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WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

MUg!

NATURALE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1931

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XXVI

NATURALE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1931

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

President

Charles E. Allen, University of Wisconsin

Vice-Presidents

In Science: Rufus M. Bagg, Lawrence College

In the Arts : Otto L. Kowalke, University of Wisconsin

In Letters : William E. Alderman, Beloit College

Secretary-Treasurer

Lowell E. Noland, University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Walter M. Smith, University of Wisconsin

Curator

Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum

Committee on Publication

Charles E. Allen, ex officio

Arthur Beatty, University of Wisconsin

Lowell E. Noland, ex officio

Committee on Library

Howard Greene, Milwaukee

Mrs. Angie K. Main, Ft. Atkinson

Rollin C. Mullenix, Lawrence College

Walter M. Smith, ex officio

George Van Biesbroeck, Yerkes Observatory

Committee on Membership

E. F. Bean, State Geological Survey

Ralph N. Buckstaff, Oshkosh

Anselm M. Keefe, St. Norbert College

Lowell E. Noland, ex officio

William N. Steil, Marquette University

The Transactions are issued under the editorial supervision of the Secretary.

Correspondence relating to publication or Academy business should be directed

to him : Lowell E. Noland, Biology Building, University of Wisconsin, Madison,

Wis. Publications intended for the Library of the Academy should be sent to the

Librarian, Walter M. Smith, University of Wisconsin Library, Madison, Wis.

CONTENTS

Page

The Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. Part II. A. W.

Schorger _ ___________ _ 1

Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin. Eric R. Miller 61

The Geography of the Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wis¬

consin. Raymond E. Murphy _ _ 69

Notes on the Late Ordovician Strata of the Green Bay —

Lake Winnebago Region. Jeanette Jones _ 121

The Menominee Treaty at the Cedars, 1836. Louise

Phelps Kellogg _ „ _ 127

Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence in the

Eighteenth Century. William E. Alderman _ 137

An Edict of Philip, by the Grace of God, Landgrave of

Russia, Count of Catzenelenbogen, Dietz, Ziegenhain

and Nidda — How and in which Form the Jews from

now on shall be tolerated and treated in our Prin¬

cipality and our Counties and Dominions. M.D.

XXXIX. Translated by Ernest Voss _ 161

Syntax of the Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. Ed¬

ward T. Owen ______________ _ _ _ _ 167

Note on the Evaluation of a Series. C. M. Jansky _ 223

The Sulfur Monochloride Reaction of the Fatty Oils. II.

On the Nature of the Reaction Product. Ellery H.

Harvey and H. A. Schuette _ _ _ _ 225

The Sulfur Monochloride Reaction of the Fatty Oils. III. A

Note on the Thermal Behavior of their Fatty Acids.

Ellery H. Harvey and H. A. Schuette _ _ _ 231

The Sulfur Monochloride Reaction of the Fatty Oils. IV.

On the Evolution of Hydrogen Chloride. Ellery H.

Harvey and H. A. Schuette _ _ 233

Morphological Studies of Erysiphe Aggregata on Alnus

incana. Erna Wentzel _ _ _ _ 241

Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin. XVIII. J. J. Davis 253

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XII.

Polypodiaceae. Edith W. Breakey and Ruth I.

IV

Contents .

Page

Walker _ 263

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XIII.

Fagaceae. David F. Costello _ _ 275

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XIV.

Hypericaceae. Willard T. McLaughlin _ _ 281

Notes on certain Syrphus Flies related to Xanthogramma

(Diptera, Syrphidae) with descriptions of two new

species. Chas. L. Fluke, Jr. _ 289

Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. I. The

Red Mites. Ruth Marshall _ 311

Wisconsin Herpetological Notes. T. E. B. Pope _ 321

Limnological Studies of Lake Wingra. Willis L. Tressler

and Bernard P. Domogalla _____ _ 331

A Second Report on the Phosphorus Content of Wisconsin

Lake Waters. C. Juday and E. A. Birge _ 353

A Third Report on Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. E.

A. Birge and C. Juday _ 383

Copepods parastic on Fish of the Trout Lake Region, with

description of two new species. Ruby Bere _ 427

Leeches from the Lakes of Northeastern Wisconsin. Ruby

Bere _ 437

Note on the Determination of Total Phosphorus in Lake

Water Residues. Leslie Titus and Villiers W.

Meloche _ 441

THE BIRDS OF DANE COUNTY, WISCONSIN

A. W. SCHORGER

ANNOTATED LIST OF BIRDS

Part II

Family TYRANNIDAE. Tyrant Flycatchers.

122. Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus). Kingbird. This fly¬

catcher is a common summer resident. The average date of

arrival is May 4 ; the earliest, April 24, 1913. It is common by

May 15. In autumn, most of the birds have left by the middle

of August, the average date of departure being Aug. 29; the

latest, Sept. 15, 1917.

The Kingbird shows a decided preference for nesting near

water.1 When Lake Wisconsin was formed by the construction

of the dam at Prairie du Sac, nests were common in the trees

killed by the water, and frequently were placed only a few inch¬

es above it. Mr. Herbert Stoddard states in a letter: “I found

over a dozen nests over the water at the same place the last

week in June” (1919). Full sets of eggs have been found from

June 4 to 25. I have seen young able to fly by July 5, but it is

exceedingly doubtful that two broods are raised a season as has

been claimed. White and bur oaks standing in the open are

favorite nesting trees.

123. Tyrannus verticalis Say. Arkansas Kingbird. This

species is of rare occurrence in the state and all the records are

from Dane County. The first specimen was secured near Albion,

June 11, 1877.2 On July 31, 1927, G. E. French and W. E. Grif-

fee3 found two young and one adult of this species on the Nako-

ma golf course near Madison. The two young were collected by

Mr. John Main on Aug. 1, and the adult female was taken by

the writer the following day. The skin of one of the young is

in the possession of Mr. Main, and those of the other two birds

1 Schorger, Auk 37 (1920) 144.

aKumlien and Hollister, “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903) p. 80.

8 Auk 44 (1927) 566.

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

are in my collection. In spite of the wandering tendencies of

this species, it is probable that the young birds were reared in

the county.

124. Myiarchus crinitus (Linnaeus). Crested Flycatcher.

The Crested Flycatcher is a common summer resident in heavy

timber, especially in the lowlands. It is particularly numerous

in the Wisconsin River valley. The raucous notes of this bird

are to be heard during the entire period of its presence with us.

The average date of arrival is May 7; the earliest, April 26,

1925. In fall the average date of departure is Aug. 30; the

latest, Sept. 12, 1915.

Norman Betts found a nest with young June 21, 1914. This

species is noted for placing fragments of the cast skins of

snakes in its nest, the latter being placed in a cavity in a tree.

125. Sayornis phoebe (Latham). Phoebe. The Phoebe is an

abundant summer resident. It is the hardiest of our flycatch¬

ers, arriving on the average March 28. The earliest date is

March 19 (1921 and 1927). After arriving it remains in the

vicinity of water, especially about springs, where during late

blizzards it survives on seeds and the hardy insects that are

abroad. In fall it is widely distributed. The average date of

departure is Oct. 14; the latest, Oct. 21.

The nest of this species is frequently so overrun with mites

that it is surprising that the young survive. It is usually placed

beneath bridges, on cliffs, or on buildings near water. Eggs

have been found from April 22 to June 27. Full sets are not

common until the second week in May. Late sets are probably

due to destruction of an earlier nest.

126. Empidonax flaviventris (Baird). Yellow-bellied Fly¬

catcher. Of all our flycatchers, the Yellow-bellied is the most

easily overlooked. It occurs sparingly during the migration

periods during which times, in my experience, it is always

silent. Rich bottom woodlands with heavy undergrowth are pre¬

ferred. It has been found in spring between May 12 and 30.

The average date of arrival is May 20. Most of the records fall

within the last ten days of the month. The fall records are

scanty. The extreme dates are Aug. 12 to Sept. 5 (1927).

According to Kumlien and Hollister,4 L. Kumlien found a nest

4 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 82.

Schorger— Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin. 3

with one egg and two young just hatched in a tamarack swamp

near Albion, June 25, 1891.

127. Empidonax virescens (Vieillot). Acadian Flycatcher.

The Acadian Flycatcher is an uncommon summer resident in

the western portion of the county. The only locality within

our boundaries where it seems to occur regularly is the wooded

portion of the Wisconsin River valley at Mazomanie. I have

also found it across the river on Otter Creek. Taylor5 collected

one May 25, 1921. I collected one of a pair at Cross Plains July

5, 1924, and one at Mazomanie May 81, 1925.6 Eggs were found

in Grant County on June 17, 1924.

This species is resident in heavy timber. A sight record is

worthless. Possibly it can be distinguished in the field from the

Least Flycatcher but not from Traill's Flycatcher. Fortunately

the male at least has a very characteristic note, a loud “pee-

ee-yuk”. I have not heard this call later than July 5.

128. Empidonax trailli trailli (Audubon). Traill’s Flycatcher.

A common summer resident, arriving on the average May 19.

The earliest date is May 8, 1920. The fall migration is usually

completed by Aug. 20. The latest date is Sept. 7. In contrast

to the Least Flycatcher, this species avoids timber. During the

breeding season it is found in two types of cover: clumps of

dogwood, low willows, etc. in marshes; and in large areas of

sumac on the uplands.

The nest is deep, and compact, resembling that of the Yel¬

low Warbler. It is placed 3 to 8 feet, usually 6 feet, from the

ground. Isolated clumps of bushes 30 to 50 feet in diameter

never contain more than one breeding pair. This species shows

great skill in keeping out of sight though its complaining notes

prove it to be only a few feet distant. The earliest date on which

a set of eggs (4) has been found is June 14 (1914). The aver¬

age date for full sets, three eggs being more common than four,

is June 20. On July 4, 1924, I found a nest with four eggs and

a young Cowbird as large as a House Wren. About 10 per cent

of the nests are parasitized by the Cowbird. The young Fly¬

catchers develop rapidly and have been noted on the wing by

July 12.

129. Empidonax minimus (Baird). Least Flycatcher. The

5 Auk 39 (1922) 273.

8 Auk 44 (1927) 235.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Least Flycatcher is a very common summer resident and is the

most widely distributed of all our flycatchers. It shows a pref¬

erence for open woodlands, but is also to be found in gardens,

orchards, and thickets. The average date of arrival is May 7 ;

the earliest, May 2 (Taylor) . The average date of departure in

fall is Sept. 13, the latest, Sept. 29, 1929.

I have found nests from five to fifty feet from the ground.

They usually contain a few feathers. Deposition of eggs begins

June 8. This is the only one of our small flycatchers to lay

white, or at most faintly dotted eggs.

130. Myiochanes virens (Linnaeus). Wood Pewee. The Wood

Pewee is a common summer resident in town and country where

there are large trees sufficient to form a wood or grove. The

earliest spring record is May 10 (Taylor) . My notes show that

during a period of seventeen consecutive years the Wood Pewee

arrives from May 15 to 24, the average date being May 19.

Betts had May 17 to 24 for the first arrivals. Kumlien and Hol¬

lister7 state that it arrives April 28 to May 5. This difference

is not easily explained. The average date of departure in au¬

tumn is Sept. 19 ; the latest, Oct. 1, 1916.

If nidification has a taxonomic value, then this species and

the Acadian Flycatcher are closely related. The nests of both

species are usually loosely constructed platforms. Mr. George

French found a nest with eggs June 27, 1926.

131. Nuttallornis borealis (Swainson). Olive-sided Flycatch¬

er. The Olive-sided Flycatcher is a rather uncommon migrant.

It has been observed in spring from May 10, (1916) to May 27.

Arrival before May 15 is rare, most of the records falling with¬

in the period May 16 to 20. In fall it has been noted from Aug.

16, (1930) to Sept. 5, (1921). It has been my experience that

the occurrence of this species is very irregular. Beginning with

the spring of 1926, 1 made a special effort to collect a specimen.

Success was not attained until Aug. 25, 1929, when a male was

taken near Madison.8 On the other hand, I saw it during the

season of 1930 on five occasions as follows: May 25; Aug. 16

(specimen collected) ; Aug. 23; Aug. 24; and Aug. 29.

During migration the Olive-sided Flycatcher occupies a dead

limb on the top or side of a tree from which it watches for pass-

7 L. c., (1903) p. 82.

8 Auk 47 (1930) 424.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County Wisconsin. 5

in g insects. I have seen one dart a distance of 300 feet, capture

an insect and return to the same perch. According to my ob¬

servations, the long flights are the result of a chase rather than

of the victim being sighted at so great a distance, for the bird

frequently rises to a considerable height before flying horizon¬

tally.

Family ALAUDIDAE. Larks.

132. Otocoris alpestris alpestris (Linnaeus). Horned Lark.

The Horned Lark is an irregular winter visitor. I took one from

a flock of ten Jan. 1, 1914. Mr. Clarence Jung found some near

Madison Dec. 20, 1920. Mr. Warner Taylor has furnished the

following data: eight seen Feb. 22, and four Feb. 27, 1917 ; one,

possibly the same bird, seen Feb. 16 and 23, and March 9, 1919;

two, Feb. 25, 1920; one, March 22, 1922; three, Jan. 26, 1923;

and a flock of about 100, Nov. 1, 1925. It was common again in

January and February 1930.9

133. Octocoris alpestris hoyti Bishop. Hoyt’s Horned Lark.

This subspecies should be sought in the flocks of Horned Larks.

I took a male Feb. 2, 1930, 10 and Mr. John Main11 collected one

the same day.

134. Otocoris alpestris praticola (Henshaw). Prairie Horned

Lark. Common summer resident. A few are to be found

throughout the winter unless the weather is exceptionally se¬

vere. Most of the birds have passed south by December to re¬

appear again from the middle of February to the middle of

March. The weak, twittering note of this species simply comes

out of space. All points of the compass may be searched before

the author is seen in wavering flight.

The eggs may be deposited by the middle of March but the

survival of so early a nest is exceptional.

Family HIRUNDINIDAE. Swallows.

135. Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot). Tree Swallow. The Tree

Swallow is a common summer resident. In fall, especially, it

collects in enormous flocks that roost in the marshes. The aver¬

age date of arrival is April 12; the earliest, March 27, but

9 Main, Auk 47 (1930) 578; Schorger, ibid . 424.

19 Auk 47 (1930) 424.

11 Auk 47 (1930) 579.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

March arrivals are rare. The early migrants are frequently

reduced to a pitiable state by cold weather. On the morning of

April 8, 1928, during a northwest snowstorm, the temperature

being 28 degrees, I found a flock on a tree sheltered by the bluff

at West Point. The birds appeared barely able to maintain

their perch. The average date of departure is October 11 ; the

latest, Oct. 22, 1916.

The Tree Swallow nests preferably in dead trees in marshes,

or near water. If protected against the English Sparrow, it will

breed in nesting boxes in town. Eggs have been found from

May 20 to June 16.

136. Riparia riparia (Linnaeus). Bank Swallow. The Bank

Swallow is a common summer resident, arriving late in April

or early in May. The average date is May 4 ; the earliest, April

13 (Taylor). The bulk of the species departs in August, but a

few birds remain until Sept. 11.

This species nests in large colonies in the sandy banks of the

Wisconsin River, and in sand and gravel pits. It is quick to

take advantage of suitable sites. During the building of the

University Stadium in 1916, a large flock took possession of a

mound produced during construction of the bleachers. On May

24, 1929, I noticed a flock of about 30 Bank Swallows about the

excavation for a dwelling in Shorewood. Tunnels up to 18 inch¬

es in length had been excavated in a layer of sand about four

feet beneath the surface. The entrance to the nest is usually

oval. The nest cavity contains a thin layer of coarse grass and

feathers upon which the eggs are deposited, chiefly in the period

May 30 to June 6. It is not unusual for the parents to be killed

by caving in of the earth.

137. Stelgidopteryx serripennis (Audubon). Rough-winged

Swallow. This species is a common summer resident. The aver¬

age date of arrival is April 15; the earliest, April 5, 1913. The

fall migration is completed in August, the latest date being

Aug. 22, 1914 (Betts) . In the Madison region the first arrivals

are usually noted near Black Hawk’s Cave on Lake Mendota.

Unlike the Bank Swallow, the Rough-winged Swallow never

nests in large colonies. It is not unusual, however, to find a few

of this species nesting in a colony of Bank Swallows. The nests

are placed in crevices of rocky cliffs along the lake shores, in

the stone foundations of bridges, and in sand and gravel banks.

Schorger— Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin. 7

Birds have been seen carrying nesting material as early as May

3. Deposition of eggs is very irregular and extends from May

15 to June 25.

138. Hirundo erythrogastra Boddaert. Barn Swallow. This

species is a common summer resident. It is more widely dis¬

tributed during the breeding season than any of our other swal¬

lows, but numerically it ranks low. The acquired habit of nest¬

ing in barns renders it subject to constant persecution by the

English Sparrow. The average date of arrival is April 19; the

earliest, April 13 (1924 and 1929) . The average date of depar¬

ture in fall is Sept. 16. It has not been seen later than Sept. 26.

The Barn Swallow usually nests in barns and other buildings,

and occasionally under bridges. The case of nesting on cliff s on

Lake Mendota12 is a reversion to a habit that prevailed previous

to settlement of the country.

139. Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons (Say). Cliff Swallow.

The Cliff Swallow is a common migrant and locally common

summer resident. It now belies its name having taken to nest¬

ing under the eaves of buildings, nests on cliffs being the ex¬

ception.13 On May 31, 1919, I found a small colony of Cliff

Swallows nesting on a cliff at Lake Wisconsin. Here, advantage

had been taken of cavities in the rocks for the nest proper, only

the tubular entrance being made of clay.14

This species nests abundantly in the eastern part of the coun¬

ty near Deerfield. On June 27, 1926, 1 found a new colony of 70

nests. The owner of the bam stated that he had not had Cliff

Swallows for twelve years and that the birds had come to his

place June 15. Inquiry revealed that there was a large colony

at the Boneman farm a mile distant. The size of this colony

was amazing, 456 nests being counted. All but 38 were located

on the east side of the barn. Here there were three and four

tiers of nests. The colony has existed for about 40 years due to

Mr. Boneman’s commendable protection. Slats have been nailed

horizontally to help keep the nests in place. Unremitting war¬

fare is waged against the English Sparrow that throws both

13 Betts, Wilson Bull. 28 (1916) 72.

13 G. W. Featherstonhaugh visited the shot tower near Spring Green on June 1,

1837, and mentions that there was a large colony of [cliff] swallows on the face

of the sandstone escarpment. (“A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor”, London.

1847, Vol. 2, p. 111.).

14 Auk 37 (1920) 143.

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

eggs and young from the nest. The Swallows make no attempt

to defend themselves. The birds arrive in numbers about May

10 and remain about the colonies until Aug. 15. Full sets of

eggs are to be found the end of May.

The earliest date of arrival is April 27 (Taylor). The Cliff

Swallow departs in September, the latest date being Sept. 20,

1914.

140. Progne subis subis (Linnaeus). Purple Martin. Owing

to the readiness with which the Purple Martin has taken to

houses provided for it, this has become the most familiar of

our swallows. It arrives somewhat earlier even than the Tree

Swallow, the average date being April 7. In the years 1925 and

1929 it arrived March 80. The average date of departure in fall

is Aug. 21 ; the latest, Aug. 29, 1926.

In its domestic economy, the Purple Martin is both dilatory

and slovenly. While the gathering of nesting material may start

the first week in May, eggs are usually not deposited before the

first week in June. From the four to six eggs, perhaps two

young will be reared successfully. Protracted cold rains may

cause the abandonment of eggs and young.

Family CORVIDAE. Jays and Crows.

141. Cyanocitta cristata cristata (Linnaeus). Blue Jay. The

Blue Jay is a common permanent resident. There is, however,

a small but well defined migration during the first three weeks

in May, and the latter part of September and first part of Octo¬

ber. It is as numerous in town as in country. The beauty of the

Jay’s plumage and its impertinent ways enliven our dreary win¬

ters. This more than compensates for its occasional raids on

the nests of other birds. Though noted for its raucous “jay”,

this species has some very musical notes. It is no mean mimic.

I have heard the notes of the Crow and Red-tailed Hawk imi¬

tated perfectly. This play seems to be indulged in most fre¬

quently in winter.

The Blue Jay has great antipathy towards the raptors. One

of my most interesting experiences was watching a flock of Blue

Jays mobbing a Sharp-shinned Hawk. Special attention to its

alarm notes will lead to the discovery of hawks and owls that

would otherwise be overlooked.

Full sets of eggs have been found from April 27 to June 3,

the majority between May 5 and 15.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 9

142. Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm. Crow.

Common permanent resident, less numerous in winter. The mi¬

grations take place in March and October. There are winter

roosts to which thousands of birds repair towards evening after

having spent the day foraging at great distances. These roosts

are shifted under persecution. A very large roost that existed

at Sun Prairie the winter of 1926-7 was broken up by shooting.

The formation of roosts begins in July after the young are on

the wing. The oak thicket at Sunset Point near Madison has

been a favored place. On July 25, 1922, I counted 270 between

7 :20 and 7 :80 P. M. The birds arrived singly and in small flocks

until over a thousand had assembled. From 100 to 200 birds

usually winter here. Stoddard15 made the interesting observa¬

tion at Sauk City that the males assemble in roosts during the

breeding season. This observation covered the period April 20

to June 18.

Nest building begins early. On March 11, 1928, 1 found a nest

complete except for the soft lining. The latter usually consists

of cow hair, twine, and bark of the wild grape vine. Full sets of

eggs (5-6) have been found as early as April 4. Out of 27 nests

examined, only one contained 7 eggs. Two sets found May 12

very probably represent a second attempt. Young able to fly

have been noted by May 27.

Family PARIDAE. Titmice.

143. Baeolophus bicolor (Linnaeus). Tufted Titmouse. This

species is of special interest owing to the gradual extension of

its range northward. The specimen taken at Madison by N. C.

Gilbert16 on Dec. 15, 1900, remained for many years the only

record for the state. Stoddard17 collected one of a pair found at

Sauk City on April 13, 1921, and determined that the species

was established in the Wisconsin River bottoms. One was seen

near Madison by Mr. Clarence Jung on Dec. 20, 1920. One was

collected by Mr. Warner Taylor18 on Feb. 1, 1921, and another

was seen by him19 on Dec. 26, 1922. I took my first specimen

near Lake Wingra on Feb. 25, 1923.20 It has since become a

15 Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 76.

16 Kumlien and Hollister, l.c., p. 124.

” Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 79.

18 Auk 39 (1922) 274.

19 Auk 40 (1923) 340; cf. 43 (1926) 382.

20 Auk 41 (1924) 169.

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

regular winter visitor in the Madison region. During the past

seven years it has been observed near Madison between Oct. 20

and March 21. It is usually associated with Chickadees. As evi¬

dence of the northward movement of southern species, I may

mention seeing near Madison on Oct. 20, 1929, a Tufted Tit¬

mouse and a Redbellied Woodpecker within 100 feet of each

other.

This species will probably become a permanent resident local¬

ly as it has in the Wisconsin River Valley. During the spring of

1925, 1 made a special effort to obtain a breeding record for this

species and was finally successful.21 On June 28 of this year

while in the Mazomanie bottoms with Mr. Warner Taylor, I col¬

lected a young female from a family of five young and two old

birds. This is the first known breeding record for the state.

144. Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus (Linnaeus). Chicka¬

dee. The confiding little Chickadee is a permanent resident. It

is usually seen in small troops and sociability is dissolved only

during the breeding season. During the winter, these troops

have their camp followers in the shape of White-breasted Nut¬

hatches, Downy Woodpeckers, and an occasional Brown Creep¬

er, or Golden-crowned Kinglet.

Full sets of eggs, six to eight, have been found from May 11

to June 1. In spite of long acquaintance with this species, I

only recently discovered that the Chickadee can produce a very

startling, hissing note in defense of its nest.22

Family SITTIDAE. Nuthatches.

145. Sitta carolinensis carolinensis Latham. White-breasted

Nuthatch. This species is a common permanent resident and is

widely distributed. The prosaic, incessant search for insects up

and down the tree is occasionally enlivened by the finding of a

Screech Owl dozing in a cavity. The discovery is announced by

a stuttering turr-turr-turr, so different from the quank of

peaceful routine.

Nests with eggs were found by Mr. George French April 10

and April 27, 1927. These were found in decayed stubs. In

Ohio, I usually found the nest in a natural cavity of a tree such

as a knot hole or wind shake.

21 Auk 44 (1927) 239.

22 Auk 39 (1922) 423.

Sehorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin . 11

146. Sitta canadensis Linnaeus. Red-breasted Nuthatch. The

Red-breasted Nuthatch is an erratic migrant and occasional

winter resident in stands of conifers. Sometimes only one or

two birds will be seen throughout the year. In 1916 it was com¬

mon in both spring and fall, while in 1923, though only one bird

was seen in spring, the species was observed regularly from

Aug. 19 to Oct. 21. It seldom arrives in spring before the last

week in April or the first week in May, and remains until the

middle of the month. The earliest date is April 6, 1913 (Betts) ;

the latest, May 27, 1917. In fall it occasionally arrives the end

of August, but the main movement is in September. The latest

date is October 21, 1923.

Between Nov. 11 and 14, 1913, I found this species very com¬

mon in the hemlock-spruce forest near Herbster, Bayfield

County.

Family CERTHIIDAE. Creepers.

147. Certhia familiaris americana Bonaparte. Brown Creep¬

er. The Brown Creeper is a common migrant and winter resi¬

dent. In appearance and action it expresses great humility.

Small and of somber color, it matches the bark over which it

creeps. The weak, strident notes are uttered half heartedly as

if the author were abashed at revealing his existence. It is

most numerous in spring during April. It departs from April

15 to May 11, the average date being April 28. In fall, it ar¬

rives usually during the last week in September. The average

date is Sept. 27 ; the earliest, Sept. 18.

Family TROGLODYTIDAE. Wrens.

148. Troglodytes aedon parkmani Audubon. Western House

Wren. An abundant summer resident. All the specimens taken

by me in Dane County and elsewhere in the state are referable

to this form.23 It is doubtful if the eastern bird T. aedon

aedon occurs in the state. It arrives the end of April or the

first of May, the average date being April 30 ; the earliest, April

22, 1925. Departure in autumn usually takes place before the

end of September, but sometimes in October. The average date

for the last bird seen is Sept. 25 ; the latest, Oct. 7, 1917.

Full sets of eggs are most common during the first week in

23 Auk 43 (1926) 557.

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

June. A nest with five eggs found May 20, 1921 is exceptional.

The breeding season extends throughout the summer. Young

have been seen in the nest as late as Aug. 26.

149. Nannus hiemalis hiemalis ( Vieillot) . Winter Wren.

This bird is a common migrant. The loquacity of the species is

a most useful aid in detecting the mouse-like form that is

soon lost again under fallen timber or in rocky crevices. It is a

rather common winter resident. I find it most frequently at this

season at Merrill's Springs where there is an ideal combination

of open water and rock faces overgrown with brush.

The Winter Wren occasionally appears the last of March,

though usually not until early in April. The average date of

arrival is April 5; the earliest, March 22 (Taylor) . The aver¬

age date of departure is April 28; the latest, May 15, 1927. It

arrives in autumn the latter half of September or early in Oc¬

tober. The average date is Sept. 29 ; the earliest, Sept. 16, 1916.

The average date of departure is Oct. 26; the latest, Nov.

28, 1919.

150. Thyomanes bewicki beivicki (Audubon). Bewick’s Wren.

This wren is a recent accession to the state list. Through in¬

formation furnished by Mr. Albert Gastrow, H. L. Stoddard24

established the presence of two pairs of these wrens near

Prairie du Sac in the spring of 1921. One of the birds, on the

Dane County side of the river, was later studied by Warner

Taylor and S. Paul Jones. Taylor25 states that he saw one near

Madison on April 15, 1916. A specimen was taken near Madison

by him on April 80, 1923.26

The first breeding record is reported by Taylor.27 In the

spring of 1922, a pair nested twice in the bee-yard of Mr. E. D.

Ochsner at Prairie du Sac. Mr. Ochsner informed me that a

pair nested with him in the summer of 1927 and 1928, and

though it appeared again in 1929, no nesting took place.

151. Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus (Latham) . Caro¬

lina Wren. This wren is known only as a casual fall visitor, but

in time a nesting record will probably be established. Mr. Nor¬

man Betts28 found one between Langdon Street and Lake Men-

24 Wilson Bull, 34 (1922) 78.

25 Auk 39 (1922) 274.

2« Auk 43 (1926) 382.

27 Auk 39 (1922) 576.

28 Auk 32 (1915) 237.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin. 13

dota Sept. 17, 1914. This bird remained until Sept. 28. When

seen by the writer on Sept. 20, it was in full song. Another was

seen by Mr. Betts near Madison, July 18, 1915.2®. Taylor30 saw

one in the river bottoms Sept. 17, 1923.

152. Telmatodytes palustris iliacus Ridgway. Prairie Marsh

Wren. This is the breeding form. It is questionable if the Long¬

billed Marsh Wren (T. p. palustris) should be credited to the

state.31 The Prairie Marsh Wren is an abundant summer resi¬

dent. During the breeding season it prefers the vicinity of cat¬

tails and the nest is usually placed in them. The spring migra¬

tion is decidedly erratic. It may arrive at any time between

March 25, (1928) and May 10. The average date is April 27.

One seen at Lake Wingra, March 5, 1922, I suspected strongly

of being a wintering bird. No positive proof of wintering was

obtained until Dec. 31, 1928, when three were found at Mud

Lake. The wrens were located in thick beds of cat-tails skirted

by the open water of the Yahara River. I am not aware of other

winter records for Wisconsin, and none were known to Bar-

rows32 for Michigan. Nearly all leave the county in September.

The average date of departure is Oct. 8; the latest, Oct. 17,

1926.

These wrens expend their superfluous energy in building a

large number of extra nests. Eggs are found more often in an

old repaired nest than in one of new construction. The nests

are usually built at the edge of the water or over it. Full sets

of eggs have been found from May 30 to July 6. The last egg

deposited is generally much lighter in color than the remainder.

153. Cistothorus stellaris (Naumann). Short-billed Marsh

Wren. This wren is an abundant summer resident. It prefers

the drier portions of the marshes covered with waving marsh

grass. It arrives from May 3 to 10. One was collected May 1,

1927, this being the earliest date of arrival. The last of the

species departs in October, the latest date being Oct. 19, 1913.

The song of this species, “tsuk-tsuk-chur-r-r-r-ur”, may be

heard in every direction in suitable localities, yet the authors

are seldom seen for they keep well under cover.

29 Auk 33 (1916) 438.

30 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

31 Schorger, Auk 45 (1928) 106.

82 “Michigan Bird Life”, (1912), p. 679.

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In contrast with the dark chocolate-brown eggs of the Prairie

Marsh Wren, those of the Short-billed are usually pure white.

The height of the nesting season is the second week in June.

Family MIMIDAE. Thrashers, etc.

154. Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus). Catbird. The Cat¬

bird is an abundant summer resident, nesting in parks and gar¬

dens almost as freely as in the country. The average date of

arrival is May 6; the earliest, May 2. Departure in autumn

takes place the end of September or the first of October, the

average date being Oct. 1; the latest, Oct. 19, 1930. One seen

by Paul Errington on Nov. 23, 1929 may represent a wintering

bird. I collected one Dec. 20, 1925, with the expectation of ob¬

taining a sound winter record since the bird’s flight was nor¬

mal.33 It was found that the right humerus had been fractured

and though it had healed perfectly, the accident might have

prevented the bird from undertaking the long migratory flight.

Full sets of eggs have been found from May 21 to July 11.

Most of the eggs are deposited the second week in June. The

nest is usually placed in a thick bush or vine, and at a height

of less than five feet. On May 30, 1922, 1 flushed a Catbird from

a nest placed in the tip of an apple tree, twelve feet from the

ground. The nest of this species is never parasitized by the

Cowbird. I have inserted the eggs of the Cowbird and other

species and found that they were always removed.

155. Toxostoma rufum (Linnaeus). Brown Thrasher. This

fine singer is a common summer resident. It winters rarely. A

sound specimen was taken Jan. 25, 1913.34 The average date of

arrival is April 23; the earliest, April 16, 1916. The average

date of departure is Oct. 2 ; the latest, Oct. 17, 1914.

The nest is placed in a brush pile, thorny bush, or tangled

vine ; occasionally on the ground. The mother is very brave in

defense of her nest, and frequently puts on so bold a front as

to intimidate the marauding small boy. While the nest is be¬

ing examined she will frequently take up a position within

three feet of it. Nidification begins almost immediately after

arrival. A nest found May 5, 1927, contained one egg. Full

sets have been seen from May 10 to July 11, principally during

33 Auk 43 (1926) 557.

34 Schorger, Auk 31 (1914) 256.

Schorger- — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin. 15

the last half of May. Young- able to fly have been noted by

June 5.

Family TURDIDAE. Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc.

156. Turdus migratorius migratorius (Linnaeus). Robin.

This familiar bird is an early migrant frequently appearing the

first week in March. The average date of arrival is March 11 ;

the earliest, March 2, 1913. A few winter commonly, and those

seen in February obtain notice in the local papers under some

such caption as “First Robin Seen”. The arriving Robin has a

characteristic call that is uttered with a pronounced movement

of the wings and tail. Small roosts of Robins are found as early

as the middle of June. Roosts of large size exist from July to

the end of October. Most of the Robins have departed for the

south before the first of November, but the migration is fre¬

quently not completed before the end of the month. The aver¬

age date of departure is Nov. 15. Local cases of albinism have

been reported.35

Full sets of eggs have been found from April 22 to July 8.

Though two broods are usually reared, the prolongation of the

nesting season is due mainly to the fact that remarkably few

of the first attempts are successful.

157. Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin). Wood Thrush. The

Wood Thrush is a common summer resident. While preferring

thick, moist woodland, it nests commonly in parks and gardens

in Madison. The song, heard most frequently in the morning

and in the evening, is of a beauty that commands attention. It

arrives from May 3 to 14, the average date being May 9. De¬

parture usually takes place before Sept. 18, the latest date be¬

ing Oct. 12, 1913. One seen Nov. 6, 1927, had one of its pri¬

maries awry indicating an injury.

The nest is usually placed on a large lateral limb of a stunted

tree at a height of five to seven feet from the ground. Bur oaks

are used frequently. Full sets of eggs have been found from

May 20 to July 4. This species is victimized commonly by the

Cowbird whose eggs are accepted by the Wood Thrush even

though they are deposited in the nest before her own. Young

able to fly have been seen by June 18.

3B Betts, Auk 33 (1916) 438; Cahn, Wilson Bull. 33 (1921) 29.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

158. Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola Ridgway. Willow

Thrush. Twelve specimens taken during migration in Dane

County belong to this subspecies.36 The Veery, or eastern form

(H. f. fuscescens) appears to be a rare bird in the state. This

is quite the reverse of the statement of Kumlien and Hollister.87

Through the courtesy of Mr. 0. J. Gromme, the skins in the

Milwaukee Public Museum were submitted to Dr. H. C. Ober-

holser for examination. Only one was found to be H. f. fusces¬

cens. This bird, Museum No. taken at Milwaukee May

16, 1911, is the only specimen that I have been able to locate

in the state.

The sweet, spiritual quality of the song of the Willow Thrush,

like a lament for the passing day, is awesome as the evening

shadows deepen in the northern forest. On rare occasions the

song is heard during the spring migration.

The Willow Thrush is a common migrant, and (probably this

form) an uncommon summer resident in the few small tama¬

rack swamps that remain in the county. The average date of

arrival is May 8; the earliest, April 30, 1914. The average date

of the last bird seen is May 24 ; the latest, June 3. For some un¬

known reason this species is observed less commonly in fall.

The migration lasts from Sept. 7 to 30.

159. Hylocichla minima aliciae (Baird). Gray-cheeked

Thrush. The Gray-cheeked Thrush is a common migrant. It is

the most wary and silent of our thrushes. On approach of the

observer, it will fly to a considerable distance and in woodland

will alight well up in a tree, where an alert posture is assumed.

It arrives from May 6 to 15, and is sometimes common by the

12th. The average date of arrival is May 11; the earliest, May

3, 1928. The average date of departure is May 26; the latest,

June 3, 1917.

The autumn migration occupies the month of September,

the height being reached on the 20th. The earliest date is Aug.

25, 1928, the latest, Oct. 1, 1926.

160. Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni (Tschudi). Olive-backed

Thrush. This thrush is also a common migrant, arriving and

departing at about the same time as the Grey-cheeked Thrush.

36 Schorger, Auk 43 (1926) 557.

« “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 126.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin . 17

The extreme dates of arrival and departure in spring are May

2, 1926, and May 30, 1917; in autumn, August 27, 1922 and

October 6, 1929.

Under favorable light conditions it is readily possible to dis¬

tinguish in the field the Olive-backed Thrush from the Grey¬

cheeked Thrush by the buffy eye ring and the buffy suffusion

on the side of the throat. Needless to say there will be numer¬

ous occasions when identification will be impossible without

collecting.

1161. Hylocichla guttata pallasi (Cabanis). Hermit Thrush.

The hardy Hermit Thrush frequently arrives before all the

snow has melted; nor do late blizzards cause apparent discom¬

fort. It arrives from the 3rd to 10th of April, the average

date being April 7 ; the earliest, March 31, 1917. Final depar¬

ture for the north takes place the first week in May, the aver¬

age date being May 5 ; the latest, May 15, 1921.

The fall migrants arrive the end of September or first of

October, the main movement occurring the middle of October.

The average date of arrival is Oct. 4; the earliest, Sept. 27. It

has not been noted later than Oct. 24 (1926).

162. Sialia sialis sialis (Linnaeus). Bluebird. One of the

amenities of spring is the warble of the Bluebird. Scarcely has

the snow departed before its call is heard high overhead. The

average date of arrival is March 11 ; the earliest, Feb. 20, 1915,

when spring was unusually forward. The average date of de¬

parture is Oct. 28. This species does not often linger later than

the first week in November, the latest date being Dec. 3, 1916.

Several remained in the Wingra region the winter of 1922-3,

but wintering is exceptional.38 The all too frequent custom of

burning the woodlands in the environs of Madison may result

in torture to the Bluebird, as it obtains most of its food from

the ground. On several occasions after a fire I have seen Blue¬

birds painfully trying to alight on trees with feet burned by hot

ashes.

Full sets of eggs have been found from April 19 to June 5.

Family SYLVIIDAE. Kinglets, Gnatcatchers.

163. Polioptila caerulea caerulea (Linnaeus). Blue-gray

Gnatcatcher. The Gnatcatcher is generally distributed during

38 Schorger, Auk 41 (1924) 169.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the breeding season but is most numerous in the woodlands

along the Wisconsin River. This dainty species arrives the last

week in April or the first of May. The average date is April 30 ;

the earliest, April 17, 1927. The fall migration is usually com¬

pleted by the end of August. The latest date is Sept. 13, 1914

(Betts).

The exquisitely constructed nest is usually placed in a bur or

white oak. An apparently finished nest was found May 31,

1914. The eggs are deposited during the last two weeks of

June. A sitting bird is no assurance that the nest contains

eggs. I have made many tedious ascents only to flush the fe¬

male from an empty nest.

164. Regulus satrapa satrapa Lichtenstein. Golden-crowned

Kinglet. This tiny, energetic bird is a common migrant. A few

usually winter, especially in the vicinity of conifers. This habit

renders it difficult to set exactly the dates of arrival in spring

and departure in fall. Taking into consideration the increase in

numbers, this species arrives regularly the end of March or the

first of April. The average date of arrival is March 30, the

earliest, March 20, 1921, when eleven were seen. Departure

takes place usually by the end of April, occasionally not until

the first week in May. The average date is April 27 ; the latest,

May 8, 1915.

Whether alone or in small groups, the Golden-crowned King¬

let frequently utters a call of four or five notes ; this is of great

assistance in the detection of fall migrants that arrive before

the leaves have fallen. The vanguard arrives the last week in

September or the first of October. The average date is Sept.

28 ; the earliest, Sept. 17, 1922. Final departure takes place the

end of October or the first week in November.

165. Corthylio calendula calendula (Linnaeus). Ruby-crown¬

ed Kinglet. Common migrant, arriving and departing in spring

somewhat later than its cousin. It usually arrives April 6 to

15, occasionally the end of March. The average date is April

9; the earliest, March 27 (Taylor) . It departs on the average

May 17, the latest date being May 22, 1915. Southbound mi¬

grants seldom arrive before the middle of September. The av¬

erage date is Sept. 20; the earliest, Sept. 5, 1921. The average

date of departure is Oct. 18; the latest, Nov. 1, 1916. This

species is not known to winter.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin .

19

Family MOTACILLIDAE. Pipits.

166. Anthus rubescens (Tunstall). Pipit. An irregularly

common migrant. Some seasons it is not found at all. It fre¬

quents open fields occasionally, but is usually found in marshy

ground or along the edges of ponds. The Pipit is an incon¬

spicuous bird and frequently is not noticed until it springs into

the air a few feet from the observer. The average date of ar¬

rival is May 9 ; the earliest, April 6, 1930. It has not been noted

after May 23 (Betts). It returns in autumn the latter part of

September. The average date is Sept. 22; the earliest, Sept.

15, 1928. The average date of departure is October 18; the

latest, Oct. 21, 1928. In the fall I associate this species with

Wilson’s Snipe for it occurs in the same type of country as the

latter.

Family BOMBYCILLIDAE. Waxwings.

167. Bombycilla garrula (Linnaeus). Bohemian Waxwing.

This species is a decidedly irregular winter visitor. From Dec.

24, 1921 to March 22, 1922, it was fairly common.39 The largest

flock seen numbered twenty. This is the only winter that I have

found them.

168. Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot. Cedar Waxwing. This

familiar species is erratic in its habits. It is usually a common

summer resident. Some winters it is abundant, again, entirely

absent. In spring it is most numerous in March, and in fall, in

October. During winter and early spring it feeds on the fruits

of the wild grape, bittersweet, hackberry, cedar, mountain ash,

and barberry. Flocks will occasionally establish headquarters

near a large bed of asparagus and feed on the fruits. There is

a constant stream of birds to and from the bed. Since the fruits

eaten consist largely of indigestible seeds, large quantities are

eaten as digestion is rapid. When a large flock is at rest in a

tree, the excrement strikes the leaves on the ground with a

sound like hail.

It is doubtful if the Cedar Waxwing nests twice, yet there

are two distinct nesting periods. In spring the eggs are laid

the last two weeks in June and the nest is usually placed in an

apple tree. The second period is in August, and the nest is usu-

Schorger, Auk 39 (1922) 574; Taylor, ibid. 40 (1923) 340.

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

ally placed in a box elder. In fall, I have found full sets of fresh

eggs from Aug. 10 to 25.

Family LANIIDAE. Shrikes.

169. Lanius borealis Vieillot. Northern Shrike. This species

is an uncommon winter visitor from Nov. 30 to March 30

(Betts) . Having selected a suitable hunting ground, this being

usually a thicket bordered by open fields, it will remain in the

immediate vicinity throughout the winter. Usually only the

brown, immature birds are present. On Feb. 24, 1917, I heard

a Northern Shrike indulging in its curious medley of raucous

and highly musical notes.

170. Lanius ludovicianus migrans Palmer. Migrant Shrike.

The Migrant Shrike is a common summer resident. It arrives

the first week in April, the average date being April 4; the

earliest, March 25 (Taylor). Though this species is recorded

as leaving the northern states in October or November, in this

region departure appears to be completed in August. It has

been noted but once later than Aug. 25, (1917), this being Nov.

8, 1914 (Betts).

The nest is usually located along a roadside, and in this re¬

gion is generally placed in a tangled canopy of wild grape, less

often in a hawthorne or other low tree with a dense crown. Full

sets of fresh eggs have been found from April 26 to May 10.

Two nests completely lined with feathers found April 21, 1929,

were examined at intervals. On May 4, one nest was still emp¬

ty, while the other contained but one egg. Young able to fly

have been noted by June 2.

Family STURNIDAE. Starlings.

171. Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. Starling. The Starling is an

European species that has become thoroughly established in the

United States through the release of 40 pairs in New York City

in 1890. Previous attempts at introduction were failures. It

wras first observed in Dane County March 18, 1928, when a

flock of 40 was found near the outlet to Lake Monona.40 It is

now a permanent resident, though less common in winter than

at other seasons. Susceptibility to severe cold renders the spe¬

cies migratory to a certain extent. One, shot from a mixed

40 Schorger, Auk 45 (1928) 377; 46 (1929) 250.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin.

21

flock of Starlings, Bronzed Grackles, Rusty Blackbirds, and

Redwings feeding in a field October 26, 1929, had its stomach

crammed with grasshoppers.

On June 8, 1929 a Starling was flushed from a hole contain¬

ing an apparently completed nest. The latter was abandoned,

probably as a result of enlargement of the hole for examination.

Another nest found June 15 contained five young.

Family VIREONIDAE. Vireos.

172. Vireo griseus griseus (Boddaert). White-eyed Vireo. This

appears to be a rare species in southern Wisconsin. One taken

near Madison October 21, 1923, 41 is the only record for the

county. The date indicates that the occurrence was accidental.

173. Vireo belli belli Audubon. Bell’s Vireo. The first state

specimen was taken by the writer near Lake Wingra July 3,

1914.42 On June 9, 1922, Mr. Warner Taylor43 found a pair nest¬

ing in the same region. He took the male and nest containing

one egg. The species has since been found to be a regular sum¬

mer resident in Grant County, particularly near Boscobel.44

The nest is usually placed in a dense growth of hazel or other

brush at a height of two to five feet from the ground. Of three

nests found in Grant County on June 2, 1928, two were empty

and the third contained one egg. The following day, the first

two nests each contained an egg; the third, two eggs of the

owner and one of the Cowbird. This indicates rather close ob¬

servance of the calendar.

174. Vireo flavifrons ( Vieillot) . Yellow- throated Vireo. This

Vireo is a common summer resident. It prefers open stands of

tall trees from which it seldom descends to low levels. It is

fairly common even in the city of Madison. It arrives from the

south from May 4 to 12, the average date being May 8; the

earliest, May 2, 1913. The fall migration is usually completed

by Sept. 15, the average date being Sept. 11; the latest date,

September 24, 1916.

I have never been successful in locating more than one nest.

On July 4, 1924, I found one with four fresh eggs. It was

41 Schorger, Auk 41 (1924) 347.

42 Betts, Auk 31 (1914) 542.

48 Auk 39 (1922) 575.

44 Schorger, Auk 44 (1927) 237.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

placed 38 feet from the ground in the tip of a black oak at the

edge of the Wingra Woods. The nest was beautifully stuccoed

with lichens, spider webs, willow “cotton”, and many large

fragments of the cocoon of a species of moth.

175. Vireo solitarius solitarius (Wilson). Blue-headed Vireo.

The sharply denned markings of the Blue-headed Vireo give it

a trim appearance lacking in other members of the family. This

species is not known to nest in the county, but it is common

during the migrations. It arrives early in May, the average

date being May 7 ; the earliest, April 29, 1916. It has not been

noted later than May 24. It is most numerous in the fall at the

end of September. The average date of arrival is Sept. 20; the

earliest, Sept. 3, 1923. The migration is usually over by Oct.

10, the latest date being Oct. 21, 1917.

176. Vireo olivacea (Linnaeus). Red-eyed Vireo. This is our

most abundant vireo both as a migrant and summer resident.

Usually it does not arrive before the middle of May, the aver¬

age date being May 16; the earliest, May 7, 1915 (Betts). It

rarely remains later than September. The average date of de¬

parture is Sept. 23 ; the latest, Oct. 2, 1926.

Eggs have been found from June 5 to July 7. It is unusual

to find a nest that does not contain one or more eggs of the

Cowbird. On several occasions I have found new nests with

holes in the side such as would be produced by thrusting the

finger through from the inside. On June 21, 1914, I stopped to

examine a nest that was complete but empty on June 6. It was

now inhabited by a pair of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leu -

corpus noveboracensis) that had roofed it with leaves and made

an entrance in the side. I am inclined to the opinion that these

mice are occasionally destructive to eggs and young.

177. Vireo philadelphica Cassin. Philadelphia Vireo. This is

one of the rarer vireos but of fairly regular occurrence. It is

usually associated with warblers during the May and Septem¬

ber migrations. The average date of arrival is May 19; the

earliest, May 10, 1914. It has not been noted later than May

29, (1927). It appears in fall the end of August or the first of

September. The earliest date is August 22, 1920. The average

date of departure is Sept. 16 ; the latest, Sept. 23, 1917. Speci¬

mens have been taken for record on the following dates: Sept.

23, 1917; Aug. 30, 1919; and May 29, 1927.

Fig. 1. Nest of Bell’s Yireo.

Fig. 2. Nest of Golden-winged Warbler.

Schorger — - Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 23

178. Vireo gilva gilva (Vieillot). Warbling Vireo. The Warb¬

ling Vireo is a common summer resident. In contrast to our

other vireos, it nests usually in shade trees, orchards and along

the roadside, rather than in woodland. It sings from the day of

arrival to departure. The average date of arrival is May 7 ; the

earliest, May 2, 1914. It disappears by the middle of September,

the average date being the 12th ; the latest, September 26, 1920.

Family MNIOTILTID AE . Wood Warblers.

179. Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus). Black and White Warbler.

The Black and White Warbler is a common migrant. There are

no breeding records, but a singing bird was found at Cross

Plains July 26, 1925. It is frequently found in summer at Gi¬

braltar Rock, Devil's Lake and adjacent places. The criss-cross

method of progression used by this species in feeding on the

trunks and limbs of trees is a characteristic procedure and is

not employed by other members of the family. It arrives the

last of April or the first of May, the average date being May 3 ;

the earliest, April 19 (Taylor). The average date of departure

is May 21; the latest, June 3, 1917. Fall migrants usually ap¬

pear the end of August, the average date being Aug. 27 ; the

earliest, Aug. 12, 1923. Migration is usually completed by the

end of September the average date being Sept. 26; the latest,

Oct. 7, 1923.

180. Protonotaria citrea (Boddaert). Prothonotary Warbler.

This handsome warbler is a common summer resident in woods

bordering the Wisconsin River and nests occasionally at Lake

Koshkonong. Elsewhere in the county it is uncommon even as

a migrant. It prefers swamps or low woodlands in the im¬

mediate vicinity of water. The nest is placed in a hole in a

decayed stub usually six to ten feet from the ground ; however,

on one occasion I found a nest about 35 feet from the ground.

It takes readily to bird boxes. It arrives about the 12th of May.

The earliest date is May 3, 1913 when one was taken at Madi¬

son. There are few data on the fall migration. According to

W. W. Cooke,45 the birds leave the northern part of their range

in the latter part of August.

On June 9 and 11, 1913, Stoddard46 found five nests contain-

45 Biolog. Survey Bull. No. 18, (1904) 26.

48 Auk 34 (1917) 66; cf. Taylor, ibid. 39 (1922) 274 ; Schorger, ibid. 44 (1927)

237.

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ing eggs or newly hatched young. I have found nests with eggs

from May 31 to June 16.

181. Vermivora pinus (Linnaeus). Blue-winged Warbler.

While a common summer resident in the bottom lands along the

Wisconsin River,47 the Blue-winged Warbler is uncommon even

as a migrant in other portions of the county. The usual song

is a drawling “zwe-e-e-e-e-e ze-e-e-e-e-e.” One day while watch¬

ing a male, he suddenly ceased singing and gradually expanded

his feathers as if his body were growing with an idea; then

suddenly he dashed away to another perch only to begin singing

again. It prefers open stands of trees and bushes where there

is a luxuriant growth of grass. The earliest date of arrival is

May 10 (Taylor). I have seen it on only two occasions in the

immediate vicinity of Madison, May 18, 1924 and May 15, 1929.

Insufficient observations have been made in the breeding region

to furnish reliable data on the migrations.

On June 13, 1926, by watching the female, I found a nest of

this species in a thick growth of weeds in the Mazomanie bot¬

toms. It contained one addled egg. On the edge and bottom of

the nest were deposits of fresh excrement indicating that the

young had just left. These could not be found. The young are

very precocious and will leave the nest before able to fly.

182. Vermivora chrysoptera (Linnaeus). Golden-winged

Warbler. A common migrant and locally a rather common sum¬

mer resident, especially at Cross Plains and Mazomanie. It ar¬

rives May 10 to 15, the average date being May 12. My earliest

record is May 9 (1915 and 1927). Taylor has the exceptionally

early date of April 29. Most of the migrants have passed north¬

ward by May 24, though it has been seen in the vicinity of

Madison, where it does not breed, as late as May 31. The fall

migration takes place early and is practically completed during

the last week in August and the first week in September. The

extreme dates are Aug. 20 (1921) and Sept. 11 (1921 and 1927).

A nest found at Cross Plains on June 13, 1925 contained one

egg. When next visited, June 19, there were four eggs.48

183. Vermivora ruficapilla ruficapilla (Wilson). Nashville

47 Stoddard, Auk 34 (1917) 67; Taylor, ibid., 43 (1926) 381; Schorger, ibid., 44

(1927) 237.

48 Schorger, Auk 44 (1927) 238.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 25

Warbler. This warbler is a common migrant, more numerous in

spring than in fall. It arrives early in May, the average date

being May 6; the earliest, April 25, 1925. The migration is

usually completed by May 20, the latest date being May 27,

(1917 and 1926). The fall migration takes place between Sept.

1, (1915) and Oct. 12, (1930). The main movement takes place

during the middle of the month. A sight record for Nov. 1,

1925 is recorded by Taylor.49

There are no nesting records for the county, though Stod¬

dard50 has found it during the breeding season in Sauk County.

184. Vermivora celata celata (Say). Orange-crowned Warb¬

ler. The Orange-crowned Warbler is a fairly common migrant.

Unlike the Nashville, to which it has a general resemblance, it

is usually found feeding in low growths two to ten feet from

the ground. It arrives on the average May 4 ; the earliest, April

29, 1916. It has not been seen later than May 18, (1924 and

1927). It is a late fall migrant, the southward movement tak¬

ing place largely during the month of October. The earliest date

is Sept. 29, 1929; the latest, Oct. 22, 1922. Taylor51 found one

on the exceptionally late date of Dec. 10, 1925.

I have taken specimens on the following dates: May 9, 1915;

May 4, 1918; May 1, 1920; May 12, 1929. John Main took one

on May 18, 1927 ; and Warner Taylor,52 one on Oct. 16, 1922.

185. Vermivora peregrina (Wilson). Tennessee Warbler.

This is one of our commonest migrants among the warblers. In

spring its loud song is uttered repeatedly. It arrives from May

8 to 17, the average date being May 13; the earliest, May 7,

1913 (Betts). The average date of disappearance is May 25;

the latest, June 3, 1917. The first fall migrants are usually seen

the latter part of August, the average date being Aug. 27 ; the

earliest, Aug. 17, 1914. It is most common Aug. 29 to Sept. 11.

The average date of the last one seen is Sept. 27 ; the latest,

Oct. 11, 1913 (Betts).

186. Compsothlypis americana usneae Brewster. Northern

Parula Warbler. A fairly common migrant. It is likely to be

found breeding in any county in the state where there are

49 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

89 Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 69.

81 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

83 Auk 40 (1923) 340.

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tamarack swamps. The nest is placed in a bunch of usnea moss

hanging from the branches of this tree. It is very versatile in

the positions assumed in feeding and the generic name is de¬

rived from Parus due to the habit of feeding suspended with

the back downward like a Chickadee. The average date of ar¬

rival is May 7 ; the earliest, May 2, 1913. The average date of

departure is May 18; the latest, May 20. In fall it has been

observed between the dates Aug. 30 (1919) and Sept. 12

(1920).

187. Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin). Cape May Warbler. A

rather common migrant arriving on the average May 9; the

earliest, May 5, 1915. The average date of departure is May 20;

the latest May 27, 1917. The fall migration lasts from Aug. 22

(1920) to Sept. 17 (1916).

188. Dendroica aestiva aestiva (Gmelin). Yellow Warbler.

The Yellow Warbler is an abundant migrant and summer resi¬

dent. This is probably the best known of all warblers from its

striking yellow color and habit of nesting in bushes in lawns

and parks. It arrives the first week in May, the average date

being May 4 ; the earliest, April 28, 1914. The fall migration is

early, the average date of the last bird seen being Aug. 14 ; the

latest, Aug. 24, 1929.

Construction of the nest begins soon after arrival and it is

completed about May 20. Full sets of eggs have been found

from May 30 to June 19 (George French). I found one nest

built over a nest of the previous season. When a Cowbird’s egg

is deposited before the eggs of the owner, it is covered by the

construction of a second story or a new lining. The parents

have been seen feeding young nearly to the time of final de¬

parture.

189. Dendroica caerulescens caerulescens (Gmelin). Black-

throated Blue Warbler. Common migrant, favoring the low

growths in woodland. The average date of arrival is May 8 ; the

earliest, May 2, 1913. The migration is generally completed by

May 23, the latest date being June 3, 1917. The fall migration

sets in the end of August or the first week of September, the

average date being Sept. 6; the earliest, Aug. 27, 1922. The

average date of departure is Oct. 4 ; the latest, Oct. 14, 1928.

190. Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus) Myrtle Warbler. An

abundant and early migrant. It arrives April 5 to 20, the aver-

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 27

age date being April 14. The earliest date is March 81, 1918,

other early dates being: April 5, 1919 and 1921; and April 8,

1922. The average date of departure is May 18 ; the latest, May

27, 1917. The fall migration is erratic. The first migrants ap¬

pear from Sept. 12 to Oct. 4, the average date being Sept. 26;

the earliest, Sept. 6, 1914 (Betts). The main flight takes place

in October, when these warblers swarm along bushy roadsides.

They frequently remain until the end of October, the average

date of departure being Oct. 24; the latest, Nov. 1, 1914

(Betts).

The first breeding record for this species in the state was ob¬

tained in Bayfield County in June, 1923.53

191. Dendroica magnolia (Wilson). Magnolia Warbler. The

handsome Magnolia Warbler is one of the most abundant of our

warblers. The average date of arrival is May 8; the earliest,

May 2, 1913. The average date of departure for the north is

May 25; the latest, June 3, 1917. The first southbound birds

usually arrive the end of August, the average date being Aug.

28; the earliest, Aug. 20, 1921. Final departure occasionally

does not take place until the first week in October. The average

date is Sept. 27 ; the latest, Oct. 12, 1930.

One spring while watching a flock of warblers in some bush¬

es, a Sharpshinned Hawk struck at a Magnolia Warbler but

missed. The warbler dropped a few inches to a lower branch

and commenced feeding again as unconcernedly as though noth¬

ing had happened.

192. Dendroica cerulea (Wilson). Cerulean Warbler. Dane

County appears to be close to the northern limit of distribution

of this species in the center of the state. It is a rare migrant

in the vicinity of Madison but a regular summer resident in

small numbers near Cross Plains and Mazomanie.54 It prefers

large stands of tall timber and seldom descends below the tree

tops.

It arrives from May 4 (1913) (Betts) to May 9. I have not

heard it sing later than July 4. It seems to disappear early in

August.

63 Schorger, Auk 42 (1925) 68.

84 Schorger, Auk 44 (1927) 238; Taylor, ibid. 43 (1926) 382; Stoddard, ibid. 34

(1917) 67.

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

193. Dendroica pensyslvanica (Linnaeus). Chestnut-sided

Warbler. A handsome, abundant migrant arriving on the aver¬

age May 8; the earliest, May 4 (1914 and 1928). The average

date of departure is May 25 ; the latest, June 3, 1917. The fall

migrants arrive in August, occasionally by the middle of the

month, the average date being Aug. 24; the earliest, Aug. 14,

1921. The migration ends on the average Sept. 23. It some¬

times remains until the end of the month, the latest date being

Oct. 1, 1916. On this date one was seen on the ground trying

to devour a large green caterpillar about two inches long and

one-half inch in diameter.

This warbler nests abundantly in the northern half of the

state and is a potential resident in all the southern half. It

prefers fields overgrown with hazel and other brush, and sec¬

ond growth. It has not been noted in Dane County in summer.

I have found it during the breeding season in Green and Grant

Counties, and Stoddard,55 in Sauk County.

194. Dendroica castanea (Wilson) . Bay-breasted Warbler. A

common migrant. Some seasons it is much more numerous than

others. As a rule it is more common in fall than in spring, the

great majority of the migrants being young birds. This species

arrives from May 9 to 17, the average date being May 13 ; the

earliest, May 6, 1916. The average date of departure is May 25;

the latest, June 3, 1917. Fall migrants usually appear during

the last ten days of August, the average date being Aug. 27 ; the

earliest, August 17, 1924. The average date of departure is

Sept. 22 ; the latest, Oct. 12, 1930.

195. Dendroica striata (Forster). Black-poll Warbler. A

loud and persistent singer, common during the spring migra¬

tion. It is a late migrant, usually arriving after the middle of

May. The average date is May 17 ; the earliest, May 10, 1914.

The average date of departure is May 28, though in some years

it remains into June. A singing bird was observed as late as

June 13, 1925.

The autumn migration offers a difficult problem owing to the

close resemblance of the Black-poll Warbler in fall plumage to

the young of the Bay-breasted Warbler. I have never obtained

a fall record. Specimens taken on suspicion proved to be D.

» Stoddard, Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 69.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 29

castanea. Betts gives the dates Sept. 7 and 27 (1913), though

as far as I am aware no birds were collected. Kumlien and Hol¬

lister56 state that it is common “during the latter half of Sep¬

tember and well into October”. Cooke57 gives for Chicago the

extreme dates Aug. 23 and Oct. 12.

196. Dendroica fusca (Muller) . Blackburnian Warbler. This

handsome warbler is a common migrant, arriving on the aver¬

age May 7. The earliest date is April 29, 1916. It departs on

the average May 23, the latest date being May 30, 1917. The

fall migration begins the latter part of August, occasionally by

the middle of the month. The average date is Aug. 23; the

earliest, Aug. 14, 1921. The migration is usually completed by

the middle of September, the latest date being Sept. 19, (1920

and 1926).

Though not known as a summer resident, there is a good

chance of finding this bird nesting in the county.

197. Dendroica virens (Gmelin). Black-throated Green

Warbler. Common migrant, arriving usually the first week in

May, occasionally by the end of April. The average date is May

4 ; the earliest, April 24, 1921. The average date of departure is

May 23; the latest, June 6, 1914. In fall, migrants appear the

end of August or early in September. The average date is Aug.

31 ; the earliest, Aug. 25, 1923. The average date of departure

is Oct. 1 ; the latest, Oct. 23, 1928. Taylor58 observed one Nov. 1,

1925.

198. Dendroica pinus (Wilson). Pine Warbler. This warbler

is a fairly common migrant, but none of the local observers

find it every season. Mr. Warner Taylor informs me that he

has seen it on only 4.2 per cent of his field trips during the

seasons when this species should be migrating. It arrives early,

the average date being April 27; the earliest, April 23, 1915.

It has been seen most frequently between May 11 and 20, the

latest date being May 21, 1925. The average date of arrival in

fall is Sept. 9; the earliest, Aug 10, 1930 (Pine Bluff). The

average date of the last one seen is Sept. 23; the latest, Oct.

58 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 114.

"Biol. Survey Bull. No. 18, (1904) 79.

68 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

4, 1923 (Taylor). Norman Betts has the exceptionally late

date of Nov. 8, 1914.

It is a rather common summer resident in the northern part

of the state where there are stands of pine. At Hazelhurst,

Oneida Co., on Aug. 15, 1929, I saw a pair of adults and three

young. The latter were being fed by the female. The male paid

no attention to the young and sang repeatedly. This bird was

collected but proved to be a sorry specimen, being in moult.

Only two tail feathers remained.

199. Dendroica palmarum palmarum (Gmelin). Palm

Warbler. A common and early migrant, preceded only by the

Myrtle Warbler. It is the only one of the warblers that frequents

open fields as well as trees and shrubbery. In habits and ap¬

pearance it seems to be a connecting link between the Water-

Thrushes and the other warblers. It arrives April 20 to 30,

the average date being April 25; the earliest, April 14, 1916

(Betts). One was seen in my yard March 28, 1920, and it is

unfortunate the bird could not be taken to establish an ex¬

ceptional record. The average date of departure is May 19;

the latest, May 27, 1917. The fall migration is very erratic.

The first migrants appear Sept. 12 to 30, the average date being

Sept. 20 ; the earliest, Sept 6, 1919. The migration ends on the

average Oct. 8; the latest, Oct. 12, (1913 and 1924).

200. Seiurus aurocapillus (Linnaeus). Oven-bird. The Oven-

bird is a common migrant and summer resident. It is essentially

a ground feeder, walking about like a fowl. In appearance it

resembles a thrush. The average date of arrival is May 8 ; the

earliest, May 2, 1913. The last migrants pass through the end

of September, occasionally as late as the first week in October.

The average date is Sept. 27; the latest, Oct. 10, 1929. Betts

found a nest with eggs June 2.

201. Seiurus noveboracensis noveboracensis (Gmelin).

Water-Thrush. A common migrant arriving early in May, some¬

times at the end of April. The average date is May 4 ; the earli¬

est, April 29, 1922. The average date of departure is May 22 ;

the latest, May 29, 1927. The fall migration begins the end of

August, the average date of arrival being Aug. 29 ; the earliest,

Aug. 25, (3 years). The average date of departure is Sept. 21;

the latest, Oct. 4, 1930.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. 31

202. Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis Ridgway. GrinneU’s

Water-Thrush. This western form of the Water-Thrush is fairly

common during migration, though less so than the preceding

species. Under favorable circumstances it is possible to distin¬

guish a typical specimen of GrinneH's Water-Thrush in the

field. Obviously, however, records can be based only on properly

identified specimens, especially since there are many inter¬

mediates that require the opinion of experts. The color of the

back has greater diagnostic value than the color of the under

parts, or size of the bill. Mr. Warner Taylor took two May 18,

1921, 59 and one May 12, 1922.60 Mr. John Main has a specimen

that he took May 10, 1927. The extreme dates on which I have

taken it in fall are Sept. 6 (1918) and Sept. 29 (1929).

203. Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot). Louisiana Water-Thrush.

This warbler is a fairly common summer resident along the

Mississippi River and up the Wisconsin River to Devil's Lake.61

It is an uncommon migrant in the Madison region, but breeds

regularly in small numbers in the northwestern part of the

county in the river bottoms. This species arrives about two

weeks ahead of the other Water-Thrushes. One seen at Madison

on April 16, 1916, was undoubtedly a Louisiana. H. L. Stod¬

dard collected one along the Wisconsin River April 17, 1921;

and Mr. Warner Taylor one on April 80, 1921. Mr. John Main

has a specimen collected near Madison May 5, 1929. Among

summer specimens may be mentioned: a male taken by me in

the Mazomanie bottoms on May 31, 1925; one taken by John

Main in the same locality on June 13, 1926.

Stoddard found a nest with one egg in the Baraboo Bluffs on

June 27, 1913. On June 13, 1926, 1 saw a pair in the Mazomanie

bottoms feeding two young able to fly well. Nests with eggs

should be sought about May 15.

204. Oporornis formosus (Wilson). Kentucky Warbler. Pre¬

vious to the year 1924, this beautiful warbler was considered

rare in the state. On June 9, 1913, Stoddard62 found a pair

along the Wisconsin River in Dane County and took the male.

In June, 1924, I found this species common at Potosi, Grant

59 Auk 39 (1922) 274.

69 In Auk 40 (1923) 340, the date May 4 is a typographical error.

91 Schorger, Auk 44 (1927) 238; Stoddard, Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 78; Taylor,

Auk 39 (1922) 274.

" Auk 34 (1917) 67.

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

County, and found two nests.63 Taylor64 collected one of three

seen in the Mazomanie bottoms, May 25, 1925. It may be con¬

sidered a regular summer resident in small numbers.

On June 11, 1927, I collected in the Mazomanie bottoms a

female with her nest. The latter contained three eggs of the

owner and two of the Cowbird. The eggs were heavily incu¬

bated in contrast with the nearly fresh eggs found at Potosi

June 16 and 18, 1924. The nests, placed on the ground, were

bulky structures, the base being composed of leaves and the lin¬

ing of rootlets and hair.

205. Oporornis agilis (Wilson). Connecticut Warbler. A

fairly common migrant, one of the latest of the warblers to

arrive in spring. It is more numerous in spring than in fall.

This species frequents tangles of briars and other low growths

in woodlands where it may be located by its loud song. It ap¬

pears about May 20 and departs the first week in June. The

earliest date is May 18 (Taylor). I took one, June 6, 1920, the

latest date on which it has been observed. On May 23, 1920, I

saw twelve birds, which is unusual. Most of the autumn records

are for the end of August and early September. The earliest

date is Aug. 11, 1927. Warner Taylor65 saw one Sept. 17, 1922.

The latest date on which I have taken one is Sept. 7, 1918. On

Oct. 18, 1927, I shot a Connecticut Warbler that afterwards

flew a short distance and alighted on a limb. It seemed ready

to fall so I tapped the limb with a stick. This proved to be a

tactical error, for the bird volplaned for a hundred feet and

alighted in some thick brush where it could not be found.

All breeding records for the state are questionable.

206. Oporornis Philadelphia (Wilson). Mourning Warbler.

This warbler is a common spring migrant, but the fall records

are less numerous than for the Connecticut. It frequents the

same type of country as the latter. The Mourning Warbler

arrives somewhat earlier in spring, the average date being May

17 ; the earliest, May 11, 1916. The average date of departure

is May 28 ; the latest, June 5, 1927. During a period of 17 years

I have seen this warbler but three times in autumn: Aug. 14,

1921; Sept. 5, 1921 (collected) ; and Aug. 19, 1928.

63 Auk 44 (1927) 238.

64 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

65 Auk 40 (1923) 340.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. 33

Contrary to the statement of Knmlien and Hollister,66 the

breeding bird in northern Wisconsin is 0. Philadelphia and not

0. agilis.67

207. Geothlypis trichas trichas (Linnaeus). Maryland Yel¬

low-throat. An abundant migrant and summer resident. It fre¬

quents patches of weeds and brush, especially where there is

wet ground. The invader of their territory is always scolded

soundly. The average date of arrival is May 8; the earliest,

May 2, 1926. It disappears in fall the end of September or the

first week in October, the average date being Sept. 29; the

latest, Oct. 12, 1929. There is one winter record. Mr. Clarence

Jung saw one “in lively condition*’ on Dec. 20, 1920.

208. Icteria virens virens (Linnaeus) . Yellow-breasted Chat.

Its large size, extensive repertoire, and amazing aerial evolu¬

tions render the Chat outstanding among the warblers. The

only place in the county where it may be relied upon to appear

regularly every spring is the river bottoms near Mazomanie.

Even here I have never been certain of the presence of more

than one pair. The ubiquitous male will favor you with his

notes, but is sometimes entirely unwilling to show himself. The

earliest date for its appearance is May 7 (Taylor) . My earliest

records are May 23, 1925 and May 17, 1928.

Stoddard68 collected one in the Mazomanie bottoms on June

13, 1913. Taylor69 took one on May 17, 1925. I collected the

male of a pair seen at Cross Plains on May 30, 1925.

There is no actual breeding record for the vicinity of Madi¬

son. Taylor70 states that a pair, “probably nesting birds”, were

seen in mid-June, 1921, in the Lake Wingra region. On June

28, 1924, I found an adult bird in a tract of briars and second

growth in the Wingra woods, but could not locate either a nest

or young. On June 11, 1927, 1 took a female and her nest in the

Mazomanie bottoms. The nest was placed four feet from the

ground in a patch of blackberry bushes. It contained five eggs,

including one of the Cowbird, that had been incubated three or

four days. A nest found at Potosi, Grant County, June 9, 1925,

contained one egg of the owner and one of the Cowbird.

60 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 118.

07 Schorger, Auk 42 (1925) 69.

68 Auk 34 (1917) 67.

69 Auk 43 (1926) 382.

70 Auk 39 (1922) 274.

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

209. Wilsonia pusilla pusilla (Wilson). Wilson’-s Warbler.

The Wilson’s Warbler with its black cap, yellow waistcoat, and

pert manner, is a common migrant. It should be looked for in

thickets at the edge of swamps and in low woodland. It is

erratic in its arrival that takes place from May 10 to 20. The

average date for fifteen years is May 15; the earliest, May 6,

1916. The last migrants pass north the end of May, the latest

date being June 8, 1917. It has been observed less often in fall

than in spring. The main movement occurs at the end of Aug¬

ust. The extreme dates for the fall migration are Aug. 22

(1920) and Sept. 9 (1918 and 1923).

210. Wilsonia canadensis (Linnaeus). Canada Warbler.

This handsome warbler is a common migrant. It frequents the

undergrowth and hence may be overlooked in autumn while

the foliage is dense. This is a species that rarely sings on its

migration. I have heard it on only two occasions and then at

the end of May. It arrives from the 9th to 20th of May. The

average date is May 16; the earliest, May 9 (1915 and 1927).

It disappears the end of May, the average date being May 26 ;

the latest, June 3, 1917. It is one of the earliest warblers to

move south in autumn, the bulk of the species disappearing

before September. The average date of arrival is Aug. 22 ; the

earliest, Aug. 8, 1920. The migration is usually completed by

Sept. 10, the latest date being Sept. 16, 1917.

211. Setophaga ruticilla (Linnaeus). Redstart. The Red¬

start is an abundant migrant and as a summer resident is sec¬

ond only to the Yellow Warbler in point of numbers. It pre¬

fers the low growths, and every suitable woodland contains one

or more nesting pairs. The average date of arrival is May 7 ;

the earliest, May 2 (1914 and 1923). It departs the end of

September or early in October, the average date being Sept. 28 ;

the latest, Oct. 7, 1924.

The neat, compact nests are placed two to eight feet from

the ground. Construction begins about May 20. Full sets of

fresh eggs have been found from June 6 to July 7. By June 18

most of the nests contain eggs, the usual number being four,

five the exception. Young, able to fly, have been observed by

June 21. This species is frequently host to the eggs of the

Cowbird. I have seen a female feeding a young Cowbird as late

as Aug. 4.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin . 35

Family ICTERIDAE. Meadowlarks, Blackbirds, Orioles, etc.

212. Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus). Bobolink. This fine

song bird is an abundant summer resident. It arrives early in

May, the average date being May 5; the earliest, April 30

(Taylor). The birds begin to flock the latter part of August

at which time only a small percentage of the males give evidence

of breeding plumage. At this season and until departure for

the south, marshy ground and grain fields are frequented. In

about one half of the years the fall migration is completed by

the end of August. In other years a few are seen as late as

Sept. 14 to 21. The latest date is Oct. 3, 1914, when a single

bird was seen. Occasionally it remains in large numbers into

September. On Sept. 6, 1915, by far the largest flock of Bobo¬

links that I have seen in the state was found at Fox Lake,

Dodge County. This flock, numbering three to four thousand

birds, was feeding in a field thickly covered with pigeon grass

(Setaria glauca).

Two nests of eggs were found May 30, 1927 by Mr. George

French. I found a nest with five heavily incubated eggs June

16, 1914.

213. Sturnella magna magna (Linnaeus) . Meadowlark. An

abundant summer resident that occasionally winters, especially

near springs. It arrives from March 9 to 20, the average date

being March 14; the earliest, March 5, 1922. Previous to de¬

parture it collects in small flocks. The migration is usually com¬

pleted by the end of October, though an occasional bird may be

seen until the end of November.

Nests with eggs are usually found about the middle of May.

The earliest date is May 1, 1921, when I flushed a bird from

a set of six eggs. This nest was placed on a hillock in a marsh.

The latest date is June 19, 1926, when Mr. George French

found a nest with eggs.

214. Sturnella neglecta Audubon. Western Meadowlark.

This western bird is now a common summer resident and con¬

tinues to extend its range in the state. Kumlien and Hollister71

state that it was found regularly in very late fall in Rock, Jef¬

ferson, and Dane Counties, but had not been observed in spring

or summer. I first observed this species in the vicinity of Madi-

71 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903), p. 88.

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

son, April 13, 1916.72 In the spring of 1917, several singing

birds were observed and a male was taken April 29, 1917. Since

that time it has gradually increased to the extent of being

common.73 It is possible that this form arrives at the same

time as the Meadowlark, since in recent years, due to increase

in the number of birds and hence in observations, the dates

have become closer. In the period 1916-1920 the first arrivals

were noted April 10 to 14 ; while from 1925-1928, the first birds

were found March 18 to 21. The song of the Western Meadow¬

lark is entirely different from that of the eastern bird and is

decidedly superior to it. The alarm note is a characteristic

cluck. I have heard it singing as late as Oct. 22 (1921).

Near the Wisconsin River, Stoddard found a nest with three

eggs April 28, and another with four eggs May 11, 1921, “both

in long dead grass in the sand prairie.”

215. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte). Yellow¬

headed Blackbird. A common summer resident, breeding in

marshes, lakes and streams, -where there are beds of cattails.

It seems incongruous for so handsome a bird as the male to

have a squeaky, unmusical song. In the middle of the past

century this species was a desideratum for the cabinets of

eastern collectors, and many skins were supplied from the

Koshkonong region by Thure Kumlien. When Thomas Brewer,

who acted as agent for the disposal of the skins, wrote that the

price had fallen, Kumlien replied : “I am glad to get fifty cents

a piece for yellow-headed blackbird skins, and I wish I could

sell many for that price. It is easier for me to kill and skin a

bird than it is to go out and work hard for fifty cents a day for

a farmer.”74

This species arrives from April 27 to May 11, the average

date being May 4 ; the earliest, April 24, 1920. By July 15, the

males have lost nearly all of their gaudy feathers, and have

taken on the sober winter plumage. The only note uttered at

this season is “tur-r-rt” or “twur-r-rt” . From this time until

departure it associates with Redwings and Cowbirds in the

fields and marshes. For a Blackbird, the fall departure is very

72 Auk 34 (1917) 219.

73 Cf. Taylor, Auk 39 (1922) 273; Stoddard, Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 77.

74 P. V. Lawson, “Thure Kumlien,” Wis. Acad. 20 (1921) 669; cf. Mrs. Angie

Kumlien Main, “Yellow-headed Blackbird at Lake Koshkonong and Vicinity,”

ibid. 23 (1927) 631.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin .

37

early, as practically all have left before September. The aver¬

age date of departure is Aug. 19. An exceptionally late date is

Oct. 12, 1918 (Clarence Jung).

The bulky nest is always placed over water and is suspended

from reeds or cattails. Completed nests have been found by

May 19 ; and eggs from May 30 to June 22. The eggs must be

occasionally deposited much earlier, since on May 30, 1921, a

nest with one egg and two callow young was found at Fox Lake,

Dodge County.

216. Agelaius phoeniceus arctoglegus (Oberholser) . Giant

Redwing. The breeding bird has been referred to this form by

Dr. H. C. Oberholser.75 It is doubtful if the eastern bird (Agel¬

aius p. phoenicus) occurs in the state. The Redwing is an

abundant migrant and summer resident. The males arrive

from March 5 to 20, usually before the middle of the month.

