C. D., on Cyclopidae and Cala-

nidae, cited, 281.

Maeshall. Ruth — Ten Species of Ar-

renuri. Belonging to the Subgenus

Megalurus Thon.

Mabsiiall, Ruth — A New Arrenurus,

and Notes on Collections Made in

1903, 520.

Maeshall, W. S. — Entocythere Cam-

baria (nov. gen. et nov. sp.), A

Parasitic Ostracod. 117.

Maeshall. W. S., and Henby Sevebin —

Some Points in the Anatomy of Ra¬

ff antra fusca P. Beauv., 487.

Martin, purple, 617.

Mastoaloia Braunii, Grun., figure for,

109.

Mastogloia elliptica, figure for, 109.

Mastoaloia Smithii, figure for, 109.

McCook, American spiders and their

spinning work, cited. 181.

Meadow lark, western. 612.

Measurements of bats, 631.

Mechanisms, complex, angular and lin¬

ear velocities in, 514.

General Index.

753

Meyalurus Thon, 145.

Meiampsora, nuclear phenomena in, 67.

Melospiza yeoryiana (Lath.), GIG.

Memorial addresses, G70.

Memory span, auditory, for numbers,

509.

“Ment,” words ending in, 50.

Merala miyratoria (Linn.), G20.

Metallic magnesium, action of, upon

aqueous solutions, 299.

Meter, on the structure of the starch

grain, cited, 527.

Micrurus, 145.

Mikosch, on the structure of the starch

grain, cited, 527.

Miller, W. S. : Variations in the dis¬

tribution of the bile duct of the

cat, 621.

Milwaukee, various spellings' for, 24.

Mississippi, various forms of the name,

21.

Mitchell. I. W. — Memorial address on

J. I. Jegi, 695.

Modern nations, rank of, in productive

scholarship, 12.

Molossus rufus, measurements of, 642 ;

diagram showing variation of, 644.

Molothrus ater (Bodd.), 610.

Mormoops megalophylla, measurements

of, 634.

Mottier, on nuclear phenomena, 69.

Mouraour. II., on action of magnesium,

cited, 300, 308.

Muller, G. W., on CytheHdae, cited, I

119.

Multiple symbolization, 359.

My otis velifer, measurements of, 647.

Nagawicka Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton in, 543.

Nageli, C., on the structure of the

starch grain, cited, 527.

Natal us str amine us, measurements of,

638.

Nauplii, diurnal movement of, 537, 539,

541, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548,

5oo.

Novic-ula macraeana, Pant, figure for,

109.

New English Dictionary, use of, in

studying Shakespeare, 42.

Nies, Konrad, 480.

Night hawk, 606.

N it zs chia vitrea. Norm., figure for. 109.

Noether, on plane curves cited, 662.

Nuclear divisions and nuclear fusion in

Coleosporium sonchi-arvensis Lev.,

63. j

Nyctea nyctea (Linn.), 605.

Nycticorax nydocorax merit's (Bodd.),

591.

Nyctinomus braziliensis, measurements I

of, 640. I

Oconomowoc Lake, diurnal movement of 1

plankton Crustacea in, 542.

Odor nr is alpestris leucolaema (Coues), i

608.

Okauchee Lake, diurnal movement of I

plankton in, 540.

Ostracod, a parasitic, 117 ; figures for,

138-144. I

j Ostracods, bibliography for, 135 ; zones'

of ovary in, 132.

J O st wald, Grundriss der Allgemeine

Chemie, cited, 317.

I Ostwald, W., on movement of plank¬

ton Crustacea, cited, 560, 566.

| “Out,” the prefix, 52.

I Owen, E. T. — Interrogative Thought

and the Means of its Expression,

353-470.

I Owl, snowy, 605 ; short-eared, 604 ;

western horned, 604.

I

j Pabst, Frederick, sketch of life of, 693.

I Pachycypris Leiicharti, relation of, to

j Entocythere, 124.

r Paradoxostoma „ relation of, to Entocy¬

there, 120.

Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin, Third sup¬

plementary List of, .83-106 ; index

of hosts for, 105.

Parker, G. IT., on migration of Labido-

c era aestiva , cited, 561.

Parkinson, John B. : Memorial ad¬

dress on S. I>. Hastings, 687.

Park man maps, 19.

Parnell. E. A., on action of. hydrogen

sulphide, cited, 318.

Passer domesticus (Linn.), 620.

Passer nivalis (Linn.), 613.

Patten. IT. E, — Action Upon Metals of

Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid in

Various Solvents, 316-352.

Patton, W. D., on conduct of hydrogen

chloride and dry soda. lime, 321.

Peck mam. George W. and Elizabeth

G. — New Species of the Family At-

tidae from South Africa, with Notes

on the Distribution of the Genera

Found in the Ethiopian Region,

Pediocaetes phasianellus (Linn.), 599.

Pelecanas e rut hro r liynch.o s (Gmel.),

580.

Pelican. American white, 580.

Pbngka. Charlotte E. — On the Con¬

formal Representation of Plane

Curves, Particularly for the Cases

d=4, 5 and 6. 655-669.

Peridermhtm Pini-acicolum, aecidospore

of, 64.

Perisoreus canadensis (Linn.), 608,

Petiolvrus , 145.

Petrochelidon lunifrons (Say.), 617.

Pewankee Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton in. 545.

Phalacrocorax dilonlms (Swains.), 579.

Phalarope, Wilson’s, 594.

PhalOropus tricolor (Vieill.), 594.

Phillips, W. B., on “Texas petroleum,”

cited. 111.

Phoebe, 608.

Phosphorus trichloride as solvent, 333.

Phracimidium, nuclear phenomena in,

67.

Pintail duck, 584.

Place-names, stratification -of, 17.

Plane curves, conforms 1 representation

of, 655.

Plankton m-ustacea, diurnal movement

of. 524.

Plantz, S.\ mtjel — ^Memorial address on

G. McK. Steele. 678.

Poiratjlt and Raoip.orski, on nuclear

phenomena, cited, 63, 64, 65, 66,

72, 73. ■

Porzana. Carolina (Linn.), 593.

48

754 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Progne subis (Linn.), 617.

Puccinia, nuclear phenomena in, 64, 66,

74.

PUCHNER, R., 480.

Puls, Mrs. Marie, 480.

Question-asking Word, 433, 464 ; its

meaning, 433, 467 ; its rank, 441,

468.

Quiscalus quiscula aenus (Ridgw.), 612.

Raciborski, on nuclear phenomena, 76.

Rail, sora, 593.

Rail, Virginia, 592.

Rainbow Lake, diurnal movement of

plankton Crustacea in, 53S.

Rallus virginianus (Linn.), 592.

Ranantra fusca, alimentary tract of,

487 ; anatomy of, 487 ; bibliogra¬

phy for anatomy of, 502 ; figures il¬

lustrating anatomy of, 504-508 ;

nervous system of, 496 ; reproduc¬

tive organs of, in female, 499 ; re¬

productive organs of, in male, 497 ;

respiratory system of, 493 ; salivary

glands of, 491.

Red-head duck, nest of, plate X.LVI.

Reighard and Jennings, on the anat¬

omy of the cat, cited, 626.

Remsen, Ira, on action of hydrogen

chloride upon zinc, cited, 342.

Riemann-Roch theorem, proof of, 658.

Riemann’s surface, properties of, 655.

Robin, American, 620.

Rosen, on nuclear phenomena, cited, 63,

64, 66.

Ruddy duck, 587.

Ruddy duck, nest of, Plate XLVII.

Sand hill crane, 592.

San Pedro River, diatom earth in val¬

ley of, 107.

Sappin-Trouffy, investigations' of, on

nuclear phenomena, cited, 63, 64,

66. 73.

Sapsucker, yellow-billed, 606.

