WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

\

The annual half- volume of the Transactions is issued by

the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, under

the editorial supervision of the Secretary.

Arthur Beatty,

Secretary .

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XVIII, PART II

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1916

V

CONTENTS

Page

The Work of the Wind in Warming a Lake (With

Plates I-X). Edward A. Birge . 341

Additional Species of Pholiota, Stropharia, and Hypho-

loma in the Region of the Great Lakes. With

Plates XI-XXIV). Edward T. Harper . 392

A Monograph of the Algal Genus Scenedesmus, based

upon Pure Culture Studies. (With Plates XXV-

XXXIII). Gilbert Morgan Smith . 422

A Preliminary List of Algae found in Wisconsin Lakes.

Gilbert Morgan Smith . 531

Limnological Apparatus. (With Plates XXXIV-

XXXVIII). Chancey Juday . 566

William Gager’s Defence of the Academic Stage.

Karl Young . 593

Legends of Paul Bunyan, Lumberjack. K. Bernice

Stewart and Homer A. Watt . 639

Chaucer’s Burgesses. Ernest P. Kuhl . 652

On a New Myxosporidian, Henneguya Wisconsinensis ,

n. sp., from the Urinary Bladder of the Yellow

Perch, Perea flavescens. (With three Figures).

James W. Mavor and William Strasser . 676

A True Bit of Instruction Showing why we are under

Obligations to Pay Taxes and Tithes for the Pres¬

ervation of Christian Peace and the Avoidance

of Trouble. Ernest Voss . 683

VI

i

t

I

i

V..

Some Tendencies in History. Presidential Address,

1915. Dana Garleton Munro . 695

Proceedings of the Academy, 1914, 1915, 1916 . 713

List of Members of the Academy, corrected to January

1, 1917 . 732

Extracts from the Charter of the Academy . 754

Constitution . 756

Index of Volume XVIII . hi, iv

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

341

THE WORK OF THE WIND IN WARMING

A LAKE

Edw. A. Birge

Notes from the Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological

and Natural History Survey. VIII.

1. INTRODUCTION.

It is now generally admitted by limnologists that" the

warming of a lake is mainly effected by the wind, which dis¬

tributes the warmed water from the surface to the deeper

strata. Certain limitations on this statement due to the

penetration of the sun’s rays into the water, will be briefly

discussed later in this paper. This relation of wind to heating

was well stated twenty years ago by Whipple (’95, p. 207).

I worked out the same result in the same year but did not

publish until 1897 (’97, p. 291). In the same paper I indi¬

cated also, I believe for the first time, certain corollaries

from this theory of heat distribution, stating that the depth,

area, and shape of a lake are important factors in determin¬

ing its temperature.

Another corollary from the fundamental proposition

engaged my attention, viz.: that the distribution of the

warmed — and therefore lighter — surface water by the wind

involves an amount of work against gravity which is meas¬

urable, and whose amount shows one element in the work of

the wind on the lake. It affords also a quantitative measure,

at least a partial one, of the effect of area and depth on the

heat budget. This idea was applied to the explanation

certain temperature phenomena in my discussion of the

Finger Lakes of New York in 1914 (Birge and Juday,

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

’14, p. 574). The underlying principle was there stated as

follows :

“The work to be done in warming a stratum of water which lies

below the direct influence of the sun is done against gravity which

resists the descent of the warmer and lighter water. The net work

done in warming a stratum of water to a given degree may be

measured by the energy which would be needed to transport the

mass of water, thus warmed, to the place where it is found, against

the resistance of denser water at a temperature of 4°. We may

think of such a stratum as pushed down to its place through water

at 4°, somewhat as a sheet of cork might be forced down through

the water. The weight to be moved is the difference in weight

between the warmed water and water at the temperature of maxi¬

mum density. The distance through which it is carried is the

mean distance of the stratum in question from the surface.”

The general question was left with this brief statement in

that paper because I desired to discuss the matter of the heat

budget more fully before taking up that of the distribution

of heat. The subject of the heat budget was presented last

year (Birge 15), and it is my purpose to state more fully in

the present paper the subject of the work of the wind in

distributing heat and to give illustrations of methods em¬

ployed in studying it. I leave most of its applications to a

general report on temperatures of Wisconsin lakes.

2. GENERAL EFFECT OF WIND.

The wind blowing over the surface of a lake performs

certain mechanical operations on the water. Their results

may be grouped under the heads of waves and currents. We

are not at present concerned with the work done in making

waves, but consider the effect of currents only.

If a lake had no shores, or if its dimensions were indefin¬

itely larger than those of the air movement constituting the

wind, there might be produced a simple current in the water

moving with the wind, greatest at the surface and rapidly

dying out below. But in an inland lake the current induced

by wind meets the shore very promptly, and this fact is of

great importance to this discussion. The current is stopped

and if the wind continues, it must turn back or turn down.

Such are the currents whose effect is discussed here.

If the lake is homothermous the current easily turns down¬

ward into the deeper water or along the bottom of the lake.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 343

The surface water would be stripped by the wind from the

windward side of the lake and transported to the leeward

side ; it would return along the side or bottom to the wind¬

ward side. Thus the entire mass of the water of the lake may

be brought into a sort of rotatory movement and a complete

circulation may be set up.

This programme is interfered with and modified by two

factors: (1) the cessation or change of the wind; (2) the

warming of the surface water by heat from sun and sky.

We have nothing to do at present with the first of these

factors, but are concerned with the second.

The effect of the heat received by the surface of the water

is to warm the upper stratum and thereby decrease its den¬

sity. This decrease of density tends to keep the water at the

surface as it moves and to prevent the influence of the wind

from reaching the deeper strata. This warmer and lighter

water pushed along by the wind is stopped as it approaches

the leeward shore. It accumulates there, piling up on top

of the cooler water whose surface it depresses.

If the wind soon dies out the movement of the water

ceases; the cooler water settles back into place and the warm

water spreads out above it as a surface stratum. In this

process there will be some mixture of the warmer and the

cooler water at the junction plane.

If the wind is strong enough and continues long enough

and if the surface water is not too much warmed, part of the

warmer water will be pushed down into the cooler water and

mingled with it. But in general most of it will return to the

windward side of the lake in horizontal currents on top of the

cooler water. As it flows along the cooler water there will

be more or less mixture with consequent warming of the

colder and deeper lying strata and cooling of the surface

strata.

There arises in this way a continual contest between wind

and sun. The wind creates surface currents in the water

of the lake which, guided by shores and bottom, would

establish and maintain a complete circulation. The sun

warms the surface stratum and so tends to confine the wind

currents to the surface. From the interaction of these two

forces result the phenomena of the actual warming of the

lake.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Ideal cases are easily pictured: if the heat were delivered

from the sun in small quantity and the wind were steady and

violent, the surface current would have enough energy to

overcome the thermal resistance to mixture, complete cir¬

culation of the water would result, and the heat delivered to

the surface would be distributed to the entire mass of the

lake. The temperature of the water would be approximately,

but not exactly, the same at all depths.

If there were no wind, or only light baffling airs, and the

sun shone continually from a clear sky, the surface water

would be highly heated and the deeper water would not be

warmed at all.

As matters actually go in a lake, the advantage in the

contest between sun and wind turns now to one side and now

to the other. But on the whole the wind has the worse until

in late summer or autumn the sun’s energy declines and the

water begins to cool.

The work of the wind may be stated in another way. If

the wind creates a horizontal current in the water the re¬

sistance which the water offers is that due to viscosity and all

the work done is done against friction. If the water is ho-

mothermous the same statement holds for the vertical

component of the movement of the currents as guided by

shores and bottom. But if the surface strata of the water

are less dense than those below, any downward movement of

these upper strata involves the doing of work against gravity;

the lighter water must be forced down against the resistance

of the denser. So far as the wind accomplishes this task it is

the agent for distributing heat through the water of the

lake, and the amount of this work done is the measure of the

vertical component of the work of the wind.

Obviously, it is impossible to ascertain the full amount of

work thus done by the wind. The wind may blow all day,

crowding the warm water to one side of the lake and depres¬

sing the cooler water. But at night the wind ceases and the

water settles back, almost or quite reaching its original

position. Work has been done against gravity but little or

no record of it has been kept. It is like work done in com¬

pressing a spring which returns to its original position as soon

as the pressure ceases. But if the water does not settle back

to the position held before, if the isotherms at the junction

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 345

of cooler and warmer water have been pushed down by mixing

the several strata there, then work has been done which has

left a record and this part of the work can be measured. The

warming of this stratum of the deeper water can be expressed

in terms of the mechanical work done in pushing the lighter

and warmer surface water into the heavier and cooler water.

Here again our knowledge of the process is very small and

we can ascertain only the net results, not the exact process

itself. The work thus done in mixing any limited stratum is

proportional to the temperature gradient of that stratum and

this gradient is ordinarily unknown exactly, and certainly

varies enormously from stratum to stratum of depth and

from place to place of area, and from hour to hour. These

processes cannot be followed in detail since we have no con¬

tinuous record of the temperature changes in the lake. But

it is possible to compare the temperature of a lake on different

dates; to determine the amount of heat received and dis¬

tributed during the period; and to compute the amount of

work corresponding to this distribution. In general I shall

consider in this paper, the amount of work involved in warm¬

ing a lake from 4° to the summer maximum — the amount

necessary for the production of the summer heat-income.

This may be stated for the lake as a whole or for its several

strata.

3. FORMULA FOR COMPUTING THE WORK OF THE WIND.

In this discussion the following symbols are used:

A = area of lake; A 0, or A with no sign, area at the surface;

A6 etc., area at the depth of 5 m., etc.

V = total volume of the lake: V 5- i o, volume between 5 m.

and 10 m.

RT = reduced thickness, i. e., the thickness of any given

stratum if its area is made equal to that of the lake and

its sides are vertical. It is computed from the formula

— ~m, in which n and m represent any two levels of the

A o

lake. The reduced thickness is stated in centimeters.

T = temperature. Tm. mean temperature of the lake as a

whole; T20-2i> mean temperature of the 20 m.-21 m.

stratum.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

D = Density of the water; Dn, the density at any given tem¬

perature. At 4°, D is equal to ; one at any other tempera¬

ture it is less than one.

Z = distance from the surface of the lake expressed in centi¬

meters.

W = work done in warming the lake as a whole or any given

stratum. In general, this is stated in gram-centimeters

per square centimeter of area of the lake; thus following

the notation employed in stating the heat budget

(Cf. Birge ’15). Other units may be employed if con¬

venient or desirable for special ends, as is stated later

in this paper. Another datum plane may also be selected,

but since the direct work of the wind is performed on

the surface of the lake, the general reference will be to

that surface. This reference will be understood if no

other is expressed.

The formula for the work done in warming a stratum, by

mixture, from 4° to any given temperature n°, is, there¬

fore:

W=RTXZX(1-Dn). (Formula I.)

From this formula the value of W will be given in gram-

centimeters per square centimeter of the surface of the

lake. RT gives the weight in grams of a column of

water whose base is one sq. cm. and whose height is the

thickness of the stratum when its area is conceived as

extended to that of the surface of the lake. The product

RTxZ, therefore, states in gram-centimeters the work

that would be done in warming the stratum by mixture,

if D were reduced to zero, so that 1 — D = 1. The third

factor (1 — D) states the loss of density as a fraction of 1,

so that the final product is the measure of the work

done, stated in gram-centimeters per square centimeter

of the surface of the lake.

In the expression (1 — Dn), 1 is the density of water at 4°,

and therefore is equal to D 4. If the lower limit of tem¬

perature considered is any other than 4°, its density,

say Dm, must be substituted for 1.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

347

4. ILLUSTRATION OF USE OF FORMULA I.

As an illustration of the use of formula I, let the stratum

between 20 m. and 21 m., in a given lake, be warmed from

4° to 8°. How much work is involved in this rise of tem¬

perature?

In this case let RT = 56 cm. or 56 g. for a column 1 sq.

cm. in area.

Z = 2050 cm.

The density of water at 8° is 0.999876. Hence 1 — D 8 = -

0.000124.

Hence, W =56 X 2050 X0.000124 = 14.235 g. cm.

It thus appears that work amounting to 14.235 gram-

centimeters per square centimeter of the surface of the

lake is needed to raise the temperature of the stratum in

question from 4° to 8°.

To the 20 m.-21 m. stratum there have been delivered '

224 g. cal. (56 X [8-4]) per square centimeter of the area

of the surface of the lake. It is therefore fair to say that

the transport of 224 cal. from the surface to a mean depth of

20.5 m. has cost 14.235 g. cm. of work.

In a similar way the work required to warm each stratum

of the lake may be computed. The sum of the several

products will equal the work expended in warming the lake.

It must be noted that the work cannot be correctly com¬

puted for the lake as a whole by using for RT the mean

depth of the lake, and for D the density of water at the

mean temperature. This is because the density does not

vary directly as the temperature, but decreases more rapidly

than the temperature rises. As a result the value of 1 — D in

the warm strata has greater weight in determining the

mean density than has the value of T in the same strata in

determining the mean temperature. The mean value of 1 — D

for the several strata of the lake is therefore higher than the

value of 1— D for the mean temperature of the same strata.

Compare on this matter plates IV and V.

It is also true that in order to secure great exactness in

determining the mean temperature the density of the several

strata should be considered. If this were done, however,

the results would be but little altered, and any change would

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be in the direction of increasing the discrepancy just pointed

out, since it would lessen the weight of T in the upper and

warmer strata. See plates IV and V for an illustration of this

matter.

It will be found convenient to compute, once for all, the

products of RT and Z for the several strata of any lake which

it is desired to study. I have usually computed them by

single meters to a depth of 20 m. or 25 m. and by 5 m. or

10 m. intervals at greater depths. The sums of the several

factors for single meters of any 5 m. interval may be used in

case computation by single meters is not desirable or neces¬

sary.

The factor 1 — D is readily taken from a table showing the

values of 1 — D. Such a table is given herewith, (p. 391.)

Thus a single multiplication shows the work required for

warming any given stratum. In multiplying I have ordi¬

narily used only three significant figures in the factors and

have multiplied by the aid of Crelle’s Rechentafeln. A

certain amount of inaccuracy results from this short method,

but there is no use in securing an accuracy of computation

far beyond that of the data on which the computation is

based.

5. COMPUTATION OF WORK FOR AN ENTIRE LAKE.

An illustration is given herewith of the process and results

for Lake Mendota. The results show, substantially, the

summer heat-income of the lake for 1910 and the amount

of work necessary to distribute it through the lake. The

temperatures are the mean of daily observations, August

9-15, 1910.

In practice the results shown in this table would be reached

with much less trouble than appears. The numbers in the

column RTxZ would be taken from a table, as would the

values of 1 — D. The products only would need to be written

down and added.

The number of calories in any stratum, as shown in col.

F, is found from the formula: Cal. =RT (T— 4), in which

RT is the reduced thickness of the stratum in centimeters

and T is its mean temperature. See Birge and Juday T4,

p. 559, and numerous tables in that paper.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

349

TABLE 1.

Work of wind and calories of wind-distributed heat for Lake Mendota.

The direct curve of work.

The results of the computation show that the heat gained

above 4° by Lake Mendota in 1910 amounted to about

18400 cal. per sq. cm. of surface, and that it required about

1209 g. cm. of work to distribute this heat through the lake.

The table also shows the amount of heat given to each one-

meter stratum of the lake and the amount of work needed to

transport it there. Both these sums are also stated in terms

of a square centimeter of surface of the lake.

The results of this table are shown graphically in plate VI.

6. COMPUTATION BY LARGER INTERVALS.

If accurate results are desired the computation should

be by single meters either for the full depth of the lake or at

least to a depth well below the thermocline. Such a compu¬

tation is necessary if, for instance, diagrams are to be pre¬

pared similar to plate VII. But if general results only are

needed the process can be much shortened by using larger

intervals of depth; but if this method is followed the result

rarely will if ever, be exactly the same as that from the

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

other method. Yet the results may be closely similar as

may be seen from the following example, in which the same

temperature series from Lake Mendota as that given in

table 1 is computed by 5 m. intervals.

TABLE 2

Heat and work in Lake Mendota, computed by five-meter intervals.

The results shown by table 2 are substantially identical

with those of table 1, but the distribution of work is some¬

what different. This will ordinarily be the case when compu¬

tation is made by larger intervals.

7. CAUSES OF DIFFERENCE IN RESULTS WHEN DIFFERENT

THICKNESS OF STRATA ARE EMPLOYED IN COMPUTING.

One fundamental cause for the differences between table 1

and table 2 is the fact that the density of water does not

vary directly as the temperature. The density of a stratum

at its mean temperature is not the same as the mean density

of the several subdivisions of the stratum. A second reason

is because both density and volume change in going down¬

ward through a stratum and they do not change in a parallel

way. Hence, the product of the means will differ from the

mean of the several products. A third reason, which is not a

necessary one, comes from the way in which mean tempera¬

tures of strata are usually computed. The sum of the read¬

ings taken at equal intervals in the stratum is ordinarily

divided by the number of readings to give the mean tempera¬

ture, and this process for a stratum of, say, 5 m. is quite

accurate enough. But if the temperature is changing rapidly

in the stratum this mean will not be quite the same as that

derived from the mean temperature assigned to the several

meters of the stratum. If readings have been made at each

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake . 351

meter of the five, there will be six observations to be added

and divided by six, and each will be employed once in de¬

termining the mean. If the mean temperature for each

meter of the stratum is taken as the mean of the readings

at its top and bottom, the mean for the five meters will be

the sum of these means divided by five. But in reaching

this result four readings of the six have been used twice,

all, that is, except the readings at the top and the bottom

of the 5 m. stratum. If the temperature falls rapidly in

the stratum, the two methods of computations may give

results that differ considerably, as the following example

shows. This is taken from Beasley lake.

TABLE 3— BEASLEY LAKE.

The value of 1-D for 11.85° is 0.000448 and for 11.42°

it is 0.000411, so that the value is increased about 9%, by

the different method of computation. This is an extreme

case and the difference is usually much less. The following

example comes from the thermocline of lake Mendota.

TABLE 4 — LAKE MENDOTA.

In this case computations based on the larger mean give a

result about 4.2% larger than that derived from the smaller

number.

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In most cases, when general results only are desired com¬

putation by 5 m. intervals gives sufficient accuracy; especially

if single meters are used in the thermocline where the tem¬

perature (and therefore the value of 1 — D) is changing rapidly.

8. MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF

THE WIND.

In the preceding discussion I have treated the subject in a

way essentially non-mathematical, — a manner suited to my

small mathematical knowledge, and, I imagine, to that of

most students of lakes. The matter may, however, be stated

in mathematical form and has been so stated for me by Dr.

C. S. Slichter, professor of applied mathematics, University

of Wisconsin. His kind assistance in this matter, as in

many others, is gratefully acknowledged. His report is as

follows :

It is desirable to change somewhat the notation used in

the preceding pages, if the results and formulas are to be

stated in strict mathematical form. The symbols “RT”

for reduced thickness and “Dn” for density at depthn are

likely to give a misleading impression when used in formal

mathematics. The following notation is therefore em¬

ployed, which is essentially that used by Schmidt (T5)

in a paper to be discussed more fully on a later page (see

p. 365):

z = depth of any layer of water measured from the surface

z o = depth of any layer of water measured from the center

of gravity of the lake

z= depth of the center of gravity of the lake below the

surface

h = total depth of the lake

jx (z) =the reduced thickness of any layer

dz = density of the layer of water at depth z

D =the mean density of the lake

A = total area of the surface of the lake

W =work per sq. cm. of lake surface necessary to produce

the given vertical distribution of temperature from

a uniform density of unity at 4°G.

W3 = Schmidt’s measure of stability

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

353

Then it follows at once that

w=xJoz (1_ dz) M (z) dz (1)

This is the same result as that reached by more ele¬

mentary methods in the preceding pages. The simpler

methods of computing the result are better, however,

than any method of mechanical quadrature.

Schmidt’s measure of stability is the work necessary to

mix the water at any time to a uniform mass of the then

mean density, or

WS = J\ (1— d.) M (Z) dz (2)

Reducing this result to unit area of surface we obtain

Ws 1 A =xj !z° (i _dz) m (z) dz (3)

Now since z — z =z0, we can write

Jz(l — dz) [jl (z) dz — 1 z(l— dz)/z(z) dz

o Jo

= j\0 (1 — dz) n (z) dz (4)

Hence substituting (1) and (2) in (3),

W,/A+W = iJ^(l-dz) ix ( z)dz

= |x'zXh(l-D) (5)

We therefore see that Schmidt’s measure of stability

(divided by the area A) can be found by subtracting Dirge’s

result from the expression zh (1 — D) / A.

This forms a ready way of computing Schmidt’s measure

of stability after the measure of work has been found by

the methods set forth by Birge in the preceding pages.

9. DETERMINATION OF WORK AND HEAT FROM DIAGRAMS.

A second method of determining the amount of work,

and one that is quite as accurate as computation, if general

answers are desired, is to plat the results on a diagram and

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

measure the areas. This will be discussed later. There is

no saving in time and little, if any, gain in accuracy if one

desires to know the quantity of work done for the single

strata.

10. THE CURVE OF DISTRIBUTED WORK.

The results thus /far reached show the amount of work

done in warming a single stratum or an entire lake. They

show that 14.235 g. cm., for instance, are needed to warm a

given stratum but they do not show where this work is

done or how it is distributed. The same is true of the state¬

ment for the lake as a whole. The several products com¬

bined in the general result of table 1 show the amount of

work done in behalf of each stratum, but not where this

work was done. If this is to be determined a second compu¬

tation is necessary. In the case of the 20 rn.-21 m. stratum

the warmer and lighter water was carried from the surface

to a mean depth of 20.5 m. Equal work was done in each

unit of this distance. If the whole work is divided into 41

parts, two parts, or 4.88% of the whole, were expended in

each meter above 20 m. and one part, or 2.44%, in the 20

m.-21 m. stratum. Thus in order to warm the 20 m.-21 m.

stratum, 0.695 g. cm. of work was done in each meter above

it, and 0.348 g. cm. within it. In a similar way, if the lake is

divided into equal strata, the work for each stratum may be

distributed; two shares being given to each higher stratum

and one to the stratum in question. Of the work necessary

to warm the 1 m.-2 m. stratum, for instance, 66.7 % belongs

to the 0 m.-l m. stratum and 33.3% to the 1 m.-2 m. stratum;

40% of the work belonging to the 2 m.-3 m. stratum goes to

each of the two strata above it.

In this way there may be computed the work done in each

stratum. This may be platted as a curve which may be called

the curve of distributed work. The computation of such a table

for Lake Mendota is given in table 5, and the method of

computing the result is explained under the table. The

results of this computation are shown in plate VII.

Computation of the curve of distributed work for Lake Mendota.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

355

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356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The computation of table 5 involves a good deal of work

but I see no way of escaping the work if the result is desired.

Table 1 can be constructed graphically and the results ob¬

tained by measurement, although little time will thus be

saved. But no such procedure is possible for table 5 and the

information derived from this table is quite as valuable as

that from table 1. From table 1, for instance, we learn that

nearly 102 g. cm. (col. E) were needed to warm the 6 m.-7 m.

stratum from 4° to 22.3° and that heat amounting to 1260

cal. (col. F) was transported from the surface into that

stratum. We learn that 223 g. cm. were needed to warm all

the water below 15 m. and that 1800 cal. were transported

into that part of the lake.

Table 5 shows, for example, that of the 102 g. cm. used in

warming the 6 m.-7 m. stratum, 7.85 g. cm. were used

(col. E) within the stratum itself and the remainder between

0 m. and 6 m. It shows that over 68 g. cm. were used in

that stratum (col. D) to carry through it the 7630 cal. which

went to the water below 7 m. Col. H shows that of the 223

g. cm* used to warm the water below 15 m. only about 35

g. cm. were used within the lower water itself, leaving 188

g. cm. as the amount used in bringing the 1800 cal. down to

the 15 m. level.

11. THE CURVE OF DISTRIBUTED WORK COMPUTED BY FIVE-

METER INTERVALS.

The curve of distributed work can also be computed by 5

m. intervals, as is shown in the accompanying table. As in

the case of the direct curve, the total result is closely similar

to that reached by using 1 m. intervals but the distribution

differs. In those strata where the volume of the single meters

declines rapidly, the 5 m. interval gives results differing

considerably from the 1 m. This is seen especially on com¬

paring the strata for 0 m.-5 m. and 20 m.-24 m. in table 6

with the corresponding strata of table 5.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

357

TABLE 6.

Computation of the curve of distributed work for Lake Mendota by

five-meter intervals.

The explanation for this table is the same as for table 5.

12. COMPARISON OF SIMILAR STRATA IN DIFFERENT LAKES

It is often desirable to compare cases of similar strata in

different lakes. An illustration may be taken from lake

Geneva and Green lake. The following table shows the close

resemblance of the two lakes :

TABLE 7.

The depth is the only feature in which the lakes are not

substantially identical. The resemblance is even closer than

the table indicates, as may be seen by reference to the hy¬

drographic maps. (Juday T4, pi. XVII, XXV). It extends

to orientation, form, shape of basin, position of deep water;

and even to the presence, position and size of a bay on the

north side of each lake.

The essential facts of heat and work for August, 1913, are

shown in the following table:

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

TABLE 8.

Comparison of Lake Geneva and Green Lake, 1913.

By summer heat-income is meant the quantity of heat gained by the lake above 4°. See Birge ’15, p. 2.

The quantity of heat and of work is stated in this table, as well as elsewhere, in units per sq. cm. of the surfaoe

of the lake.

The heat income in each lake is about the same; Green

lake having an amount somewhat greater and accumulated

with the expenditure of decidedly less work. This is the

customary relation of the lakes. The amount of work done in

warming the water of the two lakes at depths below 20 m.

is closely alike. This might be expected, since lakes of the

same size and form ought to be able to furnish about the

same amount of work to distribute heat at such a depth.

The amount of heat distributed by the work is, however,

very different, lake Geneva securing from 500 g. cm. of

work only about two-thirds as much heat as Green lake

gets from 476 g. cm. This is because the shallower lake in¬

volves a higher temperature, and the rise of temperature in¬

volves an increase of thermal resistance which exceeds the

increase of work due to the greater depth of Green lake.

This, however, does not tell the whole story; for in this

statement the units of work and heat are referred to a unit of

area at the surface of the lake. If they are referred to a unit

of area at the 20 m. level the disadvantage of the shallower

lake becomes more apparent. The area of lake Geneva at

20 m. is 50.7% of that at the surface, and that of Green lake

is 61.0%. If the figures for work and heat are divided by

these numbers the result is:

TABLE 9.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 359

This comparison shows the state of the facts more clearly

than the other. The deep water of lake Geneva has over 80%

as much heat as Green lake has, and this difference is a meas¬

ure of the disadvantage in gaining heat which the shallower

lake finds, so far as one observation can indicate this. The

work needed to distribute this smaller quantity through the

water below 20 m., is more than 25% greater than that needed

by Green lake.

By comparisons of this sort it is not difficult to ascertain

whether the limitations of the heat budget of a given lake

are due to area or to depth, and to state, roughly, the

amount of such limitations.

13. OTHER METHODS OF EXPRESSING THE WORK OF THE WIND.

In the preceding pages both heat and work have been

stated in units referred to a unit of area of the surface of the

lake. This is in general the most convenient way of stating

the facts; but other units may be employed if desirable.

If the total quantity of work done on a lake is desired, this

may easily be derived from the results already reached.

These are given in gram-centimeters per square centimeter

of the surface of a lake having a certain area and mean depth.

If this amount is divided by 10 the result will show the num¬

ber of kilogram-meters per square meter of the surface. This

result again multiplied by the area of the lake in square

meters will give the total work done in kilogram-meters. In

the example from lake Mendota we have:

W = 1208.9 g. cm. per sq. cm. of surface.

Dividing by 10 we have W = 120.89 kg. m. per sq. m.

of surface.

But the area of lake =39.4 X 106 sq. m.

Hence, W = 120.89 X (39.4 X 106) kg. m. =4759 X 106 kg. m.

This is the total amount of work represented by the warm¬

ing of the lake from 4° to 19.11° in 1910.

The volume of the lake is 478.4 X 109 kg. and this number

multiplied by 15.11 cal. gives a summer heat-income of

7229 X 109 large calories. It will be noted that the ratio be¬

tween quantity of work and of distributed heat is the same

by this computation as by the first method. It is also obvious

that if work is stated as a total amount for the entire lake,

it is possible to compare the work done in the same lake in

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

different years; but it is not possible to compare work done

on different lakes.

Work for single strata may be stated in similar fashion

with the same advantages and limitations.

Other reference planes may be used than the surface of the

lake and this is necessary in certain cases, as illustrated on a

preceding page.

Work may be stated in ergs instead of g. cm. The result in

g. cm. multiplied by 981 gives work in ergs.

14. EFFECT OF THE PENETRATION OF THE SUN’S RAYS INTO

THE WATER.

In this discussion I have not observed the limitations indi¬

cated in the quotation with which I opened the paper. I

have not confined the discussion of the work of the wind to a

consideration of the work found in that region of the lake

which “lies below the direct influence of the sun.” On the

contrary all computations and discussions have proceeded

on the assumption that all distribution of heat from the sur¬

face down is due to the wind. This method has been followed

for two reasons. First, we have as yet little knowledge of the

quantitative relations of the forces which distribute heat and

clearness of thought on the subject may be furthered by

selecting one agent at a time and analysing its possible pow¬

ers, rather than by attempting a simultaneous analysis of

numerous interrelated forces. The second reason is that the

possible help of the sun in distributing heat is so much more

complex than the wind and is so little known that we find it

difficult to make even a possible quantitative statement

about it.

We know indeed that a large share of the heat found in the

upper meters of the water must be delivered there by the

sun, and therefore, that a considerable part of the work as¬

signed to wind in these strata really belongs to sun. The

larger part of the area MAI in pi. VII, for instance, belongs to

the sun; a smaller share of the corresponding area for the

1 m.-2 m. stratum belongs to the sun; and so on in a ratio

that rapidly declines and becomes zero before the thermo-

cline is reached. We know also that the wind-currents

which convey heat to the deeper water do not take all of it

from the surface but pick up some of it at a greater or smaller

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 361

distance below the surface. Thus the distance is reduced

through which this part of the heat must be carried, and the

work is correspondingly reduced.

In certain directions we have some quantitative knowledge

of the effect of insolation. The amount of heat delivered at

the surface of the lake and that received at a distance below

the surface can be measured. In lake Mendota the average

quantities thus received have been found to be as follows:

At 0.5 m. the sun’s rays have about 24% of the intensity

which they have in the air; at 1 m., 13%; 2 m., 6.5%; 3 m.,

2 % ; 4 m., 1 %. These are average results in the middle of the

day in summer, and are subject to variation according as the

lake contains more or less plankton. The corresponding

figures for other lakes may be higher or lower. In Marl lake

as much as 20% of the energy present in the air may be

found at a depth of one meter. In Turtle lake, which has

very highly colored water, less than 2.5% is found at the

same depth. These numbers are plainly too high if applied

to the whole day and to the entire time of warming. Smaller

percentages would be found in the early and later parts of

the day, and also in cloudy weather, when a larger percentage

of incident energy is reflected.

If we assume that the percentages of penetration indicated

above are constant, it will be possible to compute roughly the

amount of aid that the sun renders. For this computation

we need to know the distribution of heat, computed as shown

in table 5, col. H, and also the amount of heat delivered by the

sun during the period under consideration. In this way the

quantity of heat delivered directly at various depths may be

computed and compared with the number of calories that

passed through the corresponding levels. These results can

be platted as work on the curve of distributed work (pi. VII)

and the area thus deducted from the work-curve will repre¬

sent the aid given by the sun.

If this method is applied to the mean temperature curve

of lake Mendota, the result will show that about 16% of the

work involved in the distribution of the heat may be con¬

tributed directly by the sun. The amount thus contributed

will vary greatly in different parts of the warming season,

being least in April, when the heat is being carried rapidly

to considerable depths, and greatest in June, when the

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

epilimnion is warming rapidly and but little heat goes to

deeper water.

The number given above represents the maximum amount

attributable to the sun. It assumes that the lake retains all

the heat delivered by the sun to depths below the surface,

and that all losses of heat by the lake come from that at or

close to the surface. This assumption is evidently too fa¬

vorable to the share of the sun, especially when we recall

that three-fourths of the incident heat find no place in the

heat budget of the lake. The percentage of the sun’s con¬

tribution should, therefore, be reduced from the figure

given above. As an estimate, it might be placed at 10-12%

rather than 16%; but from the nature of the case this is

merely an estimate.

This result can not be carried directly over to other lakes,

each of which offers its own problem. The sun gives a larger

percentage of aid in a shallow lake; less in a deep one. It

does more for a small lake; less for a large one. The trans¬

parency or opacity of the lake seems to make little, or no,

difference in the heat budget; at least within the limits

found in Wisconsin, where all the water has considerable

color. The temperature curves and the thickness of the

epilimnion seem to have no relation to the color of the water,

such as they plainly have with area and depth. This fact

alone shows the dominance of the wind as the distributing

agent for heat, and the very secondary part which the sun

plays in most lakes.

For the present the subject may be left with these general

statements, and with an additional remark on the uses to

which the work-budget will naturally be put. The work

budget is derived, not from direct observations, but by in¬

ference from the heat budget. It is, therefore, a secondary

matter and of use chiefly in aiding to interpret the heat

budget. The total work budget does not add greatly to the

knowledge obtainable through the heat budget, on which it

depends. Lakes will naturally be compared on the basis of

their heat budgets, which come from direct observations of

temperature, rather than on that of the work budgets de¬

rived from the heat budgets. The value of the work budget

lies chiefly in its application to the deeper strata, first to the

hypolimnion as a whole, and then to its several strata.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

363

It will help to bring, if not a solution, at least a partial un¬

derstanding of the difficult questions of the effect of the depth

and volume of the lower water on its temperature, and so on

the heat budget of the lakes.

15. THERMAL RESISTANCE.

In 1910 (Birge ’10, pp. 989-1004) I discussed the matter

of thermal resistance. The paper gave a formula for de¬

termining the work done in mixing a column of water with

unit base and height, and a uniform temperature gradient.

This is

AT2

W (ergs) =— j2~(D 2 — D i) (Formula II.)

In this A is the area and C the height of the column. D i

is the density of the water at the upper surface of the col¬

umn and D 2 that at the lower surface.

If A and C are assumed as constants — for instance, 1

sq. cm. and 100 cm. — then the thermal resistance will vary

according to the value of D 2 ~ D i, or (to state it in terms of

(1 — D), according to the value of (1 — D i) — (1 — D 2).

For the purposes of limnology it is convenient to assume

the values of A as 1 sq. cm. and of C as 100 cm., to take as the

standard temperature gradient 1° per meter, and as the stand¬

ard unit, the amount of work required to mix such a column

of water whose temperature is 5° at the top and 4° at the

bottom. In this case W = 0.0067 ergs and this value can be

taken as the unit of work done in mixing. But since com¬

parative values rather than absolute quantities are needed,

it is just as well to avoid this computation and take as the

unit of thermal resistance D 4 — D 5, which equals .000008.

Then in any column of water 1 sq. cm. in area and 100 cm.

high with a uniform temperature gradient, the number of

units of thermal resistance is equal to ^~-Pn ; m and n be-

o

ing the temperatures of the water at the ends of the column.

These relative values for differences of 1° are given in the

paper referred to (p. 991 column IV) and are also shown

graphically in pi. LXV (p. 1005).

If this method is applied to the temperature series from

lake Mendota discussed in this paper we have the following

result. Operations are performed with 1 — D, instead of D.

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

TABLE 10

Thermal resistance of Lake Mendota for temperature condition used

in preceding tables.

The numbers in the last column show the thermal re¬

sistance in each meter in terms of the unit stated on the pre¬

ceding page. The results are also shown in fig. 10. In this

figure the values of the thermal resistance are platted in the

middle of the space assigned to each meter. The diagram

shows, even more clearly than the table, the strata of the

lake where thermal resistance is greatest. These are the

upper three meters, where there is a super-heated layer

which will make it hard to get heat from the surface to the

strata below. On the other hand, while the difference in

density is considerable, the decline of temperature is not

great, (pi. II) The loss of relatively few calories would

permit the easy transfer of heat through the epilimnion

from surface to thermocline.

The situation at the thermocline is very different. Here is

a sudden and great rise of resistance, so great that only very

strong winds can force warmed water into the cooler strata,

even those at the top of the thermocline. When therefore

such a fully developed thermocline has appeared it offers a

very effective resistance to the direct influence of the wind.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 365

Thus the temperature gradient in the thermocline is so

steep that very little mixture takes place there except when

the wind is exceptionally violent; and when the wind is

strong, so that most of the epilimnion is pushed to one side of

the lake, this process compresses the thermocline and greatly

increases the temperature gradient at the very place where

the currents set up by the wind are most vigorous. The same

statement may be made of oscillations, like the temperature

seiche. These are robbed of much of their possible effect in

warming the lake by the fact that each of their movements

which tends to mix the water at the junction of epilimnion

and thermocline increases also the thermal resistance to

mixture in that stratum.

Thus much of the energy of the wind is lost so far as con¬

cerns its effect in distributing heat. The temperature gradient

in the thermocline acts somewhat like a spring resisting the

action of the wind. It is compressed when the wind pushes

harder; it releases when the wind dies down; but in either

case its resistance is proportioned to the vigor of the pressure

on it, and it is almost equally effective at all times in prevent¬

ing mixture. Hence there are found only small results, or even

none that are measurable, from violent winds in summer, un¬

less these are accompanied by a decided fall of temperature.

The distribution of heat below the thermocline depends on

currents indirectly occasioned by the wind, and therefore

relatively feeble under ordinary conditions. They operate,

however, on water which has a decreasing thermal gradient

and therefore are in position to effect some mixture. The

discussion of this matter, however, does not belong in this

paper.

16. THE “STABILITY55 OF A LAKE.

In 1915 Professor Wilhelm Schmidt of Vienna published a

very thoughtful and suggestive paper entitled “Uber den

Energiegehalt der Seen” (Schmidt T5). In this he discussed

a subject nearly related to that of the present paper, under

the head of the stability of a lake. The meaning of this

may be stated as follows: A lake in a homothermous condi¬

tion is in a condition of indifferent equilibrium; if its upper

strata are warmed the equilibrium becomes proportionally

stable. The amount of this stability may be measured by the

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.

amount of work needed to complete the distribution of heat

through the lake and so to bring the lake again to a condition

of uniform temperature and indifferent equilibrium. The

amount of this work may be expressed in kilogram-meters

for the total volume of the lake or in the amount of the dis¬

placement of the center of gravity of the lake, which this

amount of work would effect. Problems relating to the tem¬

perature seiche, and others as well, may be discussed in the

light thrown on them by the stability thus ascertained.

Schmidt’s point of view is very different from mine. He

starts with a certain condition of heat (and therefore of

density) and desires to follow out the further effects of this

condition. I ask how much work was required to bring about

that condition of temperature. He determines the stability

and sees in this an important factor in advancing our knowl¬

edge of movements of the water such as the temperature

seiche. I attempt to determine the work done in distribut¬

ing heat; and I hope, by solving this problem, to get more

light on the relation of the area, depth, and form of lakes to

their heat budget.

Schmidt’s problem begins where the problem ends which is

discussed in the present paper. He considers not the amount

of work needed to produce the stability (and this is another

way of stating my problem) but the amount necessary to

continue the distribution of heat until an indifferent equili¬

brium again results.

It is not necessary here to discuss Schmidt’s methods in

detail. Their mathematical theory is very skilfully worked

out and rests on the calculus. Practically the problems are

solved graphically and the methods of constructing the dia¬

grams are given. These are also excellent, and I will apply

them to the case of lake Mendota which has already been

discussed, in order to show more clearly the relation of the

methods and of the results obtained.

Since the result is to be stated in terms of the effect on the

center of gravity, the position of the level is determined in

which this lies, and the moment of each stratum above this

plane and below it is computed. The horizontal lines of fig.

9 show the result for lake Mendota, computed by 1 m. in¬

tervals. The center of gravity (CG) lies at 8.35 m. The ver¬

tical distance between the several meter lines of the diagram

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 367

is proportional to the moment of each one-meter stratum of

the lake. On this diagram are platted the several values of

1 — D for the temperature condition found. The area to the

left of the curve A A is proportional to the amount of work

needed to overthrow the stability. That part which lies

above C G, the center of gravity, is to be taken as positive

and that below as negative. The areas may be measured by

a planimeter and the quantity of energy thus determined.

This quantity will be expressed in kilogram-meters and if

the result is divided by the volume of the lake expressed in

liters the quotient will equal the displacement of the center

of gravity in meters. In this case the amount of work done

above the center of gravity is 2867.9 X 106 kg. m. and that

below the center of gravity is 837.1 XlO6 kg. m. Subtracting

the second result from the first, we have 2030.8 XlO6 kg. m.

as the amount of work necessary to restore the lake to a

condition of indifferent equilibrium.

The volume of the lake is 478000 XlO6 liters. The measure of

the stability is therefore S = i G~6 = 0-425 cm, ; *s

to say, the work of restoring the lake to a condition of in¬

different equilibrium at the higher temperature is equal to

that of raising the weight of the lake through a distance of

0.425 cm.

17. COMPARISON OF SCHMIDT’S RESULTS WITH THOSE REACHED

THE PRECEDING PAPER.

The above result can be stated in terms similar to those

which I have employed in this paper, in gram-centimeters

per square centimeter of the area of the lake, and by so

doing the relation of Schmidt’s method and mine will be

made apparent. The mean depth of the lake is 12.1 m. and

a column of water with this height and a base of 1 sq. cm.

weighs 1210 g. The work necessary to restore indifferent

equilibrium would raise all of these columns through a dis¬

tance of 0.425 cm., involving work to the amount of 514.25 g.

cm. on each column (1210x0.425).

This result may be called the complement of that reached

by me, as the following considerations will show. A formula

may be given from which may be computed the amount of

work necessary to cause a lake to pass from a condition of

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

indifferent equilibrium at 4° (D =1) to a similar condition at

a higher temperature and a smaller density.

This formula* is

W = (CG) X (RT) X (1 — Dm). (Formula III.)

In this formula, CG equals the distance from the surface

of the lake to the plane in which is found the center of gravity

of the lake.

RT is in this case the mean depth of the lake.

1 — Dm is the mean value of 1 — D for the lake at the higher

temperature conditions that have been developed.

This formula means that the work involved in the pro¬

cess described is that necessary to move a weight equal to

(1 — D) multiplied by the mean depth of the lake, through a

distance equal to that of the center of gravity from the sur¬

face of the lake.

The value of 1 — Dm for lake Mendota in the temperature

conditions used in former examples is 0.001705.

The value of CG is 835 cm.; of RT 1210 cm., which for a

column 1 cm. square is equal in weight to the same number of

grams.

Therefore W =835x1210x0.001705 = 1722.65 g. cm. per

sq. cm. of the surface of the lake.

But it has been already shown (p. 349) that the work nec¬

essary to produce the temperature condition here discussed

is 1209.18 g. cm. The work necessary to complete the dis¬

tribution of the heat, according to Schmidt’s method, is

514.25 g. cm. (p. 367). The sum of these is 1723.41 g. cm., a

result which checks quite accurately with that given above.

If therefore one desires to know the stability of a lake for

which he has computed the work necessary to bring its tem¬

perature into a certain condition, the result may be derived

as above.

It should be noted that the value of (CG) X (RT) is ap¬

proximately equal to the sum of the factors given in table 1,

col. G for RTxZ. Conversely, the position of CG may be

derived from the formula

CG = 2(RTXZ)^

*This formula has been given to me by Professor G. S. Slichter, who also

pointed out the relation here stated between my results and those of

Schmidt.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 369

In this formula 2 (RT X Z) is the sum of the products in

table 1, column G. A is the area of the lake and V its volume.

The result thus obtained will be only approximately correct

and will need adjustment if accurate computations are to be

made by Schmidt’s method.

The value for the stability thus obtained may readily be

converted into other units, such as the displacement of the

center of gravity, or the total amount of work in kg. m.

Attention is again directed to the point, that in formula

III the value of 1 — D for the mean temperature of the lake

can not be used instead of the mean value of 1 ~ D (cf. p. 347).

It is also apparent that the value of the total work, as

computed in this paper, may be called the complement of the

results obtained by Schmidt, and may be derived from his

results in the same way that his results may be derived from

mine. The choice of methods is, however, by no means a

matter of indifference. So far as total results go they reach

the same conclusions and involve about equally tedious com¬

putations. They lend themselves equally well to graphical

methods. But the case is different when one desires to examine

the results for single strata of the lake or to compare strata in

different lakes. In my method the datum plane, from which all

computations start, is the surface of the lake; in Schmidt’s

method the datum plane is that of the center of gravity. I

use the surface to which the energy of the wind is directly

applied and that from which the distribution of heat starts in

fact. It is also the surface which is a chief factor in any dis¬

cussion that involves other surfaces and volumes of the lake.

We must start from this surface for instance, in order to

determine the position of the center of gravity. My method

therefore seems to be the more simple and direct one. The

results which Schmidt reaches can readily be obtained by it,

and others as well which may be used in the discussion of a

wider range of problems.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

371

DIAGRAMS.

The following diagrams show in graphic form the chief

results of this paper. Each figure has a somewhat full ex¬

planation and this need not be repeated in the text. In gen¬

eral it may be said that graphic methods, when they are

applicable, are quite as accurate as computation by such

methods as those which I have employed. Undoubtedly

the curve of 1 — D in pi. VI can be drawn so that measurement

will give more accurate results than computation by 1 m.

intervals. If total results only are wanted the graphic method

is also about as rapid as computation. But the gain in accu¬

racy is slight at best, and the computation is in all cases

more accurate than the observations on which it is based, and

far more accurate than the assumptions which accompany

the observations.

If the work done for or in the single strata is desired the

results can be obtained much more quickly by computation

than from diagrams. The measurement of numerous small

areas consumes much time with little or no corresponding

gain in accuracy.

It will be noted that the longest computation — that by

which the curve of distributed work is derived from the direct

curve, can not be mechanically performed.

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Plate I. Diagram for determining RT for the several one-meter

strata of lake Mendota (after Schmidt ’15, fig. L). The volume of

the lake below any level whose volume has been computed, is

platted on the proper line and the points thus determined are

joined by a curve. In this case the points are at 0, 3, 5, 10, 15 and

20 m. Horizontal lines are then drawn for each meter of depth.

From the intersection of these lines with the curve perpendiculars

are drawn to the scale at the bottom. Then the distances on the

scale, 0-1, etc. are proportional to the reduced thickness of the several

one-meter strata. Their numerical value may be ascertained by meas¬

uring these distances, and computing their value as percentages of

In this case the entire length

of the scale corresponds to a mean depth of 12.1 m. Since, how¬

ever, the volumes of the several strata are likely to be needed for

other purposes, it is quite as easy to determine these from the

diagram and ascertain RT directly by using the formula

M

I

2

3

*

5

6

7

e

9

10

II

12

13

J4

15

16

II

16

19

20

21

22

23

24

Af.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

373

Plate I

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , antf Letters.

Plate II. Temperature curve and density curve of lake Mendota.

This is the mean of the daily observations Aug. 9-15, 1910. Ordi¬

nates represent depth and abscissas temperature or the value of

1 — D. The scale for 1 — D is 100 times as great as for temperature

and its zero starts at 4°. For purposes of comparison 4° should also

be the starting point of temperature and loss of density should be

compared with increase of heat as measured from that point. It

is more convenient to treat 1 — D as a whole number, except in

multiplying and to think of it as representing loss of weight —

milligrams per liter, for instance; In this case a gain of 20° above

4° involves a loss of 2677 points in density, while a similar gain of

10° or half as much heat, reduces the density less than one-third

as much, 729 points.

It is this fact which makes it worth while to make a study of the

work involved in distributing heat. If the density varied

directly as the heat, the results of a change of density would not

differ from those of a change of heat.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

375

j-D O 0.000400 600 1200 1600 2000 2&00 2800

Plate II

376

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Plate III. Temperature and 1 — D, Beasley Lake, Aug. 31, 1900.

An extreme case of rapid decline from a high temperature, with

corresponding difference between the temperature curve and the

density curve. See explanation of Plate II

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake. 377

Plate IV

Plate IV. Part of Plate V on a larger scale. (See p. 347.)

A = mean temperature, 19.11°; A'=value 1 — D for mean tempera¬

ture, 0.001590; B'=mean value 1 — D, 0.001705; B = temperature

corresponding to 0.001705, 19.68°.

378

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Plate V. Quantitative curves of heat and density, Mendota.

The scale of abscissas is the same as in fig. 2. The vertical divisions

correspond to the RT scale shown in fig. 1. One horizontal space

equals two calories or 200 density points. One vertical space on

the scale equals 100. The horizontal lines for this scale are not

drawn for fear of confusion with the meter lines, which are neces¬

sary for platting and measuring. In practice the diagram would

be drawn on coordinate paper. The area between the line for 4°

and the curve of temperature or density respectively may be

measured with a planimeter. The total gain of heat and loss of

density can be thus determined, and from these results the mean

temperature and the mean density.

The area bounded by any two meter-lines, the 4° line, and the

curve, will give the amount of heat or loss of density in any given

meter.

The points are marked on the curves which correspond to mean

temperature and mean density.

So far as the temperature curve is concerned, pi. V. corresponds

to figs. 2 and 3, in my paper on heat budgets. (Birge *15, p. 22,

23.)

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake ,

379

Plate V

380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Plate VI. Diagram of work, lake Mendota, Aug. 1910. This

diagram corresponds to the calories and loss of density shown in

pi. V and table 1. In this diagram the horizontal lines represent

the meters, and the distances between them represent the values of

RTXZ. The scale is placed beside the diagram and lines for it

are not drawn, so as to avoid confusion. In a working diagram

coordinate paper would be used. One space on the vertical scale

equals 50,000 g. cm. One space on the horizontal scale equals

0.0004. The values of 1 -D are platted on the meter-lines. The

area enclosed by the density curve may be measured with a plani-

meter, and the value of W ascertained. The result will be given in

g. cm. per sq. cm. of the surface of the lake. By similar measure¬

ment the value of W for any single meter may be ascertained.

The broken line representing 1 -D may be replaced by a smooth

curve if this is thought advisable.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake ,

381

Plate VI

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Plate VII. Direct curve of work and curve of distributed work.

The full line, A B D D, is the direct curve. To obtain this the

value of W for each meter is taken from table 1 and is platted in

the middle of the space assigned to the meter. These points are

then connected by a curve. Each horizontal space equals 10 g.

cm. and each vertical space equals 1. Then the area MA 1 gives

the value of W for the stratum 0 m.-l m.; 1 AB 2 gives the value

of W for the lm.-2 m. stratum, etc. The area enclosed by the entire

curve will give the total value of W. This curve shows the work

done in behalf of each stratum.

The broken line, RR, gives the curve of distributed work,

showing the work done in each stratum. It shows graphically

the results given in table 5 col. F. The total area enclosed by the

curve is the same as that of the direct curve. The dotted area in

the 1 m.-2 m. stratum shows the amount of work done in that

stratum in warming it (table 5 col. E). The remainder of the

area 1 CD 2 shows the amount of work done in it in order to carry

heat to deeper strata (col. D).

The numbers from which the curves are platted are given in g.

cm. per sq. cm. of the surface of the lake. They can be converted

into g. cm. per sq. cm. of the area at any depth and the results

would be similar to those shown in pi. 8.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

383

4

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Plate VIII. Summation and subtraction curves of calories and

work; summer heat-income of lake Mendota. Horizontal

scale for calories ten times that for work. Summation curves in

broken lines; subtraction curves in full lines. The summation

curve for calories is AA: that for work is AA'. The value at the

intersection of any meter-line with the work-curve shows the

amount of energy expended in distributing through the water above

the meter-line, the amount of heat indicated at the intersection of

the same meter-line with the heat-curve. For instance, a depth

of 5 m. about 745 g. cm. of work has been done to distribute in

the water above that depth about 8150 cal. In both cases the

numbers refer to sq. cm. of the surface of the lake. At 10 m. the

amount of work expended is increased to nearly 1065 g. cm. and

13800 cal. have been left behind. Thus 5650 cal. have been brought

from the surface into the 5 m.-lO m. stratum and distributed

through it by an expenditure of 325 g. cm.

It is noticeable that in the upper meters heat and work increase

together and at about the same rate; but as depth increases the

curves diverge and in the lower and cooler water the number of

calories increases much more rapidly than the number of gram-

centimeters of work needed to distribute it. This means that the

decline of thermal resistance decreases work more rapidly than

the increase of depth adds to it. The deep lake therefore calls for

less work in proportion to gains of heat, than does the shallower

lake.

The subtraction curve for work is BB; that for calories is DD.

These curves show at the surface, for example, that about 1210

g. cm. of work per sq. cm. of the lake’s surface were required to

distribute 18370 cal. per sq. cm. into the water of the lake; that

at the depth of 5 m. about 465 g. cm. were left to distribute about

10300 cal. through the water below 5 m.

The dotted lines GG and EE show the amount of work and heat

at any given depth as referred, not to the area of the lake’s surface,

but to the area at that depth. Thus the main curves BB, DD,

show that at the depth of 10 m. there are left about 145 g. cm.

and 4600 cal. per sq. cm. of the lake’s surface. But since the area

of the lake at 10 m. is 61% of that at the surface, these results are

divided by 0.61. The quotients show that there were brought to a

depth of 10 m. nearly 7600 cal. for each sq. cm. of the area of the

lake at that depth and there were similarly about 240 g. cm. of

work available for its distribution. Similar computations are made

for various points along the curves; the results are platted and

connected by the dotted lines. This change in the datum plane is

necessary if similar strata in different lakes are to be compared.

See p. 357.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake .

385

Cal. 2000 4000

6000

600

6000

800

1000 12000

100 1200

Plate VIII

386

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Plate IX. Diagram showing stability curve of Lake Mendota.

After Schmidt ’15, p. 21. fig. 3. The vertical distance between the

meter lines indicates the moment of the one-meter strata with

reference to the plane of the center of gravity (CG). One hori¬

zontal space indicates 0.0004 in the value of 1— D. One space on

the vertical scale equals 125000 XlO6 kg.m. The lines correspond¬

ing to this scale have not been drawn across the diagram. The

values of 1— D are platted on the meter lines and the points thus

ascertained joined by a curve A A. The area above CG and that

below it are measured with a planimeter, and from the areas is

determined the number of kg. m. represented by each. The

difference between these sums shows the amount of work necessary

to restore indifferent equilibrium at a density equal to the mean

density of the lake in the condition shown by the diagram. See

p. 366.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake,

387

Plate IX

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Plate X. Thermal resistance. Lake Mendota, Aug. 1915. The

diagram shows the thermal resistance to mixture presented by

lake Mendota under the temperature conditions discussed in other

diagrams and tables. The vertical spaces represent depth: each

horizontal space represents five units of thermal resistance as

defined on p. 363. The length of the heavy black line shows the

number of such units that are found in the one-meter stratum

within which it lies.

Note the concentration of resistance in the thermocline, and to

a less degree at the surface. Note also that the currents directly

caused by wind have to meet an increasing resistance at the thermo¬

cline with currents that are declining in energy. Below the thermo¬

cline the indirectly caused currents are operating on water whose

resistance is decreasing as the depth increases.

M

3

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

8

9

10

11

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

19

20

21

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake.

389

70

20

30

40

50

60

70

Plate X

390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

LITERATURE CITED.

Birge ’97. Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota, II. The

Crustacea of the plankton, July, 1894-Dec., 1896. E.

A. Birge. Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters, Yol. XI, pp. 274-448. Madison, 1897.

Birge TO. An unregarded factor in lake temperatures.

E. A. Birge. Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sciences. Vol. XVI,

pp. 989-1004. Madison, 1910.

Birge T5. The heat budgets of American and European

lakes. E. A. Birge. Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sciences.

Vol. XVIII, part I, pp. 1-47. Madison, 1915.

Birge and Juday T4. A limnological study of the Finger

Lakes of New York. E. A. Birge and C. Juday. Bull.

Bureau of Fisheries. Vol. XXXII, 1912, pp. 526-610.

Washington, D. C., 1914.

Juday T4. The inland lakes of Wisconsin. Hydrography and

Morphometry. Chancey Juday. Bull. Wis. Geol. and

Nat. Hist. Survey, No. XXVII, Madison, 1914.

Schmidt T5. Uber die Energiegehalt der Seen. Wilhelm

Schmidt. Int. Rev. der Gesamten Hydrobiologie und

Hydrographie. Vol. VII, pp. 1-25. Leipzig, 1915.

Whipple ?95. Some observations on the temperature of

surface waters, etc. G. C. Whipple. Journal N. E.

Water Works Association. Vol. IX, pp. 202-222. Boston,

1895.

Birge — Work of Wind in Warming a Lake ,

391

APPENDIX.

TABLE 11.

Value of 1.000,000— D, 0° to 27° G.

(From Landolt and Bornstein.)

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES OF PHOLIOTA, STRO-

PHARIA AND HYPHOLOMA IN THE RE¬

GION OF THE GREAT LAKES

V

Edward T. Harper

Since publishing the species of Pholiota, Stropharia and

Hypholoma in Vol. XVII of these Transactions I have se¬

cured photographs of a number of additional forms which

are shown in the plates accompanying this article. They

belong to the Pholiota dura-praecox, aegerita and curvipes

groups, the Stropharia stercoraria-semiglobata group and

the Hypholoma sublateritium, velutinum and appendicula-

tum-candolleanum groups. I also give a photograph of

Hypholoma hydrophilum which belongs to the Psilocybe

spadicea group.

These are good examples of the groups in the Agaricaceae

and I take the opportunity to describe them more in detail

and to explain the method of grouping I have followed and

the names chosen for the groups.

The agarics in this region fall naturally into groups. The

forms in a group resemble each other closely but the groups

are quite distinct. Most groups contain one or more common

and wide spread species as well as rare and local forms. If

we mention only those forms which have been named as

species there are in the Pholiota dura-praecox group the

common species Pholiota dura and Pholiota praecox and the

rare Pholiota hoWeana, vermiflua, temnophylla, duroides,

etc. In the Stropharia stercoraria-semiglobata group are

the rare forms Stropharia umbonatescens, siccipes, siccipes

var. radicata, etc. In the Hypholoma velutinum group are

Hypholoma rugocephalum and Hypholoma boughtoni.

In the Hypholoma appendiculatum-candolleanum group a

wealth of forms have been named, among them Hypholoma

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 393

incertum, cutifractum, madiodiscum, hymenocephalum, floc-

culentum, longipes, Stropharia irregularis, longistriata, etc.

The situation in Europe is the same as here. In each of the

groups I have mentioned the well known species are the

same. Pholiota dura, praecox, aegerita and curvipes, Stro¬

pharia stercoraria and semiglobata and Hypholoma appendi-

culatum, candolleanum, sublateritium and velutinum are

all reported as common species in the floras of the British

Isles, France, Germany, Bavaria, etc. There are also num¬

erous more local forms in the same groups in each flora.

For example in the floras of the British Isles Hypholoma

lanaripes, appendiculatum, var. lanatum, leucotephrum,

egenulum and piluliforme are given in the appendicula-

tum-candolleanum group. It is difficult to determine the

relationship of many of these forms to those listed in the

same group from France or described by Britzelmayr from

Bavaria and still more difficult to determine their connec¬

tion with the minor forms in the group in this country.

Similar difficulties arise in the study of each group. What is

the relation of Pholiota sphaleromorpha to Pholiota how-

eana or duroides?. Of Stropharia longistriata to Stropharia

spintrigera? etc. Specific descriptions in the traditional

form do not enable us to answer these questions and yet

these questions are of the highest significance if the varia¬

tions and geographical relations of the plants are to be

understood. What is the use of continuing to write descrip¬

tions until these questions are answered? It only makes the

problem more complex.

A concrete example of the need of grouping the agarics

is before me as I write. I have just collected a species of

Lepiota about one inch broad and two inches high. The

pileus is floccose, smooth and lemon yellow on the umbo and

striate plicate on the margin. The gills are broadly free.

The stem is white and somewhat bulbous with a median

annulus. It evidently belongs among the smaller forms of the

Lepiota cepaestipes group. A look through the literature

shows that a large number of similar forms have been de¬

scribed by European mycologists and in this country Peck

has described several, Morgan two and Clements two. The

species in this country are said to be known only from the

single collections. That they all belong to one group is

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

shown by the spores which measure about 3 — 4x5 — 7/x in

each species. My plants do not exactly agree with any of

these descriptions. The authors of the species do not help

for the descriptions are written independently and agree¬

ments and differences are not noted.

As a step in the right direction I have endeavored to

place the forms in their natural groups regardless of the

characters used to distinguish genera or make artificial

keys, to name the groups after their most common and wide

spread representatives and to compare the groups with cor¬

responding groups in Europe and other regions.

1. Emphasis must be laid on plylogenetic rather than

fluctuating differences in recognizing the natural groups.

Spore characters are generally considered among the most

diagnostic features and in all the groups here considered

the spores in the different forms are alike and characteristic.

This does not, however, result in uniting forms unlike in

general appearance. It will be long before phylogenetic

relationship can be proved in all cases among the agarics

but it is probable that natural groups which agree in the

fruiting bodies, the character of the hyphae or tissue and the

general structure are in most cases phylogenetic. The differ¬

ences in shape, size, color and surface can often be seen to

be due to accidental causes. The sudden changes or

mutations which plants undergo the causes of which are as

yet little understood make the grouping of forms still more

essential. In some cases the supposed boundaries of a species

are overstepped in a single generation. The groups should

be broad enough to include the mutants.

The recent careful study of. the structure and develop¬

ment of the agarics by Fayod, Atkinson, Lavine, Zeller and

others will undoubtedly lead to a better understanding of the

natural groups. In several of the groups here illustrated I

have given a description of the structure as far as it is shown

in the photographs.

2. Naming the groups after their most common repre¬

sentative helps in the determination of the forms and in

understanding the relation between them. It is also the logi¬

cal carrying out of the natural system of classification. It

substitutes a plant fof a verbal description and aims at a

comparison of varieties. The so-called identity of species is

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 395

always approximate for no two plants are alike in all par¬

ticulars.

The best known names have historical significance also.

They usually represent the European form of the group which

was first studied. They are also general and inclusive and well

fitted to represent groups. New species are usually made by

dividing groups previously considered wholes. It does not

appear that a single species of group value has been dis¬

covered in this region in the genera Pholiota, Stropharia or

Hypholoma. The same is true in the genus Clitocybe and

probably in most other genera of Agarics. Some species in¬

cluded even more than one group as the forms are recognized

today. Dr. Murrill in Mycologia for May, 1915, calls

attention to the fact that Hypholoma lacrimabundum and

Hypholoma velutinum are historically one species.

It is better to name the groups after these well known and

inclusive species than to give them special generic names.

Generic names would be unnecessarily multiplied. Generic

names also fail to secure the advantages mentioned. Fur¬

thermore if the groups are considered generic unrelated forms

the groups of which have not yet been determined must be in¬

cluded in some of them at least. It is better to preserve the

old large genera based on a few characters which the groups

possess in common. These genera must always be more or

less artificial and plants belonging in different genera will

sometimes be found in the same group. The only entirely

natural division is the phylogenetic group.

3. The comparison of the groups with those of different

regions or habitats is the most fruitful means of understand¬

ing a local flora. The group is the proper unit of comparison.

It is significant that the species chosen as names for the

groups in our region are reported in most of the floras of

Europe and are the common species there. This does not

prove that the species do not vary in the different regions

however. Descriptions in their present form are not suffi¬

cient to settle that question. In order to do so they should

be written from the comparative standpoint and show the

relation of the forms described to their nearest relatives in

other countries. Even in the few groups here studied

significant facts appear as soon as the comparative method

is followed. Our common “brick top” is Hypholoma sub-

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

lateritium while the form on the Pacific coast is Hypholoma

fasciculare. Hypholoma perplexum is the most usual variety

here while Hypholoma epixanthum is found in Europe.

The luxuriant annulate form of Hypholoma appendiculatum

occurs also on the Pacific coast and its corresponding

European form is apparently Stropharia spintrigera growing

on rotton logs, etc. The value of the study of a local

flora is seen in this connection. Work like that of Dr.

Peck in New York State and Britzelmayr following Schaeffer

in Bavaria is the necessary basis for comparative study.

The suggestions given by Peck and Britzelmayr as to the

relationships of the new forms they describe are the most

valuable part of their work. The comparative point of view

should be kept constantly in mind in studying a local flora.

THE PHOLIOTA PRAECOX-DURA GROUP

1. Pholiota dura (Bolt.) Typical form. Pis. XI-XIII

AB.

Typical forms of Pholiota dura were abundant in a garden

at Geneseo, Ills., in June, 1915. The photographs in pis.

XI-XIII AB were taken from these specimens. The char¬

acteristic features of the form are: the habitat in fields and

gardens, the regularly convex pileus with incurved margin

and areolately cracked surface, the thick white flesh, the

short thick stem enlarged upward and furnished with abund¬

ant myceloid rootlets at the base, the thick horizontal veil

which tears irregularly and leaves a lacerate annulus close to

the apex of the stem, the large rusty brown spores 6 — 8 x 11 —

14m.

These characters are emphasized in the European descrip¬

tions of the species so that this appears to be the typical

form though the spores are given in the Sylloge as 5 — 6 X 8

— 9ju. Britzelmayr gives 4 — 7x8 — 10 y. Photographs of

plants collected near Chicago by Dr. Moffatt agree with

these in all respects.

2. Form with the veil appendiculate. PI. XIII CD.

The photograph shows a form of Pholiota dura with the

veil wholly appendiculate as in the genus Hypholoma. The

plants grew in a hop field at Sumner, Wash. The habitat,

general appearance, solid flesh, cracked pileus, colors and

large spores, 5 — 7x11 — 13 y, shaped exactly like those of

PHOLIOTA DURA (BOLT.)

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XI

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

PHOLIOTA DURA (BOLT.)

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XII

8

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XIII

PHOLIOT A DURA (BOLT.)

A B Sections

C D Form with appendiculate veil

harper-pholiota

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

BULL.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

PLATE XIV

0

D

TJ

X

0

o

H

>

TJ

30

>

m

o

0

X

TJ

m

30

0)

>

00

TJ

X

0

r

0

H

>

(/)

u

1

>

r

m

x

0

2

0

X

>

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 397

typical Pholiota dura, show that they belong to this group.

They differ from the usual forms in the long equal stems

sometimes curved at the base and the wholly appendiculate

veil the remnants of which hang in broad triangular patches

from the margin of the pileus. The pileus is smooth, convex,

whitish or dirty cream color and areolately cracked as in the

typical forms.

3. Pholiota praecox (Pers.). Typical form. PI. XIV

CD.

The plants shown here are more typical Pholiota praecox

than those illustrated in Vol. XVII., pi. XXVII. The ab¬

sence of an annulus in those plants is a character of Pholiota

praecox var. minor though the plants are large for that form.

The plants photographed here differ from typical Pholiota

dura in the habitat in grassy places, the lighter colors, the

smooth not areolately cracked pileus, the long slender nearly

equal stems and the more scanty annulus. The spores

measure 6 — 8x10 — 13 /x. Sylloge gives 6 — 7x8 — 13. They

are nearly the same size and shape as those of Pholiota dura.

4. Form resembling Pholiota sphaleromorpha Bull. PI.

XIV AB.

The plants shown in this plate were collected and photo¬

graphed by Mr. Burtt Leeper at Salem, Ohio, in June.

They grew on the ground in woods. The spores, shape, gen¬

eral appearance, colors, solid white flesh and smooth areo¬

lately cracked pileus show that they belong to the Pholiota

praecox-dura group. The spores are a little smaller than those

of the plants considered typical Pholiota praecox and Pho¬

liota dura above. They measure 4 — 6x8 — 10 /x. The

stems are enlarged below and the annulus is more distant

and broadly membranous. The shape of the stem and the

annulus agree with the description of Pholiota sphalero¬

morpha Bull, which is considered a variety of Pholiota prae¬

cox by French writers. The photograph of Leeper’s plants

agrees well with Bulliard’s figure t. 540. The plants differ

from the description of Pholiota sphaleromorpha in the

sinuate decurrent instead of “arcuate decurrent” gills and in

the whitish gray instead of “yellowish” pileus. The follow¬

ing is a description of Leeper’s plants:

Pileus convex when young becoming expanded and de¬

pressed in the center, fleshy, margin incurved, somewhat

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

wavy, areolately cracking in the center, grayish. Flesh

firm, white. Lamellae sinuate with a decurrent tooth, not

crowded, color of burnt umber. Stem somewhat flexuous,

swollen at the base, tapering upwards, whitish pruinose,

solid becoming hollow, striate at the apex. Annulus distant,

membranous, persistent. Spores ferruginous brown, 4 — 6 X 8

—10/a.

In woods. On ground rich in rotten wood. June.

Notes 1. The plants described and illustrated in Vol. XVII

p. 477 and pi. XXVI which I doubtfully referred to Pholiota

howeana Pk. have the more distant membranous annulus and

stem enlarged below of Pholiota sphaleromorpha. The darker

yellowish tint of the pileus agrees better with Pholiota sphaler¬

omorpha than the gray of Leeper’s plants. My field notes sug¬

gested that the plants were related to Pholiota praecox. There

is little difference between Peck’s description of Pholiota howeana

and the description of Pholiota sphaleromorpha. Dr. Peck him¬

self allowed considerable variation in this species. I have plants

sent to me by Simon Davis which were indentified by Peck as

Pholiota howeana but which were smaller, tougher and with larger

spores than his description of Pholiota howeana calls for, 5 — 6X10

— 12 yu instead of 5 — 6X8 — 10 yu. The spores of my plants were

4 — 5X8 — 9 yu and of Leeper’s 4 — 6X8 — 10 yu. There is no doubt

that all of them are close together in the Pholiota praecox-dura

group.

2. The plants described and illustrated in Vol. XVII p. 480

and pi. XXIX are not as typical Pholiota dura as those shown here

in pi. XL As was remarked the plants there described had the

pileus thinner and more expanded with the surface very little

cracked. The stem also was more slender and the annulus more

perfect and entire. The spores were smaller 4 — 6 X 7 — 9 /jl. These

peculiarities are those of Pholiota duroides Pk. which is decribed

in N. Y. State, Mus. Bull. 122, pp. 148-149 from plants collected

by G. E. Morris in Mass. Peck’s description reads:

“Pileus thin, convex becoming nearly plane, glabrous or slightly

rimose squamose in the center, varying in color from creamy

white to ochraceous buff either wholly or in the center only.

Flesh white. Taste mild. Lamellae thin, close, narrow, adnexed

sometimes broadly sinuate and having a decurrent tooth, whitish

becoming brown or rusty brown. Stem equal or nearly so, stuffed

or hollow, glabrous, whitish, the annulus thick and cottony,

often lacerated and evanescent, white. Spores broadly elliptic

4 — 5 X 6 — 7 yu.

Pileus 1 — 2 inches broad. Stem 1 — 2 inches long, 2 — 4 lines

thick.

Rocky ground. August and September.

It is similar to Pholiota dura (Bolt.) Fr. but may be separated

from it by its different colors, softer substance and especially

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 399

by its smaller spores. These are more brown than the spores of

Pholiota praecox Pers. and make it doubtful whether the species

would not better be placed in the genus Stropharia.”

SYNOPSIS OF THE FORMS ILLUSTRATED

1. Typical Pholiota dura . Pis. XI-XIIIAB

2. Plants with thinner, more expanded and less cracked

pileus and smaller spores. Similar to Pholiota

duroides Pk . Yol. XVII, PI. XXIX.

3. Plants with long nearly equal stems and appendicu-

late veil . PL XIIICD.

4. Typical Pholiota praecox . PI. XI VCD.

5. Plants with appendiculate veil. Similar to Pholiota

praecox, var minor. Also a form with the pileus

umbonate . ....VoL XVII, PI. XXVII.

6. Plants with stems enlarged below and distant annu¬

lus. Similar to Pholiota sphaleromorpha Bull, and

Pholiota howeana Pk .

. PI. XIVAB and Vol. XVII, pi. XXVI.

7. Autumn plants like Pholiota praecox but with the

pileus cracking. Pholiota vermiflua Pk.

Vol. XVII, pi. XXVIII, C— F.

8. Plants with the lamellae obliquely truncate next the

stem. Pholiota temnophylla Pk.

Vol. XVII, pi. XXXIIIA.

Other forms reported from the United States are mentioned

in Vol. XVII, pp. 477-481. Further study emphasizes the

remark on page 481 regarding the variability of plants in this

group.

Whether the variation in the group is the same in Europe

as in the United States or not we have not the data to decide

fully. The two species Pholiota praecox and Pholiota dura

are reported in most European floras. Var. minor is reported

from the British Isles and Bavaria. Pholiota sphalero¬

morpha is reported from France, Germany and Bavaria.

Pholiota gibberosa Fr. is a small fragile form with free

gills reported from Germany but so far as I am aware has

not been found in this country.

6

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANTS IN THE GROUP

The photographs of Pholiota dura in pis. XI-XIII AB show

the structure of the plants in the Pholiota praecox-dura

group. I will point out several of the characteristic features.

a. The white floccose universal veil or primordial cuticle

as Fayod calls it which covered the young carpophore dis¬

appears early from the pileus and stem leaving only a few

small patches around the margin of the pileus and scattered

over the stem, PI. XI A.

b. The part of this covering usually called the partial

veil which lies between the stem and the gills and covers

the gill chambers in the young plant is well developed and

more persistent. The expansion of the pileus strips it upward

from the surface of the stem and its under surface appears as

in PI. XII B. At this stage it is attached to the apex of the

stem and the margin of the pileus but its upper surface has

torn from the edges of the gills and sagged down leaving an

annular gill cavity as seen in pi. XII A. As the pileus con¬

tinues to expand the veil is ruptured. The break usually

takes place near the margin of the pileus leaving an annulus

on the stem, pi. XI A, XIV A, etc. Sometimes the veil is

torn from the stem leaving the fragments hanging from the

margin of the pileus, pi. XIII C. The tear is often irregular

leaving the stem annulate and the margin of the pileus more

or less appendiculate.

c. The partial veil in Pholiota dura is stripped off to the

apex of the stem and there is very little superannular elonga¬

tion of the stem so that the gills remain horizontal and the

annulus is close to the apex of the stem as seen in pi. XII D.

Other forms in the group show more superannular elongation

of the stem, as shown in pi. XIV, but the veil is not often rup¬

tured above the annulus and the ridges on the upper surface

of the annulus are continuous from the annulus to the base of

the gills as in pi. XII C, XIV C, etc.

d. The edges of the gills are at first attached to the upper

surface of the partial veil and leave grooves in the veil when

they are torn away. These grooves and the ridges between

them are shown in pi. XI A, XII C, etc. In cases of retarded

expansion of the pileus the spores ripen and fall on these

ridges before the rupturing of the veil as shown in pi. XII G.

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 401

Such ridges stained with spores can be observed in many

species of Agarics. The most noted case is that of Stropharia

coronilla. These ridges lie between the gills, pi. XI A, and

must be distinguished from the decurrent teeth of the gills

which connect with the grooves. The ridges can be seen in

cross section in pi. XIII AB. The section is horizontal and

made at the point where the ends of the primary gills connect

with the stem, pi. XII Ca. The dead tissue of the veil shows

white in contrast with the dark hymenial and subhymenial

layers of the stem, pileus and gills beneath the gill chambers.

The primary gills connect with the subhymenial layer of the

stem between the ridges. Owing to their horizontal position

the gill chambers widen outward very rapidly and secondary

gills appear as folds in the bottom of the gill chambers very

close to the stem. Some of them so close to the stem that

they touch the ridges, pi. XIII A. The ridges extend but a

very short distance into the gill chambers in Pholiota dura

since there is little elongation of the stem to lengthen the de¬

current teeth of the gills and a section above the extreme

basal point of the primary gills does not show them. The hy-

menium covers the base and sides of the gill chambers. The

chambers become forked by the appearance of the secondary

gills. The forking ridges which cover them are well shown on

the annulus of Pholiota fulvo-squamosa, vol. XVII, pi. LX.

e. The pileus in this group is covered by a well developed

cortex which forms under the universal veil and is left naked

when the veil disappears. It is smooth, leathery and more or

less deeply colored. It often cracks areolately as the pileus

expands, pi. XI B.

The thick solid flesh, the well developed partial veil, the

firm cortex, the horizontal gill chambers and the subannular

stem are the chief characteristics of the plants of this group.

They all have the rusty ochraceous spores of the genus

Pholiota. The spores are the same shape and character in all

the forms in the group varying a little in size from 4 — 6 X

7 — 9/* to 6 — 8x11 — 14/*.

THE PHOLIOTA AEGERITA GROUP

There are in this region two closely related plants belong¬

ing to this group. Their structure is very nearly like that in

the Pholiota praecox-dura group the characters of which are:

402 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the thick solid flesh, the convex often areolately cracked

pileus, the horizontal gills, the apical annulus and the

subannular stem. They differ in the habitat on stumps and

rotten logs, the colors which are varying shades of reddish

yellow, becoming black in Pholiota luxurians, the often

finely squamulose as well as areolate rimose pileus and the

irregular stems, which vary in size and shape according to

the position on the logs or stumps. The spores vary from

4 — 6 jjl broad and 7 — 10 y long. They are the same shape

and character in both species but apparently a little larger

in Pholiota luxurians than in Pholiota aegerita.

Both Pholiota aegerita and Pholiota luxurians are re¬

ported from the British Isles, France and Germany. Bresa-

dola gives a good illustration of Pholiota aegerita from the

Tyrol but neither species appear to have been collected by

Britzelmayr in Bavaria.

Pholiota aegerita has been reported by Hard from Ohio,

Dodge from Wisconsin, etc., but I have seen no report of

Pholiota luxurians from this region.

1. Pholiota aegerita Brigant. PI. XV.

The plants were collected and photographed by Mr.

Burtt Leeper at Salem, Ohio. They represent the species

better than the photographs I published in vol. XVII, pi.

XLIX, though there is no doubt as to the identity of the

plants. The dried specimens are very characteristic. The

pilei are very hard inrolled and cracked as well as finely

squamose. The gills are bright ferruginous and the stems

smooth and hard. Mr. Leeper sent some of the plants to

Prof. Atkinson, who confirmed the identification.

The character of the species are: the habitat on logs and

stumps, the thick convex pileus areolately cracked in the

center and wrinkled on the incurved margin, the tawny

colors nearly white on the margin of the pileus, the apical

annulus and the thick smooth irregular stem which often

becomes cracked and shreddy on the surface. The stems may

be long, nearly equal and curved, short and thickened at the

base or short and tapering downward. Cooke’s illustration

453 shows long curved stems. Bresadola, Fung. Mang. t. 50,

illustrates plants more nearly like Mr. Leeper’s. I have

given the technical description of the species in vol. XVII,

p. 493.

PLATE XV

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PHOLIOTA AEGERITA BRIGANT.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

PHOLIOTA LUXURIANS FR.

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XVII

PHOLIOTA CURVIPES FR.

HARPER— PHOLIOTA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 403

2. Pholiota luxurians Fr. PI. XVI.

Pholiota luxurians has the same structure and shape as

Pholiota aegerita but the colors are darker with more red

and yellow. Old plants turn black. The pileus is both squam-

ulose and cracked. The spores are alike in color and shape

but average slightly larger, 4 — 6x7 — 10 p instead of

4 — 5x7 — Op. The plants are larger and coarser in every

way.

Fine specimens of this species grew on maple stumps at

Geneseo, Ills., in October. Some of the pilei were eight inches

in diameter. The shape of the stems varies as in Pholiota

aegerita, long or short, equal or enlarged at the base or taper¬

ing downward. Many of the plants were caespitose. The

photograph was made from plants collected at Sumner,

Wash. They grew on top of a maple log and had short

stems, tapering downward. The areolae on the pileus are

seen to be covered with fine scales as in Leeper’s photo¬

graphs of Pholiota aegerita.

Pileus variable in size, sometimes very large, irregular,

convex and gibbous to expanded, even on the margin, smooth

and silky or somewhat squamulose, rimose cracked, reddish

yellow becoming darker and the whole plant blackening with

age. Flesh thick whitish to yellowish and finally black.

Lamellae broad, rounded adnexed or decurrent according

to the position of the pileus, becoming ochraceous-ferrug-

inous with spores, reddening and blackening with age.

Stem variously shaped, thick, smooth, with a thick evanes¬

cent annulus, colored like the rest of the plant. Spores

ferruginous 4 — 6x7 — 10 p.

Plants single or caespitose. Stems sometimes grown to¬

gether at the base. On logs and about stumps in autumn.

THE PHOLIOTA CURVIPES GROUP

1. Pholiota curvipes Fr. PI. XVII.

The plants photographed were found on rotten logs

at Geneseo, Ills., in autumn. I have followed Peck in re¬

ferring them to Pholiota curvipes Fr. They agree with Peck’s

description in N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 122, p. 154, except

that they average a little larger. The size of the spores

5 — 6x8 — 10 p is exactly the same as Peck’s measurements.

Peck calls attention to the fact that the spores are larger

404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

than the measurements given in the European descriptions.

The Sylloge gives 3 — 4x6 — 7 y. Otherwise the agreement of

the plants with the European descriptions is close. They

agree also with the illustrations in Fries Icon. 104 and Cooke’s

Illust. 370.

The chief characteristic of the plants is the very scaly

pileus contrasted with the smooth innate fibrous stem. A

form with a scaly stem is however given in Constantin and

Dufour’s key. The annulus is very scanty. The gills are

very broad, crenate and white floccose on the margin. The

stems are nearly equal with very slight bulbous enlargement

at the base.

Pileus somewhat fleshy, 1 — 2J inches broad, convex to

plane, margin incurved and extending beyond the gills,

covered with a thick floccose coat which tears into concentric

scales composed of bundles of fibers, often squarrose,

scales tawny on a lighter yellowish background. Flesh

solid, light yellow. Taste mild. Lamellae adnate with a de¬

current tooth, very broad, light yellow becoming tawny,

more or less crenate and white floccose on the edge. Stem

1-2 inches long, 1-3 lines thick, fibrous but not scaly, solid

or fistulose, curved, light yellow above becoming dark

tawny below, equal or tapering downward, equal or very

slightly bulbous at the base, mealy above the slight annulus.

Spores, inequilateral, ellipsoid, 4 — 6x8 — 10 /x.

On rotten logs in woods. October.

Note . The affinities of these plants are not very clear. Farlow

in the index considers Pholiota curvipes as identical with Pholiota

tuberculosa. The only striking difference between the two species

as illustrated by Fries in Icon. 104, 2 and 3, is that Pholiota tuber¬

culosa has a beautiful round bulb at the base of the stem while the

stem of Pholiota curvipes is not bulbous at the base. This is a

marked difference between the plants illustrated in vol. XVII, pi.

XLI and these plants. These agree better with Schaeffer t. 79 but

that is considered a poor illustration of Pholiota tuberculosa. The

bulbous stem might be a fluctuating variation but the size of the

spores in my plants differs widely and is the reverse of the differ¬

ence between the spore measurements of the two species as given

in the Sylloge. * The spores of Pholiota tuberculosa are said to

measure 4 — -5X8 — 10 g while those of Pholiota curvipes measure

3 — 4X6 — 7 At’ Plants with such widely differing spore measure¬

ments should scarcely be placed in the same group.

Both Pholiota tuberculosa and Pholiota curvipes are reported

by Stevenson, Constantin and Dufour, Winter and Britzelmayr.

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 405

The chief distinction is always that of the bulbous and non-

bulbous stem. In Constantin and Dufour forms of both species

with scaly stems are reported.

THE STROPHARIA STERCORARIA-SEMIGLOBATA GROUP

1. Stropharia semiglobata. Batsch. Typical form,

PI. XVIII.

Plants of this species are common on dung in pastures at

Geneseo, Ills. It is more frequently met with than any other

form in the group. It was described but not illustrated in the

article on Species of Stropharia in the Region of the Great

Lakes, vol. XVII of these Transactions, p. 1022.

The characteristic marks of the species are the smooth,

viscid, cream colored, hemispherical pileus, the broad,

squarely adnate gills, the long, smooth, hollow stem and the

scanty annulus in the mature plants. Its ally Stropharia

stercoraria may be distinguished by the more flattened

pileus, more floccose stuffed stem, narrower gills and more

persistent annulus.

2. Stropharia semiglobata. Sterile form. PI. XVIII K.

Sterile plants of this species were found several times dur¬

ing the summer of 1915 on dung heaps in a pasture at

Geneseo, Ills. They agreed with the normal plants in all

respects except that the gills remained white and bore no

spores. There were numerous fertile plants in the neigh¬

borhood. A number of sterile forms of different species have

been reported. Clitocybe sadleri B. and Br. is supposed to

be a sterile form of Hypholoma fasciculare.

3. Stropharia siccipes Karst. Var. radicata Pk. PI.

XVIII I.

Specimens of the rooting form of Stropharia siccipes were

sent to me by Dr. Mary Whetstone in June, 1915. They

grew in rich ground and had conspicuous roots some of them

nearly horizontal. A photograph of a dried specimen of

these plants is shown in pi. XVIII I. Peck suggested that

the plants grew from manure buried in the ground. It is

possible that the root is a sclerotium and survives the winter.

The illustration shows the appearance of the pileus of dried

plants in this group. The cortex is smooth and shining and

becomes areolately wrinkled.

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FORMS ILLUSTRATED

Stem as well as the pileus viscid. Yellowish. Pileus convex

or hemispherical, obtuse.

Stem stuffed . S. stercoraria, vol. XVII, pi. LXVII.

Stem hollow . S. semiglobata, pi. XVIII.

Sterile form of S. semiglobata . PI. XVIII K.

Pileus umbonate .

. S. umbonatescens, vol. XVII, pi. LXV B.

Stem dry. Plants argillaceous.

Without a root .

. S. siccipes, vol. XVII, pi. LXVI DEF.

With a root .

. S. siccipes v. radicata, pi. XVIII I.

Stropharia semiglobata and Stropharia stercoraria are

both included in the important European lists and the char¬

acters ascribed to them are the same there as here. Semi¬

globata has been illustrated twenty times and Stercoraria

seven times, so that semiglobata appears to be the best

known species in Europe as well as in America. Stropharia

umbonatescens corresponds to Stropharia mammillata Kalch.

and Stropharia siccipes is a European species so that the

variation in the group in Europe corresponds closely to that

in the United States.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANTS IN THE GROUP

The photographs in pi. XVIII show the structure of the

plants in the group.

a. The white floccose universal veil which covered the

young plants can be seen on the stems in D and E. It disap¬

pears earlier from the pileus than from the stem and both

pileus and stem are covered with a smooth viscid coat when

mature.

b. The young lamellae are nearly orbicular, G. The

partial veil fills the triangular space between the gills and

the stem and extends up to the base of the gills at the junc¬

tion of the pileus and the stem. It appears white in G in

contrast with the gills and the growing tissue of the stem.

The expansion of the pileus and elongation of the stem tears

the under surface of the partial veil from the stem below and

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 407

the upper surface from the edges of the gills above forming

an annular gill cavity. The free part of the veil is stretched

into a thin semitransparent membrane extending from the

margin of the pileus to the stem as in E. Continued expansion

tears it from the margin of the pileus, D, and it remains as a

thin papery annulus about the stem, F. It soon collapses

and only a few fragments stained with spores remain on the

mature plant, A and B. The upper portion of the partial

veil which was not stripped from the stem by the expansion of

the pileus becomes very thin as the superannular elongation

of the stem continues and the ridges on its upper surface

which closed the gill chambers are obliterated from the

central portion remaining near the annulus and at the

apex of the stem, H. Also vol. XVII, pi. LXVII. The

superannular portion of the stem is at first somewhat floc-

cose or furfuraceous from the remains of the partial veil

just as the stem below the annulus is floccose from the re¬

mains of the universal veil. The superannular portion is,

however, more finely furfuraceousand later becomes smooth

and viscid like the subannular portion of the stem. As in

Pholiota dura the ridges on the upper surface of the annulus

are often dusted with spores and the remains of the annulus

seen on the stem are usually blackened with spores, otherwise

they are mostly inconspicuous. The edges of the gills remain

white and floccose where they were torn from the veil.

c. The gills are adnate to the stem and as the epinasty is

wholly in the pilear area the bases of the gills are drawn down,

the stem in decurrent teeth. The ridges of the partial veil

extend up between the teeth for a short distance as in Pho¬

liota dura. In G the growing layer of the stem appears dark

and connects with the subhymenial layer under the base of

the gill chambers. The central portion of the stem is com¬

posed of white medullary tissue. The dying tissue widens

at the apex of the stem, and connects with the medullary

portion of the pileus. This is seen in a greater degree in

species of Hypholoma. See pi. XXIII D. The stem becomes

hollow in Stropharia semiglobata, C, but remains stuffed

in Stropharia stercoraria. The group is remarkable for the

great elongation of the stem which takes place in both the

subannular and superannular areas. The annulus is often

nearly medial. Such long slender stems are characteristic of

Agarics which grow on dung.

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE HYPHOLOMA SUBLATERITIUM GROUP

The “brick tops” form a characteristic group of agarics

composed of a number of closely related forms. The relation

of the forms to each other and the geographical distribu¬

tion was discussed in vol. XVII, pp. 1146-1147 and illus¬

trations of four forms were given.

Beautiful specimens of the squamose variety of Hypjiol-

oma sublateritium were found by an oak stump in woods at

Geneseo, Ills., in September, 1915. They are shown in pi.

XIX. The pilei were conspicuously spotted with dark op¬

pressed scales arranged in concentric rows giving the plants

a striking appearance quite unlike that of the ordinary form

of the species. The scales were due to the persistence of the

universal veil on the pileus. The variety has been illustrated

by Cooke, Illus. 558.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FORMS ILLUSTRATED

Hypholoma sublateritium. Typical form .

Vol. XVII, pi. LXXII.

Pileus squamose. Var. squamulosum . PI. XIX.

Stems long and slender, etc., H. perplexum .

Vol. XVII, pi. LXXIII.

Hypholoma capnoides. Typical form .

Vol. XVII, pi. LXXIV.

Hypholoma fasciculare. (Form from the Pacific Coast.)

Stems short, thick at the base. Var. robustior .

Vol. XVII, pi. LXXV.

All these forms are reported in Europe except Hypholoma

perplexum. Of the other European forms in the group Hy¬

pholoma elaeodes is a variety of Hypholoma fasculare and

should be found with that species on the Pacific coast.

The two varieties of Hypholoma sublateritium, var. sub-

solitarium which is less caespitose, the pileus uniformly

colored and the stipes thickened at the base, and var.

Schaefferi with a yellow rugose pileus, hollow stem and nar¬

row decurrent lamellae, should be looked for in this region.

The occurrence of Hypholoma epixanthum in this country is

doubtful as noted in the article in Vol. XVII, p. 1147.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

PLATE XIX

HYPHOLOMA SUBLATERITIUM VAR. SQUAMOSUM CKE.

HARPER— HYPHOLOM A

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 409

Hypholoma dispersum is reported in Farlow’s Index. It

is a small non-caespitose species apparently belonging to this

group.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANTS IN THE GROUP

a. The universal veil is composed of long fibers of hyphae.

It is seen on the pileus in the squamose forms and in the

partial veil which is stretched into cobwebby fibrils by the

expansion of the pileus like a cortina and does not form a

membrane. Where exposed on the pileus and stem the uni¬

versal veil becomes colored but remains white in the partial

veil. In most cases the universal veil disappears early and

the pileus and stem are covered with a smooth colored cor¬

tex.

b. The fibers of the partial veil break near the stem, pi.

XlXa, and vol. XVII, pi. LXXII B, leaving no visible trace

of an annulus on the stem. The remains of the veil on the

margin of the pileus are also loosely fibrous so that they dis¬

appear early. The resemblance of the veil to a cortina

is seen in pi. XIX B. The veil does not strip off from the stem

in a membrane as in the Hypholoma appendiculatum group,

pi. XXIII E, but the hyphal threads pull away separately

up and down the stem as in species of Cortinarius. The

ridges which are usually to be seen on the upper surface of

membranous annuli are not apparent.

c. The pilei are shaped like those in the Pholiota praecox-

dura group. They are convex with thick solid flesh and in¬

curved margins. The lamellae are nearly horizontal and

secondary lamellae are numerous. The epinasty is in the

pilear area so that as the plant elongates the gills become

more and more adnate with long decurrent teeth. When

young they are rounded at the stem and nearly free. Com¬

pare the young gills in pi. XIX B with those in the expanded

pilei in Vol. XVII, pi. LXXII. Intermediate degrees of elon¬

gation of the bases of the gills can be seen in vol. XVII, pi.

LXXIV.

THE HYPHOLOMA VELUTINUM GROUP

The group is separated from the closely related Hypholo¬

ma lacrimabundum group by the opaque tuberculate and

410 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

apiculate spores 6—7x8 — 12^, with an apical pore covered

by a hyaline papilla. There are four principal forms in the

group, Hypholoma velutinum, rugocephalum, boughtoni

and pyrotrichum. Photographs of Hypholoma velutinum

were published in vol. XVII, pi. LXXIX. Since then we

have collected Hypholoma rugocephalum and Hypholoma

boughtoni. They grow on the ground in open woods at

Geneseo, Ills. All four species have the spores exactly alike

in size and character, see vol. XVII, pp. 1153-1154. The

chief difference in the plants is in the surface of the pileus.

It is matted fibrous in Hypholoma velutinum, innate fibrous

and concentrically cracking in Hypholoma boughtoni,

somewhat viscid and rugose wrinkled in Hypholoma rugo¬

cephalum and matted fibrous and bright fiery tawny in

Hypholoma pyrotrichum. All these species appear to be

closely related and the differences due chiefly to age and

weather conditions.

1. Hypholoma rugocephalum Atk. PI. XX.

The plants were found at Geneseo, Ills., in open woods.

The plants are larger than either Hypholoma velutinum or

Hypholoma boughtoni. The pilei were innate fibrous when

young becoming glabrous, slightly viscid and rugose wrinkled.

They were at times somewhat cracked near the margin

showing close affinity with Hypholoma boughtoni. The

other characters were exactly those of the group. Atkin¬

son’s description is as follows. Mushrooms, p. 30, fig. 29.

Pileus convex to expanded and revolute, marked with

radiating rugose, wrinkles, broadly umbonate, fleshy at the

center, thinner toward the margin, slightly viscid, smooth,

not hairy or scaly, the thin margin, extending beyond the

gills, fulvous-tawny. Flesh tinged with yellow. Lamellae

adnate, slightly sinuate, 5 — 7 mm broad, easily breaking

from the stem and then rounded at the base, spotted with

black spores, lighter on the edge. Spores black in mass with

a slight purple tinge, oval to broadly elliptical, inequilateral,

pointed at each end, echinulate or minutely tuberculate

8 — 11x6 — 8g. Basidia short, cylindrical, Cystidia cylin¬

drical, somewhat enlarged at the free end, delicate, thin

walled, in groups of 2 — 6 or more. Stem cylindrical, even,

somewhat bulbous, colored like the pileus, lighter above the

annulus, irregular, smooth, fleshy, hollow, continuous with

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XX

HYPHOLOMA RUGOCEPHALUM ATK,

HARPER -HYPHOLOMA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XXI

ABC HYPHOLOMA

D HYPHOLOMA

BOUGHTONI PK.

DELINEATUM PK.

HARPER-HYPHOLOMA

COCKAYNE, B06T0N

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 411

the substance of the pileus. Annulus a few threads stained

black with spores.

Damp places in woods, single or caespitose. Plants 8 — 12

cm high. Cap 6 — 10 cm broad. Stem 6 — 10 mm in thickness.

2. Hypholoma boughtoni Pk. PI. XXI, ABC.

The plants agree with Peck’s illustration, N. Y. State

Mus. Bull. 139, pi. II. They have the tawny brown, innate

fibrous, areolately or concentrically cracked pileus. Other¬

wise the characters are those of the group, dark brown opaque

tuberculate apiculate spores, gills white floccose on the edges

and distilling drops of water, universal veil covering the

stem and pileus, concrete with the cortex and forming a

scanty annulate appendiculate veil. Peck’s description

reads:

‘‘Pileus fleshy, thin except in the center, broadly convex

or subhemispheric, rarely with a slight umbo, glabrous or

slightly fibrillose, often concentrically or areolately cracking,

pale reddish brown or grayish brown. Flesh whitish. Taste

disagreeable. Lamellae unequal, moderately close, adnate,

purplish brown, seal brown or blackish, obscurely spotted,

whitish on the edge. Stem equal, floccosely fibrillose, striate

at the top, hollow, white or whitish. Spores black on white

paper, broadly elliptic, apiculate, 7 — 8x10 — 12//.

“Pileus 2.5 — 7 cm broad; stem 2.5 — 6 cm long, 4 — 10 mm

thick. Ground in woods and open places. August.

“This species is closely allied to Hypholoma velutinum

(Pers.) from which it may be separated by its dry, not hy-

grophanous, pileus, its whitish flesh and stem, the absence of

cystidia and the larger spores.”

The differences between the Hypholoma velutinum group

and the closely related Hypholoma Iacrimabundum group

have been discussed in Vol. XVII, pp. 1152-1155, where two

forms of the latter and one of the former were illustrated.