The average date is March 11; the earliest, March 3, 1913

(Betts). The females arrive about a month later. In fall flocks

of thousands are found in the cornfields and marshes. Immense

roosts are formed at this season in favorite marshes, such as

Lake Wingra, where towards evening the birds arrive in a

steady stream. The last birds are seen from Nov. 1 to 25, the

average date being Nov. 12. Freezing of the marshes is the

signal for departure. Individuals to small flocks winter rather

frequently.

Despite the early arrival of the Redwing, nest building does

not begin until May. Eggs have been found from May 12 to

June 19, the majority the last two weeks in May. A nest found

May 17 contained two eggs and a callow young, indicating that

eggs have been laid at least by May 7. Nesting colonies are fre¬

quently destroyed by skunks. Large flocks of old and young

birds form by July 1.

217. Icterus spurius (Linnaeus). Orchard Oriole. The

Orchard Oriole is a summer resident in small numbers. It is

not sufficiently numerous to permit fixing more than tentative

dates for the migrations. It arrives in spring from May 12

(1915) to 20, the average date being May 17. Data on the fall

migration are wholly wanting. The latest date on which it has

been observed is July 19, 1913.

75 Schorger, Auk 45 (1928) 106.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

A nest found June 28, 1927, was in an inaccessable place in

the top of a large oak standing in the yard of the Williamson

farm, Lake Waubesa. This Oriole is local in distribution, re¬

turning to the same places year after year.

218. Icterus galbula (Linnaeus). Baltimore Oriole. A com¬

mon summer resident, arriving May 1 to 12. The average date

is May 5; the earliest, April 26, 1925. It departs the end of

August or early in September. The average date for 17 years is

Aug. 31; the latest, Sept. 9, 1916. In this latitude nests with

eggs are usually found during the first week in June. Young

able to fly have been seen by June 26.

219. Euphagus carolinus (Muller). Rusty Blackbird. The

Rusty Blackbird is an abundant migrant that generally asso¬

ciates with Redwings. It arrives later than the Redwings and

is rather irregular in its movements. Though usually arriving

in March, in some years it has not been noted until April. The

average date of arrival is March 22; the earliest, March 12

(1916 and 1922). It departs the latter part of April, occasion¬

ally not until May. The average date is April 20; the latest,

May 8, 1920. It appears in autumn in October, infrequently in

September. The earliest date is Sept. 13, 1925, when a single

bird was noted. Betts observed it Sept. 28, 1913. The average

date of arrival is Oct. 10. Departure takes place in November

and is guided by the freezing of the marshes. The latest date

on which a flock has been seen is Nov. 26, 1925. Single birds

sometimes winter.

220. Euphagus cyanocephalus (Wagler). Brewer’s Black-

Bird. There are few occurrences of this species for the county.

On June 9, 1926, Mr. John Main76 discovered a pair nesting in

the Wingra marsh. The nest, placed on the ground, contained

three young. These were sufficiently developed to leave the

nest the following day. The adult male was taken by Mr. Main,

and is now in his possession. Four pairs were found by him in

the same locality May 13, 1930.77

This species has always been considered rare in the state.

Recently, it has been reported as a common summer resident at

Hayward, Sawyer County.78

76 Auk 43 (1926) 548.

77 Auk 47 (1930) 579.

78 G. Eifrig, Wilson Bull. 40 (1928) 216.

Schorger— Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 39

221. Quiscalus quiseula aeneus Ridgway. Bronzed Graekle.

This splendid blackbird is a common summer resident, less

numerous however, even in migrations than the Redwing or

Rusty. It arrives March 11 to 25, the average date being March

19; the earliest, March 10 (Taylor). In July, August, and Sep¬

tember, troops of Grackles walk sedately about the lawns

searching for insects. During the middle of October, prepara¬

tory to leaving, it collects in flocks that sometimes number one

to two thousand birds. The average date of departure is Oct.

24 ; the latest, Nov. 7, 1920.

The nest is usually placed in evergreens, occasionally in

holes. Work on the foundation has been noted by April 6, though

finished and incomplete nests exist at the end of the month.

Full sets of eggs have been found from May 5 to 15. Young

able to fly have been seen by June 6.

222. Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert). Cowbird. An abundant

summer resident, arriving from March 15 to April 10. The

average date is March 27 ; the earliest, March 12, 1916 (Betts) .

In summer and autumn the Cowbirds collect in small flocks or

associate with Redwings. A flock of 200 cowbirds seen on Sept.

8, 1923 is the largest that I have observed. The fall migration

is early, since as a rule nearly all have departed by Sept. 1.

Individuals, usually young birds, probably hatched in late sum¬

mer, occasionally remain until October. The latest date is Oct.

7, 1928. It winters rarely. One was seen by Mr, Clarence Jung-

on Dec. 20, 1920.

The Cowbird is unique in that its eggs are always deposited

in the nests of other birds. Friedmann79 lists 195 foster parents

of this species, of which only 80 are commonly victimized.

Eggs are deposited in the empty nests or after the owner has

begun to lay. I have seen an Indigo Bunting incubating three

eggs of the Cowbird and none of her own. A nest of a Willow

Thrush found in Bayfield County contained five eggs of the

Cowbird and two of the owner. The earliest date on which an

egg of the Cowbird has been found is May 1, 1921, in the nest

of a Song Sparrow; the latest, July 18, 1925, in the nest of a

Field Sparrow.

79 “The Cowbirds”, Springfield, (1929), p. 198.

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Family THRAUPIDAE. Tanagers.

223. Piranga erythromelas Vieillot. Scarlet Tanager. The

Scarlet Tanager is a common migrant and summer resident.

Early in May, before the trees have leaved, the brilliantly col¬

ored male is a conspicuous bird. The first arrivals are occa¬

sionally seen upon the ground. During the nesting season, the

birds confine themselves to the treetops and easily escape de¬

tection when silent. The characteristic note is “ dip-tur-r-r” .

The song resembles that of the Robin but has a nasal quality.

It arrives on the average on May 9, the earliest date being May

2, 1913. After the breeding season, the male changes his plum¬

age to the green and yellow of the female. I have seen the male

with yellow feathers in the breast on July 24. In one case at

least, the moult was incomplete on Sept. 17. This species usually

disappears the latter part of September, the average date being

Sept. 22; the latest, Oct. 4, 1919.

A nest found June 16 was placed on a lateral branch of a

white oak. It contained three eggs of the Cowbird and two of

the owner.

Family FRINGILLIDAE. Finches, Sparrows, etc.

224. Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis (Linnaeus) . Cardinal.

The Cardinal is an interesting example of a bird of the Caro¬

linian fauna that is gradually extending its range northward.

Kumlien and Hollister listed it as rare in 1903. Its increase in

the upper Mississippi valley has been described by Miss Althea

R. Sherman.80 While at Potosi, Grant County, in 1924, I was

informed that the Cardinal was almost unknown there pre¬

vious to 1900. I saw my first Cardinal in the vicinity of Madi¬

son on Dec. 25, 1916. Since that time it has become a common

permanent resident. It adapts itself readily to towns and is

more common in Madison and its suburbs than in the surround¬

ing country. The valleys of the Mississippi and Wisconsin

Rivers are the most thickly populated sections and furnish the

pioneers of outlying territory.

Nests with eggs have been found from June 2 to 7. A nest

found at Cross Plains on June 8 contained four callow young.

Wilson Bull. 25 (1913) 150.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin.

41

225. Hedymeles ludoviciana (Linnaeus). Rose-breasted

Grosbeak. This bird is a common summer resident, preferring

roadside thickets and second growth. It arrives early in May,

the average date being May 7 ; the earliest, May 1, 1914. The

finding of a singing bird in female plumage on July 18 indi¬

cates that a male had already moulted. It departs in Septem¬

ber, the average date being Sept. 21 ; the latest, Sept. 26, 1920.

Full sets of eggs have been found from May 80 to June 19.

In one case the male was covering the eggs.

226. Passerina cyanea (Linnaeus). Indigo Bunting. A com¬

mon summer resident along brushy roadsides and the edge of

woods. The drab female prefers the retirement afforded by

thick bushes while the male chooses to sing from an elevated

perch. It arrives from May 3 to 20, the average date being

May 11 ; the earliest, April 29, 1916. Departure takes place the

latter part of September, occasionally early in October. The

average date is Sept. 23 ; the latest, Oct. 12, 1930.

Eggs have been found from June 7 to July 26; in most cases,

during the second week in June. On Aug. 16, 1914, a nest was

found containing three half-hedged young. Two broods are

reared. June and early July nests are rarely free from the eggs

of the Cowbird, while the later ones are frequently so.

227. Spiza americana (Gmelin). Dickcissel. This bunting is

noted throughout its changeable range for great fluctuations in

numbers over a period of years. Hollister81 e.g., mentions that

a pair, the first seen in several years, summered at Delavan in

1897 ; while in 1901 it was “one of the most common of road¬

side birds”.82 The Dickcissel has been common to abundant in

sections of Dane County during most of the past seventeen

years. It was uncommon in the period 1915-1920, and again in

1924. The favorite habitat is a clover field. There the males

will be heard singing from the day of their arrival until their

departure. It is a late migrant, arriving the end of May or

early in June. The average date of arrival is May 29 ; the earli¬

est, May 21 (Taylor). One collected Aug. 2, 1913, was in moult.

They depart the end of July or early in August, the latest date

being Aug. 6, 1913. Kumlien and Hollister83 state that they

81 Wilson Bull. 9, No. 1 (1897) 4.

82 Kumlien and Hollister, “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903) p. 103.

83 1. c.f p. 103.

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cmd Letters .

found young, only recently from the nest, in September. This

must be considered exceptional. Gross,84 who made a special

study of the Dickcissel in central Illinois, found that nearly all

were gone by Sept. 10-15. The average date of arrival is given

as May 3, or 26 days earlier than in Dane County. Nehrling85

states that the Dickcissel does not reach eastern Wisconsin be¬

fore May 15 and commences to move south early in September.

228. Passer domesticus (Linnaeus). English Sparrow. This

foreign species was introduced into Wisconsin at Fort How¬

ard and Sheboygan in 1875.86 It has long since become an

abundant permanent resident. A flock occupies a restricted

area and if the birds are killed, some time is required to fill the

void. In fall, especially, large roosts are formed in the vines

on churches and in certain trees. During the cold of winter the

birds usually roost singly wherever a protected nook can be

found. It is a very clever bird, quickly sensing danger, and will

seldom enter a trap twice. Many of its habits are undesirable,

but the devotion shown its young commands respect. In pro¬

tecting my bird houses, I tried the experiment of shooting only

the females. The male would obtain another mate in the course

of a few hours or a day, and the attempt at nesting would not

be abandoned until three or more females had been dispatched.

On Feb. 26, 1913, I observed a female carrying nesting mater¬

ial, though snow covered the ground to a depth of seven inches.

229. Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina (Cooper). Even¬

ing Grosbeak. Like many of the boreal birds, the Evening-

Grosbeak is of erratic occurrence. Usually it does not arrive

until December or January; however, I saw two on Oct. 15,

1916 near Madison, and collected a lone female in Iowa County,

just beyond the Dane County line, on Oct. 21, 1927. It was

common at Madison from Jan. 7 to May 7, 1917, and from Jan.

2 to April 10, 1919. The favorite food is the seed of the box

elder (Acer negund,o).

230. Carpodacus purpureus purpureus (Gmelin). Purple

Finch. A very common migrant in spring and fall, and a fre¬

quent winter resident. Its movements are the most erratic of

84 Auk 38 (1921) 11.

85 “Our Native Birds”, 2 (1896) 229.

86 Barrows, “The English Sparrow in America.” Washington, (1889) p. 19.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin. 43

all our regular migrants. The spring arrival is greatly com¬

plicated by the winter residents, but it appears to take place

from March 15 to April 15. It is most numerous the last week

in April and the first week in May. During this period the

aspens are in blossom and form a special attraction for the

Purple Finch. Departure takes place from May 3 to 14, the

latest date being May 18, 1919, when fifteen were seen. In

autumn, the first birds will appear at any time between the end

of August and the middle of October. The earliest date is Aug.

20, 1921. It is most common from Sept. 20 to Oct. 20.

231. Pinicola enucleator leucura (Muller). Pine Grosbeak.

This grosbeak is an infrequent winter visitor. The earliest and

latest dates for its occurrence were obtained by Mr. Clarence

Jung who found them along the University Drive from Nov. 2,

1918 to the end of Feb. 1919. I saw a flock of six on Jan. 1.

and another of eight on Feb. 22, 1922.87 Some of the birds,

while feeding in European larches, dropped to the ground to

collect detached seeds. The following data have been furnished

by Warner Taylor: four seen on Dec. 30, 1918; three on Jan.

19, and three on Jan. 23, 1919; four on Jan. 17, and nine on

Jan. 26, 1922. The next date for its appearance is Dec. 26, 1929,

when two were seen by John Main and Warner Taylor.

232. Acanthis linaria linaria (Linnaeus). Redpoll. This

hardy little bird is an irregular winter visitor from the north.

During some winters it does not appear at all ; again it is pres¬

ent in great numbers. Flocks of 100 to 500 birds are not un¬

common. On March 7, 1926, there was a strong wind accom¬

panied by snow. A flock of 1500 was found feeding on ragweed

in a field. At intervals all the birds would leave the ground in

an immense swirl. They arrive from Nov. 5 to Jan. 1, usually in

November or early in December. The earliest date is Oct. 28,

1916. Departure for the north takes place from March 5 to

March 21 (1926).

233. Spinus tristis tristis (Linnaeus). Goldfinch. The “Wild

Canary” is a common permanent resident, though much less

numerous in winter.

The neatly constructed nest is usually placed in a bush at a

height of 3 to 10 feet from the ground. Completed nests have

87 Auk 39 (1922) 574.

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

been found by July 11; eggs, from July 13 to Aug. 25, the

majority between July 31 and August 12. An egg is deposited

daily apparently, since a nest empty on July 31 contained five

eggs on Aug. 7. Young have been found in the nest as late as

Sept. 12 (1925). None of the nests found contained eggs of

the Cowbird.

234. Spinus pinus pinus (Wilson). Pine Siskin. This small

boreal finch is a common migrant, frequently remaining

throughout the winter. It is erratic both as to occurrence and

numbers. During five of the past seventeen years, it was not

seen. Though usually found only in small flocks, numbering less

than twenty-five, I found a flock of 250 on April 14, 1923.88

The earliest date of its appearance in autumn is Sept. 12,

1925. During other years, the first birds were seen from Sept.

28 to Nov. 25. There is a well defined spring migration from

April 20 to the middle of May. Departure for the north fre¬

quently does not take place until the third week in May, the

average date being May 15; the latest, May 23, 1920.

It has been seen feeding on ragweed, and the cones of arbor

vitae and European larch, but the favorite food in fall and win¬

ter is the seed of the white birch. The snow is frequently car¬

peted with fragments from the strobiles.

235. Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm). Crossbill. The

Crossbill is a very irregular visitor that appears about one win¬

ter in three. The earliest occurrence is Sept. 12, 1925, when a

lone bird was found in a flock of Pine Siskins ; otherwise, it has

not been noted before January or February. It was common

near Madison from April 5 to 14, 1923, the latest date on which

it has been noted in spring.89 As a matter of record, one was

taken Feb. 21, 1914, and two, Jan. 16, 1926. This species has

been frequently found feeding upon the ground. A flock was

once observed feeding on the seeds of ragweed projecting above

the snow. A game of leap-frog seemed to be in progress, as the

birds in the rear were constantly flying to the head of the feed¬

ing column.

Kumlien and Hollister90 state that it nested “formerly as

88 Auk 41 (1924) 169.

89 Schorger, Auk 41 (1924) 169.

90 “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903) p. 92.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 45

far south as Dane County. Young just able to fly were pro¬

cured in a cemetery at Albion in August, 1869.”

236. Loxia leucoptera Gmelin. White-winged Crossbill.

This species is a rare winter visitor. No specimens have been

taken in the county, but Mr. Warner Taylor found them on

numerous occasions during the winter of 1919-1920 as follows :

40 on Dec. 26 and 27, 1919; 15 on Jan. 30; 3 on Feb. 10; 1 on

Feb. 19 ; 2 on Feb. 22 ; 25 on Feb. 25 ; and 2 on March 27, 1920.

There are no other records.

237. Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus (Lin¬

naeus) . Towhee. A common summer resident in second growth

and open woodland containing tangles of vines and bushes. The

males come ahead of the females. They arrive from April 3 to

23, usually not before the middle of the month. The average

date is April 13; the earliest, March 30, 1920. It departs the

end of October or early in November, the average date being

Oct. 24; the latest, Nov. 12, 1929 (Paul Errington).

The nest is usually concealed at the base of a bush, stump, or

sapling. Nests with eggs have been found from May 14 to 24.

Young able to fly have been seen by June 14. This species sel¬

dom escapes being host to the Cowbird. Two or three eggs of

the latter to one of the owner is a frequent ratio.

238. Passerculus sandwichensis savanna (Wilson). Savan¬

nah Sparrow. This sparrow is a common summer resident in

grassland and dry marshes. After the breeding season it as¬

sembles in small flocks in the vicinity of water, and up to the

time of departure is found about wet marshes, ponds, and lakes.

It arrives from the end of March to April 22, the average date

being April 10. The earliest date is March 19, 1921. I took a

female March 23, 1913. It departs on the average October 15,

the latest date being Oct. 25, 1924.

239. Ammodramus savannarum australis Maynard.

Grasshopper Sparrow. A common summer resident, returning

regularly to undisturbed fallow fields. From his perch on a

weed stalk the male utters a weak, insect-like song. It seldom

arrives before May, the average date being May 8 ; the earliest,

April 25, 1925. The latest date on which I have heard it singing

is July 28. Data on the fall migration are almost wholly want-

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

ing. Nehrling91 states that it leaves Wisconsin in September.

240. Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi (Audubon). Hens-

low’s Sparrow. Henslow’s Sparrow is a common migrant and

summer resident. During the breeding season it is found

mainly on marshy land and is very local in distribution. Con¬

fining its activities largely to the ground, where it runs like a

mouse, it is a difficult bird to find without flushing. In spring

the males sing frequently in full view from a bush or old weed.

The song is a very unmusical ‘ tsilk-tsilk-tsilk” . I have also

found it singing frequently from weeds in high, fallow fields

during the migration in early May. The flight of this species

is irregular and fairly rapid. I have surprised it while sitting

in a bush. On such occasions it is very uneasy and seems un¬

able to determine whether to stay or fly.

It arrives the end of April or the first of May, the average

date being April 25. The earliest date is April 18, 1915; in

addition I took one April 23, 1927. Mr. John Main collected

one on the Sauk prairie, Sauk County, on the exceptionally

early date of April 7, 1929. In the years 1913-1915, previous

to draining, this sparrow was a common summer resident in

the southern end of the University Bay marsh. The ground

was wet, but there was almost no standing water. Here the

males were in song as late as Aug. 3. It disappears in autumn

from Sept. 24 (1927) to Oct. 3 (1914). One was collected on the

latter date. An unusually late occurrence is Nov. 14, 1914.

While hunting, I crossed a well grazed pasture on high ground,

and glancing down, saw a Henslow’s Sparrow about three feet

distant. The bird flew normally when flushed.

I have never been able to find a nest of this species. At “Hog

Island,” Lake Waubesa, on June 20, 1915, 1 caught a young bird

that, while unable to fly, was exceedingly nimble afoot.

241. Passerherbulus lecontei (Audubon). Leconte’s Sparrow.

Search for the sharptailed sparrows is so fascinating that

it may easily become a mania. Of all the members of the group,

Leconte’s Sparrow is the most baffling. Regardless of effort,

there have been years when I could not find this sparrow at all,

while three is the maximum number that I have found in one

day. I have had the best success in finding this bird by walking

rapidly back and forth through the dead, brown grass in the

w “Our Native Birds,” 2 (1896) 87.

Schorger—. Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. 47

dry sections of a marsh. Its flight normally is slow, straight,

and fluttering like that of the Short-billed Marsh Wren. It is

very difficult to flush a second or third time, even though it

alights but a short distance away, and you repair immediately

to the spot. The only safe record is the collected bird. Obvi¬

ously, no fixed rules apply to bird behavior, but I have seen this

bird at rest on only two occasions: one flushed from the grass

alighted on the branch of a willow shrub where it remained a

few seconds before dropping to the ground; early in the morn¬

ing of May 4, 1928, I collected one that alighted on the lower

branch of a tree after flushing from a muddy area, almost de¬

void of cover, beside a pond. I have never heard a note from this

species; however, Taylor92 has recorded the finding of a sing¬

ing male April 16, 1916, and again on May 10, 1919.

Kumlien and Hollister93 gave numerous fall records for this

species, but none for spring. Subsequently, two spring records

were obtained at La Crosse, May 11 and 13, 1907 ; while one

was found dead at Mayville, March 29, 1910.94 Specimens have

been taken in Dane County as follows: one taken on Oct. 12,

191395, one on April 11, and two on April 15, 1914 ;96 and one

May 4, 1928, by the writer; one on April 12, 1914, by Norman

DeWitt Betts ; and one on Oct. 9, 1922, by Warner Taylor.97 It

arrives about the middle of April and has been found in Dane

County from April 11 to May 16. The fall migration takes

place in October, inclusive dates being Oct. 9 to 19.

242. Ammospiza nelsoni nelsoni (Allen) . Nelson’s Sparrow.

This, the handsomest of our sparrows, was discovered by E. W.

Nelson, in 1874, in the Calumet Marsh near Chicago. It is quite

remarkable that this species has not been taken in Wisconsin

in spring, in view of the fact that it has been found “exceed-

ingly abundant about Lake Koshkonong in September and

early October.”98 Dwight99 stated that it was found sparingly

during the breeding season in Wisconsin. An inquiry resulted

in the following reply from Dr. Dwight under date of May 22,

8*Auk 37 (1920) 299.

93 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 96.

84 1. N. Mitchell, Bull. Wis. Hist. Soc. 8 (1910) 161.

95 Auk 31 (1914) 256.

98 Auk 32 (1915) 101.

97 Auk 40 (1923) 339.

98 Kumlien and Hollister, 7. c., p. 97.

99 Auk 13 (1896) 275.

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

1926 : “ - I concluded that specimens I have in full juvenal

plumage belonged to local broods. These specimens taken early

in Sept. (10th) at Lake Koshkonong doubtless misled me in my

youthful enthusiasm.”100

Nelson's Sparrow is usually found in autumn in wet marshes.

I took my first specimen Sept. 24, 1921 in a low, wet pasture

that had been cropped so short that there was no cover.101 This

bird alternately ran and stopped, and did not appear alarmed.

In comparison with Leconte's Sparrow, it is easy to flush. As

a rule it does not drop to the ground, but alights in the reeds

or rushes where it twitches about, frequently in full view. I

once pursued a Nelson’s Sparrow a distance of 200 yards, and

after several flushings, it alighted on the top of some marsh

grass. Its flight is irregular and quite rapid.

Previous to the fall of 1926, I was never able to find this

species regularly. On Sept 25, 1926, I found seven in a marsh

near the Wisconsin River and found them again in the same

locality in fall in 1927, 1928, and 1929. It has never been abund¬

ant. Taylor102 collected three from a flock of a dozen Sept. 30,

1922. The largest number that I have seen in one day was

twenty, on Sept. 24, 1927. In addition to the above collections,

I have taken specimens as follows: one on Sept. 30, 1923; two

on Sept. 25, 1926; three on Sept. 24, 1927; and two on Sept.

16, 1928. On Oct. 4, 1929, while searching for a Wilson's Snipe

that I had shot, I found a dead Nelson's Sparrow concealed in

the marsh grass on a hillock. This bird was upright on a bare

spot of ground and had its back arched greatly. It had been

dead but a few hours, since the eyes had not sunk. On prepar¬

ing the skin, the bird was found to be greatly emaciated ; there

was no external injury. It had been observed in fall from

100 1 have been unable to find a record of a capture in spring in Wisconsin. It

has been reported as seen in Oconto County on June 17, 1897, by Mr. A. J.

Schoenebeck (Birds of Oconto County, 1902, p. 36). All the reports in the Wis¬

consin Arbor and Bird Day Annuals for 1911, 1912, and 1913, are questionable.

As for Illinois, Nelson (Bull. Essex Institute 8 (1876) 107) states that he saw

several at Calumet Lake on June 12, 1875; and Woodruff, (Birds of the Chicago

Area, 1907, p. 138) that he took the nest and eggs in the same locality. I am

indebted to Dr. H. C. Oberholser for searching the files of the Biological Survey.

He located several dates in the migration reports of observers, but was unable

to find that a specimen had been taken. The only definite record that I have

found is that by C. W. G. Eifrig (Auk 40 (1923) 132) who took a male near

Chicago May 27, 1922.

101 Auk 39 (1922) 574.

102 Auk 40 (1923) 339; cf. ibid. 43 (1926) 381.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin . 49

Sept. 16 to Oct. 14 (Taylor) ; the period of greatest numbers is

the last week in September.

243. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus (Gmelin). Vesper Spar¬

row. This sparrow is a common summer resident. It frequents

fields and roadsides, and in its wavering flight the white outer

tail feathers are conspicuous. It arrives from March 23 to

April 10, the average date being April 2; the earliest, March

19, 1921. It departs the latter half of October, the average date

being Oct. 22 ; the latest, Nov. 2, 1924.

244. Chondestes grammacus grammacus (Say). Lark Spar¬

row. This fine sparrow, accustomed from time immemorial to

the unbroken prairie, has adapted itself reluctantly, when at

all, to cultivated ground. In Wisconsin it is confined largely to

waste, sandy areas too poor for the plow. Beginning at Bos-

cobel, it occupies the sand flats of the Wisconsin River valley

to the center of the state. Here, amidst sparse vegetation, the

males from jack pine or stunted oak sing the sweetest of all

our sparrow songs— a succession of trills and chants. Near

Gotham, Richland County, I found it to be an abundant sum¬

mer resident. In Dane County, it is confined to the sandy

areas of the Mazomanie bottoms.103 It reaches southern Wis¬

consin about April 20 and departs in September. The latest

that I have seen one is Sept. 26 (1920), and this happens to be

the only one that I have seen in the vicinity of Madison. A male

taken at Gotham June 11, 1925, was in moult.

245. Passer ella iliaca iliaca (Merrem). Fox Sparrow. An

abundant migrant, frequently arriving before the snow has

disappeared. Late blizzards do not dampen its spirit and it

continues to sing merrily. During the migrations it is found

along bushy roadsides, in thickets and the edge of woods. It

scratches industriously amongst the litter on the ground in its

search for seeds, and when the leaves are dry the noise pro¬

duced by several birds is certain to attract attention. This

species arrives from March 17 to April 1, the average date be¬

ing March 24 ; the earliest, March 12, 1927. It usually departs

the third week in April, the average date being April 23. Two

late dates are May 10, 1924 and May 8, 1927. Fall arrival varies

103 Stoddard, Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 77; Taylor, Auk 39 (1922) 273; 40 (1923)

339.

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

from Sept. 20 to Oct. 10, the average date being Oct. 1; the

earliest, Sept. 12, 1925. It departs from Oct. 28 to Nov. 12, the

average date being Nov. 5; the latest, Nov. 15, 1919.

246. Junco hyemalis hyemalis (Linnaeus). Slate-colored

Junco. The Junco is an abundant migrant, and a common and

regular winter resident. In winter it is confined largely to the

vicinity of conifers. At this season it associates freely with

Tree Sparrows. It appears from the north from Sept. 19 to

Oct. 4, the average date being Sept. 27 ; the earliest, Sept. 14,

1919. It is most numerous in October, large numbers occasion¬

ally remaining through November. About the middle of March

there is a noticeable increase in numbers, the heighth of the

migration being reached the first week in April. The migra¬

tion is practically completed the last week in April, though

stragglers continue to pass through up to the middle of May.

The average date of departure is May 2; the latest, May 18,

1917.

247. Spizella monticola monticola (Gmelin). Tree Sparrows.

This is another abundant migrant and common winter resi¬

dent. It appears happy in the coldest weather, sounding its

tinkling notes as it feeds on the ragweed. It arrives in fall be¬

tween Oct. 7 and 24, the average date being Oct. 16; the

earliest, Oct. 3, 1923, when 200 were seen. It is most abundant

in November. By early December usually only wintering birds

remain. The birds wintering to the south pass through again

in March and early April. The migration is completed from

April 12 to 29 (1928), the average date being April 20.

248. Spizella passerina passerina (Bechstein). Chipping

Sparrow. The Chipping Sparrow is only a fairly common sum¬

mer resident. It elects to nest in the vicinity of dwellings, a

decided preference being shown for conifers. It appears from

April 8 to 22, the average date being April 18. Nearly all have

departed before the middle of September; in fact, the latest

date on which it has been noted is Sept. 19, 1915 (Betts) . There

is one winter record. Mr. Clarence Jung informs me that he

saw one in Tenney Park on Jan. 25, 1920.

Nests with eggs have been found up to June 23. A young

bird barely able to fly was seen being fed on Sept. 6, 1920.

249. Spizella pallida (Swainson). Clay-colored Sparrow.

This unobtrusive little sparrow is a regular migrant in small

Schorger — Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. 51

numbers and an irregular summer resident. It breeds abund¬

antly in some of the northern counties, hence it should be more

common as a migrant. To the northward it is found in dry,

gravelly, waste spaces overgrown with sweet fern, hazel and

similar low growth. The male perched on a bush sings repeat¬

edly with elevated head. The song is a weak, unmusical “ak-ak-

ak-ak”. It appears early in May, the average date being May 6 ;

the earliest, May 2, 1926. The fall migration begins the latter

part of September and extends into October. The extreme

dates are Sept. 20, 1930 and Oct. 6, 1929. The following spec¬

imens have been taken: one on May 30 and one on June 27,

1920 ; one on May 2, 1926 ; one on May 21, 1927 ; and one on

May 12, 1929 (Schorger) ; two on May 8, 1919; one on Oct.

2, 1922; and one on May 13, 1925 (Taylor).104 It was found

nesting near Madison in 1919 and 1921 by Mr. Warner Tay¬

lor.105 It bred here also in 1920.106 The eggs resemble those of

the Chipping Sparrow. The nest is placed on or close to the

ground or, at a height of two to four feet, in bushes or small

conifers. The nest found by Mr. Taylor on May 30, 1919, con¬

tained three eggs and was placed on the ground at the foot of a

bush. I have examined numerous nests in northern Wisconsin.

Here they were located in bushes and small conifers.

250. Spizella pusilla pusilla (Wilson) . Field Sparrow. This

lovable sparrow is a common summer resident along roadsides

and in bushy fields. It arrives from March 20 (1921) to April

12, the average date being March 30. It departs in October, the

average date being Oct. 13 ; the latest, Oct. 26, 1930.

The nest is placed on the ground in a tuft of grass or in a

bush. Two broods are reared. Full sets of eggs have been found

from May 18 to July 18.

251. Zonotrichia querula (Nuttall). Harris’s Sparrow.

Harris’s Sparrow is sufficiently uncommon that a sight of it is

always a source of satisfaction. It usually occurs singly in

flocks of White-throated Sparrows. The status of this species

in Wisconsin and adjacent states has been reviewed by Cahn107

and by Swenk and Stevens.108 The relative abundance of Har-

104 Auk 37 (1920) 299; 40 (1923) 339; 43 (1926) 381.

105 Auk 37 (1920) 300; 39 (1922) 274.

106 Schorger, Auk 43 (1926) 557.

107 Bull. Wis. Natural History Soc. 13 (1915) 102.

108 Wilson Bull. 41 (1929) 129.

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ris’s Sparrow and the White-throated Sparrow is of interest.

Prof. George Wagner has kindly furnished the following

data: during the period February, 1925, to Jan. 1, 1930, he and

his students banded 4 Harris’s Sparrows and 1900 White-

throated Sparrows, a ratio of 1 to 475.

There are the following records for Dane County:

May 10 and 21, a period of only twelve days. The fall migration

is much longer, ranging from Sept. 22 to Oct. 21.

252. Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys (Forster). White-

crowned Sparrow. This sparrow is a regular migrant, but is by

no means common. It is found in the same situations as the

White-throated Sparrows with which it is sometimes asso¬

ciated. Flocks of eight to ten birds are occasionally met with,

but more often there are only singles or pairs. It is decidedly

less social than the other sparrows, the order seemingly being

every White-crown for himself. The Pharmaceutical Gardens

is a favored locality. Here Mr. John Gundlach banded eight

birds in the spring of 1927, and Mr. Harry Anderson, several

in the spring of 1928. It arrives the second week in May, the

100 Cahn, l. c.

119 Auk 34 (1917) 219.

111 Auk 39 (1922) 273.

112 Auk 43 (1926) 557.

113 Auk 43 (1926) 381.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin .

53

average date being May 10 ; the earliest, May 4, 1919.114 It has

not been noted after May 21 (1929). The fall records are less

numerous than the spring. Inclusive dates are Sept. 29 (1929)

and Oct. 16 (1927).

Kumlien and Hollister115 state that in 1873 it nested on the

north shore of Lake Monona, and has been known to remain

throughout the summer at Lake Koshkonong. Stoddard116 took

an adult female in the Baraboo Bluffs, Sauk County, on June

6, 1921.

253. Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli (Nuttall). GambePs

Sparrow. This subspecies of the White-crowned Sparrow is a

rare straggler from the west. One was taken near Madison on

May 17, 1919, by Mr. Warner Taylor.117 I took an immature

male on Oct. 16, 1927.

254. Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmelin). White-throated Spar¬

row. An abundant migrant frequenting the edges of woodland,

and brushy roadsides and fields. Its song is a plaintive whistle.

It arrives from the south from April 10 to 22, the average date

being April 16; the earliest, April 8 (Taylor). The main move¬

ment takes place the first half of May. The migration is com¬

pleted on the average by May 22, though stragglers remain

until June, the latest date being June 7, 1914. The fall migrants

arrive the middle of September, the average date being Sept. 17 ;

the earliest, Sept. 7, 1918. The period of abundance is the first

half of October. The migration is virtually completed by Oct.

25, though stragglers may be found until the end of November.

I have found individuals wintering on several occasions. Con¬

sidering the number of White-throated Sparrows that have been

banded it is remarkable how few have been the recaptures.

Prof. George Wagner informs me that he has had only two

returns from 1900 banded birds.

The White-throated Sparrow is a common summer resident

in the northern half of the state and may be found nesting

sparingly even in the extreme southern portion. The evidence

for its breeding in Dane County is circumstantial. One remained

in a small marsh on East Washington Avenue in the summer

114 Taylor, Auk 37 (1920) 299.

115 “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903), p. 98.

118 Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 78.

117 Auk 37 (1920) 299.

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of 1918, and was heard singing on numerous occasions from

May 29 to Aug. 5. On May 16, 1920, I saw a female carrying

nesting material in the swamp at the head of Lake Waubesa;

and on July 25, 1925, I found an adult bird in a willow thicket

at the Pheasant Branch marsh.

255. Melospiza melodia melodia (Wilson). Song Sparrow.

This familiar sparrow is an abundant summer resident. It has

adapted itself to all types of terrain. It arrives from March 11

to 25, the average date being March 18 ; the earliest, March 7,

1915 (Betts). It departs the end of October or early in Novem¬

ber. The departure of stragglers is frequently delayed until

the end of November, if the weather does not become severe.

A few always winter about springs and spring runs.

Full sets of eggs have been found from May 1 to June 19, the

majority during the middle of May. Young able to fly have been

seen by May 23 (1915).

256. Melospiza lincolni lincolni (Audubon). Lincoln’s Spar¬

row. This sparrow while resembling the Song Sparrow in ap¬

pearance is entirely unobtrusive. It is a regular migrant in

small numbers, but it probably more common than the records

indicate. During the migration it is found in brushy situations

and along the edge of woodland, usually close to the ground.

When alarmed it will occasionally fly into a tree to a height of

twenty or thirty feet and remain motionless. Generally, only

a single bird is encountered, but on May 17, 1923, I saw a flock

of six ; and on Sept. 23, 1927, a flock of eight. First arrivals in

spring have been noted from May 1 (1927) to May 14, the

average date being May 10 ; while the last have been seen from

May 17 to 24. It arrives in fall the last week in September.

Inclusive dates are Sept. 23 (1927) to Oct. 22 (1916). I have

taken specimens on the following dates : May 10, 1914 ; May 1

and Sept. 23, 1927 ; and May 20, 1928.

257. Melospiza georgiana (Latham) . Swamp Sparrow. The

Swamp Sparrow is an abundant summer resident in marshes

containing standing water, though it does not refuse to nest

where the ground is merely moist. The song is a trill like that

of the Chipping Sparrow, but richer and more musical. To be

fully appreciated it should be heard on a dark, quiet June night.

t arrives April 3 to 18, the average date being April 12; the

earliest, March 25, 1928. Departure takes place the end of

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 55

October, occasionally in November, the average date being Oct.

28 ; the latest, Nov. 24, 1928. There is one winter record. Mr.

John Main saw one Dec. 30, 1929.

Nests with eggs have been found from May 30 to June 12.

258. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus (Linnaeus). Lapland

Longspur. If, at the end of March or the beginning of April,

a blizzard comes out of the northwest, the chances are excellent

that the Longspurs will be stopped in their migration. On cer¬

tain hills swept bare by the wind they may be found feeding

by hundreds. As if infected by the spirit of the storm, the

birds, chattering ceaselessly, circle about in large groups from

place to place. The Lapland Longspur is irregular both as to

movements and numbers. It arrives from March 12 to April 5.

The latest date on which it has been seen is April 25, 1928.

Stoddard118 found several large flocks in Dodge County as late

as May 18 (1921) . In autumn it arrives rarely by the end of

October, the main movement taking place in November. The

earliest date is Sept. 23, 1928, when a lone bird in breeding

plumage was seen; in the case of November birds, the winter

plumage is almost complete. Small groups winter commonly,

occasionally large flocks. One numbering 500 was seen Dec. 28,

1918.

259. Calcarius pictus (Swainson). Smith’s Longspur.

Smith’s Longspur is a rare migrant in Wisconsin. There are no

records for Dane County but Stoddard119 found them inter¬

mingled with Lapland Longspurs on the Sauk prairie on April

27 and 28, 1921. On the latter date between twenty and thirty

were seen. Two females and one male in almost complete sum¬

mer dress were collected. Taylor120 mentions seeing one in the

same locality on April 17, 1922. This species is confined in

winter and during the migrations to a narrow belt of the great

plains extending from Texas to Saskatchewan. Occasionally,

by a fan-wise movement the migration extends across south¬

western Wisconsin. On several occasions it has been abundant

in the Chicago area,121 from March 30 to May 5, and Oct. 3 to

118 Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 77.

119 Wilson Bull. 34 (1922) 77.

129 Auk 40 (1923) 339.

121 Woodruff, “Birds of the Chicago Area,” (1907) p. 134.

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

11. A more recent record is one taken by E if rig122 on May 1,

1912.

260. Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis (Linnaeus). Snow Bunt¬

ing. The Snow Bunting is an irregular winter visitor and is

much less numerous than the Lapland Songspur with which it

frequently associates. On Dec. 19, 1926, I saw a flock of 100

feeding on ragweed in a stubble field. In February, 1930, it

was again common.123 Usually only single birds or flocks of

twenty-five to thirty are met with. In the winter of 1913-14,

it was present from Nov. 16 to April 5. On the latter date one

of the birds was in song. It usually arrives in November or

December and departs in March. The earliest date of arrival

from the north is Oct. 21, 1928, when a single bird was found

on the north beach of Lake Kegonsa.

ADDENDUM.

261. Oiedema americana Swainson. Scoter. This species ap¬

pears to be of rare occurrence on the inland lakes. On Nov. 2,

1930, Mr. L. D. Atkinson, an experienced wild fowl hunter, in¬

formed me that he had shot that day a pair of ducks new to

him. The bird in his possession, a young male Scoter, he kindly

gave to me, and it is now in my collection. The other duck stated

to have been identical with the above, had been given away. Be¬

fore it could be rescued, it had been dressed for the table.

ACCIDENTAL AND EXTINCT SPECIES.

262. Grus canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus). Little Brown

Crane. This species no longer occurs east of the Mississippi.

Though there is always the possibility of an accidental visitor,

it should be borne in mind that Kumlien and Hollister124 give

but two authentic records for Wisconsin, one being for Dane

County: “At least one other, that we are positive of, was shot

in Dane County late in the fall of 1879, and came into the pos¬

session of Thure Kumlien frozen stiff. This specimen was form¬

erly in the Museum of Albion Academy.’’

263. Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris Ridgway. Prairie

Sharp-tailed Grouse. This species was formerly abundant in

122 Auk 30 (1913) 239.

123 Auk 47 (1930) 424 and 579.

124 “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903) p. 37.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin .

57

southern Wisconsin125 but is now confined to suitable localities

in the northern half of the state. A specimen taken at Janes¬

ville in October, 1869, is the last record for southern Wiscon¬

sin.126 The only specific reference to its former occurrence in

Dane County that I have found is the statement of T. M. Brewer

under P. p. columbianus: “I - - have from time to time

had their eggs from Dane County, Wisconsin’'.127

264. Ectopistes migroAorius (Linnaeus) Passenger Pigeon.

The Passenger Pigeon was formerly very abundant in Dane

County. Mrs. Roseline Peck, of the first resident family of

Madison, stated: “ - -I stood (May 31, 1837) in the doorway

watching flights of pigeons until late in the evening - .”128

Mrs. S. M. Sutherland of Madison has informed me that Mr.

Nicholas Haight of the town of Fitchburg killed one dozen

pigeons on Sept. 17, 1872, the date being fixed by the fact that

these pigeons were served at her first wedding anniversary. Mr.

A. B. Morris has written that to the best of his recollection, the

last time he killed pigeons was in 1876 or 1877. Favorite shoot¬

ing grounds were the Turville farm on Lake Monona, the

O’Malley farm three miles north of Mendota Station, the woods

west of the Dudgeon School on Monroe Street, and a pond about

two miles west of West Middleton.

The latest date of their occurrence, 1886, is furnished by Dr.

S. H. Chase: “In the year 1886 my brother brought home sev¬

eral bags of wild pigeons. During the spring of 1885 while

the wet snow was deep on the ground, one of my brothers and

I hunted every day during our spring vacation; each day we

saw, presumably, the same flock of eleven pigeons. However,

at no time did we get any of them. Later, my older brother

succeeded in bringing some of them to bag.” He adds that about

the year 1880 pigeons were still numerous and not hard to

approach.

The last authentic records for the state are : one shot at Dela-

van Lake, Walworth County, Sept. 8, 1896 ;129 and a pair seen

in Dunn County on May 5, 1898 by J. N. Clark.130

125 Ridg-way, “Birds of Illinois” 2 (1895) 14.

126 Kumlien and Hollister, l. c. p. 58.

127 Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, “North American Birds”, 3 (1874) 437.

128 Wis. Hist. Coll. 6 (1872) 354.

129 N. Hollister, Auk 13 (1896) 341.

130 Kumlien and Hollister, “Birds of Wisconsin,” (1903) p. 59.

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

265. Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot. Wild Turkey.

I have been unable to obtain an entirely satisfactory record of

the occurrence of the Wild Turkey in Dane County. The sole

reason for including it in this list is the statement: “Thure

Kumlien had no records for Lake Koshkonong later than

1842.”128 Under date of Jan. 29, 1929, Mr. H. L. Skavlem of

Janesville wrote that he had no positive record for Dane

County and adds : “I believe I am about the last living person

that has the recollection of seeing a really wild turkey in this

part of the country. I have the very distinct memory of seeing

“Pip” (Philip) Goss with a large turkey hung on his shoulder

with his gun, and showing father the big bird.”131

The Wild Turkey apparently was not common in Wisconsin

except in the southeastern and southwestern sections. Dr.

Hoy133 stated that the last were killed at Racine in the fall of

1846. Turkeys were abundant until the hard winter of 1842-3,

when the snow was two feet deep with a firm crust in March.

Inability to get to the ground to obtain food nearly extermin¬

ated the species. According to James Lockwood,134 about the

year 1820, it was not an uncommon thing to see a Fox Indian

arrive at Prairie du Chien with a hand sled on which were

twenty or thirty Wild Turkeys that he had for sale “as they

were very plenty about Cassville.” In Walworth County, four¬

teen Wild Turkeys were seen in the town of Spring Prairie, in

October, 183 6 ; and a year or two later a flock of nearly thirty

wintered, some of them being killed.135

HYPOTHETICAL

Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan). Red-throated Loon. The rec¬

ord of a bird still in winter plumage seen by me136 on Lake

Mendota, June 6, 1916, is not acceptable in the absence of a

specimen. L. Kumlien137 stated that he saw a dozen or more in

Door County in June, 1881. This species occurs on Lake Mich¬

igan in winter, but is rare inland.

128 Kumlien and Hollister, l. c. p. 58.

181 This without doubt is the 1854 record of Mr. Skavlem for the town of

Newark, Rock County, cited by Kumlien and Hollister.

133 Wis. Acad. 5 (1877-81) 255.

134 Wis. Hist. Coll. 2 (1903) 132.

135 C. M. Baker, Wis. Hist. Coll. 6 (1908) 465.

339 Auk 34 (1917) 219.

187 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 7.

Schorger — Birds of Dane County , Wisconsin . 59

Sterna paradisaea Brunnich. Arctic Tern. A sight record

for the Arctic Tern has been reported.138 It is seldom found far

from the sea, and Bent139 considers that interior records are

“none too well established”.

Dendroica kirtlandi (Baird). Kirtland’s Warbler. This rare

warbler was seen near Madison on May 19, 1917 by Mr. War¬

ner Taylor.140 Kumlien and Hollister141 state that a wounded

bird of this species actually escaped from their hands near

Lake Koshkonong on May 24, 1898. Obviously, until a specimen

is taken it cannot be admitted to the state list.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

20. Mareca penelope (Linnaeus). European Widgeon. One

was seen by Mr. John Main142 and Mr. Warner Taylor on April

27, 1930.

34. Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus). Old-squaw. Mr. Clarence

S. Jung told me that he saw an Old-squaw at the outlet of

Lake Monona on Dec. 6, 1920. Prof. George Wagner has in¬

formed me that he identified a female Old-squaw shot on Lake

Monona by Mr. George Soehnlein, Dec. 1, 1930.

53. Falco columbarius columbarius Linnaeus. Pigeon Hawk.

Mention of the collection of a specimen near Mazomanie on

May 2, 1921 by Mr. H. L. Stoddard,143 was inadvertently omit¬

ted from Part I.

58. Perdix perdix perdix (Linnaeus). Hungarian Partridge.

Mr. Wallace Grange informs me that during the first two weeks

of June, 1929, Mr. Knute Lee of Deerfield showed him a nest of

this species containing 21 eggs. Both of the old birds were

seen. According to Mr. Lee the Hungarian Partridge is be¬

coming fairly common in certain sections near Deerfield. Twelve

birds shipped from the state game farm at Fish Creek were

liberated in the vicinity of Lake Wingra by Mr. Frank Schultz

on April 23, 1929.

138 Taylor, Auk 40 (1923) 339.

is9 “North American Gulls and Terns”, Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum No. 113 (1921)

255.

140 Auk 34 (1917) 343.

141 “Birds of Wisconsin”, (1903) p. 133.

142 Auk 47 (1930) 578.

148 Wilson Bull, 34 (1922) 74.

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

76. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus (Brewster)

Western Willet. Three birds of this species were found in a

marsh near Madison by Mr. Main144 on May 2, 1930. He court¬

eously informed me of their occurrence, so that I saw them the

evening of the same day.

90. Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus). Northern Phaiarope. Mr.

John Main145 observed this species on several occasions from

May 17 to 24, 1930, on one day as many as seven being seen. I

took a female in full breeding plumage from a flock of four

birds on May 24, 1930.

102. Tyto alba pratincola (Bonaparte). Barn OwL I took a

female Nov. 24, 1929.146 Mr. Paul Errington found a dead

bird of this species on Feb. 10 and another on Feb. 14, 1930, in

a quarry near Madison. Examination indicated that these

birds had died of starvation and cold.

109. Cryptoglaux acadica acadica (Gmelin). Saw-whet Owl

Apparently this species is not as rare as I had supposed. Mr.

Herbert Stoddard, who has a flair for raptors, found a Saw-

whet Owl near Pine Bluff on March 15, 1930. The following

day while I was with him on a field trip, he had the temerity to

point out another sitting in a small cedar. The locality was in

the southwestern corner of Columbia County, near the Dane

County line.

144 Auk 47 (1930) 578.

145 Auk 47 (1930) 578.

146 Auk 47 (1930) 424.

EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE IN WISCONSIN.

Eric R. Miller

The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in Wis¬

consin form the subject of this paper. It seems desirable to

say something about how, when, where and by whom the tem¬

peratures were observed and recorded.

The earliest observations were made as a routine duty by the

hospital surgeons of the army posts of Fort Crawford (Prairie

du Chien), Fort Winnebago (Portage), and Fort Howard

(Green Bay) . The first of these were made in 1820. In the 40's

the services of civilians were enlisted by James Pollard Espy

for the scientific investigation of storms. Espy was connected

with the Surgeon-General's Office in the War Department, and

subsequently with the Navy Department. Among those who

cooperated with Espy and his successors a group of Milwau¬

keeans consisting of Increase A. Lapham, E. S. Marsh, and

Carl Winkler deserve special mention because they maintained

a continuous series of observations from 1843 to 1871. After

the organization of the Smithsonian Institution, its head, the

distinguished pioneer physicist Joseph Henr^ organized a

country-wide corps of weather observers, equipped with stand¬

ardized instruments, that was represented in Wisconsin by 35

all told. Of these only a few worked for more than a year or so,

and rarely more than 4 or 5 simultaneously. From 1860 to

1871 the Lake Survey made very exact observations at Superior

and Milwaukee. In 1870 our present national weather service

was organized by the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, with its

network of stations reporting by telegraph, and manned by pro¬

fessional observers. The cooperative observers were merged

in this organization in 1874, but their number did not increase

appreciably until the period between 1889 and 1891 when the

organization now known as the Climatological Service of the

Weather Bureau came into being. Since then from 60 to 90

cooperative observers, equipped with standardized instruments,

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cmd Letters.

and well distributed over the state, have gradually accumulated

a vast store of statistical data.

The earlier observers were not supplied with registering

thermometers, but made readings at stated times during the

day on a schedule designed to catch the highest and lowest at

their usual times of occurrence, viz., sunrise, or 7 a. m. and 2

Fig. 1. Map of the state of Wisconsin, showing the distribution of the

lowest recorded temperatures.

p. m. Maxima and minima at other hours were not recorded.

Lapham who made the observations for the Lake Survey oper-

Miller — Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin . 63

ated both methods, so that we are able to compare them. On

January 1, 1864, his registering thermometer indicated — 30,

but the lowest at any of the fixed hours was — 22. This differ¬

ence may explain why so few of the extremes recorded in early

years surpass those of later years.

Fig. 2. Map of the state of Wisconsin, showing the distribution of the

highest recorded temperatures.

The early observers exposed their thermometers in the open,

while nowadays, thermometers are mounted in louvred shelters.

Comparison of the average temperature at 2 p. m. in early

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

series of observations, with the average for the same hour un¬

der modern conditions, indicate that the thermometers must

then have been exposed to the direct rays of the sun. It is re¬

markable that in spite of this, the record high temperatures

were mostly reached under modern conditions.

All of the earlier observers, and most of the present-day

cooperative observers differ from the regular Weather Bureau

stations in that their thermometers are exposed only a few

feet above the ground, while the Weather Bureau Offices, neces¬

sarily located in the business section of cities have their ther¬

mometers exposed on buildings, which are steam-heated. The

effect of this difference is easily seen in the records of extreme

temperatures, especially of the minima. For example, on Feb¬

ruary 19 and 20, 1929, the following minima were reported

by cooperative observers: — 33 at Watertown, — 35 at Brod-

head, — 36 at Darlington, and — 40 at Richland Center. At the

Weather Bureau office at Madison, a thermometer, 70 feet above

the ground, read — 21. At Milwaukee, — 9 was the lowest

reached at the Weather Bureau Office at the Federal Building,

but the branch office at the airport at Cudahy reported — 29.

Radiation is a very important factor in producing extremes

of temperature; radiation from the sun warming the ground,

to produce maxima; radiation from the ground to the sky to

produce minima. Greater extremes are therefore likely to be

reached at thermometers exposed near the ground. The air is

stiller near the ground, and this also favors greater extremes.

Snow has a special relation to the occurrence of low tempera¬

tures, when it covers the ground to a sufficient thickness. Snow

is a good reflector of sunlight and daylight, and therefore a

poor absorber of radiation from these sources. Its character

changes entirely with reference to the long-wave radiation in

which heat flows away from the earth to the sky. A snow sur¬

face radiates much heat away to the sky at night, and the air

in contact with it cools rapidly, and as the density of the air

becomes greater as it cools, the cold air remains in contact with

the refrigerating surface, and also tends to discourage air

circulation through increasing stability. The cold spell of Jan¬

uary, 1922, when the record low temperature for the state, — 54

at Danbury, Burnett County, was registered, occurred when

the northern part of the state was buried under a heavy snow

Miller — Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin . 65

Fig. 3. Map of the state of Wisconsin, showing the absolute range of

temperature in the various parts of the state.

cover. At Madison, where the snow cover averaged only .6 inch,

the lowest temperature was — 12.

The occurrence of the lowest temperature at Danbury has

already been noted. The highest was 111° on July 4, 1901 at

Brodhead. It is interesting to note that 28 of the 104 records of

highest temperature date from July, 1901, while 23 of the min¬

ima were registered in February, 1899.

On the maps it is easy to note the moderating influence of

the Great Lakes on both maxima and minima. Latitude also

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

appears important in the distribution of minima. The irregu¬

larities on the maps may be ascribed to varying length of

record, and differences in exposure, as well as to natural dif¬

ferences.

The table and maps accompanying this article are based

mainly on data derived from the three publications listed in the

bibliography.

Bibliography

Schott, C. A. 1876 Tables, distribution and variations of the atmos¬

pheric temperature in the United States, etc. Smithsonian Contributions

to Knowledge 277. Washington.

U. S. Weather Bureau. 1926. Summaries of climatological data by Sec¬

tions. Bulletin W. Washington.

Climatological Service of the Weather Bureau. Climatological Data:

Wisconsin Section. Milwaukee; published monthly.

Miller — Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin,

67

TABLE I

Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

'

TABLE I

Extremes of Temperature in Wisconsin

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE

NORTHWESTERN PINE BARRENS OF WISCONSIN

Raymond E. Murphy

Introduction

The Barrens Landscape. The Northwestern Pine Barrens of

Wisconsin is a long, narrow strip of sand (Figure 1) where

coniferous forests and open expanses of sweet fern and grassy

barrens1 dwarf into insignificance the few evidences of man's

present occupancy and use of the land. Although the area is

dominantly a southwestward sloping plain, numerous pits in¬

terrupt the plain surface in some portions, their presence intro¬

ducing sufficient unevenness locally to justify classification as

hill country. The drainage pattern presented by the sand plain

is poorly developed, and there are large areas unpenetrated by

streams and many lakes without outlets. Despite some topo¬

graphic variability, the Barrens has many elements of unity —

a unity which is further emphasized by the way in which it con¬

trasts with neighboring areas (Figure 2). 2

Jack pine predominates in the forests, either in pure stands

of thickly set trees, or mixed with the useless, ubiquitous scrub

oak.3 Great piles of jack pine bolts4 in clearings along the

1 The term “barrens” is used throughout this paper in two senses. The unused

open tracts with only a grass or sweet fern cover are referred, to as barrens in

the sense of being bare and unproductive. The sand, strip as a whole has long

been referred to as “the Barrens” and. this usage is followed, here, capitalization

serving to distinguish the region name from the purely descriptive term.

2 The boundaries of the Barrens as used in this study were based primarily

upon the map of the Wisconsin Soil Survey (Figure 3). The continuous area

of Plainfield and Vilas soils in the St. Croix Valley and farther northeast, as

shown on this map, was considered as being essentially coincident with the

Barrens, other types of soil being included only where they existed as small

islands or narrow strips in the continuous body of Plainfield and Vilas. In most

cases the boundary thus set was found to be justified by its coincidence with a

marked change in vegetation cover and use of the land. This gave a basis for

arbitrary use of the soil boundary as a regional boundary in localities where

the transition in use and vegetation is more gradual. In Burnett County one

area of Plainfield Sand was considered as part of the region even though iso¬

lated from the main body of the Barrens.

3 The term “scrub oak” is commonly applied to the small bush-like oaks ob¬

servable throughout the Barrens. Several species of oak are included under this

general name, but scarlet oak is said to be the most common.

4 The eight-foot lengths of jack pine, ready for shipment to the pulp mills, are

ordinarily referred to as “bolts” or “boltwood”.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

railroads or at railway stations await the call of the pulp mills

of Central Wisconsin, and clumsy truck loads of similar logs

are met jogging along the two-rut, sand roads which crisscross

the Barrens. The grassy and sweet fern barrens bear no mark

of present utilization, but are desolate open tracts where only

an occasional charred stump, a cluster of jack pines, or a scrub

oak bush, breaks the monotonous sweep of the rolling, thinly

clad ground surface.

At rare intervals small cultivated areas with isolated tar

paper shacks or log cabins interrupt the continuity of forest

and barrens. The Scandinavian ancestry of the owners of many

of these humble homes is indicated by the frequent recurrence

of such names as Anderson, Johnson, and Christianson on the

mail boxes. Typically, the farmstead scene does not include

children playing around the house and barns. There are some

large families, of course, but the region is characteristically

one of people past middle age — weatherworn old Scandinavians

who came here with their wives and children many years ago.

The children have grown up and gone. The Barrens does not

hold its younger generation. No new settlers are moving in,

and one gets the impression that when the present hardy sur¬

vivors pass on there will be none to take their places.

Cropped fields, dominantly hay, are unfenced, but adjacent

wood or barrens lots, where a few cattle showing traces of

Jersey blood find scanty grazing, are enclosed by fences. These

poorly fed and poorly cared for herds are the basis of a dairy

industry in which cream, shipped to creameries in St. Paul,

Duluth, and neighboring small towns, is the end product. The

industry is, however, small-scale in character, with poor barns

and equipment and meager returns.

Almost as numerous as the occupied farms are the aban¬

doned, tumbled-down farmhouses surrounded by fields going

to waste. Sometimes only a few stones and a patch of quack

grass remain to mark the site of a former home, and to give

the impression of poor land and unsuccessful farming.

Although the Northwestern Pine Barrens has an area of

approximately 1500 square miles, it has but six small villages,5

three of which are near the edge of the sand strip and derive

6 Villages and populations (estimated): Iron River, 810; Grantsburg, 781;

Solon Springs, 778 ; Gordon, 600 ; Wascott, 369 ; Delta, 12.

Murphy-— Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 71

their trade largely from farms located on neighboring areas of

better soil, while the others are so situated with respect to

lakes that they owe their prosperity, such as it is, to summer

Figure 1. Map of a part of Wisconsin showing location and extent of

Northwestern Pine Barrens. The principal villages of the Barrens and

nearby villages, towns, and cities to which the area is related by trade are

shown by dots, the areas of which are proportional to population. The

creameries, cheese factories, and cream shipping points shown are those

which receive all or any of their cream from the Barrens. The single

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

creamery symbol in the case of the larger cities represents not a single

creamery but several which receive some cream from the Barrens. Prac¬

tically all the cream shipping points on the railroads, and a number of

spurs and sidings which are not cream shipping points, ship jack pine bolts.

resorts. Many of the pits which characterize portions of the

Barrens hold lakes whose clear water and sandy bottoms at¬

tract summer visitors. Wooded shores of the larger lakes are

the sites of expensive summer homes and resorts which seem

strangely out of place in this unfruitful country.

Occasional swampy areas present still another type of land¬

scape. Some are clothed with tamarack, spruce, and muskeg,

but others, even more extensive tracts, are treeless swamp

meadows.

From the top of the occasional fire lookout tower which pro¬

jects above the general level, the country is a wide expanse of

alternating forest and barrens, studded by many lakes with

their summer homes and resorts, and broken by widely scat¬

tered farms and a rectangular network of roads.

Recent Stages in the Development of the Barrens Landscape .

It is difficult to visualize the Northwestern Pine Barrens of

Wisconsin as it must have appeared before marked by the hand

of man. It had a forest cover, largely coniferous, but the for¬

ests of the sand strip as a whole averaged poorer and sparser

than those on the heavier soils to north and south.6 Such types

as jack pine and scrub oak, which do well on poor soil, must

have been fairly common even then, but many Norway pines

and a limited number of white pines grew in parts of the Bar¬

rens.

Before the coming of logging concerns and settlers, the Bar¬

rens was part of the domain of the Ojibwa (Chippewa) In¬

dians who, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had

driven the Fox and Dakota tribes from the area.7 The Ojibwa

learned to use the wild rice that grows in the swamps of North¬

ern Wisconsin and this grain became an important part of their

food.8 There is a legend that the Indians burned over sections

6 Roth, Filibert, Forestry conditions of Northern Wisconsin, Wisconsin Geolo¬

gical and Natural History Survey, Bulletin 1, pp. 11-12, 1898.

7 Jenks, Albert E., The wild rice gatherers of the upper lakes — a study in

American primitive economics, 19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American

Ethnology, pp. 1040-41, 1901.

8 Jenks, Op. cit., p. 1042.

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 73

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74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

of the Barrens to improve the blueberry crop, and it is possible

that they may thus have changed the landscape which they

found.

The invasion of Northwestern Wisconsin by logging concerns

about 1860 inaugurated an epoch of rapid changes in the ap¬

pearance of the country. Most of the white pine was cut early

in the logging period, and a considerable part of the Norway

pine followed, leaving jack pine, scrub oak, and a few strag¬

gling Norway and white pines. The lumbering operations were

followed by frequent fires. The loggers removed only the choic¬

est pine, while on the forest floor they left great heaps of

branches and tops known as “slashings”. Such dead material

Figures. Soils of the Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. (After

Musbach, F. L., and others, Reconnaissance Soil Survey of North Part of

North Western Wisconsin, Bulletin 32, Soil Series No. 6, Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey, 1914.)

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 75

dried out during periods of drought until only a spark from a

hunter's camp fire, a passing locomotive, or a chance stroke of

lightning was necessary to set it ablaze. Moreover, saw mills

and saw mill towns were flimsily constructed of inflammable

pine, and the fires which so commonly started in and wiped out

these mills and towns swept over the surrounding country as

well. Whatever the source, there was no attempt to check these

early fires, and they were allowed to burn until they died out

or were extinguished by rains.

Through the killing out of less hardy types such as white and

Norway pines, fire furthered the spread of both jack pine and

scrub oak.9 In fact, jack pine is known as “fire” pine since fire

opens the cones and prepares an ideal seed bed for the young

trees, which spring up everywhere shortly after a fire has de¬

stroyed the better timber. If fire again sweeps the area before

the young jack pines have produced cones, the region is then

destined to be open land with a vegetation of thin grass, sweet

fern, and scrub oak. Gradually then, during and following the

period of lumbering, the axe of man, and, even more, the fires

which he set, changed the aspect of the Barrens. Jack pine and

scrub oak spread and thrived, becoming the dominant vegeta¬

tion types.

At about the time of maximum lumbering operations settlers

began to come into the Barrens, and the influx continued after

lumbering had ceased. Some homesteaded for the timber on the

land, and sold or abandoned their holdings after the timber was

logged off. Others came as permanent settlers attracted in

part by the ease of clearing and working the sandy soils. Dur¬

ing this period of active settlement many roads were opened,

particularly in the flatter areas where in some instances they

marked every section line.

During the present century the farmers of the Barrens have

encountered increasing difficulty in making a living in com¬

petition with those who settled on areas of better soils. The

limited fertility of the sandy soil has been exhausted by con¬

tinuous cropping with little rotation or fertilization, and many

9 Bordner, J. S., and Morris, Wm. W., in Land Economic Inventory of North¬

ern Wisconsin, by Whitson, A. R., et. al., Wisconsin Department of Agriculture

and Markets in co-operation with the Geological and Natural History Survey

and the Conservation Commission, Bulletin 100, pp. 58-59, 1929.

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

farms have been abandoned and allowed to revert to barrens or

forest.

Cessation of lumbering operations was followed about 1910

by the development of a new timber industry, the cutting of

jack pine for pulpwood. Selective cutting of trees of pulpwood

size has materially thinned the stand of jack pine, although it

has not destroyed whole stands except where fires have caught

in the slashings. At the present time a forest protection service

combats the fire hazard. A small force of men is regularly em¬

ployed to man the several lookout towers and to be ready in

case of emergency to organize and lead fire-fighting forces.

Coincident with the early development of the boltwood in¬

dustry, summer resorts began to assume importance, although

there was some resort activity even prior to the pulpwood in¬

dustry in a few localities. So rapidly have summer homes and

hotels sprung up along the shores of better lakes, that today

the number of commercial resorts is too great in proportion

to the number of visitors for the business to be very profitable.

Geographic Subdivisions of the Barrens

Though the Northwestern Pine Barrens is uniform through¬

out in its general aspects, a more detailed consideration brings

out certain contrasts. On the basis of these contrasts the area

may be divided into three subregions (Figure 2) :

(1) The Northeastern Hill Section (310 square miles)

(2) The Pitted Sand Plain Section (960 square miles)

(3) The Southwestern Marsh Section (220 square miles)

the northeastern hill section

The Northeastern Hill Section of the Northwestern Pine

Barrens region of Wisconsin is a hilly interlobate moraine,

fronted on the northeast and northwest by narrow, level ter¬

race aprons (Figures 2 and 3). During the glaciation of

Northern Wisconsin, one lobe of the ice sheet passed south-

westward through the Lake Superior Basin to its head, spread¬

ing out fanwise to the south ; while a second lobe traveled on a

more southerly course by way of Chequamegon Bay.10 The

fanwise spread of the second, the Chippewa Lobe, brought it

10 Martin, Lawrence, The Physical Geography of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Geolo¬

gical and Natural History Survey, Bulletin 36, p. 374, 1916.

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 77

into conflict with the spreading Superior Lobe, and along this

zone of contact a pile of debris was heaped up, the Bayfield

Ridge of today. The material of this high, hummocky belt is

largely sand, a reflection of the sandstone bed rock. While the

ice front was retreating, a marginal lake existed in the Lake

Superior Basin, and it is supposed that the work of the waves

at a high stage of the lake developed the terraces which fringe

the Ridge. During this and later stages of the marginal lake

the clays of the Lake Superior Lowland were laid down.

Figure 4. Cultivated Land in the Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wiscon¬

sin, 1929. (Based on field mapping by the author.)

Typical Barrens vegetation characterizes the Northeastern

Hill Section, but the degree of utilization is low even when

judged by standards based on the sand strip as a whole. Al¬

though it consists of both hill country and flat terrace land, the

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

section does not present as many contrasts in natural and cul¬

tural forms as this variability would seem to suggest. Alter¬

nate patches of forest and sweet fern barrens cover hills and

flats alike, while meagerness of utilization is typical of both

bench and hill land. Thus topographic differences seem to have

been less significant than soil similarity in the development of

the present cover features. This fact is well illustrated by the

marked vegetation and utilization change that may be observed

in passing either from the flats or the hill country to neighbor¬

ing areas of heavier soil (Figure 2).

Small, isolated farms are widely scattered over the North¬

eastern Hill Section, frequently miles apart, but dotting hills

and terraces alike (Figure 4).11 Scattered though they are,

11 The quantitative data used in this paper were obtained principally from a

reconnaissance field survey by the author and from material available in the

files of the Wisconsin Crop and Livestock Reporting Service.

In his reconnaissance survey, the author attempted to visit every section

(square mile), recording for each a fraction which expressed the character of

the slope, the soil, and the cover. Where it was not practicable to visit a sec¬

tion, its character was inferred from that of neighboring sections which had

been visited. Less work was done in Bayfield County than in the remainder of

the Barrens, since for this county there were available forest and form cover

maps of the Land Economic Inventory of Northern Wisconsin. The data con¬

tained on these maps were converted into section fractions similar to those

used in the author’s reconnaissance elsewhere in the sand country. All of the

fractions, one for each section (square mile) of the Barrens, were placed on a

large map, and from this map the data were obtained for an isopleth map of

per cent of land in crops (Figure 4) and for cover charts of each subregion

(Figure 5).

The files of the Wisconsin Crop and Livestock Reporting Service contain data as

to the number of farms, acreage of farms, acres in different kinds of crops, etc.

by civil towns. Unfortunately, many of the civil towns of Northwestern Wis¬

consin are large (for example, Gordon has an area of 156 square miles) and

most of them lie partly inside the Barrens and partly outside. The part outside

of the sand country may be an important agricultural region, while that in the

sand is almost uninhabited. Under these conditions the large total for a given

town will completely obscure the true conditions in the sandy part. The meet¬

ing of this difficulty constituted a serious problem.

County Treasurers’ offices were visited, and the farm boundaries described in

the records were drawn off on specially prepared township plats. This work

was facilitated by the fact that there is practically no renting in the Barrens,

nearly all the occupied farms being in the hands of their owners. Wherever

there were improvements on the land, then it was considered that such land

was part of a farm, possibly occupied, and the farm was outlined on the plat

and the owner’s name printed in. Such farm maps were prepared for every

township (36 square miles) or fraction of a township in the Barrens.

The files of the Wisconsin Crop and Livestock Reporting Service contain, in

addition to the data by civil towns, similar data for each individual farm under

the name of the farmer. This information by farms was copied out for every

civil town any part of which extends into the Barrens. No detailed locations

within the civil town are given for these farms, but by checking the names of

the owners against the farm plats made up from the County Treasurers’ records

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 79

there is a striking uniformity in their appearance and in the

farm practices employed. The average farmer owns his farm

of approximately 120 acres. The land has been laid out by sec¬

tions, and a farm is usually some multiple of 20 or 40 acres,

and is divided up into rectangular plots. Only 20 per cent of

the average farm is cultivated, and only 1.3 per cent of the re¬

gion as a whole, the remainder being partly timber land and

partly land which is uncultivated and untimbered, essentially

idle at the present time (Figure 5) . A barbed wire fence tacked

to the trees may enclose a small part of the uncultivated land,

the fenced area serving as pasture for three or four dairy cows

during the summer season. The pasturage is poor, however,

since sandy soil supports only a thin, unnutritious grass over

the open stretches and practically nothing edible in the wood

lots. The quack grass meadows which occupy the deserted fields

of abandoned farms give better, though by no means ideal,

pasturage. During dry summers conditions become particu¬

larly bad, since the sand is very liable to drought. Poor grazing

is in a measure offset by large pasture acreage per cow. The

small, rectangular fields which make up the remainder of the

typical farm are unfenced, for land once cleared for crops is

never pastured until it is completely abandoned as crop land.

Improved pasture and pasture in rotation with crop land are

almost unknown in the Northeastern Hill Section or anywhere

else in the Barrens.

The keynote of the farm system is dairying, and this theme is

borne out in the high per cent of cultivated land given over

to such crops as hay, oats, and corn (Figure 5). Thirteen of

the twenty-four acres cultivated on the average farm are

planted in clover and timothy hay, a crop which is benefited

it was possible to obtain the names of most of the farmers located in each

township or fraction of a township constituting the Barrens. By listing after

each farmer’s name the number of acres he had in each crop, totals were ob¬

tained of the acres in various crops per township or fraction of a township, and

the data converted into per cents of total cultivated land in various crops per

township. By such a method, if only half of the farms in a given township

were listed, the result was still useful since it represented a fair estimate of

the proportion of the cultivated land in different crops.

Assemblage of the data thus made available gave, for each subdivision of

the Barrens, the average size of farms, the per cent of the average farm in

crops, and the relative proportions of the cultivated land given over to the

various crops (Figures 2 and 6). Unfortunately, livestock figures are not col¬

lected by farms and information on this subject was limited to what could be

obtained by personal observation and inquiry.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

Figure. 5. Cover analyses of the three subdivisions of the Northwestern

Pine Barrens of Wisconsin.

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 81

by the cool summers and adequate summer rainfall typical of

this part of the United States (Figure 6). The snowfall, which

averages 50 to 60 inches a year, furnishes good winter protec¬

tion for the crop, but the sandy soils are poor in plant foods

and heavy stands of hay are not to be expected even in the most

favorable years, while in dry years the droughtiness of the sand

asserts itself, making the yields particularly low. Moreover,

the soil is so acid that clover can be started only with difficulty

unless lime is used, and good stands of clover are correspond¬

ingly rare. Since conditions are not ideal for hay, the explana¬

tion of the large acreage relative to other crops seems to lie

partly in the necessity for a winter feed for dairy cattle in a

region where summers are too short and cool to grow good

corn even for ensilage, and partly in the location of the sand

country in a section of the United States where hay is very gen¬

erally a well adapted and very important crop.

Approximately 12 per cent of the cultivated land on the

average farm is in corn. In this activity the sand farmer en¬

joys a certain advantage over his neighbor on the adjacent

heavier soil areas for sand warms up quickly in the spring and

allows earlier plowing and earlier planting of the crop. The

corn grown is a quick maturing variety, Northern Yellow Dent

or Early Wisconsin Number 25. It is planted during the last

week of May, and, although it may be ripened in favorable

years, the crop is grown more for its ensilage or fodder value

than for grain. Frosts may occur almost any time during the

summer and kill or seriously damage the corn. Although this

is not a frequent happening, it serves to curtail the acreage

planted. The common practice is to cut the corn for ensilage or

fodder early in September, or sooner if an unseasonable frost

occurs. The portion used for ensilage is limited, as silos are

rare in the Northeastern Hill Section. This seems to be due to

(1) small bulk of ensilage obtainable from the type of corn

that can be grown, (2) danger of the crop’s development being

cut short by an early frost, and (8) lack of capital on the part

of the farmers.

Of the small grains, which occupy 22 per cent of the culti¬

vated land, oats is by far the most important, exceeding corn in

total acreage. The cool, fairly moist summers and the poor

soils of the Barrens favor a fairly high relative importance of

the crop. Barley and spring wheat, which are poorly adapted

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

?fO

/.

7F?

-60

-50

///

■v

/

-JO

-20

J

^\!0

TEMPERATURE

Iron River

Solon Springs

Grant sburg —

PRECIPITATION

□ Iron River

Solon Springs

|1§ Grant sburg

Sites: Iron River station in slightly rolling country, on north slope of

low hill, elevation 1096. Solon Springs station in St. Croix Valley l/4th

mi. west of Lake St. Croix and 45 to 50 feet above it, elev. 108S. Grant s-

burg station on level of Barrens, 150 feet from Wood River, elevation 905.

CLIMATIC CHART

Figure 6. Climatic conditions in the Northwestern Pine Barrens

Wisconsin. (Based on United States Weather Bureau data.)

of

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 83

to the sandy soils, are of considerably less importance than oats,

while fall sown rye, though seemingly better adapted to the soil

and climate of the Barrens, occupies less acreage in the North¬

eastern Hill Section than either barley or spring wheat.

Potatoes is the only crop very generally grown in the North¬

eastern Hill Section which does not play a part in dairying.

The acre or two of this vegetable to be seen near the house on

almost every farm are for the home table. The cool and fairly

moist summers and the light soil would seem to furnish ideal

conditions for potato production, but in reality the soil is too

light and lacks a sufficient supply of plant foods. Hence, there

is little commercial potato growing.

The hay and grain crops follow a rude rotation, but it is

ordinarily not very systematic, and there is no generally ac¬

cepted system of rotation for the whole region. Animal man¬

ures are used to some extent. Green manuring is rare. Instead

of the use of scientific farm practices to combat handicaps of

soil and climate, the common practice seems to consist of meet¬

ing declining yields by cutting down acreage until returns are

not enough to pay the taxes on the land, and the county must

take possession.

The houses and barns on the Barrens farms are by no means

pretentious. The houses are usually small, two or three room

structures, frequently either log cabins or tar paper covered

frame buildings. The log cabins are relics of the days of heav¬

ier forests, and none are being built now — in fact, few houses

of any sort are being built since settlers are leaving the Barrens

lather than moving in. The more recently constructed build¬

ings are of frame, frequently little more than shacks, covered

with black or brown tar paper which helps to protect the in¬

mates from the winter cold in a region where the average Jan¬

uary temperature is 7° Fahrenheit (Figure 6). There are no

well kept or regularly laid out yards about the houses, although

a few jack pine are frequently left standing as shade and a

partial wind break. Planted trees are seldom to be seen, and

orchards are strikingly absent, since frost may visit the region

almost any month in the year.

The barns are small log or frame buildings, unpainted, but

frequently supported by stone or concrete basements which

serve as winter quarters for the cattle, the horses, and the 20

or 30 chickens which make up the farm livestock. Large barns

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

are not needed as the livestock population is small, and the

amount of hay and grain to be stored is not great. An old Ford

car standing near the barn is a critical part of the scene, since

it plays an important role in the dairy industry as it is carried

on in the Barrens. Milk is separated and occasionally, perhaps

twice a week, sour cream is taken by car to the Iron River or

Benoit creameries, or to some railroad station for shipment to

Duluth, Superior or Ashland. Sweet cream brings a better

price than the sour product, but the distance to the creamery is

too great to haul daily the small amount of cream which the

farming operations yield, and the farms are too scattered for

creamery trucks to make profitable collecting trips.

A farm water supply is obtainable here and farther south¬

west in the Barrens at a depth of 50 feet or less, but the wells

are likely to go dry during a dry summer. Most farms have

pumps, only a few of the more prosperous farmsteads includ¬

ing a windmill in their equipment. The house and barn, a few

jack pines left near the house, a pump, a small unfenced garden

— these constitute the average farmstead.

The Vilas Hill Country

Nearly three-fourths of the Northeastern Hill Section is in¬

cluded in the Vilas Hill Country, a region so rugged and stony

in comparison with the flat sandy benches, that the Wisconsin

Soil Survey has given it a separate soil classification12 (Figures

2 and 8). In this hill country numerous depressions, some dry

and grassy, and others occupied by small lakes or lake rem¬

nants, alternate with sharp hills or knobs in a relief reaching

100 to 150 feet (PI. I, fig. 1). Forests and barrens dominate the

landscape, the former particularly in the southwest, while a

nearly continuous sweep of barrens covers the northeastern

part. The one really good road which crosses the hill country,

the Superior-Ashland Highway, curves and twists over one of

the most wildly picturesque parts of this rugged area, while the

few secondary roads wind grotesquely around hills and depres¬

sions, a condition strangely at variance with the usual rectang¬

ular pattern found elsewhere (Figure 7). Narrow roads,

scarcely more than two ruts straddling a grassy ridge, meander

12 Musbach, F. L., et. al.f Reconnaissance Soil Survey of North Part of North

Western Wisconsin, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Soil Series

6, Bulletin 32, pp. 30-32, 1914.