Sars, on ostraeods. cited, 119.

Saskatchewan birds, 569.

Sayornis phoebe (Lath.), 608.

Schmitz., on nuclear phenomena, cited,

63.

Scientific truths discovered in 19th cen¬

tury, 8.

Schrochilus con tortus Sars, relation of,

to Entocythere, 119.

Schmeil, Otto, on Gopepoda, cited,

279.

Schoeffler. Moritz, German printing

office of, 472.

Schtjrz, Carl, letters of, cited, 472.

Sentence, as a thought-symbol, 360.

Severin, Henry and Marshall — Some

Points in the Anatomy of Ranantra

fusca P. Beauv., 487.

Silicon tetrachloride as solvent, 332.

Siller, Frank, 481.

Slichter, C. S., Address on Recent Crit¬

icism of American Scholarship, 1-

15.

Smedley, F. W.. report on memory span

in children, cited, 509.

j Smith, Charles Forster — Memorial

address on C. Iv. Adams, 671.

I Smith, G., on nuclear phenomena, cited,

74.

Snipe, Wilson’s, 595.

Snyder, Carl, on American scholarship,

quoted, 1.

Solidago canadensis, rust on, 67.

Solidago ulmifolia, rust on, 67.

Soubron, W. O., 481.

Sparrow, chipping, 614 ; clay-colored,

614 ; English, 620 ; song, 615 ;

swamp, 616 ; white-throated, 613.

Spatula clypeata (Lynn), 583.

Spbyrapicus vmius (Linn.), 606.

Spiders, see Attidae ; ballooning habit

of, 181.

Spirogyra, nuclear phenomena in, 77.

Spizella pallida (Swains.), 614.

Spizella socialis (Wils.), 614.

Starch grain, the structure of, 527 ;

structure of, in barley, 528 ; in

bean, 528 ; in canna, 528 ; in corn,

528 ; in pea, 528 : in Pelliona Dave-

anna, 528 ; in potato tuber, 528 ; in

rye, 528 : in sugar cane, 52S ; in

wheat, 528.

Steinlein, Augustus, 482.

Sterna forsteri (Mutt.), 576.

Steele, George McKendree, memorial

address on, 678.

Stock duck, 581.

Stone. Witmer, on racial variation in

plants and animals, quoted, 632.

Strasburger, on nuclear phenomena,

cited, 69, 75.

Sturnella magna neglecta (And.), 612.

Sulphur monachloride as solvent, 334.

Swallow, cliff, 617 ; tree, 617.

Symbolization, integral, 359 ; multiple,

359 ; fractional, 359.

Symbols, word, 359 ; thought, 360.

Shakespeare, dictionaries accessible

to, 42 : influence of Bible upon, 41 ;

vocabulary of, 40 ; words coined by,

51.

Shoveller duck, 583.

Shrike, white-rumped, 618.

Tachycineta bicolor (Vieill.), 617.

Teal, green- winged, 582 ; nest of, Plate

XLV.

Technical science, growth of in Amer-

Tern, black, 577.

Tern, Forster’s. 576 ; nest of, Plate

XLII.

Theta-functions, use of, in study of

curves, 665.

Thionyl chloride as solvent, 335.

Thomson, .7. J., on ions, quoted, 340.

T'hon, C. K., on Arrenuri, cited, 145.-

Thormachlen, Anton, 482.

Thought analyses, 365 ; comparative

ments of, 368.

Thought-associates, 376 ; mental re-ac¬

tions on, 381.

Thought-attendants, thought-elements

versus. 374.

Thought, different analyses of, 365.

Thought-elements, primary or essential,

374 : associate, 375 ; versus

thought-attendants, 374.

Thought-reality, 376.

Thought-symbols, 360.

Thought-untruth, 381.

Thrasher, brown, 619.

General Index.

Thyene, key to South African species of,

223.

Tomas si on action of magnesium,

299, 310.