The essential difference between the two groups is in the

spores. The following synopsis shows the forms illustrated

in each group:

*

Spores smooth, 3 — 5x7 — 9 g. Plants whitish to tawny.

Plants smaller, lighter colored, squamose .

H. Iacrimabundum, vol. XVII, pi. LXXVII C.

Plants larger, darker colored, squarrose .

H. echiniceps, vol. XVII, pi. LXXVII B-LXXVIII.

412 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Spores echinulate apiculate 6 — 8x10 — 12 y. Plants brown,

tawny.

Matted fibrous... H. velutinum, vol. XVII, pi. LXXIX.

Innate fibrous, cracking.. . H. boughtoni. PL XXI, ABC.

Rugose and viscid . H. rugocephalum. PI. XX.

Hypholoma pyrotrichum is a fiery tawny plant belonging

to the second group and Hypholoma regidipes is a small

form with scaly pileus related by its spores to the second

group.

Note. Prof. R. Maire in the Bull. Soc. Myc. de France, Tome

XXVII, fas. 4, discusses the relation between Hypholoma la-

crimabundum and Hypholoma velutinum in Europe. The two

species have been much confused. According to Maire Hypho¬

loma velutinum is the most common species. It was described

by Persoon. Bulliard t. 194 and T25 figured it under the name

Agaricus lacrimabundus. True Hypholoma lacrimabundum is

illustrated by Fries. Icon. 134 which he wrongly connected with

one of Bulliard’s figures. The species has been described several

times under different names. Hypholoma storea var. caespitosum

Cke. Hypholoma hypoxanthum Phill. and Plow. Geophila cotonea

Quel, belong to this species. The two species are distinguished as

follows. Hypholoma lacrimabundum grows usually in tufts by

stumps or roots, the pileus is scaly on a whitish background, the

lamellae are not clouded and more rarely weeping and the. spores

are smooth 3 — 5X6 — 9 /jl without an apical pore. Hypholoma

velutinum grows singly or in groups on humus, the pileus is fibrous,

ochraceous or tawny, the lamellae are clouded and often weeping,

the spores are 6 — 7X10 — 12//, strongly verrucose and with an

apical pore covered with a hyaline papilla.

The difference is practically the same as that between the two

groups in this region. The essential distinction is in the spores.

The spores of my specimens of Hypholoma lacrimabundum agree

with those of Hypholoma storea var. caespitosum in Jaap’s

exsiccati, 143, except that they average slightly larger 3 — 5X7 — 9 /jl

instead of 4 — 4.5X7. 5 — 8/z . Not as large however as the spores

of Hypholoma hypoxanthum 4 — 5X9 — 11//.

The European confusion of the two species has extended to

this country and forms of Hypholoma velutinum have no doubt

been referred to Hypholoma lacrimabundum. Maire rightly

questions Hard’s figs. 263 and 264 which have the appearance of

Hypholoma velutinum. Atkinson’s fig. 28 is more like Hypho¬

loma lacrimabundum though the large spores 7 — 8X9 — 11 make

it doubtful. The spores of the plant illustrated in Vol. XVII

pi. LXXVII C were smooth and 4 — 5X7 — 8//. On p. 1153 I

gave the spores of Hypholoma lacrimabundum 5 — 6X8 — 10/z

following Sylloge, Peck, Quelet etc. Maire says the spores of

HYPHOLOMA APPENDICULATUM

TRANS. WIS. ACAD.. VOL. XVIII

PLATE XXII

HARPER— HYPHOLOMA

COCKAYNE, BOSTON

Harper — Additional Species of Pholioia.

413

true Hypholoma lacrimabundum in Europe are not more than

4 — 5X7 — 9 /i. Murrill in Mycologia, May, 1915 p. 116 pi. CLVIII

2, gives a good figure of Hypholoma velutinum but calls it Hypho¬

loma lacrimabundum (Bull) Quel. He appears to be of the opinion

that Fries’ plant was an old scaly form of the one illustrated by

Bulliard.

Note 2. Hypholoma delineatum Pk., N. Y. State Mus. Bull.

150 p. 83 is placed in the Hypholoma velutinum group by the

author. Dr. Peck said it could be easily mistaken for Hypholoma

rugocephalum from which it was to be separated by its more

narrow obtuse and smooth spores. Dr. Dodge sent me a dried

plant which he considered Hypholoma delineatum after examina¬

tion of Peck’s specimens. A photograph of it is shown in pi.

XXI D. Both Peck’s description and Dodge’s specimen differ

from the plants in the Hypholoma velutinum group in the smooth

stem and broad membranous annulus as well as in the smooth,

not opaque and not apiculate, spores. Nor have the gills in the

dried specimen turned black. In all these characters the plants

agree with members of the Pholiota erebia group as described in

the note, Vol. XVII p. 1163 and pi. LXXXIV. Peck also calls

attention to the rugose pileus with radiating ridges on the margin

and to the habitat on both rotten logs and the ground both

features of forms in the Pholiota erebia group. Furthermore the

spores in the dried specimen are larger than those described by

Peck, 5 — 6X12 — 14m instead of 4 — 6X8 — 10 g, both of which

measurements are found in forms I have included in the Pholiota

erebia group. It is probable therefore that Hypholoma deline¬

atum Pk. belongs to the Pholiota erebia group.

THE HYPHOLOMA APPENDICULATUM-CANDOLLEANUM

GROUP

In vol. XVII, pis. LXXX-LXXXI 1 1 of these Trans¬

actions I published illustrations of five forms belonging to

this group. Hypholoma candolleanum, leucotephrum, cuti-

fractum, longipes and incertum. I here add illustrations of

typical Hypholoma appendiculatum, a form similar to leu¬

cotephrum and the annulate form described as Stropharia

irregularis Pk. or Stropharia longistriata Murr. The spores

in all the forms are of the same size and character 4 — 6x7

—12m.

1. Hypholoma appendiculatum Bull. PL XXII ABC.

Hypholoma appendiculatum was very abundant at

Geneseo., Ills., during the summer of 1915. The plants

grew in lawns and pastures, preferring the vicinity of stumps

and buried roots. They varied much but the most typical

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

form appeared to be that shown in the illustration. The

plants were large, ovate when young, becoming convex and

expanded. The colors are hygrophanous yellow or brown at

first becoming lighter to cream color or whitish as the water

is lost. The pileus is regular, even and smooth, covered with

the white floccose remains of the universal veil when young,

but soon naked. The flocci remain on the pileus under favor¬

able weather conditions and then the plants represent the

variety llocculosarum. The change in color of the gills

from white -to flesh color and then brown and the floccose

apex of the pileus were evident in some plants but not uni¬

versally marked. These are the characters supposed to

separate the species from its ally Hypholoma candolleanum.

The apex of the stem is usually more or less striate and

the gills never become a bright pink as in Agaricus campes-

tris. The change is usually from whitish to a dull violaceous

then turning purple brown with the ripe spores. The gills

are broad and rounded at the stem narrowing toward the

margin of the pileus, pi. XXII G. The veil is scanty and seen

only in young plants. The further description of the species

was given in vol. XVII, pp. 1157-1158.

2. Form with narrow gills and irregular rugose pileus.

PL XXII DEF.

The illustrations show a marked form which was common

about logs and stumps in open woods and pastures at

Geneseo., Ills. The gills were narrow, remaining whitish for

a long time and showing very little of the incarnate tints.

The pilei were irregular and rugose wrinkled. The color was

dark hygrophanous at first becoming light cream color. The

form approaches Hypholoma leucotephrum but the stems

were not long and slender nor markedly grooved at the apex

as in that species.

3. Annulate form. Stropharia irregularis Pk. PI.

XXIII.

In June, 1915, there was a patch of very luxuriant plants

of this group two or three yards in extent over a buried stump

on a lawn in Geneseo, Ills. The partial veil was very thick

and remained as a persistent annulus on the stem, often

becoming moveable. Otherwise they did not differ from

Hypholoma appendiculatum which was abundant in the

neighborhood. The veil was of the same character as that in

HYPHOLOMA APPENDICULATUM BULL.

FORM WITH AN ANNULUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

PLATE XXIII

HARPER— HYPHOLOMA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 415

typical Hypholoma appendulatum which usually splits into

segments and remains as patches on the margin of the

pileus, see pi. XXIII E.

Peck’s description of a similar form which was found at

Linden, Virginia, and which he named Stropharia irregu¬

laris, is given in Torr. Bull. Jan., 1900, pp. 16-17. It agrees

with our plants even to the cracked umbo and split margin of

the pileus. According. to Earle, Peck was of the opinion later

that the species was a form of Hypholoma incertum. The

more persistent annulus and the long striae on the margin

of the pileus agree still better with Stropharia longistriata

Murr., Mycologia, Nov., 1912, which is described from

specimens found on the Pacific coast.

If we judge by the illustrations of the European Stropharia

spintrigera in Cooke’s Illus. 542, and Fries’ Icon. 132, and the

descriptions given of that species we must conclude that this

is the corresponding American form to that species. Note

especially the “distant fugacious annulus” the slight “incar¬

nate” tint of the pileus often seen in this form and in Hypho¬

loma appendiculatum, and the gills “joined behind” as in pi.

XXIII A. The spores of Stropharia spintrigera also are re¬

ported as oblong-ellipsoid 4 — 6 x9 — 12 p. The species is said

to be rare in Europe and to grow caespitose on trunks.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANTS IN THIS GROUP

These large annulate forms offer good material in which

to study the structure of the plants in the Hypholoma appen-

diculatum-candolleanum group.

a. The universal veil which covered the young plants re¬

mains as white floccose fragments on the pileus, pi. XXIII F,

especially is it evident around the margin of the pileus and

at the base of the stem in young plants, pi. XXII A. It soon

disappears entirely except in the floccose varieties.

b. The partial veil is made- of similar tissue and lies be¬

tween the gills and the stem in the young plants covering

the mouths of the gill chambers. There is much superannular

elongation of the stem preceding the expansion of the pileus

which ruptures the veil" around the stem. The torn upper

margin of the veil around the stem can be seen in pi. XXIII

AB and G. The ridges on the upper surface are still to be seen

on the annulus and on the remains of the veil at the apex of

416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

the stem. In most cases the expansion of the pileus which fol¬

lows splits the veil and the fragments remain hanging to the

margin of the pileus. Compare pi. XXIII E. with vol. XVII,

pi. LXXX D and LXXXII E. In these annulate plants the

veil is torn from the margin of the pileus without breaking

up, and remains as a free annulus on the stem, pi. XXIII A

and G. At the apex of the stem the veil remains attached to

the edges of the gills and tears away from the stem leaving the

gills joined together at their bases, pi. XXIII A. The part

of the veil above the annulus is often broken into fragments

by the elongation of the stem, leaving the stem furfuraceous

or floccose above the annulus as in pi. XXII B. By this pro¬

cess the ridges on the veil are more or less obliterated. This

breaking up of the partial veil above the annulus is analo¬

gous to that which takes place when the universal veil is

torn into scales by the elongation of the stem in the volvar

area in plants which have a volvar stem.

c. A well developed cortex is formed on the pileus beneath

the universal veil. The coating on the stem is less developed.

The stem is hollow and the cavity is coated by a medullary

sheath, pi. XXIII C. The context of the pileus becomes

pithy in the center and is divided into a cortical and a sub-

hymenial layer. It is the cortical layer which cracks and

peels off in the forms like Hypholoma cutifractum, vol. XVII,

pi. LXXXII. There is a tendency to crack in this manner in

the pilei of all the forms in the group which I have observed.

The split often begins at the apex of the pileus as in pi. XXIII

G. The hollow of the stem extends into the pileus and the

cortical layer becomes very thin at the apex of the pileus. It

is often perforated as was noted in the descriptions of Hypho¬

loma candolleanum and Hypholoma longpipes. Plate XXIII

D shows the apex of the pileus of the annulate form. The cor¬

tical layer has split off and the end of the hollow stem covered

with the medullary sheath is seen in the center. Around it

appears the dark subhymenial layer which connects with the

growing tissue of the stem. The latter appears dark in the

cross section of the stem, G, between the light tissue of the

partial veil and the medullary sheath. In D the subhy¬

menial layer appears radiating outward under the gill

chambers. The rays are divided by the lighter colored tissue

of the trama of the gills. Plate XXIII G shows a cross section

HYPHOLOMA HYDROPHILUM BULL.

TRANS. W1S. ACAD., VOL. XV11I

PLATE XXIV

HARPER— HYPHOLOMA

COCKAYNE. BOSTON

Harper— Additional Species of Pholiota. 417

through the pileus of a plant at about the stage of develop¬

ment of E. There is shown (a) the dark colored cortical

layer, (b) the central portion of the pileus with lighter col¬

ored tissue, (c) the dark subhymenial layer, (d) the gill

chambers covered on their bottom and sides with the hy-

menium. The spores have not formed. Later the gills are

blackened with the spores except on their edges which remain

white and floccose where they were torn from the tissue of the

partial veil, (e) the partial veil appearing as a light colored

layer about the stem. It is fluted by the grooves made by the

edges of the gills, (f) the context of the stem, (g) the light

colored medullary sheath.

THE PSILOGYBE SPADICEA GROUP

1. Hypholoma hydrophilum Bull. PI. XXIV.

The plants I have referred to this species were collected by

Dr. Mary Whetstone on a lawn in Minneapolis, Minn.

They are closely related to Psilocybe spadicea and appear to

belong to the same group. The spores of the two species are

alike in shape, size and color, 3 — 5x7 — 9 p, but Hypholoma

hydrophilum is furnished with very numerous dart shaped

colored cystidia about 15 — 20x55 — 70 p. These cystidia are

the most distinctive mark of the species. The plants differ

from Psilocybe spadicea also in the appendiculate veil which

hangs in patches from the margin of the pileus in young

plants, but soon disappears, in the more solid substance, the

more irregular, rugose wrinkled and repand pileus, the

fibrillose stem striate at the apex and the absence of incarnate

hues on the lamellae. All these features are characters of

Hypholoma hydrophilum.

Pileus J — 3 inches broad, ovate to convex and expanded,

somewhat firm and fleshy, repand, striate or rugose wrinkled

especially near the incurved margin, disk smoother and

even, hygrophanous, tawny or yellowish brown becoming

pale avellaneous. Sometimes with scattered white squamules

when young. Lamellae adnexed, rounded behind, narrow,

not crowded, whitish becoming dark brown. Stem 2 — 3

inches long, 3 lines thick, hollow, equal or slightly tapering

upward, somewhat striate above, white or pale cream col¬

ored. Spores dark rusty brown, 3 — 5x7 — 9/x, basidia

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

4 — 5x20, — 25 y, Cystidia numerous, colored, dart shaped

15— 25X55— 70 m-

On the ground in yards, about logs, etc. Caespitose.

The plants agree well with Cooke’s Illus. 605 and Bulliard

t. 511. The species has been reported from Michigan by

Kauffmann.

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota,

419

INDEX OF SPECIES

Plate Page

Pholiota

aegerita . XV 402

curvipes . XVII 403-4

dura . XI-XIII-AB 396

dura a form . XIII-CD 396-7

dura — praecox group . 399

duroides . 398

howeana . 398

luxurians . XVI 403

praecox . XIV-CD 397

sphaleromorpha . XIV-AB 397

tuberculosa . 404

Stropharia

irregularis . XXIII 414-5

longistriata . 415

semiglobata . XVIII 405

semiglobata a form . XVIII-K 405

siccipes var. radicata . XVIII— I 405

spintrigera . 415

stercoraria — semiglobata group . 406

Hypholoma

appendiculatum . XXII-ABG 413-4

appendiculatum a form . XXII-DEF 414

boughtoni . XXI-ABC 411

delineatum . XXI-D 413

hydrophilum . XXIV 417-8

hypoxanthum . 412

lacrimabundum . 412

pyrotrichum . 412

regidipes . 412

rugocephalum . XX 410-1

storea var. caespitosum . 412

sublateritium var. squamulosum . XIX 408

sublateritium group . 408

velutinum group . ■ . 411—2

420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES

Plate XI. Pholiota dura (Bolt.) A. Mature plant. B. Surface of a

pileus showing the areolately cracked cortex.

Plate XII. Pholiota dura (Bolt.) A. Vertical section of a young plant

with the partial veil unbroken showing the annular gill cavity.

B. Under surface of the pileus of a ypung plant with the veil unbroken

showing the under surface of the veil where it has been stripped

upward from the stem and the cross section of the stem. C. Section

showing the upper surface of an unbroken veil showing the ridges

which closed the gill chambers stained with spores. D. Section of

mature pileus showing the annulus close to the apex of the stem,

the horizontal lamellae, the hollow stem and the context of the

pileus and stem. E. Under surface of a pileus showing the tearing

of the veil.

Plate XIII. A. Section of Pholiota dura showing the connection of the

primary gills with the subhymenial layer and cross section of the

ridges on the veil which closed the gill chambers X4. B, Part of the

same enlarged. C D. A form of Pholiota dura with appendiculate

veil and long equal stems.

Plate XIV. AB. Pholiota sphaleromorpha Bull. CD. Mature plant and

vertical section of Pholiota praecox Pers.

Plate XV. Pholiota aegerita Brigant. Various views. A. Plants with

equal curved stems. B C. Plants with stems thickened at the base.

Plate XVI. Pholiota luxurians Fr. A. Upper surface of a pileus show¬

ing the irregular form and the both scaly and cracked surface.

B. Under view of a pileus showing the gill surface and the short

stem tapering downward.

Plate XVII. Pholiota curvipes Fr. A. Mature plants. B. Cross sec¬

tion showing the broad gills. C. Young plants with smooth stems

and tufted scaly pilei. D. Medium sized plant showing the scaly

pileus. E. Young plants showing the attachment of the gills and

the apical annulus.

Plate XVIII. A-H. Stropharia semiglobata Batsch. AB and H. Mature

plants. C. Cross section of hollow stem. D. Young plant showing

the tearing of the veilx2. E. Young plant with floccose stem and

unbroken veil x2. F. Young plant showing the annulus X2. H. Ver¬

tical section of young plant X 4. I. Stropharia siccipes var. radicata

Pk. K. Sterile form of Stropharia semiglobata with permanently

white gills.

Plate XIX. Hypholoma sublateritium var. squamosum Cke. A. Cluster

of plants with squamose scaly pilei. The one in a shows the cortina

like veil. B. Section of a young plant with the cortina unbroken.

Plate XX. Hypholoma rugocephalum Atk. A. Pileus of a mature plant

showing the rugose wrinkled surface. B. Young plant showing the

even pileus and cortina-like veil. C. Gill surface showing the white

floccose edges of the gills.

Plate XXI. A-C. Hypholoma bough toni Pk. A. Pileus showing the

innate fibrous surface cracked and torn around the margin. B. Ma¬

ture plant. C. Young plant. D. Hypholoma delineatum Pk.

Dried plant showing the slender stem and membranous annulus.

Plate XXII. Hypholoma appendiculatum (Bull.). A. Typical mature

plant and young plant showing the white floccose veil. B. Floccose

apex of the stem x4. C. vertical section of a mature plant. D E F

Harper — Additional Species of Pholiota. 421

Different views of a form with rugose wrinkled pileus and narrow

gills.

Plate XXIII. Annulate form of Hypholoma appendiculatum. = Stro-

pharia irregularis Pk. or Stropharia longistriata Murr. A. Mature

plant showing the gill surface and annulus. B. Striate upper surface

of the annulus X4. C. Cross section of young pileus, under view

showing (a) the cortical layer, (b) the medullary layer, (c) the sub-

hymeniai layer, (d) the gills, (e) cross section of the veil attached to

the stem, (f) Context of the stem, (g) the medullary sheath x4. D.

Apex of the pileus with the cortical layer peeled off showing the apex

of the hollow stem. E. Under side of a young pileus showing the

veil stripped from the stem and splitting into fragments. F. Young

plant showing the floccose remains of the universal veil on the

pileus. G. Mature plant showing the striate pileus cracked at the

apex and the annulus.

Plate XXI Y. Hyphloma hydrophilum Bull. Various views of young and

mature plants.

422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

A MONOGRAPH OF THE ALGAL GENUS

SCENEDESMUS BASED UPON PURE

CULTURE STUDIES

Gilbert Morgan Smith

The species that have been described in the genus Scened-

esmus are based almost wholly on field material. The specific

differences are founded on the shape of the cells, presence

of horns, teeth, lateral ridges, and cell measurements. The

question of the amount of variation within the limits of a

single species, however, has always been one of consider¬

able dispute, since there has been no way of determining

whether or not any particular character is permanent

or persists for a single generation only. The application of

the pure culture method to the study of algae by Beyerinck

in 1891 has given an exact method for the study of variation

within the limits of a single species. Methods for the isola¬

tion of algae have been described by Beyerinck, Chodat,

Grintzesco, and myself, so that an extended account of the

process is superfluous.

In this article an attempt is made to cover the entire

literature relating to Scenedesmus for the purpose of deter¬

mining the geographical range of the various species. For

the sake of brevity in citation, articles are referred to by

date only, and the letters A, B, C, etc. used to distinguish

between the publications of one man for the same year.

Exsiccatae have not been included since there were not

a sufficient number available to warrant doing so. Geo¬

graphical distribution has been cited according to political

rather than physiographical boundaries. In spite of the

fact that these units of area are artificial and of unequal

size this method is the most serviceable since geographical

interest is generally confined to certain specific countries.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 423

Individual species are treated by citing the literature,

the description (with the use of the original description as

far as possible), a discussion of its variation as observed in

pure culture, the geographic range.

The first species of the genus were figured by Turpin in

1820 as species of Achnanthes. These were illustrations only,

but in 1828 Turpin gave a better series of illustrations and

also described the different species. In 1829, Meyen, who

was not aware of the work of Turpin, established the genus

Scenedesmus and described several species. This existence

of two sets of names has produced considerable confusion. -

The parallelism between the species of Turpin and Meyen

was pointed out by Guillemin in 1830, in his review of

Meyen’s article, but no attempt was made to reduce the

two to synonymy.

The first combination of Turpin’s species with Meyen’s

genus is by Kiitzing in 1833, who thought that the species

of the two were distinct and so gave the description of both

series. At this time Scenedesmus was placed with the Des-

midiaceae which were thought to be a family of the Diato-

maceae. The spelling of the name Scenedesmus is also con¬

fused; since Meyen spells it Scenedesmus in the text of the

original description while on the accompanying plate it is

spelled Scaenaedesmus. Later on he added a further varia¬

tion by spelling it Scaenedesmus (1830). On account of this

vacillation in spelling and also for entymological reasons

Ehrenberg changed the spelling to Scenodesmus. Ehrenberg

later established the genus Arthrodesmus and transferred the

species of Scenedesmus to this new genus.

Between the years 1840 and 1860 various collections of

the species of Scenedesmus are found. In these early descrip¬

tions the number and arrangement of the cells in the colony

constituted the chief method by which the various species

were distinguished, but today these characters are of minor

importance for differentiating species. For this reason prac¬

tically all of the older species should be regarded as synonyms

or placed among the questionable species. The most com¬

plete collections of species made at this time are those of

Meneghini and of Kiitzing.

The modern work on Scenedesmus really began with

Lagerheim’s collection of the data on the known species

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

(1883). He was also the first to describe species based on

the external sculpturing of the cell wall, a method which has

been used almost entirely ever since for establishing new

species. The work of de Toni (1889B) is by far the most

complete that we have for the distribution of the various

species and is a critical compilation of the species that were

known at that time but is quite inadequate at present, in

1893 de Wildemann also published a monograph of the

genus, but his material was drawn to a large extent from de

Toni’s data. The chief point in the work of de Wildemann

is the uniting of S. quadricauda and S. bijuga into one spe¬

cies called S. variabilis but even this possesses no originality

since Franze had previously united these two species under

the emended name S. obtusus (Meyen) Franze.

At the time this work was started there was no modern

collection of the species of the genus but during its prepara¬

tion two notable publications have appeared. In 1913

Brunnthaler presented a key to the species of Scenedesmus

with figures of the species he recognized. This has been of

great service in checking up data that I have secured. In

the same year Chodat published an extensive monograph

based on pure culture studies, the greater portion of the work

being carried out on the genus Scenedesmus. It is a matter

of regret that I must take so critical an attitude towards his

work, but it is practically impossible to determine the dif¬

ferent species he describes. Few cell measurements are

given and the only differences between many of the species

are physiological. Chodat himself admits the impossibility

of the worker in the field identifying many of his species.

The cultural work that I have carried on shows that the

shape of the cell, the presence of four terminal horns, the

presence of horns in addition to those at the four corners of

the coenobe, lateral ridges, and teeth are characters that are

constant in any one culture isolated by pure culture methods.

The relative arrangement of the cells is a character that is

constant in certain species and variable in others. In the

present work the presence of any one of these characters

which persists in a pure culture is taken as the character

that distinguishes a single species. The combination of two

of these characters in a single coenobe is one that is gener¬

ally regarded as also constituting specific rank and this prac-

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 425

tice has been followed in the treatment of the different

species. The cultures also show that different forms may

possess the same character (as spines at the four corners)

but have dimensions which differ greatly within certain fixed

limits. I have therefore considered as varieties strains show¬

ing the same external morphological characters but varying

in the size of the component cells. An attempt had been

made throughout the work to make the descriptions suit¬

able to the needs of the investigator who collects his mate¬

rial in the field, and only those characters have been in¬

cluded which are discernable through the microscope.

The dimensions of the cells err on the side of exaggeration

if at all. The work of Senn, Chodat, and myself has shown

that external conditions influence the size of the cell to some

extent, so control cultures have been carried out in sterile

lake water to avoid the abnormalities produced by a too

high strength of the nutrient solution. Unless otherwise

noted the cultures have been made in 0.1% Knop’s solution

since I find that I cannot distinguish between the cultures

grown in this medium and in natural waters.

Key to the Species qf Scenedesmus.

I. Colony enclosed in a gelatinous sheath.

1. S. oahensis (Lemm.) nov. comb.

II. Colony not enclosed in a gelatinous sheath.

1. Cell membrane smooth, without terminal spines,

teeth, granulations, or lateral ridges.

A. Cells acicular to spindle shaped.

a. Cells without polar bulbs or thickenings.

X. Cells in a flat plane.

*. All cells in the coenobe erect.

2. S. obliquus (Turp.) Ktz.

**. Median cells erect, outer cells curved.

3. S. dimorphus (Turp.) Ktz.

XX. Cells not in one plane.

*. Cells alternately arranged, terminal cells

usually not in same plane as others in

coenobe.

4. S. Bernardii nov. spec.

**. Cells forming a curved surface.

5. S. acuminatus (Lag.) Chod.

426 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

b. Cells with polar bulbs or thickenings.

X. Cells acicular with small polar bulbs,

apices of cells pointing away from center

of coenobe.

6. S. antennatus de Breb.

XX. Cells blunts spindle shaped, with polar

nodules. Wall of cell convex on side away

from center of coenobe, concave towards

center.

7. S. incrassatulus Bohl.

B. Cells ovoid.

a. Outline of cell perfect oval.

X. Cells in a linear or alternating series, never

in a double series.

8. S . bijug a (Turp.) Lag.

XX. Cells arranged in two series.

*. Cells alternately arranged, large inter¬

stices between cells, coenobe curved.

9. S. curvatus Bohl.

**. Cells in two series, interstices between

cells small, coenobe curved or flat.

10. S. arcuatus Lemm.

b. Cells with capitate ends.

11. S. producto-cap itatus, Schmula.

2. Cell membrane with teeth at poles, without spines,

ridges or external ornamentation in the middle of

the cell.

A. 2-3 teeth at each pole.

12. S. denticulatus Lag.

B. Several teeth at poles of cells.

13. S. acueolatusHeinsch.

3. Cell membrane with longitudinal ridges, with or

without spines or teeth.

A. Cells with longitudinal ridges only.

a. Middle cells with a ridge on each side, and

cells with four ridges.

14. S. acutiformis. Schroder.

b. Cells with four to six longitudinal ridges on all

cells.

15. S. costatus Schmidle.

B. Cells with longitudinal ridges and teeth on poles.

16. S. brasiliensis. Bohlin.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

427

C. Cells with longitudinal ridges and spines at

poles of terminal cells.

a. Cells with spines on end cells.

17. S. armatus (Chod) nov. comb.

b. Cells with spines on end cells and teeth on

poles of all cells.

18. S. carinatus (Lemm.) Chodat.

4. Short spines or granulations in the middle portion of

cell wall as well as on the ends.

A. Spines or granulations completely covering the

cell wall.

X. Cells without long horns at poles of ter¬

minal cells.

19. S. hystrix Lag.

X. Cells with long horns on poles of terminal

cells, interstices between cells.

20. S. ornatus (Lemm.) nov. comb.

XXX. Spines on ends of all cells.

21. S. insignis (West and West) Chod.

B. Spines or granulations in rows on sides of cells.

a. 3-4 rows of granulations from pole to pole on

each cell.

22. S. granulatus West and West.

b. Two rows of spines from pole to pole on me¬

dian cells, one row on terminal cells. Teeth

on poles.

23. S. serratus (Corda) Bohl.

5. Cells without external ornamentation aside from

long horns.

A. Spines on both median and terminal cells.

a. Spines on middle part of cell wall as well as on

poles.

24. S. abundans (Kirch.) Chod.

b. Spines only on poles of all cells.

25. X longus Meyen.

B. Spines on ends of terminal cells only.

a. Colonies without linear interstices between cells.

X. Ends of cells rounded, cells in lateral con¬

tact entire length.

428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

26. *S. quadricauda (Turp.) de Breb.

XX. Cells naviculate, in lateral contact in

middle third only.

27. S. opoliensis Richt.

b. Colonies with linear interstices between cells.

28. S. perforatus Lemm.

1. S. oahuensis (Lemm.) nov. comb. (PI. XXV: Fig. 1).

S. quadricauda var. oahuensis. Lemmermann, 1905A, p. 630;

PL VIII, Figs. 4-5. Lemmermann, 1900C, p. 335. (as S. quadri¬

cauda var. insignis West and West.)

“Coenobium 2-16 cellulares, tegumento hyalino, mucosa

circumvelatum. Cellulae 2 costis lateralis instructae,

apivibus et lateralibus 1-4 aculeis fragilibus, granulosis

armatae. Costae subtiliter granulatae. Membrana cellu-

larum poris minutis densissime instructae.”

Description of a gelantinous sheath in the genus Scenedes-

mus is confined to this single species described by Lemmer¬

mann. The number of supplementary spines in addition to

those on the four corners of the coenobe is variable.

2. S. obliquus (Turp.) Ktz. (PL XXV: Fig. 7. PL

XXIX: Figs. 63-68).

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 609. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Meneghini

1840, p. 208. Ralfs, 1848, p. 192; PL XXXI, Figs. 15A-15C.

Bailey, 1851, p. 29. Bailey, 1855, p. 12. Griffith and Henfrey,

1856, p. 565; PL X, Fig., 5 L Archer, 1857, p. 40. Spencer, 1882,

p. 296. Griffith and Henfrey, 1883, p. 679; PL XIV, Fig. 51.

Lagerheim, 1883, pp. 64, 66. Wille, 1884, pp. 10, 45. Griffith and

Henfrey, 1885, p. 686; PL X, Fig. 51. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 116.

Nordstedt, 1888, p. 19. Hansgirg, 1889, p. 132. de Toni, 1889B,

p. 566. Hansgirg, 1890A, p. 112. Hansgirg, 1891, p. 317. Lem¬

mermann, 1891, p. 148. Hansgirg, 1892B, p. 120. Lemmermann,

1893, p. 524. Schmidle, 1893A, p. 13. de Wildemann, 1893A.

de Wildemann, 1893B, p. 91. Lemmermann, 1895A, p. 41.

Lemmermann, 1895B, p. 296. West and West, 1895, p. 83. de

Wildemann, 1895, p. 26. Borge, 1896, p. 7. Schroder, 1896, p.

46. West and West, 1896, p. 381. Farlow in Trelease, 1897, p.

196. Lemmermann, 1897, p. 108. Schroder, 1897C, p. 45. Stroh-

meyer, 1897, p. 6. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. de Wildemann,

1897A, p. 61. de Wildemann, 1897C, p. 78. Lemmermann,

1898G, p. 249. Mez, 1898, p. 149; PL IV, Fig. 166. Schorler,

1898, p. 38. Schroder, 1898, p. 24. Tilden, 1898, p. 26. Zacharias,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

429

1898, p. 94. Boergesen, 1899A, p. 135. Boergesen, 1899B, p. 333.

Borge, 1899, p. 7. Forti, 1899, p. 89. Garbini, 1899A, p. 15.

Lemmermann, 1899, p. 133. Levander, 1899, pp. 63, 70, 80.

Marsson, 1899, pp. 171, 254. de Toni et Forti, 1899B, p. 792.

G. S. West, 1899, p. 221. de Wildemann, 1899, p. 11. Zacharias,

1899, p. 83. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Chodat, 1900, p. 2. Lager-

heim, 1900, p. 10. Lemmermann, 1900G, p. 339. Schmidle,

1900B, p. 126. Schorler, 1900, p. 5. Boergesen, 1901A, p. 240.

Borge, 1901A, p. 101. Borge, 1901B, p. 13. Dalla Torre und von

Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Fanning, 1901, p. 617. Lemmermann,

1901, p. 92. Marsson, 1901 A, pp. 96, 101, 115. Treboux, 1901, p.

478. West and West, 1901A, p. 196. West and West, 1901B, p.

119. Wille, 1901, p. 11. Chodat, 1902, p. 210. Forti, 1902, p. 60.

Riddle, 1902, p. 317. Schmidle, 1902B, p. 125. West and West,

1902B, p. 64. Fournier, 1903, p. 28. Gutwinski, 1903, p. 204.

Lemmermann, 1903G, p. 119. Pascher, 1903, p. 175. Schmidle,

1903, p. 80. Snow, 1903, p. 391. Volk, 1903, p. 104. Wille,

1903, p. 92. Zacharias, 1903A, p. 203. Gozette, 1904, p. 273.

Lemmermann, 1904A, pp. 27, 71. Lemmermann, 1904B, p. 305.

Lemmermann, 1904G, p. 159. Marsson, 1904, pp. 139, 146.

Schmidle, 1904B, p. 7. G. S. West, 1904A, p. 287. G. S. West,

1904B, p. 220; Figs. 92A-92B. West and West, 1904, p. 531.

Fink, 1905, p. 25. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458. Huber, 1905, p. 57.

Krause, 1905, p. 110. Lauterborn, 1905, p. 645. Lemmermann,

1905B, pp. 158, 162. Lemmermann, 1905C, pp. 166, 168. Stadler,

1905, p. 236. Suhr, 1905, p. 252. Trotter, 1905, p. 45; Fig. 8

Volk, 1905, p. 65. West and West, 1905, p. 30. Hardy, 1906,

p. 38. Pascher, 1906, p. 168. Petkoff, 1906B, p. 158. Ruttner,

1906, p. 10. Schinz, 1906, p. 392. Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller,

1906, p. 247. Borge, 1907A, p. 58. Borge, 1907B, p. 4. Brunn-

thaler, 1907, p. 206. Buchanan, 1907, p. 81. Krause, 1907, pp.

220, 221. Larsen, 1907 A, p. 358. Lemmermann, 1907B, p. 409.

Migula, 1907, p. 658; PI. XXXV (K), Fig. 9. Ostenfeld, 1907, p.

384. Le Roux, 1907, p. 244. Schorler, 1907, p. 356. Selk, 1907,

pp; 57, 64, 73, 79, 85, 91, 94, 99, 112, 115. Teodoresco, 1907, p.

130. G. S. West, 1907, p. 139. West and West, 1907, p. 229.

Adams, 1908, p. 35. Forti et Trotter, 1908, pp. 32, 86. Huber,

1908, p. 313. Kaiser, 1908, p. 163. Kolkowitz und Marsson,

1908, p. 514. Lemmermann, 1908A, p. 167. Marsson, 1908A, pp.

30, 32, 40. Marsson, 1908B, pp. 93, 97, 107, 114, 116, 120. West

and West, 1908, p. 102. Adams, 1909, p. 186. Borge, 1909, p. 16.

Collins, 1909, p. 168. Eyferth, 1909, p. 116; PI. Ill, Fig. 22.

Marsson, 1909, pp. 547, 557, 561. Schodduyn, 1909, p. 166. G. S.

West, 1909 A, p. 29. G. S. West, 1909C, p'. 245. G. S. West,

1909D, p. 69. West and West, 1909B, p. 184. Gugliemetti, 1910,

p. 32. Hayden, 1910, p. 44. Kofoid, 1910, p. 31. Kolkowitz,

1910, p. 60. Bachmann, 1911, p. 191. Bethge, 1911, p. 500.

Comere, 1911, p. 51. Klugh, 1911, p. 97. Lauterborn, 1911, p.

250. Marsson, 1911, pp. 261, 263, 266, 275, 276, 283. Conrad et

430 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Kufferath, 1912, p. 321. Griffith, 1912, p. 11. Borge, 1913, p. 60.

Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 165, 170; Fig. 1. Chodat, 1913, p. 26;

Figs. 1-11, 22. Fritsch and Rich, 1913, p. 43. Hardy, 1913, p. 93.

Krmpotic, 1913, p. 27. Migula, (no date) p. 37; PI. IV, Fig. 7.

Achnanthes obliqua. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 9. Turpin, 1828, p.

312; Pi. XIII, Fig. 9.

S. acutus. Meyen, 1829, p. 775; PI. XLIII, Fig. 32. Klitzing,

1833, p. 609. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Meneghini, 1840, p.

207. Klitzing, 1843, p. 164. HassalL 1845, p. 393; PI. XCII,

Fig. 14. Ralfs, 1845, p. 403; PI. XII, Fig. 6. Ralfs, 1846, p. 160;

PL XV, Fig. 6. Ralfs, 1848, p. 191; PI. XXXI, Figs. 14, 16.

Bailey, 1851, p. 29. Zanardini, 1857, p. 250. Archer, 1858, p. 258.

Grunow, 1858, p. 499. Reinsch, 1867, p. 82. Rabenhorst, 1868,

p. 64; Figs. 34A-34G. Wood, 1869, p. 135. Hohenbuhel-Heufler,

1871, p. 318. Wittrock, 1872, p. 31. Archer, 1874, p. 329. Wood,

1874, p. 90. Reinsch, 1876. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98. Wille, 1879,

p. 30. Gienowsky, 1881, p. 304. Wolle, 1881, p. 213. Cooke,

1882, p. 33. Nordstedt, 1882, p. 46. Hansgirg, 1883, p. 288.

Hansgirg, 1884B, p. 365. Artari, 1884, p. 132. Cooke, 1885.

Paque, 1885, p. 52. de Wildemann, 1885, p. 123. Bennett, 1886,

p. 3. Campbell, 1886, p. 93. Parfitt, 1886, p. 392. de Toni et

Levi, 1886, p. 67. Beck, 1887, p. 274. Bennett, 1887, p. 9. de

Toni et Levi, 1887, p. 1585. Wolle, 1887, p. 173; PI. CLVI, Figs.

25-26. Alexenko, 1888, p. 158. Balsamo, 1888, p. 40. W. West,

1888, p. 748. Heiden, 1889, p. 5. MacKenzie, 1889, p. 271.

Riabinine, 1889A, p. 302. Riabinine, 1889B, p. 47. W. West,

1889 A, p. 290. W. West, 1889B, p. 206. W. West, 1889C, p. 88.

Bennett, 1890, p. 2. Chmielweski, 1890, p. 92. Roy, 1890, p.

338. W. West, 1890, p. 298. de Wildemann, 1890A, p. 137.

de Wildemann, 1890B, p. 155. Alexenko, 1891, p. 61. Beyerinck,

1891, p. 279. Ianouchkievitch, 1891, p. 290. W. West, 1891A,

p. 248. Bennett, 1892, p. 5. Franze, 1892, p. 154; PI. Ill, Figs.

1-3. Turner, 1892, p. 161. Weiss, 1892, p. 37. W. West, 1892A,

p. 194. W. West, 1892B, p. 738. Beyerinck, 1893, p. 368. Chodat

et Malinesco, 1893, p. 184. Franze, 1893, p. 286. Stokes, 1893, p.

52. Alexenko, 1894, p. 72. Borge, 1894, p. 9. Alexenko, 1895,

p. 92. Borge, 1895, p. 6. Bohlin, 1897, p. 24. Chodat, 1897,

p. 291. Chodat, 1898, pp. 166, 179. Nitardy, 1898, p. 104.

Zacharias, 1898, p. 93. Iwanoff, 1899, p. 380. Senn, 1899, p. 70.

Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Chodat et Grintzesco, 1900, p. 387.

Lindau, 1901, p. 136. Bohlin, 1902, p. 44. Fritsch, 1902, p. 582.

Larder, 1902, p. 59. Voigt, 1902, p. 76. Fritsch, 1903, pp. 640,

643, 646. Snow, 1903, p. 391. W. West, 1903, p. 100. Zacharias,

1903B, pp. 254, 263. Comere, 1904, p. 62. Heering und Homfeld,

1904, p. 83. Marquand, 1904, p. 269. Moreto, 1904, p. 440.

Nitardy, 1904, p. 318. Andersson, 1890, p. 5. Suhr, 1905, p.

252. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205. Tanner-Fullmann, 1907, p. 232.

Adams, 1908, p. 35. Bachmann, 1908, p. 44. Quelle, 1908, p.

43. Viret, 1908, p. 977. Andrews, 1909, p. 379. Chodat, 1909,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus .

431

p. 91; PL VIII. Honigmann, 1909, p. 54. Schmula, 1910, p. 86.

Comere, 1911, p. 49. Petersen, 1911, p. 160; Fig. 5. Andressen,

1913, Smith, 1914A, p. 283; PL XVI, Figs. 1-23. Smith, 1914B,

p. 1185; Pl. LXXXVII and LXXXVIII.

S. pedinatus. Meyen, 1829, p. 775; PL XLIII, Figs. 33-35.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 608. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Meneghini,

1840, p. 208. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

Scenodesmus acutus. Ehrenberg, 1834, p. 310. Kiitzing, 1845,

p. 139. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186. Nageli, 1849, p. 92; PL V,

Figs. 5A-5G. Rabenhorst, 1850, p. 157. de Brebisson, 1856, p.

160. Archer, 1861, p. 753. Kirchner, 1891, p. 18. Brunnthaler,

1900, p. 310. Conn and Webster, 1908, p. 35; PL VI, Fig. 37.

Arthrodesmus acutus var. obtusior. Ehrenberg, 1836.

S. fusiformis. Meneghini, 1837, p. 18. Meneghini, 1840, p.

208.

S. triseriatus. Meneghini, 1837, p. 18. Meneghini, 1840, p.

208. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Ralfs, 1845, p. 403; PL XII,

Fig. 7. Ralfs, 1846, p. 151; PL XV, Fig. 7. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267.

Arthrodesmus acutus. Ehrenberg, 1838, p. 151; PL X, Fig. 19.

Ehrenberg, 1843, p. 338. Pritchard, 1841, p. 190.

Arthrodesmus pedinatus. Ehrenberg, 1838, p. 151; PL X, Fig.

17. Pritchard, 1841, p. 190. Pokorny, 1854, p. 58.

S. acutus var. fusiformis. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

Scenodesmus pedinatus. Kiitzing, 1843, p. 164. Kiitzing, 1845

p. 140 de Brebisson, 1856, p. 159.

Scenodesmus acutus var. biseriatus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Scenodesmus dimorphus var. pedinatus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Scenodesmus acutus var. fusiformis. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Scenodesmus acutus var. obliquus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Arthrodesmus pedinatus var. acutus. Pokorny, 1854, p. 58.

Scenodesmus obliquus. de Brebisson, 1856, p. 156.

£. acutus var. obliquus. Rabenhorst, 1868, p. 64. W. West,

1883, p. 105. Cooke, 1882, p. 33. Cooke, 1885, de Wildemann,

1885, p. 123. Parfitt, 1886, P. 392. W. West, 1889A, p. 290. W.

West, 1889B, p. 206. W. West, 1890, p. 298. W. West, 1891B,

p. 421. W. West, 1892 A, p. 194. W. West, 1892B, p. 738. Borge,

1894, p. 9. Fritsch, 1902, p. 582. Fritsch, 1903, p. 646. W.

West, 1903, p. 100. Fritsch, 1905, p. 164. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205.

S. obliquus forma alternans. Huber, 1908, p. 313.

S. obliquus forma parvus. Bernard, 1908, p. 181; PL XIV, Figs.

407-416, 414', 415', 416', Bernard, 1909, p. 76; Pl. VI; Figs.

160-161.

“Coenobiis 4-8 cellularibus ; cellulis fusifoideis, utroque

polo acute plerumque in seriem simplicem dispositis. Dimens,

cell. 5-27 x 3-9

S. obliquus has been isolated several times from various

localities in this vicinty. The species has been studied in

7

432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

pure culture by Beyerinck, Grintzesco, Chodat, Tischutkin,

Andreesen, and myself, so that the variations occurring

within the limits of a pure culture are well known. Interest

in the species has increased considerably since Chodat and

Grintzesco described the remarkable series of transforma¬

tions in which the cells are all isolated at one time, and at

others form branching systems which resemble Dactylo-

coccus infusionem Nageli. I (1914) have recently discussed

the question of this Dactylococcus stage and find that it

never occurs in pure cultures of S. obliquus. On the other

hand I have isolated an alga with cells shaped like S. obliquus

but they were always arranged in branching chains as in

D. infusionem and therefore concluded that the two should

be regarded as separate species and not different growth-

forms of the same alga. In this connection it is interesting

to note that the investigator who first stated that S. obliquus

and D. infusionem are the same alga (Chodat), brings forth

no additional data in his recent work (1909, 1913) to show

that the two are related, but relies on earlier work as evi¬

dence.

It is generally agreed, however, that cultural conditions

may produce a change in the shape of the individual cells,

causing them to become less acicular with the increase in

concentration of the nutrient medium.

In the different strains of this alga so far isolated, I am

unable to differentiate between any of them on the basis of

cell size, whereas in certain other species it is possible to

distinguish the different strains by cell measurements. The

arrangement of the cells may be either in a linear series

(Figs. 63, 64; PI. XXIX) or in an alternating series (Figs. 67,

68), a fact which I have shown to be due to the manner of

formation of the young colony by the mother cell.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Alexenko, 1888, 1894, 1895;

Beck, 1887; Brunnthaler, 1900, 1907; Franze, 1892, 1893; Grunow,

1858; Ianouchkievitch, 1891; Hansgirg, 1883, 1884B, 1886, 1889,

1890A, 1891, 1892B, 1905; Pascher, 1903, 1906; Pokorny, 1854;

Riabinine, 1889 A, 1889B; Ruttner, 1906; Stadler, 1905). Belgium

(Conrad et Kufferath, 1912; Paque, 1885; de Wildemann, 1885,

1890 A, 1890B, 1893B, 1895, 1897B). Bulgaria (Petkoff, 1906B).

Denmark (CJiodat, 1900; W. West, 1891B). England (Bennett,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

433

1886, 1887, 1890, 1892; Cooke, 1882, 1885; Fritsch, 1902, 1903,

1905, 1906; Fritsch and Rich, 1913; Griffith, 1912; Griffith and

Henfrey, 1856, 1883, 1885; Hassall, 1845; Larder, 1902; Marquand,

1904; Parfitt, 1886; Pritchard, 1841; Ralfs, 1845, 1846, 1848; Roy,

1890; G. S. West, 1899, 1904B, 1909D; W. West, 1883, 1889A,

1889G, 1890, 1891 A, 1892B; West and West, 1897B, 1901B, 1908).

Germany (Andreesen, 1913; Bethge, 1911; Ehrenberg, 1834, 1838;

Eyferth, 1909; Heering und Homfeld, 1904; Heiden, 1889; Honig-

mann, 1909; Kaiser, 1908; Kirchner, 1878, 1891; Kolkowitz, 1910;

Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908; Krause, 1905, 1907; Ktitzing,

1845, 1849; Lauterborn, 1911; Lemmermann, 1891, 1893, 1895A,

1895B, 1897, 1898A, 1898C, 1899, 1901, 1901B, 1903C, 1904B,

1905B, 1905G, 1907B; Lindau, 1901; Marsson, 1899, 1901 A, 1904,

1908 A, 1908B, 1909, 1911; Meyen, 1829; Migula, 1907; Nitardy,

1898, 1904; Quelle, 1908; Schmidle, 1893A; Schmula, 1910;

Schorler, 1898, 1900, 1907; Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller, 1906;

Schroder, 1896, 1897G, 1898; Selk, 1907; Senn, 1899; Strohmeyer,

1897; Voigt, 1902; Volk, 1903, 1905; Weiss, 1892; Zacharias,

1898, 1899, 1903A, 1903B). France (de Brebisson, 1856; Chodat,

1898; Comere, 1904, 1911; Gozette, 1904; Fournier, 1903; Reinsch,

1867; Le Roux, 1907; Schodduyn, 1909; Turpin, 1820, 1828).

Holland (Beyerinck, 1891, 1893). Ireland (Adams, 1908, 1909;

Archer, 1857, 1858; W. West, 1892A; West and West, 1902B).

Italy (Balsamo, 1888; Chodat, 1898; Forti, 1899, 1902; Forti et

Trotter, 1908; Garbini, 1899A; Gugliemetti, 1910; Hohenbiihel-

Heufler, 1871; Meneghini, 1840; Moreto, 1904; Rabenhorst, 1850;

de Toni et Forti, 1899B; de Toni et Levi, 1886, 1887; Trotter,

1905; Zanardini, 1857). Montenegro (Schmidle, 1900B, 1902B).

Roumania (Teodoresco, 1907). Russia (Alexenko, 1891; Artari,

1884; Borge, 1894; Chmielweski, 1890; Cienowsky, 1881; Iwanoff,

1899; Krmpotic, 1913; Levander, 1899; Treboux, 1901; Wille,

1879). Scotland (W. West, 1903; West and West, 1904, 1905,

1909B). Sicily (Lemmermann, 1908A). Sweden (Andersson,

1890; Borge, 1895, 1907 A, 1913; Lagerheim, 1883; Lemmermann,

1904A; Petersen, 1911). Switzerland (Bachmann, 1908; Borge,

1901A; Chodat, 1897, 1902, 1909, 1913; Chodat et Grinzesco, 1900;

Chodat et Malinesco, 1893; Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901;

Huber, 1905, 1908; Tanner-Fullmann, 1907; Viret, 1908; de Wilde-

mann, 1897A).

AFRICA. Lake Albert Nyanza (G. S. West, 1909C). Azores

(Archer, 1874; Bohlin, 1902; Farlow in Trelease, 1897). Central

Africa (West and West, 1896). Madagascar (West and West,

1895). Lake Nyassa (Schmidle, 1903; G. S. West, 1907). Lake

Tanganyika (G. S. West, 1907). Zambesi (Schinz, 1906; Wille,

1903).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Australia (Borge, 1896; Hardy, 1906,

1913; G. S. West, 1909A). Burma (West and West, 1907). Ceylon

(West and West, 1901 A). China (Gutwinski, 1903; Ostenfeld,

1907). India (Turner, 1892). Java (Bernard, 1908; Lemmermann,

434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

1904G; de Wildemann, 1897C, 1899). Johore (Bernard, 1909).

New Zealand (Lemmermann, 1900G; Nordstedt, 1888, Spencer

1882).

AMERICAS. Argentina (Borge, 1899, 1907B; Nordstedt, 1882;

Wille, 1884). Barbados (G. S. West, 1904). Brazil (Bohlin, 1897;

Wille, 1884). Canada (Borge, 1909; Klugh, 1911; MacKenzie,

1899). Pategonia (Borge, 1901B; Nordstedt, 1882). Paraguay

(Bohlin, 1897). United States (Andrews, 1909; Bailey, 1851;

1855; Borge, 1909; Buchanan, 1907; Campbell, 1886; Collins, 1909;

Conn and Webster, 1908; Ehrenberg, 1843; Fanning, 1901; Fink,

1905; Hayden, 1910; Kofoid, 1910; Riddle, 1902; Snow, 1903;

Stokes, 1893; Tilden, 1898; W. West, 1889B; Wood, 1869; 1874;

Wolle, 1881, 1887).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Boergesen, 1899A.

Faeroes (Boergesen, 1899B, 1901A). Greenland, (Larsen, 1907A;

Lauterborn, 1905). KergueVs Land (Reinsch, 1876).

3. S. dimorphus (Turp.) Ktz. (PI. XXV: Fig. 8. PI.

XXXII: Figs. 185-189. PI. XXXIII: Figs. 190-195.)

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 608. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Meneghini,

1840, p. 208. Hassall, 1845, p. 393; PL XCII, Fig. 13. Ralfs,

1845, p. 403; PI. XII, Fig. 5. Ralfs, 1846, p. 160; PI. XV, Fig. 5.

Ralfs, 1848, p. 191; PI. XXXI, Figs. 13A-13B. Grunow, 1858, p.

499. Zanardini, 1857, p. 250. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98. Artari,

1884, p. 133. Martel, 1887B, p. 11. Wolle, 1887, p. 173; PL

CLVI, Figs. 18-21. Alexenko, 1888, p. 159. Heiden, 1889, p. 5.

Riabinine, 1889B, p. 47. Webber, 1889, p. 1012. Chmielweski,

1890, p. 92. Alexenko, 1891, p. 62. Lemmermann, 1891, p. 148.

Harvey, 1892, p. 119. . Weiss, 1892, p. 37. Franze, 1893, p. 286.

Jeliffe, 1893A, p. 243. Jeliffe, 1893B, p. 605; PL III, Fig. 35.

Schroder, 1893, p. 72. Stokes, 1893, p. 51. Alexenko, 1894, p.

72. Jeliffe, 1894, p. 594. Alexenko, 1895, p. 92. Zacharias, 1898,

p. 93. Iwanoff, 1899, p. 379. Jeliffe, 1899, p. 5. Balsamo, 1900,

p. 266. Forti, 1902, p. 60. Snow, 1903, p. 391. Zacharias,

1903A, p. 213. Comere, 1904, p. 62. Moreto, 1904, p. 440.

Skorikow, 1905, p. 10fL Quelle, 1908, p. 43. Andrews, 1909, p.

379. Comere, 1911, p. 50.

Achnanthes dimorpha. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 2. Turpin, 1828, p.

313; PL XIII, Fig. 12.

Scenodesmus dimorphus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186. de Brebisson,

1856, p. 159. Conn and Webster, 1908, p. 35; PL IV. Fig. 42.

S. acutus var. dimorphus. Rabenhorst, 1868, p. 64; Fig. 34i.

Cooke, 1882, p. 34; PL XIII, Fig. 6. de Wildemann, 1885, p. 123.

Parfitt, 1886, p. 392. Beck, 1887, p. 274. Andersson, 1890, p. 5.

W. West, 1891A, p. 248. W. West, 1892A, p. 194. W. West,

1892B, p. 738. Borge, 1894, p. 9. Fritsch, 1902, p. 582. Fritsch,

1903, p. 646. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205.

S. obliquus var. dimorphus. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 116. de Toni,

1889B, p. 567. Hansgirg, 1890A, p. 112. Lemmermann, 1893, p.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

435

524. West and West, 1895, p. 83. Schroder, 1896, p. 46. Schroder,

1897A, p. 372. Schroder, 1897B, p. 487. Schroder, 1897C, p. 45.

West and West, 1897B, p. 500. Schroder, 1898, p.24. Garbini,

1899A, p. 15. Levander, 1899, p. 70. Schroder, 1899, p. 22.

Lagerheim, 1900, p. 10. Schorler, 1900, p. 5. West and West,

1901B, p. 119. Zykoff, 1902, p. 61. Volk, 1903, p. 104. Fink,

1905, p. 25. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 459. Huber, 1905, p. 57. Borge,

1907A, p. 58. Buchanan, 1907, p. 81. Migula, 1907, p. 658.

Huber, 1908, p. 313. Collins, 1909, p. 169. Hayden, 1910, p. 44.

“Coenobiis 4-8-cellularibus ; cellulis fusiformibus, utroque

polo acutatis, ad 35 p longis, circ. 8 p latis, in seriem sim-

plicem (?) arctissime conjunctis, medianis rectis, extimis vel

lateralibus extrorsum lunulatis.”

This species is frequently considered by some a variety

of S. ohliquus , while others consider the curving of the outer

cells a normal variation of £. ohliquus and consequently

unworthy of naming. Since both the curving of the terminal

cells and the acicular shape of all cells shows a greater re¬

semblance to S. acuminatus (Lag.) Chod. than to S. ohliquus

the form might more properly be placed as a variety of

S. acuminatus , but since the cultural work shows that this

lunate shape of the outer cells is quite characteristic, I prefer

to consider it a distinct species.

There is a great deal of variation in the strain of this

species that I have isolated. The outer cells of the very

young four-celled colonies rarely show the characteristic

curving (Figs. 190, 195) but the erectness of the two median

cells and the lunate character of the terminal cells is very

pronounced in the mature colonies. (Figs. 185, 193, 194.)

Certain of the largest colonies in the culture, however, do

not show this curving as well but resemble S. ohliquus (Figs.

186, 187). The arrangement of the cells in the four-celled

colonies is always linear or sub-alternate.

The eight-celled colonies occur as frequently as do the

four-celled ones. The cells in the eight-celled colonies are

always arranged in a markedly alternate series, and never

linear. This is in direct opposition to the general view ex¬

pressed in previous descriptions, namely that the cells of

the eight-celled colonies may be either in a linear or alter¬

nating arrangement. Although the terminal cells are lunate

in these colonies as in the four-celled ones they do not

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

appear so at first glance, due to the optical illusion caused

by the alternate arrangement of the cells. (Figs. 189, 192.)

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Alexenko, 1888, 1894, 1895;

Beck, 1887; Grunow, 1858; Hansgirg, 1886, 1890A, 1905; Riabinine,

1889A, 1889B). Belgium (de Wildemann, 1885). England (Cooke,

1882; Fritsch, 1902, 1903, 1906; Flassall, 1845; Parfitt, 1886;

Ralfs, 1845, 1846, 1848; W. West, 1891A, 1892B; West and West,

1897B, 1901B). France (de Brebisson, 1856; Comere, 1904, 1911;

Turpin, 1820, 1828). Germany (Heiden, 1889; Kirchner, 1878;

Lemmermann, 1891, 1893; Quelle, 1908; Schorler, 1900; Schroder,

1893, 1896, 1897A, 1897B, 1897C, 1898, 1899; Volk, 1903; Weiss,

1892; Zacharias, 1898, 1903A). Ireland (W. West, 1892A).

Italy (Forti, 1902; Garbini, 1899A; Martel, 1887B; Moreto, 1904;

Zanardini, 1857). Russia (Alexenko, 1891; Artari, 1884; Borge,

1894; Chmielweski, 1890; Iwanoff, 1899; Levander, 1899; Skorikow,

1905; Zykoff, 1902). Sweden (Andersson, 1890; Borge, 1907A).

Switzerland (Huber, 1905, 1908).

AFRICA. Madagascar. (West and West, 1895).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Java (Bernard, 1908).

AMERICA. United States (Andrews, 1909; Buchanan, 1907;

Collins, 1909; Conn and Webster, 1908; Fink, 1905; Harvey, 1892;

Hayden, 1910; Jeliffe, 1893A, 1893B, 1894, 1899; Stokes, 1893;

Snow, 1903; Webber, 1889; Wolle, 1887).

4. S. Bernardii nov. spec. (PL XXV : Fig. 6. PI. XXXII :

Figs. 196-208).

5. obliquus forma magnus Bernard, 1908, p. 182, Fig. 420 (not

Fig. 421).

Coenobia 2-8-cellularum. Cellulis fusiformibus saepe

sigmoideis. Cellulis leniter alternis dispositis, polis cellu-

larum solis lateraliter conjunctis. Long. cell. 17-8 /x. Lat.

cell. 6—3 y.

This alga was isolated in pure culture from the plankton

of Lake Monona (Wisconsin). The loose alternate arrange¬

ment of the cells is quite similar to that of S. obliquus form

magnus Bernard but the cells are much smaller. Since a

S. magnus has been described the specific name Bernardii

is given to the species.

In my cultures eight-celled colonies are fully as abundant

as are four-celled. The terminal cells in these eight-celled

colonies are lunate and frequently lie at an angle to the

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

437

plane of the other cells, which are more often sigmoid than

lunate. The terminal cells of the four-celled colonies show

at times the same relationship to the colony as do the ter¬

minal cells of the eight-celled colonies (Figs. 203, 208) but

at other times all the cells are in the same plane (Figs. 206,

209). The two median cells in these colonies come in con¬

tact with each other only in the middle portion but join the

terminal cells by their apices.

The objection to recognizing this material as a distinct species

might be raised on the grounds that the extreme polymorphism of

S. obliquus has created a Dadylococcus stage and not a distinct

species. The question of the Dadylococcus stage of S. obliquus

has already been discussed. The fact that the cells in the cultures

of S. Bernardii are always grouped definitely in twos, fours, or

eights shows that we are dealing with a definitely organized coenobe

and not an irregular branching system. There is also the further

evidence that S. obliquus and S. Bernardii both retain their

identity when grown under the same conditions of light, tempera¬

ture, and chemical environment.

5. S. acuminatus (Lag.) Chodat (PI. XXV : Figs. 3—5).

Chodat, 1902, p. 211. Lemmermann, 1904A, p. 40. Lemmer-

mann, 1904G, p. 159. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 459. Lemmermann, 1905B,

p. 158. Reinhardt, 1905, p. 26. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Lemmermann,

1907B, p. 411. Brunnthaler, 1907, p. 207. Schorler, 1907, p. 356.

Selk, 1907, pp. 5, 57, 61, 64, 68, 73, 78, 79, 85, 91, 94, 98, 99,

103, 108, 112, 115. Tanner-Fullmann, 1907, pp. 122, 125, 132.

Bachmann, 1908, p. 44. Bernard, 1908, p. 183; PI. XIV, Fig.

422. Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908, p. 93, 120. Marsson, 1909,

pp. 547, 557, 559, 561. Marsson, 1911, p. 261, 263, 266, 275, 282,

285. Petersen, 1911, p. 160; Fig. 5. Conrad et Kufferath, 1912,

p. 321. Brunnthaler, 1913, p. 165, 170; Fig. 2. Chodat, 1913,

p. 22.

Selenastrum acuminatum Lagerheim, 1883, p. 71; PI. Ill, Figs.

27-30. de Toni, 1889B, p. 596. Turner, 1892, p. 162; PI.

XX, Fig. 30. Marsson, 1901B, p. 96. Marsson, 1904, p. 146.

Marsson, 1908B, p. 107, 111. Marsson, 1908A, p. 32, 40. £.

obliquus var. acuminatus Playfair, 1912, p. 518, PI. LVI, Fig. 8.

S. falcatus Chodat, 1894, p. 625. de Wildemann, 1897A, p. 60.

Chodat, 1900, p. 3. Chodat, 1901, p. 1309. Tanner-Fullmann,

1906, p. 158. Tanner-Fullmann, 1907, pp. 124, 125. S. acuminatus

var. biseriatus Reinhardt, 1905, p. 26.

“*S. familiis e cellulis quaternis constitutis, cellulis arcuatis

vel falcatis, apicibus acuminatis; apicibus cellularum adul~

438 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

tarum 30-40 p inter se distantibus; crassitudo cellularum

6-7 M.”

The typical form was not isolated but one with smaller

cells was.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Brunnthaler, 1907; Hansgirg,

1905; Reinhardt, 1905). Belgium (Conrad et Kufferath, 1912).

Denmark (Chodat, 1900). Germany (Kolkowitz und Marsson,

1908; Lemmermann, 1905B, 1907B, 1908D; Marsson, 1901B, 1904,

1908 A, 1908B, 1909, 1911; Schorler, 1907; Selk, 1907; Yolk, 1905).

Sweden (Lemmermann, 1904A; Petersen, 1911). Switzerland

(Bachmann, 1908; Chodat, 1894, 1901, 1902; Tanner-Fullmann,

1906, 1907; de Wildemann, 1897A).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Australia (Playfair, 1912). India

(Turner, 1892). Java (Bernard, 1908). Singapore (Lemmermann,

1904C).

Var. minor nov. var. (PI. XXIX: Figs. 70-74).

Cellulis brevioribus; apicibus cellularum 18, 20, 24, 25,

28 p inter se distantibus. Lat. cell. 3.4, 4.5, 6 p.

The arrangement of the cells of the colony in the variety

minor is similar to that of the typical form described by

Lagerheim. The cells are never in a plane but always form

a curved surface which at times is semicircular. The alga

was isolated from material which had originally been col¬

lected from the shore of a bay in Lake Monona (Wisconsin)

but which had been standing in the laboratory for some time.

The station was revisited several times but the alga was not

found in nature. Several strains were isolated from this col¬

lection all showing the same general characteristics. The

number of cells in the colony is always four, as described by

Lagerheim for S. acuminatus, but the cells are more irregular

in shape, being typically lunate (Figs. 70, 71) but occa¬

sionally sigmoid (Fig. 72). In this feature they show a strik¬

ing similarity to the cells of Ankistrodesmus. The cells of

the young colonies are very narrow but upon maturing in¬

crease in thickness without a corresponding increase in

length. (Figs. 70 and 74.)

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 439

Var. tetradesmoides nov. var. (PL XXIX: Figs. 75-80.)

Dimens. cell. 11 x 2.5, 12.5 x 3, 15 x 3.5, 15 x 4 g.

The organism was isolated from a collection of algae gath¬

ered from the east shore of Devil’s Lake, Wisconsin. The

cells are not as markedly lunate nor as long as those de¬

scribed by Lagerheim. The curve of the coenobe may be

very slight (Fig. 75) or it may be so great that the cells form

two parallel series (Fig. 76). All gradations between these

two conditions can be found in my pure cultures.

Stages similar to that shown in Figure 76 appear to be

identical with Tetradesmus wisconsinensis Smith; the cells

of both are about the same size, but the cultural evidence

of both Smith and Chodat shows that the cells of T. wiscon¬

sinensis are always arranged in two parallel series and never

form a flat or curved surface. This condition is compara¬

tively rare, however, in the form isolated since not more

than five per cent of the colonies show a tendency toward

an arrangement of cells in two parallel series. This variety

is of interest from the phylogenetic standpoint since it forms

a transition stage between Tetradesmus and Scenedesmus.

6. S. antennatus de Breb. (PL XXVIII: Figs. 56, 58.)

de Brebisson in Ralfs, 1848, p. 222; PL XXXV, Figs. 27A-27B.

de Brebisson 1856, p. 412. Rabenhorst, 1868, p. 65. Cooke, 1882,

p. 43; PL XIII, Fig. 7. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 66. de Toni, 1889B,

p. 567. W. West, 1889A, p. 290. Roy, 1890, p. 338. W. West,

1892 A, p. 194. W. West, 1892B, p. 738. de Wildemann, 1893A.

West and West, 1897B, p. 500. Nitardy, 1898, p. 104. Balsamo,

1900, p. 266. West and West, 1901B, p. 119. West and West,

1902B, p. 64. Fournier, 1903, p. 28. Nitardy, 1904, p. 318.

Selk, 1907, p. 5. Adams, 1908, p. 35. Gutwinski, 1909, p. 435.

Comere, 1911, p. 50. Chodat, 1913, p. 18. Brunnthaler, 1913,

pp. 166, 170; Fig. 4.

Scenodesmus antennatus. de Brebisson, 1856, p. 160. Archer,

1861, p. 753.

“Cellulis fusiformibus, 2-4-8 in seriem simplicem vel

duplicem conjunctis, omnibus sublunulatis, plerumque ven-

tricoses, utroque polo cuspidatis, apice globulum hyalinum

gerentibus. Dimens. cell. 12-13 x 2.5-4 /x.”

I am of the opinion that many of the recorders of this

species had it confused with S. obliquus (Turp.) Ktz. In

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

examining material with the lower powers of the microscope

colonies of fusiform cells with globules on the ends are some¬

times found but upon applying a magnification of 1000

diameters or over, this globule on the end disappears and

the colony is found to be S. obliquus. Since many workers

do not use a magnification of over 500 diameters, it is very

probable that some have fallen into this error. The nearest

approach to S. antennatus that I have seen is shown in

Figure 58. In view of the fact that S. antennatus has been

reported by certain of the more careful investigators, it

seems very likely that the species exists and should be rec¬

ognized.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Gutwinski, 1909). England

(Cooke, 1882; Roy, 1890; W. West, 1889A, 1892B; West and West,

1897B, 1901B). France (de Brebisson, 1848, 1856; Fournier,

1903; Comere, 1911). Germany (Nitardy, 1898, 1904; Selk, 1907).

Ireland (Adams, 1908; W. West, 1892A; West and West, 1902B).

7. S. incrassatulus Bohlin. (PL XXV: Figs. 9-10.)

Bohlin, 1897, p. 24; PI. I, Figs. 45-51. Chodat, 1902, p. 211;

Fig. 131. West and West, 1907, p. 229; PI. XIII, Fig. 26. Brunn-

thaler, 1913, p. 166; Fig. 3.

“Sc. vel cellulis singulis vel cellulis in coenobia quaternis

(nonnumquam binis) conjunctis, aut seriem rectam for-

mantibus, aut subalternatim dispositis. Cellulis fusiformibus

subacutis, binis mediis leniter, binis lateralibus magis cur-

vatis, dorso convexis ventra rectis vel concavis. Membrana

tenui, in apice incrassatula.”

Dimens. cell. 17 x 5, 21 x 6, 23 x 5, 28 x 7, 24 x 8 y.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Brazil (Bohlin). Burma (West and West).

var. Monona e nov. var. (PI XXIX: Figs. 81-83.)

Cellulis ovatioribus, minoribus. Dimens. cell. 11x3.5*

12x4, 12x4.5 y.

I have isolated this alga but once, the source of the mate¬

rial being near the outlet of Lake Monona, Wisconsin. The

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

441

cells have the characteristic concavity on the side towards

the colony and the convexity on the other side. In my pure

cultures, I have found the cells arranged in a linear series,

but no marked alteration in them, while the terminal bulb

is not very pronounced. The cells are much smaller than

those of Bohlin, the largest measuring but 12 x 4.5 g. The

differences in both shape and size of the cells warrants the

establishing of a new variety.

8. S. bijuga (Turp.) Lag. (PI. XXV: Fig. 2.)

Lagerheim, 1893, p. 158. Lagerheim, 1900, p. 10. Borge,

1907 A, p. 57. Borge, 1907B, p. 4. Collins, 1909, p. 168. Hayden,

1910, p. 44. Klugh, 1911, p. 97. Klugh, 1912, p. 115. Borge,

1913, p. 60.

Achnanthes bijuga. Turpin, 1828, p. 310; PI. XIII, Fig. 4.

Achnanthes quadrijuga. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 6. Turpin, 1828,

p. 310; PI. XIII, Fig. 5.

Achnanthes quadralterna. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 8. Turpin, 1828,

p. 311; PI. XIII, Fig. 7.

Achnanthes octalterna. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 12. Turpin, 1828,

p. 312; PI. XIII, Fig. 8.

Bacillaria viridis. Leiblein, 1830, p. 316; Pi. I, Fig. 3.

S. obtusus. Meyen, 1829, p. 775; PI. XLIII, Figs. 30-31.

Meneghini, 1840, p. 209. Hassall, 1845, p. 393; PI. XCII, Fig. 15.

Ralfs, 1845, ,p. 404; PI. XII, Fig. 8. Ralfs, 1846, p. 162; PI. XV,

Fig. 8. Ralfs, 1848, p. 193; PI. XXXI, Figs. 16A-16C. Bailey,

1851, p. 29. Bailey, 1855, p. 12. Griffith and Henfrey, 1856, p.

656; PI. X, Figs. 53-54. Archer, 1857, p. 40. Zanardini, 1857,

p. 250. Grunow, 1858, p. 499. Reinsch, 1867, p. 80. Rabenhorst,

1868, p. 63; Figs. 34D-34E. Hohenbuhel-Heufler, 1871, p. 318.

Rostrop, 1871, p. 90. Olney, 1872, p. 135. Wittrock, 1872, p. 31.

Archer, 1874, p. 329. Wood, 1874, p. 90. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98.

Oudemans, 1879. Wille, 1879, p. 30. Cienowsky, 1881, p. 304.

Wolle, 1881, p. 213. Cooke, 1882, p. 33; PI. XIII, Fig. 5, Nord-

stedt, 1882, p. 46. Spencer, 1882, p. 296. Griffith and Henfrey,

1883, p. 679; PI. XIV, Figs. 53-54. Artari, 1884, p. 132. Hansgirg,

1884A, p. 9. Boldt, 1885, p. 97. Griffith and Henfrey, 1885, p. 686;

PI. X, Figs. 53-54. Paque, 1885, p. 52. Parfitt, 1886, p. 392.

Beck, 1887, p. 274. Bennett, 1887, p. 9. Martel, 1887A, p. 340.

Martel, 1887B, p. 11. de Toni et Levi, 1887, p. 1584. Alexenko,

1888, p. 158. Balsamo, 1888, p. 40. Bennett, 1888, p. 2. Harvey,

1888, p. 157. Konig,1888, p. 89. Loitlesberger, 1888, p. 224.

Nordstedt, 1888, p. 19. W. West, 1888, p. 748. Heiden, 1889,

p. 5. Riabinine, 1889A, p. 302. Riabinine, 1889B, p. 46. de

Toni, 1889 A, p. 70. Webber, 1889, p. 1012. W. West, 1889A, p.

290. Andersson, 1890, p. 5. Chmielweski, 1890, p. 92. Roy

1890, p. 338. W. West, 1890, p. 298. de Wildemann, 1890B, p.

442 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

155. Alexenko, 1891, p. 61. Beyerinck, 1891, p. 279. Ianouch-

kievitch, 1891, p. 289. Bennett, 1892, p. 5. Turner, 1892, p. 161.

Weiss, 1892, p. 36. Franze, 1893, p. 286. Schroder, 1893, p. 72.

Stokes, 1893, p. 52. Alexenko, 1894, p. 72. Borge, 1894, p. 9.

Alexenko, 1895, p. 93. Schroder, 1897A, p. 372. Schroder, 1897B,

p. 487. Wille, 1897, p.26. Forti, 1898, p.118. Nitardy, 1898, p. 104.

Zacharias, 1898, p. 93. Forti, 1899, p. 89. Iwanoff, 1899, p. 379.

Marquand, 1901, p. 321. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Neuweiler,

1901, p. 45; PI. Ill, Figs. 6-8. Larder, 1902, p. 59. Schmidle,

1902, p. 242. Volk, 1903, p. 103. Zacharias, 1903B, pp. 254, 262.

Comere, 1904, p. 62. Dorogoslaisky, 1904, p. 224. Friih und

Schroder, 1904, p. 364. Marquand, 1904, p. 269. Nitardy, 1904,

p. 318. Schmidle, 1904, p. 30. Stadier, 1905, p. 236. Suhr,

1905, p. 252. Petkoff, 1906A, p. 359. Brown, 1908, p. 247.

Quelle, 1908, p. 43. Andrews, 1909, p. 379. Ghodat, 1909, p.

101; PI. VII, Fig. F; PL XIII, Fig. C. Honigmann, 1909, p. 54.

Smith, 1914A, p. 292; PI. XVI, Figs. 24-42.

S. bijugatus. Klitzing, 1833, p. 607. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

Lagerheim, 1883, pp. 60, 65. Wille, 1884, pp. 10, 30, 45. Hansgirg,

1886, p. 114; Fig. 61. Hansgirg, 1889, p. 132. de Toni, 1889B, p.

563. llansgirg, 1890A, p. 111. Gutwinski, 1891, p. 302. Hansgirg,

1891, p. 317. Lemmermann, 1891, p. 148. W. West, 1891B, p.

421. Hansgirg, 1892B, p. 119. W. West, 1892A, p. 193. Lem¬

mermann, 1893, p. 523. Mobius, 1894, p. 330. Schmidle, 1893A,

p. 13. Schmidle, 1894, p. 43. Borge, 1895, p. 6. Lemmermann.

1895A, p. 41. West and West, 1895, p. 82. Boergesen, 1896, p. 36.

Borge, 1896, p. 7. Lemmermann, 1896, p. 108. Zacharias, 1896,

p. 76. Bohlin, 1897, p. 22. Farlow in Trelease, 1897, p. 196.

Lemmermann, 1897, p. 108. Schroder, 1897C, p. 45. Strohmeyer,

1897, p. 6. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. Lemmermann, 1898A,

p. 191. Mez, 1898, p. 149. Schroder, 1898," p. 23. Boergesen,

1899A, p. 135. Borge, 1899, p. 7. Garbini, 1899A, p. 15. Lem¬

mermann, 1899, p. 112. Levander, 1899, pp. 49, 54, 63, 70, 80, 90,

93,100. Marsson, 1899, p. 102. G. S. West, 1899, p. 220. Chodat,

1900, p. 3. Filarsky, 1900, p. 145. Lemmermann, 1900A, p. 68.

Levander, 1900, p. 7. Schmidle, 1900C, p. (141). Schorler, 1900,

p. 5. Boergesen, 1901 A, p. 240. Borge, 1901B, p. 13. Dalla Torre und

von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 34. Fanning, 1901, p. 617; PL XLV, Fig. 4.

Marsson, 1901 A, pp. 96, 101. Marsson, 1901B, p. 96. West and

West, 1901A, p. 196. West and West, 1901B, p. 119. Wide, 1901,

p. 11. Blumentritt, 1902, p. 86. Bohlin, 1902, p. 43. Gutwinski,

1902, p. 576. Riddle, 1902, p. 317. West and West, 1902, p. 181.

West and West, 1902B, p. 63. Forti, 1902, p. 60. Boergesen and

Ostenfeld, 1903, p. 615. Hansgirg, 1903, p. 1. Pascher, 1903, p.

175. Snow, 1903, p. 391. W. West, 1903, p. 100. Heering und

Homfeld, 1904, p. 84. Lemmermann, 1904A, pp. 39, 71, 92, 158.

G. S. West,. 1904B, p. 220; Fig. 92C. West and West, 1904, p.

531. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 457. Huber, 1905, p. 57. Lemmermann,

1905B, p. 160. Lemmermann, 1905C, pp. 167, 168. Riddle,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

443

1905, p. 268. Trotter, 1905, p. 45; Fig. 18. Volk, 1905, p. 64.

West and West, 1905, p. 30. Hardy, 1906, p. 38. Pascher, 1906,

p. 168. Ruttner, 1906, p. 10. Schorler, Thallwitz, und Schiller,

1906, p. 247. West and West, 1906A, p. 489. Buchanan, 1907,

p. 81. Huber, 1907, p. 455. Larsen, 1907 A, p. 358. Lauterborn,

1907, p. 123. Migula, 1907, p. 657; PL XXXII, Fig. 32; PI.

XXXV K, Fig. 10. Lemmermann, 1907B, p.. 412. Selk, 1907,

pp. 5, 57, 64, 73, 94, 98, 103, 112, 115. Teodoresco, 1907, p. 129.

G. S. West, 1907, p. 138. West and West, 1907, p. 229. Adams,

1908, p. 35. Bernard, 1908, p. 183; PI. XIV, Figs. 423-424.

Huber, 1908, p. 313. Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908, p. 514.

Lemmermann, 1908A, p. 167.’ Marsson, 1908B, pp. 95, 120.

Schneider, 1908, p. 46. Adams, 1909, p. 186. Bernard, 1909, p.

77; PL VI, Figs. 162-163. Borge, 1909, p. 16. Eyferth, 1909, p.

116. Gutwinski, 1909, p. 434. Honigmann, 1909, p. 54. G. S.

West, 1909A, p. 16, 29. West and West, 1909A, p. 140. West and

West, 1909B, p. 184. Ostenfeld, 1909, p. 174. Gugliemetti, 1910,

p. 31. Kofoid, 1910, p. 31. Bachmann, 1911, p. 191. Comere,

1911, p. 51. Marsson, 1911, pp. 283, 285, 286. Conrad et Kuf-

ferath, 1912, p. 321. Griffith, 1912, p. 11. Brunnthaler, 1913,

pp. 169, 171. Hardy, 1913, p. 93. Migula (no date) p. 37; PL

IV, Fig. 6.

S. trijugatus . Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607; Fig. 97. de Brebisson,

1839, p. 271. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267.

S. Leibleinii. Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607; Fig. 98. Meneghini, 1840,

p. 207. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

S. odaltemus. Kiitzing, 1833, p. 609; Fig. 95. Balsamo, 1900.

p. 266.

5. quadr alter nus. Kiitzing, 1833, p. 608; Fig. 94. de Brebisson,

1839, p. 271. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

Scenodesmus obtusus. Ehrenberg, 1834, p. 310. Kiitzing, 1845,

p. 139. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 185. Nageli, 1849, p. 91: PL V, Figs.

A-l-a to A-l-m. Rabenhorst, 1850’, p. 517. de Brebisson, 1856,

p. 160. Archer, 1861, p. 753: PL I, Figs. 37-39. Kirchner, 1891,

p. 18. Conn and Webster, 1908, p. 35; PL VI, Fig. 38.

Scenodesmus quadricauda var. ecornis. Ehrenberg, 1834, p. 311.

Arthrodesmus quadr icaudatus ecornis. Ehrenberg, 1836.

S. quadr ialter nans var. odalternus. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

S. quadr ijugatus. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Bailey, 1855, p.

12.

S. quadrijugatus var. minor, de Brebisson in Meneghini, 1840,

p. 207.

S', quadr icaudatus var. ecornis. Rail's, 1845, p. 402; Pl. XII, Fig.

4C. Hassall, 1845, p. 392. Ralfs, 1846, p. 159; PL XV, Fig. 4G.

Snow, 1903, p. 391.

S. quadricauda var. ecornis. Ralfs, 1848, p. 190; PL XXXI,

Figs. 12H-12I. Schaarschmidt, 1884, p. 249. Parfitt, 1886, p.

392. Nordstedt, 1888, p. 19. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Dalla Torre

und von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Petkoff, 1906A, p. 358.

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. ecaudatus. Kutzing, 1849, p. 186.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. binarius. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. biternarius. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. quaternarius. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. obliquus. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. ternarius. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. octonarius. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. alternans. Kutzing, 1849, p. 185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. obliquus dunlex. Kutzing, 1849, p.

185.

Scenodesmus obtusus var. Leibleinii. de Brebisson, 1856, p. 160.

S. obtusus var. ecornis. Franze, 1892, p. 149; PI. Ill, Figs. 4,

13-14. de Wildemann, 1897C, p. 78.

5. variabilis var. ecornis. de Wildemann, 1893A. de Wilde¬

mann, 1893B, p. 91. Schmidle, 1895, p. 305. de Wildemann,

1895, p. 26. de Wildemann, 1897A, p. 60. de Wildemann, 1897B

p. 49. de Wildemann, 1899, p. 11. Schmidle, 1900B, p. 126.

Schmidle, 1902B p. 125. Fournier, 1903, p. 28. Schodduyn,

1909, p. 166.

S. bijugatus var. seriatus. Chodat, 1902, p. 212. Migula, 1907,

p. 658. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 172.

S. obtusus var. seriatus. Reinhardt, 1905, p. 26.

S. bijugatus forma seriatus. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Larsen, 1907B,

p. 104.

Steinella Graevenitzii. Bernard, 1908, p. 189; PI. XIV, Figs.

463-466.

“Coenobiis 4-8 cellularibus; cellulis oblongo-ellipticis vel

ovatis, utroque polo obtuso-rotundatis, aculeis carentibus,

7-18 x 4-7 (raro 10) y, in seriem simplicem, rectam vel ob-

liquam arete laxeve conjunctis.”

A well known species which I have not obtained in pure cul¬

ture. The cells of several cultures which at first appeared

to be S. bijuga were found on closer examination to have

small spines on the ends, and it is probable that various in¬

vestigators who have reported the species have failed to

note these horns on coenobes with obtuse cells and so called

the species S. bijuga. I have found the species fairly abun¬

dant in nature in this vicinity and can not explain why I

have been unable to obtain it in pure culture.

The cells are arranged in either a linear or sub-alternating

series. A strain was isolated with the cells constantly in

two series, a condition which is found in nature and regarded

by many as a normal variation of S. bijuga but I prefer to

consider this as a variety ( platydisca ) of S. arcuatus Lemm.,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 445

the reasons for which are given in the discussion of that

species.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria- Hungary (Alexenko, 1888, 1894, 1895;

Beck, 1887; Blumentritt, 1902; Filarsky, 1900; Franze, 1892, 1893;

Grunow, 1858; Gutwinski, 1909; Hansgirg, 1884A, 1886, 1889,

1890A, 1891, 1892B, 1905; lanouchkievitch, 1891; Loitlesberger,

1888; Pascher, 1903,1906; Reinhardt, 1905; Riabinine,1889A, 1889B;

Ruttner, 1906; Stadler, 1905). Belgium (Conrad et Kufferath,

1912; Paque, 1885; de Wildemann, i890B, 1893B; 1895, 1897B).

Bulgaria (Petkoff, 1906). Denmark (Chodat, 1900; W. West,

1891B). England (Bennett, 1887, 1888, 1892; Cooke, 1882;

Griffith, 1912; Hassall, 1845; Larder, 1902; Marquand, 1901,

1904; Parfitt, 1886; Ralfs, 1845, 1846, 1848; Roy, 1890; G. S.

West, 1899, 1904B; W. West, 1888, 1889 A, 1890, 1892B, 1897B;

West and West, 1901B, 1909A, 1909B). France (de Brebisson,

1856; Comere, 1904, 1911; Fournier, 1903; Schodduyn, 1909;

Turpin, 1820, 1828). Germany (Ehrenberg, 1834; Eyferth, 1909;

Heering und Homfeld, 1904; Heiden, 1889; Honigmann, 1909;

Kirchner, 1878; Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908; Konig, 1888;

Kiitzing, 1845; Lauterborn, 1907; Leiblein, 1830; Lemmermann,

1891, 1893, 1895A, 1896, 1897, 1898A, 1899, 1901A, 1905B, 1905C,

1907B; Marsson, 1899, 1901 A, 1901B, 1908B, 1911; Meyen, 1829;

Migula, 1907; Nitardy, 1898, 1904; Quelle, 1908; Schmidle, 1893A,

1894; Schneider, 1908; Schorler, 1900; Schorler, Thallwitz und

Schiller, 1906; Schroder, 1893, 1897 A, 1897B, 1897G, 1898; Stroh-

meyer, 1897; Selk, 1907; Volk, 1903, 1905; Weiss, 1892; Zacharias,

1896, 1898, 1903B). Holland (Beyerinck, 1891; Oudemans, 1879).

Ireland (Adams, 1908, 1909; Archer, 1857; W. West, 1892A; West

and West, 1902B, 1909B). Italy (Balsamo, 1888; Forti, 1898,

1899, 1902; Garbini, 1899A; Gugliemetti, 1910; Hohenbiihel-

Heufler, 1871; Martel, 1887A, 1887B; Meneghini, 1840; Raben-

horst, 1850; de Toni, 1889 A; de Toni et Levi, 1887; Trotter, 1905;

Zanardini, 1857). Montenegro (Schmidle, 1900B, 1902B). Norway

(Wille, 1901). Roumania (Teodoresco, 1907). Russia (Alexenko,

1891; Artari, 1884; Borge, 1894; Chmielweski, 1890; Cienowsky,

1881; Dorogoslaisky, 1904; Gutwinski, 1891; Iwanoff, 1899;

Levander, 1899, 1900; Wille, 1879). Scotland (W. West, 1903;

West and West, 1904, 1905, 1906A, 1909B). Sicily (Lemmer¬

mann, 1908A). Sweden (Andersson, 1890; Borge, 1895, 1907A,

1913; Lagerheim, 1883; Lemmermann, 1904A). Switzerland

(Chodat, 1902, 1909; Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901; Friih

und Schroter, 1904; Huber, 1905, 1907, 1908; Neuweiler, 1901;

Schmidle, 1895; de Wildemann, 1897A).

AFRICA. Abyssinia (Lagerheim, 1893). Azores (Archer, 1874;

Bohlin, 1902; Farlow in Trelease, 1897). Madagascar (West and

West, 1895). Lake Nyassa (Schmidle, 1902; G. S. West, 1907).

446 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Lake Rukuga (Schmidle, 1904). Lake Tanganyika (G. S. West,

1907). Lake Victoria Nyanza (Ostenfeld, 1909).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Afghanistan (Schaarschmidt, 1884).

Australia (Borge, 1896, 1911; Hardy, 1906, 1913; Mobius, 1894;

G. S. West, 1909A). Burma (West and West, 1907). Central

Asia (Schmidle, 1900C). Ceylon (West and West, 1901A). East

Indies (Hansgirg, 1903). India (Turner, 1892). Java (Bernard,

1908; Gutwinski, 1902; de Wildemann, 1897C, 1899). Johore

(Bernard, 1909). New Zealand (Nordstedt, 1888; Spencer, 1882).

Siam (West and West, 1902). Siberia (Boldt, 1885).

AMERICAS. Argentina (Borge, 1899; Nordstedt, 1882; Wille,

1884). Bolivia (Borge, 1907B). Brazil (Bohlin, 1897; Wille, 1884).

Canada (Klugh, 1911, 1912). Montevidio (Wille, 1884). Pategonia

(Borge 1901B). Paraguay (Bohlin, 1897). United States (Andrews,

1909; Bailey, 1851, 1855; Borge, 1909; Brown, 1908; Buchanan,

1907; Collins, 1909; Conn and Webster, 1908; Fanning, 1901;

Harvey, 1888; Hayden, 1910; Kofoid, 1910; Olney, 1872; Riddle,

1902, 1905; Smith, 1914A, 1914B; Snow, 1903; Stokes, 1893;

Webber, 1889; Wolle, 1881, 1887; Wood, 1874).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Boergesen, 1899A.

Faeroes (Boergesen, 1901 A; Boergesen and Ostenfeld, 1903;

Rostrup, 1871; Wille, 1897). Greenland (Boergesen, 1896; Larsen,

1907A, 1907B).

Var. flexosus (Lemm.) Collins. (PI. XXV: Fig. 16.)

Collins, 1909, p. 168.

S. bijugatus var. flexosus. Lemmermann, 1898A, p. 191; PI. V,

Fig. 1. Lemmermann, 1899, p. 112. Lemmermann, 1900A, p. 95.

Schmidle, 1900A, p. (111). Lemmermann, 1902, p. (251). Snow,

1903, pp. 375, 391; PI. I, Fig. 4. Lemmermann, 1904A, p. 27.

Lemmermann, 1905C, p. 167. Migula, 1907, p. 658; PI. XXXV L,

Fig. 6. Lemmermann, 1910A, pp. 294, 308. Lemmermann, 1910B,

p. 332. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 172; Fig. 26.

Coenobia 8-32 cellularum. Cellulis in leniter flexile spira

dispositis. Long. cell, circa 17 y. Lat. cell. 8 y.

The cultural work of Miss Snow showing that a form exists

in which there are normally 16-32 cells arranged in a loose

spiral gives good grounds for the recognition of this variety.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Germany (Lemmermann, 1898A, 1899, 1900A, 1902, 1905C;

Schmidle, 1900A). Paraguay (Lemmermann, 1910A). Sweden

(Lemmermann, 1904A, 1910B). United States (Collins, 1909;

Snow, 1903).

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

447

Var. minor (Hansg.) nov. comb.

S. bijugatus var. minor. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Toni,

1889B, p. 564. Blumentritt, 1902, p. 86. Hansgirg, 1905, p.

457. Migula, 1907, p. 658.

£. bijugatus forma minor. Pascher, 1903, p. 175.

S. obtusus var. minor. Yolk, 1903, p. 103.

Coenobiis 8-cellularum, 40-45x 18 p; cellulis ellipticis

vel ovoidis, 10-12 x 6-9 p; ceterum lit in var alternanti.

The cultural work of Chodat has shown that varieties

may be distinguished in S. bijuga on the basis of cell size.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Austria-Hungary (Hansgirg, 1886, 1905; Migula, 1907; Pascher,

1903). Germany (Yolk, 1903). Switzerland (Blumentritt, 1902).

Var. obtusiusculus (Chodat) nov. comb.

S. obtusiusculus Chodat, 1913, p. 47; Figs. 24-34.

Dimens. cell. 7-5 p, 6-3 g.

Var. alternans (Reinsch) Borge. (PI. XXV: Figs. 14-15.)

Borge, 1907A, p. 57. Collins, 1909, p. 168. Borge, 1913, p. 60.

S. alternans. Reinsch, 1866, p. 135; PI. XX, Fig. D5. Reinsch,

1867, p. 81; PI. VI, Fig. 3. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 65. Lagerheim,

1883B, p. 70. Lagerheim, 1887, p. 194. W. West, 1892A, p. 193.

W. West, 1892B, p. 738. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. G. S.

West, 1899, p. 221. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. West and West,

1902B, p. 63. Snow, 1903, p. 391. W. West, 1903, p. 100. Adams,

1908, p. 35.

S. bijugatus var. alternans. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 114. de Toni,

1889B, p. 6. Lemmermann, 1893, p. 523. Schmidle, 1894, p. 43.

Borge, 1895, p. 6. Bohlin, 1897, p. 22. Lemmermann, 1899, p. 112.

Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Chodat, 1902, p. 212.

Bohlin, 1902, p. 43. Schmidle, 1903, p. 80. Lemmermann, 1904A,

p. 39. Schmidle, 1904, pp. 4, 30, 32. Schmidle, 1904B, p. 7.

Hansgirg, 1905, p. 457. Huber, 1905, p. 57. Volk, 1905, p. 64.

Migula, 1907, p. 658; PI. XXXV (K), Fig. 8. Huber, 1908, p. 313.

Marsson, 1911, p. 263. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 172; Fig. 25.

Selenastrum alternans. Weiss, 1892, p. 37.

S. bijugatus forma alternans. Pascher, 1903, p. 175.

S. obtusus var. alternans. Volk, 1903, p. 103. Reinhardt, 1905,

p. 26.

“Cellulae omnes aequales late ellipticae usque ovato-

ellipticae, cellularum poli rotundati, cellularum diameter

8

448 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

transversalis duae partes diametri longitudinalis ; familae

plerumque ex cellulis octonis constitutae, cellalue singulae

laterale accumbentes, perfecte alternates.”

“Cellulae. longit. 13-16 y; cellulae latit. 10-13 /x.”

The typical fom of S. bijuga is known to have the cells

arranged sub alternately at times but the isolating of a strain

where the cells are constantly arranged in an alternate posi¬

tion warrants the retention of the variety alternans. It is

very probable, however, that in many cases the typical S.

bijuga has been called S. bijuga var. alternans.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary. (Hansgirg, 1886, 1905; Pascher,

1903; Reinhardt, 1905). England (G. S. West, 1899; W. West,

1892B; West and West, 1897B). France (Reinsch, 1866, 1867).

Germany (Lemmermann, 1893, 1899; Marsson, 1911; Schmidle,

1894; Volk, 1903, 1905; Weiss, 1892). Ireland (Adams, 1908;

W. West, 1892 A; West and West, 1902B). Scotland (W. West,

1903). Sweden (Borge, 1895, 1907 A, 1913; Lagerheim, 1883B;

Lemmermann, 1904A). Switzerland (Ghodat, 1902; Dalla Torre

und von Sarnthein, 1901; Huber, 1905, 1908).

AFRICA. Azores (Bohlin, 1902). Lake Nyassa (Schmidle,

1903, 1904). Lake Rukuga (Schmidle, 1904).

AMERICAS. Brazil (Bohlin, 1897). Paraguay (Bohlin, 1897).

Puerto Rico (Collins, 1909; Lagerheim, 1887). United States

(Collins, 1909; Snow, 1903).

Var. alternans forma parvus nov. forma. (PI. XXX:

Figs. 106-108.)

Dimens. cell. 8-9 y x 3.5-4 y.

The cells of this strain isolated never reach the minimal

dimensions as given by Reinsch so it is regarded as a form

of S. bijuga var. alternans.

Var. irregularis (Wille) nov. comb. (PI. XXVIII:

Figs. 59-62.)

S. bijugatus forma irregularis. Wille, 1903, p. 92; Fig. 4.

Cellulis irregulariter dispositis in seriem duplicem aut

alternatim. Dimens. cell. 10 x 6, 10 x 5, 8 x 4, 7.5 x 3.5 /x-

I have isolated this variety several times. The coenobia

usually contain eight cells, arranged in an irregular double

series, although four-celled coenobia where the cells are fre-

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

449

quently alternate are not rare. The arrangement of the

cells in a linear series is never found in this variety. The

dimensions of the cells agree very well with those given by

Wille.

9. S. curvatus. Bohlin. (PL XXVI: Figs. 17-18.)

Bohlin, 1897, p. 23; PI. I, Figs. 41-44, 52. Chodat, 1901, p.

1309. Marsson, 1901 A, p. 115. Chodat, 1902, p. 212; Figs.

132A-132F. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205. Migula,

1907, p. 658; PI. XXXV (L), Fig. 3. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169,

171; Fig. 22.

“Sc. coenobiis e 8 (nonnumquam 4) cellulis in seriem duas,

alternantes conjunctis, ad basim brevitor cohaerentibus,

interstitia latitudini cellularum similia formantibus. Serie

cellularum in orbem tres partes peripheriae circuli efficientem

curvata. Cellulis subcylindricis, obtusis, in centrum coenobii

leniter curvatis, chlorophoris singulo, pyrenoida singula in-

cludentis. Dimens. cell. 12-30 x 4-10 ju.”