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 85

far into the hills to isolated farms which correspond in most

respects to the typical Northeastern Hill Section farm already

described. There is, however, a greater dominance of clover

and timothy hay over other crops than was true of the typical

farm (Figure 5), a condition which seems to be attributable in

part to the rough topography. The distance to market is so

great for one or two of the farms, that it is necessary to con¬

vert cream into home-made butter, a more compact product

which keeps better.

The Vilas Barrens . The whole northeastern part of the Vilas

Hill Country (Figure 2) is a barren, monotonous sweep of sweet

fern and mixed popple13 and hardwood brush with rare clus¬

ters of jack or Norway pines, the only indication of a former

forest cover. Streams are absent from this barren, hilly coun¬

try, and even lakes are scarce, drainage being entirely by seep¬

age into the sands and by evaporation. The Superior-Ashland

branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad crosses the Vilas Bar¬

rens just east of Iron River, but it is only a “bridge” crossing,

with little or no traffic to be picked up. Formerly the “Battle

Axe” Division of the Northern Pacific, connecting the village of

Iron River with Washburn, crossed the northern part of the

area, but with the passing of logging days the road with its

many miles in sand became a burden, and service has been dis¬

continued and the rails removed.

Poor though the soil is, it is capable of producing good stands

of jack and Norway pine and even fair stands of white pine,14

and plans are being made to reforest this district during the

next fifteen or twenty years, with the aim of bringing the land

back to the point where it will be an asset.15 To this end, much

of the land, which because of tax delinquency reverted to Bay-

field County, has been sold to the United States Government for

a National Forest. Part of the land within the boundaries of

13 The term “popple” has come into general use in Northern Wisconsin for sec¬

ond growth forest where aspen is dominant. See, for example, usage in : Land

Economic Inventory of Northern Wisconsin, Wisconsin Department of Agriculture

and Markets in co-operation with the Geological and Natural History Survey

and the Conservation Commission, Bulletin 100, 1929.

14 Bordner, J. S., and Morris, Wm. W., in Land Economic Inventory of Northern

Wisconsin, by Whitson, A. R., et. al., Wisconsin Department of Agriculture and

Markets in co-operation with the Geological and Natural History Survey and the

Conservation Commission, Bulletin 100, pp. 54-61, 1929.

15 Bean, Leslie, Acting for S. D. Anderson, Forest Supervisor, Park Falls, Wis¬

consin, Private Communication, February, 1930.

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

FIGURE?. Roads of the Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin, 1929.

(Based on various existing road maps and on field observations by the

author.)

the projected forest is still privately owned, but is gradually

being bought up at prices ranging from $1.25 to $1.85 per acre.

Two widely separated fire towers have been established so that

vigil may be kept against fire, which originally reduced the land

to its barrens condition, and will be a constant menace toward

reforestation in the future.

The Southwestern Vilas Area . At the southwestern end of

the Vilas Hill Country (Figure 2) there is a hilly area which

is like the Vilas Barrens in topography, but has a much heav¬

ier forest cover. There are some bald, barren patches it is true,

but forest dominates — a typical second growth forest in which

popple and hardwoods play a prominent part, while jack and

Norway pines are of relatively minor importance. Unfortun-

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 87

ately, most of the popple and hardwood is of little use, but a

small amount of jack pine is being cut here and there for

boltwood which is shipped from Iron River.

The Lake Belt . Between the Vilas Barrens and the South¬

western Vilas Area there is a belt extending southeastward

from the village of Iron River (Figures 1 and 2) in which lakes

are fairly numerous (Figure 8). The larger lakes are con¬

nected and drained by White River, which flows out into the

clay area to the southeast. This stream, together with one or

two others in the Lake Belt, are the only streams in the entire

Northeastern Hill Section.

Wiehe, Basswood, Iron, and other lakes of this belt are re¬

ceiving a steadily increasing number of summer visitors, and

Figure 8. Streams and lakes, fur farms, cranberry marshes, and Crex

meadows— Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin, 1929. (Data from

various sources including field mapping by the author.)

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, ana Letters.

summer homes and resorts are becoming prominent features of

the landscape. The summer resort industry is by far the most

important utilization of the Lake Belt. Lakes in the sand coun¬

try are clear, have good sand beaches for bathing, and, except

where they have been over exploited, are well stocked with

fish. Deer are plentiful and hunters have long made regular

winter visits to the region.

An area with as many lakes and marshes as the Lake Belt

might be expected to possess some fur-bearing animals, so it is

not surprising to find a few commercial fur farms. Of the five

fur farms16 on record in the area one is devoted to silver fox

rearing, one to beaver, two to beaver and muskrat, and the fifth

is licensed to grow “muskrat, mink, skunk, marten and raccoon”

(Figure 8). On at least two of these farms and probably on

others chinchilla rabbits are reared as a sideline.

Two advantages enjoyed by all the fur producers in this

area are a good fur-producing climate and cheap land. Cool

summers and cold winters favor good fur development, while

land values of five to ten dollars per acre mean a smaller in¬

vestment than would be necessary in better soil areas.

The silver fox farm is located in the interior of 80 acres of

forest, secluded from the prying eyes of chance sightseers.

Here, a high woven-wire fence encloses a typical fox farm lay¬

out of pens and kennels, where 20 silver foxes are housed.

The rather sparse stand of mixed jack pine, popple, and hard¬

wood of this section of the Barrens permits the penetration of

enough sunlight to disinfect the ground and pens, while giving

spots of shade large enough to provide rest places for the ani¬

mals. The sandy soil is both an advantage and a disadvantage.

For sanitary reasons a well-drained soil is desired and sand

amply fulfills this need, but foxes can burrow to a depth of sev¬

eral feet in sand, so fences must be extended three feet or more

into the ground, a proceeding which increases the cost of fenc¬

ing considerably. A fairly deep winter snow cover, such as is

enjoyed by this general region, is said to help control most of

the common parasites which give trouble in fox rearing.

The other fur farms range in size from 7 to 30 acres. Just

outside the village of Delta is a beaver and rabbit farm which is

fairly representative. The beaver pond, about one-eighth mile

18 Data for all except the fox farm collected from files of Conservation Com¬

mission of Wisconsin.

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 89

in diameter, has been enclosed by a woven-wire fence, and now

a beaver house rises above the water level, while along the shore

of the pond popple stumps are all that remain of a once vigorous

second growth timber. A pile of untrimmed young popples just

inside the fence represents the rations of two dozen beavers

for the coming night.

The raising of rabbits for fur and meat is of as great import¬

ance as the raising of beavers on the fur farm near Delta, a large

gray and white rabbit barn with associated fenced yards being

the home of 150 chinchilla rabbits. The region has no special

advantages for the rearing of these animals, but this work fits

in so well with other fur farm activities that it is engaged in

by nearly all the fur farmers of the Barrens. Indeed, some of

the small scale dairy farmers are beginning the rearing of rab¬

bits as a minor source of income.

Detailed information is not available as to the average total

value of output of the fur farms, and indeed such a figure would

be of little significance for production is quite irregular and

may consist either of live animals for breeding purposes or of

pelts. For instance, one farm sold 6 live beavers in 1929, an¬

other sold nothing but pelts (2 mink, 2 raccoon, and 15 musk¬

rat), while a third reports 8 muskrat hides sold. Most of the

farms are too new to have much of a salable surplus as yet.

The Lake Belt is traversed by the Duluth, South Shore, and

Atlantic Railroad, which serves particularly the resorts on the

lakes, and has been partly responsible for the development of

the resort industry. A village serves each end of the Belt, and

adjacent to each the resorts are well developed and roads are

fairly numerous, while an intermediate area shows consider¬

ably less development. Delta, a village of 12 people, has a store

and post office combined, and is a station on the railroad (Fig¬

ure 1). Although it is located in the Barrens and although it

serves the resorts of the Lake Belt, Delta looks east for most

of its trade, depending primarily upon the agricultural section

in the Superior Lowland. The other end of the Lake Belt is

served by Iron River. This village of 800 people is really located

on the Plainfield Terrace which borders the hill country to the

northwest, and is of interest here chiefly because it serves the

resorts of the Lake Belt and has made possible the considerable

commercial development of this section.

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The Plainfield Terraces

The Superior- Ashland highway enters the Northeastern Hill

Section about three miles west of the village of Iron River. For

6 miles east of its point of entry into the Barrens it traverses

a high, flat, sandy bench land before finally rising into the hill

country to the east. At the village of Iron River an old road may

be followed which runs a short distance north and then

almost straight northeast away from the main highway.

For six miles or more the road is almost perfectly level, running

as it does on a northeastern extension of the same terrace or

bench land observable at Iron River. Sweet fern and scrub

oak barrens alternate with smaller patches of jack pine forest,

while not a farm is encountered in spite of the fact that the

village of Iron River is but a few miles distant. To the north¬

west the land surface drops off to the heavier clay areas of the

Lake Superior Lowland, where hardwood and popple forest

are interrupted by many farms with cleared fields and large

red barns (Figure 2). To the southeast of the bench there is

an abrupt rise to the hummocky hill country, which constitutes

the heart of the Northeastern Hill Section. This bench land

described is one of the two Plainfield terraces which fringe the

hilly part of the Northeastern Hill Section (Figure 3) .

Sixty-five per cent of the total area of the Plainfield Terraces

is unforested and uncultivated land, while 95 per cent of the

land thus classified is barrens, an expanse of sweet fern, scrub

oak, and pin cherry with occasional isolated jack pines. Aban¬

doned farms make up about 2 per cent of the uncultivated and

unforested area. Usually fire has followed, or may even have

played a part in, the abandonment, and today only the charred

remains of a board or two, a few stones, and a quack grass

meadow mark the former farm site.

Jack pine, either alone or mixed with scrub oak, is the dom¬

inant forest type, but less than 15 per cent of the timbered

land is in jack pine large enough to be cut for pulpwood.

Two and one-half per cent of the Plainfield Terrace land is

cultivated. The slightly higher per cent of the cultivated land

here than is found in the Vilas Hill Country (Figure 4) seems

to be due not so much to topographic differences as to the loca¬

tion of the terrace lands marginal to better soil areas and to

the presence of the village of Iron River in the southwestern

Murphy— Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 91

part of the northwestern terrace. This village, though depend¬

ing largely upon the better soil areas to the north, has been

responsible for a higher degree of agricultural utilization of

adjacent parts of the Plainfield Terrace than is normal to the

region.

The village of Iron River developed at a point where the

Northern Pacific Railroad crosses the Duluth, South Shore, and

Atlantic, a point almost equally distant from Superior and Ash¬

land. The first house of the village was built in 1885. First the

headquarters for settlers who were attracted by government

timber lands thrown open for settlement in the Vilas Hill

Country to the east and northeast, it became later an import¬

ant saw mill town. In 1892 it suffered the fate of many of the

early saw mill towns in being burned to the ground, but was

built up again shortly after. A small stream fed by lakes to the

south and flowing northward through Iron River has some¬

times been used to generate a little power, but this has at no

time been an important factor in the growth of the village.

The same stream was used to float a few logs in saw mill days,

but even then was unimportant. Iron River village long ago

ceased to be significant as a lumber milling center though even

now a small mill is operated by the local lumber yard.

The village of Iron River, with a population of about 800, is

now in the peculiar position of being located on a strip of Plain-

field Terrace, while it depends for its livelihood almost entirely

upon areas lying on either side of this terrace. Farmers from

adjacent parts of the Lake Superior Lowland to the north bring

to Iron River almost all of its farming trade, and they furnish

the village creamery with most of its cream supply. The local

cheese factory, requiring a large quantity of milk near at hand,

is located out in the Lake Superior Lowland about 8 miles north

of Iron River, and draws none of its raw material from the

Barrens. A bean canning factory, located at the edge of the vil¬

lage, is another plant which looks for most of its raw material

to the better soil areas to the north. A few bean fields occur on

the sand, it is true, fields which are dotted with pickers in late

August, but the wax and string beans which are canned do bet¬

ter on soils that are heavier than the sands of the bench. Iron

River takes great pride in its summer resort trade and in the

many lakes and resorts which are tributary to the village, but

here again the Plainfield terrace upon which the village itself

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

is located is unimportant as most of the lakes and resorts are

in the Lake Belt of the Vilas Hill Country to the south. From

this same belt, too, come most of the jack pine logs which are

shipped from Iron River station. Thus in every activity upon

which the village is dependent the Plainfield Terrace land plays

but a minor role.

THE PITTED SAND PLAIN SECTION

A few miles southwest of the village of Iron River a ridge

of stony loam soil projects from the northwest, narrowing the

Barrens at this point to a scant six miles. At this

constriction the rugged topography of the Northeastern Hill

Section terminates abruptly, and a sand plain, locally pitted,

stretches away to the southwest (Figure 2). The surface of

the plain slopes gently in the same direction, so gently, in fact,

that from almost any point of observation an impression of

flatness is obtained.

Jack pine forests, frequently with some admixture of scrub

oak, share the Pitted Sand Plain Section almost equally with

sweet fern and grassy barrens (Figure 5). Stunted oak bushes

and occasional isolated jack or Norway pines dot the barren

tracts. The northeastern end of the area is predominantly for¬

est; in other localities, as southwest of Gordon, there are large

bald or barren spots. More common still, for the section as a

whole, is an intermingling of barren and timbered stretches

with sporadic patches of brule, or burned over land, the inter¬

mediate stage between forest and barrens. The widely scattered

farms are minor but important features of the landscape.

The general level of the plain, intact over large areas, is

surprisingly pitted in others (PI. I, fig. 2) and in many of these

depressions lakes are found. Some lakes are isolated, others

are in clusters, and, though they are very generally scattered,

there is a noticeable tendency toward an increase in number

from northeast to southwest throughout the section (Figure

8). So numerous are the pits in many parts of the Pitted Sand

Plain that the topography might almost be described as hill

country of mild relief. Popple, birch, and an occasional white

pine fringe the shores of the lakes. The presence of these species

may be simply a response to a high ground water table in the

bottoms of the depressions, or there may actually be more

fertile soils and soils of higher water holding capacity in these

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 93

hollows due to the washing in of silt by surface water. The

shores of the most attractive lakes are used in part by summer

homes and resorts, but many lakes are partially filled, with

swampy edges, and here and there depressions have been filled

to the point that they have become all swamp, covered with a

coniferous forest of tamarack and spruce except where logging

or fire has reduced the area to swamp meadow, muskeg, or

alder.

The general surface of the Pitted Sand Plain is cut also by

several river valleys (Figure 8) . The St. Croix and Brule rivers

occupy a single steep-walled valley, one of the outlets of former

Lake Duluth — a trough nowhere over two miles wide, with a

low col between the headwaters of the two streams. The nar¬

rowness of the portage from the St. Croix to the Bois Brule

just above Lake St. Croix made this at one time an important

highway of communication between Lake Superior and the

Mississippi River. It was so familiar to the Indians that the

earliest white explorers learned of it, and utilized it to a con¬

siderable extent. Du Luth crossed this portage in 1680, Carver

traveled that way in 1767, Le Sueur in 1793, and Schoolcraft in

1832. At one time it was even planned to build a canal along

the St. Croix-Brule route, but this was never attempted.17

The Brule-St. Croix Valley stands out not only as a trough

in the flat surface of the Barrens, but for a distinctive vegeta¬

tion grouping as well. Evergreen swamp forest, swamp

meadow, muskeg, white and Norway pine, hardwoods, and

popple are all represented, but the jack pine and scrub oak, so

typical of the upland, are entirely lacking. Peat and loam soils

share the Brule-St. Croix bottom land, and it is to these soils

that the distinctive vegetation is due.18 Lake St. Croix, the

largest lake of the Northwestern Pine Barrens, lies in this

valley, its shores being utilized for summer homes and resorts,

particularly on the west or Solon Springs side (Figure 1). The

Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad follows

the valley from Solon Springs to Gordon, both villages being

located in the bottom land. Aside from these two villages,

17 Martin, Lawrence, The Physical Geography of Wisconsin, Wis. Geol. and

Natl. History Survey, Bulletin 36, p. 387, 1916.

18 The soils and vegetation of the bottom lands are so unlike those normal to

the Barrens that only those portions having true Barrens country on either side

have been included in this study.

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

which are affiliated more with the Barrens proper than with

the valley, evidences of utilization are restricted to a few scat¬

tered sportsmen's lodges along the St. Croix and to a number

of beautiful summer homes along the Brule, all of which capital¬

ize their forest surroundings and are unaccompanied by any

considerable clearings. The Brule is a trout stream, particu¬

larly in its lower reaches, and many fishermen work its rapid

waters during the summer, both in the Lake Superior Lowland

and farther upstream in the Barrens. A State Fish Hatchery is

located on a branch of the Brule between Winnebijou and the

village of Brule at a point within the boundaries of the Sand

Barrens.

The Nemakagon, the Yellow, the Totogatic, and the Eau

Claire rivers, as well as smaller streams tributary to the St.

Croix, flow in shallow grooves in the surface of the Pitted Sand

Plain. These streams carry the overflow of numerous lakes, but

a surprising number of lakes are without surface outlets. The

northeastern end of the Pitted Sand Plain has large tracts

without a single stream, where drainage is entirely by evapora¬

tion and seepage into the sands.

The gently inclined Pitted Sand Plain is interrupted by eleva¬

tions as well as depressions — elevations which stand out above

the surrounding plain as stony islands in a sea of sand. Three

islands of Chelsea Loam (Figure 3), one lying just to the north

and the other two just to the west of the Eau Claire Lakes,

average two miles in diameter and stand out from the sur¬

rounding sand country not only because of their higher topo¬

graphic position, but also because of heavy stony soils and a

vegetation consisting largely of popple and hardwoods. Al¬

though they are more fertile than the sand areas, the hilly char¬

acter of these spots of Chelsea Loam, the difficulty of clearing

them of vegetation, and their possession of numerous swampy

depressions have repelled settlers, and they are today practic¬

ally unutilized.

In the southwestern part of the Pitted Sand Plain the gentle

southwestward slope of the Barrens surface is interrupted by a

narrow belt of hill country which stretches from the vicinity of

Web Lake to the eastern edge of the Barrens. In relief and

ruggedness this area is comparable to the Vilas Hill Country

of the Northeastern Hill Section with which it corresponds in

soil type with the difference that in the more southwesterly area

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 95

the hills are flat topped. The shape of this belt suggests term¬

inal moraine, the original rounded knobs of which may have

been planed down by the waves of a large marginal lake thought

to have occupied this area at one time.19 This hilly belt differs

little from the surrounding Plainfield Sand country in its na¬

tural and cultural forms, jack pine forests and barrens alter¬

nating here as elsewhere, with farms few and scattered.

At the southwestern end of the Pitted Sand Plain heavier

soils completely isolate about thirty square miles of sand coun¬

try. Not only in soils, but in vegetation and utilization as well,

this isolated area is a part of the Barrens, and is included as

such in the following pages without further reference to its

isolated character. In this same area irregularly shaped penin¬

sulas of better soil, with popple and hardwood vegetation and

considerable agricultural utilization project into the Barrens,

giving to this portion a highly irregular outline, while fre¬

quently no topographic break marks the edge of the Barrens,

but rather a gradual soil, vegetation, and utilization change.

Just east of Clam River (Figure 8) there is a south¬

ward projecting tongue of Chelsea Loam which stands out

in sharp contrast to the neighboring Barrens, and is a

prominent feature of the area. It is a distinct ridge in form,

averaging one-fourth to one-half mile in width and standing

70 feet above its surroundings with a dense scrub oak and pop¬

ple cover clearly at variance with the jack pine, scrub oak, and

sweet fern association of the Barrens.

The Pitted Sand Plain with its depressions and elevations,

its forests and barrens, its summer resorts and scattered iso¬

lated farms, is welded together by a road system which is very

elaborate for such a little used area (Figure 7). Passable roads

are easy to clear and to maintain in the sand country. This is

particularly true in the flattest areas and in such parts second¬

ary roads mark every section line, roads which may not be used

more than once a month, but which are traversable nevertheless.

Rectangularity characterizes the pattern, though locally lakes

force the roads to curve, and some few show absolute disregard

for section lines in following the shortest possible courses to

their destinations. Even in the hillier sections where rougher

19 Hansell, J. M., The Glacial Geology of an Area in the Northwest Corner of

Wisconsin, Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1930.

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

topography would dictate the more careful selection of a

course, the two-rut secondary roads so characteristic of the

Barrens tend to run straight, disregarding grades.

As might be expected, few of the roads are well built or well

kept. The common two-rut roads are tributary to graded sand

roads, while these in turn are tributary to the one or two sur¬

faced highways of the area. Of the latter character is the north-

south highway through Solon Springs, Gordon, and Wascott,

the only towns of the Pitted Sand Plain. Nearly all road sur¬

facing material must be brought into the Barrens. Glacial gravel

deposits are available in the heavier soil areas to the north and

south, but only one commercial gravel occurrence has been

reported from within the Barrens. This deposit, lying along

the main highway about a mile north of Gordon, is apparently

a stream deposit. It has been developed and some of the gravel

used on the adjacent road. Two railroads parallel the north-

south highway and connect the same series of towns, Solon

Springs, Gordon and Wascott, and these railroads, together with

the highway, make up a strip which is the commercial axis of

the Pitted Sand Plain Section.

There is no regional concentration of the principal landscape

forms presented by the Pitted Sand Plain. Thus, no one area

can be laid off as lake country, for lakes are widely scattered

over the entire region. Every township has timber land, every

township has barrens, and no township is entirely without cul¬

tivated land. In an area with so little basis for regional sub¬

division landscape types must supercede the region or sub-

region as the unit for discussion. In the Pitted Sand Plain

five landscape forms — forests, grassy and sweet fern barrens,

cultivated land, lakes and their shores, and villages — recur

so frequently as to justify detailed consideration as types.

The Forests

Forests occupy about one-half of the Pitted Sand Plain. One-

third of the timber is jack pine of all sizes intermingled with

small scrub oak (Figure 5). One-fourth of the forested area

is occupied by dense, pure stands of young jack pine, while 15

per cent is occupied by jack pine which is sufficiently mature

for use as pulpwood. Popple and hardwood (18 per cent of the

total forested area) and coniferous swamp forest (7.5 per cent)

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 97

are the only other important components of the forest, although

there are a few scattered forties20 of Norway pine. Of these

various kinds of forest the swamp growth and the popple and

hardwoods are restricted and localized, and do not play a prom¬

inent part in the typical forest of the section.

Particular interest attaches to the jack pine because through

its utility as pulp wood it forms the basis of the only wood¬

working industry of the Barrens. A few Norway pines are

marketed with the jack pine bolts as pulpwood, but the com¬

panies much prefer jack pine for this purpose. Only those trees

which will produce bolts 8 feet long with a minimum diameter

of 4 inches are usable. Although particularly abundant in the

northeastern part of the Pitted Sand Plain, forties of jack pine

of merchantable or pulpwood size are also found generally

scattered over the southern end as well as to a minor ex¬

tent elsewhere. Frequently, too, areas of mixed jack pine and

scrub oak contain jack pine which though scattered is large

enough for use.

The more accessible jack pine of pulpwood size has been cut,

so the traveler along the better roads of the Pitted Sand Plain

Section sees at first little field evidence of the industry. Then,

from some obscure side road a truck will come lumbering onto

the highway, a truck loaded with peeled 8-foot jack pine bolts

of diameters of 4 inches and up, piled crosswise. If followed,

the destination of the load will be found to be Gordon, Solon

Springs, or some other point on the railroad where long piles

of these logs are stacked. Along back roads of the section an

occasional glimpse may be caught of a distant hillside where

newly peeled bolts, scattered or piled, await their turn to be

hauled to the railroad. The well traveled condition of some of

the back roads in such a poorly settled region is a further reflec¬

tion of the pulpwood industry.

It is customary for the large pulpwood companies operating

in the area, the Cornell Wood Products Corporation, the Ne-

koosa Edwards Company or others, to place their orders for

pulpwood with buyers at the local villages either direct or

through a jobber. The buyer travels the many secondary roads

20 The term “forty” is used throughout this paper to refer to the forty-acre

tracts which are normal units in any area where the section-township-range sys¬

tem has been used.

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

of the area looking for available pulp timber and contracting

with the owner of such timber for stumpage rights or the right

to cut the jack pine of pulpwood size. During the summer the

buyer sends out a crew of workmen who camp where the cut¬

ting is to be done. White men are commonly engaged for this

work, but sometimes, as near Danbury in the western end of

the section, Indians are hired to do the work. The workmen

cut and trim the trees and usually peel them. Then trucks come

and the bolts are loaded and hauled away.

It might be expected that the jack pine cutting would be a

winter industry as the cutting of saw logs in this country was,

but such is not the case. Winter operations were required for

the ordinary lumbering, particularly in swamp areas, since

transportation was impossible in such regions in summer, but

jack pine does not grow in swamps, and is accessible at all

times of the year. It is natural, therefore, that it should be cut

in the summer when working conditions are good and labor

efficient, rather than in winter with its hampering snows and

low temperatures. Another factor in the situation is that all

the jack pine must be peeled before being used, and while this

operation was formerly performed at the mills, in recent years

the tendency has been more and more toward sap-peeling be¬

fore shipping. The sap-peeling season for jack pine is during

the late spring and early summer months. The most successful

way to remove the bark is to strip it from the tree in the field

during this sap season immediately after the timber is felled,

and this is now the common practice. Some winter cutting is

done, but it is usually minor compared to that of the summer,

and is more likely to be the individual effort of some farmer in

his lax season than the organized cutting of the pulpwood from

a considerable tract. When cut in winter, the bolts are com¬

monly sold unpeeled and in this case the peeling must be done

after the bolts reach the mills.

The advantages of removing the bark just as the trees are

cut are various. The bark must be removed eventually, and it

is most easily done just as the trees are freshly cut during the

sap season. The immediate removal of the bark lessens the

chance of decay of the log, or of its being attacked by insects

which the bark of the dry log harbors. More important still is

the fact that the peeled logs weigh less, and the aggregate sav-

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 99

in g in hauling and shipping is considerable. Notwithstanding

these advantages of the peeled product a considerable number

of bolts are still marketed unpeeled, chiefly bolts which are cut

outside of the sap-peeling season as well as some that are in

demand by companies who have machinery for peeling at the

mills and do not wish to change their methods.

The various companies which buy jack pine from the buyer,

either direct or through a jobber, lease land at railroad stops to

pile the bolts until they are needed at the mills at Nekoosa, Cor¬

nell, Mosinee, or elsewhere. Long piles of these bolts, both

peeled and unpeeled, are to be seen at almost every station or

siding in the Barrens (Figure 1) . That the mills which use these

bolts are all located outside of the Northeastern Pine Barrens

is not surprising since these mills use other kinds of wood as

well as jack pine, and have other sources even for the latter.

For example, the Nekoosa Edwards Company buys spruce, bal¬

sam, hemlock, and jack pine.21 The spruce, balsam, and hemlock

are obtained from areas of loam or heavier soils. The jack pine

comes from sand areas, 40 per cent of the 30,000 cords which

the company purchased in 1929 coming from the Northwestern

Pine Barrens, the remainder from the sand area of Central Wis¬

consin. Since this company is one of the two or three largest

buyers of jack pine in the Barrens, these figures serve to give

some idea as to the size of the industry. The minor position of

jack pine in the list of raw materials which are used suggests

the secondary importance of this type of wood even to the prin¬

cipal users. Kraft paper, a heavy wrapping paper, is the prin¬

cipal product made from jack pine by the Nekoosa Edwards

Company, while wall board is the chief Cornell product from

this material. It is significant that other species of wood are

satisfactory for the making of these products, and that jack pine

is used principally because it is the cheapest of the several spe¬

cies which might be used.

The quantity of jack pine of pulp wood size which still remains

in the Barrens is not great. Younger trees will mature in time,

but that will hardly be soon enough to satisfy the demands of

the pulp companies. One of these, the Cornell Wood Products

Corporation, owns a number of forties of timber land in the

21 This information and the figures which follow are from a private communica¬

tion from the Nekoosa Edwards Company.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Barrens, from which they are not cutting jack pine at present.

Instead, these tracts, some of which are clothed with young

jack pine, some jack pine of pulp wood size, are being kept for

the future when pulpwood becomes scarcer than it is at present.

Almost every year forest fires sweep sections of the Barrens,

leaving their record in ghost-like dead trees, or, if several fires

have occurred, barren tracts dotted with charred stumps. The

fire problem is a serious one here as there is little cultivated

land to break the sweep of a fire once started, and the sweet

fern of the Barrens, as well as the jack pine, carries fire well.

A spark from a locomotive, a burning brush heap, or a camp

fire out of control — these are the beginnings of many fires.

In most areas the fire hazard is greatest in May and October.

In the Barrens, May is by far the worst of these two, since in

the fall the sweet fern is still green and the scrub oak still has

its leaves. In the spring, on the other hand, the oak leaves are

on the ground and the sweet fern is dry and brown — an ideal

bed in which a fire may travel.

Various means are used to combat fires. Along all the roads

signs are posted warning the casual camper, and urging the

settlers that no brush be burned in May and that none be burned

at any time without a permit. Plowed fire breaks are little

used, but some of the wide graded roads such as the one run¬

ning east from Gordon make good fire breaks.

A forest protection system with lookout towers (seven in the

Pitted Sand Plain Section of the Barrens), state owned tele¬

phone lines, and a regular fire fighting force is in operation.

During the spring, summer, and fall there is a man in each

lookout tower all day, ready to telephone to headquarters at

Brule or Spooner at the first sign of a fire. The many passable

secondary roads make it possible for the fire fighting forces to

easily reach even the most isolated spots in this little-settled

country. The Cornell Wood Products Corporation, owning as

they do considerable areas of timber, are especially interested

in fire protection, and furnish two men who work under the

State Forest Protection service.

Not infrequently a smoke haze hangs over the country on a

quiet spring or summer day. It is at such a time as this that

watchfulness is at its greatest height. Unfortunately, too, at

the same time, visibility from the towers is poor. A telephone

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 101

message may come in from some distant farmer who is wor¬

ried because of the smoke haze, and thinks he sees thicker

smoke at some spot in the distance. A man from the District

office rushes out by car to investigate. At such a time nothing

can be overlooked since a fire once well under way may cost

thousands of dollars and deface many miles of country.

The Barrens

About one-third of the Pitted Sand Plain Section is grassy or

sweet fern barrens (PI. I, fig. 2). Scrub oak bushes are fairly

numerous in some of this type of country and a few jack pines

or a Norway pine or two may normally be seen on the horizon.

Patches of barrens occur in almost all parts of the Pitted Sand

Plain Section, while locally there are stretches of half a town¬

ship or more almost all of which may be thus classified.

Most of this type is almost entirely unutilized, as its name

suggests, but there is one product of value which typically

occurs on the barren tracts, the blueberry. This plant does

well on acid soils such as those of the Barrens, and in the areas

where fire has destroyed the forests it finds a home, the blue¬

berry being almost as characteristic as sweet fern in many of

the open areas.

Many blueberry pickers invade the Barrens in midsummer in

years when the crop is good, dotting the best berry areas at

such times. Some of the pickers come from outside the Bar¬

rens, from Superior and other nearby towns, returning to

their homes after a single day’s outing. Others, often local

people, make more of a business of the blueberry picking, sell¬

ing their product to the stores at Danbury, Gordon, or other

local villages. Many of these pickers are Indians. A few live in

the Barrens or just outside its edges (as at Danbury) , but more

come into the area to camp during the blueberry picking season.

A late frost reduces or entirely destroys the crop some years,

and then the Indian blueberry pickers must go to other areas

where the crop is better.

No figures are available as to the total value of blueberries

exported from the Barrens, but in good years the quantity

sent from some of the towns is undoubtedly considerable.

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The Cultivated Land

Cultivated tracts are scattered widely but thinly over the sec¬

tion, amounting to about 3 per cent of the total area. Com¬

monly all the cultivated land on a single farm is contiguous, so

each separate cultivated tract means a separate farm and has

its separate farmstead. The farms of the Pitted Sand Plain

Section average 140 acres in size or somewhat larger than

those of the Northeastern Hill Section.

The cultivated area, making up about 20 per cent of the aver¬

age farm, is usually rectangular in shape, and is in turn sub¬

divided into a number of smaller rectangles of various crops.

The crops grown are much the same as in the more north¬

easterly section, but there is a difference in emphasis (Figures

5 and 9). In the Northeastern Hill Section the hay acreage

everywhere exceeded the acreage of total grains ; in the Pitted

Sand Plain they battle on fairly even terms with a tendency

toward supremacy of the grains in the southwest. This seems

to indicate more intensive dairying here than in the North¬

eastern Hill Section with an attempt to force larger milk yields

by the use of more concentrated feeds in proportion to hay.

However, the considerable use of marsh hay as a substitute for

tame hay is probably an even more important factor in the

situation. Swamp meadow is fairly extensive in the Pitted Sand

Plain Section (Figure 5), and in the adjacent areas just to the

south, and the farmers find this swamp hay a cheap substitute

for the cultivated crop.

In the Pitted Sand Plain Section about 13 per cent of the

total hay acreage is in alfalfa in contrast with 2 per cent in the

Northeastern Hill Section. Most of the alfalfa is grown in the

southwestern half of the Pitted Sand Plain, the percentage

showing a rough gradation from much less than 13 per cent

in the country just south of Brule to considerably more than

13 per cent in the extreme southwestern end of the section.

Two factors appear in the explanation of this increase in the

amount of alfalfa grown. Near the southwestern end of the

section marl deposits have been opened on the shores of Wood

Lake and near several other lakes just south of the Barrens.

This material is available for purchase at a low price com¬

pared with lime in any other form, and the southwestern part

of the Pitted Sand Plain is within wagon haul distance of these

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 103

Southwestern

Marsh

Section

Pitted

Sand Plain

Section

Northeastern

Hill

Section

7 o

60

*

<5

50 ^

*

2

40

O

•k

£

CJ

30 U

k

<5!

20

to

Figure 9. Progressive changes in relative importance of various crops

and crop combinations from northeast to southeast in the Barrens. (Based

on data from Figure 5.)

deposits. The second factor in the situation is an active alfalfa

campaign formerly carried out in Burnett County by a man

who was then County Agent. At present Burnett County has

no Agent, but alfalfa growing goes on, not only inside the

County, but in adjacent areas as well. Naturally the crop does

better on the loams south of the Barrens than it does in the

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sand country itself, but it can be grown in the latter by appli¬

cation of lime. With proper fertilization alfalfa has an ad¬

vantage over other crops, since its long roots equip it to with¬

stand the droughty conditions sometimes prevalent in the sand

country in summer.

The higher percentage of the land which is devoted to oats

and corn in this area as compared with the Northeastern Hill

Section is explainable partly in terms of a lessening relative

importance of tame hay for reasons already outlined. The in¬

crease in the percentage of cropped land in oats is small, but

corn shows an increase of from 12 per cent in the Northeastern

Hill Section to 19 per cent here. This would seem to reflect a

slight increase in the dependability of the corn crop, but a

comparison of frost data for Iron River and Solon Springs

shows the latter to have a shorter growing season, a situation

which may possibly be due to lake influence at Iron River (Fig¬

ure 6). At any rate the available climatic data do not explain

the higher percentage of land in corn. Location nearer to re¬

gions far enough south to have a fairly successful corn crop at

least for ensilage may go farther toward explaining the con¬

dition.

Potatoes occupy almost exactly the same per cent of the

cropped land as they did in the Northeastern Hill Section. Rye

and buckwheat have increased in importance, while spring

wheat and barley show a decline.

As in the Northeastern Hill Section, small-scale dairying with

cream as the exportable surplus is the dominant type of agri¬

culture, and with a few exceptions farm layout and farm prac¬

tices are quite similar to those in the former section. As might

be expected with the increase in corn acreage, silos are more

common, averaging one for three and one-half farms in con¬

trast to one for five and one-half farms in the Northeastern Hill

Section. The agriculture, too, seems slightly more prosperous,

though tar paper covered shacks and log cabins are still the

characteristic farm buildings.

The farms of the Pitted Sand Plain are not evenly distributed

nor do they show a uniform degree of prosperity. In the north¬

ern part of Township 43 N., Range 10 W. and adjacent areas in

Township 44 N., Range 10 W. (Figures 1 and 4) there is a

cluster of farms known as the Russian Settlement because of

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 105

the nationality of the settlers, an uncommon group in the Bar¬

rens. The prosperous appearance of these farms may be due

in part to the great industry of their owners, but the manner

in which the soil stands vertically in road cuts in this vicinity

suggests that it has an uncommonly high silt content for Bar¬

rens soils, despite the fact that the area is all mapped as Plain-

field Sand. Other areas of some concentration of agricultural

population are (1) a westward extension of the Russian Set¬

tlement into the northeast corner of Township 43 N., Range

11 W. and the southeast corner of Township 44 N., Range 11

W., (2) an area of approximately one township just southwest

of Solon Springs, and (3) the southern edge of the southwest¬

ern part of the Pitted Sand Plain including the outlying “is¬

land” and the eastward projecting point just to the west of the

island. Contrasted with this are considerable areas in Town¬

ship 46 N., Range 10 W., and, farther south, Township 42 N.,

Range 13 W., and Township 42 N., Range 14 W., where less

than 1 per cent of the land is under cultivation.

It is difficult to explain adequately such variations in the

density of the agricultural population within the sand country.

Of course it is nowhere densely peopled, but why should some

areas be better settled and more prosperous looking than others ?

As has been suggested in connection with the Russian Settle¬

ment, although all of this soil has been mapped as sand (Figure

3) the soils of some areas appear to have a higher silt content

than is normal to the Barrens. Humus content, also, undoubt¬

edly varies considerably over the Pitted Sand Plains, the sur¬

face soil being almost pure quartz sand in some localities, and

in others dark with humus. Repeated fires seem to destroy

what organic matter there is in the surface soil and it is the

repeatedly burned over areas which have almost a pure sand

soil. Location with respect to villages and main transportation

routes, though operating against the occupation of some remote

portions of the Barrens, does not appear to have played a very

important part in the distribution of the agricultural popula¬

tion as many extensive areas of barrens along the main north-

south highway would indicate. Adjacency to better soil areas

outside of the Barrens appears locally, as along the southern

edge of the southwestern part of the section, to have been im¬

portant. Chance, too, has doubtless played an important part

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

in the location of the farming population where we find it

today.

Everywhere the surplus product of the farm is cream, which

is hauled to Gordon, Solon Springs, Danbury, or other railroad

points for shipment to the large creameries at Duluth, Superior,

and St. Paul. It is significant that only one creamery is situated

within the Northwestern Pine Barrens, and that one, located at

Grantsburg in the Southwestern Marsh Section, is at the mar¬

gin of the Barrens and depends almost entirely upon neighbor¬

ing areas with better soils and more prosperous agriculture.

The amount of cream produced is not large enough to justify

creameries within the sand country, although, in the south¬

western part of the Pitted Sand Plain, trucks from creameries

at Spooner and elsewhere in the better farming country pene¬

trate the Barrens. Locally there is a considerable summer sale

of milk and cream to the resorts.

Abandoned farms are a characteristic sight in the Pitted

Sand Plain, all stages of abandonment being represented. One

little shack out in grassy barrens is occupied by an old man who

formerly grew corn and a few other crops. Unfortunately, this

is one of the areas where fire has left little humus in the soil,

and the farmer made no attempt to increase the humus content

or otherwise to fertilize the land. After a year or two of use

the corn field “got away” and now is a bare expanse of ripple-

marked sand. Near the shack a few vegetables are still grown,

but they hardly repay the effort, and the old, paralytic settler

barely manages to exist. Such subsistence agriculture charact¬

erizes not a few of the Barrens farms, and might almost be

regarded as the first stage of abandonment. In a second stage

of abandonment the people have left the house, some of its win¬

dows are broken, and the cleared land of the farm is all in

quack grass (PI. I, fig. 3). Later the house tumbles down and

decays, or is burned, and scrub oak, or even jack pine, migrates

over the farm until eventually, probably 30 or 40 years after

its occupant departed, it has entirely reverted.

Lakes and their Shores

Lake country is by no means continuous in the Pitted Sand

Plain, for lakes frequently occur in clusters, while in between

and for miles around these groups the country is flat with only

occasional dry pits and isolated lakes (Figure 8) . Many of these

Murphy— Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 107

water bodies seem to occupy depressions sunk slightly below

the general surrounding level, but in the country south and

southeast of Web Lake, an area of many lakes, a general level

is hard to detect.

The typical Barrens lake has clear, sparkling water in con¬

trast to the “pea soup” waters of its neighbors on heavier soils,

while the sandy soil of the Barrens is free from stones and

gives excellent bathing beaches. Moreover, the abundance of

roads and the ease with which others are opened and main¬

tained renders the many lakes accessible with a minimum of

effort. Bass, pike, pickerel, and muskellunge inhabit those lakes

which have not been fished out by the summer visitors who

yearly take heavy toll.

The larger lakes and many of the better smaller ones have

summer cottages along their shores, and the summer hotel, too,

has become very important in the lake country. In addition to

the advantages of the typical lake as outlined above there is the

factor of relatively low land values which has favored resort

use of the Barrens lake shores. Prices are considerably lower

than would be the case in a better agricultural section where

agriculture would compete with resorts for the land, and, more¬

over, summer visitors find relatively wild unsettled areas more

attractive.

Sometimes accommodations consist of little more than a few

one-room furnished cottages with boats for rent and fish bait

for sale. This type of resort is particularly common on the

smaller lakes, so common in fact, that in spite of every effort

to attract trade most of these resorts scarcely make a living. On

some of the larger and better lakes more elaborate resorts have

been established with a large group of attractively furnished

cottages, golf courses, and other accommodations for their

wealthy frequenters.

The influence of the resort industry is reflected in the high

land values along the shores of many lakes, and is particularly

to be seen in the value of improvements since the investment

in summer homes and resorts is commonly vastly more than

that of the small scale farmer who might occupy the land for

agricultural purposes.

From one end of the Pitted Sand Plain Section to the other

lake country varies little in appearance and use. The Eau

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Claire Lakes 12 miles east of Gordon (Figure 8), Lake St. Croix

at Solon Springs, Bardon Lake and its associates southwest of

Gordon, Nancy Lake farther southwest, Big McKenzie, Birch

Island and Web Lakes to the south — all are alike in their clear

waters, their sandy beaches, their summer homes, and their

resorts. The hum of summer activity at Gordon, Solon Springs,

Minong, and Danbury, and the large and successful grocery

stores at these places are further reflections of the summer re¬

sort industry.

Not all of the lakes of the Pitted Sand Plain are of value for

resorts. It is not unusual to find some swamp land (frequently

muskeg with some tamarack trees) bordering even resort lakes

at certain spots, while other lakes are almost completely sur¬

rounded by swamp, and hence are of little value for the summer

visitor trade. The filling-in process responsible for these bord¬

ering swamps has gone further in some instances leaving only

muskeg and swamp meadow to mark the former lake.

In many of the marshy tracts of the Northwestern Pine Bar¬

rens cranberries grow wild. In view of this natural adaptation

it is not surprising to find that improved varieties are being

grown on a commercial scale. There are at present three such

enterprises in the area (Figure 8) , each with about 25 acres in

producing marsh and an average annual production of approxi¬

mately 1000 barrels.

The cranberry growing industry of the Barrens is carried on

in very close relationship to the natural environment. Fairly

cool summers, a normal requisite of the cranberry crop, are

enjoyed here just as they are all through central and northern

Wisconsin. The necessary acid peat soils are available in the

muskeg swamps of the area, and sand is easily obtained at the

edge of the marshes, since it is the normal soil of the Barrens.

This is a distinct advantage, for application of sand to the

marshes every two or three winters causes new runners to

take root, checks the growth of weeds, and is beneficial in vari¬

ous other respects.

The more northerly situation of the marshes of the North¬

western Pine Barrens as compared with those of Central Wis¬

consin means a greater frost hazard. An all-winter flood to

protect the vines, and an occasional summer flood because of

frost danger or to kill fruit worms are necessary in both areas,

Murphy-— N or thwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. 109

but the greater danger of summer frosts in the Northwestern

Pine Barrens means more summer flooding. This requires not

only facilities for rapid flooding, but facilities for rapid drain¬

age as well, since the vines and berries do no actual growing

while under water and are damaged by too long a submergence.

A well regulated water supply is, therefore, peculiarly necessary

here, and this necessity is reflected in the character of the site

chosen. Typically, it consists of a strip of muskeg swamp lying

between two lakes the elevations of which are sufficiently differ¬

ent to allow a water supply to be drawn by gravity from the

upper one, and, at the same time, to allow gravity drainage to

the lower lake. Or, the site may be a similar strip of muskeg

lying below a lake and along the stream which naturally drains

the lake. In this case the lake forms a natural reservoir of wa¬

ter for flooding purposes and the normal gradient of the outlet

stream, after straightening, is sufficient to insure good drainage.

A producing marsh of the Northwestern Pine Barrens pre¬

sents a striking picture, particularly during the summer season

(PL II, fig. 4) . A long flat swamp tract, bordered on either side

by higher, jack pine covered sand country, is divided by dikes

about 3 feet in height into plots a few acres in size, the long

directions of these enclosures being normal to the general slope

of the swamp. Each cranberry plot is carpeted with a green

mat of vines, and venturesome vines, together with grass and

weeds, spread over the dikes, making them appear as low ridges

of green. Irrigation and drainage ditches crisscross the diked

fields. On the higher land at the edge of the swamp is the home

of the manager, and near at hand are located the grading and

storage sheds. An opening in the sand near one edge of the

marsh is also a significant item in the picture since it is the

source of material for the winter sanding.

Indians from Danbury, Gordon, and other villages gather the

wild rice which grows in the swampy parts of many of the

lakes in the Barrens as well as elsewhere in Northern Wiscon¬

sin. The rice is ripe about the first of September, and the har¬

vest lasts for about a month after that date. The work is

all done by hand. Most of the crop thus harvested is sold to

the local storekeepers who, in turn, ship it to Chicago and to

nearby cities. The grain is in demand (1) as a dressing for

wild fowl at sportsmen’s dinners, (2) as a cooked breakfast

110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

food, and (3) for planting around lakes to which hunters wish

to attract wild fowl.

Lakes and their shores are the scenes of several other special

activities. There is some fur farming carried on in the same

way and presenting the same adjustments as the fur farming

in the Northeastern Hill Section. Hay is cut in or around the

edges of some of the marshes, but it is not a good type of hay,

and is significant here simply because it represents a use being

made of the swamp or filled-lake areas.

The Villages

Only three villages lie within the Pitted Sand Plain Section,

the largest of these, Solon Springs, having a population of only

778. Gordon, slightly smaller, is a more typical Barrens village

(PI. II, fig. 5) although really located in the St. Croix valley at

the point where the Eau Claire River joins the major stream.

At a crossroads on the north-south surfaced highway which

divides the Pitted Sand Plain almost in half, Gordon is well

situated to serve the surrounding country. At this point, too,

the Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad from

the southeast crosses the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and

Omaha from the south. Beyond Gordon they follow essentially

parallel courses to Superior. Besides the two railroad stations,

the village has two grocery and general merchandise stores, a

lumber yard, two filling stations, one combined with a garage,

three combined ice cream parlors and restaurants, a town hall, a

high school, and a few minor business houses. The rest of the

buildings of the village are residential. Both residences and

business houses are small and unpretentious, many of them

looking quite weather beaten and old. Rising above the village

to the northeast is a hill or knob into which the Eau Claire has

cut, exposing a surface of fresh sand. Crowning this hill and

looming up prominently from any point in the village is a fire

lookout tower.

Resort people from Eau Claire Lakes to the east and Bardon

Lake to the southwest flock into Gordon daily during the sum¬

mer season to get the mail and to shop, and this trade is the

main support of the grocery stores, and is of importance to all

the other business houses of the town as well. The few farmers

who live in the country tributary to Gordon bring their cream in

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin. Ill

to the railroad stations for shipment to Superior or Duluth, and

they add somewhat to the local trade. Pulpwood is hauled in by

truck and stacked along the railroads, and these long piles of

bolts are significant features of the village landscape. More¬

over, labor for cutting jack pine is recruited in the village. The

garage and filling stations depend partly on business from the

people at local resorts and the farmers, but the way in which

they fringe the through north-south highway suggests that

much of their business is from transients on this road. There

are no village industries, the function of the village being en-

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

tirely that of retailing merchandise and of service to the sur¬

rounding country and to motorists on the main highway.

Solon Springs on Lake St. Croix is much like Gordon except

that it combines the furnishing of merchandise and service with

the resort function. Gordon serves resorts some distance away ;

in Solon Springs the resort and its source of supply are one,

though it too serves travelers on the main north-south highway.

This combination of the two functions is to be seen in the golf

course at the edge of the village, the dance hall and the two

hotels in the village proper, as well as in the summer homes and

resorts which though located mainly on the lake front grade

into the residential and business section (Figure 10).

At the west end of the Pitted Sand Plain Danbury and Web¬

ster, though outside the Barrens, perform much the same func¬

tions for the sand strip as does Gordon, while south of Gordon,

Wascott within the Barrens and Minong outside are of this

same character.

THE SOUTHWESTERN MARSH SECTION

Toward the southwest the Pitted Sand Plain grades into a

country where pits are few and lakes almost entirely absent.

Grassy marshes become numerous, and it is because of their

presence that the area is given the name of the Southwestern

Marsh Section (Figure 2). Like the Pitted Sand Plain this sec¬

tion has a gentle southwesterly slope, but its surface is smoother

than that of the Pitted Sand Plain. There, numerous pits, some

lake filled, introduced locally considerable ruggedness; here,

large tracts are smooth except for a few low dunes now grass-

anchored, and for the almost imperceptible depressions occupied

by the marshes. Whole townships show a relief of only 20 to

30 feet. Surrounding the grassy marsh areas and rising as

low islands above their surfaces are drier lands covered dom¬

inantly by a mixed jack pine and hardwood forest, but with

considerable areas of barrens as well. It is on these drier, bet¬

ter drained lands that the scattered farms of the district are

located, while abandoned farms, almost as numerous as the

occupied ones, are similarly situated.

The table-like surface of the Southwestern Marsh Section is

grooved by the narrow valleys of the Clam, Wood, and Trade

rivers, while at the west it drops off abruptly along the St. Croix

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 113

River (Figure 8) . Locally, as west of the mouth of Clam River,

swampy terraces mark the transition from the upland to the St.

Croix — terraces which are clothed with large hardwoods, and

stand out in marked contrast to the typical Barrens above.

More commonly there is an abrupt drop from the general up¬

land level to the river.

The extreme flatness of the upland level of the section may

be explained as an aggradational effect in the deepest parts of

the Barrens Lake, the former presence of which has been pos¬

tulated.22 Swamp tracts would be normal features on an old lake

plain of this sort, while the dunes that are scattered over the

area are considered to be the result of wind work on the bare

tracts exposed by the fall of the waters of the lake.

The Southwestern Marsh Section presents two major land¬

scape types: (1) dry lands, which make up 80 per cent of the

total area, and (2) grassy marshes, which comprise 20 per

cent (Figure 5).

The Dry Lands

About 80 per cent of the Southwestern Marsh Section is dry

or well drained land where the typical Barrens alternation of

forest and sweet fern barrens occurs, with scattered farms,

some occupied and others abandoned.

Approximately 53 per cent of the dry land may be classed as

forest or timber land. The timbered areas show no marked

concentration, but rather a fairly even distribution with a few

forties that may be classed as timbered in almost every section.

Jack pine predominates among the species represented, but for

the most part it occurs mixed with scrub oak rather than in

pure stands. Seventy-five per cent of all the forest of the up¬

land shows this predominance of jack pine, while the other 25

per cent is almost entirely popple and hardwood, the latter in¬

cluding fairly large oaks.

Forested tracts are, of course, included in the pastures of

some of the farms, but the dominant type of forest utilization is

the same as that of the Pitted Sand Plain Section, the cutting

of jack pine for paper making. This cutting is carried on here

and there throughout the section in much the same manner that

22 Hansell, J. M., The Glacial Geology of an Area in the Northwest Corner of

Wisconsin, Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1930.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

it is in the Pitted Sand Plain, and piles of bolts are to be seen at

Grantsburg and at sidings along the branch line of the North¬

ern Pacific which extends to Grantsburg from the southwest.

About 40 per cent of the dry land is uncultivated and untim¬

bered. A little over 80 per cent of this type is sweet fern and

scrub oak barrens, presenting much the same picture as similar

country in the more northeasterly sections of the sand strip,

while abandoned farms, similar to those described for other sec¬

tions, make up most of the remaining uncultivated and untim¬

bered land.

Approximately 6.5 per cent of the upland is cultivated. The

farms of which these cultivated tracts are a part average 186

acres in size in this section or slightly smaller than those of the

Pitted Sand Plain. Eighteen per cent of the average farm is

cultivated, the remainder being forest and barrens.

Cultivated land is by no means evenly distributed over the dry

land. The most striking departure from such an even distribu¬

tion is to be seen in the marked concentration of farms along

the eastern border of the section, a condition which is particu¬

larly noticeable in Township 36 N., Range 19 W. and Township

87 N., Range 19 W., south of Grantsburg (Figures 1 and 4). A

possible explanation of this situation is that the silt content of

the soil along this edge of the sand country is somewhat higher

than that of the average Barrens soil. The influence of neigh¬

boring areas of better soils and prosperous farms is a more

probable explanation of the condition.

In the Scandinavian ancestry of its owner, the character and

appearance of its buildings, and the absence of improved pas¬

ture land, the average farm of the Southwestern Marsh Sec¬

tion is much like that described elsewhere as characteristic of

the Barrens. Dominance of small scale dairying, with cream

as its end product, characterizes the agriculture of this section

just as it did that of the more northeasterly sections of the Bar¬

rens. The greatest changes are to be seen in the use of the cul¬

tivated land. In comparing the Pitted Sand Plain with the

Northeastern Hill Section it was found that corn, oats, alfalfa,

and rye had increased in relative importance, while clover and

timothy hay had decreased. The tendencies suggested by this

comparison of the two more northeasterly sections of the Bar¬

rens are borne out by a consideration of conditions in the South-

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 115

western Marsh Section. Total hay acreage has continued to

decrease in importance relative to total grain acreage (Figure

9). As suggested previously, a two-fold explanation seems to

hold for this condition. In the first place, considerable marsh

hay is available, and ability to get such cheap hay has meant

less emphasis on hay as a crop. Secondly, dairying seems to be

progressively more intensive as one proceeds from northeast to

southwest across the Barrens. The farmer of the Southwestern

Marsh Section attempts to increase his returns by the use of

more ensilage and other concentrated feeds in proportion to the

hay fed. Computations indicate that there is one silo for each

three farms in the Southwestern Marsh Section as compared

with one for each three and one-half farms in the Pitted Sand

Plain and one for each five and one-half farms in the North¬

eastern Hill Section.

Alfalfa has likewise increased in relative importance, and,

although it occupies only 12 per cent of the total cropped land

in the Southwestern Marsh Section, it is more important than

clover and timothy hay (Figure 9). This increasing importance

of alfalfa toward the southwest throughout the Barrens has al¬

ready been explained in connection with the Pitted Sand Plain

Section in terms of an active county agent and nearness to a

supply of marl.

That corn should be of greater relative importance than it

was at points farther northeast in the Barrens is probably

partly due to a slightly longer growing season23 in this sec¬

tion, and partly to greater proximity to successful dairy regions

farther south where corn for ensilage is a dependable crop.

The increase in the relative importance of oats and rye

is a further manifestation of the tendency for the grains

to increase in importance in this direction because of the greater

use of concentrated feeds. Potatoes, too, show an increase in

relative importance, but this increase is too small to be of much

significance.

The Grassy Marshes

Although swamp meadows occur in the Northeastern Hill

Section and are fairly common in the Pitted Sand Plain, they

23 Climatic data available (Figure 6) are by no means conclusive, since records

are to be had for only three stations and these stations vary considerably in site

characteristics.

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

are scattered and small, and likely to form a strip along some

water course. It is only in the Southwestern Marsh Section

that they form large contiguous plots (See areas of peat in Fig¬

ure 3) . There is an irregularly shaped tract of this sort, about a

township in size, lying just to the northeast of Grantsburg,

while a similar, though smaller, area lies to the southwest of

Grantsburg. Here and there throughout these marshes are

dry-land islands and small scattered outlying spots of marsh

fringe the two main areas.

The landscape presented by one of these swamp meadows is

that of an extensive smooth tract of yellowish green surrounded

by slightly higher land with its typical Barrens vegetation

(PI. II, fig. 6). Low islands similarly clad dot the grassy sea at

rare intervals, while on windy days billows course across its

surface. Open water is rare, the swamp character being mani¬

fested principally in the sogginess of the sod and in the char¬

acter of the sedges and grasses, but the amount of soil water

and standing water is considerably greater during rainy seasons

than during dry.

Among the plants characteristic of these swamp meadows the

sedge, “wire grass” (Carex stricta), is of particular interest

since it has formed the basis of a special industry, the making

of wire grass rugs. The Crex Carpet Company of New York

and St. Paul began operations here in 1911, purchasing 23,000

acres of marsh land from which to cut wire grass for their St.

Paul factory (Figure 8). A large amount of wire grass was

cut during the first year or two of operations in the South¬

western Marsh Section, the total reaching 7000 tons in one

year. At present the company averages much less than this,

partly as a result of the decline in the grass rug business and

partly because production conditions are more favorable in the

several scattered areas in Minnesota from which a consider¬

able part of their raw material is still obtained.

At present three camps are operated in the marshes of the

Barrens during the cutting season. Cutting begins about July

6th and from then until the end of the season, early in Septem¬

ber, there is considerable activity in the meadows. The wire

grass is all ready for cutting by July 1st, but it can stand for a

long time without spoiling, so the harvest season can be spread

over several months. Tractors are in use everywhere to pull

Murphy — Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 117

the machinery used in cutting and bundling the “grass,” and to

pull the loads of bundles to the baler. The broad tread of trac¬

tors makes it possible to use them to better advantage than

horses on the soggy ground of the marshes.

Field operations are closely related to moisture conditions.

Rains interfere with the cutting and even more with the dry¬

ing, so in rainy weather the workmen are idle or go back to

their nearby farms. A year with considerable rain in the early

summer is desired since it gives wire grass that is longer and

of larger diameter than that of a drier year, and the yield is

greater if the rain stops in time to allow cutting operations to

go on. Thus the summer of 1928 was wet and there was a par¬

ticularly good stand of wire grass, but so much water stood in

the marshes that harvesting was difficult and only about 150

tons were shipped. The summer of 1929 was dry, the “grass”

was shorter and smaller in diameter, but it could be got at for

harvesting and the yield was about 1000 tons, almost seven

times that of the wet year. In very dry years there is a con¬

stant fire hazard. Dry years are undesirable, too, because

under such conditions other species grow better than the wire

grass and crowd it out. The desirable condition seems to be a

water table kept just beneath the surface, thus giving enough

water for the “grass” but not enough to interfere with the har¬

vesting operations.

The first field operation is the cutting. At the beginning of

the field season the drying which follows takes three days, but

later the “grass” still standing has dried somewhat and one

day after cutting is considered sufficient in dry weather. After

drying, the “grass” is bundled or shocked and hauled to the

baler which is located on one of the few roads which penetrate

the marshy areas, roads which follow peninsulas and islands

of drier land as far as possible. The bales are hauled by truck

to Grantsburg and shipped thence to the St. Paul factory.

Under the present methods of operation all the wire grass

cut is baled as soon as it is hauled from the fields. The stacks

to be seen here and there near the edges of the swamp meadows

belong to local farmers to whom the Crex Carpet Company has

rented the privilege of cutting the marsh hay in areas where

the proportion of wire grass is too low for the Company to

operate at a profit.

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Trade Relations of the Southwestern Marsh Section

The dry lands of the Southwestern Marsh Section are well

served with roads, thus contrasting with the poorly served

marshes of the area (Figure 7). As elsewhere in the Barrens,

the road pattern is rectangular, with roads on every section

line in some localities. Most of them are merely two ruts, but

the country is flat and there are no difficult hills to climb. More¬

over, a road once cleared remains passable for many years.

These secondary roads are tributary to graded roads which

focus upon Grantsburg, the principal trading and cream buying

center for the section.

Grantsburg, with a population of 800, is located on Wood

River at the southeastern margin of the Barrens. The southern

edge of the sand country divides the village almost in half, the

north part lying on the flat Barrens, the southern part on the

fairly steep north face of the heavier soil area which rises to

the south (Figure 10).

The village of Grantsburg was founded in 1869 by Canute

Anderson, who built the first store, a saw mill, and a grist mill.24

Other settlers soon followed. It is significant that the four peo¬

ple considered important enough to mention in the discussion of

Grantsburg in a history of Northern Wisconsin, published in

1881, are the founder, Canute Anderson, and three other Scan¬

dinavians, Magnus Nelson, Ole Berg, and Thor Ingebrigtsen.

For the first twenty years of its existence the village was with¬

out a railroad. Its somewhat out-of-the-way location kept any

of the main lines from passing through, and it was only by

private enterprise that a branch line to Rush City, Minnesota

(Figure 1), was finally established. This has since been taken

over by the Northern Pacific Railroad with which it connects.

From time to time in the history of the village, small saw mills

have manufactured lumber for local use, but Grantsburg was

never a lumbering town.

Grantsburg is today a normal farming village with Norwe¬

gians the dominant population type. Its people are, for the

most part, retired farmers together with the tradespeople who

serve them and the neighboring farming population. The func¬

tion of county seat adds somewhat to the importance of the vil-

24 History of Northern Wisconsin, the Western Historical Company, Chicago,

Illinois, p. 170, 1881.

Murphy — -Northwestern Pine Barrens of Wisconsin . 119

la ge and is responsible for its most prominent building, the

court house. Grantsburg is stodgily built with typical Ameri¬

can frame houses designed for service rather than for beauty.

However, the houses are set far apart, and lawns, with oak and

evergreen shade trees, give the residential part of the village

a pleasing appearance. The street pattern is rectangular with

the long direction of the residential section extending from east

to west, or normal to the direction of slope of the land. The

business section, though with a similar trend, is on the flat ter¬

race land along Wood River. As might well be expected, it is

to the more prosperous farming areas to the southeast that the

stores and the creamery of the village look for most of their

business, and not to the Barrens. Although it serves to some

extent the lake country several miles southeast of it, Grants¬

burg is dominantly a farmer’s town as its several large hard¬

ware and implement stores would suggest. A flour and feed

mill, a descendant of Canute Anderson’s grist mill, located in

the Barrens part of the village and obtaining its power from

a dam on Wood River, depends almost entirely upon spring

wheat grown on the heavier soils to the southeast. Very little

of the wheat ground is from the Barrens, the small relative im¬

portance of this crop in the sand suggesting that it does not do

well enough to be grown for sale in competition with wheat

from the loam areas. There has been a tendency within recent

years for the village to extend itself in a north-south direction

along the highway, filling stations being particularly promi¬

nent in these extensions.

Although the Barrens is not of great importance to Grants¬

burg, the village is of considerable importance to the

sand country. It is here that much of the cream is shipped,

while piles of boltwood along the railroad and cars being loaded

with bales of wire grass indicate that this is the point of de¬

parture for products of the Southwestern Marsh Section which

are to reach the outside world. Considering Grantsburg’s rail¬

road connections, it is not surprising that its trade relations are

more with St. Paul and other Minnesota points than with Wis¬

consin cities, but the automobile is tending to offset these Min¬

nesota ties.

Although Grantsburg is the hub of the Southwestern Marsh

Section, not all the products of the region pass out through this

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

village, and not all of its trading is done here. Boltwood is piled

at several points along the railroad west of Grantsburg and is

shipped out to the main line in that direction. The extreme

southern part of the section sends its cream east to the Cushing

Creamery just east of the Barrens edge (Figure 1), while some

of the people go to Luck, St. Croix Falls, and other points to the

south and east to buy supplies.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Plate I

Fig. 1. Typical Vilas Hill Country topography.

Fig. 2. A pit in sweet fern and scrub oak barrens.

Fig. 3. An abandoned farm in the Pitted Sand Plain Section.

Plate II

Fig. 4. Summer view of a producing cranberry marsh near Big

McKenzie Lake.

Fig. 5. The village of Gordon as seen upon entering it from the south on

the main north-south highway.

Fig. 6. Harvesting operations in progress in the Crex Meadows south¬

west of Grantsburg.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

PLATE 1

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

PLATE II,

NOTES ON THE LATE ORDOVICIAN STRATA OF THE

GREEN BAY— LAKE WINNEBAGO REGION

Jeanette Jones

The Late Ordovician strata are generally known as the Rich¬

mond group, representing the uppermost part of the Cincin¬

natian series. The Ohio Valley includes the type locality of the

Richmond, found in Ohio and Indiana. In this region, the Rich¬

mond is divided into six formations. Given in ascending order

these are : Arnheim, Waynesville, Liberty, Saluda, White-

water, and Elkhorn.

In the Mississippi Valley States is another area of Rich¬

mond rocks, classified independently from the Ohio Valley

Richmond. Definite division and correlation have been less

extensive in this region, and practically no extensive correla¬

tions have been made between this area and the Ohio Valley

Richmond. The Maquoketa of Iowa occupies a prominent posi¬

tion in the Mississippi Valley States, for it has been recog¬

nized as a distinct lithological unit since its first mention by

C. A. White (5) in 1870. The most recent work in this area

has been done by H. S. Ladd (3). In his report, the Maquoketa

has been divided into four members, known in ascending order

as: Elgin, with a basal, depauperate fauna zone, Clermont,

Fort Atkinson, and Brainard, with an upper or Cornulites

zone. Correlation of these members places the Cornulites zone

as equivalent of the Elkhorn of Ohio, while the Depauperate

fauna zone is correlated with the Arnheim.

The Richmond of northeastern Illinois has been studied by

J. C. Evans, (1) whose results are embodied in a Ph.D. disser¬

tation at Chicago University. Though comparison of the fauna

of the locality with the Ohio Valley fauna is given, no definite

correlation was made. The formation in general is divided into

three horizons, the lower shale, middle dolomite, and upper

shale members.

R. C. Hussey (2) has studied recently the Richmond of Mich¬

igan, which outcrops on the Bay de Noc peninsula. The forma¬

tion is divided into three principal divisions, known in ascend-

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

in g order as the Bill's Creek beds, Stonington, and Big Hill

members. Correlation of these members with the Ohio Valley

Richmond places the Big Hill as the equivalent of the White-

water-Elkhorn, and makes the Stonington equivalent to the

Whitewater-Elkhorn down through the Waynesville. The Bill’s

Creek beds are considered equivalent to the basal Maquoketa of

Iowa.

A general table showing the type Richmond and the several

correlations which have been made is as follows:

Ohio Valley Iowa Michigan

Elkhorn _ Brainard (Cornulites) _ Big Hill

Whitewater _ Stonington

Saluda

Liberty

Waynesville

Arnheim _ Elgin (Depauperate) _ .Bill’s Creek

No correlation of the above strata has been made with the

Wisconsin Richmond, which outcrops in a narrow north-south

belt in the eastern part of the state. The work to be reported

in this article is the correlation of this formation with similar

strata in Iowa, Illinois and Michigan, and, so far as possible,

with the Ohio Valley Richmond.

Lithology

The lithological characteristics of the formation in the Green

Bay- — Lake Winnebago area present extreme variability. Ex¬

posures were inspected in thirteen localities, covering an area

of at least one hundred and fifty miles in length, and detailed

sections were made at Bay Settlement, on Green Bay, and High

Cliff and Shannon’s Harbor, the two latter localities on the east

shore of Lake Winnebago. Local variations in the several litho¬

logical units were very pronounced. Attempts were made to

compare the several sections with well records from Sturgeon

Bay, Chilton, Brillion, West Bend, New Holstein, and Hart¬

ford. The Richmond in these shows an average thickness of

375 feet, and consists of an alternating series of shale and dolo¬

mite strata. A generalized section by F. T. Thwaites, (4) in his

report on Paleozoic rocks in deep wells in Wisconsin, gives an

Richmond

Maysville

Jones — The Late Ordovician Strata.

123

excellent summary of the characteristics of the Richmond as

determined by these deep well borings.

Summarizing the characteristics, the exposures seem to in¬

clude two areas possessing different aspects lithologically,

namely, the Green Bay area and the Lake Winnebago area. The

Green Bay area shows, in descending order:

1. A disconformable contact with the overlying Silurian, as

suggested by the presence of phosphatic nodules along the bed¬

ding planes of the latter, and also occasional ripple marks along

the bedding planes.

2. Approximately 20 feet of non-calcareous, unfossiliferous

shale, with scattered, thin bands of dolomite, at the top of the

Ordovician.

3. A thickness of 50 feet of disintegrated shale, highly fos-

siliferous.

4. A marked coral zone, with a stratum rich in Streptelasma ,

underlain by a stratum filled with Columnaria alveolata.

5. Approximately 50 feet of alternate, thin, shale and dolo¬

mite strata.

Characteristics of the Lake Winnebago area are:

1. At the top, a cherty, blue to buff, dense dolomite immedi¬

ately overlying the shale, with a clean, sharp contact between.

2. A thickness of 15 feet of green shale, highly fossiliferous.

3. Approximately 50 feet of dark green shale, unfossiliferous,

with occasional, thin, brown dolomite strata, with numerous

Bryozoa.

The essential differences between the two areas lie in the

contact with the overlying Silurian dolomite, and the extensive,

unfossiliferous beds of shale in the lower part of the section in

the Lake Winnebago area.

Faunal Development

The faunal study in the region has shown a variability sim¬

ilar to that of the lithology. The representation of the various

phyla is very limited, appearing more restricted than in the

Iowa Maquoketa area. Only five phyla are represented in the

faunal collection made at Bay Settlement, namely:

Phylum Class No. species

Coelenterata Anthozoa 5

Vermes Chaetopoda 1

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

Echinodermata Asterozoa 1

Molluscoidea Bryozoa 9

Brachiopoda 30

Mollusca Gastropoda 2

Pelecypoda 2

The absence of trilobites and graptolites, and the rare occur¬

rence of pelecypods is notable.

Several of the species show considerable variation, many,

outwardly similar to the Ohio Valley Richmond forms, differ¬

ing by features distinct enough to give varietal rank to the

species. Six new forms were observed. These will be named

and described in a later publication. They will be referred to

here as follows: Rhynchotrema anticostiensis var., R. neenah

var., Hebertella sinuata var., Wilsonia (?) sp., Lioclemella sp.,

Streptelasma sp.

The general appearance of the fauna, however, shows a char¬

acteristic upper Richmond facies, especially such forms as

Rhynchotrema capax and Platystrophia acutilirata.

Fifty species have been described from the region :

J ones— -The Late Ordovician Strata .

125

the Elkhorn — Whitewater — Liberty formations of the Ohio

Valley Richmond :

Columnaria alveolata

Protarea richmondensis

Streptelasma rusticum

Bythopora delicatula

Corynotrypa inflata

Monticulipora epidermata

Dinorthis subquadrata

Hebertella alveata

H. occidentaiis

H. sinuata

Platystrophia acutilirata

Plectambonites sericeus

Rafinesquina alternata

Rhynchotrema capax

R. perlamellosum

Zygospira modesta

Ten species are common to the Green Bay region and the

Cornulites zone of the Iowa Maquoketa.

Streptelasma

Cornulites sterlingensis

Bythopora delicatula

Lioclemella annulifera

Dicranopora fragilis

Leptaena unicostata

Rhynchotrema anticostiensis

Rafinesquina kingi

Rhynchotrema neenah

Strophomena planumbona

Nineteen species are common to the region and the Richmond

of northeastern Illinois.

Dalmanella carinata

Dalmanella meeki

Dinorthis subquadrata

Leptaena unicostata

Platystrophia acutilirata

P. clarksvillensis

Plectambonites sericeus

Rafinesquina alternata

R. inflata

Rhynchotrema capax

R. perlamellosum

Cornulites sterlingensis

Hallopora subnodsa

Ceramoporella ohioensis

Dicranopora fragilis

Strophomena planumbona

Zygospira modesta

Platystrophia attenuata

Platystrophia cumingsi

Twenty one species are common to the region and the Rich¬

mond of northern Michigan.

Columnaria alveolata

C. stokesi

Protarea richmondensis

Streptelasma rusticum

Cornulites

Hallopora subnodosa

Corynotrypa inflata

Monticulipora epidermata

Dinorthis subquadrata

Hebertella alveata

H. alveata richmondensis

H. occidentaiis

Platystrophia acutilirata

P. clarksvillensis

P. cypha

Rafinesquina alternata

R. alternata noquettensis

Rhynchotrema capax

R. perlamellosum

Strophomena planumbona

Conularia

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Correlation

With such a faunal representation in the different areas,

several suggestions may be made concerning the stratigraphic

equivalents of the Wisconsin Richmond. These are as follows:

1. The strata of the Green Bay — Lake Winnebago region

represent equivalents of the Elkhorn — Whitewater — Liberty

formations of Ohio.

2. The formation may be correlated with the Upper Brain-

ard or Cornulites zone of the Maquoketa of Iowa.

3. The strata may be equivalents of the Stonington and Big

Hill formations of the Richmond of northern Michigan.

4. The strata may represent equivalents of the Richmond of

northeastern Illinois.

With such correlations, it would be logical to assume that

the Richmond of eastern Illinois, Wisconsin, and northern

Michigan represent a continuous formation. This was probably

deposited by a northern invading sea, with variations produced

as the sea advanced toward the south, with many oscillations

of the strand line. The presence of numerous corals of a north¬

ern variety in Michigan and Wisconsin, and a disappearance of

the same in the Illinois area substantiates this conclusion.

Further study is necessary in this region, and the location of

definite faunal zones must be established before more specific

correlations can be made. The major part of the collections

herein recorded was secured from the fragments in the weath¬

ered debris from the cliffs. The time available for field work

was limited; however, it is believed that this study may serve

as an introduction to the extensive problems which remain.

Bibliography

1. Evans, J. R. C. 1924. The Richmond fauna of northeastern Illinois.

Unpublished manuscript, Ph. D. dissertation in University of Chicago

library.

2. Hussey, R. C. 1926. The Richmond formation of Michigan. Contrib.

Museum of Geol. Univ. Mich. 2 : 113-187.

3. Ladd, H. S. 1929. The stratigraphy and paleontology of the Maquo¬

keta shale of Iowa. Iowa Geol. Survey Bull. Pt. I, Vol. 34 : 308-418.

4. Thwaites, F. T. 1923. The palaeozoic rocks found in deep wells in

Wisconsin and northern Illinois. Jour, of Geol. 31 : 536.

5. White, C. A. 1870. Geological Survey of Iowa. Vol. I, p. 180.

THE MENOMINEE TREATY AT

THE CEDARS, 1886

Louise Phelps Kellogg

So far as known the Menominee Indians have always had

their habitat in what is now Wisconsin. When the French dis¬

coverers floated down the pellucid waters of Green Bay they

found a tribal group at the mouth of the river, ever since called

by their name the Menominee, and throughout the three hun¬

dred years of Wisconsin history the Menominee Indians have

dwelt in this vicinity. Ethnologists believe that they were a

branch of the great Algonquian family, which in the centuries

of pre-history were slowly pushing westward from the Atlantic

coast plains. Possibly the ancestors of the Menominee came

southward from the great northern plains stretching out toward

the Arctic, but if so all memory of such origin seems lost. The

Menominee legends center around the southern shores of Lake

Superior and the northwestern shore of Green Bay. Even their

name must have come to them while residing in the rice-filled

waters of streams in Michigan and Wisconsin, for in the ver¬

nacular Menominee means people of the wild rice or as the

French translated it les folles avoines (foolish oats).

It would be aside from our purpose to trace the history of the

Menominee from the time of their discovery to the treaty of

1836. Suffice it to say that as a rule these tribesmen were

friendly to the white invaders, that they welcomed their suc¬

cessive rulers — French, British, and American with good

will, and that it was their boast — not strictly true, however,

— that their tomahawk had never been raised against their

white brethren. As faithful allies of the British they took part

in the War of 1812 and at its close signed in 1817 a treaty of

amity and friendship with the American nation. It was on

soil that had belonged to the Menominee that the first American

post in Wisconsin was built at Fort Howard and thenceforward

they were ready to join in the activities of their new American

allies. Their complaisance went so far that they welcomed into

their midst a migratory group of Indians from New York state

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

— Oneida, Brothertowns, and Stockbridges, whom the white

people of New York wished to push from their borders. These

eastern Indians made much trouble for the Menominee, and it

was in connection with these difficulties that treaties were made

previous to that of 1836.

At the famous Prairie du Chien gathering of 1825, called by

the government to put an end to the intertribal quarrels and to

arrange definite boundaries between tribal regions few Menom¬

inee were present. The final adjustment of the boundaries be¬

tween the Menominee and their neighbors, the Chippewa and

Winnebago, was left therefore until the treaty of 1827 at Butte

des Morts. Then in 1831 several Menominee chiefs were es¬

corted to Washington to see their Great Father, the President

and to make him a cession of their lands. It was at this time

that the tribal chiefs made a statement of their claims to Wis¬

consin lands, stretching from Milwaukee River to the Eau

Claire, from Escanaba to the Fox-Wisconsin portage.1 The

government never granted the validity of these claims; never¬

theless they embodied them in the first article of the treaty of

1831. These boundaries conflicted on the east with those of the

Potawatomi, in west and central Wisconsin with the tribal

homes of the Sioux and the Winnebago and as such they were

bought out by the government in successive treaties. The treaty

of 1831 at Washington ceded to the United States all the Me¬

nominee tract from Green Bay to the Milwaukee River, east of

a line from Fond du Lac to the headwaters of the Milwaukee.

The Potawatomi claims to the region west of Lake Michigan

were settled at the Chicago treaty in 1833.

For this great cession of eastern Wisconsin the Menominee

received a mere pittance. For that portion, which they assigned

to the New York Indians they were granted $5,000 a year for

four years. For all the rest of this great tract they received

$6,000 a year for twelve years, with an immediate purchase of

$10,000 worth of provisions, clothing, etc. These may seem con¬

siderable sums, but when divided among the nearly 3,000 mem¬

bers of the tribe the amount per person was insignificant. The

government attempted to prepare the Menominee for an inde-

1 See Section one of Treaty of 1831 in Charles J. Kapler, Indian Treaties,

(Washington, 1904) 319. In 1929 Peter La Motte, a Menominee chief made a

map, showing these claims and presented it to the author of this article.

Kellogg— Menominee Treaty at the Cedars . 129

pendent life by arranging for the tribe a demonstration farm.

This farm was established at the place where Lake Winnebago

empties into the lower Fox. Five farmers dwelt there and five

housewives to teach Indian women domestic economy. (Was not

this the first home economics school in Wisconsin?) A mill was

built and a miller employed to run both a saw and grist mill.