Timberlake, Hamilton Greenwood,

memorial address on, 690 ; on

structure of starch grain, cited,

532 ; scientific publications of, 693.

Tin tetrachloride as solvent, 332.

Trelease, William, on parasitic fungi

of Wisconsin, cited, 83.

Tringa minutilla, Yieill, 596.

Trochilus calubris (Linn.), 607.

Troglodytes aedon aztecus Baird, 619.

Troilus and Cressada, quotation from,

45.

Turkey Vulture, 600.

Turneaube, F. E. — -Memorial address

on J. B. Johnson, 683.

Turner, C. H., on Gypris, cited, 130.

Tyrannus tyrannus (Linn.), 607.

Uredineae, mycelial cells of, 63.

Uromyces, nuclear phenomena in, 67.

V aucheria, nuclear phenomena in, 77.

Va’vra, W., on Ostracods, cited, 129,

130.

Velocities, angular and linear, in com¬

plex mechanisms, 514.

Vireo olivaecous (Linn.), 618.

Vireo, red-eyed, 618.

V. Mohl, on the structure of the starch

grain, cited, 527.

Voigt, Mrs. Anna, 482.

Wald vogel, T., on diurnal movement of

plankton Crustacea, cited, 561.

Wallich, Adolph, 482.

Wanklyn and Chapman, on magnesium

amalgams, cited, 312.

Wa-rd, Dr. D. B., on identification of

Arizona diatoms, 108.

Ward, Henry L. — A Study in the Vari¬

ations of Proportions' of Bats With

Brief Notes of the Species Men¬

tioned, 630-654.

Ward, Henry L. and C. M. Teran, coL

lections made by, 934, et seq .

Water-hen Lake, characteristics of, 569 ;

view of, 570.

Water mites, see HydracJinidae.

Waxwing, cedar, 618.

755

s

■

Weber, Heinrich, work on homogene¬

ous functions, cited, 662.

White, Natural History of Selbourne,

cited, 181.

Witmann, Anna C., Mrs., 482.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts

and Letters— Active members, 701;

constitution, 743 ; correspond¬

ing members, 717 ; extracts from

charter, 740 ; extracts from stat¬

utes relating to, 742 ; deceased

members, 722 ; honorary members,

699; life members, 700; librar¬

ian’s reports for 1902 and 1903,

738 ; list of officers, 697 ; members

elected in 1903, 733 ; members

elected in 1902, 727 ; mission of in

productive scholarship, 15 ; pro¬

ceedings of, 723 ; program for

1903 meeting, 729 ; program for

1902 meeting, 723 ; report of sec¬

retary, 1902, 723 ; resolutions for

regulation of, 746 ; thirty-fourth

annual meeting, 729 ; thirty-third

annual meeting, 723 ; treasurer’s

report, 1903, treasurer’s report,

1902, 735.

Wisconsin Geological and Natural His¬

tory Survey Bulletin No. 8, cited,

535.

Wisconsin, origin and meaning of name,

22.

Wisconsin place-names, origin and

meaning of, 16 ; list of, 25 et seq. ;

bibliography for study of, 36.

“Wisconsin’s Deutsch-Amerikaner,” 483.

Woodpecker, northern hairy, 605.

Woodpecker, pileated, 606.

Woltereck, R., on Ostracods, cited,

132.

Words or idea symbols, 359.

Wren, long-billed marsh, 619.

Wren, western house, 619.

Xanthocephalus, xanthocephalus (Bon-

ap.), 610.

Zamelodia ludoviciana (Linn.), 616.

Zenker, on Krebs — thiere, cited, 123,

127, 130.

Zimmerman, O. B. — A Treatment of

Instant Angular and Linear Veloc¬

ities in Complex Mechanisms, 514-

519.

Zonotrichia aTbicollis (Gmel.), 618.

ZueNdt Ernst A., 482.

(

TRANSACTIONS

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL XIV, PART I

1902

WITH THIRTY-THREE PLATES

Published by Authority of Law

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1903.

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SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

4