The cell arrangement forming about three-fourths of a

cylinder, gives a very characteristic appearance to the

coenobe, while the angular compression where the cells join

one another makes a further difference between S . curvatus

and S. bijuga var. alternans (Reinsch) Borge.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

England (Fritsch, 1906). Germany (Marsson, 1901A, Volk,

1905). Paraguay (Bohlin, 1897). Switzerland (Chodat, 1901,

1902).

10. S. arcuatus. Lemm. (PI. XXVI: Figs. 19-20; PL

XXIX: Figs. 94-98; Pl. XXX: Figs. 99-100.)

Lemmermann, 1899, p. 112; Pl. I, Figs. 2-4. de Toni et Forti,

1899A, p. 179. de Toni et Forti, 1899B, p. 791. West and West,

1900, p. 298. Lemmermann, 1904A, p. 158. Lemmermann,

1905B, p. 158, 162. Reinhardt, 1905, p. 26. Lemmermann,

1907B, p. 411. Migula, 1907, p. 658. Lemmermann, 1908A, p.

167. Marsson, 1908B, p. 116. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 32. Lem¬

mermann, 1910A, pp. 294, 298. Marsson, 1911, pp. 263, 286.

Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 171; Fig. 23.

5. bijugatus var. arcuatus. Lemmermann, 1898B, p. 159.

Lemmermann in Marsson, 1899, p. 172. Schmidle, 1900, p. (111).

West and West, 1906B, p. 105; PL X, Figs. 12-14.

450 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

S. bijugatus forma arcuatus. G. S. West, 1907, p. 138. West

and West, 1909B, p. 184.

Coenobia 4-16 cellularum, saepe 8. Coenobis curvatis

planis, cum parvis foraminibus inter cellulas; ceilulis in

series duas, oblongi-ovatis vel sub-angulatis. Dimens. cell.

9x5, 8.5x6, 12x8, 15x9 g.

This species was isolated from a plankton catch from Lake

Mendota, Wisconsin. For the past five years this alga has

been found occasionally during the summer months at this

station, but nowhere else in this locality. The measure¬

ments of the cells as given by Lemmermann, 7-8 y broad

and 13-6 y long, agree very well with the dimensions of the

mature cells both in my pure cultures, and in the field.

The arrangement of the cells in the characteristically

curved surface is quite striking and persits in the pure cul¬

ture grown in both agar and liquid media. Surface views

(Figs. 97, 99, 100) show this well but an end view of a colony

(Fig. 95) bring it out even more strongly. Generally the

cells are in two symmetrically arranged series with small

angular interstices between them (Fig. 99), but irregularities

occasionally appear (Fig. 94). A normal colony contains

eight cells; very few have four cells (Fig. 96), and although

colonies of sixteen cells are reported by Lemmermann I

have neither found them in nature, nor in my pure cultures.

The systematic position of the form is a matter of dispute.

It was first described by Lemmermann as a variety of S.

bijuga (Turp.) Ktz., but later raised to specific rank. West

and West have recently replaced it among the varieties of

S. bijuga. This placing of S. arcuatus as a form or variety

of S. bijuga has arisen from the conception that cells ar¬

ranged in two series of four cells each are a normal variation

of *S. bijuga that may occur for one generation only. How¬

ever, since I have been able to isolate a form in which this

two-seried cell arrangement persists, although the cells do

not form a curved plane, the arrangement of the cells in

two series may be regarded as a specific character.

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Reinhardt, 1905). Germany

(Lemmermann, 1898B, 1899, 1905B, 1907B; Marsson, 1908B,

1911; Schmidle, 1900). Ireland (West and West, 1906B, 1909B).

Italy (de Toni and Forti, 1899B, Gugliemetti, 1910). Sicily

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

451

(Lemmermann, 1908A). Sweden (Lemmermann, 1904A; de Toni

and Forti, 1899A).

AFRICA. Lake Tanganyika (G. S. West, 1907).

AMERICAS. Paraguay (Lemmermann, 1910A). United States

Var. platydisca, nov. var. (PI. XXX: Figs. 101-105.)

Cellulae coenobium saepe 8, in seriam duas in uno piano,

foramina inter cellulas parva. Dimens. cell. 8x 4.5, 8x5,

9x5.5, 10x5.5, 11x6 y.

The form which I have isolated in pure culture has been

figured by Nageli, West, and others as one of the normal

variations of S. bijuga (Turp) Lag. However, since the cell

arrangement shows a greater resemblance to S. arcuatus

than to S. bijuga , this form is placed as a variety of S.

arcuatus.

All the colonies in a culture have the cells arranged in the

characteristic flat surface, thereby differing from the typical

form. The interstices between the cells are much smaller

and angular by compression, where the cells come in con¬

tact with one another.

The normal number of cells in a colony is eight (Figs.

101, 103-105) although four-celled coenobia have been

found (Fig. 102). These, however, cannot be distinguished

from thp four-celled colonies of S. arcuatus except by the

size of the individual cells, which average five microns

shorter and two microns narrower than those of S. arcuatus.

This variety may have been described by Chodat as the

variety disciformis of S. bijuga but his description “Cellules

en petite thalle, 4-ou octocellulaire, polyhedrique par com¬

pression” is indefinite in that it may refer to the form under

consideration or to S. bijuga var. irregularis (Wille).

11. S. producto-capitatus Schmula. (PI. XXV : Fig. 11.)

Schmula, 1910, p. 85; Figs. 1-5. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 170,

172; Fig. 27. Chodat, 1913, p. 25.

“Cellulae singulae, aut in coloniis, quae duas tresve aut

quator cellulas continent. Cellulae visae ab adversa parte

(fronte) 11-14 y longae, in media parte 3-3.5 y latae, hinc

ad extrema versus instar capitis dilatatae, productae et

rotundatae sine aculus, praeditae membrane tenuissima,

nucleo centralo et duobus pyrenoidibus. Cellulae a vertice

rotundae et diametro 3-3.5 y. A latere visae cellulae prae-

452 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

bent in uno latere mediae partis maiorem expansionem quam

in altero. In coloniis quatuor cellularum saepius a fronte

duae cellulae sinistrae a duabus cellulis dextris ita differunt

ut latus crassius ventris in iliis dextrosum in his sinistrorsum

directum sit.”

Known only from Schmula’s description.

DISTRIBUTION

Germany (Schmula, 1910).

12. S. denticulatus Lag. (PI. XXVI. Fig. 23).

Lagerheim, 1883, p. 61; PI. II, Figs. 13-17. Schroter, 1884, p.

189. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Wildemann, 1888, p. 77. Hansgirg,

1889, p. 132. de Toni, 1889B, p. 564. Hansgirg, 1890A, p. 112.

Hansgirg, 1891, p. 317. Hansgirg, 1892B, p. 119. W. West,

1892A, p. 193. W. West, 1892B, p. 738. Lemmermann, 1893,

p. 524. de Wildemann, 1893A. Schroder, 1896, p. 46. Gutwinski,

1897A, p. 3. Gutwinski, 1897B, p. 134. Schmidle, 1897, p. 20.

Schroder, 1897A, p. 372. Schroder, 1897B, p. 487. Schroder,

1897C, p. 45. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. Lemmermann,

1898A, p. 191. Boergesen, 1899B, p. 333. Garbini, 1899A, p.

15. Schroder, 1899, p. 22. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Chodat, 1900,

p. 2. Boergesen, 1901 A, p. 240; PI. X, Fig. 5. Dalla Torre und

von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Lemmermann, 1901B, p. 80. West

and West, 1901B, p. 120. Bohlin, 1902, p. 44. Forti, 1902, p. 60.

Voigt, 1902, p. 76. West and West, 1902, p. 181. West and West,

1902B, p. 64. Pascher, 1903, p. 175. Volk, 1903, p. 103. Heering

und Homfeld, 1904, p. 83. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458. Huber, 1905,

p. 57. Lemmermann, 1905B, pp. 158, 163. Lemmermann, 1905G,

p. 167. West and West, 1905, p. 270. Lemmermann, 1906, p.

250. Ruttner, 1906, p. 10. Schorler, Thallwitz, und Schiller,

1906, p. 247. Borge, 1907 A, p. 58. Larsen, 1907A, p. 358. Larsen,

1907B, p. 104. Lemmermann, 1907B, p. 412. Migula, 1907, p.

656. Adams, 1908, p. 35. Lemmermann, 1908E, p. 405. G. S.

West, 1909G, p. 245. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 31. Kofoid, 1910, p.

31. Bachmann, 1911, p. 191. Marsson, 1911, pp. 261, 286.

Petersen, 1911, p. 160; Fig. 6. Griffith, 1912, p. 11. Brunnthaler,

1913, pp. 166, 170; Fig. 5.

S. denticulatus var. genuinus. Lagerheim, 1883, pp. 61, 56; PI.

II, Figs. 13-16.

Scenodesmus denticulatus. Kirchner, 1885, p. CLXXX.

S. denticulatus forma (un-named). Borge, 1891, p. 6; PI. I,

Fig. 1. Borge, 1895, p. 7.

S. hystrix var. denticulatus. Ghodat, 1902, p. 215.

S. hystrix forma denticulatus cohaerens. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

Selk, 1907, p. 6.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 453

S. hystrix forma denticulatus. Volk, 1905, p. 65. Selk, 1907,

pp. 7, 57, 68, 79, 85, 94, 99, 108, 115r

S. hystrix forma denticulatus genuinus. Selk, 1907, p. 68.

“Sc.cellulis quaternis, ovatis vel ovali-oblongis, cruciatim

dispositis vel subalternantibus, utroque polo rotundatis et

denticulus parvis, plerumque binis, instructis. Membrana

cellularum subcrassa. Dimens. cell. 7x5, 10x7, 12x6,

13x9, 15x9, 15x11 p”

Although this species occurs abundantly in this vicinity

it has never been isolated in pure culture. For this reason

the variations in the size of the cells cannot be given ; so the

existence of the variety zig-zag , described by Lagerheim,

’where the cells are about half as wide as the typical form,

cannot be affirmed or denied. Another even more important

point is whether or not the arrangement of the cells in a

linear series or an alternating series is a constant character,

or if the alternating type of colony gives rise to the linear

type or vice-versa. G. S. West (1904B) shows a linear type

of colony in which two daughter colonies are being liberated

that have the alternating arrangement of the cells, a condi¬

tion which corresponds with my observation made on

material from the field. Until this question of cell arrange¬

ment has been definitely settled by cultural studies, it seems

best to follow the general practice of recognizing both alter¬

nating and linear types as distinct.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Gutwinski, 1897A, 1897B; Hans-

girg, 1886, 1889, 1890A, 1891, 1892B, 1905; Pascher, 1903;

Ruttner, 1906). Belgium (de Wildemann, 1888). Denmark

(Chodat, 1900). England (Griffith, 1912; W. West, 1892B; West

and West, 1897B, 1901B). Germany (Heering und Homfeld, 1904;

Kirchner, 1885; Lemmermann, 1893, 1898A, 1899, 1901B, 1905B,

1905G, 1906, 1907B, 1908E; Marsson, 1911 ; Migula, 1907; Schmidle,

1897; Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller, 1906; Schroder, 1896,

1897A, 1897B, 1897C, 1899; Schroter, 1884; Selk, 1907; Voigt,

1902; Volk, 1903, 1905). Ireland (Adams, 1908; W. West, 1892A;

West and West, 1902B). Italy (Forti, 1902; Garbini, 1899 A;

Gugliemetti, 1910). Scotland (West and West, 1905). Sweden

(Borge, 1895, 1907A; Lagerheim, 1883; Petersen, 1911). Switzer¬

land (Chodat, 1902; Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901; Huber,

1905).

454 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

AFRICA. Albert Nyanza (G. S. West, 1909C). Azores (Bohlin,

1902).

ASIA. Siam (West and West, 1902). Siberia (Borge, 1891).

AMERICAS. United States (Kofoid, 1910).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Faeroes. (Boergesen,

1899B, 1901A). Greenland (Larsen, 1907A, 1907B).

Var. zig-zag Lagerheim.

Lagerheim, 1883, p. 61; PL II, Fig. 17. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115,

de Toni, 1889B, p. 565. West and West, 1895, p. 82. Balsamo,

1900, p. 266. Pascher, 1903, p. 175. Yolk, 1903, p. 103.

S. denticulatus forma zig-zag. Pascher, 1906, p. 169.

S. hystrix forma zig-zag. Selk, 1907, p. 57.

“S. denticulatus cellulis ovali-oblongis, quaternis, sub-

alternantibus. Dimens. cell. 6x4, 10 x 5, 15 x 6 ju.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Austria-Hungary (Hansgirg, 1886; Pascher, 1903, 1906). Ger¬

many (Selk, 1907; Volk, 1903). Madagascar (West and West,

1895). Sweden (Lagerheim, 1883).

Var. linearis Hansgr.

Hansgirg, 1886, p. 268. de Toni, 1889B, p. 565. W. West, 1892B,

p. 738. West and West, 1895, p. 82. West and West, 1897A, p.

239. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. G. S. West, 1899, p. 211.

West and West, 1901A, p. 197. West and West, 1901B, p. 120.

West and West, 1902, p. 182. West and West, 1902B, p. 64.

Volk, 1903, p. 103. Setchell and Gardner, 1903, p. 206. W. West,

1903, p. 100. G. S. West, 1904A, p. 287. G. S. West, 1904B, p.

220; Figs. 92I-92K. Hardy, 1906, p. 38. West and West, 1906A,

p. 489. Migula, 1907, p. 656. G. S. West, 1907, p. 138. West

and West, 1907, p. 229. Collins, 1909, p. 169. G. S. West, 1909A,

p. 29. West and West, 1909B, p. 184. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp.

166, 170.

S. denticulatus var. lineatus. W. West, 1892A, p. 193; PI. XVII,

Fig. 7. Schmidle, 1893B, p. 545. Boergesen, 1896, p. 36.

S. bidentatus. Hansgirg, 1892, p. 229. Hansgirg, 1892B, p.

119. Schorler, 1900, p. 5. Pascher, 1906, p. 168. Migula, 1907,

p. 656.

S. hystrix forma denticulatus bicaudatus. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

S. denticulatus forma linearis. Pascher, 1906, p. 168.

S. denticulatus var. diengianus. Bernard, 1908, p. 185; PI. XIV,

Fig. 448.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

455

“Var. cellulis oblongis angustioribus et in unam seriem

ordinatis nec cruciatim nec alternatim; cum 2-3 dentibus

parvis.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Hansgirg, 1886, 1892; Pascher,

1906). England (G. S. West, 1899, 1904B; W. West, 1892B; West

and West, 1897B, 1901B). Germany (Schorler, 1900; Volk, 1903,

1905). Ireland (W. West, 1892A; West and West, 1902B). Scot¬

land (W. West, 1903; West and West, 1906A, 1909B).

AFRICA. “Libuna River (West and West, 1897A). Madagas¬

car (West and West, 1895). Lake Nyassa (G. S. West, 1907).

Lake Tanganyika G. S. West, 1907).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Australia (Hardy, 1906; G. S. West,

1909A). Burma (West and West, 1907). Ceylon (West and West,

1901A). Java (Bernard, 1908). Siam (West and West, 1902).

AMERICAS. Trinidad (G. S. West, 1904A). United States

(Collins, 1909; Setchell and Gardner, 1903).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Faeroes (Boergesen,

1899B). Greenland (Boergesen, 1896).

Var. lunatus West and West. (PI. XXVI: Fig. 24.)

West and West, 1895, p. 82; PI. V, Figs. 11-12. Balsamo, 1900,

p. 266. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 166, 170. Chodat, 1913, p. 20.

Var. cellulis 2-4 in seriem rectam dispositis, cellulis me-

dianis ellipticis rectis, terminalibus extrorsum lunatis, apici-

bus cellularum 3-denticulatis. Long. cell. 9.5-11 ju; lat.

cell. 3.5—4 /X.

Known only from West and West’s discovery of the va¬

riety in Madagascar.

13. S. aculeolatus Reinsch. (PI. XXVI: Fig. 22.)

Reinsch, 1877, p. 238; PI. VI, Figs. 1-2. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 65.

de Toni, 1889B, p. 565. Lemmermann, 1893A, p. 41. de Wilde-

mann, 1893B. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Chodat, 1902, p. 215.

Migula, 1907, p. 656. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 166, 170; Fig. 8.

“S. cellulis oblongo-cylindricis utroque polo obtuso-

rotundatis, spinulis compluribus brevioribus absque ordine

dispositis armato. Longit. fam. 4-cellularis 19.6 y. Latit.

cellularum 13-16.8 y. Specimina singula observata inter

Spirogyram.”

456 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Because this species has been found but once since it was

first described by Reinsch in 1877, and because the original

description was based on a single specimen it might be placed

among the doubtful species.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Cape of Good Hope (Reinsch, 1877). Germany (Lemmermann,

1893A).

forma brevior West.

W. West, 1893, p. 100; PL CCCXXXIII, Fig. 13. Balsamo,

1900, p. 266. Brunnthaler, 1913, p. 166, 170.

“Forma cum cellulis brevioribus quam forma typica.

Long. cell. (C. spin.) 10 p. long. cell. (s. spin.) 8 p. lat.

cell. 5 p.”

The form brevior was reported from Scotland.

14. S. acutiformis Schroder. (PI. XXVI: Figs. 28-29.

PI. XXIX : Figs. 84-89.)

Schroder, 1897G, p. 45; PL II, Fig. 4. Levander, 1899, pp. 63,

70, 80, 90. G. S. West, 1899, p. 221. Borge. 1901B, p. 13. West

and West, 1901B, p. 121. West and West, 1902A, p. 182. West

and West, 1902B, p. 64. Snow, 1903, p. 391. Lemmermann,

1904 A, pp. 40, 70. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 221. West and West,

1905, p. 270. Hardy, 1906, p. 38. Borge, 1907A, p. 57. G. S.

West, 1907, p. 138. Adams, 1908, p. 35. Lemmermann, 1908A,

p. 167. Lemmermann, 1908E, p. 405. Borge, 1909, p. 16. G. S.

West, 1909A, pp. 29, 38. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 31. Bachmann,

1911, p. 191. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168-171; Fig. 13. Chodat,

1913, p. 23.

5. hystrix var. acutiformis. Chodat, 1902, p. 215; Figs. 139B-

139G. Heering und Homfeld, 1904, p. 83. Migula, 1907, p. 657;

Pl. XXXV (L), Fig. 5. Bernard, 1908, p. 184; PL XIV, Figs.

438-447. Bernard, 1909, p. 78; PL VI, Figs. 168-170.

S. hystrix forma acutiformis. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Selk, 1907,

pp. 57, 64.

S. hystrix forma acutiformis cohaerens. Selk, 1907, p. 6.

Coenobia 2-8 cellularum, cellulis fusiformibus. Mem-

branae cellularum terminalum visae ab polo longitudinaliter

costatae cum quatuor costis, cellulae interiores cum duabus

costes. Dimens. cell. 5.5 x 16, 5.5 x 17, 6 x 18, 8 x 22 p.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

457

The length of cells that I have isolated agrees well with

the dimensions given by Schroder (length 20 p, width 15 p),

but they are much narrower, the widest cells being 8 p. By

comparing the length with the width in the figure given by

Schroder, we find that the cells are about a third as wide as

they are long, therefore being more nearly 6-8 p than 15 p

wide. Under these conditions the form that I have isolated

agrees perfectly with the S. acutiformis of Schroder.

The number of cells in the colonies of my cultures varies

from two (Fig. 89) to eight (Fig. 84) with four the predomi¬

nant number (Figs. 85-88). The ridges are quite prominent

even from a side view and extend from one end of the cell to

the other. They vary from one-half to one micron in width,

and should be represented by two lines (Figs. 85-88) instead

of by a single line as done by Schroder. Schroder has al¬

ready pointed out that the number of ridges on the cell can

best be determined from an end view which shows that the

terminal cells of the colony have four ridges. This, however,

is not universal since instances were found where the ter¬

minal cells had but three ridges (Fig. 88). The median cells

always have a single ridge on each side.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. England (G. S. West, 1899, 1904B; West and West,

1901B). Germany (Fleering und Homfeld, 1904; Lemmermann,

1908E; Schroder, 1897C; Selk, 1907; Volk, 1905). Ireland (Adams,

1908; West and West, 1902B). Italy (Gugliemetti, 1910). Russia

(Levander, 1899). Scotland (West and West, 1905). Sicily

(Lemmermann, 1908A). Sweden (Borge, 1907A; Lemmermann,

1904A). Switzerland (Chodat, 1902).

AFRICA. Lake Nyassa (G. S. West, 1907).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Australia (Hardy, 1906; G. S. West,

1909A). Java (Bernard, 1908). Johore (Bernard, 1909). Siam

(West and West, 1902). Singapore (Bernard, 1909).

AMERICAS. Pategonia (Borge, 1901B). United States (Borge,

1909; Snow, 1903).

15. S. costatus Schmidle. (PI. XXVI: Figs. 26-27.)

Schmidle, 1895, p. 305; PI. XIV, Figs. 5-6. Schmidle, 1900A, p.

(111). Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Simmer,

1901, p. 83. West and West, 1901B, p. 121. Bohlin, 1902, p. 44.

Chodat, 1902, p. 216; Figs. 141A-141H. Lemmermann, 1902, p.

(251). G. S. West, 1904B, p. 221. Borge, 1907A, p. 58. Migula,

458 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

1907, p. 657; PL XXXV (L), Fig. 2. Selk, 1907, pp. 5, 76. Gut-

winski, 1909, p. 435. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171; Fig. 12.

Chodat, 1913, p. 23.

S. costatus forma typicus. Schroder, 1898, p. 24.

“Cellulae adultae ellipticae vel semiovato-ellipticae et

margine interiori leviter convexae, exteriori fere semicir-

culares, utroque polo ad apices liberos tuberculo ornatae,

plerumque quaternae (raro octonae) in coenobium solide

concretae, membrana crassa longitudinaliter costata, qua

de cause cellulae e vertice visae rotundae margine exteriori

4-6-ies evidentur undulatae sunt.

“Cellulae (adultae) 8-12 y latae. 20-22 y longae cum

tuberculis coenobium (quadricellulare) 35-24 aut 33-35 y”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Gutwinski, 1909). England (G.

S. West, 1904B; West and West, 1901B). Germany (Lemmer-

mann, 1902; Schmidle, 1900A; Schroder, 1898; Selk, 1907).

Sweden (Borge, 1907A). Switzerland (Chodat, 1902; Dalla Torre

und von Sarnthein, 1901; Schmidle, 1895).

AFRICA. Azores (Bohlin, 1902).

Var. sudeticus Lemm.

Lemmermann, 1896, p. 108. Lemmermann, 1898G, p. 249.

Schroder, 1898, p. 24. Schmidle, 1900A, p. (111). Migula, 1907,

p. 657. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171.

S. denticulatus forma Wildemanii . Schroder, 1898, p. 24.

“Cellulae 7-8 y latae, 13-15 y longae; coenobia plerumque

quadricellularia circa 21 y lata, 26 y longa.”

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Germany (Lemmermann, 1896, 1898C; Migula, 1907; Schmidle,

1900 A; Schroder, 1898).

16. S. brasiliensis Bohlin. (PI. XXVI: Figs. 30—31.)

Bohlin, 1897, p. 22; PI. I, Figs. 36-37. Lemmermann, 1899, p.

113. Marsson, 1899, p. 172. Lemmermann, 1900A, p. 98.

Schmidle, 1900, p. (111). Lemmermann, 1901B, p. 80. Bohlin,

1902, p. 44. Lemmermann, 1902, p. (251). Snow, 1903, p. 391.

Volk, 1903, p. 103. Lemmermann, 1907A, p. 267. Lemmermann,

1907B, p. 412. Schorler, 1907, p. 356. Lemmermann, 1908C, p.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

459

357. Lemmermann, 1908E, p. 405. Schneider, 1908, p. 46. Borge,

1909, p. 16. Lemmermann, 1910A, p. 294. Borge, 1911, p. 204.

Marsson, 1911, p. 286. Brunnthaler, 1913, p. 168; Fig. 15.

S. hystrix var. brasiliensis. Chodat, 1902, p. 215.

S. acutiformis var. spinuliferum. West and West, 1902, p. 182;

PI. IV, Figs. 46-49. Lemmermann, 1904C, p. 159.

S. hystrix forma brasiliensis. Volk, 1905, p. 65. Migula, 1907,

p. 657. Selk, 1907, pp. 7, 73, 79, 91, 103, 108.

S. hystrix forma brasiliensis cohaerens. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

Selk, 1907, p. 6.

S. acutiformis var. brasiliensis. West and West, 1905, p. 270;

PI. I, Figs. 8-9. West and West, 1907, p. 229. G. S. West, 1907,

p. 138. G. S. West, 1909C, p. 245. West and West, 1909B, p. 184.

S. acutiformis var. bicaudatus. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 31.

“Sc. coenobis e cellulis quaternis (vel octonis) in seriem

simplicem, rectam conjunctis, oblongis, obtusis; membrana

in utroque polo denticulis parvis instructis, costus tenerrimis

quaternis, quarum binis lateraliter dispositis.

“Dimens. colon. 4-cellularum. 8-11, 14-16, 19-19, 22-23,

20-24 yr

Although this form has not been obtained in culture I

have observed it in nature. Ridges on the sides of the cell

are the distinguishing character which separates this species

from S. denticulatus Lag. Since cultures of other species of

Scenedesmus made in connection with this study show that

ridges are a character which remain constant in all descend¬

ants of a single mother cell, it is reasonable to assume that

the lateral ridges are also constant on the cell walls of S.

brasiliensis.

The identity of this form has not been disputed but there

has been some question as to its systematic position. Chodat

enlarged the S. hystrix of Lagerheim to include all forms

with lateral ridges, while West and West have placed several

laterally ridged forms among the varieties of S. acutiformis

Schroder. Of the two the latter is the much more logical,

but since lateral ridges are found in quite differently shaped

cells, it is best not to group them as varieties but rather as

separate species.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Germany (Lemmermann, 1900A, 1901B, 1902, 1906,

1907B, 1908E, 1899; Marsson, 1899, 1911; Schmidle, 1900.

Schneider, 1908; Schorler, 1907; Selk, 1907; Volk, 1903, 1905;)

460 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Italy (Gugliemetti, 1910; Lemmermann, 1908G). Scotland (West

and West, 1905). Switzerland (Chodat, 1902).

AFRICA. Azores (Bohlin, 1902). Lake Albert Nyanza (G. S.

West, 1909C). Lake Nyassa (G. S. West, 1907). Lake Tanganyika

(G. S. West, 1907).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Burma (West and West, 1907).

Ceylon (Lemmermann, 1907A). Siam (West and West, 1902).

AMERICAS. Brazil (Bohlin, 1897; Lemmermann, 1910A).

Paraguay (Bohlin, 1897; Lemmermann, 1910A). United States

(Borge, 1909; Snow, 1903).

17. S. armatus (Chodat) nov. comb. PI. XXVIII: Fig.

53, PI. XXIX : Figs. 90-93. PI. XXX : Figs. 109-110.)

S. hystrix ysly. armatus. Chodat, 1902, p. 215; Fig. 140. Heering

und Homfeld, 1904, p. 83. Reinhardt, 1905, p. 26. Migula, 1907,

p. 657. Bernard, 1909, p. 78; PI. VI, Figs. 171-175. Chodat,

1913, p. 24.

S. quadricauda var. acutiformis. Schmidle, 1900A, p. (111).

S. brasiliensis quadricauda. Volk, 1903, p. 103.

S. hystrix forma armatus. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Selk, 1907, pp.

7, 57, 64, 68, 73, 79, 85, 91, 94, 99, 103, 108, 115.

S', hystrix forma armatus abundans. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Selk.

1907, pp. 57, 68, 73, 79, 85, 91, 99.

S. hystrix forma armatus bicaudatus. Volk, 1905, p. 64.

S. hystrix forma armatus cohaerens. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Selk,

1907, p. 6.

S. hystrix forma armatus setosus. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

S. hystrix var. armatus forma depauperata. Wille, 1913, p. 146.

Cellulis 2-8 in seriem rectam vel subalternantibus dis-

positis, cellulis ovatis vel oblongi-ovatis, utroque polo cellulis

terminalibus rotundatis cum uno aculeo, polo cellulis in-

terioribus coenobius rotundatis sine aculeis. Membrana cel-

lularum longitudinaliter costata in utroque parte.

Dimens. cell. 7x4, 9x4, 9x4.5, 11x4, 11x6, 12x8,

14 x 7 ju. Long. acul. 5.5-7 p.

Previous to the beginning of the cultural work I had fre¬

quently observed in field material that lateral ridges ap¬

peared on four-celled coenobia which also bore a spine at

each corner, but thought it was merely a passing condition

in certain cells of S. quadricauda (Turp.) de Breb. The isola¬

tion of several strains in which this lateral ridge constantly

appears in all of the colonies, along with the four spines, has

shown this to be a constant character warranting raising

the variety armatus to specific rank.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus .

461

These lateral ridges are not so prominent as in S. acuti-

formis Schroder and S. brasiliensis Bohlin and frequently

can be seen only in the polar region (Figs. 90, 91); neither

do they appear at the same place on all the cells of the

coenobe, the median cells being ridged in the center of the

side and the terminal cells generally nearer the outer edge

of the coenobe. Ridges cannot always be distinguished on

all of the cells (Figs. 109, 110) but no coenobia were found

in which there was not an indication of ridges on one or

more cells.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Germany (Heering und Homfeld, 1904; Schmidle, 1900 A; Selk,

1907; Volk, 1903, 1905). Austria-Hungary (Reinhardt, 1905).

Samoa (Wille, 1913). Singapore (Bernard, 1909). Switzerland

(Chodat, 1902).

Var. Chodatii nov. var. (PI. XXX: Figs. 111-114.)

Cellulis longioribus atque angustioribus. Dimens. cell.

11 x 4, 12 x 3.5, 15 x 5 p.

This variety was isolated but once, the material for the

pure culture being collected on the Dane County Fair

Grounds. The shape of the cells and the poles not being in

lateral contact separate this from the foregoing.

Var. subalternans nov. var. (PI. XXX: Figs. 115-120.)

Longitudo cellularum 3-plo latitude; cellulis saepe pyri-

formis; subalternis dispositis. Dimens. cell. 9x3, 9x4,

11 x 5, 12 x 5.5 p.

This is the only horn bearing strain isolated in which the

subalternate arrangement of the cells in the coenobe is a

constant character. Too much stress cannot be attached

to this as a distinguishing characteristic; since occasional

subalternating cell arrangements are found in many species.

The pyriform character of the cells is much more pronounced

in this variety than in the others of S. armatus. Certain

colonies apparently have no lateral ridges (Figs. 119-120)

but these instances are of very rare occurrence, while the

horn on the pole of a median cell was found but once (Fig.

119).

462 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

18. S. carinatus (Lemm.) Chodat. (PL XXVI : Fig. 25.)

Chodat, 1913, pp. 23, 69.

S. opoliensis var. carinatus. Lemmermann, 1899, p. 113; PL I,

Fig. 7. Marsson, 1901 A, pp. 90, 101, 115. Marsson, 1901B, p. 96.

Lemmermann, 1904A, pp. 8, 20, 84, 158. Lemmermann, 1904C,

p. 159. Lemmermann, 1905B, p. 163. Migula, 1907, p. 655. Selk,

1907, p. 79. Lemmermann, 1908G, p. 357. Marsson, 1911, pp.

263, 265, 286. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 171; Fig. 20.

Coenobia 4-cellularum. Cellulis fusiformibus, membrana

longitudinaliter costata in utroque parte atque in utroque

polo 2-3 denticulis parvis instructis. Omne cellulae ter-

minale cum longo curvato aculeo atque dentibus in utroque

polo.

The cells of this form possess the characteristic shape of

S. opoliensis Richt., but there is a distinct longitudinal ridge

on each side of every cell. Since cultural work on such

forms shows that this longitudinal ridge is a constant char¬

acter, and since the strains of S. opoliensis isolated do not

show any, this form should be regarded as a distinct species.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Germany (Lemmermann, 1899, 1905B; Marsson, 1901 A, 1901B,

1911; Selk, 1907). Italy (Lemmermann, 1908G). Java (Lemmer¬

mann, 1904C). Sweden (Lemmermann, 1904A).

19. S. hystrix Lag. (Pl. XXVI: Fig. 35.)

Lagerheim, 1882, pp. 62, 65; PL II, Figs. 18. Lagerheim, 1886,

p. 45. Lagerheim, 1887, p. 194. de Toni, 1889B, p. 565. de

Wildemann, 1893A. de Wildemann, 1893B, p. 91. de Wilde-

mann, 1895, p. 26. Bohlin, 1897, p. 22. Schroder, 1897A, p. 372.

Schroder, 1897B, p. 487. Schroder, 1897G, p. 45. de Wildemann,

1897B, p. 50. Schroder, 1898, p. 23. Garbini, 1899A, p. 15. Lem¬

mermann, 1899, p. 112. Schroder, 1899, p. 22. Balsamo, 1900,

p. 266. Chodat, 1901, p. 1309. West and West, 1901B, p. 121.

Forti, 1902, p. 60. West and West, 1902B, p. 64. Boergesen

and Ostenfeld, 1903, p. 615. Fournier, 1903, p. 28. Volk, 1903,

p. 103. Gozette, 1904, p. 273. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 221. West

and West, 1904, p. 221. West and West, 1904, p. 531. Huber,

1905, p. 57. Lemmermann, 1905B, pp. 158, 160. Reinhardt,

1905, p. 26. Suhr, 1905, p. 253. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205. Pascher,

1906, p. 168. Brunnthaler, 1907, p. 207. Lemmermann, 1907B,

p. 112. Teodoresco, 1907, p. 130. Adams, 1908, p. 35. Huber,

1908, p. 314. Lemmermann, 1908A, p. 167. Lemmermann, 1908C,

p. 357. Collins, 1909, p. 169. West and West, 1909B, p. 184.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

463

Conrad et Kufferath, 1912, p. 321. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168,

171; Fig. 14. Chodat, 1913, p. 23. Reinhardt, 1913, p. 103.

S. hystrix (emend.). Chodat, 1902, p. 214; Figs. 138A, 138D-

138J. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Migula, 1907, p. 657. Ostenfeld, 1907,

p. 384.

S. hystrix var.. echinulatus. Chodat, 1902, p. 215; Figs. 138K-

138L. Migula, 1907, p. 657.

S. serratus var. hystrix. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458.

S. hystrix forma echinulatus cohaerens. Volk, 1905, p. 64.

S. hystrix cohaerens. Volk, 1905, p. 64. Selk, 1907, pp. 5, 68.

S. hystrix forma echinulatus. Selk, 1907, pp. 61, 68, 76, 108.

“Sc. cellulis binis, quaternis, octonis, oblongo-cylindricis

utroque polo obtusis, omnibus rectis, in seriem simplices

rectam conjunctis, non alternantibus. Membrana cellu-

larum aculeis parvis numerosis dense vestita.

“Dimens. cell. 12 x 3, 15 x 4, 17 x 6, 18 x 5 y.”

The emended description of Chodat in which a hetero¬

geneous group is combined under the name hystrix is wholly

without justification. Since the presence of short spines

over the entire wall constitutes a very sharply defined char¬

acter, classifying algae that are characterized by teeth, at

one end, by lateral ridges only, or by lateral ridges combined

with long horns, in the same genus is highly confusing.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Brunnthaler, 1907; Hansgirg,

1905; Pascher, 1906; Reinhardt, 1905, 1913). Belgium (Conrad et

Kufferath, 1912; de Wildemann, 1893B, 1895, 1897B). England

(Fritsch, 1906; West and West, 1901B). France (Cozette, 1904;

Fournier, 1903). Germany (Lemmermann, 1899, 1905B, 1907B;

Schroder, 1897A, 1897B, 1897C, 1898, 1899; Selk, 1907; Volk,

1903, 1905). Ireland (Adams, 1908; West and West, 1902B).

Italy (Forti, 1902; Garbini, 1899A; Lemmermann, 1908C). Rou-

mania (Teodoresco, 1907). Scotland (West and West, 1904,

1909B). Sicily (Lemmermann, 1908A). Sweden (Lagerheim,

1883, 1886). Switzerland (Chodat, 1901, 1902; Huber, 1905, 1908).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Faeroes. (Boergesen

and Ostenfeld, 1903).

ASIA. Mongolia (Ostenfeld, 1907).

AMERICAS. Brazil (Bohliii, 1897). Paraguay (Bohlin, 1897).

Puerto Rico (Collins, 1909; Lagerheim, 1887).

464 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

20. S. ornatus (Lemm.) nov. comb. (PI XXYI: Fig. 34.)

S. perforatus var. ornatus Lemm. Lemmermann, 1910A, p. 294,

309; Figs. 3-4. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 269, 171.

“Coenobium 8-cellularum, foraminibus angnste linearibus,

1.5-2 p latis, praeditum. Aculi cellularum exteriorum ca.

20.5 p longi, subrecti vel distincte curvati. Membrana cel¬

lularum dense et subtiliter punctata.”

The present system of recbgnizing a cell wall completely

covered with spines as a specific character warrants the

raising of this variety to specific rank. Known only from

Paraguay.

21. S. insignia (West and West) Chodat. (PI. XXVI:

Fig. 32.)

Chodat, 1913, p. 69.

S. quadricauda var. insignis. West and West, 1895, p. 83;

PI. V, Figs. 7-8. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

“Var. cellulis 4 in seriem rectam dispositis unaquaequa

cellula cum spina brevi singula, 2 simul ad dextram, 2 simul

ad sinistram, cellulis terminalibus spina singula longa sig-

moidea alternatim disposita; membrana punctato-granulato.

Long. cell. 10.5-12.5 p; lat. cell. 4-5 p.”

So careful a description of the position of the horns as

West and West have given is entirely superfluous since my

cultural work with species of S. longus Meyen, where there

are horns on all of the cells of the coenobe, shows that both

the number and position of the terminal horns is variable.

The character which does separate this form from all other

species of Scenedesmus is the punctate-granulate membrane

in combination with horns on the ends of all cells.

22. S. granulatus West and West. (PI. XXVI : Fig. 33.)

West and West, 1897B, p. 500; PL VII, Figs. 1-2. G. S. West,

1904B, p. 221. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 166, 170; Fig. 11. Chodat,

1913, p. 24.

“S. cellulis plerumque quaternis, oblongis, diametro cir-

citer 3-plo longioribus, polis conicis, in seriem rectam con-

junctis; membrana cellularum granulata, granulis minutis

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

465

in seribus tribus longitudinaliter ordinatis. Long. cell. 20-21

p; lat. cell. 6-6.5 /z.”

Known only from England.

23. S. serratus (Corda) Bohlin. (PI. XXVIII: Figs.

55, 57.)

Bohlin, 1902, p. 44; PL I, Fig. 2. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 166,

171; Fig. 10. Ghodat, 1913, p. 25.

Arthrodesmus serratus. Corda, 1839, p. 244; PI. VI, Fig. 35.

Coenobia 4-cellularum. Cellulis oblongi-ovatis ; mem-

branae cellularum terminalum cum singula serie aculeorum

parvorum ex polo ad polum; cellulis interioribus cum duabus

seribus aculeorum ; polis omnorum cellularum cum 3-4 denti-

bus. Long. cell. 15-20 p; lat. cell. 4.5-7 p.

Two colonies of this species have been found in material

collected from the Yahara River above Lake Kegonsa (Wis¬

consin). The arrangement of the rows of spines on the sides

of the cells (Fig. 57) and the teeth on the ends of the cells

is the same as described by Bohlin, but the cells I have

found are somewhat smaller being 10-12 by 3-3.5 p.

The species has been found only in Austria (Corda), the

Azores (Bohlin), and Wisconsin.

24. S, abundans (Kirchner) Chodat. (PI. XXX: Figs.

133-136; PI. XXXI: Figs. 137-140.)

Ghodat, 1913, p. 77.

S. caudatus forma abundans. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98.

S. quadricaudatus var. (3. Ralfs, 1845, p. 402; PI. XII, Fig. 4B.

Hassall, 1845, p. 392. Ralfs, 1846, p. 159; PI. XV, Fig. 4B.

S. quadricauda var. (3. Ralfs, 1848, p. 190; PI. XXXI, Fig.

12G. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. minor. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Scenodesmus quadricauda var. (3 . Archer, 1861, p. 753; PI. I,

Fig. 42.

S. quadricauda forma abundans. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 64; PL II,

Fig. 20. Marsson, 1901A, pp. 96, 106. Ghodat, 1902, p. 214.

Pascher, 1903, p. 175. Collins, 1909, p. 169.

S. quadricauda var. abundans. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. deToni,

1889B, p. 566. Gutwinski, 1891, p. 302. W. West, 1892A, p. 194.

West and West, 1895, p. 83. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. G. S.

West, 1899, p. 221. Lagerheim, 1900, p. 10. West and West,

1901A, p. 197. West and West, 1901B, p. 120. West and West,

1902B, p. 64. Volk, 1903, p. 104. West and West, 1904, p. 531.

Fink, 1905, p. 25. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458. Huber, 1905, p. 57.

466 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Volk, 1905, p. 65. West and West, 1905, p. 270. Fritsch, 1906,

p. 205. Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller, 1906, p. 247. Borge,

1907 A, p. 58. Borge, 1907B, p. 4. Buchanan, 1907, p. 81. Migula,

1907, p, 655. Selk, 1907, pp. 57, 68, 73, 98, 103, 108. Teodoresco,

1907, p. 130. West and West, 1909B, p. 184. Gugliemetti, 1910,

p. 32. Klugh, 1911, p. 97. Borge, 1913, p. 60. Brunnthaler

1913, pp. 168, 171; Fig. 18.

S. caudatus var. abundans. Wolle, 1887, p. 172. Riabinine,

1889A, p. 303. Riabinine, 1889B, p. 47. Snow, 1903, p. 391.

Dorogoslaisky, 1904, p. 224.

S. quadricauda var. hyper abundans. Gutwinski, 1890, p. 63.

Schroder, 1879C, p. 45. Schmidle, 1900A, p. (111). Migula, 1907,

p. 656.

S. quadricaudatus var. abundans. Lemmermann, 1893, p. 524.

S. caudatus var. hyperabundans. Bohlin, 1897, p. 23. Kaiser,

1908, p. 163.

S. quadricauda var. sctosus abundans. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. abundans. Conn and Webster, 1908,

p. 35; PI. VI. Fig. 32.

Cellulis ovatis vel oblongi-ovatis. Membranae cellularum

terminalum cum aculeis in polis atque inter polos. Poli

cellularum interiorum cum aculeis. Dimens. cell. 8x4,

9x4, 10 x 4, 10 x 5, 11 x 5.5, 12 x 7 p. Long. acul. 4-7. 5 p.

Supplementary spines on the middle of the terminal cells

were noted quite early in the study of the genus, Ehrenberg

(1838) figuring a colony of his Arthrodesmus quadricaudatus

with a median spine on each of the terminal cells, in addi¬

tion to the polar spines. Ralfs (1845) also gave figures of

S. quadricauda (Turp) de Rreb. with the external cells

having three spines and called it the variety /3, but gave it

no name. Kiitzing (1849) established his Scenodesmus

caudatus var. minor on the strength of Ralf’s figures, but the

combination S. minor cannot be used to name this species

since a S. minor has already been established by Kiitzing.

Since S. caudatus forma abundans Kirch was the next name

applied to this species the combination S. armatus (Kirch.)

Chodat is the proper name.

The number and position of the spines in the forms which

I have isolated is quite variable. There are always the two

polar spines on the terminal cells but there may be one spine

(Figs. 133, 138) or there may be two to three spines (Figs.

135, 139) in the middle of the cell. The two terminal cells

of the same coenobe need not necessarily have the same

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

467

number of horns. Figure 136 shows an instance in which

one cell has three spines while the other has four. Although

there is always one spine at the end of the pole, the position

of which corresponds to that of S. quadricauda , there are

frequently one or two more (Figs. 139, 133).

Correlated with the presence of numerous spines on the

terminal cells is that of spines on the poles of the median

cells. The number and position of these median polar

spines is even more variable than is the case with the mar¬

ginal terminal spines. There may be one or more on each

pole of all median cells (Fig. 135); or one pole may possess

one or more spines and the other none (Fig. 139). An ex¬

treme development of this condition is the presence of only

one spine on the median cells of the coenobe. (Fig. 136).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary. (Gutwinski, 1890; Hansgirg,

1886, 1905; Pascher, 1903; Riabinine, 1889A, 1889B). England

(Fritsch, 1906; Hassall, 1845; Ralfs, 1845, 1846, 1848; G. S. West,

1899; West and West, 1897B, 1901B, 1909B). Germany (Kaiser,

1908; Kirchner, 1878; Lemmermann, 1893; Marsson, 1901A;

Schmidle, 1900 A; Schroder, 1897C; Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller,

1906; Selk, 1907; Volk, 1903, 1905). Ireland (W. West, 1892A;

West and West, 1902B). Italy (Gugliemetti, 1910). Roumania

(Teodoresco, 1907). Russia (Dorogoslaisky, 1904; Gutwinski,

1891). Scotland (West and West, 1901, 1905, 1909B). Sweden

(Borge, 1907 A, 1913; Lagerheim, 1883; Petersen, 1911). Switzer¬

land (Chodat, 1902, 1913; Huber, 1905).

AFRICA. Madagascar (West and West, 1895).

ASIA. Ceylon (West and West, 1901A).

AMERICAS. Argentina (Borge, 1907B). Brazil (Bohlin,

1897). Canada (Klugh, 1911). United States (Buchanan, 1907;

Collins, 1909; Conn and Webster, 1908; Fink, 1905; Snow, 1903;

Wolle, 1887).

Var. longicauda nov. var. (PI. XXX: Figs. 121-125.)

Dimens. cell. 7x3, 7 x 3.5, 8x4, 9x6 y. Long. acul.

10-6 y.

In this variety the spines are not as abundant as on the

typical form, three to four being the usual number for the

terminal cells, while rarely more than one is found at each

pole of the median cells.

468 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Yar. spicatus (West and West) nov. comb. (PL XXVII:

Fig. 51 ; PI. XXXI : Figs. 141-146.)

S. spicatus. West and West, 1898, p. 335. West and West,

1901B, p. 120. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 220; Fig. 92L. Volk, 1905,

p. 65. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 166, 170; Fig. 9. Chodat, 1913,

p. 25.

“S. cellulis plerumque binis, ellipticis, diametro circiter

2-plo longioribus, supra marginem exteriori serie spinarum

brevium 6-7 praeditis. Long. cell. 7.5-9 p. Lat. cell. 4 p.

Long. spin. 2-2.5 g.”

The mature cells of the form which I have isolated in

pure culture "from the Yahara River below Lake Monona

(Wisconsin) have practically the same dimensions as those

given by West and West, being 3.5 x 7 to 4 x 10 p with spines

2-2.5 p long. The two-celled colonies in my cultures have

the five to seven spines arranged as the authors describe

(Figs. 143, 146), but four-celled colonies occur much more

frequently than do the two-celled ones. The poles of the

middle cells, in the four-celled colonies, each bear one or

two spines, 2-3 p long (Figs. 141, 142) and the outer margin

of the terminal cells bears five to seven spines. The fact

that four-celled colonies have spines on the middle cells as

well as on the sides of the outer cells is sufficient warranty for

regarding this as a variety of S. abundans.

Var. brevicauda now var. (PI. XXX: Figs. 126-132.)

Dimens. cell. 5 x 2.5, 6 x 2.5, 6x3, 8x4, 8x5 p. Long,

acul. 1.5-3 p.

Resembling the variety spicatus but different from it in

the number of spines, the outer cells never having more

than five spines. The cells in my pure cultures also are

smaller than the variety spicatus.

Var. asymmetrica (Schroder) nov. comb. (PI. XXVII:

Figs. 45-46.)

S. quadricauda var. asymmetrica. Schroder, 1897C, p. 45; PI.

II, Fig. 5. Garbini, 1899B, p. 275. Schmidle, 1900A, p. (111).

Migula, 1907, p. 655; PI. XXXV (L), Fig. 5. Chodat, 1913, p. 22.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

469

Coenobia plerumque 4-cellularum. Apices cellularum ter-

minalium cum singulo aculeo. Omnes cellulae coenobi cum

singulo aculeo, latitudinaliter disposito.

The arrangement of a single spine on one side only of the

cell wall, in addition to spines on the four corners of the

coenobe, is peculiar to this variety alone.

25. S. longus Meyen. (PI. XXVIII: Fig. 54; PL:

XXXI: Figs. 156-158.)

Meyen, 1829, p. 774; Pl. XLIII, Fig. 28. Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607.

Meyen, 1835, p. 250.

Scenodesmus Naegelii. de Brebisson, 1856, p. 158.

S. quadricauda var. Naegelii. Rabenborst, 1868, p. 65. de Toni,

1889B, p. 566. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458. Brunnthaler, 1907, p.

207. Migula, 1907, p. 655. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171.

S. caudatus forma setosus. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98.

S. caudatus forma horridus. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98.

S. quadricauda forma setosus. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 63. Chodat,

1902, p. 214; Fig. 135. Pascher, 1903, p. 175. Collins, 1909, p.

169.

S. quadricauda forma horridus. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 64; PI. II,

Fig. 19. Chodat, 1902, p. 214. Pascher, 1903, p.T/5. Collins,

1909, p. 169.

S. quadricauda var. setosus. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Toni,

1889B, p. 566. Gutwinski, 1891, p. 302. Lagerheim, 1900, p. 10.

Volk, 1903, p. 104. Hansgirg, 1905, P: 458. Volk, 1905, p. 65.

Migula, 1907, p. 655. Selk, 1907, p. 98. Teodoresco, 1907, p. 130.

Borge, 1909, p. 16. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 32. Brunnthaler, 1913,

pp. 168, 171.

S. quadricauda var. horridus. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Toni,

1889B, p. 566. Borge, 1895, p. 7. Boergesen, 1899B, p. 333.

Schorler, 1900, p. 5. Boergesen, 1901A, p. 240. Borge, 1901B,

p. 13. Fritsch, 1902, p. 582. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 220; Fig.

92G. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458. Migula, 1907, p. 655. Selk, 1907,

p. 99. Borge, 1909, p. 16. West and West, 1909B, p. 184. Borge,

1911, p. 204. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171; Fig. 17.

S. caudatus var. setosus. Wolle, 1887, p. 172. Riabinine, 1889A,

p. 303. Riabinine, 1889B, p. 47. Snow, 1903, p. 391. Dorogos-

laisky, 1904, p. 224. Honigman, 1909, p. 54; PI. II, Fig. 7.

S. caudatus var. horridus. Wolle, 1887, p. 172; PL CLVI, Fig.

15. Riabinine, 1889A, p. 303.

S. antcnnatus var. rectus. Wolle, 1887p*p. 172; PI. CLVI, Figs.

16-17. de Toni, 1889B, p. 567. Stokes, 1893, p. 51.

S. quadricauda var. bicaudatus. Hansgirg, 1890B, p. 9. Hans¬

girg, 1892, p. 230. Volk, 1903, p. 104. Volk, 1905, p. 65. Selk,.

1907, pp. 68, 99, 108, 115. Migula, 1907, p. 655. Chodat, 1913,.

p. 22.

470 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

S. quadricauda var. variabilis. Hansgirg, 1892A, p. 230. Hans¬

girg, 1892B, p. 119. Migula, 1907, p. 655.

S. quadricaudatus var. setosus. Lemmermann, 1893, p. 524.

5. quadricaudatus var. horridus. Lemmermann, 1893, p. 524.

S. rectus. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267.

A. qaudricauda forma Naegelii. Ghodat, 1902, p. 214; Fig. 135.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. setosus. Conn and Webster, 1908,

p. 35; PL VI, Fig. 34.

Scenodesmus antennatus var. rectus. Conn and Webster, 1908

p. 35 PI. VI, Fig. 39.

Coenobia 2-8 cellularum, cellulis oblongo-cylindricis vel

ovatis, utroque polo rotundatis, chlorophoris singulo, py-

renoida singula. Apices cellularum cum singulo aculeo,

aculeis 2-4 /x longis. Membrana cellularum sine aculeis inter

apices. Dimens. cell. 8x4, 9x4, 11x5 /jl.

This form is generally called S. quadricauda var. horridus ,

although Meyen was the first to maintain that spines on the

poles of the central cells in the colony constituted a specific

character. In his original description of the species, how¬

ever, this is not mentioned but the revival of the name

longus is warranted from his statement made in 1835 where

he compares S. quadricauda (Turp) de Breb. and S. longus

by saying “Die Beiname quadricaudatus wiirde iibrings

nicht passend sein, denn wir haben schon mehrmals den

Scenedesmus longus mit ausgebildeten 16 Harnern gesehen,

indem namlich jede Zelle 2 Harner zeigt. .

Scenedesmus Naegelii de Breb. antedates Kirchner’s de¬

scription of supplementary spines on the poles of the middle

cells in the colony. This species was founded on drawings

by Nageli of S. caudatus Corda, one of which is seen in my

PL XXVIII, Fig. 54.

The varieties horridus and setosus of S. quadricauda de¬

scribed by Kirchner differ from one another in the number

of spines on the poles of the median cells in the coenobe ; the

variety horridus having spines on both poles of all cells,

whereas they do not occur on some of the mpdian cells in

the variety setosus.

Three different strains each having spines on both the

middle and terminal cells as a constant character were iso¬

lated. This fact justifies regarding S. longus as a separate

species. . Conversely many different strains have been

isolated in which the spines are found on the terminal cells

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

471

of the coenobe only; so that the distinction between S. longus

and S. quadricauda is very sharp.

The occurrence and number of spines on the median cells

of the colony, however, is quite variable. Spines may occur

on both poles of every cell in the colony (Fig. 157) or not

(Fig. 156). Again there may be more than one spine at each

pole of a cell, this cell being either terminal or median (Fig.

158).

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Brunnthaler, 1907; Hansgirg,

1886; 1890B, 1892A, 1892B, 1905; Pascher, 1903; Riabinine,

1889 A, 1889B). England (Fritsch, 1902; G. S. West, 1904B).

Germany (Honigman, 1909; Kirchner, 1878; Lemmermann, 1893;

Meyen, 1829; Schorler, 1900; Selk, 1907; Volk, 1903, 1905).

Italy (Gugliemetti, 1910). Roumania (Teodoresco, 1907). Russia

(Dorogoslaisky, 1904; Gutwinski, 1891). Scotland (West and

West, 1909B). Sweden (Lagerheim, 1883; Borge, 1895). Switzer¬

land (Chodat, 1902).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Australia (Borge, 1911).

AMERICAS. Canada (Borge, 1909). Pategonia (Borge,

1901B). United States (Borge, 1909; Collins, 1909; Conn and

Webster, 1908; Snow, 1903; Wolle, 1887).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Faeroes. (Boergesen,

1899B, 1901A).

Var. brevispina nov. var. (PL XXXI: Figs. 151-155.)

Cellulae longiores atque angustiores. Aculei breviores.

Dimens. cell. 9x3, 9x4, 11x4, 11x4.5, 11x5 p. Long,

acul. 2 p.

This variety differs from the foregoing in that the cells are

longer and narrower with shorter spines, which are rarely

absent from the median cells. The shortness of the spines

suggests S. denticulatus Lag., but since they are not broad at

the base this form is classed with S. longus instead of S.

denticulatus.

Var. minutusnov. var. (PI. XXXI: Figs. 147-150.)

Cellulis oblongi-ovalis longitudinibus circiter 2.5-plo

latitudinibus. Aculei breves. Dimens. cell. 6.5 x 2, 7x2,

7 x 3, 8 x 3 p. Long acul. 1.5-2 p.

The largest cells found in pure cultures of this form do

not reach the minimal size of the other varieties. The spines

472 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

are quite like S. longus var. brevispina in size and arrange¬

ment.

Var. ellipticus (West and West) nov. comb. (PL

XXVII: Fig. 44.)

S. quadricauda var. ellipticum. West and West, 1895, p. 83;

PL V, Fig. 6. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. G. S. West, 1904, p. 287

Collins, 1909, p. 169.

S. ellipticus. Chodat, 1913, p. 69.

“Var. cellulis perfecte ellipticis, 4 in seriem rectam dispo-

sitis, cellulis terminalibus spinis binis validis curvatis ex-

trorsum, cellulis medianis spina singula curvata extrorsum

alternatim dispositis ornatis. Long. cell. 14-15 y; lat. cell.

7.5 p.”

Known only from Madagascar (West and West) and Bar¬

bados (G. S. West).

Var. dispar (de Breb) nov. comb. (Pl. XXVII: Fig. 41.)

Scenodesmus dispar, de Brebisson, 1856, p. 159; PI. I, Fig. 32,

Archer, 1861, p. 753.

S. dispar. Rabenhorst, 1868, p. 65. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 65,

de Toni, 1889B, p. 566. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. West and West,

1902B5 p. 64; PL I, Fig. 10. Adams, 1908, p. 35.

S. quadricauda var. dispar Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171.

“S. corpusculis fusiformibus, oblongis, binis vel quater-

nis irregulariter alternantibus, duobus primis uno apice cus-

pidatis altero muticis, duobus aliis similibus sed reversis,

extrimis dorsi apice cuspidatis.”

The position of the spine is probably valueless in differ¬

entiating this from the other varieties. The pointed ends

of the cells distinguish this variety from the others. It has

been found in England (West and West) and France (de

Brebisson).

var. apiculatus (West and West) nov. comb. (Pl.

XXVI: Fig. 36.)

S. alternans var. apiculatus. West and West, 1894, p. 16; PL

II, Fig. 38. West and West, 1897B, p. 500. West and West,

1902B, p. 63.

S. bijugatus var. alternans forma apiculatus. Chodat, 1902, p.

213. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 172.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

473

“Var. cum apiculo ad fmem liberum utraeque cellulae.

Long. cell. (Cum apice) 7.5-9. 5 g; lat, cell. 5-5.5 g.”

This variety has been found in England (West and West,

1894, 1897B) and Ireland (West and West, 1902B).

26. S. quadricauda (Turp.) de Breb. (PI. XXVII: Fig.

39; PI. XXXI: Figs. 172-175; PI. XXXII: Fig. 176.)

de Brebisson, 1835, p. 66. Meneghini, 1840, p. 206. Balfs,

1848, p. 190; PI. XXXI, Figs. 12A-12F. Bailey, 1851, p. 29.

Griffith and Henfrey, 1856, p. 565; PI. X, Fig. 50. Archer, 1857,

p. 40. Babenhorst, 1868, p. 65; Figs. 34G-34H. Hohenbiihel-

Heufler, 1871, p. 318. Olney, 1872, p. 135. Wittrock, 1872, p.

31. Archer, 1874, p. 329. Nordstedt, 1877, p. 15. Wille, 1879,

p. 30. Vorce, 1881, p. 59; PI. VII, Fig. 136. Cooke, 1882, p. 34;

PI. XIII, Fig. 8. Nordstedt, 1882, p. 46. Spencer, 1882, p. 296;

PI. XXIII, Fig. 11. Acheson, 1883, p. 418. Griffith and Henfrey,

1883, p. 679, PI. XIV, Fig. 50. Martel, 1884, p. 188. Schaar-

schmidt, 1884, p. 249. Wille, 1884, pp. 30, 45. Boldt, 1885, p.

97. Cooke, 1885. Paque, 1885, p. 52. de Wildemann, 1885, p.

123. Bennett, 1886, p. 3. Campbell, 1886, p. 93. Hansgirg,

1886, p. 115; Fig. 62. Parfitt, 1886, p. 392. de Toni et Levi,

1886, p. 67. Beck, 1887, p. 274. Bennett, 1887, p. 9. Jones,

1887, p. 115. Lagerheim, 1887, p. 194. Martel, 1887A, p. 340.

Martel, 1887B, p. 11. de Toni et Levi, 1887, p. 1584. Balsamo,

1888, p. 40. Konig, 1888, p. 89. Nordstedt, 1888, p. 19. Hans¬

girg, 1889, p. 132. de Toni, 1889B, p. 565. W. West, 1889A, p.

290. de Wildemann, 1889, p. 8. Andersson, 1890, p. 5. Hansgirg,

1890 A, p. 112. Boy, 1890, p. 338. W. West, 1890, p. 298. de

Wildemann, 1890A, p. 137. de Wildemann, 1890B, p. 155. Borge,

1891, p. 6. Hansgirg, 1891, p. 317. lanouchkievitch, 1891, p.

290. de Toni, 1891, p. 272. W. West, 1891A, p. 248. W. West,

1891B, p. 421. Hansgirg, 1892B, p. 119. Mobius, 1892, p. 435.

de Toni, 1892, p. 108. Turner, 1892, p. 161. W. West, 1892A,

p. 193. W. West, 1892B, p. 738. Lagerheim, 1893, p. 158.

Schmidle, 1893A, p. 13. Borge, 1894, p. 9. Schmidle, 1894, p. 43;

Tilden, 1894, p. 27. Borge, 1895, p. 7. West and West, 1895,

p. 83; PI. V, Figs. 4-5. Boergesen, 1896, p. 36. Borge, 1896, p. 7.

Lemmermann, 1896, p. 108. West and West, 1896, p. 381.

Zacharias, 1896, p. 75. Chodat, 1897, p. 291. Farlow in Trelease,

1897, p. 196. Gutwinski, 1897A, p. 3. Pitard, 1897, p. 516.

Schmula, 1897, p. 35. Schroder, 1897A, p. 372. Schroder, 1897B,

p. 487. Schroder, 1897C, p. 45. West and West, 1897B, p. 500.

Chodat, 1898, pp. 166, 175. Forti, 1898, p. 118. Lemmermann,

1898C, p.249. Mez, 1898, p. 149; PI. IV, Fig. 167. Nitardy, 1898,

p. 104. Schorler, 1898, p. 38. Zacharias, 1898, p. 93. Boergesen,

1899A, p. 135. Boergesen, 1899B, p. 333. Borge, 1899, p. 8.

Forti, 1899, p. 89. Garbini, 1899A, p. 15. Garbini, 1899B, p.

275. Iwanoff, 1899, p. 379. Lemmermann, 1899, p. 113. Le-

474 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

vander, 1899, pp. 49, 54, 70, 80, 93, 96. Marsson, 1899, pp. 171,

253, 254. Prowazek, 1899, p. 477. Schroder, 1899, p. 22. de Toni

et Forti, 1899A, p. 179. de Toni et Forti, 1899B, p. 792. G. S.

West, 1899, p. 221. Zacharias, 1899, pp. 81, 83, 88, 90. Amberg,

1900, p. 126. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266. Borge, 1900, p. 3. Chodat,

1900, p. 3. Filarsky, 1900, p. 145. Forti, 1900, p. 30. Lagerheim,

1900, p. 10. Lemmermann, 1900A, p. 95. Lemmermann, 1900B,

p. 138. Lemmermann, 1900C, pp. 334, 335, 339. Levander, 1900,

p. 20. Schorler, 1900, p. 5. Waldvogel, 1900, pp. 302, 311, 312.

Boergesen, 1901, p. 240. Borge, 1901A, p. 101. Borge, 1901B,

p. 13. Chodat, 1901, pp. 1309, 1310. Fanning, 1901, p. 117;

PI. XIV, Fig. 3. Garbini, 1901, p. 73. Lemmermann, 1901B,

p. 80. Lemmermann, 1901 C, p. 92. Levander, 1901, p. 22.

Lindau, 1901, pp. 131, 136, 140, 150, 153, 156, 161. Marquand,

1901, P- 321. Marsson, 1901 A, pp. 90, 96, 101, 106, 115. Marsson,

1901B, p. 96. Treboux, 1901, p. 478. West and West, 1901A,

p. 197. West and West, 1901B, p. 120. Wille, 1901, p. 11. Blu-

mentritt, 1902, p. 86. Chodat, 1902, p. 213. Forti, 1902, p. 60.

Fritsch, 1902, p. 582. Gutwinski, 1902, p. 576. Larder, 1902,

p. 59. Riddle, 1902, p. 317. Voigt, 1902, p. 76. West and West,

1902B, p. 64. Zykoff, 1902, p. 61. Amberg, 1903, p. 78. Boergesen

and Ostenfeld, 1903, pp. 614, 615. Fritsch, 1903, p. 635, 643, 646.

Gutwinski, 1903, p. 204. Lagerheim, 1903, p. 362. Lemmer¬

mann, 1903 A, p. 346. Lemmermann, 1903B, p. 81. Lemmer¬

mann, 1903G, p. 119. Schmidle, 1903, p. 80. W. West, 1903,

p. 100. Zacharias, 1903B, pp. 254, 262. Comere, 1904, p. 62.

Heering und Homfeld, 1904, p. 83. Lemmermann, 1904A, pp. 27,

33, 37, 39, 55, 71, 72, 73, 75, 80, 87, 90, 92, 96, 158. Lemmer¬

mann, 1904B, pp. 300, 301, 302, 303, 305. Lemmermann, 1904C,

p. 159. Marquand, 1904, p. 269. Moreto, 1904, p. 440. Nitardy,

1904, p. 318. Schmidle, 1904, p. 4, 30, 32. Skorikow, 1904, pp.

355, 360. G. S. West, 1904A, p. 287. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 220;

Figs. 92D-92F. West and West, 1904, p. 531. Zacharias, 1904,

pp. 193, 201, 212. Fink, 1905, p. 25. Forti, 1905, pp. 5, 9.

Fritsch, 1905, p. 164. Huber, 1905, p. 57. Krause, 1905, p. 110.

Lauterborn, 1905, p. 645. Lemmermann, 1905A, p. 630. Lem¬

mermann, 1905B, pp. 158, 160, 162, 163. Lemmermann, 1905C,

pp. 166, 167, 168. Riddle, 1905, p. 268. Skorikow, 1905, p. 105.

Trotter, 1905, p. 45; Fig. 23. West and West, 1905, p. 270.

Zacharias, 1905, pp. 268, 274. Fritsch, 1906, p. 205. Hardy,

1906, p. 38. Lemmermann, 1906, pp. 347, 350, 353. Pascher,

1906, p. 168. Petkoff, 1906A, p. 358. Ruttner, 1906, p. 10.

Schorler, Thallwitz und Schiller, 1906, p. 247. Tanner-Full-

mann, 1906, p. 158. West and West, 1906A, p. 489. Borge,

1907 A, p. 58. Borge, 1907B, p. 4. Brunnthaler, 1907, p. 207.

Buchanan, 1907, p. 81. Huber, 1907, p. 455. Krause, 1907,

pp. 218, 220, 221, 222. Larsen, 1907A, p. 358. Larsen, 1907B,

p. 104. Lauterborn, 1907, p. 137. Lemmermann, 1907A, p. 264.

Lemmermann, 1907B, p. 410. Migula, 1907, p. 655; PI. XXXII,

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

475

Fig. 16. Ostenfeld, 1907, p. 384. Le Roux, 1907, p. 244. Schorler,

1907, p. 356. Tanner-Fullmann, 1907, pp. 122, 124, 125, 232.

G. S. West, 1907, p. 139. West and West, 1907, p. 229. Zacharias,

1907, p. 73; Fig. 34. Adams, 1908, p. 35. Bachmann, 1908, p. 44.

Bloomfield, 1908, p. 782. Forti et Trotter, 1908, pp. 32, 77.

Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908, p. 514. Lauterborn, 1908A, p. 80.

Lauterborn, 1908B, pp. 23, 27. Lemmermann, 1908A, p. 167.

Lemmermann, 1908B, p. 126. Lemmermann, 1908D, p. 395.

Lemmermann, 1908E, p. 405. Marsson, 1908A, pp. 30, 32, 40, 55,

Marsson, 1908B, pp. 93, 95, 96, 107, 110, 111, 114, 116, 120.

Ostenfeld, 1908, p. 348. Schneider, 1908, p. 46. Bernard, 1909,

p. 77; PI. VI, Figs. 164-167. Borge, 1909, p. 16. Chodat, 1909,

p. 99; Pis. XI, XII. Collins, 1909, p. 169. Eyferth, 1909, p. 116;

PI. Ill, Fig. 21. Gutwinski, 1909, p. 435. Lauterborn, 1909,

p. 539, 541. Marsson, 1909, pp. 545, 547, 557, 559, 561, 562.

Ostenfeld, 1909, p. 174. G. S. West, 1909A, p. 29. G. S. West,

1909G, p. 245. G. S. West, 1909D, p. 69. West and West, 1909B,

p. 184. Apstein, 1910, p. 667. Lemmermann, 1910A, p. 294,

298. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 32. Hayden, 1910, p. 44. Kofoid,

1910, p. 31. Keissler, 1910, pp. 353, 357. Steuer, 1910, p. 430;

Fig. 222F. Bachmann, 1911, p. 191. Brunnthaler, 1913, p. 168,

171. Chodat, 1913, p. 15. Smith, 1914A, p. 290, PI. XVII.

Smith, 1914B, p. 1193; PI. LXXXIX.

Achnanthes quadricauda. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 13. Turpin, 1828,

p. 311; PI. XIII, Fig. 6.

5. magnus. Meyen, 1829, p. 774; PI. XLIII, Figs. 26, 27, 29.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 606.

Scenodesmus quadricaudatus. Ehrenberg, 1834, p. 309. Kiitzing,

1843, p. 164.

Scenodesmus quadricauda var. cornutus. Ehrenberg, 1834, p. 311.

5. caudatus. Gorda, 1834, p. 123; PI. IV, Fig. 50. Zanardini,

1857, p. 250. Grunow, 1858, pp. 499, 502. Reinsch, 1867, p. 83.

Kirchner, 1878, p. 98. Wolle, 1881, p. 213. Artari, 1884, p. 133.

Hansgirg, 1884, p. 365. Wolle, 1887, p. 172. Alexenko, 1888,

p. 159. de Wildemann, 1888, p. 71; Figs. 1-26. Heiden, 1889,

p. 5. MacKenzie, 1889, p. 271. Riabinine, 1889A, p. 302. Riab-

inine, 1889B, p. 47. W. West, 1889B, p. 206. Chmielweski, 1890,

p. 92. Alexenko, 1891, p. 62. Beyerinck, 1891, p. 279. Weiss,

1892, p. 37. Chodat et Malinesco, 1893B, p. 640; Figs. 1, 2, 6-8.

Jeliffe, 1893A, p. 243. Kellermann and Werner, 1893, p. 389.

Schroder, 1893, p. 72. Stokes, 1893, p. 72. Alexenko, 1894, p.

72. Jeliffe, 1894, p. 594. Alexenko, 1895, p. 92. Bohlin, 1897,

p. 23. Jeliffe and Vogel, 1897, p. 724; Fig. 51. Iwanoff, 1899,

p. 379. Jeliffe, 1899, p. 5. Senn, 1899, p. 72. Balsamo, 1900,

p. 266. Neuweiler, 1901, p. 45; PI. Ill, Figs. 9-10. Bohlin, 1902,

p. 43. Skorikow, 1902, p. 563. Snow, 1903, p. 391. Comere,

1904, p. 62. Friih und Schroter, 1904, p. 364. Marsson, 1904,

p. 139. Suhr, 1905, p. 252. Bachmann, 1908, p. 21. Brown,

1908, p. 21. Brown, 1908, p. 247. Quelle, 1908, p. 43. Kaiser,

476 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1908, p. 163. Andrews, 1909, p. 379. Brown, 1909, p. 335. Honig-

mann, 1909, p. 54. Bethge, 1911, p. 498.

Arthrodesmus quadricaudatus. Ehrenberg, 1836. Ehrenberg,

1838, p. 150; PI. X, Fig. 16. Bailey, 1841, p. 292; PI. I, Figs.

18A-18B. Pritchard, 1841, p. 189. Cantor, 1842, p. 493. Ehren¬

berg, 1843, pp. 337, 338. Pokorny, 1854, p. 58.

S. quadricaudatus. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Hassall, 1845,

p. 392; Pl. XCII, Fig. 12. Ralfs, 1845, p. 402; PI. XII, Fig. 4.

Ralfs, 1846, p. 159; PI. XV, Fig. 4. Reinsch, 1877, p. 238. W.

West, 1888, p. 748. Lemmermann, 1891, p. 148. Lemmermann,

1893, p. 524. Lemmermann, 1895A, p. 41. Lemmermann, 1895B,

p. 296. Tassi, 1895, p. 12. Schroder, 1896, p. 46. Lemmermann,

1897, p. 108. Strohmeyer, 1897, p. 6. Lemmermann, 1898A,

p. 192. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267. Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein

1901, p. 35. Kellermann, 1902, p. 223. Snow, 1903, p. 391.

Zacharias, 1903A, p. 203.

Scenodesmus caudatus. Kiitzing, 1845, p. 139. Kiitzing, 1849,

p. 186. Nageli, 1849, p. 91; PI. V, Figs. 2A-2E. Rabenhorst,

1850, p. 517. Kirchner, 1891, p. 18. Conn and Webster, 1908,

p. 35; PI. VI, Fig. 38.

Scenodesmus quadricauda. de Brebisson, 1856, p. 158. Archer,

1861, p. 753; PI. I, Figs. 40 ,41, 43.

S. caudatus forma typicus. Kirchner, 1878, p. 98.

S. quadricauda forma typicus. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 63. Chodat,

1902, p. 213; Figs. 133-134. Collins, 1909, p. 169. Petersen, 1911,

p. 160; Fig. 3.

S. quadricauda var. genuinus. Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Toni,

1889B, p. 566. Volk, 1903, p. 103. Hansgirg, 1905, p. 458.

Stadler, 1905, p. 236. Volk, 1905, p. 65. Selk, 1907, pp. 8, 57,

68, 79, 85, 91, 94, 98, 103, 108, 115. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 32.

S. caudatus var. typicus. Wolle, 1887, p. 172; PI. CLVI, Figs.

11-14. Webber, 1889, p. 1012. Dorogoslaisky, 1904, p. 224.

S. obtusus var. cornutus. Franze, 1892, p. 149; PI. Ill, Fig. 7.

de Wildemann, 1897B, p. 78.

S. variabilis var. cornutus. de Wildemann, 1893A. de Wilde¬

mann, 1893B, p. 91. Schmidle, 1895, p. 305. de Wildemann,

1895, p. 26. de Wildemann, 1896. de Wildemann, 1897A, p. 61.

de Wildemann, 1897B, p. 49. de Wildemann, 1899, p. 11. Fournier,

1903, p. 28. Schodduyn, 1909, p. 166.

S. quadricauda forma genuinus. Pascher, 1903, p. 175.

S. quadricauda var. typicus. Migula, 1907, p. 655. Teodoresco,

1907, p. 129. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 168, 171; Fig. 16.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. typicus. Conn and Webster, 1908,

p. 35; PI. VI, Fig. 33.

S. genuinus. Kofoid, 1910, p. 31.

“Coenobiis e cellulis 2-8, cylindraceo-oblongis, utroque

polo obtuso-rotundatis serie aut simplici aut duplici alter-

nante dispositis constitutis; cellulis omnibus rectis, medianis

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

477

inermibus, extimis utroque apice saepius dorso armatis.”

Dimens. cell. 11x3.5, 12.5x4.5, 15x6, 16x6, 16.5 x 6 g.

Long. acul. 10-12 g.

This species is the most widely distributed of any of the

genus. Calling anything with four horns S. quadricauda

and failing to observe the accessory horns that separate this

species from S. longus Meyen and S. abundans (Kirch.)

Chod., probably accounts for many reports of it, although in

spite of these possible errors of identification the species un¬

doubtedly occurs in abundance everywhere.

Chodat (1913) has added considerably to the confusion

in the systematic classification of the species Scenedesmus

by his work in pure cultures. He describes many new species

but since the bases for their specific differentiation is physio¬

logical rather than morphological, it is difficult to identify his

species, especially since he gives no cell measurements. There

is no justification for the establishing his S. quadrispina ,

S. longispina , and S. nanus as distinct species; since they

are all so clearly related to S. quadricauda , in having spines

only on the poles of the terminal cells. His work is of value

to the systematist, however, in pointing out that it is possi¬

ble to isolate strains which vary within certain spacial lim¬

its, while others with the same external morphological char¬

acters vary within other spacial limits. This is particularly

true of the alga known as S. quadricauda.

Reinsch (1867) attempted to classify these varieties on

the basis of their size but failed to name the different groups

into which he separated them. Since his work was not done

on material in pure culture, the limits he set for variations

were largely a matter of judgment rather than accurate

knowledge.

The varieties described here have all been obtained in

pure culture; so that the exact limits of their variation is

accurately determined. In spite of the fact that a consid¬

erable number of varieties of S. quadricauda are described

I believe that field material can be identified by means of

the cell measurements given.

The form for which the name S. quadricauda is retained

has been isolated several times from various stations in this

vicinity. It is selected as the typical form because its di¬

mensions are about in the middle of those given by de Toni

for the variations in size for the cells of S. quadricauda.

478 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , anrf Letters.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Austria-Hungary (Alexenko, 1888, 1894, 1895 ;

Blumentritt, 1902; Brunnthaler, 1907; Filarsky, 1900; Franze,

1892; Grunow, 1858; Gutwinski, 1897A, 1909; Hansgirg, 1884,

1886, 1889, 1890A, 1891, 1892B, 1905; Ianouchkievitch, 1891;

Beck, 1887; Pascher, 1903, 1906; Pokorny, 1854; Prowazek, 1899;

Riabinine, 1889A, 1889B; Ruttner, 1906; Stadler, 1905). Belgium

(Conrad et Kufferath, 1912; Paque, 1885; de Wildemann, 1885,

1888, 1890A, 1890B, 1893B, 1895, 1897B). Bulgaria (Petkoff

1906A). Denmark (Chodat, 1900; W. West, 1891B). England

(Bennett, 1886, 1887; Bloomfield, 1908; Cooke, 1882, 1885;

Fritsch, 1902, 1903, 1905, 1906; Griffith, 1912; Griffith and Llen-

frey, 1856, 1883, 1885; Hassall, 1845; Larder, 1902; Parfitt, 1886;

Pritchard, 1841; Ralfs, 1845, 1846, 1848; Roy, 1890; G. S. West,

1899, 1904B, 1909D; W. West, 1888, 1889 A, 1890, 1891 A, 1892B;

West and West, 1897B, 1901B, 1909B). France (de Brebisson,

1856; Comere, 1904, 1911; Fournier, 1903; Reinsch, 1867; Le Roux,

1907; Schodduyn, 1909; Turpin, 1820, 1828). Germany (Bethge,

1911; Ehrenberg, 1834, 1837, 1838; Eyferth, 1909; Heering und

Homefeld, 1904; Heiden, 1889; Honigmann, 1909; Kaiser, 1908;

Kirchner, 1878; Kolkowitz und Marsson, 1908; Konig, 1888;

Krause, 1905, 1907; Kiitzing, 1845, 1849; Lauterborn, 1905, 1907,

1908A, 1908B, 1909, 1911; Lemmermann, 1891, 1893, 1895A,

1895B, 1896, 1897, 1898A, 1898C, 1899, 1900A, 1900B, 1901B,

1901 G, 1903C, 1904B, 1905C; 1906, 1907B, 1908D, 1908E;

Lindau, 1901; Marsson, 1899, 1901A, 1901B, 1904, 1908A, 1908B,

1909, 1911; Meyen, 1829; Nitardy, 1898, 1904; Quelle, 1908;

Schmidle, 1893A, 1894; Schmula, 1897; Schneider, 1908; Schorler,

1898, 1900, 1907; Schorler, Thallwitz and Schiller, 1906; Schroder,

1893, 1896, 1897A, 1897B, 1897C, 1899; Selk, 1907; Senn, 1899;

Strohmeyer, 1897; Voigt, 1902; Volk, 1903, 1905; Weiss, 1892;

Zacharias, 1896, 1898, 1899, 1903A, 1903B, 1904). Holland

(Beyerinck, 1891). Ireland (Adams, 1908; Archer, 1857; W. West,

1892A; West and West, 1902B, 1909B). Italy (Amberg, 1903;

Balsamo, 1888; Forti, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1902, 1905; Forti et

Trotter, 1908; Garbini, 1899A, 1899B, 1901; Gugliemetti, 1910;

Hohenbiihel-Heufler, 1871; Lemmermann, 1908C; Martel, 1884

1887A, 1887B; Meneghini, 1840; Moreto, 1904; Rabenhorst,

1850; Tassi, 1895; de Toni et Forti, 1899B; de Toni et Levi,

1886, 1887; Trotter, 1905; Zacharias, 1905; Zanardini, 1857).

Norway (Wille, 1901). Roumania (Teodoresco, 1907). Russia

(Alexenko, 1891; Artari, 1884; Borge, 1894; Chmielweski, 1890;

Dorogoslaisky, 1904; Gutwinski, 1891, 1 wanoff, 1899; Krmpotic,

1913; Levander, 1899, 1900, 1901; Skorikow, 1902, 1904, 1905;

Wille, 1879; Zykoff, 1902). Scotland (W. West, 1903; West and

West, 1904, 1905, 1906A, 1909B). Sicily (Lemmermann, 1908A).

Sweden (Andersson, 1890; Borge, 1895, 1900, 1907A; Lagerheim,

1883; Lemmermann, 1903B, 1904A; Petersen, 1911; de Toni et

Smith — Monograph of Scenede sinus.

479

Forti, 1899A). Switzerland (Amberg, 1900; Bachmann, 1908;

Borge, 1901A, Chodat, 1897; 1898, 1901, 1902, 1909, 1913; Chodat

et Malinesco, 1893B; Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901;

Friih und Schroter, 1904; Huber, 1905, 1907; Neuweiler, 1901;

Pitard, 1897; Schmidle, 1895; Tanner-Fullmann, 1906, 1907;

Waldvogel, 1900; de Wildemann, 1897 A).

AFRICA. Lake Albert Nyanza (G. S. West, 1909C). Azores

(Archer, 1874; Bohlin, 1902; Farlow in Trelease, 1897). Central

Africa (West and West, 1896). Lake Chungruru (Schmidle, 1904).

Cape of Good Hope (Reinsch, 1877). Congo Free State (de Wilde¬

mann, 1889). Madagascar (West and West, 1895). Lake Nyassa

(Schmidle, 1903, 1904, G. S. West, 1907). Lake Rukuga (Schmidle,

1904). Lake Tanganyika (G. S. West, 1907). Lake Victoria

Nyanza (Ostenfeld, 1908, 1909; G. S. West, 1907). Abyssinia

(de Toni, 1891, 1892).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Afghanistan (Schaarschmidt, 1884).

Australia (Borge, 1896, 1911; Hardy, 1906, 1913; Mobius, 1892;

G. S. West, 1909 A). Burma (West and West, 1907). Ceylon

(Apstein, 1910; Lemmermann, 1907A; West and West, 1901 A).

China (Cantor, 1842; Gutwinski, 1903). Hawaiian Islands (Lem¬

mermann, 1900C, 1905A). India (Turner, 1892). Java (Bernard,

1908; Gutwinski, 1902; Lemmermann, 1904C; de Wildemann,

1897B, 1899). Manchuria (Borge, 1899). Mongolia (Ostenfeld,

1907). New Zealand (Lemmermann, 1900C; Nordstedt, 1888;

Spencer, 1882). Siam (Lemmermann, 1908B). Siberia (Boldt,

1885; Borge, 1891). Singapore (Bernard, 1909; Lemmermann,

1904C).

AMERICAS. Argentina (Borge, 1907B; Nordstedt, 1882;

Wille, 1884). Barbados (G. S. West, 1904A). Bolivia (Borge,

1907B). Brazil (Bohlin, 1897; Nordstedt, 1877). Canada (Acheson,

1883; Borge, 1909; Klugh, 1911; MacKenzie, 1889). Jamaica

(Lagerheim, 1887). Montevideo (Wille, 1884). Paraguay (Bohlin,

1897; Lemmermann, 1910A). Pategonia (Borge, 1901B). United

States (Andrews, 1909; Bailey, 1841, 1851; Borge, 1909; Brown,

1908, 1909; Buchanan, 1907; Campbell, 1886; Collins, 1909; Conn

and Webster, 1908; Ehrenberg, 1843; Fanning, 1901; Fink, 1905;

Hayden, 1910; Jeliffe, 1893A, 1893B, 1894, 1899; Jeliffe and Vogel,

1897; Jones, 1887; Kellermann, 1902; Kellermann and Werner,

1893; Kofoid, 1910; Olney, 1872: Riddle, 1902, 1905; Smith,

1914A, 1914B; Snow, 1903; Stokes, 1893, Tilden, 1894; Vorce,

1881; Webber, 1889; W. West, 1889B; Wolle, 1881, 1887).

POLAR AND SUB-POLAR REGIONS. Boergesen, 1899A.

Faeroes (Boergesen, 1899B, 1901A; Boergesen and Ostenfeld,

1903). Greenland (Boergesen, 1896; Lagerheim, 1903; Larsen.

1907 A, 1907B).

Var. quadrispina (Chodat) nov. comb. (PL XXVII?

Fig. 43; PL XXXI: Figs. 167-170.)

S. quadrispina Chodat, 1913, p. 58: Figs. 45-52.

10

480 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Cellulis lati-ovatis. Longitudo cellularum 2-plo latitudo.

Aculeis brevibus, latitudine cellulae atque longitudine aculei

equale.

Chodat gives no measurements for his S. quadrispina but

computations from his figures, which were magnified 800

diameters, shows that the cell dimensions are 8.5 x 3.7,

12.5 x 7, and 15 x 8.5 p. The alga which I have obtained

in pure culture corresponds very closely with this, the cell

measurements being 8.5 x 3.5, 9x4, 9.5 x 4.5, 10.5x6.5,

11 x 6 p so that it is quite probable that this alga is the same

as that which Chodat had in pure culture.

Var. parvus nov. var. (PI. XXXI: Figs. 162-166.)

Cellulis ovati-cylindricis. Longitudo cellularum 2-2.5-plo

latitudo. Longitudine cellulae atque longitudine aculei

equale. Dimens. cell. 5.5 x 3^ 6x3, 7x3, 8x3 p. Long,

acul. 4.5 ad 8 p.

The limits of this variety are quite sharply defined since

the largest cells are as long and but slightly narrower than the

smallest cells of longispina, the next smallest variety.

Var. longispina (Chodat) nov. comb. (PI. XXVII: Fig.

42; PI. XXXI: Figs. 159-161.)

S. longispina. Chodat, 1913, p. 60: Figs. 53-58.

Cellulis ovati-cylindricis. Longitudo cellularum 2.5-plo

latitudo. Dimens. cell. 8. x 3.8, 8 x 4.5, 8.5 x 5, 11 x 5 p.

Long. acul. 7.5-9. 5 p.

Since Chodat gives no dimensions for the form he named

longispina I have again computed them from his figures and

find them to be 8.6 x 3.5, 9.5 x 3.7, 11x4.5 p with spines

11-14 p long. Although the spines in the form I have iso¬

lated are somewhat shorter the dimensions of the cells are

sufficiently near those of S. longispina of Chodat to regard

the two as identical.

Var. Westii nov. var. (PI. XXXII: Figs. 177-180.)

Dimens. cell. 16 x 4.5, 17 x 5.5, 20 x 9, 22 x 8 p. Long,

acul. 12-16 p.

The size of this variety approaches the variety maximum

West and West but the largest cells in my pure cultures of

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

481

the variety Westii fall somewhat short of the minimal limits

set by West and West.

Var. maximum West and West. (Pl.XXVII : Fig. 40.)

West and West, 1895, p. 83; PL Y, Figs. 9-10. Balsamo, 1900,

p. 267. West and West, 1901A, p. 197. West and West, 1902B,

p. 64. G. S. West, 1904B, p. 220; Fig. 92H. G. S. West, 1907,

p. 139.

“Var. duplo-major, cellulis crassis, spinis longis validis

extrorsum curvatis. Long. cell. 27-36 p. Lat. cell. 9-11.4

99

P.

This variety has been found in Madagascar (1895), Cey¬

lon (1901A), Ireland (1902B), England (1904B), and sev¬

eral of the central African lakes.

27. S. opoliensis Richter. (PI. XXVII : Fig. 49; PI.

XXXII: Figs. 181-184.

Richter, 1896, p. 7; Figs. A-E. Lemmermann, 1896, p. 108.

Schmula, 1897, p. 35. de Wildemann, 1897C, p. 77. Lemmermann,

1899, p. 113. Schroder, 1899, p. 22. de Wildemann, 1899, p.

11. Zacharias, 1899, p. 83, 90. Chodat, 1901, p. 1310. Zacharias,

1901, p. 127. Lemmermann, 1902, p. (251). Snow, 1903, p. 391.

Marsson, 1904, p. 146. Forti, 1905, p. 5. Lemmermann, 1905B,

p. 158. Lemmermann, 1905G, p. 166. Volk, 1905, p. 65. Borge

1907A, p. 58. Lemmermann, 1907B, p. 412. Migula, 1907, p.

655; PI. XXXV (L), Fig. 1. Selk, 1907, pp. 61, 68, 79, 85, 94, 99,

108. Kaiser, 1908, p. 163. Lemmermann, 1908D, p. 395. Honig-

mann, 1909, p. 54. Gugliemetti, 1910, p. 31. Marsson, 1911,

p. 278. Petersen, 1911, p. 160. Brunnthaler, 1913, p. 169, 171;

Fig. 19. Chodat, 1913, p. 22.

S. quadricauda var. opoliensis. West and West, 1901 A, p. 197;

PI. XVII, Figs. 16-17. G. S. West, 1907, p. 139. G. S. West,

1909C, p. 245.

“S. in statu instructo cellulis quaternis cylindricis in seriem

simplicem, mediis obliquis, externis gracilibus levissime in-

curvis vel subrectis, medio paulo turgidis utroque in rostrum

semitruncatum plus minus attenuatis, adverso polo aculeo

longo curvato instructis, cellulis mediis fusiformibus inerm-

ibus acutiusculis. Long. cell, sine acul. 17-28 p; lat. 5-8

p. Long. acul. 15-28 p”

The alga has been isolated several times from various sta¬

tions in this vicinity. The culture from which the drawings

482 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

are made came from a collection of material near the outlet

of Lake Monona, Wisconsin. The dimensions of the mature

cells are within the limits given by Richter although the

cells of the youngest colonies are smaller, measuring but

11 y in length.

The navicular shape of the cells, their lateral contact in

the median part, together with a beak-like instead of a

curved end, separates this alga from S. quadricauda (Turp.)

de Breb.

The number of cells in the colony is generally four, al¬

though two-celled colonies are not uncommon. The spines

in this species show a great variability in both number and

size. This again is different from S. quadricauda where their

number and position is constant. Usually the two terminal

cells bear a spine at each end (Fig. 181), although this is not

always the case (Fig. 182). The presence of the spines on

the median cells is even more variable. Not a case was

found where every cell in the colony bore a long spine at

each pole, although some colonies very nearly approached

this condition (Fig. 184). The median cells have spines at

both ends or only on one (Figs. 182, 184). Again, there is a

great difference in the length of the individual spines, some

being very short while others are as long as the cells (Fig.

182). The short spines are found most frequently on the

inner cells, although the outer cells may bear short spines

in addition to the long spines. Richter noted this great

variability in the presence of supplementary spines, his

original illustrations showing conditions similar to those

figured from my culture.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

EUROPE. Germany (Honigmann, 1909; Kaiser, 1908; Mars-

son, 1904, 1911; Lemmermann, 1896, 1899, 1902, 1905B, 1905G,

1907B, 1908D; Richter, 1896; Schmula, 1897; Schroder, 1899;

Selk, 1905; Yolk, 1905; Zacharias, 1899, 1901). Italy (Forti,

1905; Gugliemetti, 1910). Sweden (Borge, 1907A; Petersen, 1911).

Switzerland (Chodat, 1901).

AFRICA. Lake Albert Nyanza (G. S. West, 1909C). Lake

Tanganyika (G. S. West, 1907).

ASIA AND OCEANIA. Ceylon (West and West, 1901A)

Java (de Wildemann, 1897C, 1899).

AMERICAS. United States (Snow, 1903).

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

483

28. S. perforatus Lemm. (PL XXVII: Fig. 47.)

Lemmermann, 1904C, p. 159. Migula, 1907, p. 657; PL XXXV

(L), Fig. 7. Lemmermann, pp. 126, 131; PL III, Fig. 4. Bach-

mann, 1911, p. 191. Brunnthaler, 1913, pp. 169, 171; Fig. 21.

Chodat, 1913, p. 25.

Coenobia plerumque 8-cell ularum. Cellulis terminalibus

capitatis, membrana cellularum versus coenobium concava,

ex coenobium, convexo. Cellulis terminalibus cum aculeis

curvatis, cellulis interioribus coenobi constrictes in medio

parte. Foraminibus anguste linearibus inter cellulas.

Lemmermann has found this alga in Germany, Italy,

Siam, Java and Singapore. S. quadricauda forma major

(PL XXVII: Fig. 48) seems to be identical with this alga.

DOUBTFUL OR IMPERFECTLY DESCRIBED

SPECIES

S. minor Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607; Fig. 99.

“Corpusculis ellipticis, non punctatis, minoribus.,,

S. parvulus Menegh.

Meneghini, 1837, p. 17. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271. Meneghini,

1840, p. 271.

“Cellulis minimis, ellipticis, extrorsum lunulatis apice,ro-

tundatis, binatim, concretise ’

Scenodesmus didymus Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1845, p. 139. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 185.

S. didymus . Quelle, 1908, p. 43.

“Sc. catenulis ex cellulis binis aut senis geminatis, sub-

globosis, minutis, (diam. 1 /600-1 /400'") composites.”

Scenodesmus caudatus var. brachyurus. Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

“Minor, brevissime caudatus.”

484 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

S. polymorphus. Wood.

Wood, 1869, p. 135. Wood, 1874, p. 91; PL XI, Fig. 1. Vorce,

1881, p. 31; PI. VII, Fig. 31. Jones, 1887, p. 115. Wolle, 1887,

p. 173. de Toni, 1889B, p. 567. Kellermann and Werner, 1893,

p. 389. Stokes, 1893, p. 51. de Wildermann, 1893A. Balsamo,

1900, p. 266. Kellermann, 1902, p. 223.

“Cellulis fusiformibus vel ovatis vel ellipticis vel globosis,

4-12 y diam. singulis vel 2-7 conjunctis, saepius spina sin¬

gula, subinde utrinque biaculeatis; apicibus obtusis, sub-

acutis vel acutissimis; aculeis gracillimis, valde acutis,

rigidis, longiusculis.”

This species of Wood’s is a blanket description of a num¬

ber of forms, but the ones most easily recognized from his

figures are S. quadricauda (Turp.) de Breb. and Ankistro-

desmus.

S. bacilaris. Gutw.

Gutwinski, 1890, p. 63.

“Cellulae oblongae, utroque polo attenuatae protractae

et rotundatae. Long. 12 y; lat. 7 y et apic. 2.4 /*.”

S. bijugatus var. disciformis Chodat.

Chodat, 1902, p. 213. Migula, 1907, p. 658. Brunnthaler,

1913, pp. 169, 172.

S. bijugatus form disciformis. Volk, 1905, p. 64.

Mention has already been made of the fact that the de¬

scription of this variety is so vague that it might mean S.

bijuga var. irregularis or S. arcuatus var. platydisca.

S. bijugatus forma verrucosa Teodoresco.

Teodoresco, 1907, p. 129; Fig. 1.

Since the arrangment of the granulations on the cell wall

is not described by Teodoresco the realtionship of this form

to the others with granulations on their cell walls can not be

determined.

485

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

S. costulatus Chodat.

Chodat, 1909, p. 102; PL XIII, Figs. A and B. Chodat, 1913,

p. 38; Figs. 12-18, 21.

“Cellulis singulis ellipsoideo-fusiformibus, ventricosis, bre-

viter acutis, in coenobium saepe obliquum lineare quadricel-

lulare, uniseriatum vel oblique biseriatum vel irregulariter

alternantibus more S. costati Schmidle, tabulare dispositis.

Cellulae ca. 20-12 g, majores quam in S. obliquo (Turp.)

Ktz.”

S. nanus Chodat.

Chodat, 1913, p. 61; Figs. 59-62B, 66-67.

A variety of S quadricauda (Turp.) de Breb. but difficult

to determine the exact limits of variation.

S. flavescens. Chodat, 1913, p. 76; Figs. 77-78. S. semper-

virens, Chodat, 1913, p. 71; Figs. 63-69. S. spinosus. Chodat,

1913, p. 74; Figs. 70-74.

These three species described by Chodat are closely re¬

lated to S. abundans (Kirch) Chodat but cannot be differ¬

entiated on the bases of their external morphology.

S. oblongus Chodat.

Chodat, 1913, p. 41; Figs. 19-20.

Closely related to S. obliquus (Turp.) Ktz. but Chodat’s

reasons for separating this species from S. obliquus are not

known.

SPECIES EXCLUDED

S. bilunulatus (Turp.) Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 608; Fig. 93. de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

Achananthes bilunate. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 5. Turpin, 1828, p.

313; PL XIII, Fig. 11.

Scenodesmus bilunulatus. Kiitzing, 1845, p. 140.

Scenodesmus dimorphus var. bilunatus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

Probably a species of Ankistrodesmus instead of Scenedes¬

mus .

486 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

S. duplex Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 609; Fig. 100.

It is impossible to say just what this form is, but it is not

a Scenedesmus.