The lumber was to be used to build homes for the Menominee

and when they were settled they were to be furnished with

horses, cows, hogs, and sheep. Their children were to have a

school, taught by competent instructors. All these methods

were expected to be so efficacious that “in four years [it is] to

be hoped their hunting habits may cease and their attention be

turned to pursuits of agriculture.”2

The optimists of the Treaty of 1831 counted without a deep

knowledge of Menominee character. All this welfare work was

of very little use to them, and they highly resented having their

own money spent on such an establishment. As one of their

chiefs said at the treaty of 1836: “We don’t want schools, we

don’t care to have our children learn to read.” The whole ben¬

evolent plan was regarded as a scheme for a number of white

people to make money out of the Indians’ funds and to build up

an establishment of no use to the tribesmen. Oshkosh, the head

chief, had not attended the treaty at Washington; he and his

party grumbled loudly at the foolish provisions Grizzly Bear

had been entrapped into signing. Meanwhile Grizzly Bear died

and there were few to defend the treaty which he was instru¬

mental in signing. The annuities were too small to be of much

benefit to the hungry, idle mob of Indians with “hunting hab¬

its their neighbors, the Winnebago and Chippewa, had larger

annuities. They wanted to sell more land and have more ready

money.

This was the situation as far as the Menominee were con¬

cerned when Wisconsin Territory was organized in July, 1836.

The new territorial governor, Henry Dodge, was an old Indian

fighter; he had, moreover, a respect and liking for his Indian

wards and a desire to do them justice. Upon taking office Dodge

was informed that Indian affairs for the entire territory were

under his charge ; he was also instructed to purchase additional

land from such tribes as were willing to sell, and in so far as

2 Text of the treaty, Kapler, Indian treaties 323.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

possible to persuade the Indians to cede all their Wisconsin

territory and to remove west of the Mississippi River. This was

in accord with President Jackson's policy of Indian removals,

then in full swing for the tribesmen of the southern states.

In the meanwhile Oshkosh and Silver at the annuity payment

of 1835 had told their Indian agent that they were ready to con¬

sider selling land north and west of Lake Winnebago; this

offer was reported to the Indian commissioner. He was told it

was “as fine a body of lands as ever were offered for sale ; the

purchase will be of inconceivable value to the settlement and

prosperity of this territory."3 Cass, then secretary of war, had

sent a special agent all through the Indian country to listen to

grievances and to report on conditions. Cass's confidential

agent told him that the Menominee were ready to sell4 and Cass

in March, 1836 gave the President to understand that the In¬

dians near Green Bay were disposed to make a cession and sug¬

gested their removal beyond the Mississippi. Cass was well-

acquainted with the resources of Wisconsin and knew it was

only a matter of time when this new territory must be a white

possession open for the settlement of the great mass of emi¬

grants pouring in from the East and from Europe. Dodge

was therefore ordered to see about the Menominee matter at

once.

Aug. 16, 1836 Dodge wrote a friend at Washington that he

was leaving his home, not far from Dodgeville, on the following

day, expecting to treat with the New York Indians while the

Menominee were assembling. “I will be on the ground," he

wrote, “to watch the course of events and the currents and

counter currents that I may have to contend with."5 Among

these currents and counter currents must be considered the

influence of the principal settlers of Green Bay, several of whom

were allied by birth or marriage with the Menominee tribe.

Aug. 3 Louis Grignon wrote his brother Augustin : “It appears

certain that a treaty is about to be held here for which Gov¬

ernor Dodge is or will be the sole commissioner, but as yet all

3 Gen. George M. Brooke to Commissioner Elbert Herring. Indian Office Files.

Oct. 21, 1835.

4 Report of Edmund Brush to Lewis Cass. Indian Office Files, Dec. 29, 1835.

5 Annals of Iowa, III Series, Vol. iii, 384.

Kellogg — Menominee Treaty at the Cedars . 131

is obscure; we do not know when it will take place. As the

season is advanced it is supposed that it will be very soon.”6

Among the few Americans at Green Bay were Colonel George

M. Boyd, Indian agent, who had been transferred from Mack¬

inac four years before and Henry S. Baird, a young lawyer

seeking fame and fortune in the new territory. The former at¬

tended the treaty in his official capacity; the latter was chosen

secretary for the commission. It was doubtless they who sug¬

gested the place for the conference at a site on Fox River just

below Grand Chute, known as The Cedars. This site is directly

opposite the modern town of Kimberly, on section 20, town 21

north, range 18 east. This may have been the place mentioned

by Stambaugh in his “Report on the Quality and Condition of

Wisconsin Territory, 1831.” “The scenery is very fine at this

place [Grand Chute] and indeed along the whole course of the

river. Some distance below the Chute there is a bold promin-

ance at an angle in the river, which overlooks seventy miles of

the rapids, which present an interesting and beautiful spect-

acle.”7

The site at the Cedars was chosen not only for its prominence,

but also for its convenience. Most of the Menominee lived east

and north of it. If the appointed place were above Grand Chute

they would be obliged to portage all their canoes and posses¬

sions. Any place lower down stream would be too accessible to

white settlements and to the whisky-shops among them. Run¬

ners sent out to all the villages and camps along the Menominee,

Oconto, and Wolf rivers summoned the tribesmen to the coun¬

cil. They began arriving late in August and Governor Dodge

came in on the morning of August 26.8

One is tempted to let imagination play about the scene — the

constant arrival of the canoes with their human freight, chiefs

and warriors clothed in their best ceremonial finery, gaudy with

barbaric ornament, their scalp locks greased and erected into

towering panoplies for eagle feathers, upon their chests neck¬

laces of bear’s claws and wampum, mingled with the presi¬

dential medals given to those of the chiefs who had visited

6 Translation of the French original in Wis. Hist. Library. Wis. MSS. 38B2.

T Wis. Hist. Colls., xv, 417.

8 Letter of John Lawe to his daughter Rachel, dated at the Cedars, Aug. 28,

1836. “Governor Dodge arrived here the day before yesterday morning.” Wis.

MSS. 5C14.

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Washington. Excited women, children, and dogs ran hither and

thither, wigwams were quickly erected, fires built, kettles hung,

and all the incidents of savage life at its heightened moments

unrolled before the spectators. Most of the visitors were too

familiar with these incidents to be impressed. Prominent trad¬

ers both French and American gathered from east and west.

Among these we note Joseph Rolette from Prairie du Chien;

Louis and Augustin Grignon, grandsons of Charles de Langlade ;

John P. Arndt, the taverner of Green Bay; John Lawe and the

younger Porlier, also pioneers of this region ; Charles R. Brush,

Sam Ryan, newcomers to the territory; Joseph Jourdain the

settlement blacksmith. While striding among these white men

were army officers from Fort Howard, Brigadier General

George M. Brooks and Lieutenant Robert E. Clary.9 Two young

Menominee half-breeds, Charles A. Grignon and William Pow¬

ell, were sworn in as interpreters, both having Menominee

mothers and speaking the language with ease. Other half-breeds

were there also to obtain their share of the purchase money,

and their influence upon their relatives, the chiefs, was one of

the “currents and counter-currents” with which Dodge had to

contend. There were also present eight missionaries of vari¬

ous denominations, who with the traders were anxious to see

the treaty signed, although from different motives. The former

desired to have their charges removed from the neighborhood

of the whites, and so encouraged them to sell. The traders

hoped to secure payment for debts long due them from their

Menominee customers. N. G. Bean wrote to John Lawe, at the

beginning of the negotiations: “You are the Father of the

Nation [that is, its chief trader], they won’t sign without your

approval. Your joint efforts should procure something hand¬

some to be equally divided.”10

Dodge soon found that stubborn opposition would be put up

to any scheme of removal to the west of the Mississippi, so he

quickly abandoned all such suggestions and set himself to ob¬

tain the most land on the best terms that could be secured. He

appreciated the value of what the Indians had to sell and the

importance of treating them fairly. As he wrote to a friend :

“The growth of our Territory is so intimately connected with

9 Signatories to the treaty in Kapler, Indian Treaties , 465-466.

10 Wis. MSS. 507.

Kellogg — Menominee Treaty at the Cedars, 133

our Indian relations, that I view it as a matter of the first

importance to do the Indians ample justice in all our treaty

stipulations. A little Indian difficulty would greatly impede the

settlement of the country, and experience has given us some-

useful lessons on this subject as to the expense of Indian

wars.”11 In other words a treaty, at almost any price, was

cheaper than a war.

The council opened Monday morning, Aug. 29 at ten

o'clock.12 Dodge reminded the chiefs of a clause in the treaty

of 1831 by which they were to hold the land north and west of

Fox River until such time as the President should deem it ex¬

pedient to extinguish the title when the Indians promised to

surrender it immediately. This proviso took the Menominee

aback. Oshkosh and his fellow chiefs protested that they had

never made such an agreement. Dodge thought it best to waive

this proposition and to allow the chiefs to make their own pro¬

posals as to bounds and price. Wednesday, Aug. 31, Oshkosh

offered all their lands east of Wolf River, which he estimated

at three millions of acres. Dodge then asked for something on

Wisconsin River to comprise pine timber needed by the new

settlers for building. A grant was made of twenty-four miles

in length, three miles each side of the river, comprising in all

eight townships. Dodge estimated that the whole grant would

be “upwards of four million acres.” What they asked for this

property footed nearly $2,000,000, which Dodge could by no

means allow. He scaled down the annuities demanded from

$80,000 to $23,500 annually for twenty years, made the traders

agree to cut their claims in half, appropriated $80,000 for the

half-breeds and promised salt, tobacco and clothing to be fur¬

nished at the annual payments, which brought the total sum

agreed upon to somewhat more than $700,000. This was one

of the largest amounts paid up to this time for an Indian ces¬

sion. Dodge would gladly have given more, knowing the value

of what the Indians sold ; but he was certain that larger pay¬

ments would imperil the ratification of the treaty by the United

States Senate.13 The traders, concluding that “half a loaf was

better than no bread,” and that there was danger that the nego-

11 Annals of Iowa, III Series, vol. iii, 386.

12 “Journal of the Proceedings” in Indian Office Piles. Negotiations in Henry

S. Baird’s writing in Wis. MSS. 73C.

13 Annals of Iowa, III Series, vol. iii, 386.

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tiations would be broken off, urged the chiefs to sign. So on

Sept. 3, only six days after opening the conference the prin¬

cipal chiefs “touched the pen,” Dodge, Baird, and Boyd ap¬

pended their signatures and the treaty of the Cedars was made.

The next February the Senate ratified it and the following

year the Menominee prepared to abandon their village homes,

theirs from time immemorial, on the lower Fox, the Oconto, the

Menominee, and to establish new homes west of Wolf River,

between there and the Wisconsin.

The treaty of 1836 with the Menominee was remarkable for

several reasons. In the first place it was noted for dispatch —

the Indians gathered, their ceremonial speeches were made,

propositions were discussed and agreed to in less than a week.

This was, perhaps, because there was but a single commissioner

and he well-versed in his duties, acquainted with the Indians,

their traders, their relatives and friends, as well as with the

nature of the ceded territory. Secondly, this treaty was noted

for its fairness, practically all parties were satisfied with its

provisions and its results. Lastly, it was remarkable for its ef¬

fect on the growth of Wisconsin Territory. Today great cities

stand on this Indian cession — most of Oshkosh, all of Neenah,

Menasha, Appleton, North Kaukauna, Oconto, and Marinette

in Wisconsin, Menominee and Escanaba in Michigan owe their

origins to the treaty of the Cedars. On the Wisconsin River,

also, Wisconsin Rapids, Stevens Point, Mosinee, and Wausau

stand on the strip ceded to the government in 1836.

The carrying out of the provisions of the treaty occupied

some time. In 1837 commissioners were appointed to take testi¬

mony regarding the traders' claims. From this report many

interesting bits of early Wisconsin history may be gleaned.14

Jacques Porlier testified that he began trading with the Menom¬

inee in 1796; Peter Powell had been for twenty-five years one

of their traders ; Louis Grignon had had twenty-nine years' con¬

tact with this tribe; John Lawe had not only traded with them

since 1810 but had fed them, clothed them, cared for them in a

hundred ways. The commissioner chosen by the President to

pay the claims of the mixed-breed Menominee was John W.

Edmonds of Indiana. “He will have,” wrote Dodge, “a delicate

and difficult task.” He came to Green Bay in the summer of

14 Indian Office Files ; photostats in Wis. Hist. Library.

Kellogg — Menominee Treaty at the Cedars . 1B5

1837 and paid most of the claims at the time of the payment.

The sums seem to have amounted to three to four hundred dol¬

lars per person. We have an account of the payment of that

year from the pen of James M. Boyd, son of the Indian agent,

who was present on that occasion.15 The tribe was to have been

paid on Lake Poygan, but the money came so late in the year

that the party stopped at Grand Chute and called the Indians

there. Like most such payments it had its ludicrous and tragic

incidents and one may seriously question whether the annui¬

ties were not more harmful than helpful to the Menominee. In

one respect they played an important share in the fiscal history

of the territory. Money was scarce on the frontier, and the

coin brought by the government agents for the Indians created

a circulating medium which aided the new commonwealth to

tide over the difficult days of the panic of 1837. So far as the

white dwellers in Wisconsin were concerned the treaty of 1836

and its effects were of great importance to their progress. For

the Menominee the treaty of 1836 still stands as a landmark in

their dealings with their “great Father” for justice, fairness,

and a recognition of their rights.

15 MS. in Wis. Hist. Library. File 577.

SHAFTESBURY AND THE DOCTRINE OF BENEVOLENCE

IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

William E. Alderman

Beloit College

The utilitarianism represented by Hobbes on the one hand

and by Locke on the other, that had come to dominate English

ethical speculations, did not represent virtue in a way at all

acceptable to the high-minded Shaftesbury. To refrain from

viciousness for fear of punishment, or to practice charity from

a hope of reward, did not, according to his way of thinking,

constitute virtue. To be sure, the “rod and sweetmeat”1 method

would influence actions, because it “presupposed some disad¬

vantage or benefit to accrue” ; but “there is no virtue or good¬

ness in acting from hope or fear.”2 “Thus a person loving life

for life’s sake, and virtue not at all, may by the promise or

hope of life, or fear of death or other evil, be induced to prac¬

tice virtue, and even endeavor to be truly virtuous by a love of

what he practices. Yet neither is this very endeavor to be

esteemed a virtue.”3 This conviction that much that passed for

goodness was at least superficial, together with the obvious

fact that not all religionists possessed humanity and that many

atheists were wholly moral, led him to inquire as to what hon¬

esty and virtue really were. In answering this question, he gave

us his theories as to Beauty and Truth, Self-love and Benevo¬

lence, man’s natural goodness, and the constitution of real hap¬

piness.

That which makes a creature good, or, more exactly speak¬

ing, Goodness itself, is something beyond time and space.

Neither divine legislation nor human prudence can create it,

for it is immutable and eternal, existent in the very order and

constitution of the universe. Indeed Beauty and Good are one

and the same thing.4 “That what is Beautiful is Harmonious

1 The Moralists , Pt. II, sect. 2.

2 Inquiry concerning Virtue , Bk. I, Pt. Ill, sec. 1.

3 Ibid., Bk. I, Pt. Ill, sect. 3.

4 The Moralists, Pt. Ill, sect. 2.

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

and Proportionable ; what is Harmonious and Proportionable,

is True ; and what is at once both Beautiful and True, is, of con¬

sequence, Agreeable and GOOD.”5 Such expressions as “beauty

and good are still the same”,6 “Beauty and Truth are plainly

join'd”,7 and “all Beauty is Truth”8 are constantly recurring in

his writings. “Harmony is Harmony by Nature,9 and the

most natural beauty in the world is Honesty and Moral Truth.”10

A convert to this theory of Beauty, than which “there is nothing

so divine”, Philocles resolves: “My study therefore should be

to grow beautiful, in his way of beauty, and from this time for¬

ward I would do all I could to propagate that lovely race of men¬

tal children, happily sprung from such a high enjoyment and

from a union with what was fairest and best.”11

Since, therefore, Goodness and Truth are no other than

Beauty and Harmony, Virtue must be a condition or state re¬

sulting from a proportion of internal affections and a relation¬

ship of these affections to the rest of the universe. In other

words, Morality itself is part and parcel of that Universal Har¬

mony so often discussed.

The affections governing man are: (1) “natural affections,

which lead to the good of the public”; (2) “the self-affections,

which lead only to the good of the private”; (3) “such as are

neither of these nor tending either to any good of the public or

private, but contrary-wise ; and which may therefore be styled

unnatural affections.”12

Of these the natural affections, leading to the good of the

public, are the most important ; to possess them “is to have the

chief means and power of self -enjoyment, and the highest pos¬

session and happiness of life.”13 “When, in general, all the af¬

fections or passions are suited to the public good, or Good of

the Species, then is the natural temper entirely good.”14 In

order “to deserve the name of good or virtuous, a creature must

have all his inclinations and affections, his dispositions of mind

6 Miscellany III, Ch. II.

8 The Moralists , Pt. Ill, sect. 2.

’ Miscellany III, Ch. II.

8 Wit and Humor , Pt. IV, sect. 3.

9 Advice to an Author, Pt. Ill, sect. 3.

10 Wit and Humor, Pt. IV, sect. 3.

11 The Moralists, Pt. Ill, sect. 2.

12 Inquiry concerning Virtue, Bk. II, Pt. I, sect. 3.

13 Ibid., Bk. II, Pt. II, sect. 1.

M Ibid., Bk. II, Pt. I, sect. 5.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 139

and temper, suitable, and agreeing with the good of his kind,

or of that system in which he is included, and of which he con¬

stitutes a part.”15

And what is more, these natural affections , as the name im¬

plies, are wholly consonant with the constitution of man. “ Tis

no more natural for the stomach to digest, the lungs to breathe,

the glands to separate juices’*16 than for man to have an affec¬

tion towards the good of the species. Generation and the care

and nurture of the offspring are no more natural to man than

is society, without which he cannot ever subsist.17 The very

helplessness of the human infant forces us “to own that he is

purposely, and not by accident, made rational and sociable.”18

By this closely concatenated logic he arrives at the conclu¬

sion, already premeditated, that man is naturally good. Al¬

though certain unnatural affections or disproportions may have

destroyed the original harmony of his make-up, yet is he again

perfectible. The Characteristics are replete with sententious

statements to this effect. I choose rather to draw from his

Preface to Dr. Whichcote’s Selected Sermons (1698), partly

because its content is not easily accessible and is, therefore,

little known, and partly because one can see therefrom how

early this doctrine had become an essential part of his sys¬

tem.19

Herein he attacks Hobbes roundly for having forgotten to

mention kindness, friendship, sociableness, love of company

and converse, and natural affection when he reckoned “up the

passions or affections by which men are held together in so¬

ciety, live in peace, or have any correspondence one with an¬

other.” “So much less Good-nature has he left with mankind,

than what he allows to the worst of beasts”. With caustic ban¬

ter he assails Religion, “where love is chiefly enjoyed, where

the heart is expressly called for . where charity or kind¬

ness is made all in all”, for degrading the principle of Good¬

nature and referring all to reward, “as if Good-nature and re¬

ligion were enemies.” Having quoted from Dr. Whichcote, he

« Ibid., Bk. II, Pt. I, sect. 1.

is Ibid., Bk. II, Pt. I, sect. 1.

17 The Moralists, Pt. II, sect. 4.

18 Ibid.

19 For a more extended reference concerning the relationship of Whichcote and

Shaftesbury, see The Significance of Shaftesbury in English Speculation, P. M. L.

A. Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 183-189.

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

adds: “Thus speaks our excellent Divine, and truly Christian

Philosopher; whom, for his appearing thus in defence of Na¬

tural Goodness, we may call the Preacher of Good-nature.”

Although first place is given to the Natural or Benevolent

affections, the self-affections are by no means forgotten. The

propagation and preservation of the individual is necessary if

there is to be any species. However, “By having self-passions

too intense or strong, a creature becomes miserable.”20 An ex¬

aggerated amount of affection towards private good leaves less

room for public good; but a proportionable amount is wholly

desirable. “To be well affected towards the public interest and

one's own is not only consistent but inseparable.”21 By the very

nature of things it is “according to the private interest and good

of everyone to work toward the general good.”22 In fact the

general good and the private good are one and the same.23

The upshot of the whole matter is that the real happiness of

man consists in “that self-enjoyment which arises from a con¬

sistency of life and manners, a harmony of affections, a free¬

dom from the reproach of shame and guilt, and a consciousness

of worth and merit with all mankind, our society, country, and

friends — all which is founded in virtue only.”24 To be thus

“is to live according to Nature, and the dictates and rules of

supreme wisdom. This is morality, piety, and natural re¬

ligion.”25

What has gone before may be summarized, and what is to

follow below may be outlined thus :

A. Goodness or Virtue, in no wise dependent upon action per¬

formed from hope or fear, is identical with Truth, Beauty,

and Harmony and leads directly to the highest happiness.

B. Man by his original constitution is possessed of a Good¬

nature. Therefore the Benevolent affections, paramount to

Virtue, are natural. Although the unnatural affections may

gain temporary ascendency, man is perfectible. There is no

real conflict between the self-affections and the benevolent ones.

20 The Moralists, Bk. II, Pt. II, sect. 2.

21 Ibid., Bk. II, Pt. I, sect. 1.

22 Ibid., Conclusion.

23 Enthusiasm, sect. 5.

24 The Moralists, Pt. Ill, sect. 3.

29 Inquiry concerning Virtue, Bk. II, Pt. II, sect. 1.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 141

A.

The philosophy of Locke, in as far as it made the criterion of

action to rest in the will and law of God and made God a chief-

justice dispensing rewards and inflicting punishments with im¬

punity, was so consistent with the current theology and, con¬

sequently, so firmly rooted in the English consciousness, that to

upturn it would seem not only Herculean but also impossible.

The dies irae had such salutary effects upon the actions of frail

man and was so capable of vivid portrayal that it was a favorite

with both preachers and poets. Milton and Sherlock, Boyse and

Berkeley, to mention but four, were stout in their defense of

morality based on law and judgment. Sometimes the pragmatic,

sometimes the prudential argument was advanced. To be sure,

innocence suffers, virtue bleeds, saints and sages perish as vic¬

tims of tyrannic rage, and vice goes uncorrected;26 but the day

of judgment comes rushing on,

Where men and angels shall to audit come,

And millions yet unborn receive their doom!

Then shall fair Providence, to all display'd,

Appear divinely bright without a shade;

In light triumphant all her acts be shown,

And blushing Doubt eternal Wisdom own !27

Leland maintained that “if scripture had only contained fine

and elegant discourses on beauty and virtue, and the deformity

of vice, instead of proposing the sanctions of eternal rewards

and punishments, it would neither have been so becoming the

majesty and dignity of the supreme legislator, nor so well fitted

to answer the end of a revelation designed for common use."

Shaftesbury “had done very wrong in throwing out so many in¬

sinuations against the doctrine of future retributions."28

The potency of Shaftesbury's ethical teachings is well at¬

tested by the fact that so high a churchman as Bishop Butler

seconds him in his transference of the moral guide to the in¬

dividual. Shaftesbury's “moral sense" was inadequate for But¬

ler, but the “conscience" which the latter postulated was also

in opposition to the guides proposed by Hobbes and by Locke.

26 See forthcoming articles, by the present writer, entitled Shaftesbury and Op¬

timism and Shaftesbury and Moral Sense.

27 Samuel Boyse, The Deity (1739).

28 Deistical Writers, Vol. I, p. 55.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Shaftesbury's doctrine that both God and man were blas¬

phemed by an insistence on the hopes and fears of a future state

elevated virtue to the highest pinnacle of idealism. That which

Akenside characterized as “the applauding smile of heaven"29

is a much less utilitarian and less sordid reward than that which

was held out by the orthodox. Virtue thus becomes its own

reward, or as Grove put it in the Spectator, “The conscience of

approving one's self a benefactor to mankind is the noblest

recompense for doing so."30 Compared to this, Young’s atti¬

tude seems commercial.

Rewards and punishments make God ador'd;

And hopes and fears give conscience all her powers.31

Nichols records the fact that Browne in his Essays on the Char¬

acteristics had said that “one of the followers of Lord Shaftes¬

bury (and referring to the Author of Philemon to Hydaspes)

had affirmed in still more emphatic expressions, if possible, than

his Master, that the height of Virtuosoship is Virtue.”*2

Butler admits without a qualm that Shaftesbury “has shown

beyond all contradiction, that virtue is naturally the interest or

happiness" of mankind.33 After discussing riches, blood, great

ness, and their kind, Pope concludes:

Know then this truth, enough for man to know,

Virtue alone is happiness below.34

Elsewhere he pictures virtue’s prize as that calm sunshine of

the soul, that heartfelt joy which nothing earthly can either

give or take away.35 Fielding, who is at heart opposed to all

sentimental doctrines, is, naturally, averse to this thesis that

virtue brings happiness. He brings odium upon it by having

Square espouse the cause of “the true natural beauty of vir-

29 Pleasures of the Imagination, Bk. I, 1.166.

30 Spectator 588.

3* Night VII.

32 Literary Anecdotes, Vol. V. pp. 568-569. The author referred to is Henry

Coventry, whose death interrupted the Sixth Dialogue. The five Dialogues were

republished in one volume in 1753.

33 Preface to Sermons, 1729, sect. 20.

34 Essay, Ep. IV, 11. 309-310.

35 Ibid., 11. 167-169. Compare with the references given above James Cawthorn’s

The Equality of Human Conditions (1746). Here the comparison is not so much

between the virtuous and the wicked as between the high and the low, the rich

and the poor. The conclusion is that the ills and pleasures knock alike at every

door.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 143

tue”,86 and by proceeding to hold him up as an object of derision

because he neglected religion and “utterly discarded all good¬

ness of heart.”37 According to the formula that virtue brings

happiness, the hero, who “was acting the most virtuous part

imaginable” should have been happy indeed; but he was not.

“This therefore would seem an exception to the above rule, if

indeed it was a rule ; but as we have in our voyage in life seen

so many other exceptions to it, we choose to dispute the doc¬

trine on which it is founded, which we don’t apprehend to be

Christian, which we are convinced is not true, and which is in¬

deed destructive to one of the noblest arguments that reason

alone can furnish for the belief in immortality.”38 Later in the

same chapter he dismisses it with an air of finality as “a very

handsome and comfortable doctrine, and to which we have but

one objection, namely, that it is not true.” To this Dr. John¬

son would say amen .

In estimating the force which Shaftesbury exerted upon the

ethical speculations of his century, and consequently, upon lit¬

erature itself, we cannot lose sight of his identification of

Beauty and Truth, Harmony and Virtue, Proportion and Good¬

ness. To trace the reflections of this union definitively would be

to repeat much of the treatment of Universal Harmony and

Natural Religion given elsewhere.39 It will suffice here, there¬

fore, if but a few pertinent examples are presented.

Among the philosophers, Hutcheson is easily the most ardent

follower of Shaftesbury in emphasizing the analogy between

beauty and virtue,40 and Berkley is, perhaps, as caustic as any

of his adversaries.41 In literature the phrase “Beauty is truth,

truth beauty”, or its equivalent, which we are wont to associate

with Keats,42 is variously but frequently repeated, especially by

the poets of the Shaftesburian school proper. Brooke identifies

the “paths of Beauty and of Truth”,43 and speaks of the “Beauty

36 Tom Jones, Bk. Ill, Ch. 3.

3* IMd., Bk. Ill, Ch. IV.

3S Ibid., Bk. XV, Ch. I.

39 See C. A. Moore, Shaftesbury and the Ethical Poets, P. M. L. A., Vol. XXXI,

264-325 ; Lyons, Shaftesbury’s Ethical Principles of Adaptation to Universal Har¬

mony, New York, 1900.

40 See An Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725).

41 See Alciphron, Dial. III.

42 See Ode on a Grecian Urn, 11. 49-50.

43 Universal Beauty, Bk. IV, 1. 351.

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

of Love, and Symmetry Divine.”44 His fragmentary poem Con -

rade; the song of the Filea of Ancient Days , reminiscent of that

primitive life idealized in sentimental literature and Ossianic in

mood, begins —

What do I love — what is it that mine eyes

Turn round in search of — that my soul longs after,

But cannot quench her thirst? — Tis Beauty, Phelin!

I see it wide beneath the arch of Heaven.

At my heart I feel

Its potent grasp, I melt beneath the touch,

When the tale pours upon my sense humane

The woes of other times ! What art thou, Beauty?

Thou are not color, fancy, sound, nor form —

These but the conduits are, whence the soul quaffs

The liquor of its Heaven. — Whate’er thou art,

Nature, or Nature's spirit, thou art all

I long for.

Cooper acknowledges his indebtedness to Shaftesbury in the

Design prefixed to The Power of Harmony . To quote from his

own words : “This then is the design of the poem, to show that

a constant attention to what is perfect and beautiful in nature

will by degrees, harmonize the soul to a responsive regularity

and sympathetic order.” “For what is virtue but a just regu¬

lation of our affections and appetites to make them correspond

to the peace and welfare of society? so that good and beauty are

inseparable.” In the poem itself the soul, through habitual

intercourse with the charms of things external,

Is harmonized within, till all is fair

And perfect; till each mortal pow’r perceives

Its own resemblance, with fraternal joy,

In ev’ry form complete, and smiling feels

Beauty and Good the same.”45

The mention of two others, Akenside and Harris, must suffice.

Again each can best speak for himself ; hear the former :

Thus was Beauty sent from Heaven,

The lovely mistress of truth and good

In this dark world: for truth and good are one,

With like participation.46

**Ibid., Bk. II, 1. 333.

46 Bk. II.

46 Pleasures of the Imagination , Bk. I, 11. 372-376.

Aldermarir—Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence. 145

Commenting upon the passage, in a note where he mentions

the Characteristics, he says among other things that “all ra¬

tional beings must perceive beauty in certain proportions, and

deformity in the contrary”, and that “Beauty is founded on

the universal and unchangeable law of truth.” The intellectual

kinship of James Harris is not to be discounted by the fact that

he was a nephew of the Third Earl. In Concord (1751) he says :

‘Ere yet creation was, ere sun and moon

And stars bedeck’d the splendid vault of heaven,

Was God ; and God was Mind ; and Mind was Beauty,

And Truth, and Form, and Order.

B.

This elevated virtue individually applied meant, as has been

said, a certain relation of affections, of which the benevolent

ones were to predominate. If one may judge historically, the

age to which this new message came was sadly in need of just

such a basis of ethics. Despite the Golden Rule and the exam¬

ple of the Good Samaritan, the church in spirit had remained

strangely smug and unsocial. To be sure it had its organized

charities, but the general run of religion was prudential rather

than philanthropic. Conformity to dogma rather than the dis¬

charge of duties to society was too frequently the norm of vir¬

tue ; the letter outshone the spirit of conduct. The church, not

blind to the inequalities and injustices of life, trusted to the

eternal justice of the ages to make the crooked appear straight

and to render the rough places plain ; to do otherwise, it argued,

was to rob religion of one of its chiefest proofs of the hereafter.

The complacency thus engendered had been notoriously deficient

in the promotion of those social amenities which alone could

ameliorate the ills of life.

The philosophy of Hobbes, and later of Mandeville, which

made man by nature a compound of evil passions, rendered the

perfectibility of mankind not only more chimerical but also less

desirable. Thereby it was hand in glove with that torpidness

begotten of a belief in the efficacy of the next world to rectify

all of the irregularities of this one. Manichaeism and cynicism,

while heightening the conflict within man’s own breast, did not

lend encouragement to social reform.

The enfranchisement of human nature by the Cambridge

Platonists, such as Dr. Whichcote, and by the deists, gave an

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

entirely different complexion to benevolence. If, as Shaftesbury

insisted, man was by nature good, his complete regeneration

became wholly possible and supremely desirable. It is to this

old, yet new doctrine that we must look for the philosophical

impulse and motivating force back of that flood of social re¬

form that was soon to characterize the activity of the century.

Fielding has represented the humanistic and the sentimental

attitudes toward human nature in Thwackum and Square.

“Square held human nature to be the perfection of all virtue,

and that vice was a deviation from our nature, in the same man¬

ner as a deformity of the body is. Thwackum, on the contrary,

maintained that the human mind, since the fall, was nothing

but a sink of iniquity, till purified and redeemed by grace .

The favorite phrase of the former, was the natural beauty of

virtue; and of the latter was the divine power of grace. The

former measured all actions by the unalterable rule of right,

and the eternal fitness of things ; the latter decided all matters

on authority.”47 The general practice of Fielding, and the fol¬

lowing passage from a subsequent chapter make his own point

of view clear. “If thou dost delight in those models of perfec¬

tion, there are books enow written to gratify thy taste ; but as

we have not, in the course of our conversation, ever happened

to meet with any such person, we have not chosen to introduce

any such here. To say the truth, I a little question whether

mere man ever arrived at this consummate degree of excel¬

lence.”48 In the second part of the Fable of the Bees , Cleomenes,

representing Mandeville, opposes Horatio, a follower of Shaftes¬

bury, by insisting on the corruption of human nature and the

impossibility of virtue. Swift too was convinced of the per¬

verseness of the race. Here is Jove's address in his Day of

Judgment .

“Offending race of human kind.

By nature, learning, reason blind;

You who through frailty stept aside,

And you who never fell — from pride ;

You who in different sects were shammed,

And come to see each other damned

(So some folks told you, but they knew

No more of Jove's designs than you) —

47 Tom Jones, Bk. Ill, Ch. 3.

4S Ibid., Bk. X, Ch. 1.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 147

The world's mad business now is o'er,

And I resent these pranks no more —

I to such blockheads set my wit !

I damn such fools! Go, go, you're bit."

Abundant supplementary evidence is furnished by those sordid

pictures in Gulliver's Travels . Both in his essays and in Ras-

selas Dr. Johnson has given us his answer to the much moot

question. At no time does the prince find human nature to be

all that might be desired; the idealistic philosopher is unintel¬

ligible, the hermit has not solved the riddle, and the people of

the cities are by no means worthy of a nimbus. Wesley, Young,

and Cowper are one with the poet of the Anti Jacobin in insist¬

ing on the necessity of “moral truth" and “Gospel law".

To set in array here the names and sentiments of all those

who, with Shaftesbury, held to the theory of the natural good¬

ness of man, would be to repeat the names and doctrines of all

of those believers in deistical ideas, natural religion, and a

golden age in the past spoken of elsewhere ; from this the reader

will be spared. What will be helpful to us, however, in casting

up a final account of the literary potency of this idea, will be to

keep in mind the nature of the encouragement that it gave to

personal activity and aspiration. No man can long believe in

the essential goodness of human nature without including his

own self in that humanity which he believes to be perfectible.

This means not only that he will be more beneficent in his rela¬

tions with others, but also that he will be more indulgent with

his own infallible self. Sweet sensibility and individual inclina¬

tion are then easily substituted for common sense, education,

conscience, and restraint. Unwitting of the ultimate outcome

of his doctrines, the high-minded Shaftesbury believed in man¬

kind because he believed in the naturalness of the benevolent

affections, than which none could be more desirable. None,

without doubt, would have regretted the prostitution of his lofty

notions more than himself, had he lived to witness the results ;

but this does not exonerate him from the role that his ideas as¬

sumed. Divorced from their intended ends, they became an in¬

centive to that mawkishness and lachrymosity which spilled it¬

self on the pages of all too many works. Nor was this the only in¬

sidious by-product of a belief in man's native worth ; a kind of

laissez faire doctrine must also be laid at its door. Some who

doubt that man was ever ordained for complete happiness, ad-

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

vocate that he should throw restraint to the winds and be as

happy as he can.

“0 Education, ever in the wrong,

To thee the curses of mankind belong ;

Thou first great author of our future state.

Chief source of our religion, passions, fate:

On every atom of the doctor's frame

Nature has stampt the pedant with his name ;

But thou hast made him, (ever wast thou blind)

A licensed butcher of the human kind.

Then, friend, let inclination be thy guide,

Nor be by superstition led aside."49

To turn from a consideration of man’s natural goodness to a

study of the naturalness of the benevolent affections is to turn

from one page to the next in the same book. Those who regard

them as part of man’s constitution are many, those who look

upon their exercise as pleasurable are more, and those who con¬

sider them natural, pleasurable, and paramount are legion. By

way of escape from the nightmare of Mandeville, even many

of the orthodox and humanists join hands with the sentimental¬

ists. Butler agrees that at least a part of man’s instincts lead

“most directly and immediately to the good of the commun¬

ity.”50 and that “There is a natural principle of benevolence in

man; which is in some degree to society , what self-love is to

the individual. And if there be in mankind any disposition to

friendship ; if there be any such thing as compassion, for com¬

passion is momentary love; if there be any such thing as the

parental or filial affections ; if there be any affection in human

nature, the object and the end of which is the good of another;

this is itself benevolence, or the love of another. Be it ever so

short, be it in ever so low a degree, or ever so unhappily con¬

fined ; it proves the assertion, and points out what we were de¬

signed for, as really as if it were in a higher degree and more

extensive.”51 In answer to those philosophers who deny that

there is any such thing as love, and who “some years since very

much alarmed the world, by showing that there were no such

things as virtue and goodness really existing in human nature,

and who deduced our best actions from pride”, Fielding main-

49 Thomas Chatterton, Happiness (1770).

so preface, sec. 13.

51 Sermon I, On Human Nature, sect. 4.

Alderman — Shaf tesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 149

tains that “there is in some (I believe in many) human breasts

a kind of benevolent disposition, which is gratified by contrib¬

uting to the happiness of others. That in this gratification

alone, as in friendship, in parental and filial affection, as in¬

deed in general philanthropy, there is a great and exquisite de¬

light.”52 The Reverend Henry Grove, writing in the Specta¬

tor,53 speaks of an “innate propension to beneficence”, of this

inclination as of “the original growth of the heart of man”,

and of “a natural instinct prompting men to desire the welfare

and satisfaction of others.” “The pity which arises on sight of

persons in distress, and the satisfaction of mind which is the

consequence of having removed them to a happier state, are

instead of a thousand arguments to prove such a thing as dis¬

interested benevolence.”

Without dwelling upon the obvious attitude of those who

were strictly sentimental toward the naturalness of benevo¬

lence, we may pass at once to some of these numerous recom¬

mendations for its practice. Some of the poems which enjoin

pity, mercy, compassion and charity, by their very phrases be¬

tray their Biblical inspiration; of these John Byrom’s On

Works of Mercy and Compassion and Verses Designed for an

Infirmary may be taken as representative. Even so, they must

be read in the light of the compromise which a new philosophy

had forced upon a staid theology. Other poems which present

simple, sympathetic pictures of persons whom misfortune has

overtaken, and which attempt to soften the hearts of superiors

to the amelioration of hardships can be mentioned by title only ;

such are The Chelsea Pensioner and The Debtor by Sir John

Henry Moore, The Poor Man's Prayer by Rev. Dr.Roberts, and

the anonymous The Beggar.5*

Certain other poems, which by acknowledgement or implica¬

tion are indebted to Shaftesbury, call for a more detailed treat¬

ment.

James Thomson has already appeared so frequently in studies

of this nature that nothing additional is required to establish

his indebtedness to Shaftesbury.55 But the specific mention

82 Tom Jones , Bk. VI, Ch. I.

53 Nos. 588 and 601 for September 1, 1714 and October 1, 1714.

64 Conveniently found in Fugitive poetry , Vol. IX.

53 See P. M. L. A., Vol. XXXVIII, p. 189, note 67.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

which the former makes of the latter, because of the especial

appropriateness of the subject matter, may be quoted here.

The generous Ashley thine, the friend of man;

Who scanned his nature with a brother’s eye,

His weakness prompt to shade, to raise his aim,

To touch the finer movements of the mind,

And with the moral beauty charm the heart.56

David Mallet, in turn, in a poem entitled To Mr. Thomson , on

his publishing the second edition of his poem called Winter ,

refers to the author of the Seasons as “Virtue’s friend”. We

may safely say that in no way is Thomson nearer to Shaftes¬

bury than in the encouragement that he gave to benevolence and

reform. In this he occupies the position of a pioneer in the

poetry of the century. Such expressions as “the ineffable de¬

light of sweet humanity”,57 “the love .... of human race”, “the

sigh for suffering worth”, “the awakened throb for virtue”,

“the sympathies of love”, “all the social offspring of the heart”,58

and the “general good” abound in his pages. He calls upon the

masters to be kind to those laborers who sink them “soft in

elegance and ease” and speaks of “that sparing board” which

covers theirs in “luxury profuse.”59 The thought of the widow

starving in solitude with her orphans, while in the palace luxury

strained her thoughts to create unreal wants, haunted his sense

of justice.60 “The gay licentious proud” little thought, as did

he, of the “shameful variance betwixt man and man”, of those

who “pine in want, and dungeon-glooms”, of those beset with

misery, poverty, and “all the fiercer tortures of the mind”.

Thought fond man

Of these, and all the thousand nameless ills,

That one incessant struggle render life,

One scene of toil, of suffering, and of fate,

Vice in his high career would stand appalled,

And heedless rambling impulse learn to think;

The conscious heart of charity would warm,

And her wise wish benevolence dilate ;

The social tear would rise, the social sigh;

And into clear perfection, gradual bliss,

Refining still, the social passions work.61

M Summer, 11. 1551-1555.

57 Summer, 11. 892-893.

68 Autumn, 1019 ff.

69 Autumn, 11. 350-359.

69 Winter, 1057-1060.

Ibid., 322-358.

Alderman — -Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 151

An exceedingly vivid picture of the gloomy jail and all of its in¬

justices is given, and that “generous band”, the Jail Commit¬

tee of 1729, is commended for its activity. The “sons of Mercy”

are then called upon to resume the search, to “drag forth the

legal monsters” who “lengthen simple justice into trade”, and

to usher in the day when every man will be “within the reach

of right.”62 Elsewhere he espouses the cause of the Foundling

Hospital63 and the founding of Georgia for debtors,64 and de¬

nounces the slave trade.

Pope, though less concrete and picturesque than is Thomson,

is one with him and Shaftesbury on the subject of benevolence.

The very helplessness of the human babe is proof that man by

nature was meant to be a social being.65

Heav’n forming each on other to depend,

A master, or a servant, or a friend,

Bids each on other for assistance call,

’Till one man’s weakness grows the strength of all.66

Every thing in the universe works toward “the general good”,

not “the good of one, but all”,67 and the good instinctively real¬

ize that faith, law, and morals

“All end in the love of God, and love of man.”68

Both Brooke and Harris find the social nature of man elo¬

quently exemplified in the relationships existing between the

members of the lower creations.69 To the latter, man’s chief joy

comes when he “feels affection melt the social heart”. To Cooper

a “beautiful action” is synonymous with “the generous resigna¬

tion of private advantage by some individual, to submit and

adopt his single being to the whole community, or some part of

it.”70 Having spoken of the necessity of an internal order of

manners, and before passing on to “public transports” which

shall inflame the soul, Melmoth acknowledges his allegiance to

Shaftesbury with these lines :

62 Ibid., 359-388.

62 Liberty, Pt. V, 11. 471-483, 647-666.

64 Ibid ., 11. 638-646.

65 Essay, Ep. Ill, 11. 131-138.

™Ibid., Ep. II, 11. 249-254.

67 Ibid., Ep. Ill, 11. 7-14; Ep. IV, 11. 35-38.

™Ibid., Ep. IV, 11. 330-340.

69 Universal Beauty, Bk. V, 11. 330-339 ; Concord.

70 Design prefixed to The Power of Harmony.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Fir’d by this thought great Ashley, gen’rous sage,

Plann’d in sweet leisure his instructive page.71

Whitehead’s Enthusiast, having decided upon a life of contem¬

plation in solitude is rebuffed thus :

And is not thy o’erflowing mind

Unless thou mixest with thy kind,

Benevolent in vain?

Enthusiast, go ; try every sense :

If not thy bliss, thy excellence

Thou yet hast learn’d to scan.

At least thy wants, thy weakness know ;

And see them all uniting show

That man was made for man.72

Grainger begins To Solitude (1755) in the true Wartonian man¬

ner, but is soon told that he owes his life and knowledge to his

fellow creatures, and that

The height of virtue is to serve mankind.

Soame Jenyns in An Essay on Virtue (1734) , to which Johnson

took exception, reasons that

The common welfare is our only task.

If men could but realize this, and

. that one good-natur’d act more praises gain,

Than armies overthrown, and thousands slain:

No more would brutal rage disturb our peace,

But envy, hatred, war, and discord cease;

Our own and other’s good each hour employ,

And all things smile with universal joy;

Virtue with happiness her consort join’d,

Would regulate and bless each human mind,

And man be what his maker first design’d.

John Langhorne has two poems that ring to the same tune. In

a Country Justice (1774) he makes an appeal for justice to

vagrants, the poor, and the like ; and in his Hymn to Humanity

shows real sentimentality by wishing for the “sympathetic

glow”, the “feeling breast”, and “the tear humane”. To add

but one other example to this prolix list, monotonous because

of the painful similarity of subject matter, mention only need

be made of Cowper’s vigorous attack upon slavery.73

71 Of Active and Retired Life.

72 The Enthusiast.

72 The Task , Bk. II, 11. 29-47.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 153

It will be remembered that Shaftesbury, in opposition to

Hobbes, insisted that there was no conflict between the good of

the individual and the good of the species; this became a favor¬

ite theme with his successors.

Butler, with remarkable iteration, insists upon the harmony

of the two. The happiness of the individual and the good of so¬

ciety “do indeed perfectly coincide; and to aim at public and

private good are so far from being inconsistent, that they mu¬

tually promote each other.’'74 “Duty and interest are perfectly

coincident.”75 “The chief design of the eleventh Discourse is to

state the notion of self-love and disinterestedness, in order to

show that benevolence is no more unfriendly to self-love than

any other particular affection whatever.”76 In sermonic litera¬

ture the idea is given faithful repetition by Hurd.77 The Rev¬

erend Henry Grove in the first of his two contributions to the

Spectator, the year after Shaftesbury died and in the same year

as the appearance of the second edition of the Characteristics,

asks : “Is the force of self-love abated, or its interest prejudiced

by benevolence?” His answer is: “So far from it, that benevo¬

lence, though a distant principle, is extremely serviceable to

self-love, and then doth most service when ’tis least designed.”78

Pope gives surprising care to the establishment of the prin¬

ciple. He introduces it in one form or another in at least three

out of the four parts of the Essay, closes Epistle III with a

statement of the identity of “self-love and social”, and includes

the same formula at the end of the poem as standing for one of

its chief purposes.79 To be sure Pope might have had the doc¬

trine from Bolingbroke,80 but both Bolingbroke and Pope may

just as well have had it from Shaftesbury.81

By no means is it to be understood that all of the “benevolent

74 Sermon I , sect. 3.

75 Sermon II, sect. 13.

76 Quoted from the Preface, sec. 29.

77 See Works, London, 1811, Vol. VI, pp. 132-133.

78 Spectator 588.

78 See Essay, Ep. II, 11. 53-60, 87-88; Ep. Ill, 11. 147-160, 307-318; Ep. IV, 11.

353-354, 361-372, 393-398.

80 See Leland, Deistical Writers , Vol. II, pp. 32-34, where references are made

to Bolingbroke’s Works as follows: Vol. IV, p. 282; Vol. V, Third of his Frag¬

ments and Essays, and pp. 79, 82, 98, 115.

81 The writer has in the process of preparation an article dealing with the doc¬

trines of Pope’s Essay on Man and those of other writers, particularly Shaftes¬

bury.

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

literature” of the century was written by avowed deists, any

more than it is to be thought that the reforms were actually

carried on by the abstract philosophers. The orthodox, beset

by Shaftesbury on the one hand and made ashamed by Mande-

ville on the other, were driven from cover and undertook with

remarkable vigor the curing of many of the social ills. Once

awake to their full obligations to their fellows, they found, to

be sure, all of the justification and exhortation that they needed

for such works in their own scriptures. But it is to Shaftes¬

bury and to his most ardent disciple, Hutcheson, that we must

look for the introduction of an insistence upon the principle of

benevolence in English ethics. As the father of the “Benevolent

Theory of Morals”, Shaftesbury must be given large credit for

the introduction and growth of humanitarian ideals.

There is abundant historical evidence that the preachments

of the benevolists did take root. If we are to seek a literary

statement of this fact, we may again turn to Fielding and John¬

son. The former observed that “the amiable characteristic of

this age is charity.” Three days later he tried to show “the

most effectual, best, and cheapest methods of exerting charity” ;

and in the course of the next two days remarked: “Amongst

other species of charity, for which this age is justly celebrated,

there is one which shines forth in a very particular manner, I

mean the founding of hospitals.”82 Almost twenty years later

Dr. J ohnson observed : “But no sooner is a new species of mis¬

ery brought to view, and a design for relieving it professed,

than every hand is open to contribute something, every tongue

is busied in solicitation, and every art of pleasure is employed

for a time in the interest of virtue . The most apparent

and pressing of miseries incident to man, have now their pecu¬

liar houses of reception and relief.”83

The insincerity on the part of the benevolists insinuated in

the accusation that “they were all tenderness in words” and

that “their finer feelings evaporated in the moment of ex¬

pression”84 can by no means be maintained with accuracy

against Shaftesbury, who was conspicuous for the succor which

82 The Champion, Feb. 16, 19, 21, 1739-40.

88 The Idler, No. 4, May 6, 1758.

84 Made by Edmund Malone, and cited by Moore, p. 316, from Life of Edmund

Malone, London, 1860, p. 427.

Alderman — Shaft es bury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 155

he gave to needy students and for the vigor with which he

espoused the cause of the oppressed while he was yet in public

life. That philanthropy should have become a fashion is a com¬

pliment to the popularity of the cause, rather than an opprobri¬

um upon the doctrine. It seems universally natural that some

will affect to be what others actually are. Hypocrisy is the nor¬

mal companion of English prudery, and posturing, apparently,

became the accompaniment of benevolence. But the most of us

would prefer modesty and sympathy to license and social cold¬

ness, even though their possession does entail a modicum of

dissimulation.

Such poems as are spoken of below, while directly pointing to

the existence of feigning and pretense in morals, indirectly at¬

test the widespread popularity of practices that came to be

fashionable. Joseph Warton in Fashion has the parsimonious

Chremes unlock “his triple-bolted box” to the poor, not because

he has any compassion of heart or impulse to good, but because

“his neighbors gave”. Robert Lloyd vents his righteous hatred

against those

Who make all public good a trade,

Benevolence a mere parade,

And Charity a cloak for sin,

To keep it smug and warm within.85

Similar sentiments are expressed by T. W. Gent, in The Coun¬

try Priest, Christopher Smart in Generosity and Connoisseur,

and by Wm. Kendrick in On Moral Sentiment . The general hy¬

pocrisy of the times is vividly portrayed by Robert Dodsley in a

poem addressed to Mr. Pope and entitled On Good and Ill-Nature.

Good-nature now has changed her modest face,

For smiling flattery, compliment, grimace:

Fool grins at fool, each coxcomb owns his brother,

And thieves and sharpers compliment each other.86

Another type of benevolence to which Shaftesbury's philoso¬

phy could not help but give encouragement is that which the

poet of the Anti Jacobin calls “French Philanthropy”, and

which leads a man to become a “friend of every country but hib

own.” Not that the ardent Ashley was not a patriotic English

man — no charge could have less foundation. But a philosophy

85 Charity , A Fragment. Inscribed to the Rev. Mr. Hanbury.

8*A complimentary picture of what good-nature was previously thought to be

precedes these lines. See also Christopher Smart, On Good-Nature.

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

wmch included even the vegetables and the beasts in its system

of Universal Harmony could hardly be circumscribed by geo¬

graphical limits. The very phrase which the anti-Jacobinist

uses to describe this philanthropy, so invidious to him — “the

general love of all mankind”87 — bears such a close resemblance

to expressions already noted as to make it certain that English¬

men did not have to learn from revolutionary France that doc¬

trine of universal democracy which permeates the literature of

the last decade or two of the century.

It remains for us to notice one other obvious by-product of

the doctrines and tendencies that we have been considering.

The rhapsodic contemplation of nature as a religious necessity,

the belief in man’s natural goodness and his possession of a

“moral sense”, and the exercise of the benevolent passions as

the highest manifestation of virtue, were potentially capable of

giving a tremendous impetus to the enjoyment of feeling. By

his own theory, virtue, to Shaftesbury, was its own reward,

and there was coincident to vice a kind of inner repulsion that

was anything but pleasurable. That he meant thereby to sug¬

gest the performance of virtuous acts, the exercise of com¬

passion, and the dispensing of benefactions for the sake of the

titillative reaction would be unthinkable, so chaste and austere

was his conception of virtue; but that he did in reality give

abetment to the cultivation of the feelings for their own sake

is beyond peradventure. Here we are not in the realm of

speculation as to what might well have been the case ; the act¬

ual statements of many of those whom we have learned to place

in the Shaftesburian school testify to a sweet pleasurableness

which was more than fortuitous. Just as the contemplation of

nature, abstracted from moral motives, came to be indulged in

because of the sensuous gratification that it was capable of pro¬

ducing, so the exercise of the benevolent affections, divorced

from social ends, came to be the habit because of the compen¬

sating mood which such a performance induced.

Grove, a Presbyterian minister, speaks of the “charming de¬

light which immediately follows the giving of joy to another, or

relieving his sorrows; this, “when the objects are numerous,

and the kindness of importance”, is “really inexpressible.”88

87 Anti Jacobin , XXXVI.

88 Spectator 588.

Alderman— Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 157

How, to distemper’d thought,

Does virtue in mild majesty appear

Delightful, when the sympathetic heart

Feels for another’s woes !

exclaims Cooper.89 One of the specific contentions of Akenside

is that “All the natural passions partake of a pleasing sensa¬

tion.”90 Ask the faithful youth who mourns for his departed

lover why he clasps her urn so frequently and in solitude pays

her tribute of his tears, and

_ _ .he will tell thee, that the wealth of worlds

Should ne’er seduce his bosom to forego

That sacred hour, when, stealing from the noise

Of care and envy, sweet remembrance soothes

With Virtue’s kindest looks his aching breast,

And turns his tears to rapture.91

Why do all of the inhabitants of the village climb the neighbor¬

ing cliff to watch the helpless victims in some bark as they are

killed by the pitiless sea? Why does Pity melt their eyes and

Terror seize them?

0! deemest thou indeed

No kind endearment here by nature given

To mutual terrour and Compassion’s tears,

O’er all the edge of pain, the social powers

To this their proper action and their end?92

John Armstrong, who complimented Shaftesbury by saying

that he had “turn’d more solid heads than one,93 in a poem

called Of Benevolence (1751) is free to recognize the thrill that

is the accompaniment of generous activity.

To do, possess’d with Virtue’s modest fire,

Such generous deeds as we with tears admire ;

Deeds that, above ambition’s vulgar aim,

Secure an amiable, a solid fame ;

These are such joys as Heaven’s first favorites seize;

These please you now and will forever please.

Almost innumerable parallels could be added, but when the

humanists themselves felt no compunctions from such enjoy¬

ments, we need not argue the point.

89 The Power of Harmony , Bk. II.

"Prom the Argument to Bk. II of Pleasures of the Imagination.

91 Pleasures of the Imagination, Bk. II, 11. 683-693.

92 Ibid., 11. 693-711.

93 Taste (1763).

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

As this sweet pleasurableness of sensibility gradually in¬

sinuated itself upon the consciousness of the century, authors

began, both by temperament and by design, to depict situations

that contained the necessary spur to the feelings. The drama

of sensibility rapidly replaced the drama of the seventeenth

century which was orthodox, even though it was frequently

vulgar. The doctrines of man’s natural goodness and of his

perfectibilily became as common on the stage as they were in

the works of the deists. Sentimental Comedy and Domestic

Tragedy were filled with pictures of virtue in distress. To con¬

tend that this change in the drama was due to Shaftesbury

would be to support an obvious anachronism, for at least one

genuine Sentimental Comedy had appeared before Shaftesbury

had published anything.94 That the philosophical justification,

however, of such a drama rests upon the doctrines of natural

religion can not but be vouchsafed ; and that in its later devel¬

opment it profited greatly from the moods which deism had en¬

gendered is beyond the realm of conjecture.

This craving of the sensibilities to be gratified had its influ¬

ence upon periodical literature also. Steele, whose example and

practice were strong encouragement to the drama of sensibility,

flooded the pages of the Spectator and the Tatler with pictures

of virtue in distress.95 The penning of these must have given

his own emotional nature great bliss ;96 certainly they met with

a hearty reception, for they were repeatedly imitated in one

form or another.

In fiction the contemplation of situations for the sake of the

thrill is likewise apparent. Both the English and French public

grew impatient with Richardson for not furnishing them with

an intimate analysis of the feelings of Clarissa more rapidly

than he did. Sterne, by the very title of his book, brands his

journey as a sentimental one. Mackenzie so fills The Man of

Feeling with tears that it is all but disgusting. Despite a men¬

tal reservation as to the full propriety of his course of action,

Harley gives a shilling to the beggar,97 pities the old man who

04 Cibber, Love’s Last Shift (1696). See Bernbaum, The Drama of Sensibility,

Boston, 1915, for a definition of the type and a history of its rise.

95 As examples see Tatler Nos. 33, 94, 198; Spectator Nos. 190, 322.

90 See Tatler 181 for a comment as to his temperament; also Thackery, English

Humorists, 1864, p. 158-159.

07 Cassell edition, pp. 36-37.

Alderman — Shaftesbury and the Doctrine of Benevolence . 159

would not part with his counters,98 pays “the tribute of tears”

to the story of the young lady in bedlam,09 and, moved with

compassion, pawns his watch for the comfort of the woman of

the street.100 In this same connection mention ought also to be

made of Goldsmith's Vicar . The full significance and interre¬

latedness of these works are realized only when we keep in

mind the fact that Mackenzie was attracted to The Sentimental

Journey while he was studying law at London, that Burns “was

especially fond of Sterne's Sentimental Journey ”, and “ab¬

surdly overated Mackenzie's Man of Feeling , 9,101 that Gold¬

smith's Vicar of Wakefield affected Goethe, and that Clarissa

exerted a strong influence upon Rousseau.

98 Ch. XXV.

99 Ch. XX.

199 Ch. XXVI.

101 Dow’s Introduction, p. xli.

AN EDICT OF PHILIP, BY THE GRACE OF GOD, LAND¬

GRAVE OF HESSIA, COUNT OF CATZENELENBOGEN,

DIETZ, ZIEGENHAIN AND NIDDA—HOW AND IN

WHICH FORM THE JEWS FROM NOW ON

SHALL BE TOLERATED AND TREATED

IN OUR PRINCIPALITY AND OUR

COUNTIES AND DOMINIONS.

M. D. XXXIX (1539).

Translated by

Ernst Voss

First of all the Jews shall promise under oath to our County

Judges, also to the Clergymen of every place where they are

domiciled not to practice any blasphemy with their people

against Christ our Lord and his holy Religion, nor to tolerate

such practices, but to follow faithfully that which Moses and

the Prophets expected them to do, and that they will also not

bother their people with the teachings of their Talmudian

teachers which are not in conformity with the Law and the

Prophets, in order that through these godless Talmudian writ¬

ings the poor good-hearted Jews may not be first of all kept

away from our own true religion.

Secondly, the Jews shall solemnly vow and promise not to

erect anywhere new synagogues, but to use only the old estab¬

lished synagogues and to do this in all quietness.

Thirdly, the Jews shall promise to discuss with none of our

Faith religion in any way or form whatever, except with those

preachers which we shall appoint for that very purpose.

Fourthly, the Jews shall also solemnly promise that they will

come with their women and children to hear the clergymen

which we will ordain especially for them.

Fifth, the Jews shall buy and sell in a fitting manner, but

only in those places where there are no guilds or where the

guilds tolerate them. But they shall not sell their wares at a

high cost, but at a reasonable profit, as it shall be stipulated by

our officials and burgomasters, and they shall not offer for sale

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

any wares, unless these are first permitted by our officials, bur¬

gomasters or city councils.

Sixth, the Jews shall perform all their business in an upright

manner, and not carry on any illegitimate business. Whenever

any Jew is convicted of carrying on such an illegitimate busi¬

ness, our officials shall punish him accordingly and very strenu¬

ously, that is, he will forfeit all his possessions, and he who

notices such illegitimate tactics in a Jew and reports him first

and on good grounds shall receive the tenth part of all the goods

that are forfeited in this way.

Seventh, no Jew shall practice usury or extort money from

our poor people. If, however, a Jew should loan someone a

Gueldin for a year or two, this must be done in the presence

of our county judges with the knowledge of our council and

then according to a reasonable rate of interest, that is of a

hundred gueldin for a year, not more than five gueldin or what

otherwise may be customary to pay to the Christians.

If, however, a Jew should ask interest beyond this amount,

he shall forfeit the capital of the money that he loaned and half

of all his possessions and in addition he shall be put into the

tower for four weeks.

Further no Jew shall be allowed to lend money to any man

without the knowledge of his wife, nor to any woman without

the knowledge of her husband and only in the presence of our

judges or burgomasters and city councils. However, if this

should be done in spite of all these warnings the person who

borrowed the money from the Jew shall not be bound to return

any of the sum to the Jew, but the Jew shall have lost the capi¬

tal as well as half of his other possessions, and in addition he

shall give as punishment half of the amount that he lent, to us

and the other half of that sum to the officials and the burgo¬

master and the city council, and further he shall be put into

jail for this offense for two weeks.

Eighth, the Jews shall swear on oath to God not to give any

thing in the form of a present or bribe to a citizen, a governor,

a member of the city council, a burgomaster or policeman or

their wives, not even a penny or a penny’s worth on punish¬

ment of limb and life, so that our officials may not be bribed by

gifts and made more willing and lenient to overlook the illegal

money transactions, the usuries and unfair dealings of the

Voss— An Edict of Philip .

163

Jews. If, however, any of our officials should accept presents

from the Jews and overlook their illegal financial dealings, they

will be punished without delay most surely for this mis¬

demeanor.

Ninth, Any Jew who attacks a Christian woman or virgin

shall expiate this crime with his life.

Tenth, When a Jew buys stolen goods or lends money on

them, he shall be put to death for this offense. And in order

that a Jew may protect himself in these things he shall not

buy goods or loan money on goods before he has made proper

inquiries where such goods came from and whether the person

that offers them for sale or that wants to borrow money on

them, has a legal right to these goods.

Eleventh: Our servants of the law, burgomasters, and mem¬

bers of the Council shall not under any circumstances allow a

non-resident Jew to buy or sell in our lands and territories any¬

thing, be it much or little, big or small.

Twelfth : Our officials, mayors and Council members shall see

to it with great industry that the Jews obey this edict in all its

details.

Thirteenth: We will allow the Jews to have special persons

chosen from amongst their own numbers to cooperate with our

officials that the Jews honestly and faithfully observe these

laws. But if any of them should offend against these laws they

shall be punished according to these statutes and also accord¬

ing to their own laws.

Fourteenth: We expect the Jews in our territory to pay to us

the Protection Money as agreed between us, everybody accord¬

ing to his circumstances.

Now follows the German text of this famous edict of the

year 1539.

Ordnung vnser Philip,

sen von Gottes gnaden Landtgraue

zu Hessen, Graue zu Catzenelebogen, Dietz, Zie-

genhain, vnd Nidda, Wie vnd was gestalt

die Juden nun hinfuerter inn vnsern Fuer-

stenthumb, Graueschafften vnd ge-

bieten gelitten vnd geduldet

werden sollen.

.M.D XXXIX

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Wfb. Qu. 190.7. 4°.

ERstlichen sollen die Juden vnsern

Amptleuten, auch den Pfarrherrn yedes orts da sie gesessen

sein mit dem eyde versprechen, bey den jren keyn lesterung

wider Christum vnsern herrn, vnd seine heylige Religion zutrei-

ben, noch zu gestaten, sonder sich des allein zuhalten, dz jnen

Moses vnd die Propheten vor gegeben haben, vnd das sie auch

die jren mit keyner satzung jrer Talmutischer lerer, weliche

dem gesetz vnd den Propheten nit gemesz seien, beschweren

woellen, damit durch die Talmutischen gottlosen gedichte die

armen guothertzigen Juden von vnser waren Religion, nit zuom

fuernemhsten abgehalten werden.

Zum andern sollen sie die Juden geloben vnd versprechen,

nirgent newe synagogen auffzurichten, sonder sich allein der

alten vnd vorgebaweten mit aller stille zugebrauchen.

Zum dritten sollen sie versprechen, mit niemants der vnsern

von der Religion zu disputieren inn eynigen weg,1 dann alleyn

mit denen predigern, die wir darzuo besonders verordnen wer¬

den.

Zum vierden, Das sie den Predigern, die man jnen in sonder-

heyt verordnen wuerdt, sampt jren weibern vnd kindern kom-

men vnd predig hoeren sollen vnd woellen.

Zum fuenfften, sollen zimlicher weise kauffen vnd verkauffen,

doch in den stetten vnnd orten da keyn zuenffte sein, oder da

sie die zuenffte leiden. Doch sollen sie jr wahr nit vertewren,

sondern vm eynen zimlichen billichen pfennig geben, wie es

jnen vnsere beampten oder Burgermeyster vnd Rath setzen

wuerden, vnd sollen keyn wahr verkauffen, sie seye jnen dann

zuuor durch vnsere beampten Burgermeister oder Rath gesetz

worden.

Zum sechsten, sollen alle jre hendel auffrichtig treiben, mit

keynem vngebuerlichen handel oder vinantzen vmbgehn, Wo

eyner solichs vberfuere vnd vnrechte hendel triebe, den sollen

vnsere beampten darumb nach gelegenheyt, vnd ernstlich straf-

fen, nemlich mit verfallung aller seyner gueter Vnnd der so so-

lichen falsch sehe von den Juden, am ersten vnnd mit grunde

anzeygt, soil haben den zehenden pfennig von solichen verfall-

nen vnnd verwirckten guetern.

Zum siebenden, sollen keynen Judischen gesueche2 oder

wuecher treiben, vnd vnser arme leuthe nicht vbernemen.

Wuerden sie aber eynem eynen guelden zwen oder drei oder

mehr leihen, solichs solle geschehen inn beysein vnserer ampt-

leut oder amptknecht, oder mit wissen eynes Raths, vnnd davon

nach billiger widernuege der selbigen. Als nemlich von eynem

1 Cf. the German-American expression, corresponding to the English in any way.

2 cf. Weigand, DWb. I, 682. mhd. der gesuoch— Erwerb, Gewinn, Geldzins.

Voss — An Edict of Philip .

165

hundert guelden eyn jar lang fuenff guelden, oder was man

sunst den Christen zugeben pflegt, gegeben werden. Wuerde

aber eyn Jude darueber wuocher vnd gesuoch treiben, so solle

er die hauptsumma seines auszgelihenen gelts, vnd die helfft

aller seiner gueter verfallen haben, vnd darzu vier wochen mit

dem thurn gestrafft werden. Es soil auch kein Jude keynem

man allein on vorwissen seiner hauszfrawen, Auch keynem

weibe allein on vorwissen jres mannes, vnnd on beisein vnserer

Amptleute, Amptkechte, oder burgermeyster vnd Raths etwas

leihen. Geschehe aber solichs, so solle der jhenig so das gelt

entlehenet hat vom Juden, nicht schuldig sein dem Juden was

wider zugeben, Sonder der Jude soil die selbig hauptsumma

sampt dem halbenteyl aller seiner gueter verlorn haben, vnd

darzuo noch souil als die hauptsumma desselben gelihenen gelts

gewesen, halb vns, vnd halb den beampten, vnd burgermeyster

vnnd raht zu straff geben, vnnd darzuo vierzhen tage inn thurn

gelegt werden.

Zum achten, sollen sie eynen eydt zuo Got schweren, keynem

burger, Stathalter, Rathsamptman, burgermeyster oder diener,

oder der selbigen weibern, etwz zuschencken, auch nit eynen

einigen pfennig oder pfennigs werth, bei straff jres leibs vnd

lebens, Damit vnsere beampten nit also durch gabe gestochen,

vnd den Juden dester eh jre vinantzen, vnbillichen wuocher vnd

vngepuerliche hendel gestatten vnd zuosehen. Wuerde auch1

darueber eyner vnser beampter geschenck von Juden nemen,

vnd jre vinantzen oder vngepuerliche hendel zuosehen, der soli

von vns darumb vnnachlessig gestrafft werden.

Zum Neunten, Welicher Jude eyn Christen weib oder Junck-

fraw schendet, oder beschlefft, den sollen vnsere beampten am

leben darumb straffen.

Zum zehenden, Welcher Jude gestolen guot kaufft oder dar-

auff leihet, den sollen vnsere beampten am leben straffen. Vnd

damit sich der Jude im selbigen versehen koenne, so soil er key¬

nem auff etwas leihen, oder das selbig abkauffen, der Jude hab

sich dann zuuor erkoendigt, woher sollich guot komme. Vnd ob

auch der jhenig so sollich guot verkauffen, oder darauff entlenen

will soJchs zuthun macht habe oder nit.

Zum eylfften, Es sollen auch vnsere amptknechte, Burger¬

meyster vnd Raht gantz vnnd gar keynen auszlendischen Juden

gestatten oder zulassen, etwas in vnsern landen vnd gepieten

zukauffen oder zuuerkauffen weder wenig oder vil.

Zum zwoelfften, sollen, vnsere beampten Burgermeyster vnnd

Rath, mit fleysz darauff sehen, Das sich die Juden diser articul

also gehalten.

Zum dreitzehenden, Woellen wir den Juden zulassen, das sie

sonderliche personen vnnder jnen haben, die beneben vnsern

Amptknechten mit zuosehen, das die Juden sich rechtschaffen,

vnnd diser articul gehalten. Welcher sich aber deren nit halten

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

wuerde, das sie den selbigen vnder sich selbst auch nach jrer

satzungen straffen muegen.

Zum viertzehenden, Woellen wir haben, das sie vns den

schutzpfennig geben, wesz sie mit vns vberkommen werden,

vnnd sonderlich eyn yeder, nach dem er vermag.

SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB, PREPOSITION

AND CONJUNCTION

Edward T. Owen

University of Wisconsin

Emeritus Professor of French and Linguistics

Foreword

The preceding publications of this (Thought and Language)

series have occasionally used the current classification of words

as “parts of speech”, when it apparently was safe to do so for

the sake of the convenience offered by its general acceptance.

But those publications did, and this one will, in the main re¬

nounce that classification.

Part I. The Adverb

In examining the words — and also phrases — rankable re¬

spectively as adverbs or adverbial, an effort will be made to

“prove all things” advanced by Grammar and “hold fast that

which is good”; but, as Grammar was not always rationally

guided in its evolution, but appears to have “just growed” like

Topsy, the amount of what may be held fast is disappointing.

Accordingly departure from the current doctrines of our gram¬

mars will be so considerable, that what must rank as merely in¬

dividual opinions may as well be put as questions. First, then,

the more general inquiry:

I. On what elements of judgment may an adverb bear ?

In illustration of this topic there is need of the prepositional

phrase in the adverbial function. This phrase thus functioning

is recognized so generally that examination of its structure is,

in this connection, hardly necessary.

That caution is advisable in answering our interrogative

title, is suggested, for example, by

He ate his breakfast in his dressing gown,

in which a tendency to rank the prepositional phrases as ad-

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

verbial might lead to ranking this one as adverbial to “ate”,

although what dominatingly was “in the dressing gown” is

“He”.

Analogously, in

He ate his breakfast on a tray,

me easily adverbial “on a tray” is in this illustration more ap¬

propriate to “breakfast” than to “He” or “ate”.

In

He ate his breakfast hastily

the form of the final word precludes association of the haste

with “He” or “breakfast”, though the haste might quite as well

have been the eater’s ; and imagination — - even actual usage —

meets no barrier to associating haste with “breakfast”: wit¬

ness General Scott’s much ridiculed “I ate a hasty plate of

soup” ; compare with this “I took a prudent pill” etc.

In

He ate his breakfast in the kitchen

he, the eating and the breakfast, each in turn or all at once

or as a unit, are appropriately enough conceivable as “in the

kitchen” ; and they might eitherwise — I really need this word

— be intended by the maker of the sentence.

The desirability of further caution may be emphasized by

some consideration of the trouble into which the lack of caution

has betrayed grammarians. To use a somewhat intricate illus¬

tration, speaking of the grocers who in part supply my table,

I might say with some propriety

They are rapacious.

Their rapacity may be intensified in

They are conspicuously rapacious.

The degree of this conspicuousness of the rapacity may be

augmented as in

They are more conspicuously rapacious than other dealers.

The augmentation of this degree may be increased, e.g. in

They are much more conspicuously rapacious .

The muchness or amount of augmentation may be amplified as in

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 169

They are extremely much more .

The degree of this extremeness may be reinforced e. g. in

They are very extremely much more .

In feminine fashion reinforcement may be emphasized e.g. in

They are so very extremely much more .

Being however in an indulgent mood, I put a “not” with “so”.

This “not” might ordinarily be taken with the “are”, and make

my statement negative. But I intend the “not” as an ouster of

the “so” : very much is well enough; “ so very much” is a bit too

strong; accordingly

They are not so very extremely much more .

But, on reflection, absolute retraction doesn’t please me, and

I “hedge” the “not” with “probably” ; and “probably” itself I

temper with a modifying “ rather ”, thus obtaining

9 8 7 6 5 4

They are rather probably not so very extremely

8 2 1

much more conspicuously rapacious than other dealers.

Incidentally this aggregation emphasizes, in the use of words,

the weakness of excess. I’ve said so much, that I have hardly

told you anything. But it is nearer to my purpose to observe

that our grammarians presumably would rank the numbered

words as adverbs, though no one of them “limits a verb”. These

words moreover also differ greatly in their sentence-factor¬

ships. Number one is adjunct of “rapacious”, which is ranked

by Grammar as an adjective. Number two is adjunct of num¬

ber one — three, of two — and so on through the list; or stated

more conveniently, one is the primary adjunct of “rapacious;”

two, the secondary, and so on till you come to “rather” which

is adjunct to “rapacious” in the ninth degree.

Moreover, starting with, for instance,

Selfish dealers often are rapacious,

probably, if we should put our wits together, we might build an

ostensible sentence with nine further “adverbs” bearing on “sel¬

fish”, and eight on the actual adverb “often”. Of the thirty-one

words thus assembled, twenty-seven accordingly would rank as

adverbs — which suggests that if the pupil or the student is

baffled by the embarrasing “ What-part-of-speech-is-this ?”, his

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

safest guess is “An adverb.” In the present case the guess that

all the words are adverbs would be, fide Grammar, 27/31

correct, or 85 on the usual hundred scale — a standing which

might lay some claim to pass him on the books of teachers in

a normal school, university or college.

The above affords a mere preliminary glimpse of the adverb¬

ial possibilities; for obviously an adjunct, adjectival or adverb¬

ial, not only may be primary or secondary and so forth, but

may also rank as first or second — nth.

To illustrate, in

His lamentable and disgraceful failure

it might indeed with plausibility be claimed that “lamentable”

and “disgraceful” are, by means of “and”, so joined together

that they operate together ; and the like would hold of

He lamentably and disgracefully failed.

But in

His recent lamentable failure,

and in

He recently lamentably failed,

there's no suggestion of combining, and as neither adjunct

seems to operate upon the other, there is no occasion to sug¬

gest subordinate rank of either one, by calling it secondary to

the other. Since they are coordinate it is more accurate to in¬

dicate their merely earlier or later bearings, for instance on the

verb, by calling them respectively its first and second adjuncts.

Now the number of coordinate adjuncts is in theory unlim¬

ited; to each of these a theoretically limitless series of succes¬

sively subordinated adjuncts may be fastened; also any mem¬

ber of such series might be double — even multiple. Thus, in

Tradesmen are astonishingly, unimaginably often rapacious,

one would hardly rank the first of the italicised adverbs as an

adjunct of the second. One would probably regard them as co¬

ordinate adjuncts of “often”, recognizing also that each one of

the two is an available point of attachment for a series of sub¬

ordinate adjuncts.

Grammar recognized the insufficient scope of what is strictly

meant by “ad -verb” , and defined this part of speech as “a word

that limits a verb, an adjective or another adverb.” With the

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction . 171

above suggestion of adverbial possibilities in mind, the defin¬

ition seems to help us very little in foreseeing what particular

role or kind of role the adverb of the dictionaries will be

found to play in a given sentence — which of multitudinous

possible sentence-factorships will be assigned to it. In other

words we must distinguish by function, rather than by form or

position in the Satz-bau, the ad-verb, the ad-adjective and the

ad-adverb.

II. On what constituents of verbal meaning may an adverb

bear?

For instance, given

Her gown is probably green,

my own and, I suppose, your mental process is as follows: we

are started by a visual impression which, although a unit, still

consists of many factors; some of these — no matter which

ones or how many, but an advantageously selected and suffic¬

ient number — we express by “gown” ; the color factor we ex¬

press by “green”. By daylight we might say “Her gown is

green.” But, in the uncertain artificial light of an evening

gathering, we too are uncertain, realizing that the gown may

after all be blue. The usual certainty of an assertion yields to

probability. Accordingly the question rises : which of the judg¬

ment-elements does the probability modify?

In

He ate the apple

“He” and “apple” are exhibited in a relation which may be de¬

fined as that of eater to food. This relation would moreover not

exist, if it were not established by the act of eating; and, in

exhibition of relation and relation-causing act, the latter is

commonly the more conspicuous.

Till relations generally, and the action-relations in particular,

have been thoroughly investigated, a mere language-student

will not be expected to do much toward their elucidation. As

a leading thought-investigator once remarked to me, relations

have remained essentially without investigation.

Briefly, then, this tentative suggestion: when an action —

say an output of energy — occurs, we commonly assume an

energy-exerter and an energy-endurer, or — as Grammar puts

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

it — an actor (subject) and an object which “suffers” the act.

The output of the energy (or to say the act) develops a rela¬

tion; and the two in my illustration are incorporated in the

meaning of a single word — a verb. Obviously then the adverb

has an opportunity to choose, between at least two elements of

verbal meaning, that one on which it will bear. For instance,

using now a livelier illustration, given

Is it true that he was taking poison?

in the answer

He was probably taking poison

doubtless the adverbial adjunct bears on “was” in preference

to “taking”, as is indicated by the usual reduction of the an¬

swer, for example, to the mere

He probably was,

which indicates the minor prominence of “taking”.

Given now the briefer

Is it true that he took poison ?,

in the answering

He probably took poison

probability again associates itself presumably with the rela¬

tion which the taking caused, although in this case there’s no

“was” to name relation separately. What is sauce for the

goose is sauce for the gander.

But given

Was he swallowing or tasting it?,

the answer

He was probably tasting it,

exhibits probability as bearing rather on ‘ tasting” than on

“was”, as indicated by the fact that “was” may be omitted —

not so, “tasting”, as appears in a comparison of the utterly in¬

adequate

He probably was

and the entirely adequate

Probably tasting.

So also, then, in answer to the question

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. 173

Did he taste or swallow it?,

the words

He probably tasted it

may be assumed to pose the probability as bearing rather on

the relation-causing act, than on the caused relation.

Two were killed; and one was probably fatally injured.

While the intention of this illustration might be to exhibit

injury as what was probable, it seems more plausible that what

was sensed as probable was the fatality, as in, for instance:

One was injured, and the injury is probably fatal.

But in our judgment-forming we are given to co-thinking

some ideas so closely that they take their places in the organ¬

ism as if they had proposed themselves for membership as one

idea. Thus “so injured as to die at once” had, previous to the

writing of our illustration formed a unit, and as such was reg¬

istered by “killed”. Analogously, too, “so injured as to die,

though not at once” might form a mental unit in the writer’s

mind, though not expressible by one word only. Accordingly it

may be rational to think of “probably” as adverb to the total

“fatally injured”; and the opportunities for “parsing” of this

order are by no means rare.

Ill

Some peculiarities of the imperative (by Grammar listed as

a mode )have been already noted (“Hybrids”) ; but, for present

purposes, some further notice is in order. The embarrassment

created for us in our youngsterhood by “past imperatives” in

Greek suggests a starting point for comment.

The imperative expresses a command to do (or be) — e.g.,

Go home; (Be still). If what might be commanded has been

done already at the time of the commanding, there is no occa¬

sion for the use of an imperative; you will not wittingly com¬

mand me to do what I’ve done already. Further, even if you do

not know that I have done it, you will not command me to have

done it or to do it yesterday. You know I am now incapable of

any doing in the past ; what is commanded will not then be past

in time-relation with commanding.

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Also doing cannot coincide with the commanding. I can’t

even know what I’m to do, until you finish telling me. What is

commanded cannot then be present in its time-relation with

commanding, though a present form with future value may be

used: for instance I command that you be silent (after my com¬

manding). What is commanded then can only be a doing in

the future, reckoned from the time of the commanding.

Whatever then grammarians have imagined, obviously a

“past imperative” cannot be past, except in the commanding;

this however may of course occur at any time. But my narra¬

tion that I once upon a time commanded is the merest reminis¬

cence; my announcement that I sometime shall command, the

merest forecast — at the most, a threat; whereas my declara¬

tion that I do command is actual commanding. The other state¬

ments dealt with what had ended or had not begun. In them

I merely talked about an act ; but in the present tense I act . To

juggle a bit with words, the only time I genuinely command is

when I am commanding — now.

Strictly then the imperative is, in the matter of commanding,

present absolutely; in the matter of whatever is commanded,

relatively future.

As defined by Grammar, the imperative expresses a command

(an exhortation, a request, a supplication), e.g., “Go”. This

word is obviously a one-word sentence, an announcement which

in form is one word only, but which operates with all the power

of a sentence — with the power, in this case, of “I command

you to go”. In this two actions are announced and for each one

of them an actor. The question naturally rises : Who in an im¬

perative may be the actors ?

Indirectly or directly several individuals may be implicated,

namely: the first person, “I”, the speaker (even “we”) ; the

one addressed, the second person, “thou”, the hearer (or the

plural “you”) ; the third, a “He”, an overhearer (or the plural

“they”) — the person to whose hearing us we don’t object, al¬

though our thought-communications would not be attempted

for his sake alone.1

Of all the implicated individuals the “I” alone can be the

actor in the imperative act. The statements “You command

etc.” and “He commands etc.” are mere narrations, on a par

with “I commanded”.

1 Eaves-droppers and absentees may be neglected.

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction. 175

Of all the implicated individuals my command addresses you

alone — for instance, not John Brown; and you must be the

doer of what I command — again for instance, not John Brown.

I command him “to go” is no command, unless he accepts the

statement as addressed to him (accordingly a virtual “you”) ;

and he must do the going. If I were addressing you with the in¬

tent that he should go, I probably should say for instance “Make

him go” or “Send him away”.

In monologue I may command myself, e.g. “Go hang your¬

self”, in which I figuratively trisect myself and, as one part,

command myself-as-second-part to hang myself-as-third-part.

To recapitulate, the genuine imperative — the action of com¬

manding — is the present action of an “I” ; the doing of what

is commanded is the thereto relatively future action of a “you”.

Grammarians however stretch the imperative scope, includ¬

ing (as was noted) an imperative past and also a third-personal

imperative, for instance “Qu’il vienne”, with which at least

originally “Je commande” was understood.

They might have done much more: the elements of possible

commandings offer great variety; and human ingenuity might

even have developed a special word and “mode” for every com¬

bination. Thus, to mention in a breath the more conspicuous

opportunities I, thou, he , she, we , you, or they command, com¬

manded, will command me, thee, him, her, us, you, or them to

do or be this, that or the other — not to dwell on the diminuen¬

do series I command and so forth, request2 — -all which op¬

portunities may serve as merely by their contrast emphasizing

the congenital defectiveness of the imperative conjugation.

To apply to adverb-study what we may have learned of the

imperative, it is self-evident that the two actions which inhere

in the imperative invite, each one of them as verbal, an adverb¬

ial adjunct. To illustrate, given

Now by your children’s cradles,

Now by your fathers’ graves,

Be men to-day Quirites,

Or be forever slaves,

if “now” be more than merely introductory (as in for instance

2 Indeed it is rather disappointing that they haven’t made for us a mode of

“raise” : I cause you to rise is stronger than I order you to rise, and ipso facto

worthier of modal recognition.

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

"Now Barabbas was a robber”) it should plainly bear on being

rather than commanding ; so, too, both 'forever” and "to-day”.

The command in this case has the attenuated value of an

adjuration; and the "by your children's cradles”, if construed

as figuratively equivalent to "for your children's sake”, is more

appropriate to being men than to adjuring, and appeals more

to Quirites than to their adjurer; so too "by your fathers'

graves”.

The so-called disjunctive conjunction "or”, which introduces

a predicting in the figurative guise of a commanding, has the

value of "alternatively”, as appears in "I command you to be

men” ; alternatively "I command you to be slaves”, the adverb

bearing, as it seems to me, rather on the commanding than the

being.

To meddle with the function of Quirites will be somewhat like

the "buying of a lawsuit”. Strictly speaking, as was argued in

a previous publication, a vocative is not a part of a speaker's

message to his hearer, but the mere address of him for whom

the message is intended, comparable to "John Smith — Chicago

— Illinois” on an envelope, of which a quasi converse is "Yours

truly, Henry Brown”.

But in actual practice the "address” appears to me to operate

approximately as an adverb, much as if instead of saying "John,

I need some help”, I substituted "John-wards I declare my need

of help”. There seems to be some ground then for a ranking of

Quirites as a virtual adjunct of commanding in "Be men etc.”

The fact that what is commanded by an imperative must be

future, reckoned from the time of the commanding, does not

hinder more specific time determination ; thus a nearer or more

distant future is expressed respectively by "Go immediately”

or "Go in fifteen minutes”.

That other adverbs may apply to what is commanded is a

matter of course: Compare Go swiftly, circumspectly, etc.

Also there is room, sufficient and to spare, for adverbs which

would register the variant cogency of the imperative announce¬

ment, which may range from an authoritative order to a sup¬

plication. But the word for ordering or supplicating is sup¬

pressed in that extreme abridgment known as an imperative. It

would accordingly be over-difficult to recognize an adverb as be¬

longing to a word which has been thus suppressed. Such an

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 177

adverb — rather the idea expressible by, say, commanding tem¬

pered by an adverb — ordinarily at least is left to be suggested

by the context, the environment — the “situation”, even by the

tone of voice etc. Compare

Unhand me, villain.

Give us this day our daily bread.

IV. Can the verb itself express its own adverbial adjunct ?

Apparently it can. To illustrate, given

He is at home

and

He was at home,

it has been recognized that total verbal values are what might

be registered respectively by His being at home is present, or

is past.

In French

II fit chaud

means no mare than merely “It was hot” ; but

II faisait chaud

means “It protractedly was hot” or “It repeatedly was hot” —

now one, and now the other.

Probability may be incorporated in the meaning of the verb.

Catching sight of an approaching animal, I might say

That’s a cow,

which may be true or not. Now, as we all dislike to be caught

in a mistake, we are fertile in expedients to avoid it. One of

these expedients is to form such a statement that disproving it

will be impracticable. If I say that horses in this town are

raised on shingle-nails, you can with little difficulty overthrow

my proposition. But, if I move this statement to the planet

Mars, your task will be impossible; it will be difficult if I put

the statement in the distant past; if in the future, again im¬

possible. Horses may not eat nails now ; but what do you know

about the year 2000 ?

Suppose now the approaching animal is possibly a calf — a

female. Even in English I may hedge by saying

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

That’ll be a cow,

and I am safe; for even if it is just now a calf, in time it’s going

to be a cow. Accordingly I use the future as a virtual synonym

of “possibly (or probably) is”.

French goes farther. What is said of the past is difficult to

disprove; what is said of the future, impossible. How about a

combination of the two?

The so-called French conditional mode3 historically names

what was to be or happen — what was once a going to be.

Qa serait une vache

accordingly means strictly

That was once a going to be a cow,

in which the task of a disproval offers double difficulty.

The violent statement has its force — so also the restrained.

The wretch who says to me

You are a fool — a big, a cursed fool

may stir me to resentment. He who says

I think you are a fool

is more humiliating, his expression indicating a superior atti¬

tude. The interrogative, as in Are you a fool ?, has also on occa¬

sion some advantage over the assertive. Thus, in a French

novel, rage excited by a wicked woman might have been ex¬

pressed by

You are a big (or monstrous) devil.

The actual words were

Seriez-vous par hasard une petite mechante?

which, rendered with a full appreciation of historic values still

appreciable, might appear as

Were you once perhaps a going to be a little

(wicked person) devil?

or, say,

Am I perchance to understand that you’re etc.

3 More properly the conclusional mode ; for it is used in the conditioned state¬

ment, and but very rarely in “conditions”.

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. 179

But translation hardly can reveal the sting of this deliberately

moderate interrogation.

The question naturally rises: do ideas of truth (or probabil¬

ity etc.) associate themselves exclusively with the relation ele¬

ment of the judgment?

There has more or less prevailed a notion that it must be we

believe in the existence of whatever we may mention. If, for

example, you say that Mr. Johnson is your friend, it must be

you are certain that there is a Mr. Johnson. Obviously such an

inference will usually be correct; for usually we express our¬

selves about what is, as we suppose, in preference to what isn't

— not, however, always.

When I say, for instance, that spiders are not insects, it is

true that I “believe in" spiders and in insects ; but I do not say

so. When I say that ghosts aren't dragons, it is true that I

don’t “believe in" either; but again I do not tell you so. In

neither case does either substantive in my announcement give

the slightest hint of my belief or disbelief or any intermediate.

Analogously, in

Her gown is green

the object and the quality are merely postulated. Their rela¬

tion next is nominated. Next, according as occasion prompts,

one aspect of relation is elected — the affirmative or negative

(the true or untrue — sometimes intermediate — -e.g., probable) .

Belief in this is then announced.

Briefly, we don't bother with untrue or true, improbable or

probable gowns or colors.

That other words than verbs can, with no help from other

words, express ideas more or less adjunctive to themselves,

needs illustration only. “Booklet", “sou risk” do this, though

perhaps the syllables italicised should rank as virtual adjunc¬

tive words, and merely coalescent with the words to which they

are adjunctive. But this topic hardly would repay investiga¬

tion. Many a concept, too, may be regarded as containing an

adjunctive; for example, orange = reddish yellow; scarlet = yel¬

lowish red.

V. On what constituents of an adverb's meaning may another

adverb bear?

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This question may be answered with a pair of illustrations :

in

A. He very probably took poison,

taking and probability are posed in a relation (similar to the

ob j ect-to-quality relation that obtains between a noun and its

attendant adjective) which might be asserted by

The taking is probable.

With probability an adjunct is in turn associated; the relation

that obtains between the two might be asserted by

The probability is great.

That is, in the present case the adverb “very” bears on the

attributive (or qualitative) part of what is meant by “prob¬

ably”.

B. He obviously probably took poison.

In this case the “obviously” seems to me intended as a reen¬

forcer of assertion. It presumably is not so much intended that

the probability is obvious, as that the relation which obtains

between the poison-taking and its probability is obvious, mani¬

fest, which in assertive form might be expressed by

(Poison-) taking obviously is probable,

in which the “obviously” doubtless bears on “is”, which names

the ob j ect-to-quality relation of the (poison-) taking to its

probability.

When now the probability and this relation are, each one of

them, expressed by an adverb bearing on the taking, as in the

above exhibited

He obviously probably took poison,

“obviously” should still bear on the “is” contingent — the rela¬

tion-naming element — of “probably” ; and, in

He obviously very probably took poison,

“probably” has two adverbial adjuncts, one for its relation ele¬

ment of meaning — one for its attribute (or quality) element.

VI. On what constituent of an adjective’s meaning does the

adverb bear?

Given

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 181

I. She wore a probably green gown,

the adverbial form of “probably” forbids it to associate itself

with “She”. The order of the words dispels the possibility that

“probably” is meant to bear on “wore”. An imagining that

“probably” might be adverbial to “a” would disappear in “prob¬

ably green gowns”. Not to mention other difficulties, the posi¬

tion of the adverb spoils its chance to bear on “gown”. Unless

the adverb then be quite irrelevant, it must associate itself with

“green”.

The title of this section gives a hint that in the meaning of

an adjective there sometimes may be found an element not

always recognized. The adjective perhaps will be compelled to

a confession of this meaning, if subjected to the following tor¬

ture: given

Her gown is green,

in previous publications I contended that the meaning of the

“is” in full may be expressed by “object-to-quality relation plus

assertion of its truth”; synonymously, then, “is characterized

by” — which is suggested by the natural converse proposition,

“Greenness characterizes her gown” ; that is, the duty of rela¬

tion-naming is performed by the so-called copula “is”. In other

words, the adjective does not perform that duty. It names ex¬

clusively a visual equality. But, given

She wore a green gown,

“green” in this case does perform that duty. For no doubt the

color is in some relation with the gown, since otherwise it has

no right to enter into the recorded sentence ; and assuredly no

other word than “green” can tell us this relation.

In English the detection of relation is embarrassed by the

order of the words — not so in French, in which the adjective

would follow its noun: e.g. “une robe verte”.

With this in mind it may be easier to see that “a green gown”

has all the meaning of “a gown which is green”, except the

truth-assertion of the “is”. That is, in “a green gown” the

meaning of the adjective is color, as before, but color plus (and

best preceded by) relation, obviously that of object to its

quality.

Following the French arrangement of ideas, and completely

registering meanings, the illustration reappears in the form

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

She wore a gown ( ob j ect-to-quality relation) green,

in which the whole expression in parenthesis is posed as part of

what is meant by “green”.

In the first considered usage “green”, distinguished by gram¬

marians as a predicate adjective, is hardly more to me than a

mere synonym of greenness :

(1) gown is characterized by greenness,

(2) gown possesses greenness,

(3) gown has greenness,

(4) gown is green,

are at the bottom different only thus: In (2) and (3) relation

has been figuratively conceived, but not in (1) or (4) ; in the

first three this relation is expressed by a verb suggesting ac¬

tion, not however so in (4) : in (1) we have imagined that the

greenness has “done something” to the gown, and re-imagined

(backwards), posing “gown” as suffering the action of the

greenness (substituting passive voice for active), which as

actor in this action must be substantive; in (2) and (3) we im¬

agine “gown” as “doing something” to its color : otherwise ex¬

pressed, we pose the color as the object of the verb —

again as ipso facto substantive. In all these four the color-word

expresses color only; differences in the remaining thought are

negligible. The adjective, if such it rightly may be called, is in

expressive power at its minimum.

But, for example, in “green gown”, as argued, the adjective

is at its maximum — the adjective par excellence — exhibiting

a double symbolizing power ; and in the exercise of either power

it obviously may be attended by an adverb. This possibility

invites us to examine further the initial illustration. Once more

then,

I. She wore a probably green gown.

The organization of the judgment thus recorded hardly can

be very different, in its latter half, from that which was dis¬

covered in

II. Her gown is probably green,

the former being the equivalent of

III. She wore a gown which probably was green,

except for the assertive element — and in this case further a

past-time element — which are parts of what is meant by

“was”.

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction.

183

The argument conducted in the case of II does not require

repetition in the case of I. It would lead us to the same con¬

clusion: “probably” bears not on “green” or “gown”, but on

the object-to-quality relation which subsists between the gown

and greenness, this relation being part of what in such a case is

meant by “green”.

This argument may gain a measure of support if III — a

mere extension of I — be juxtaposed with this equivalent though

differently organized extension of the same:

IV. The gown which she wore was probably green,

which forces that extension of the “probably” which was in

III gratuitous.

It was observed that in

Her gown is green

the meaning of the adjective does not include the object-to-

quality relation, which is part of what is meant by “is”. In

such a case an adverb, if employed with “green”, must bear on

greenness ; for there seems to be no other element of meaning on

which it can bear, thus for instance in the phrase “intensely

green”, of which the asserted equivalent would be “The green¬

ness is intense”.

VII. Will an adjective that names both quality and relation

tolerate two adverbs— one for each?

In answering this question let the situation be reestablished.

It is night ; the lights are artificial ; colors are uncertain ; what

seems green is possibly blue — and vice versa; the gown is

possibly green, and — still more possibly — nearly green.

While such a case is likely to be rare,

I. She wore a probably nearly green gown

does not impress me as preposterous; and, though the “prob¬

ably” might bear on “nearly” or on the unit “nearly green”, it

seems to me both possible and natural to construe as in

II. She wore a gown which probably was nearly green,

in which the “probably” is made to bear on the object-to-qual-

ity relation (which is part of what is meant by “green” in I)

while “nearly” bears on the quality expressed by “green” in I

and II.

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Such developments as

possibly and probably nearly or completely green,

with chains of supplementary adverbs fastening on each of

those above,4 suggest a range of adverbial activity so obvious as

not to need our verification.

VIII. Can a word, regarded by the grammars as an adverb,

be the adjunct of a noun ?

My Webster answers “Yes”, and cites the expression

Quite a man,

which might however be regarded as a mere abridgment of, for

instance, “being fully, quite, a man,” with “quite” adverbial to

“being” — a construction still more obviously possible in “He is

quite a man”.

In another, some ways better, illustration “safety first” would

be secured by

It isn’t true that all that glitters is gold.

But love, perhaps, of the sententious leads to

“All that glitters is not gold.”

No doubt the “not” is, in this sentence, adverb to the “is”.

But the judgment which the sentence (strictly taken) registers

was surely unintended : the ostensible subject of this judgment

is “All that glitters” — anything, everything, whatever, what¬

soever glitters; but assuredly it was not thought that whatso¬

ever glitters is not gold; for plainly some of the things that

glitter are gold ; also some of them are not ; and this the author

of the sentence probably intended. Having begun, however, with

“All”, to express himself exactly he should put his negative

where it would restrict or curb the excessive scope of “All”,

as in

Not all that glitters is gold,

in which the “not” which Webster ranks among the adverbs,

plainly bears on “all” ; indeed there seems to be no other word

with which it can associate itself.

It might be claimed that “all” means “all material”, analogous

to “every thing”, in which the adjectival “every” may support

4 For instance, “not so very probably, but altogether possibly”, etc.

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction .

185

an adverb as its adjunct. But this appears to me gratuitous

substitution, unavailable e.g. in

Not John (but his brother) stole the cake.

It was contended in an earlier article (“Linguistic Abberra-

tions”) that the function of the “not” in such a case is to reject

the following idea, as if I had said

Count out John; contrariwise his brother etc.

While the self-sufficiency of an imperative construction readily

shrinks to the dependence of an adjunct, still the adjunct must

maintain the bearing of the original imperative: “Not” must

bear on “John”.

IX. Can a word , regarded by the grammars as an adverb ,

be the adjunct of a preposition ?

As, for instance, in

The thief jumped surely over, not through, the hedge.

(1) If this announcement were the outcome of my observa¬

tion that the footprints on the further side were deeper, and if

this suggested jumping rather than for instance straddling, I

should say of the thief

He surely jumped, not straddled.

(2) Possibly however I observe no more than that, although

the footprints register a passage from the nearer to the further

side, the hedge remains uninjured. Between the thinkable over¬

ness and throughness of the passage I decide in favor of the

overness. I might then say The overness is sure ; the through¬

ness inadmissible. The first I seem to mean in saying “surely

over”; the last is rendered by “not through” (in which the

“not”, as argued on p. 11, is adjunct of the following word).

As a factor in expressing the intention presupposed in (2)

the “surely” (which its ending advertises as an adverb) cannot

bear on “jumped”; and with the object of “over” not yet in

mind, and forced to wait for (and be disconcerted by) “not

through”, it hardly can be possible for “surely” to be sensed as

bearing on the whole adverbial expression “over the hedge” —

hardly possible in my thinking — much less possible in my hear¬

er’s thinking. The situation differs far too much from that

presented by “jumped surely over the hedge — not through it”.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Accordingly my answer to the initial question would be Yes.

X. Can an adverb be the adjunct of a conjunction ?

As, for instance, in

“The greatest of all modern and perhaps ancient poets”.

Imprimis there’s no verb for the presumably always ad¬

verbial “perhaps” to serve adjunctively. A verb indeed is read¬

ily suggested for the adverb by the quoted sentence and might

be expressed, for example, in

(poets who are modern) and poets who perhaps are ancient.

But the “perhaps” declines to bear, it seems to me, on “are”.

The writer of the sentence hardly meant that possibly some

poets should be ranked as ancient. The suggested verb does not

appear to “mend the jape”.

The writer also hardly meant (with but a trifling difference)

that some of the poets should be ranked as possibly ancient.

There appears accordingly to be no adjective to which “per¬

haps” might serve as adjunct.

Obviously too there is no other adverb on which the “per¬

haps” might bear.

Grammar’s possibilities, for an adverbial service, seem ac¬

cordingly to be exhausted. Yet “perhaps” must bear on some

word or remain a stranger to the sentence.

If we drop our grammars and rely on what we think we know

we mean, the difficulty may be solved. Putting ourselves in the

writer’s place, we recognize that our uncertainty (expressed

by the “perhaps”) is whether we should confine ourselves to

modern poets or may include with them the ancient. It’s the

adding — the association, grouping, of the ancient with the

modern — that’s “perhaps” ; and this would be expressible, for

example, by

modern, possibly also ancient poets,

in which for me the “possibly” would bear on “also” ; and for

me “perhaps” analogously is the adjunct of the “and” : the ad¬

verb “limits” a “conjunction”.

Although I cannot recognize that “but” in the following

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 187

illustration is a conjunction5 let it serve for what it may be

worth :

All men but if you will, the illiterate, should vote,

in which the “but” is limited by an adverbial clause.

Analogously, in

Those fools or — if you don’t like that, those scoundrels —

should be punished,

the condition seems to bear upon the “or” — upon the offering

of an alternative, rather than upon the alternative offered, i.e.,

“scoundrels”. That such is the correct interpretation of the

sentence as it ordinarily would be used, may be denied. But you

will probably concede that one might so intend it, which is all

it needs as illustration of a possibility.

XI

Grammar recognizes that an adverb may be adjunct of a verb

or adjective or other adverb.

Webster adds the noun, e.g., in “Quite a man”; and, corol¬

lary-wise, presumably the pronoun would be further added,

e.g., in “He wasn’t quite himself” ; for the contracted “wasn’t”

indicates that “was” has exercised on “not” the right of eminent

domain.

The article — a merely weakened adjective — may be ex¬

pected to enjoy the latter’s privileges, leastwise when uncom¬

monly important, e.g., in “The Siamese twins were two men —

hardly one man — hardly a man”, in which “hardly” can be

meant to bear on “a” directly — not on “was” implied or under¬

stood. In like vein “He is certainly the man of the hour.”

The participle (verbal adjective), an intermediate between

the verb and adjective, may be expected to maintain the common

privilege of its two prototypes — e.g., in “carefully aiming his

pistol, he fired.”

Instances have been examined in which adverbs have ap¬

peared to bear on prepositions and conjunctions.

The interjection (of which interloper, as suggested elsewhere,

is almost a synonym), as it is strictly not a sentence-element,

can hardly rank among the parts of speech.

Has any one of them been overlooked?

Or is there any “part of speech” to which a word regarded

6 Rather a preposition or an imperative according- to the user’s state of mind.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

by the “grammar-book” or dictionary as an adverb may not

serve as adjunct, i.e. “limit” it?

Part II. The Preposition

The field, of which the exploration is suggested by the above

title, may be narrowed somewhat by elimination of some

Pseudoprepositions

To illustrate, “on” in

“On! Stanley, on!”

is obviously equivalent to “onward”, which presumably is ad¬

verb to a verb omitted but implied, for instance “ride” or “rush”

or “hasten”, as presumably the adverb also in

“Forward, the light brigade !”

In other cases an ostensible preposition’s object is included

in its meaning; and the whole becomes an adjective or adverb:

thus, for example,

Is Mr. Johnson in?

in which the “in” suggests as much as “in the house” —

analogously, “out” in

No, Sir; he is out.

In this connection it may be observed that in the meaning of

the adverb commonly a prepositional element may be detected,

as e.g. in “here” (in a place that’s near to me, or both of us) or

“there” (in one that may be quite as near to you, but not to

me) or “yonder” (in one somewhat far from both of us). Such

inclusion of a prepositional idea obviously no more makes a

preposition of the adverb than the “onward” resident in

“charge” makes of that verb an adverb in, for instance,

“Charge, Chester, charge.”

Analogously “fluently” is not a preposition, though definable

by “m a fluent manner.”

Again, among the many efforts to find for “than” a place

among the parts of speech, it has been rated as a preposition.

But German with its “als”, and French with its equivalent “que”

— the Latin “quam” — are etymologically hostile to this rat-

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction .

189

ing; and the mere citation of the usual “older than I” — or

would the prepositionists prefer “than me” — might seem to

answer them sufficiently.

But to continue, in the history of speech the chances are that

longer words are not evolved from shorter. Also, as a rule, in

phraseology the earlier, like a stream in arid regions, starts with

all its volume, but decreases in descending from its source.

Accordingly the expression

Older than you

may be assumed to have descended from the earlier, but still

employed

Older than you are (old or “le” for age in the French),

in short, to have suffered an ellipsis ; he accordingly who poses

“than” as prepositional in the simple “older than you”, must

mend his methods when he reaches e.g.

I was older than you are now

I was old — exceeding what you are now

I was old — exceeding that which you are now

I was old— exceeding the degree to which you now are old

Unrecognized prepositions.

On the other hand some prepositions have been rated as

conjunctions, e.g.

“ Though He slay me yet will I trust in Him,”

or, leaving out the unneeded “yet”, and modernizing,

Though He slay me I will trust Him.

Thus presented, slaying and trusting plainly are exhibited

by “though” in a relation of antagonism — a relation some¬

what difficult to name with more exactness, as a suitable ex¬

pression for it has apparently not, thus far, been developed. If,

instead of “Though” we had “Because”, or “Since”, we should

unhesitatingly declare relation to be that of cause-to-effect. But

slaying hardly is conceivable as cause of trusting; it is quite

the contrary. Causative power in general no doubt it has; but

in the present case that power is ineffective — cannot over¬

come the force of other causative energy, which however is left

to be imagined. Trusting poses then as an effect, but not of

slaying, which antagonizes it. The opposite of cause is followed

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

by unexpected effect — a fact which readily suggests, as name

for the relation, counter-cause to effect (of other causes).

“Because” and “Though” accordingly appear to rank alike,

and may lay claim to rank like the French “quoique” and the

German “trotz” (in spite of) with the prepositions.

Analogously “if”, as indicated by the prepositional equivalent

phrase “in case that” (Webster), seems to me to function as a

preposition, though at first sight on a par with “when”. To

illustrate: given

If the shower ceases I shall take a walk,

and

When the shower ceases I shall take a walk,

it’s plain that “If” etc. means in a particular case, and “When”

etc. means at a particular time: the two adverbial clauses are

constructed on a single plan. But that they are not so much

alike in purpose as at first they seem, is indicated by the fact

that “If the shower doesn't cease” is quite a tenable hypothesis,

which promptly offers an entirely acceptable sequel in “I shall

not take a walk”. But “When the shower doesn’t cease” not

only doesn’t cordially invite my further cerebration, but it also

seems to lie entirely beyond my thought-horizon. I was using

“When the shower ceases” to precisely fix a date; and that I

cannot fix by that which doesn’t happen : a not-happening may

be at almost any date.

To look accordingly a little closer, it is plain that “when”,

though one word only, may be sensed as representing several

ideas. These appear distinctly — with the total sentence more

conveniently arranged — as follows.

I shall take a walk at the time at which the shower ceases.

In this expression it is plain that “when” has not the value of a

preposition, but of a doubly prepositional phrase (expressing

time in double factorship) — or, so to speak, is not a preposi¬

tion, but contains a pair of prepositions — - is no more a prep¬

osition than for instance “then”, which may resolve itself no

more absurdly into “at that moment”.

Now there seems to be no need and hardly opportunity for

such extension of the “if”. This word indeed may be expanded

into “in the case in which” — a phrase which plainly parallels

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 191

in form our “at the time in which”.6 The two expressions are

however very different in substance. The time at which the

shower ceases posed the date of walking as the date determined

by a ceasing; and the ceasing as a date-determiner was valid

only so far as that ceasing could be trusted to occur. In other

words the ceasing was with “when” assumed as certain to occur

at some time not presumably remote.

Per contra ceasing is, with “in the case in which”, exhibited

as (during time considered) totally uncertain; “case” in this

connection means what merely is conceived, imagined.

In a nutshell then, with “when . . etc.” I wish to help

you fix the time at which I walk ; with “if . . etc.” I wish

to help you determine whether I walk at all.

The two expressions operate alike adverbially — bear upon

the walking; but in different ways; the “when” clause bears

upon the act of walking ; but the “if” clause bears on the reality

or truth of walking — or rather on the scope of truth, to which

it sets as boundary the realizing of the “if” hypothesis.

What concerns us here is the relation of the realized hypoth¬

esis to the by it restricted truth. To aid perception, let us set

beside the hypothetical cessation of the shower the correlatively

hypothetical noncessation of the shower; and for the moment

think of them as realized, first one and then the other ; also put

them in the past, to thus eliminate the opportunity for specu¬

lation as to what may happen in the future.

Say the shower didn’t cease — that it continued. It is ration¬

al enough to put it that continuing prevented walking — that

continuation operated as a cause preventively, or as a “coun¬

ter-cause”. At least we should presumably regard relation of

continuing and walking as belonging somehow in the causal

group.

Per contra say the shower ceased. Cessation — - that is, the

removal of preventive cause — can hardly pose as being of it¬

self a cause of any sort — a cause of anything. The shower

after a fashion made me stay indoors; but its cessation didn’t

make me walk; it wasn’t causative; it certainly was not pre¬

ventive ; it was, say, permissive, leaving me unhampered, to do

as I pleased.

6 But “case in which” is much more possible than plausible, impressing me as

an instructive, garrulous advance-agent of “the shower ceases”.

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

The relation thus established, registered by “if Vis usually

known as the relation of condition to conclusion, though it would

be clearer to dismiss “conclusion’’, substituting “what is con¬

ditioned” ; for the natural arrangement of my illustration would

be as in

I shall take a walk if the shower ceases,

which is a conditioned statement; and the statement is, in

organizing thought, more dominant of course than what (ad-

junctively, adverbially) conditions it. Per contra the accepted

phrase “condition, and conclusion” tends to falsely pose the two

on equal terms.

Now what is known as a condition, being a hypothesis —

imagined only — may be introduced, for instance, by “figurez-

vous” (picture to yourself, imagine) ; by “say”; by “let, as in

“let A B C be a triangle” ; by “suppose” ; by “grant” ; or nega¬

tively by “except” (and the participial “excepting” and “ex¬

cepted”) — also “save”.

All these indeed are verbs in the imperative; and yet “ex¬

cept” and “save” have long been ranked as prepositions ; for a

little dimming of appreciation leaves the verb in excellent con¬

dition for the strictly prepositional function. “All except your¬

self” is easily construed as “all without yourself” ; and “all but

you” at first meant literally “all except you”. The earlier Eng¬

lish “an” in the sense of “if” was an Anglo-saxon imperative ; so

too, as some would have it, was our “if” itself, once written

“gif”.

But, whatsoever may have been the meaning and the func¬

tion of the “if”, there seems to be but little room for doubt that

now it functions as a preposition, governing a following quasi¬

sentence treated as a substantive — its object.7

It is interesting to observe that “if” and “though” alike at

first meant “grant”, “admit”, “suppose”. To-day the latter

means (with few regrettable exceptions — thus “as though”

instead of “as if”) “suppose as an obstruction”; while the

former means “suppose as a permission or remover of obstruc¬

tion”. Analogously “weil” in German means “because”; but

“while” in English means “although”.

7 The verb of the “if” clause obviously is unassertive, only in form indicative,

in meaning a subjunctive, ergo fit to serve as a verbal noun.

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction. 193

Note the practicability of

If the shower ceases I shall take a walk when it ceases,

In the case of ceasing I shall take a walk at the time of ceasing,

which exhibits neither two conditions, nor two dates, but one of

each.

“If” does all the business of the prepositional phrase “in

case of”, which in sentence-building functions as a preposition ;

“if” accordingly has equal claim to prepositional rank.

Note that “if” expresses the relation which obtains between

the walking and the ceasing; “when” expresses the relation

which obtains between the walking and a date determined by

the ceasing. The two respectively are answers to the questions

“Shall you walk?” and “When shall you walk?”

The Name and Definitions of the Preposition

The reason why this “part of speech” is called a preposition

has been said to be that it is put before its noun— a symptom far

from diagnostic; adjectives are commonly put before their

Douns; and verbs before their objects.

Those who named the preposition are not much excelled by

those who have defined it as a word that “names a mere ( !)

relation”; for so also does the verb, and much more notably;

and so may, strictly speaking, other parts of speech; for in¬

stance, the noun superiority, that is, the relation of superior

to inferior. What other word will merely name what is in¬

tended by the algebraic symbol > ? Its partial synonym “ex¬

ceeds” is obviously assertive.

The futility of the current name and definitions of this

“part of speech” suggests some care in its examination, which

may be both stimulated and assisted by considering the next

topic.

Age of the Preposition

It is very old, as indicated by the fact that legionary mean¬

ings are expressed by a little group of prepositions. Goold-

Brown's list, when reasonably pruned, contains a score or so.

Some old ones have been lost; and few, if any, new ones have

in recent times been coined. Obviously many of them must

do double, multiple duty. Webster offers eighteen titles for the

meanings, or the meaning-groups, expressed by “of”; and the

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

list of them is far from complete. A single illustration may

suggest their range of difference. In “the murdering of Lin¬

coln^ “of” exhibits the relation of action to actee or object.

In “the crime” or, more specifically, in “the Lincoln-murdering

of Booth”, relation obviously is that of action to actor. It is

hardly probable that any preposition started its career with a

so large and varied burden. Meaning has presumably been

piled on meaning at the outset scanty. Such accumulation

(making “of” suggest a universal preposition) slowly forming

— till of late the journalist almost would have all the preposi¬

tions interchangeable — requires time, and time somewhat as

the geologist conceives it.

Many verbs, to express their meaning, join to themselves a

preposition. Their number is extremely large ; and each of them

is witness to a prepositional antiquity.

That prepositions must be very old is further indicated by

the long advance that many of them obviously have made in

what, for lack of a better word, may be called their intellectual¬

ity. As warrant for this word, it may be noted that a single

preposition may express relations of time, of space, of cause-

and-effect. Of these it is plain that difficult relations, e.g. those

of cause and effect, imply a higher grade of cerebration than

the easier, for instance those of mere location or direction.

Also, in the evolution of the mental powers, it may be assumed

that lower grades of cerebration had been practiced long be¬

fore the mind was ready to attempt the higher.

To illustrate, in

from the house8

the space relation named by “from” impresses me as well within

the mental scope, for instance, of a dog.

“From early morn (till dewy eve)”

presumably would call for higher cerebration.

To rise now in the intellectual scale,

I have a cold from a chill (or being chilled),

m which the “from” may be interpreted as showing “cold” in

the effcct-to-cause relation with “a chill”.

The progress from the spatial to the casual, even viewed as

8 As in, “The barn is (4 rods) from the house”.

Owens— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 195

progress in communication only, is remarkable, and hardly

could have been accomplished otherwise than step by step. At

every step moreover the expedient of rather vague suggesting

doubtless was employed long before attainment of what strictly

could be called expressing; it is safe to say that in linguistic

evolution this suggesting is the much frequented bridge to tell¬

ing.

To illustrate, digging down a bit, we realize that in our

thinking of location or direction we require a preliminary basal

point in space, a point from which we reckon — say an “origin

of coordinates”, which for our purposes we may more simply

call a “here”. The preposition “at” suggests relation that ob¬

tains in space between our “here” and a nearby “there” ; while

“from” suggests relation that obtains between a “here” and a

remoter “there” in space. When now (for lack of a word to

name the similar relation that obtains in time between for in¬

stance Then” and “now”) the “from” presumably was forced

to serve with time, it gave an adequate hint of the relation later

named by “since” (in time) and gradually took on that relation

as a meaning which in suitable environment it actually ex¬

presses. Further, given “from” in its new sense of “since” (in

time), when it was further forced to serve with cause and its

effect, it once more hinted at the requisite relation, and in time

adopted it as one of its actual meanings, finding with notorious

ease the path from “post” to “propter hoc”.9

As said before, the advance in power of expression is remark¬

able ; but our advance in thinking power seems to me enormous

— its accomplishment astounding. Here we are; but how did

we get here? All ideas known as abstract are comparatively

difficult — whiteness more than snow, sequence more than

this-succeeding-that in space and even time, causation more

than “chill” and the ensuing “cold”. The difficulty of the last

abstraction is extreme — - inevitably so.

As relation is the mind's reaction to the stimulus exerted by

a pair of terms, it might be claimed that, somewhat as without

an eye there would not be what we call color, so without a mind

there would not be relations ; that, e.g., were mind eliminated,

while the tree-top and its roots would each maintain its place,

9 To me the rating of a “since” (thus used) as any part of speech except a

preposition — e.g, a conjunction, adverb (?) — ranks of course as merely trifling.

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

the former would no longer be above the latter. The relations

seem to me a purely mental product utterly remote from what¬

soever be in rerum natura — not “of the earth , earthy ”. To

think them separate from their stimuli accordingly may be re¬

garded as the great and fundamental difficulty in our thinking

for linguistic purposes.

Thus, however, they must be thought. A single illustration is

perhaps sufficient: if you say “excess”, I think at once of its

relation indicated by the algebraic >. To do no groping into

subtleties, it is enough to note that this relation didn’t travel

through the atmosphere from you to me astride of the word

“excess”; you merely summoned an idea to my mental fore¬

ground; to be summoned thus, it had to be in waiting in my

mental background — better in my mental store-house of ideas.

I admit that by description, information, you can build a new

idea in my mind ; but that is educating me — not ordinary tell¬

ing me. With such exceptions, what you say can do no more

than call up my already formed ideas; it is most emphatically

not a “vehicle”.

I see no reason for supposing this relation to excess, while

waiting in the back-ground, to have been accompanied by stim¬

ulating terms, for instance Moon and the much smaller looking

Jupiter. Their room is better than their company. In speaking

to me, you intend that duplicates of your ideas shall occupy my

mental stage. Now this was not constructed on a three-ring-

circus plan : one show at a time is all it can accommodate with

full success. If I am to grasp your meaning when you say “De¬

mand exceeds - ”, I mustn’t be thinking of the moon and

Jupiter. Even if they have been hitherto required to help me to

maintain in mental storage the excess relation, obviously they

have left me now, “Demand” has ousted “moon” ; and “Jupiter”,

unable to put up with the inglorious fellow-term “Demand”,

has doubtless fled the scene. As I don’t know the economic laws,

I can’t anticipate “supply”. I’m left with a lonesome “Demand”,

which cannot single-handed stimulate the “excess” relation:

“exceeds” must do that business.

It appears accordingly that there are leastwise momentary

situations in which a relation must be thought without the help

of terms. With adequate investigation we should probably say

as much as this: in first experiencing a relation we required

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction . 197

two terms as a stimulus ; but what they stimulated has become,

without its terms, a permanent addition to our repertory of

ideas.

To resume, the prepositions, which today express ideas most

elusive, started with ideas quite obtrusive — the objective

space-relations. Reaching so far back in time, the history of

the prepositions makes a notable approach to being the history

of mental evolution.

To compare the preposition's age with that of other parts

of speech we must look back, or rather think back, far indeed.

We can not be “echt wissenschaftlich”, as conceived and com¬

monly demanded by philologists. But speculation, although much

derided, has achieved results both plausible and helpful.

It begins, far back of what can be regarded as a judgment,

with a (mental) recognition of perhaps at first a mere sensa¬

tion, or distress, for instance, thirst. The infant, stimulated

thus, at first makes no more near approach to speech than to

emit a purely reflex cry. The cry however brings relief. The

repetition of this sequence leads to the cry intentional and pur¬

poseful : language has begun.

From distress it is not far to the desire of relief ; and from

relief the path is straight and short to that which has so often

brought relief.

Given frequent repetition of e.g. “Does Baby want a drink of

water?”, naturally “water”, as the final and most emphatic

word, distinguished further by its higher pitch, should form an

adequate association with the infant's mental status; and the

cry should be replaced by a near-utterance of “water”, which

presumably the infant would at first intend to stand for all that

was in mind; and, even if a single element of mental status

were intended, it should be remembered that at first no doubt

the baby knows much better that he wants than what he wants

— “water” might be uttered in the sense of “want”. But “wa¬

ter” would no doubt soon reach its proper meaning.

Some day, doubtless very early in the mental evolution,

comes the first ( ?) dichotomy, the recognition of the all-that-is

as made up of a self and the remainder; this would naturally

lead to “Baby — water”. Further recognition of the mental

status in its details would develop “Baby-want-water”, which

however is to me still far remote from the sentential judgment-

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

registration “Baby wants water”. What the baby utters is a

list of names for ideas — nothing more.10

To illustrate this distinction,

“On the Grampian hills my father feeds his flocks”,

of which, I am informed, A Pidgin-English version reads as

follows :

“Top side Glampian-M£ me f adder chow-chow him sheep”

of which the words italicized alone require attention.

Though knowing nothing of whatever syntax Pidgin-English

may possess, I see no need in it of differentiated “parts of

speech”; for all the words italicized, if parts of speech at all,

to me are nouns, including “chow-chow”, which was introduced

to me as naming a kind of pickle, and is to me no more than

special “food” or “fodder” ; and, though “top” successfully takes

the place of the relation-naming “on”, I rank it as a make-shift

— not an equivalent : “top” and “bottom” seem no more to in¬

dicate (perception of) relation than for instance “head” and

“foot”, or say the big end and the little end — the hot end and

the cold end — of the tapering stick that I pull out of my fire.

But such a “top”, or “top-side” is at least a prepositional

germ, and obviously could acquire a genuine prepositional

meaning. Furthermore, the germinal judgment seems to be

that registered by

Father - food - sheep _ _ on _ hill,

in which the “on” requires recognition thoroughly distinct, be¬

fore the details of the group preceding it. We may presumably

with saftey say the preposition is at least as old as any of the

sentence-elements, except the noun.

The preposition shows its nature most distinctly when com¬

pared with other parts of speech;-— as most convenient, in the

first place then a brief

Comparison with other parts of speech not verbal.

To illustrate : in

The book on the table has a very excellent reputation

it is obvious that the preposition’s function is completely and

10 Even the word order is perhaps no more than initiative ; any other order

hardly need surprise us.

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction .

199

extremely different from that of “book”, the first term, subject-

noun; from that of the last term “reputation”, object-noun of

the verb; from that of the preposition's object-noun the “table”.

It also plainly differs absolutely in its function from the ad¬

junct (adjective) “excellent”, the “articles” or weakened ad¬

jectives “the” and “a”, and the secondary adjunct “very” ranked

by Grammar as an adverb.

There is also in a preposition little — rather, nothing — to

remind one of a pronoun, which is merely a noun with a pecu¬

liar meaning or peculiar mode of meaning — exhibition, e.g.,

by the reinstatement of a meaning previously offered by a noun,

as in “That wagon has been roughly handled. It is badly dam¬

aged.” See “Pronouns” in an earlier paper.

With conjunctions — “words which join,” as defined by

grammars — a comparison would be embarrassing, until they

have been carefully examined — see the closing chapter of this

publication. Meantime they will hardly be confused with prep¬

ositional namers of relations.

As for the interjection, which has been defined as a word

“thrown in between words connected in construction” — i.e. in

the sentence but not of it — being a speech-interruption, it can

hardly rank as a “ part of speech”.

Hybrid Preposition

Though the preposition in its thus far noted function as

preposition only, plainly differs greatly, for example, from the

noun, the question rises whether it can doubly operate as prep¬

osition and, e.g., as noun — that is, in one of its functions be

a noun.

It theortically can. The preposition, it is true, as naming the

relation which obtains between two terms, dislikes to stand be¬

fore or after them, and ipso facto isn't in a good position to do

service with what follows or precedes them. But if this dislike

be overcome — if, taking as our model

“Under a spreading chesnut-tree

The village smithy stands,”

we meddle with it thus —

The smithy stands a tree beneath,

we can continue (juggle) as suggested by this diagram:

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cmd Letters.

(The smithy stands a tree [beneath) is not the word the author

chose]

in which “beneath” is preposition with “a tree” (its object),

but is noun as subject of “is not” etc.

As merely one more curiosity, it may be noted that “beneath”

though thought but once, is indispensable to both the judg¬

ments (bounded, one of them, by parenthetic marks, the other

by the brackets). It accordingly connects or “joins them, and

might file a claim to rank not only as a preposition, but as also

a conjunction, though this claim presumably would be disputed

by grammarians.

Comparison with Verbs

The Germans call the verb the time-word ; but this name ap¬

plies as well, e.g. to “hour”, “noon” and “yesterday”, which

in expressing time, do better work than verbs do in their vaguer

indication of the present, past and future.

Our grammarians have defined it as “denoting action, being

or state,” which words accordingly should strictly, all of them,

be ranked as verbs themselves ; so too, e.g., “gymnastics” or

“existence” or “unconsciousness”. Such definitions do not

greatly help.

Perhaps we shall have better luck if we resume examination

of the judgment part of which a verb is needed to express.

In every judgment there must be at least three elements, or

say ideas, namely two and the relation11 that obtains between

them. To illustrate, if I merely think of oranges, I have not

formed a judgment. Even if I think of oranges, and further

think of lemons, I have done but little better. But if I think as

registered by “Oranges exceed lemons”, I have formed a judg¬

ment. I have thought not only of two terms, but also of a rela¬

tion expressed by “exceeds” — a relation which obtains between

the two.

I have indeed done more than this — a very important more.

I have added an idea of, roughly speaking, truth — as is ap¬

parent on contrasting “Oranges exceed lemons” with “Oranges

11 A relation may be said to be the mind’s reaction to the verbal presence of

two terms — the most important element accordingly in judgment-forming.

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 201

don't exceed lemons". I have further added, roughly speaking

again, my own belief in this truth, as is apparent on compar¬

ing “Oranges exceed lemons" with “Oranges to exceed lemons".

But unfortunately “to exceed" is also generally called a verb.

Verbal it is indeed in its relation-naming power; but in com¬

parison with “exceeds" it has both lost and gained: assertive

power it has lost ; but it has gained the power to function as a

noun; e.g. in

Brown declares oranges to exceed lemons

“to exceed" is at the same time unassertive namer of relation

— that between the oranges and lemons — and the direct object

of “declares"12 — in other words it is a hybrid — known as a

verbal noun, to be examined later.

It favors clearness, both of thinking and of telling, to regard

as genuine those verbs only which express (the speaker's) be¬

lief in the relations which they name — that is, the assertive

verbal forms; to rank the unassertive forms as verbal nouns,

verbal adjectives or verbal adverbs — that is hybrids ; see p. 18.

This policy admits to genuine verbal rank the Indicative mode

alone; for though (as previously indicated) the Imperative

does assert, what it asserts is a command or wish that has been

added to the meaning of the verb, developing thereby what

might be with advantage rated as a different verb; so too the

interrogative verb, as in e.g. “Is that your hat?"; for, though

it also does assert, what it asserts is a desire that the hearer

give particular information. See “Interrogatives".

This genuine verb — defined above — alone expresses that

relation which is dominant among the many that may play a

part in the construction cf a single judgment. Thus, in

The book on the table is mine

the dominant or primary relation (that of substance to attrib¬

ute or accident — a trifle figurative) is expressed by “is", while

the positional relation of tke book and table, registered by “on",

12 That it is more true to actual thinking to construe the sentence thus, than to

regard the total "oranges to exceed lemons" as a unit object of "declares”, is in¬

dicated when, e.g., you pass fron "I saw Booth murder Lincoln” to the more

compact-— and much more unity-suggesting — "I saw Booth's murder of Lincoln”,

in which, however, "murder” would presumably be ranked by a grammarian as

the object of "saw”, before he came to reckon with its adjuncts "Booth's” and

"of Lincoln”.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

is obviously secondary in importance; for, even if the relation

named by “on” (and also its following term) be omitted, what

remains is still a judgment, true or untrue; but, without the

“is”, the remainder has no longer any judgment value, save

as “is” be understood with it.

As already indicated the preposition is not assertive. If it

were invested with assertive power, it would obviously rank

as a verb. For instance given

Your book is on the table

if I could say of the book

It ons the table,

using “ons” as synonym of “is on”, plainly “on” would be es¬

sentially equivalent, e.g., to “overlie”, asserting the spatial rela¬

tion of the books and table, and accordingly a genuine verb.

Verbs expressing Prepositional relations

(a) Verbs compounded with a preposition. The list of verbs

which thus express relations also registered by prepositions

is exceedingly large; for instance, “invade”, which roughly

duplicates the meaning of “go in” (or into). But the syntax of

the former isn’t prepositional; for, as part of the verb, the

preposition operates as in “go-in the house” ; while, in the lat¬

ter, as a separate word, it operates as in “go in-the-house”.

Compare for instance “What are you invading? or entering?

The house.” and “Where are you going? In the house.” Of such

distinctions more hereafter.

Another difference between the verbal and the prepositional

exposition of relations may deserve attention. Verbs pre¬

ponderating^ treat of action. Not to repeat protracted

argument, it is rather obvious that action may be post¬

ulated as an output of energy ; this can hardly be detected save

in change; and change implies establishment of new relations.

Thus for instance in the case of Newton’s falling apple, its orig¬

inal relation with a tree gives way to a relation with the earth.

Accordingly the active verb may properly be said to treat

of action-formed relations; and in this connection it is worth

observing that the preposition varies now and then to suit the

verbal meaning. Thus “to-be” is followed by the preposition

“in”, for instance

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 203

He is in the house;

but “go” is leastwise often followed by the preposition “into”,

as for instance in

He went into the house.

Analogously German views the prepositions uber, in and unter

as requiring the dative when employed with a verb expressing

status — the accusative with verbs of motion.

Unfortunately in linguistic dealing with such matters we are

governed by the well-nigh universal fallacy that things can “do

things”. Heedlessly we say the apple struck the earth. We even

plainly tell ourselves the apple did the striking, and our planet

suffered the blow. Still further we are faithful to our fallacy,

even when there’s not the faintest trace of action, as for in¬

stance in the utterly inactive status specified by “A and B are

equal”. For, when once we substitute “A equals B”, we call our

B the direct object or accusative, and down goes “equals” in the

dictionary as a transitive, requiring an actor for its action,

much as if a violent A inflicted the equality on B.13

We think we know that verbal meaning by its nature preestab¬

lishes the indirectness or directness of its object, though we do

occasionally suffer a rude shock.14 While we for instance speak

as if “to like” or “love” could be relied on to affect a beef¬

steak or a woman, we discover that the Spanish better grasp the

situation, using the expression “to love to (or at or toward)

a woman.”

In such embarrassment my own expedient and relief has

been to sense the active verb as registering both an action and a

thereby formed relation — all together, a relation-forming ac¬

tion (or activity) . E.g. a dinner is given — say a dining occurs ;

as one of the viands chicken is served ; the guests eat chicken ;

the act of eating develops between the guests and chicken the

relation of eater-to-food, or diner-to-dinner ; “eat” exhibits a

relation in its forming or becoming.

Such an exhibition of relation in its “werden” versus “sein”

is not, so far as I recall, effected by a preposition.

(b) Uncompounded verbs. Examining with some care rela-

13 Webster 1867, “a verb expressing an action which passes . from the

subject which does to the object on which it is done.”

14 For instance, from “utor” etc.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

tion-words presented in Roget’s Thesaurus (old edition alone at

hand) , I notice that apparently the only verbs of which no prep¬

osition forms a part, but which in spite of this express a prep¬

ositional relation, are “to face”15 and, more distinctly, “flank”,

as in

His house flanks my house,

which is obviously equivalent to

His house is beside my house.

But, even in this case, again the verbal and the prepositional

proposition differ greatly in idea-organizing. In the former

the idea of lateral proximity is part and parcel of the verbal

connotation. In the latter this idea deserts the verb and forms

with subsequent ideas a virtual attribute, as indicated by this

punctuation of “beside-my-house”. The two procedures may

be thus exhibited :

I. His house flanks my house

II. His house is beside my house

In I the mid-term falsely sensed as naming action, is attended

by a would-be actor (subject) and an actee (object) and de¬

clares a quite imaginary actor-to-actee relation of his house and

mine.

In II the mid-term “is” presents the substance-attribute rela¬

tion and declares that it obtains between the two terms “His

house” and “beside my house”.

This departure from the current doctrine of the “copula”

upheld by grammar was laboriously defended in an earlier pub¬

lication. At this point it may be enough to juxtapose e.g.

I. My house is white

and the converse proposition. But, says high authority, Ger¬

manic and accepted by the multitude, it can't be done ; for every

judgment predicates an attribute of substance. Of this dictum

let a single aspect be examined : the implied command to start

with substance in forming a qualitative judgment.

15 The space relation designated by this word, although of prepositional char¬

acter, is not apparently expressed by an unaided English preposition, but by

equivalent phrases such as “opposite to”, “in front of”, “over against”, with which

compare the German “gegendber”.

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction.

205

Suppose we want to start with attribute. I think we can, as

in for instance

II. Whiteness characterizes my house.

Forestalling odious interpretations of this sentence, I declare

that I do not senselessly or figuratively conceive of whiteness

as a “thing” which in this transitive-looking sentence “does

things” to my house. I merely mean that whiteness and my

house are in the attribute-to-substance relation; and, my ob¬

servation being thus a little sharpened, when I now pass from

this sentence to its converse, the original “My house is white”,

I seem to see with even greater certainty that what I meant by

“is” — the so-called “copula” — was what may be expressed by

“is characterized by” ; in other words the “is” asserts relation

of substance to attribute ; my I is, so to speak, the passive form

of II,

That “is” in other cases registers relations altogether differ

ent, was argued in preceding publications thus, “(All) men arc

bipeds,” in which the relation is of a species-to-genus type, the

genuine converse being the genus-to-species type expressed by

“Bipeds include (all) men.” Accordingly “All men are bipeds”

means “All men are included in bipeds”, which does not sug¬

gest the stipulation of “some bipeds,” an invention, as it seems

to me, of which the “ninety and nine” know nothing. Again, in

“Brown is eating” the relation is that variant of substance-to-

attribute which may be known as substance-to-accident” or in¬

cidental attribute, of which the converse, were it needed, might

be rendered by, for instance, “Eating just now characterizes

Brown.”

In this connection we do well to keep our mental back-door

shut against the idle notion that, because “His house” is sub¬

stance, and “beside my house” is attribute, this attribute is

therefore attribute of that particular substance — that the two

are in the substance-attribute relation. Mention of them in a

single breath suggests it ; but it isn’t certified until declared by

“is”. “In the river” also is equipped to serve as attribute, but

not of either house until there comes a flood.

The usual functions of the prepositional phrase in judgment-

organizing are most obvious; e.g., in

Oranges of full growth

206 1 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

the last three words restrict the scope of “oranges” precisely as

“full-grown” in

Full-grown oranges;

that is, they are adjunctive to a noun — say adjective.

On the contrary, in

It is well to eat an orange in the morning,

the adjunctive prepositional phrase is obviously adverbial.

When it is remembered that each judgment-element that may

be added to a minimal judgment, e.g., “Men are animals”, must

be in some relation with an already admitted element, it is ob¬

vious that the number of relations that may play a part in

judgment-organizing must be very great; and their respective

ranks in the organic total, whether expressed by prepositions

or by other words, may be worth an illustration. Thus in

Brown declares with emphasis the apparent

book on the table to be in fact a candy box,

the dominant relation is of course the one asserted by “declares”

as holding between Brown and what he declares, of which the

skeleton is “the book — to be — a box.” This skeleton exhibits

“to be” as naming a relation secondary to the dominant relation

manifested by “declares”. The prepositional relations plainly

are remoter still from dominance ; but their respective rating

lends itself to argument. Thinking first of the degree to which

each one is useful in avoiding a misunderstanding, one would

naturally give the first rank to the “on” and follow with the “in”

and “with”. But, thinking rather of their rank in syntax, one

might well assign the first place to the “with” as operating with

the dominating verb — the second probably to “in” as operat¬

ing with “to be” (the heart of what is declared)— -the third, to

“on”. Enough that, from each point of view, the dominant rela¬

tion may be attended by other relations differing in importance

or prestige.

Comparison with Hybrids

The difference between the verb and preposition is main¬

tained by verbal hybrids, of which, in our actual use, a larger

possible number (see “Hybrids”, pp. 151, 195, and 202) is re¬

duced to three, the verbal noun, the verbal adjective, the verbal

adverb — this extremely rare, e.g.,

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction.

207

She sang ear-splittingly.

Analogously,

Henry shouted me-addressingly

is thinkable ; and even

Henry shouted to-me speakingly,

This last is organized precisely on the plan of

Henry shouted speaking to me,

save only that the adjunct in the one case bears upon the verb,

and in the other on its subject. Nothing then is likely to be

gained by special study of the verbal adverb.

On the other hand, in

Henry’s speaking to me was a shouting,

“speaking” is no longer an adjunctive, but the subject of the

sentence, differing from

His addressing me was a shouting

only in conceiving “me” as direct object versus indirect. Obvi¬

ously this verbal hybrid, recognized immediately in its leading

function as a noun and subject of the sentence, can’t have much

in common with a preposition functioning between two terms

as their relation-namer. It’s the verbal adjective — the “part¬

iciple”, if the word be used synonymously — that invites com¬

parison with prepositions.

This comparison may be aided by a brief examination of the

several relations which the verb (in the active voice) on differ¬

ent occasions is required to express. For instance, in

The jockey rides (three times a day),

the first term “jockey” must be in relation with some other

sentence element ; and none is visible save “rides”. The relation

plainly is that of actor to his action.

Very differently, in the order (or commandment)

Ride the horse

the riding and the horse must be in some relation — doubtless

that of action to what it affects — to the actee, the horse.

Now it is these relations that our grammars vaguely and

perhaps exclusively perceive, as respectively relation of a

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

subject to its verb, and that of verb to object. As to their ex¬

actness in perceiving, given merely

The jockey the horse,

the grammars seem to presuppose e.g. a dialogue of this sort:

What does the jockey do?

He does a riding.

What does the riding do?

It affects the horse.

It seems to me, however, that the layman would not thus me¬

ander — would go straighter to the mark by asking

What have the jockey and the horse to do with each other?

How are they related?

and should get the answer

They are in the actor to actee relation (in the act of riding) ;

They are in the rider-to-ridden relation ;

that is, minds that have not been sophisticated take the short¬

cut straight from first to last term, through the mid-term.

But, in

The jockey riding the white horse,

short-cuts have no chance. The choice of “ridm#” instead of

“rides” is warning that it's not the mid-term of the judgment

whose expression has begun; that, whatsoever mid- and last

term may be coming, they have not arrived; that in the judg¬

ment there will be no place for “riding” save as an adjunctive.

Accordingly, as an adjunctive, it immediately operates; an in¬

stant later might be too late for effective organizing of ideas

— particularly organizing by the hearer.

Let

The jockey riding the white horse

be now compared with

The jockey on the white horse .

Obviously the two expressions are essentially equivalent; and,

in the two, the phrases in italics are alike adjunctive to the sub¬

ject “jockey”.

In the first, it was apparent that the “riding” was at once

associated with “The jockey” — did not wait for the arrival of

the “horse”; (There might indeed have been no horse to wait

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction . 209

for, as for instance in “The jockey riding in che green coat won

the race.”)

In the second, “on” can hardly thus associate itself at once

with “jockey”. “Jockey on” is rather senseless till we know

“on what.” It seems to me we wait to learn the total meaning

of the adjunctive phrase, before associating any part of it with

“jockey” — that we then therewith associate it as a whole.

The following illustration gratified the feminine contingent

at a lecture.

Leaving the house for an evening stroll which may be chilly,

Mrs. hooks an arm imprimis to the arm of Mr. After that, she

catches on her other arm her nearby hanging opera-coat. The

organizing of the Mr. - Mrs. - coat association is according to

the method followed with the participle.

Suppose however that she first takes up the coat — that,

next, this combination of the two connects itself with Mr.;

organizing of the Mr.-Mrs.-coat association this time is accord¬

ing to the method followed with the preposition.

Part III. The Conjunction

Some distrust of Grammar in its treatment of this “Part of

Speech” may be awakened first of all by its current definition

as “a word that joins”. At once the question rises: joins what?

As the conjunctions actually do not join words (compare them

with the hyphen) but rather separate them, probably ideas are

intended. One more question : can ideas be joined, and — if so

— do we wish to join them?

Given

Men and cabbages need light and water,

I see no means of genuinely joining men and cabbages, or water

and light. Presumably you have no interest in joining light and

water, and, if joined to a cabbage, would desire immediate

disjunction. So too, of ideas corresponding or the words for

them, if they were joined, we should wish them to be disjoined,

to avoid embarrassment ; thus e.g. if light and water should be

joined, how could I make it plain — or even think within my¬

self — that I have one of them but not the other.

Distrust of Grammar grows with learning that while some

conjunctions join ideas (or words?) together, others join them

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

apart — as Grammar puts it, are “disjunctive”. It looks as if

we might feel free, m dealing with this matter, to think for

ourselves.

To utilize this freedom, let the following serve as a working

hypothesis : genuine conjunctions indicate that the ideas

“joined” are merely to appear in mind together — this in

various relations, as may he apparent later.

Genuine junction is however common, as was argued in both

“Pronouns” and “Connectives”. To illustrate,

Here is the book you want,

in which omission of the so called “relative pronoun” hardly

calls for an apology, as there are languages which have no rela¬

tives.

In this sentence one may find two propositions : the book is

here, and you want the book. As argued in “Pronouns”, the

idea named by “book” is not twice thought : appearing first as

part of one idea-structure, it holds its place in mind while fur¬

ther ideas gather about it to form a second structure.16

“Book” is plainly an indispensable factor of “The book is

here” : without it, what remains is valueless in thought-forma¬

tion and communication. This is also true of “book” in “You

want the book”. Of things that have an indispensable element

in common it is usual to say that they are joined — e.g. two

chains with a common link; the like may plausibly be said of

the given judgments (propositions) which may be exhibited as

follows :

(Here is the [book) you want].

one judgment being bounded by the paranthetic marks; the

other by the brackets; “book” appears between each pair of

boundaries, as a factor of each judgment. “Book”, then, may

with maximum propriety be said to operate as a “conjunction”.17

This however is not meant for devotees of Grammar. A rad-

18 It is worthy of note that if a relative pronoun is added after “book”, this

“pronoun” often merely serves as warning that the idea named by “book” is to

be held in mind to enter into further thought-formation — often however also to

foretell the idea’s (factorship or) function in the second thought, as e.g. subject,

object, operating therefore as a second, though detached, case-ending.

17 Compare the interesting illustration quoted by Professor Paul — approxim¬

ately :

(“Up from his seat arose [Herr Hagen) spoke as follows.]”

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction . 211

ically different illustration may be more digestible; but let an

intermediate pabulum be offered :

(1) He arrived the moment the clock struck twelve;

or, more elaborately,

(2) He arrived at the moment at which the clock struck twelve;

or, more compactly,

(3) He arrived then when the clock struck twelve;

or let the “when”, as usually, have a double force, as in

(4) (He arrived [when) the clock struck twelve] ,

which obviously is built according to the plan of (1).

The “parsing” of “(the) moment” I abandon to grammar¬

ians, imagining however that they would regard it as a noun,

presumably obliquely understood, adjunctive to “arrived”. I

see indeed no reason why they should not also rank it as the

adjunct (in a second fellowship) of “struck”.

The idea expressed by it, like that of “book”, is then an in¬

dispensable factor in each one of two idea-structures (in this

illustration, propositions). In the first it names ostensibly the

time of arrival, but is helplessly indefinite until, by its associa¬

tion with the striking, it acquires definiteness.

It is interesting to observe that, in the said acquiring, it vio¬

lates the subject-copula-predicate doctrine, using “the clock

struck twelve” as its distinguisher in its second factorship. This

violation is perhaps a trifle more apparent in “Here is the book

you want”, in which “you want” is forced to serve as a dis¬

tinguisher (restrictive attribute or accident) of the book at

hand from other books.

To make this operation plainer, notice the equivalence of

(Here is the book) (subj.) — is (cop.) — desired-by-you

(pred.)

and

(Here is the) you (subj.) — are (cop.) — desiring-book

(pred.),

each one of which — the latter, with a shift of “book” from last

place to the first — successfully distinguishes the book at hand

from others, though the two expressions differ widely in their

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

syntax. What is most important for the present is that “mom¬

ent”, being (in the judgment-forming) indispensable at once to

his arriving and the striking of the clock, effectively unites

them — operates as a “conjunction”.

Plainly this is also true of “when”, to which grammarians

accord a partial recognition, sometimes ranking it as a con¬

junctive adverb (strictly twice adverbial) and — by virtue of

its double indispensability — a joiner, a conjunction. In “Hy¬

brids” it seemed plain enough that many a word may be two

parts of speech at once, if the idea expressed by it is singly

thought in double function.

As the promised radical illustration, let the following serve :

He lies as he fell,

which is intended to exhibit an identity of attitudes, or say

positions, as exhibited for instance by He fell face down; he

lies face down.

The syntax of this sentence is revealed by the history of “as”,

a mere abbreviation of “all so” in the sense of quite so, just so

or exactly so. The illustration then expresses what, in two suc¬

cessive efforts, might have been expressed by

He lies just so;

(He fell just so) ;

Just so he fell.

In these the meaning of “just so” may be assumed to be in

one case what it is in the other. One continuous thinking of

what it expresses abrogates the need of re-expression, leaving

(He lies [just so) he fell].

an indefinite equivalent of

(He lies [on his face) he fell].

an exact equivalent of

(He lies [as) he fell].

Here again no doubt the adverb being indispensable to each

of two statements, joins them — is a conjunction. So however

did “(the) book”, a noun. So also might an adjective, for aught

I see. For instance, given

We are mortal ( also) are our children,

there appears to be no difficulty in continuous thinking, as in

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction . 213

(We are [mortal) are our children],

or in even

(We [die) our children also].

We are nearing the conclusion that there is no warrant for

imagining a special “part of speech” — a special conjunction-

class — for “joining” seems to be an operation that may be per¬

formed by every other part of speech. To speak more cau¬

tiously, perhaps it will be found that each conjunction merely

is another part of speech in a particular environment — only

incidently conjunctive.

Another class of joiners, operating by a method thus far not

examined, has been rather dimly recognized as “Thought-con¬

nectives” — more exactly, judgment-connectives.

To illustrate,

He invited me. Therefore I came,

which in “Connectives” was explained essentially as follows :

In this expression “There” (the leading syllable of “There¬

fore”) reinstates in mind the waning judgment registered by

“He invited me”. This judgment, constituted by two terms and

their relation (of inviter to invitee) is a thoroughly coherent

mental organism, eminently capable of serving as a unit in an¬

other judgment.

In this other judgment “There”, as indicated, has the force of

“his inviting me”; and “fore” (in the sense of for, from, by

reason of, on account of) operates with “There” (in the sense

of “that”) as a prepositional phrase, adverbial to “came”. Ac¬

cordingly the meaning of the illustration is in detail

He invited me. On account of that (his inviting me) I came.

That is, the idea named by “fore” is the relation (of effect-to-

cause) subsisting between two terms, my-coming and his-invit-

ing-me.

“Therefore” may be said to join these terms, because the

latter part of it is an indispensable factor of each — indeed,

the whole of the first. The joining then is by incorporation, and

invites a reference to the whole of Bible narrative, which

doubtless in a manner joined Jonah to itself.

Joining of the sort (thus far) above exhibited grammarians

hardly had in mind when offering their definition of conjunc-

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

tions. Genuine though such joining is, it seems to have been

vaguely understood and mainly overlooked. It remains to be

examined whether what they call conjunctions really join. Of

these let

“and”,

as typical, be first examined.

In “Connectives”, “and” (in operation as a joiner of two

judgments registered by sentences) was thus interpreted:

There being given

He invited me ; I came ;

if now it be desired to form these separated judgments into a

coherent total, they are e.g. thus reconstituted :

He invited me; and I came;

the meaning of the “and” appearing more distinctly in

He invited me; in (concordant) addition thereto I came.

That is, the “and” revives in mind, as a mental unit, his invit¬

ing me ; it further also calls upon the mental stage the idea of

accession or accompaniment, or in other words a rather tenu¬

ous relation of the (at the outset) unaccompanied, and a com¬

panion — single (solitary) and the accessary — a relation

which may be expressed by the mathematical + or “plus”. It

should be noted further that relation this time also runs from

coming to inviting; it's the coming that is “plus”. The “join¬

ing” is effected by incorporation of the “He invited me” in

“and” interpreted as “in addition to his inviting me”.

When now this “and” is said to join, not a pair of sentences

(expressing judgments) but a pair of words (expressing ideas)

the operation is in part analogous. For instance, given

pears and apples,

“apples” calls upon the mental stage an idea, to take its place

beside the pears already there. It is unnecessary to revive in

mind the pears; for these are not like “He invited me”, which

is a strictly selfsufficient mental entity. The pears alone are

insufficiently important for communication. Further elements

are necessary to a thought. One may assume accordingly that

the idea expressed by “pears” has not begun to wane, is on the

mental stage, is waiting — therefore not revived and not incor¬

porated by the “and”.

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction.

215

Beside the pears, then, now are brought the apples. But, as

has been urged repeatedly, the importation of a word (cr

rather an idea) requires it to be in some relation with a word

(or rather an idea ) already on the spot; for otherwise the im¬

ported element would be unrelated, irrelevant — “have nothing

to do with” already (established) accepted material. The rela¬

tion, this time as before, is that of the (originally) unaccom¬

panied and a companion — once more registrable by a -K Again

relation runs from last to first. It is the apples that are plus.

In time however this relation, doubtless never quite distinct

in mind, was presumably “seen double” — sensed as simultan¬

eously running both ways — proverse and reverse. Stated other¬

wise, it came to be conceived that the association of the apples

with the pears should yield to a consociation of the two.

By way of illustration, it would far from please me to in¬

terpret.

You and I are gentlemen

as

You — “me too” — are gentlemen.

I want that equal recognition of us both that is exhibited by

We are gentlemen.

I want the “you and I” to have the double value of “I plus you”

and ((you plus /”, as seems to be suggested by the ranking of

the “and” as a “co-ordinate” conjunction — one that puts the

“joined” elements on all ways equal terms.

The relation then of pears and apples may be redefined as

that of a member to member of a group — more briefly, the co¬

membership relation. And even this relation is presumably but

dimly sensed when the completely equalized prestige of the re¬

lated elements has once been recognized. “And” apparently has

lapsed into the rank of a mere group-sign. Somewhat similarly

the plural ending s , which might mean “two or more”, is opera¬

tive rather as a rudder than as the expression of an added mean¬

ing. “Pears” instead of “pear” should steer me to the many

from one, somewhat as the capital in “Jimmy” steers me from

the burglar’s implement. We do not seem to think the capital

or the a. Each one of them appears to function rather as a

guide-board than as part of the mental road traversed. We

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

merely recognize that we are in the one case to think of a man

and not a tool, and in the other of more than a single pear.

The difference between a group, as the word has been em¬

ployed, and a plural, should perhaps be emphasized, as it ap¬

pears to be the raison dyetre of the “and”. A “plural” must be

homogeneous; in actual practice our linguistic “groups” are

not. One may indeed amuse himself with forming homogeneous

groups, e.g. “an apple and another apple” ; but construction of

this sort is surely limited. The group exhibited for instance by

“a pear and an apple” is formed because one can’t induce them

to become a plural — or say two — of either kind : they aren’t

two anything, unless you choose a less specific kind, for instance

“fruits”, that will admit them both — a plural or a pair, in

which however they must sink their differences — be no longer

differentiated as a pear and an apple.

As a rule the thought-connectives and group-formers fail to

be distinguished by grammarians, although they operate by

different methods. Thus, in a list with the group-forming “and”,

I find both “too” and “also”. But, in, e.g.,

pears also apples,

the mental operation seems to be that registered by

pears, in addition thereto apples ;

that is, “pears” this time appear to be withdrawing from the

mental stage, and therefore to require a recall, as was the case

with “and” employed as a thought-connective — rather a judg¬

ment-connective — operating by incorporation. Leastwise this

much seems to be assured : the “also” has not yet acquired the

ability of “and” to group the apples with the pears on equal

terms ; they make their appearance as a supplement, an after¬

thought or side-thought, as suggested by the usual punctuation,

which appears in

pears, also apples.

It would seem then that the “also”, commonly a thought-con¬

nective, should be ranked in this case too as a “connective”,

though it this time operates upon ideas, not thoughts.

Similarly

pears, apples too

exhibits apples as a supplement, and emphasizes this by the

position of the “too”.

Owen — Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction . 217

The initial stages of development along the lines described

might be regarded as illustrated by

“He is good friends with me”,

a popular substitute for, a variant of,

He and I are good friends,

which might be ranked as a mere distortion of

He with me are good friends,

the choice of “is” instead of “are” resulting from preponderat¬

ing influence of “He” in the absence of the belated “me”. The

He with me

would then be a mere duplicate of

He and I,

both phrases meaning at the outset He plus I — the former

paraphrasable by

He in addition to me ;

the latter by

He, in addition I.

It is however possible — perhaps more probable — that the

quotation is a modified expression of what at first was differ¬

ently formed in mind — expressible by

He is a friend to (or friendly with) me,

from which an ordinary swerving, mental or expressional,

would lead to ’

He is a friend with me:

Now the quotation presupposes careless thinking, which may

well have been befuddled by the coming “me”, presumably in

mind from start to finish. This “me” with “He” suggests the

plural “friends”, intensified by “good”, but obviously untenable

as before with “He is”.

To throw a little further light on group-formation, another

illustration has just arrived :

“Modern warfare with aircraft and submarines

have made Gibraltars more and more obsolete.”

In this it may be that the growing journalistic tendency to

make the verb agree in number with the noun last mentioned,

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

is alone to be reckoned with; or “warfare with aircraft” may

be meant as the equivalent of aerial fighting. But as other

similar, unambiguous illustrations not recorded or remembered

have exhibited analogous group-formation, I elect the meaning

registered by

Modern warfare, (together) with aircraft etc.

in which the “modern warfare” indicates the general change in

military strategy. Accordingly the grouping is accomplished

by two different processes: an “and”, in the usual manner,

forms an aircraft-submarine group; this group is then, by

means of “with”, made member of the supergroup expressible

by warfare plus aircraft-submarines, which properly is followed

by the plural verb-form. The illustration parallels accordingly

the

“He is good friends with me” (of p. 217) .

except that in the present case the group-formation is distinctly

indicated by the plural verb-form.

That the intention of an “and” group is to put its members

on an equal footing is suggested by

Both pears and apples,

in which “both” insists as much on the admission of one mem¬

ber as on that of the other.

A similar result is reached by repetition of the Anglo-saxon

alternate of “and” in

ge . ge,

and in the Latin equivalent

et . et,

the operation finding an analogue in Spanish use of the inter¬

rogation point before, as well as after, a question.

The misplacement of the “and”-equivalent in

“Integer vitae, scelerisque purus”

is almost as obvious as it would be in

“Senatus populus Romanusque”;

for the poet’s purpose was presumably to “join” “integer” and

“purus”.

Among “conjunctions” “that” is entered in some lists, and in

Owen— Adverb, Preposition and Conjunction .

219

two different functions, thus, imprimis as declared to be illus¬

trated by

“I heard that the Greeks had been defeated by the Turks”,

though my authority explains this sentence by

“The Greeks had defeated the Turks, I heard that”,

which admirably indicates the meaning of the alleged conjunc¬

tion. As for its in any sense conjunctive function, many have

expressed their doubts.

It seems to me beyond debate that this “conjunction” is a

substantive, demonstrative, in the accusative (objective case) ;

that what comes after operates together also as a substantive ;

and that the latter was presumably at first distinctly felt to

be in apposition with the former — or to be, in other words, a

definite exhibiter of what indefinitely was prefigured or fore¬

run by “that.”

Presumably however “that” in time became no more than a

sign that what was further to be said should be accepted as, in

function, substantive — a sign that helps exact interpretation,

though not often necessary, and quite often not employed.

The effectiveness of such a sign is based upon the very ele¬

mentary principle that any word that needs another word or

phrase to help it is a sign that one is coming: “that” alone is

inefficient and requires an efficiently explanatory supplement

which in the syntax naturally operates (as a “part of speech”)

like that which it explains; such elaborate explanation as is

offered in e.g.

I heard that, by which I mean the Greeks, etc.

is possible, but hardly plausible. The game isn’t worth the

candle.

“That” in the other function is declared to be illustrated in

“These things I have said that ye might be saved”,

in which the alleged conjunction further is declared to mean

“in order that” — or, say, to be an equivalent of Latin “ut” —

“which nobody would deny”. Once more then “that” is a demon¬

strative and substantive, but this time dative, as appears in the

Anglo-saxon “to tham that”— in English “for this (purpose)

that”.

How an indefinite substantive, succeeded by a definite-mak-

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing clause, can be conceived in either cited case as having join¬

ing power, let the authors of the strange conception tell. As

well rank “this” as a conjunction in

“I tell you this; you cannot gather figs (grapes )from thistles,”

in which whatever joining be done, is done as well without the

help of “this” as with it. Further compare

I must say one thing: I am hungry,

etc., etc.

The well-known lapse of words from the expression of ideas

( j udgment-f actors ) into operation as mere signs of functions

in a j udgment-f orming, is apparent in e.g.

“I want to be an angel”,

in which “to”, as often also “zu” and “de” or “a ”, is operative

merely like a substantive derivative ending, as in “perte” from

“perdre”.

In “das Geben”, the article does equal service — or, without

the article - — the initial capital itself. Analogously in

My striving was in vain

the adjective “my”, although retaining all its meaning, is a

sign that “striving” must be taken substantively, while in

Striving with all my might I failed

the striving obviously is a (verbal) adjective, or “participle”,

adjunct of the “I”.

In the illustration given, plainly “this”, “thing”, “to”, etc.,

“das” and “my” confirm the principle announced with “that”

— to wit : a word that needs a supplement or follower is sign

that one is coming.