S. stomatomorphus (Turp.) Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607.

Achnanthes stomatomorpha. Turpin, 1820, Fig. 11. Turpin,

1828, p. 312; PI. XIII, Fig. 10.

Now generally recognized as Sphaerozosma stomatomor-

phum (Turp.) Rabenhorst.

S. moniliformis (Turp.) Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1833, p. 607. Zanardini, 1857, p. 250. Balsamo, 1900.

p. 266.

Tessarthonia moniliforme. Turpin, 1820; Fig. 1. Turpin, 1828,

p. 316; PI. XIII, Fig. 18.

Scenodesmus moniliformis. Kiitzing, 1845, p. 139. Kiitzing,

1849, p. 185.

Is Cosmarium moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs.

Scenodesmus convergens (Ehr.) Ktz.

Kiitzing, 1843, p. 164.

Arthrodesmus convergens. Ehrenberg, 1838, p. 152; PI. X,

Fig. 18.

This is a very well recognized species of Arthrodesmus at

the present day.

S. duplex (Ktz.) Ralfs.

Ralfs, 1848, p. 193; PI. XXXIV, Fig. 17A.

Scenodesmus duplex. Archer, 1861, p. 753.

Raphidium duplex. Kiitzing, 1845, p. 144.

Is Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. duplex (Ktz.) G. S. West.

This S. duplex should not be confused with the S. duplex

described by Kiitzing in 1833.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

S. radiatus Reinsch.

487

Reinsch, 1867, p. 81; PI. VI, Fig. 6. Lagerheim, 1883, p. 65.

Eichler und Raciborski, 1892, p. 16. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267.

S. bijugatus var. radiatus . Hansgirg, 1886, p. 115. de Toni,

1889B, p. 564. Migula, 1907, p. 658; PI. XXXV (K), Fig. 7.

Teodoresco, 1907, p. 129. Chodat, 1902, p. 213. Brunnthaler,

1913, pp. 169, 172.

S', bijugatus forma radiatus. Pascher, 1903, p. 175.

Selenastrum radiatum. Weiss, 1892, p. 37.

Although this form is now generally recognized as a va¬

riety of S. bijuga, I believe that it should be placed as a

synonym of Dimorphococcus lunatus A. br.

S. rotundatus Wood.

Wood, 1874, p. 91; PI. XI, Fig. 3. Wolle, 1887, p. 174; PI.

CLVI, Fig. 27. de Toni, 1889B, p. 567. Stokes, 1893, p. 51. de

Wildemann, 1893A. Iwanoff, 1899, p. 379. Balsamo, 1900, p. 267.

Wood placed this species with Scenedesmus provisionally

since he did not know where else to put it. The figures of

Wood resemble Richteriella , while those of Wolle resemble

Golenkinia. This species may safely be placed among the

Phythelieae but the specific determination is perhaps diffi¬

cult.

S. costatus, var. coelastroides Bohlin.

Bohlin, 1893, p. 42. Chodat, 1902, p. 216; Fig. 142. Migula,

1907, p. 657.

S. coelastroides. Schmidle, 1898, p. 9; PL I, Fig. 1. Chodat,

1913, p. 23.

This form belongs in the genus Coelastrum and not Scen¬

edesmus.

S. variabilis de Wildemann.

de Wildemann, 1893A. de Wildemann, 1893B, p. 91. de Wilde¬

mann, 1895, p. 26. Cozette, 1904, p. 273. Loppens, 1908, p. 48.

This species is worthless. The varieties cornutus and

ecornis are synonyms of S. quadricauda and S. bijuga re¬

spectively.

488 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

S. costatus var. poriferus Gutwinski.

Gutwinski, 1909, p. 435; PI. VII, Fig. 5.

Is Coelastrum Bohlinii Schmidle and Senn.

S. obliquus var. inermis Playfair.

Playfair, 1912, p. 518; PL LVI, Fig. 9.

The shape of the cells differ from that of Scenedesmus ,

but so crude is Playfair’s drawing that it is impossible to

determine just what alga it is.

S. chlorelloides Chodat.

Chodat, 1913, p. 45; Fig. 23.

The alga is much more closely related to Palmellococcus

than to Scenedesmus.

S. wisconsinensis (Smith) Chodat.

Chodat, 1913, p. 50; Figs. 35-37.

Tetradesmus wisconsinensis. Smith, 1913, p. 76; PL I, Figs. 2-20.

The constant occurrence of the cells in two parallel series

excludes this species from the genus Scenedesmus.

SPECIES KNOWN IN NAME ONLY

S. apiculatus Corda.

de Toni, 1889B, p. 567.

Scenodesmus caudatus var. apiculatus. Kiitzing, 1849, p. 186.

S. ellipticus Corda.

de Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

S. lacustris (?)

Bachmann, 1908, p. 44.

489

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

S. Inn a Corda.

Corda, 1838, p. 195; PL II (Ref. de Toni, 1889B,p. 568) Hansgirg,

1888, p. 116. de Wildemann, 1893A. Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

S. nolatus Corda.

Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

S. octodacrys de Breb.

de Brebisson, 1835, p. 66. (Ref. Meneghini, 1840, p. 209).

S. ovalternus de Breb.

de Brebisson, 1835, p. 66 (Ref. Meneghini, 1840, p. 209). de

Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

S. Pediastrum de Notaris.

Balsamo, 1900, p. 266.

S. quadricauda forma multicauda Schroder.

Dalla Torre und von Sarnthein, 1901, p. 35. Brunnthaler,

1913, p. 171.

, S. quadricauda forma plurimae Schmula.

Schmula, 1910, p. 86.

S. senilis Corda.

Corda, 1839, p. 244; PI. VI (Ref. de Toni, 1889B, p. 568).

Hansgirg, 1886, p. 116. de Wildemann, 1893A.

S. setigera Lemm.

Dorogoslaisky, 1904, p. 224.

S. tetradacrys de Breb.

de Brebisson, 1835, p. 66. (Ref. Meneghini, 1840, p. 209). de

Brebisson, 1839, p. 271.

S. tetradacrys var. duplex de Breb.

§|de Brebisson in Meneghini, 1840, p. 209.

S. tetrapenion de Breb.

Meneghini, 1840, p. 207.

490 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

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The Naturalist. 87-100. 1889.

1890. West, W. Contributions to the freshwater algae of

North Wates. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. London.

277-306. 1890.

1891A. West, W. Additions to the freshwater algae of West

Yorkshire. The Naturalist. 243-252. 1891.

189 IB. West, W. Notes on Danish algae. Nuova Notarisia.

418-425. 1891.

1892A. West, W. A contribution to the freshwater algae

of West Ireland. Jour. Linn. Soc. London. Bot.

29: 103-216. 1892.

1892B. West, W. Algae of the English lake district. Jour.

Roy. Micr. Soc. London. 713-748. 1892.

1893. West, W. Notes on Scotch fresh-water algae. Jour.

of Bot. 31: 97-104. 1893.

1894. West, W., and West, G. S. New British fresh-water

algae. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. London. 1-17. 1894.

1895. West, W., and West, G. S. The freshwater algae of

Madagascar. Trans. Linn. Soc. London. 2 Ser.:

5: Pt. 2: 41-90. 1895.

1896. West, W., and G. S. Algae from central Africa.

Jour, of Bot. 34: 377-384. 1896.

522 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1897A. West, W., and West, G. S. Welwitsch’s African

freshwater algae. Jour, of Bot. 35: 235-243.

1897.

1897B. West, W., and West, G. S. A contribution to the

freshwater algae of the south of England. Jour.

Roy. Micr. Soc. London. 467-510. 1897.

1898. West, W., and West, G. S. Notes on freshwater

algae. Jour, of Bot. 36: 330-338. 1898.

1900. West, W., and West, G. S. Notes on freshwater

algae II. Jour, of Bot. 38: 289-299. 1900.

1901 A. West, W., and West, G. S. A contribution to the

freshwater algae of Ceylon. Trans. Linn. Soc.

London. 2Ser.: 6: 123-215. 1901.

1901B. West, W., and West, G. S. The algal flora of York¬

shire. Bot. Trans. Yorkshire Nat. Union. 5:

1901.

1902. West, W., and West, G. S. Freshwater chlorophy-

ceae. in Schmidt, J. Flora of Koh Chang. Con¬

tributions to the knowledge of the vegetation in

the Gulf of Siam. Bot. Tids. 24: 157-186. 1902.

1902B. West, W., and West, G. S. A contribution to the

freshwater algae of the North of Ireland. Trans.

Roy. Irsish Acad. 32: Ser. B.: Pt. I: 1-94. 1902.

1904. West, W., and West, G. S. Scottish freshwater

plankton. Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond. Bot. 35: 519-

556. 1901-1904.

1905. West, W., and West, G. S. Freshwater algae from

the Orkneys and Shetlands. Trans, and Proc. Bot.

Soc. of Edinburgh. 23: 3-40. 1905.

1906A. West, W., and West, G. S. A further contribution

to the freshwater plankton of the Scottish lakes.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. 41: 477-518. 1906.

1906B. West, W., and West, G. S. A comparative study of

the plankton of some Irish lakes. Trans. Roy. Irish

Acad. 33: Ser. B: Pt. 2: 77-116. 1906.

1907. West, W., and West, G. S. Freshwater algae from

Burma, including a few from Bengal and Madras.

Ann. Roy. Bot. Garden, Calcutta. 6: Pt. 2:

175-260. 1907.

1908. West, W., and West, G, S. Algae from Austwick

Moss, West Yorks. The Naturalist. 101-103.

1908.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

523

1909A. West, W., and West, G. S. The phytoplankton of

the English lake district. The Naturalist. 115—

122, 134-141, 186-193, 260-267, 287-292, 323-331.

1909.

1909B. West, W., and West, G. S. The British freshwater

phytoplankton, with special reference to the

Desmid-plankton and the distribution of British

Desmids. Proc. Roy. Soc. London. 81: Ser. B:

165-206. 1909.

1885. de Wildemann, E. Contribution a l’etude des

algues de Belgique. C. R. des Seances d. 1. Soc.

R. d. Bot. d. Belgique. 24: Pt. 2: 116-127.

1885.

1888. de Wildemann, E. Observations algologiques. I.

Sur quelques formes du genre Scenedesmus Meyen.

Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. d. Belgique. 27: 71-79.

1888.

1889. de Wildemann, E. Quelques mots sur la flore algo-

logique du Congo. C. R. des Seancesd. 1. Soc.

R. d. Bot. d. Belgique. 28: 6-10. 1889.

1890A. de Wildemann, E. Contributions a l’etude de

algues de Belgique. C. R. des Seances d. 1. Soc.

R. d. Bot. d. Belgique. 29: 135-139. 1890.

1890B. de Wildemann, E. Tableau comparatif des algues

de Belgique. C. R. des Seances d. 1. Soc. R. d.

Bot. d. Belgique. 29: 147-160. 1890.

1892. de Wildemann, E. Quelques mots sur le genre

Scenedesmus Turpin. C. R. des Seances d. 1. Soc.

R. d. Bot. d. Belgique. 31: 218-224. 1892.

1893A. de Wildemann, E. Le genre Scenedesmus Meyen.

Notarisia. 85-106. 1893.

1893B. de Wildemann, E. Contribution a l’etude des

algues de Belgique. C. R. des Seances d. 1. Soc.

R. d. Bot. d. Belgique. 32: 88-101. 1893.

1895. de Wildemann, E. Tableau comparatif des algues

de Belgique. Mem. d. 1. Soc. R. d. Bot. d. Bel¬

gique. 34: 22-50. 1895.

1897A. de Wildemann, E. Catalogue de la flore algologique

de la Suisse. Mem. d. 1. Soc. R. d. Sci. d. Liege.

Ser. 2: 19: 1-180. 1897.

524 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

1897B. de Wildemann, E. Les algues du Linsburg. Ann.

de la Soc. Beige de Microscopie. 21: 42-68. 1897.

1897C. de Wildemann, E. Observations sur les algues rap-

portees par M. J. Massart d’un voyage aux Indes

Neerlandaises. Ann. du Jard. bot. de Buitenzorg.

I Suppl. 32-106. 1897.

1899. de Wildemann, E. Prodrome de la flora algologique

des Indes Neerlandaises. Batavia. 1899.

1879. Wille, N. Ferskvandsalger fra Novaja Semlja sam-

lede af Dr. F. Kjellman paa Nordeskiolds Expedi¬

tion 1875. Ofvs. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 36: No. 5:

13-74. 1879.

1884. Wille, N. Bidrag til Sydamerikas algflora. Bih.

t. k. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 5: No. 18: 1-64. 1884.

1897. Wille, N. Om Faeoernes Ferskvandsalger og om

Ferskvandsalgernes Spredningsmaader. Bot. Not.

1-32, 49-61. 1897.

1901. Wille, N. Algologische Notizen. VII. Zur Ver-

breitung der Siisswasseralgen im siidlichen Nor-

wegen. Nyt. Mag. f. Naturvidenskab. 39: 1-22.

1901.

1903. Wille, N. Ueber einige von J. Menyhardt in Siid-

afrika gesammelte Siisswasseralgen. Ost. Bot.

Zeits. 53: 89-95. 1903.

1913. Wille, N. Neue Siisswasseralgen von den Samoa-

Inseln. Hedwigia. 53: 144-147. 1913.

1872. Wittrock, V. B. Om Gotlands och Olands Sotvat-

tens- Alger. Bih. t. k. Sv. Vet.Ak. Handl. 1: No.

1: 1-72. 1872.

1881. Wolle, F. W. Fresh water algae, pp. 210-223.

in Britton, N. L. A preliminary catalogue of the

flora of New Jersey. New Brunswick. 1881.

1887. Wolle, F. W. Fresh-water algae of the United States.

Bethlehem (Pa.) 1887.

1869. Wood, H. C. jr. Prodromus of a study of the fresh

water algae of eastern North America. Proc. Am.

Phil. Soc. 11: 119-145. 1869.

1874. Wood, H. C. jr. A contribution to the history of the

fresh-water algae of North America. Smithsonian

Cont. to Knowledge. 19: No. 3: 1-262. 1874.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus. 525

1896. Zacharias, 0. Ergebnisse einer biologischen Excur¬

sion an die Hochseen des Riesengebirges. Forsch-

ungsbr. Plon. 4: 65-87. 1896.

1898. Zacharias, 0. Unterschungen liber das Plankton

der Teichgewasser. Forschungsbr. Plon. 6: 89-

138. 1898.

1899. Zacharias, 0. Zur Kenntnis des Planktons sachs-

ischer Fischteiche. Forschungsbr. Plon. 7: 78-95.

1899.

1901. Zacharias, 0. Zur Kenntnis des Planktons einiger

Seen in Pommern. Forschungsbr. Plon. 8: 125-

130. 1901.

1903A. Zacharias, 0. Biologische Charakteristik des Klin-

kerteichs zu Plon. Forschungsbr. Plon. 10: 201-

222. 1903.

1903B. Zacharias, 0. Zur Kenntnis der niedern Flora und

Fauna holsteinischer Moorsiimpfe. Forschungsbr.

Plon. 10: 223-289. 1903.

1904. Zacharias, 0. Uber die Komposition des Planktons

in thuringischen, sachsischen und schlesischen

Teichgewassern. Forschungsbr. Plon. 11: 181—

251. 1904.

1905. Zacharias, 0. Hydrobiologische und fischereiwirt-

schaftliche Beobachtungen an einigen Seen der

Schweiz und Italiens. Forschungsbr. Plon. 12:

169-302. 1905.

1907. Zacharias, 0. Das Siisswasser-Plankton. Einfuhr-

ung in die freischwebende Organismenwelt unserer

Teiche, Fliisse, und Seebecken. Leipzig. 1907.

1857. Zanardini, G. Gatalogo delle piante crittogame

raccolte finora nelle Provincie Venete. Atti. dell' I.

R. 1st. Yeneto di Sci. Lett, ed arti. 3 Ser. : 3:

245-272. 1857-1858.

1902. Zykoff, W. Das pflanzliche Plankton der Wolga

bei Saratow. Biol. Gent. 22: 60-62. 1902.

526 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

INDEX

The numerals following the specific

literature for the species is cited.

Achnanthes

bijuga 441.

bilunate 485.

dimorpha 434.

obliqua 430.

octalterna 441.

quadralterna 441.

quadricauda 475.

quadrijuga 441.

stomatomorpha 486.

Ankistrodesmus

falcatus

var. duplex 486.

Arthrodesmus

acutus 431.

var. obtusior 431.

convergens 486.

pedinatus 431.

var. acutus 431.

quadricaudatus 476.

quadricaudatus ecornis 443.

serratus 465,

Bacillaria

viridis 441.

Goelastrum

Bohlinii 487.

Cosmarium

moniliformis 486.

Dimorphococcus

lunatus 487.

Raphidium

duplex 486.

Scenedesmus

abundans 465.

var. asymmetrica 468.

brevicauda 468.

longicauda 467.

spicatus 468.

aculeolatus 455.

forma brevior 456.

acuminatus 437.

var. biseriatus 437.

minor 438.

tetradesmoides 439.

acutiformis 456.

var. bicaudatus 459.

brasiliensis 459.

spinuliferum 459.

acutus 430.

var. dimorphus 434.

fusiformis 431.

obliquus 431.

alternans AA1.

var. apiculatus 472.

names refer to the page on which^the

antennatus 439.

var. rectus 469.

apiculatus 488.

arcuatus 449.

var. platydisca 451.

armatus 460.

var. Chodatii 461.

subalternans 461.

bacilaris 484.

Bernardii 436.

bidentatus 454.

bijuga 441.

var. alternans 447.

forma parvus 448.

flexosus 446.

irregularis 448.

minor 447.

obtusiusculus 447.

bijugatus 442.

forma alternans 447.

arcuatus 449.

disciformis 484.

irregularis 448

minor 447

radiatus .487

seriatus 444.

verrucosa 484.

var. alternans 447.

forma apiculatus 472.

arcuatus 449.

disciformis 484.

flexosus 446

minor 447

radiatus 487.

seriatus 444.

bilunulatus 485.

brasiliensis 458.

brasiliensis quadricauda 460.

carinatus 462.

caudatus 475.

forma abundans 465,

horridus 469.

setosus 469.

typicus 476.

var. abundans 465.

horridus 469.

hyperabundans 466.

setosus 469.

typicus 476.

chlorelloides 488.

coelastroides 487.

costatus 457.

forma typicus 458.

var. coelastroides 487.

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

527

poriferus 489.

sudeticus 458.

costulatus 485.

curvatus 449.

denticulatus 452.

forma linearis 454.

Wildemannii 458.

zig-zag 454.

var. diengianus 454.

genuinus 452.

linearis 454.

lineatus 454.

lunatus 455.

zig-zag 454.

didymus 483.

dimorphus 434.

dispar 472.

duplex Ktz. 486.

duplex (Ktz.) Ralfs 486.

ellipticus Corda 488.

ellipticus (West & West) Chod. 472.

falcatus 437.

flavescens 485.

fusiformis 431.

genuinus 476.

granulatus 464.

hystrix 462.

forma acutiformis 456.

acutiformis cohaerens 456.

armatus 460.

armatus abundans 460.

armatus setosus 460.

brasiliensis 459.

brasiliensis cohaerens 459.

denticulatus 453.

denticulatus bicaudatus 454.

denticulatus cohaerens 452.

denticulatus genuinus 453.

echinulatus 463.

echinulatus cohaerens 463.

zig-zag 454.

var. acutiformis 456.

armatus 460.

forma depauperata 460.

brasiliensis 459.

denticulatus 452.

echinulatus 463.

hystrix cohaerens 463.

incrassatulus 440.

var. Mononae 440.

insignis 464.

lacustris 488.

Leibleinii 443.

longispina 480.

longus 469.

var. apiculatus 472.

brevispina 471.

dispar 472.

ellipticus 472.

minutus 471.

luna 489.

magnus 475.

minor 483.

moniliformis 486.

nanus 485.

nolatus 489.

oahuensis 428.

obliquus 428.

forma alternans 431.

magnus 436.

parvus 431.

var. acuminatus 437.

dimorphus 434.

inermis 488.

oblongus 485.

obtusiusculus 447

obtusus 441.

var. alternans 447.

cor nut us 476.

ecornis 444.

minor 447

seriatus 444.

octalternus 443.

octodacrys 489.

opoliensis 481.

var. carinatus 462.

ornatus 464.

ovalternus 489.

parvulus 483.

pectinatus 431.

Pediastrum 489.

perforatus 483.

var. ornatus 464.

polymorphus 484.

producto-capitatus 451.

quadralternus 443.

var. octalternus 443.

quadricauda 473.

forma abundans 465.

genuinus 476.

horridus 469.

major 483.

multicanda 489.

Naegelii 470.

plurimae 489.

setosus 469.

typicus 476.

var. j3 p. 465.

abundans 465.

acutiformis 460.

asymmetrica 468.

bicaudatus 469.

dispar 472.

ecornis 443.

ellipticum 472.

genuinus 476.

horridus 469.

hyperabundans 466.

insignis 464.

longispina 480.

maximum 481.

Naegelii 469.

oahuensis 428.

13

528

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

opoliensis 481.

parvus 480.

quadrispina 479.

setosus 469.

setosus abundans 466.

typicus 476.

variabilis 470.

Westii 480.

quadricaudatus 476.

var. /3 p. 465.

abundans 466.

ecornis 443.

horridus 470.

setosus 470.

quadrijugatus 443.

var. minor 443.

quadrispina 479.

radiatus 487.

rectus 470.

rotundatus 487.

sempervirens 485.

senilis 489.

serratus 465.

var. hystrix 463.

setigera 489.

spicatus 468.

spinosus 485.

stomatomorphus 486.

tetradacrys 489.

var. duplex 489.

tetrapenion 489.

trijug at us 443.

triseriatus 431.

variabilis 487.

var. cornutus 476.

ecornis 444.

wisconsinensis 488.

Scenodesmus

acutus 431.

var. biseriatus 431.

obliquus 431.

antennatus 439.

var. rectus 470.

bilunulatus 485.

caudatus 476.

var. abundans 466.

apiculatus 488.

brachyurus 483.

ecaudatus 444.

minor 465.

setosus 470.

typicus 476.

convergens 486.

denticulatus 452.

didymus 483.

dimorphus 434.

var. bilunatus 485.

fusiformis 431.

dispar 472.

duplex 486.

moniliformis 486.

Naegelii 469.

obliquus 431

obtusus 443.

var. alternans 444.

binarius 444.

biternarius 444.

Leibleinii 444.

obliquus 444.

obliquus duplex 444.

octonarius 444.

quaternarius 444.

ternarius 444.

pectinatus 431.

quadricauda 476.

var. /3 p. 465.

cornutus 475.

ecornis 443.

quadricaudatus 475.

quadricaudatus ecornis 443.

Selenastrum

acuminatus 437.

alternans 447.

radiatum 487.

Sphaerozosma

stomatomorphum 486.

Steinella

Graevenitzii 444.

Tessarthonia

moniliformis 486.

Tetradesmus

wisconsinensis 488.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII PLATE XXV

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

SMITH — SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., YOL. XVIII

PLATE XXVII

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

Smith — Monograph of Scenedesmus.

529

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES IN PLATES I TO XIX.

Figures 1-56 are redrawn from the original illustrations of the various

authors. Figures 57 and 58 from material collected in the field. All others

from material from pure cultures. All of the original figures were drawn with

the aid of the Abbe camera lucida, the drawing being made at the level of the

base of the microscope, and with the aid of the Leitz oil immersion objective

A and ocular 4 (except in figures 186-195 where ocular 1 was used). The

drawings are reduced 3^ in reproduction so that the magnification is about

1000 diameters with the 4 ocular and 500 diameters with the 1 ocular.

plate xxv

Fig. 1. S. oahuensis. After Lemmermann 1905A.

Fig. 2. S. bijuga. (As Achnanthes octalterna.) After Turpin 1828.

Figs. 3-5. S. acuminatus. After Lagerheim 1883.

Fig. 6. S. Bernardii. (As S. obliquus forma magnus.) After Bernard 1908.

Fig. 7. S. obliquus. (As Achnanthes obliqua.) After Turpin 1828.

Fig. 8. S. dimorphus. (As Achnanthes dimorpha). After Turpin 1828.

Figs. 9-10. S. incrassatulus. After Bohlin 1897.

Fig. 11. S. producto-capitatus. After Schmula 1910.

Fig. 12. S. bijuga. (As Achnanthes bijuga). After Turpin 1828.

Fig. 13. S. bijuga. (As Achnanthes quadrijuga.) After Turpin 1828.

Figs. 14-15. S. bijuga var. alternans. (As S. alternans.) After Reinsch 1867.

Fig. 16. S. bijuga var. flexosus. After Lemmermann 1898A.

PLATE XXVI

Figs. 17-16. S. curvatus. After Bohlin 1897.

Figs. 19-20. S. arcuatus. After Lemmermann 1899.

Fig. 22. S. aculeolatus. After Reinsch 1877.

Fig. 23. S. denticulatus. After Lagerheim 1883.

Fig. 24. S. denticulatus var. lunatus. After West and West 1895.

Fig. 25. S. carinatus. (As S. opoelinsis var. carinatus.) After Lemmermann

1899.

Figs. 26-27. S. costatus. After Schmidle 1895.

Figs. 28-29. S. acutiformis. After Schroder 1897C.

Figs. 30-31. S. brasiliensis. Fig. 30 after Bohlin 1897; Fig. 31 after West

and West 1902.

Fig. 32. S. insignis. After West and West 1895.

Fig. 33. S. granulatus . After West and West 1897B.

Fig. 34. S. ornatus. (As S. quadricauda var. ornatus.) After Lemmermann

1910A.

Fig. 35. S. hystrix. After Lagerheim 1883.

Fig. 36. S. longus var. apiculatus. (As S. alternans var, apiculatus.) After

West and West 1894.

Fig. 38. S. bijugatus var. granulatus. (After Schmidle 1903.)

PLATE XXVII

Fig. 39. S. quadricauda. (As Achnanthes quadricauda.) After Turpin 1828.

Fig. 40. S. quadricauda var. maximum. After West and West 1895.

Fig. 41. S. longus var. dispar. (As S. dispar.) After de Brebisson 1856.

Fig. 42. S. quadricauda var. longispina. (As S. longispina.) After Ghodat

1913.

Fig. 43. S. quadricauda var. quadrispina. (As S. quadrispina.) After Ghodat

1913.

Fig. 44. S. longus var. ellipticus. (As S. quadricauda var. ellipticum.)

After West and West 1895.

Figs. 45-46. S. abundans var. asymmetrica. (As S. quadricauda var. asym¬

metric a.) After Schroder 1897G.

530 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Fig. 47. S. perforatus. After Lemmermann 1910A.

Fig. 48. S. perforatus. (As S. quadricauda forma major After Turner 1892.).

Fig. 49. S. opoliensis. After Richter 1896.

Fig. 61 S. abundans var. spicatus (as S. spicatus.) After G. S. West 1904B.

PLATE XXVIII

Fig. 53. S. armatus. (As S. hystrix var. armatus.) After Chodat 1902.

Fig. 54. S. longus. (As Scenodesmus caudatus=S. Naegelii.) After Nageli

1849.

Fig. 55. S. serratus. After Brunnthaler 1913.

Fig. 56. S. antennatus. After Ralfs 1848.

Fig. 57. S. serratus. From nature, x 2000.

Fig. 58. S. antennatus. From nature, x 2000

Figs. 59-62. S. bijuga var. irregularis, x 2000

Figs. 63-68.

Figs. 70-74.

Figs. 75-80.

Figs. 81-83.

Figs. 84-89.

Figs. 90-93.

Figs. 94-98.

Figs. 99-100.

Figs. 101-105.

Figs. 106-108.

Figs. 109-110.

Figs. 111-114.

Figs. 115-120.

Figs. 121-125.

Figs. 126-132.

Figs. 133-136.

PLATE XXIX

S. obliquus.

S. acuminatus var. minor.

S. acuminatus var. tetradesmoides.

S. incrassatulus var. Mononae.

S. acutiformis.

S. armatus.

S. arcuatus.

plate xxx

S. arcuatus.

S. arcuatus var. platydisca.

S. bijuga var. alternans forma parvus.

S. armatus.

S. armatus var. Ghodatii.

S. armatus var. subalternans.

S. abundans var. longicauda.

S. abundans var. brevicauda.

S. abundans.

Figs. 137-140.

Figs. 141-146.

Figs. 147-150.

Figs. 151-155.

Figs. 156-158.

Figs. 159-161.

Figs. 162-166.

Figs. 167-170.

Figs. 172-175.

PLATE XXXI

S. abundans.

S. abundans var. spicatus.

S. longus var. minutus.

S. longus var. brevispina.

S. longus.

S. quadricauda var. longispina.

S. quadricauda var. parvus.

S. quadricauda var. quadrispina.

S. quadricauda.

PLATE XXXII

Fig. 176.

Figs. 177-180.

Figs. 181-184.

Figs. 185-189.

S. quadricauda.

S. quadricauda var. Westii.

S. opoliensis.

S. dimorphuus. (Fig. 185 x 1000. Figs. 186-189. x 500).

PLATE XXXIII

Figs. 190-195. S. dimorphus (x 500.)

Figs. 196-208. S. Bernardii.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

SMITH — SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

PLATE XXX

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., YOL. XVIII

PLATE XXXI

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

/77

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

SMITH— SCENEDESMUS

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

531

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF ALGAE FOUND IN

WISCONSIN LAKES

GILBERT MORGAN SMITH

Notes from the laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey IX.

At the request of Director Birge of the Wisconsin Geologi¬

cal and Natural History Survey, a phycological study of the

lakes of the state was undertaken. This paper presents the

results to date. The determination of the various phyto¬

plankton is emphasized especially, and only cursory atten¬

tion paid to littoral forms. Collections, employing the usual

methods of obtaining plankton, were made during the sum¬

mers of 1914 and 1915. The specific determinations are based

on camera lucida drawings of living material; since I find

that many of the finer points are lost on preservation. At

present only the eastern half of the state has been studied,

but it is expected that the survey will be extended to other

sections. The thoroughness of the work varies from single

plankton catches in some lakes, to close observation during

an entire season on others. The Madison Four Lakes,

Devil’s Lake, and certain lakes of the Oconomowoc-Waukesha

region have been studied the most thoroughly. In citing the

distribution of various species the caption “along shore”

has been used to include the algae epiphytic on rocks, those

epiphitic on Phanerogams, and those which grow among the

Phanerogams in sheltered places.

The large number of species new to North America is not

surprising, when one considers that with the exception of

Miss Snow’s investigations of Lake Erie, there has been prac¬

tically no systematic work done on North American phyto¬

plankton. In the following list of species new to the continent,

the plankton are indicated thus (*).

532 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Myxophyceae: Chroococcus minutus var. minimum v.

Keissler, *C/z. limneticus var. carneus (Chod.) Lemm.,

*Ch. limneticus var. subsalsa Lemm., * Microcystis aeruginosa

var. major (Wittr.), *M. incerta Lemm., *Coelosphaerium

Naegeli an um Unger, *Merismopedia punctata Meyen, *Apha-

nocapsa pulchra (Ktz.) Rab., Dactylococcopsis raphiodes

Hansgr., Gloeochaete Wittrockiana Lag., *Lyngbya limneticus

Lemm., Spirulina princeps W. & G. S. West, *Anabaena

planctonica Brunnth., *A. af finis Lemm., *A. spiroides var.

crassa Lemm., *A. macrospora var. robusta Lemm., Scy-

tonema Arcangelii B. & T.

Chlorophyceaes Characium longipes Rab., *Pediastrum

intergum Nag., *P. duplex var. reticulata Lag., *P. duplex

var. rotundatum Lucks, *P. Kawraiskyi Schm., *P. simplex

var. clathratum (Schr.) West, Euastropsis Richter i (Schm.)

Lag., *Tetracoccus botryoides West, *Dimorphococcus lunatus

A. Br., * Richteriella botryoides (Schm.) Lemm.,* R. quadriseta

Lemm., *Oocystis parva W. & G. S. West, *0. elliptica var.

minor W. & G. S. West, *0. nodulosa W. & G. S. West, *0.

Novae-Semliae var. maxima W. & G. S. West, *Chodatella

ciliata (Lag.) Lemm. *Ch. Droescheri Lemm., *Ch. subsalsa

Lemm. *Tetraedron limneticum Borge, T. pusillus (Wal-

lich) W. & G. S. West, Sorastrum americanum (Bohl.)

Schm., *Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemm., *S. brasiliensis

Bohl., *S. acutiformis Schrod. S. serratus (Corda) Bohl.

5. quadricauda var. maximum W. & G. S. West, *Te-

trastrum Staurogeniaeforme (Schrod) Chod., *Crucigenia

quadrata Morren, *C. Lauterbornei (Schm.) Chod. *A.

Pfitzeri (Schrod.) West, * Kirchneriella contorta (Schm.)

Bohl. Zygnema pectinatum var. conspicuum (Hass.) Kirch.

Debarya laevis (Ktz.) W. & G. S. West, Geminella inter-

rupta (Turp.) Lag. Radiofilum conjunctum Schm. Radio-

filum flavescens West, * Herposteiron Hyalothecae Hansg.

Herposteiron polychaete Hansg.

Heterokonteae: Characiopsis pyriformis Borzi, Mis-

chococcus confervicola Nag. *Ophiocytium capitatum var.

longispinum (Mob.) Lemm.

During the progress of this work about 90 lakes have

been visited. The following are listed in Birge and Juday,1

so that their location need not be mentioned.

1 Birge, E. A. and Juday, C.; The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. Wis.

Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. XXVII (Scientific Series, No. 9) 1914.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

533

Adelaide, Beasley, Carroll, Catfish, Catherine, Cran¬

berry, Devil’s, Fowler, Geneva, Green, Kawaguesaga, Ke-

gonsa, Lac la Belle, Long (Waupaca), Marl, Mendota,

Minocqua, Monona, Mud (Waupaca), Nashotah (Upper

and Lower), Nemahbin (Upper and Lower), Oconomowoc,

Okauchee, Otter, Pewaukee, Plum, Pope, Poygan, Rainbow

(Waupaca), Razorback, Rock (Vilas Co.), Round (Wau¬

paca), Big. St. Germain, Squirrel, Star, Taylor, Tomahawk,

Trout, Turtle (North and South), Waubesa, Waupaca

Chain o’ Lakes, Winnebago, Winneconne and Young’s

Lakes.

The following list comprises the lakes which are not listed

in Birge and Juday. Since many of these are not named on

published maps and several are known locally by various

names, the exact location of each is given to avoid confusion.

Bass (Big) .

Beaver .

Birch .

Bullhead. .

Cedar .

Clear .

Constance .

Crystal .

Curtis .

Found .

Franklin .

George .

Harris .

Helen (Eagle River).

Helen (Winchester)..

Hill .

Laura .

Lost .

McKenna .

Marion .

Mercer .

Meta.... .

Mud . . .

Muskallonge .

Nell .

No Mans .

Old Taylor’s .

Pardee .

Rainbow .

Rose .

Rozen .

Silver .

Sishebogema .

Soft .

Speese .

Sunday . .

Tamarack .

Tank .

534 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

II. Systematic account of the algae found in Wis¬

consin lakes.

The present list comprises the Chlorophyceae, Myxo-

phyceae and Heterokonteae of the collections. The Bacillar-

iales and Desmidiaceae will be enumerated in a later paper.

Several new species have been discovered during the course

of the investigation but it has been thought advisable to

exclude them for the present.

Class MYXOPHYCEAE

Order CHROOCOCCALES

Family CHROOCOCCACEAE

Genus CHROOCOCCUS Nageli 1849.

Chroococcus turgid us (KUTZING) NAGELI, Gatt.

einz. Algen, (1849) p. 46. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1904) p. 352, fig. 166A. Protococcus turgidus Kiitzing,

Tabulae Phycol. (1849) t. 6. fig. 1.

Plankton; Beasley and Oconomowoc Lakes. Along shore;

Otter, Old Taylor’s and Waubesa Lakes.

Chroococcus minutus (KUTZING) NAGELI, Gatt.

cinz. Algen, (1849) p. 46. Protococcus minutus Kiitzing, Phyc.

gener. (1843) p. 168. Kiitzing, Tabulae Phycol. (1849) t. 5.

Along shore; Rose Lake.

var. minimus V. KEISSLER, in Verh. d. k.-k. zpok-

bot. Ges. in Wien, 51 (1901) p. 394, figs. 1-2.

Along shore; Adelaide and Sunday Lakes.

Chroococcus limneticus LEMMERMANN, in Bot.

Gent. 76 (1898) p. 153. Lemmermann, in Forschungsbr.

a. d. Biol. Stat. zu Plon, 7 (1899), p. 132, t. 1, figs. 22-23.

Plankton; Beasley, Kawaguesaga, Oconomowoc, Old Tay¬

lor’s, Squirrel and Winnebago Lakes.

var. carneus (GHODAT) LEMMERMANN, in Arkiv.

for Botanik, 2 (1903) No. 2, p. 101. Chroococcus minutus var.

carneus Chodat, in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 6 (1898) p. 180.

Plankton; Big Bass, Harris, Mendota and Oconomowoc

Lakes.

var. subsalus LEMMERMANN, in Forschungsbr. a. d.

Biol. Stat. zu Plon, 8 (1901) p. 84. Lemmermann, in Arkiv

for Botanik, 2 (1903) No. 2, p. 101, t. 1, fig. 9.

Plankton; Big Bass Lake.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

535

Genus MICROCYSTIS Kiitzing 1833.

Microcystis aeruginosa KUTZING, Tabulae Phycol.

1 (1849) p. 6, t. 8.

Plankton; Kegonsa, La Belle, Mendota, Otter, Old Tay¬

lor’s, Pardee and Turtle (North) Lakes.

var. major (WITTROCK) nov. comb. Polycystis aeru¬

ginosa var. major Wittrock, in Hansgirg, Prodr. d. Algen-

flora v. Bohmen, 2, (1892) p. 146.

Plankton; Lake Mendota.

Microcystis flos-aquae (WITTROCK) KIRCHNER,

in Engler und Prantl, D. nat. Pflanzenfam. Teil. 1, Abt. la

(1900) p. 56, fig. 49N. Polycystis Flos-aquae Wittrock, in

Wittrock et Nordstedt, Algae aq. dulc. exsicc. No. 298.

Plankton; Birch, Catfish, Found, Mud (Vilas Co.), Nasho-

tah (Upper), Nemahbin (Lower), No Mans, Oconomowoc,

Okauchee, Pardee, Plum, Rainbow, Rock (Vilas Co.), Rose,

Saint Germain (Big), Sishebogema, Squirrel, Star, Tama¬

rack, Turtle, (North and South), Waubesa and Winnebago

Lakes.

Microcystis incerta LEMMERMANN, in Abh. Nat-

urw. Ver. Bremen, 17 (1903) p. 342. Polycystis incerta Lem-

mermann, in Ber. d. D. bot. Ges. 19 (1901) p. 93, t. 4, fig. 8.

Plankton; Lake Winnebago.

Microcystis pulverea (WOOD) MIGULA, Kryptoga-

men-Flora Bd. 2, Algen, Th. 1 ; in Thome, Flora von Deutsch¬

land, Deutsch-Osterr. u. d. Schw. 6 (1907) p. 36. Pleurococcus

pulverus Wood, in Smithsonian cont. to knowl. 19, no. 241

(1874) p. 79. Anacystis pulvera (Wood) Wolle, Freshw.

Algae of U. S. (1887) p. 329, t. 210. fig. 10.

Plankton; Pardee and Sunday Lakes.

Microcystis ichthyoblabe (KUNZE) KUTZING, Phy¬

col. gener. (1843) p. 170. Palmella ichthyoblabe Kunze, in

Kiitzing, l.c. p. 170. Polycystis ichthyoblabe Kiitzing,

Tabulae Phycol. 1 (1849) p. 7, t. 8.

Plankton; Catfish, Clear, Kawaguesaga and Minocqua

Lakes.

536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Genus GOMPHOSPHAERIA Kiitzing 1836.

Gomphosphaeria aponina KUTZING, Decades, 16

(1836) No. 151. Kiitzing, Tabulae Phycol. 1 (1849) p. 22,

t. 31, fig. 3.

Plankton; Kegonsa, Mendota, Monona, Nemahbin

(Lower), Otter, Pewaukee, Plum, Turtle (North and South),

and Waubesa Lakes.

var. cordiformis WOLLE, in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 9

(1882) p. 25, t. 13, fig. 11.

Plankton; Round Lake.

Genus COELOSPHAERIUM Nageli 1849.

Ceelosphaeriu m Naegelianum UNGER, in Mitth. d.

Naturw. Ver. f. Steiermark, Bd. 2, Heft. 1, t. 2. Kirchner,

in Engler und Prantl, D. nat. Pflanzenfam. Teil. 1 , Abt. la

(1900) p. 56, fig. 50A. (As C. Kuetzingianum) .

Plankton; Birch, Catfish, Catherine, Cranberry, Devil’s,

Found, Kawaguesaga, La Belle, Lost, Mendota, Minocqua,

Monona, Mud (Vilas Co.). Nashotah (Upper and Lower),

Nemahbin (Upper and Lower), No Mans, Oconomowoc,

Okauchee, Otter, Pardee, Pewaukee, Plum, Rainbow, Rock

(Vilas Co.), St. Germain (Big), Sishebogema, Squirrel, Tama¬

rack, Turtle (North and South), Waubesa and Winnebago

Lakes.

Coelosphaerium dubium GRUNOW, in Rabenhorst,

Flora Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 55. Schmula, in Beiblatt zur

“Hedwigia”, 37 (1898) p. (47), figs. 1-2.

Plankton; Mud Lake (Vilas Co.)

Coelosphaerium Kuetzingianum NAGELI, Galt. einz.

Algen, (1849), p. 54, t. 1, fig. C.

Plankton; Catfish, Cranberry, Kegonsa, Mendota, Ocono¬

mowoc, Pardee, Pewaukee, Rock (Vilas Co.), Sunday,

Tamarack and Turtle (North and South) Lakes.

Genus MERISMOPEDIA Meyen 1828.

Merismopedia glauca (EHRENBERG) NAGELI

Gatt. einz. Algen, (1849) p. 55, t. 1, fig. Dl. Gonium glau-

cuum Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen, (1838) p. 56, t. 3,

fig. 5.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

537

Plankton; George, Meta and Waubesa Lakes. Along

shore; Found, Rose and Rozen Lakes.

Merismopedia punctata MEYEN, in Arch. f. Naturge-

schichte, 5 (1839) Bd. 2, p. 67. Kiitzing, Tabulae Phycol.

5 (1855) t. 38.

Plankton; Big Bass Lake. Along shore; Minocqua Lake.

Merismopedia tenuissimum LEMMERMANN, in

Bot. Cent. 76 (1898) p. 154. Lemmermann, in Forschungsbr.

a. d. Biol. Stat. zu Plan, 7 (1899) p. 132, t. 1, fig. 21.

Along shore; Sunday and Waubesa Lakes.

Merismopedia elegans A. BRAUN, in Kiitzing, Species

Algarum (1849) p. 472. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1904) p. 348, fig. 162G.

Plankton; Green and Waubesa Lakes.

Genus APHANOCAPSA Nageli 1849.

Aphanocapsa rivularis (CARMICHAEL) RABEN-

HORST, Flora Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 49. Palmella

rivularis Carmichael, in Hooker, Brit. Flora, 2, pt. 1 (1834)

p. 397.

Plankton; Oconomowoc Lake.

Aphanocapsa pulchra (KUTZING) RABENHORST,

Flora Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 49. Palmella pulchra Kiit-

zing, Species Algarum, (1849) p. 214.

Plankton; Beaver, Harris, and Winnebago Lakes. Along

shore; Old Taylor’s and Plum Lakes.

Aphanocapsa Grevillei (HASSALL) RABENHORST,

Flora Eur. Algarum, 2, (1865) p. 50. Coccochloris Grevillei

Hassall, Brit. Freshw. Algae, (1845) p. 318, t. 78, figs. 7a-8.

Plankton; Muskallonge and Silver Lakes.

Genus DACTYLOCOCCOPSIS Hansgirg 1888.

Dactylococcopsis raphidioides HANSGIRG, Prodr.

d. Algenflora v. Bohmen, 2 (1892) p. 139, fig. 49a.

Plankton; Mercer Lake.

538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Genus GLOEOTHECE Nageli 1849.

Gloeothece linearis NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen, (1849)

p. 58, t. 1, fig. G2.

Plankton; Muskallonge and Harris Lakes. Along shore;

Soft Lake.

Genus APHANOTHECE Nageli 1849.

Aphanothece saxicola NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 60, t. 1, fig. H2.

Along shore; Upper Nashotah and Sunday Lakes.

Aphanothece Castagnei (DE BREBISSON) RABEN-

HORST, Flora Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 64. Oncobrysa

Castagnei , de Brebisson, in Kiitzing, Species Algarum, (1849)

p. 214. Palmella Castagnei (de Brebisson) Kiitzing, Tabulae

Phycol. 1 (1849) t. 11, fig. 4.

Along shore; Helen (Eagle River), Laura, Muskallonge,

Soft and Sunday Lakes.

Aphanothece microscopica NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Al¬

gen, (1849) p. 59, t. 1, fig. HI.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

Aphanothece prasina A. BRAUN, in Rabenhorst, Flora

Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 65. Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1882) p. 218, t. 88, figs. 3a-3b.

Along shore; Nemahbin (Lower), Rose, Sunday and Wau-

besa Lakes.

Family CHAMAESIPHONACEAE

Genus GHAMAESIPHON A. Braun und Grunow 1864.

Chamaesiphon confervicola A. BRAUN, in Raben¬

horst, Flora Eur. Algarum, 2 (1865) p. 148.

Along shores; Lake Mendota.

Family CHROOC YSTACEAE

Genus GLOEOCHAETE Lagerheim 1883.

Gloeochaete Wittrockiana LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers.

Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 40 , No. 2 (1883) p. 39, t. 1, figs. 3-4.

Along shore; McKenna Lake.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

539

Order HORMOGONEAE

Family OSCILLATORIACEAE

Genus OSCILLATORIA Vaucher 1803.

Oscillatoria limosa (DILLWYN) C. A. AGARDH, Disp.

algarum Sueciae, Pars. 4, (1812) p. 35. Tilden, Minnesota

Algae, 1 (1910) p. 65, t. 4, fig. 6. Conferva limosa Dillwyn,

Brit. Confervae, (1802) t. 20.

Along shore; Lakes Kegonsa and Waubesa.

Oscillatoria tenuis C. A. AGARDH, Algarum decas se-

cunda, (1813) p. 25. Gomont, in Ann. Sci. Nat. 7 Ser. Bot.

16 (1892) p. 220, t. 7, figs. 2-3.

Plankton; Lake Monona.

var. tergestina (KUTZING) RABENHORST, Flora

Eur. Algarum, 2, (1865) p. 102. Oscillatoria tergestina Kiit-

zing, Tabulae Phycol. 1 (1849) p. 29, t. 39, fig. 8.

Plankton; Lake Geneva.

Oscillatoria curvieeps C. A. AGARDH, Systema Al¬

garum, (1824) p. 68. Gomont, in Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 7 Bot.

16 (1892) p. 213, t. 6, fig. 14.

Along shore; Upper Nemahbin Lake.

Genus LYNGBYA C. A. Agardh 1824.

Lyngbya limnetica LEMMERMANN, in Bot. Cent.

76 (1898) p. 154.

Plankton; Lake Geneva. Along shore; Soft Lake.

Genus SPIRULINA Link 1834.

Spirulina princeps W. & G. S. WEST, in Trans. Linn.

Soc. London, 2 Ser. 6 (1901) p. 205.

Along shore; Beaver and Nemahbin Lakes.

Spirulina subsalsa OERSTED, in Natural Tidskrift

(1842), p. 17, t. 7, fig. 4. Gomont, in Ann. Sci. Nat. 7 Ser.

Bot. 16 (1892) p. 253, t. 7, fig. 32.

Along shore; Upper Nemahbin Lake.

Family STIGONEMACEAE

Genus STIGONEMA C. A. Agardh 1824.

Stigonema mamillosum (LYNGBYE) C. A. AG¬

ARDH, Systema Algarum, (1824) p. 42. Tilden, Minnesota

540 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Algae, 1 (1910) p. 250, t. 15, fig. 22. Bangia mamillosa Lyng-

bye Tent. Hydrophyt. Danicae, (1819) p. 85, t. 25, figs.

C1-C3.

Along shore; Razorback Lake.

Stigonema turfaceum (BERKLEY) COOKE, Brit.

Freshw. Algae, (1884) p. 272, t. 111. fig. 2. Kirchner, in

Engler und Prantl, D. Nat. Pflanzenfam. Teil 1, Abt. la

(1900) p. 83, figs. 58G-58L. Scytonema turfaceum Berkley,

in Eng. Bot. 2, t. 2517, fig. 1.

Along shore; Adelaide, Beaver, Bullhead, Helen (Eagle

River) and Sunday Lakes.

Genus HAPALOSIPHON Nageli 1849.

Hapalosiphon aureus W. & G. S. WEST, in Jour, of

Bot. 35 (1897) p. 241.

Along shore; McKenna and Speese Lakes.

Hapalosiphon hibernicus W. & G. S. WEST, in Jour.

Roy. Micr. Soc. (1896) p. 163. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw.

Algae, (1904) p. 321, fig. 147.

Along shore; Adelaide, Curtis and Razorback Lakes.

Family NOSTOCACEAE

Genus NOSTOC Yaucher 1803.

Nostoc pruniforme (L) C. A. AGARDH, Disp. Algarum

Sueciae, Pars. 5 (1812) p. 45. Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1882) p. 233, t. 92, figs. 7-9. Ulva pruniformis Linnaeus,

Flora Suecica, p. 433.

Along shore; Plum, Rose and Sunday Lakes.

Genus ANABAENA Bory de St. Vincent 1823.

Anabaena flos-aquae (LYNGBYE) DE BREBISSON,

in Mem. de la soc. Acad, de Falaise, (1835) p. 36. Nostoc

flos-aquae Lyngbye, Tent. Hydrophyt. Danicae, (1819) p.

201, t. 68, figs. D1-D3.

Plankton; Catfish, Devil’s, Kegonsa, Mendota, Nashotah

(Upper), Oconomowoc, Okauchee, Pine, Squirrel, Waubesa

and Waupaca Chain o’ Lakes.

Anabaena planctonica BRUNNTHALER, in Sitzbr. d.

Kais. Ak. d. Wiss. in Wien, 112, Abt. 1 (1903) p. 292.

Plankton; Birch, Cranberry and Rock Lakes.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

541

Anabaena affinis LEMMERMANN, in Abh. Nat. Ver.

Bremen, 14 (1897) p. 261, t. 1, figs. 12-13, 16-17.

Plankton; Lost, Pardee and North Turtle Lakes.

Anabaena oscillardioides BORY DE ST. VINCENT,

in Diet. Classique d’Hist. Nat. i, (1822) p. 308. Tilden,

Minnesota Algae, 1 (1910) p. 193, t. 9, fig. 20.

Along shore; Franklin, Lee and Pardee Lakes.

Anabaena spiroides var. crassa LEMMERMANN, in

Bot. Cent. 76 (1898) p. 155. Lemmermann, Algen 1 (1907)

in Kryptogamenflora der Mark Brandenburg, 3 , p. 188,

p. 159, figs. 15-16.

Plankton; Kegonsa, Monona and Big St. Germain Lakes.

Anabaena inaequalis (KUTZING) BORNET ET

FLAHAULT, in Ann. Sci. Nat. 7 Ser. Bot. 7 (1888) p. 231.

G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae, (1904) p. 328, figs. 150A-

150D. Sphaerozyga inaequalis Kiitzing, Phycol. Gener.

(1843) p. 211.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

Anabaena macrospora var. robusta LEMMER¬

MANN, in Bot. Cent. 76 (1898) p. 154.

Plankton; Squirrel Lake.

Anabaena Bornetiana COLLINS, in Erythea, 4 (1896)

p. 120.

Plankton; George Lake.

Genus APHANIZOMENON Morren 1838.

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L) RALFS, in Ann. and

Mag. of Nat. Hist. 5 (1850) p. 340, t. 9, fig. 6. Byssus flos-

aquae Linnaeus, Species Plantar. (1753) No. 1168.

Plankton; Birch, Cranberry, Found, Kawaguesaga, Ke¬

gonsa, La Belle, Lost, Mendota, Monona, Mud (Vilas Co.),

Oconomowoc, Okauchee, Pardee, Pewaukee, Plum, Squirrel,

Turtle (South), Waubesa and Winnebago Lakes.

Family SC YTONEMACEAE

Genus SCYTONEMA C. A. Agardh 1824.

Scytonema Arcangelii BORNET ET FLAHAULT, in

Ann. Sci. Nat. 7 Ser. Bot. 5 (1887) p. 92.

Along shore; Speese Lake.

542 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Genus TOLYPOTHRIX Kiitzing 1843.

Tolypothrix tenius KUTZING, Phycol. gener. (1843)

p. 228. Kiitzing, Tabulae Phycol. 2 (1852) p. 9, t. 31, fig. 2.

Along shore; Plum and Squirrel Lakes.

Tolypothrix lanata (DESVAUX) WARTMANN, in

Rabenhorst’s Algen No. 768 (1858). Tilden, Minnesota

Algae 1 (1910) p. 230, t. 14, fig. 1.

Along shore; Crystal and Razorbaek Lakes.

Tolypothrix distorta (HOFMANN-BANG) KUT¬

ZING, Phycol. gener. (1843) p. 228. Tilden, Minnesota

Algae, 1 (1910) p. 231, t. 14, figs. 2-4. Conferva distorta Hof-

mann-Bang, in Flora Danica 5 (1780) t. 820.

Along shore; Kegonsa, Marion, Plum and S. Turtle Lakes.

Family RIVULARI ACEAE

Genus RIVULARIA (Roth) C. A. Agardh emend. 1824.

Rivularia echinulata (SMITH) BORNET ET FLA-

HAULT, in Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 31 (1884) p. 77. Con¬

ferva echinulata ( Rivularia echinulata in index) Smith, in

English Botany (1804) t. 1378.

Plankton; Kegonsa, Carroll, Mendota, Oconomowoc,

Plum, Razorbaek, Soft, Trout and Waubesa Lakes.

Genus GLOEOTRICHIA J. G. Agardh 1842.

Gloeotrichia pisum (C. A. AGARDH) THURET, in

Ann. Sci. Nat. 6 Ser. Bot. 1 (1875) p. 382. Rivularia pisum

C. A. Agardh, Systema Algarum (1824) p. 25. Tilden, Min¬

nesota Algae 1 (1910) p. 284, t. 19, fig. 6.

Along shore; Marion and Soft Lakes.

Class CHLOROPHYCEAE

Order VOLVOCALES

Family CHLAMXDOMONACEAE

Genus SPHAERELLA Sommerfelt 1824.

Sphaerella lacustris (GIROD-CHANTRANS) WIT-

TROCK, in Hansgirg, Prodr. d. Algenflora v. Bohmen, 1

(1888) p. 105, fig. 52. Volvox lacustris Girod-Chantrans. Re-

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

543

cherches chimiques et microscopiques sur les Conferves,

Bysses, et Tremelles, (1802) p. 54, figs. 17-17’”.

Along shore; Lakes Mendota and Monona.

Family VOLVOCACEAE

Genus GONIUM Mueller 1773.

Gonium pectorale MUELLER, Vernium terrestrium

et fluviatilum etc. 1 (1773) p. 60. Wolle, Freshw. Algae of

the U. S. (1887) p. 163, t. 151, figs. 15-18.

Plankton; Lake Kegonsa. Along shore; Devil’s, Mendota

and Soft Lakes.

Genus PANDORINA Bory de St. Vincent 1824.

Pandorina Morum BORY DE ST. VINCENT, in

Encyc. methodique, Hist. Nat. de Zoophytes 2 (1824) p. 600.

Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen, (1823) p. 53, t. 2, fig. 33.

Plankton; Fowler, Kegonsa, Mendota, Nemahbin (Lower),

Okauchee, Sishebogema, Turtle (South) and Winnebago

Lakes.

Genus EUDORINA Ehrenberg 1832.

Eudorina elegans EHRENBERG, in Abh. d. Kgl. Ak.

d. Wiss. zu Berlin, Jahrgang 1831 (1832) p. 78, t. 2, fig. 10.

Plankton; Catherine, Devil’s, Fowler, Hill, Kawaguesaga,

Kegonsa, La Belle, Nemahbin (Lower), No Mans, Okau¬

chee, Rainbow, Sishebogema and Turtle (North and South)

Lakes.

Genus VOLVOX L. 1758.

Volvox globator LINNAEUS, Systema Natura Ed. 10

(1758). p. 230.

Plankton; Kegonsa and Soft Lakes.

14

544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Order PROTOGOCGALES

Sub-order ZOOSPORINEAE

Family PALMELLACEAE

Sub-family TETRASPOREAE

Genus TETRASPORA Link 1809.

Tetraspora lubica (ROTH) C. A. Agardh, Systema

Algarum, (1824) p. 188. Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algae, (1882),

p. 16, t. 6, figs. 3a-3b. Ulva lubrica Roth, Gatalecta bot. 1

(1797) p. 204.

Along shore; Devil’s Lake.

Genus APIOCYSTIS Nageli 1849.

Apiocystis Brauniana NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 67, t. 2, fig. Al.

Along shore; Meta, Nernahbin (Lower), Plum and Soft

Lakes.

Sub-family PALMELLEAE

Genus PALMODACTYLON Nageli 1849.

Palmodactylon varium NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 70, t. 2, fig. Bl.

Along shore; Devil’s Lake.

Genus SGHIZOCHLAMYS A. Braun 1849.

Schizochlamys gelatinosa A. BRAUN, in Kiitzing,

Species Algarum, (1849) p. 891. Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1882) p. 11, t. 3, fig. 6.

Along shore; Devil’s, Meta, Old Taylor’s and Plum Lakes.

Genus SPHAEROCYSTIS Chodat 1897.

Sphaerocystis Schroeteri CHODAT, in Bull. Herb.

Boiss. 5 (1897) p. 295, t. 9.

Plankton; Beasley, Catfish, Cranberry, Devil’s, Found,

Long, Mendota, Meta, Monona, Old Taylor’s, Rock (Vilas

Co.), Tamarack and Waubesa Lakes.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

545

Genus BOTRYOCOCCUS Kiitzing 1849.

Botryoccus Braunii KUTZING, Species Algarum,

(1849) p. 892. Rabenhorst, Flora Eur. Algarum 3 (1868)

p. 43, p. 8, fig. 14.

Plankton; Clear and Waubesa Lakes.

Sub-family GLOEOCYSTIDEAE

Genus GLOEOCYSTIS N&geli 1849.

Gloeocystis gigas (KUTZING) LAGERHEIM, in

Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Fohr. 40, No. 2 (1883) p. 63. G. S.

West, Brit. Freshw. Algae (1904) p. 245, figs. 113f-113h.

Protococcus gigas KUTZING, Phycol. Germ. (1845) p. 145.

Plankton; Mendota and Oconomowoc Lakes. Along

shore; Lake Kegonsa.

Genus PALMODICTYON Kiitzing 1845.

Palmodictyon viride KUTZING, Phycol. Germ. (1845)

p. 155. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae, (1904) p. 247, fig.

115.

Along shore; Otter Lake.

Family PLEUROCOCCACEAE

Genus TROCHISCIA Kiitzing 1845.

Trochiscia sporoides (REINSCH) HANSGIRG, in

Hedwigia, 27 (1888) p. 129. Acanthococcus sporoides Reinsch,

in Ber. d. D. bot. Ges. 4 (1886) p. 242, t. 12, figs. 24a-24b.

Along shore; Devil’s Lake.

Trochiscia reticularis (REINSCH) HANSGIRG, in

Hedwigia, 27 (1888) p. 129. Acanthococcus reticularis

Reinsch, in Ber. d. D. bot. Ges. 4 (1886) p. 241, t. 11. figs.

12, 14.

Along shore; Devil’s Lake.

Genus GLOEOTAENIUM Hansgirg 1890.

Gloeotaenium Loitlesbergerianum HANSGIRG, in

Sitzbr. d. k. bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. in Prag, Jahrgang 1890

546 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

(1890) p. 10. Transeau, in Bot. Gaz. 55 (1913) p. 66, t. 3,

figs. 1-24.

Along shore; Kegonsa and Soft Lakes.

Family CHARACIACEAE

Genus GHARACIUM A. Braun 1849.

Characium longipes RABENHORST, Alg. Dec. 18

(1852) No. 171. A. Braun, Alg. unicell. (1855) p. 43, t. 5,

fig. D.

Along shore; Helen and Sunday Lakes.

Family H YDRODICT YACEAE

Genus PEDIASTRUM Meyen 1829.

Pediastrum tetras (EHRENBERG) RALFS, in Ann.

and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 14 (1844) p. 469, t. 12, fig. 4. Micras-

terias tetras Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthierchen, (1838) p. 155,

t. 11, fig. 1.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Adelaide, Bull¬

head, Clear, Devil’s, Monona, Muskallonge, Star and Wau-

besa Lakes.

Pediastrum biradiatum var. emarginatum (A.

BRAUN) LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh.

39, No. 2 (1882) p. 54. Pediastrum rotula var. emarginatum

A. Braun, Alg. unicell. (1855) p. 102, t. 6, figs. 4, 8, 9, 11.

Along shore; Adelaide and Kegonsa Lakes.

Pediastrum intergum NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 97, t. 5, fig. B4.

Plankton; Soft Lake.

Pediastrum Boryanum (TURPIN) MENENGHINI,

in Linnaea 14 (1840) p. 210. Helierella Boryana Turpin, in

Mem. de Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris, 16 (1828) p. 319, t. 13,

fig. 22.

Plankton; Beasley, Catherine, Devil’s, Found, Fowler,

Geneva, Harris, Kawaguesaga, Kegonsa, La Belle, Marl,

Mud (Vilas Co.), Muskallonge, Old Taylor’s, Star, Taylor,

Turtle (North and South), Waubesa and Winnebago Lakes.

var. undulatum WILLE, in Ofvers Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh.

36 (1879) No. 5, p. 28.

Plankton; Lake Winnebago.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

547

Pediastrum duplex MEYEN, in Nova Acta Phys-Med.

Ac. Gaes. Leop. -Carol. 14. 2, (1828) p. 772.

Plankton; Catherine, Helen (Eagle River), Kegonsa, La

Belle, Lost, Mendota, Monona, Okauchee, Pardee, Soft,

Taylor and Waubesa Lakes.

var. clathratum (A. BRAUN) LAGERHEIM, in

Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 39 , No. 2 (1882) p. 56. Pedias¬

trum pertusum var. clathratum A. Braun, Alg. Unicell. (1855)

p. 93.

Plankton; Catfish, Cranberry and Mud (Vilas Co.) Lakes,

var. reticulatum LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-

Ak. Forh. 39 , No. 2 (1882) p. 56, t. z, fig. 1.

Plankton; Found, Kawaguesaga, Mendota, Pardee, Sishe-

bogema, Turtle (South), Waubesa and Winnebago Lakes.

var. rotundatum LUCKS, in Jahrb. d. Westpr. Lehrer-

vereins f. Naturkunde. 2-3 (1907) p. 31.

Plankton; Oconomowoc Lake.

Pediastrum Kawraiskyi SCHMIDLE, in Arb. d. Botan.

Gartens zu Tiflis. 2 (1897) p. 269. Nitardy, in Beih. z. Bot.

Cent. 32 (1914) p. 164, t. 5, fig. 5.

Plankton; Lake Winnebago.

Pediastrum simplex MEYEN, in Nova Acta Phys.-

Med. Ac. Caes.-Leop. 14, 2 (1829) p. 772, t. 43, figs. 1-5.

Plankton; Kegonsa, Monona and Winnebago Lakes,

var. clathratum (SCHROTER) G. S. WEST, in Jour.

Linn. Soc. London, 38 (1907) p. 134. Pediastrum clathratum

(SCHROTER) LEMMERMANN, in Forschungsbr. a. d.

Biol. Stat. zu Plon, 7 (1899) p. 115.

Plankton; Green, Lost, Mud (Vilas Co.) Lakes.

Genus EUASTROPSIS Lagerheim 1894.

Euastropsis Richteri (SCHMIDLE) LAGERHEIM, in

Tromso Museums Aarshefter, 17 (1895) p. 20, t. 1, figs. 8-27.

Euastrum Richteri Schmidle, in Flora 78 (1894) p. 60, t. 7,

fig. 25.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

548 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Genus HYDRODICTYON Roth 1800.

Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L) LAGERHEIM, in

Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 40 , No. 2 (1883) p. 71. Conferva

reticulata Linnaeus, Spec. Plant, p. 1635.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

Sub-order AUTOSPORINEAE

Family CHLORELLACEAE

Sub-family CHLORELLEAE

Genus CHLORELLA Beyerinck 1890.

Chlorella vulgaris BEYERINCK, in Bot. Ztg. 48 (1890)

p. 758, t. 7, fig. 2.

Plankton; Lake Mendota.

Sub-family DIGTY OSPHAERIEAE

Genus TETRAGOCGUS W. West 1892.

Tetracoccus botryoides W. WEST, in Jour. Roy. Micr.

Soc. (1892) p. 735, t. 10, figs. 43-48.

Plankton; Mendota and Sishebogema Lakes. Along shore;

Clear and Devil’s Lakes.

Genus DICTYOSPHAERIUM Nageli 1849.

Dictyosphaerium pwlchellum WOOD, in Smithsonian

Cont. to Knowledge, 19, No. 241 (1872) p. 84, t. 10, fig. 4.

Plankton; Birch, Catfish, Catherine, Clear (Vilas Co.),

Cranberry, Kegonsa, Mendota, Monona, Muskallonge,

Oconomowoc, Okauchee, Old Taylor’s, Rock, Rose, Rozen,

Tamarack, Turtle (North and South), Waubesa and Win¬

nebago Lakes.

Dictyosphaerium Ehrenbergianum NAGELI, Galt,

einz. Algen. (1849) p. 73, t. 2, fig. E.

Plankton; Clear, Kegonsa and Mendota Lakes.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

549

Genus DIMORPHOGOCCUS A. Braun 1855.

Dimorphococcus lunatus A. BRAUN, Alg. unicell.

(1855) p. 44. Rabenhorst, Flora Eur. Algarum 3 (1868) p. 36,

p. 6, figs. a-c.

Plankton; Catfish, Kegonsa and Minocqua Lakes. Along

shore; Rozen Lake.

Genus INEFFIGIATA W. & G. S. West 1897.

Ineffigiata neglecta W. & G. S. WEST, in Jour. Roy.

Micr. Soc. (1897) p. 503. W. & G. S. West, in Jour, of Bot.

41 (1903) p. 80, t. 447, figs. 1-6.

Plankton; Devil’s, Green, Kegonsa, Mendota, Mercer,

Monona, Mud (Vilas Go.), No Mans, Pardee, Sishebogema,

Turtle (South), Waubesa and Winnebago Lakes.

Sub-family MICRACTINEAE

Genus RICHTERIELLA Lemmermann 1897.

Richterialla botryoides (SCHMIDLE) LEMMER¬

MANN, in Hedwigia, 37 (1898) p. 306, t. 10, figs. 1-6.

Golenkinia botryoides Schmidle, in Allg. bot. Zeitschr. 2

(1896) p. 194.

Plankton; Green, Mendota, Pope and North Turtle Lakes.

Richterialla quadriseta LEMMERMANN, in Hed¬

wigia, 37 (1898) p. 307, t. 10, fig. 7.

Plankton; Catfish and Cranberry Lakes.

Family OOCYSTACEAE

Sub-family OOCYSTEAE

Genus OOCYSTIS Nageli 1855.

Oocystis parva W. & G. S. WEST, in Jour, of Bot. 36

(1898) p. 335.

Plankton; George, Mendota and Muskallonge Lakes.

Oocystis elliptica var. minor W. WEST, in Jour. Roy.

Micr. Soc. (1892) p. 736. W. & G. S. West in Jour. Roy.

Micr. Soc. (1894) p. 14, t. 2, fig. 26.

Plankton; Upper Nemahbin Lake.

Oocystis lacustris CHODAT, in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5

(1897) p. 296, t. 10, figs. 1-7.

550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Plankton; Beasley, Birch, Catfish, Cranberry, Devil’s,

Fowler, Kawaguesaga, Kegonsa, Long, Mendota, Monona,

Pardee, Taylor and Turtle (North and South) Lakes.

Oocystis nodulosa W. Sc G. S. WEST, in Jour. Roy.

Micr. Soc. (1894) p. 15, t. 2, fig. 31.

Plankton; Lake Winnebago.

Oocystis Novae-Semliae var. maxima W. Sc G. S.

WEST, in Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. (1894) p. 13, t. 2, fig. 25.

Plankton; Found and Rock Lakes.

Genus EREMOSPHAERA DeBary 1858.

Eremosphaera viridis DE BARY, Unters. u. d. Fam.

d. Coniugaten, (1858) p. 56, t. 8, figs. 26-27.

Along shore; Clear and Lee Lakes.

Genus NEPHROCYTIUM Nageli 1849.

Nephrocytium Agardianum NAGELI, Gatt. einz.

Algen, (1849) p. 79, t. 3, fig. C.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Lower Nemahbin

Lake.

Nephrocytium Naegelii GRUNOW, in Rabenhorst,

Flora Eur. Algarum, 3 (1868) p. 52. Cooke, Brit. Freshw.

Algae (1882) p. 26, t. 11, figs. 2a-2c.

Plankton; Lake Kegonsa.

Sub-family LAGERHEIMEAE

Genus CHODATELLA Lemmermann 1898.

Chodatella ciliata (LAGERHEIM) LEMMERMANN,

in Hedwigia 37 (1898) p. 310. Oocystis ciliata Lagerheim, in

Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 39, No. 2 (1882) p. 76, t. 3,

figs. 33-37.

Plankton; Kegonsa and Mendota Lakes.

Chodatella Droescheri LEMMERMANN, in Ber. d. D.

bot. Ges. 18 (1900) p. 98, t. 3, fig. 12.

Plankton; Upper Nashotah Lake.

Chodatella citriformis SNOW, in Bull. U. S. Fish

Comm. 22 (1902) p. 389, t. 2, figs. S1^3.

Along shore; Lake Waubesa.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

551

Chodatella subsalsa LEMMERMANN, in Hedwigia, 37

(1898) p. 310. Lagerhemia subsalsa Lemmermann, in Fors-

chungsbr. a. d. Biol. Slat, zu Plon. 6 (1898) p. 193, t. 5,

figs. 2-6.

Plankton; Muskallonge Lake.

Sub-family TETRAEDRIEAE

Genus TETRAEDRON Kiitzing 1845.

Tetraedron minimum (A. BRAUN) HANSGIRG, in

Hedwigia, 27 (1888) p. 131. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1904) p. 231, fig. 101A. Polyedrium minimum A. Braun,

Algarum unicell. (1855) p. 94.

Plankton; Mendota and Okauchee Lakes. Along shore;

Clear, Muskallonge, Nemahbin (Lower), Old Taylor’s,

Rozen and Waubesa Lakes.

Tetraedron enorme (RALFS) HANSGIRG, in Hed¬

wigia, 27 (1888) p. 132. Staurastrum enorme Ralfs, Brit.

Desmidieae (1848) p. 140, t. 33, figs, lla-lle.

Along shore.; Lakes Kegonsa, Mendota and Waubesa.

Tetraedron trigonum (NAGELI) HANSGIRG, in

Hedwigia, 27 (1888) p. 130. Polyedrium trigonum Nageli,

Gatt. einz. Algen, (1849) p. 84, t. 4, fig. Bl. ,

Along shore; Lake Mendota.

Tetraedron caudatum (CORDA) HANSGIRG, in

Hedwigia, 27 (1888) p. 131. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae,

(1904) p. 231, fig. 101B. Astericium caudatum Gorda, in

Almanach de Carlsbad, 9 (1839) p. 238, t. 1, figs. 1-2.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Muskallonge,

Razorback and Waubesa Lakes.

Tetraedron limneticum BORGE, in Bot. Notiser,

(1900) p. 5, t. 1, fig. 2.

Plankton; Clear, Mud (Vilas Co.) and Squirrel Lakes.

Tetraedron pusillum (WALLICH) W. & G. S. WEST

in Jour, of Bot. 35 (1897) p. 237. Micr aster ias pusilla Wal-

lich, in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 3 Ser. 5 (1860) p. 281,

t. 13, fig. 13.

Along shore; Clear and Mendota Lakes.

552 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Family COELASTRACEAE

Genus COELASTRUM Nageli 1849.

Coelastrum microporum NAGELI, in A. Braun, Alg.

unicell. (1855) p. 70. Senn, in Bot. Ztg. 57 (1899) p. 53, t. 2,

figs. 11-17.

Plankton; Mendota, Mud (Vilas Go.), Oconomowoc, Otter,

Pope, Squirrel and South Turtle Lakes.

Coelastrum sphaericum NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 98, t. 5, fig. Cl.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

Coelastrum proboscidium BOHLIN, in Bih. t. Kgl.

Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 23 , Afd. 3, No. 7 (1897) p. 33, t. 2, figs.

19-22. Senn, in Bot. Ztg. 57 (1899) p. 59, t. 2, figs. 18-22.

Plankton; Catfish, Clear, Cranberry, Found, Mercer,

Minocqua and Old Taylor’s Lakes.

Coelastrum reticulatum (DANGEARD) SENN, in

Bot. Ztg. 57 (1899) p. 66, t. 2, figs. 1-10. Hariotina reticu¬

lata Dangeard, in Le Botaniste, 1 (1889) p. 162, t. 7, figs.

15-17.

Plankton; Lake Mendota.

Genus SORASTRUM Kiitzing 1845.

Sorastrum spinulosum NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 99, t. 5, fig. D.

Along shore; Clear, Kegonsa, Plum and Rose Lakes.

Sorastrum americanum (BOHLIN) SCHMIDLE, in

Engl. Jahrb. 27, p. 230. Lemmermann, in Arch. f. Hydrobiol.

u. Planktonkunde, 5 (1910) p. 310, fig. 5. Selenosphaerium

americanum Bohlin, in Bih. t. Kgl. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 23

Afd. 3, No. 7 (1897) p. 40, t. 2, figs. 38-41.

Along shore; Devil’s Lake.

Family SCENEDESMACEAE

Sub-family SCENEDESMEAE

Genus SCENEDESMUS Meyen 1829.

Scenedesmus obliquus (TURPIN) KUTZING, in

Linnaea, 8 (1833) p. 609. Achnanthes obliqua Turpin, in

Mem. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris. 16 (1828) p. 312, t. 13,

fig. 9.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

553

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Cedar, Helen

(Winchester), Minocqua, Muskallonge and Waubesa Lakes.

Scenedesmus dimorphus (TURPIN) KUTZING, in

Linnaea, 8 (1833) p. 608. Achnanthes dimorphus Turpin, in

Mem. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris, 16 (1828) p. 313, t. 13,

fig. 12.

Along shore; Devil’s, Found, Mendota and Waubesa

Lakes.

Scenedesmus arcuatus LEMMERMANN, in Fors-

chungsbr. a. d. Biol. Stat. zu Plon, 7 (1899) p. 112, t. 1,

figs. 2-4.

Plankton; Cranberry, Long, Mendota, Meta, Pardee and

North Turtle Lakes.

var. platydisca SMITH, in Trans. Wis. Acad. ined.

Plankton; George Lake. Along shore; Kegonsa and Rozen

Lakes.

Scenedesmus bijiiga (TURPIN) LAGERHEIM, in

Nuova Notarisia, 4 (1893) p. 158. Achnanthes bijuga , Tur¬

pin, in Mem. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris, 16 (1828) p. 310,

t. 13, fig. 4.

Plankton; Fowler Lake. Along shore. Clear, Helen (Win¬

chester), Muskallonge, Mud (Waupaca Co.), Old Taylor’s

and Razorback Lakes.

var. alternans (REINSCH) BORGE, in Arkiv for Bo-

tanik, 6 (1906) No. 1, p. 57. Scenedesmus alternans Reinsch,

in Abh. Senckenbergischen Naturf. Ges. 6 (1866) p. 135,

t. 20, fig. D5.

Plankton; Muskallonge Lake. Alongshore; Devil’s Lake.

Scenedesmus denticulatus LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers.

Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 39, No. 2 (1882) p. 61, t. 2, figs. 13-17.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Clear Lake.

Scenedesmus brasiliensis BOHLIN, in Bih. t. Kgl. Sv.

Vet.-Ak. Handl. 23, Afd. 3, No. 7 (1897) p. 22, t. 1, figs.

36-37.

Plankton; Old Taylor’s Lake. Along shore; Carroll,

Devil’s, Minocqua, Rozen and Waubesa Lakes.

Scenedesmus acutiformis SCHRODER, in Fors-

chungsbr. a. d. Biol. Stat. zu Plon, 5 (1897) p. 45, t. 2, fig. 4.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Found Lake.

Scenedesmus serratus (CORDA) BOHLIN, in Bih. t.

Kgl. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 27, Afd. 3 No. 4 (1902), p. 44, t. 1,

554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

fig. 2. Arthrodesmus serratus Corda, in Almanach de Carls¬

bad, 9 (1835) p. 244, t. 6, fig. 35.

Along shore; Devil’s, Kegonsa and Muskallonge Lakes.

Scenedesmus hystrix LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers. Kgl.

Vet.-Ak. Forh. 39, No. 2 (1882) p. 62, t. 2, fig. 18.

Along shore; Minocqua and Muskallonge Lakes.

Scenedesmus quadricauda (TURPIN) DE BRE-

BISSON, in Mem. de la Soc. Ac. de Falaise, (1835) p. 66.

Achnanthes quadricauda Turpin, in Mem. du Mus. d’Hist.

Nat. Paris, 16 (1828) p. 311, t. 13, fig. 6.

Plankton; Clear, Green, Lost, Meta, Muskallonge, Ne-

mahbin (Lower), Okauchee, Old Taylor’s, Pope and Win¬

nebago Lakes.

var. longisina (CHODAT) SMITH, in Trans. Wis.

Acad. ined. Scenedmus longispina Chodat, in Mater, pour

la flore cryptogamique Suisse, 4 Fasc. 2 (1913) p. 60, figs.

53-58.

Plankton; Lost and Mendota Lakes.

var. quadrispina (CHODAT) SMITH, in Trans. Wis.

Acad. ined. Scenedmus quadrispina Chodat, in Mater, pour

la flore cryptogamique Suisse, 4 Fasc. 2 (1913) p. 58, figs.

45-52.

Along shore; Laura and Muskallonge Lakes,

var. Westii SMITH, in Trans. Wis. Acad. ined.

Plankton; Meta Lake. Along shore; Adelaide Lake,

var. maximum W. Sc G. S. WEST, in Trans. Linn. Soc.

Bot. 2 Ser. 5 (1895) pt. 2, p. 83, t. 5, figs. 9-10.

Along shore; Old Taylor’s, Rozen and Sunday Lakes.

Scenedesmus armatus (CHODAT) SMITH, in Trans.

Wis. Acad. ined. Scenedesmus hystrix var. armatus Chodat,

in Mater, pour, la flore cryptogamique Suisse, 1, fasc. 3

(1902) p. 215, fig. 140.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Clear and Wau-

besa Lakes.

Scenedesmus longus MEYEN, in Nova Acta Phys.-

Med. Ac. Caes. Leop. -Carol. 14 (1829) p. 774, t. 43, fig. 28.

Plankton; Rock Lake. Along shore; Lake Waubesa.

Scenedesmus abundans (KIRCHNER) CHODAT, in

Mater, pour la flore cryptogamique Suisse, 4 Fasc. 2 (1913)

p. 77. Scenedesmus caudatus forma abundans Kirchner,

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes. 555

Algen, in Cohn, Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien, 2 (Erste

Halfte) (1878) p. 98.

Along shore; Muskallonge and Sunday Lakes,

var. brevicauda SMITH, Trans. Wis. Acad. ined.

Plankton; Lake Mendota. Along shore; Monona and Wau-

besa Lakes.

Genus TETRADESMUS Smith 1913.

Tetradesmus wisconsinensis SMITH, in Bull. Torr.

Bot. Club, 40 (1913) p. 76, t. 1, figs. 1-20.

Along shore; Kegonsa, Muskallonge, Star and Waubesa

Lakes.

Genus TETRASTRUM Chodat 1895.

Tetrastrum Staurogeniaeforme (SCHRODER) CHO¬

DAT, in Mater, pour la flore cryptogamique Suisse, i, Fasc.

3 (1902) p. 208, p. 223, fig. 14812. Cohniella staurogeriiae-

formis Schroder, in Ber. d. D. bot. Ges. 15 (1897) p. 373,

t. 17, fig. 5.

Plankton; Lake Mendota.

Genus CRUCIGENIA Morren 1830.

Crucigenia quadrata MORREN, in Ann. Sci. Nat. 20

(1830) p. 415, t. 15, figs. 1-5.

Plankton; Pardee Lake.

Crucigenia rectangularis (N AG ELI) GAY, Re-

cherches sur le dev. et la class, de quelques algues vertes,

(1891) p. 100, t. 15, fig. 151. Chloropedium rectangularis

Nageli, in A. Braun, Alg. unicell. (1855) p. 70.

Plankton; Fowler, Kegonsa, Okauchee, Old Taylor’s and

Winnebago Lakes.

Crucigenia Lauterbornei (SCHMIDLE) CHODAT, in

Mater, pour la flore cryptogamique Suisse, 1 , Fasc. 3 (1902)

p. 206, fig. 127. Staurogenia Lauterbornei Schmidle, in Allg.

Bot. Zeitschr. 2 (1896) p. 192, fig. 1.

Plankton; Lake Kegonsa.

556 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Sub-family SELENASTREAE

Genus ANKISTRODESMUS Corda 1836.

Ankistrodesmus falcatus (CORDA) RALFS, Brit.

Desmidieae (1848) p. 180, t. 34, figs. 3a-3d. Micrasterias

falcata Corda, in Almanach de Carlsbad, 5 (1835) p. 198,

t. 2, fig. 29.

Plankton; Kawaguesaga and Rock Lakes. Along shore;

Clear, Devil’s, Helen (Winchester), Kegonsa, Marion, Men-

dota, Minocqua, Old Taylor’s, Razorback, Rozen and Wau-

besa Lakes.

var. acicularis (A. BRAUN) G. S. WEST, Brit. Freshw.

Algae, (1904) p. 223, figs. 94B-94C. Raphidium aciculare

A. Braun, in Rabenhorst, Die Algen Sachsens, Dec. 44

(1855) No. 442.

Plankton; Lakes Mendota and Waubesa. Along shore;

Devil’s Lake.

var. spiralis (TURNER) G. S. WEST, Brit. Freshw.

Algae, (1904) p. 224. Raphidium spiralis Turner (1893).

Along shore; Old Taylor’s and Soft Lakes,

var. mirabilis (W. & G. S. WEST) G. S. WEST, Brit.

Freshw. Algae, (1904) p. 224, fig. 94E. Raphidium polymor-

phum var. mirabile W. & G. S. West, in Jour, of Roy. Micr.

Soc. (1897) p. 501, t. 7, figs. 9-13.

Plankton; Devil’s and Squirrel Lakes.

Ankistrodesmus Pfitzeri (SCHRODER) G. S. WEST,

Brit. Freshw. Algae, (1904) p. 224, figs. 94G-94H. Raphid¬

ium Pfitzeri Schroder, in Verh. d. Nat.-Med. Ver. zu Heidel¬

berg, N. F. 7 (1902) p. 152, t. 6, fig. 6.

Plankton; Clear, Cranberry, Devil’s, Found, Harris, Mus-

kallonge, No Mans, Oconomowoc, Okauchee, Pardee, and

Sishebogema Lakes.

Genus ACTINASTRUM Lagerheim 1882.

Actinastrum Hantzschi LAGERHEIM, in Ofvers.

Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 39, No. 2 (1882) p. 70, t. 3, figs. 25-26.

Plankton; Kegonsa, Mendota and Waubesa Lakes.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

557

Genus SELENASTRUM Reinsch 1867.

Selenastrum Bibraianum REINSCH, Die Algenflora

d. mitt. Th. v. Franken (1867) p. 64, t. 4, fig. 2.

Plankton; Mendota, Meta and Squirrel Lakes.

Selenastrum gracile REINSCH, Die Algenflora d. mitt.

Th. v. Franken, (1867) p. 65, t. 4, fig. 3.

Plankton; Lake Monona. Along shore; Clear and Rozen

Lakes.

Genus KIRCHNERIELLA Schmidle 1893.

Kirchneriella obesa (W. WEST) SCHMIDLE, in Ber.

d. Naturf. Ges. zu Freiburg i B. (1893) p. 15 (82), t. 7, fig. 2.

Selenastrum obesum W. West, in Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. (1892)

p. 734, t. 10, figs. 50-52.

Plankton; Catherine, Rock, Squirrel, South Turtle and

Winnebago Lakes.

Kirchneriella lunaris (KIRCHNER) MOBIUS, in

Abh. d. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. 18 (1894) p. 331. Raphidium

convulutum var. lunare Kirchner, Algen, I, in Cohn, Krypto-

gamen-Flora von Schlesien, 2 (Erste Halfte) (1878) p. 114.

Plankton; Found, Mendota, Meta, Pardee and Squirrel

Lakes. Along shore; Kegonsa, Minocqua and Rozen Lakes.

Kirchneriella contorta (SCHMIDLE) BOHLIN, in

Bih. t. Kgl. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 23, Afd. 3, No. 7 (1897)

p. 20. Kirchneriella obesa var. contorta Schmidle, in Flora,

78 (1894) p. 44, t. 7, fig. 2.

P Plankton; Fowler, Mendota and Pardee Lakes. Along

shore; Clear Lake.

Order CHAETOPHORALES

Family ULOTRICHACEAE

Genus GEMINELLA Turpin 1828.

Geminella interrupta (TURPIN) LAGERHEIM

emend., in Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. F6rh. 40, No. 2 (1883) p. 68,

t. 1, figs. 30-35. Turpin, in Mem. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat.

Paris, 16 (1828) p. 329.

Along shore ; Soft Lake.

558 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Genus RADIOFILUM Schmidle 1894.

Radiofilum conjunctivum SCHMIDLE, in Flora, 78

(1894) p. 48, t. 7, figs. 4-5.

Along shore; Plum Lake.

Radiofilum flavescens G. S. WEST, in Jour, of Bot.

37 (1899) p. 57, t. 394, figs. 10-11.

Along shore; Soft Lake.

Genus STICHOCOCGUS Nageli 1849.

Stichococcus bacillaris NAGELI, Gatt. einz. Algen,

(1849) p. 77, t. 4, fig. Gl.

Along shore; Lake Mendota.

Genus ULOTHRIX Kiitzing 1833.

Ulothrix zonata (WEBER UND MOHR) KUTZING,

in Flora, 16 (1833) p. 519. Conferva zonata Weber und Mohr,

Naturhistorische Reise durch einen Theil Schwedens, (1804)

p. 97, t. 1, fig. 7.

Along shore; Lakes Mendota and Monona.

Family ULVACEAE

Genus PROTODERMA Kiitzing 1843.

Protoderma viride KUTZING, Phycol. gener. (1843)

p. 295. G. S. West, Brit. Freshw. Algae (1904) p. 205, figs.

83A-83C.

Along shore; Lake Monona.

Family CHAETOPHORACEAE

Genus CHAETOPHORA Schrank 1783.

Chaetophora pisiformis (ROTH) C. A. AGARDH,

Disp. algarum Sueciae, (1812) p. 43. Hazen, in Mem.

Torr. Bot. Club, 11 (1902) p. 212, t. 38, fig. 1. Rivularia

pisiformis Roth, Neue Beitr. Bot. 1 (1802) p. 272.

Along shore; McKenna and Sunday Lakes.

Chaetophora elegans (ROTH) C. A. AGARDH, Disp.

algarum Sueciae, (1812) p. 42. Hazen, in Mem. Torr. Bot.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes . 559

Club, 11 (1902) p. 211, t. 37, figs. 1-3. Rivularia elegans

Roth, Neue Beitr. Bot. 1 (1802) p. 269.

Along shore; Green and Miner’s Lake.

Genus MYXONEMA Fries 1825.

Myxonema lubricum (DILLWYN) FRIES, Systema

Orbis Yegatabilis. Plantae Homonemeae, (1825) p. 343.

Conferva lubrica Dillwyn, Brit. Conferveae (1806) t. 57.

Along shore; Geneva, Monona and Waubesa Lakes.

Genus DRAPARNALDIA Bory de St. Vincent 1808.

Draparnaldia plumosa (VAUGHER) C. A. AGARDH,

Disp. algarum Sueciae, (1812) p. 42. Batrachospermum

plumosum Yaucher, Histoire des Conferves d’eau douce,

(1803) p. 113, t. 11, fig. 2.

Along shore; Devil’s and Sunday Lakes.

Genus MICROTHAMNION Nageli 1849.

Micro thamnion Kuetzingianum NAGELI, in Kut-

zing, Species Algarum (1849) p. 352. Hazen, in Mem. Torr.

Bot. Club, 11 (1902) p. 191, t. 26, fig. 1; t. 27, figs. 2-4.

Along Shore; Otter Lake.

Microth amnion strictissimum RABENHORST, Die

Algen Sachsens, Dec. 82 (1859) No. 829. Hazen, in Mem.

Torr. Bot. Club, 11 (1902) p. 191, t. 26, figs. 2-5.

Along shore; Tank and Plum Lakes.

Family CHAETOPELTIDIACEAE

Genus CHAETOSPHAERIDIUM Klebahn 1892.

Chaetosphaeridium globosum (NORDSTEDT) KLE¬

BAHN, in Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 25 (1893) p. 306, t. 14, fig. 5.

Herposteiron globosa Nordstedt, in Minneskrift utgifven a K.

Fysiografiska sallskapet i Lund med anledning af dess hun-

draarsfest d. 3 Oct. 1878, p. 23, t. 2, figs. 22-23.

Along shore; Plum and Razorback Lakes.

15

560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Chaetosphaeridium Pringsheimii forma conferta

KLEBAHN, in Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 25 (1893) p. 307, t. 14,

fig. 11.

Along shore; Adelaide, Helen (Winchester), Helen (Eagle

River), Soft and Sunday Lakes.

Family CYLINDROCAPSACEAE

Genus GYLINDROGAPSA Reinsch 1867.

Cylindrocapsa geminella WOLLE, Freshw. Algae of

the U. S. (1887) p. 104, t. 91, figs. 1-17.

Along shore ; Lake Kegonsa.

Family HERPOSTEIRACEAE

Genus HERPOSTEIRON Nageli 1849.

Herposteiron confervicola NAGELI, in Kiitzing, Spe¬

cies Algarum, (1849) p. 424.

Along shore; Helen (Winchester), Kegonsa, Mendota,

Okauchee, Otter, Soft and Waubesa Lakes.

Herposteiron polychaete HANSGIRG, in Flora, 71

(1888) p. 214, t. 12, figs. 1-5.

Along shore ; Plum Lake.

Herposteiron Hyalothecae HANSGIRG, in Sitzbr. d. k.

bohm. Ges. d. Wiss. Prag. Jahrgang 1891 (1891) p. 309.

Heering, in Pascher, Die Siisswasser-Flora Deutschlands,

Osterreichs, und der Schweiz. Heft. 6, Chlorophyceae 3

(1914) p. 129, fig. 184.

Plankton; North Turtle Lake.

Family COLEOCHAETACEAE

Genus COLEOCHAETE de Brebisson 1844.

Coleochaete pulvinata A. BRAUN, in Kiitzing, Species

algarum (1849) p. 425. Pringsheim, in Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 2

(1860) p. 33, t. 2, fig. 1.

Along shore; Mendota, Old Taylor, Razorback and Sun¬

day Lakes.

Coleochaete soluta (DE BREBISSON) PRING¬

SHEIM, in Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 2 (1860) p. 6, t. 1, figs. 2-3.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

561

Coleochaete scutata var. soluta de Brebisson, in Ann. Sci. Nat,

3 Ser. Bot. 1 (1844) p. 30, t. 2, fig. 8.

Along shore; McKenna, Meta and Mendota Lakes.

Coleochaete scutata DE BREBISSON, in Ann. Sci.

Nat. 3 Ser. Bot. 1 (1844) p. 29, t. 2, figs. 1-7.

Along shore; Kegonsa, Nemahbin, Mendota, Muskal-

longe, Soft and Sunday Lakes.

Order CONJUGALES

Family ZYGNEMACEAE

Sub-family ZYGNEMEAE

Genus ZYGNEMA C. A. Agardh 1817.

Zygnema pectinatum (VAUCHER) C. A. AGARDH,

Synop. algarum Scand. (1817) p. 102. De Bary, Unters. u. d.

Fam. d. Conjugaten, (1858) p. 77, t. 1, figs. 15-19. Con -

jugata pectinata Yaucher, Hist. d. Conferves d’eau douce,

(1803) p. 77, t. 7, fig. 4.

Along shore; Fowler Lake.

var. conspicuum (HASSALL) KIRCHNER; Algen, in

Cohn, Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien, 2 (Erste Halfte)

(1878) p. 127. Tyndaridea conspicua Hassall, Brit. Freshw.

Algae (1845) p. 164, t. 39, figs. 1-2.

Along shore; Fowler Lake.

Genus SPIROGYRA Link 1820.

Spirogyra porticalis (MUELLER) CLEVE, in Nova

Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis, Ser. 3 , 6 (1868) No. 11, p. 22,

t. 5, figs. 8-13. Conferva porticalis Mueller, in Nova Acta Ac.

Petrop. 3 (1785) p. 89.

Along shore; Fowler, Mendota, Nemahbin (Lower), Okau-

chee and Waubesa Lakes.

Genus DEBARYA Wittrock 1872.

Debarya laevis (KUTZING) W. & G. S. WEST, in Jour.

Roy. Micr. Soc. (1897) p. 476. Zygonium Laeve Kiitzing,

Species Algarum (1849) p. 447. Mougeotia laevis (Kiitzing)

Archer, in Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. N. S. 7 (1867) t. 8, figs. 1-3.

Along shore; Miner’s Lake.

562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Sub-family MESCARPEAE

Genus MOUGEOTIA (C. A. Agardh 1824) emend.

Wittrock 1872.

Mougeotia laetevirens (A. BRAUN) WITTROCK, in

Wittrock et Nordstedt, Algae aquae dulcis exsiccatae, No. 58.

Craterospermum laetevirens A. Braun, Alg. unicell. (1855)

p. 60. DeBary, Unters. u. d. Fam. d. Conjugaten, (1858)

p. 81, t. 3, figs. 1-13.

Along shore; Sunday Lake.

Mougeotia viridis (KUTZING) WITTROCK, in Bih.

t. Kgl. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. f, No. 1 (1872) p. 39. Stauro-

spermum viride Kutzing, Phycol. gener. (1843) p. 278.

Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algae (1882) p. 107, t. 44, figs. 2a-2c.

Plankton; Okauchee Lake. Along shore; Franklin Lake.

Family DESMIDIACEAE

Vacant.

Order SIPHONOCLADIALES

Family CLADOPHORACEAE

Genus CLADOPHORA Kutzing 1843.

Cladophora glomerata (L) KUTZING, Phycol. gener.

(1843) p. 266. Collins, in Tufts Coll. Studies, 2 (1909) p. 350,

t. 13, fig. 124. Conferva glomerata , Linnaeus, Systema Na¬

turae, p. 721.

Along shore; Kegonsa, Monona, Geneva, Mendota and

Waubesa Lakes.

Genus RHIZOCLONIUM Kutzing 1843.

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (C. A. AGARDH)

KUTZING, Phycol. germ. (1845) p. 206. G. S. West, Brit.

Frshw. Algae (1904) p. 104, fig. 39A. Conferva hieroglyphica

C. A. Agardh, in Flora, 10 (1827) p. 636.

Along shore; Mendota, Kegonsa, and Plum Lakes.

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

563

Family SPHAEROPLEACEAE

Genus SPHAROPLEA G. A. Agardh 1824.

Sphaeroplea annulina (ROTH) C. A. AGARDH, Sys-

tema algarum (1824) p. 76. Cooke, Brit. Freshw. Algea

(1882) p. 134, t. 52. Conferva annulina Roth, Catalecta.

Bot. 3 (1806) p. 7.

Along shore; Lake Mendota.

Order OEDOGONIALES

Family OEDOGONIACEAE

Genus OEDOGONIUM Link 1820.

*

Oedogonium plusiosporum WITTROCK, in Nova.

Acta. Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis, 3 Ser. 9 , No. 3 (1875) p. 11.

Hirn, in Acta. Soc. Sci. Fennicae, 27 (1900) p. 84, t. 2, fig. 17.

Along shore; Soft Lake.

Oedogonium nodulosum var. commune HIRN, in

Acta. Soc. Sci. Fennicae, 21 (1900) p. 187, t. 30, fig. 185.

Along shore; Old Taylor’s Lake.

Genus BULBOCHAETE G. A. Agardh 1817.

Bulbochaete mirabilis WITTROCK, in Of vers. Kgl

Vet.-Ak. Forh. 21 No. 3 (1870) p. 137, t. 1, figs. 8-9.

Along shore ; Big Bass Lake.

Class HETEROKONTEAE

Order CONFERYALES

Family CHLOROTHECIACEAE

Genus CHARACIOPSIS Borzi 1895.

Characiopsis pyriformis BORZI, Studii algolicii, 2

(1895) p. 153.

Along shore; Clear and Rozen Lakes.

564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Genus MISCHOCOCCUS Nhgeli 1849.

Mischococcus confervicola NAGELI, Gatt. einz.

Algen. (1849) p. 82, t. 2, fig. D.

Along shore; Minocqua Lake.

Family TRIBONEMACEAE

Genus GHLOROBOTRYS Bohlin 1901.

Chlorobotrys regularis (W. WEST) BOHLIN, in Bih.

t. Kgl. Sv. Vet.-Ak. Handl. 27, Afd. 3, No. 4 (1901) p. 34.

Chlorococcum regulare W. West, in Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc.

(1892) p. 737, t. 10, fig. 55.

Plankton; North Turtle Lake. Along shore; Beaver Lake

Genus OPHIOCYTIUM Nageli 1849.

Ophiocytium capitatum WOLLE, Freshw. Algae of

the U. S. (1887) p. 176; t. 158, figs. 3-7.

Along shore; Minocqua, Plum and Razorback Lakes.

var. longispina (MOBIUS) LEMMERMANN, in Hed-

wigia, 38 (1899) p. 32, t. 4, figs. 21-25. Reinschiella longi-

spinum Mdbius, in Abh. d. Senckenberg. Naturf. Ges. in

Frankfurt a. M. 18 (1894) p. 331, t. 1, figs. 31-33.

Plankton; George Lake.

Ophiocytium cochleare (EICHWALD) A. BRAUN,

Alg. Unicell. (1855) p. 54. Lemmermann, in Hedwigia, 38

(1899) p. 30, t. 3, figs. 10-12. Spirodiscus cochlearis Eich-

wald, in Bull. Soc. Imp. Natur. Moscou, 20, pt. 2 (1848)

p. 285, t. 8, fig. 4.

Along shore; Cedar Lake.

Ophiocytium arbusculum (A. BRAUN) RABEN-

HORST, Flora Eur. Algarum, 3 (1868) p. 68. Sciadium

arbuscula A. BRAUN, Algarum unicell. (1855) p. 49, t. 4,

figs. 1-11.

Along shore; Rozen Lake.

Genus TRIBONEMA Derbes et Sober 1856.

Tribonema bombycina (AGARDH) DERBES ET

SOLIER, in Suppl. Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. d. Paris 1

Smith — Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes .

565

(1856) p. 18, t. 4, figs. 16-21. Conferva bombycina C. A.

Agardh, Synop. Alg. Scandinaviae (1817) p. 78.

Along shore; Franklin, Otter and Rose Lake.

Tribonema minus (WILLE) HAZEN, in Mem. Torr.

Bot. Club, 11 (1902) p. 185, t. 25, figs. 7-8. Conferva bom¬

bycina var. minor Wille, in Ofvers. Kgl. Vet.-Ak. Forh. 36

No. 5 (1879) p. 65, t. 14, fig. 89.

Along shore; Lake Kegonsa.

566 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

LIMNOLOGICAL APPARATUS

BY GHANCEY JUDAY

Notes from the Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological

and Natural History Survey. IX.

The following paper was prepared in response to a num¬

ber of inquiries concerning limnological apparatus that have

been received during the past few years. The first question

that confronts the student who wishes to undertake a study

of the biological problems presented by lakes is that of ob¬

taining suitable apparatus for such investigations. This

question is not always an easy one to solve since much of

the apparatus can not be purchased in the market but must

be especially constructed. This means that designs must

be prepared for the various instruments desired and a me¬

chanician employed to make them.

A few of the standard types of apparatus are here de¬

scribed and illustrated with the hope that it may contribute

to the solution of some of these preliminary difficulties and

thus aid in arousing a more general interest in work of this

character.

PLANKTON NETS.

Three types of net have been designed to meet the re¬

quirements of the various studies that have been made on

the plankton. One of them is a small net, shown in Plate

XXXVI, fig. 1, which is used in making the regular plankton

catches for studying the number and vertical distribution

of the organisms. It is used where only a comparatively

small quantity of water, 10 liters to 50 liters, is strained.

The second type is a larger net, shown in Plate XXXVI, fig. 1,

which is used when larger quantities of water, 1,000 liters

or more, are strained. The third type is a simple closing

JUDAY— LIMNOLOGICAL APPARATUS

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII PLATE XXXIV

Juday — Limnological Apparatus .

567

net, Plate XXXIV, figs. 2 and 3, which serves for the study of

the net plankton in deep lakes where it is not practical to use a

pump, or in lakes where it is not convenient to carry a pump

and hose. All of these nets consist of a truncated canvas

cone, a straining portion made of No. 20 silk bolting cloth,

and a detachable bucket at the bottom in which the catch

is concentrated and then transferred to the preservative.

Since the same bucket is used on all of the nets it may be

well to describe it first.

THE PLANKTON BUCKET.

The bucket consists of a head portion (fig. 1, A, and Plate

XXXIV, fig. 1) which is attached directly to the bolting cloth

strainer and a detachable plankton bucket proper (fig. 1, B).

The head and the wall of the bucket are made of telescope

brass tubing of such sizes that the top of the bucket passes

easily but snugly over the head piece. The surfaces which

come into contact should be kept polished in order to insure

ease of manipulation. The walls of the tubing are about

0.6 mm. thick.

The head piece, fig. 1, D, is 3.5 cm. long and has an out¬

side diameter of 5.2 cm. A small peg about the middle

serves for the attachment of the bucket by means of a

bayonet joint and two pegs near its upper edge hold the

clamp in position. This head is attached to the bolting

cloth by means of a clamp, fig. 1, C, which consists of two

semi-circular pieces of bronze with wings at their ends

through which pass the screws that hold the two pieces to¬

gether. The clamp is about 8 mm. wide and should be flush

with the upper edge of the head. Each half is pierced by a

small hole into which fits a small peg borne by the upper

part of the cylinder. Three small loops of brass wire are

soldered to this clamp into which lines from the framework

at the top of the net are fastened. These lines are a little

shorter than the bolting cloth cone and carry the weight of

the bucket.

The tube part of the bucket is 9 cm. long and has an in¬

side diameter of approximately 5.2 cm. The upper part

which fits over the head is 2.8 cm. wide and has an L-shaped

opening into which the peg in the middle of the head piece

fits. (See fig. 1, B.) Below this part there are four windows

568 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

each 3 cm. wide and 5 cm. long. The portions of tubing

between the windows are about 1.1 cm. wide and soldered

to them inside are semi-cylindrical pieces of brass wire

Fig. 1. — Plankton bucket showing parts.

having a diameter of 6 mm. These pieces of brass wire

strengthen the strips of tubing and receive the screws of the

side clamps which help to hold the bolting cloth in place

over the windows. The bottom of the bucket consists of a

piece of cast bronze which is soldered into the lower end of

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVII

PLATE XXXV

Fig. 1. Plankton trap.

Fig. 2. Plankton trap and equipment for operating it.

JUDAY- LIMNOLOGICAL APPARATUS

Juday — Limnological Apparatus .

569

the tubing flush with the bottom of the windows. It slopes

toward the center where there is an outlet tube about 2.3

cm. long. The upper diameter of this outlet is 1.2 cm., and

the lower 1 cm., and its walls are a little more than a milli¬

meter thick. The outlet is closed by a brass plug, the handle

of which terminates in a milled head almost flush with the

top of the bucket so that the plug can be readily removed.

(Fig. 1, F.)

The bolting cloth which covers the windows is held in

place by four brass strips which are as long as the windows

and as wide as the tubing between the windows. (See fig.

1, G.) Each of these strips is attached to the bucket by

three screws. At the top and bottom of the windows the

bolting cloth is held in place by semi-circular bronze clamps

about 8 mm. wide, which have wings at their ends for the

screws which hold the two halves of the clamp together.

In this type of bucket it requires only a few minutes to

renew the bolting cloth strainer. The new cloth is cut a little

wider than necessary so that a free edge projects beyond

the upper and lower clamps. It is wrapped around the

bucket and the clamps at the top and bottom are adjusted,

loosely at first, so that the cloth can be shifted into position.

Then holes for the screws of the binding strips between the

windows are burned with a hot wire and the strips are

screwed on. Lastly the clamps are adjusted so that they

are flush with the upper and lower edges of the windows

and then they are drawn tight by means of the screws. The

bolting cloth projecting beyond them is cut off with the

point of a kiiife. The ends of the bolting cloth should over¬

lap on one of the strips of tubing between the windows.

THE SMALL NET.

The small net consists of a truncated canvas cone about

12 cm. high and a bolting cloth cone about 30 cm. long

(Plate XXXVI, fig. 1). The framework of the canvas cone is

shown in fig. 2. It is made of brass wire 4 mm. in diameter

and consists of an upper ring 12 cm. in diameter, a lower

ring 18 cm. in diameter, and three connecting rods. The

latter have loops at their ends and are fastened to the rings

by means of pieces of smaller brass wire bent into the shape

of a figure eight. These connecting loops fit loosely onto

570 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

the connecting rods as well as onto the rings, thus making

flexible joints, so that this part of the net is collapsible.

The connecting loops are held in place by pieces of small

brass wire soldered to the rings on either side of them. The

small wires which are soldered to the upper ring are bent

across from one side of the supporting wire to the other and

thus form loops. Three short pieces of heavy fish line are

fastened to these loops at one end and to a metal ring at

the other and the whole net is suspended from a piece of

rope attached to the metal ring. The three pieces of fish

line may also be tied in the form of a loop which serves for

the attachment of the supporting rope. The canvas cover¬

ing is on the inside of the framework and projects about

3 cm. below the lower ring for the attachment of the bolting

cloth cone. The upper end of the canvas is turned outward

over the upper ring and sewed in place below it. The can¬

vas is attached to the lower ring by a piece of braid or a

narrow strip of canvas which is sewed to the outside of the

truncated cone both above and below the ring.

In making the bolting cloth cone it is best to use a pat¬

tern made of paper for cutting the cloth. In making the

Juday — Limnological Apparatus .

571

pattern an arc of a large circle is laid off on the paper with

a pencil to which a piece of cord is attached. The radius

of this circle can be determined by the folowing formula1:

x: x plus i = r : R. In this formula x = the radius of the

portion of the paper that is cut off for the bucket of the net;

i = the length of the bolting cloth cone; r = radius of small

or lower end of the bolting cloth cone, while R = that at

upper or larger end. Substituting the values given above,

we have x : x plus 30 = 2.5 : 9, from which x = 11.5, and

30 cm. plus 11.5 cm. = 41.5 cm., the radius of the large

circle, or the length of the cord to be used in laying off the

arc.

The width of the arc in degrees may be obtained from the

x 360

following equation— = —2 Substituting the above values

for x and r wehave^^? =^?and a = 78.2°. This angular

2.5 a

width is determined with a protractor. It is necessary,

however, to make allowance for seams which will add fully

2 cm. to the length and nearly that much to the width of

the arc. The pattern should be pinned together and then

fitted onto the canvas cone in order to make sure that it is

the right size.

The two sides of the arc of bolting cloth are fastened to¬

gether with a French seam, using silk thread and as small a

needle as possible so that the holes around the thread will be

very small. In sewing the bolting cloth cone to the canvas

cone, the former is turned inside out and passed up through

the latter, small end first, until the upper edge of the bolting

cloth is even with the lower edge of the canvas. The two

are sewed together and the bolting cloth cone is then turned

right side out, so that the seam is on the outside. The

French seam should also be on the outside of the bolting

cloth cone.

In making pump catches, the net is immersed in water

up to the canvas cone and the desired amount of water is

pumped into it. Care should be taken to prevent the

stream of water from striking the bolting cloth directly.

The pump is calibrated for the length of hose used and the

quantity of water strained may be determined approxi-

1 Apstein. Das Suesswasserplankton. Kiel, 1896.

572 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

mately by counting the number of strokes made with the

pump for each catch. A more accurate method of procedure

is to place the net in a pail which bears a calibration mark

and the desired amount of water is pumped into the net.

At first the water is pumped into the net very slowly and

carefully so that the organisms will not be forced through

the meshes of the net. The end of the discharge hose should

be held so that the stream will strike the surface of the water

as soon as a Sufficient amount is pumped into the pail. A

very convenient size of pail to use is a 12 quart one made

of galvanized iron, with a 10 liter mark on the inside. Ten

liters of water are sufficient for a catch in a lake that is rich

in plankton but, if it is desirable to strain a larger quantity

for a catch, the pail may be emptied and filled a second or a

third time.

The catch is concentrated in the bucket and is then trans¬

ferred to a bottle for preservation. If further concentration

is desirable the material is transferred from the plankton

bucket to a strainer made out of an eight dram (30 cc.)

homeopathic vial, short form. In making the strainer, the

bottom of the vial is removed by means of a file and a hot

wire and a piece of No. 20 bolting cloth is tied over the

mouth of the vial with heavy thread. Unless the catch is a

very large one, substantially all of the water is removed

from it and the material may be transferred from the strainer

to an eight dram (30 cc.) homeopathic vial with 95 per cent

alcohol. Enough water usually remains with the material

to reduce the strength of the alcohol to 75 per cent, or 80

per cent, which is about the proper strength for preserva¬

tion.

In this method of concentration some of the smaller or¬

ganisms are lost through the meshes of the bolting cloth on

the strainer, but it serves very well for the plankton Crus¬

tacea. If it is desirable to avoid the loss of the smaller

organisms captured by the net, it is best to transfer the ma¬

terial from the plankton bucket into a wide-mouth bottle

with distilled water and a wash bottle. Then enough 95

per cent alcohol is added to make the strength of the mix¬

ture about 50 per cent. After standing a few hours most of

the supernatant liquid may be siphoned off and the catch

transferred to a 30 cc. homeopathic vial with 95 per cent

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII

PLATE XXXVI

Fig. 1. Apparatus used for obtaining net plankton.

Fig. 2. Pumping outfit.

JUDAY— LIMNOLOGICAL APPARATUS

Juday — Limnological Apparatus. 573

alcohol. These vials are more convenient than the larger

bottles for storing a large number of catches.

THE LARGE NET.

In 1911 a study of the chemical composition of the net

plankton was begun and, in order to obtain a sufficient

amount of material for these analyses, it has been necessary

to strain several thousand liters of water. This required a

net with a fairly large straining surface and the large net

was designed to meet this need. The opening of the trun¬

cated canvas cone is 25 cm. in diameter and the lower ring

is 30 cm. in diameter, while the length of the cone is 33 cm.

The length of the bolting cloth cone is 70 cm. (Plate XXXVI,

fig. 1.) With the exception of size this net differs from the

small one in only two minor points. The framework of the

canvas cone consists simply of two brass rings and the whole

net is suspended from three hooks attached to the upper

ring. When in use the net is suspended inside the large can

shown in Plate XXXVI, fig. 2 and the hooks are so adjusted in

length as to fit over the top of the can.

THE CLOSING NET.

The closing net consists of a truncated cone made of

heavy muslin or light canvas, a straining cone of bolting

cloth, a removable bucket, and a simple release. (See Plate

XXXIV, figs. 2 and 3.) The framework of the top cone con¬

sists of two rings of brass wire. The ring at the mouth of

the net is 12 cm. in diameter, while the lower ring is 17 cm. in

diameter. The upper cone is 40 cm. long. The bolting cloth

cone has a length of 47 cm.

The release is made of brass and is shown in fig. 3 and Plate

XXXVIII, fig. 3. It consists of an outer, hollow cylinder, a

plunger, and a spring. The cylinder is 2.2 cm. in diameter and

5.8 cm. long. The opening within it is 1.6 cm. in diameter

and extends down to within 4 mm. of the lower end. This

last part is pierced only by a hole large enough to accommo¬

date the line on which the release is used, which is 6 mm. in

the one described. On one side of the cylinder a slot 3 mm.

wide extends down from the top for a distance of about 3.7

cm. This slot is occupied by the curved, holding arm on the

574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

plunger, and is spanned by two loops of brass wire which

project outward far enough to permit the passage of this

arm. These loops of wire curve downward in order to facili¬

tate the release of the ring that supports the top of the net.

At another point in the upper half of the outside cylinder is

another slot 1.5 cm. long, through which a screw passes to

the plunger. This screw holds the plunger in place. The

Fig. 3. — Release for closing net.

plunger is a brass cylinder a little less than 1.6 cm. in di¬

ameter and 4.2 cm. long. The upper 4 mm. has a diameter

of 1.9 cm. and this flange prevents the messenger from driving

the plunger entirely within the outer cylinder. The plunger

is pierced by a hole just large enough for a rope. Near the

bottom on one side, it possesses an arm which projects out¬

ward about 1 cm., and then upward about 1.5 cm. The

plunger is actuated by a coil spring of brass wire which rests

on the inner rim at the lower end of the outer cylinder. This

arm passes through the wire loops on the outer cylinder and

Juday — Limnological Apparatus.

575

between them it holds the ring to which the three lines from

the top of the net are attached.

The top of the net is supported by three pieces of heavy

fish line which are attached to the ring at the mouth of the

net at one end and to a small metal ring about 2 cm. in

diameter at the other. A short line, about half as long as

the truncated canvas cone and strong enough to carry the

weight of the net, is attached to the lower ring of the canvas

cone. This line possesses a small metal ring to which the

hauling rope is attached. The latter first passes through

the release and a simple loop knot is tied below it before the

rope is fastened to this metal ring.

Then the knot in the hauling rope is adjusted so that the

release is just far enough above the top of the net to hold it

properly. In operating the net the plunger of the release

is pushed down and the small metal ring attached to the

top of the net is inserted between the wire loops on the side

of the release. When the plunger is released the curved

arm rises and holds the ring between the loops. The net is

lowered carefully to the desired depth, and then hauled up

to the point at which it is to be closed. A small brass mes¬

senger is sent down the line which releases the top of the

net and permits the canvas part to fall and close the net as

shown in Plate XXXIV, fig. 3. In order to facilitate the

closing a small weight is attached to the ring at one side

of the mouth of the net.

A number of tests have shown that no contamination re¬

sults from lowering the net open, if due care is exercised in

making the haul. In very rough weather, however, when

the boat is being vigorously tossed about by the waves there

is such a danger. Careful determination of the coefficient

by means of a tube 3 m. long have shown that the straining

efficiency of the net averages about 80 per cent.

THE BIRGE CONE NET.

This net is designed for making collections among the

weeds along the shallow margins of lakes, or in ponds and

pools. The cone top, (fig. 4, A), has a base of sheet copper

2.5 cm. wide and 8 cm. in diameter, with the lower edge

turned over so as to form a smooth rim. To the inside of

this copper band is soldered a loop of brass wire which lies

16

576 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

under the cone and projects through its apex in a small loop

to which the line is attached. The cone consists of brass

wire netting with a 2 mm. mesh. It has a slant height of

about 9 cm. At the base, this netting is soldered to the

upper edge of the copper band and at the top to the wire

loop. Two loops of wire are soldered to the copper band

from which lines pass to similar loops on the bottom part of

the net.

Fig 4. — Metal parts of Birge cone net.

The bottom of the net (fig. 4, B) consists of a tube of

sheet copper, about 3 cm. in diameter, and 3.5 cm. long, to

the lower end of which is soldered the screw top of a kerosene

can. A small brass wire is soldered around the upper edge

of the tube, thus forming a rim which enables one to tie the

lower end of the cloth net to the bottom more securely.

Toward the lower end of the tube there are two small loops

of wire, to which lines from the top are attached. These

lines are a little shorter than the cloth part of the net and

thus carry the weight of the bottom. A piece of lead is

soldered to the screw cap of the can top, and this extra

weight causes the bottom to sink promptly so that the air

Juday — Limnological Apparatus.

577

is expelled from the net; otherwise the air in the net may

keep it at the surface of the water.

The straining cone of the net is made of a good quality

of rather loosely woven fabric, such, for example, as what is

known as “India Linen.’5 It has a band of heavier cloth at

the top and also at the bottom where it is tied onto the metal

parts of the net. Two extra seams along the sides of the

net form compartments through which the lines supporting

the bottom of the net pass. (See Plate XXXIV, fig. 4.)

The funnel that is used in connection with this net is

shown in fig. 4, C. The straight part of this funnel is 5 cm.

in diameter and 3.5 cm. long; the cone part has a slant

height of 4 cm. Extending down from the apex of the cone

is the straining tube which is 1.2 cm. in diameter, and 8 cm.

long. The bottom of this tube, a cylinder 1.3 cm. long, is

attached to the top by means of two strips of folded tin.

Over the windows thus formed is soldered a cylinder of fine

brass wire netting 5 cm. long. The diameter of the strain¬

ing cylinder is such that it will pass freely into the neck of

an 8 dram (30 cc.) homeopathic vial, short form. All of

the funnel except the wire gauze is made of tin.

In making collections with, this apparatus, several hauls

are made with the net and the material is washed into a cup

which is then filled with water and allowed to stand for a

short time. The debris settles to the bottom, leaving the

most of the organisms in the clear water above. The bot¬

tom part of the funnel is closed by holding it on the end of

one’s finger, and the water is drained off into the funnel.

If any organisms remain, the cup is again filled with water

which is also poured into the funnel after the debris has set¬

tled. A small portion of the debris should be added to the

catch also since some organisms might seek refuge in it.

The material that is caught in the funnel is then transferred

either to a vial containing alcohol or formalin, or else to a

small cloth bag. With a little practice one can readily

transfer the tube from the finger to the mouth of the vial

without losing any material. The wire gauze is then freed

of organisms by rinsing it up and down in the alcohol or

formalin in the vial. If one wishes to carry a large number

of such catches in a small container, the material is trans¬

ferred with a little water from the funnel to a small cloth

578 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

bag about 4 cm. wide and 10 cm. long. The open end of

the bag is securely tied with a string and the bag is then

placed in the preserving liquid. A number placed on the

bag with water proof ink enables one to keep a record of

the catch. The net can be used as a tow net or can be

thrown either from the shore or from a boat. In making

catches among weeds, it is better to haul the net with a jerk¬

ing motion rather than a steady pull, giving a brief time

between jerks for the net to settle among the weeds.

THE PLANKTON TRAP.

A general idea of the plankton trap and the method of

operating it may be obtained from Plate XXXV, figs. 1 and 2.

The principle of it is similar to that of the tube trap used by

Birge1 for obtaining the coefficient of his plankton nets.

It consists essentially of a box with upper and lower frame¬

works which carry sliding doors that close the ends of the

box. The two parts of the framework are 33.7 cm. wide

and 66 cm. long and they are made of brass bars, two side

and three cross pieces, 6 mm. thick and 19 mm. wide. These

frames are held together by pieces of brass tubing at the

four corners. The box part is made of thin sheet brass and

it is 30 cm. square by 50 cm. long so that it holds 45 liters of

water. The top and bottom are closed by sliding doors

which operate in grooves in the side pieces of the framework.

The lower door has an opening 20 cm. in diameter from which

a band of brass extends down 3 cm. and to this the net is at¬

tached by a clamp which is operated with a screw. Three

ears on this clamp serve for the attachment of the lines

which support the bucket of the net. Pieces of brass fastened

to the back of the sliding doors project outward beyond the

framework and serve for the attachment of the long coil-

springs which operate the doors. In front these springs are

attached to pieces of brass which project from the frame¬

work.

The doors fit tight enough to prevent contamination of

the catch. A cover of sheet brass prevents organisms from

entering the net when the bottom door is open. A hole in this

cover which is protected by a small cloth bag, permits the

air to escape from the net when the trap is lowered into the

1 Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Let., vol. XI, 1898, p. 278.

Juday — Limnological Apparatus.

579

water. A hole in the top door similarly protected, permits

the air to enter the trap when it is hauled out of the water.

The release consists of two long pieces of brass tubing which

are connected at the top by two shorter pieces of tubing.

(See fig. 5.) The upper cross piece bears a small brass frame¬

work which is movable, backward and forward, as well as

1° , t

1. " 7!H

Fig. 5. — Release of plankton trap.

sidewise. The line supporting the trap passes through a

hole in the upper piece of this small framework and is tied

below to the two ropes which are attached to the four cor¬

ners of the trap. Thus this cross piece receives the im¬

pact of the messenger. The two long pieces of tubing

extend down on both sides through holes in the side pieces

of the upper and lower framework. A clamp at the lower

end holds them in place. They are supported at the bottom

by two coil-springs which surround the tubes and rest in

580 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the top of the lower framework. The tension of these

springs is controlled by two clamps on the tube. Two small

pieces of brass are damped onto the long tubes by screws

just under the upper frame of the trap, and two just

under the lower frame. At their inner ends they possess

small pins which project up through the middle cross pieces

of the frames and come in contact with the doors of the trap.

The upper ends of these pins occupy shallow holes in the

front edge of the doors when the latter are drawn back, and

hold them open. The upper pins also have small coil-springs

around them so that the lower door will not be released when

the upper one is opened. The whole apparatus is suspended

from two pieces of strong rope which are tied into eyes at

the four corners of the upper framework.

The trap is operated from a framework which is clamped

to the coaming of the launch. It is lowered and raised by

means of an iron hose reel which is clamped to the frame¬

work. The rope from the reel passes over a pulley in the

end of a mast which projects out far enough to let the trap

clear the side of the launch.

This trap was designed for the purpose of ascertaining the

degree of efficiency of both the hand and the power pumps

in securing the more active swimmers among the plankton

organisms. The opening is so large that there is relatively

little disturbance of the column of water which passes

through the open trap in its descent if the apparatus is low¬

ered carefully. In making a catch the trap is lowered slowly

and carefully to the desired depth and a messenger is

promptly sent down the line to close it. Then the trap is

hauled to the surface where the water inside is strained

through the net attached to the bottom and the material

is concentrated in the plankton bucket, from which it is

transferred to the preservative. In this way 45 liters of

water are obtained in situ for the catch. The apparatus can

be operated successfully only when the weather is perfectly

calm and thus any unusual disturbances resulting from

wave action are avoided.

PUMPS.

In making small catches for a study of the quantity and

the vertical distribution of the plankton organisms, a small

Judaij — Limnological Apparatus.

581

semi-rotary, or clock pump and half-inch (1.25 cm.) garden

hose are employed. The pump is attached to a framework

consisting of half of a box as shown in fig. 6. The supporting

box is made of fairly heavy boards so that the pump does

not require an extra crate for shipment. A calibrated line

is attached to the intake end of the hose so that the depth

at which the water is obtained for the catch can be readily

ascertained.

In the spring of 1911, a study of the chemical composi¬

tion of the net plankton of Lake Mendota was begun. It

requires at least 5 grams of dry plankton for an analysis

and it is ususally necessary to strain from 10,000 to 20,000

liters of water to obtain this amount. For obtaining large

quantities of water from different depths, the apparatus

shown in Plate XXXVI, figs. 1 and 2, is used. It consists of a

small gasoline engine, the kind used in operating the ordi¬

nary milk separator, and two brass vane pumps, all mounted

on a firm metal base when in operation. The engine is at¬

tached to the base with bolts so that it can be readily de¬

tached from the latter when the apparatus is put into or

taken out of the launch.

582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

At a speed of 300 revolutions per minute the capacity of

each pump is about 30 liters per minute when the water is

drawn through 30 m. (100 ft.) of hose having an inside diam¬

eter of 2.5 cm. (1 in.). The water is discharged into the

large can and is strained through the large plankton net sus¬

pended therein. The effluent from the can discharges over

the side of the launch. The arrangement of the pumping

apparatus in the launch is shown in Plate XXXVI, fig. 1 . The

large plankton net was removed from the can so that it

could be shown in the photograph.

CENTRIFUGES.

The plankton net retains only the larger organisms, such,

for example, as the Crustacea, the insect larvae, the vast

majority of the rotifers, and the greater part of the large

forms of algae. While the meshes of the No. 20 silk bolting

cloth are very small, especially after it has been shrunk, yet

a very considerable portion of the plankton material is lost by

the net. This assemblage of organisms which escapes through

the meshes of the net is called the nannoplankton. It con¬

sists of such forms as rhizopods, flagellates, ciliates, rarely a

rotifer, and various forms of algae chiefly the smaller ones.

The rhizopods are represented by an occasional amoeba;

the flagellates by the various monads, and an occasional Cer-

atium, Peridinium, and Euglena; the ciliates by such forms as

Paramoecium, Halteria, Coleps, and Vorticella. The algae be¬

long to two general groups, namely, those which are so small

that they are regularly lost by the net and those which are

lost only by accident. To the former belong such forms as

Ankistrodesmus, Oocystis, Chodateha, Sphaerocystis, and

some species of Goelosphaerium and Microcystis. Those lost

accidentally are young individuals or colonies, individuals so

small that they are readily lost through the meshes of the net

when the catch is being concentrated in the plankton bucket,

elongated or rod-shaped individuals which pass through

when they strike the net endwise, and fragments of the larger

colonies. To this group belong such forms as Anabaena,

Aphanizomenon, Melosira, Stephanodiscus, Cylotella, Ta-

bellaria, and Fragilaria.

Various methods have been used for procuring the nanno¬

plankton organisms. Those that have been used most fre-

Juday — Limnological Apparatus.

583

quently are as follows: 1. Filtering a certain quantity of

water through hard surface filter paper and then washing

the organisms off the paper. 2. Filtering a definite quantity

of water through sand as in the Sedgwick-Rafter method.

3. The direct counting of the organisms. 4. The sedimenta¬

tion of the organisms with a centrifuge.

When filter paper is used for concentration, some of the

nannoplanktonts adhere very closely to the paper so that

they can be removed with difficulty or not at all. Others

become embedded in the meshes of the paper and are lost.

In the sand filter many of the organisms adhere to the grains

of sand and are lost. The direct count is the best procedure

for the more abundant forms; but it is impractical for the

rarer forms because it would be necessary to count a con¬

siderable number of samples in order to obtain a fair enu¬

meration.

A centrifuge is very effective in securing the nannoplank-

ton organisms, but a high speed type of centrifuge is re¬

quired, one with a speed of not less than 3,000 revolutions

per minute. The machine that is now in use in the Survey

investigations has a speed of 3,600 revolutions per minute

and carries two 15 cc. sedimentation tubes. At this speed

most of the organisms are thrown down in six to eight min¬

utes. A second run of this duration generally serves to

recover the remainder of the material, but a third, or even a

fourth run is sometimes required. It is desirable also to

centrifuge a larger sample, say 50 cc. or 100 cc. in order to

study the very rare forms.

The results of various investigators seem to indicate that

the best procedure for an enumerative study of the nanno-

plankton is a combination of the direct count method and

the centrifuge method, the former being used for the more

abundant forms and the latter for those that are less abun¬

dant. It is best also to use 15 cc. and 50 cc. or 100 cc. sam¬

ples of water for the latter. The enumerations both in the

direct count and the centrifuge methods should be made in

duplicate and, if convenient, in triplicate.

The Survey is also making a study of the quantity of

nannoplankton contained in a body of water by determin¬

ing the dry weight of it per unit volume of water. Chemical

analyses of this material are then made for the purpose of

584 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ascertaining its food value. In order to secure enough ma¬

terial for such studies it is necessary to centrifuge from 1,000

to 1,500 liters of water and this requires an apparatus that

will act continuously in separating the nannoplankton from

this large quantity of water. For this work a De Laval

clarifier and filter, belt style, A size, is used, in which the

water is first centrifuged and then filtered. Fig. 7 is a sketch

drawing, showing the equipment of the laboratory that is

used in making these investigations. C is the clarifier-filter

or centrifuge; M is the electric motor by which the centri¬

fuge is driven through an intermediate; T is the tank into

which the water is pumped from the dock by a pump marked

P in the figure.

The sample of water is obtained from a regular station

situated in the deepest portion of Lake Mendota and it con¬

sists of a certain quantity of water pumped from each meter

between the surface and 20 meters, with the exception of 19

meters. The vane pumps described on p. 508 are used in

procuring the sample. The water is strained through the

large plankton net and it is caught in containers (milk cans)

as it flows from the large can in which the net is suspended.

It is then conveyed by launch to the laboratory dock where

it is pumped into the tank. The launch carrying about 500

liters of water and the pumping apparatus is shown at the

dock in Plate XXXVII, fig. 1.

The tank is made of galvanized iron and has a capacity of

about 1,200 liters. It is mounted on a framework which

rests on a platform scale so that the quantity of water used

for a sample is readily ascertained by weighing. With the scale

one can also readily ascertain the fate at which the sample

is being centrifuged. The framework elevates the tank to

such a height above the centrifuge that the water readily

flows from the forfner to the latter through a hose, the rate

of flow being regulated by a valve.

A sectional view of the bowl of the centrifuge is shown in

Plate XXXVII, fig. 2. The water enters at A and passes down

to the bottom of the clarifying compartment B where some of

the material is deposited. Then it passes out to the peri¬

phery of this compartment, C, where the centrifugal force

is at a maximum. By far the greater portion of the material

is deposited here. The water next flows upward and toward

Fig. 1. Launch with pumping apparatus and a cargo of water. Fig. 2. Sectional view of bowl of contrifuge.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII PLATE XXXVII

■Sketch drawing of laboratory showing apparatus used in obtaining nannoplankton.

586 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

the center of the bowl between conical discs which divide

it into thin layers. The friction of these discs causes the

water to rotate rapidly and again subjects it to very great

centrifugal action which removes the last portion of the

material that is obtained in the centrifugal process. This

material is deposited on the under side of the discs and most

of it passes down and out to the pocket at C.

The centrifuged water passes to the center and is then

forced upward and outward to chamber D from which it

passes on into the filter compartment as shown by the ar¬

rows. The filter chamber is filled with a series of horizontal

corrugated plates, nineteen in number, which possess per¬

forated retaining rims at their outer and inner margins. The

filter papers are placed between the corrugated plates and

the perforations in the plates are arranged so that the water

passes through the filter papers in its course through this

chamber. This removes the final portion of organisms ob¬

tained in this process.

The material that is deposited on the conical discs and on

the sides of the bowl is removed, together with the water

remaining in the bowl at the end of the run, about 5.5 liters

in all, and the whole is promptly evaporated to dryness at a

temperature not exceeding 50° to 60° C. A little chloro¬

form is added to prevent fermentation during evaporation.

The material is then weighed and analyses are made to

determine the percentages of nitrogen, ether extract, pen¬

tosan, crude fiber, and ash.

The nannoplankton shows marked variations in quantity

during the year. The minimum amount is somewhat less

than the quantity of net plankton and the maximum amount

is from ten to fifteen times as great as that of the net plank¬

ton.

The amount of organic material that is deposited on the

filter paper is ascertained by determining the quantity of

nitrogen in them in excess of that of the blank papers.

COUNTING CELLS.

Various methods have been used for the purpose of indi¬

cating the quantity of plankton in a given volume of water,

but the counting method seems to be the most satisfactory

one, since it gives an idea not only of the total number of

Juday — Limnological Apparatus.

587

organisms present, but also of the relative abundance of the

different forms. For those organisms which are so small

that a compound microscope is necessary to count them,

the regular Sedgwick-Rafter1 counting cell and ocular mi¬

crometer are used. In counting the nannoplankton organ¬

isms the sample of water is thoroughly shaken in order to

get a uniform distribution of the organisms. One cubic

centimeter is then removed and placed in the cell. A num¬

ber of squares, from 20 to 40, are counted in order to ascertain

the number of the more abundant forms. For the less

abundant forms, samples of water are placed in sedimenta¬

tion tubes having a capacity of 15 cc. and centrifuged about

6 minutes at a speed of 3,600 revolutions per minute. The

material collected in the bottom of the tube together with

about 1 cc. of water, is removed with a pipette and trans¬

ferred to a cell for counting. Frequently a second centri¬

fuging is necessary in order to bring down all of the organ¬

isms. The mean of duplicate or triplicate determinations

made in this manner will give a good idea of the abundance

of the various forms in the sample of water.

The catch of net plankton is diluted to a definite volume,

usually 10 cc. or 20 cc. depending upon the abundance of

the material. Then it is thorougly shaken and 1 cc. is trans¬

ferred to the Sedgwick-Rafter cell for the enumeration of

the smaller organisms.

For the larger organisms, such as Crustacea and rotifers,

the material is again thoroughly shaken and 2 cc. or 4 cc.,

depending on the degree of dilution, are removed with a pis¬

ton pipette for counting under the low power of a binocular

microscope. The cell used in counting this material con¬

sists of a brass frame which is cemented to a regular glass

slide with sodium or potassium silicate. This cement serves

admirably for alcoholic material but it is so soluble in water

that it can not be used for fresh or formalin material. The

brass frame is 75 mm. long, 25 mm. wide, and 2 mm. thick,

with an opening in the middle which is 63 mm. long and

nearly 8 mm. wide. The width of this opening is such that

it just covers the field of the binocular microscope, so that a

form may be counted simply by passing the cell through the

field of the binocular once.

1 See Whipple, Microscopy of Drinking Water, p. 34, 1914.

588 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

A CASE FOR REVERSING THERMOMETERS.

The case used for the reversing thermometers belongs to

the Tanner1 type, with modifications which adapt it better

to the work in hand. The main part of it consists of a brass

tube 2.5 cm. (1 in.) in diameter and 30 cm. (12 in.) long.

(Fig. 8 and Plate XXXVIII, fig. 1.) Elongated openings are

cut in two sides of this tube so that the scale of the thermometer

may be seen, and the lower end possesses several small holes

which afford free entrance of the water to the chamber in

which the bulb of the thermometer lies. The lower end of

this tube bears a ring outside for the attachment of the line

and a flat ring on which the lower coil-spring supporting the

thermometer rests, is soldered inside the tube at this end.

The upper end of this tube bears threads so that it can be

screwed onto the top piece of the case. The latter is 2.8 cm.

in diameter and 5.5 cm. long. On one side of the top is a

triangular opening through which project the jaws that clasp

the line and hold the thermometer in an upright position.

These jaws are mounted on a pin and they are held into the

upper, narrow portion of the opening by a spring, in which

position they are closed. The inner ends of these jaws are

bevelled on their proximal sides so that they open readily

when the messenger forces them down into the wider por¬

tion of the triangular opening, and releases the line. The

spring which supports the jaws is coiled around the pin

which supports them, and a second pin a little lower down

holds the loose ends of this spring. Below this second spring

is a diaphragm, against which rests the coil-spring at the

upper end of the thermometer. This diaphragm and the

screw cap at the top of the case have fairly large openings in

the center in order to let the water drain out of the case

quickly. When it is desirable to use more than one ther¬

mometer on a line, a small curved arm (Fig. 8, B) is attached

near the upper end of the long tube. When the thermom¬

eters are lowered, a messenger is hung onto this arm by means

of a line so that when the upper thermometer overturns, the

messenger for the second is released. In this way several

thermometers may be used at the same time.

1 Report of Com. of Fish & Fisheries for 1881, Pt. IX, 1884, p. 25 and

pis. XIII, XIV, and XVI.

JUDAY— LIMNOLOGICAL APPARATUS

to o

o

(D n

Cl<

trtS

3 OO

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. XVIII PLATE XXXVIII

Juday — Limnological Apparatus ,

589

Fig. 8. — Case for reversing thermometer.

590 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The thermometer is guided and supported in the case by-

two hollow brass cylinders which are lined with rubber

tubing to prevent the thermometer from coming in contact

with the metal. (Fig. 8, C.) This cylinder has a small rim

on the inside at one end which prevents the rubber from

passing entirely through it. The diameter of this cylinder

is such that it will move freely inside the brass tube, or 2.2

cm. in the case described above, and its length is 1.5 cm. The

opening of the rubber tubing in the lower cylinder is just

large enough to let the bulb of the thermometer pass through,

but it will not pass beyond the constriction in the glass tube

surrounding the thermometer which is situated at the upper

end of the mercury bulb. At the upper end the thermom¬

eter case passes far enough into the rubber lining of the cyl¬

inder to be held securely in place, but it does not pass en¬

tirely through it. These small cylinders rest upon coil-

springs of brass wire at both the upper and the lower ends

of the thermometer case. Sometimes the thermometer ro¬

tates to one side a little which makes it difficult to read the

scale. This rotation is prevented by a wire soldered inside

the tubing which fits into a groove in the small brass cyl¬

inder.

In order to prevent the messenger from striking the ther¬

mometer case, a bumper consisting of two rubber stoppers is

placed on the line just above the releasing jaws. The mes¬

senger is stopped by a knot in the line a few centimeters

below the jaws.

THE ANCHOR RELEASE.

The anchor release is a modification of the net release.

(See fig. 9 and Plate XXXVIII, fig. 2.) It consists of three

parts, an outer cylindrical piece, a plunger, and a spring. The

outer par t is 3.8 cm. in diameter and 10.5 cm. long. It bears pro¬

jections on either side and these projections are separated

into pairs by a slit 7 mm. wide which extends down from

the top of the cylinder a distance of 8.3 cm. The cylinder is

hollow, the opening being slightly more than 2.5 cm. in

diameter, and extending to within 5 mm. of the lower end.

The hole in this bottom part is just large enough to accom¬

modate the rope on which it is to be used.

Juday — Limnological Apparatus .

591

The plunger is 2.5 cm. in diameter and 8.5 cm. long. About

6 mm. at the upper end is larger in diameter, thus forming a

flange which prevents the plunger from being forced en¬

tirely into the cylinder by the messenger. At the lower end

the plunger possesses a pair of bent arms which occupy the

slits in the outside cylinder. The plunger is supported by a

Fig. 9. — Anchor release.

coil-spring made of brass wire which occupies the lower part

of the hollow in the outer cylinder. Two small pins in the

lower pairs of side projections on the outer cylinder prevent

the spring from raising the plunger too high. The plunger

is pierced by a hole just large enough to accommodate the

anchor rope.

The release is fastened onto the rope by passing entirely

through the former, and tying a knot or two in the end. A

line from the anchor is attached to the middle of a loop of

rope about a meter long. One end of this loop is inserted in

one jaw of the release and the other end is inserted in the

17

592 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

other jaw. When the anchor is to be released the anchor

line is hauled in until it becomes taut; then a messenger is

sent down the line which trips the release and leaves only

the rope and release to be hauled in.

The dimensions given are those of the first release of this

type that was made. Experience has demonstrated that it is

larger and heavier than necessary and a release about two-

thirds or three-quarters as large would serve just as well for

anchors weighing up to 35 kg. This release has been found

very useful in lakes having a depth of 50 m. or more. A rock

serves admirably for an anchor, and when this is abandoned,

the only loss is the bit of line that is used to fasten it to the

release.

MESSENGER.

Occasionally while making limnological observations it is

convenient to have a messenger that may be put on or taken

off the line at any point. Such a messenger is shown in Plate

XXXVIII, fig. 4. The two halves areheld togetheronone side

by pins which serve as hinges. The heads of these pins are sunk

into one side of the messenger so that it will open. On the

opposite side, two short pins fit into two holes on the other

half when the messenger is closed. A cylindrical clamp made

of sheet brass keeps the messenger closed. A small loop of

brass wire is soldered to the upper end of one half of the

messenger. This serves for the attachment of a piece of

line. When the closing net is being hauled in hand over

hand, the loose end of this string is held between the teeth

so that the messenger can be released quickly when the net

has been raised to the desired point. These messengers are

made of brass, and are about 2.5 cm. in diameter by 5.5

cm. long.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 593

WILLIAM GAGER’S DEFENCE OF THE

ACADEMIC STAGE

KARL YOUNG

The Puritan arraignment of the stage occupies a con¬

spicuous position in the history of Elizabethan literature,

and no one has ever denied its importance both as a phe¬

nomenon in sectarianism and as a source of information

in regard to Elizabethan dramatic conditions. Only of late,

however, have the several aspects of Puritan activity been

clearly differentiated, and the avenues of investigation

clearly marked. It now appears that the chief divisions of

the attack upon the drama are the following: (1) a pam¬

phleteering campaign, in which the earnest strictures of

such men as Northbrooke, Gosson, and Stubbes were mildly

answered by Lodge and Nashe; (2) legislative enactments of

the civic authorities of large towns such as London, checked

in some measure by influences from the Court; and (3) aca¬

demic censure uttered within the walls of the two Univer¬

sities. Of these three divisions of the conflict the one least

adequately understood has been, until recently, the aca¬

demic.1 Of this aspect of the controversy Mr. Boas has

now given a thoroughly adequate account,2 in the course of

which he has classified the materials, isolated the centers of

controversial activity, and prepared the way for the publi¬

cation of further documents.

From Mr. Boas’s account it appears that the most im¬

portant phenomenon in the attack upon the academic stage

1 In regard to the pamphleteering campaign of Northbrooke, Gosson,

Stubbes, and others see, for example, E. N. S. Thompson, The Contro¬

versy between the Puritans and the Stage, New York, 1903. The legislative

restraints upon the Elizabethan stage are admirably expounded by Virginia

G. Gildersleeve, Government Regulation of the Elizabethan Drama, New

York, 1908.

2 F. S. Boas, University Drama in the Tudor Age, Oxford, 1914.

594 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

occurred at Oxford, consisting essentially in an exchange

of opinion between the Christ Church dramatist, William

Gager, and the learned Dr. John Rainolds of Queen’s Col¬

lege. The purpose of the present article is the publication

of the one substantial contribution to the debate from the

pen of Gager. By way of elucidating this document I un¬

dertake a brief review of the controversy upon the basis of

the extant records.1

I. A letter, dated February 6, 1591 /2, from Rainolds to

Dr. Thomas Thornton of Christ Church.2

From this letter it appears that Dr. Thornton had invited

Rainolds to be present at the performances of certain

Shrovetide plays of William Gager, arranged for presentation

on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, February 5, 6, and 7.

After Rainolds had declined orally, Thornton repeated the

invitation, thus inciting Rainolds to send the written refusal

now before us.3 The writer takes the following positions:

(1) The wearing of woman’s apparel by men is condemned

by Scripture, by Christian writers, and by Church councils;

(2) The acting of plays entails an undue waste of time and

money; (3) Plays have a vicious moral effect upon actors

and audience; (4) Actors were considered “infamous per¬

sons” even by the civil law of “whole common weales of

heathens”; (5) The performance of plays on the Sabbath is a

profanation of the c^ay. Thornton did not show the letter to

Gager, but merely informed him later that Rainolds had

civilly declined on the ground that it was not his habit to

attend plays.4

1 An admirable account is given by Boas, pp. 229-248. My own review

rests upon that of Boas, and claims for itself no originality beyond that

involved in the documenting of certain statements.

2 This letter is found in Corpus Christi College MS. 352, pp. 11-14,

and in Bodleian, Tanner MS. 77, fob 35r-36v. It has been published from

C. C. C. MS. 352 by the present writer, in Shakespeare Studies, By Mem¬

bers of the Department of English of the University of Wisconsin, Madison,

1916, pp. 108-111.

3 Rainolds’ letter begins as follows:

Syr because your curteous inviting of me yesterdaye againe to your

plaies dothe shewe you were not satisfied with my answer and reason

therof before geven, why I might not be at them: I have thought good

by writinge to open that vnto yow which, if tyme had served to vtter

them by word of mouthe, I doute not but yow would have rested satisfied

therwith. [C. C. C. MS. 352, p. 11.] See Shakespeare Studies, p. 108.

4 This statement rests upon the following passage in Gager’s letter of

July 31, 1592, quoted in full below:

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 595

II. The epilogue of Momus.* 1

Gager’s three plays were performed as follows: on Sun¬

day, February 5, Ulysses Redux ;2 on Monday, February 6,

Riuales ;3 on Tuesday, February 7, Seneca’s Hippolytus , to

which Gager had added two scenes of his own.4 At the close

of Hippolytus Gager introduced upon the stage, by way of

epilogue, the figure of Momus , who not only passed Gager’s

three plays in review, roguishly censuring each in detail, but

also inveighed against acting and plays in general. In the

form in which it was eventually published5 the epilogue of

As for your late letter to owre goode frende, he never shewde it me, or

towlde me the contents therof to this daye, I never hearde of it, till longe

after, nay talkinge with hym of you, touchinge suche thinges, he towlde

me, that he had invyted you to the Playes, but you most gently answered,

that you never used to cumm to suche thinges, and therfor nowe would also

abstayne. [C. C. G. MS. 342, p. 42.] See below, p. 605.

1 The text of Momus is printed among the appendices in Gager’s

Ulysses Redux , Oxford, 1592, sig. F 3 verso-F6 verso, and is reprinted

below.

2 That this play was performed on Sunday is proved by the following

passage in Gager’s letter of July 31, 1592, printed in full below:

Wheras I sayde that there was no more tyme spent vpon owre Playes

then was convenient, you replye that It may be there was, evne some tyme

that shoulde have byn spent in heeringe Sermons, the very day that my Ulysses

Redux came vpon the Stage. It may be there was not; and for any thinge

that can be proved, or for any thinge that any man needed to be hindred

from Sermons that daye for my Ulysses, it was not so in deede. sure I

ame, that the gentelman that playde Ulysses, was at Sermon ....

that accusation touchethe my poore vfortunate Ulysses only, not the

other twoe. [C. C. C. MS. 352, p. 59.] See below, p. 629.

3 This play was never printed, and no manuscript of it has been pre¬

served. Some notion of its content, however, may be formed from refer¬

ences to the play in Gager’s letter of July 31, 1592 (C. G. C. MS. 352,

p. 57; see below p. 627) and in Rainolds’ Th’ Overthrow of Stag e-Play es,

[Middleburgh], 1599, pp. 115, 122, and from the Prologus in Riuales

Comaediam printed in Gager’s Ulysses Redux, Oxford, 1592, sig. F 2 recto.

That Riuales was presented on Monday, February 6, 1592, is proved by

the fact that Momus, speaking on Tuesday, February 7, introduces his

strictures upon Riuales with the question, Hesterna qualis exijt Comaedia ?

See the complete text of Momus below, line 50. The play had been

performed on June 11, 1582, before Albertus Alasco, Prince Palatine of

Siradia in Poland, and it was revived in September, 1593, in a performance

before Queen Elizabeth. See Boas, pp. 179-183.

4 These two scenes are printed, under the title Panniculus Hippolyto

Senecse Tragoedise assutus 1591, among the appendices to Gager’s Meleager,

Oxford, 1592, sig. E 8 recto — F 5 verso.

5 That the printed version of the Epilogus Responsivus differs somewhat

from the version acted on February 7, 1592, appears from the following

passage in Rainold’s letter of July 10, 1592:

I am much to thank you, Maister D. Gager , for both your letters,

and your Tragedie: the more, for that you haue enlarged the answer to

596 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Momus includes an Epilogus Responsivus in which the con¬

tentions of Momus himself are met and held up to ridicule,

Since the text of Momus is not generally accessible, and since

it constitutes an important document in the controversy,

it may be appropriately reprinted here:* 1

MOMUS

[1] Tacete; quid vult stultus hie strepitus sibi?

Quid vester iste plausus, ac vanus fauor?

Indicia potius certa iudicij mali.

Prauique moris, quam rei gestae bene.

[5] Mordebat Aulum Marcus Albinum Cato,

Romana Graeco gesta scripturum stylo,

Sic deprecantem, seque purgantem suis,

(Homo sum Latinus quippe, linguaeqne inscius)

Quia deprecari maluit culpam magis,

[10] Quam non patrare; similiter, vestri Gregis

Purgationem ferre quis talem potest?

Non histrioniam didicimus, Roscij

Nescimus artem. scilicet; nam quis Gregem

Vestrum coegit agere? quis scenam dare?

[15] Veniam solemus expetere, simul & dare,

Peccare cum vis cogit inuitos. at hoc

Quis vos coegit facere, cui veniam statim

Peteretis, ignoscique cuperetis statim?

Non est modesti petere veniam crimini,

[20] Sed abesse culpa, sed facere munus suum.

Nec enim pudendo, sed quod ingenuum decet

Faciendo, verus esse censetur pudor.

Pila quiescat ludere, indoctus, pilae;

Qui nescit histrioniam, e scena exeat,

[25] Artemque tractet artifex omnis suam.

Egregia verb laus, & ingenuum decens,

Agere histrionem lege famosum optima.

Quid habet modestum scena, quid non impudens?

Scurrilitatis ludus, ac lasciuiae,

[30] loci officina turpis, ac petulans schola.

Quis saltat, aut quis prodit in scenam probus?

Momus (as you signifie) because you understood that I Sc others should

aske why those thinges were not aunswered which were obieded. [Th* Over¬

throw of St age- Plages, p. 1.]

1 As I have indicated above, the text of Momus is found among the

appendices of Gager’s Ulysses Redux, Oxford, 1592, sig. F 3 verso — F 6

verso. It appears that of this edition of Ulysses Redux only two exemplars

are extant: one in the Douce Collection in the Bodleian Library (Douce

P. 564), and one in the library of Bridgewater House. I am substantially

indebted to Strickland Gibson, Esq., for his kindness in verifying my text

from the Bodleian exemplar.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 597

Praeclara res est Mimus, & gestum assequi, <*sig. F4 recto>

Simulare vultum, ac verba, testari Deos,

Et sub pueM tegere iuuenem puberem,

[35] An histrionia subit octaua, artium

Quae liberales esse dicuntur? sed Me

Quid arte in ipsa praestitum recte fuit?

Quae forma scenae? quis suas partes bene

Peregit actor? quot solaecismi, manu,

[40] Vultuque facti? gestus huic nimius fuit,

Huic nullus, illi ineptus; hunc vox extulit,

Distituit ilium, quam tragica nimium fuit

Materia turpis? quam Seneca turget nimis?

Exaggerando quantus? & cumulus quasi1

[45] Verborum, & vtris instar inflati tumens,

Et Cordubense pinguius quiddam sonans,

Idemque eodem semper amplificans modo.

Quid ille veteri pannus assutus nouus?

Quam nec colore, nec pari lana fuit?

[50] Hesterna qualis exijt Gomaedia?2

Amata sine riuale, Riuales, suis,

Bis cocta crambe, morsque, non Gomaedia.

Quam blanda morum lena prauorum fuit?

Parumne vitia sponte iam pollent su&,

[55] Nisi prostitutis vim quoque theatrum afferat?

Laetitia nisi prorumpat in lasciuiam?

Sub specie inani carminum, & facundiae?

Disertiorem scena num quenquam dedit,

Aut doctiorem? num bonum vatem extulit?

[60] Tragoediae plausistis alternae quoque;3

Nisi forte potius ilia sit Gomaedia,

Opima thuri praeda, scombrisque aridis,

Exanguis, atque exilis, & serpens humi,

Affectuum tarn vacua, tarn neruis carens, <<sig. F4 verso>

[65] Vinumque referens latice dilutum nimis,

Cui vix color maneret, aut minimus sapor.

Cui Diua Elisa callide iniecta, vndique

Plausum imperauit, sibiio dignae magis.

Mendicus Irus, dedecore Iambum afficit,

[70] Personae vilis; quodque sublimi nefas

Summum est Tragaedo, Comice risu m excitat,

Famelicus, ignauusque, pannisque obsitus;

Omnique Ulysses se nimis SceM ingerit,

Et instar vmbrae nusqua m abest, vsqize obstrepit.

[75] Illine quod agat qui dedit, nihil est? suo,

Semperne vestrum praeferet dulce vtili?

Versus Latinos quis citra natus mare,

1 Opposite this line, in the right-hand margin: Hippolytus.

8 Opposite this line, in the right-hand margin: Riuales,

3 Opposite this line, in the right-hand margin : Vlysses Redux ,

598 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Cum laude pangit? stultius nunquam inferas

Soli lucernam, guttulam, vasto sequori,

[80] Quam si camaen^ furere Romani velis.

Poema quis mediocre vel tanti facit?

Namque vt papauer melle cum Sardo datum,

Gratasque crassum vitiat vnguentum dapes,

Festique discors, & strepens mensis lyra,

[85] Offendit aures, caena quia poterat sine his

Iucunda duci: sic quoque haec ars mollior,

Animis iuuandis nata, si summo parum

Discessit, imam penitus ad terram cadit.

Hue tantus iste sumptus, in pauperculos

[90] Magis elocandus, redijt? hue horae bonae,

Male collocatae? gestui hue tempus datum?

Hue ianitorum sudor, aditusque, obsiti,

Fractae fenestrae, clamor, expectatio,

Strepitusque? ecce disperiam, nisi

[95] Conducta placeat Scena denario magis.

Hoc placuit vnum, quod nihil Momo placet. <Jsig. F5 recto.>

EPii.ogus resp onsivus

Vt nomen ipse, Mome, tacuisses tuum,

Verba indicassent, & styli durus tenor;

Ipsum esse Momum, lingua tarn foeda arguit,

[100] Et dira facies, & comae color improbus.

Ardens capilli quis domet virus tui?

Obijcere tali me queam spectro, Deos,

Hominesque, Naturamque, carpenti impie,

Odioque Dijs propterea, hominibusque optimis?

[105] Semper triumphus quern fugere opimus fuit.

Quis huius oris spiritum effugiat grauem?

Quis placeat isti, cui Seneca placuit minus?

Quern nec cothurnus, nec leuis soccus iuuat,

Qui grande, turgens; humile, proiectum putat;

[110] Qui turpe, laetum; ludicrum, petulans vocat.

Vulcanus, & Minerua, pelagique arbiter,

Operum hunc suorum, quisqize censorem tulit.

Vulcanus Horninem fecit; opus huic displicet,

Quod pectus Homini non fenestratum foret,

[115] Vt cogitata quaeque prostarent palam.

Domum Minerua struxit; haud placuit Domus,

Trusatilis quod ilia non esset, statim

Varianda, premeret forte si vicinia.

Taurum ecce finxit Arbiter; Taurus Dei

[120] Haud placuit isti, scilicet quod cornua

Non prominerent, vt oculis tutamina.

Ipsamque reprehendit Artificem omnium,

Quod capite tauris cornua, haud armis daret;

Quia maius armis, quam capite, robur vigens,

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 599

11251 Grauiore tauros ageret in plagam impetu.

Sic matre Nocte genitus, ac Somno patre,

Nihil ipse praestans, optimos carpit tamen, <Jsig. F5 verso.>

Linguaequc tactu faedat immundo omnia.

Quae multa declamauit in Ludos probra,

U3(b Arrepta quae congessit ex triuijs, licet

Ridendae potius, quam refellenda aestimem,

Grauiora paucis excutere fas sit, tamen.

Agere histrionem lege damnatum pia est;1

Famosus ergo est, quisquis in Scenam exijt?

{135] Praetor negabit; Qui sui spectaculum

Mercedis ergo praebet, infamis siet.2

Non ergo quenquam Scena, sed quaestus, notat,

Quis hie rogauit sportulam, vel quis dedit?

Gui non patebant sponte, sine lucro fores?

{140] At tegere iuuenem, veste muliebri. est nefas;3

Semperne? quid si cogeret lethi metus

Mutare vestem? publicum quid si bonum

Suaderet? id quod crebra testari potest

Historia, veste filius Amyntae, indui4

{145] luuenes muliebri dum iubet, tot foeminis

Claris pudorem seruat, & petulantiam

Persis superbam, caede praeclara, excutit.

Non ergo iuueni est grande simpliciter nefas

Mollem puellam induere; scelus est Clodio,

{150] Non est Achilli; Glodius stuprum parat,

Vitam tuetur filius Thetidis suam.

Non ergo vestis foeminea, iuueni est scelus,

Sed praua mens, libido, malitia, ac dolus.

Nec habitus vllus, sed animus turpem facit.

[155] Distincta sexum forma distinctum decet;

Virile non est foeminae mores sequi,

Muliebre non est exequi munus viri.

Quid simile nobis obijeere quisquam potest?

Quid cogitatum tale? quis fraudem imputet? <|sig. F6 recto>

[160] Scurrile tu proferre ne verbum potes.

Libuitne defamare, quae nescis, palam?

Nobisne verbo simplici standum est tuo?

Si iudicas, dignosce; si suades, proba.

Vnde haec tyrannis, Mome, permissa est tibi?

[165] Inscitia tibi vt impune sit, & animi stupor,

Pietas putetur? crimen est, quicquid tibi

Displicuit? an tu mentem habes solus piam?

1 Opposite this line, in the left margin: IT. De ijs qui notantur infamia

I. 2. p.

2 Opposite this line, in the left margin: Ait Praetor.

3 Opposite this line, in the left margin: Deuter. Cap. 22. Vers. 5.

4 Opposite this line, in the left margin: Alexander, magni Alexandri

proavus.

600 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Maledicta textum glossa quae vitiat bonum.

At grande factum est temporis dispendium;

[170] At, Mome, non est; Mome mentiris, nihil

Studijs remissum est publicis, id fabulis

Tempus tributum est, quod solet tribui iocis,

Somnoque, colloquijsque, doctoque otio.

Bene collocati temporis fructum, Chorus

[175] Praestare noster, Mome, maiorem potest,

Qu&m discipline quispiam Momi editus.

An tu poesim despicere doctam audeas?

Senecamne tu recitare iacturam putes?

Cuius vel vnum, Mome, versiculum, tibi

[180] Praepono, similibusque sexcentis tui.

Cuius vel vnum simile carminibus, meum

Benigna carmen malo posteritas legat,

Quam quicquid vnquam Momus ingenio efferat.

At sumptus ingens; at tibi gratis licet

[185] Spectare, Mome; nemo te stipem rogat,

Nisi forte veniam, quam, tibi iuxta est graue,

Praebere vtramque sumptus est ingens tibi,

Nobis mediocris; nemo propterea minus

Fouebit inopes; absque eo, nemo magis

[190] Leuabit. (Ad quid ista perditio est, Here?)

Mala, Mome, vox est, est, vbi parcas, locus, <^sig. F6 verso>

Suus est honesto sumptui, suus est iocis,

Ludis, choreis; serijs etiam est suus,

Lachrymisque nobis temporis sine te, satis

[195] Vtriusque ratio constat, haud Momo est opus.

Tu flere, vel ridere, flagitium putas?

Nos histriones, hanc Domum, Circum vocas?

Tu tollis hominem ex homine? tu parte alters

Constare credis? nostra tibi soli, impudens

[200] Visa est iuuentus, ingenua, casta, elegans,

Generosa, docta? tu Domum tantam arguis?

Academiae tu iudicia nihili facis?

Impune damnas? turpe sit nostro Gregi

Egisse; num spectasse, tot doctis viris

[205] Satis est decorum? vtrinque par surgit nefas,

Tu norma rerum, temporis, sumptus, ioci?

An tu pudoris regula, decori artifex?

Morumne tu mensura, vitaeque arbiter?

Quae dixit in nos alia, diluere haud placet;

[210] Has esse partes arbitror vestras, Chorus

Ad vos recurrit noster, a vobis opem

Expectat, exposcitque suppetias malo;

Gregem tueri, muneris vestri putat.

Nam culpa vestri tot a candoris fuit,

[215] Quae nos cothurno, quaequc nos socco induit,

Et dulce, si quid hinc fuit, vestrum fuit.

Authore tali, qualis hie coetus coit,

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 601

Peccare si non fas sit, at certe licet

Redimere crimen, quicquid est, Scense grauis;

[220] Censura vestrum nulla iudicium arguat.

Proinde, disrumpantur vt Momo ilia,

Iterum benignus vndique applausus sonet.

It appears, then, that among the contentions advanced by

Momus and ridiculed in the Epilogus Responsivus are the

following: (1) Actors were condemned by ancient statutes;

(2) It is impious for men to dress themselves as women;

(3) Plays in general, and Riuales in particular, contain

lascivious matter; and (4) The acting of plays entails a waste

of time and money.

III. Lost correspondence between Gager and Rainolds.

Among the contentions of Momus one readily observes

resemblances to certain of the positions taken by Rainolds

in his letter to Thornton. It was inevitable, therefore, that

when he heard of the Momus epilogue, Rainolds should sus¬

pect a burlesque of himself. Through a direct or indirect

channel, in written or oral form, Rainolds’ suspicion must

have reached Gager, for when, some three months after the

performance,1 he sent a copy of the printed Ulgsses Redux

and Momus to Rainolds, he accompanied it by a letter in

which he took pains to declare that in the comic figure he

intended “not to note any man, but onely Momus.”2 It

appears also that shortly after the performance of Gager’s

plays a young Fellow of Queen’s College preached a sermon

upon the passage in Douteronomy (xxii, 5) forbidding both

men and women to clothe themselves in the apparel of the

opposite sex.3 Since this sermon met with Rainolds’ ap¬

proval,4 and may have been instigated by him, we may

regard it as part of his censure of Gager immediately after

the performance of the plays.

IV. The printing of Momus , and its presentation to

Gager.

Ulysses Redux was printed in May,5 1592, with the fol¬

lowing title-page:6

1 See below, p. 602.

2 See below, p. 602.

3 See Gager’s letter of July 31, 1592, G. C. G. MS. 352, pp. 41, 63,

printed below, pp. 605, 635.

4 See Th* Overthrow of Stage-Playes , p. 16.

6 The month is indicated by the ending of the prose dedication to

Thomas Sackville: “Vale. Ex Aede Christi Oxonie sexto Idus Maij. 1592.

602 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Vlysses Redux | Tragoedia Nova. | In Aede Christi

Oxoniae | PubliceAcademicis Re- | citata, Octavo I dvs | Febr-

varii. 1591. | [Devicel | Oxoniae, excudebat Iosephvs Bar- |

nesivs, M. D. LXXXXII.

As has been noted above,* 1 this volume included the text of

Momus2 Some time between May 103 and July 104 a pres¬

entation copy was sent to Rainolds, accompanied by a letter

from Gager explaining that since the performance, the

Epilogus Responsivus attached to Momus had been enlarged,

and declaring that in Momus he intended no application to

Rainolds.5

V. Rainolds’ letter6 of July 10, 1592, acknowledging the

receipt of Ulysses Redux and of Gager’s accompanying

letter.

Honori tuo addictissimus, Guilielmus Gagerus.” [Ulysses Redux, Oxford

1592, sig. A 4 recto.]

6 A facsimile of the title-page, from the Bodleian exemplar, is given by

Boas, opposite page 202. Boas (p. 197, note 1) observes that the date

“Octavo IdvsFebrvarii. 1591. ”,i. e. February 6, 1591 /2, must be erroneous,

since Ulysses Redux was certainly performed on Sunday, February 5,

1591 /2. See above, p. 595.

1 See above, p. 595.

2 It must be remembered, however, that in the performance, Momus

was attached not to Ulysses Redux, but to Hippolytus.

3 The date (sexto Idus Maij) of the dedication to Sackville.

4 The date of Rainolds’ letter of acknowledgment.

6 These last facts are established by the following passage from Rainolds’

communication of July 10, 1592:

I am much to thank you, Maister D. Gager, for both your letters,

and your Tragedie: the more, for that you haue enlarged the answer to

Momus (as you signifie) because you understood that I Sc others should aske

why those thinges were not aunswered which were obiected. Indeed, as our

Savior when he was smitten by one for speaking nought but reason, saide,

If I haue spoken evill, beare witnesse of the evill; but if well, why doest thou

smite me? so they, whose obiections against playes you attributed to the

person of Momus, & thereby noted them as uniust reproovers, might

iustlie say in my iudgement; If our reasons be naught, discover their naught i-

nes; if good, who doe you Mome us ? And what so euer others had cause to

thinke of them selues, yet I must needes thinke my self touched therein:

although I should yeeld unto your request (which I most gladlie doe) in

that you pray me, not to mistake your meaning; protesting your intent is not

to note any man, but onely Momus. [Th’ overthrow of Stage-Playes, p. 1.]

6 This letter, under the heading “Maister D. Rainolds aunswere unto

Maister D. Gager, concerning Theater-sights, Stage-playes, &c.”, occupies

the first twenty-seven pages of a small volume bearing the following

title :

Th’ overthrow | of Stage-Playes, | By the way of controversie betwixt |

D. Gager and D. Rainoldes, wherein all the reasons | that can be made

for them are notably refuted; th’ ob- | jections aunswered, and the case

so cleared and re- | solved, as that the iudgement of any man, that |

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 603

Upon receiving a presentation copy of Momus and Gager’s

accompanying letter, Rainolds composed a letter to Gager,

bearing the date July 10, 1592, which gives vigorous sup¬

port to the strictures uttered by Momus and turned to ridi¬

cule in the Epilogus Responsivus. Following, in general,

the order of Momus , the Queen’s College scholar contends

as follows:

1. Stage-players are infamous according to Roman civil

law.* 1

2. The law of God forbids man to weare the apparel of

women.2

3. In Gager’s plays young men act the parts of base char¬

acters.3

4. In such plays time and money are wasted. 4

5. Such plays profane the Sabbath.5

VI. Gager’s reply,6 dated July 31, 1592, to Rainolds’

letter of July 10.

In the face of Rainolds’ communication of July 10 Gager

could not remain silent, and his letter of July 31 constitutes

both a spirited reply to his opponent and a substantial

is not froward and perverse, may | easelie be satisfied. | Wherein is mani¬

festly proved, that it is not onely vnlaw- | full to bee an Actor, but a

beholder | of those vanities. | Wherevnto are added also and annexed in

th’ end certeine latine \ Letters betwixt the sayed Maister Rainoldes, and D. |

Gentiles, Reader of the Civill Law in Oxford, 1 concerning the same matter. |

1599.

In 1600 the sheets of this book were reissued, with a new title-page

naming Middleburgh as the place of publication. In 1629 a new edition

was published from the press of the University of Oxford. See Boas,

pp. 247-248. The edition of 1629 differs in no substantial respect from

that of 1599. The page-numbers are identical.

1 77?’ overthrow of Stag e-Play es, pp. 4-8.

2 Id., pp. 8-17.

3 Id., pp. 17-24.

4 Id., pp. 24-26.

5 Id., p. 21, where the matter is treated only incidentally.

6 Corpus Christi College MS. 352, pp. 41-65. The text is written in

the common Elizabethan cursive. A hand considerably later than that

of the main text has supplied the following heading: “This is not printed,

but must come in betweene Dr. Rainolds Answer to Dr. Gagers former

letters, & Dr. Rainolds reply to this following treatise.” Extracts from

Gager’s letter are given by F. S. Boas in The Fortnightly Review, August,

1907, pp. 309-319, and by the present writer in Shakespeare Studies, By

Members of the Department of English of the University of Wisconsin,

Madison, 1916, pp. 112-121. In the present article the complete docu¬

ment is published for the first time.

604 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

treatise of defence of academic drama and academic per¬

formances. The complete document stands as follows1:

Wheras, in the beginninge of your late letter,2 or rather treatyse

to me, Mr. J. Rainoldes, you wryte, that you are muche to thanke

me for my letters , & Tragedy e; it is as muche, at the most, as

thay deserved; but that you add, you are so to doe the more,

for enlarginge the answere to Momus , for yours , and others askinge ,

why thinges by hym obiected , weare not answered , I ame rather

the more to thanke you, for your takinge it in so good parte. How-

beit, I would be very sorrye, that the comparyson, which in the

behalfe of others, you drawe from owre Savioure,3 should houlde

agaynst me: for he indeede when he was smytten, might trulye

saye, if I have spoken evill , beare witness of the evill; but if well ,

why doste thou smyte me? because he undoutedlye had sayde

nothinge but reason, and therfore was most vniustly smytten.

but for my obiections agaynst owre Playes, attrybuted to Momus ,

no man can rightely saye to me, if owre reasons be naught , discouer

their e naughtines; if good , why doe you Mome vsl for firste, the

obiections, in owre case, and agaynst vs, are most vntrwe, and I

hope no man lyvinge shall soundely prove the contrarye: next,

there is no man smytten by me, and therfor I shoulde be wronged

if I shoulde be asked suche a question, withoute cause. I say, no

man is smytten by me (muche lesse you, or any of yours) but

onlye Momus , whoe can never iustly in suche sorte chalenge me,

nor any man for hym. as for They, and Vs, I assure you I doe not

knowe whome you meane by them, nor very well what, for when

I wrote vnto you, that I had enlarged the answere to Momus ,

because I understood that you and others shoulde aske, why thos

thinges weare not answered, that weare obiected ; by others, I did not

meane suche, as I perceyve by you there are, which shoulde

mislike owre Playes, but others of my frendes, that heeringe the

obiections, towlde me, that thay coulde have wisshed, thay had

byn then answered, leste any shoulde thinke thay had byn vttered

in good erneste, or leste thay shoulde seeme to some, to carry a

1 In elucidation of Gager’s text I print in the foot-notes pertinent

passages from Rainolds’ letter of July 10.

2 I am much to thanke you, Maister D. Gager, for both your letters, and your

Tragedie: the more, for that you haue enlarged the answer to Momus (as you

signifie) because you understood that I & others should aske why those thinges

were not aunswered which were obiected. [Overthrow of Stage-Play es, p. U

3 In deed, as our Savior when he was smitten by one for speaking nought but

reason, saide. If I have spoken evill, beare witnesse of the evill; but if well, why

doest thou smite me? so they, whose obiections against playes you attributed to

the person of Momus, Sc thereby noted them as vniust reproovers, might

iustlie say in my iudgement; If our reasons be naught, discover their naughtines;

if good, why doe you Mome usl [Overthrow, p. 1.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 605

greater shewe of truthe, then thay cowlde wellanswere at the first

sight, for till I vnderstoode it by you, and by a Preacher of late,1

I did never thinke that eyther you, or any other in the Vniversitye

had abetted Momus his obiections, or that owre Playes, had byn so

muche disliked, if I had knowne it, I coulde easely have spared so

thankeles a labor, to saye no more, but I hope it seemethe not so

to evrye bodye, that also are not evrye bodye.

But whatsoever other men had cause to thinke, you had no

fust occasion to suspecte your selfe touched therin by me; no not

for thos twoe inducements which you cheefely alleage to prove

your coniecture. for wheras you write,2 that you did reprove

T heater-s ightes and Stage-plages , as hurtfull and pernicious many

geeres agoe , and this geere , before the Plages , had wrgtten to a good

frende of owres , thos reasons which I make Momus use agagnst

them , and therfor you had cause to thinke, you weare chargedf

noted , and stagned under the name of Momus; to the first I answere;

first I never red that which you wrote longe agoe in your Preface

to your Theses , agaynst Playes. I may be ashamed perhapps so

to excuse my selfe; but yet the acknowledgment of this blame,

dothe p. 42> make my testimony e in this case of more validitye.

if I coulde otherwise have defended myn innocencye heerin, I

woulde have avoyded this confession, but a truthe must be sayde,

and the rather when it is to prove a truthe of greater moment.

Then, if I had red it, when I was a very yunge man, and so careles

of suche thinges, I might have forgotten it ere this, beinge wrytten

so many yeers sence. Lastly I should have taken it as spoken

agaynst Histriones , and not agaynst Schollares. and in deed for

that I ever have hearde (as I confesse I have hearde) of your

mynd that way, I ever vnderstoode it, in that meaninge. As for

your late letter to owre good frende, he never shewde it me, or

towlde me the contents therof to this daye, I never hearde of it,

till longe after, nay talkinge with hym of you, touchinge suche

thmges, he towlde me, that he had invyted you to the Playes,

but you most gently answered, that you never vsed to cumm to

1 At least I could haue wished your censure had bene milder, if not in regard

of a younger Preacher, who did so expound that text [Deut. XXII. 5] in a

godly Sermon before your booke was printed: yet in consideration of that

ancient Father, with many other worthy men, whose learned writinges doe

glosse it in the same sort. [ Overthrow , p. 16.]

2 And what so euer others had cause to thinke of them selues, yet I must

needes thinke my self touched therein: although I should yeeld unto your

request (which I most gladlie doe) in that you pray me, not to mistake your

meaning; protesting your intent is not to note any man , but onely Momus.

For I did reprove [Side-note: Praefat. Thesium ad Acad. Oxon.] our Theater-

sights & Stage-playes, as hurtfull and pernicious, [Side-note: Pestes scenicorum

theatralia spectacula] many yeares agoe: and this yeare, ere your Momus, or

any of your Enterludes came vppon the stage, I had (in letters written to our

good friend Maister D. Thornton ) alleaged those reasons, which you make

Momus vse, against them. [Overthrow, p. 1.]

606 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

suche thinges, and therfor nowe would also abystayne, not bewray-

inge to me, anye inklinge of suche your dislike, but muche com-

mendinge to me, your grave, wise, and gentle carriage of your

selfe therin, and in all other matters, which as I acknowleged

with hym; so to saye the truthe, I was very glad you did refuse

to cumm, for no greater cause, not that in suche a matter, I ought

to attribute more to the pryvate opinion, of one, or a fewe men

(thoughe to yours, as muche as to any ones) then to the. common

iudgment of many others; but because I woulde offende neyther

a fewe, nor any one man, specialye in suche a trifle, as I take this

to be. besyde all this, it is most manifest, that the devyse of

Momus, was conceyved and penned longe before the sendinge of

that your letter, as many, and amonge others, owre good frende

you mention, can testifye it. for I showde it hym a monthe before,

hethertoe I trust appeeres no iust cause in me, why any man,

and specialy you, should thinke, that vnder the name of Momus ,

you weare taxed in particular.

And to speake Coram Deo , my meaninge only was, if I had any

meaninge or purpose at all, partely to move delight in the audy-

torye, with the noveltye of the invention and the person, beinge

nowe foreweryed and tyred with the tediusnes of the Tragedye1;

partely to obiect thos thinges agaynst owre selves, by owre selves,

which might abate all suspition of any littell vayne glory or selfe

pleasinge in vs, when thay should vnderstand, that owre dooinges

displeased no man more, then owre owne selves and so by this

meanes, as it weare with a slight, to shifte of all occasion of others

ill speakinge, when we had prevented them with as ill as mought

be, before, howsoever it was, I assure you I never had any serius

thought of it, but esteemed it as a iest to serve a turne, littell

thinkinge it should, or coulde be so taken, suche was my singlenes

and simplycytye. and therfore I did not greatly care what I made

hym to saye, as thinkinge any suche thinge became Momus well

inoughe. whome notwithstandinge I brought not in, so muche in

that sense, that Aristotle speaketh of,2 as a reproover <lp. 43> of

the best and perfitest woorkes, of the most wise and skillfull

(for I never tooke eyther owre selves, or owre Playes to be suche)

but, as we commonly take hym, as a carper, and a pincher at all

thinges that are done with any opinion of well dooinge. sum m

thinges that he obiected, I willingely confesse weare trwe, as thos

that did concerne owre owne want of skill in suche matters;

1 Hippolytus, the last of the Shrove-tide tragedies, performed on Tuesday,

February 7, 1592.

2 Now ASsopes tale of Momus (as Aristotle sheweth in that your selfe men¬

tion of his reproving nature for setting bulles homes upon their heades, not upon

their shoulders) was devised to checke such as reprove vniustlie the best and

perfitest works of the most wise and skilfull. [ Overthrow , p. 1.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 607

sum/??, and the most parte, weare false, as the applyinge of all

thos reproches to vs, which are truly spoken agaynst Histriones.

of which reproches, if I should be examyned vpon myn othe,

wheare I harde them, and of whome, I must needes saye I harde

them I knwe not wheare nor of whome; but that thay weare

arrepta ex triuijs, that is thay weare common and tryviall speeches,

and therfor I would you had not translated arrepta ex triuijs,

rascall reproches. the wordes in Latyn naturaly sownde not so

hardely. howe wordes are to be taken in charetye, you knowe

better then I ; in lawe and reason thay are ever with this rule to

be interpreted; A b omnibus traditum est , in quacunque mater id ,

etiamsi poenam irroget , eatenus verba generaliter capi , quatenus

sermonis proprietas ferre potest , nisi aliam loquentis mentem con-

ijciamus. primus aute m intellectus proprietatis, est sua vniuscuiusque

rei appellatio.1 nowe, arrepta ex triuijs, doe not most properly and

principally signifye Rascall reproches; and no man can iustly

coniecture that my meaninge was to vse any honest man with

so ill termes, when I meant no man at all. for of all other affections,

spite and mallyce, weare no counselors to that devyse, to the

notinge of you, or any man ells, so that thoughe I knowe the

wordes may be so properly translated, yet not to my mynde so

properly, that is not so gentlye, as I meant them.2

But that I had no purpose by Momus syde to wound you, ac-

1 Gager’s side-note: Alci: de verb, signif. 1. 1.

2 To the which purpose sith you [p. 2] rehearse it also, and inferre vpon it,

that the man who taunteth playes with the rascall reproches [Side-note, from

Momus, line 130: Probr. Arrepta quse congessit ex triviis.] there specified,

offendeth in the same sorte: how can it bee avoided, but I, who had vttered

those things against playes, though deeming them sounde reasons, not rascall

reproches, must thinke my selfe charged vnder the name of Momus ? vnlesse

I should be so vnwise as to suppose, that my frende a lawier, saying, If

Sempronius borow a horse of Seius, and ride him a mile farder, then Seis was

content he should, he committeth theft, the speech doeth not charge me with

theft, though I had done so, because the lawier meant not to charge me, whom

he loueth, nor knewe perhaps that I had done it; but his meaning was to charge

Sempronius onelie. Wherefore albeit you meane not to note any man but

onelie Momus, as you protest, and I beleeue you: yet you meane withall

(I trowe) the same that Tullie, when having reprooved the couetousnes of

Ghieftaines and Gouuernours of their warres, I (quoth hee) name no man;

Wherefore no man can bee angrie with me, unlesse he will confesse first of him

selfe. Which I doe not mention to proove that I haue cause of being angrie

with you (be it farre from me,) although I confesse my selfe to haue written

those things which they, who speake, are stained with Momus name by you;

but onely to shewe that by your speach against Momus, notwithstanding

your intent to note no man but him, yet you note vs all, in him, as vniust.

reproovers of playes, who soeuer inveigh against them as he doeth. And this

your selfe can not choose but see and graunt, if you call to minde your verses

ad Zoilum, and Epistle ad Criticum. For you will professe (I hope) that your

intent is not to note anie man but onely Zoilus and Criticus: Yet, if anie finde

such fault with your Tragedie, as you controll them for: you will not denie but

you meane to note him as a malitious Zoilus, and a Carping Criticke. [Over¬

throw, pp. 1-2.]

18

608 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

cordinge to the lawe of charytye, vpon my former protestation to

you, you doe most gladly creditt me, as you wryte; and so trulye

you may, and I hartely thanke you for it. for it was the greatest

thinge that I desyred to prove vnto you, as a matter that I ought

to thinke, if I woulde retayne the reputation of an honest man,

shoulde neerly touche me; which beeinge cleered, as bothe in my

conscience, and in your good mynde it is, I feare not any thinge

ells greately in all this cause, ffor wheras you goe forwarde to prove

by your Case of Sempronius and Seius, by a sayinge of Tullie’s

agaynst the gouernours of armyes in his tyme, and by myn owne

wordes Ad Zoilum and Ad Criticum, that thoughe I had no suche

particular intent, yet in the generalytye the censure lighted vpon

you: thoughe I ame hartelye sorry that it should so vnhappelye

fall owte, yet all that may I grante withowte offence, I trust,

for the mayne matter is not, whether you had occasion to thinke

your selfe to be touched in the generalytye, or no, beinge of that

opinion, you are; but whether the opinion be iustifiable, or no.

you thinke, yea; I think, nay. .if I should saye Vni creditis ? the

cause weare lost playnly on my syde. <<p. 44. >

But because you assure me in your treatyse, that you mislike

nothinge in intytlynge Momus to thos reasons which I make hym

to vse, nor in myn answere to them; if I can prove his to be vn-

sownde, and my defence to be good; I will trye what I can doe, to

showe, that the truthe in this controversye, belongethe rather to

my answere, then to the reasons fathered on Momus1. Wherin

I ame affected as if I weare advocate to a fayre mayden suspected

and accused of incontinencye, whoe had gevne in wordes and

gesture, as in strictnes of severytye thay mought be construed,

some small shewe of lytenes, but whome notwithstandinge

I weare fully perswaded, to be in deede, very honest; evne so I fare

in this cause, whearin not one, but twoe fayre may dens, Tragcedia

and Comoedia , are not only greevusly suspected, but vehemently

and eloquently accused, not by evrye common Orator, but by C.

Cassius , or M. Cato, of dissolute lyfe anti manners, and may

perhapps, I confesse, somtyme have gevne some littell suspition

therof, beinge straytely examyned, but yet are suche, as by

whome in my conscience I doe verely thinke, no suche thinges

can well be prooved, as farr as we can be charged to be answerable

for their acquayntance, vsage, and conversation amongst vs,

1 I will assure you also that I mislike nothing in your entitling Momus

unto our reasons of reproofe, or in your answere to them, if, as you approoue

your cause of confidence on the one parte, so you shall on the other. For

your protestation of your own conscience doeth binde me by the law of charitie

to thinke that you haue done this in singlenesse of heart, without spite and

malice. But the trueth of the thinges themselves, that you chalenge, belongeth

to the reasons fathered on Momus, not to your aunswere, in my opinion. [ Over¬

throw , p. 3.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 609

which in all my defence I desyre still to be vnderstoode. Wherfor

not of a desyre to contende, specially with you, quis talia demens

Audeat , aut tecum malit contendere bellow but vpon liber tye gevne

me by you, eyther to vse your advise, or gentlye to imparte to

you, I will not say, quid rectius, but what I thinke; as you have

followed my order, so will I followe youres; praying you to expecte

no other answere at my handes, then I ame necessaryly inforced

vnto, that is to the strencthninge and illustratinge of my former

answeares, and no furder mayntenance of the whole cause.

Ffirst therfor wheras you denye me1 that the Praetor dothe not

distinguisshe, as I doe, be [t] weene thos that doe prodire in scenam

quaestus causa , and not quaestus causa, but rather in expresse

wordes saythe the contrarye, qui in scenam prodierit infamis est;

it is very trwe, and I knwe that very well before, but because

Vlpian ad edictum Praetoris,2 dothe so expownde the Praetor, as

it weare ex aequitate Praetor id and ex responsis prudentum Pegasi

et Neruae filij I thought it was as good lawe, and better verse, to

saye, Famosus ergo est quisquis in scenam exijt ? Praetor negabit;

seeinge the meaninge of the Praetor, and so the Praetor hym selfe,

is taken to denye it; as to saye Vlpianus, or Pegasus Sc Nerua

1 To the first reason then (for I will take them in your owne order) that

Stage-players are infamous by the civill lawe, you aunswere that they are not

.all, but onely such as play for gaine sake: [Side-note, from Momus, lines 134-135:

Famosus ergo est quisquis in scenam exiit? Pretor negabit] which you avouch

is proved by the Praetors wordes. But that which you make the Praetor say,

as distinguishing, Qui sui spectaculum Mercedis ergo praebet, infamis siet

[Momus, 11. 135-136]; the Praetor saith not. Nay, contrariwise he saith with¬

out all distinction, generallie and simplie: Infamia notatur, qui artis ludicrae,

pronuntiandive causa, in scenam prodierit. And Ulpian (whose place you quote

for proofe thereof) doeth report him so, with these verie words: Ait Praetor,

Qui in scenam prodierit, “ infamis est.” But Vlpian, expounding these wordes

of the Praetor , citeth some lawiers [Side-note: Pegasus & Nerva Alius] saying,

that they are infamous, qui quaestus causa in certamina descendunt,

praemium in scenam prodeunt: and hereof you conclude, that they, who come

not foorth into the stage for gaine sake, are not infamous. [Side-note, from

Momus, 1. 137: Non ergo quenquam scena, sed quaestus notat]. By which

kinde of reasoning one might conclude likewise, that sith by the scripture a

woman taking mony for prostituting her body to men is infamous: therefore

she is not so, who doeth it freelie; much lesse, who giveth money to haue her

lovers companie; whom yet the scripture counteth most infamous of all.

Howbeit, had those lawiers, in adding, quaestus causa, intended your conclu¬

sion; which I knowe not whether they did, but admitte it: neverthelesse you

know that a lawier also, [Side-note: Dionysius Gothofredus comment, in corp.

iur. civ. edit. 2.] perhaps more learned then they, hath made this note thereon,

Immo Sc qui sine quaestu. omnes enim scenici probosi. August, lib. 2. de civit.

Dei, cap. 11. Sctribu moveri soliti. Livius Lib. 7. wherein, as hee gathereth, that

such as come vpon the stage without gaine, are prooved by S. Augustin and

Livie to be infamous, because S. Austin and Livie doe shewe that all stage-

players (free players not excepted) were branded with a marke of infamie &

dishonestie, disfranchised in a sort: so he confirmeth hereby (which was and

ought to bee the drift of his note) that by law the players without gaine are

infamous, not onelie such as playe for gaine sake. [ Overthrow , p. 4.]

s Gager’s side-note: ff. De his qui not. infa. 1. § Ait Praetor.

610 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

filius negabunt. that V/pz'an dothe approve the distinction of

Pegasus and Nerua , it is evident; for if he had disliked it, or not

allowed it, thoughe he alleged theire authoritye, yet he woulde in

expresse wordes have refused it, as in many places of the Ciuill

Texte, the like appeerethe. that Pegasus and Nerua doe so dis-

tinguisshe, it is as manifest; because otherwise Vlpian showlde

repeate the Praetors Edict in vayne, and not <Jp. 45 > interprete it

which he professethe to doe. besyde that Glossa communis , Baldus

Petrus de Castro , and all that I have seene vpon this lawe, doe so

vnderstand this latter parte therof. lastely, in this very Title De

his qui notantur infamia, and in the same places therof, Incertamen

descendere, and In scenam prodire, doe as thay saye in owre lawe

ambulare acquis passibus; but it is most evident, that, qui descendit

in certamen depugnaturus cum bestijs dentatis , ac feris, virtutis

ostendendae , non mercedis causa , non est notatus ; er go qui prodit

in scenam pronuntiandi gratia , sine praemio , aut quaestu , non est

notatus* 1. and the reason of the favorable parte of the distinction

may well, me thinkes, be gathered owte of the lawe which is C.

de spectaculis l. i. in fine. li. xi. Neyther dothe Dionysius Gotho-

fredus , whom you alleage, denye this distinction, but rather prove

that Pegasus and Nerua filius doe so distinguisshe, in exceptinge

agaynst the latter member, in his note, Immo et qui sine quaestu.

whoe, to admytt your perhapps, that he is a man more learned

then Pegasus and Nerua filius, the authors of this distinction, to

gether with Vlpian, in not disallowinge it, approvinge the same

(which notwithstandinge for some reasons I can not yet thinke to

be soe) yet surely he is not of so greate authorytye, as the Texte

it selfe, whatsoever any man may esteeme his learninge to be.

and yet in some sense, his shorte, but quick note, Immo et qui

sine quaestu, hurtethe not vs at all. for if he meanethe therby to

taxe Laberius, Lentulus, Nero, and suche like, that did exercere

histrioniam, thoughe gratuitam; his exception is most trwe, and it

makethe not agaynst vs, or owre Texte. for this lawe releevethe

them, that came in Scenam, to doe theire common wealthe honor,

theire citizens honest pleasure and delyte, and theire Godds

devowte servyce, with owte rewarde; not them that did so only

to satisfye theire dissolute and lewde humors, as Lentulus, Nero

and others did, whose examples can not be applyed agaynst them,

or us; as shall be heerafter shewed, but Gothofrede indeedefowndethe

his sharpe note, upon a sayinge of S. Austin , Ommes enim scenici

probrosi; and of Livye, et tribu moueri soliti; bothe which, it is

playne, are to be vnderstood agaynst Histriones; and so theire

authorytyes serve not to interprete owre Texte, wherof thay

1 Gager’s side-note: ff. De postul. 1. 1. § Bestias. & fi De his qui nota. infa.

1. 4. ‘

Young — William Gager’s Defence of Academic Stage. 611

coulde never dreame; and Gothofrede dothe gloze agaynst a mani¬

fest lawe, withowte gyvinge anye reason of his so dooinge.

Wheras therfore you inferr by this distinction of quaestus causa ,

and sine quaestu, that a man might likewise conclude, that sithe

by the Scripture a woman takinge monye for prostitutinge her bodye

to men is infamous , therfor she is not so that dothe it freely, muche

lesse that givethe monye to have her lovers cumpanye, whome yet

the Scripture countethe most infamous of all; I vtterly denye that

any suche consequence may be framed therbye. ffor it is not

simplye able to cumm vpon the Stage, because the lawe allowethe

it in some case, that is, when it is doone sine quaestu; but it is a

thinge absolutely wicked for a woman to prostitute her selfe

eyther freely or for rewarde, thoughe more wicked also for re-

warde. nowe you assume that the one is as greevus a sin, as the

other, or <!p.46> at the leste,as absolutely a sin; which is the state

of owre cause, and therfor you must prove it, for we can in no

wise grante it you. wherfor you must evicte that it is simplye a

vyle sin, in any case, and namely in owres, for any, thoughe

freely, prodire in scenam; as it is for a woman freely to prostitute

her bodye; and then I confesse that of my distinction so absurde an

argument may be deduced. Descendere in certamen, et prodire in

scenam quaestus causa, infamant; er go Descendere in certamen, et

Prodire in Scenam sine quaestu, non infamant, is a good consequence,

because the lawe so distinguishethe. but to say A woman prosti¬

tutinge her body to men for monye is infamous; er go she is not so

that dothe it freelye, is a wronge and a wicked consequation, for

the reason before alleaged. Therfore the answere that I made to

Momusses fyrst cheefe obiection, standethe good and fyrme, be¬

cause the lawe led me by the hande vnto it. and if I had byn to

answere in this question in owre Acte, the same beinge obiected,

if I should not so have answered, I shoulde have byn thought

never to have looked vpon the lawe, whence my question was

taken. I thought it not meete, to enlarge myn answere furder,

then Momus did inforce his obiection; but as he only proposed

the lawe, so I only gave that answere, which the lawe in the same

texte affoorded me; as one that sees no cause to dislike it, lesse

dares dispute agaynst it, and hathe lesse authorytye to abol-

ysshe it.

But you in a manner admyttinge that Pegasus and Nerua

filius, in addinge quaestus causa , intended my conclusion, yet not

stayinge there, you goe abowte to overthrowe theire creditts,

partely by opposinge and preferringe Dionysius Gothofredus to

them, a lawyer also, as you say, perhapps more learned then thaye ,

whoe hathe made this note theron, Immo et qui sine quaestu ,

moved thervnto by a sayinge in S. Austin, and Livye; partely by

612 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the best interpreter of lawes, that is, the custome and the practyze

of the Romans , xwhoe thought that free Players also weare in¬

famous; which you prove also owte of S. Austin , growndinge hym

selfe upon Tullye, by Livye , Cornelius Tacitus , and Juuenall;

partlye, and lastly, by the examples of them, whoe weare ac-

cownted infamous, for playinge, thoughe freely; as Laberius,

Lentulus , certayne Roman needy Sqyres, and Nero hym selfe, whom

by the opynion of all honest men, you prove to have byn branded

with a perpetuall note of infamye for so dooinge. Gothofrede I

1 And this doe their wordes, whom hee alleageth, implie, if they bee vnfolded

and [p. 5] weighed indifferentlie, according to the rules of lawe for douts

thence rising: to weet, that custome is the best interpreter of lawes; and, autoritie

of thinges still iudged of alike hath the force of law. For S. Augustin groundeth

his generall conclusion upon the ancient practise and order of the Romans

testified by Tullie: who saith that their auncestours, counting all kinde of stage

plages shamefull and dishonest, agreed that such persons should not onelg want

the honour of other citizens, but also be disfranchised by the controlment and checke

of Censors. Neither were they checked with this reproch and ignominie of

olde time alone, but in Livies age too; yea, before, and after; at least, with

the blemish and staine in mens opinion, though not with the punishment.

Cornelius Nepos saieth, that to come on the stage Sc be a spectacle to the people,

. was counted no dishonestie or shame among the Grsecians ; among the Romans

it was. Laberius, a gentleman of Rome, taking pleasure in writing of poemes,

when Caesar prayed him to playe them him selfe vpon the stage, he yeeleded as

constrayned by the Princes request; but signified so much in his prologue, and

declared withall what a blott it was unto him: Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine

nota, Eques Romanus e lare egressus meo, Domum revertar mimus: nimirum hoc

die Uno plus vixi, mihi quam vivendum fuit. Juvenal, rebuking men of noble

parentage tainted with like dishonor, doeth touch them under Lentulus

name, with this censure: Laureolum velox etiam bene Lentulus egit, ludice me

dignus vera cruce. So shamefull a matter seemed it to him for Lentulus to

play the parte of Laureolus (one, who in a Tragedie was fained to be hanged,

as Melantho in yours [i. e., in Ulysses Redux])- that he thought him woorthie

to be hanged in earnest for it ... . The men of noble parentage, whom

Iuvenal rebuked, were hired, as himselfe noteth; and the storie of Nero, who

bought those needie squires to doe that seruice, recordeth: though Iuvenal

adiudgeth them vnworthy of life, not onelie in respect that they played for their

fee, but euen that they played too; as may appeare by that which foloweth,

Nec tamen ipse Ignoscas populo: populi frons durior huius, Qui sedet 6c spectat

triscurria pratriciorum, Planipedes audit Fabios ridere potest qui Mamercorum

alapas. For seeing that he findeth fault with the people, who sate & beheld

the fowle misorders & scurrilities (such as your Antinous Sc other wooers

practise [i. e., in Ulysses Redux]) of persons nobly borne; who heard the race

of Fabius resembling Sc counterfaiting such base ridiculous things as are ex¬

pressed in Irus; who could abide to laugh at blowes & whirrets, giuen to the

Mamercians, as you would say unto Ulysses: he sheweth that the verie action

it selfe, all regard of lucre, or what soeuer motiue had brought them to it,

sett apart, was dishonorable & shamefull in his iudgement. But his like or

sharper inveighing against Nero, touching whom he addeth, that it was no

marvell if noble men were stage-players when the Prince was a minstrell, doeth

put the matter out of doubt: in as much as he, comparing Nero to Orestes,

both murderers of their mothers, maketh Nero worse in manie respectes,

and this amongst them: In scena numquam cantavit Orestes; Wherein, by

“ cantavit ,” he meaneth not onely that Nero played a minstrels part vpon the

stage, as Phemius on yours; but also that he played the partes of men and

women, perhaps with song alone, as your Hippodamia; perhaps with song

and speech both, as Eurymachus; but partes of Men and Women certainlie.