Now and then the question arises, “On what does the con¬

junction operate ?”. Given

“It will be regarded and rightly as a menace”

the question rises : what does the conjunctive “and” conjoin?

I seem to recollect an effort to explain expressions of this

sort by, e.g.,

It will be regarded . . . and it will be rightly regarded . . .

But the explanation hardly seems to explain. The variant

Owen — Adverb , Preposition and Conjunction .

221

It will be regarded . . . and the regarding will be right

is hardly more explanatory, but suggests an explanation pos¬

sibly more tenable. For it distinctly hints that the regarding is

conceived as having more than the single attribute expressed by

“right”. Perhaps this attribute is part of what is meant by

“It will be regarded”. Taking inventory seems to be in order.

“It will be regarded”, naming a particular action, obviously

exhibits it as passive, future, posed as actual (compare “will

be” and “will not be”) and as believed by me to be true (com¬

pare “will be” and uto be”). Of all these meaning-elements the

truth or actuality of the regarding, it seems to me, is what is

joined with rightness, as appears in the reorganized equivalent.

The regarding (of it) as a menace will be actual and right.

The imaginable

“It will not be regarded, and rightly”

seems to offer greater difficulty, and perhaps to contradict the

offered explanation. But the case impresses me as merely one

of what may be conceived as an infinitive not split, which ought

to be split.

It will be not regarded and rightly

expresses readily enough the actuality and rightness of a not-

regarding.

It would seem then that the conjunction, so far as it claims a

special power, belongs with the Gyascuticus and Hippogriff ; or,

as the astonished beholder of a camel (or may-be it was a gi¬

raffe) exclaimed: “There ain't no such animile!”

NOTE ON THE EVALUATION OF A SERIES

C. M. Jansky

University of Wisconsin

In the study of the influence of higher harmonics on the

indication of an electrodynamometer type of wattmeter the fol-

111

lowing series occurred: 1+ — 4- — -f — , etc. The question

9 25 49,

naturally arises, what is the sum of such a converging series?

The equation for a rectangular e.m.f. wave is

1 1

e — E sin wt+ — E sin 3wt+ — E sin 5<*>t4- etc. to infinity.

3 5

In this expression E is the maximum value of the fundamental

of the harmonic series and e is the instantaneous value of the

e.m.f. wave. The maximum value of e in terms of E is obtained

t r

by substituting — for <ot. When this is done

2

1111

e max. — E (1 - + - 4- - etc.)

3 5 7 9

—1 111

But @ = tan x — x - x3 4- — x5 - x7 4- etc.

3 5 7

7 r

and when 0 = — , x =1.

4

7T 111

Hence — — 1 - 4- - etc.

4 3 5 7

7 T

and e max. = — E.

4

If an e.m.f. wave of the form

1 1

e = E sin wt 4- — E sin 3wt 4- — E sin 5<ot 4- etc.

3 5

and a current wave of the form

1 1

i = I sin <A 4- — I sin 3wt 4- — I sin 5wt 4- etc.

3 5

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

be passed through an electrodynamometer type wattmeter, it is

well known that the average deflection or torque is the result of

the interaction of the e.m.f and current harmonics of the same

frequency. The power indicated by the wattmeter is then given

by the expression

1 1

P = average El [sin2 wt + — sin2 3wt + — sin25a>t 4- etc.]

9 25

El 111

= —[1 +—+—+—+ etc.]

2 9 25 49

But if the two waves are rectangular, then

7T 7T 7 T2

P = e i = — E . — I = —El.

max max 4 4 16

7T2 El 11

Hence — El = — [1 -f- — + — + etc.]

16 2 9 25

7T2 111

and — = 1 4~ — + — ~\~ - — + etc.

8 9 25 47

By exactly a similar process of analysis, it can be shown that

7T4 111

— = 1 + — + — + — , etc.

96 34 54 74

THE SULFUR MONOCHLORIDE REACTION OF FATTY

OILS. II. ON THE NATURE OF THE REACTION

PRODUCT*

Ellery H. Harvey and H. A. Schuette

Contribution from the Laboratory of Foods and Sanitation , Department

of Chemistry , University of Wisconsin

When sulfur monochloride reacts with the saponifiable oils the

accompanying phenomena which are obvious to the casual ob¬

server are (1) the liberation of a gaseous by-product, hydrogen

chloride, (2) an appreciable heat of reaction and, (3) if the

concentration of the former is sufficiently high, solidification of

the reaction mixture. The last two observations have served

as points of departure for practically all of the research in this

field. Around one was developed an analytical procedure (1),

now discarded, for the identification of fatty oils, whereas the

other assumed some technical importance in that it is funda¬

mental to an industry producing substances superficially re¬

sembling rubber and known as white factice or rubber surro¬

gate. Historically the latter was developed first.

The discovery of the reaction between certain of the fatty

oils and sulfur chloride* 1 by which the former are converted

into white factice, seems to have been accidental. Conflicting

claims for priority (2) disclosed the announcement by Nickles

(2c) that he, in attempting to seal with olive oil the stopper of

a bottle containing sulfur chloride, had observed (3) 2 the form¬

ation of this substance wherever the vapors of the former had

come in contact with the oil, and that Rochleder (4) had also

* Presented in abstract under the subtitle “On the Nature of the Reaction

Product” before the Division of Agricultural and Pood Chemistry of the American

Chemical Society, Cincinnati meeting, Sept. 8-12, 1930.

1 This name is here used in this form because the authors in question did not

describe the compound which served them in the reaction. Since the words Chlor-

schwefel and chlorure de soufre were in vogue during this period as descriptive

of the monochloride, it is not improbable that this compound of sulfur is the rele¬

vant one.

2 This statement is unaccompanied by any supporting literature citation except

as herein reproduced. We have been unable to verify it.

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

called attention to this peculiar reaction. Parkes, to whom in¬

dustry owes the process of the so-called “cold” vulcanization (5)

of rubber, before that discovery was announced had made ob¬

servations (5a) which apparently were substantially the same

as those of his predecessors.

The earlier work in this field was largely descriptive and

qualitative in nature. Nothing on the mechanism of this reac¬

tion appeared for approximately forty years. It was then that

the view (6) was expressed that there are formed in this re¬

action glyceryl esters of sulfo-chlor mated acids, compounds

from which the chlorine may again be readily recovered, but

not so the sulfur. Such a conception of this reaction postulates

that sulfur monochloride has a symmetrical structure and that

two molecules of a glyceride combine with three of the former

to the end that an addition compound (7) results after the

manner of the reactions of the olefins (8). Henriques (9),

relying upon the iodine number as indicative of the degree of

unsaturation of white factice, concluded that this substance is

the result of a simple addition reaction. Data obtained in this

Laboratory by another method of approach suggest that the

mechanism of this reaction is more involved than the foregoing

statement implies.

Experimental

Attempts were made to treat 100 g. of fatty oil at room tem¬

perature (20-22°) with S2C12 (d25 1.67328; b.p.28m m< 41°) in an

amount just sufficient to form a pulverulent, dry, non-sticky

mass. Eleven groups of authentic oils, represented by nineteen

members whose degree of unsaturation classified them as either

drying, semi-drying or non-drying, were used.

Five oils in the list — beef tallow, palm, neatsfoot, cocoanut

and sperm — did not yield solid products even with the high

concentrations of S2C12 indicated. The experiment with soy

bean oil was abandoned after the addition of 16 cc. S2C12 failed

to produce a reaction product suitable for further observation.

The resulting products from six of this number were then ex¬

hausted with chloroform under conditions which admitted of a

quantitative determination of the soluble material (free sulfur,

unaltered fatty oil constituents, etc.) and the insoluble, or true

factice (Table II).

Harvey and Schuette — Sulfur Monochloride Reaction . II. 227

Table I. Minimum Volume of Sulfur Monochloride Required to Convert

One Hundred Grams of Fatty Oil into a Solid Reaction Product.

* Reaction product with indicated volume of S2CI2 is a liquid.

Table II. Analyses of Factice

*Based on weight of crude product.

The sulfur and chlorine (10) contents of each factice were de¬

termined by the usual methods with the aid of the Parr bomb.

Discussion

If one assumes that the ethylene linkages in two moles (7)

of oleic acid react with one mole of sulfur monochloride in the

formation of an addition product, it is possible to assign to this

acid a theoretical “sulfur monochloride absorption number”

of 23.9.3 From this it follows that one-hundred g. of the dry

acid should absorb approximately fourteen cc. of sulfur mono¬

chloride (d25 1.67328) without the evolution of hydrogen chlor-

s This expression is used here in a sense analogous to the iodine absorption

number. It is calculated from theoretical considerations.

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ide, an inevitable concomitant of substitution. Yet, in an at¬

tempt to measure under closely guarded conditions at what

point, if any, addition is completed and substitution begins, it

has been demonstrated (11) that hydrogen chloride is split off

with much smaller concentrations than this of sulfur mono¬

chloride. The closest analogy to this reaction is that with the

glycerides of oleic and like acids which for practical purposes

simulate the fatty oils. It appears that there is a much greater

tendency for substitution by chlorine than by iodine, a situation

which renders difficult, if not impossible, a successful correla¬

tion of iodine absorption and sulfur monochloride values.

Further sustantiation of this observation may be found in

the anomalous behavior (Table I) of the several groups of oils

whose members bear some resemblance to each other in their

physical properties or chemical natures. Here may be found

oils of either low or intermediate capacity for the absorption

of iodine aligning themselves with the so-called drying oils in

their reactivity with sulfur monochloride and others of the

former type yielding no factice even with twice as much of this

reagent.

Further evidence for the statement that white factice is not

the result alone of the interaction of sulfur monochloride and

the glycerides of the unsaturated acids in a fatty oil and that

substitution is an attendant phenomenon may be found on mak¬

ing an analysis of this product. Reliance had been placed (9)

m the past upon the iodine number as indicative of the degree

of unsaturation of factice. Observations (11) made in this Lab¬

oratory suggest that the determination of this “constant” can¬

not be satisfactorily made on factice, and particularly so on one

containing some sulfur monochloride which, in the light of

thermal measurements, an evolution of hydrogen chloride and

precipitation of sulfur, has been found to be reactive with the

components of either the Wijs or the Hanus iodine solutions

(12). It was found on analysis (Table II) that, with but one

exception, all of the sulfur which had been added in the form

of its monochloride had entered into combination with the fatty

oil but that the amount of chlorine bound in the molecule is less

than the theoretical quantity added. The premise that the

mechanism of this reaction rests upon addition alone requires

that all of the chlorine should be accounted for as was the sulfur

Harvey and Schuette — Sulfur Monochloride Reaction . II. 229

and that the theoretical values for the sulfur and chlorine con¬

tent of the factice should be in the ratio 32 : 35.5 (S : Cl) or

1 : 1.11. This, however, is not the case. A part of the chlor¬

ine has escaped as hydrogen chloride. Substitution of chlorine

apparently cannot be avoided because of the accompanying rise

in temperature brought about by the conditions under which

factice is produced. It is not improbable that addition of the

former to the unsaturated linkages of the compounds in a fatty

oil will take place at low temperatures (7a), but whether a

factice will form under these conditions is problematical.

Summary

In an attempt to learn something of the mechanism of the re¬

action whereby a solid product is formed in the interaction of

sulfur monochloride and fatty oils, evidence has been found

which seems to point to the observation that the former is not

the result alone of a simple addition process but that substitu¬

tion is a concomitant phenomenon. The complex chemical na¬

ture of the fatty oils does not, in the light of present informa¬

tion, permit of a more definite picture of this reaction than is

herein described.

Literature Cited

1. Fawsitt, J. Soc. Ghent. Ind ., 7, 552 (1888); Harvey and Schuette,

Ind. Eng. Ghent. Anal. Ed., 2, 42 (1930).

2. Roussin, Gompt. rend., 47, 877 (1858); (b) Perra, ibid, 878; (c)

Nickles, ibid., 972.

3. Nickles, Revue sclent, indust. Quesneville, (1849).

4. Rochleder, Polytechn. Notizbl., 3, 304 (1848); Dingier' s polytech , J.,

Ill, 159 (1849) ; Bull, ntusee V indust. Belg., 1849, 256.

5. Parkes, British Patents 2359, Oct. 22, 1855; (b) 11,147, Sept. 25, 1846.

6. Ulzer and Horn, Mitt, technolog. Gewerbentus. Wien, Sect. II, 1890,

43; Z. Angew. Ghent., 4, 693 (1890).

7. Weber, Z. angew. Ghent., 1894, 112; (a) Ditmar, Z. angew. Ghent., 27

I, 538 (1914).

8. Guthrie, Quart. J. Ghent. Soc., 12, 109 (1860).

9. Henriques, Chem.-Ztg., 17, 634 (1893).

10. Lemp and Broderson, J. Ant. Ghent. Soc., 39, 2069 (1917).

11. Harvey, E. H., Unpublished data forming part of doctor’s dissertation,

University of Wisconsin, 1926.

12. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, “Methods of Analysis”,

Washington, D. C., 1925, 2d ed., pp. 286-8.

THE SULFUR MONOCHLORIDE REACTION OF FATTY

OILS. III. A NOTE ON THE THERMAL BEHAVIOR

OF THEIR FATTY ACIDS.

Ellery H. Harvey and H. A. Schuette

Contribution from the Laboratory of Foods and Sanitation , Department

of Chemistry , University of Wisconsin

Lewkowitsch (1) once reported that there is a remarkable

difference in the action of sulfur monochloride on fatty oils on

the one hand, and on their mixed fatty acids on the other. He

observed that oils are quickly acted upon by this reagent with

the formation of a solid product, whereas their fatty acids re¬

spond more slowly yielding semi-solid viscous products. Sup¬

porting data are not presented nor is his modus operandi de¬

scribed. Because of these observations the question arose

whether marked differences would also be apparent in the

thermal effect accompanying this reaction when it is retarded

by the presence of a diluent.

Apparatus , Materials and Procedure . The reaction flask

consisted of a silvered 300-cc. Dewar flask 55 mm. in diameter

and 160 mm. in height. A flanged Bakelite cap, drilled to ac¬

commodate a motor-driven stirrer, a thermometer and a pipet,

respectively, served as a cover. The whole system was packed in

kieselguhr.

The thirteen fatty oils used in this study were pure in the

sense that they comformed in name to that for which sold, a

fact experimentally verified. Their mixed fatty acids were iso¬

lated by the procedure recommended by the Association of

Official Agricultural Chemists (2) as part of the determination

of the titer test. The sulfur monochloride was purified from a

commercial sample as previously described (3).

The rise in temperature brought about by the action of the

sulfur monochloride on the fatty oil or its acids was measured

under the following conditions : 25 g. of the material under ex¬

amination and a like amount of pure, dry xylene were weighed

into the calorimeter, 1 cc. of the reagent at the same tempera-

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

ture as the former was quickly introduced (15 sec.), the stirrer

was started and the maximum temperature rise and the time

required to reach this point noted. Correction (4) was made

for radiation losses from the surface of the liquid.

Results

Data obtained in this study are presented in the following

table. They are recorded in the order of ascending iodine num¬

bers of the fatty oils under investigation.

Table I. Comparison of Thermal Rise of Xylene Solutions of Fatty Oils

and their Insoluble Acids when Treated with 1 cc. of Sulfur Monochloride

It is of interest to note that the thermal behavior of the fatty

oils and their fatty acids was found to be reversed with respect

to the reaction which Lewkowitsch studied. When viewed in

the light of the time required to reach the maximum point of

temperature rise, it appears that the action of sulfur mono¬

chloride upon the fatty acids is more energetic than upon the

parent oil itself. This condition is also pertinent to the rise of

temperature per minute.

Literature Cited

1. Lewkowitsch, “Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and

Waxes”, Macmillan Co., London, 1921, 6 ed., Vol. I., p. 475.

2. A. 0. A. C., “Methods of Analysis”, Washington, 1925, 2 ed., p. 286.

3. Harvey and Schuette, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 48, 2065 (1926).

4. Harvey and Schuette, Ibid., 50, 2838 (1928).

THE SULFUR MONOCHLORIDE REACTION OF FATTY

OILS. IV. ON THE EVOLUTION OF HYDROGEN

CHLORIDE.

Ellery H. Harvey and H. A. Schuette

Contribution from the Laboratory of Foods and Sanitation, Department

of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin

In attempting to adapt the exothermal feature of the sulfur

monochloride-fatty oil reaction to the identification of the lat¬

ter, Fawsitt (1) observed that hydrogen chloride was evolved

more or less copiously. The results which he noted in a qual¬

itative way led him to state in substance that the action of this

reagent on those oils which bear some similarity to each other

with respect to physical properties and chemical natures ap¬

parently follows no rule in that some caused the liberation of a

large volume of gas whereas others produced none at all; nor

did there appear to be much, if any, regularity in the nature of

the reaction product or the thermal effect accompanying its

formation.

The evident desirability of verifying these observations

quantitatively prompted us to re-investigate this phase of the

reaction. This objective was approached by the development

of an analytical procedure resting upon the use of highly puri¬

fied sulfur monochloride, thoroughly dried fatty oils, a rela¬

tively inert solvent, and a suitable gas-evolution apparatus.

Chloroform was adopted for use as solvent after it had been

experimently demonstrated that it is superior in this reaction

to carbon tetrachloride and to xylene.

In the course of this work the need arose for an expression

which will briefly describe the measurements which are herein

recorded. Following the practice which obtains in fatty oil

chemistry, where the use of the words “number” or “value” is

in vogue, the expression “hydrogen chloride value” was adopt¬

ed. Wherever used throughout this communication it means the

number of cubic centimeters of tenth-normal alkali solution re¬

quired to neutralize the hydrochloric acid evolved in one hour by

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

the action of one cubic centimeter of pure sulfur monochloride

on twenty-five grams of dry fatty oil or wax dissolved in a like

quantity of dry chloroform.

Experimental

Materials. For experimental material there were selected

twenty-four fatty oils representative of ten groups in the classi¬

fication of Mitchell (2). Their purity in the sense that they

conformed in name to that for which they were sold, was expe-

rementally verified. They were thoroughly dehydrated by heat¬

ing them in a high vacuum over phosphorus pentoxide. The

chloroform was dried over fused calcium chloride and re-dis-

tilled while the sulfur monochloride was purified after the

manner of Pope (3) by distillation in the presence of sulfur

and highly absorbent charcoal. Its physical properties have

been described elsewhere by us (4).

Apparatus. The apparatus which served in this study was a

combination of aspirator and reaction flask. The latter con¬

sisted of a stoppered, opaque glass chamber, 50 x 150 mm. in

dimension. It was provided with an inlet tube reaching almost

to the surface of the reaction mixture, a mercury-sealed me¬

chanical stirrer, a burette, and an orifice for sucking out the

gaseous by-products. The inlet tube was in direct union with a

drying train comprising in turn, two wash bottles — one for

sodium hydroxide solution, the other for sulfuric acid — a dry¬

ing tower filled with phosphorous pentoxide, and a third wash

bottle containing dry chloroform, the object of which was to

saturate the incoming air with this solvent before it entered the

reaction chamber. By means of the outlet tube the mixture of

air and gaseous reaction products was first led through chloro¬

form for the purpose of absorbing any sulfur monochloride

vapors which might have passed over with the gas stream, and

then absorbed in a measured volume of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide

solution contained in a wash bottle. Between the latter and the

aspirator pump was interposed a flow meter for measuring the

rate at which air was being drawn through the system.

Method. Exactly 25 g. of the dry, filtered fatty oil and a like

quantity of anhydrous CHC13 were weighed into the reaction

chamber which was then sealed into the aspirator train and set

into a thermostat at 25°C. Thereupon the air current was ad¬

justed so that 665 cc. passed through the system per minute,

Harvey and Schuette — Sulfur Monochloride Reaction. IV. 235

the stirrer was started and finally 1 cc. of S2C12 (d25, 1.67328)

was introduced through the burette.

The reaction was interrupted at the end of one hour after

which the volume of hydrogen chloride which had been evolved

during this time was determined by titration. That the gas in

question was actually hydrogen chloride was verified by gravi¬

metric analysis.

The reaction pertinent to this communication was studied

from the standpoint of (1) a general survey of the behavior of

fatty oils under a standardized procedure as outlined above,

(2) the effect of light upon the rate of evolution of hydrogen

chloride, and (3) the probable application of this reaction to

the analysis of mixtures of oils.

Table I. Hydrogen Chloride Values of Fatty Oils

*Hodgman and Lange, “Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, Chemical

Rubber Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1930, 5 ed. p. 472.

t Value taken from Grim and Halden, “Analyse der Fette u. Wachse”,

Julius Springer, Berlin, 1929, Vol. II, p. 151.

Results

General survey. The study of the evolution of hydrogen

chloride, as defined by the method herein employed for its de-

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

termination, brought out some interesting though inconsistent,

relationships. The data (Table I) pertinent thereto admit, in

substance, of no more definite conclusions than were drawn as a

result of our repetition of Fawsitt’s thermometric experiments

(5) during the course of which some fundamental improvements

in technique were introduced.

If the ethylene linkages, or other sources of unsaturation,

were alone concerned in the sulfur monochloride-fatty oil re¬

action, evidence for this would be reflected in the data obtained

in that the relation between iodine numbers and hydrogen

chloride values would in any series be an inverse one. This

condition, however, is not markedly noticeable in the group of

oils here under investigation. The volume of hydrogen chloride

evolved is evidently not a true measure of substitution nor yet

of addition. It appears that both reactions take place concur¬

rently, the drying oils, tung and linseed, with zero values being,

in this instance, an exception.

The non-drying vegetable oils, castor, olive, peanut, almond

and rapeseed, although representing only an eighteen point dif¬

ference in iodine numbers, show no general concordance in hy¬

drogen chloride values. The reactivity of sulfur monochloride

with sterols and other forms of hydroxylated compounds known

to exist in fatty oils, makes unique the comparatively low hy¬

drogen chloride value of 5.3 for castor oil, with an acetyl num¬

ber lying between 146 and 150, in comparison with that of 8.5

for rapeseed oil which has an acetyl number of only one-tenth as

much. A better agreement lies in the semi-drying group, repre¬

sented in this study by sesame, cottonseed, strammonium, corn

and soy bean oils. Here corn oil is the exception, a condition

which can probably be traced to its sterol content. The veget¬

able fats, cocoanut oil, cocoa butter, and palm oil show a de¬

creasing hydrogen chloride value with an increasing iodine

number, yet lard proves the exception in the animal fat group

which comprises here, in addition to it, butter fat and beef tal¬

low. The fish and marine animal oils, whale, menhaden and

cod liver, whose iodine numbers are of the order of magnitude

of the drying oils, show in distinction from them unusually

high hydrogen chloride values. There are without doubt other

reactive groups in these oils which tend to increase this “value”.

Effect of light . The knowledge that some chemical reactions

Harvey and Schuette — Sulfur Monochloride Reaction . IV. 237

are catalyzed by light and that addition reactions in halogens

are frequently best controlled in the absense of sunlight

prompted a brief study of the photochemical effect of the ac¬

tinic rays of the sun in this instance. The reaction chamber

Fig. 1. Effect of sunlight in promoting substitution in the action of

sulfur monochloride on cottonseed oil. The ordinates represent volume of

hydrogen chloride evolved in cc. 0.1 N alkali equivalent. The abscissae

represent time in minutes.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

was immersed in the thermostat while direct sunlight was al¬

lowed to play on the surface of the reaction mixture within.

The absorption chain was divided into two lines in such a way

that one-half could be cut out without interrupting the hydro¬

gen chloride-laden air stream. This device made possible the

determination of the amount of hydrogen chloride which had

been evolved at the end of any given time interval.

The necessity for excluding light from the reaction chamber

as a means for reducing the tendency for substitution is illus¬

trated (Figure 1) by a typical case in which the hydrogen

chloride value of cottonseed oil was determined under the fore¬

going conditions. Readings were taken at ten-minute intervals.

Application to fatty oil mixtures , The possibility of applying

the determination of this value to the analysis of mixtures of

fatty oils, thereby aiding in the detection of adulteration, was

Table II. Hydrogen Chloride Values of Fatty Oil Mixtures.

given some consideration. Three synthetic mixtures of olive oil

with cottonseed, corn and sesame oils, respectively, were made

in the proportion of equal parts by weight of each. The hydro¬

gen chlorides (Table II) were not found to be additive. Ap¬

proximately one-half of the calculated amount of hydrogen

chloride was liberated. It is obvious that the measurement, as

herein defined, of the quantity of hydrogen chloride evolved by

a mixture of fatty oils has little if any diagnostic significance.

Summary

During the reaction between sulfur monochloride and fatty

oils there is an evolution of hydrogen chloride. In an attempt

at a quantitative determination of this gas by means of a stand¬

ardized technique which gave rise to a so-called “value”, itself

defined by the method of procedure, there were obtained data

which bear little, if any, relation either to iodine numbers or to

acetyl values. The non-specificity of sulfur monochloride for

the unsaturated linkage is the apparent cause of the anomalous

behavior of this reagent with the fatty oils. Absence of sun-

Harvey and Schuette — Sulfur Monochloride Reaction . IV. 239

light retards, but does not prevent, substitution from proceed¬

ing concurrently with addition.

Literature Cited

1. Fawsitt, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 7, 552 (1888).

2. Allen, “Commercial Organic Analysis”, Blakiston, Philadelphia, 1924,

5th ed., Vol. II, pp. 109-113.

3. Pope, J. Chem. Soc., 119, 634 (1921).

4. Harvey and Schuette, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 48, 2065 (1926).

5. Harvey and Schuette, Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed., 2, 42 (1930).

MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF ERYSIPHE AGGREGATA

ON ALNUS INCANA

Erna A. Wentzel

The powdery mildews offer especially favorable material for

the study of the development of the perithecium. The follow¬

ing study was undertaken for the purpose of extending our

knowledge of the group by an account of the development of the

ascocarp and spore formation in the genus Erysiphe.

Review of Literature

The structure of the ascocarp and the stages in its develop¬

ment have been fairly well understood since the time of De

Bary (1863) and the main points of his conclusions have been

many times confirmed.

In his investigation of Sphaerotheca castagnei De Bary

(1863) found that at the crossing point of two hyphae, or at

the place where two neighboring hyphae touch, each hypha

develops a small upright branch which is soon cut off by a sep¬

tum from the parent hypha. One of these branches swells to an

oval-oblong shape and becomes the oogonium. The other length¬

ens slightly and applies itself closely to the side of the oogon¬

ium, curving above it so that its end lies on the apex. The upper

part is then cut off by a septum and forms the antheridium.

De Bary observed no breaking down of the wall between

the antheridium and oogonium and so supposed that no con¬

jugation took place; nevertheless he considered that these or¬

gans represented a true sexual apparatus and that the perithe¬

cium subsequently formed was to be regarded as the result of

a sexual act. This last conclusion has been verified by the works

of Harper and others.

Harper (1895) described the sexual apparatus for Sphaero-

theca castagnei , Phyllaetinia corylea, Erysiphe communis, and

E. cichoracearum, and found them to arise in general in the

same manner. He observed that the sexual apparatus is formed

where two hyphae cross or lie close beside each other, thus the

oogonium and antheridium arise as lateral branches from sep¬

arate hyphae.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

He also found that the oogonial and antheridial branches

seem to arise simultaneously, becoming closely applied to each

other and spirally twisted. The oogonium which is thicker and

heavier from the beginning grows in length more rapidly than

the antherid around which it bends. There is no evidence of

any special differentiation in the cell from which the oogonium

arises. The first division of the nucleus of the hyphal cell fur¬

nishes one daughter nucleus for the gamete and the other for

the cell of the mother hypha (stalk cell).

The antheridial branch arises in the same fashion as the

oogonium, but is more slender from the beginning. The unequal

tendency to spiral twisting in the sexual branches, together

with their unequal size, produces a structure whose appearance

varies considerably. When the antheridial branch is cut off

from the hyphal cell from which it arose, it contains a single

nucleus. This nucleus divides and a cell wall is formed between

the daughter nuclei, so that one becomes the nucleus of the

antheridial branch and the other remains in the hyphal cell be¬

low. The nucleus of the antheridial branch now divides and

one of the daughter nuclei migrates into the tip of the branch.

The tip is then cut off by a cross wall and becomes the antheri¬

dial cell.

According to Harper (1895, 1905) fertilization occurs in

Phyllactinia, Sphaerotheca, and Erysiphe in practically the

same manner. He observed that the antheridium is closely

pressed upon the oogonium, a little to one side of and generally

above the apex of the latter. Their walls in the region of con¬

tact are flattened against each other and become closely united.

A portion of the walls between the antheridium and oogonium

is now dissolved in such a fashion as to form a circular con-

ugation-pore leading from the antheridium to the oogonium.

The protoplasts of the two cells which are brought into direct

contact combine to form a continuous protoplasmic mass. The

nucleus of the antheridium migrates through the conjugation-

pore into the oogonium and approaches the egg nucleus. The

male nucleus at this stage is somewhat smaller than the egg

nucleus. Harper observed that the male nucleus moves past the

egg nucleus until it appears on the side farthest from the an¬

theridium. The two pronuclei soon come to lie side by side in

the oogonium and are readily distinguished by their difference

in size.

Wentzel — Studies on Erysiphe aggregata. 243

Further observation showed Harper that the entire contents

of the antheridial cell does not enter the oogonium. The male

nucleus apparently leaves the most, if not all, of its cytoplasm

behind when it enters the egg.

The conjugation-pore leading from the antheridium into the

egg cell is closed very soon after the passage of the male nu¬

cleus. After the fusion-pore is closed there is considerable

material in the antheridium that degenerates into a dense struc¬

tureless mass.

The fusion of the pronuclei occurs in the center of the oogon¬

ium and perithecial development begins at once after fertiliza¬

tion. The enveloping hyphae push out from the stalk cells and

grow up around the oogonium and antheridium, applying them¬

selves closely to their surface and following an irregular path,

owing to the slight spiral twisting of the oogonium.

Harper (1905) showed that the antheridial cell in Phyllac-

tinia becomes embedded in layers of the perithecium where

it ultimately gelatinizes and degenerates.

Hein (1927) found, in Sphaerotheca castagnei, that the an¬

theridium and its stalk cell become a permanent part of the

primary envelope, in which they may be readily distinguished

from the hyphal cells. In late stages the antherid and stalk

cell can not be identified with certainty.

When the primary layer has completely enclosed the asco-

gone, the stalk cell swells to a circular shape and a second series

of hyphae, internal to the first, grows up in a similar manner.

These hyphae appear to wedge their way between the ascogone

and the primary layer, as a result becoming somewhat pointed

at their ends. In pushing upward these hyphae force the outer

layer outward and away from the ascogone.

Later the hyphae of both series intertwine, completely grow¬

ing together and thus forming a pseudoparenchymatous tissue.

This name given by De Bary (1863) is one generally accepted.

De Bary described in some detail the formation of a pseudo¬

parenchymatous tissue in the development of perthecia in

Podosphaera tridactyla and Sphaerotheca castagnei .

According to Harper (1905) in his work on Phyllactinia, the

third layer begins to develop at a time when the curved asco¬

gone does not completely fill the perithecial wall. Its cells at

first push into the spaces around the ascogone and show no

tendency to tangential flattening. Later, when the ascus begins

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

to swell rapidly, they are pushed back so as to form a layer of

cells of fairly equal size and shape.

The cells of the two outer cortical layers of the perithecium

begin to show changes in their appearance. The cell walls be¬

come thickened and their contents slightly vacuolated. As the

cells grow tangentially they leave no intercellular spaces be¬

tween them. The hyphal cells adhere very closely and are in in¬

timate contact throughout. They form a strong limiting layer

against which the inner cells are flattened by the inflating asci.

Ultimately the ascus develops a high turgor pressure which

flattens the cells of the softer inner layer so that they become

quite thin.

These inner, radially growing cells of the perithecium retain

their protoplasmic content even to a very late stage, that is,

until the spores are completely developed. They are large and

rounded in the beginning and decrease in size with the growth

of the ascus. The natural suggestion is that they are “nurse-

cells” for the asci, such a condition being noted by Harper

(1895).

Late in the season the cells of the outer layer become greatly

flattened and lose their protoplasmic contents, the external ones

becoming dark brown and forming the outermost wall of the

perithecium.

The fertilized oogonium continues development at once. Har¬

per (1905) called the structure resulting from the growth

of the oogonium, the ascogonium. As it grows the ascogonium

elongates and increases in diameter. It tends constantly to

burst out of the enclosing hyphae, which by elongation and

branching again enclose and cover over its whole surface. As

the ascogonium increases in size, the fusion nucleus divides and

there is a binucleate stage, lasting until the complete enclosure

of the ascogonium by the enveloping hyphae. In Phyllactinia,

according to Harper’s observations (1905), cell division never

follows this first division of the egg nucleus. The ascogonium

remains one-celled and the nuclei continue to divide. He is not

certain how many nuclear divisions may precede cell division,

but, in the end, there is a row of from three to five cells. The

ascogonium in Phyllactina when mature is a single row of cells,

the penultimate one containing regularly more than one nucleus.

The next step in the development of the ascocarp consists

Wentzel — Studies on Erysiphe aggregate,. 245

in the formation of the ascogenous hyphae. These arise as

lateral branches from the ascogonium. These branches arise

relatively early in the development of the ascocarp in Phyllac-

tinia, at a time when the ascogonium is enclosed by only about

two layers of the perithecial cells. These ascogenous hyphae

overlap and intertwine with each other so as to cover the whole

upper part of the ascogonium. Thus it is difficult to trace a

particular branch to its point of origin.

The ascogenous hyphae in Phyllactinia, according to Harper

(1905), (in whole or in large part) arise from the penultimate

cell of the ascogonium. The cells that are to become asci con¬

tain two nuclei. The remaining cells of both the ascogonium

and ascogenous hyphae after cell division is complete are al¬

most without exception uninucleated.

The young ascus regularly contains two nuclei. The asci now

elongate rapidly in a vertical direction while the sterile cells

of the ascogenous hyphae, with which they are connected below,

undergo no further development. The asci occupy a central

position.

The two nuclei in the ascus fuse to form the primary ascus

nucleus. Then the ascus rapidly increases in size and thus flat¬

tens the inner layer of the perithecium. The primary nucleus

persists until the ascus has reached its full development.

In Sphaerotheca castagnei, as shown by Harper (1895),

where a single ascus is found, growth takes place as follows:

At about the time when the two primary layers of hyphae have

grown up from the stalk cell, the ascogonium begins to elongate

and nuclear division takes place, resulting in the formation of

a single, more or less curved, row of five to six cells. In the

penultimate cell of this row, two large nuclei are always pres¬

ent, while the other cells of the row contain a single nucleus

each. This penultimate cell is the ascus. It swells so that the

apical cell of the series is pushed aside and downwards and is

finally absorbed. As two nuclei fuse, the ascus increases rapidly

in size.

In an attempt to discredit the results of Harper's study on

Sphaerotheca, Dangeard (1897) investigated the same form

and published a paper with numerous illustrations. In his

paper he takes up two questions : 1. Does the ascocarp take its

origin from a sexual apparatus consisting of an antheridium

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

and an oogonium? 2. Are these sexual cells functional? Ac¬

cording to the work of Harper (1895; 1905) and that of De

Bary (1968) both of these questions are to be answered in the

affirmative.

As to the first question Dangeard’s figures are unmistake-

able. There is a sexual apparatus formed consisting of an

oogonium and an antheridium, which is the initial step in the

development of the ascocarp of Sphaerotheca. Wager (1899)

points out that Dangeard admits these facts, and that he re¬

peatedly uses the term antheridium in naming the structure

described as such by De Bary.

Dangeard agrees with De Bary that these male and female

cells arise from separate hyphae and he is inclined to the view

that the hyphae may come from separate mycelia. With the

establishment of the existence of an antheridium and oogonium

at the beginning of perithecial development, Dangeard’s own

doctrine is left entirely unsupported. In his entire paper on

Sphaerotheca Dangeard appears to be seeking to establish

his original proposition that the ascus functions as an oogon¬

ium, although the evidence of his observations is to the con¬

trary.

To the second question as to whether the sexual apparatus

described is functional, Dangeard replies in the negative. He

fails to find any evidence of a conjugation-pore between the

antheridium and oogonium. He claims to have examined so

much material that his failure to find a conjugation-pore must

be accepted as final and indisputable proof that it does not

exist.

In spite of this apparent certainty, however, Harper is quite

convinced that a more painstaking search and better methods

would have brought to light the stages in development that

Dangeard failed to find. De Bary attacked the problem with

essentially the same methods of preparation as were used by

Dangeard and failed at exactly the point at which Dangeard

failed, that is, in discovering the conjugation-pore between the

antheridium and oogonium.

Blackman and Fraser (1905), in their work on Sphaerotheca,

observed no cases where the antheridial cell was without a

nucleus while the oogonium was still unfertilized, nor any in¬

stances in which the antheridial cell still contained a nucleus

Wentzel — Studies on Erysiphe aggregata. 247

when the oogonium showed two nuclei ; neither did they observe

any instances of degeneration of the nucleus in the antheridial

cell.

Wager (1899) has pointed out the possibility that Dangeard

had a parthenogenetic form of Sphaerotheca, but Harper is not

inclined to accept this view. The latter is convinced that

Dangeard failed to find the fertilization stages because of his

methods of preparation.

Dangeard assumes that the nuclear fusions in the ascus are

much more easy to find than those in the oogonium. Harper

has found it just as easy to discover the conjugation-pore and

true sexual fusion of male and female nuclei in Sphaerotheca

as to find nuclear fusion in the ascus. Dangeard evidently con¬

siders the fact that the male nucleus is smaller than the egg

nucleus prior to the fusion, as evidence that the former is de¬

generating. He also regards it as an inconsistency in Harper’s

figures, that the male nucleus at the time of fusion with the egg

nucleus has become as large as the latter.

Harper found that the process of spore formation is espec¬

ially well shown in asci of Erysiphe cichoracearum. The pri¬

mary nucleus of the ascus increases in size and finally under¬

goes three successive divisions, giving rise to two, four, and

finally eight nuclei and thus providing the nuclei for the eight

ascospores which are subsequently formed.

According to Harper the polar aster from the third division

persists in all eight nuclei for some time, but is most conspic¬

uous in the case of the nuclei which are to be enclosed in spores.

A beak is next pushed or pulled out from the nucleus. The rays

become elongated during the process, and at the same time they

fold over and combine side by side to form a continuous broad,

umbrella-shaped membrane. The broad umbrella-shaped mem¬

brane gradually closes to form the ellipsoidal plasma membrane

of the spore. The whole spore body is cut out of the previously

undifferentiated cytoplasm of the ascus, by the formation of a

new plasma membrane derived from the fibers of the polar aster

and without the deposition of a cellular wall.

After the spore is completely enclosed, the remnant of fibers

disappears from the region of the central body. The nucleus

gradually regains its spherical or oval shape by drawing in the

beak-like prolongation.

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Thus there is the triple division of the ascus nucleus to form

eight nuclei and finally the formation of ascospores by the pro¬

cess of free cell formation.

M. C. Sands (1907) obtained similar results in work on

Microsphaera alni, a plant with which she did considerable

work on nuclear structure. She shows that in all stages of the

life cycle of Microsphaera the central body is a permanent

structure of the nucleus and is the point of attachment for the

chromatin.

In Phyllactinia, Harper (1905) gives a fairly continuous

account of the existence of the central body and the mainten¬

ance of its connection with the chromatin material through the

two nuclear fusions, which occur in the oogonium and in the

ascus. It is also noted through a series of divisions in the asco-

genous hyphae, the triple division in the ascus, and finally

through the formation of ascospores by free cell formation.

Materials and Methods

In the present investigation pistillate catkins of Alnus incana

infected with Erysiphe aggregata were collected by Dr. E. M.

Gilbert in June, 1927, at Hayward, Wisconsin. The material

was fixed in Flemming’s solutions, the weaker solution in gen¬

eral giving the best results.

Sections were cut eight to ten microns in thickness and

stained with Flemming’s triple stain, except in a few cases

where Haidenhain’s iron-alum haematoxylin was used.

Observations and Discussions

The mycelium of Erysiphe aggregata is much branched and

septate, each cell being uninucleated (fig. 1). The hyphal

branches grow in all directions, so that in some cases dense

masses of mycelia are produced.

After the mycelium has reached a certain stage of maturity,

there are cells which grow at right angles to the mycelium. In

the material examined these cells resemble very much those

described by Harper. One of these upright branches is slightly

larger than the hyphal cell from which it arises. This is the

antheridial branch described by Harper. The other branch is

somewhat larger and resembles the oogonial branch.

In some cases these upright branches are closely applied to

Wentzel — Studies on Erysiphe aggregata . 249

each other, while in others they are twisted. Despite the fact

that these cells resemble the sexual apparatus described by Har¬

per (1895, 1905) for Phyllactinia corylea , Sphaerotheca casta-

gneiy and Erysiphe communis , no actual fertilization was ob¬

served. With the exception of the supposed fertilization or

fusion of the oogonial and antheridial nuclei, all subsequent

stages are present, although the earlier stages are not so num¬

erous.

Following the stage that Harper calls fertilization the pros¬

pective branches which are to form the perithecial envelope

push out from below the larger of the two upright cells, which

Harper calls the oogonium. These hyphae grow up and around

these two upright cells, applying themselves closely to their

surface.

While the first enveloping branches are pushing up from the

base of the larger (oogonial) cell, the latter is also continuing

its development.

With the first growth of this cell (oogonium) the (fusion)

nucleus divides to form a binucleated stage, which lasts until

the oogonium is completely enclosed by the enveloping hyphae.

The oogonium remains one-celled for a time and its nuclei con¬

tinue to divide. Septations are then laid down which separate

the nuclei from each other. Thus we have at maturity a single

row of from three to five cells (fig. 2) .

The next step in development consists in the formation of

the so-called ascogenous hyphae. These arise as lateral branches

from the cells of the row that has just been formed. From just

which cell or cells the ascogenous hyphae arise the writer has

been unable to determine. It appears that many ascogenous

hyphae bud out at about the same time. These develop into

multinucleated branches of the ascogonium. The nuclei are soon

separated by cell walls, except in certain cases in which two

nuclei are included in a single cell, usually the penultimate one

(figs. 3, 4, 5.) These binucleated cells will later become the asci.

Before the asci are formed the perithecium begins to show

some differentiation in its hyphal layers. There is an outer

layer of wide lumened cells, already showing some thickening

in their outer walls. Within are two or three layers of rather

thin-walled cells, smaller and more densely filled with proto¬

plasm. The innermost layer of these is especially active; it

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

grows and sends branches toward the center, crowding against

the ascogenous hyphae, and becomes divided to form the so-

called “nurse-cells” which are shown in figure 6.

In" Erysiphe aggregata these “nurse-cells” are present from

the time of the development of the ascogenous hyphae, until

the maturation of the eight-spored asci. As the development of

asci proceeds, the “nurse-cells” are present in decreasing num¬

ber.

Meanwhile, certain binucleated cells of the ascogenous hy¬

phae are developing into asci. With their growth, the “nurse

cells” are crowded back and flattened between the asci and the

perithecial wall (fig. 7).

The young asci when first recognizable are little larger

than the other cells of the ascogenous hyphae. The ascus is

about half-grown before the two nuclei fuse.

The asci grow to be swollen, oblong sacks and are pressed

together and flattened upon each other in their middle regions.

The nucleus lies in the middle of each ascus and toward the

base. The lower part of the ascus is narrowed into a stalk;

however, this narrow stalk is not separated from the ascus by

a cross wall.

One of the most frequent and conspicuous stages seen in

Erysiphe aggregata is that of the primary nucleus. M. C. Sands

(1907) also found this to be a common stage in Microsphaera

alni. It persists from the time of fusion of nuclei in the young

ascus, until the ascus has reached its full development (figs.

7, 8).

By the time the uninucleate ascus is developed the perithe-

cium has grown to its full size, and has as many cell layers as

when fully ripe. The outer layer has become thick-walled and is

almost empty of protoplasm.

The primary nucleus of the ascus now undergoes three suc¬

cessive divisions, giving rise to two, four, and finally to eight

nuclei (figs. 9, 10, 11), each of which becomes the nucleus of a

spore (figs. 17, 18).

The process of spore formation in Erysiphe aggregata re¬

sembles in every way that described by Harper (1905) in de¬

tail for Erysiphe communis and Phyllactinia corylea and by

Sands (1907) for Microsphaera alni.

In the process of the cutting out of spores, the eight nuclei

Wentzel — Studies on Erysiphe aggregata, 251

formed by the third division retain their asters; from these

there continue to grow out long, fine threads which become

more numerous. From the beginning the asters are turned to¬

ward the periphery of the ascus. The nuclei of the ascus be¬

come beaked and the rays then begin to curve back about the

nucleus. This folding back continues until the majority of the

fibers lie in one plane. These fibers form rather a hemispher¬

ical covering over the beaked nucleus.

The lateral fusion of the rays begins early, even before the

sporeplasm is delimited. This has been pointed out by Harper.

After the fibers have completely fused, so that the sporeplasm

is actually separated from the epiplasm, the beak of the nucleus

is slowly drawn in (fig.15), and the nucleus, in a resting con¬

dition (fig. 14), again lies in the center of the mass. Between

the spore membrane and surrounding protoplasm, a space ap¬

pears in which the spore wall is finally deposited. With the

ripening of the spores, the perithecium reaches its maturity.

The present study on Erysiphe aggregata agrees with most

of the findings of other investigators for other species of the

Erysiphaceae, which they have studied.

Literature Cited

Bary, H. A. de. 1863. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Ascomyceten. 38 p.

Leipzig.

Blackman, V. H., and Fraser, Helen. 1905. Fertilization in Sphaerotheca.

Ann. Bot. 19: 567-569.

Fraser, H. C. and Welsford, E. J. 1908. Further contributions to the

cytology of Ascomycetes. Ann. Bot. 22: 465-477.

Galloway, B. T. 1895. Observations on the development of Uncinula

spiralis. Bot. Gaz. 20: 486-491.

Harper, R. A. 1895. Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Perithecium bei

Sphaerotheca castagnei. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 13: 475-81.

- 1905. Sexual reproduction and organization of the nucleus in cer¬

tain mildews. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 37. 104 p.

- 1900. Sexual reproduction in Pyronema confluens and the morphol¬

ogy of the ascocarp. Ann. Bot. 14: 327-331.

- - 1895. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung und Sporen-bildung

im Ascus. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 13: 67-78.

Hein, Illo. 1927. Studies on morphogenesis and development of the asco¬

carp of Sphaerotheca castagnei. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 54 : 383-413.

Salmon, E. S. 1900. A monograph of the Erysiphaceae. Mem. Torr. Bot.

Club. 9.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

— - 1902. Supplementary notes on the Erysiphaceae. Bull. Torr. Bot.

Club 29: 1-21.

Sands, M. C. 1907. Nuclear structure and spore formation in Micro -

sphaera alni. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 15: 733-752.

Stevens, F. L. 1919. Perithecia with an interascicular pseudoparenchyma.

Bot. Gaz. 68: 474-476.

Wager, H. 1899. The sexuality of the fungi. Ann. Bot. 13: 29-55.

Explanation of Plates

All figures were drawn with the Abbe camera lucida. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 12,

13, 14, and 15 are magnified approximately X 1400; figs. 1 and 2 are mag¬

nified X 1200; figs. 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18 are approximately X 950 and

fig. 7 is magnified X 400.

Plate III

Fig. 1. Elongate, uninucleate mycelium.

Fig. 2. Ascogonium with five cells surrounded by hyphae or beginnings

of perithecial envelope.

Figs. 3, 4. Ascogenous hyphae showing binucleate penultimate cell which

will become the ascus.

Fig. 5. See Plate IV.

Fig. 6. Section through a young perithecium showing no definite differ¬

entiation of layers. “Nurse cells” to the inside are binucleate.

Fig. 7. Section through older perithecium containing young asci. The

primary ascus nucleus visible in the center of the ascus. “Nurse cells” are

still binucleate.

Fig. 8. Young ascus containing the primary ascus nucleus centrally

located.

Fig. 9. Young ascus containing two nuclei.

Fig. 10. Ascus containing four nuclei.

Fig. 11. Ascus containing eight nuclei, six of which are visible, the other

two nuclei are in another section.

Plate IV

Fig. 5. Ascogenous hypha showing binucleate penultimate cell which will

become the ascus.

Figs. 12, 13. Ascospores delimiting. Nucleus distinctly beaked. Shows

plasma membrane drawn in.

Fig. 14. Ascospore completely delimited showing the nucleus in a resting

condition.

Fig. 15. Stage in drawing in of nuclear beak. Spore formation complete.

Fig. 16. Mature ascus showing spore formation.

Figs. 17, 18. Mature asci with mature spores.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

PLATE III

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

PLATE IV

17

18

NOTES ON PARASITIC FUNGI IN WISCONSIN. XVIII.

J. J. Davis

Reference has been made to the occurrence of Phyllachora on

Andropogon furcatus in Wisconsin which had been seen in an

immature condition only. A specimen on old rusted leaves of

Andropogon furcatus from Avoca May 28, 1929 indicates that

it is not morphologically distinct from Phyllachora graminis

(Pers.) Fckl. The asci are 65-80 X 8-10/a and the spores 7-11

X 7/a. It is sometimes abundant on this host.

For the parasite described under the binomial Gloeosporium

balsameum in “Notes” VII, p. 409, the genus Rhabdogloeopsis

has been proposed by Petrak {Ann. My col. 23: 52). Branching

of the conidiophores and more than one conidium at the apex

were not shown in the figure or indicated in the description.

This was searched for in the type locality in 1929 without suc¬

cess, but it was found at Bailey’s Harbor.

A collection on leaves of Aquilegia canadensis from Sturgeon

Bay, July 26, 1929 shows reddish brown spots U/2-2 cm. long in

the direction of the veins, about one-half as wide, paler on the

lower surface; pycnidia succineous, globose, more or less de¬

pressed, 100-150/a in diameter; sporules hyaline, straight 4-7 X

11/2-3/a. This is probably a microconidial or immature state of

Ascochyta aquilegiae (Rabh.) Hoehn. which is a member of

the group on Actaea, Thalictrum and Clematis referred to in

“Notes” V, p. 298. The description of Phyllosticta aquilegiae

Tehon & Daniels {Mycologia 17: 241) suggests that it may be

a further development of the same parasite.

In the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 27 : 572 (1900),

Phyllosticta similispora Ell. & Davis was published as a new

species based upon material on Solidago rigida from Wisconsin.

In Annales Mycologici 10 : 312 (1912) , Leptothyrium tumidulum

Sacc. n. sp. was published based upon material on Solidago

rigida sent from Ontario by Dearness. The former was dis¬

tributed in Fungi Columbiani Shear 1UU6, the latter in Fungi

Columbiani Bartholomew 1^637. Examination of authentic ma¬

terial indicates that these are conspecific. The pycnidia usually

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

develop on the upper leaf surface and are prominent, varying

m shape from plano-convex to hemispherical to obtusely con¬

ical. When they develop on the lower surface however, as they

sometimes do, they push into the mesophyll and are globose.

The hymenium seems to be continuous except for the ostiole.

The specific name, similispora, was suggested by the similarity

of the sporules to those of Phyllosticta sphaeropsispora Ell. &

Ev. on Solidago confinis in southern California which is said to

differ in the character of the spots. A closely allied form is

Phyllosticta astericola Ell. & Ev. which occurs in Wisconsin on

Aster umbellatus developing similar pycnidia and sporules.

For several years Cylindrosporium tradescantiae Ell. & Kell,

has been labeled Septoria tradescantiae (E. & K.) n. comb, in

the herbarium because the sporules are formed in definite

pycnidia.

A specimen on Aster (paniculatus?) collected May 18, 1929

bears sporules some of which exceed 80/x in length but it is re¬

ferred to Septoria astericola Ell. & Ev. because they are but

about lii in diameter. This species develops in spring (May,

June), S . atropurpurea Pk. in summer.

Septoria nolitangeris Gerard usually develops in Wisconsin

on immarginate spots but slightly paler than the leaf. It may

be that the spots become typical later. It occurs on cotyledons

as well as on foliage leaves. Immature perithecia are found in

some of the specimens. The character of the spots probably de¬

pends upon the amount of light received.

In the Journal of Mycology 6: 34 (1890) Ellis & Halstead

described Gloeosporium cladosporioides n.s. on Hypericum mu -

tilum from a New Jersey collection. In this description is the

sentence “Hyphae fasciculate, continuous, toothed above, hy¬

aline becoming brown”. At that time the word hyphae, con¬

traction of fertile hyphae, was used to designate what are now

called conidiophores. The description indicates that the para¬

site differs from Gloeosporium as that genus is now understood.

Specimens of this were issued in Ellis & Everhart North Amer¬

ican Fungi 2U38. In Some Fungi from Alabama (Bulletin of

Cornell University (Science) 3: 39 (1897) Atkinson de¬

scribed Cladosporium gloeosporioides n. sp. based on a collec¬

tion made by himself on Ascyrum stans and one on <( Hypericum

mutilum , Sept. 1891 (Duggar)”. Following the description is

Davis — Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin . XVIIL 255

the statement “Very different from Gloeosporium cladospor-

ioides”. In Bulletin of the Alabama Experiment Station No.

80, p. 160 Underwood & Earle recorded Colletotrichum dado -

sporioides (E. & E.) Atkinson and cited Lee [county], 9, 1891

(Duggar). In the list of Fungi contributed by Earle to Charles

Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama (Contributions from the U. S.

National Herbarium 6, (1901) Cladosporium gloeosporioides

Atkinson is recorded with references to the same collections

that were cited by Atkinson in his description of the species.

This record is on p. 238 and on p. 250 appears the entry Col¬

letotrichum cladosporioides (E. & E.) Atkinson, Ala. Bull. 160

“On Hypericum mutilum, Lee county, September, 1891 (Dug¬

gar)”. Atkinson apparently made no publication himself of

this binomial. The inference to be drawn is that he later con¬

sidered his Cladosporium gloeosporioides to be a Colletotri¬

chum. For the insertion of (E. & E.) I cannot account unless it

was an error for Ell. & Hals, and that he had concluded that

the Gloeosporium cladosporioides and the Colletotrichum were

conspecific.

In 1912 collections were made at Wisconsin Rapids (Peltier)

and Madison on Hypericum virginicum that were recorded in

the Wisconsin “Notes” I, pp. 91-2, under the name Cladospor¬

ium gloeosporioides Atk. with the suggestion that it might be

conspecific with Gloeosporium cladosporioides Ell. & Hals.

Specimens from Madison were issued in Sydow Fungi exotici

exsiccati 99 with the Ellis & Halstead binomial given as a syn¬

onym on the label. Specimens from London, Canada, collected

by Dearness were issued in Bartholomew Fungi Columbiani

SU16 under the same name.

That the hyaline, continuous conidia are not characters of

Cladosporium as that genus is now understood is evident. Why

it was referred to Colletotrichum by Atkinson was a puzzle un¬

til it was noticed that in some of the tufts there were conidia

on short, hyaline, delicate basidia as well as on the long dark

conidiophores. As the conidia usually fall from the conidio-

phores in water such a mount might readily be taken for Col¬

letotrichum. In the Wisconsin specimens the conidiophores are

usually straight and rigid and resemble the setae of Colletotri¬

chum. It does not seem likely that Atkinson intended to refer

this to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penzig. In addition to the

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

collections referred to above are one each from Cameron and

Dexterville, Wisconsin, but it is perhaps better to wait until

more material is available before assigning this parasite to the

polymorphous genus Cercospora. Cercospora hyperici Tehon &

Daniels [Mycologia 19 : 127-8, (1927)] on Hypericum* adpres-

sum in Illinois I have not seen, but the shorter conidiophores

and longer, sometimes septate, conidia appear to separate it.

In Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 16: 42 Miss

Lieneman called attention to the fact that Cercospora mollu-

ginis Davis “Notes” X p. 285 is antedated by C, molluginis

Hals, and proposed Cerecospora molluginicola nom. nov. for the

former. The variation in conidia in this genus is such as to

make it doubtful that they are distinct.

The parasite found on nursery plants of Amorpha fruticosa

in Iowa and recorded and figured in The Fungi of Iowa Para¬

sitic on Plants, No. 206, as Cylindrosporium passaloroides

(Wint.) comb. nov. seems to be quite different from Cercospora

passaloroides Wint., which is a true Cercospora as clearly in¬

dicated in Winter’s description and shown by Ellis & Everhart,

North American Fungi 1999, Bartholomew Fungi Columbiani

S512 and 18 Wisconsin specimens in the herbarium of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. The hyphae from which the conidiophores

of the Cercospora spring are sometimes, in part, superficial.

Cercospora viticola (Ces.) Sacc. has been connected by Hig¬

gins with an ascigerous state which he has described and

named Mycosphaerella personata n. sp. (Am. Journ . Bot . 16:

295.)

Of a collection of a parasite that occurs on Halenia deflexa in

Wisconsin and that has been referred to Cercospora gentian-

icola Ell. & Ev. the following notes were made : spots indefin¬

ite or none; conidiophores amphigenous, subf uliginous, borne

on black stromatic tubercles, 7-20 X 3-4 n ; conidia hyaline, flag-

elliform, straight or curved, 2-4 septate, 50-90 X 3-414/*. On

the upper surface of the leaves are what appear to be young

perithecia which are black, somewhat dendritic in distribution,

giving an appearance that reminds one of Asteroma.

From a collection on leaves of Cephalanthus occidentalis

made on the bottom lands along the Wisconsin river Oct. 2,

1929 the following notes were made: Spots angular, limited

Davis — Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin . XVIII . 257

by the veinlets becoming confluent, immarginate, variable in

size, reddish brown above, the red tint lacking below; conidio-

phores amphigenous but more numerous above, fasciculate usu¬

ally from a black tubercular base, dark olivaceous black by

reflected light, continuous or 1-3 septate, straight, geniculate

or somewhat undulate, 23-40 X 3-4^ ; conidia olivaceous, cyl¬

indrical but tapering at base, 1-6 septate, 14-57 X 3%-5ju. The

tufts are not numerous and are much scattered. Catenulation

of conidia was not observed. A specimen from Kenosha county

Oct. 4, 1909 labeled Cercospora cephalanthi E. & K. with the

notation “spots different” is similar but with a few definite,

orbicular, marginate spots and others that seem to be inter¬

mediate. Another specimen, same locality and date but prob¬

ably from a different station shows only typical spots. In a

collection from near Oakwood the spots are smaller, sordid and

lacerate. It would seem that the reaction of the host to this

parasite varies under different conditions. Of the Texan para¬

site described by Heald under the binomial Ramularia cepha¬

lanthi (E. & K.) Heald (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin

226, p. 61) I have not seen a specimen.

In “Notes” VII, p. 206 Uromyces hyperici-frondosi (Schw.)

Arth. was reported on Hypericum canadense but the host ap¬

pears to be H. majus instead.

The inclusion of Wisconsin in the range of Puccinia wind-

soriae in North American Flora was an error as I am informed

by Dr. Arthur.

Darker has shown that Pucciniastrum arcticum (Lagh.)

Tranz. and P. americanum (Farl.) Arth. have their aecial stage

on Picea canadensis and that Peridermium ingenuum Arth. is

that stage ( Journ . Arnold Arboretum 10:156 et seq.) . To which

of the raspberry rusts the Peridermium collected in Wisconsin

belongs is not known. The situation is like that of Peridermium

balsameum Pk. and Uredinopsis on ferns and Caeoma on Larix

laricina and Melampsora bigelowii Thuem. and M. medusae

Thuem. Such conditions suggest very close relationships.

In 1932 de Schweinitz published a description of a rust on

Andropogon which he named Puccinia andropogi , usually cor¬

rected to andropogonis . Ten years earlier he recorded Caeoma

(Aecidium) pentastemonis on Pentstemon. In 1899 Arthur

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

found that this is an aecial stage of the rust on Andropogon

and other Scrophulariaceous hosts are known. In 1872 Peck

published a description of Aecidium mariae-wilsoni on Viola

and in 1878 von Thuemen described Puccinia eliisiana on An¬

dropogon. These were found to be connected by Arthur in 1912.

This has not been recognized in Wisconsin. In 1873 Aecidium

pustulatum Curtis on Comandra was described by Peck. In 1903

Arthur found this to be connected with a rust on Andropogon

and proposed the name Puccinia pustulata Curt. In N. A. Flora

this was considered to be a race of P . andropogonis. In 1884

Ellis & Kellerman described Aecidium ceanothi on Ceanothus

from Kansas. In 1909 Arthur succeeded in infecting Ceanothus

americanus with germinating telia on Andropogon Hallii from

Nebraska. It is of interest that sowing of the teliospores on

Baptisia tinctoria, Psoralea Onobrychis and Zanthoxylum

americanum among other hosts brought no result. The Aeci¬

dium on Ceanothus ovatus has been collected in northwestern

Wisconsin but the stage on Andropogon has not been recognized.

This was given the name Puccinia ceanothi by Arthur.

In addition to these Puccinia Kaernbachii (P. Henn.) Arth.

occurs in Florida but its aecial connection is not known. Uromy-

ces andropogonis Tracy (U. pedatatus (Schw.) J. L. Sheldon)

having aecia on Viola and the later stages on Andropogon oc¬

curs in the United States and is thought to be closely related

to Puccinia eliisiana Thuem. In North American Flora 7 pro¬

posed species of Aecidium on Leguminosae were united under

the binomial Aecidium onobrychidis Burr. Of these two are

known to occur in Wisconsin. One of them, Aecidium falcatae

Arth., has been connected with rust of Andropogon furcatus as

recorded in “Notes” XIV & XV. In 1929 Andropogon furcatus

was infected in the greenhouse from the other, Aecidium lupini

Pk. on Lupinus perennis. This connection has not been pre¬

viously recorded. In 1926 connection of rust on Andropogon

furcatus and Aecidium xanthoxyli Pk. was made in the green¬

house and was recorded in “Notes” XV. This was thought to be

similar to the Comandra- Andropogon form. In 1927 rusted

Andropogon from one source was found to infect Polygala

Senega in the field but not that from another locality. Germina¬

tion tests were not made before placing the rusted Andropogon

plants as that was done early in the season. With the Aecidium

Davis— Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin . XVIII. 259

polygalinum Pk. thus produced Andropogon furcatus was in¬

fected in the greenhouse as recorded in “Notes’’ XVI.

It is evident that much is yet to be learned about the rusts of

Andropogon.

Additional Hosts

Plasmopara pygmaea (Ung.) Schroet.

Conidia and young oospores on Anemone virginiana . Blue

River.

Peronospora calotheca DRy.

On Galium concinnum. Sauk City. (Seymour, Jones & Davis) .

A collection on Potentilla arguta bearing conidia only was

preserved and referred to Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr.

Perithecia have not been found on this host. A collection on

Shepherdia canadensis from Bailey’s Harbor is presumably of

this species but only conidia are present.

Microsphaera alni (Wallr.) Wint.

On Viburnum Opulus . Fish Creek. In this collection the

perithecia are small and scattered and the appendages short.

M dilotus alba should be recorded as a host of Pseudopeziza

medicaginis (Lib.) Sacc. in Wisconsin.

A collection of the parasite recorded in “Notes” XVII, p. 300

as Cercospora junci n. sp. was made at Bailey’s Harbor on

Juncus brachycephalus Aug. 21, 1929 but mature conidia were

not found on the dried material. The basal tubercles extend

deeper into the leaf than in the type.

Uromyces acuminatus magnatus (Arth.)

Aecia on Maianthemum canadense collected at Lampson by

Dr. Fassett have been so determined.

Uromyces hyperici-frondosi (Schw.) Arth.

Uredinia and telia on Hypericum prolificum. Bailey’s Har¬

bor.

Puccinia patruelis Arth.

Aecidium on Lactuca sativa (cult.) Madison. (A. C. Foster).

Puccinia bolleyana Sacc.

Uredinia and a few telia on Carex Bebbii. Jacksonport.

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters,

Satureja vulgaris should be included with the hosts of

Puccinia menthae Pers. in Wisconsin.

Pucciniastrum pustulatum (Pers.) Diet.

On Epilobium densum. Menomonie. (Bachman & Patrick).

Calyptospora goeppertiana Kuehn is not common in Wiscon¬

sin. It was found at White Lake on Vaccinium canadense in

1921 and at Ellison Bay on V. pennsylvanicum in 1929.

Adjoining Pteris aquilina bearing Sclerotium deciduum Davis

near Sturgeon Bay were single plants of Trientalis americana ,

Fragaria virginiana and Rubus allegheniensis infected appar¬

ently by the same parasite. Only the Trientalis bore typical

sclerotia. The presclerotial stage was also found on Trientalis

at Ellison Bay.

Additional Species

not previously reported as occuring in Wisconsin .

Taphrina aurea (Pers.) Fr.

This was collected at Terry Andrae Park on the shore of lake

Michigan south of Sheboygan on Populus nigra italica. The

collection was made July 17th and the material was over¬

mature the spots having lost their yellow color and most, but

not all, of the asci had discharged.

A scanty collection on Iris lacustris from Fish Creek in which

the pycnidia are mostly immature or imperfectly developed is

referred to Phyllosticta cruenta pallidior Pk. The sporules are

about 10 X 8-10/a.

A collection having the appearance of Phyllosticta punctata

Ell. & Dearn. on Viburnum Opulus was made at Fish Creek but

no sporules were found in the pycnidia. This is quite similar to

Phyllosticta decidua Ell. & Kell, which occurs on shrubs as

well as herbs and which often fails to develop sporules.

Ascochyta imperfecta Pk. on Medicago sativa appears not to

have been recorded in the Wisconsin lists. In 1929 it was ob¬

served in a field of alfalfa and sweet clover mixed attacking the

alfalfa only.

On July 10, 1929 a collection of Peronospora linariae Fckl. on

Linaria canadensis was made at Arena. On the dead stems are

pale spots in which are pycnidia with black rather firm thick

Davis — Notes on Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin. XVIII. 261

walls and broadly conical ostioles. These pycnidia contain

hyaline, lax, filiform scolecospores 80-50 X %-1/x. The appear¬

ance suggests that the death of the host interfered with the

normal development of the sporules. Perhaps this bears rela¬

tion to Septoria cymbalariae Sacc. & Speg.

Septoria pentstemonicola Ell. & Ev.

On Pentstemon gracilis. Mazomanie. Sporules 40-70 X 3 [i.

Cercospora dulcamarae (Pk.) E. & E.

On Solanum Dulcamara. Ellison Bay. In this collection the

spots are dark blue on both surfaces reminding one of a wood

stain.

Puccinia investita Schw.

Aecia and telia on Gnaphalium decurrens. Mellon. (Fassett).

Pucciniastrum galii (Lk.) Ed. Fisch.

Uredo on Galium triflorum. Ellison Bay. This rust appears

to be very rare east of the Rocky Mountains.

University of Wisconsin Herbarium

April 1930

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XII.

POLYPODIACEAE

Edith W. Rreakey and Ruth I. Walker

The distributional maps of this report were compiled from

specimens in the herbaria of the University of Wisconsin, of

the Milwaukee Public Museum, of the Field Museum (with

the exception of Athyrium and Thelypteris) , and of Lawrence

College.

Polypodium (Tourn.) L.

P. virgin IAN UM L. ; Fernald, Rhodora 24 : 141, 1922. P . vul¬

gar e of Am. Auth. in part, not L. Common Polypody (Fig. 1).

Distribution general throughout Wisconsin; most abundant on

shaded ledges of rocks and woodland banks.

Pteridium Raf.

P. latiusculum (Desv.) Maxon, Am. Fern Journ. 9: 43,

1919. Pteris aquilina of Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Common Brake.

(Fig. 2.) Distribution general except for sandy areas of cen¬

tral Wisconsin as indicated on the distributional map and de¬

termined from figure 3, page 11 of Wisconsin Statistical Atlas

1926-27. Bulletin 90. Found in woods, often hillsides and

pastures. Frequent on burnt and cut over areas.

Adiantum (Tourn.) L.

A. pedatum L. Common Maidenhair. (Fig. 3.) Generally

distributed in moist shady woods with exception of sandy re¬

gions as indicated on distributional map, figure 2.

Cheilanthes Sw.

C. Feei Moore. Slender Lip Fern. (Fig. 4.) In dense tufts

in dry crevices of rocks and cliffs. For the most part confined

to lime and sandstone areas adjacent to the Wisconsin and

Mississippi rivers (see fig. 5).

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

C. lanosa (Michx.) Watt. Hairy Lip Fern. (Fig. 4.) Col¬

lected at St. Croix Falls.

Pellaea Link.

P. glabella Mett. ex Kuhn; Butters, Am. Fern Journ. 7:

77-87, 1917. P . atropurpurea of Gray's Manual, ed. 7, in part.

(Fig. 5). Mostly southern. Found on dry rocky ledges of

limestone, rarely on calcareous sandstone underlying such

ledges. Areas of limestone are indicated on the map. (For

Pallaea in fig. 5 read Pellaea.)

Cryptogram m a R. Rr.

C. Stelleri (Gmel.) Prantl. Slender Cliff Brake. (Fig. 6).

Confined to damp moist shaded crevices of limestone areas.

Asplenium L.

A. viride Huds. Green Spleenwort. (Fig. 7). Collected but

once in Wisconsin, on shaded limestone of Washington Island,

Door County.

A. Trichomanes L. Maidenhair Spleenwort. (Fig. 8).

Rocky ledges and talus of gabbro cliffs in northern Wisconsin;

on limestone in Door Co.; on sandstone at the Wisconsin Dells ;

and on quartzite at Devils Lake.

A. platyneuron (L.) Oakes. Ebony Spleenwort. (Fig 7).

Rare in Wisconsin. Found in thinly wooded rocky slopes in the

driftless area.

Athyrium Roth ex Mertens

The members of this genus occurring in Wisconsin may be

distinguished as follows :

a. Indusium straight or slightly curved. b

b. Fronds pinnate . . . . . A. angustifolium.

b. Fronds pinnatifid . . . A. acrostichoides.

a. Indusium horseshoe-shaped or curved at one end. c

c. Fronds dimorphic. d

d. Longest pinnae of the fertile frond 5-12 cm. long, pinnules 4-12 mm.

long, simple . . . . A. angustum f. typicum.

d. Longest pinnae of fertile front 1-2 dm. long, pinnules 12-25 mm.

long, pinnatifid . . . A. angustum var. elatius.

c. Fronds not dimorphic . A. angustum var. rubellum.

Breakey & Walker — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin. XII . 265

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

A. ACROSTICHOIDES Sw. Diels. Nat. Pfl. 1, pt. 2, 223, 1899.

Asplenium acrostichoides of Gray's Manual, ed 7. Silvery

Spleenwort. (Fig. 9). Occasionally found in rich, moist, shady

woods.

A. angustifolium (Michx.) Milde, Bot. Zeit. 24: 376, 1866.

Asplenium angustifolium of Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Narrow¬

leaved Spleenwort. (Fig. 9). Occasionally found in rich woods.

A. angustum (Wild.) Presl, f. typicum, Butters, Rhodora

19 : 191, 1917. Asplenium Filix-femina, in part, of Gray's Man¬

ual, ed. 7. Upland Lady Fern. (Fig. 10). Not common. Forms

intermediate between A. angustum, f. typicum and A. Angus¬

tum, var. elatius are indicated by crosses on the map.

A. angustum (Willd.) Presl, var. elatius (Link) Butters.

Rhodora 19: 191, 1917. (Fig. 11). Distribution general

throughout the state except for sandy regions as indicated in

map, fig. 2. Found in swamps or in woods.

A. angustum (Willd.) Presl, var. rubellum (Gilbert) But¬

ters. Rhodora 19: 193, 1917. (Fig. 12). Forms intermediate

between A . angustum, var. elatius and A. angustum, var. rubel¬

lum are indicated by crosses on the map. Generally distributed

throughout the state except for sandy regions as indicated in

map, fig. 2. Found in swamps, or in rich moist or sandy woods.

Camptosorus Link.

C. RHIZOPHYLLUS (L.) Link. Walking Fern. (Fig. 13). Dis¬

tribution generally southward on shaded wooded hillsides, on

moss covered limestone ledges or other rocks (see fig. 5).

POLYSTICHUM Roth.

P. ACROSTICHOIDES (Michx) Schott. Christmas Fern. (Fig.

14). Collected in rocky woods at Racine.

P. Braunii (Spenner) Fee, var. Purshii, Fernard, Rhodora

30: 30, 1928. Braun's Holly Fern. (Fig. 14). Found rarely

in shady woods and rock slides in northern part of the state.

Thelypteris Schmidel.

Aspidium in Gray's Manual, ed 7.

T. spinulosa (Retz.) Nieuwl. Am. Midland Nat. 1: 226,

1910. Spinulose Shield Fern. (Fig. 15). In woods, almost any¬

where except in sandy regions as indicated on map 2.

Breakey & Walker — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin . XII . 267

• Aspleniura platyneuron

• Athyrium acrostichoides

♦ Athyrium amgusti folium

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

T. SPINULOSA (Retz.) Nieuwl., var. intermedia (Muhl.)

Weath. Rhodora 21: 178, 1919. (Fig. 16). Generally distributed

but apparently absent from The Driftless Area. Found in deep

damp caves, shaded ledges of rocks and moist woods.

According to Dr. F. K. Butters (in litt.) T. intermedia may

be considered a distinct species, with spores averaging 25.5 X

36.2/a while in T . spinulosa and all its other varieties the spores

average over 31 X 46/a. Measurements of twelve spores from

each of 17 specimens of T. spinulosa in the Herbarium of the

University of Wisconsin average 29.9 X 45.9/a. Spore measure¬

ments of twelve spores from each of 33 specimens of T. spin¬

ulosa var. intermedia average 26.30 X 37.4/a. Spore measure¬

ments of twelve spores from each of 4 specimens of T. spinulosa

var. americana average 30.8 X 49.9/a.

T. spinulosa (Muell.) Nieuwl., var. americana (Fisch.)

Weath. Rhodora 21: 178, 1919 (Fig. 19). Aspidium spinu-

losum, var. dilatum, f. anadenium of Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Not

common. Found in shady woods.

T. palustris (Salisb.) Schott, var. pubescens (Lawson)

Fernald. Rhodora 31 : 34, 1929. Aspidium Thelypteris of Gray's

Manual, ed. 7. Marsh Fern. (Fig. 17). Generally distributed

but rarely found in The Driftless Area. Most common in

swamps, marshes and bogs.

The specimens cited as Aspidium noveboracense (L.) Sw. by

Dr. Wm. Steil and A. M. Fuller in Am. Fern Journ. 18: 112,

1929, have been examined by the authors and are referred to

the following species; Athyrium acrostichoides, A . angustum,

f. typicum, A. angustum, var. elatius, A. angustum, var. rubel-

lum, and Thelypteris podustris, var. pubescens .

T. Dryopteris (L.) Slosson, in Rybd. FI. Rocky Mts., 1044,

1917, Phegopteris Dryopteris of Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Oak

Fern. (Fig. 18). Distribution general, usually in rocky, wet

woods near rivers and lakes.

T. fragrans (L.) Nieuwl., var. Hookeriana Fernald, Rho¬

dora 25 : 3, 1923. Aspidium fragrans of Gray's Manual, ed. 7.

Fragrant Fern. (Fig. 19). Found only on sandstone cliffs and

ledges of Wisconsin Dells, and on dry cliffs and talus slopesln

northern and northwestern part of state.

T. CRISTATA L. Nieuwl. Am. Midland Nat. 1: 226, 1910.

Aspidium cristatum of Gray's Manual, ed. 7. Crested Fern.

Breakey & Walker— Reports on Flora of Wisconsin. XII. 269

Camptosorus rhizophyllus

• Polyetichum acrostichoides

270 Wisconsin Academy frf Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Thelypteris Phegopteris

Thelypteris hexagonoptera

Breakey & Walker — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin . XII. 271

(Fig. 22). Generally distributed except in unglaciated region

in damp low ground or in marshes and swamps.

T. goldiana (Hook.) Nieuwl. Am. Midland Nat. 1: 226,

1910. Aspidium Goldianum of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Goldie’s

Fern. (Fig. 23). Not common.

T. margin alis (L.) Nieuwl. Am. Midland Nat. 1: 226, 1910.

Aspidium marginale of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Marginal Shield

Fern or Evergreen Wood Fern. (Fig. 24). Rocky ledges and

hillsides in unglaciated area, also northward and north east¬

ward.

T. hexagonoptera (Michx.) Weath., Rhodora 21: 179, 1919.

Phegopteris hexagonoptera of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Broad

Beech Fern. (Fig. 20). Occasionally collected in dry open

woods.

T. Phegopteris (L.) Slosson, in Rybd. Gl. Rocky Mts., 1043,

1917. Phegopteris polypodioides of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Long

Beech Fern. (Fig. 21). Distribution northward and south¬

ward in central eastern portion of state similar to that of T.

Dryopteris (fig. 18). Found on moist shady banks of ravines

and in deep woods.

Woods i a R. Br.

W. Cathcartiana Robinson. Cathcart’s Woodsia (Fig. 27).

Dells of St. Croix River.

W. ilvensis R. Br. Rusty Woodsia. (Fig. 25). Distribution

general. Found on rocky ledges and cliffs.

W. obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Blunt-Lobed Woodsia. (Fig.

26). Not common. Distribution limited to rocky limestone

areas or quartzite rock of Devil’s Lake.

Pteretis Raf.

P. NODULOSA (Michx.) Nieuwl. Am. Midland Nat. 4: 334,

1916. Onoclea Struthiopteris of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. Ostrich

Fern. (Fig. 27). Generally distributed in rich wet woodlands.

Cystopteris Bernh.

C. bulbifera (L). Bernh. Bladder Fern. (Fig. 28). Mostly

in limestone and sandstone areas on shaded hillsides and in

caves.

C. fragilis (L.) Bernh. Common Bladder Fern. (Fig. 29).

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Found for most part on lime and sandstone cliffs and ledges or

in moist shaded woods.

Onoclea L.

0. sensibilis L. Sensitive Fern. (Fig. 30). Generally dis¬

tributed in moist meadows or bogs.

0. sensibilis L., forma obtusilobata (Torr.) Gilbert, N.

Am. Pterid. 18, 1901. (Fig. 30). Collected only at White Lake,

Langlade Co.

The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. Nor¬

man C. Fassett for his suggestions and criticism given in this

work.

Breakey & Walker— Reports

on Flora of Wisconsin. XII. 278

• Pteretis nodulosa

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XIII. FAGACEAE

David F. Costello

The distribution maps in this report are compiled from field

data collected by Mr. L. S. Cheney1 who traveled and collected

in the years 1897 and 1898, and from the herbaria of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin, of the Milwaukee Public Museum, of Mar¬

quette University, and of Mr. S. C. Wadmond of Delavan, Wis¬

consin. The ranges noted by Mr. Cheney are represented by

small dots; additions to these ranges are indicated by crosses.

Large dots are used in indicating the range of Quercus muhlen -

bergii.