[Overthrow, pp. 4-6.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 613

have allredye answered as it weare by the waye, by whome the

rest of your authorityes also, and all your examples may receyve

theire trwe, though shorte answere. ffor first I denye, that the

Romans ever iudged, omnes scenicos infames, because Playes weare

somtyme, as in a common plauge, instituted ad placandos Deos ,

and weare provided by greate Officers, of the common treasure;

and so they are referred ad religione m, et deuotionem. somtyme

thay weare sett owt at the pryvat cost of them that stood to the

people for great Offices, or generally for the honor and sollace of

the cytye; and so thay are referred to magnificence, for magnifi-

centia is a goodly vertue, <1p. 47> et versatur circa sumptus amplos ,

non turpes aut infames , because it is a vertwe; but. circa qusecunque

in Rem Publicam honestse laudis studio conferuntur ; amonge the

which Aristotle 1 reckonethe, Ludos splendide facere. neyther is it to

be thought, that Msopus and Roscius , beinge bothe men of that

fame, favor, wealthe, and entyre famyliarytye with the best, and

wisest in theire tymes, weare reputed as infamous persons, what

should I speake of so many Circi, Theatra, Amphitheatra, buylded

by the greatest and bravest Romans, with so huge charge and

sumptuousnes? which thoughe thay weare wonte vpon fowle

abuses, or some other occasion, as you write, overthrowne by the

Romans them selves, yet evne thos playes, for which thay weare

abolished, weare ex eo genere, of whom thay might have sayde

(as C. Tacitus dothe of Astrologers ) quod in ciuitate nostra et

vetabitur semper , et retinebitur. howsoever, I can not thinke, that

eyther thay woulde have suffered suche thinges to be donne at all,

if thay had iudged them ill; or to be performed by infamous per-

sonns, beinge matters of that state and magnificence, and, as

thay thought, of that devotion, and necessytye. it weare not

harde for me to heape vp many thinges to this purpose, but my

desyre is no furder to approve theire iudgment heerin, then servethe

for the necessarye defence of oure selves, and owre dooinges. Next

I denye that we are to be termed Scenici, or Histriones, for cum-

minge on the Stage once in a yeere, or twoe yeere, sevne, ten, or

somtyme twentye yeeres. as he is not a wrastler that somtyme to

prove his strencthe, tryethe for a fall or twoe, nor he a fencer,

that somtyme takethe up the cudgells, to play a vennye; nor he a

danser, that sometyme leadethe the measures or dansethe a

galliarde; nor he a minstrell or a ffidler, that sometyme playethe

on an instrument before manye; as I have often seene all thes doone

by gentyllmen, withoute the leste suspition of discreditt or dis-

honestye. and yet if a man shoulde doe thes thinges vsually and

in evry place, I thinke he might be noted to be a wrastler, a ffencer,

a danser, and a ffidler. Besyde we differ from them in the manner

Gager’s side-note: Arist. Ethi. 1. 4. c. 5.

614 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of owre playing, in the ende, effectes, and other circumstances,

as in the examination of your examples shall appeere. the which

as you have alleaged to illustrate your authorytyes, as beeinge the

men whom thay properly speake agaynst; so if I shewe that we

are not to be likened to them, neyther your authorytyes, nor

your examples shall towche vs. ffirst therfor I saye, we differ from

them alltogether in the manner bothe of settinge owte Playes,

and of actinge them, thay did it with excessyve charge; we thriftely

warely, and allmost beggerly; thay acted theire Playes in an other

sorte then we doe, or can, or well knowe howe; but so exquisytly,

and carefully, that we may seeme, compared with them, eyther

for skill, or diligence, rather Recitare, which you doe not dislike,1

then Agere, bothe which differences, in theire furniture, and action,

I could easely prove vnto you, but that I knowe, you knowe them a

greate deale better then I, and I desyre to be shorte. <1p. 48.>

Next, we are vnlike them in the ende and effectes of Playinge.

for they came vpon the stage neyther of a devowte mynd toward

their false Godds, nor of a magnificent towardes the peeple (for

eyther of thes had byn then in them thought commendable) but

of a lewd, vast, dissolute, wicked, impudent, prodigall, monstrous

humor, wherof no dowte ensued greate corruption of manners in

them selves, to saye nothing heere of the behowlders. We con-

trarywise doe it to recreate owre selves, owre House, and the

better parte of the Vniversitye, with some learned Poeme or other;

to practyse owre owne style eyther in prose or verse; to be well

acquaynted with Seneca or Plautus; honestly to embowlden owre

yuthe; to trye their voyces, and confirme their memoryes; to frame

their speeche; to conforme them to convenient action; to trye what

mettell is in evrye one, and of what disposition thay are of; wherby

never any one amongst vs, that I knowe, was made the worse,

many have byn muche the better; as I dare reporte me to all the

Vniversytye. of whome some of them, have lefte vs suche domesticall

examples and preceptes of well speakinge, as if many that dislike

suche exercises, and others, and owre selves, had followed ; so many

solecismes in vttrance shoulde not be committed so often as there

are. Lastly, we differ from them in many other circumstances,

as namely thay frequented the Stage; we doe it seldome, somtyme

not in seavne, ten, or twentye yeers; thay on the publick theater,

not of the Citye only, but of the whole worlde; we in a pryvate

house, and to a fewe, men of vnderstandinge; thay weare men

growne, one of them three score yeers owlde, knightes, of noble

houses, Patricij; and one of them Emperour of the worlde; in vs

beinge yunge men, boyes, poore Schollers, all thes thinges are

quyte contrarye. Therfor to com m to particular comparison as

1 See below, p. 612 note 1.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 615

you doe; whoe ever would resemble owre Melantho, with your

Laureolus x? the on represented by an ingenuus boye, and for her

lewdnes imagined to be hanged within; the other acted by Lentulus ,

a man nobly e descended, expressinge perhapps openly one the

Stage, the deformytye of the same punishment, what likenes

is there betweene owre yonge men, puttinge on the persons of

Antinous , and the rest of Penelope's wooers; and betweene gentyll-

men of the noble race of Fabius, in their owne persons, not so muche

cownterfettinge others, as expressinge their owne scurrilytyes?

suche as owre Antinous , and the rest of the woers, can not iustly

be charged with; no not owre Irus, or Vlysses1 2 3. for thoughe Juuenal

thought it dishonorable and shamfull, as he well might, that noble

men shoulde take blowes and whirrytts openly, and that the

peeple should rather have pittyed, then liked suche behaviour in

their nobylytye, yet he thought so rather in respect of the actors,

beeinge <!p. 49> suche as thay weare, that is, noble men (as it

appeerethe by the whole drifte of his Satyr, alleaged by you so

muche, which is not agaynst Playes, for them he nowhere, that I

knowe, reprehendethe, but to shewe that trwe nobylytye is to be

esteemed by the vertues of the mynde, and not by bludd, or

ancyent howses) then for any other thinge, specialy if it weare no

wurse, then is represented in owre Irus or Vlysses. for neyther

would Juuenal hym selfe, if he weare alyve, reprehend eyther the

speeches thay vse, or the devyse of bringinge them in so meane

and beggerlye, because bothe are Homer's; neyther is their any

suche thinge in their partes, that may make vs base or ridiculous,

or scurryle, for representinge them. Vnhappy Vlysses, to whome as

it was fatall ever to be in troble in his life, so is he more hardly

dealt withall after his deathe, that his person may not honestly be

resembled withowte note of infamye to the Actor, which if I had

knowne, howsoever he returned in Ithacam, he shoulde never have

cumne in Scenam by my means. Agayne, what resemblance is

there betweene owre Hippodamia only singing, Eurymachus only

sayinge, Phemius bothe singinge and sayinge, all three represented

by suche as thay weare; and betweene Nero, playinge menn’s,

weemen’s, and minstrells partes vpon the Stage in Rome3il lett us

therfor consider breefely the force of your arguinge. Many noble

men, and Nero hym selfe, weare infamous, for playinge, thoughe

freely, menn’s and weemen’s partes, and specialy e Nero for sing¬

inge like a fidler on the Stage; Ergo Schollers and the Students of

Christchurche, are to be noted with a marke of infamye, for play¬

inge, thoughe gratis , suche partes as thay did in Vlysse Reduce;

1 See above, p. 612, note 1.

2 See above, ibid.

3 See above, ibid.

616 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

and namely the one of owre Choristers, for playinge Phemius;

notwithstandinge for his honesty, modesty, and good voyce, he

is as wurthy to be delyvered from infamye, as Phemius hym selfe is

fayned to be saved from deathe, for his excellent skill in Musicke,

to say nothinge of the rest. I dare not denye this argument, be¬

cause it is yours, I referr it to the charytable iudgment of my

betters. In the meane tyme, I thinke it was a fowle shame for

noble men and Nero to playe; but to playe noble men or Nero it

is no shame for vs. as he saythe in the Comedye, Duo cum idem

faciunt , sxpe vt possis dicere, Hoc licet impune facere huic, illi

non licet, Non quod dissimilis sit res, sed quod, quifacit.1 And therfor

I did iustly conclude agaynst Momus, and better then Nero coulde,

Quis hie rogauit sportulam, vet quis dediD Cui non patebant spontb

sine lucro fores ?2 Wherfor imagininge M. Cato to be the accuser in

this cause, I may fittly saye vnto hym, thoughe in wordes sum-

what altered, as Tullye dothe in an other matter, tolle mihi e

causa nomen Catonis , remoue , ac praetermitte authoritate m, con-

gredere mecum criminibus ipsis. quid accusas Cato, quid ajfers in

iudiciuml quid arguist histrioniam accusas; non defendo , sed

famam pudorem, atque innocentiam. histrioniam vero ipsam, vel

tecum accusabo, si voles3 4. <1p. 50>

In myn answere to the place of Deuteronomyef you say my

Antecedent is naught being e wayde in the skates of ye Sanctuary e;

and ye consequution wurse, beeinge caled to the tryall of the touche-

stone of Logick 5. the Antecedent in deede is myne, but the conse-

1 Gager’s side-note: Ter. Adelph. Act. 5. Sc. 3.

2 Momus, 11. 138-139.

3 Gager’s side-nate: Ora. pro Murena.

4 Gager’s side-note: Deu. 22.5.

5 ‘To the next, drawen from the best law indeed euen the lawe of God [Side-

note: Deute. 22.5] which forbiddeth a man to put on womans raiment ; [p. 9]

a thing though not distaining all stage-playes, yet welnigh all, and there

amongst all yours: you answer that it is not unlawfull simply and alwayes ,

as if one doe it to saue his life, to benefit many ; & hereof you conclude that to do

it in playes is not unlawfull. [Side-note, from Momus, 141-3, 148-9: Semperne?

quid si cogeret lethi metus Mutare vestem? publicum quid si bonurn suaderet?

and, Non ergo juveni est grande simpliciter nefas, Mollem puellam induere]

Of the which enthymeme (to call the triall of your argumentes to the touch¬

stone of Logicke) the consequution doutlesse is vnsound and naught, whatso¬

ever the antecedent bee: and the antecedent, although in the balance of hu¬

mane reason it may seeme to haue weight, yet if it be weighed in the- skales

of the sanctuarie, will proove vnsound and light too. . . . By conference

and laying of which thinges together we are taught this difference betwene

the morall law, and the ceremoniall, that the ceremoniall was not enioyned

to be kept absolutelie and simply; and therefore when it could not bee kept

without the breach of the morall lawe, the law of loue and charitie it yeelded

therevnto: but the morall lawe is simply and absolutely enioyned to be kept,

as a paterae of that [p. 10] holinesse which God requireth in his children,

Be yee holy, for I am holy; and therefore, who so breaketh any part thereof,

though to keepe an other parte, doeth defile himselfe, and displease the

Highest. Now, the prohibition of men to be attired as wemen, wemen as men,

belongeth to the morall, not to the ceremoniall law. For Christ hath delivered

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 617

quution is not. for in my answere I doe not thus argue; it is lawfull

in suche and suche cases to putt on weemens rayment, ergo it is

lawfull to doe it in Playes; but thus, ergo it is not simply vnlawfull

so to doe. and so my consequution in Logick standethe good. The

Antecedent also you denye me, because you prove the place of

Deuteronomge to belonge to the lawe Morall and not Ceremoniall.

I pray you gyve me leave to propose my contrarye dowte. the

Moral lawe, as you truly saye, is the lawe of love and charytye,

to the whiche whersoever the Ceremonial lawe is repugnant, there

it gyvethe place to the Moral, the Moral lawe therfor is never

contrary to love and charytye, in commandinge or forbiddinge

any thinge. but the place of Deute. beinge taken strictly, absolutely

and in the rigor of the letter, may somtymes hinder the actions of

love and charytye, bothe towardes owre selves and others, as in

thos cases which bothe you and I propose; ergo in that strictnes

it belongethe rather to the lawe Ceremonial thoughe the equytye

therof pertaynethe to the lawe Moral, and so it is perpetualy and

simplye to be observed, for I confesse vnto you that I doe not

thinke, that it is an abomynation in the sight of God, for a yonge

man eyther in iest in his pryvye chamber, to putt on his wyves

petticote, or in ernest to clad hym selfe in her apparell for the

safegarde of his goods, his owne lyfe by could or sworde, his wives

and childrens, his fathers and mothers, no not for the saftye of

his cuntrye, or the defence of the glorye of God. neyther dothe it

therfor followe that men and weemen may indifferently weare eche

others apparell. for simplye, or in the cases specifyde, to putt on

weemens rayment, is not ordinaryly, vsually, and withowte

Christian, and naturall modesty, or distinction of sexe, to weare

suche apparell.

My twoe examples of Alexander the sonne of Amyntas , and of

Achilles the sonne of Thetis , howsoever you may well drawe evill

consequutions from their whole actions, yet in the circumstance

that I applye them for, thay are alleaged to good purpose* 1, for

us from the keeping of the ceremonial. . . . And hereof it foloweth that if a

man might saue his life, or benefit many, by putting on womans raiment,

yet ought he not to do it, because it is euill. [ Overthrow , pp. 8-10.]

1 The arguments, wherby you striue to proue the contrarie, are drawen

from two examples: One of the Macedonians, whose king Amyntas enter¬

taining Persian ambassadors, & having at their request broght noble wemen

to the banket, when the embassadours dalying with them did touch their

brests, & offred some to kisse them; the kings sonne, misliking their lascivious

actions, desired them to giue the wemen leaue to go forth, pretending they

should returne neater, & so by his direction there came in their steed yong

men, attired like them, with daggers vnder their garmentes, who slew the

embassadours as soone as they offered to touch them [side-note, from Momus,

lines 144-147: Veste fdius Amyntse indui Iuvenes muliebri dum iubet, tot

fseminis Claris pudorem servat, & petulantiam Persis superbam coede prseclara

excutit.]: The other of Achilles, whose mother Thetis, at the time of the

Troian warre, knowing (as Poets faine) that hee should [p. 12] dye at Troy ,

618 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Alexanders fact is commended as proceedinge from a most noble

and a trwe heroicall mynd, and because it was better that the

Persian Embasadours weare slayne, then that the chastityes of so

many greate Ladyes should so dishonorably be eyther over-

throwne, or so muche as assayled. and Thetis might well hyde her

sonne Achilles in a may dens apparell in respect of motherly love

and pittye, which she was to beare her sonne, knowinge as she did,

that he should be <1p. 51> slayne in that iornye to Troy , whether

he was requested to accumpany the other Grecian Lordes; and yet

it followethe not, neyther doe I like it shoulde, that therfor eyther

Alexanders bowlde deede, should be drawne to the iustifyinge of

suche thinges as you deduce owt of it; nor that by the example of

Achilles , a man for feare of deathe, should use Vettienus his shiftes

to stay at home, when his cuntrye hathe neede of his servyce in

lawfull warrs, nor that a yunge gentillman, that is in love, may putt

on a maydens rayment, as Chserea did the Eunuche’s for his

Pamphilae’ s sake. Clodius defyled Caesars wife by that means,

and therfor I condemne his facte. Achilles so deflowred Deidamia ,

and I doe not approve hym therin; but I say it was not his mothers

intent, that he should so be clad, to doe suche a deede, and he was

likely to doe as muche in his owne likenes any where ells; and

yet his mother, of only intent to save his life (for to that end only

I propose the example) might lawfully use the p oily eye she did,

and he in that case might lawfully obaye her. Neyther dothe his

owne speeche in your discourse of hym, nor Chirons , nor the wordes

of Calchas prove the contrarye. for his owne wordes rather argue

the haughty currage of his noble mynd, as fearinge lest it showlde

if he went thither with the Grecians, did therevpon attire him (they say) as a

woman, and committed him as her daughter to Lycomedes king of Scyros ,

there to bee kept safe from that danger [side-note, from Momus, line 151:

Vitam tuetur Alius Thetidis suam]. For hence you conclude that a man may

lawfully putt on womans raiment to benefit others, to saue his life, because

the Macedonians, by their young Princes motion, and Achilles did so. . . .

You must remember therefore that wee are to liue by lawes, not by examples:

and regard in Macedonie and Greece, as in Rome, not what is done there, but

what ought to bee done there. Else. . . a man, whose countrie doeth need

and craue his seruice in lawfull warre against their enemies, may, for feare

of death, use Vettienus his shifts to keepe at home; a youth, that is in loue,

may put on maidens raiment, as Chaerea did the Eunuches for his Pamphilaes

sake; . . . For as [p. 13J hee whose fact your selfe adiudge wicked Clodius

I meane [side-note, from Momus , lines 149-150: Mollem puella/n induere,

scelus est Glodio; Non est Achilli: Clodius stuprum parat], did satisfie his

vilanous lust with Caesars wife by cladding him selfe in womans raiment:

semblably Achilles deflowred Deidamia, king Lycomedes daughter, by the

same occasion. And Statius, who reporteth the storie (so to terme it with

you [side-note, from Momus, lines 143-144: Id quod crebra testari potest

Historia]) most exactlie, saith that Chiron, the instructor and bringer vp of

Achilles, would not haue suffered his mother to haue had him away, Si molles

habitus Sc tegmina feeda fateri Ausa foret: that Calchas the Prophet, being filled

with Apollos spirit, cryed out, 0 Scelus, en fluxse veniunt in pectora vestes:

Scinde puer, scinde. Sc timidae ne crede parenti. [Overthrow, pp. 11-13.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 619

be cownted cowardyce in hym, then repell his kynde mothers

drifte; and bothe Chiron and Calchas had a furder reache, then

their wordes owtwardly importe, especially Calchas; for he, and

perhapps bothe, knwe that Troy could not be destroyed till

Achilles was fownde owte; and therfor more in regarde of suche

a consequence, then for any thinge ells, Calchas so vehemently

cryethe owte, 0 scelus, en fluxx veniunt in pectora vestes, Scinde

puer, scinde , el timidse ne crede parenti. Notwithstandinge, I

doe thinke it dishonorable for a noble man not only in wooman’s

apparell, but any way ells to hyde hym selfe to the savinge of his

life, when his cuntrye standethe in need of his helpe; thoughe

Amphiaraus and Vlysses did no better, but for a greate Lady to

hyde her only yunge sonne, in a maydens apparell, to save his

life, which otherwise he is sure to loose; the common wealthe stand-

inge in no neede of hym, as we may imagin suche a one, and thoughe

it falethe owte otherwise in exhmyninge my example, yet in that

respecte only I vsed it; I doe not thinke but she may well doe it.

And yet I did not use this example as a storye, as you note (so

to terme it with me)1 for I cowld never thinke otherwise of it then

as of a fable. Neyther can thes my wordes, id quod crebra testari

potest Historia ,2 imply any suche meaninge in me. for I vsed thos

wordes in respect of the sondrye storyes that might be brought to

this ende, not for any historycall truthe in the example, which I

the rather vsed, because I thought it was best knowne, and thoughe

it weare a fable, yet it had a resemblance of that, which might

be trwe, which was inoughe for my purpose. And in deede, if I

had thought that thes twoe examples should not have byn taken

in my meaninge, that is, only in that circumstance for the which

I alleaged them, I cowlde have vsed many trwe storyes of bothe

sexes, to the which, no suche exceptions coulde have byn taken.3 4

<p. 52>

Wherfor my twoe examples, beinge taken as thay ought to be,

and in that vnderstandinge, that I applyed them for, this conse-

quution rightely followethe, Non ergo iuueni est grande simpliciter

nefasy Modem puellam induere 1. which proposition I assuminge to

be trwe (as I thinke it is most trwe) I strayte fell to the expownd-

inge of the place in Deute. thus; Non ergo vestis fxminea iuueni

est scelus , Sed praua mens, libido, malitia, ac dolus, Nec habitus

vllus,sed animus turpe m facif. that is, that the only puttinge on

of weeme <^n> s rayment, is not wicked, but the lewde ende to de-

1 See above, p. 618, note.

2 See above, ibid.

3 Gager’s side-note: Eucl. Megaren. Theop. Rex Spar: Antenor Cepha:

Euphrosyna virgo Antioch: Theod. virgo & martyr. Eugenia Romana.

4 Momus, 11. 148-149.

6 Id., 11. 152-154.

620 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ceyve, the rather therby, and the more safely to be in the cumpanye

of weemen, to bringe some bad purpose abowte; or of an effemynate

mynd, to suffer his heare to growe longe; or to fryzell it, or in

speeche, colour, gate, gesture, and behaviour to become womanishe;

or ordynaryly so to converse amonge men and weemen, agaynst

the course of all naturall and cyvill regarde, is an abomynation

to the Lorde. other doe expownde the place, thus; that a man shall

not putt on the ornamentes of a woman; nor a woman the armour

of a man; and that this lawe was opposed agaynst the superstition

of the Gentylls, amonge whome in the sacrifices of Venus, men clad

them selves like weemen, with distaff and spindell, and suche

like; and weemen in the sacrifices of Mars , putt them selves in

armour, and therfor Abomynation in the Scriptures, say thay, is

commonly taken for idolatrye, or for somethinge belonginge to

idolatrye. all the devynes that ever I talked with of this matter,

affirme the trwe meaninge of that place, to be contayned in thes

senses rehearsed, wherfor though I grant, that, as you prove,

(admyttinge that in case of necessytye a man may clad hym selfe

in a woma <^n> s habitt) he may not therfor doe ill in iest, and in a

meryment; yet I answere, that we not offendinge agaynst the

trwe vnderstandinge of the Text, because we doe not so of any

ill intent, or any suche mynd, or that any suche effecte hathe

followed in vs therof, or may in deede be sayde at all to weare

weeme <1n> s apparell, because wearinge implyes a custome, and a

common vse of so doeinge, wheras we doe it for an howre or twoe,

or three, to represent an others person1, by one that is openly

knowne to be as he is in deede; it is not ill in vs to doe so, thoughe

it be but in myrthe, and to delyte: and therfor all that parte of

your discourse, wherin you inforce by many authorytyes, that

there must be a distinction in apparell twixt men and weemen,

pertaynethe not to me: for how coulde I thinke otherwise? for

this my verse, Nec habitus ullus, sed animus turpem facit , was not

to fetche abowte my hidden conclusion, or to delyver a rule that

it is no dishonesty for a man in all places to weare whatsoever

apparell he will, if his mynd be chast, as you say; but served as a

parte of that interpretation of the place, wherof I spake before.

<^p. 53. > And so the verse is as trwe for the matter, as it is for the

forme: for no apparell simply defylethe the body, though the man¬

ner of wearinge it may. the manner consistethe in the circumstances

of person, tyme, place, stuff e, fasshion, and suche like; which are

of that force, that thay make the selfe same actions, in the selfe

same man, good and evill. as for a Preacher, at servyce tyme, in

his Churche, to walke vp and downe in his dublet and hose, with a

coloured hatt on his head, and a brooche in it, weare a greate folly,

Ms. porson.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 621

thoughe he were never so godly; and yet at home, in his secrett

chamber, he might withowte offence doe all thes thinges. in like

sorte, for a boye to pray in the Churche openly, with a caule, or a

frenchehoode on his head, as you wryte1, thoughe his mynd weare

never so chaste, it weare a greate fault; but it followethe not that

therfor it is so, for a boy or a yonge man, to come on the Stage

with a cawle or a frenchehood on his head. As for my Epiphonema 2,

it is not eger, as you terme it; neyther did it isswe from the bitter

fowntayn of cursed speakinge. but I vsed it only in a iest to

Momus , as we commonly doe the owld sayinge, to the which I

alluded, maledida glossa quae cor rump it textum. I thanke God I

doe not vse to curse any man; and therfore I assure you, I had no

other meaninge in it then I speake of. Wheras you saye3 * * * * 8 that

at least you coulde have wisshed myn answere had byn mylder, if

not in regarde of a younger preacher, whoe did so expound that Texte

in a godly Sermon before my booke was printed etc. I answere that

I only replyed to Momus his arguments, withowte any implyinge

of the Preacher; whom I esteeme to be a good man, a good scholler,

and a good preacher, notwithstandinge if not in respecte of me,

never offendinge hym, in worde or deed, upon whome all the audy-

ence knwe his sharpe reprehension cheefely lighted ; yet in respecte

of owre whole house, so longe after the thinges weare past, and

allmost forgotten, hym selfe beinge but a younge man, and so for

authorytye, or judgment, but as his equalls are, and so, in so

dowtfull a matter, might be decey ved ; me thinkes he might, and

should have done well, to have spared so greevus a speeche, vttred

so publickly, which if it shoulde come to dwe tryall, he coulde not

iustifye. to whom nowe also I saye nothinge but this, that I must

pray hym to pardon me, if yet, I can not see any sownde reason,

why he, or any ffellowe of Queens College , or of any other house,

to goe no higher, shoulde thinke his iudgment ought to be a peremp-

torye rule, and sentence from the which there should lye no furder

1 Nowe, what if a man should preach or pray in the Church with such a

veile as women beare in this respect; with a calle (for examples sake) or with

a French hoode: shoulde he offende, or no? Your inference sayeth, Nay,

vnlesse he weare it with a Jewde intent, as Clodius did. For no apparell,

but the minde, doeth make a man dishonest [Side-note, from Momus, lines

152-154: Non ergo velum foeminae viro est scelus; Sed prava mens, libido,

malitia, ac dolus: Nee habitus ullus sed animus turpem facit]: and therefore

it is no fault for a man to pray with a French hoode on his head. [ Overthrow ,

p. 15.]

2 Wherfore you had done better service to the trueth, if, in steede of your

egre knitting up of this point with this epiphonema. Cursed is the glosse that

corrupteth the good text [side-note, from Momus, line 168: Maledicta textum

glossa quae vitiat bonum], you had obserued rather as Tertullian doeth, thqt

the good text you speak of, I meane, the holy Scripture specifieth not any ap¬

parell Cursed by God , but onely womans worne by man; and had applied it also

against mens wearing of it in stage-playes, as hee doeth. [ Overthrow , p. 16.]

8 See above, p. 605, note 1.

622 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

appeale, for all, but the Students of Christchurche. That you

add, that yet I shoulde have byn more mylde in consideration of

S. Cyprian, of a Councell, and other woorthy men, whose learned

writinges doe glosse that Texte in that sorte; I answere, that with all

humblenes, I reverence theire authorityes, and I trust I shall not

seeme to any man to wronge them, if I followe the opinion of

others, bothe very godly, and excellently <Jp. 54> learned, whoe

doe interprete that Texte otherwise then he, or thay doe; specialy

in a case, that touchethe me so meere, wherin I ame to defend my

selfe, and many my good frendes, from the reproche of open

infamye. I well wote it littell becommethe me to saye, da veniam

Cypriane; but yet I ame perswaded, that S. Cyprian as a godly

man, like a mighty streame, carried with a vehement and a perfett

hatred, agaynst the detestable abuses of the heathen spectacles

in his tyme, may be thought, withowte wronge to hym, rather to

have taken whatsoever he mett withall, that might seeme to have

any shewe agaynst them then that the place of Deute: in his

proper and naturall sense, is so to be vnderstood. Lastly that

you aske,1 what manner of glosse is myne, which deducethe owte of

the generall affirmatyve, a particulare negatyve; I say, that thoughe

the proposition be generall aflirmatyve, All men are abomynation

that putt on womans apparell, yet because it receyvethe lymyta^

tion, bothe in the trwe interpretation, wheron I stande, and in all

thos cases of necessytye mentioned before, this proposition is

also trwe, which is a particular negatyve, Some men are not abomy¬

nation that putt on weemens rayment. it is trwe that whoe forbiddethe

the generall, will not have the speciall practised; and evry speciall

is suspended, when the generall is suspended; but thes rules are to

be vnderstoode, of thos Generalls, that absolutely com/nande, and

necessarylye comprehende their Specialls, sub potestate sua; not

thos Generalls , which must as it weare endure controllment,

and suffer exceptions to restrayne their powre; which exceptions,

thoughe thay must alwayes be, de natura generis, yet are thay not,

sub vi et potestate generis, for generall propositions, bothe in Divinitye

and Lawe, doe vsually admytt particular acceptations and lymy-

tations, qux derogant generalitati, of which sorte, this proposition

which we have in hand, is; as there are many moe of like nature,

1 But if our glosse be cursed, who say that in the general sentence of the

Scripture, All men are abomination that put on wemens raiment, the speciall is

comprised, Players are abomination that put on wemens raiment ; a thing which

your Law-glosses obserue vpon your [p. 17] lawes, as standing with reason,

and therevpon doe gather (agreeablie to a rule of law) that he, who fordiddeth

the generall, will not haue the speciall practised; and, every speciall is suspended,

when the generall is suspended: what a maner a glosse is yours, which deduceth

out of the generall aflirmatiue a particular negative, that is, a flat contradic¬

tory; & turneth, A l are, into, Some are not; and delivereth as a rule that it is

no dishonestie for a man to weare whatsoever apparell, if his minde be chast?

[Overthrow, pp. 16-17.]

Young — William Gager’s Defence of Academic Stgge. 623

which I coulde alleage, to illustrat thes rules, but that thay are

playne to you, and I ame weary allready, and have a greate way

yet to goe, and feare that you are starke tyred with my tedious

discourse.

Seeinge therfor that, as I take it, it is not proved vngodly for a

boy or a yuthe, to putt on womanly rayment in owre case, it

followethe that it is not the lesse vnlawfull for suche a one also

to imitate womanly speeche, and behaviour, howe hardly so ever

you thinke good to terme it. neyther dothe my glosse vpon the

Texte allowe the contrary, as you wryte. for thes verses of myne,

Distinda sexum forma distindum decet , Virile non est fxminx

mores sequi, etc.1 are also parte of my exposition of the Texte which

is in controversye, and carrye no other sense then I have spoken

of before, for thoughe different behavioure becummethe different

sexes, and it beseemethe not men to followe weemens manners,

in the common course of lyfe, to the pervertinge of <|p. 55> the lawe

of nature, honesty, and cumlynes, or for any evill purpose; yet a

boy, by way of representation only, may not indecently imytate

maydenly, or womanly demeannre. Ffor as for all that tracte

of your discourse, concerninge the danger of wanton dansinge,

of kissinge bewtifull boyes, of amatorye embracinges, and effectuall

expressinge of love panges, wherby bothe the spectators in be-

howldinge, and the actors in the meditation of suche thinges,

are corrupted, all which you prove by sondry examples and author-

ytyes2; it is more learnedly, and eloquently handled, then iustly

applyed agaynst vs. it is easy for you, or any man of learninge to

1 Momus, 11. 155-156.

2 Yet the third reason, wherein playes are charged, not for making young

men come foorth in hoores attire, like the lewde woman in the Proverbs;

but for teaching them to counterfeit her actions, her wanton kisse, her impud¬

ent face, her wicked speeches and entisements; should haue bene allowed

even by your owne glosse and exposition of the text: sith you say vpon it,

that different behaviour becommeth different sexes, and, it beseemeth not men to

folow wemens maners [side-note, from Momus, lines 155-156: Distincta sexum

forma distinctum decet. Virile non est foeminse mores sequi]. Thetis taught

Achilles howe to play the woman in gate, in speech, in gesture: Sic ergo

gradus; sic ora, manusque nate feres, comitesque modis imitabere fictis. And be¬

cause his mother had not taught him enough, or he was but a bad scholer:

Deidamia gaue him farder advertisements, how he must hold his naked brest,

his hands. Sc so foorth. These are wemens maners vnseemelie for Achilles

to imitate: he should not haue done it. How much lesse seemely then is it

for young men to danse like wemen, though like those, who praised God with

danses: and much lesse seemelie yet to danse like vnhonest wemen, like

Herodiasl whereby what a flame of lust may bee kindled in the hearts of men,

as redie for the most part to conceue this fire, as flaxe is the other, Christian

writers shewe in parte by Herodes example: but a Heathen Poet [side-note;

Propertius lib. 2. eleg. 2.] more fullie by his owne experience; affirming that

hee was not ravished so much with his mistresses face, though marvellous

faire and beautifull, nor with her heare hanging downe loose after facion about

her smooth necke; nor with her radiant eyes, like starres; nor with her silkes. Sc

outlandish braverie; as hee was with her galant dansing. [ Overthrow , p. 17.]

19

624 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

wryte or speake copiously, and truly agaynst the bad effectes of

Stageplayes, in generall; but in owre cause, it is rather to be con¬

sidered, how trwly, and charitably suche thinges may be applyed

agaynst vs, then howe eloquently thay may be enforced, all truthe

in deede, agrees with truthe; but evry truthe, proves not evrye

truthe. for what proportion is there betweene thos thinges which

you enlarge in your Maior; and thos thinges which in particular

application agaynst vs, are vsed in your Minor ? As first, owre

younge men dansed only twoe solleme measures, withowte any

lyter galliarde, or other danse, only for a decorum, to note therby

vnto the auditorye, what revelinge thay weare to imagin the

wooers vsed within, and yet truly if I might have over-ruled the

matter, evne that littell also, had byn lefte owte; because I feared

lest it shoulde be ill taken, thoughe I thought there was no ill in

the thinge, as I nowe perceyve my feare was not vayne. but

what are the leadinge or treadinge of twoe Measures, to the in-

com/nodytyes of dansinge which you insinuate? what Herode

coulde be inflamed? what Propertius ravished? what flame of lust

kindled therby in menns hartes? what woundes of love imprinted?

whose senses coulde be moved, or affections delyted more then

ought to be, or may honestly be? what enemyes of chastetye

made by this sight? what stronge or constant harte vaniquished,

nay what reede shaken therby? what so muche as flaxe or towe

sett on fyre? As for the danger of kissinge of bewtifull boyes, I

knowe not howe this suspition shoulde reache to vs. for it is vntrwe,

whoesoever towlde you so1, that owre Eurymachus did kisse owre

Melantho. I have enquyred of the partyes them selves, whether

any suche action was vsed by them, and thay constantly denye

it; sure I ame, no suche thinge was taught, if you coniecture there

was kissinge because Melantho spake this verse, Furtiua nullus

oscula Eurymachus dabitf you may perhapps therby dislike my

discretion for makinge a younge paynym Ladye, so to bewayle

her shamfull deathe (thoughe I can not thinke yet, howe I shoulde

mende it) yet, therby no kissinge can be proved agaynst vs, but

that rather, that thinge only in wordes was expressed, which was

thought decent for suche a one as she was, <1p. 56> and in her case,

to vtter. We hartely pray you, Sir, to make a greate difference

1 Wherefore, in my iudgment considering what your selfe doo grant, or

must by consequence, such playes as bring in wooers masked, and dansing,

using much vnmodest behauiour in woordes and deedes; young men in wemens

raiment, and supposed to be gentlewemen, dansing with them; Eurymachus

kissing of Melantho, and Melantho bewailing the case that no more kissing nor

dansing now, when she must be hanged: Riuales fond, & amarous; mariners

beastly dronken; Phaedra incestuously embracing, and endevouring to inflame

her sonne Hippolytus with loue-speeches; the Nurse, and a new Nymph thereto,

bringing iewell enough to heale [heate? See Overthrow, p. 104.] and melt a

heart of yse or snow. [ Overthrow , p. 20.]

* Ulysses Redux, Act. 5, sig. E 5 verso.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 625

betweene vs, and Nero with his Sporus or Heliogabalus with hym

selfe, or the Canangtes , Jwes , Corinthians , or them that cause their

pages to weare longe heare like weemen, or Critobulus , kissinge

the fayre sonne of Alcibiades , or any suche doggs. we hartely

abhorr them; and if I coulde suspecte any suche thinge to growe

by owre Playes, I woulde be the first that should hate them, and

detest my selfe, for gyvinge suche occasion, you say owte of

Quintilian , nimium est quod intelligitur1', and I may say, nimium

est quod dicitur. we thanke God owre youthe doe not practyse

suche thinges, thay thinke not of them, thay knowe them not.

neyther can any man lyvinge, the rather for owre Playes, charge

any one of vs with the leste suspition, of any suche abomynation.

I have byn often moved by owre Playes to laughter, and somtyme

to teares; but I can not accuse eyther my selfe, or any other of

any such beastly thought, styrred vp by them, and therfore we

should most vncharytably be wronged, if owre puttinge on of

womanly rayment, or imytatinge of suche gesture, should eyther

directly or indirectly be referred to the com/nandement, Thou

shalte not commit adulterge. and yet if owre Eurymachus had kissed

owre Melantho , thoughe Socrates had stood by, (and I would

Socrates had stood by) he would perhapps have sayde he had done

amysse, but not so dangerously as Critobulus did2, because he might

evydently perceyve, that no suche poyson of incontinencye could

be instilled therby. As for the danger to the spectators in heeringe

and seeinge thinges lyvely expressed, and to the actors in the

ernest meditation and studye to represent them; I grant that bad

effectes doe fall owte in thos Playes, agaynst the which suche argu¬

ments are iustly to be amplyfyde; but there is no suche myscheefe

to be feared to enswe of owres. wherin for owre penninge, we are

base and meane as you see; and specialy for womanly behaviour, we

1 Among the kindes of adulterous lewdnesse howe filthie and monstrous

a sinne against nature mens naturall corruption and vitiousnes is prone to;

the Scrip [p. 11] ture witnesseth it in Cananites, Jewes, Corinthians, other in

other nations, & one with speciall caution Nimium est quod intelligitur: thirdlie,

what sparkles of lust to that vice the putting of wemens attire on men may

kindle in vncleane affections, as Nero shewed in Sporus, Heliogabalus in him

selfe; yea certaine, who grew not to such excesse of impudencie, yet arguing

the same in causing their boyes to weare long heare like wemen: if we consider

these things, I say, we shall perceiue that hee, who condemneth the female

hoore and male, and, detesting speciallie the male by terming him a dogge,

reiecteth both their offeringes with these wordes that they both are abomination

to the Lorde thy God, might well controll likewise the meanes and occasions

whereby men are transformed into dogges, the sooner, to cutt off all incite¬

ments to that beastlie filthines, or rather more then beastlie. [ Overthrow ,

pp. 10-11.]

2 When Critobulus kissed the sonne of Alcibiades, a beautiful boy, Socrates

saide he had done amisse and very dangerously: because, as certaine spiders,

if they doe but touch men onely with their mouthe, they put them to wonderfull

paine and make them madde: so beautiful boyes by kissing doe sting and powre

secretly in a kinde of poyson, the poyson of incontinencie. [ Overthrow , p. 18.]

626 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

weare so careles, that when one of owre actors should have made

a Conge like a woman, he made a legg like a man. in summ; owre

spectators could not gretely charge owre actors with any such

diligence in medytation and care to imprynt any passions; and so

neyther of them coulde receyve any hurt therby. no not the nwe

Nymphe in Hyppolitus whom you so muche note, was any wittye

wanton, or any so dangerous a woman, as that she brought fewelJS

inoughe to heate a harte of yse or snowe1 2. the poore wenche I per-

ceyve hathe byn hardely reported of to you, and worse a greate

deale then she deserved, as you and the worlde shall one day see.

in whose person the devyse was, partly to sett owte the constant

chastetye or rather virginytye of Hippolytus, whoe neyther with

honest love made to hym in the woods, nor with vnhonest attempts

in the cyttye could be overcum me; partly to expresse the affection

of honest, lawfull, vertuous, marriage meaninge love; for no other

did she profer, and therfor me thinkes she is not, vnharde, to be

reproched with the brode name of bawderye, wherof there is no

one syllable in worde or sense to be founde in all her speches.

Erasmus in that epistell wherin he shewethe the generall vse of

his Colloquia, <!p. 57> defendethe them, to be voyde of scurry lytye

and obscenytye, wherwith amonge other thinges, thay weare

charged, and yet that Colloquye which he entytlethe Proci et

Puellse, is all together of this argument, lyvely to expresse, as it

weare in an image or picture, the affections of honest wooinge,

to speake nothinge of other places. Si res honesta est matrimonium ,

sayth he, et procum agere honestum est. quid facias istis ingenijs

tetricis, et ab omnibus Gratijs alienis, quibus impudicum videtur ,

quiquid amicum est ac festinun 1? this he thought, beinge nowe an

owlde man, and, I thinke, a trwe bachiler. not unlike my answere

to Momus , Qui turpe, laetum; ludicrum , petulans vocat.3 Neyther

doe I see what evill affections could be stirred vp by owre playes,

but rather good, for in Vlysse Reduce , whoe did not love the

fidelytye of Eumseus, and Philxtius , towardes their Master; and

hate the contrary, in Melanthiusl whoe was not moved to com¬

passion, to see Vlysses a greate Lorde, dryvne so hardly, as that

he was fayne to be a begger in his owne house? whoe did not

wisshe hym well, and all ill to the wooers, and thinke them worthely

slayne, for their bluddye purpose agaynst Telemachus, and other

dissolute behaviour, not so muche expressed on the Stage, as

imagined to be done within? whoe did not admyre the constancye

of Penelope , and disprayse the lytenes, and bad nature in Melantho ,

and thinke herjiustly hanged for it? whoe did not prayse the

1 MS. swell.

2 See above, p. 624, note 1.

3 Momus , 1. 110.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 627

patience, wisdome, and secrecye, of Vlysses and Telemachus his

sonne? lastly whoe was not glad to see Vlysses restored to his wife,

and his goods, and his mortall enemyes overthrowne, and punsihed?

In Riuales, what Cato might not be delyted to see the fonde be¬

haviour of cuntrye wooinge, expressed by cyvill men, or the

vanytye of a bragginge soldier? by the spectacle of the drunken

mariners, if there were any drunkard there, why might he not the

rather detest drunkennes, by seeinge the deformytye of drunken

actions represented? possible it was not, that any man should be

provoked to drunkennes therby. the Lacedaemonians are com¬

mended for causinge their slaves, beinge drunke in deed, to be

brought before their children, that thay seeinge the beastly vsage

of suche men, myght the more lothe that vyce; but we muche

better expressinge the same intent,' not with drunken, but with

sober men, counterfettinge suche vnseemly manners, are the lesse

therfor to be reprehended. In Hippolytus , what younge man did

not wisshe hym selfe to be as chast as Hippolytus , if he weare

not so allreadye? whoe did not detest the love of Phaedra ? who dide

not approve the grave counsayle of the Nurse to her in secrett?

or whoe coulde be the worse for her wooinge Hippolytus , in so

generall termes? the drifte wherof, if it had byn to procure an

honest honorable marriage, as it was covertly to allure hym to

inceste, he might very well have listned to it. whoe wisshethe

not that Theseus had not byn so credulus? whoe was not sorrye

for the crwelldeathe of Hippolytus ? thes and suche <^p. 58> like,

weare the passions that weare, or might be moved, in owre Playes,

withowte hurte, at the leste, to any man. as in other Tragedyes;

whoe dothe not hate the furye of Medea, the revenge of Atreus ,

the treason of Clytemnestra and VEgistus, and the crueltye of

Nerol contraryewise, whoe dothe not pittye the rage, and the

deathe of Hercules , the calamytye of Hecuba and her children, the

infortunate valure of Oedipus, the murder of Agamemnon, the

bannishment of Odauia, and suche like? and yet no man is to be

reproched, for eyther affection. Wherfor as the younge men of

owre house, are suche in deede, as I commended them for; so for

me, or for any thinge donne on the Stage, by the grace of God

thay may so remayne and continwe, and I hope shall ever be so

reputed. And to shutt upp this poynte; as your Athenian boye

was a wanton for prickinge owte quayles eyes withowte cause,

yet me thinkes the sentence of the Areopagitse was toe harde and

cruell, to iudge hym worthy of deathe for it1 ; so thoughe evne owre

1 The grave Athenian Iudges, Areopagitse did never punish any (I trow) for

killing quailes to supply his want. But, when a lewd boy did picke out quailes

eyes of a wanton humor, they iudged him worthy of death for it. [ Overthrow ,

P. 14.1

628 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Playes, may perhapps of a wantonnes have as it weare pricked owte

quayles eyes, that is, may have offended in some small matter,

yet in my conscience, I thinke it a bitter doome, to condemne them

therfor to hatefull infamye, a thinge to all honest myndes more

intolerable, then deathe it selfe.

In your answere to my defence of owre not mysspendinge tyme

aboute Playes, I must needes saye, you spare us not a whitt. if

you had but sayde that owre playes, are toyes, vnnecessarye,

vayne, or suche like; it had byn no more perhapps then in1 strictnes,

trwe. because Vnum modo necessarium; and hie that had tryde1

all thinges, of his owne wise experience pronouncethe, Vanitas

vanitatum, Sc omnia vanitas , yea evne learninge, and wisdome,

and all thinges ells, excepte the feare of God, which endurethe

for ever, and I have harde a godly, and a learned preacher, whome

you knowe, in the pulpitt affirme, that owre declamations, op¬

positions, suppositions, and suche scholasticall exercises, are no

better then vayne thinges. but to compare owre Playes, to ye

wickednes of a foole committed in pastyme, to a madd mann’s castinge

of fyrebrandes , arrowes , and mortall thinges, as you doe before;

or to the hauntinge of a dycinge house , or taverne , or stwes, as in this

place; or to a schollers playinge at stooleball amonge wenches, at

mumchance , at Mawe with idell lost companions , at Trunkes in

Guile-halls, dansinge aboute Maypoles, riflinge in alehouses , car-

rowsinge in taverns, stealinge of deere , or robbinge of orchardes, as

afterwarde; I say to compare owre Playes to no better then thes

thinges, it exceedethe the cumpasse of any tolerable resemblance.

I cowlde have wisht that suche comparisons had byn forborne,

if not for the Playes them selves, (thoughe also thay ought for

the Playes them selves, beinge thinges that savor of some witt,

learninge, and iudgment, approved vnto vs by longe continwance,

recommended by owre cheefest governors, and donne in a learned,

grave, worshipfull, and somtyme honorable presence, with suche

convenient sollemnytye, honest preparation, ingenuous <|p. 59>

expectation, dwe regarde, modest reverence, silent attention, and

the generall, as it weare, simmetrye and seemly carriage in them)

yet in respecte of the actors, and owre whole House; of the specta¬

tors that sawe them, and hartely approved them, to whome it

weare a foule shame, but to stand by as lookers on of thinges of

suche nature; and lastly, of thos reverend, famous, and excellent

men, for life, and learninge, and their places in the Churche of God,

bothe of owre house, and otherwise of the Vniuersitye, that have

byn, and nowe are lyvinge, with vs, and abrode, whoe have byn

not only wryters of suche thinges them selves, but also actors2

1 A rubbing of the manuscript renders the reading of these words doubtful.

2 It is interesting to note that both Rainolds himself and Thornton had

appeared as actors upon the stage. See Boas, p. 232.

Young — William Gager’s Defence of Academic Stage. 629

and to this daye doe thinke well of them, to whome it weare a

greate reproche, at any tyme to have byn acquaynted with thinges

of so vyle, and base qualytye, and muche more, still to allowe of

them. Wheras I sayde that there was no more tyme spent vpon

owre Playes then was convenient, you replye1 that It may be there

was , evne some tyme that shoulde have byn spent in heeringe Sermons,

the very day that my Vlysses Redux came vpon the Stage. It may be

there was not; and for any thinge that can be proved, or for any

thinge that any man needed to be hindred from Sermons that daye

for my Vlysses, it was not so in deede. sure I ame, that the gentel-

man that playde Vlysses , was at Sermon, and divers Others of

the actors, as if neede were thay coulde prove, perhapps the

rather, to avoyde suche a scandall. if any were awaye, thay might

have other cause so to doe, thoughe (the more the pittye) it is

no vnusuall thinge, for many other students, as well as owres,

sometyme to mysse a sermon, and it may be, that some of them

that mysliked owre Playes, weare not there them selves; it may be

the same Sonday night thay were wurse occupyed then owre

actors were; it may be, preventinge vs, playinge Momus parte

in good ernest, which we afterwarde did but for pastyme. and yet

that accusation touchethe my poore vnfortunate Vlysses only,

not the other twoe. The sayinge of S. Cyprian agaynst a Stage-

player, or of Phxdria of hym selfe to Parmino, can not be iustly

vsed agaynst vs. for he schoulde doe vs grete contumelye, that

should thinke, or saye, that eyther we are maisters not of teaching e

but of spillinge children; or that bothe tyme, and owre younge

men weare cast awaye all together by thos exercises. But it is

no marvayle that you implye so ill a conceyte of them, if you

dowte that, as I answered Momus , owre actors can shewe greater

frute of their tyme well spent, then any that is bredd vp in Momusses

discipline can. for you pray God that thay maye2, as dowtinge it

1 S. Cyprian writing of a stage-player who made boyes effeminate by in¬

structing them how to play the wemen, and to expresse & counterfeit vnhonest

wanton gestures, saith, he was a maister not of teaching but spilling children.

Whose words put me in minde that the losse of time should not haue bene

obiected so much against your playes: seeing some of the players (if they were

like the youthes whom Cyprian speaketh of) might reply as Phsedria; when

Parmeno did tell him that his gift bestowed on Thais would bee lost, Ego

quoque una pereo, quod mihi est carius: ne istuc tam iniquo patiare animo.

There was no more time spent about them (you say) then useth to be spent in

sports, sleepe, talke, and learned releasing of the minde from studie. [side-note,

from Momus, lines 170-174: Nihil studiis remissum est publicis: id fabulis.

Tempus tributum est quod solet tribui jocis, Sommoqize colloquiisqize doctoque

otio.] It may bee that there was: euen some time that should haue bene spent

in hearing Sermons the very day that your Vlyssis redux came on the stage.

[Overthrow, p. 21.]

2 You adde that your actors can shewe greater fruite of their time well spent

then any that is bredde up by Momusses discipline can. [Side-note, from Momus,

lines 174-176: Bene collocati temporis fructum chorus praestare noster, Mome,

maiorem potest, quam disciplina quispiam Momi editus.] I pray God they

630 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , a/itf Letters.

is not soe. thay coulde doe littell, if thay coulde not doe so muche,

and a greate deale more, and better, whensoever thay shall be

tryde. for what is the disciplyne of Momus, but the schoole of

carpinge, nippinge, depravinge, and reprehendinge, of evrye good

thinge? of all other thinges, I thought you woulde not, or coulde

not have taken any exception, to that speeche of myne. for what

dothe Momusses <lp. 60> disciplyne touche you (from the which,

I ame perswaded, you are as free, as any man lyvinge) or any other

your frendes, whome you meane by We, thay, Vs? and I marvayle

that vnder thos termes, you shoulde defende others agaynst me,

whom I knowe not, in this case, whoe thay are, neyther whosoever

thay are, have I willingely hurte them, but surely owre younge

men shall the lesse esteeme the censure or the disciplyne of Momus,

because thay are instructed and perswaded, that neyther S.

Cyprian, nor the holy Ghost in your places alleaged, beinge rightly

vnderstoode, doe importe owre Playes to have any affinytye at

all wth the strumpetts discipline mentioned in ye Prouerbes. Wheras

you wryte, meaninge me; You demande whether we dare dispy se

learned Poetrye; I did not demande of you, or them, or any man,

but Momus, any suche question; if I may be beleeved, as I see

no cause why I shoulde not. for I was as sure, that you, or any

learned man, did not dispyse it, as I was certayne that Momus

did. An tu poesin despicere doctam audeasP I sayd not An vos;

but An tu ? and I meant it no otherwise then I sayde it. Your

difference betweene Agere and Recitare* 1 2 I coulde not well be

ignorant of before, but because Agere woulde not stande so well

in that place of my verse as Recitare dothe3; and for that the worde

is vsed in Quintilian not only de scripto ; but also memoriter recitare ,

may. Sure they shall the better if they bee informed that this which you terme

the discipline of Momus , is not his, but Cyprians, who entitled the stage

a stewes of publicke shame; or rather the holy Ghosts, who willeth vs to abstaine

from all appearance of evill: and that the contrarie, for the loue whereof you

would disgrace this, hath to great affinitie with the strumpets discipline,

mentioned in the Proverbs. [Overthrow, p. 21.]

1 Momus, 1. 177.

2 But it is one thing to recite; an other thing to play: as you may learne by

Juvenal, who dispraised not Poets for reciting comedies, yet thought a man

ought rather choose to dye then play them: by Plinie, who esteemed (no dout)

of stage-playing like a Roman ; yet prayed others to recite, or praised them for

doeing it, and did it him selfe; by Scaliger, who reporteth out of the same

Plinie that a Latin comedie endited in such sort as the olde comedie of the

Greeke was recited in his time at Rome, but not played. And if your tragedie

had bene recited onely, as by the title [side-note: Vlysses redux, tragedia nova,

in eede Christi Oxonise publice recitata.] a stranger might conceue, who knew

not that it had bene played: surely for mine owne parte I would haue accounted

it no more losse of time to haue heard you pronounce it then my selfe to reade

it. But it beeing played as Terences were: a looser Poet then Terence would

controll my iudgement and very iustly might, if seeing there is in it a sweete

Melantho, a lewde queane, I should not thinke there came hurt by the playing

of it. [Overthrow, p. 22.]

3 See Momus, line 178: Senecamne tu recitare iacturam putes?

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 631

and the lawe vsethe the worde Pronunciandi , for agendi causd. ,

I knowe not yet, whether in a generall acceptation of the latter, I

might not vse the wordes indifferently, bothe in my verse, and in

my Title, but as Horrace, and Persius doe bitterly scoffe also at

Recitatores, and the lawe in the generalyty of the terme, noteth

also with infamye, them, qui pronunciandi, that is properly,

recitandi causa , in Scenam prodeunt; so the Vniuersitye woulde

have thought it a more absurde thinge, to have hearde me, or

any other, openly readinge my Vlysses to them, then to have seene

it acted, as it was.

Ffmally, bothe you, and I agree, that relaxation from studyes is

necessary in a good scholler, bothe for bodye, and mynde. and

yet did I not conclude, as you make me, that therfor all recreations

are honest1, for I never thought any suche thinge. but as my simple

assertion, that there is a needfull tyme for sportes, dothe not ther¬

for prove the lawfullnes of owre Playes, which before I presumed

to be lawfull; so your incomparable, and harde comparisons, doe

lesse argue their vnlawfullnes. and heere amonge other vnfitt

recreations, besyde Playes, you vse many wordes agaynst dansinge,

thoughe it be but as it weare by the waye. all which place dothe

touche vs no neerer, then I have shewed before, for myn owne

parte, I never dansed, nor ever coulde, and yet I can not denye,

but I love to see honest dansinge. to omytt Homed s iudgment

therof,2 an excellent observer of decorum in all thinges; that learned

Knight Sir Thomas Eliote amonge other thinges that he wrytethe

in a booke of his, which I have seene, in the prayse of dansinge, I

remember, comparethe the man treadinge the measures, to <jp. 61>

Fortitude , and the woman on his hande, to Temperance .and to

speake my mynde playnly, and I trust withowte offence, I thinke

(all circumstances observed, which I ame not nowe to sett downe,

because the state of this question is not principally in hande)

dansinge may be most honestly vsed of the meaner sorte, and most

honorablye of the greatest, as I have often seene it donne, me

thought, with that honor, regarde, reverence, modesty, cumlynes,

and honest delyte, the number of the footinge marvyluslye well

expressinge, answeringe, and as it weare actinge the measure and

1 Time of recreation is necessarie, I graunt: and thinke as necessarie for

scholers that are scholers in deede, I meane, good students, as it is for any.

Yet in my opinion it were not fit for them [p. 23] to play at stoole ball among

wenches; nor at Mum-chance or Maw with idle loose companions, nor at

trunkes in Guile-hals, nor to danse about Maypoles, nor to rifle in alehouses,

nor to carowse in tavernes, nor to steale deere, nor to robbe orchardes. Though,

who can deny, but they may doe these thinges, yea worse, even those S.

Paul meant by chambering and wantonnes, and that in the most heinous

degree, euen of incest, if your generall speech concerning recreation be not

better limited? [ Overthrow , pp. 22-23.]

2 Gager’s side-note: Odyss. 0

632 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

meaninge of the musick, together with the healthe, and activytye

of bodye followinge therof; that I see no cause in reason, charytye,

or Christian libertye, why dansinge shoulde simply be condemned;

thoughe also I doe not thinke, it a meete recreation for schollers,

commonly to be vsed. but be it as it may (for what have I to doe

to defende it?) yet to apply e eyther the dansinge of thos noble

Romans , whom Nero inforced to danse so publickly; or Samsons

dansinge amonge the Philistine’ s; or the note of Arius Montanus,

agaynst owre dansinge only of twoe sober measures, is a comparison

withowte all measure.1

Like to it, is the bringinge in of your example of the Prodigall

sonne, to elude my defence of owre charge bestowed on owre

Playes2. for what simylitude is there, or can there be, betweene

hym, that in suche a sorte, as he did, spent all, and brought hym

selfe to the extremest myserye; and betweene owre expence? or

howe coulde he so well have vsed my wordes agaynst any man,

that had reprehended hym for his ryott, as thay weare vsed agaynst

Momusses vnseasonable carpinge? the mony bestowde on owre

Playes, was not, to add watstfullnes to wantonnes , but to procure

honest recreation, with convenient expence, surely if the Prodigall

sonne, had byn as moderatt, and as thriftye, in his spendinge at

his boorde, as we weare in owre Playes, he might well inoughe

have sayde, to any niggarde, that shoulde have vnwisely fownde

falte with hym, as muche as you make hym to saye, not with the

note of a prodigall, but with the commendation of an ingenuous,

and a liberall disposition.

Wheras it is replyde to Momus obiectinge, that the monye had

byn better bestowed on the poore, that for any charge we wear

at, nemo .propterea minus Fouebit inopes , absque eo nemo magis

Leuabit; you thinke it weakely mett with. Why so? because, say

you, Nero peraduenture was eyther less able , or less willinge, to helpe

the poore, by reason of fyve or sixe thousande powndes spent for a

1 In so much that the Romans, whom Nero enforced, if they could doe no

other service on the stage, to danse there at least, pronounced the dead happy,

who by departure out of life had escaped that shame. The Philistines ac¬

counted it a meet dishonor for their greatest enemie, when they put Samson

to it: if yet the playing & sporting before them, which they put him too, were

so ignominious. All auncient lawes almost (as a learned man doeth note upon

occasion of that concerning Samson ) yea, and reason it selfe doe brande with a

marke of dishonestie and infamie, those that daunse publikelie; and persons

of such showes and spectacles. [Overthrow, p. 23.]

2 Now, these things standing thus, what need I spend wordes in prooving

of the fourth reason, namelie, that the charge of setting foorth such playes

is mony cast away, and addeth wastfulnes to wantonnes, when your owne

aunswere doeth strengthen it sufficientlie? For in that you say, there is a time

of sparing, a time of honest spending, [Side-note, from Momus, lines 191-192:

Est, ubi parcas, locus, suus est honesto sumptui] you graunt that vnhonest

expense is still vnlawfull: as you haue cause to doe, seeing it is of riott con¬

demned by our Sauiour in the prodigall sonne. [ Overthrow , p. 24.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 633

Plaudite.1 what Nero's ryotts weare that way, I can not iustly

accownte ; likely it is, thay weare very excessy ve, that he would

gyve so muche mony, as you speake of, to Gaptaynes of bandes,

only to crye, excellent, excellent; besyde the rest of his charge,

in settinge his Playes owte. there is no proportion, I knowe, be-

tweene Nero’s abylytye, and owres. but if Nero <3p. 62> cowlde

have as well spared suche huge su/ums of mony, which he spent

that way often, as our House, with the cumpanye in it, and be-

longinge to it (thanked be God) can, ons in many yeers, thirtye

powndes; Nero showlde have byn wronged greatly beinge an

Emperour to have byn noted of wastfullnes, and if ever he had

any suche good mynde, he mought never the lesse have releeved

the poore. And therfore, ad quid ista perditio est, Here** mala ,

Mome, vox est2; servethe a turne well inoughe agaynst Momus. for

thoughe I knowe there is an infinyte difference, betweene owres, and

the action agaynst the which it was hypocrytically first vsed;

yet I thinke it may also be applyed, agaynst eyther the nigardise,

or the hypocrisye of any Momus , that shall condemne all expence,

as cast awaye, that is somtyme, moderattly bestowed vpon

honest sportes and pastymes, and not vpon the poore. a man

may feast, and yet remember the affliction of Josephe toe. and

monye may be spent on Playes, evne thirtye powndes, and yett

the poore releeved, and no man the lesse liberall for them, or the

more, if thay had not byn at all. for thoughe no cost can be so

well bestowed, as that was vpon owre Savioure; yet it followeth

not, that therfor no cost is at any tyme to be imployed vpon lawful 1

1 Wherefore, vnlesse that vnthrift might haue aunswered Christ or anie

other reproouer, Thou blamest me for wasting, but 1 wast none of thine: thou

maist drinke with mee scotfree, if thou be a good fellowe, and welcome: I see not

how your aunswere to Momus [Side-note, from Momus, lines 184-185: At

sumptus ingens: at tibi gratis licet spectare, Mome, nemo te stipem rogat.]

can be iustified, Thou sayest the charge is great; but thou mayest come, and

looke on, Momus, and paye nothing, no man doeth aske thee a penie. And that

which hee obiecteth, that it had bene better bestowed on the poore, [Side-note,

from Momus, lines 89-90: Hue tantus iste sumptus, in pauperculos magis

elocandus, rediit?] is as weaklie mett with: in that you replie. The charge,

great to him, is meane Sc moderate to you; none will giue the lesse to the poore for

that, none [p. 25] would haue given the more without it. [Side-note, from Momus,

lines 187-190: Sumptus est ingens tibi; Nobis mediocris: nemo propterea

minus fovebit inopes; absque eo nemo magis levabit.] For Nero, being tickled

with desire of prayse, and louing to heare men approoue his playing on the

stage with clapping of their hands, and crying out, Excellent, excellent, did

choose a lustie bande of valiant youthes to doe it, whose Captaines hee gaue

three hundred pound a piece, or better. This, if we consider the millions that

he wasted in prodigall giftes, was lesse charge to him, supposing it amounted

to three thousande pound, or foure, or fiue, or more, then three or fower, or

hue, or a fewe more shillings is to some of yours. Yet the storie noteth it

as part of his wastfulnes, and Nero peradventure was either lesse able or lesse

willing to helpe the poore, by reason of that moony giuen for a Plaudite.

[Overthrow, p. 24-25.]

2 Momus, 11. 190-191.

634 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , arzc? Letters.

recreations, suche as owre Playes weare, whatsoever is rather ob-

iected, then proved, to the contrarye. AH paynym and heathen

iudgment, I have answered in the defence of my first reason, as

for the ffathers and Cowncells, beeinge rightly vnderstoode, their

forces are not bent agaynst vs. S. Cyprian 1 most eloquently, and

godly, inveyethe agaynst the abuses of the Tragicke buskin in

his tyme. so he dothe also in the same place, agaynst the evles

of warr, of Judgment seates, of Judges, of Aduocates, of gowlde,

and riches, shall we therfor conclude, there should be no warr,

no trybunalls, no Judges, no advocates, no goulde, no riches;

and likewise no Tragicke buskin in any sorte? no dowte the ffathers,

as holy men of God, bothe in their Councells, and in their bookes,

have decreed, and written, many zelous and most godly thinges,

agaynst the theatrycall sightes of their tymes. but distinguisshe

the tymes, the places, the qualytyes of the sightes and actors,

and the vse, from the abuse; and it is evydent, by that which is

sayde before, that we, and owre Playes are not reproched by them.

And therfor I have not done the Vniuersytye wronge, in producinge

the iudgment therof, to the approovinge of owre Playes. for

thoughe, as you wryte1 2 there weare some which weare not present ,

because thay disallowed them , some disallowed them , that weare

present; yet, bothe thes putt together, if the greater parte may

denomynate the whole, which did with their hartye applause

approve them, I might withowte wronge, I ame sure, to the bodye

of the Vniuersytye , <*p. 63> demand of Momus , Academiae tu

iudicia nihili facisl which question, I saye agayne, I asked not

you, or any man ells, whome you meane by Vs, but Momus only;

the offendinge of whome, I see no reason, why we, or any should

greatly esteeme of, or regarde, for my selfe, I may trulye saye,

that I never requested any man to owre Playes; neyther did I

neede; thay woulde cu/nme without biddinge, or sendinge for,

more, and faster then somtyme we would willingely thay shoulde

have donne. muche lesse needed thay to be pressed to them , with

greate importunytye. I beshrowe them that did byd suche ghestes,

whose roomthes, had byn better then their cumpanyes.-for of all

men, I woulde thay that dislike Playes, had not byn at owres; at

leste, I woulde thay had more truly, and more charitably, for

1 Gager’s side-note: Ep. 1. 2. ep. 2.

2 The more sorie am I, that you conclude your answere to this and all the

former reasons with alleaging the iudgement of our Uniuersitie; [Side-note,

from Momus, line 202: Academiae tu judicia nihili facis?] yea, with asking

vs, whether we set nothing by it. Wherein first you doe the Vniuersitie wrong,

in charging the body thereof with allowing that, which some were not present

at, because they disallowed it, some disallow it who were present: as in part

I knowe by a graue learned man, your good friend and mine, who shewed me

his dislike of the representation of a [p. 26] morousnes and drunkennes, in

Rivales both; the former, not in Rivales onely. [ Overthrow , pp. 25-26.]

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage. 635

dansinge, kissinge, and other demeanour, reported to you of them,

with suche a mynde as I will forbeare to speake of. if you had

byn present your selfe, I ame so farr perswaded, of your Candor ,

wisdome, and gentill nature, that you would not have condemned

them of suche thinges as infamous, howsoever in your iudgment

you might deeme them otherwise, very defectyve, as we did, and

doe. As for the opynion of the learned, grave frende, you meane,

I knowe howe farr he did sumwhat dislike some commicall action,

in my heeringe, which is not heere to be repeated, but I ame sure,

that bothe before, and after, he muche commended them to me,

and furthred them with his adyvse, purse, and paynes, and would

be sorrye that any speeche of his, shoulde be, by mistakinge,

alleaged agaynst vs, whome he lovethe, as we love, and reverence

hym.

Muche lesse have I done you, or any other iniurye, by entwytinge

you , as settinge nothinge by theire iudgment, whoe dissent from you,

and approve owre Playes; and so offendinge agaynst the rule of

charytye, when rather I shoulde have thought, that you dissented

from them, as Austin did from Cyprian, whose iudgment notwith¬

standing e he reuerenced, and made accownte of. for first, I did not

vse this verse, Academise tu iudicia nihili facis ? to entwite any

sorte of men. next, I did not thinke, till I harde of the Preacher,

and receyved your letter, that there had byn so many as to make

vp a number in this Vniuersitye, of whome owre Playes weare so

mysliked, as nowe I perceyve there are, and yett but a number

only, and to this daye, of my knowledge, I can not name any man

that is of your opinion, besyde you twoe; so littell curious ame

I in soymdinge other menns pryvatt thoughtes, as one, whoe, in

thos thinges, this only ende proposed, if not sine inuidia laude m

inuenire, as he say the in the Comedy e1, yet to procure, I trust,

honest contentment to my selfe, and my frendes, aduorsus nemini.

Lastly I doe with <!p. 64 > all lowlynes of mynde, reverence yours,

or any other godly learned manns iudgment, and doe rather

mislike myne owne when it differethe from such a on’s, then

entwyte hym for dissentinge from myne. As for your sayinge owte

of S. Paule, to them that are not of your opinion heerin, thay may

saye the same to you, and others, if ye be otherwyse mynded, God

shall revele the same evne to you. Neyther can they take otherwise

then in good parte, that you preferr before them, the iudgment of

the Churche , in so many Councells, and ffathers. but thay thinke

that thay have libertye, as well, in this, as in many other thinges,

to interprete the voyce of the Churche, in the Councellsand Fathers,

accordinge to that good measure of the Spyritt, which thay also

have receyved. ffor your furder sayinge to me, and proposinge

1 Gager’s side-note: Ter* And. Act. 1. Sc. 1.

636 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

vnto me this verse (E cclesix tu iudicia nihili fads'!) wheron you

pray God I may thinke religiouslye, wisely , and fruitefullye , I

hartely thanke you for it1. I trust I shall never despyse the iudg-

ment of the Churche, wherof, I hope, I ame a member, and a

sonne, thoughe an vntowarde on. for nexte beleevinge in, I most

constantly beleeve sanctam Eccelsiam catholicam ; as beinge per-

swaded, that he can not have God to his ffather, that refusethe

the Churche for his mother. I weare very impudent, if I woulde

take vpon me to advyse you; but yet lett me be bowlde to repeate

some of thos wordes that Tullye dothe to Cato 2 3; Ego tuum con¬

silium propter singulare animi mei de tua virtute iudicium, vitu-

perare non audeo; et ego te verissime dixerim, peccare nihil, neque

ulla in re esse huiusmodi, vt corrigendus potius, quam lender in-

flectendus esse videare; non quod tu vir melior esses, nee temperantior,

nee iustior, ( neque enim esse poles) sed paulo ad lenitatem propensior.

which mynde in you, I ame so f arr from dislikinge, that I admyre it ;

and muche the rather, because I ame fully perswaded, you are

suche a one in deede, as Tullye saythe that M. Mlius Tubero was,

vita seuerus, & congruens cum ea disciplina , quam colebatf

And thus, have I also answered your wrytinge; not so muche to

patronage Playes, which I can forbeare, and thinke of them as

thay are (for what have I to doe with them, more then an other?)

as to defende owre House, my selfe, and many honest towardely

younge men my frendes, whom for good causes I hartely love,

from open infamye. wherwith, it not a littell greevethe me, and

them, that thay shoulde in pryvate, but muche more in publicke

be charged, to the generall reproche of owre House, and to the

particular contumelye of dyvers in their persons, with many, if

so harde a censure shoulde be by men of note, enforced and per¬

swaded. <!p. 65 > ffor your care to approve your iudgment, and

goodwill to me, as I humbly thanke you; so I ame very sorry that

by any occasion of myne, you weare so farr trobled amydst your

greate busines. your goodwill I doe and ever will most gladly

embrace; and your iudgment toe, in this cause so farr, as you

wryte in the generall agaynst Histriones; prayinge you to pardon

me if, as I verely thinke, for good causes, I can not agree with

1 But to them I say, with Paul, to the Philippians, If pee bee otherwise

minded, God shall reveile euen the same to you, and I assure my selfe, they will

take in good part, that I preferre before them the iudgement of the Church

in so manie Councells, what Generall, what Provinciall, of Constantinople,

Laodicea, Carthage, Arles, and Aquisgranum, to pertermitt the Fathers, of

whom what one is otherwise minded? To your selfe I say farder, that in steed

of your question proposed vnto us, Academise tu judicia nihili facis? I propose

you an other vpon a surer ground, though in a verse like yours, and God

graunt you may thinke religiouslie, wiselie, & fruitfullie thereof, Ecclesise tu

iudicia nihili facis? [ Overthrow , p. 26.]

2 Gager’s side-note: Orat. pro Marc.

3 Gager’s side-note: Cic. De cla. orato.

Young — William Gager's Defence of Academic Stage . 637

you in the particular applycation agaynst vs. which you may the

rather doe, because you are not the worse for your opynion thoughe

it be false, but we are no lesse then infamous if it be true, if I

have greatly erred in any thinge, I shall better be reformed by

pryvatt conference, then with any your furder replye in wrytinge.

which I pray you therfor to forbeare, as also because I knowe

you have, and I ought to have some thinge ells to doe, then to

troble owre selves, specially you, and your better studyes, with a

matter of this nature and moment. And so prayinge God to blysse

you with constancye of mynde, and healthe of bodye, to goe for-

warde in your godly and learned labours, I most hartely recom¬

mend you to his grace and favor. At Christchurche the laste of

Julye 1592.

Your very lovinge frende

Willi Am Gager.

YII. Rainolds’ reply (May 30, 1593)1 to Gager’s letter of

July 31, 1592.

Although -Gager concluded his letter of July 31, 1592, by

expressing the hope that his correspondent would thence¬

forth confine the controversy to “pryvatt conference,” and

would desist from “furder replye in wrytinge,” Rainolds

returned to the attack, on May 30, 1593, with a letter of

portentous bulk and truculence. This rejoinder opens with

the following paragraph:

Your request, Maister D. Gager, that I should forbeare farther

reply in writing, and by word of mouth in private conference in¬

forme you, if you have greatlie erred in any part of your answer;

brought into my mind the Philosophers censuring and checking

of such as offered sacrifice for health , and at their very sacrifizing

did banket riotouslie against health . For that which I wrote con¬

cerning things, the stage-playes, you draw vnto the persons, who

played on the stage at Christchurch , as if I went to make them

and your house most vilanouslie infamous: and partlie by con¬

cealing, partly by perverting the drift & substance of my speeches,

you seeke to smoother up and suppresse the trueth. Which being

done in writing by you with care and diligence, not to be imparted

vnto me alone, but to others also, as your selfe doe signifie: if I

should note the fault thereof by worde of mouth, my plaister

would be lesse a great deale then the wound, and therefore never

reach to heale it: for woordes haue wings, and flie away, mens

1 Printed in Th ’ overthrow of Stage-Plages, 1599, pp. 29-163, under the fol¬

lowing heading: “Vnto this maister D. Gager replying and desiring Maister

Rainoldes to forbeare, Maister Rainoldes did reioine as followeth.”

638 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

writings doe remaine. But as farre as possiblie I may without

neglect of the duetie I owe to God and to his Church, I yeelde to

your request: that is, I will endeuour to make plaine vnto you the

iniuries and wrongs that your aunswer doth me, as brieflie as the

necessarie clearing of the truth, and scattering of the mistes where¬

by you goe about to darken it, will permit.

The communication thus introduced consists essentially

in a minute dissection of Gager’s letter, rather than in im¬

portant additions to the matter of the argument.

To this violent utterance Gager offered no reply, and with

it the direct controversy between the two men ceased.1

Nor need one wonder at the subsequent reticence of the

dramatist of Christ Church, for in “the iudgment of any

man that is not froward and perverse” his one humane and

temperate reply to his Puritan opponent had already amply

justified the dramatic productions of his revered Alma Mater.

1 The highly technical continuation of the controversy in the Latin

letters passed between Rainolds and Albericus Gentilis is recounted by

Boas, University Drama in the Tudor Age , pp. 244-248.

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bunyan.

639

LEGENDS OF PAUL BUNYAN, LUMBERJACK

K. BERNICE STEWART AND HOMER A. WATT.

The following study of lumberjack legends has grown out

of a little collection of these tales made in the lumber-camps

by Miss Stewart, who for years has heard the stories told

by the lumberjacks of Wisconsin and Michigan. Recently

by corresponding with and interviewing lumbermen and

others who are or who have been intimately connected with the

lumber-camps we have added to the original collection a

considerable number of new legends, besides many different

versions of stories already in our collection, and a great deal

of miscellaneous information about the hero, Paul Bunyan,

and his blue ox. Some of these stories, as must be expected

of any such series, are too coarse for publication. It has

seemed to us, however, that for the most part the tales are

quite wholesome; perhaps the circumstances under which

they were collected have automatically excluded those of

the rougher type. We realize, moreover, that our present

collection represents only a comparatively small number of

these stories; versions which have come to us from Oregon

and Washington indicate that the tales are widely spread.

We expect to continue our search for Paul Bunyan material,

and shall be very glad to receive any information which will

assist us. Communications should be addressed to Mr. H.

A. Watt, Department of English, New York University,

New York.

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to Mr. B. R.

Taylor, Mr. M. W. Sergeant, and Mr. Harold Stark, stu¬

dents in the University who have recently lived in the lum¬

ber districts of northern Wisconsin, and who have heard

Paul Bunyan tales from boyhood, to Mr. Douglas Malloch.

of Chicago for a copy of his poem, The Round River Drive,,

a metrical version of some of the tales which was published

640 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

in 77ze American Lumberman for April 25, 1914, to the Red

River Lumber Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, and to

lumbermen and others who have sent us material from the

lumber districts.

The most significant of recent developments in the study

of folk-lore and the popular ballad began with the discovery

that the making of folk-tales and communal poetry did not

cease entirely with the coming of the printing-press, but

that in certain isolated communities unreached by the

paralyzing contact of the printed sheet the process of com¬

munal composition has gone on, roughly, fragmentarily,

perhaps, but none the less genuinely. Here in America

there is a complete cycle of ballads celebrating the exploits

of the outlaw Jesse James; Professor John Lomax has made

an extensive collection of cow-boy songs; and the isolated

mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee have many songs

and tales, some curiously distorted fragments of old-world

ballads, others quite local in subject-matter and tone. The

student of folk-lore has come, in fact, to expect that wherever

there is more or less permanent isolation from the outside

world of large groups of people engaged in the same occupa¬

tion or at least having a community of interests, there is

almost certain to spring up in time tales peculiar to that

community. It is not, accordingly, surprising that such

legends exist among the lumbermen of the Great North,

among a community shut off from the world for months at

a time and bound together by peculiar bonds. It is among

these toilers of the forests that the legends of Paul Bunyan

have originated, Paul Bunyan, the greatest lumberjack who

ever skidded a log, who with the aid of his wonderful blue

ox and his crew of hardy lumbermen cleared one hundred

million feet of pine from a single forty and performed other

feats related about the roaring fires of the lumber shanties.

The legends of Paul Bunyan are widely distributed

throughout the lumber districts of the North. The tales in

our little collection have come from lumber-camps in the

Northern Peninsula of Michigan and from the Saginaw

Valley in the Southern Peninsula, from Langlade County

and from camps along the Flambeau and Wisconsin rivers

in Wisconsin, from northern Minnesota and from camps as

far west as Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia.

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bunyan.

641

It is quite apparent that the lumberjacks in their slow mi¬

gration westward have carried the tales freely from camp

to camp into all of the lumbering states of the North and

into the forests of Canada.

The antiquity of the tales is more difficult to determine

than the extent of their distribution. It seems certain, how¬

ever, from the circumstances that they have been passed

down from one generation of lumbermen to another for a

long period of time, that these stories of Paul Bunyan date

well back into the early days of lumbering in Michigan and

were carried from Michigan to Wisconsin about the middle

of the last century. It seems certain, too, that many of the

tales now included in the Bunyan cycle were narrated long

before Bunyan became the lumberman hero. Similar tales,

lacking, of course, the local color of the Bunyan yarns, are

to be found in the extravagant stories of Baron Munchausen

and of Rabelais as well as in folk-tales from more settled

parts of the United States of America. An extremely inter¬

esting study, so complex, however, that we have not yet

completed it, is the tracing of the old world originals of the

Bunyan stories to determine just to what extent the Ameri¬

can tales are new and to what extent they were brought from

France and England by early pioneers.

Whether Paul Bunyan ever lived or is as mythical as

Sairey Gamp’s Mrs. Harris we have not yet succeeded in

definitely finding out. All lumberjacks, of course, believe,

or pretend to believe, that he really lived and was the great

pioneer in the lumber country; some of the older men even

claim to have known him or members of his crew, and in

northern Minnesota the supposed location of his grave is

actually pointed out. A half-breed lumberman whom Miss

Stewart interviewed asserted positively that there was a

Paul Bunyan and that the place where he cut his hundred

million feet from a single forty is actually on the map. We

have found in several localities characters still living about

whose prowess as lumbermen exaggerated stories are al¬

ready being told; it is probable that the tales will continue

to be told, with additions, after these local heroes have died.

In a similar manner, we believe, did Paul Bunyan come into

existence. He was probably some swamper or shacker or

lumberjack more skilful and more clever than average,

642 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

about whose exploits grew a series of stories; after his death

his fame probably spread from camp to camp, more tales

were added to those told about him, and. thus, gradually,

he became in time an exaggerated type of the lumberjack,

and the hero of more exploits than he could possibly have

carried out in his life-time.

The Bunyan stories are usually told in the evening around

the fires in the bunk-houses. The older narrators speak in

the French-Canadian dialect, and the stories are often full

of the technical jargon of the woods. Usually the stories

are told to arouse the wonder of the tenderfoot or simply

as contributions in a contest in yarning. They are always

of a grotesque and fabulous type, and they are all more or

less closely related to the exploits of Bunyan and his lum¬

bering crew. “That happened,” says the narrator, “the

year I went up for Paul Bunyan. Of course you have all

heard of Paul.” And so the tale begins. It is matched by a

bigger yarn, and the series grows. Often the scene of the

exploits narrated is quite fictitious, like the Round River,

which is in section thirty-seven, or the Big Onion River,

three weeks this side of Quebec. Often, too, the lumber¬

jacks will tell of events that they say occurred on another

lumbering stream than the one they are working on; thus

the men of the Flambeau camps will tell of the deeds of

Paul Bunyan on the Wisconsin River or on the Chippewa

River. Sometimes the story-tellers will take Bunyan

abroad and will tell of his doings, for example, among the

big trees of Oregon, or they will tell of what happened when

Paul was a boy on his father’s farm. Usually, however, the

tales are supposed to have occurred in the “good” days of

lumbering, some forty or fifty years back when the country

was new, and in localities not far from the camps in which

the yarns are told.

But to our tales. Bunyan was a powerful giant, seven

feet tall and with a stride of seven feet. He was famous

throughout the lumbering districts for his physical strength

and for the ingenuity with which he met difficult situations.

He was so powerful that no man could successfully oppose

him, and his ability to get drunk was proverbial. So great

was his lung capacity that he called his men to dinner by

blowing through a hollow tree a blast so strong that it blew

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bunyan. 643

down the timber on a tract of sixty acres, and when he spoke,

the limbs sometimes fell from the trees. To keep his pipe

filled required the entire time of a swamper with a scoop-

shovel. In the gentle art of writing Bunyan had, however,

no skill. He kept his men’s time by cutting notches in a

stick of wood, and he ordered supplies for camp by drawing

pictures of what he wanted. On one occasion only did his

ingenuity fail; he ordered grindstones and got cheeses.

“Oh,” says Paul, “I forgot to put the holes in my grind¬

stones.”

Bunyan was assisted in his lumbering exploits by a won¬

derful blue ox, a creature that had the strength of nine

horses and that weighed, according to some accounts, five

thousand pounds, and according to others, twice that. The

ox measured from tip to tip of his horns just seven feet,

exactly his master’s height. Other accounts declare that

the ox was seven feet — or seven ax-handles — between his

eyes, and fourteen feet between his horns. Originally he

was pure white, but one winter in the woods it snowed blue

snow for seven days (that was the winter of the snow-

snakes) and Bunyan’s ox from lying out in the" snow all

winter became and remained a brilliant blue. Many -of the

Bunyan legends are connected with the feats performed by

the ox. Bunyan’s method of peeling a log was as follows:

He would hitch the ox to one end of the log, grasp the bark

at the other end with his powerful arms, give a sharp com¬

mand to the animal, and, presto , out would come the log

as clean as a whistle. On one occasion Paul dragged a

whole house up a hill with the help of his ox, and then, re¬

turning, he dragged the cellar up after the house. Occa¬

sionally, as might have been expected from so huge a crea¬

ture, the ox got into mischief about camp. One night, for

example, he broke loose and ate up two hundred feet of

tow-line.

One favorite tale connected with the blue ox is that of the

buckskin harness. One day old Forty Jones of Bunyan’s

crew killed two hundred deer by the simple process of

tripping a key-log which supported a pile of logs on a hill¬

side above the place where the animals came to drink. The

skins were made into a harness for the blue ox. Some days

later while the cook was hauling a log in for fire-wood, it

644 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

began to rain, the buckskin began to stretch, and by the

time the ox reached camp the log was out of sight around a

bend in the road with the tugs stretching back endlessly

after it. The cook tied the ox and went to dinner. While

he was eating, the sun came out boiling hot, dried the buck¬

skin harness, and hauled the log into camp. Another ver¬

sion of this tale is reported to us by Professor Beatty of the

University of Wisconsin, who heard the story when he was

a boy in Canada. Whether Professor Beatty’s version is

simply a detached member of the Bunyan story-cycle or

whether, conversely, it existed originally as an independent

tale and was later connected with the blue ox, we do not

know. The latter explanation seems the probable one.

One tale of the blue ox had best be told in the words of

the lumberjack who sent it to a friend of Miss Stewart’s,

in a letter written with very evident care and with every

other word capitalized.

“Paul B Driving a large Bunch of logs Down the Wis¬

consin River When the logs Suddenly Jamed. in the Dells.

The logs were piled Two Hundred feet high at the head.

And were backed up for One mile up river. Paul was at

the rear of the Jam with the Blue Oxen And while he was

coming to the front the Crew was trying to break the Jam

but they couldent Budge it. When Paul Arrived at the

Head with the ox he told them to Stand Back. He put the

Ox in the old Wise, in front of the Jam. And then Standing

on the Bank Shot the Ox with a 303 Savage Rifle. The Ox

thought it was flies And began to Switch his Tail. The tail

commenced to go around in a circle And up Stream And do

you know That Ox Switching his tail forced that Stream to

flow Backwards And Eventually the Jam floated back

Also. He took the ox out of the Stream. And let the

Stream And logs go on their way.”

Most of the exploits of Paul Bunyan center at Round River.

Here Bunyan and his crew labored all one winter to clear

the pine from a single forty. This was a most peculiar forty

in that it was shaped like a pyramid with a heavy timber

growth on all sides. The attention of skeptics who refuse

to believe in the existence of the pyramid forty is certain to

be called by the story-teller to a lumberman with a short

leg, a member, the listener is solemnly assured, of Bunyan’s

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bung an.

645

crew, who got his short leg from working all winter on one

side of the pyramid, and who thus earned the nickname of

“Rockin’ Horse.” From this single forty Bunyan’s crew

cleared one hundred million feet of pine, and in the spring

they started it down the river. Then began the difficulty,

for it was not until they had passed their old camp several

times that they realized that the river was round and had

no outlet whatever. According to another version this

logging occurred on a lake with no outlet.

Runyan’s crew was so large that he was obliged to divide

the men into three gangs; of these one was always going to

work, one was always at work, and the third was always

coming home from work. The cooking arrangements for

so many men were naturally on an immense scale. Seven

men with seven wheel-barrows were kept busy wheeling

the prune-stones away from camp. The cook-stove was so

extensive that three forties had to be cleared bare each week

to keep up a fire, and an entire cord of wood was needed to

start a blaze. One day as soon as the cook had put a loaf of

bread into the oven he started to walk around the stove in

order to remove the loaf from the other side, but long before

he reached his destination the bread had burned to a crisp.

Such loaves were, of course, gigantic, — so big, in fact, that

after the crew had eaten the insides out of them, the hollow

crusts were used for bunk-houses, or, according to a less

imaginative account, for bunks. One legend reports that

the loaves were not baked in a stove at all but in a ravine

or dried river-bed with heat provided by blazing slashings

along the sides.

Such a stove as Bunyan’s demanded, of course, a pancake

griddle of monstrous size. As a matter of fact, Bunyan’s

cook, Joe Mufferon, used the entire top of the stove for a

griddle and greased it every morning by strapping hams to

the feet of his assistant cooks and obliging them to skate

about on it for an hour or so. Of this famous tale there are .

several versions. According to one the cook mixed his batter

in a sort of concrete-mixer on the roof of the cook-shanty

and spread it upon the stove by means of a connecting hose.

A version from Oregon shows the influence of local condi¬

tions upon the Bunyan tales; from this version we learn that

two hundred Japanese cooks with bacon-rinds or bear-steak

strapped to their feet skated upon the stove before the cook

646 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

spread his batter. In a Minnesota version Bunyan employs

his twenty-four daughters for the same menial task. By

mistake one day the nearsighted cook put into the batter

several fingers of blasting-powder instead of baking-powder,

and when the mixture was spread upon the griddle, the

cookees made a very rapid ascent through the cook-shanty

roof and never returned to camp.

Paul Bunyan’s ingenuity in keeping his men supplied with

food and drink appears best in the pea-soup lake story, of

which there are several versions, and in the wondrous tale of

the camp distillery. Near the Round River camp was a

hot spring, into which the tote-teamster, returning one day

from town with a load of peas, dumped the whole load

by accident. Most men would have regarded the peas as a

dead loss, but not so Paul. He promptly added the proper

amount of pepper and salt to the mixture and had enough

hot pea-soup to last the crew all winter. When his men

were working too far away from camp to return to dinner,

he got the soup to them by freezing it upon the ends of

sticks and sending it in that shape. According to another

version of the pea-soup lake story Paul deliberately made the

pea-soup; he dumped the peas into a small lake and heated

the mess by firing the slashings around the shore. In aWis-

consinized version of the Michigan tale the peas have be¬

come, for some reason, beans. A much exaggerated version

of this story comes from northern Wisconsin. According to

this account the tote-teamster was driving across a frozen

lake when a sudden thaw overtook him. The teamster

saved himself, but the ox was drowned. Bunyan dammed

up the lake, fired the slashings around the shore, and then,

opening the dam, sluiced down the river to his laboring crew

an abundance of excellent hot pea-soup with ox-tail flavor.

The legend of the establishment of the camp distillery is

one of the most entertaining of the Bunyan tales. Paul had

trouble in keeping any liquor in camp because the men sent

to town for it drank it all up on the way back. The follow¬

ing is Mr. Douglas Malloch’s versified account of how he

solved the difficulty:

“One day the bull-cook parin’ spuds

He hears a sizzlin’ in the suds

And finds the peelin’s, strange to say,

Are all fermentin’ where they lay.

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bunyan.

647

Now Sour-face Murphy in the door

Was standin’. And the face he wore

Convinced the first assistant cook

That Murphy soured ’em with his look.

And when he had the peelin’s drained

A quart of Irish booze remained.

The bull-cook tells the tale to Paul

And Paul takes Murphy off the haul

And gives him, very willingly,

A job as camp distillery.”

Some of the tales of the camp exploits concern members

of Paul Bunyan’s crew rather than the hero himself. One

of the men, for example, had two sets of teeth, and, walking

in his sleep one night, he encountered the grind-stone and

chewed it to bits before he was fully aroused to what he

was doing. In the adventure of another member of the

crew we have the familiar tale of the man who jumped across

the river in three jumps. The crew sometimes showed in¬

genuity on their own account as when they rolled boulders

down the steep sides of the pyramid forty, and running after

them ground their axes to a razor edge against the revolving

stones.

Connected very frequently with the Bunyan tales are ac¬

counts of fabulous animals that haunted the camp. There

is the bird who lays square eggs so that they will not roll

down hill, and hatches them in the snow. Then there is the

side-hill ‘dodger, a curious animal naturally adapted to

life on a hill by virtue of the circumstance that it has two

short legs on the up-hill side. Of this creature it is said that

by mistake the female dodger once laid her eggs (for the

species seems to resemble somewhat the Australian duck¬

bill) wrong end around, with the terrible result that the

little dodgers, hatching out with their short legs down hill,

rolled into the river and drowned. The pinnacle grouse are

birds with only one wing, adapted by this defect for flight

in one direction about the top of a conical hill. There is

little doubt that these animal stories existed outside the

Bunyan cycle, and are simply appended to the central group

of tales.

The story of Bunyan’s method of paying off his crew at

the end of the season shows the hero’s craftiness. Discov¬

ering in the spring that he had no money on hand, Bunyan

648 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

suddenly rushed into camp shouting that they had been

cutting government pine and were all to be arrested. Each

man thereupon seized what camp property lay nearest his

hand and made off, no two men taking the same direction.

Thus Bunyan cleared his camp without paying his men a

cent for their labor.

Not all of the Bunyan stories are concerned with Bun-

yan’s life in the Round River or the Big Onion camps.

There are several accounts of his exploits far from the forests

of the north-central states. It is said that when he was once

dredging out the Columbia River, he broke the dredge, and,

sticking it into his pocket, walked to the nearest blacksmith

shop in South Dakota, had it repaired, and returned to the

Oregon camp before dark. Besides his blue ox Bunyan had,

according to some versions, so many oxen that their yokes,

piled up, made twenty cords of wood. One day he drove

all of these animals through a hollow tree which had fallen

across a great ravine. When he reached the other side, he

found that several of the oxen had disappeared, and, re¬

turning, he discovered that they had strayed into a hollow

limb. Occasionally one hears some account of Paul Bun-

yan’s boyhood exploits on his father’s farm. It is said that

on one occasion he and his father went out to gather a huge

water-melon which was growing on a side-hill above a rail¬

road track. They carelessly forgot to prop the melon up

before they severed the stem with a cross-cut saw, and as a

result it broke loose, rolled down hill, burst open on striking

the rails, and washed out two hundred feet of track. This

tale and similar ones do not seem to belong strictly to the

Bunyan cycle, but to be, rather, like the animal fables,

mere appendages.

What is there in these exaggerated tales of interest to the

student of literature? We believe, first, that, crude as they

are, they reveal unmistakable indications of having grown

up under the same principles of literary development which

produced by a slow process legend-cycles much more ro¬

mantic and famous. The tendency to group the tales about

one hero is universal in legend, as is illustrated by the

Arthurian and Robin Hood cycles, and less completely by

the folk tales of Riibezahl, the spirit of the Riesengebirge of

Germany, Puck, or Robin Goodfellow, and the strong man.

Stewart — Watt — Legends of Paul Bunyan. 649

Tom Hickathrift, of England. Moreover, like other legend

groups, the Bunyan stories tend to be concerned with a

single locality, Round River or Big Onion River. Finally,

many of the legends are more or less closely connected with

a single exploit, the clearing of the pyramid forty, in much

the same way, to compare the little with the great, that

Greek legends center in the Argonautic Expedition and the

Trojan War, and Arthurian legends in the search for the

Holy Grail.

Of more interest, however, is the remarkable quality of

the exaggeration in the Bunyan legends. This quality is

worth analysis not only because it shows universal tenden¬

cies, but because it is the basis of what has come to be known

as typical American humor. The tendency in all legend is

to exaggerate, to make the physical strength or craft of the

hero much greater than normal, to make an Ajax or an

Odysseus of him. But in classical romance and epic this

exaggeration is a thing of slow growth. It happens natur¬

ally, through a desire to make the deeds of the hero seem

more wonderful, and not deliberately, through a desire to

arouse amusement by gross exaggeration; it is an apotheosis,

not a caricature. The exaggeration in the legends of Paul

Bunyan is certainly of a different sort from that in classical

legend; it is more Munchausenesque. The teller of the tale

of the pea-soup lake, and of the camp-distillery, and of the

great Round River drive has two motives : first, he wishes to

excite wonder; second, he wishes to amuse. In their wonder-

motive the Bunyan legends belong to that numerous class

of travelers’ tales typified by the fabulous accounts in

Mandeville and Hakluyt, and in the books of other collectors.

They are stories designed to be swallowed by camp-followers

and tenderfeet for the entertainment of hardened dwellers

in the woods. In their humor-motive they belong to that

large class of stories which depend for their effectiveness not

upon true representations of facts but upon gross departures

from normal standards. Humor is a difficult thing to de¬

fine, but one of its important elements is certainly that sur¬

prise which comes from the sudden and unanticipated con¬

templation of an incongruous variation from the normal.

Good taste has gradually set limits to what cultivated

persons regard as legitimate humor, but the child still

650 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

laughs at the drunkard and to some the abnormality of in¬

sanity is still amusing. Humor has, accordingly, very often

taken the form of gross exaggeration or caricature, espe¬

cially under the spur of a contest in yarning. This type of

humor is typically American. It is really only a natural

development of the attempt to “boom” new sections of the

country by representing conditions as superior to what they

actually are. It is but one aspect of the cheerful, rose-

colored, but quite distorted optimism which aroused the

disgust of Dickens and other Englishmen (see Martin Chuz-

zlewit ) and has earned for Americans among Europeans

whose boom days are over the name of braggart.

It is this quality of humorous exaggeration, then, and the

idea of a contest in lying, which makes the Bunyan legend

cycle typically American, or, it might be better to say,

typically pioneer, in spirit. And the reader does not have

to look far for American parallels. Mark Twain’s books are

full of tales of the same stamp; Owen Wister’s Virginian

teems with them; lately in Harry Leon Wilson’s Ruggles of

Red Gap we again meet this characteristically American

type of story. The note is the same throughout, — gross

caricature in fact and characters to arouse the wonder of

the tenderfoot and to amuse the initiated by the mere big¬

ness of the yarn.