1. Fagus

F. grandifolia Ehrhart. Beech (Fig. 1). Distribution

mostly eastward; frequent in the counties bordering Lake

Michigan. Its limits of distribution westward are well marked.

Usually frequent to common wherever it is found.

2. Quercus

The following key will serve to distinguish the members of

this genus occurring in Wisconsin:

a. Leaves not bristle tipped; acorns maturing the first year, b

b. Winter buds downy; cup of fruit fringed; young branches fre¬

quently corky ridged . Q. macrocarpa

b. Winter buds typically smooth or with only slight hairiness at tips

and on margins of scales; cup of fruit not fringed, c

c. Buds slightly hairy above middle at times ; acorns on peduncles

3-15 cm. long . . . Q. bicolor

c. Buds glabrous, bud scales scarious or slightly hairy on mar¬

gins; acorns sessile or on short peduncles, d

d. Buds broadly ovate, blunt; cup enclosing about *4 of nut;

nuts 18-30 mm. long . Q. alba

d. Buds conical, sharp pointed; cup enclosing about V2 of nut;

nuts 15-20 mm. long . Q. muhlenbergii

a. Leaves bristle tipped ; acorns maturing the second year b

1 See Fassett, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Let. 25:177, 1930

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

b. Winter buds hairy, 6-12 mm. long, 5-angled or 5-grooved. Q. velutina

b. Winter buds glabrous to canescent, smaller than above, seldom

angled c

c. Buds about 5mm. long, glabrous; cup of fruit saucer-shaped

. Q . borealis var. maxima

c. Buds about 3mm. long, the slightly puberulent outer scales

ciliate on the margins; cup of fruit hemispherical or turbinate

. Q. ellipsoidalis

Q. alba L. White Oak (Fig. 2). Abundant in all of the

counties south of the northern border of Marathon County. It

is absent from the northern part of the state, its northern

limits almost coinciding with the southern limits of Picea can¬

adensis (Mill.) BSP.2 Cheney states3 that “The white oak

grows in all soils excepting those of a very light sandy nature

and the extreme wet marshy soils. It is found associated with

red oak, the bur oak, the hickory, the white ash, and in Wiscon¬

sin, the yellow birch and the hard maple.”

Q. macrocarpa Michx. Bur Oak. (Fig. 3). Frequent in

all counties south of the northern boundary of Marathon Coun¬

ty. Northward extensions, where it occurs in considerable

abundance, are found in Barron and Polk Counties, and in

Oneida County. Its associates include most of the deciduous

trees of Wisconsin.

2 See Fassett, 1. c., page 178, fig- 6.

3 Unpublished data.

Costello— Reports on Flora of Wisconsin . XII L

Quercus

borealis var. maxima

Quercus ellipsoidalis

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Q. BICOLOR Willd. (Q. platanoides Sud worth.) Swamp White

Oak. (Fig. 4). Local in its distribution. Occurs in greatest

abundance along the Trempealeau River, the Black River, and

Wisconsin River, and the Chippewa River. Its northern limit is

apparently in Oneida County.

XQ. schuettii Trel., Proc. Amer. Phi. Soc. 59:51. 1917.

(Q. bicolor X macrocarpa.) This cross with characters inter¬

mediate between the two species was originally described from

Brown County, Wisconsin. It has also been noted near Mon¬

treal, Canada, and Rochester, New York. Several specimens,

from scattered stations in Wisconsin, with characters resem¬

bling the above were examined. Because of the nature of hy¬

brids, and because of the variability of the oaks, the author is

unwilling to refer these specimens to Q. schuettii without more

herbarium material and without further field work.

Q. MUHLENBERGII Engelm. Trans. Acad. St. Louis 3:891,

1877. Yellow Oak. (Fig. 5, large dots). Very limited distribu¬

tion in southern part of Wisconsin. Prefers limestone ridges

or gravelly hill sides.

Q. borealis Michx. f., var. maxima (Marsh) Ashe, Proc.

Soc. Amer. For. 11:90, 1916; Sarg. Rhodora 18:48, 1916. (Q.

ruba of most American authors, not L. Q. maxima Ashe, 1-c. ;

Trel. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20:194, 1924). Red Oak, (Fig. 6).

Cheney says, “Within Wisconsin, this is the most widely distrib¬

uted of the oaks. While it is the oak of the commonest occur¬

rence in the northern third of the state, it does not always reach

its largest size there, and is, over most of that territory, of only

occasional occurrence. This oak selects as its natural habitat

the rich uplands in drift regions; on well-drained borders of

streams and swamps, its most constant companions are bass¬

wood, white oak, butternut, and hard maple.”

Q. ellipsoidalis Hill.4 Bot . Gaz. 27 :204, 1899 ; Trel. Trans.

III. Acad. Sci., vol. 12, pi. 139-143. Hill's Oak, Jack Oak. (Fig.

7). Distributed over the southern half of Wisconsin. North¬

ward extensions, according to Cheney are “confined almost ex¬

clusively to the Jack Pine tracts where the plant is a shrub or

4 Trelease, 1. c., differentiates several forms of Q. ellipsoidalis Hill, of which the

following are based on the fruit : f. incurva, f. intermedia, f. depressa, f. coronata.

Specimens representing all of these have been collected in Wisconsin. Miss Ruth

Marshall has collected f. heterophylla, characterized by deeply dissected foliage,

in Sauk County, Wisconsin, 1916.

Costello— Reports on Flora of Wisconsin . XIII. 279

small tree rarely reaching thirty feet in height.” In his notes,

Cheney calls this tree Q. coccinea Muench. I have examined his

notes carefully and there is no doubt in my mind that he de¬

scribed what is now known as Q. ellipsoidalis Hill. The scarlet

oak, Q. coccinea Muench, is not known to occur in Wisconsin.

Q. velutina Lam. Black Oak, Quercitron. (Fig. 5, small

dots) . Confined to the southern half of the state. It grows on

dry uplands in company with red oak, bur oak, white oak, and

hickory.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XIV.

HYPERICACEAE

Willard T. McLaughlin

The Hypericaceae or St. John’s-wort Family in Wisconsin

includes the single genus Hypericum with eleven species.

The accompanying maps have been compiled from material

in the herbaria of the University of Wisconsin and of the Mil¬

waukee Public Museum. Data regarding distribution of plants

outside of Wisconsin have also been taken to a limited extent

from local floras of recent date.

While most of the species here considered are readily ident¬

ifiable by use of the manuals several species are quite difficult

of interpretation. It is, therefore, with the idea of facilitating

recognition and of supplementing the manuals that the follow¬

ing key is included.

a. Styles 5; pods 5 celled. b

b. Leaves ovate-oblong, narrowed toward tip, secondary veins con¬

spicuous; mature pod 2 cm. or over in length; large herb .

. H. Ascyron

b. Leaves linear or oblanceolate, secondary veins not conspicuous;

pods less than 1.5 cm. in length; shrubby . H. Kalmianum

a. Styles 3; pods 3- or occasionally 4-celled. c

c. Petals yellow, marked with black dots or lines. d

d. Profusely branched from base upward ; main stem leaves most¬

ly over 2.5 cm. long; pods over .5 cm. in length; petals with

black dots on margin only . . H. perforatum

d. Branching only above; main stem leaves under 2.5 cm. long;

pods under .5 cm. in length; petals and sepals marked with

black dots and lines . H. punctatum

c. Petals yellow or pink, not marked with black dots or lines. e

e. Leaves broadly ovate, mostly exceeding 1 cm. in width, sec¬

ondary veins pinnate, conspicuously recurving; pod 2% to 3

times length of sepals; flowers pink or greenish-purple .

. H. virginicum

e. Leaves smaller, veins not conspicuously recurving; flowers

yellow. /

/. Pod ovoid-globose, deep red, about 4 mm. broad ; styles usual¬

ly not separating; leaves elliptical-oblong . H. ellipticum

f. Pods short-ellipsoid or somewhat conical, 3.5 mm. broad or

less; styles distinct. g

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Pods acute, much exceeding sepals, about 1 mm. broad;

stem fastigiately branched; leaves minute, scale-like .

. H. gentianoides

g. Pods broader; stem not fastigiately branched; leaves

larger. h

h. Pods short-ellipsoid, rounded at tip; cymes somewhat

leaf y-bracted ; leaves oblong, ovate-oblong, or elliptic. i

i. All the bracts foliaceous and broad . H. boreale

i. Ultimate bracts subulate or setaceous . H. mutilum

h. Pods conic-ellipsoid or slender-conical; cymes naked ex¬

cept for subulate or setaceous bracts; leaves lanceolate

to linear-oblanceolate, j

j. Leaves linear to linear-oblanceolate, rounded at tip,

narrowed to base, 1- to 3-nerved; cyme lax, usually

somewhat unequal; stem slender . H. canadense

j. Leaves usually lanceolate, 3- to 7 -nerved, occasionally

in poorly developed plants oblanceolate and blunt;

cymes compact due to shortening of uppermost inter¬

nodes, tending to become flat-topped . H. majus

H. Ascyron L. Great St. John’s-wort. (Fig. 1). Of general

distribution in low, moist ground.

H. Kalmianum L. Kalm’s St. John’s wort. (Figs. 2 and

11). Rocky or stony soil. Represented in Wisconsin by four

collections from The Driftless Area, one from Kilbourn, and in

the northeastern part of the state from Shawano, Marinette,

and Door counties. Outside of Wisconsin the distribution of

this species appears to be limited to the shores of the Great

Lakes or to localities that were covered by the glacial

Great Lakes at the time of the recession of the Wisconsin ice

sheet (Fig. 11). In Gray’s Manual (seventh edition) the range

of this species is given as extending eastward to Pontiac Co.,

Quebec. No collections from east of Niagara Falls are present

in the herbaria of the University of Wisconsin, of the Milwau¬

kee Public Museum, nor, as Dr. I. M. Johnston informs me, in

the Gray Herbarium. If, however, this station is assumed to be

on the Ottawa River, the occurrence of H. Kalmianum there

seems explicable on the basis of the suggestion of F. B. Taylor1

that the Ottawa valley may have afforded an outlet by which

the waters of the Great Lakes drained eastward during the

late phase of the Lake Algonquin stage. Again, a collection

from Sylvania, Lucas Co., Ohio, L. R. Wilson, no. 1508, is from

the area occupied by Lake Maumee, an extension of Lake Erie

at the time of the ice recession. Dr. Johnston lists (in litt.) in

JU. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 53 : 440. 1915.

McLaughlin — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin. XIV. 283

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

material of the Gray Herbarium a collection from St. Louis,

Mo. On the basis of the uniformity of distribution otherwise

found this report has been left open to question and is not

shown on the map.

Within Wisconsin a similar remarkable correlation between

the distribution of this species and the location of the glacial

lakes is found. The Green Bay lobe of the ice, at the time of

its maximum extension southwestward formed a dam which im¬

pounded the waters from the melting ice to form Glacial Lake

Wisconsin. This lake, at the time of its maximum elevation

covered a considerable territory within The Driftless Area,

and, standing at 940 feet above sea level, drained westward to

the Black River. In Fig. 2 the approximate extent of glacial

lakes Wisconsin and Oshkosh at their maximum is indicated by

stippling. The occurrence of H. Kalmianum at Black River

Falls is thus correlated with this early outlet of Glacial Lake

Wisconsin. As the ice front retreated to the northeast a new

outlet around the Baraboo Hills was opened. Still later the ice,

retreating up the Fox River valley again formed a dam which

held in the waters of Glacial Lake Oshkosh. According to Up-

ham2 the retreat of the Green Bay lobe was somewhat faster

than the concurrent recession of the southern part of the Lake

Michigan ice lobe which lay upon the area of Glacial Lake Chi¬

cago. The two outlets at Portage and Chicago doubtless began

to discharge waters of the glacial-dammed lakes on the north

and northeast at nearly the same time and each of these lakes

(Lake Oshkosh and Lake Chicago) existed independently of

each other until the continued recession of the ice lobes permit¬

ted the lakes to meet and merge somewhere northeast of Lake

Winnebago. The path of the migration of the plant to the south

and east was then opened. The stations for H. Kalmianum in

Shawano and Marinette counties are explained by the migration

along the margin of Lake Oshkosh to the present Lake Michi¬

gan. We may presume that the plant rapidly established itself,

upon the final retreat of the ice, about the shores of the Great

Lakes. It is highly specific as to ecological conditions, and so

has remained without subsequent extension from the Great

Lakes margin. The absence of the plant from New England

2 Glacial Lake Jean Nicolet and the portage between the Pox and Wisconsin

rivers. American Geologist 31 : 105-115. 1903.

McLaughlin — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin . XIV. 285

Genera/ Distribution of H. Ka/mianum

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

is notable. Since the present distribution is within the area

covered by ice at the time of the last ice advance excepting

The Driftless Area of Wisconsin it appears probable that the

plant persisted within this unglaciated territory, and, follow¬

ing the glacial lake margins, then migrated eastward. It should

be noted that this species is probably closely related to similar

shrubby species of Hypericum which today have a more south¬

erly range in the United States. Perhaps these southern forms

in pre-glacial times, or at least before the last or Wisconsin

ice advance were more northern in their range, and upon the

advance of the ice migrated to the south leaving H. Kalmianum

as a relict form within The Driftless Area.

H. perforatum L. Common St. John’s-wort. (Fig. 3). A

weed in open ground; from Europe. Probably of more general

range within the state than the map would indicate.

H. punctatum Lam. Spotted or Corymbed St. John’s-wort.

(Fig. 4). Of general distribution in woods or on shaded ground.

H. virginicum L. Marsh St. John’s-wort. (Fig. 5). The

occurence of this species both within Wisconsin and in the more

general range is limited in a considerable degree to the area

covered by ice during the last ice advance. This is due to the

preference of the plant for swamps and acid bogs which are

found so abundantly within the area of the young drift.

H. ellipticum Hook. Elliptic-leaved or Pale St. John’s-

wort. (Fig. 6). Wet ground. Decidedly northern in range.

H. gentianoides (L.) BSP. Orange grass, Pineweed.

(Fig. 7). Sandy or rocky ground. In Wisconsin this species

seems to be limited to The Driftless Area except for a single

collection on a quartzite knob near Montello, Marquette Co. The

occurence of this plant on the sand soil of The Driftless Area

and on quartzite would indicate a preference for acid soils.

H. boreale (Britton) Bicknell. Northern St. John’s-wort.

(Fig. 8). Bogs and wet sandy or rock shores. As with H.

virginicum the distribution of this plant is closely linked with

that of the bogs and sandy outwash plains resulting from glaci¬

ation, and probably indicates a preference for a moist acid sub¬

stratum.

H. mutilum L. Small flowered St. John’s-wort. (Fig. 9).

Low ground. In general range this species is more southerly

than H. boreale which it closely resembles except for the setace-

McLaughlin — Reports on Flora of Wisconsin. XIV. 287

ous rather than foliaceous bracts. In Wisconsin H. mutilum

appears to be limited to The Driftless Area. H. mutilum var.

minus has been described from Brazil by R. Keller3 who states

that similar (dwarf) forms are known from North America.

Within Wisconsin, dwarf forms have been collected at the

Dells of the Wisconsin River and “near Muscoda, Wisconsin, on

a rock cliff on the northern side of the river in Richland Co.”

These collections, as well as the dwarf forms referred to above,

are undoubtedly merely shade forms of typical H. mutilum. In

the cool rocky gorges at The Dells of the Wisconsin River dwarf

forms of many different species occur.

H. canadense L. Canadian St. John’s-wort. (Figs. 10 and

12). In the herbarium of the University of Wisconsin this spe¬

cies is represented within the state by three collections from

Millston and two from Black River Falls in Jackson Co. A

single collection from Black River Falls is in the herbarium of

the Milwaukee Public Museum, H. H. Smith, no. 7000. The

meaning of this very limited range for this species within Wis¬

consin is not yet clear.

H. majus (Gray) Britton. Larger Canadian St. John’s-

12

8 Bull. Herb. Boiss. ser. 2, 8 : 184. 1908.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

wort. (Fig. 10 and 12). Of general distribution in wet waste

lands and on sandy lake shores. In the past much confusion re¬

garding the identity of H. canadense and of H. majus has exist¬

ed. Linnaeus (Species Plantarum, 1753) described H. can¬

adense as having linear-lanceolate leaves and conical red cap¬

sules twice the length of the sepals. In the fifth edition of

Gray’s Manual H. canadense var. majus was described as a

large form, one to two feet high, with lanceolate leaves IV2

inches long and % inch wide. Britton4 raised the variety to

specific rank. The report of Keller5 of the occurrence of H. can¬

adense var. minimum, a small, few-flowered form with oblong,

obtuse leaves, from Wisconsin, is doubtless based on material of

H. majus such as is common on the sandy shores of the north¬

ern lakes. Here the plants, growing under adverse conditions,

are frequently no more than a few cm. high, but all variations

from these dwarf forms to the coarser typical H. majus as orig¬

inally described by Gray may be found. These dwarf forms,

moreover, although at times bearing but four or five capsules,

nevertheless evince a tendency to form a compact, flat-topped

cyme by the shortening of the uppermost internodes, such as is

characteristic of H. majus generally (Fig. 12). In H. canadense,

on the other hand, the cyme is much more lax. The capsules

in these small specimens are also broader at the base and more

obtuse than is typical generally of the slender-conical capsule of

H. canadense.

* Mem. Torr. Club 5: 225. 1894.

8 Bull. Herb. Bolss. ser. 2, 8: 188. 1908.

NOTES ON CERTAIN SYRPHUS FLIES RELATED TO

XANTHOGRAMMA (DIPTERA SYRPHIDAE) WITH

DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES

Chas. L. Fluke Jr.

University of Wisconsin

The genus Xanthogramma has never been thoroughly char¬

acterized and as a result several species have been described as

belonging to it when they should be treated as true Syrphus

forms. VerralFs characterization of the genus is the most com¬

plete but he does not mention the black-based scutellum, al¬

though he does remark on the shortness of the antennae.

The genus Xanthogramma Schiner may be characterised as

follows :

Xanthogramma Schiner

Syrphus-like flies with strong contrasting black and yellow

markingsl particularly on the sides of the thorax ; face yellow,

receding below ; front as long as the face ; scutellum distinctly

black at the base, margined with yellow; antennae short, the

third joint with little more and usually less surface area than

the first two segments combined (Plate V, figure 1) ; abdomen

broadly ovate, the sides emarginate; otherwise very much like

Syrphus .

This characterization limits the genus to one known species

in North America, X. flavipes Lw.

The American forms which were originally described as

Xanthogramma are felix 0. S., divisa Will., aenea Jones, tenuis

Osb., fragila FI. and habilis Sn. Syrphus infuscatus and weborgi

new species belong to this group. X . flavipes Lw. was originally

described as a Boros., and S. emarginatus was first placed in

the genus Scaeva by Say, transferred to Syrphus by Wiedemann

and to Xanthogramma by Williston.

The species emarginatus Say, felix 0. S., divisa Will., aenea

Jones, fragila FL, infuscatus n. sp. and weborgi n. sp. constitute

a rather distinctive group belonging to the genus Syrphus.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

They all have yellowish thoracic side stripes but the third joint

of the antennae is larger than the other two combined. The

larval forms of those that are known indicate a very close rela¬

tionship and it would probably be desirable to erect a sub-genus

for the group. They should not be confused with the species

which have whitish or slightly yellowish thoracic side margins

and narrow non-emarginate abdomens, such as Syrphus gut -

tatus Fall, (habilis Sn.) S. tenuis Osb., and S. cinctellus Zett.,

which are now regarded as true representatives of Epistrophe.

The purpose of this paper is to show the relationships of the

emarginatus group. The following key will separate the forms

known from North America. With the descriptions of the spe¬

cies a few biological notes are given.

1. Yellow crossband on second abdominal segment entire although fre¬

quently greatly emarginate and sometimes narrowly separated . 2

All the bands distinctly separated into spots which also do not

reach the side margins . 5

2. Yellow markings on the second abdominal segment do not reach the

side margins . felix 0. S.

Yellow markings on the second segment extend over the side

margins . 3

3. Antennae blackish, wings slightly smoky, front of female with

black shining stripe, frontal triangle of male with large black spot

. infuscatus n. sp.

Antennae reddish, wings hyaline, the black stripe on the front of

the female tapers to a point before reaching the antennae, frontal

triangle of male mostly yellowish . 4

4. Anterior corners of the second and third abdominal segments yellow

. emarginatus Say

Anterior corners of the abdominal segments black . aenea Jones

5. Bases of front femora black, sides of oral opening dark . 6

Front legs entirely yellow, anterior corners of third abdominal

segment yellow, face entirely yellow . wehorgi n. sp.

6. Abdomen oval, larger species . divisa Will.

Abdomen with nearly parallel sides, smaller species . fragila FI.

Syrphus emarginatus (Say)

Plate V, Figures 2, 3, 4, 5.

Scaeva emarginata Say, 1823, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 3 :

91 ; 1859, complete works 2 : 79. Fla.

Syrphus emarginatus Wiedemann 1830, Auss. Sw. Ins. 2 : 119.

Fla.

Fluke— Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies .

291

Xanthogramma emarginata Williston, 1886, Synopsis, 93. Fla.,

Pa., N. H.; Aldrich 1905, Cat. 369; Graenicher 1910, Bui.

Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc. 8 : 38. Wis. ; Fluke, 1922, Trans. Wis. Acad.

Sci. Arts and Let. 20 : 236. Wis.

Syrphus emarginatus Curran 1924, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bui. 15 :

164. Also recorded from New Eng., N. Y., Ohio, S. Car.

A variable species, middle crossband always entire, first and

third bands usually divided but often entire or nearly so; if

entire greatly emarginate. First band reaches the side mar¬

gins, second and third usually but they may sometimes be sep¬

arate. Front and frontal triangle largely yellow. Length 9 to

11 mm., a few specimens are as short as 7 mm.

Male -Face, cheeks, and oral margin yellow; frontal tri¬

angle mostly yellow with two small black spots just above the

antennae, vertex black. Facial tubercle large and well rounded,

shining, devoid of pollen and pile. Pile of face yellow, becom¬

ing black above on the sides, black on the frontal triangle and

vertex. An area above the antennae shining and devoid of pile

or pollen. Antennae of medium size, first two segments mostly

yellowish orange, third yellowish below, arista black.

Thorax shining metallic bluish green, the sides with yellow

margins, pile yellow to light brown, heavier and darker on the

sides. Pleura with very indistinct yellow areas, the pile brown¬

ish. Scutellum opalescent, darker on the corners, the pile rather

long and mostly black.

Abdomen opaque black, semi-shining at the apical margins of

the segments, with three principal cross bands. First segment

with the sides yellow, the color being continued on the anterior

angles of the second segment. Spots on the second segment

well separated but always reach the side margins with only a

little attenuation. Band on third segment is broad, occupying

at least half the width of the segment, placed a little to the

base of the segment, deeply emarginate in the middle behind.

Usually this band reaches the side margins but is nearly always

greatly attenuated and the yellow connects with the yellow ante¬

rior corners. Third band similar but nearly always interrupted

and is more often separated from the side margins. The fifth

segment yellow with a narrow elongated black triangle in the

middle. Posterior margin of segment three narrowly yellow,

black on the sides ; segment four more broadly yellow with usu¬

ally an anterior projection forward in the middle. The anterior

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

margin of segment four is also narrowly yellow. Venter yellow

with yellow pile to the middle of segment three, black beyond.

Legs yellow; posterior pair of legs with dark rings on the

femora and tibiae, the tarsi reddish to brownish. Sometimes

the coxae are darkened. Wings hyaline, stigma yellowish.

Female - quite similar, abdominal bands are narrower and

the yellow spots of the second segment frequently united, also

extend forward on the sides to connect with the yellow anterior

corners. Fifth segment darker. The front is yellow with a

pointed black area reaching from the ocelli to half way to the

antennae, sometimes reaching or almost reaching the two spots

just above the antennae. Antennae larger, legs paler.

Described from nearly fifty specimens, from New Jersey,

New York, Tennessee, and Wisconsin.

Immature stages (Plate VI, Figures 24, 25, 26, 27.) The

larvae of this species have been taken at numerous times on

goldenrod, feeding upon Macrosiphum rudbeckiae Fitch; and

particularly on wild raspberry, feeding upon Amphoraphora

rubicola (Oest.). They are easily reared in almost any kind of

cage but need special treatment as soon as they are full grown.

Within a few days after they refuse any more food they should

be placed in a flower pot containing growing grass, dead

leaves, and like material, and placed out of doors so that they

get the rain and some sunshine. The pot should be caged over

so that the larvae cannot escape. They will then readily pupate

and emerge.

Egg: The egg is very similar to that of S. divisa Will. No

character has been found to separate them except perhaps the

size, as the eggs of emarginatus are usually a trifle smaller.

Curran1 states that the eggs are invariably deposited upon

the petiole of the leaves.

Larva: Very similar to the description and pictures by

Metcalf2 of his X. divisa ( =S. weborgi n. sp., not the S. divisa

of Will.) The full grown larva is oval in shape and very flat. It

measures 10.5 mm. in length and 4.95 mm. in greatest width.

The hibernating larvae are ashy grey in color but vary from a

light pinkish to a tan or brownish color. It is not to be confused

with the beautiful reddish tan of S. divisa . The lateral margins

1 Kans. Univ. Sci. Bui. 15 : 164, 1921,.

2 Maine Ag. Expt. Sta. Bui. 263 : 154, 1917.

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies . 293

have the characteristic serrations in groups of three with a

much smaller serration between the groups. These larger ser¬

rations each bear at their tips a short pale spine, the smaller

ones devoid of spines. The entire body surface is finely papil¬

lose, the papillae occurring also on the serrations and on most

of the posterior respiratory appendage.

Measurements of the posterior respiratory appendage are

given in the accompanying table (Table I). As a basis of com¬

parison the measurements of the three species, whose life his¬

tories are known, are given also. The measurements of S.

weborgi are as reported by Metcalf. The figures for S . emar -

ginatus and S. divisa are from observations made by the author.

In Table II measurements of the spiracular angles of S.

cmar ginatus, S. divisa and S. weborgi are given. The method of

taking these angles is explained in Wis.Agr.Expt.Sta.Res.Bul.

93, p.14 (1929).

Table I. Measurements of the posterior respiratory appendage of the

larvae of three species of Syrphus. Measurements are in millimeters.

Table II. Measurements of the spiracular angles of Syrphus emar-

inatus, S. divisa, and S. weborgi.

Four parasites of S. emar ginatus were reared, all belonging

to Homotropus bicapillaris var. albopictus Davis. These were

* Measurements by the author. The remaining measurements of S. weborgi were

made by Metcalf. All the measurements on S. emarginatus and S. divisa were

made by the author.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

determined by R. A. Cushman. Two of the parasites emerged

indoors during the winter. The syrphid larvae remained out¬

side until the last of December and were then brought into the

greenhouse. The larvae soon pupated, but in less than four

weeks produced the parasites. This parasite thus winters over

in the host larvae.

Syrphus felix (O.S.)

Plate V, Figures 6, 7.

Xanthogramma felix Osten Sacken 1875, Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat.

Sci. 3 : 67; 1878, Cat. Dipt. 126, 247, and 215., N. Y., Pa.,

Ill.; Williston 1882, Proc. Phil. Soc. 20 : 311; 1886, Synop¬

sis, 91. Conn.; Aldrich 1905, Cat. 369. Recorded also from

N. Y., N. Eng., Ohio, N. Jer., and Wis.

Abdomen with three distinct crossbands, all well separated

from the lateral margins; the first and third usually inter¬

rupted, the middle one always continuous although often deeply

emarginate. Front and frontal triangle mostly black.

Male: Length 10 to 11 mm. Face yellow and only sub¬

shining, tubercle prominent; cheeks also yellow but there is a

slight darkening about the jaws; pile of cheeks and face light

in color, becoming dark along the eyes just below the antennae.

Frontal triangle almost entirely yellow with two small black

dots just above the bases of the antennae, pile black; the shiny

area above the antennae devoid of pile or pollen. Vertical tri¬

angle black with black pile. Antennae mostly reddish on

the first two segments, darker on the upper two thirds of the

third segment.

Thorax bright shining greenish to bluish, side stripes pale,

pile pale; scutellum mostly yellow or opalescent, darker at the

basal corners, the pile yellow and black mixed, mostly black on

the edges. Pleura with indistinct side spots of yellow.

Abdomen elongated more than related species, with three

principal yellow crossbands, the first (on second segment)

separated into two large spots which are well separated from

the lateral margins. First segment yellow on the side corners,

which is also found slightly on the anterior corners of segment

two. Third segment with a broad, deeply emarginate poster¬

iorly, band which is well separated from the lateral margins;

anterior corners and a very narrow median band at the apex,

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies .

295

not reaching the sides, yellow. Fourth segment with two large

yellow spots which are separate from the side margins but which

attenuate and connect with the anterior yellow corners ; a very

narrow basal line and broader apical margin yellow. Fifth seg¬

ment mostly yellow with a broad black band on the disc. Ven¬

ter indeterminately dark, pile of first, second and third stern-

ites long, pale and kinky.

Legs mostly pale, hind legs infuscated with brown but pale

at the bases and tips of the femora, bases and tips of the tibiae,

and the metatarsus. Wings hyaline, stigma yellowish.

Female similar, except the abdominal bands are narrower,

the side stripes brighter and the front black to the base of the

antennae, with sides yellow, a distinct yellow broad Y-marking

just above the antennae. Abdomen usually shows the charact¬

eristic greatest width at the tip of the second segment, although

this is not always reliable.

Described from three males, one caught at Madison Sept. 11,

1920, one at Columbus, Wis. June 15, 1924 (Fluke) ; and the

third reared which emerged indoors February 1930 ; and twelve

females with the following data: three from Ames, la., July 7,

1923; one from Tenderfoot Lake, Vilas Co., Wis., 1913, (W. S.

Marshall) ; one from Door Co., Aug. 25, 1927 ; four from Mad¬

ison, Wis., 1929, May 28, July 15, July 27 and Sept. 31; two

from Tuxedo, N. Y., July 11 and 16, 1929 (Curran).

I have one male reared adult which comes within the limits

of my understanding of this species. A careful study of the

larva, pupa, and posterior respiratory appendage shows very

little, if any, difference between felix and emarginatus.

The measurements in millimeters of the posterior respiratory

appendage of S. felix are: width at tip 0.466; height 0.278;

width of one plate 0.230; total length dorsal view 0.720, side

0.624, and ventral 0.576; width at base dorsal view 0.624, side

0.432; distance between circular plates 0.096; diameter of cir¬

cular plates 0.58 ; distance between the mesal margins of spir¬

acles II and IF 0.336.

Syrphus aenea (Jones)

Xantho gramma aenea Jones 1907, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 15 :

93, Nebr.

The description given below is of a male from Omaha, Neb-

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

raska collected by L. T. Williams August 26, 1913, and deter¬

mined by Wehr as aenea. I do not believe this is the male of

aenea - and it seems possible that aenea as described by Jones

is a synonym of emarginatus. The type specimen is a female,

which is apparently lost.

Male - Length 12 mm. Face, oral margin and cheeks en¬

tirely pale yellow, very lightly brownish on the upper mouth

edge and lower part of tubercle, with light colored pile ; in pro¬

file the face has a rather prominent well rounded tubercle which

is broadly shining, devoid of pollen and pile. This stripe reaches

base of antennae. Front is mostly yellowish to light brownish

with two prominent black spots just above the antennae. Pile

on front and sides of antennae black. Antennae, first two seg¬

ments yellow, 3rd missing. Vertex black with black pile.

Thorax shining dark greenish to black with prominent broad

yellow side margins, pile tawny. Scutellum almost all yellow

with yellow and black pile — mostly black. Pleura yellow and

black with indistinct separations.

Abdomen with three broad yellow bands. First segment,

black with anterior corners yellow. Second segment, with a

broad band which is narrowly interrupted in the middle but

goes over the side-margins in nearly full width. On the sides

the band spreads forward so that it appears attenuated poster¬

iorly, but the anterior corners reach forward so that by looking

from below the yellow reaches to the edge of the preceding

segment. This is also true of the other bands. The widest part

of this band is greater than one-half the width of the segment.

Third segment, band broader and greatly emarginated behind,

posterior margin of segment yellow. Fifth segment, band even

broader but also more emarginate behind, so that band is nearly

interrupted. Anterior margin narrowly and posterior margin

broadly yellow. Fifth segment, almost entirely yellow — with

only a narrow star-like triangular black spot. Venter yellow

with indistinct light brownish areas on sternites 3 and 4. Pile

on 1st and 2nd sternites long yellow ; on third yellow anteriorly,

shorter and black posteriorly ; on 4th and remaining sternites

appressed and black. Genitalia yellowish — mostly black pile.

Front two pair of legs yellow with yellow pile. Hind legs

mostly brown with the coxae, trochanters, bases of femora and

|

Fluke— Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies .

297

knees light brown or yellow. Middle coxae slightly brownish.

Wings hyaline — stigma light brownish.

Similar to infuscatus but lacks infuscation of wings, anten¬

nae lighter, bands broader and reach side margins more.

Prof. M. F. Swenk kindly loaned this specimen for study.

Syrphus infuscatus n. sp.

Plate V, Figures 8, 9, 10

Xanthogramma aenea Fluke (not Jones). Trans. Wis. Acad.

Sci. Arts & Let. 20 : 236, 1922.

Wings tinged with brown, side stripes of the thorax con¬

spicuous, abdomen with three yellow cross bands which are sep¬

arated into spots in some specimens. Antennae large and almost

completely black. Length 11 to 13 mm. Eyes bare.

Male : Face entirely yellow with a slight indication of opal¬

escence next to the eyes nearest the oral opening, face is widest

about half way between antennae and the mouth, tubercle large

and shining ; pile light except along the sides and a little below

the antennae, where it is black. Frontal triangle black and

shining, yellow on the sides, but the black area extends back to

a point where it reaches the juncture of the eyes. No pile just

above the antennae on the shiny parts, other areas with black

pile. Cheeks pure yellow with sparse pale pile. Vertical tri¬

angle black with black pile, tawny behind, becoming lighter on

the lower occiput. Antennae nearly all black, with a very little

red at the base of the third segment in some specimens, arista

black.

Thorax shining brassy colored with rather bright yellow side

margins which are somewhat opalescent in some specimens,

pile light yellow to brownish, longer and thicker on the sides.

The pleural spots are not so bright, being of a more opalescent

color. Scutellum yellow with the base narrowly black, pile

rather long and nearly all black, only a few yellow hairs in

front on some specimens.

Abdomen black with three pairs of prominent yellow cross¬

bands, the middle one of which is usually entire but sometimes

interrupted; of sixty-one male specimens fifty-four have this

band entire, although sometimes deeply emarginate behind, and

the other seven entirely separated.

First segment is shining and broadly yellow on the sides.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Second segment sub-opaque black; the yellow band broadly

interrupted and reaching the side margins by almost its entire

width, slightly attenuated on the rear margin; the inner ends

rounded; the band occupies about one half the width of the

segment and is situated mid-way in the segment. Band on the

third segment variable, sometimes interrupted, other times en¬

tire or sub-interrupted, on most of the specimens it is separated

from the side margins, on a few touching the sides by the ante¬

rior corners, and on a few rather broadly reaching the sides;

usually slightly oblique as is characteristic of this group of

flies, the fore margin of the band nearer the 2nd segment than

the rear margin to the 3rd segment. Third band similar but

nearly always interrupted and more oblique, the inner ends

nearly touching the rear margin of segment three; scarcely

reaching the side margins. Fifth segment nearly entirely yel¬

low, with only an indistinct triangular black area in the middle.

Posterior margin of segment three narrowly yellow, of segment

four more broadly yellow. The black of the posterior segments

more shining than segment two. Venter is colorless but the

spots of the tergum show through.

Front and middle legs yellow with the coxae and indistinct

basal areas of the trochanters black. Hind legs mostly black,

with the trochanters, narrow base and tip of the femora and

tibiae reddish.

Wings infuscated along the costal margin, very dilutely in-

fuscated over the rest of the wings.

Female - Larger, nearly 12 to 13 mm. long, abdomen more

broadly oval. Antennae larger and blacker. Front long black

shining, with yellow on the sides, constricting the black stripe

at the depression of the front. Side stripes of the thorax bright

yellow, pleural spots also brighter. Legs lighter, front coxae

yellow. Wings darker, especially on the costal margin.

Abdominal bands similar to the male with the usual varia¬

tions, the bands however are narrower and reach the side mar¬

gins more broadly, black more shining.

A very beautiful species which should be easily recognized

by the smoky wings. Its nearest relative appears to be S. emar-

ginatus Say but may be told from this species by the darker

wings, larger size, blacker antennae, darker front and frontal

triangle, etc. In teneral specimens of infuscatus the wings

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies . 299

are often more hyaline and may be confused with emarginatus.

The black frontal triangle of the male and the black front of the

female along with the larger and blacker antennae should de¬

termine this species even though the wings may be quite hy¬

aline.

Holotype male collected by the author Sept. 13, 1929 at Mad¬

ison, Wis. Allotype female collected by J. H. Lilly Aug. 26,

1929, at Madison, Wis.

Paratypes, 24 specimens collected by the author at Madison

on the following dates: Aug. 1, 1917 (H. K. Harley) 1 female;

Aug. 31, 1917, 4 males; Sept. 6, 1917, 1 male; Aug. 17, 1918, 1

male; Aug. 26, 1929, 1 male; Aug. 27, 1929, 2 males and 3 fe¬

males; Aug. 30, 1929, 3 males and 3 females; Sept. 7, 1929, 2

males and 1 female; Sept. 13, 1929, 2 males; and Aug. 26, 1930,

2 females and 1 male ; in the author's collection. 50 specimens

collected by C. H. Curran at Tuxedo, New York, 4 females Aug.

28, 1928 ; and 46 males, three August 20th, twenty-eight August

24th, one August 26, thirteen August 28, and one with no date ;

in the American Museum of Natural History. One male (J. H.

Lilly), one female (T. C. Allen) Gays Mills, Wis. Aug. 28, 1930.

I do not believe this species can be either felix O. S. or aenea

Jones. The original type of aenea is lost and the male in the

Nebraska collection is too imperfect to permit either positive

identification or a description as new. Numerous rearings of

emarginatus have always yielded typical specimens except two

which might come within the limits of felix . The question will

be settled more satisfactorily when the immature stages of

infuscatus are described.

Syrphus weborgi n. sp.

Plate V, Figures 11, 12, 13, 14 and Plate VI, Figure 15

Xanthogramma divisa Mete, (not Will.) Me. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Bui. 263 : 154, 1917.

The three principal bands of the abdomen distinctly inter¬

rupted and well separated from the lateral margins. Front of

female and frontal triangle of male largely black. Wings hy¬

aline, stigma brownish. Side stripes of the thorax distinct in

the female, less so in the male.

Male: Length (three specimens) 10.5 mm. Face yellow

with a broad shining stripe, tubercle prominent, cheeks and

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

lower mouth edge entirely yellow ; there is a very small indefin¬

ite dark area next to the eyes midway between the face and the

cheeks, which shows a close relationship with S . divisa . Frontal

triangle with a large black shining area which is dusted with

pollen toward the vertex, sides yellow. Just above the antennae

and midway between them is a characteristic yellow marking,

wider and more conspicuous than that found on S. infuscatus

or S. divisa . Pile of frontal triangle black, extending down the

side a short distance below the antennae, rest of pile of face

and cheeks pale, inconspicuous. Vertical triangle black with

black pile. Antennae dark, reddish at the bases of the first two

segments and broadly reddish on the under-side of the third;

arista dark, pale at the extreme base.

Thorax dark metallic bluish green, side stripes inconspicuous,

pile brownish, heavier on the sides. Pleura with inconspicuous

yellowish markings. Scutellum dark from above, yellow when

viewed from the side, pile pale in front, longer and black post¬

eriorly.

Abdomen black, semi-shining, with three pairs of prominent

spots, which are well separated from the side margins. First

segment with the sides yellow ; this is continued on to the next

segment, making the anterior corners yellow. Spots on the

second segment situated about mid-way between the fore and

apical margins and occupying a little less than half the area;

inner ends rounded, the very narrow apical margin yellow. Sec¬

ond pair of spots similar except they are larger and are nearer

the preceding segment, inner ends not so pointed ; extreme base

and apical margins yellow. Third pair of spots nearly like the

second, but almost touch the basal margin of the segment;

basal margin thinly yellow, a little broader on the sides, apical

margin more broadly yellow but black near the side margins.

Fifth segment with an arcuated band of black which leaves

the tip and sides of the segment yellow. Venter transparent.

Legs yellow, all the coxae, trochanters, hind tarsi, indefinite

mid band on the hind femora, and a broader band on the hind

tibiae dark brown to black. Wings very faintly tinged with yel¬

low, stigma brownish.

Female : Similar but with the following differences : front

black and extending to the base of the antennae, expanding be¬

low, with a quadrate yellow spot just above the antennae and

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies.

301

midway between them; antennae larger, side stripes of the

thorax distinct ; abdominal spots narrower and closer together ;

there are only small yellow spots on the anterior corners of

segment three and the apical margin of this segment is yellow

only in the middle, the fourth segment quite similar ; legs more

yellow, the fore and middle coxae and trochanters almost en¬

tirely yellow. In a few specimens the middle pair of spots are

sub-united.

Holotype female Aug. 25, 1927, taken near Fish Creek in Door

County, Wis. by the author; allotype male, same locality, Aug¬

ust 10, 1929.

Paratypes 36 females, same locality, Aug. 24, 1927, three

specimens ; Aug. 25, 1927, eleven specimens ; Aug. 26, one spec¬

imen; Aug. 28, 1927, two specimens; Aug. 31, 1927, one speci¬

men; Sept. 1, 1927, seventeen specimens; Madison, Wis. July

30, 1929, one specimen; one male Tuxedo, N. Y. Aug. 2, 1928,

collected by C. H. Curran, and one male Niles, Mich. July 6,

1928 taken by L. G. Gentner.

Types in the author’s collection.

A very distinctive and uniform species which should be

readily recognized. It might be confused with S. divisa, to

which it is evidently closely related, but that species is much

darker; legs, abdomen, face, etc. The entirely interrupted

bands distinguished it from S. felix. Its abdomen is also more

oval than felix.

When the specimens were taken in Door County in 1927, they

were thought to be representatives of divisa Will, until Curran

pointed out that disjectus Will, is a synonym of divisa. Met¬

calf also considered his Maine specimens divisa but they are

conspecific with weborgi n. sp. This determination is made pos¬

sible by the kind loan of the specimens reared by Dr. Metcalf.

A complete description of all stages is made by Metcalf in

Maine Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 263, 1917.

Syrphus divisa Will.

Plate VI, Figures 16, 17.

Xanthogramma divisa Williston 1882, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.

20 : 311; 1886, Synopsis 92, Wash., N. H.; Aldrich 1905, Cat.

369.

Syrphus disjunctus Williston (Not Macq.) 1882, Proc. Amer.

Phil. Soc. 20 : 314.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Syrphus disjectus Williston 1886, Synopsis, 72-Wash.; Snow

1892, Kans. Univ. Quart. 1 : 86, — Colo. ; Aldrich 1905, Cat.

365; Osburn 1908, Can. Ent. 40 : 5. - Br. Col. Synonomy

by Curran.

Syrphus divisa Curran Bulletin American Museum of Natural

History 61 : (Art. 2) 51. 1930.

A rather common fly in Wisconsin caught mostly during the

late summer. It is characterized by having three pairs of yel¬

low spots on the abdomen, otherwise quite dark.

Male: Length 7 to 10 mm. Eyes bare. Face and cheeks

yellow with a dark shining area between the eyes and the oral

opening. The face has a broad shining stripe with a rather

X>rominent tubercle, pile and pollen light except on the sides

above. Frontal triangle black with black pile; the black area

narrowed above, broadened toward the antennae with a very

small yellow emargination mid-way between the antennae and

just above them. Pile of cheeks pale becoming yellow above

on the occiput, black on the black vertical triangle. Antennae

small, dark with reddish below on the third segment; the first

two segments mostly reddish.

Thorax dark blue, shining, with very indistinct pale side

margins, most of this paleness may be due to light colored pol¬

len. The pleura almost entirely dark with yellowish pile. Pile

of the dorsum of the thorax brownish. Scutellum almost dark,

but appears dark yellow when viewed from the sides, except

the black basal area; pile mostly black, longer on the edges of

the scutellum.

Abdomen opaque black, shining a little on the fore and apical

margins of the segments ; with three pairs of prominent yellow

spots, all well separated and not reaching the side margins,

somewhat quadrate in outline. First segment shining, faintly

yellow on the sides but does not encroach on the second seg¬

ment (in weborgi there is nearly always a small amount of

yellow on the fore corners of the second segment) ; spots on

the second segment oval and well separated, they almost reach

the side margins but in all examples which I have examined

they are never touching; spots on the 3rd and 4th segments

near the bases of the segments, nearly quadrate but the inner

sides less than the outer margins; fourth segment with a nar-

now, yellow apical margin in the middle; fifth segment with

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies . 303

the anterior corners broadly, and the apical margin narrowly,

yellow.

Legs mostly dark, the first pair yellow from the basal third

out, second pair similar but there is a smudge on the apical

part of the tibia and the tarsi are light brownish ; on the third

pair the trochanters, extreme bases of the femora, and knees

are yellow. Wings slightly smoky, stigma yellowish. Halteres

yellow, their stalks brown.

Female similar. The front mostly black, yellow only below

on the sides, with that peculiarly shaped yellow spot in the

black area just above the antennae; antennae darker, almost all

black; thorax stripes more distinct, pile of pleura white; ab¬

dominal spots longer but narrower, yellow of the legs more

pronounced.

A very uniform species which closely resembles S. weborgi.

S. divisa , however, is easily separated because of its dark form ;

it is also smaller. The larvae of this species feed upon Chaito-

phorus populicola Thom, on Populus spp. Described from 39

specimens. Also recorded from British Columbia, New York

and New Hampshire.

Immature stages (Plate VI, Figures 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23).

The larvae of S. divisa were first observed in July, 1924, near

Columbus, Wis. Their unusually flat appearance and striking

color immediately attracted attention although they looked

somewhat like a dead area or scale of the leaf. They were

resting on the top of the broad leaves of young vigorous shoots

of balm of Gilead. The growing tips of these shoots were in¬

fested with an aphid which was later determined as Chaito-

phorus populicola Thom. The larvae were well scattered, never

more than two were found on each twig. After a close diligent

search about a dozen specimens were gathered, placed in pill

boxes with some of the aphids from the tips of the twig.

All of the larvae, which were of various sizes grew rapidly,

feeding on the aphids given them. They would then seek any

depression in the pill boxes, become senescent, finally withering

and dying. No clue to the identity of the species was secured

that year or the next, although quite a few of the larvae were

collected.

During the season of 1929 they were again noticed feeding

upon the same aphid which was very plentiful on quaking

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

aspen in the vicinity of Madison. In the meantime, one warm

day the last of July while collecting in a woods near Madison

with my young son, we came across a few small aspen trees in¬

fested with aphids, among the branches of which we observed

with difficulty the adults of £. divisa .

Numerous specimens were caught and after some time of

watching one female was observed apparently laying eggs

among the colonies of plant lice. The fly was so alert that it

was some minutes before she was observed to deposit an egg.

This was found in a crotch formed by a small twig and a leaf

petiole. As soon as the egg was laid the fly was captured, and

proved to be S . divisa .

The single egg was oviposited July 30, 1929, and hatched four

days later. The young larva exhibited the characteristic shape

and color of S. emarginatus larvae although it was a trifle pink¬

ish. After two days an extended trip out of town was necessary

and with the anxious idea to rear the species the specimen was

taken along with the anticipation of finding enroute plenty of

food for it. None of the same aphids were found and although

offered other species the syrphid larva died.

About this same time eight of the full grown tan colored lar¬

vae were placed in a flower pot containing a little grass, dead

leaves, and sticks. This was covered over with cheese cloth and

placed out of doors under a tree.

An examination on Aug. 15, disclosed one pupa skin and a

syrphid fly nearly dead within an inch of the pupa case. This

fly, while not entire normally colored, was easily identified as a

male S. divisa . The pot of larvae was brought into the labor¬

atory about the first of December and Jan. 20, 1930 a female

emerged. This settled without any doubt the identity of the

species.

There are apparently two generations of this species in Wis¬

consin, adults appearing in June and again in August, although

some are caught at almost any time during the season. They

will be taken most commonly where Populus spp. occur.

Egg - Length 0.768 mm., width 0.264 mm. The egg is white

and shows no distinct differences from those pictured by Met¬

calf for Syrphus weborgi. The chorion pattern exhibits the

characteristic “8-rayed spider webs, or hexagonal wheels”.

Here also the transverse arms are parallel, rather close to-

Fluke— Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies. 805

gether. These patterns can also be described as diamond shaped

areas, all contiguous like honey comb, with the four corners

consisting of a slightly elevated body; each diamond being

crossed transversely by two close parallel arms or lines. These

parallel arms appear to be closer together in this species than

those pictured by Metcalf for weborgi. Considerable irregu¬

larity occurs in the shapes of these markings and the trans¬

verse parallel arms may run slightly oblique around the egg.

Larva: Length, contracted, 7 mm., width at widest point

about 4 mm.

This larva is readily recognized by its flat appearance (al¬

though well fed specimens are somewhat rounded) but partic¬

ularly by the tan colored band which occupies in general the

posterior half of the body. This band is oblique in shape,

pointed anteriorly on about the middle segment (6th?). On

this segment the tan color occupies only the middle area or disc,

the sides are yellow. The following three segments are pink,

the last of the three being only irregularly tan on the dorsum.

The anterior three (exposed) segments and the posterior two

are yellow.

Along the sides the larva has the characteristic papillae in

groups of three to each segment; at the end of each papilla is

a short stubby, pale spine. Between each two groups of papillae

is a small papilla, lacking a spine ; but these occur only poster¬

iorly on the last five segment divisions.

Integument is very finely papillose with no vestiture. Seg¬

mental spines very short, pale, and almost inconspicuous.

Posterior respiratory appendage. The tip of the tube slants

up so that measurements vary in relation to ventral or dorsal

aspects, the dorsal being longer. Dorsal length 0.896 mm.,

ventral length 0.744 mm., width at tip of organ 0.387 mm.,

width at base 0.504 mm., height 0.193 mm.

The spiracles are straight and vary in apparent length from

0.072 mm. to 0.082 mm. with an average of 0.077 mm. Complete

measurements are given in comparison with S. emarginatus in

Table I. The entire tube is longer and more slender than usual

in this group. It is broad at the base and curves evenly and

gradually to the middle, the sides are then parallel for a short

distance, finally widening at the tip.

This larva is the most beautiful of the Syrphidae I have ever

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

seen, exceeding in its delicate tints other members of this

group.

Pupa - Length 5.25 mm., exclusive of the posterior res¬

piratory appendage ; width approximately 3 mm. The shape is

characteristic of this group, similar to emarginatus and

wehorgi . The larval color is absent, having instead a buff or

light brown color with irregular black cross bars on 3rd to 6th

segments. 8th and 9th segments usually with black dots on the

mid-dorsum.

Syrphus fragila (Fluke)

Xanthogramma fragila Fluke, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts &

Let. 20 : 21, 1922.

Very closely related to divisa Will, and may be only a variety

but the small size, narrow abdomen, yellow antennae and yellow

frontal triangle seem to indicate that it is a distinct species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

All drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida, thus direct

comparisons of like objects can be made.

Plate V

Fig. 1. Xanthogramma flavipes, antenna of male.

Fig. 2. Syrphus emarginatus , abdominal pattern of male.

Fig. 3. Syrphus emarginatus, front view of head of male.

Fig. 4. Syrphus emarginatus, front view of head of female.

Fig. 5. Syrphus emarginatus, antenna of female.

Fig. 6. Syrphus felix, abdominal pattern of female.

Fig. 7. Syrphus felix, front view of head of female.

Fig. 8. Syrphus infuscatus, n. sp., abdominal pattern of female.

Fig. 9. Syrphus infuscatus, abdominal pattern of male.

Fig. 19. Syrphus infuscatus, antenna of female.

Fig. 11. Syrphus wehorgi, n. sp., abdominal pattern of female.

Fig. 12. Syrphus wehorgi, abdominal pattern of male.

Fig. 13. Syrphus wehorgi, front view of head of male.

Fig. 14. Syrphus wehorgi , front view of head of female.

Plate VI

Fig. 15. Syrphus wehorgi, profile of head of female.

Fig. 16. Syrphus divisa, antenna of female.

Fig. 17. Syrphus divisa, abdominal pattern of male.

Fig. 18. Syrphus divisa, showing egg chorion pattern, greatly enlarged.

Fig. 19. Syrphus divisa, showing position of egg on aspen twig.

Fluke — Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies .

307

Fig. 20. Syrphus divisa , side view of posterior respiratory appendage.

Fig. 21. Syrphus divisa, empty puparium.

FIG. 22. Syrphus divisa, surface view of spiracular field, showing the three

pairs of spiracles, the circular plate, and the roughened areas

between the spiracles.

Fig. 23. Syrphus divisa, larva showing the serrated edges and the orange-

colored band, shown as the dark area on the drawing.

Fig. 24. Syrphus emarginatus, side view of the posterior respiratory ap¬

pendage. Compare with figure 20.

Fig. 25. Syrphus emarginatus, surface view of spiracular field, compare

with figure 22.

Fig. 26. Syrphus emarginatus, dorsal view of the tip of the posterior res¬

piratory appendage.

Fig. 27. Syrphus emarginatus, empty puparium.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26 PLATE V

Fluke— Notes on Certain Syrphus Flies.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

309

PLATE VI

PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE HYDRACARINA OF

WISCONSIN

I. THE RED MITES

Ruth Marshall

The interest of students of fresh water biology in the water

mites makes it desirable to have lists of determined species for

different regions in America. Such a list is now being compiled

for Wisconsin from the data and collections in the writer's pos¬

session. This list when completed will probably be equally ap¬

plicable to the entire upper Mississippi basin and southern Can¬

ada. The present paper, which is the beginning of a check list,

records fourteen species belonging to the group of “red mites”.

Data on distribution and one or more figures are given for each

species. In this paper synopses are included only in the case of

the two new species to be described. The figures, it is hoped,

will be sufficient in most cases to enable the student who has

some general knowledge of the group to make identifications

for himself. The accompanying bibliography gives the papers

where full or original descriptions may be found. For the de¬

termination of the genera the reader is referred to Dr. Wol¬

cott's A Review of the Genera of the Water Mites or his article

on the group in Ward & Whipple's Fresh Water Biology . For a

more recent and fuller account of the genera and a description

of the cosmopolitan species, Soar & Williamson's British Hy-

dracarina should be consulted. In the grouping of the genera

the writer has followed Dr. Koenike's article on Hydracarina in

Tierwelt Mitteleuropas.

The red water mites form the super-family Limnocharae

which is divided into eight families, all but one of which are

known to be represented in the Wisconsin fauna. They are com¬

mon in shallow waters and are the simplest members of the

group of the Hydracarina (which may be regarded as forming

a suborder) . They are usually large, oval mites, red or orange

in color; the skin is soft, covered with papillae of different

kinds, and often develops dorsal plates. The double eyes of

each side lie on chitinized capsules; an unpaired eye may be

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

present. The epimera (leg plates) are in four groups, often

considerably separated. The genital area is near the epimera;

the character of the plates and acetabula of this region are im¬

portant in distinguishing the genera. Sexual dimorphism is not

very marked. The five- jointed palpi are sometimes chelate. The

legs (of six segments each) are short, end in claws and bear

numeous bristles and sometimes swimming hairs.

Limnochares aquaticus (L.)

PI. VII, fig. 1-3.

This common mite, one of the largest, is the only species re¬

corded for the genus. It is widely distributed over Europe and

has been found also in British Columbia, Ontario, Minnesota,

Michigan, Indiana, and New York. In Wisconsin it has been

found in Catfish Lake (Vilas County), in ponds near Cable

and Green Bay, in Storr Lake (near Milton), in Fox Lake and

the Waupaca Chain-o’-Lakes.

Eylais desecta Koen.

PI. VII, fig. 13, 14.

The highly variable character of the eye plate upon which so

far the determination of the species of this large genus has

been largely based, together with the uncertainty of what should

be regarded as specific characters, make identifications here

very difficult. This is the only species which has been determined

with some degree of certainty; other species are undoubtedly

present in the state. It has been recognized in material from

Ontario and Michigan; in Wisconsin specimens have been

found in pools near Madison, Green Bay, Green Lake, Jordan

Lake (Adams County), in Lake Koshkonong, Bass Lake (Wau¬

paca), Little John (Vilas County) and in the Wisconsin River

near Kilbourn.

Protzia ovata n. sp.

PI. VII, fig. 9-12.

The body is obovate, slightly shouldered. The largest speci¬

men found measured 1.20 mm. The surface of the body has

conspicuous papillae, rounded or slightly pointed. The double

eyes of each side are large and lie on distinct plates. The epim-

Marshall— Hy dr acarina of Wisconsin. I. 313

era are typical of the genus. The genital area is extensive and

lies between the epimeral groups. The genital plates are in¬

conspicuous ; they are surrounded by large oval stipitate irreg¬

ularly placed acetabula, of which there are about thirty in the

female, with numerous long hairs among them. The capitulum

is large and broad, extending over the body margin. The palpi

are short and bear short hairs ; the distal projection of segment

four is conspicuous. The legs are short, resembling those of

P. eximia Protz, the type species; they are without swimming

hairs and end in serrated spoon-shaped claws.

The new species appears to resemble most closely P. caucasica

Sok., found in Russia ; the stalked acetubula, however, are more

numerous. The shape of the body together with details of the

genital area distinguish this species from others of the genus

described.

Five individuals were found in Green Lake by Professor C.

Juday. All but one appear to be females; the remaining one,

probably a young male, was not sufficiently well preserved to

permit of a determination. This is the first described species of

the genus Protzia to be reported for North America.

Hydrachna crenulata Mar.

PI. VIII, fig. 28.

This species has been found in but two localities: in Fox

Lake and in a pool near Oxford.

Hydrachna rotunda Mar.

PI. VIII, fig. 23.

Specimens of this species have been found in Lake Winne¬

bago and in pools near Green Bay, Green Lake and Jordan

Lake. The small dorsal plates are irregular and variable.

Hydrachna canadensis Mar.

PI. VIII, fig. 24.

As in the last species, the dorsal plates show a considerable

degree of variability. Specimens have been found in Lake Win¬

nebago and Trout Lake.

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Hydrachna bilunata n. sp.

PL VIII, fig. 26, 27.

The body is hemispherical and may attain a length of 3.00

mm. The surface shows very small low papillae. The color is

bright red. A small irregularly lunate plate lies just back of

each eye plate; still farther back are two irregular, somewhat

oblong plates or bars, all of these structures variable in shape.

The fourth pair of epimera show a prominent rounded pro¬

jection on the inner posterior corner, these plates thus largely

surrounding the female genital area. The new species resembles

H. amplexa Koen., found in Madagascar. The male is unknown.

Specimens have been found in British Columbia and in Wis¬

consin in pools near Green Lake, Trout Lake and Jordan Lake.

Hydrachna schneideri americana Mar.

PI. VIII, fig. 21, 22.

The large plate posterior to the eyes is variable in outline as

it is in the parent species. The male of this variety has now

been identified; the genital area is somewhat cordate, broader

than in H. schneideri Koen.

The species has been found in Alberta, North Dakota and

Maine. In Wisconsin it has been found in Lake Winnebago,

Trout Lake pool, ponds at Big Spring (Adams County), Mir¬

ror Lake and the Wisconsin River near Kilbourn.

Hydrachna magniscutata Mar.

PI. VIII, fig. 25.

This species has been found in Indiana, New Jersey and

Michigan. In Wisconsin it is known for Lake Winnebago, Fox

Lake, Lake Pewaukee, Mirror Lake, Silver and Ballard lakes

near Trout Lake, and in pools near Green Lake and Burlington.

Pseudosperchon verrucosus (Protz)

PI. VIII, fig. 15-18.

Much interest attaches to the finding of this cosmopolitan

species, the first record for the New World to the writer’s

knowledge. It has been known heretofore for Europe and

northern Africa. Two specimens, each measuring 0.50 mm.,

Marshall — Hydracarina of Wisconsin. I.

315

were found in Green Lake by Professor Juday. They have been

compared with identified material from the collection of the

late Dr. Koenike and also with specimens kindly sent to the

writer by Dr. Viets. There seems to be no doubt of the identi¬

fication. Drawings are submitted in confirmation of this find¬

ing.

Hydryphantes ruber (deGeer)

PI. VII, fig. 5, 6.

This species, common throughout Europe, has been found in

a pool near Jordan Lake. It has also been found in Illinois and

Ohio and is reported by Dr. Nathan Banks for Northwest Ter¬

ritory.

Hydryphantes tenuabilis Mar.

PL VII, fig. 4.

This common species has been found in Lakes Winnebago,

Delavan, Storr and Mason; and in pools and ponds near lakes

Jordan, Beulah, Geneva and Waubesa. It also occurs in Iowa,

Michigan and Ohio.

Hydryphantes multiporus Mar.

PL VII, fig. 7, 8.

This is a rare species and has been found only in Goose Pond

near Jordan Lake.

Diplodontus despiciens (Miill.)

PL VIII, fig. 19, 20.

This is one of the commonest and most widely distributed

species of water mites. It has been found in or near the fol¬

lowing lakes and ponds : Lauderdale, Beulah, Burlington, Dela¬

van, Whitewater, Wingra, Fox, Storr, Buffalo (Waupaca), Big

Spring, Silver (Portage), Mason, Oxford, Jordan, Mirror,

Spooner, Cable, Otter (Eagle River), and ten lakes in Vilas

County. It has also been found in New York, New Jersey, South

Carolina, Michigan, Iowa, North Dakota, Ontario, British Col¬

umbia, Cuba and Panama. It has been reported for all parts of

Europe, for South America, Asia and Africa.

Rockford College,

January 1, 1931.

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Bibliography

The list is confined to the three general papers already cited and other

papers giving original descriptions of the species listed.

Koenike, F.

1912. A Revision of my “Northamerikanische Hydrachniden”.

Trans. Canadian Inst: 281-296; PI. I, II.

Univ. Press, Toronto.

Marshall, R.

1926. Water Mites of the Okoboji Region.

Univ. Iowa Studies in Nat. Hist., XI, 9:28-35; PI. I-IV.

1927. Hydracarina of the Douglas Lake Region.

Trans. A.M.S., XLVI, 4:268-285; pi. VII-IX.

1929. Canadian Hydracarina. Pub. Ontario Fisheries

Res. Lab., No. 39; 57-93; PL I-VIII.

1930. The Water Mites of the Jordan Lake Region.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXV:245-253; PI. 5, 6.

Soar & Williamson

1925. British Hydracarina, vol. I. The Ray Society, No. 110. London.

Viets, K.

1925. Hydracarina in Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, III: VIII, p. 1-57.

Wolcott, R. H.

1905. A Review of the Genera of the Water Mites.

Trans. A.M.S., XXVI: 161-243; PI. XVIII-XXVII.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES

Plate VII

1. Limnochares aquations, dorsal eye plate

2. Limnochares aquaticus, ventral plates (left 3rd and 4th epimera

omitted)

3. Limnochares aquaticus, dorsal view

4. Hydryphantes tenuabilis, dorsal plate

5. Hydryphantes ruber , ventral view

6. Hydryphantes ruber, dorsal plate

7. Hydryphantes multiporus, dorsal plate

8. Hydryphantes multiporus, genital area

9. Protzia ovata, capitulum and right palpus

10. Protzia ovata, ventral surface, female

11. Protzia ovata, end of leg IV

Marshall— Hy dr acarina of Wisconsin. I.

317

12. Protzia ovata, eye region

13. Eylais desecta, dorsal surface

14. Eylais desecta , eye plate

Plate VIII

15. Pseudosperchon verrucosus, dorsal view

16. Pseudosperchon verrucosus , detail of a tubercule

17. Pseudosperchon verrucosus , right palpus

18. Pseudosperchon verrucosus, ventral surface

19. Diplodontus despiciens, dorsal view

20. Diplodontus despiciens , ventral plates, young male

21. Hydrachna schneideri wmericana, male genital area

22. Hydrachna schneideri americana, dorsal plate

23. Hydrachna rotunda, anterior dorsal region

24. Hydrachna canadensis, anterior dorsal region

25. Hydrachna magniscutata, dorsal view

26. Hydrachna bilunata , anterior dorsal region

27. Hydrachna bilunata, ventral plates, female

28. Hydrachna crenulata, anterior dorsal region

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL. 26

PLATE VII

Marshall — Hydracarina of Wisconsin . L

319

TRANS. WIS. ACAD., VOL.

PLATE VIII

WISCONSIN HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES

T. E. B. Pope

Curator of Lower Zoology , Milwaukee Public Museum

In order that our knowledge of the herpetological fauna of

Wisconsin may be maintained up to date, there is submitted

herewith a detailed list of such information on this subject as

has come to the attention of the writer during the past year.

This list of reptiles and amphibians represents chiefly addi¬

tional distributional data acquired since our recent publication

(Pope and Dickinson 1928, Pope 1928 and 1980).

The items composing this list comprise principally specimens

collected or received during the year 1929 as well as certain

species indicated in publications or observed in that year. A

few items representing localities inadvertently omitted in the

previous bulletin and some withheld pending positive identi¬

fication or reidentification have also been inserted in this article.

The observations cited are principally those made by Dr. A. I.

Ortenburger while he was connected with the Wisconsin Geo¬

logical and Natural History Survey in 1918.

The following species of Wisconsin amphibians and reptiles

are hereby reported from counties not indicated in the publica¬

tions mentioned above. It is believed that these records con¬

stitute new distributional data:

A . Species that are represented by actual preserved specimens

in the possession of the Milwaukee Museum.

Amphibia

Mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus).

Jefferson County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2319.

Collected by Haywood Rose at Lake Palmyra on May 5,

1929. Living when received on May 7.

Common Newt (Triturus viridescens viridescens).

Vernon County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2330.

Collected by W. R. Spellum at Bad Axe River on June 2,

1929. Length 2% inches.

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters .

Spotted Salamander (Amby stoma maculatum) .

Milwaukee County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2341

(2 spec.).

Collected by W. V. Tyrrell while digging a well at North

Milwaukee. Living when received by museum Dec. 6, 1929

and held in captivity until March 1 and March 16, 1930.

Museum photograph No. 405277.

American Toad (Bufo americanus).

Marquette County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 1831.

A dried and inflated skin received from William Menge

Aug. 31, 1920.

Swamp Cricket Frog (Pseudacris feriarum).

Vernon County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2331.

Collected by T. E. B. Pope at Stoddard on June 5, 1929.

Spring-peeper (Hyla crucifer ).

Dane County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2340.

Collected by W. E. Dickinson at Madison on Sept. 30, 1929.

Reptilia

Eastern Ring-necked Snake (Diadophis punctatus edwardsii) .

Langlade County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2334.

Collected by Ulrich Dernehl at Elcho. Received Aug. 19,

1929. Museum photographs 405268-405269.

Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon contortrix).

Waushara County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2322.

Collected by Dr. G. H. Bush of Ripon at White River and

received alive on May 29, 1929. Young specimen. This

species was previously cited from this county by observa¬

tion only.

Smooth Green Snake (Liopeltis vernalis).

Sauk County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2337.

Collected by E. D. Ochsner at Prairie du Sac on Aug. 23,

1929.

Fox Snake (Elaphe vulpina).

Forest County. Milwaukee Museum., Cat., No., 2336.

Collected by Norman Seeger at Stone Lake. Received Sept.

3, 1929.

Yellow-bellied King Snake (Lampropeltis calligaster).

Milwaukee County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 1833.

Collected by Miss Ruth Ward at Milwaukee on July 20,

Pope — Wisconsin Herpetological Notes

323

1920. Kept alive at the museum on exhibition until Oct.

10, 1920, then killed and skinned. A cast skin of this speci¬

men also on hand. Length 51 inches. This is the first

record we have of the species within the state although

it had been anticipated.

De Kay's Snake (Storeria dekayi).

Washington County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 1671.

Collected by Rose Miller at West Bend in August 1911.

Length 105 mm.

Red-bellied Snake (Storeria oceipitomaculata ).

Wood County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2318.

Collected by Guy Nash at Wisconsin Rapids on April 23,

1929.

Milwaukee County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2339.

Collected by Harry A. Miller at Whitefish Bay on Nov. 10,

1929 and received alive by the museum.

Milwaukee County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. Nos. 738-1594

1667-1668-1669-1672-1782-1783 (8 spec.) collected by vari¬

ous persons.

Butler's Garter Snake (Thamnophis butleri).

Washington County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 996.

Collected by Dr. S. Graenicher at Cedar Lake in August

1909.

Common Garter Snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis).

Sauk County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2022.

Collected by W. E. Dickinson at Prairie du Sac on July

11, 1926. Length 19 inches.

Sauk County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. No. 2110.

Collected by E. C. Keitel at Merrimack. Received Sept. 18,

1926. Length 36 inches.

Sauk County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. Nos. 2144-2151 (8

spec.).

Collected by E. C. Keitel at Merrimack and received alive

by the museum on June 15, 1927. Lengths ranging from

27 to 39 inches.

Bell's Turtle ( Chrysemys marginata bellii).

Vernon County. Milwaukee Museum. Cat. Nos. 2323-2324

(2 spec.).

Collected by T. E. B. Pope at Stoddard on June 5, 1929.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

B. Species that are listed or mentioned in recognized scientific

publications. It is assumed that actual specimens to sup¬

port such data are deposited in institutions.

These consist of a list of amphibians and reptiles of Wauke¬

sha County by Alvin R. Cahn (Cahn 1929). Only those species

not indicated in the Milwaukee Museum bulletin as occurring in

this county are included in the following :

Amphibia

Common Newt (Triturus viridescens viridescens).

Spotted Salamander (Amby stoma maculatum).

Marbled Salamander (Amby stoma opacum).

Tiger Salamander (Amby stoma tigrinum).

Four-toed Salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum).

Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus).

Slimy Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus).

Swamp Tree Frog (Pseudacris triseriata).

Spring-peeper (Hyla crucifer).

Northern Wood Frog (Rana cantabrigensis).

Pickerel Frog (Rana palustris).

Reptilia

Blue-tailed Skink (Eumeces fasciatus).

Eastern Ring-necked Snake (Diadophis punctatus edwardsii).

Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon contortrix).

Blue Racer ( Coluber constrictor flaviventris).

Fox Snake (Elaphe vulpina).

Bull Snake (Pituophis sayi).

Kirtland’s Water Snake (Natrix kirtlandii).

Queen Snake (Natrix septemvittata) .

Common Water Snake (Natrix sipedon sipedon).

Western Ribbon Snake (Thamnophis proximus).

Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix).

Spotted Turtle ( Clemmys guttata).

Common Box Turtle (Terrapene Carolina Carolina).

Pope — Wisconsin Herpetological Notes.

325

C. Species that have been observed by reliable persons.

Amphibia

American Toad (Bufo americanus).

Portage County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Stev¬

ens Point on July 17, 18, 19, 1918.

Winnebago County. Observed by T. E. B. Pope and W. E.

Dickinson on low swampy land adjoining the state fish

hatchery at Oshkosh on May 25, 1927. Many specimens

were mating.

Swamp Tree Frog (Pseudacris triseriata).

Dunn County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Meri-

dean on Aug. 14, 1918.

Northern Wood Frog (Rana cantabrigensis).

Sauk County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Kilbourn

on Aug. 23, 1918. (7 spec.).

Mink Frog (Rana septentrionalis).

Marathon County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Rib Hill on July 3, 1918.

Portage County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Plover River near Stevens Point on July 19, 1918.

Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) .

Marathon County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Rib

Hill on July 10, 1918.

Portage County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Plover River near Stevens Point on July 17, 18, 1918. (10

spec.) .

Clark County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Withee,

Black River, on July 22, 1918 (2 spec., male and female),

also on July 24, 1918.

Washburn County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Long Lake on Aug. 3, 1918 (male spec.).

Walworth County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Whitewater on Sept. 7, 1918.

Reptilia

Smooth Green Snake (Liopeltis vernalis).

Portage County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at

Stevens Point on July 20, 1918 on a sandy road; female.

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix).

Columbia County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Lodi

on Sept. 5, 1918. (3 spec.).

Sauk County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Devils

Lake on Aug. 25, 1918. (2 spec.).

Vilas County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at St. Ger¬

main Creek, Sayner, on June 23-24, 1918. (3 spec.).

Blanding’s Turtle (Emys blandingii) .

Kenosha County. Observed by W. E. Dickinson on road,

April 7, 1929. Specimen badly damaged.

Western Painted Turtle (Chrysemys marginata marginata).

Dunn County. Observed by Dr. A. I. Ortenburger at Chip¬

pewa River, Meridean, on Aug. 15, 1918.

Bell’s Turtle (Chrysemys marginata bellii).

Kenosha County. Observed by W. E. Dickinson on road,

April 7, 1929. Specimen badly crushed by auto.

Special mention may now be made of certain species in the

possession of the Milwaukee Museum that represent new local¬

ities, are rather uncommon, or are entirely new additions to the

state fauna.

Four-toed Salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum). In the

article published last year on the herpetology of the state it

was shown that this small salamander was taken in Vernon

County where it was reported by W. R. Spellum to be “com¬

mon and widely spread over the county.” Heretofore, it had

only been taken at Racine in early days by Dr. P. R. Hoy and

recently in Winnebago County by Howard E. Reed. Of inter¬

est then may be the collecting by Mr. Spellum and the writer of

fully a dozen more specimens in the valley of the Bad Axe

River, Vernon County, on June 2, 1929. Five of these speci¬

mens are preserved at the Milwaukee Museum as Cat. No. 2329.

These specimens were easily found under both boulders and

logs on rather dry hillsides. This fact is noted because the

species has been claimed also to inhabit sphagnum swamps.

Cahn now reports it from Waukesha County. Thus the prophecy

of the probable state-wide distribution of this formerly little-

known amphibian is now being slowly realized.

Swamp Cricket Frog (Pseudacris feriarum). As shown by

the above records, the Milwaukee Museum specimen, Cat. No.

2331, represents a new distributional area for the species. This

Pope — Wisconsin Herpetological Notes .

327

specimen was taken on the bank of the Mississippi River while

the only other known specimens are those listed by the Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin from Adams County in the central part of

the state in the same general latitude.

Yellow-bellied King Snake (Lampropeltis callig aster). The

inclusion of this snake in the ophidian fauna of Wisconsin has

been based on the recorded range of the species by Stejneger

and Barbour (1923) and which has been cited as, “Illinois and

Wisconsin to Texas”. The recent reidentification of the Mil¬

waukee Museum specimen, Cat. No. 1833, thus definitely af¬

firms the existence of this serpent within the state. In this

connection it may be stated that this specimen was compared

with a specimen of the same species, identified and donated by

Dr. F. N. Blanchard of the University of Michigan, collected at

Haverhill, Kansas, and now deposited in the Milwaukee Mu¬

seum as Cat. No. 2167. On August 29, 1929 another specimen,

Milwaukee Museum Cat. No. 2335, was found on a box car of

lumber at Milwaukee consigned to the Pagel Lumber Company.

Western Diamond-back Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox atrox).

Adverting to Milwaukee Museum specimen, Cat. No. 2293, of

this species, which was announced and discussed in both the

Milwaukee Museum Yearbook and Wisconsin Academy Trans¬

actions (Pope 1928 and 1930) it will be recalled that, concern¬

ing the method of its introduction into the state, the following

was stated, “In answer to such inquiries — we can only con¬

jecture, hoping that later investigations may reveal definite in¬

formation. Its migration into Wisconsin probably followed up

the Mississippi River - . Then again, it is not at all im¬

probable that the first specimen, or specimens, in the State may

have been brought into Wisconsin and escaped from captivity.”

This latter theory (that of the escape of introduced specimens)

appears at present writing to be our best solution of the prob¬

lem. On Oct. 4, 1929, Mr. L. C. Stuart of the Museum of Zo¬

ology of the University of Michigan, wrote the writer as fol¬

lows: “While working there (Wisconsin) several summers ago

I heard of another report which might prove of interest to you.

It seems that a number of years ago several specimens escaped

from a circus in the vicinity of Pittsville in Wood County. It is

still rumored that a colony of them have become established

along a creek (Babcock Creek, I believe) a few miles to the

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

west”. Dr. L. M. Klauber of the Zoological Society of San Diego,

California, says in a letter of Sept 30, 1929, “I cannot but be¬

lieve that the introduction of these snakes into Wisconsin must

have been accidental rather than a natural extension of the

range.” And again, on Nov. 26, 1929, after learning of the state¬

ment of Mr. Stuart cited above, “I do not at all question the

presence of this species in your state, for your description and

the photographs are quite definite on this point. I think the ex¬

planation that the nucleus of this colony escaped from a circus

is quite probably correct. We hear of specimens escaping in

this manner rather frequently, although it is of course true that

seldom do a sufficient number get away to form a new colony.”

While no actual specimens of the Western Diamond-back

Rattlesnake have been acquired by the Milwaukee Museum

since the acquisition of Cat. No. 2293, it may be of interest to

state that the writer has heard several more rumors concern¬

ing their presence in the state. Furthermore, Mr. Huron H.

Smith, Curator of Botany in the Milwaukee Museum, has sub¬

mitted notes to the effect that while engaged in field-work that

Tenus Tuttrup (formerly his assistant) and himself saw a

Diamond-back rattler near Monument Rock south of Liberty

Pole, Vernon County, U. S. Highway No. 61, on July 14, 1922.

It will be noted that Monument Rock is within a mile of Hog¬

back Hill where three specimens, including a young one, were

reported under affidavit as killed in the latter part of August

1928. Still more interesting, it will be noted that this observa¬

tion by Mr. Smith was made on a date six years previously,

thus confirming the assertion that this serpent had become es¬

tablished in this state and for a longer period of time than per¬

haps we realized. Mr. Smith says that this specimen of snake

was only about fifteen feet distant from him at the time of

observation and that he plainly saw the prominent white

stripes on the side of the snake’s head that distinguishes this

species at sight from the common Banded Rattlesnake ( Cro -

talus horridus). This specimen was about six feet long.

Now as to the statement of Mr. Stuart mentioned above. Bab¬

cock Creek is in the vicinity of Babcock in the southwestern

part of Wood County, about sixty miles distant airline from

Viroqua and northeast from the same. Quoting Mr. Smith

again we find the Winnebago Indians familiar with this ser-

Pope — Wisconsin Herpetological Notes. 329

pent in this locality when he says, “During the latter part of

August 1928, I heard a rumor of the appearance of the Dia¬

mond-back Rattler from some Winnebago Indian friends of

mine who were also informants in my field work done among

them that summer It came about thru a trip when I took

George Monegar, a chief and medicine man and his wife over

to collect a few remedies that did not grow near their home.

We went to Nekoosa and south of there to some sand hills.