The Bunyan cycle of legends certainly contains a great

many tales which sound strangely familiar to the person

who meets Bunyan for the first time. It is altogether prob¬

able, in fact, that a great many of these stories had their

origin elsewhere than in the woods and have simply been

added to the Bunyan collection. We have been told on

good authority that a legendary blue ox exists in a certain

mountain district of Tennessee and that in this same dis¬

trict not only the men but even all the animals have short

legs to adapt them to hill-climbing. The tale of the man

who jumped across the river “in three jumps” is, as has

been pointed out, widely distributed. Some of the Bunyan

stories, on the other hand, almost certainly originated in

the woods. To Professor Cairns of the Department of

English at Wisconsin we are indebted for an ingenious ex¬

planation of the possible origin of the tale of the pyramid

forty and its prodigious supply of timber. In the early

Stewart — Watt- — Legends of Paul Bunyan.

651

days of lumbering in the North more than one man staked

out a claim on a single forty and, ignoring section lines, cut

“government pine” for miles around, securing, it was hu¬

morously reported by those who knew but winked at the

robbery, a great deal of timber from one forty. This cut¬

ting of government pine appears definitely in at least one

Bunyan story, the tale of the method adopted by Bunyan

to pay off his crew. Excepting for stories of this sort, how¬

ever, which seem distinctly confined to the lumber districts,

and which would, indeed, have little reason for existing

elsewhere, the majority of the Bunyan legends are very

likely adaptations of tales which have elsewhere an ex¬

istence in some form.

652 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

CHAUCER’S BURGESSES

ERNEST P. KUHL

With the nine and twenty pilgrim's who leave the Tabard

on that April morning are five burgesses: the Haberdasher,

Carpenter, Dyer, Weaver, and Tapicer. That Chaucer de¬

liberately selected from the various guilds these five repre¬

sentatives no one, I believe, has hitherto suspected. It is

one purpose of this paper to show the strong probabilities

that this selection was carefully made.

A cursory glance at once reveals the fact that Chaucer

did not choose representatives from the prominent compan¬

ies of his day. If he had, he would of necessity have

chosen from the victualling classes as well as from some of

the prominent non-victualling classes. That there were at

this time two factions is well known, — the victuallers and

non-victuallers, or protectionists and free traders. First

one faction was in power, then the other, — now up, now

down, like the proverbial bucket in the well. Let us take

a hasty glance at the civic history of London during these

years. From 1377 to 1381 the victualling class (favored by

the King) was in power. From 1381 to 1383 the non¬

victuallers (under the protection of John of Gaunt) had a

representative as Mayor. In 1383 the former class again

resumed power which it held for five years. After a year’s

administration under a goldsmith (1388-9) came a year

under a grocer; then another year under a goldsmith, at

which time the ardor of the strife began to subside.1

1 Introduction to Letter-Book , H, edited by R. R. Sharpe. The victual¬

ling class was in power, therefore, during the years when the General Prologue

was probably written. The best brief account of the London Guilds is by

George Unwin, The Gilds and Companies of London. London 1908 (?).

There is no large work on the subject that is reliable. Herbert’s History

of the Twelve Great Livery Companies (2 Vols. London, 1836-7), and

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

653

When the victuallers were in power prices of foods, espe¬

cially fish, climbed the scale. In order to enhance the price,

fish for consumption in London were hidden across the

river in Southwark, till unfit for food.* 1 When the free¬

traders resumed power prices naturally fell. There was to

be no monopoly in the sale of fish, “but it shall be lawful

for any freeman of the City to have vessels, nets, and other

necessaries”.2 A loaf of bread or a draught of ale could be

bought for a farthing, and a large number of coins (to the

value of 80 lbs. sterling) of that denomination were minted

at the Tower, “so that the baker and taverner should have no

excuse for not giving change for a halfpenny.”3 The reasons

of the non-victuallers are too obvious when one recalls re¬

cent spectacular attempts for publicity by one or two

Mayors in our own country.

This clash between the two parties reached its height in

October, 1386, when ten of the non-victualling companies

openly denounced Mayor Brembre in Parliament.4

This brings us to our second point, viz.: that Chaucer

does not choose from any of these petitioners. This is highly

interesting, for some of these companies were indisputably

weaker, others equally powerful, and one more powerful

than those selected by the poet.5 Before proceeding into

the details of this petition let us recall that Chaucer sat at

this meeting of Parliament, and therefore heard the com¬

plaints.

The ten companies who petitioned were the Mercers,

Cordwainers, ‘Foundours,’ Sadlers, Painters, Armourers,

Hazlitt’s Livery Companies (London, 1892), are inaccurate in many

places and wholly uncritical.

1 Letter-Book, H, pp. 192 f.

2 Ibid., p. 191.

3 Ibid., p. 183. Cf. Intro, p. XXXIV. Even parsons had refused farth¬

ings “for the purpose of putting a stop to the currency of such small

money . . . and also in order to make people offer more than a farthing.”

The Mayor and his Council ordain, however, that “thenceforth no one

shall offer at vigils of the dead or like case more than one farthing a mass,

and if he fail to obtain change for a halfpenny he shall leave without

making any offering.” Ibid., p. 183.

4 Rot. Part., III. pp. 225 ff. The Drapers, to whose company North¬

ampton belonged, did not petition.

5 If we omit the Mercers and Embroiderers (who were also aldermen)

there were two, Cordwainers and Sadlers, who had four representatives

to the Common Council, consequently as powerful as those selected by

Chaucer. Mercers had six, therefore were more powerful. For a fuller

discussion see infra, pp. 655ff.

654 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Pinners, Embroiderers, Spurriers, and Bladesmiths. Their

complaint was that Brembre with the aid of the King was

using his influence against the wishes of the citizens. Let

us look more in detail at some of the facts. Brembre, the

Mayor of London,1 was a grocer, consequently favored by

the King. John Northampton was the leader of the non¬

victuallers, whose arch-supporter was John of Gaunt. A

crucial moment in the strife between the two parties was

reached 28 March (1386) when the Mayor and citizens

stated upon oath that for the peace of the City, Northamp¬

ton (who had been banished) should not approach within

100 miles of London.2

John of Gaunt, who had been the patron of Northampton,

and had been doing his best for two years to free him, imme¬

diately became roused to indignation. Though he was

preparing to leave for Spain on his wild-goose chase, he

found time to defend his client. On the 7th and again on

the 12th of May he wrote Brembre upbraiding him for his

“unreasonable and outrageous conduct” in winning the

King’s confidence.3 On 3 June a compromise was effected

when the King “at the urgent prayer” of the Duke ordered

Northampton to be set free.4 7 July Gaunt set sail.5

Furthermore, Brembre’s relations with the King became

more intimate as time went on. In this year the King’s

servants, including his esquires, were granted the dwell¬

ings above the City gates. Moreover, though Gaunt was

gone, his cause was at once taken up by one of the noblemen.

For the King, times were equally troublesome. At the

meeting of Parliament (October - and November, 1386) his

power was noticeably checked. Loans of money were re¬

fused him. A committee was appointed to investigate his

household expenses. Ten days later, however, the city

loaned him £4000, and afterwards took an oath to support

him. Chaucer, it must be remembered, sat in this Parlia-

1 He was succeeded 13 October (1386) by Nicholas Exton — another

victualler (fishmonger). Letter Book , H, pp. 289-290. Exton went into

office 28 October.

2 Ibid., pp. 279-282.

3 Letter-Book, H, Intro, p. XLI.

4 Ibid., p. 307. Cf. p.XLI.

5 Knighton, II. p. 207. Cf. S. Armitage-Smith, pp. 310-311. For

additional details concerning this strife see my article on Chaucer and

Aldgate , which will appear shortly.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses .

655

ment. We of course do not know with whom he shared his

sympathies. But I have shown elsewhere1 that his loss

of Aldgate in October and his royal preferments in Decem¬

ber was probably the result of his having been a member

of that fatal Parliament. Though he may have been neu¬

tral, we must not forget that Richard II was an erratic man.

For Chaucer, therefore, to evade the ten companies who

had established a precedent in presenting grievances against

the King to Parliament was natural. A literary man does

not court popularity by referring to enemies of his audience,

—especially when it involves the loss of his house and in¬

come.2 In his selection of the burgesses, therefore, Chaucer

the artist becomes Chaucer the diplomat.

May we not go a step farther? We have seen that Chaucer

did not select from the most powerful companies of his day;

nor, on the other hand, from those companies — weak as

well as powerful — who openly denounced Mayor Brembre

in 1386. It will not, therefore, be without interest to glance

at the companies from which he could select. We find that

there is still a possibility of thirty or more. But we are at

once confronted by another factor which determined the

poet’s selection, viz. : that from these thirty he chose the

most prominent guilds. How can the comparative strength

of these guilds, it may be asked, be determined?

The latter part of the fourteenth century was — as is

well known — the age in which the guilds were to become

all-powerful. A notable year in their development was 1376.

At this time it was agreed that the Common Council of the

City of London should be composed of men from the “suffi¬

cient” misteries, — “the greater misteries electing not more

than six persons, and the rest, four or two, according to

their size.”3 Fortunately there is preserved one list of

1 See my article referred to in previous note.

2 Particularly when there are plenty of other companies from which to

choose I

3 Letter-Book, H, pp. 39-40. The guilds had not had this power for a

quarter of a century (Ibid., Intro, p. IV). Agitation had existed for some

time whether the Common Council should be made up of guilds or by

wards. Party feeling continued to rise until whispers of the agitation

reached the King. He threatened to deprive the citizens of their franchise

unless they maintained peace in the meantime. The City assured him

that no serious dissensions existed. This privilege remained with the

guilds until 1384, though an attempt had been made to oust them in 1380

(Letter-Book, H, p. V). The complaints made in 1384 were that “matters

21

656 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

misteries with the number of councilmen each had. This

is under date of 9 Aug. 1376. 1 The Common Council which

met at that time had 156 members chosen from forty-seven

guilds.* 1 2 A few of the more prominent crafts had five or six

representatives; about one-third had four;, and the re¬

mainder had two or three. Now, if we rule out those who

opposed Brembre in 1386, and at the same time those who

had fewer than four representatives (which were the small

and obscure companies) we have the following: Drapers,

Goldsmiths, Tailors, Fullers, Masons, Skinners (Pelters),

Girdlers, Ironmongers, Dyers, Weavers, and Tapicers.3 It

will be observed that the Haberdashers and Carpenters are

not mentioned. Concerning the former some definite evi¬

dence exists which indicates that they were one of the

powerful companies. In 13774 at a meeting of the Common

Council we find that the Haberdashers had four repre¬

sentatives.5 6 This at once places them with the more promi¬

nent companies. And, what is of unusual interest, of the

thirteen companies who attended this meeting the Haber¬

dashers, alone, had no representation in the Aldermancy,

nor did they petition against Brembre in 1386. 6 They

were, therefore, a powerful as well as a neutral company.

in the Common Council had been carried by clamour rather than by reason,

and sometimes by members who were not qualified to sit, whereby tumults

had arisen.” {Ibid., p. 227. Cf. Intro, p. VI). In 1385 it was found that

the system of electing by wards worked so well by trial that it was moved

the election (by wards) should continue “forever” {Ibid., pp. 277-279). In

1389 another controversy arose, whether the Council should be vested

in the guilds or wards. {Ibid., p. 347). Nothing came of it however.

1 Ibid., pp. 41 ff.

2 Grocers, Mercers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, Vintners,

Tailors, Pelters, Smiths, — six members each. Sadlers, Weavers, Tapicers,

Fullers, Brewers, Girdlers, Dyers, Masons, Tsmongers’, (Ironmongers),

Cordwainers, — four each. ‘Chandelers de Su’ (Tallow-chandlers),

Salters, Butchers, — three each. ‘Lethersellers,’ ‘Foundours,’ ‘Joignours,*

‘Curreours,’ ‘Flecchers,’ (Arrowmakers), Bakers, ‘Brouderers’ (Em¬

broiderers), Haberdashers, Brasiers, Cappers, ‘Peutrers,’ ‘Bowiers,*

‘Hurrers,’ Horners, ‘Armurers,’ ‘Cutlers,’ ‘Spoirers,’ ‘Plomers,’ Wax-

chandlers, Shearmen, Painters, Tanners, ‘Pouchemakers,’ Wood-

mongers, and ‘Pynneres,’— two each.

* See previous note for list of guilds and the number of representatives

each had.

4 The next year.

5 Letter-Book, H, p. 59. The others were: Mercers, Grocers, Drapers,

Fishmongers, Vintners, Skinners, and Tailors, (six representatives each);

Sadlers, Haberdashers, Girdlers, Chandlers, and Cordwainers (four each) ;

Armourers (two).

6 See previous note.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

657

With the Carpenters, however, it is entirely different.

Curiously enough there was no guild by that name. There

are, however, contemporary references to carpenters. For

instance, there are extant three wills of persons who pur¬

sued this rather obscure calling.1 The City records, how¬

ever, reveal nothing which can throw any light, for they ap¬

pear to have been “carpenters” and nothing more.2 Nor is

it possible to associate them with the joiners who had a

guild. Old Mother Hubbard, of course, employed the serv¬

ices of a joiner where we to-day should consult a carpenter.

It is probable, therefore, that the “Carpenter” was a later

and hasty addition.3

This list of twelve from which the poet might choose is

still formidable enough. But, Chaucer tells us that

“Ech was worthy for to ben an alderman.”

We are now in a position to ask what guilds in the reign

of Richard II had representatives in the aldermancy. The

following occur: Mercers, Grocers, Fishmongers, Drapers,

Goldsmiths, Vintners, Skinners, Stockfishmongers, Pepperers,

Ironmongers, Wax-chandlers, Tailors, Armourers, ‘Broder-

ers’, Woolmongers, and Girdlers.4 Now, what remains of

this once formidable list has dwindled down to six, — Fullers,

Masons, and Haberdashers, Dyers, Weavers, and Tapicers.

To apply this method of elimination to Chaucer’s selec¬

tion may seem like subjecting the poet to a method which he

never dreamed of. It can hardly appear thus, however,

when one recalls that he chose no representative from the

victualling classes, none from the ten companies who op-

1 Thomas Oxenford (Cal. Wills, Court of Hustings. Ed. R. R. Sharpe,

London, 1889-1890, II. p. 374), John Wolfey (Ibid., p. 385), John Men-

deham (Ibid., p. 388). There are scattering but minor references in

Letter-Books, G, H, and I, to these people, but nothing that will help us.

On one occasion one of them was associated with a “timbermonger.”

2 The editor of the Letter-Books, to whom I have written, has not been

able to give me the desired information.

3 Professor Frederick Tupper informs me that he has good evidence

that the “Carpenter” is an afterthought. W. C. Hazlitt (The Livery

Companies , etc., p. 405) says that Carpenters were contractors on their

own account. Hazlitt, however, is very unreliable, in this respect like

Herbert.

4 Beaven, The Aldermen of the City of London, Part I. London, 1908,

pp. 392 ff. For a further discussion of “Aldermen” see infra pp. 665ff. The

Girdlers had their first representative in 1397, however (Ibid., I. p. 351).

They joined with the Ironmongers in 1399 (Ibid., p. 403). These two had

probably been in sympathy for some years.

658 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

posed Brembre in 1386, none from the smaller and obscure

companies, and none from those who had representatives

in the Aldermancy. These facts are manifestly significant.

That Chaucer should have known the ins and outs of fifty

guilds and condensed in a few lines — or even in a single line —

information which shows complete mastery of the munici¬

pal situation is little short of surprising.

That Chaucer’s choice was deliberate we can test in an¬

other way. A priori we have a right to assume that he

would select the most powerful companies.1 He cannot, of

course, select those companies represented in the Alder¬

mancy. But there are as a matter of fact no large non¬

victualling companies (having more than four representa¬

tives in the Common Council) that had no representatives

in the Aldermancy. Consequently his choice is limited to

those companies with four or fewer members in the Council.

But here he deliberately avoids the ten companies who peti¬

tioned against Brembre, — two of which (Sadlers and Cord-

wainers, having four members each) were as powerful as

those selected by the poet. When one recalls that there were

only six other companies, Fullers and Masons and the four

chosen by Chaucer, who had four representatives, it would

seem as if the poet’s choice was made with extraordinary

care.

If the conclusion of this paper, thus far presented, is

sound, the General Prologue was not written before the

latter part of 1386. 2 This confines its limits, therefore, to

two years.3

Is it idle to ask why he did not include the Fuller and the

Mason?4 He probably thought that five was a sufficient

number, as in fact it was. When we ask why he chose the

particular four he did, it is not so easy to give a reply.

However, it is doubtful if a Fuller or Mason, any more in

the fourteenth century than now, held a position equal to

that of those selected by the poet. In a fairly careful search

1 For discussion see pp. 652f.

2 On the question whether the Prologue was written continuously see

Tatlock, The Development and Chronology , etc., p. 143 n. 2.

3 That it was not written after 1388 is now well known.

4 Though the Girdlers had their first representative in the Aldermancy

in 1397, they joined with a company (Ironmongers) in 1399 that had

had representatives earlier. The Girdlers, therefore, were on the border

line.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

659

of contemporary documents no references to the eight

councilmen1 from the guilds of the Fullers and the Masons

are found that pertain to other than affairs of their respec¬

tive guilds.2 The only exception might be in the case of the

Dyers. But here again we should probably say that a per¬

son engaged in the fulling of cloth would not, other things

equal, be the equal socially of a Dyer of cloth. There is,

as a matter of fact, an interesting entry preserved which

indicates that the Dyers carried on business for themselves.

In 1383 (Chaucer was Comptroller at this time) a London

Dyer (Henry Grenecobbe) had permission to ‘Take, custom

free, five sacks of wool from the Isle of Thanet, ... to

London, there to be made into cloth.”3 But let us grant that

the poet did have two alternatives when he made his selec¬

tion. The important thing is the fact that this selection

was carefully made, which is at the same time a full reply

to those critics who have wondered why so few political

allusions are to be found in the Canterbury Tales.4

II

We are now prepared to take up the individual guilds

and discuss their representatives to the City Council, as

well as the “Masters” of the various crafts. Obviously, one

should hardly expect to find much material on an obscure

burgher of the fourteenth century. To be sure, if Chaucer

had included among the nine and twenty pilgrims repre¬

sentatives from the more prominent companies, the mate¬

rial would be plentiful enough. But, as we have just seen,

our poet was extremely cautious in his selection. Instead

of choosing from prominent companies he saw fit to select

from those — by no means obscure — which appeared neu¬

tral to the two factions which were striving for supremacy

at the time the Canterbury Tales were taking shape.

1 For names see Letter-Book, H, p. 43.

2 There is one exception of minor importance. J. Lesnes was on a com¬

mission pertaining to guardianship (Ibid., p. 29). This sort of thing was

very common, as dozens of other cases occur in the Letter-Book.

3 Cal Pat. Rolls, 1381-5, p. 306.

4 For a discussion of this latter point see Hulbert, Chaucer's Official Life ,

Menasha, Wisconsin, 1912, pp. 70-71. Coulton (p. 69) states that

“Professor Raleigh has pointed out that his (Chaucer’s) avoidance of

all but the slightest allusions to even the greatest of contemporary events

may well seem deliberate.” Professor Legouis likewise in his admirable

study of Chaucer (Paris, 1910) speaks of Chaucer’s silence (pp. 26-8).

Chaucer’s silence becomes, to a certain extent, explicable when one

recalls the facts I have just pointed out.

660 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Instead, therefore, of considering an individual haber¬

dasher or dyer, we shall consider the respective guilds and

several members from each guild. In this way it may be

possible to throw light in such a way as may serve to

illuminate the descriptions of the prosperous and self-

satisfied craftsmen who appear in the General Prologue.1

The Haberdashers,2 as has been noted, had two repre¬

sentatives in the City Council of 1376, — Robert de Lynne

and Thomas Botstone.3 The latter does not appear to have

been prominent. At any rate no other reference to him seems

to occur. As to Lynne, however, we are more fortunate. In

1378 he was a “maintainer in a plaint.”4 He was sufficiently

prosperous in 1379 to be mentioned as “one of the good folk”

of London who lent the City 5 marks.5 He likewise con¬

tinued to be a member of the Common Council after the

election by Wards instead of by Misteries. For example,

he was one of the two dozen summoned in 1384 from Farn-

done Ward.6 He was again a member in 13867, and in 13888.

The following interesting entry will throw light on the

standing of the burgesses in Chaucer’s day. In 1380 Henry

1 I have consulted, for the several dozen individuals under discussion,

all contemporary documents where one might expect information. When

the Calendar of Close Rolls, which are now being published, will have

completed this important gap to a student of Chaucer, much information

should come to light.

2 There were two kinds of Haberdashers: sellers of small wares, as

needles, tapes, buttons, etc., and those who dealt in hats {Letter-Book,

H, p. 366 n.). In 1391 a maker of caps was charged with making caps

falsely, i. e., “they had been fulled by the feet instead of by hand” {Ibid.,

p. 366). The spelling “aberdasher” occurs {Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1377-81,

p. 449). It is not recorded in the N. E. D ., and I have found no other

instance.

* Letter-Book, H, p. 43.

4 Ibid., p. 114. This unlawful intermeddling became so common that

Parliament in 1377 strictly forbade the practice {Letter-Book, H, p. 93, note

3). Three pages {Ibid., pp. 112-115) are devoted to London burgesses

who were maintainers, an excellent proof they had money. Frequently

the suit was between parsons.

6 Letter-Book, H, p. 126. Hugh Fastolf and Richard Morell (cf.

my article on Some Friends of Chaucer in P. M. L. A. XXIX, 2, pp. 270

ff.) lent a like amount {Ibid., p. 125). This was the amount given by

most of the individuals. None gave any less, and only a few gave more.

e Ibid., p. 239.

7 Ibid., p. 281.

8 Ibid., p. 332.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses ,

661

de Ferrers,1 knight, was pardoned for assaulting “with a

baslard” the servant of Robert Lynne “aberdasher.”2

In 1377 the Haberdashers sent four men to the Common

Council, but their names are not recorded.3 From time to

time the guild chose masters to govern its craft. The earliest

record apparently is in 1328, when they elected three of

their members as masters.4 The next mention is in 1371,

when their ordinances were approved, including the names

of those sworn to govern the mistery. There were four

at this time, — Thomas Botulston, Richard Spenser, John

Polstede and Richard Marchal.5 The latter was main¬

pernor for a “clerk” in 1376. 6 At the supplication of a

knight, Marchal was pardoned in 1389 for the killing of

another.7 Of the other three nothing seems to be recorded

with the exception of Richard Spenser. He likewise was a

mainpernor (in 1385), for the prior of Michelham, Surrey.8

A will, dated 1376, bequeaths property in London to Spen¬

ser.9 The following will not be without interest in throwing

light on the financial standing of some obscure burgesses.

In 1392 Richard Spenser and others are given a license “for

the alienation in mortmain ... of (1) eight messuages,

six tofts, 274 acres of land, 2s. 9d. of rent, pasture for 60

beasts . . . and pasture for 800 sheep ... to the prior

and convent of Michulham ... in full satisfaction of a

license granted to them by the late King ... to acquire

lands, tenements and rents of the yearly value of 10 marks.”10

In 1384 the masters sworn to govern the mistery were:

John Silbourne, William Craft, and Michael Mordone.11 Of

these Craft alone seemed prominent enough to find his way

into the records. In 1365, 12 and again in 1371, 13 he was a

1 “Ferrers” was a common name in the royal household.

2 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1377-81, p. 449. The spelling “aberdasher” is not

recorded in N. E. D.

3 Letter-Book , H, p. 59.

4 Ibid., E, p. 233.

8 Letter-Book, G, p. 283.

6 Cal. Close Rolls , 1374-7, p. 347.

7 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1388-92, p. 21.

8 Ibid., 1385-9, p. 72.

9 Cal. of Wills, London 1889-1890, 2 Parts. II. p. 191.

10 Cal. Pat . Rolls, 1391-6, p. 184. The present parish of Mickleham.

is 2f£ miles from Dorking, — 21 miles SSW of London.

11 Letter-Book, H, p. 250. On Craft see Ibid., p. 135.

12 Ibid., G, p. 191. Cf. p. 221.

13 Ibid., p. 286.

662 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

surety. In the following year (1385) four new masters were

sworn: Roger Crane, “Sayeure” Neumann, John Fair-

auntre, and John Pountfret.1 Crane was a surety in 1371. 2

That he was a man of means we can infer from the follow¬

ing. In 1398 his executor, William Crane, is suing the widow

of Roger and her present husband for £32. 3

The career of John Pountfret4 was more eventful. In

1380 he was an executor,5 and a member of the Common

Council in 1384. 6 He was one of those summoned to the

King’s Council at Reading in 1384 ;7 apparently a member

of the Common Council in 1385. 8 In the following year he

was among those (from Bridge Ward) summoned “to at¬

tend in the Chamber of Common Council at the Guildhall”,

for the purpose of determining whether John Northampton

and his associates should be allowed to remain within forty

miles of the City.9 In 1386 he was one of a number (Hugh

F astolf , 10 William More, 10 Henry V anner, 10 J ohn Organ10, et at.)

who “entered into a bond in the sum of £10, ... for the

sum of £500 borrowed . . . in order to safeguard the City.”11

Again in this year (1386) he was among those (Henry Van-

ner, William Venour, et al.) appointed to see that the sched¬

ule of murage chargeable on goods be carried into effect.12

In 1388 he was summoned to the Guildhall by the Mayor

and Aldermen “to consult on certain matters touching the

coming Parliament (at Cambridge) and the City itself.”13

The Weavers were an ancient organization in London.

As early as 1347 we learn of foreign weavers in the City who

1 Ibid., H, p. 273. Not until 1394 were masters again appointed.

{Ibid., p. 416); then again in 1416 {Ibid., I, p. 144).

2 Ibid., G, p. 286.

a Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1396-9, p. 438.

4 Pountefreyt, Pountfract, Pontefreit, Pounfret, etc.

6 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1377-81, p. 493.

6 Letter-Book, H, p. 235. Cf. p. 238.

7 Ibid., p. 246.

8 Ibid., p. 270.

9 Ibid., p. 281.

10 See Index to the Life Records of Chaucer {Modern Philology, Yol. X,

No. 4, pp. 527 ff.).

11 Letter-Book, H, p, 287.

12 Ibid., p. 299.

13 Ibid., p. 333. Cf. p. 332. There was also a John Pountfreyt, saddler

{Ibid., pp. 42, 108, 393) ; another, a cornmonger {Ibid., p. 443). Cf. Calendar

of Wills, Court of Hustings, etc. II. p. 877 (Index).

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

663

are to be ruled in the same manner as “denizen (privees)1

weavers of the City, and that neither should work by night

at any time of the year.”2 Five years later the foreign

weavers were given permission to carry on their business in

England, and likewise to elect masters to supervise their

craft.3 Though they had their craft, they had no repre¬

sentatives, as did the native weavers, in the Common Coun¬

cil.4 This, of course, was owing to the fact that the native

workmen were jealous of their continental neighbors.

Chaucer, ever on the alert, tells us that the Wife of Bath

Of clooth-making, . . . hadde swiche an haunt,

She passed hem of Ypres and of Gaunt.

This is a distinct appeal to the new sense of nationalism

which England was feeling in the latter half of the four¬

teenth century.

The native weavers, on the other hand, sent four mem¬

bers to the City Council in 1376, — John de Bathe5 (what

relation to the good Wyf?), John Gyle, William Goryng, and

William Gqdhewe.6 Their careers in the affairs of the City

and Guild resemble those of the Haberdashers. Whenever

important matters were under consideration at the Guild¬

hall they were summoned.7 Goryng and Bathe were suffi¬

ciently prominent to be masters of the guild at one time or

another.8 The latter, a resident of Aldersgate Ward,9 was

granted a pardon in 1378 for the killing of another.10 In an

interesting will we infer that he was a well-to-do person. He

left certain shops to the church of St. Botolph in Alders¬

gate; to the prior of another church he leaves all his “lands

and tenements in Westchepe, Goderounlane, and elsewhere

1 i. e., native.

2 Letter-book, F, p. 173. It has not been thought necessary to go

into details concerning the masters of each mistery. The Weavers,

Dyers, and Tapicers likewise elected their masters from time to time.

(See Ibid., H, Index).

3 Ibid., G, p. 130.

4 Ibid., H, p. 524 (Index).

6 Or Baathe.

6 Letter-Book , H, p. 42.

7 See Index to Letter-Book , H.

8 Ibid., pp. 202, 318, 346.

9 Ibid., p. 239.

10 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1377-81, p. 294.

664 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

in the parish of St. Vedast,” and to his wife his dwelling-

house in Aldersgate.1

The Dyers first came into prominence in 1376, when they

sent four members to the Council.2 They seem to have been

prominent before this time, however, for their wrongdoings,

for we learn that in 1362 ordinances were set out for checking

the malpractices of the Dyers as well as of the Weavers.3

In a petition presented “by good folks of the ‘Lethersellers’

and ‘Pouchmakers’ ” in 1372 was an article that the “Dyers

might be prevented from cheating their customers.”4 The

members to the Council in 1376 were John Claveringe,

Henry Grenecob, Nicholas Maynard, and Richard Godard.5

Grenecob, of the four, is of most interest. In 1383 he had

permission to bring into London, custom free, five sacks of

wool, there to be made into cloth. One of his mainpernors

was Richard Godard.6 In 1398 Grenecob is suing for a debt

of £10.7 Otherwise the record of the Dyers, particularly

that of Clavering, does not differ greatly from those guilds

already considered. No better proof exists that Chaucer

deliberately chose his representatives.

The Tapicers are the last to be considered. Their four

Councilmen in 1376 were Giles de Kelseye, Richard Dicoun,

Thomas Bonanture, and John atte Dyke.8 Their careers,

likewise, are strikingly similar to those already discussed.

Wills of Kelseye, Dyke, and Bonanture are preserved. Kel¬

seye makes bequests to the church in which he wishes to be

buried; likewise “to divers orders of friars in London, and

for maintenance of Chantries, repair of poor churches,

decayed bridges, roads, and other pious and charitable

objects.”9 In other respects his will parallels that of Bathe.10

Bonanture owned numerous possessions, including a brew¬

ery and “bakehouse.” He also owned lands in Berking

1 Cal. of Wills, Court of Hustings , II. p. 284. The name “Bathe” was

prominent in London (Ibid., Vols. I and II. Index).

2 Letter-Book, H, p. 43.

3 Ibid., G, p. 140.

4 Ibid., G, p. 293. Cf. p. 295.

6 Ibid., H, p. 43.

8 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1381-5, p. 306.

7 Ibid., 1396-9, p. 305.

8 Letter-Book, H, p. 42.

9 Cal. of Wills, Court of Hustings, II. p. 200.

10 See supra under Bathe.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

665

(Essex), and elsewhere.1 Dyke owned lands in Kent, and

likewise had a brewery.2 All three were residents in the

same parish.3

To repeat, in conclusion, it must have impressed the

reader that the four guilds selected by Chaucer are of the

same rank, — strikingly so. They are not the smallest com¬

panies, nor are they the largest. But they are the largest

that were not involved in the political squabbles of the day.

All this, of course, is significant in showing that Chaucer’s

choice was deliberate.4

It is convenient here, before passing on to more general

matters, to interpret some of the lines in the description of

the burgesses. In the discussion of Aldermen5 I assumed

that the allusion in lines 371-26 was political. Since another

interpretation has been the accepted one,7 it will be neces¬

sary to take this matter up in detail. To discuss the point,

however, we must first of all dispose of the two preceding

lines :

Wei semed ech of hem a fair burgeys

To sitten in a yeldehalle on a deys.8

Professor Skeat thought this referred to the banquets which

the various guilds held from time to time in their guildhalls.9

He was unaware of the fact, however, that the Common

Council of the City held its meetings in the Guildhall (mod¬

ern “City Hall”).10 Before rejecting Skeat let us render the

1 Cal of Wills, etc., p. 3il.

2 Ibid., p. 369.

3 S. Dionisius Backchurch. For a list of other tapicers who lived in this

parish see Ibid., pp. 41, 131, 179.

4 This is entirely in keeping with Chaucer’s method throughout. Pro¬

fessor Skeat has pointed out (Yol. V. p. 36), that Chaucer’s pilgrims were

of a “superior estate.” Professor G. L. Kittredge in his brilliant study on

Chaucer and his Poetry (Harvard University Press, 1915, p. 32) states that

Chaucer always had such “stupendous luck” in seeing the best.

5 See supra.

6 Everich for the wisdom that he kan

Was shaply for to been an alderman.

7 See reference to Hinckley, infra.

3369-370.

9Vol. V. p. 36.

10 The earliest reference to “Guildhall” is in 1269. ( A Descriptive Account

of the Guildhall of the City of London by J. E. Price, London, 1886, p.45).

Two additional references to the City Hall in Chaucer’s day — “Gyhalde”

( Life Records, p. 191), “Guyldehall” (Rot. Pari., III. p. 225) — furnish

variants in spelling.

666 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

verses into modern English. “Each of them seemed a

capital freeman of the City to sit on the raised platform

(dais) in a guildhall” — says the poet.

Of course the entire Common Council (150 members)

did not sit in a body on the dais. This distinction belonged

only to the Mayor and to the Aldermen. The Reverend

Mr. Beaven, in a letter to the present writer,1 makes this

plain when he says: “In the Court of Common Council con¬

sisting of Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Councillors,

the Lord Mayor presides and he and the Aldermen occupy

seats on the dais by prescriptive right. The Common

Councillors have seats “on the floor”; indeed that phrase is

constantly used to denote a Councillor as distinguished from

an Alderman.”

The passage, therefore, seems to mean: each of the wor¬

thies was fit to be an Alderman or a Mayor. Either inter¬

pretation will satisfy, though the reference to the Aldermen

seems preferable.2

That the allusion is political is strengthened by the fol¬

lowing lines:

Everich for the wisdom that he kan

Was shaply for to been an alderman.

Here we are on a definite footing and can reject Professor

Skeat altogether. Hinckley3 was the first to suggest that

Chaucer used “Alderman” in its modern sense of “municipal

magistrate,” instead of “head-officer of the guild,” — Pro-

1 1 wish to express here my thanks to the great authority on the mu¬

nicipal history of London for his courteous and generous attention to my

letter of inquiry. Without his assistance this portion of my paper would

have been materially weakened.

2 As a matter of fact the Sheriffs also sat on the dais. But there is no

Sheriff between 1371 and 1407 who did not also attain Aldermanic rank.

That is, a Sheriff who was not an Alderman when he entered office became

one soon afterwards. There were 74 Sheriffs between 1371 and 1407.

(Beaven, II. p. XXXVII. This statement in substance has been repeated

by the authority just cited in response to my inquiry.) For the list of

Sheriffs see Index to Letter-Book, H.

3 Notes on Chaucer , Northampton, Mass., 1907, p. 28. This admir¬

able book unfavorably reviewed in the Athenaeum (Aug. 29, 1908), has

recently come into its own. See Professor Karl Young, Kittredge An¬

niversary Papers , Boston, 1913, p. 405 n. Hinckley’s observations on

the sixteen grocer Aldermen, however, based on the article in Did. Natl.

Biog. under Brembre are erroneous. For a correct statement of the

facts see Beaven, The Aldermen of the City of London, Part I. London,

1908, p. 390 n. Gf. Letter-Book , H, p. VII.

Kuhl— Chaucer' s Burgesses .

667

fessor Skeat’s interpretation. With the aid of the Reverend

Mr. Beaven’s exceedingly helpful book1 one is able to prove

conclusively that Chaucer’s reference is political. The fol¬

lowing guilds had representation in the Aldermancy be¬

tween 1377 and 1400: Mercers,2 twenty representatives;3

Grocers, nineteen; Fishmongers, nine; Drapers, eight; Gold¬

smiths, eight; Vintners, eight; Skinners, seven; Stockfish-

mongers, six; Pepperers, two; Ironmongers, two; Wax-

chandlers, Tailors, Armourers,2 ‘Broderers,’2 Woolmongers

and Girdlers, one each. It will be observed that the par¬

ticular guilds referred to by Chaucer had no representation,

nor were they to have until a century later.4 This is, there¬

fore, one of the few political allusions to be found in the

Canterbury Tales. The lines, therefore, appear to mean:

each of the five burgesses was a capital freeman to sit on

the rostrum as an Alderman (or a Mayor) and, — moreover ,

everyone knew enough to be an Alderman.5

If the above interpretation is correct, one is tempted to

ask if any evidence exists that Chaucer’s burgesses were at¬

tempting to gain the Aldermancy. We know

hir wyves wolde it wel assente.6

One bit of evidence, at any rate, has come down to us. In

1397, we are told, the elections of Aldermen in the past had

1 op. cit. pp. 392 ff. I have not counted those who were re-elected,

but none as far back as 1365 belonged to other companies than those

mentioned above. One alderman of Tower Ward, John Morton,

for the year 1377, I have not been able to identify. His predecessors and

successors at Tower Ward were either grocers, mercers, or fishmongers.

These were the prominent companies, and Morton probably belonged to

one of them.

2 Among those who entered a petition against Brembre in Parliament

(1386). The Mercers and ‘Broderers’ had representatives in the Aldermancy

at the time. (Beaven, I. pp. 336, 354.)

3 Does not include those who had been re-elected. Cf. note 2.

4 The Haberdashers were the first to be represented, — in 1471 (Beaven,

I. p. 346). The Dyers first in 1601 (Ibid., I. p. 349). Weavers in 1626

(Ibid., I. p. 353). Carpenters in 1711 (Ibid., I. p. 352). The Tapicers

later lost their identity. It is curious to note that Chaucer’s guildspeople

had a greater number of representatives in the Common Council than

some of those who were represented in the Aldermancy. For example,

the Wax-chandlers.

6 If Chaucer had the Aldermen in mind in the previous stanza, this is a

sort of incremental repetition, as Professor Kittredge has pointed out to

me. I am indebted to Professor Kittredge for suggestions in the interpre¬

tation of these lines.

6 A. 374.

668 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

been “headstrong, partial, and imprudent.” And, as a

consequence, “damages, dissensions, and perils . . . had often¬

times happened in divers Wards” by reason of such elec¬

tions.1 Though this complaint came ten years after the

General Prologue was written, it is not without significance.

As a matter of fact, between 1376 and 1384 there had been a

great deal of discussion as to the tenure of office for an Aider-

man. In 1376 a Charter was issued by Edward III setting

forth that no Alderman should hold office for more than a

year.2 In the following year, the Common Council of the

City passed a resolution that “Aldermen who had misbe¬

haved themselves and been removed from office should on

no account be re-elected, but that an Alderman who had

conducted himself well might be re-elected after the lapse

of a year.”3 In 1384 Mayor Brembre issued a “precept”

for the election of an alderman as follows: “Either one who

is already or has been an Alderman, or some one else.”4

He thereby ignored the year’s interval, and by what au¬

thority is not known. The King assented to this particular

election “and is willing that the same mode . . . shall con¬

tinue, provided it appear to the members of the next Parlia¬

ment for the better government of the City.”5 Parliament

sanctioned the change6 later in the year (1384). 7 Though we

do not know Brembre’s motives, they undoubtedly were

selfish. At any rate the very fact that a victualling mayor

of his own motion disregarded an existing law and issued

his own precept which was condoned by the King would not

reduce friction among the guilds. Chaucer’s non-victuallers

may have chafed more, and probably did chafe more, than

the records reveal.

Moreover, it is interesting to note that no new aldermen

had been elected between 1383 and 1388, save one in 1387. 8

1 Letter-Book , H, p. 436,

8 Letter-Book , H, p. 58 n. 2. Cf. Beaven, II. p. XIX; also Birch, His¬

torical Charters of the City of London, London, 1884, pp. 65, 66.

3 Letter-Book , H, p. 60.

4 Ibid., p. 228.

5 Ibid., p. 231.

6 Letter-Book, H, p. IX.

7 Beaven, II. p. XIX. In 1394 annual elections ceased and an alderman

henceforth could not be removed without just cause ( Letter-Book , H,

pp. 409-410). This law is still operative (Beaven, II. p. XIX).

8 Beaven, I. p. 400. Cf. pp. 398-400. This was in March. In 1388

two new aldermen were elected, and but one in 1389. It is interesting

to note that all four were members of non-victualling guilds.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

669

Did the Londoners desire an infusion of new blood in the

Aldermancy? Or was Chaucer’s reference a sly thrust at

the Mayor’s precept of 1384? If the latter, it is a capital

touch.1

That there was rivalry because it implied a minimum

bank account seems certain. Though Chaucer does not

tell us that a burgess to be an alderman must have a certain

amount of worldly goods, he implies it.

For catel hadde they ynogh and rente.2

As a matter of fact, a minimum was necessary. Earlier in

the century a law was passed stating that each alderman

must have three horses.3

Nor was the spectacular element absent in an Alderman’s

career. Though not of great importance its social influence

was not negligible. Fortunately there is preserved a highly

interesting entry which throws light on this point, as well as

on the feeling of civic consciousness which was developing

at this time. Incidentally, the Host’s

And who so wole my Juggement withseye

Shal paye al that we spenden by the weye,4

is apropos. In 13825 the Mayor and Aldermen agreed unani¬

mously that “for the dignity of the said city” all the Aider-

men “should be arrayed upon the Feast of Pentecost (Whit

Monday) . in cloaks of green lined with green taffeta, or

tartaryn.” Anybody who refused was to pay a penalty

which was to be determined by the Mayor and such Aider-

men as were properly garbed. But on the appointed Mon-

1 Chaucer, it may be observed, exhibits his usual subtlety in his allusions

to contemporary events.

2 A. 373.

3 Letter-Book, C, p. 154. Cf. Liber Albus, I. p. XLVII. In an or¬

dinance of 1397 a man to be an alderman had to be “fit in morals and world¬

ly goods.” {Letter-Book, H, p. 436). This ordinance implies a minimum.

Though little information exists we discover, beginning with the next

century, some interesting facts. For example, in 1469 a man to be an

alderman must have £1000; in 1710, £15000; in 1812, £30000. Aider-

men frequently refused to serve (Beaven, II. p. XXXIX). For enviable

privileges of an alderman see Liber Albus, I. pp. 32 ff. Among other privi¬

leges they were not required to pay anything for the enrollment of their

charters or deeds {Ibid., p. 35). There were heavy penalties for insulting

an alderman {Ibid). See oath taken by aldermen {Ibid., pp. 307-8).

That they were not to sell victuals while in office is of interest.

4 A. 805-6. Cf. 833-4.

6 Riley, Memorials of London , p. 466. Letter-Book , H, p. 188 contains

a summary of the incident.

670 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

day when the distinguished men met in St. Peter’s, Cornhill,

“to go in procession from thence through the City, accord-*

ing to the ancient custom, to the Church of St. Paul,” John

Sely1 appeared in his business suit.2 Punishment was meted

on the spot. It was decided then and there that Sely should

give a dinner at his home3 on the following Thursday to his

fellow Aldermen and the Mayor. Not only that, but he “was

to line his cloak in manner aforesaid; and so it was done.”

Moreover, any alderman in the future who is not properly

attired for a procession shall pay a like penalty.4

Every scrap of evidence one can find indicates that the

guildspeople had sufficient property and income. As

has been pointed out5 the guilds became all-powerful after

1376. They had gained not only in worldly goods but in

municipal power as well. Though the King had favored the

stronger (victuallers) for a number of years, Chaucer lived

to see the day when the purchasing power of all London

guilds was curbed. This was in 1391. In this year Parlia¬

ment enacted a statute whereby the guilds were to be “sub¬

ject to a license of amortization.” Sharpe points out that

this indicates “that up to that time they had enjoyed un¬

limited power of acquiring property in mortmain without

such license.”6

This statute, presumably the result of jealousy,7 had its

beginnings in 1388. In November of that year (shortly

after the meeting of Parliament at Cambridge) “under the

auspices of the lords appellant”8 “an important step was

taken towards regulating not only the Guilds of the City of

1 Alderman of Walbrook.

2 “Cloak that was single and without a lining.”

3 “At his house, and that at the proper costs of the said John.”

4 Cf in passim the apprentice in the Cook's Prologue. (A. 4365 ff).

6 See pp. 1 ff.

6 Letter-Book , H, p. XLIX. Cf. Stat ., 15 Richard II, Cap. V. Some

of the guildspeople held property to the uses of religious houses. For a

discussion of this complicated and vague question see text. Sharpe

{Letter-Book, H, XLIX) quotes Stubbs {Const. Hist., III. pp. 586, 590)

in saying that jealousy on the part of the governing body of the City

provoked this statute. The reason given is, the City enjoyed no such

privilege. This however does not seem to me a sufficient reason for the

governing body of London was composed of guildspeople. I have not

been able to find the reference to Stubbs.

7 See previous note.

8 The proceedings unfortunately are not set forth in the Rolls of Parlia¬

ment (Cf. Letter-Book, H, pp. XLVIII, 336).

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

671

London, which had occasioned so much disquietude of late

years (and which the lords had already shown a desire to

take in hand), but also all kindred associations throughout

the country, for the King issued writs to the Sheriff of every

county to make a return of all Guilds within his bailiwick,

with full particulars of their origin, government, and pos¬

sessions.”1 Sharpe thinks that one “of the chief enact¬

ments (in 1391) was the interpretation of the Statute of

Mortmain as comprising property held by laymen to the

uses of religious houses or by perpetual corporations, such

as guilds and fraternities.”2

One record, of extraordinary interest because unique, is

preserved which indicates that the women had a direct in¬

terest in the business affairs of that day. In 1372 an ar¬

rangement was made between the Dyers, Leathersellers, and

Pursers of the Bridge defining their respective duties and

obligations. Of the three dyers who subscribe the Articles,

-1 Two separate writs dated 1 November were sent to the Mayor, and

Sheriffs of London; one bids them “for certain reasons laid before the

King and his Council at the last Parliament held at Cambridge, to make

proclamations for all Masters, Wardens, and Surveyors of misteries and

crafts in the City and suburbs who have in their possession any charters

or letters patent fromfthe King . touching the said misteries and crafts,

to bring into the King’s Chancery such charters” — before Feb. 2, 1389.

The other writ is for all “Masters and Wardens of guilds and fraternities

in the City and suburb” to make returns of their foundation, government,

and property. {Letter-Book, H, pp. XLVIII, 336). See Toulmin Smith,

English Gilds (E. E. T. S., Vol. 40, pp. 127-131), for a translation of these

writs. The guilds were to make returns of the “true annual value of the

said lands, tenements, and possessions and the true worth of the said

goods and chattels” {Ibid., p. 128). Sharpe says {Letter-Book, H, p.

XLVIII) that the “first writ applied to the Guilds which controlled the

various trades and crafts of the City, but which also possessed incidentally

a religious and social element; the second referred to unchartered associa¬

tions formed solely for religious and social purposes. No returns to the

first writ appear to be extant (if, indeed, they were ever made), whilst

only thirty-one returns have been discovered to the second writ. Among

the latter are returns of four fraternities bearing the names of craft

Guilds, viz: the Whitelawyers, the Barbers, the Cutlers, and the Glovers,

but only as social and religious associations. A seventeenth-century copy

of the return made by the fraternity of Barbers is printed in Mr. Sidney

Young’s “Annals of the Barber-Surgeons” (pp. 30-34). A copy of

Young’s Annals is in the Harvard Library. To what extent the guilds

had a social and religious purpose is not known. See Miss S. E. Moffat,

London Fraternities in the Fourteenth Century (printed in The Clare Market

Review, May, 1906). A. copy of this article is in the library of Harvard

University. Cf. Hinckley, Notes, etc., p. 27.

2 Letter-Book, H, p. 371, n. 4.

22

672 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

the wives are associated as parties.1 Were the wives, one

is tempted to ask, assisting their husbands in the dyeing of

materials, in order to purchase the required number of

horses?

Observation has been made that some of the burgesses

owned property outside of London, and that one man in

particular2 held lands in Kent. This at once raises the ques¬

tion in what part of Kent, and if along the Pilgrim’s Road.

One interesting entry to the student of Chaucer is preserved.

In 1374 Giles de Kelseye3, “tapicer”, and citizen of London,

Thomas Hermesthorp, formerly a parson of London, and

William Bollok receive from the latter’s brother John, a

“tapicer,” “lands, rents and services in Hallyng, Cokelston

and Rochester.”4 5 Hallyng lay six miles south of Rochester,

and Cokeleston apparently was on the Isle of Sheppey.

Rochester, of course, was the chief city between London

and Canterbury, and readers of Chaucer will recall the Host’s

“Lo! Rouchestre”6 uttered with evident national pride.

Possession of property along the Pilgrim’s Road was com¬

mon enough. Highly interesting is the fact that a number

of the poet’s fellow Justices of Peace owned land along the

route, and in some cases actually lived on the Road. At

Ospringe, for example, Sir Arnold Savage, Robert Bealknap,

and others acquired a manor in 1374. 6 Thomas Shardelowe

lived at Hartford.7 Arnold Savage was of an old family

that had long been settled two miles from Sittingbourne8 (at

1 A complete translation of the Articles is set forth in the History of

the Leathersellers Company, by W. H. Black, London, 1871, pp. 15 ff.

Cf. Letter-Book , G, p. 293. The Dyers were somewhat notorious, also,

for cheating their customers. This complaint was included in the Articles.

The names of the Dyers are: “John Blackthorne and Agnes his wife,

Robert Whitynge and Lucy his wife, and Richard Westone, ‘dier,*

and Katherine his wife.”

2 Dyk. See supra.

3 See supra.

4 Cal. Close Rolls, 1374-7, pp. 96 f. In his will he makes bequests to

Dyk and his wife, and to his sister, — the wife of Kelseye (Cal. of Wills,

etc., II. p. 179). This intimacy between people of the same guild is not

without interest.

5 B. 3116.

6 Cal. Close Rolls, 1374-7, pp. 107 ff. Ospringe was one of the halting-

places for pilgrims. Dartford and Rochester were the other two. See

Skeat, V. p. 415.

7 Cal. Pat. Rolls , 1381-5, p. 409.

8 Die. Natl. Biog ., L. p. 335. On Sittingbourne see D. 847.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses.

673

Bobbing) — likewise mentioned in the Canterbury Tales.

Eleanor, sister of Arnold Savage, and William, son of Lewis

Clifford (a known friend of Chaucer), were joint owners of

property at Bobbing.1 John Cobham lived at Cooling

(Cowling) near the Pilgrim’s Road.2 Thomas Brokhull,

presumably the father of the poet’s fellow J. P., owned a

manor six miles south of Dartford.3 Simon Burley had in¬

terest in the manor of Parrok near Gravesend.4 Six promi¬

nent Justices of the Peace, therefore, lived or owned prop¬

erty on or near the Pilgrim’s Road, and some actually lived

at the usual halting places for the night. This is manifestly

significant. That Chaucer in making a pilgrimage to Can¬

terbury was entertained by one of his colleagues we like to

imagine. At any rate, the minute knowledge necessary

for the portrait of the Franklin was not got in London.

The poet not only saw this country gentleman enjoy his

morning draught, but he also heard belated travellers ask

for a night’s lodging. Nor are these facts which one ordi¬

narily gleans at midday. Furthermore, not to press the

point, when Chaucer pays the Franklin the great compliment

of being the Saint Julian does he not infer that this worthy

gentleman lived on the Pilgrim’s Road?5 What other high¬

way in Kent would be so likely to have belated travellers?

Finally, it may be observed that Chaucer succeeded Sharde-

lowe (who lived at Dartford) as J. P., when the latter

died. Shardelowe was an old man who had been J. P. for

years, and

Ful ofte tyme he was Knyght of the shire.6

Mention has been made of the fact that Kelseye left

money for the repair of bridges. What bridges we do not

know. From other sources, however, we may infer that one

of them was the bridge over the Medway between

Strood and Rochester,— the bridge the Pilgrims had to

cross. That some of the London burgesses did contribute

towards its construction or repair we do know. In 1373

1 Die. Natl. Biog., L. p. 336. The source of information is not given.

2 Die . Natl. Biog.. XI. p. 156.

8 Cal. Close Rolls , 1364-8, pp. 199-200.

4 Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1381-5, p. 160.

6 Assuming of course that the Franklin was a resident of Kent.

6 In my doctoral dissertation on Illustrations in Chaucer, which I hope

to publish shortly, I have made a fuller biography of Shardelowe.

674 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Thomas atte Legh, a stockfishmonger, left 40 shillings to¬

wards the work;1 John Rous, a fishmonger, left money in

1381 for like purpose;2 and likewise a London skinner in 1386. 3

Three similar bequests were made in the first quarter of

the fifteenth century.4 The burden of the expense, however,

was carried by Sir John Cobham (fellow J. P. of Chaucer)

and Sir Robert Knolles — two famous knights of the four¬

teenth century — who rebuilt the bridge in 1388. 5

The matter of wearing apparel is not without interest

also. When but a comparatively few wills are preserved

one should not expect many by obscure people. And such

is actually the case. Even when the will is given it is likely

to be brief or the trade of the testator omitted.6 However,

a sufficient number of interesting wills have come down to

us which make pertinent some scattering observations. A

very interesting will of a London tailor,7 dated 1393, exists.

John Dymmok, “tailour”, leaves among other things “a

girdle of black silk harnessed with silver.” Also “a long

gown of striped cloth . furred with bever, a silver girdle, a

baselard harnessed with silver, a doublet with coat of mail,

a palet with hood.” He likewise leaves several robes and

another basilard with silver trimmings. He therefore

owned two girdles and two basilards “harnessed with

silver.”8 A “clothpakker” (fuller) in 1418 leaves a

“girdle garnished with silver and . . . baselard garnished

with silver.”9 In glancing through other wills one is im¬

pressed by the number of silver girdles, daggers, spoons,

cups, etc., which tradespeople possessed, — even 6ibedes of

haumbre.”10 Chaucer’s people had knives (presumably the

basilards, used for protection against robbers) capped, as

the poet tells us, not with brass but with silver. The Reve

from the “north contree” had a rusty sword, however, —

another reason for his shyness.

1 Cal. of Wills, etc., II. p. 154.

2 Ibid., p. 225.

'Ibid., p. 261.

4 Ibid., pp. 392, 428, 433. The bridge was in need of repair a good deal

of the time apparently.

5 Die. Natl. Biog., XXXI. p. 285. Both men were natives of Kent.

6 In many cases, through the aid of the Letter-Books, I have been able

to identify the man’s business.

7 Tailors had six representatives in the Common Council.

8 Cal. Wills , Court of Hustings, II. pp. 303-4.

8 Ibid., 414-5.

Ibid., p. 233. Cf., in general, pp. 182, 199 f, 205, 207 f, 238, 240, 261 f,

277, 299 f, etc.

Kuhl — Chaucer's Burgesses .

675

Money frequently was left for persons to make pilgrim¬

ages to shrines. In one will, made by a vintner in 1361,

twenty shillings were left to anyone willing to walk to

Canterbury “with naked feet;”1 forty shillings to anyone

willing to go to “S. Mary de Walsingham.”2 A silver girdle

and forty shillings are left in 1373 by a brewer to anyone

who will go to Santiago3 (Spain). Ten marks are left in

1376 by a woolmonger for the like purpose4 (to Santiago).

A mercer in 1384 leaves bequests for sending two pilgrims

to Rome, there to remain forty days.5 A draper, in 1383,

makes provision for someone to go to Rome in case he die

before he can perform the vow in person.6 A poulterer in

1397 makes provision for sending a pilgrim to Rome.7 It

will be observed that no one belonging to a small non¬

victualling company left a will of this sort. Drapers and

mercers, of course, were among the wealthiest. The vic¬

tuallers, however, fared particularly well in Chaucer’s day, —

even as to-day.

1 Cal. Wills, II. p. 41. Cf. p. 105.

2 Ibid. , p. 107.

» Ibid., p. 163.

« Ibid., p. 221.

• Ibid., p. 243.

• Ibid., p. 251.

» Ibid., p. 335.

676 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ON A NEW MYXOSPORIDIAN, HENNEGUYA

WISCONSINENSIS , N. SP., FROM THE

URINARY BLADDER OF THE

YELLOW PERCH, PERCA FLAV-

ESCENS

JAMES W. MAVOR AND WILLIAM STRASSER

University of Wisconsin

The myxosporidian to be described was found in the

uninary bladder of a yellow perch, Perea flavescens , caught in

Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, and examined on April 15th, 1915.

The fish was a male 22 cm. in length. After the discovery of

the parasite in this specimen, the urinary bladders of twelve

other yellow perch were carefully searched in the latter part

of April and May for the myxosporidian, but without suc¬

cess. The latter fish were, however, all under 15 cm. in

length.

Diagnosis of Henneguya wisconsinensis n. sp.

The myxosporidium (Fig. 1, a , 5, and c) is usually elon¬

gated and has the general form and shape of a limax amoeba.

It may reach a size of 300 x 70 //. Ectoplasm and endoplasm

are clearly to be distinguished. The pseuopodia are lobose.

The pansporoblast contains two sporoblasts.

The spores (Fig. 3, c) are ovoid, bilaterally symmetrical,

and have a bifurcated caudal filament extending from the

posterior end. The two polar capsules are situated near to¬

gether in the broader, anterior end. The filaments can be

seen in the fresh state within the polar capsules as spirals.

Mavor — Strasser — On a New Myxosporidian ,

677

Fig. 1. — Myosporidia of Henneguya wisconsinensis. a, individual containing

spores and pansporoblasts; b, small individual adhering to epithelial cells of bladder;

c, another myxosporidium. a and c drawn from fresh preparations; b from a

preparation stained with Delafield’s haematoxylin. A, b, c, X 570; b, X 1300.

678 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

each composed of five coils. The dimensions of a typical

spore are:

length to end of cavity 11.5 ix

width to end of cavity 7.0 m

tail 9.6 fj,

length of polar capsules 3.5 ^

width of polar capsules 2.5 m

calculated length of po¬

lar filaments1 30-40 n

Observations on the Structure of the Parasite

The structure of the nuclei in the myxosporidium and in

the pansporoblasts presents certain points of interest. These

nuclei measure from 1.2 /a to 2.3 n in diameter. In the resting

state they consist of a peripheral layer of relatively large

Fig. 2. — Stages in the sporogenesis of Henneguya wisconsinensis: a — g, drawn

from a preparation stained with Delafield’s haematoxylin, X 1300.

chromatin granules arranged under the membrane and sur¬

rounding a clear area which may be either centrally or ec¬

centrically situated. In the center of this clear area is an

endosome or “Binnenkorper” (Fig. 1, b). The division

stages have not been studied in this species as the material

appeared not to be promising in this respect.

The writers have not studied the sporogenesis of this form

at length, partly because the senior author (Mavor, 1916)

has already in the press a paper dealing with this phase of

the life-cycle in another genus, and partly because the ma¬

terial did not seem promising in this respect. Certain stages

have, however, been found in the plasmodium. The propa-

1 We have since found a spore with an extruded filament measuring

33/* in a stained preparation.

Mavor — Strasser — On a New Myxosporidian. 679

gative cells (Keysselitz, 1908) contain a single nucleus en¬

closed in a well defined mass of protoplasm (Fig. 2, a). The

division of the nuclei of these ells has not been observed but

cells containing a large and a small nucleus are abundant

(Fig. 2, b). Ceds containing two large and two small nuclei

are also to be found and identified as the beginning of the

pansporoblasts (Fig. 2, c, d). Whether such cells arise from

the union of two binucleated cells as described for Myxobolus

Fig. 3. — Stages in the sporogenesis of Henneguya wisconsinensis: a and b,

pansporoblasts; c and rf, spores; a and d from fresh preparations, b and c from a

preparation stained with Delafield’s haematoxylin. a, X 1100, b — d, X 4000.

pfeifferi by Keysselitz (1908) we are not able to say. The

occurrence of stages containing three nuclei makes this

doubtful (Fig. 2, e, /). Later stages in the development of

the pansporoblasts (Fig. 3, a and b) show that two sporo-

blasts are developed in each pansporoblast. The fully de¬

veloped spores show two nuclei in the sporoplasm.

680 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

It has not been possible to decide whether or not the

myxosporidium occurs attached to the walls of the urinary

bladder. The occurrence in smears of myxosporidia im¬

bedded in masses of epithelial cells of the urinary bladder

suggests that this may be the case (Fig. 1, b).

The Systematic Position of the Parasite

So far as the writers are aware the genus Henneguya con¬

tains eighteen species which are as follows (Auerbach 19 10,

Labbe, 1899, and Gurley, 1894):

1. H . psorospermica Thel.

2. H . media Thel.

3. H. brevis Thel.

4. H. schizura Gurley

5. H. creplini Gurley

6. H. linearis Gurley

7. H. strongylura Gurley

8. H. monura Gurley

9. H. kolesnikovi Gurley

10. H. macrura Gurley

11. H. zschokkei Gurley

12. H. sp. Borne

13. H. sp. Clap.

14. H. nusslini Schubert and

Schroder

15. H. acerinae Schrod.

16. H. tenius Yaney et Conte

17. H. legeri Cepede

18. H. gigantea Nemeczek

from Lucius lucius and Perea

fluviatilis.

“ Gasterasteus aculeaetus

and G. pungitius.

“ Gasterasteus aculeatus

and G. pungitius.

“ Lucius lucius

“ Acerina cernua

“ Pimelodus sebae and

Platysoma fasciatum

“ Synodontis schall

“ Aphredoderus say anus

“ Goregonus lavaretus

“ Hybognathus nuchalis

“ Cor eg onus lavaretus

“ Leuciscus rutilus

<s Leuciscus rutilus

“ Truttafario

“ Lucioperca lucioperca

Acerina cernua

“ Acerina cernua

“ Cobitis barbatula

“ Lucioperca sandra

Henneguya wisconsinensis differs from Nos. 1, 2 and 5 in

having a broader and less elongated spore, from No. 3 by

the shape of the anterior end of the spore, from No. 4, 6, 8,

9, 10, 11, 14, 15, and 18 in having shorter caudal filaments,

from Nos. 7, 16 and 17 in having larger spores. The spores

Mavor — Strasser — On a New Myxosporidian. 681

of No. 13 (Gurley, 1894, p. 246, PI. 30) are very similar in

shape and size to those of our parasite but are not so wide.

No description is given by Borne of the parasite recorded by

him, No. 12, from Leuciscus rutilus .

No species of Henneguya or other myxosporidian is re¬

corded as occurring in the urinary bladder of the European

perch, Perea fluviatilis, L., the only species of myxosporidian

recorded from this fish being Henneguya psorospermica testa

L. Cohn and H. psorospermica minuta L. Cohn, both from

the gills. The spores of H. psorospermica testa L. Cohn are

described as similar to those of H. psorospermica typica

Thel., which measure 29-38 n by 15-20 m, and are there¬

fore much larger, and proportionately narrower than those of

our American parasite. The spores of H. psorospermica

minuta L. Cohn are also much larger and narrower than

H. wisconsinensis measuring 28 n by 10-11 m-

The American and the European perches, Perea flavescens

and Perea fluviatilis , S. respectively are undoubtedly very

closely related if not identical. It is difficult to believe that

the urinary bladder of Perea fluviatilis has not been searched

by some one of the many European workers on protozoan

parasites. The occurrence of H. wisconsinensis in the

American perch and its apparent absence in the European

species is therefore of considerable systematic interest.

The classification of the species described is as follows:

Phylum Protozoa

Class Sporozoa Leuckart

Sub-Class Neosporidia Schandinn

Order Cnidosporidia Doflein

Sub-Order Myxosporidia Biitschli

Legion Polysporea Doflein

Family Myxosporidia Thelohan

Genus Henneguya Thelohan

Species wisconsinensis n. sp.

682 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

PAPERS CITED.

Auerbach, M. 1910. Die Cnidosporidian. Leipzig.

Gurley, R. R. 1894. The Myxosporidia or Psorosperms

of fishes and the epidemics produced by them. Report U. S.

Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1892, Part 18, p. 65.

Labbe, A. 1899. Sporozoa in Das Tierreich. Deutsch.

Zool. Ges., 5 Liefg.

Mavor, J. W. 1916. On the life-history of Ceratomyxa

acadiensis, a new species of Myxosporidia from the Eastern

Coast of Canada. Proceedings American Academy of Arts

and Sciences. Vol. 51, No. 11.

Meneczek, A. 1911. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Myxo-und

Microsporidien der Fische, Arch. f. Protist., Bd. 22, p. 143.

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction.

683

A TRUE BIT OF INSTRUCTION SHOWING

WHY WE ARE UNDER OBLIGATIONS TO

PAY TAXES AND TITHES FOR THE

PRESERVATION OF CHRISTIAN

PEACE AND THE AVOIDANCE

OF TROUBLE

Written by Joannes Landtsperger, an humble servant

of Christ, 1528

ERNST voss

PREFACE

Since many in their misunderstanding of the Holy Scrip¬

tures or of the Word of God are complaining of being un¬

justly burdened by taxes and tithes, (a condition of affairs

which has been brought about by sermons preached some

time ago) and since because of this overburdening they are

causing seditions and revolts against the power, which God,

according to the teachings of Christ, Peter and Paul, has

given to the worldly magistracy — revolts whose causes can

be attributed mainly to a lack of foresight on the part of

inexperienced preachers, although other troubles not here

mentioned also contributed their share; and since things

have come to such a pass that true preachers (at whose

door these troubles surely cannot be laid) must become

apprehensive and cannot feel sure of their ground, I have

purposed writing a short admonition in my sympathy and

love for the brethren, in order that all country pastors, who

cannot be so well versed in these matters, may meet or

answer unitedly the question of tithes and taxes, put to

them by their parishioners or others, and that they in turn

684 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

may be able to write about them; in order that those under

them may not conclude from the varying answers and the

misunderstandings that they themselves (i. e. the preachers)

hold opposite views and continue to lead others astray — as

is now the common report. I shall briefly show how much

God’s Word may effect in such, and afterwards let other

scholars determine its value.

A PRELIMINARY QUESTION DESIGNED TO GIVE A BETTER

UNDERSTANDING OF THE TREATISE.

Some clamor loudly and ask: If God has made all things

common possessions, whence this holding of property and

this paying of tithes and taxes.

Answer: God made all things else, before man, and finally

he made man of the dust of the earth, naked and bare: thus

we were born into this world and thus we must leave it, as

Job says. Then God made Adam a lord and a ruler over all

things and subjected everything to him to be used by him

at his pleasure. Consequently the earth and everything

contained therein belongs to God, and no man either by the

act of creation or by nature is superior to another; for they

are all of the same earthly origin. Therefore none may say

by authority of divine or natural law: this or that is mine,

lest he usurp that which be'ongs to the Lord. But since

Adam was by God ordained lord over all things, he could

at his pleasure give to his children, being after God the high¬

est ruler in temporal matters: thus Cain and Abel his (first)

oldest sons held their possessions separate (Abel was a

shepherd and Cain a tiller of the soil) and each gave to God

of his substance. It is apparent that by their temporal

gifts they recognized God as Lord of all things which he had

subjected to Adam. The sons of Noah acted in like manner

after the flood.

Likewise, Abraham, Gen. XIII, divided his land with his

brother’s son Lot, giving him his choice, although Abraham

was the ruler. This was done by order of the spirit to bring

about peace between Abraham’s and Lot’s herdsmen, both

of whom, to please their lords, desired the best pastures.

Hereby one can see that each had his own cattle and that

only the pastures were held in common. And if to-day

conditions were such that temporal possessions would be

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction.

685

communal, everyone would want the best of everything

and many a man would use up as much as ten would other¬

wise, and there would be neither rest nor peace among men.

For the same reason the promised land was given to the

children of Israel through Joshua acting under God’s orders,

as is clearly recorded in the fifth book of Moses and in the

book of Joshua. No portion, however, was given to the

tribe of Levi, for God purposed to sustain it, by that which

by nature belonged to it, as will be shown later in this treatise.

Afterwards disposition was made of the temporal things,

and the people were ruled by Judges as is seen in the book

of Judges. Later, God, heeding the clamor of the people,

gave the power into the hands of kings, and it is only by

virtue of their ordination that one is justified in saying,

this or that is mine, (I. Kings, 8.) Such is the human

law, which God through worldly kings has given to mankind ;

Christ did not abolish it, but confirmed it, and Peter and

Paul interpreted it, as will be seen further on in this treatise.

As for the objection advanced by some, e. g., the Ana¬

baptists: In the Apostolic Age all things were communal

and none said this thing or that belongs to me. Acts ii, 6.

Answer: Luke inserts that to show how united in Christ

the believers were, and how unhindered by worldly consid¬

erations they put their trust wholly in Christ, and leaned on

his Word, although there was no command to the effect that

all things were to be held in common. Everyone waited

patiently for that which was to be given to him, (to everyone

according to his needs) and nobody appropriated his portion

to himself. Even then there arose a murmuring that things

were not being done justly, whereupon Peter spoke: It is

not reason (American Revised has fit) that we should leave

the Word of God and serve tables. (Acts 6.) And he

commanded them to elect of their number seven men of

good report, who were reputed to be full of the Holy Ghost,

and these were to be entrusted with the office of giving to

everyone impartially according to his needs.

Whence it is evident and clear that from the beginning of

the world up to the present time nothing temporal has been

communal in the sense that everyone might make use of it,

according to his pleasure; but there have always been

worldly magistrates to decide over things: of whom Adam

686 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

(as stated above) was the first who received power from God

over all creatures. And it is proper that as Adam dealt

toward his children, all succeeding generations should be

treated. However, God created all things to be held in com¬

mon in the sense that everyone, (whom God has given tem¬

poral possessions) is bound by law of God and nature

to divide his property with the poor and needy who have

nothing; for man is only a dispenser of his possessions and

he is ordained by God to rule over them and not to let them

rule over him.

There is another question in this connection: If one has

bought a tithe and paid cash for it, must he give it back to

the church, from which he bought it, and thus be deprived

of his principal (Hauptsumme)?

ANSWER IN A FEW WORDS.

If the tithe is a product of the soil, and belongs to God, to

be used to sustain His ministers and the poor, no man has

the power to sell it, for in reality it is not his (as will be seen

later). No man shall sell that which does not belong to him,

nor shall anyone wittingly buy it. But in case one should

have used it for some years, so that it would have become

the equivalent of the principal1 or more, he is bound both by

divine and natural law to give it back without any recom¬

pense;2

in case, however, it should be less than the principal (the

amount first tithed) the difference must be given to him and

he must give up his tithe. All this is to be done in the spirit

of honesty and truth. How the magitracy acts in this mat¬

ter with its indulgences, contracts and agreements, is of little

concern to me. I intend to be troubled by temporal pos¬

sessions, only in so far as the tithes are wrongfully used and

the buyers are deprived of what belongs to them. In case a

servant of the church sells the tithe, which belongs to him

for his life-time only, for a longer period than he should

have use of it, he is a spiritual thief, for he has sold something

which does not belong to him, but to God, to be used to

1 Principal in this connection — the amount (first) tithed.

2 Explanation. A bushel of corn, the original tithe of ten bushels

would in a short time equal the ten bushels, the amount first tithed. It

must then be given back. The example chosen, is not very happy, be¬

cause of the reproductive ability of corn.

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction .

687

sustain His ministers and the needy. And accordingly it

belongs to the one who succeeds him in the ministry and to

the poor.

In case the tithe-exactor is the king, he who has been given

the tithe by the king, may sell the use of it for his life-time

but no longer, and then only with the permission of the king,

who has given it to him as a fief. Therefore let everyone be

careful of what he buys.

ANOTHER QUESTION.

In case the tithe on the possessions of the poor, in reality

should not be exacted, might not the church officers be al¬

lowed to distribute it to the ministers and the poor, accord¬

ing to their needs. Answer: If the magistracy and the

congregation should command it, it would be proper and

in accordance with the Holy Scriptures, Acts VI, if they dis¬

tributed it with reference to the need and if they took no

benefit to themselves unless they themselves were needy.

Now let us find out in all brevity on what Scriptural

grounds taxes or tributes, which belong to the magistracy

are justified. Saint Paul, Romans XIII, teaches subjection

to worldly authority and power. For there is no power but

of God; the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever

resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God* And there¬

after he says: Wherefore ye must needs be subject not only

for wrath but for conscience sake. Herein can be seen that

it is incumbent upon us to be subject not only for wrath’s

sake, in our fear or love of men, but also for conscience sake,

as God-fearing men, doing His pleasure for this is well pleas¬

ing unto the Lord. Col. III. Eph. VI. For worldly au¬

thority (an instrument in God’s hand) exists to promote

peace among men, in order that the church may live and

flourish in peace. Therefore the conscience is in love and

duty bound to do God’s pleasure and be subject to it. For

he who does not love peace is not a Christian, wherefore, as

Paul says, ye must pay taxes and tribute for they are instru¬

ments for the maintenance of peace. Render therefore to all

their dues: tribute to whom tribute is due; custom to whom

custom; fear to whom fear; honor to whom honor. Owe no

man anything, but to love one another; for he that loveth

another hath fulfilled the law. We see that obedience to

23

688 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

worldly authority is comprehended in the commandment of

love, and ail the commandments in the words: Thou shalt

love thy neighbor as thyself. Love worketh no ill to his

neighbor; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law, and he

who acts contrary to it, shall be punished by worldly au¬

thority, for the worldly authority does not bear a sword in

vain. Hebr. XIII. Paul has taken the commandment of

obedience to worldly authority from the first book of Samuel

or from Kings, the VIII chapter, where God made known

to the people through the prophets, what power and rights

the kings were to have over life and limb and temporal pos¬

sessions and over their children, because the children of

Israel desired a king, who was to lead them in battle and be

a protector and defender such as other nations had, and they

willingly took the yoke upon themselves. And this law to¬

gether with other external subjection Christ (because he

would not act against his Father’s will) has not taken from

us, but confirmed. Matt. XXII. Render unto Caesar the

things which are Caesar’s. And Christ observed it when He

commanded Peter to give tribute for him and for himself,

although Christ born of kingly parentage was not bound to

give it, though Peter, of course, was, but Christ did not

want to give offense. And that is what Paul, taught by

Christ, would have, when he says that Christ has not freed

us in temporal things, but has subjected us to powers in all

things that are contained in the first book of Kings VIII.

Therefore he who teaches otherwise gives evidence that he

understands neither the Old nor the New Testament. Let

him who has a Bible look into the VIII chapter of the first

book of Samuel.

There is still the tribute from feudal lands which one has

for his use and his sustenance. I do not believe that any

one would be so petty-minded as to refuse to give it. Should

he be so disposed let him give his land back to his liege-lord

who will readily be able to find one who will give it willingly.

This is not a question of usury. I have taken up briefly

those points which have the cause of complaints on the part

of the poor.

Concerning tithe-giving, some say, it is not commanded

in the New Testament; therefore nobody is bound to give it,

for Christ has absolved us from it with His blood. Others

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction.

689

maintain that since the Levitic priesthood is no more, tithes

which were given to them by the law of Moses should no

longer be exacted, for we who believe in Christ are all priests.

Answer: The tithe was given by the dictates of nature

and its laws, without doubt by the direction of the Spirit,

even before the law of Moses was given, for natural law

teaches that one should recognize in God the Giver of all

things and that man has nothing by himself, but everything

by God and from Him.

For God who looketh on the heart alone needs no external

token, and not the amount which one gives, but the spirit

in which one gives it will be the determining factor with

Him. But since Abraham (who was godly and to whom God

spoke and to whom after Noah He gave His first promises

and into whose hands he delivered his enemies) gave tithes

of all his booty to Melchizedek a priest of the Most High

who said to him, Blessed be Abraham of the most high God,

possessor of heaven and earth: And blessed be the most high

God which hath delivered thy enemies into thy hands. And

thus the name tithe came into usage and (as Paul says) in

the land of Abram tithes were given to the tribe of Levi,

which tribe was given tithes according to the law of Moses,

as will be seen later. None the less is Christ an eternal

priest after the order of Melchizedek, the blessed son of

Abram, to whom the tithes now belong, in order that His

poor and His servants may live therefrom as well as all of

Abram’s children after the spirit and after the flesh who be¬

lieve in God. Whoever would be a Christian and a follower

of Christ, into whose name he has been baptized, should

willingly give tithes, that is, by gifts and works, according

to his means be helpful to servants of the Word and to poor

Christians. He who would be a child of Abram, let him do

the works of Abram which are like unto the faith. John

YIII. If ye were Abram’s children, etc.

Likewise Jacob (when in his sleep he saw a marvellous

vision and when God spoke to him and gave him a promise)

vowed a vow and said: If God will be with me, and will

keep me in this way that I wiU go, and will give me bread

to eat, and raiment to put on, so that I may come again to

my father’s house in peace; then shall the Lord be my God:

And this stone which I have set for a pillar, shall be God’s

690 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

house: and of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give

the tenth unto thee. (Gen. 28. According to this text we see

that votum, a vow, is an acknowledgment of something which

a man owes, or which he is in duty bound to do, as to pray, as

David says in Psalms, I will pay my vow unto the Lord now

in the presence of all His people. Likewise Jacob speaks

here intending to do what he says afterwards. The fact that

he put a condition to it, If God, etc., did not result from

doubt but from true faith, as if he were to say: I see by this

wonderful vision that the ladder reaches from heaven to

earth, etc., and I trust in the promise of the Lord and be¬

lieve that He will be my God as He was the God of Abram

and of Isaac my father and that He will be with me, etc.

If such will be the case, the Lord will be my God, not as

though before he was not his God, but he resolves to erect a

house of worship to God, wherein God should be praised

and preached and then he resolves to give the tithes of all that

God would give him to the ministers and the servants of the

Word; just as his father Abram gave tithes to Melchizedek

(who praised and blessed God in Abram’s presence and who

told of His power and might. Likewise Noah was a minister

of righteousness as Peter bears testimony in his second

Epistles. (2. Act. 2)

Likewise Jacob acknowledges here that he was under

obligations to pay tithes to God for His gifts. He gave to

his offspring no commandment or law, but an example by

which he showed that giving was a natural law when one was

thankful. But when this custom of giving was no longer

being observed, and in fact had died out in Egypt, God gave

a commandment through Moses, denominating those to

whom the tithe should be given and those who should use

it, namely, the Levites, the descendants of Levi, the third

son of Jacob, who were continually in the service of the Lord

and who were to instruct the people in His law. Therefore

they received no share in the division of the land as did the

other tribes, but the Lord was their share and they were the

Lord’s. For Levi means an addition and it became their

duty to perform the offices of worship which Jacob insti¬

tuted. Therefore God purposed to sustain them by the

tithes which by natural laws belonged to Him.

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction.

691

All this Jacob saw (as a prophet) in spirit, for the worship

of God has continued uninterrupted until Christ fulfilled it

for eternity.

And therefore the tithe has not been done away with, as

some have said in their misunderstanding of the Scriptures.

Let us look at the words of Christ concerning it. Matt.

XXIII. Luke XL

Matt. XXIII. Christ says among other things: Woe unto

you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites, for ye pay tithe of mint

and anise and cummin. Luke says: rue and all manner of

herbs, and pass over judgment and the love of God. Mat¬

thew: And have omitted the weightier matters of the law,

judgment, mercy and faith: these ought ye to have done and

not to leave the other undone.

Here Christ neither forbids nor rejects tithes, because the

giving of tithes is implanted and grounded in the law of

nature, as are the ten commandments, and its observance

Jacob signified as true worship, for with the ten command¬

ments it is counted in the moralia of the law (which are en¬

during and binding) and not in the ceremonia which Christ

has abolished, as the Apostles recognize through the Holy

Spirit and explain. Acts XV. Therefore Christ punished

the Pharisees not because they paid tithes of little things,

but because, as hypocrites commonly do, they made those

matters of conscience and because they would not observe

the more important matters, judgment, mercy, faith, and the

love of God, as Paul Luke says.

Therefore if the tithe serves love and mercy (it is grounded

in the law of nature) and is a work of faith, which God sets

above everything else and looks upon as the giver of all

things and accordingly one is bound in ordinary love to

give it for the sustenance of poor ministers, servants of God

and other needy people (for of such is the kingdom of heaven),

and no Christian should set his face against doing it. And

thus it became a custom not long after the Apostles’ time

in the beginnings of the church, as soon as Christ could be

preached and confessed openly, at the time of Constantine

and later, as the councils (whose decrees should not be disre¬

garded if they are in accordance with the scriptures and with

faith, love and mercy) clearly show. We find it also in the writ¬

ings of the old teachers, in those of Hieronimus and Ciprianus

692 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

who wrote in right understanding of the Holy Scriptures. For

the tithes are taxes or tributes for the poor. xvl. q. i. c. dec.

This is founded on what Christ says: Inasmuch as ye have

done it unto one of the least of these my brethren ye have

done it unto me. Since by natural law the tithe belongs to

God, as has been proved, and since He does not need it, and

since all that is done for the poor is done unto God; there¬

fore God receives the tithe through the poor as He did

through the Levites under the law. For we who believe in

God are all priests. Therefore the tithe belongs to the poor

and to the servants of the Word of God, and he who de¬

prives them of it is a spiritual thief and robber, quia sacri-

legium commitit. And unless the tithes are thus used they

are not possessed according to divine or natural laws or ac¬

cording to any rights which are pleasing to God. But since

the churches are under different government and each has its

own minister it belongs rightfully only to baptizing-churches

(Touffkilchen) and to those in which God’s word is preached.

And the preacher who has no other means should have his

necessities provided for from it and the remainder should go

to the poor: should he have, however, by heritage or other¬

wise enough to sustain him, he should not take the tithe or

other property of the church as Hieronimus says in the

chapter Quicunq; de decimis, but should give it to the poor,

quia bona Ecclesiae, sunt bona pauperum.

Hence it follows in the first place that the tithe should not

be sold from the church to which it belongs : for it is a funda¬

mental law that none has the right to sell the possessions of

another, unless he be empowered by the latter to do it, for

his benefit.

In the second place no rich man who has enough or an

abundance should buy or take a tithe unless he should use

it for the benefit of the poor or the furtherance of God’s

Word. For all that (which in accordance with natural law)

belongs to God’s servants and to His poor, God will give:

for that which is done unto them is done unto Christ, Matt,

xxv. Therefore one should not use it against God or to

dishonor Him, for example, by living in pride or to the flesh

or in hatred, or by inconveniencing and harming one’s

neighbor: as happens in war, when the poor who should be

helped are ruined and when husbands and fathers are killed.

Voss — A True Bit of Instruction.

693

Therefore it follows in the third place that the tithes should

not be given to the rich who would merely make a display

with it and would not help the poor with it; whether they

be noble or plebeian, spiritually or worldly minded, whether

they live in monasteries or cloisters, unless they distribute

it among the poor and sustain the ministers of the churches

to which they belong and from which they take the tithes.

This is certainly true and is sanctioned both by natural and

divine law, and neither worldly law nor custom should be

opposed to it as I have clearly shown in a sermon on the

love of God and one’s neighbor (published in the year xxiv,

(1524).

In case one should look upon the tithe as a temporal

possession (as though God had given through the kings, so

that one might be justified in saying this is mine, (not as

though God had given everything) the HOLY Scriptures

decree that one is bound according to the plan of God to

give it to the king when he shall demand it, as we read in

the eighth book of Samuel: And he will take your fields,

and your vineyards, and your oliveyards, even the best of

them, and give them to his servants. And he will take the

tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give them to

his officers (i. e. eunuchs), and to his servants. And he will

take the tenth of your sheep: and ye shall be his servants.

Accordingly the tithe belongs to the king, if it has been

pledged before the people of his kingdom: if it has not, it

should not be exacted as a new burden, unless it is done for

lawful reasons: and when the deficits are made up it should

be discontinued : because of all this he the king is called a pro¬

tector and defender by human laws. How much more is

not God the giver of all things by natural divine rights.

And since God cannot be against Himself, Christ has not

absolved us from that order but rather subjected us to it.

And if we were real Christians, it would make our hearts glad :

as it did the Apostles, who were glad that they were worthy

to suffer for Christ.

In order, however, that ye may note from what Christ

has absolved us, give heed to the brief conclusion.

Christ has not absolved us from any temporal, external

thing, which He took upon Himself or did for us (with the

exception of the circumcision, which gave way to baptism:

but He gave to us an example which we should follow, as

694 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Peter says. For these things are our Crosses, which we

should bear after Him (as Christians dead to themselves who

care little how they are treated), for Christ sought nothing

Himself but did everything for us. Therefore we should not

be mindful of ourselves, but should live for Him who died

for us. II Cor. v, and he who does not do this, is not a true

Christian: Christ had done no violence, neither was any de¬

ceit in His mouth, and therefore deserved neither bodily

death nor eternal death, but nevertheless He suffered and

died for our transgressions, in order to deliver us from sin

and the devil and his power and from eternal death and from

temporal death (which He himself suffered). And such is

the Christian’s freedom, which we have in Christ if we live

in faith. But suffering, tribulations and trials he has be¬

queathed to us, so that we should not forget that we should

have suffered forever and died, had not Christ died for us :

therefore we should be thankful to Him, and should put our

faith and trust in Him, and recognize in Him our only

Savior, Mediator and Hope. Nor has He taken from us

temptation of our fleshly lusts, in order that we should not

forget that we have an enemy who will make us brave so

that we will fight valiantly and receive the crown, and be

watchful and ready to resist: and if we find ourselves in¬

sufficient for the conquest that we will call upon the Father

in His Name and ask for power from Him, and say with

Paul: But thanks be to God, which giveth us the victory

through our Lord Jesus Christ, Amen.

He was also subject to worldly authority (instituted by

God) and gave tribute, not with the purpose of absolving

us from it, but of teaching us humility and obedience

Therefore let everyone be ashamed of himself who would be

greater and better than his Lord and Master. I have tried

to do this briefly (to avoid discord and trouble) and I know

that what I have said is in accordance with the Scriptures

and is the certain truth. But if anyone should have his

doubts concerning the old tithe regulations, let him come to

me, and I will clear matters up for him, or let him read the

law of the spirit Extra de decimis et primitiis, and XYI. q. j.

and he will find out for himself, and I commend it to the

further consideration of scholars: and I ask all readers to

take careful note and not to pass judgment before due rea¬

soning, for it is a question about which much is written,

God be praised in eternity, Amen. Anno. M. D. XXVIII.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1915

SOME TENDENCIES IN HISTORY

DANA CARLTON MUNRO

In this Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters it has been

very exceptional that the president should be other than a

scientist; and no presidential address has ever been delivered

by an historian. Professor W. F. Allen was president, but

died during his term of office. It is a matter of regret that

he did not have occasion, from the fruits of his ripe wisdom,

to make such an address. Except for the fact that there are

so many here who knew Professor Allen intimately, while I

have only admired him from a distance, I should feel it a

privilege this evening to appraise his work and show the

extent of our indebtedness to him. If the department of

history at Wisconsin has won for itself an enviable place in

this country it is very largely due to Professor W. F. Allen.

A generation ago probably history was nowhere in America

better taught than here. Frederick Jackson Turner, Pro¬

fessor Allen’s favorite student, acquired from him the in¬

spiration which has resulted in noteworthy contributions to

history. In this, a valedictory, the temptation is strong to

laud the work of each of the three historians whose achieve¬

ment and reputation brought me to Wisconsin, W. F. Allen,

F. J. Turner, and Reuben Gold Thwaites. But the second

has written in felicitous phrases of the last, and I feel my

own inability. The thought of the work done by these men,

each one a pioneer in his field, has led me to choose as my

subject Some Tendencies in the Study of History. Not that

all of these tendencies are new; many of them are old; but

a survey of the field will bring out the present day point of

view, which may be interesting to this audience of men

working mainly in other fields.

In any discussion of modern historiography, we naturally

begin with Edward Gibbon. At the centenary of his death,

696 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the President of the Royal Historical Society declared that

the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was the “grandest

historical achievement as yet accomplished on this planet.”

Frederick Harrison wrote, “It is no personal paradox, but

the judgment of all competent men, that the Decline and

Fall of Gibbon is the most perfect historical composition that

exists in any language.” The statements of these scholars

are corroborated by the popular estimation of Gibbon’s

work. Its vogue is extraordinary; more than a century and

a quarter after its first publication it is still one of the best

sellers.

What has caused this? Partly his grasp of the subject

and the style in which he presented it; surely not his defini¬

tion of history, which he describes as “little more than the

register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind.”

Yet this idea of history has persisted down to the present

day, and disasters are better remembered than great achieve¬

ments of the human intellect which have made further

progress possible. Many students can give the date of the

great plague in London, of which Defoe wrote :

“A dreadful plague in London was,

In the year Sixty-Five,

Which swept an hundred thousand souls

Away: yet I alive.”

Some can recall that the great fire came the following year.

How many, even among scientists, know that these years,

1665 and 1666, were the date of Newton’s great achieve¬

ments, the infinitesmal calculus and the law of gravitation?

But Gibbon did not follow his definition; he wrote genetic

history, and he laboriously dug out the facts from the docu¬

ments; so that his “superhuman accuracy” has become pro¬

verbial. This delving after the actual facts distinguished

Gibbon in an age when the greatest writers were inclined to

deal with the philosophy of history.

The list of those who have written philosophies of history

is an imposing one: St. Augustine, Otto of Freising, Boling-

broke, Montesquieu, Herder, Hegel, to mention only a few.

This tendency also has continued to the present day. One

common form is “the assumption that a transcendental cause,

Providence, guides the whole course of events towards an

end which is known to God.” As an illustration may be given

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 697

Charles Kingsley’s Roman and Teuton, where in one chapter,

“the strategy of Providence,” the author tries to show how

the Germans were led by Providence to form repeatedly a

sort of flying wedge which hit the weakest point in the

Roman line of defense. This style of interpretation has

been and still is very popular; most of the church histories

have been written from this point of view; and the tendency

has survived among those who reject any theological bias.

Many of the disciples of Hegel “tacitly assumed that every

social fact has its raison d’etre in the development of society —

that is, that it ends by turning to the advantage of society.”

“This,” as Seignobos says, “is the fundamental idea of

. . . Ranke, Mommsen, Droysen, Cousin, Taine, Mich¬

elet.” In the same category is the “theory of the ideas

which are successively realized in history through the me¬

dium of successive peoples; (following out Vico’s thesis

“that changes in civilization could be interpreted according

to an ordered sequence which has its moving force in the

growth and change of the collective mind of mankind from gen¬

eration to generation,”) the historical mission ( Beruf ) which is

attributed to nations” such as the characterization of the Phoe¬

nicians as the missionaries of civilization, of Rome as the

strong right arm which spread Greek civilization. This

idea will long continue, however hard the historians may

strive to introduce correct notions, for it is still a very

popular conception that “Die Weltgeschichte ist ein Weltge-

richt .”

Fortunately the French Revolution directed men to a

study of constitutional history. Some were eager to destroy

all the foundation of society and to rebuild; many zealous

reformers set to work on a priori notions, in a way that is

familiar to us all. But the thoughtful were keen enough to

know that it was necessary to study the past and to build in

accordance with the stubborn facts; that rash innovations

bear in themselves the seeds of their own destruction. Con¬

sequently the disorders of revolutionary Europe led to a

study of the forms of government and therefore laid the

greatest emphasis upon political and constitutional history.

This movement found especial acceptance in Germany,

which led the way in this field of history, as in so many

others. Emerging from the crushing ordeal of the Napo-

698 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

leonic wars, the Germans began a systematic study of their

own history, and in particular, of the period of German

glory, when the Holy Roman Empire was dominant. The

formation of the Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichts-

kunde was one of the patriotic achievements of Stein and his

associates, and resulted in the publication of the stately

volumes of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Ranke’s

seminar trained a host of able men to investigate the sources,

and its influence, through direct apostolic succession, may

be noted in universities in every civilized country. In com¬

pany with hundreds of others, I can say that I was a student

of one of Ranke’s students; his inspiration is spreading in

constantly widening circles of waves, which will eventually

reach the most distant shores.

With one group of the Germans we are especially con¬

cerned at the present day, the so-called Prussian school,

represented by Droysen, Sybel, and Treitschke. Their work

was the blending of history and politics and, in the case of

the last especially, making history a vehicle for patriotic

teaching. Freeman became the great exponent of this idea

for England and the United States with his favorite phrase

displayed on the walls of the historical seminar at Johns

Hopkins, “History is past politics; politics is present his¬

tory.” With such god-fathers, it is no wonder that this

conception has had great currency, although comparatively

few historians could be found now who would consider the

statement either sufficient or satisfactory. We are more in¬

clined to agree with Burke, who wrote a century ago:

“Political arrangement, as it is a work for social ends, is

only to be wrought by social means. Mind must combine

with mind”; or with Oliver Cromwell, who said, “What lib¬

erty and prosperity depend upon are the souls of men and

the spirits — which are the men. The mind is the man.”

During the first half of the nineteenth century there were

improvements in methods of work, due especially to Ranke’s

leadership, a change of conceptions on account of the rise of

romanticism, which resulted in a new idea of the Middle

Ages; a growing interest in the middle class, especially

voiced by Guizot; and some very promising attempts to

include new material in the scope of history. But, on the

whole, histories were written along some one or other of the

general lines laid down above.

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 699

In the second half of the nineteenth century new tenden¬

cies became prominent and older ones took on a new form.

For various reasons history became popular; consequently

many attempted to write history who had no qualifications

for their task except their own ignorance. But these we can

neglect, in order to consider some of the new tendencies

which were to transform the concept of history and to some

extent to denature it. One of the influential factors in Eng¬

land and America was the work of Henry Thomas Buckle,

who published, in 1857, the first volume of his History of

Civilization in England. Almost immediately he became

famous. “His first volume went through three editions in a

little over three years.” “His works have been translated

into French, German, Spanish, Dutch, and Russian.” He

was hailed as a prophet and guide, because he attempted to

place history on a scientific basis. His thesis outlined very

briefly, is that: It is the historians’ task to discover the

laws of history, The supreme principle is the law of prog¬

ress. Progress rests upon knowledge. Intellectual progress

is greater than moral progress; but intellectual progress is

possible only through accumulation of riches, and these de¬

pend upon soil and climate. Therefore, the physical agents

are the first conditions of all progress. Much of this was not

new, but it was new to English readers. After ‘Buckle’s

death in 1862 his fame began to wane and historians showed

his inconsistencies and his indiscriminate choice of material.

Lord Acton wrote.: “Mr. Buckle, if he had been able to

distinguish a good book from a bad one, would have been a

tolerable imitation of M. Laurent.”

Possibly Lord Acton’s judgment is too severe, and re¬

cently many have consciously or unconsciously imitated

Buckle. His disciple and biographer has claimed that he

was the first to show that history could be interpreted only

through political economy and statistics, and economists

have often followed in his footsteps. But the economic in¬

terpretation of history really goes back to Adam Smith and

his Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. In this work Adam

Smith attempted to trace the “rise and fall of nations to

their economic and commercial equipment and policy.”

This idea was restated as early as 1845 by Karl Marx who

“maintained that the only sound and ever valid explanation

700 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

of the past must be economic.” This point of view has

often been promulgated since and is held by many. One

historical student writes, “Few, if any, historians would

agree that everything can be explained economically, as

many of the socialists and some economists of good standing

would have us believe”; “But in the sober and chastened

form in which most economists now accept the doctrine, it

serves to explain far more of the phenomena of the past than

any other single explanation ever offered.” After such a

statement as this, it is refreshing to read the words of one of

the leading economic historians, Werner Sombart, who de¬

clares that the economic interpretation of history is no more

true and no more false than any other single point of view in

the interpretation of history. With this we will gladly

agree.

Those who seek to explain history by geographical or

physiographic factors are also, to some extent, imitators of

Buckle, although Michelet has been far more influential in

emphasizing the importance of geography in history. In

the hands of masters the physiographic interpretation has

added largely to our knowledge of the course of history, and

no historian now would neglect the study of geography.

Unfortunately some of the enthusiasts in this country have

been led into exaggerations; so that there have been battles

royal in which Professor Burr of Cornell has been the pro¬

tagonist for history. He answers some of the exaggerations

in the following passage : “When the historian Buckle sought

to reduce all history to geoography and maintained that

civilization must begin where facility of nourishment leaves

most ample leisure, it was the great geographer, Oscar

Peschel, who exclaimed against the wildness of his reason¬

ing, and who pointed out that there is a land (New Guinea)

where there exists a plant (the sago palm) which is almost

solid nutriment, and where the labor of a man can in one day

win him food for eighteen, leaving him the other seventeen

for the development of the civilization in which the Papuans

should accordingly have led the world. It was another great

geographer, Friedrich Ratzel, who organized into the new

science of anthropo-geography what Mr. Buckle sought to

make the basis of history, and protested that in this science

one must never speak of geographic necessity, but only of

Munro — Some Tendencies in History.

701

possibility, or at most of probability. And there is hardly

one of the younger European leaders in geographic science

who has not taken occasion within the last dozen years thus

to protest against wild assertions as to ‘geographic influ¬

ence.’ ”

Teaching history as a patriotic task found many advocates,

even before it was given such standing by the members of the

Prussian School. Napoleon naturally thought of this as the

chief duty of the historians in his empire, and expected every

university lecturer to pay a tribute to him and his work.

Bancroft’s History of the United States was written largely

from this standpoint and found, and still finds, many imi¬

tators. Some of the states insist upon having their own

state history taught for this reason.

If time permitted, it would be possible to enumerate other

modes of approach to history. Professor Dunning in his

presidential address before the American Historical Associa¬

tion said:7 “In these days no science is sure of its footing

until it has proclaimed its special interpretation of history.

The economic, the sociological, the metallurgical, the patho¬

logic, the meteorological, the astronomical, the geological,

and for aught I know, the geometrical interpretations are in

heated rivalry.” It is not necessary to follow out all of these

“sundryological interpretations” of history to indicate how

greatly its field has been broadened, and confused, by the

workers in other branches. Possibly each one has added

something of value; possibly amid the chaff some grains of

wheat may be gleaned. Let us hope so !

But now we must turn to the present status of history and

plot the course which the student must steer. What is his

goal and how is he endeavoring to reach it? What freight

has been added to his cargo from the other sciences and

which are the most precious commodities? What instru¬

ments of precision has he for directing his course or deter¬

mining his position? Only a partial answer can be attempted

this evening.

The first point which forces itself upon our attention is

the present interest in general history. While nationalism

and therefore national history were dominant in the first

three-fourths of the nineteenth century, the expansionist

tendencies which became influential towards the close of the

702 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

century have had a profound influence upon the study of

history. It has become necessary to include the whole

world in its scope. At the International Congress of His¬

torical Studies in 1913, Bryce, in his presidential address

said: “The world is becoming one in an altogether new

sense. ... As the earth has been narrowed through the

new forces science has placed at our disposal . . . the move¬

ments of politics, of economics, and of thought, in each of

its regions, become more closely interwoven. Whatever

happens in any part of the globe has now a significance for

every other part. World history is tending to become one

history.” Realizing this, scholars have joined in preparing

authoritative general histories of various types, such as the

Oncken in Germany, the Lavisse and Rambaud in France,

The Cambridge Modern History and The Cambridge Medieval

History in England. In this country, because of our pov¬

erty in historians, it was necessary to meet this need by

translating and revising a German work. But the United

States has felt this influence and has provided for a richer

opportunity in the elementary and high schools and for a

greater varie ty of instruction in the universities. The devel¬

opment of the European field has been the most striking

feature of the historical work in our universities in the last

quarter century. Recently Asiatic and South American

history are being added. In the study of our own history,

the same influence has been felt, especially in the colonial

period. In this field the work of our own Professor Root is

significant. No one of his students will ever believe that our

history can be understood as that of an isolated section; the

necessity of studying the administration and history of

other English co'onies in order to understand our own has

been made so clear.

Abroad it has been much more marked; e. g., as Professor

Kune Meyer has recently stated here, the study of Celtic

history and literature received a strong impulse from the

German scholars; and they have been studied as part of the

general European history. Byzantine history, which was

long left mainly to Greeks and Russians, received a new

setting from the English Finlay, and now is studied by a host

of scholars, especially in Russia, Germany, France, and

England. It has been found advisable to establish a special

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 703

periodical, the Byzantinische Zeitschrift , in which articles

in any language can be published. Another interesting illus¬

tration is the Revue de Synthese Historique, founded toward

the close of the last century, to serve as a medium for the

study of all the inter-relations of history and allied sub¬

jects. In fact, we are all interested now both in general

history and in history in its broadest conception. When we

study any episode, although we may have to isolate it par¬

tially for the purpose of study, we are not concerned with

it as an isolated phenomenon, but for the light which it may

throw upon the whole course of events.

In the present statu > of history man is the center. As

Lord Morley says, “To leave out or lessen personality would

be to turn the record of social development into a void.”

This may sound like a truism; but in the “sundryological

interpretations” of history this has not been recognized.

Some have attempted to make geographical influences the

center; others, society rather than man; still others have

chosen this or that factor to be emphasized. Moreover, the

man whom we study is not “the economic man,” that much

used figment of the imagination which never existed any¬

where. We hold that man is not a mere creature of economic

necessity, and that the pursuit of wealth has never been the

exclusive motive of men’s exertions. This again is a truism

which every one knows, but plausible presentations of other

points of view have obscured it, and some books receive great

commendation which derive all our institutions from the

economic needs of man, entirely neglecting his complex and

ever-varying motives and ideals. Moreover, we have not

realized sufficiently man’s own creative work, by which

each generation is being shaped anew; the action of man upon

himself, which Michelet summed up in the phrase, “Man is

his own Prometheus.”

Our aim then is to study the life and activities of men.

There is nothing new in this general statement. “The Ro¬

manticists (in the early years of the nineteenth century)

grasped the cardinal truth that the historian had to recon¬

struct the life and achievements of the peoples.” Ranke

wrote, “History must not be content to exhibit the outward

succession of events, each in its own figure and coloring, but

it must pierce into the deepest and most secret movements.

24

704 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of human life, it must discover what in every age the race

has struggled for and attained; and this not by the way of

philosophical speculation but of the critical study of facts.”

The point mainly to be insisted upon is that the men must

be studied in their own environment from the standpoint of

their own age, not from the point of view of our age. This

may seem self-evident, but it is only recently that this idea

has been accepted, and as yet it is not generally followed.

Motley would have been indignant at such a notion. Lord

Acton in his inaugural address at Cambridge twenty years

ago urged his hearers, “Never to debase the moral currency

or to lower the standard of rectitude,” but to judge men of all

ages and countries by the final maxim which governed their

own lives, “to suffer no men and no cause to escape the

undying penalty which history has the power to inflict on

wrong.” “If we lower the standard in history we can not

uphold it in Church and State.” In his presidential address be¬

fore the American Historical Association, Mr. Lea answered

his friend, Lord Acton, and stated that, “The historian should

so familiarize himself with the period under treatment that,

for the time, he is living in it, feeling with the men whose

actions he describes, and viewing events from their stand¬

point. Thus alone can he give us an accurate picture of the

past, making us realize its emotions and understand the

evolution of its successive stages.” Professor Dunning a

few years later again emphasized this standard. “The

business of the historian who studies the sixteenth century

is to ascertain the scope and content of the ideas that con¬

stituted the culture of that period. Whether these ideas

were true or were false, according to the standards of any

other period has nothing to do with the matter. That they

were the ideas which underlay the activities of the men of

this time is all that concerns the work of the historian.”

These ideals and aims make history a difficult subject. As

man’s life is so complex, and his actions are determined by

such varying motives, history must necessarily be complex.

The causes of events are not easy to ascertain, and frequently

must be sought in the far distant past. A man’s statement

of why he himself did something must be interpreted from

his whole mental attitude, which was partly the product of

his education and environment, and partly of his own indi-

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 705

viduality. In our attempts to understand the men of a past

age we lay stress upon their habits and daily life, but also

more and more upon their ideas and ideals. “What it is

important for us to know with respect to our own age, or

every age, is not its peculiar opinions, but the complex ele¬

ments of that moral feeling and character, in which as in their

congenial soil opinions grow .” “No presentation of history

can be adequate which neglects the growth of the religious

consciousness, of literature, of the moral and physical

sciences, of art, of scholarship, and of social life.” It is

significant of the trend of our interests that the last two

presidents of the American Historical Association have em¬

phasized in their presidential addresses the necessity of

studying the spiritual motives by which men have been ac¬

tuated. In this field of endeavor Ranke’s warning must be

heeded, these factors must be discovered not by the way of

philosophical speculation, but by the critical study of facts.

Where can the facts be ascertained? At first historians

trusted almost wholly to the writings which had an avowed

historical purpose, especially histories and biographies ;

Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Tacitus, Plutarch, Suetonius,

Bede, Villehardouin, Clarendon, and similar authors. And

the tendency was to follow the author who wrote in the most

pleasing or striking style; for centuries William of Tyre was

followed for the first crusade with practically no attempt to

get back to the sources which he used, although the latter

were easily accessible in print. Gradually, however, scholars

began to consult annals, chronicles, constitutions, treaties,

letters, monuments, coins, weapons, and other historical

remains. But still the preference was given to the written

account, especially chronicles and memoirs, or recollections.

This was natural, because it seemed possible to use these

without much preliminary criticism. Careful scholars gen¬

erally ascertained whether the author was a contemporary,

whether he intended to be truthful, what his sympathies

were, and summed up their criticisms, as Potthast did, in

brief formulas : e. g. “trustworthy”; “very naive”; “written

in barbaric, but sincere language”; “full of meat and re¬

markably well-written.” Little attention was paid to the

rules of evidence.

Later a reaction set in. Historians began to realize that

recollections were seldom accurate, that the human memory

706 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

could not be trusted, that every writer colored the events,

consciously or unconsciously. They demanded that history

should be reconstructed from the more objective records,

especially the documents, inscriptions, and similar histor¬

ical remains. This tendency was of the greatest possible

import, because such sources required much deeper study and

more skill; the methods employed in the criticism of these

reacted favorably upon the use of chronicles and memoirs.

Certain classes of sources came into special favor because

they could be tested more thoroughly and the facts which

were obtained had more objectivity. This was especially

true of the legal documents. In the words of Mr. Henry C.

Lea: “The history of jurisprudence is the history of civ¬

ilization. The labors of the lawgiver embody not only the

manners and customs of his time, but also its innermost

thoughts and beliefs, laid bare for our examination with a

frankness that admits no concealment. These afford the

surest outlines for a trustworthy picture of the past, of

which the details are supplied by the records of the chroni¬

cler.” Here, as often, Mr. Lea avoided the extreme views

held by partisans and stated effectively the truth, that the

records of the chroniclers are necessary for the complete¬

ness of the picture, although the legal documents are a more

trustworthy guide for the general outline. It is noteworthy,

too, that Mr. Lea was seeking to know “not only the man¬

ners and customs,” but also the “innermost thoughts and

beliefs.” This was his lifelong interest, and in his zeal he

examined many sources which he was the first to use.

Historians are working towards this goal and literally

everything which has reached us from the past is a source to '

be used in our study. This evening I want to illustrate this

general statement by laying stress upon one class of sources

which has been somewhat neglected: what we may call,

although inexactly, literary sources. These are especially

valuable to those historians, an ever increasing number,

who are seeking to discover what in each age the people

have struggled for; the ideas which were going out and those

which were coming in ; the motives and aspirations for which

men have been willing to live and to die. In this search,

literary sources can not be neglected. “For literature is the

wisdom of man and the history of man. ‘It acquaints the

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 707

mind,’ I am quoting a man of affairs, the President of the

United States, — ‘by direct contact with the forces which

really govern and modify the world from generation to gen-

ation. There is more of a nation’s politics to be got out of

its poetry than out of all its systematic writers upon public

affairs and constitutions.’ ” “A literature is but the means

by which the aspirations and ideals of a nation find expres¬

sion in an abiding form.” “No literature is merely fortui¬

tous or accidental, but springs from the very heart of the na¬

tion in which it lives.” A wide acquaintance with the lit¬

erary sources of any given period will enable the historian to

enter into the life of that age and to realize its wonderful

complexity. He will not be likely to select any single one of

the sundryological interpretations of history, but will

soberly try to discover which ones from the many divers

ideals actuated the leaders and how far the masses were re¬

sponsive, and thus to determine why events took the course

that they did. He will also learn incidentally many facts

about the daily life and actions which will enable him to

understand more fully the conditions of the age. A study

of the Fabliaux , the laughable stories told in verse in the

twelfth and thirteenth centuries, will illuminate the rise of

the merchant class, the decline of the lesser nobility, the

growth of opposition to the Church, the decay of feudalism

and chivalry. Moreover, it will make the student realize

that these unnamed and unknown merchants were real men,

with a sense of humor and a point of view, in some respects,

curiously like that of our own west in the latter half of the

nineteenth century.

Caution is necessary. Literary sources have been used

more frequently and more fully for classical history than any

other, mainly because until recently Greek and Roman his¬

tory have been given over to scholars better versed in the

literature than in other sources. Their treasure trove has

been rich, but their writings have often needed correction

from the other material which has been preserved. The

Monumentum Ancyranum , with its bald statements, is as

necessary for the understanding of the Augustan Age as the

great masterpieces of Vergil and Livy. Literary sources

have been less used in the study of medieval and modern

times, although not by any means wholly neglected. Pro-

708 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

fessor Turner has often illustrated the Western spirit in the

United States by the literary efforts of the people who have

made the West.

Possibly the general thesis can be illustrated most easily

by taking the recent period, with which you are all familiar,

and suggesting some of the writings, which are equally

familiar, which will be useful to the future historian trying

to understand the age in which we have been living. For

the religious interests of the age he must take note of the

encyclicals of the popes, the works on modernism, the liter¬

ature of the missions, and the devotional books which have

appeared in such great numbers, including Science and

Health; but also he must read Mark Twain’s writings, The

Warfare of Science and Theology, Robert Elsmere, The Case

of Richard Meynell, The Inside of the Cup, articles in the

religious periodicals, and some of the sermons published in

the Monday papers, — by no means an easy task. For the

social movements he must read works on suffrage, feminism,

the sex problem and eugenics ; muck-raking articles ; writings

on the peace movement and war poems; biographies of

working men; — these are only illustrations from a vast mass.

To understand our complex problems of sectionalism, such

books as Tillie, a Mennonite Maid, Letters of a Homesteader,

The Country of the Pointed Firs, The Leopard's Spots, the

writings of Bret Harte, Richard Malcolm Johnston, George

Egbert Craddock, and others. By taking these few illus¬

trations for a few problems, I have probably succeeded in

one point at least, and that is in bringing out the complexity

of the subject; and this complexity is not peculiar to our

own age, but is true of every period in history.

This is now recognized by historians and the result is a

realization of the necessity of a long preparation. We need

not dwell upon such elementary requisites as the knowledge

of languages, geography, economics, and psychology. For

different fields of history various auxiliary branches must be

mastered; archaeology, philology, epigraphy, paleography,

chronology, diplomatics, genealogy, numismatics, sigillogra-

phy, heraldry ; fortunately all of these are not necessary in

any one branch of history. But all students need to study

bibliography and criticism or historical method; for the first

excellent tools have been provided, especially in the last

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 709

twenty years. After Mr. Lea had examined Langlois’

Manual of Bibliography , he said, “If I could have had such

a book fifty years ago, it would have saved ten years of my

life.” The catalogues of manuscripts which are being pub¬

lished by carefully trained archivists save many students

months of useless searching. The work done for the Carne¬

gie Institute by Professor Fish in Rome, Professor Paxson

in London and other workers in Spain, France, Germany,

England, Holland, Mexico, and other countries has revealed

the existence of much new material for the history of the

United States. This work and the labors of Professor Burr

as historical expert for the Venezuela commission have

shown that a man may need a knowledge of philology,

paleography, chronology, and diplomatics to study Ameri¬

can history. In the case of the Venezuela boundary dis¬

pute, the work of the trained expert was of the greatest

utility in enabling the commission to reach a correct de¬

cision. (It may be of interest in this connection to recall

that our own Tank library of Dutch history was exploited

in connection with this question, although most of the work

was done in the Dutch archives.)

Training in historical method, in the rules of criticism, is

indispensible. Ranke’s seminar with his three criteria of

criticism, precision, and penetration, did much to establish

standards of workmanship. Since his day, methods have

greatly improved. Rules have been established which make

it relatively easy to teach the art of criticism. But it is only

by long practice that the art can be mastered, because our

natural tendencies lead us astray. “For historical criticism

is antagonistic to the normal bent of the mind.” “It is not

a natural habit; it must be inculcated, and only becomes

organic by dint of continued practice.” “Many centuries

and whole eras of brilliant civilization had to pass away be¬

fore the first dawn of historical criticism was visible among

the most intellectual peoples in the world.” Moreover, this

criticism demands detachment; it has been peculiarly de¬

pressing in the present war to see how many eminent his¬

torians in different countries, even our own, have stultified

themselves by neglecting the most ordinary rules of his¬

torical method.

This last thought leads to a consideration of some of the

present tendencies which are dangerous. First we may note

710 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

the disposition to laud the most recent history as pre¬

eminently worthy of study. This theory has been widely

accepted by pedagogues and unfortunately has been advo¬

cated by a large group of historical students, one of whom

“declares roundly that he has no real interest in anything

that happened prior to 1870.” He does not realize that he

can not really know the truth about any of the international

complications, or about many of the other events, since

1870. The documents in the archives of the various nations

can not be consulted, because each nation establishes “a

dead line,” usually about fifty or sixty years back, and

allows no access to the material since. In connection with

the present struggle several of the warring nations have

published books of some color, white, orange, gray, etc.,

giving a part of the diplomatic correspondence prior to the

outbreak of the war. Each is carefully edited in order to

produce the desired impression, and any trained observer

notes at once the incompleteness of each collection. Some

supplementary material, real or fictitious, has come to light

since the publications, but the whole mass is inadequate

and probably no one of us will ever have access to the sup¬

pressed material. Our grandchildren will be able to form

a more correct idea of the causes which precipitated the

conflict. Studying the diplomatic history of the last fifty

years is like studying the nervous system of an animal

without having access to the spinal cord or brain.

Moreover, exclusive devotion to recent history is a denial

of the historical-mindedness which has been called the pre¬

dominant characteristic of the present era. “An ironical

lawyer assures us that it would be better to be convicted of

petty larceny than to be found wanting in ‘historical-mind¬

edness !’ ” This devotion is partly due to a pride in our

own advance and a contempt for the unenlightened ages

which have gone before. Far more true was the saying of

Bernard of Chartres, 800 years ago, “We are like pigmys

mounted upon the shoulders of giants, so that we can see

more and farther than they could; yet not by virtue of the

keenness of our eyesight nor through the tallness of our

stature, but because we are raised and borne aloft upon the

giant mass.” This tendency to study only recent history

is particularly dangerous, because it is in line with many

Munro — Some Tendencies in History. 711

other ideas in education, and appeals to those who are

seeking the line of least resistance. We are reminded of

John of Salisbury’s criticism of his teachers in the twelfth

century; he said that they might have accomplished good

work, “had they stood as fast upon the tracks of the elders

as they rejoiced in their own discoveries.”

I am not arguing that we should not study the most re¬

cent history. It is the history of greatest interest to us,

and it is vitally necessary that we should understand it as

fully as possible. But in order to do this, the background

and remote causes must be mastered and our own period

must be placed in its proper relation to what has gone before.

Only the observer trained in the study of the past can hope

to interpret recent events ; and he will be very humble in

doing so, because he knows how inadequate the sources are,

and how great the chances of error. Each new fact necessi¬

tates a reconsideration of his hypotheses and frequently the

abandonment of some of his tentative conclusions.

Closely akin to the interest in recent history is the over¬

emphasis upon the new facts that are gleaned by the use of

instruments of greater precision than our fore-runners knew.

It is very easy now to point out the errors made by the great

masters in the past, to correct and amplify their statements

by the use of better methods and of sources recently come

to light. Great is the pride of the scholar who shows how

inaccurate his predecessors have been. Yet his work is fre¬

quently like the extraction of gold from the tailings left by

the original process of mining. The work is well worth

doing, and the results are valuable; but the total output is

usually small compared with the rich store of metal secured

by the original worker. Too frequently the point of view

expressed by the saying, “A poor thing, my lord, but mine

own,” with the emphasis upon the last clause and not the

first, has prevailed, and the emphasis has been laid upon the

less important. Becuase of this tendency, many of the books

on history, and some of the university courses, have been

of little value. But probaly history is not more afflicted in

this respect than most of the other branches of learning.

Other misleading tendencies might be cited; these two

have been chosen because they are especially likely to inter¬

fere with the progress of our study. The historian’s aim

712 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

must be to understand the past, to interpret it sympa¬

thetically, and to co-ordinate his results, so as to lay a firm

foundation for future work. His attention must be directed

to man and his achievements and failures. The study must -

embrace all the remains of men’s activity. In presenting

the results, however, a careful discrimination must be made

between the facts which are significant and those which are

of little value. In this process the student shows his real

ability; he may know all the rules of criticism, he may have

mastered all the necessary auxiliary sciences, he may have

exploited all the sources, but if he is not competent to judge

which facts should be selected, what material should be used,

he will never be a historian. If he has this ability and can

present his results in a clear and attractive style, his work

may live for a century, or more.

The last statement implies that we have not reached a

final stage in our historical work. Most certainly not!

This is the greatest inspiration to the historian! He can not

tell what the next step will be; he can not tell whether it will

be possible, as some hope, to frame “descriptive formulae,

qualitative and quantitative,” which will enable us to make

history more objective and more accurate. He has no means

of knowing the sources whence new aid will come. In the

last twenty years the unearthing of papyri in Egypt has

enabled historians to begin a re-examination of Roman his¬

tory with notable results. The recent development of sta¬

tistics has furnished a more exact instrument for testing

historical facts. The study of tribal customs and folk lore

has added something and promises more. It is certain that

each generation will re-interpret the history of the past.

The historian can only hope that his own product may be of

some use to the future worker; he has the consolation of

knowing that if his task is done honestly he is helping in a

work which will always interest and command the services

of men of like mind, a goodly fellowship. As in his daily in¬

vestigation he is associating sympathetically with the men

of former ages and of by-gone civilizations, so by his written

words he may hope to live in future generations and to aid

them. Is not this the goal for which every sincere worker

in any branch of knowledge is striving?

Proceedings of the Academy .

713

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY,

1914, 1915, 1916.

FORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING, 1914.

The forty-fourth annual meeting of the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, in conjunction

with The Wisconsin Archeological Society, The Wisconsin

Audubon Society, The Madison Mycological Society, The

Wisconsin Mycological Society and The Wisconsin Natural

History Society, was held at Milwaukee, on Thursday and

Friday, April 9th and 10th, 1914, in the Trustees’ Room of

the Public Museum.

First Session, Thursday, April 9, 2 p. m.

The first session was held at 2 o’clock on Thursday,

April 9th, President Dana C. Munro presiding. The

following programme was presented:

1. Some Problems Involved in the Cultivation of Medic¬

inal Plants. Edward Kremers.

2. The Garden City Movement in England and Germany.

L. S. Smith. Illustrated.

3. The Significance of Highway Maintenance in the

United States. L. S. Smith. By title.

4. A New Indicator for Acids and Alkalis. A. F. Gilman.

5. Origin of the Republican Party. A. F. Gilman.

6. Some Variations Noted in Gall Stones. G. A. Talbert.

7. Geologic Occurrence of Radium Ores. Rufus Mather

Bagg. Illustrated.

8. The Relation of the Corpus Christi Procession to the

Corpus Christi Play in England. Merle Pierson.

9. Some Versions of English Ballads Collected in Milton.

Mabel Maxson.

10. William Gager and the Academic Drama at Oxford.

Karl Young. By title.

714 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Second Session, Thursday, 7:30 p. m.

The second session was held on the evening of Thursday

April 9th, at 7:30 o’clock, when Professor S. W. Williston

of the University of Chicago, delivered a lecture on Early

Land Animals of North America. This lecture was fully

illustrated by many restorations of early extinct animals,

for the most part made by the lecturer. The lecture was

well attended by the public, and was most interesting and

valuable.

Third Session, Friday, April 10, 9:30 a. m.

The third session was held at 9:30 o’clock on Friday,

April 10th, Dr. George P. Barth presiding. The following

programme was presented :

11. The Climate of Madison, Wis. 1. A Discussion of the

Observations of Temperature, 1869 to 1913. Eric

R. Miller.

12. The Approach to Popular Literatuie. Arthur

Beatty.

13. A Method for Determining Approximate Metabolic

Demands of Plants for Soil Water. H. E. Pulling.

By title.

14. Physiological Changes Causing Black Heart in Potato

Tubers. E. T. Bartholomew. By title.

15. Further Studies on Wisconsin Tremellineae. E. M.

Gilbert. By title.

16. Successful Method for Growing Clitocybe illudens and

Armillaria mellea. V. H. Young. By title.

17. The Effect of Lateral Pressure on the Formation and

Direction of Growth of Plant Organs. J. B.

Overton. By title.

18. The Development of Botanical Microtechnique. Gil¬

bert M. Smith. By title.

19. The Reaction of Pigment Cells in the Trout to Chemical

Stimuli. John M. Lowe.

20. Fertilization in the Parasitic Copopeda. Lernaeopoda

Edwardsii Olsson. Nathan Fasten.

21. Mutation and Atavism in Plants. Howland Russel.

22. Heat Budgets of European and American Lakes.

E. A. Birge.

23. Physiological Age as Determined by Growth of

Epiphasis of Wrist Bones. A. H. Yoder.

24. On Habits and Relationship of Some Muscoid Flies.

Sigmund Graenicher.

Proceedings of the Academy .

715

25. Field Record of the Wisconsin Mycological Society

for the Season of 1913. Dr. Lewis Sherman.

26. Species of Clitocybe in the Region of the Great Lakes.

Edward T. Harper. By title.

27. Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin. J. J. Davis.

By title.

28. American Water-Mites of the Genus Atractides. Ruth

Marshall. By title.

29. The Land Vertebrates of Ridgeway Bog, Wisconsin;

their Ecological Succession and Source of Ingression.

Hartley H. T. Jackson. By title.

Fourth Session, Friday, 2 p. m.

The fourth session was held at 2 o’clock on Friday, April

10th, President Dana C. Munro presiding. The session was

opened by the annual report of the Secretary and the annual

report of the Treasurer, both of which are appended to

these minutes.

The report of the Committee on the relations between

the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and

affiliated societies, which was appointed at the meeting of

1913, was presented by the chairman as follows:

“That the Secretary of the Academy be requested to

make a complete survey of the state with a view of

recording all societies of the state engaged in scientific,

art or literary work, their memberships, dues, publi¬

cations and affiliations with organizations outside of

the state of Wisconsin.

(Signed) J. J. Davis, Chairman.”

The members of the committee were as follows:

Dr. J. J. Davis, Chairman, and Prof. W. S. Marshall,

representing the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters; Dr. George P. Barth and Mr. Henry L. Ward,

representing The Wisconsin Natural History Society; Dr.

Lewis Sherman and Mr. W. H. Ellsworth, representing The

Wisconsin Mycological Society; Mr. H. L. Skavlem and Mr.

C. E. Brown, representing The Wisconsin Archeological

Society.

The report of the Auditing Committee was received and

adopted. This will be found immediately following the

Treasurer’s report.

716 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The report of the Membership Committee was read by

the Secretary. In accordance with the report of the Com¬

mittee and upon motion, the Secretary was instructed to

cast the ballot of the Academy for the following named

persons as members of the Academy:

Harris Merrill Barbour, Milton.

Elbert T. Bartholomew, Madison.

Lelia Bascom, Madison.

Harry Kendall Bassett, Madison.

Harold Gibson Brown, Madison.

Charles Henry Bunting, Madison.

William Clifton Daland, Milton.

R. W. Fairchild, Stevens Point.

Alfred James Herrick, Stevens Point.

H. S. Hippensteel, Stevens Point.

D. Nelson Inglis, Milton.

Aaron Guy Johnson, Madison.

Ivey Foreman Lewis, Madison.

Mrs. Lois Kimball Mathews, Madison.

J. W. Mavor, Madison.

Mabel Maxson, Milton.

Mrs. Ellen Torrelle Nagler, Madison.

Merle Pierson, Jefferson.

Annie Pitman, Madison.

Milo M. Quaife, Madison.

Gilbert Morgan Smith, Madison.

A. A. Trever, Appleton.

Charles Francis Watson, Stevens Point.

Alfred Edward Whitford, Milton.

Albert Henry Yoder, Whitewater.

Casimir Douglass Zdanowicz, Madison.

The following programme of papers was presented :

30. A Wisconsin Collection of Native Copper Implements.

H. P. Hamilton.

31. Indian Earthworks and Sites in Adams County.

H. E. Cole.

32. Archaeological Researches in Western Wisconsin.

George H. Squier. By title.

33. The Fond du Lac Cache of Copper Implements. W. A.

Titus. Read by C. E. Brown.

34. Cairns and Garden Beds in Winnebago County.

George R. Fox.

35. The Racial Characteristics of Wisconsin’s Population.

Ellis B. Usher.

36. Picture Writing by the Esquimaux. George A. West.

Proceedings of the Academy.

717

37. Archaeological Evidences in Door County. J. P.

Schumacher. By title.

38. Investigation of the Antiquities of Juneau County.

Ira M. Buell. By title.

39. Archaeological Researches in the Northwest Wisconsin

Counties. Charles E. Brown. By title.

40. Survey of the Antiquities of the Green Lake Region

Towne L. Miller. By title.

41. Extension of the Range of Indian Garden Beds and

Corn Fields in Wisconsin. Charles E. Brown.

42. Some Problems in Bird Protection. Victor Kutchin.

By title.

43. Vanishing Horse-Sense. Victor Kutchin. By title.

44. The Struggle for Game Conservation and Game

Breeding Foci. A. C. Burrill.

45. Enforcement of the McLean Law for a Protection of

Migratory Birds, etc. E. A. Cleasby. By title.

Papers 42 and 43 were not read, as Mr. Victor Kutchin

was prevented from being present by illness.

Paper 45 was not presented, as Mr. E. A. Cleasby could

not leave Iowa at this time because his presence was

necessary to provide for the adequate protection of birds.

In his absence, Mr. A. C. Burrill read a letter from Mr.

Cleasby, gave an explanation of the present situation in

Iowa, and presented in some detail the national work for

the protection of birds which is being done by Mr. Cleasby.

The dinner for the Academy which was given in the

Hotel Wisconsin was attended by some thirty-five members

and was very enjoyable. Matters of interest to the partici¬

pating societies were discussed informally.

The Academy then adjourned, to meet in 1915 in Madison.

718 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY— 1913-1914.

Honorary Members . 6

Life Members . . . 12

Active Members . 201

Corresponding Members . 42

Total . * . 261

New Applications for Membership. . . 22

Total . 283

Resignations since March, 1913 . 5

Deceased since March, 1913 . 5

Dropped for nonpayment of dues . 18

Total . 28

Active Members paid to end of 1911 . 9

Active Members paid to end of 1912 . 23

Active Members paid to end of 1913 . 154

Active Members paid to end of 1914 . 14

Active Members paid to end of 1915 . 1

201

New Applicants paid to end of 1914 . 9

Arthur Beatty, Secretary .

Proceedings of the Academy.

719

TREASURER’S REPORT— 1913-1914.

Receipts.

To balance on hand, March 17, 1913 . $ 48.87

Receipts from dues and sales of Transactions,

March 17, 1913, to April 6, 1914.. . 235.18

Interest on bonds accrued to April 1, 1913 . 134.70

Interest on bonds accrued to April 1, 1914 . 137.00

Bonds matured, April 1, 1913 . 500.00

Bonds matured, April 1, 1914 . 600.00

Total . . . $1 ,655.75

Disbursements.

/

By expenses . $ 236.97

By Investment in Madison City bonds, April 1,

1913 . 527.00

By Investment in Madison City bonds, April 1,

1914 . 700.00

Total..... . $1,463.97

Balance on hand, April 6, 1914 . 191.78

Total. . . . $1,655.75

Permanent Investment, 24 Madison City bonds ...$2,400.00

Arthur Beatty, Secretary.

\

Milwaukee, April 10, 1914.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,

Gentlemen :

Your auditing committee has compared the report of the

Treasurer with the books and vouchers and the bonds in

his possession and find that the report is correct.

J. J. Davis,

Henry L. Ward.

25

720 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

FORTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING, 1915.

The forty-fifth annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, in conjunction with the

Wisconsin Archeological Society, with the Wisconsin

Audubon Society, the Madison Mycological Society, the

Wisconsin Mycological Society, and the Wisconsin Natural

History Society, was held at Madison on Thursday and

Friday, April 1 and 2, 1915, in the Biology Building of the

University of Wisconsin. The first session was held at

2 o’clock on Thursday, April 1, President Dana C. Munro,

presiding. After some preliminary business, the following

programme of papers was presented:

First Session, April 1 — 2 p. m.

1. Paul Bunyan, Lumberjack. Bernice Stewart.

Twenty minutes.

2. The Allegory of the Text of the Vision of Piers the

Plowman. Samuel Moore. Fifteen minutes.

3. The Officium Stellae. Karl Young. By title.

4. Methods of Measuring Intelligence. M. V. O’Shea.

Thirty minutes.

5. Recent Excavations and Bible Lands. L. B.

Wolfenson. Thirty minutes. Lantern slide

illustrations.

6. Cyclical Unemployment; Causes and Suggested Rem¬

edies. Wilford I. King. Fifteen minutes.

7. Some Features and Functions of a Museum of Natural

History. Henry L. Ward. Ten minutes.

8. Wild Life Conservation in Wisconsin. Marie Dick-

ore. Ten minutes.

9. Wild Life Conservation in Mississippi. Victor Kutch-

in. Ten minutes. (Read by Marie Dickore.)

10. Results of Federal Protection under the McLean

Migratory Bird Law. A. Cleasby. Ten minutes.

(Read by Marie Dickore.)

11. Plant Pigments Other Than Chlorophyll. Nellie

Wakeman. By title

Proceedings of the Academy.

721

12. A New Control for the Imported Onion Maggot.

J. G. Sanders. Five minutes.

13. Notes on Wisconsin White Grubs and June Beetles.

J. G. Sanders. Five minutes.

Second Session — 7 p. m.

The annual dinner of the Academy was given in the

University Club, at which thirty-four members and friends

were present. Professor D. C. Munro, President of the

Academy, delivered his address as retiring President, on

“Some Tendencies in History.”

Third Session, April 2 — 9:30 a. m.

The third session began at 9:30 o’clock, President Munro

presiding. The following programme of papers was

presented :

14. How American Cities May Secure Better Pavements

at Less Cost. Leonard S. Smith. By title.

15. Investigations of Certain Cabbage Diseases. L. R.

Jones and M. P. Henderson. By title.

16. The Cisco of Lake Mendota. George Wagner.

Ten minutes.

17. The Net Plankton of Devils Lake. Effie Rigden

Mighener and C. Juday. Ten minutes.

18. Limnological Apparatus. C. Juday. Ten minutes.

19. Memory and Color Discrimination in Mud Minnows.

Gertrude M. White. Fifteen minutes.

20. The Effect of Potassium and Sodium Chlorides on the

Pigment Cells of the Trout. John N. Lowe. Ten

minutes.

21. Report on the Finding of Fossil Bones in the Vicinity

of Madison. A. R. Cahn and C. L. Turner.

Fifteen minutes.

22. The Development of the Embryo of Sphagnum sub¬

secundum. G. S. Bryan. Fifteen minutes. Lan¬

tern slide illustrations.

23. On Morbid Changes in the Cells of Leaves due to

Injury. J. B. Overton and W. E. Slagg. Ten

minutes.

722 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

24. Further Cultural Studies in Protococcales. Gilbert

M. Smith. Ten minutes.

25. The Development of the Embryo of Dioscorea villosa.

Pearl M. Smith. By title.

26. Some New Cases of Apogamy in Ferns. W. N. Steil.

Ten minutes.

27. The Anatomy of a Peridermium Gall of the Jack Pine.

Alban Stewart. By title.

28. Studies of some Agarics Fruiting in Culture. V. H.

Young. Ten minutes. With photographs.

29. An Easy Method for Determining the Isotonic Co¬

efficients of Solutions. H. E. Pulling. By title.

30. Studies of the Life History of the Organism causing

the Crown-gall of Alfalfa. Orville T. Wilson.

By title.

31. Some New American Water Mites. Ruth Marshall.

By title.

32. Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin, III. J. J.

Davis. By title.

33. A Century of the United States Pharmacopoeia.

Edward Kremers. 1. Galenicals : Aceta, Clycerite,

Liquors, H. A. Langenhan. By title.

34. A List of Birds Observed at Pelican Lake, Wisconsin.

Roland E. Kremers. By title.

35. A List of Plants Collected at Pelican Lake, Wisconsin.

Roland E. Kremers. By title.

36. The Periodicity and Distribution of Radial Growth in

Trees and their Relation to the Development of

“Annual” Rings. J. G. Grossenbacher. By title.

37. Life History, Natural Enemies and the Poisoned Bait

Spray as a Method of Control of the Imported

Onion Fly (Phorbia Cepetorum Meade), with notes

on other Onion Pests. Henry H. P. Severin and

Harry C. Severin. By title.

38. Species of Lentinus and Parrus in the Region of the

Great Lakes. Edward T. Harper. By title.

Proceedings of the Academy.

723

Fourth Session — 2 p. m.

The fourth session was held at 2 o'clock, Mr. Henry L.

Ward, presiding. The Secretary presented the following

report for 1914:

Honorary Members . . . . . . . . . 6

Life Members................... . . . . . . . . 12

Corresponding Members.. . . . . . . 42

Active Members.... . . . . . . . . . . 216

Total.... . . . . . . . . . . 276

Members resigned... . . . . . . . 4

Total . . . . . . . . . 272

New Applications for Membership . . . . . 11

Total Membership . . . . 283

The report of the Membership Committee was read by the

Secretary. In accordance with the report of the Committee

and upon motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast the

ballot of the Academy for the following named persons

as members of the Academy:

Bachhuber, Leo J., Madison.

Bonnell, J. K., Madison.

Bryan, George S., Madison.

Burke, R. P., M. D., Montgomery, Ala.

Ibsen, Hemen, Madison.

Langenhan, H. A., Madison.

Lowe, J. N., Madison.

Oberholser, Harry Church, Washington.

Toole, Eben Henry, Madison.

Usher, Ellis B., Milwaukee.

Whyte, William, M. D., Madison.

(Signed) Arthur Beatty, Secretary,

The Treasurer presented the following report for 1914:

Receipts.

Received from dues and initiations . . . . ............$161.10

Received from sale of Transactions . . . 3.00

Received from interest on bonds . . . . 137.44

One bond matured.. . . . . . . . 100.00

Total... . . . . . . . . . ............$401,54

724 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Balance on hand, April 8, 1914 . 191.78

Total . $593.32

Disbursements.

Secretary-Treasurer’s Allowance . $200 . 00

Expenses of meeting, 1914 . 18.08

Bond . . . 100.00

Safety deposit box rent . 3.00

Total . $321.08

Balance on hand, April 1, 1915 . 272.24

Total . $593.32

(Signed) Arthur Beatty, Treasurer.

The Auditing Committee presented their report as follows:

The undersigned, your auditing committee, have examined

the accounts and accompanying papers of your treasurer,

and find the same in every respect true and correct.

We also find on hand 24 bonds of the City of Madison.

We suggest that a record of these bonds be kept in the

books of the Treasurer.

(Signed) Henry L. Ward,

George Wagner.

The report of the Nominating Committee, appointed to

nominate officers of the Academy for a term of three years

was presented:

President, Henry L. Ward, Milwaukee.

Vice-President of Sciences, C. E. Allen, Madison.

Vice-President of Arts, A. C. Clas, Milwaukee.

Vice-President of Letters, Frank G. Hubbard, Madison.

Secretary, Arthur Beatty, Madison.

Treasurer, Arthur Beatty, Madison.

Curator, C. E. Brown, Madison.

Librarian, Walter M. Smith, Madison.

Committee on Publication .

President, ex officio — Secretary, ex officio, C. E. Allen

Madison.

Proceedings of the Academy .

725

Committee on Membership.

Secretary , ex officio

A. C. Burrill, Madison.

A. F. McLeod, Beloit.

Helen Sherman, Milwaukee.

L. R. Ingersoll, Madison.

Committee on Library.

The Librarian , ex officio,

Paul H. Dernehl, Milwaukee.

George Wagner, Madison.

Milo M. Quaife, Madison.

C. A. Youtz, Appleton.

(Signed) E. A. Birge,

J. J. Davis,

Chas. S. Slichter.

The report of the Nominating Committee was adopted.

The meeting for the year 1915 was declared adjourned.

Arthur Beatty, Secretary .

FORTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING, 1916.

The forty-sixth annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts and Letters, in joint session with the

Wisconsin Archeological Society and the Madison Myco-

logical Society was held at Madison on Thursday and Friday

April l3 and 14, 1916, in the Biology Building of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. The following programme was

carried out, the President occupying the chair:

First Session, Thursday, April 13 — 2:30 p. m.

General Business.

Secretary's Report for the Year 1915.

Honorary Members . 6

Life Members . . . 12

Corresponding Members . 43

Active members . 216

Total . 277

726 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

New Applications .

14

Total

291

Changes since Last Annual Report .

New Members taken .

Active Members in 1915

Death .

Resigned or Dropped

Transferred .

.1

.4

.1

222

6

Total

216

Membership Accounts , April 8 , L91d.

1 membership paid in full to the end of 1917.

11 memberships paid in full to the end of 1916.

151 memberships paid in full to the end of 1915.

21 memberships paid in full to the end of 1914.

32 memberships not paid since the end of 1913, or 1912, or

1911.

4 applicants for membership have already paid their dues.

The following applicants for membership were presented

on behalf of the Committee on Membership:

Solomon F. Acree, Madison.

Edgar A. Baird, Madison.

Henry A. Burd, Madison.

Andrew Grover Du Mez, Madison.

James Johnson, Madison.

E. P. Kuhl, Minneapolis, Minn.

John Robert Moore, Madison.

H. H. Morris, Madison.

L. H. Pammel, Ames, Iowa.

A. S. Pearse, Madison.

A. W. Schorger, Madison.

F. T. Thwaites, Madison.

Nellie A. Wakeman, Madison.

H. F. Wilson, Madison.

Upon motion these applicants were declared members of

the Academy.

I regret to report the death on July 21, 1915, of Dr. Lewis

Sherman of Milwaukee. By his death the Academy loses a

valuable member.

Proceedings of the Academy.

727

The name of past President D. C. Munro, now of Princeton

University, Princeton, New Jersey, is transferred from the

Active to the Corresponding Membership.

Arthur Beatty, Secretary.

Treasurer’s Report for 1915.

Receipts.

Received from dues and initiations . 222.00

Received from sale of transactions . 4.68

Received from interest on bonds . 141 .00

Ten bonds matured April 1, 1916 . . 1,000.00

$1,367*68

Balance on hand, April 1, 1915 . . . 272.24

$1,639.92

Disbursements.

Secretary-Treasurer’s Allowance . . . $ 200.00

Safety-Deposit Box Rent . 3.00

One bond purchased . 109.00

Ten bonds purchased . 1 ,080.00

Two bonds purchased . . . 218.00

$1,610.00

Balance on hand April 8, 1916 . 29.92

$1,639.92

Report of the Auditing Committee , April 14, 1916.

The undersigned, having audited the accounts of the

Treasurer, find the same true and correct in every respect.

They have also examined the bonds held by the Treasurer

for the Academy and find the amounts thereof to be as

stated in the Treasurer’s Report.

They wish to call attention to the laudable manner in

which the Treasurer has collected dues that had remained

unpaid for a number of years.

(Signed) George Wagner,

R. H. Denniston.

728 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Presentation of Papers.

1. More About Paul Bunyan, Lumberjack. K. Bernice

Stewart and H. A. Watt. Twenty minutes.

2. Eight Unedited Letters of Joseph Ritson. Henry A.

Burd. Twenty minutes.

3. Shakespeare’s Sonnets and Plays. Arthur Beatty.

Fifteen minutes.

4. Dom Garcie and Le Misanthrope. G. D. Zdanowicz.

Fifteen minutes.

5. The Relation of De Roode en Witte Roos to the English

Dramatic Tradition of Richard III. 0. J. Campbell

Jr. By title.

6. The Dramatic Songs of Shakespeare’s Predecessors.

John Robert Moore. By title.

7. Chaucer’s Burgesses. E. P. Kuhl. By title.

8. Thomas Murner, A Christian and Brotherly Admoni¬

tion to the very Learned Doctor Martinus Luther,

etc. 1520. By title.

9. Consultum Theologicum D. D. Hunnii P. M. an liceat

ultra sortem erogatae Pecuniae accipere Pensiones,

ad instantiam Illustris et magnifici Dn. Georgij

Horovathi. Augustae Yindelicorum Typis Johannis

Praetorij Anno M D C XXII. Ernst Voss.

By title.

The first paper on the programme was discussed by Dean

Birge, Dr. Watt, Professor Wagner and Professor Overton.

Second Session, Friday — 9:30 p. m.

10. Studies in the Psychology of Fishes. Gertrude M.

White. Twelve minutes.

11. The Life History of the Oyster. T. C. Nelson.

Twenty-five minutes. Lantern slide illustrations.

12. On a New Myxosporidian, Henneguya Wisconsinensis,

p. sp. a parasite of the Urinary Bladder of the

Yellow Perch, Perea fluvescens, in Wisconsin.

J. W. Mavor and William Strasser. Fifteen

minutes. Lantern slide illustrations. Read by

William Strasser.

Proceedings of the Academy.

729

13. On Lymphocystis vitrei, n. sp., a New Disease pro¬

ducing Sporozoan from the Pike-perch, Stizostedion

vitreum, and the Epidemic Produced by it in the

Waters of Northern Wisconsin. J. W. Mavor and

S. M. Feinberg. Lantern slide illustrations. By

title.

14. The Cell Structure and Zoospore Formation of Pedi-

astrum Boryanum. Gilbert M. Smith. Ten

minutes.

15. A Preliminary List of Algae Found in Wisconsin Lakes.

Gilbert M. Smith. By title.

16. Studies in the Conjugation of the Black Molds. E. A.

Baird. Ten minutes.

17. The Host Plants of Thielavia Basicola, Zopf. James

Johnson. Twenty mintues. Lantern slide illus¬

trations.

18. Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin, IV. J. J.

Davis. By title.

19. Peculiarities in the Sex Organs of Venturia inaequalis.

C. N. Frey. Ten minutes.

20. Apogamy in a Fern, Nephrodium hertipes. W. N.

Steil. Ten minutes.

21. Reproduction in Aphanomyces, a Fungus Parisitic on

Spirogyra. E. M. Gilbert. Ten minutes.

22. Some Factors Affecting Enzyme Formation in Certain

Fungi. V. H. Young. Ten minutes.

23. Phytochemical Classics. Edward Kremers. I. The

Discovery of the Basic Properties of Morphine by

Sertuerner. Nellie Wakeman. By title.

24. A Century of the United States Pharmacopoeia.

Edward Kremers. II. Galenical Oleoresins. A. G.

Du Mez. By title.

25. A List of the Aphidae of the World, with Host Plants.

H. F. Wilson. By title.

26. A Glacial Gravel Seam in Limestone at Ripon. F. T.

Thwaites. Ten minutes. Lantern slide illustrations.

27. Further Studies of the Body Cells Found in Cow’s

Milk. W. D. Frost. By title.

28. A Quantitative Study of the Bacteria in Various Milks

as Determined by Different Methods. W. D.

Frost. By title.

730 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Afternoon Session, Friday — 2 p. m.

29. An Hereditary Nervous Defect in Guinea Pigs. H. L.

Ibsen and L. J. Cole. Ten minutes. Read by

H. L. Ibsen.

30. Mendelian Inheritance in Soy Beans. L. J. Cole and

C. M. Woodworth. Fifteen minutes. Read by

C. M. Woodworth.

31. The Winter Temperature of the Mud at the Bottom of

Lake Mendota. E. A. Birge. Fifteen minutes.

Lantern slide illustrations.

32. The Nannoplankton of Lake Mendota. C. Juday.

Ten minutes.

33. The Preparation of Selenic Acid. Victor Lenher

and H. H. Morris. Five minutes. Read by

H. H. Morris.

34. Contributions to the Chemistry of the Conifers.

A. W. Schorger. By title.

35. The Ghost Ceremony of the Porno Indians of Cali¬

fornia. Samuel A. Barrett. Twenty minutes.

By title.

36. Life and Customs of the Tarahumari Indians of

Northern Mexico. R. M. Bagg. Twenty-five

minutes. Lantern slide illustrations.

37. California Midden Mounds. I. M. Buell. Twenty-

five minutes.

38. Boundaries of the Effigy Mound Region in Wisconsin.

Charles E. Brown. Fifteen minutes.

39. Norwegian Newspapers of the United States. A. 0.

Barton.

40. Indian Sites on the Wolf River in Shawano and Waupaca

Counties. George R. Fox. By title.

The paper by Mr. Juday on the Nannoplankton of Lake

Mendota was discussed by Dean E. A. Birge.

Evening Session, Friday — 7 p. m.

The annual dinner of the Academy was held in the

University Club at 7 o’clock, Friday, April 14, President

Henry L. Ward, presiding. Thirty-five members were

present. Dean E. A. Birge discussed the matter of the

publications of the Academy, and Professor George Wagner

Proceedings of the Academy .

731

spoke of the exchange list of the Academy. This subject

was further discussed by Dean E. A. Birge, Professor E. B.

Skinner, and President H. L. Ward. Librarian Walter M.

Smith gave an account of the growth of the Academy Library

and made a statement concerning the binding of exchanges.

He stated that all the exchanges in common use are now

bound, and can be used with facility. Mr. H. E. Cole of

Baraboo was called upon for some of his bear stories, and

these proved to be very entertaining. Mr. H. E. Skavlem

of Janesville lesponded to the chairman’s request for

reminiscences of the early days of the Academy. Mr.

Skavlem spoke most interestingly of Professor Thure

Kumlien, Mr. P. R. Hoy and Increase Lapham. His racy

account of the personality and activities of these men was a

rare treat.

At a somewhat late hour, the President declared the

forty-sixth annual meeting of the Academy adjourned.

Arthur Beatty, Secretary.

732 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS,

CORRECTED TO JANUARY 1, 1917.

Officers.

President, Henry L. Ward, Milwaukee.

Vice-President , Sciences, C. E. Allen, Madison.

Vice-President , Arts, A. C. Clas, Milwaukee.

Vice-President , Letters, Frank G. Hubbard, Madison.

Secretary, Arthur Beatty, Madison.

Treasurer, Arthur Beatty, Madison.

Curator, C. E. Brown, Madison.

Librarian, Walter M. Smith, Madison.

Committee on Publication.

The President, ex officio,

The Secretary, ex officio,

C. E. Allen, Madison.

Council.

The President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, Li¬

brarian and Past Presidents retaining their residence

in Wisconsin.

Committee on Library.

The Librarian, ex officio,

Paul H. Dernehl, Milwaukee.

George Wagner, Madison.

Milo M. Quaife, Madison.

C. A. Youtz, Appleton.

Committee on Membership.

The Secretary, ex officio,

A. C. Burrill, Madison.

A. F. McLeod, Beloit.

Helen Sherman, Milwaukee.

L. R. Ingersoll, Madison.

List of Members.

733

Past Presidents .

Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington,

D. C., 1870-75.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, M. D.,* 1876-78.

President A. L. Chapin, D. D.,* 1879-81.

Professor Ronald D. Irving, Ph. D.,* 1882-84.

Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, Ph. D., Sc. D., LL. D.,

Chicago, Ill., 1885-87.

Professor William F. Allen, t 1888-89.

Professor Edward A. Birge, Ph. D., Sc. D., LL. D.,

Madison, 1889-90.

Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. D., Milwaukee,

1891-93.*

President Charles R. Van Hise, Ph. D., LL. D., Madison,

1894-96.

Professor C. Dwight Marsh, A. M., Ph. D., Washington,

D. C., 1897-99.

Professor Charles S. Slichter, M. S., Madison, 1900-

1902.

Dr. John J. Davis, M. D., Racine, 1903-1905.

Professor Louis Kahlenberg, Ph. D., Madison, 1906-

1909.

President Samuel Plantz, Ph. D., D. D., LL. D., Law¬

rence College, Appleton, 1910-1912.

Professor Dana C. Munro, A. B., A. M., Princeton,

New Jersey, 1913-1915.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, Hyde Park Hotel,

Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Beloit); Ph. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan); LL. D. (Michigan, Beloit,

Columbia, Wisconsin); Sc. D. (Illinois). Head of Geological De¬

partment and Director of Walker Museum, University of Chicago,

Consulting Geologist U. S. Geological Survey; Consulting

Geologist, Wisconsin Natural History Survey; Geological

Commissioner, Illinois Geological Survey;

Editor, Journal of Geology.

Garland, Hamlin, New York, N. Y.

Vice-President, International Institute of Arts and Letters. Chairman of

Cliff-Dwellers, of Chicago.

♦Deceased. tDeceased December 9, 1899. Professor Birge elected to fill

unexpired term.

734 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

Jordan, David Starr,

President Emeritus of Stanford University, Stanford Uni¬

versity, Cal.

M. S., Cornell University, 1872; M. D., Indiana Medical College, 1875;

Ph. D., Butler College, 1878; LL. D., Cornell University, 1886, Johns

Hopkins University, 1902, Illinois College, 1903; Instructor in Botany,

Cornell University, 1871-72; Professor of Natural History, Lombard

University, 1872-73; Principal of Appleton (Wis.) Collegiate Insti¬

tute, 1873-74; Lecturer in Marine Botany at Penikese, 1873-74;

Teacher of Natural History, Indianapolis High School, 1874-75;

Professor of Biology, Butler College, 1875-79; Instructor in

Botany, Harvard Summer School, Cumberland Gap, 1875-76

Assistant to U. S. Fish Commission, 1877-81; Professor

of Zoology, Indiana University, 1879-85; President

of Indiana University, 1885-91; President of the

California Academy of Sciences, 1891-98, 1901-

03, 1908; U. S. Commissioner in charge of Fur

Setl. Investigations, 1896-98; of Salmon In¬

vestigations, 1904; International Commis¬

sioner of Fisheries, since 1908; President

of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 1903-09.

Trelease, William, Urbana, Ill.

B. S. (Cornell); S. D. (Harvard); LL. D. (Wisconsin, Missouri, Washington

University); Professor of Botany University of Wisconsin, 1883—5;

Professor of Botany Washington University 1885-1913; Director

Missouri Botanical Garden, 1889-1912; Professor of Botany

University of Illinois, 1913-1916; Vice-President Associa¬

tion Internationale des Botanistes and Chairman Amer¬

ican Board of Editors, Botanisches Centralblatt.

Wheeler, W. M., Forest Hills, Boston, Mass.

Ph. D. Professor of Economic Entomology, Harvard University.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Birge, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon St., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Williams); Ph. D. (Harvard); Sc. D. (Western University

of Pennsylvania); LL. D. (Williams). Professor of Zoology and

Dean of the College of Letters and Science, University of Wis¬

consin; Secretary of Commissioners of Fisheries, "Wiscon¬

sin; Director and Superintendent, Wisconsin Geolog¬

ical and Natural History Survey; Member, Wis¬

consin State Board of Forestry; Wisconsin

Conservation Commission, Vice-President,

Phi Beta Kappa.

Davis, John Jefferson, 629 Mendota Court, Madison

B. S. (Illinois); M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician. Curator of Her¬

barium, University of Wisconsin.

Flint, Albert Stowell, 450 Charter St., Madison

A. B. (Hard); A. M. (Cincinnati). Astronomer, Washburn Observa¬

tory, University of Wisconsin.

List of Members ,

735

Hobbs, William Herbert,

820 Oxford Road, Ann Arbor, Mich.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute); A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).

Professor of Geology, University of Michigan.

Hoyt, John Wesley, Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan); M. D. (Cincinnati); LL. D. (Missouri) Chair¬

man of the National Committee of Four Hundred to Promote

the Establishment of the University of the United States.

Marsh, Charles Dwight,

3430 Brown St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

A. B., A. M. (Amherst); Ph. D. (Chicago). Physiologist in Bureau of

Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.

Plantz, Samuel, 545 Union St., Appleton

A, M. (Lawrence); Ph. D. (Boston); D. D. (Albion); LL. D. (Baker).

President, Lawrence College.

Sharp, Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court, Madison

A. B. (Amherst); Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Philosophy,

University of Wisconsin.

Skinner, Ernest Brown, 210 Lathrop St., Madison

A. B. (Ohio); Ph. D. (Chicago); Associate Professor of Mathematics,

University of Wisconsin.

Slichter, Charles Sumner, 636 Frances St., Madison

B. S., M. S. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics,

University of Wisconsin; Consulting Engineer.

Van Cleef, Frank Louis,

39 For Green Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.

A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard); Ph. D. (Bonn). Chief of Sixth Division and

Translator in Office of Commissioner of Records, Kings County.

Van Hise, Charles Richard, 772 Langdon St., Madison

B. Met. E., B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin); LL. D. (Chicago, Yale,

Harvard, Williams, Dartmouth). President, University of Wis¬

consin; Consulting Geologist, Wisconsin Geological Survey;

President, Board of Commissioners, Wisconsin Geological

and Natural History Survey; President, Wisconsin

State Board of Forestry.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Acree, Solomon F., 627 Mendota Ct., Madison

Professor of the Chemistry of Forest Products, University of Wisconsin.

Allen, Bennett Mills, Lawrence, Kansas

Ph. B. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Zoology University

of Kansas.

Allen, Charles Elmer, 2014 Chamberlin Ave., Madison.

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Botany, University of

Wisconsin.

736 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Arzberger, Emil Godfrey, Washington, D. C.

Ph. B. (Wisconsin). Bureau of Plant Industry.

Bagg, Rufus M. Jr., 466 Alton St., Appleton

Professor of English, Lawrence College.

Baird, Edgar A., 740 Langdon St., Madison

Instructor in the University of Wisconsin.

Barber, W. Harley, 120 Thorn St., Ripon, Wis.

A. B. (University of Wisconsin); M. A. (University of Wisconsin).

Registrar and Professor of Physics, Ripon College, Ripon,

Wis. Member of City Cc uncil.

Bardeen, Charles Russell, 25 Mendota Court, Madison

A. B. (Harvard); M. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Anatomy, and

Dean of the Medical School, University of Wisconsin.

Barrett, S. A., Public Museum, Milwaukee

B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (University of California). Anthropologist; Cura¬

tor of Anthropology, Public Museum, Milwaukee.

Barth, George P., 302 21st St., Milwaukee

Physician.

Bartholomew, Elbert T., 803 State St., Madison

Assistant Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Bascom, Lelia, 139 W. Gilman St., Madison

Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.

Beatty, Arthur, 1824 Vilas St., Madison

A. B. (Toronto); Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of English,

University of Wisconsin.

Blackstone, Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin St., Berlin

A. B., A. M., C. E. (Union).

Bleyer, Willard Grosvenor, 625 Langdon St., Madison

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Journalism,

University of Wisconsin.

Bonnell, John K., 625 Mendota Court, Madison

B. A., Ph. D. Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.

Braun, Adolph R., 832 38th St., Milwaukee

Graduate of National German- American Teachers’ Seminary, Milwaukee.

Teacher of Modern Languages, Milwaukee High School.

List of Members .

737

Brown, Charles E., 910 Van Buren St., Madison

Secretary and Curator, Wisconsin Archaeological Society; Chief, State

Historical Museum.

Brown, Charles Newton,

Van Hise Ave. and Roby Road, Madison

LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer.

Brown, Eugene Anson, 2115 Jefferson St., Madison

M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician and Surgeon; Secretary of Board of

Federal Pension Examiners, Madison District.

Brown, Harold Gibson, Annapolis, Md.

Instructor in English.

Bryan, G. S., 803 State St., Madison

Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Buehler, Henry Andrew, Rolla, Mo.

B. S. (Wisconsin). Geologist; State Geologist of Missouri.

Bunting, Charles Henry,

2020 Chadbourne Ave., Madison

Professor of Pathology, University of Wisconsin.

Burd, Henry A., 223 S. Mills St., Madison

Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.

Burke, Rush Pearson,

602-4-6 Bell Building, Montgomery, Ala.

M. Sc., M. D. Physician and Surgeon.

Bussewitz, M. A., Milwaukee

Professor, Milwaukee State Normal School.

Cairns, William B., 2010 Madison St., Madison

A. B., Ph. D. (Wisconsin), Assistant Professor of American Literature,

University of Wisconsin.

Campbell, O. J., Jr., 15 E. Gilman St., Madison

Ph. D. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of English, University of

Wisconsin.

Carr, Muriel B., The Irving, Madison

B. A. (McGill). Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.

Chandler, Elwyn Francis, University, N. D.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon). Professor of Mathematics, University of North

Dakota; Assistant Engineer, United States Geological Survey.

Chase, Wayland J., 141 Summit Ave., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Brown). Associate Professor of History, University of

Wisconsin.

738 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Clas, Alfred Charles,

Flat 2, St. James Ct., 815 Grand Ave., Milwaukee

Architect (Ferry & Clas), 419 Broadway, Milwaukee; Member, Board of

Park Commissioners.

Clawson, Arthur Brooks,

1884 Monroe St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

A. B. (Michigan). Department of Agriculture, Washington.

Cole, Leon J., 1915 Keyes Ave., Madison

A. B. (Michigan); A. M. (Harvard); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate

Professor of Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin.

Compton, J. S., Eureka, Illinois

Conklin, G. H., 1204 Tower Ave., Superior

Practicing Physician.

Cool, Charles Dean, 1607 Adams St., Madison

A. B. (Michigan); A. M. (Harvard); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant

Professor of Romance Languages, University of Wisconsin.

Culver, Garry Eugene, 1103 Main St., Stevens Point

A. M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal School.

D aland, William Clifton, Milton

M. A., D. D. President and Professor of the English Language and of

Biblical Literature, Milton College

Dean, Alletta F., The Hamilton, Madison

Ph. B., Ph. M. (Wisconsin).

Dennis, Alfred Lewis Pinneo,

518 Wisconsin Ave., Madison

A. B. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of European History,

University of Wisconsin.

Denniston, Rollin Henry, Science Hall, Madison

Ph. G., B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Botany,

University of Wisconsin.

Dernehl, Paul Herman,

717-718 Majestic Building, Milwaukee

B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Johns Hopkins). Physician.

Dodge, B. 0., New York, N. Y.

Ph. B. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Columbia). Instructor in Botany,

Secretary-Treasurer Torrey Botanical Club. Depart¬

ment of Botany, Columbia University.

Dodge, Robert Elkin Neil, 15 W. Gorham St., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of English, University of

Wisconsin.

Dowling, Linnaeus Wayland, 2 Roby Road, Madison

Ph. D. (Clark). Associate Professor of Mathematics, University of

Wisconsin.

List of Members.

739

Downes, Robert Hugh, 53 West Algoma St., Oshkosh

B. L. (Wisconsin).

Du Mez, Andrew Grover,

Langdon Apartments, 612 Howard PL, Madison

Director of School of Pharmacy, University of the Philippines.

Ellsworth, William H., 3302 Wells St., Milwaukee

President, Ellsworth and Thayer Manufacturing Company.

Ely, Richard Theodore, 205 Prospect Ave., Madisoa

A. B., A. M. (Columbia); Ph. D. (Heidelberg); LL. D. (Hobart). Pro¬

fessor of Political Economy, University of Wisconsin.

Farley, John Herbert, 482 South St., Appleton

A. M. (Lawrence). Professor of Philosophy, Lawrence College.

Ferry, George Bowman, Woodland Court, Milwaukee

Architect (Ferry & Clas).

Finger, William, 177 34th St., Milwaukee

Insurance, Loans and Real Estate Broker.

Finkler, Adolph, 612 Commerce St., Milwaukee

Secretary, Albert Trostel and Sons Company; President, Board of Trus¬

tees, National German-American Teachers’ Seminary; Presi¬

dent, Board of Trustees, German-English Academy.

Fischer, Richard, 119 East Johnson St., Madison

Ph. C., B. S. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Marburg). Professor of Chemistry,

University of Wisconsin.

Fish, Carl Russell, 244 Lake Lawn PL, Madison

A. B. (Brown); A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Professor of American

History, University of Wisconsin.

Fling, Harry R., 601 Jackson St., Oshkosh

A. B. (Bowdoin). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.

Frost, William Dodge, 310 N. Orchard St., Madison

B. S., M. S. (Minnesota); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Bacteri¬

ology, University of Wisconsin.

Gay, Lucy Maria, 216 N. Pinckney St., Madison

B. L. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin.

Gilbert, Edward Martinius, 25 Spooner St., Madison

A. B. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Gilman, Albert G., Ripon, Wis.

Professor of Chemistry, Ripon College.

740 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

t

Gloyer, Walter 0., Geneva, N. Y.

B. A., M. A. (Wisconsin). Associate Botanist, New York Agricultural

Experiment Station.

Graenicher, Sigmund, 116 Harmon St., Milwaukee

Ph. D. (Basel); M. (Munchen). Curator, Public Museum.

Gregory, John Goadby, 717 Jefferson St., Milwaukee

Associate Editor, Evening Wisconsin.

Griggs, Horace William, 2421 Sycamore St., Milwaukee

Roundhouse Foreman, C., M. & St. P. Ry. Co.

Gutsch, Milton R., Austin, Tex.

Professor of History, University of Texas.

Guyer, Michael F., 138 Prospect Ave., Madison

Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

Haase, Ewald, 182 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee

Secretary, Milwaukee Gas Light Company.

Haertel, Martin H., College Hills, Madison

Ph. B. (Chicago); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of German,

University of Wisconsin.

Haessler, Luise, Park Ave. and 68th St., New York, N. Y.

A. B. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of German, Normal College of

the City of New York.

Hall, Edward Bennington,

747 N. Main St., Springfield, Mo.

B. S. (Drury). Assistant Professor, Geology and Mineralogy, Drury

College, Springfield.

Harper, Edward T., Geneseo, Illinois

Heddle, John R., 1625 Monroe St., Madison

Herrick, Alfred James, Stevens Point

Teacher of Physics and Agriculture, State Normal School.

Hohlfeld, Alexander Rudolph,

104 Breese Terrace, Madison

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German, University of Wisconsin;

President, Modern Language Association of America; Member

of Board of Administration, National German- Ameri¬

can Teachers’ Seminary, Milwaukee.

Holmes, Samuel Jackson, Berkeley, California

B. S., M. S. (California); Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Zoology,

University of California.

Hotchkiss, W. 0., Madison

Geologist, State Highway Commission.

List of Members,

741

Hubbard, Frank Gaylord,

2006 Monroe St., Madison

A. B. (Williams); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of English,

University of Wisconsin.

Humphrey, Clarence J., Madison

Pathologist, Forest Products Laboratory.

Hutton, Andrew J., Box 378, Waukesha

Superintendent, Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys.

Ibsen, H. L., Madison

Assistant in Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin.

Ingersoll, Leonard R., 1933 Westlawn Ave., Madison

B. S. (Colorado College); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of

Physics, University of Wisconsin.

Jackson, Hartley H. T., Washington, D. G.

U. S. Biological Survey.

Jana, Ashutosh, Haria, Bengal, India

Jastrow, Joseph, 237 Langdon St., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Pennsylvania); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of

Psychology, University of Wisconsin.

Jenks, Judge Aldro, Dodgeville, Wis.

Johnson, Aaron Guy, 1910 Westlawn Ave., Madison

Plant Pathologist, University of Wisconsin.

Johnson, James, 131 Lathrop St., Madison

Assistant Professor of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin.

J OLIVETTE, HALLIE D. M.,

900 Campus Ave., Pullman, Wash.

Jones, Lewis R., 1731 Regent St., Madison

Ph. B., Ph. D. (University of Michigan); Sc. D. (Honorary,

University of Vermont). Professor of Plant Pathology,

University of Wisconsin.

Juday, Chancey, 35 Lathrop St., Madison

A. M. (Indiana). Biologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History

Survey.

Kelley, Frank J., 1019 W. Johnson St., Madison

Assistant in Experimental Breeding, University of Wisconsin.

Kind, John Louis, The Irving, Sterling Court, Madison

A. B., A. M. (Nebraska); Ph. D. (Columbia). Associate Professor of

German, University of Wisconsin.

Kremers, Edward, 1720 Vilas St., Madison

Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Gottingen); D. Sc. (Michigan).

Director of Course in Pharmacy and Professor of Pharmaceutical

Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

742 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Kuhl, E. P., Minneapolis, Minn.

University of Minnesota.

Kutchin, Mrs. Harriet Lehmann, Green Lake, Wis.

A. B. (Ripon); A. M. (Northwestern). Engaged in zoological research.

Langenhan, H. August, 1821 West Lawn Ave., Madison

Instructor in Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin.

Lannerd, Willard, 748 Villa St., Racine

B. S. (Purdue). Instructor in Science and Mathematics, Racine High

School.

Leith, Charles Kenneth, 240 Langdon St., Madison

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin;

Non-resident Professor of Structural and Metamorphic Geology,

University of Chicago.

Lenher, Victor, 158 Summit Ave., Madison

Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Professor of Chemistry, University of

Wisconsin.

Leonard, William Ellery, 2015 Adams St., Madison

A. B. (Boston University); M. A. (Harvard); Ph. D. (Columbia).

Assistant Professor of English, University of Wisconsin.

Lighty, William Henry, Highlands, R. F. D. 7, Madison

Ph. B. (Cornell). Secretary of Correspondence-Study Department,

University of Wisconsin.

Lloyd-Jones, Chester, 151 Summit Ave., Madison

Associate Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin.

Lowe, John N., 1302 W. Washington Ave., Madison

Instructor in Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

McAllister, Fred, Austin, Texas

Department of Botany, University of Texas.

McGaskill, Virgil E., Superior

President, State Normal School.

McGilvary, Evander Bradley,

1902 Arlington Place, Madison

A. B. (Davidson); A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (California). Professor

of Philosophy, University of Wisconsin.

McKenna, Maurice, 152 S. Main St., Fond du Lac

Lawyer; President, Bar Association of Fond du Lac County.

McLeod, Andrew Fridley, Beloit

Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Chemistry, Beloit College.

McMinn, Amelia, 172 21st St., Milwaukee

B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, State Normal School,

Milwaukee.

List of Members .

743

Marquette, William George, New York, N. Y.

Ph. G. (Northwestern); B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor

of Botany, Columbia University.

Marshall, Ruth, De Kalb, Ill.

B. Sc., M. S. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Nebraska). Teacher, Northern

State Normal.

Marshall, William Stanley,

139 E. Gilman St., Madison

B. S. (Swarthmore) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig). Associate Professor of Entomology,

University of Wisconsin.

Mason, Max, 152 W. Gorham St., Madison

B. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mathematical Physics, University of

Wisconsin.

Mathews, Mrs. Lois Kimball, Lathrop Hall, Madison

Dean of Women, Associate Professor of History, University of Wisconsin.

Maurer, Edward Rose, 167 Prospect Ave., Madison

B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.

Mavor, J. W., Schenectady, N. Y.

Union College.

Maxson, Mabel, Milton

M. A. Instructor in English, Milton College.

Meachem, John Goldesbrough, Jr.,

745 College Ave., Racine

M. D. (Rush). Physician.

Mead, Warren J., 922 Van Buren St., Madison

Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin.

Merrill, Mrs. Sherburne S.,

3355 Grand Ave., Milwaukee

First Vice-President, Wisconsin Humane Society; Second Vice-President,

Woman’s Club of Wisconsin; President, Public School Art

League.

Meyer, Baltasar Henry, Washington, D. C.

B. L., Ph. D., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Member Interstate Commerce

Commission.

Miller, William Snow, 2001 Jefferson St., Madison

M. D. (Yale). Associate Professor of Anatomy, University of Wisconsin.

Monroe, G. E., 512 Van Buren St., Milwaukee

A. B. (Oberlin College); LL. B. (Michigan University). Lawyer.

Cambridge, Mass.

Moore, John Robert,

744 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters ,

Moore, Samuel, Ann Arbor, Mich.

A. B. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Harvard). Associate Professor of English,

University of Michigan.

Morris, H. H., 423 N. Lake St., Madison

Assistant in Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Morris, William Augustus Pringle,

Howard Place, Madison

A. B. (Hamilton). Lawyer.

Muttkowski, Richard Antony, Columbia, Mo.

Department of Zoology, University of Missouri.

Nader, John, 991 New York Ave., Rosebank, N. Y.

Architect and Civil Engineer.

Nagler, Mrs. Ellen Torelle,

438 W. Washington Ave., Madison

Naylor, Wilson Samuel, Appleton

Professor, Lawrence College.

Neilson, Walter Hopper, 114 Garfield Ave., Milwaukee

M. D. (Rush). Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of the

Principles and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine,

Milwaukee Medical College.

Oberholser, Harry Church, Washington, D. C.

Assistant Ornithologist, U. S. Biological Survey.

Olin, John Myers, 130 Prospect Ave., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Williams); LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Professor of

Law, University of Wisconsin.

O’Shea, M. Vincent, 140 Langdon St., Madison

B. L. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Education,

University of Wisconsin.

Overton, James Bertram, 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison

Ph. B. (Michigan); Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Plant Physiology,

University of Wisconsin.

Owen, Edward Thomas, 614 State St., Madison

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Emeritus Professor of French and Linguistics,

University of Wisconsin.

Owen, Ralph W., Eau Claire

Litt. B. (Princeton); M. A. (Wisconsin).

Pammel, L. H., Ames, Iowa

Professor of Pathology, General and Systematic Botany, Iowa State

College.

Parker, Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Gilman St., Madison

Professor Emeritus of Music, University of Wisconsin; Vice-President,

Music Teachers’ National Association.

List of Members

745

Parkinson, John Barber, 516 Wisconsin Ave., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Vice-President and Professor Emeritus of

Constitutional and International Law, University of Wisconsin.

Paxson, Frederick L., 629 Frances St., Madison

Ph. D. (Pennsylvania); Professor of American History, University of

Wisconsin.

Peapse, A. S., 2240 Rowley Ave., Madison

Associate Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

Peaslee, Leon D., Milwaukee

Curator of Education, Public Museum.

Peltier, George L., Auburn, Alabama

Illinois Agricultural Station.

Phillips, James David, 1925 West Lawn Ave., Madison

B. S. (Illinois). Professor of Drawing, University of Wisconsin.

Pierson, Merle Pierson, 15 W, Dayton St., Madison

Pitman, Annie, 414 N. Henry, Madison

B. A., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor in Latin, University

of Wisconsin.

Porter, William, 735 College Ave., Beloit

A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor Emeritus of Latin, Beloit

College.

Pretts, William Walter, Platteville

B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Northwestern). Physician and Surgeon.

Quaife, Milo M., 1901 Vilas St., Madison

Secretary, State Historical Society.

Reed, George Matthew,

809 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo.

A. B. (Geneva); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of

Botany, University of Missouri.

Rice, Ole S., Madison

B. S. (Wisconsin). Library Clerk, Office of State Superintendent of

Public Instruction.

Roedder, E. C. L. C., 1614 Hoyt St., Madison

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (University of Michigan). Associate Professor of

German Philology, University of Wisconsin.

Rohde, Hugo W., 1275 Stowell PL, East Milwaukee

Chemist, Schlitz Brewing Company.

Sammis, J. L., 234 Breese Terrace, Madison

.Associate Professor of Dairying, University of Wisconsin.

746 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Sanborn, John Bell, Wisconsin Building, Madison

B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Treasurer, Wisconsin State

Bar Association; Lecturer, University of Wisconsin Law School;

Member, Wisconsin Council, American Bar Association.

Schinner, Augustin, Right Reverend,

840 Downer Ave., Milwaukee

D. D., Bishop.

Schlundt, Herman, Columbia, Mo.

Professor of Chemistry, University of Missouri.

Schorger, A. W., 2021 Kendall Ave., Madison

Lecturer in Forest Products, University of Wisconsin.

Sherman, Helen, 176 Mason St., Milwaukee

B. S., A. M. (Wisconsin).

Showerman, Grant, 410 N. Butler St., Madison

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (University of Wisconsin). Professor of Latin,

University of Wisconsin.

Sieker, William Christian,

1542 Prospect Place, Milwaukee

B. S. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Treasurer, Manthey-Sieker Company.

Slaughter, Moses Stephen, 633 Frances St., Madison

A. B., A. M. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin,

University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Cornell Rae, Milwaukee

Assistant Geologist, Public Museum.

Smith, Erastus Gilbert, 649 Harrison Ave., Beloit

A. B., A. M. (Amherst); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of

Chemistry, Beloit College.

Smith, Gilbert Morgan, 1606 Hoyt St., Madison

Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Walter McMynn, 127 Langdon St., Madison

A. B. (Wisconsin). Librarian, University of Wisconsin.

Smythe, Sidney T., Delafield

A. B., A. M. (St. Stephen’s); B. D. (Nashotah); D. D., Ph. D. (Hobart).

President, St. John’s Military Academy; Member, Committee

on Canons, Protestant Episcopal Church.

Snow, Benjamin Warner, 221 Langdon St., Madison

Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin.

List of Members.

747

Spencer, Matthew Lyle, 8 Alton Place, Appleton

A. B., A. M. (Kentucky Wesleyan College); A. M. (Northwestern Uni¬

versity); Ph. D. (University of Chicago). Professor of English,

Lawrence College.

Squier, George Hull, Trempealeau

Dairyman.

Starr, William J., 135 Marston Ave., Eau Claire

LL. B. (Columbia). Member, Board of Commissioners of Fisheries,

Wisconsin; President, Eau Claire Public Library.

Steidtmann, E., 2002 Monroe St., Madison

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (University of Wisconsin). Assistant Professor

of Geology, University of Wisconsin.

Stickney, M. E., Granville, 0.

Denison University.

Stout, Arlow Burdette, 924 Clymer Place, Madison

A. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Talbert, George A. Ripon

B. S., M. S. (Ohio Wesleyan). Instructor in Biology, Ripon College.

Teller, Edgar Eugene,

228 Elmwood Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.

Thorkelson, Halsten Joseph Berford,

1526 W. Washington Ave., Madison

B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). Business Manager, University of Wisconsin.

Thwaites, F. T., Turvillwood, Madison

Curator of Geological Museum, University of Wisconsin.

Titus, W. A., 54 Oak Ave., Fond du Lac

Manufacturer. Member of Board of Visitors, University of Wisconsin.

Toole, Eben H., Turvillwood, Madison

Toole, William Alexander,

Pansy Heights, Baraboo, Wis.

Pansy Specialist.

Trever, A. A., 368 State St., Appeton

Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Greek, Lawrence College.

Turneaure, Frederick Eugene,

166 Prospect Ave., Madison

C. E. (Cornell). Professor of Engineering and Dean of the College of

Engineering, University of Wisconsin.

Updike, Eugene Grover, Rev.,

148 Langdon St., Madison

Pastor, First Congregational Church, Madison.

748 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

Usher, Ellis B., Colby and Abbott Building, Milwaukee

Publicity Agent.

Van Vleck, Edward Burr,

519 North Pinckney St., Madison

A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan); Ph. D. (Gottingen); LL. D. (Clark). Professor

of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin; Editor, Transactions

of the American Mathematical Society.

Vaughan, R. E., 1118 W. Johnson St., Madison

Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin.

Vogel, Mrs. Guido Charles,

409 Terrace Ave., Milwaukee

B, S. (Wisconsin).

Vorhies, Charles Taylor, Salt Lake City, Utah

B. S. (Iowa Wesleyan). Professor of Zoology, University of Arizona.

Voss, Ernest Karl Johnann Heinrich,

175 Nelson Ave., West Lawn Heights

Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German Philology, University of Wis¬

consin; Vice-President, Germanic Museum Association.

Wadmond, Samuel C., Delavan

Vice-President, Jackson and Jackson Company, Delavan; Secretary of

Board, Aram Public Library, Delavan.

Wagner, George, 1901 Jefferson St., Madison

Ph. C. (Michigan); A. B. (Kansas); A. M. (Michigan). Assistant

Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin; Ichthyologist,

State Geological and Natural History Survey.

Wakeman, Nellie A., 1814 Ray St., Madison

Instructor in Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin.

Ward, Henry Levi,

Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee

Director, Milwaukee Public Museum; Vice-President, Wisconsin

Natural History Society.

Watson, Charles Francis, Stevens Point

Teacher of Geography, State Normal School.

Watt, Homer A., Newark, N. J.

A. B. (Cornell University); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant

Professor of English, New York University.

Weidman, Samuel, 410 North Henry St., Madison

B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey.

West, George A., 97 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee

Lawyer; President, Board of Trustees, Milwaukee Public Museum.

Whitford, Alfred Edward, Milton

M. A. Professor of Mathematics and Physics, Milton College.

List of Members ,

749

Whitson, Andrew Robinson, Route 7, Madison

B. S. (Chicago). Professor of Soils and Drainage, University of Wiscon¬

sin; Field Agent, United States Department of Agriculture.

Whyte, William F., 1108 Garfield St., Madison

M. D. Physician. President, State Board of Health of Wisconsin.

Wilson, H. F., 425 Sterling PL, Madison

Professor of Economic Entomology, University of Wisconsin.

Winchell, Alexander N., 200 Prospect Ave., Madison

B. S. and M. S. (University of Minnesota); D. Sc. (University Paris)

Professor of Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Wisconsin,

Geologist, Oregon Bureau of Mines and Geology.

Wolfenson, Louis B., 1113 W. Dayton St., Madison

Assistant Professor of Hebrew and Hellenistic Greek, University of

Wisconsin.

Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, Davis, Calif.

B. S., Ph. B. (Christiana); M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor in the

California State Agricultural College.

Wright, Clement Blake Bergin,

284 Martin St., Milwaukee

A. B., A. M. (Toronto); B. D. (Nashotah); Ph. D. Kansas City);

Clergyman; Canon, Milwaukee Cathedral; Secretary, Diocese of

Milwaukee; Librarian, Diocesan Library.

Young, Karl, 433 Lake St., Madison

A. B. (Michigan); A. M. and Ph. D. (Harvard). Professor of English,

University of Wisconsin.

Zdanowicz, Casimir Douglass,

2006 Chadbourne Ave., Madison

Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, University of Wisconsin.

Zimmerman, Oliver Brunner,

International Harvester Corporation, Chicago, Ill.

B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). International Harvester Corporation.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS

Abbott, Charles Conrad, Trenton, N. J.

M. D. (Pennsylvania).

Armsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.

B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic); Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale); LL. D. (Wiscon¬

sin). Director of Institute of Animal Nutrition; Expert in

Animal Nutrition, United States Department of Agriculture.

750 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Bennett, Charles Edwin, 1 Grove Place, Ithaca, N. Y.

A. B., Litt. D. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Literature,

Cornell University.

Bridge, Norman, Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, Cal.

A. M. (Lake Forest); M. D. (Northwestern, Rush). Emeritus Professor

of Medicine, Rush Medical College. Physician.

Caverno, Charles, Lombard, Ill.

A. B.» A. M. (Dartmouth). Professor Emeritus, Ripon College.

Chandler, Charles Henry, New Ipswich, N. H.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). LL. D. (Colorado). Clergyman, retired.

Coulter, John Merle,

University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover) ; Ph. D. (Indiana). Professor of Botany

and Head of Department, University of Chicago.

Crooker, Joseph Henry,

820 South St., Rosbndale, Boston, Mass.

D. D. (St. Lawrence, Nashville). Minister, Unitarian Church.

Davis, Floyd,

317 Iowa Loan and Trust Building, Des Moines, Iowa

Ph. B., C. E., E. M. (Missouri) ; Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and

Consulting Chemist.

Eaton, Edward Dwight, Beloit

A. B., a. M. (Beloit) ; B. D. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D. (North¬

western, Yale). President, Beloit College.

Eckels, William Alexander, Easton, Pa.

A. B., A. M. (Dickinson) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Associate Professor

of Greek, Lafayette College.

Fallows, Samuel, 2344 Monroe St., Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D. (Lawrence, Marietta). Pre¬

siding Bishop. Reformed Episcopal Church; President,

Board of Managers, Illinois State Reformatory.

Harper, Robert Aylmer, New York, N. Y.

A. B. (Oberlin), Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Botany, Columbia University.

Hendrickson, George Lincoln,

68 Trumbull St., New Haven, Conn.

A. B. (Johns Hopkins) ; L. H. D. (Western Reserve). Professor of

Latin, Yale University.

Hodge, Clifton Fremont,

3 Charlotte St., Worchester, Mass.

A. B. (Ripon); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Physiology and

Neurology and Professor of Biology in the Collegiate

Department, Clark University.

List of Members ,

751

Holden, Edward Singleton,

United States Military Academy, West Point, N. Y.

B. S., A. M. (Washington); Sc. D. (Pacific); LL. D. (Wisconsin, Columbia).

Astronomer; Librarian, United States Military Academy, West Point.

Hoskins, Leander Miller,

365 Lincoln Ave., Palo Alto, Cal.

M. S., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Leland

Stanford Jr. University.

Iddings, Joseph Paxon,

5730 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago, Geologist,

United States Geological Survey.

Kinley, David, Urbana, Ill.

A. B. (Yale); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the Graduate School and

Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.

Leverett, Frank, 312 N. Thayer St., Ann Arbor, Mich.

B. Sc. (Iowa Agricultural). Geologist, United States Geological Survey;

Lecturer in Geology, University of Michigan.

Libby, Orin Grant, Grand Forks, N. D.

B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin). Professor of History, University of North

Dakota, State Historical Society of North Dakota.

Lurton, Freeman Ellsworth, Fergus Falls, Minn.

B. S., M. S. (Carleton); A. M. (Upper Iowa); Ph. D. (Gale). Superin¬

tendent of Public Schools; Member, Board of Directors,

Fergus Falls Public Library.

Luther, George Elmer,

262 South College Ave., Grand Rapids, Mich.

Cashier, People’s Savings Bank; Treasurer, Historical Society of

Grand Rapids.

Marx, Charles David, Palo Alto, Cal.

B. C. E. (Cornell); C. E. (Karlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering,

Leland Stanford Jr. University.

McClumpha, Charles Flint,

56 Church St., Amsterdam, N. Y.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton); Ph. D. (Leipzig). Treasurer, McClumpha

Company; Member, Fort Johnson Club; Treasurer, Amsterdam

Free Library; Historian, Montgomery County Historical

Society; Member, New York State Historical Society.

Moorehouse, George Wilton,

2069 East 96th St., Cleveland, 0.

B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Harvard). Physician to the Dispensary

of Lakeside Hospital and Western Reserve University.

Munro, Dana Carleton, Princeton, N. J.

A. B., A. M. (Brown). Professor of European History, University of

Wisconsin.

27

752 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Nehrling, Henry,

Palm Cottage Experiment Garden, Gotha, Orange Co., Fla.

Olive, Edgar W., Brookings, S. D.

Professor of Botany, South Dakota Agricultural College.

Peet, Stephen Denison, 438 57th St., Chicago, Ill.

A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian and

Oriental Journal.

Potter, William Bleecker,

1225 Spruce St., St. Louis, Mo.

A. B., A. M., M. E., Sc. D. (Columbia). Mining Engineer and

Metallurgist.

Power, Frederick Belding,

535 Warren St., Hudson, N. Y.

Ph. G. (Philadelphia College of Pharmacy); Ph. D. (Strassburg). Director

of Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories, London, England.

Salisbury, Rollin D., 5730 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.

A. M., LL. D. (Beloit). Professor of Geographic Geology, Head of the

Department of Geography and Dean of the Graduate School of

Science, University of Chicago; Geologist, United

States Geological Survey and State Geological

Survey of New Jersey.

Sawyer, Wesley Caleb, 725 Asbury St., San Jose, Cal.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard); A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of French

and German and Lecturer on Teutonic Mythology, University

of the Pacific.

Stone, Ormond, University Station, Charlottesville, Va.

A. M. (Chicago). Director of the Leander McCormick Observatory and

Professor of Practical Astronomy, University of Virginia.

Tolman, Albert Harris,

5750 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Williams^; Ph. D. (Strassburg). Associate Professor of English

Literature, University of Chicago.

Tolman, Herbert Cushing, Nashville, Tenn.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale); D. D. (Nashville). Professor of Greek, Vanderbilt

University; Canon, All Saints’ Cathedral.

Townley, Sidney Dean, Ukiah, Cal.

B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin); Sc. D. (Michigan). Astronomer in Charge of

International Latitude Observatory; Lecturer in Astronomy,

University of California; Editor of Publications,

Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

Turner, Frederick Jackson, Cambridge, Mass.

A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins); LL. D. (Illinois);

Litt. D. (Harvard). Professor of American History, Harvard

University; President, American Historical Association; Mem¬

ber, Massachusetts Historical Association; American

Antiquarian Society; Colonial Society of Massa¬

chusetts; Wisconsin Historical Society; Mis¬

sissippi Valley Historical Society, etc.

List of Members .

753

Van de Warker, Ely, 404 Fayette Park, Syracuse, N. Y.

M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon, Central New York Hospital

for Women; Consulting Physician, St. Ann’s Maternity Hospital;

Senior Surgeon, Women’s and Children’s Hospital;

Commissioner of Education, Syracuse.

Verrill, Addison Emery,

86 Whalley Ave., New Haven, Conn.

B. S. (Harvard); A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale University,

Curator of Zoology, Yale University Museum; President

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Winchell, Newton Horace,

501 East River Road, Minneapolis, Minn.

A. M. (Michigan). Geologist and Archaeologist.

Young, Albert Adams,

531 South Claremont Ave., Chicago,1 'Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth); B. D. (Andover). Clergyman.

MEMBERS DECEASED.

Information of whose decease has been received since the issue of

Volume XVII.

Brinckley, William Joshua, Milwaukee

Lecturer, Public Museum.

Deceased May 1, 1916

Harwood, Mary Corinthia, Ripon

Professor, Ripon College.

Deceased October 19 , 1914

Hippensteel, H. S. Stevens Point

Professor of Literature, State Normal School, Stevens Point.

Deceased , April 25, 1916

Sherman, Dr. Lewis, Milwaukee

Physician and Pharmacist.

Deceased July 2, 1915

754 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EXTRACTS FROM THE CHARTER OF THE

ACADEMY.

An Act to incorporate the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters.

The people of the state of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly,

do enact as follows:

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase

A. Lapham, * * *1 at present being members and officers of an

association known as “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters,” located at the city of Madison, together with their future

associates and successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate by

the name and style of the “Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters,” and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall be

capable in law of contracting and being contracted with, of suing and

being sued, of pleading and being impleaded in all courts of competent

jurisdiction; and may do and perform such acts as are usually performed

by like corporate bodies.

Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage

investigation and disseminate correct views in the various departments

of science, literature, and the arts. Among the specific objects of the

Academy shall be embraced the following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the

material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological, and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state with a

view of determining its mineral, agricultural, and other resources.

3. The advancement of the usual arts, through the applications of

science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes

awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economic, and art museums.

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the

collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a

general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu¬

tions to science, literature, and the arts.

1 Here follow the names of forty others. Sections 5, 6, 8 and 9 are omitted

here as of no present interest. For the charter in full see Transactions, vol. viii,

p. xi, or earlier volumes.

Extracts from the Charter.

755

Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the

same at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations,

and by-laws as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may

receive and hold real and personal property, and may use and dispose

of the same at pleasure; provided, that it shall not divert any donation

or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor, and that

none of the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be alienated

other than in the way of exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and

other effects, with similar institutions and in the manner specified in the

next section of this act, without the consent of the legislature.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the

same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,

at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects in

natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other schools

and colleges of the state.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects

embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof,

or be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to

the governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or

institution.

Approved March 16, 1870.

STATUTES OF 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.

Section 341. There shall be printed by the state printer biennially

in pamphlet form two thousand copies of the transactions of the Wis¬

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, uniform in style with

the volumes heretofore printed for said society.

Note. — Under a ruling of the printing commissioners of the state of Wisconsin,

made in response to a presentation by a committee of the Academy appointed

December 29, 1897, each volume of the Transactions may be issued in two con¬

secutive parts; so that a publication may thus be issued each year covering the

papers accepted after the previous annual meeting. The Academy allows each

author one hundred separate reprints of his paper from the Transactions without

expense, except a small charge for printed covers when desired. Additional copies

are charged for at the actual cost of printing and binding.

OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS.

Section 365. The transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters shall be distributed as follows: One copy to each

member of the legislature, one copy to the librarian of each state insti¬

tution; one hundred copies to the State Agricultural Society; one hundred

copies to the State Historical Society; one hundred copies to the State

University, and the remainder to said Academy.

Section 366. In the distribution of books or other packages, if such

packages are too large or would cost too much to be sent by mail, they

shall be sent by express or freight, and the accounts for such express

756 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

or freight charges, properly certified to, shall be paid out of the state

treasury.

STATUTES OF 1901.

CHAPTER 447.

BINDING OF EXCHANGES.

Section 1. Section 341 of the revised statutes of 1898 is hereby

amended by adding thereto the following: The secretary of state may

authorize the state printer to bind in suitable binding all periodicals

and other exchanges which the Society shall hereafter receive, at a cost

not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars per annum. The secretary

of state shall audit the accounts for such binding.

STATUTES OF 1913.

CHAPTER 771.

Section 19. That part of section 20.31 of the statutes relating to

printing for the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters is

amended to read: “not more than two thousand copies * * * of

each number as issued , of the transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters * * * together with suitable binding at a

cost not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars per annum of all peri¬

odicals and other exchanges which said academy shall hereafter receive.’*

CONSTITUTION

OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

[As amended at various regular meetings.]

Article I. — Name and Location .

This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters, and shall be located at the city of Madison.

Article II. — Object .

The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts and

letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall be

the publication of the results of investigation and the formation of a

library.

Canstitution.

757

Article III. — Membership

The Academy shall include four classes of members viz. : life members,

honorary members, corresponding members, and active members, to be

elected by ballot.

1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services ren¬

dered the Academy. Life membership in the Academy may also be

obtained by the payment of one hundred dollars and election by the

Academy. Life members shall i>e allowed to vote and to hold office.

2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be

men who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts or letters.

3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been

active members of the Academy, but have removed from the state. By

special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters

may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in

the meetings of the Academy.

4. Active members shall be elected by the Academy or the council

and shall enter upon membership on the payment of an initiation fee

of two dollars which shall include the first annual assessment of one

dollar. The annual assessment shall be omitted for the president,

secretary, treasurer, and librarian during their term of office.

Article IV. — Officers.

The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for

each of the three departments, sciences, arts and letters, a secretary, a

librarian, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers shall be chosen

by ballot, on recommendation of the committee on nomination of officers,

by the Academy at an annual meeting and shall hold office for three

years. Their duties shall be those usually performed by officers thus

named in scientific societies. It shall be one of the duties of the president

to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at

the annual meeting at which his term of office expires.

Article V. — Council.

The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the management

of its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and shall

consist of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary, the

treasurer, the librarian, and the past presidents who retain their residence

in Wisconsin. Three members of the council shall constitute a quorum

for the transaction of business, provided the secretary and one of the

presiding officers be included in the number.

Article VI. — Committees.

The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on

publication, a library committee, and a committee on the nomination

of members. These committees shall be elected at the annual meeting

of the Academy in the same manner as the other officers of the Academy,

and shall hold office for the same term.

758 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and

secretary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall

determine the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the

Academy. They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful

character to specialists for their opinion as to scientific value and

relevancy.

2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the

librarian shall be ex officio chairman, and of which a majority shall not

be from the same city.

3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of five

members, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.

Article VII. — Meetings.

The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such time and

place as the council may designate; but all regular meetings for the

election of the board of officers shall be held at Madison. Summer

field meetings shall be held at such times and places as the Academy

or the council may decide. Special meetings may be called by the council.

Article VIII. — Publications.

The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its Trans¬

actions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its proceedings,

and any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall be printed

by the state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin. All members of

the Academy shall receive gratis the current issues of its Transactions.

Article IX. — Amendments.

Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meeting

by a vote of three-fourths of all the members present; provided, that

the amendment has been proposed by five members, and that notice has

been sent to all the members at least one month before the meeting.

RESOLUTIONS

REGULATIVE OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.

[By the Academy, December 28, 1882.1

2. The secretary of the Academy shall be charged with the special

duty of overseeing and editing the publication of future volumes of

the Transactions.

3. The Transactions of the Academy hereafter published shall con¬

tain: (a) a list of officers and members of the Academy; (b) the charter,

by-laws and constitution of the Academy as amended to date; (c) the

proceedings of the meetings; and (d) such papers as are duly certified in

Resolutions .

759

writing to the secretary as accepted for publication in accordance with the

following regulations, and no other.

6. In deciding as to the papers to be selected for publication, the

committee shall have special regard to their value as genuine, original

contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.

9. The sub-committee on publication shall be charged with insisting

upon the correction of errors in grammar, phraseology, etc., on the

part of authors, and shall call the attention of authors to any other

points in their papers which in their judgment appear to need revision.

[By the Academy , June 2, 1892.]

The secretary was given authority to allow as much as ten dollars

for the illustrations of a paper when the contribution was of sufficient

value to warrant it. A larger amount than this might be allowed by

the committee on publication.

[By the Academy , December 29, 1896.]

The secretary was directed to add to the date of publication as printed

on the outside of author’s separates the words, “Issued in advance of

general publication.”

FEES OF LIFE MEMBERS.

[By the Academy , July 19, 1870.]

Resolved , That the fees from members for life be set apart as a per¬

manent endowment fund to be invested in Wisconsin state bonds, or

other equally safe securities, and that the proceeds of said fund, only,

be used for the general purposes of the Academy.

ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Academy , December 29, 1892.]

Resolved , That the secretary and treasurer be instructed to strike

from the list of active members of the Academy the names of all who

are in arrears in the payment of annual dues, except in those cases where,

in their judgment, it is desirable to retain such members for a longer

time.

ARREARS OF ANNUAL DUES.

[By the Council , December 29, 1897.]

Resolved, That the treasurer be requested to send out the notices of

annual dues as soon as possible after each annual meeting and to extend

the notice to the second or third time within a period of four months

where required.

28

760 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

secretary’s allowance.

[Uy f/ie Academy , December 27, 1902.]

Resolved , That the Academy hereby appropriates the sum of seventy-

five dollars per annum as an allowance for secretary’s expenses, for

which a single voucher shall be required.

secretary’s allowance.

[By the Council , April 5, 1912.]

Resolved , That the Academy appropriates the sum of two hundred

dollars per annum for the secretary-treasurer’s allowance.