Among these remedies was one for a certain kind of rattle¬

snake, which they called the ‘King of the Rattlesnakes' and

which was different from the usual small kind said to infest

Rabbit Hill in northern Adams County. They told me that

this kind was found around Babcock Creek, in the vicinity of

Babcock, in the southwestern part of Wood County. I was

often around Babcock, but did not get to see the snakes. Fur¬

ther confirmation was given to the presence of this snake by

Ray White and Fred Mallory, both Winnebago Indians. Their

opinion was that the snakes were not common and had come

in possibly eight years ago."

Thus it appears that, if the escape of the snakes from a cir¬

cus near Pittsville be confirmed, some members of the Bab¬

cock Creek colony must have found their way to Vernon Coun¬

ty by passing southwesterly through the northern portion of

Juneau County and diagonally through Monroe County.

Bibliography

Cahn, Alvin R. 1929. The herpetology of Waukesha County, Wisconsin.

Copeia, No. 170, pp. 4-8, April 30, 1929.

Pope, T. E. B. 1928. Wisconsin herpetological notes. Yearbook Public

Museum Milwaukee 8 (1) : 177-184.

- — 1930. Wisconsin herpetological notes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.

Arts & Letters 25 : 273-284.

Pope, T. E. B., and W. E. Dickinson. 1928. The amphibians and reptiles

of Wisconsin. Bull. Public Museum Milwaukee 8 (1).

Stejneger and Barbour. 1923. A checklist of North American amphibi¬

ans and reptiles. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

LIMNOLOGICAL STUDIES OF LAKE WINGRA

Willis L. Tressler

University of Buffalo

AND

Bernard P. Domogalla

City Biochemist , Madison, Wisconsin

Very little work has been attemped in the way of limnological

studies on small, shallow American lakes in which little or no

stratification occurs. This situation led in October 1925 to the

beginning of a study of Lake Wingra by Dr. A. H. Wiebe. He

continued his studies until June 1926, after which they were

taken up by Dr. Stillman Wright and the present authors, ac^

cording to the following schedule :

June 1926 to September 1926, B. P. Domogalla.

September 1926 to June 1927, S. Wright.

June 1927 to January 1928, B. P. Domogalla.

February 1928 to January 1980, W. L. Tressler.

The Lake

Within a few miles of the city of Madison, Wisconsin, there

are five lakes. Four of these, Lakes Mendota, Monona, Waubesa

and Kegonsa, are in a chain through which the Yahara river

flows on its way to the Rock River, a tributary of the Missis¬

sippi. The city of Madison lies for the most part between and

on the shores of Lakes Mendota and Monona. Lake Wingra ad¬

joins the city on the southwest. Juday (1914) gives the follow¬

ing account of the lake:

“Lake Wingra is a small, shallow body of water which lies

a short distance west of lake Monona ; its waters reach the lat¬

ter through Murphy creek which has recently been dredged and

made into a canal. The name Wingra is that which was applied

to this lake by the Winnebago Indians who formerly occupied

this portion of Wisconsin. The names signifies dead and locally

this body of water is frequently called “Dead” Lake. In reality,

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

however, this lake is not dead yet but has reached an advanced

stage in its life history, and this fact doubtless accounts for

the application of this name to it. The maximum depth is 4.25

m. (14 ft.) and by far the greatest portion does not exceed 3 m.

in depth.

u Shores. The immediate shores of the entire lake are swampy

and marshy. This low margin varies in width from only a few

meters in some places to a kilometer or more at other places.

At two points on the south side and along practically all of the

north side the swampy margin is not very wide and back of

this zone the shores rise rather abruptly to a height of 8 m. to

10 m. (26 ft. to 33 ft.) above the level of the lake. At the west¬

ern end the low margin is more extensive and the rise to higher

ground beyond is more gradual. The most extensive marsh and

swamp areas are located along the eastern and southeastern

portions of the lake. The low shores support a luxuriant growth

of vegetation and an abundant growth of the larger aquatic

plants is also found in the shallow water along the margins of

the lake.

“At the northeastern corner of the lake a small low island

has been formed artifically by dredging and filling and the low

portion of the shores at this point has also been raised by arti¬

ficial filling. Extensive modifications by dredging and filling

have also been made along the southern shore.

“There are large marl deposits both on the bottom of lake

Wingra and along its margins. In some places these deposits

reach a thickness of 8 m. to 9 m. (26 ft. to 30 ft.).

“ Sources of Water. Two small streams enter lake Wingra,

one at the west end and the other on the south side ; the chief

source of water consists of springs which are situated along the

margin of the lake. There are two large springs on the south

side of the lake and one on the north side together with a

number of small ones on these two sides as well as at the west

end. The outlet emerges from the lake at the northeastern cor-

ner.”

Since this description was written there has been some rather

extensive dredging and filling along the north and south shores,

but the maximum depth of the lake has remained unchanged.

Pearse and Achtenberg (1920) give the following figures for

Lake Wingra :

Tressler & Domogallor— Studies on Lake Wingra. 333

Figure 1. Outline map of Lake Wingra. The station where the water

samples and plankton catches were taken is marked by the number 11.

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters .

2.6 kilometers

1.4 kilometers

2.17 square kilometers

3,472,000 cubic meters

Length

Width

Area

Volume

Maximum depth 4.25 meters

Mean depth 1.6 meters

Shore line 7.3 kilometers

There are no industrial plants located near the lake nor

within some kilometers from it and there are few houses di¬

rectly on the shores of the lake; consequently the amount of

pollution is very small, to which the low figures for nitrates

and chlorides bear witness.

Methods

With few exceptions samples were taken from a single sta¬

tion, marked by the number 11 on the map (Fig. 1). At this

station the depth was about 3.5 meters. From February through

May 1928 samples were taken every two weeks, and subse¬

quently every month throughout the year until January 15,

1930, the date of the last sample. The time of day at which the

samples were taken varied from eight to eleven o'clock in the

morning.

At each trip the following observations were taken: (1) the

temperature of the water at the surface and at the bottom, (2)

the transparency of the water, measured by the Secchi disc, and

(3) the thickness of the ice and snow when present. The color

of the water was determined by the standard platinum-cobalt

scale of the United States Geological Survey. The conductivity

was determined by means of a field instrument made by Ever-

shed and Vignoles of London.

The chemical procedures followed were those recommended

by the American Public Health Association (1925) or by Birge

and Juday (1911). Quantitative determinations of dry weight

and organic matter were made on the centrifuge plankton. The

net plankton was secured by means of a vertical haul net. Two

trips were made in the fall of 1929 to secure bottom samples

from various parts of the lake with the Ekman dredge. From

time to time three and one-half liter samples of water were

evaporated and the residue dried and weighed. These samples

were later analyzed by the chemists of the Wisconsin Geological

Tressler & Dornogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 335

and Natural History Survey for organic carbon, calcium and

silicon.

The entire investigation was made under the guidance of

Professor Chancey Juday, whose help and advice the authors

gratefully acknowledge. Thanks are also due Dr. W. D. Stovall

and Dr. M. S. Nichols for permission to use the laboratories of

the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, where much of

the chemical work was carried on.

Temperature

Due to the shallowness of the lake the bottom temperatures

followed very closely those of the surface during the greater

part of the year. From the curves in Figures 2 and 3 it may

be noted that the maximum difference between surface and

three and one-half meters for the two years occurred during

the winter months. The divergence began in late November or

early December after the ice had covered the lake, and in¬

creased to a maximum of about seven degrees in February or

March. The bottom temperatures, always higher than the sur¬

face during the winter months, in April became lower as the

air temperatures increased, and in general remained somewhat

lower than the surface until late spring when the water of the

lake was thoroughly mixed by the winds. The ice in 1928 melted

on March 24, and was formed again in the fall on November 29.

Accordingly, in that year the lake was covered with ice 116

days. In 1929 the ice went out on March 25 and formed again

November 17, the lake being ice-covered for 129 days of the

year.

Following the disappearance of the ice the winds stirred up

the whole body of water and the temperature of surface and

bottom became nearly uniform. It is a general rule with lakes

that during calm periods after the overturn in the spring the

surface warms up faster than the lower levels, so that the tem¬

perature there comes to exceed that at the bottom. This was

apparently true in Lake Wingra in May of 1928 (see Fig. 2)

and in April and May of 1929 (see Fig. 3). Conversely, follow¬

ing the mixing of the water, a cold period late in spring may

lower the temperature of the surface water below that of the

bottom. An apparent instance of this occurred in Lake Wingra

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Figure 2. Temperature and oxygen curves 1928-1929. Temperatures are

given in degrees Centigrade; oxygen in parts per million; oxygen satura¬

tion in per cent. 3M = three meters; OM = surface (zero meters).

given in degrees Centigrade; oxygen in parts per million; oxygen satura¬

tion in per cent. 3M = three meters ; OM — surface.

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 337

in June 1929 (see Fig. 3), when the bottom water was two and

one-half degrees warmer than that of the surface.

The maximum temperature was observed during late July or

early August, and from then on the temperature gradually fell

until the ice formed in the late fall. The highest temperature

recorded in the course of the study was 24.5 ; the lowest (just

beneath the ice in winter) was 0.3 . The maximum thickness

if ice observed was 48 cm. (19 in.). The snow frequently

reached a depth of 20 to 25 cm. The greatest depth recorded

during the period of observation was 25 cm. (10 in.) on Feb¬

ruary 16, 1929.

Transparency

The transparency as determined by the Secchi disc shows

some correlation with the amount of organisms present in the

water, since to a large extent the plankton shuts off the sun's

rays from deeper penetration. When much plankton was

present the transparency decreased, and when the amount was

small a rise in the transparency was observed. The best illus¬

trations were noted in the late fall and early winter of both

years when the disc reading reached a maximum of two meters

and the organic matter fell to one milligram per liter. In the

summer months when the algae flourished, lower disc readings

were the rule, and the same was true in the spring of 1928,

when the large crop of diatoms brought the disc reading down

to 0.5 meter.

Another factor which affected the transparency in Lake

Wingra, as in other shallow lakes, was the action of the waves

produced by high winds in summer, stirring up and distribut¬

ing decomposition products and debris throughout the water

mass. On a rough summer day the results obtained for or¬

ganic matter were two or three times the maximum observed

at other times. In the spring, moreover, the surface drainage

brings in silt which lowers the transparency.

Conductivity

The conductivity of the water was taken during the last part

of the spring of 1929 and during the fall of that year. The re¬

sults are expressed in terms of the reciprocal of the megohm

resistance. On May 10, 1929 the conductivity was 302 and on

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

June 10, 318. Starting on October 9, 1929 when the conductiv¬

ity was 292, it steadily rose to 394, observed on January 15,

1930. This led to a test of the springs which flow into the lake,

with the result that the conductivity of the water flowing out

of them was found to range between 475 and 500. In compari¬

son with this, Lake Mendota seldom exceeds 300 units and in

the lakes of the Trout Lake district of northern Wisconsin

Birge and Juday (unpublished data) have found conductivities

as low as 7 or 8 units. This is very near the average of ordinary

distilled water (3-4 units) . Lakes fed by rain water exclusively

have lower conductivities than those fed by springs, whose wa¬

ter flows in contact with limestone deposits and is heavily im¬

pregnated with dissolved materials. Lake Wingra belongs to

the latter class. Lake Mendota, although hardly more than two

kilometers distant, shows conductivity readings about a hun¬

dred units lower than those of Wingra.

An analysis of the calcium in the water of Lake Wingra,

made by the chemists of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey, gave the following results: on November 22,

1926 an average of 30.7 parts per million; on March 28, 1927,

40.1 at the surface and 39.8 at a depth of three meters; and on

February 6, 1929 at the surface, 50.6 p.p.m.

Color

The color of the water was determined twice, and was found

to correspond to color 18 on the platinum-cobalt scale. There

is little in the water from the springs or from the drainage off

the surrounding country to color the water.

Results of Chemical Analysis

Oxygen. The curves in figures 2 and 3 show the relation be¬

tween oxygen and temperature. The oxygen reaches its highest

point in the winter under the ice, both because the water will

hold more at lower temperatures and because the ice keeps the

water quiet and prevents the escape of oxygen produced in pho¬

tosynthesis. With the rise of temperature in the spring and

summer there is a corresponding decrease in the oxygen, so

that the point of highest temperature coincides roughly with

the minimum period for oxygen. With the decrease in tempera¬

ture in the latter part of the summer the amount of oxygen

gradually increases until the lake becomes covered with ice.

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 339

Thereafter a small increase was noted, until the ice and snow

became thick enough to stop the light to such an extent that

photosynthetic activity of the green plants was retarded. The

curve in figures 2 and 3 which indicates percentage saturation

shows that the surface water seldom holds all the oxygen that

it could, and that only under unusual conditions (such as those

to be described later) is there a saturation above 100 per cent.

In general the greatest saturation was found in the spring, with

a decrease thereafter until late in summer, when it rose again

to a slightly higher figure in the winter. The peak in spring is

due to the increased activity of the plants with the rise in in¬

solation. The curve falls at the end of summer because the wa¬

ter becomes cooler and the plants have not increased their activ¬

ity to keep pace with the greater oxygen capacity of the water.

Rather unusual conditions occurred in March 1928. The ice

was then quite clear and there had been no snow for some time.

The sun’s rays were able to penetrate to a considerable depth,

and enough oxygen was given off by the plants to cause a super¬

saturation near the surface. The maximum reading for oxygen

was obtained at 2:30 p. m. on March 3, 1928, when 28.1 parts

per million were found. This is 198 per cent saturation. Birge

and Juday (1911) report as high as 364 per cent in other lakes

observed by them.

Carbon Dioxide . Free carbon dioxide was found in Lake Win¬

gra during the winter months of both years, beginning in late

December or early January and continuing until the ice went

out in the middle of March. During the spring and summer

there was a deficiency of carbon dioxide, due to the activity of

the aquatic plants. The bottom water always contained more

free carbon dioxide than the surface water, due to the decom¬

position of materials on the bottom. This is evident from the

curves in figures 4 and 5.

The fixed carbon dioxide reached its maximum in the winter

and its minimum in the spring. The smaller amount in the

spring was due to the melting of the ice and the inflow of sur¬

face water. December 1928 was a mild month, the temperature

being unusually high, with no snow until January. Rains and

surface drainage account for the small amount of fixed carbon

dioxide noticed on December 20 of that year. In the following

January, however, it rose above the November figure, showing

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Figure 4. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen-ion curves 1928-1929. Carbon

dioxide is given in parts per million; hydrogen-ion concentration in pH.

3M = three meters; OM = surface.

Figure 5. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen-ion curves 1929-1930. Carbon

dioxide is given in parts per million; hydrogen-ion concentration in pH.

3M = three meters; OM = surface*

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 341

that the decrease was a temporary one. The bottom always

showed a greater amount of fixed carbon dioxide than the sur¬

face.

Hydrogen-ion . The hydrogen-ion concentration as given in

terms of pH shows correlation with the other physical and

chemical factors only in a general way, due probably to the

presence of a comparatively large amount of buffer salts. As

the free carbon dioxide rose in the winter there was a slight

decrease in the pH (see figures 4 and 5). The hydrogen-ion

concentration of the surface water varied in general between

pH 7.8 and pH 8.7. A reading of pH 7.0 was observed in March

1928, but this was due to the dilution of the water by melting

ice. The higher pH figures are correlated with the activity of

the phytoplankton.

Chlorides . Tests for chlorides were made for the first few

months, but as they showed only an occasional trace they were

discontinued.

Phosphorus . The work of Atkins (1928, 1925, 1926) and At¬

kins and Harris (1924) suggests a direct correlation between

phosphorus and plankton growth. Atkins states that

phosphorus is a limiting factor in the growth of plankton. Ju-

day, Birge, Kemmerer and Robinson (1927), however, found no

correlation between the soluble phosphorus and the phytoplank¬

ton, nor between the organic phosphorus and the centrifuge

plankton. Wimmer (1929) working on limestone quarry pools

in which there was an abundant plankton growth found little

or no correlation between phosphorus and the amount of plank¬

ton growth.

A comparison of the organic matter in the centrifuge plank¬

ton and the curves for phosphorus (figures 6 and 7) shows little

correlation between the centrifuge plankton and the organic

phosphorus, and little between the soluble phosphorus and the

phytoplankton (see also the spherical curves of the plankton

counts in figures 10 and 11). The maxima for the plankton or¬

ganic matter do not always correspond with those of the organic

phosphorus. The soluble phosphorus falls to a small amount

during the summer months as it is used up by the plankton and

rises again in the fall with the decrease in the plankton. There

was a marked rise in the soluble phosphorus correlated in time

with the rise in the organic matter in the fall of 1929. It is pos-

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Figure 6. Phosphorus curves 1928-1929. Soluble, organic and total

phosphorus are given in parts per million.

Figure 7. Phosphorus curves 1929-1930. Soluble, organic and total

phosphorus are given in parts per million.

sible that the great decrease following this was due to the

plankton using up all of the soluble phosphorus, but there was

no corresponding rise in the organic phosphorus at the time of

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 343

the increase in the organic matter. There are so many conflict¬

ing results that no case can be made for phosphorus as a limit¬

ing factor in plankton growth in Lake Wingra.

Usually the organic phosphorus made up the greater part of

the total phosphorus, but on several occasions the curves show

the amount of soluble phosphorus to be greater than that of the

organic. On October 24, 1928 this occurred at a time when the

organic matter in the centrifuge plankton was at a high point.

The organic phosphorus had its maxima in the summer of

both years with secondary maxima in the spring and fall.

Wright found the organic phosphorus to be high in fall and

early spring and low in summer and winter. He also found lit¬

tle agreement between the organic phosphorus and the organic

matter.

Silica. A direct correlation between the amount of silica dis¬

solved in the upper waters and the diatom growth was reported

by Birge and Juday (1911). In the summer the silica declined

to a small amount in the upper water due to removal by the

diatoms in building their shells. The amount of rain water

draining into a lake was also shown to be an important factor

by Pearsall (1923). In the spring and fall the silica is washed

into the lakes by heavy rains and this accounts, he thinks, for

the increase in diatom growth at these times.

In Lake Wingra the results for silica were similar in a gen¬

eral way to those reported by Birge and Juday, although the

correlation was not a marked one. The maximum occurred in

winter and the amount decreased in the spring of both years

due to a large crop of diatoms consisting largely of synedra.

The maximum amount of silica found was 15.0 parts per million

in February and December 1928 while the minimum amount

was observed on April 24, 1928, when but 0.3 part per million

was present.

Nitrogen. Quantitative determinations of the nitrite nitrogen

were made from February to May 1928. The amount rose from

.003 part per million to .02 p.p.m., the greatest amount being ob¬

served on April 11 and May 9, 1928. The increase in spring is

due to the increased amount of decomposition which goes on at

the bottom as the water warms up and is mixed from bottom to

top by the winds. In a general way, nitrate nitrogen (see figures

8 and 9) was found to vary inversely with organic nitrogen.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Figure 8. Nitrogen curves 1928-1929. Nitrate, free ammonia, organic

and total nitrogen are given in parts per million. OM = surface (zero

meters) .

FIGURE 9. Nitrogen curves 1929-1980. Nitrate, free ammonia, organic

and total nitrogen are given in parts per million. OM = surface (zero

meters).

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 345

The plants use up the nitrates and this would give a large

amount of organic nitrogen, mainly in the plants themselves. In

the spring of 1928 the organic nitrogen fell to its lowest point

(0.56 p.p.m.) while the nitrates, though declining, were rather

high. Again in the fall of the same year the organic nitrogen

decreased, while the nitrates were increasing. The maximum

amount of organic nitrogen was found in the spring and sum¬

mer when the plant life was abundant and also when there was

little nitrate nitrogen present.

The free ammonia nitrogen (figures 8 and 9) followed in a

general way the nitrate nitrogen, being higher in winter than

in summer. The ammonia nitrogen was higher at the first part

of the summer and then gradually declined throughout the re¬

mainder of the summer. It reached a low point by the end of

the summer and then steadily rose during the winter. It de¬

creased in March and April and was low until the rise at the

early part of the summer. The high ammonia figures in winter

were probably due to the decrease in the activity of the denitri¬

fying bacteria at a time when the water was cold. Nitrates

were broken down through nitrites to ammonia, but probably

the final step to nitrogen was carried out only to a limited ex¬

tent. There is little plant life during the winter to use up the

nitrates so they are able to accumulate at this time. As the

temperature of the water rises in spring the plants become in¬

creasingly active and although decomposition is increased the

nitrates are used up at such a rate that the water is almost de¬

pleted by early summer. The plant requirements keep the ni¬

trates low during the summer and it is only in the fall that the

amount of nitrate nitrogen rises as the plants decrease in num¬

bers. Nitrites and nitrates are also formed from ammonia dur¬

ing the summer and this increases the available nitrate for the

plants. The rise in ammonia in the early part of the summer

(June) occurs at a time when the centrifuge plankton organic

matter is low, just previous to the rise in summer and follow¬

ing the spring maximum. The decomposition of the plankton

organisms accounts for this rise in ammonia in early summer.

Domogalla and Fred (1926) found high ammonia in spring

and winter while Wright did not find the rise in spring follow¬

ing the maximum for plankton. Domogalla and Fred found that

the nitrates were high in winter and spring and low in summer,

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

which agrees very well with Wright’s findings. The springs

which feed Lake Wingra were found to be high in nitrates by

Domogalla. In a determination made November 23, 1925 Wright

found that the Nakoma spring had 3.5 p.p.m. of nitrate nitro¬

gen, while the Wingra spring had 1.9 p.p.m. This accounts for

the fact that the waters of Wingra contain a larger amount of

nitrates than the other Madison lakes.

Organic matter from centrifuged samples . In 1926 the junior

author found the maximum amount of organic matter from

centrifuged samples in Lake Wingra in the late spring and in

the fall. Wright obtained his maximum in the summer. In both

1928 and 1929 there was a maximum in the spring at the same

time as the counts for plankton organisms indicated, and a low¬

er peak in the fall at the time of the fall maximum in plankton

organisms.

Dissolved organic nitrogen and carbon . Analyses made on the

residues from evaporated water gave the dissolved organic car¬

bon and nitrogen as shown in the accompanying table. The

crude protein figure is obtained by multiplying the nitrogenous

organic carbon by 6.25. The non-nitrogenous organic carbon is

reported as carbohydrate, as in Birge and Juday (1926).

Table I — The results of analyses on residues (Res.) for nitrogen (N),

carbon (C), crude protein (C.P.), non-nitrogenous carbon (Nonn.), total

organic carbon (Total), and the carbon nitrogen ratio (C/N). The results

are expressed in milligrams per liter of water.

Mean 0.796 9.30 1:12.8 4.59 15.39 19.71

The Plankton

Domogalla and Fred (1926) give figures for the amount of or¬

ganic matter and number of plankton organisms in Lake Win¬

gra from March to December 1925. Two maxima were found,

one in June and the other in October. The maximum for the

organic matter, however, occurred in August.

In deeper lakes spring and fall maxima are usually explained

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra . 347

Figure 10. Spherical curves of net plankton counts 1928-1929. Crustacea

and rotifers are shown as organisms per cubic meter; remainder as or¬

ganisms per liter.

by assuming that decomposition products accumulate in the

lower water while the water is stratified in summer and winter,

carrying with them stored up food for other organisms so that

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

the upper waters are depleted. At the spring and fall overturns

these food substances are made available and we find a cor¬

respondingly marked increase in the plankton. Lake Wingra is

such a shallow lake and the stratification is so slight that spring

and fall maxima cannot be explained on this basis.

The diatoms are characteristic forms and at times are found

in large numbers. Wright found Synedra in April 1927 to the

number of eight million per liter, while in April 1928 it occurred

in numbers as high as sixty million per liter. This accords very

well with Pearsall's findings (1921, 1922), namely that lakes

with an abundant supply of silica are diatom lakes predomi¬

nantly. The diatoms are found to be most abundant in the

spring and again, but to a lesser extent and for a shorter period,

in the fall. During the winter months they declined. Synedra

was the most abundant genus, being taken at most times of the

year, and at its maximum in the spring, far exceeding all the

other forms combined. Melosira was also taken in nearly every

haul during the two years and at times reached a high figure in

the counts.

The blue greens, while present in considerable numbers, were

never as abundant as in the other Madison lakes. They were

never the cause of noxious odors in Wingra. Microcystis and

Coelosphaerium were the most abundant forms and had their

maxima in the early fall or late summer, although they were

quite abundant throughout the summer. Aphanizomenon also

was prominent among the blue greens and like Microcystis oc¬

curred in large numbers in the late summer and early fall.

The green algae were abundant at most times except during

the winter. Pediastrum was plentiful throughout the summer

with maxima in the spring and fall. Oocystis was most abund¬

ant in May with another maximum in early fall. Oocystis was

the most abundant of all the green algae, although Scenedes-

mus was more consistently present, and at times (April and

May) was nearly as abundant as Oocystis. The other forms ap¬

peared intermittently in the counts and showed maxima in the

spring and fall.

Wright found that Cyclops was the most abundant crusta¬

cean ; Diaptomus, Daphnia and Chydorus were present in small¬

er numbers. This was also true in 1928 and 1929. Cyclops was

taken in every sample throughout the two years. The Crustacea

Tressler & D onto g alia — S tudies on Lake Wingra . 349

Figure 11. Spherical curves of centrifuge plankton counts 1928-1929.

Plankton organisms are shown as organisms per liter.

reached a maximum in fall and again in the spring. The nauplii

usually had their maxima at these times although this did not

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

seem to be definite. Daphnia was present at most times of the

year. Bosmina and Chydorus were at a maximum in early sum¬

mer.

The rotifers had their maximum in early spring of 1928 but

were not found in the summer of 1929. They then reappeared

in large numbers in the fall of 1929. The most prominent forms

were Anuraea, Polyarthra, Asplanchna, Triarthra and Notholca.

Of the protozoans, Dinobryon had its maximum in the spring

of 1929 and was then never seen again in the samples. Peridin-

ium and Difflugia were also seen at times (figures 10 and 11).

Summary

Lake Wingra is a small, shallow body of water at the out¬

skirts of Madison, Wisconsin. It shows very little stratification,

even in winter under the ice. The difference in temperature be¬

tween surface and bottom rarely exceeds five degrees. A maxi¬

mum of 26°C was observed at the surface in summer. A fairly

strong wind will mix the water from surface to bottom when

the lake is open. The transparency varies between 0.5 m. and

2.5 m. as shown by the Secchi disc. The conductivity averages

about 330 units (reciprocal of megohm resistance) and varies

between 290 and 390. The color is slight, about 18 on the plati¬

num-cobalt scale. Oxygen is present at all depths and at all

times of the year in sufficient quantities to support animal life.

Free carbon dioxide is found at the surface only in winter; at

all other times there is a deficiency. The water contains a large

amount of fixed carbon dioxide, which may attain 110 p.p.m.

The pH varies between 7.8 and 8.7. Chlorides were found in

minute traces only. Organic phosphorus is high in summer, low

in winter. Soluble phosphorus is low in summer and high in

winter. The dissolved silica is abundant and shows some cor¬

relation with the numbers of diatoms. The nitrates are high at

all times, and are highest in winter. Free ammonia is highest

in winter with a secondary rise in spring. Ammonia and ni¬

trates are low in summer. Organic nitrogen is low in winter and

high in spring and summer; it parallels the plankton curve

fairly closely. The average amount of organic carbon is 9.0 p.p.

m. The organic matter in the centrifuge plankton follows

roughly the number of plankton organisms. The diatoms are

most abundant of all the plankton organisms, being found in

Tressler & Domogalla — Studies on Lake Wingra. 351

large numbers in the spring and in somewhat smaller numbers

in the fall. In summer the blue greens are quite abundant. Of

the crustaceans, Cyclops is the most abundant.

Bibliography

American Public Health Association. 1925. Standard methods of water

analysis, xi-119 pp. New York.

Atkins, W. R. G. 1923. The phosphate content of fresh water and salt

water in relation to the growth of algal plankton. Jour Mar. Biol.

Assoc. 13 (1) : 119-150.

- 1925. Seasonal changes in the phosphate content of sea water in

relation to the growth of algal plankton during 1923-1924. Jour. Mar.

Biol. Assoc. 13 (3) : 700-720.

- 1926. The phosphate content of sea water in relation to the

growth of algal plankton. Jour. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 14 (2) : 447-467.

Atkins, W. R. G., and G. T. Harris. 1924. Seasonal changes in water and

heleoplankton of freshwater ponds. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc. N. S. 8

(1) : 1-21.

Birge, E. A., and C. Juday. 1911. Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. Dissolved

gases and their biological significance. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist

Bull. 22. 259 pp.

- — 1926. The organic content of lake waters. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.

12 (8) : 515-519.

Domogalla, B. P., and E. B. Fred. 1926. Ammonia and nitrate studies of

lakes near Madison, Wis. Jour. Am. Soc. Agron. 18 (10) : 897-911.

Juday, C. 1914. Hydrography and morphometry of the inland lakes of

Wisconsin. Bull. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Wis.

Juday, C., E. A. Birge, G. I. Kemmerer, and R. J. Robinson. 1927. Phos¬

phorus content of lake waters of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans. Wis.

Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters 23 : 233-248.

Pearse, A. S., and H. Achtenberg. 1920. Habits of yellow perch in Wis¬

consin lakes. Bull. U. S. Bureau Fisheries 36 : 297-366.

Pearsall, W. H. 1923. A theory of diatom periodicity. Jour. Ecol. 11 (2) .

165-183.

Wimmer, E. J. 1929. A study of two limestone quarry pools. Trans. Wis.

Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters 24 : 363-399.

I

A SECOND REPORT ON THE PHOSPHORUS CONTENT

OF WISCONSIN LAKE WATERS

C. JUDAY AND E. A. BlRGE

Notes from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey .* No. XLIL

Introduction

A general chemical survey of the lake waters of the High¬

land Lake District of northeastern Wisconsin was begun in

1925 and has been continued up to the end of the summer sea¬

son of 1930. During this period samples of water and of resi¬

dues have been secured from 529 lakes and lakelets in this dis¬

trict. Various chemical determinations have been made on these

water samples and residues, such as quantitative studies of

the dissolved gases, organic carbon, nitrogen, iron, silica, cal¬

cium, phosphorus, chlorine and sulphate. This chemical in¬

vestigation has now progressed far enough to warrant the prep¬

aration of reports on some phases of the results that have been

secured, and the phosphorus data have been selected for the

present report.

The phosphorus results obtained on 88 of these lakes in

1925 — 1926 were presented in a previous paper (Juday et al.,

1928) and this second report includes all of the observations

that have been made up to the end of the 1930 season. Methods

of making the chemical determinations were given in the 1928

report and they have been discussed also by Robinson and

Kemmerer (1930) so that they need not be repeated here.

The same terminology is employed in this report as in the

previous one. The phosphorus which is found in the untreated

sample of water by the ceruleomolybdic method is called the

“soluble” or phosphate phosphorus. The result obtained after

treating the sample of water with oxidizing agents represents

the total phosphorus. Deducting the “soluble” or phosphate

phosphorus from the total phosphorus gives the so called “or¬

ganic” phosphorus. It was pointed out in the 1928 report that

* This investigation was made in cooperation with the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries

and the results are published with the permission of the Commissioner of Fisheries.

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

all of the phosphorus which has been classed as “organic" may

not be in organic compounds, but that part of it may be pres¬

ent in an inorganic form which does not appear in the “solu¬

ble" or phosphate determination. These lake waters always car¬

ry a certain amount of silt and this silt may contain some phos¬

phorus which is not ordinarily available in the soluble phos¬

phorus procedure, but which becomes available after the more

drastic treatment in the total phosphorus determination. It

does not seem probable, however, that any appreciable amount

of inorganic phosphorus is present in such a form that it will

not be included in the phosphate determination. In the tables

the phosphorus results are indicated in milligrams of the ele¬

ment per liter of water in order to keep them uniform with the

results of the other chemical determinations.

Sources of Phosphorus

The soil and subsoil of the lake district as well as the under¬

lying strata through which the underground water passes are

the chief sources of this lacustrine phosphorus. According to a

reconnoisance survey by Whitson et al. (1916) several types of

soil are found within the boundaries of this lake district and

the different types show considerable differences in the amount

of phosphorus which they contain. The quantity of this element

in the various soils ranges from 953 to 1570 kilograms per

hectare in the upper 20 centimeters (850 to 1400 pounds per

acre in the upper 8 inches) ; in 34 analyses of soils from this

district, phosphorus constituted an average of 0.0486 per cent

of the dry weight of the samples. The second 20 centimeters

(8 inches) contains from 673 to 785 kilograms of phosphorus

per hectare (600 to 700 pounds per acre) . No results for deep¬

er strata are given in their soil report. The soil phosphorus un¬

doubtedly makes a very important contribution of this element

to the water which drains into these lakes.

The ground water also serves as a source of supply. In order

to ascertain the phosphorus content of the underground water

of the region, samples were obtained from 19 wells and one

spring during the summer of 1930. The results of the deter¬

minations are shown in table I, where the quantity of phos¬

phorus is indicated in milligrams per liter of water. The wells

are located on the shores of 13 different lakes and they are

Juday & Birge—. Phosphorus in Lakes . 355

widely distributed in the district, so that they probably repre¬

sent the general variation within the region covered by them;

they extend over a distance of about 68 km. in an east-west di¬

rection and about 48 km. in a north-south direction.

The total phosphorus ranged from a minimum of 0.002 mg.

per liter in Anderson's well at Little Bass Lake to a maximum

of 0.197 mg. in the well at Big Arbor Vitae Resort on Arbor

Vitae Lake; this represents approximately a hundred-fold dif¬

ference in amount, and these two wells are only about 4 km.

apart. The mean quantity of phosphorus in the 19 samples is

0.029 mg. per liter of water and this is somewhat larger than

the mean quantity of total phosphorus in the surface water of

479 lakes, namely 0.023 mg. per liter. Omitting the highest two,

namely the Big Arbor Vitae Resort well and the Bent well at

Lake Mamie, the mean quantity for the other 17 is only 0.016

mg. per liter, which is smaller than the average content of the

surface waters of the lakes. The spring water at Little Papoose

Lake yielded the same amount as the latter mean, namely 0.016

mg. per liter. Phosphorus constituted from 0.001 per cent to

0.203 per cent of the dry weight of the residues obtained from

the well waters. The residue of the spring water yielded 0.022

per cent of phosphorus.

Soluble or Phosphate Phosphorus

Surface waters. Soluble phosphorus determinations have

been made on the surface waters of 494 lakes during the time

of these studies. Most of these observations have been con¬

fined to the summer season, that is, from June 25 to August 31

each year during the progress of this work. In this period 936

determinations have been made on surface waters and 305 of

them represent only a single determination on a lake; two de¬

terminations have been made on each of 75 lakes and three or

more on 114 lakes. The largest number (17) has been made on

Trout Lake.

The quantity of soluble phosphorus in the surface waters of

the various lakes ranged from none in nine lakes to a maximum

of 0.015 mg. per liter in one. Figure 1 shows a grouping of the

lakes on the basis of the amount of soluble phosphorus in the

surface water. Where more than one determination has been

made on a lake, the mean of the various readings has been used

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

in constructing the diagram. Lake Mary, which had the max¬

imum amount, has been omitted from the diagram in order to

shorten the figure somewhat.

Fig. 1. This diagram shows the grouping of the lakes on the basis of the

amount of soluble phosphorus in the surface water; 494 lakes are included

in the figure. The quantity of soluble phosphorus ranges from none to

0.013 mg. per liter of water. The vertical spaces represent the number of

lakes in each group. N = none, Tr. = trace.

In 47 lakes, or 9.5 per cent of the total number, the quantity

of soluble phosphorus was too small to measure, so they were

listed as having only a trace. Adding these to the nine which

had no soluble phosphorus gives a total of 56 lakes, or a little

more than 11 per cent of the total number, with only a trace or

no soluble phosphorus at all at the time the samples were taken.

The 0.002 mg. column has the largest number of lakes,

namely 105, but the 0.003 and 0.004 mg. groups are nearly as

large since they contain 97 and 94 lakes respectively. These

three groups include 60 per cent of the 494 lakes. In compari¬

son with these the 0.001 mg. group includes 63 lakes and the

0.005 mg. group 39 lakes. Beyond the latter the 0.006 group

contains only 18 lakes and the 0.007 mg. group 11 lakes. Above

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes . 357

these groups the columns represent only one to three lakes

each. The 0.001 mg. to 0.005 mg. groups inclusive, represent

398 lakes, or 80 per cent of the total number. Expressed in an¬

other way the surface waters of these 398 lakes contained from

2.3 mg. to 11.5 mg. of P205 per cubic meter. The mean quanti¬

ty of soluble phosphorus in the surface waters of the 494 lakes

was approximately 0.003 mg. per liter, or about 6.9 mg. of P205

per cubic meter.

Seasonal variations. The results obtained during the spring

and summer of 1926, as reported in our previous paper (1928),

did not show any consistent decrease in the quantity of soluble

or phosphate phosphorus in the surface waters as the season

advanced. In order to secure further evidence on this point, a

similar study of the surface waters of 25 of these northeastern

lakes was made during the spring and summer of 1927. As in

the former year, the observations in the spring were made as

soon as possible after the ice disappeared, that is, from May 2

to May 8, inclusive. The summer readings were taken between

June 25 and August 26.

The results of the 1927 series are shown in table II. In 15

lakes a smaller amount of soluble phosphorus was found in July

and August than in May, the decrease amounting to 0.001 to

0.012 mg. per liter ; in 7 lakes the amounts were the same, while

in 5 cases a larger amount was obtained in July and August

than in May, the increase amounting to 0.001 to 0.002 mg. per

liter. Similar results were obtained in the spring and summer

observations of 1925 and 1926. During the three years (1925 —

1927) spring and summer determinations were made on 32 dif¬

ferent lakes; some of these lakes were visited in only one of

these years, some during two years and others during all three

years, so that 54 pairs of spring and summer observations were

secured in the three years. Of this number 26 pairs showed a

smaller amount of soluble phosphorus in summer than in

spring, 12 pairs were the same and 16 pairs yielded a larger

amount in summer than in spring. Thus in a little more than

half of the cases the amount of soluble phosphorus was the

same or larger in the summer than it was in May. This was

true despite the fact that some of these lakes supported an

abundant growth of phytoplankton. In Blue Lake, for example,

the surface water contained 1,236,000 cells and colonies of phy-

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

toplankton organisms per liter on May 2, 1927 and 1,849,000 on

the following July 8, yet the soluble phosphorus was 0.005 mg.

per liter on the former date and 0.007 on the latter. In Mann

Lake also there were 10,969,000 phytoplankton organisms per

liter in the surface water on May 5, 1927 and 12,357,000 on the

following August 26, with the same amount of soluble phos¬

phorus on both dates, namely 0.005 mg, per liter.

In the shallower lakes, more especially in those where the

water is kept in circulation throughout its entire depth during

the summer, the supply of phosphorus is most probably main¬

tained or increased through regeneration by the decomposition

of organic matter and also by the inflow of tributary waters

containing this element. In the lakes that are deep enough to

be thermally stratified in summer, a large part of the organic

matter decomposes in the hypolimnion and the soluble phos¬

phorus derived from it remains in this stratum until the autum¬

nal overturn and circulation of the water takes place. Some of

the stratified lakes, however, such as Big Carr, Clear, Crystal,

Silver and Trout with maximum depths ranging from 19 to 35

meters, have maintained or increased their supplies of soluble

phosphorus in the surface water during the summer. Three of

these lakes, Big Carr, Clear and Crystal, have neither an inlet

nor an outlet so that they are dependent chiefly upon ground

water for their mineral constituents. Also Silver Lake does not

have an inlet and there is an outflow only in periods of high

water. In view of these facts, it is not clear at present just how

such lakes maintain their stocks of soluble phosphorus in the

upper water throughout the growing season.

The results of 1927 are also like those of 1925—1926 in that

they do not show any correlation between the quantity of solu¬

ble phosphorus and the amount of fixed carbon dioxide in the

water. In the May determinations of 1927, for example, the sur¬

face waters of Arbor Vitae and Crystal lakes yielded the same

amounts of soluble phosphorus (0.007 mg. per liter), while the

former had eleven times as much fixed carbon dioxide as the

latter. (See table II). The same was true of Arbor Vitae and

Weber lakes where there was a twenty-two-fold difference in

carbon dioxide content. Madeline and Island lakes had the same

amounts of soluble phosphorus, but the former had approxi¬

mately twenty times as much fixed carbon dioxide as the latter.

Juday & Birge— Phosphorus in Lakes. 359

The results show several other illustrations of this lack of cor¬

relation between soluble or phosphate phosphorus and the

carbonates.

Vertical distribution. The vertical distribution of the sol¬

uble phosphorus has been studied on 66 different lakes; these

observations comprised 178 series of three or more samples

which covered the entire depth of the various lakes. The results

for some of the series taken in 1927 are shown in table II and

in figures 2 to 8. While a considerable number of vertical series

were taken in 1928 and 1929, they have not been included in the

table because those given for 1927 illustrate the two general

types of vertical distribution that have been found. The first

Fig. 2. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Crystal

Lake on August 21, 1928. Depths are indicated in meters; the scale at the

top of the diagram represents the temperature in degrees centigrade and

the bottom scale represents the quantity of phosphorus in milligrams per

liter of water. S = soluble phosphorus, O = organic phosphorus, and T —

temperature.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

type includes those lakes in which there is a uniform distribu¬

tion of soluble phosphorus from surface to bottom throughout

the summer period of stratification and the second includes

those in which there is a more or less marked rise in the soluble

phosphorus at the bottom, especially toward the end of the

summer season.

Crystal Lake is a good example of the uniform type of distri¬

bution. Figure 2 shows the results obtained on this lake on

August 21, 1928. Crystal Lake has neither an inlet nor an out¬

let and its water contains very little fixed carbon dioxide as in¬

dicated in table II. It supports a relatively small crop of phyto¬

plankton which means a correspondingly small demand for

phosphorus by this crop. Zooplankton forms are present in suffi¬

cient abundance to control the growth of the phytoplankton so

that very little of this algal material settles into the lower wa¬

ter and decomposes there, consequently there is not the usual

transference of phosphorus from the upper to the lower strata

of water by these organisms. Figure 2 shows that the soluble

phosphorus was uniformly distributed from surface to bottom

even as late in the season as August 21. Similar results were

obtained in a series on Lake Laura on August 9, 1926, on Little

Trout on August 24, 1927 (fig. 8) and on Stormy Lake on

August 16, 1928. A uniform distribution has also been noted in

some of the other lakes in late June or early July, but samples

obtained during late July or in August showed a larger amount

of soluble phosphorus in the lower water than at the surface;

these lakes, therefore, belong to the second type. In order to de¬

termine to which of the two groups a lake belongs, it is neces¬

sary to have a set of observations made during the latter part

of the summer period of stratification, that is, in late July or in

August.

The great majority of the lakes that are deep enough to be¬

come stratified in summer belong to the second type, that is,

those in which there is a more or less marked rise in the amount

of soluble phosphorus in the lower water. These lakes show very

wide differences in the range of this increase in the lower water.

In some of them the lower water may contain only 0.001 to

0.002 mg. per liter more than the surface in late summer, while

in others the differences are very much greater. In Blue Lake

on August 6, 1929 the range was from 0.002 mg. at the surface

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes.

361

to 0.003 mg. at the bottom (12 m.) and on August 13, 1926 the

quantity of soluble phosphorus was 0.004 mg. at the surface and

0.006 at the bottom. In Fence Lake the amount increased from

0.001 mg. per liter at the surface to 0.003 mg. at the bottom

(28 m.) on August 23, 1929. The varying degrees of increase

from surface to bottom are shown in figures 4 to 8.

Fig. 3. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Little

Trout Lake on August 24, 1927. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

In Trout Lake (fig. 5) the quantity of soluble phosphorus

rose from 0.003 mg. per liter at the surface to 0.008 mg. at the

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

bottom (31 m.) and in Big Carr from 0.005 mg. at the surface

to 0.009 mg. at 21 m. Larger differences were found in Clear

Lake (fig. 4), Adelaide (fig. 6), and Big (fig. 8). Still larger dif¬

ferences were noted in some other lakes, such as Upper Ka-

basheen (table II), where the range was from 0.007 mg. at the

surface to 0.190 mg. at 16 m., Black Oak with 0.004 mg. at the

surface and 0.095 at 24 m., Bragonier with 0.001 mg. at the sur¬

face and 0.150 mg. at 8 m., and Nebish with 0.003 mg. at the

surface and 0.240 mg. at 14 m. The maximum difference be-

Fig. 4. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature ia Clear

Lake, July 27, 1927. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes . 363

tween surface and bottom was found in Lake Mary; the range

in this lake on July 12, 1926 was from none at the surface to

0.750 mg. per liter at the bottom (20 m.) and on July 11, 1928

from none at the surface to 0.500 mg. at 20 m. The results ob¬

tained on Lake Mary in 1927 are given in table II ; the observa¬

tions made on this lake on July 29, 1927 are also shown in figure

7. It should be noted that the phosphorus scale of this diagram

is twenty times as large as that for the other lakes. The results

obtained on Lake Mary on May 7 indicate that the large amount

of soluble phosphorus found in the lower water on July 29, 1927

was due in part, at least, to the winter accumulation as well as

to that of the summer. Apparently there was not a complete

overturning and circulation of the water in the spring of 1927

or there would have been a more uniform distribution of the

soluble phosphorus at the time the samples were obtained in

May. Lake Mary is small in size (1.12 ha.), well protected from

the wind by the surrounding forest and has a maximum depth

of 22.5 m., so that conditions are very favorable for an incom¬

plete overturning of the water in the spring.

Organic Phosphorus

Surface waters. The grouping of the lakes on the basis of

the quantity of organic phosphorus in the surface water is

shown in figure 9. The vertical scale shows the number of lakes

in the different groups and the horizontal scale represents the

amount of organic phosphorus per liter of water. Determina¬

tions were made on the surface waters of 479 lakes and 454 of

them are included in the diagram ; four fall below the minimum

of 0.008 mg. per liter in the diagram and 21 are above the max¬

imum of 0.039 mg. The latter range from 0.042 mg. to a max¬

imum of 0.103 mg. of organic phosphorus per liter of water;

they are spread over such a wide range that they could not be

included in the diagram conveniently.

The majority of the lakes shown in the diagram are grouped

within rather narrow limits; 313 lakes, or more than 65 per cent

of the total number, come within the limits of 0.009 mg. and

0.020 mg. inclusive, while extending the upper limit to 0.022

mg. would bring in 26 additional lakes, thus making a total of

339 lakes in these groups, or approximately 71 per cent of the

total number. About 62 per cent, or 297 lakes, fall within the

two-fold range of 0.010 to 0.020 inclusive. The mean quantity of

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

organic phosphorus in the surface waters of the 479 lakes is

0.0203 mg. per liter ; this is almost seven times as much as the

mean quantity of soluble phosphorus in these lakes, namely

0.003 mg. per liter. Excluding the lakes which did not have any

soluble phosphorus or only a trace in the surface water, the

ratio of organic to soluble phosphorus ranges from approxi¬

mately 1 to 1 up to 1 to 89. In one sample of water from Bould-

Fig. 5. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Trout

Lake, August 20, 1927. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes . 365

er Lake the soluble phosphorus amounted to 6.012 mg. per liter

and the organic phosphorus to 0.613, or substantially a one to

one ratio. A sample of surface water from Katherine Lake near

Phelps contained 0.001 mg. of soluble phosphorus and 0.089 mg.

of organic phosphorus per liter.

A comparison of the total organic matter and of the organic

phosphorus shows a wide range of variation. The ratio of the

former to the latter varies from 3046 to 253, a twelve-fold dif¬

ference ; the former was noted in Cranberry Lake where the or¬

ganic matter was 27.42 mg. and the organic phosphorus 0.009

mg. per liter, and the latter in Eagle Lake of the Eagle River

chain where the organic matter amounted to 26.14 mg. and the

organic phosphorus to 0.103 mg. per liter. This wide range in¬

dicates that the organic matter found in the waters of the vari¬

ous lakes contains very different percentages of phosphorus.

These variations are shown graphically in figure 10 where the

organic carbon is platted against the organic phosphorus. The

organic carbon is used in this diagram instead of the organic

matter because it represents a definite chemical determination,

while the total organic matter is a computation based on the or¬

ganic nitrogen and organic carbon determinations. Speaking

roughly the organic matter is approximately twice as much as

the organic carbon. Each dot in the diagram represents the

results obtained on a single lake. It should be noted that the

lakes represented in the various carbon lines also cover a wide

range in the quantity of organic phosphorus. As illustrations of

these wide variations, the following cases may be cited: in the

0.013 mg. organic phosphorus column the organic carbon varies

from 2.0 mg. to 16.0 mg. per liter, while in the 7.0 mg. organic

carbon line the organic phosphorus ranges from 0.009 mg. to

0.034 mg. per liter.

In spite of these large variations, however, there is an irregu¬

lar but definite correlation between the increase in the organic

carbon and the amount of organic phosphorus through the mid¬

dle portion of the phosphorus range shown in figure 10. This

correlation is shown more clearly in figure 11 where the mean

quantity of organic carbon in the various columns is platted

against the organic phosphorus. The solid line in this figure

represents the actual means of the different organic phosphorus

columns, while the broken line represents the running mean of

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Fig. 6. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Adelaide

Lake, August 5, 1927. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

three columns. The most definite correlation begins at the point

where the organic carbon amounts to 3.9 mg. and the organic

phosphorus to 0.012 mg. per liter and continues until the or¬

ganic carbon reaches 12.0 mg. and the organic phosphorus 0.025

mg. per liter.

In the phosphorus columns between 0.008 mg. and 0.012 mg.

there is a decrease of organic carbon with an increase of organic

phosphorus ; above 0.025 mg. the curve is very irregular, but a

general rise is indicated. The curve constructed by using a run¬

ning mean of three columns is much smoother than that based

on the means of the individual columns; but this curve also

shows an irregularity above 0.028 mg. of organic phosphorus.

The irregularities at the two ends of these curves are due in part

at least to the small number of lakes represented by these seg-

Juday & Birge— Phosphorus in Lakes .

367

merits of the curves. The significance of these variations and ir¬

regularities are not evident at the present time and further in¬

vestigations will be necessary to determine their meaning.

Fig. 7. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Lake

Mary, July 29, 1927. The phosphorus scale in this diagram is twenty times

as large as that in the other diagrams. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

Vertical distribution. The vertical distribution of the or¬

ganic phosphorus has been studied in 70 different lakes which

range in maximum depth from 4 m. to 35 m. The observations

comprise 165 series of three or more samples covering the entire

depth of 65 lakes and 9 series of surface and bottom samples ob¬

tained from 5 of the shallower lakes.

Of the group of lakes from which only surface and bottom

samples were obtained, Jag Lake had the same amount at sur¬

face and bottom (4 m.), namely 0.008 mg. of organic phosphor¬

us per liter of water. In Little Crooked Lake the surface water

contained 0.024 mg. and the bottom water (7 m.) 0.026 mg. In

Little John Lake, with a maximum depth of 7 m., the average

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

was 0.013 mg. for the surface and 0.023 mg. for the bottom. In

Little John Jr., depth 9 m., the average of two series was 0.014

mg. and 0.025 mg. Little Star Bog, with a maximum depth of

5 m., gave a surface average of 0.017 mg. and a bottom average

of 0.030 mg. per liter.

Fig. 8. Vertical distribution of phosphorus and temperature in Big Lake,

July 21, 1928. See fig. 2 for further explanations.

The 165 series in which three or more samples were taken for

each set readily fall into three groups on the basis of the verti¬

cal distribution of the organic phosphorus. A substantially uni¬

form amount of organic phosphorus was found in the first

group ; in the second group there was a more or less marked in¬

crease of the organic phosphorus with increasing depth and in

the third group there was a smaller amount in the lower water

than in the strata above. Examples of the first and second

groups are shown in figures 2 to 7 inclusive.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes. 369

Three series of observations belong to the first group. In

Crystal Lake (fig. 2) the amount of organic phosphorus was a

little larger at the surface than at any other depth, but it was

uniform from 5 m. to the bottom (19 m.) . A substantially uni¬

form distribution was also found in Lake Laura (12 m. deep)

and in Wolf Lake (11.5 m. deep).

Figures 3 and 4, representing Little Trout and Clear lakes,

show a larger amount of organic phosphorus at the bottom than

at the surface. In the former lake the amounts were 0.013 mg.

at the surface and 0.014 mg. at the bottom (26 m.), but 0.015

mg. per liter was noted at 20 m. In Clear Lake (fig. 4) on the

other hand, there was a regular increase from surface to bot¬

tom ; the quantity of organic phosphorus rose from 0.008 mg. at

the surface to 0.016 mg. per liter at 25 m.

In Adelaide Lake (fig. 6) there was a marked increase of or¬

ganic phosphorus in the lower water, but there was a somewhat

smaller amount at intermediate depths than at either the sur¬

face or the bottom. The same was true of Little Tomahawk

Lake on August 15, 1928 ; the quantity was smaller at 5 m. and

8 m. than at the surface and at 10 m. In Trout Lake (fig. 5) the

decrease came between 15 m. and 28 in., but there was a marked

rise at 31 m. The most marked difference between the surface

and bottom, and the intermediate depths was found in Lake

Mary. (See table II and fig. 7). The quantity of organic phos¬

phorus declined from 0.037 mg. per liter at the surface to 0.010

mg. at 3 m. and 5 m. and then rose in the lower water to a max¬

imum of 0.100 mg. per liter at 20 m. Similar results were ob¬

tained on Lake Mary in 1928 and 1929 ; a minimum of 0.010 mg.

per liter was found at 5 m. in both of these years, with larger

amounts above and below this depth. In 17 series of samples

from 14 different lakes a smaller amount of organic phosphorus

was obtained at some of the intermediate depths than at the

surface and bottom. In four of these series there was a fairly

close correlation between the changes in the quantity of organic

phosphorus at the different depths and similar changes in the

amount of organic carbon at the same depths, but there was no

correlation between the variations in the quantities of organic

phosphorus and organic carbon in the other thirteen series. The

explanation of the latter variations must await a further study

of the problem.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

Fig. 9. This diagram shows the grouping of 454 lakes on the basis of

the quantity of organic phosphorus found in their surface waters. Note

that they cover a much wider range than in the diagram for soluble phos¬

phorus (fig. 1). The vertical spaces represent the number of lakes in each

group.

.010 .012 .014. .016 .018 . 020 .022 024 .026 .028 .030 .032 .034 .036 .038

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes . 371

In the third group of serial samples, there was a smaller

amount of organic phosphorus at the bottom than at the sur¬

face; this group is represented by nine series obtained from

nine different lakes. The differences between surface and bot¬

tom range from a minimum of 0.002 mg. to a maximum of 0.014

mg. per liter; the average difference for the nine series is a lit¬

tle more than 0.006 mg. per liter. Figure 8, representing Big

Lake, is a good example of this type of vertical distribution of

the organic phosphorus. In this lake the organic phosphorus

declined from 0.017 mg. at the surface to 0.011 mg. per liter at

the bottom (17 m.).

Total Phosphorus

The total phosphorus is involved in the discussion of the sol¬

uble and of the organic phosphorus, so that it needs only a brief

consideration. In the surface samples from the various lakes,

the total phosphorus varied from a minimum of 0.008 mg. in

Silver Lake at Rhinelander to a maximum of 0.140 mg. per liter

in Little Star Lake. In the great majority of the lakes the quan¬

tity of total phosphorus in the surface water ranged from 0.015

to 0.030 mg. per liter ; only four lakes showed 0.010 mg. or less.

The second largest amount (0.110 mg.) was found in Eagle

Lake and the third largest (0.100 mg.) in Summit Lake. In the

surface samples from 11 different lakes the total phosphorus

reached 0.060 mg. per liter or more. The largest amounts in

the surface water were found in lakes which supported large

growths of phytoplankton. The average amount of total phos¬

phorus was somewhat larger in lakes with high colored waters,

and this seems to indicate that the vegetable extractives re¬

sponsible for the color carry a certain amount of phosphorus.

The mean quantity of total phosphorus in the surface water of

479 lakes is 0.023 mg. per liter.

Hydrographic surveys of 20 of these lakes were made during

the summer of 1930 and their volumes have been computed.

This makes it possible to ascertain the approximate quantity of

phosphorus in the various lakes. The results of these computa¬

tions are shown in table III. The quantities of phosphorus given

in the table are based on the average amount of this element in

the surface water of each lake. No attempt has been made to

compute the quantity in the separate strata of the various lakes

because there are considerable variations in the amounts found

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

16

J4

12

10

8

6

4

2

.006 .012 .016 .020 024 .028 .032

Fig. 10. This diagram shows the relation between the organic phosphor¬

us and the organic carbon in the surface waters of the various lakes. Each

dot represents the observations on a single lake. The wide range of va¬

riation shows that the organic matter of the various lakes contains very

different percentages of phosphorus.

in the different strata in different years. This table shows that

the smaller lakes possess only a few kilograms of phosphorus

in the entire lake; in these cases it will be possible to increase

the phosphorus content of the whole body of water through the

use of phosphate fertilizers and thus study the effect of such

fertilizers upon the growth of the phytoplankton. Plans are now

being formulated for such experimental studies.

Vertical distribution . In a few of the vertical series of

samples the total phosphorus was found to be uniformly dis¬

tributed from surface to bottom. In Crystal Lake for example,

the same amount of total phosphorus was present at all depths

on August 17, 1926, namely 0.015 mg. per liter and a similar se¬

ries was obtained in this lake on August 28, 1928, the amount on

the latter date being 0.012 mg. per liter at all depths.

The great majority of the serial observations showed a more

or less marked increase in the quantity of total phosphorus with

increasing depth. (See table II) . In some instances this increase

was due to the presence of a larger amount of soluble phosphor¬

us in the lower water, but in most cases it was due to increases

Juday & Birge — - Phosphorus in Lakes .

373

in both the soluble and the organic phosphorus. The largest in¬

crease in the lower water was found in Lake Mary; table II

shows 0.600 mg. of total phosphorus at 20 m. on July 29, 1927

and a larger amount was found at this depth on July 12, 1926,

namely 0.750 mg. per liter. In 25 lakes on which serial observa¬

tions were made, the lower water contained more than 0.050 mg.

of total phosphorus per liter, while in 43 lakes the quantity did

not exceed this amount.

Fig. 11. In this diagram the mean quantity of organic carbon in the dif¬

ferent phosphorus columns of fig. 10 are platted against the amount of or¬

ganic phosphorus represented by the corresponding columns. The solid line

represents the actual means of the different organic phosphorus columns

and the broken line represents the running mean of three columns.

Discussion of Results

The production of aquatic plants by a body of water is de¬

pendent upon the presence of certain dissolved substances in an

available form, such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.

This is especially true of the phytoplankton since it is made up

of free floating organisms that depend entirely upon these dis¬

solved substances in the upper water for their food materials.

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Nitrogen and potassium are usually present in natural waters

in sufficient amounts to supply the needs of these organisms,

but the phosphorus supply in the lakes under consideration is

very limited and it may have some effect upon the productivity

of some or all of these bodies of water. Light is also a necessary

factor in the process of photosynthesis, so that the actively

growing phytoplankton is confined chiefly to the upper stratum

of water or the epilimnion of stratified lakes where enough solar

energy is present to enable these organisms to carry on photo¬

synthesis . This means, therefore, that the principal demand for

these plant foods is confined to the upper stratum of water.

Some of these phytoplankton organisms as well as some of the

zooplankton forms that feed on them, are constantly dying and

sinking into the lower water, thereby transferring the food ma¬

terials derived from the upper stratum to the lower water of a

lake. As these dead organisms sink into the lower water, they

pass through some of the early stages of decomposition at least,

while the later stages take place on or near the bottom. In a

stratified lake the materials transferred in this manner remain

in the lower stratum until the autumn overturning of the water

distributes them uniformly from surface to bottom. In the proc¬

ess of decomposition the phosphorus constituent of these organ¬

ic compounds is changed from the organic to the phosphate or

soluble form and this process is called regeneration ; it is the re¬

verse of what takes place in the upper water.

Table IV shows the phosphorus content of plankton material

obtained from 10 of these lakes. The Crustacea in some in¬

stances contained rather large amounts of this element; the

maximum percentage was found in a tow net catch from Trout

Lake which consisted chiefly of Crustacea. Algae are the chief

constituents of the centrifuge plankton and the Anabaena catch

from Trout Lake contained substantially the same percentage

of phosphorus as the centrifuge material from that lake. The

last column in table IV shows that the quantity of phosphorus

in the centrifuge plankton ranged from 0.003 mg. to 0.016 mg.

per liter of water. It is evident from these results that any ex¬

tensive transfer of plankton material from the upper water to

the lower strata will make a material contribution to the phos¬

phorus content of the latter.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes . 375

Some of these organisms undergo decomposition in the upper

water of a stratified lake and the final products of this process

become available immediately for further plant growth. This is

true also of a lake which is so shallow that the entire body of

water is kept in circulation during the summer. In such lakes

these food materials may be used repeatedly during the course

of the growing season. Where these substances are scarce, the

shallow lake thus has a decided advantage over one that is deep

enough to be stratified.

Whether the soluble and organic phosphorus increase in quan¬

tity in the lower water of a stratified lake during the summer

depends chiefly upon the abundance of the plankton and the

rate of decomposition in the lower stratum. In a lake that is

poor in plankton, such as Crystal (fig. 2) for example, there is

no increase of soluble or organic phosphorus in the lower water

during the summer. In lakes that support a larger growth of

plankton, on the other hand, there is a more or less marked in¬

crease of phosphorus, either soluble or organic or both, in the

lower stratum during the summer period of stratification ; this

is the most common type of stratified lake. Such conditions are

shown in figures 4 to 7; Lake Mary is an extreme example of

this type.

The quantity of organic phosphorus that accumulates in the

lower water of a stratified lake in summer depends upon the

amount of organic material that sinks into this stratum and

also upon the rate of decomposition. In some instances decom¬

position proceeds rapidly enough to prevent the accumulation of

organic phosphorus in the lower water. The surface water of

Catfish Lake, for example, contained 0.013 mg. of organic

phosphorus per liter on July 31, 1928 and the bottom water

(22 m.) yielded the same amount; the soluble phosphorus, on

the other hand, rose from 0.003 mg. at the surface to 0.022 mg.

per liter at 22 m. Crooked Lake also showed the same amount

of organic phosphorus, namely 0.010 mg. per liter, at surface

and bottom (21 m.) on August 10, 1928, while the soluble phos¬

phorus increased from a trace at the surface to 0.005 mg. at the

bottom. In these instances, therefore, it appears that the proc¬

ess of decomposition went on rapidly enough to prevent an in¬

crease of the organic phosphorus in the lower water, but there

was an increase of soluble phosphorus due to the conversion

of the organic phosphorus into the soluble form.

376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

In some of the lakes decomposition proceeded fast enough in

the lower water to reduce the quantity of organic phosphorus in

that stratum below that at the surface. These lakes constitute

the third group mentioned in connection with the vertical distri¬

bution of the organic phosphorus. In a set of samples taken on

Big Lake (fig. 8) on July 21, 1928, the surface water yielded

0.017 mg. of organic phosphorus per liter and the bottom sam¬

ple (17 m.) contained only 0.011 mg.; the quantity of soluble

phosphorus at these same depths was a trace and 0.022 mg. per

liter respectively. On August 23, 1928 the surface water of

Long Lake yielded 0.015 mg. of organic phosphorus per liter

and the bottom sample (12 m.) 0.010 mg. ; the soluble phosphor¬

us at these depths was 0.003 mg. and 0.090 mg. respectively.

While the quantity of organic phosphorus was smaller at the

bottom than at the surface, the difference was more than com¬

pensated for by the soluble phosphorus, so that the total phos¬

phorus was much larger at the bottom than at the surface.

The utilization of the soluble phosphorus of the upper water

by the phytoplankton and the subsequent transfer of some of

these organisms to the lower strata when they die, ought to

produce a more or less marked decrease of the phosphate in the

upper stratum during the summer period. In about half of the

lakes on which spring and summer observations were made

there was such a decrease of the soluble phosphorus in the up¬

per water, but in the other half the quantity was either the

same in the summer as in the spring or a somewhat larger

amount was present in the former than in the latter season. In

some of the latter lakes the quantity of soluble phosphorus was

maintained or was even increased somewhat during the grow¬

ing season in spite of the fact that these bodies of water sus¬

tained a relatively large growth of phytoplankton.

In spite of the various physical, chemical and biological

processes which tend to keep the phosphorus in the lake water

either in a soluble or an organic form, a certain amount of it is

lost to the deposits that are formed on the bottom. Black (1929)

found, for example, that the percentage of the element phos¬

phorus in dry samples of these lake deposits ranged from 0.07

per cent in Silver Lake to 0.63 per cent in Star Lake.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes .

377

Summary

1. The phosphorus content of 479 lakes of northeastern Wis¬

consin has been determined.

2. The mean quantity of soluble phosphorus in the surface

water of the various lakes is 0.003 mg. per liter; the range is

from none in nine lakes to a maximum of 0.015 mg. in one.

3. In 54 pairs of spring and summer observations on the sur¬

face water of 32 lakes, 26 pairs showed a smaller amount of

soluble phosphorus in summer than in spring, 12 pairs were the

same, and 16 pairs yielded a larger amount in summer than in

spring. In the second and third groups, the soluble phosphorus

was maintained at the spring level, or even increased somewhat,

during the summer in spite of the fact that some of these lakes

supported large crops of phytoplankton at that time.

4. Most of the thermally stratified lakes showed a more or

less marked increase in the quantity of soluble phosphorus in

the lower strata in summer.

5. The mean quantity of organic phosphorus in the surface

water of these lakes is 0.020 mg. per liter; the range is from

0.005 mg. to 0.103 mg. per liter.

6. On the basis of the vertical distribution of the organic

phosphorus, the various series of samples may be divided into

three groups; (a) those with the same quantity of organic

phosphorus at the surface and the bottom, (b) those with a

larger amount at the bottom than at the surface, and (c) those

with a smaller amount at the bottom than at the surface.

Literature

Black, Charles S. Chemical analyses of lake deposits. Trans. Wis. Acad.

Sci., Arts & Let. 24 : 127-133. 1929.

Juday, C., E. A. Birge, G. I. Kemmerer and R. J. Robinson. Phosphorus

content of lake waters of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad.

Sci., Arts & Let. 23 : 233-248. 1928.

Robinson, Rex J. and George Kemmerer. Determination of organic phos¬

phorus in lake waters. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Let. 25: 117-

121. 1930.

378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters ,

Table I. This table shows the phosphorus content of the waters of 19

wells and one spring. The results for total phosphorus are indicated in

fractions of a milligram per liter of water.

s bdfiib.

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes ,

379

Table II. The quantity of fixed carbon dioxide , phosphorus , plankton ,

<meZ organic carbon found in 25 lakes of northeastern Wisconsin in 1927.

The results are stated in milligrams per liter of water. The plankton re¬

sults show only the amount of organic matter in this material. Tr. means

trace.

380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,

TABLE II — Continued

Juday & Birge — Phosphorus in Lakes .

381

TABLE II — Continued

Table III.

Wisconsin .

Quantity of phosphorus in 19 lakes situated in northeastern

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

Table IV. The phosphorus content of plankton organisms obtained from

lakes of northeastern Wisconsin. The results are stated in percentages of

the dry weight of the material and in milligrams per liter of water for the

centrifuge plankton. The tow net catches are not quantitative.

A THIRD REPORT ON SOLAR RADIATION AND INLAND

LAKES

E. A. Birge and C. Juday

Notes from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey. No. XL1I1.

The first paper of this series (’29) on solar radiation and in¬

land lakes reported on the quantity of radiation to be found at

different depths in these lakes and on its percentile transmission

through the water. The second paper (’30) continued this part

of the study and enlarged its scope by furnishing data on the

transmission of the several colors of the spectrum. In the sum¬

mer of 1930 both phases of the investigation were continued by

observations in the lakes of Northeastern Wisconsin ; and there

was added a quantitative study of the composition of the radia¬

tion present in the lakes and of the changes in that composition

as radiation passes through the water. The present paper re¬

ports on the last matter only; consideration of transmission of

radiation, etc., being left to the future.

Summary

1. The quantity of solar radiation found in lakes at the depth

of 1 m. or more is observed and computed as stated in our form¬

er papers (’30:289).

2. At these depths the energy spectrum extends little if at

all beyond the limits of the visible spectrum and the study is

practically concerned with light.

3. By the use of a series of light-filters with the pyrlimnome-

ter, data are secured from which percentile cumulative curves

of the spectrum may be constructed. These represent the dis¬

tribution of the radiation in the spectrum. See fig. 9 and others.

4. From these curves is derived that per cent of the total

radiation which is to be found in any region of the spectrum,

whether this is defined by wave-length or by color. See fig. 10

and others.

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

5. This distribution is of various types dependent primarily

on the relation between wave-length of radiation and its trans¬

mission through water. The facts are further complicated by

effects due to stains dissolved in the water and by suspended

matters. These results may be expressed in quantitative terms,

either as a per cent of the total radiation ; or in definite units

by combining these data with those derived as stated under 1.

6. Associated with increase of depth of water are changes

in composition of radiation due to causes named under 5. These

also are quantitatively expressed. See figs. 13, 14, and others.

7. In general, the pyrlimnometer enables us to follow these

changes through the epilimnion of inland lakes. It furnishes a

quantitative analysis of the radiation derived from the several

regions of the spectrum, and gives a quantitative basis for the

study of the relation between light and organisms in this region

of the lakes. In the more transparent lakes the study may be

extended to regions below the epilimnion.

Instruments and their Use

The Pyrlimnometer s. The pyrlimnometer used in 1929 has

been figured and briefly described (Birge and Juday, ’30:287).

This instrument was continued in use during 1930 ; but the main

work of that season was on the composition of the spectrum

and called for a larger number of light-filters, so that another

and larger machine was built. Its general construction is en¬

tirely like that of the first one, differing only in unimportant

details. The carriers for light-filters — called plates — in the

model of 1930 have openings for eight filters, while those of the

earlier model are adapted for five filters ; their diameters are

18 cm. and 25 cm. The frame of the 1929 model is 50 cm.

long and 15 cm. wide ; that of the later model measures 56 cm.

by 20 cm. Their weights are 3 kg. and 5 kg., respectively.

The Thermopile . The central part of the instrument is the

thermopile. This is a large surface Moll thermopile made by

Kipp & Sons, of Delft, Holland, containing 80 elements on a

circular surface 20 mm. in diameter. For our use it is mounted

in a brass case 65 mm. in diameter. The opening over the

thermopile is 35 mm. in diameter and a plate glass cover is

cemented into it. A recess on one side of the cavity for the

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 385

Fig. 1. Pyrlimnometer, form of 1930, with plate carrying 8 filters.

Moll thermopile is seen in place, in the opening of the plate occupied by

filter GG-1. The next opening — below in figure- — holds the white opaque

disc; then follow the filters in the order listed for plate 1 on p. 390. The

operating cord is seen at 0 : a pull on this brings the opaque disc over the

thermopile. Note milled head of screw which fastens plate to ratchet-

wheel below it (see fig. 2) also small peg projecting through plate, which

ensures fixed position of plate. Compare fig. 1 in Birge and Juday ’30.

thermopile contains some phosphorus pentoxide. An insul¬

ated cable 20 m. or more in length is connected with the thermo¬

pile; its entry into the box is carefully sealed, and a spring¬

like coil of wire is wrapped about the cable near the junction

with the box, in order to prevent sharp bending at this point.

The Filter-carriers or Plates . The diameter of the light-filters

and the consequent size of the plates that carry them were de¬

termined by the size of the bismuth-silver thermopile used in

earlier studies. The area of this thermopile was much larger

than that of the Moll instrument and called for larger filters.

The earlier filters were Wratten filters — gelatine films cemented

between discs of optical glass — and with their frames are about

60 mm. in diameter and 5 mm. thick. The details of the plates

are therefore different from those which are adapted for use

with the Moll thermopile and the filters of Jena glass, but the

general plan would not be altered. The change in thermopile

and filters made no difference in the operation of the pyrlim¬

nometer. The Jena filters are 59 mm. in diameter and in gen¬

eral 2 mm. thick.

386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cme£ Letters .

Fig. 2. Operating mechanism of pyrlimnometer, in position of rest.

C, bar carrying catch which holds filter-plate in place; it is pivoted on

screw seen at its upper end in figure. Catch is held against edge of plate

by a spring. Note this part of mechanism in fig. 1.

L, Operating lever, a flat plate which turns on the socket of W ; it carries

the pawl, P. Note position of P relative to notch of ratchet-wheel. L is

moved by a bar to one end of which is attached the operating cord 0 and

to the other the return spring, Sp.

O, operating cord, passing under a pulley and connecting with L.

R, release bar of catch; one end attached to L and moving with it; the

other bearing against release bar of catch, C. R normally rests against the

stem of S, lying under its head. It has been drawn away from this to

show the curved form of its side, which is an important element in the

mechanism.

Sp, return spring of mechanism.

Sp1, spring of release bar.

S, stop of release bar, against which it is held by spring Sp1.

T, thermopile, with insulated cable, C&.

W, ratchet-wheel for carrying filter plate; its axle goes into a socket be¬

low the frame. Note 8 notches corresponding to the openings of the plate.

A pull on the operating cord rotates the lever L and moves forward

the release bar R. The first effect is that R pushes the catch C out of the

notch in the edge of the filter-plate, which thus becomes free to turn ; then

the pawl P engages with the notch in the ratchet-wheel and begins to

rotate the plate. Meanwhile as the release bar R advances, its curved

side bearing against S, is pushing it along toward the end of the bar

C. As soon as the filter-plate has advanced enough to move its notch

away from the catch, R has been pushed off the end of C and is free to

move past it. The catch springs back against the edge of the plate, ready

to engage the next notch when it comes around. Rotation of filter-plate

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 387

continues until plate is stopped and held by catch falling into notch. Then

operating cord is released, spring Sp draws back the whole mechanism;

Sp1 brings the release bar back to its place against the stem of S; and

the apparatus is ready for the next advance. Note that the catch is square

in section ; the notch of the plate which it enters is of the same shape and

but little larger; so that the plate is held firmly with the filter centered

over the thermopile.

Experiments to determine the necessary diameter of the

filters have been made with diaphragms of thin sheet brass.

These have clear openings of 32 mm. and 42 mm., respectively,

while the clear opening of the present plates is 53 mm. It was

found that the smaller openings did not cause any reduction of

the readings of the thermopile at any altitudes of the sun at

which work was done, or is likely to be done during our sum¬

mers. A corresponding reduction of the diameter of the filters

would allow 8 openings in the plate of the small pyrlimnometer

and would make unnecessary the enlargement of the instru¬

ment. Such a change would be an improvement.

The plates are made of brass about 1.5 mm. thick and either

18 cm. or 25 cm. in diameter. The edge of the plates has notches

for the catch which holds each successive filter in place as rota¬

tion brings it above the thermopile. Each filter is kept in its

socket by small projecting pieces of brass held down by screws ;

this arrangement is based on the needs of the Wratten filters

and can easily be improved if Jena filters are used.

The mechanism for rotating the plate and bringing the suc¬

cessive filters above the thermopile is the device of Mr. J. P.

Foerst, mechanician of the department of physics, University

of Wisconsin. It is efficient, simple and as nearly “fool-proof”

as such a mechanism can be. It is figured and described in

fig. 2.

The Recording Instruments . During 1930 the same recording

instruments were used as in 1929. They are two millivoltmeters

made by the Rawson Electrical Instrument Co. of Cambridge,

Mass. The first has four ranges, its scale of 100 divisions cor¬

responding to 20, 10, 5, and 2 mv., respectively ; the second and

more sensitive instrument is of the semi-suspended type and has

two ranges, 2 mv. and 0.333 mv. The first millivoltmeter is

used to determine the radiation in the air and in the water close

to the surface of the lake. The 2 mv. range may be used at con¬

siderable depths, especially in transparent waters ; but at depths

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

of 1 m. or more, readings are usually made with the more sen¬

sitive meter, employing the 2 mv. or the 0.333 mv. range, as

may be indicated. In this instrument the internal resistance of

both ranges is the same and the scale-reading of the 0.333 mv.

range is six times that of the 2 mv. range.

Both of these millivoltmeters are well suited to work of the

type that we have undertaken, the study of radiation in the wa¬

ters of small inland lakes, carried on by means of rowboats or

small launches. The more sensitive instrument and range are

quite as steady as the others and are read quite as easily and

accurately. They do not need to be leveled and small irregular

movements of the boat, due to waves, do not seriously disturb

them. The needle is deflected from its proper resting place by

a change in the average position of the boat, such as would be

caused by a change of the position of an observer toward one

side of the boat, and if the boat rolls in the trough of the waves

the needle is set to swinging. In lakes like ours neither of these

difficulties need arise. We have not tried the instruments in

larger bodies of water, like the sea or one of the Great Lakes,

where there is always a swell.

The rapidity of movement of the needle of the millivoltmeters

varies with the sensitivity of the range, and in the 0.333 mv.

range it is quite slow. Even a short swing takes 10-15 seconds

and a large one covering much of the scale, may easily require

30-45 seconds. Movement is especially slow near the end of the

swing, either when rising to the full reading or returning to the

natural position of zero. Many seconds may be needed to make

sure that the needle has returned to its exact position of rest.

Readings in the water were made with both the 2 mv. and the

0.333 mv. ranges, whenever the amplitude of the scale-reading

permitted. This was done partly to check the readings and

partly to keep ourselves assured of the constancy of the ratio

between the scales.

The Light-filters. There were employed for the analysis of

the radiation in the lakes a series of eleven light-filters of Jena

glass, extending from GG-1 to RG-5 of the catalogue of the

Jenaer Glaswerk, and completed by the Wratten filter 88a.

These filters transmit the whole or almost the whole of the

radiation contained in wave-lengths greater than the position

of their cut-off and the position of the center of their cut-off is

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 389

found at different wave-lengtHs from 3500 A to 7500 A. The sit¬

uation is shown in fig. 8, which is a combined diagram modified

from those given for single filters in the catalogue of Messrs.

Schott and Co.

It should be noted that these filters do not necessarily agree

with the data and the diagrams given in this catalogue. The

different melts of glass give results which are not uniform, as

is stated on p. 2 of the catalogue. The data on transmission

given in the catalogue are not detailed enough for the sort of

work to which we have put the filters and the Jenaer Glaswerk

very kindly furnished us with detailed data for these filters,

giving the transmission for intervals of 100 A. Several of the

filters came from melts of glass other than those used in the

catalogue and their transmission was correspondingly different.

Filter GG-5, for instance, proved to be very close to GG-7 and

its readings had to be dropped from the series; the center of

the cut-off for RG-1 and RG-2 proved to be closer together than

would be inferred from the catalogue and the mean of the two

readings was used and was platted at the suitable wave-length.

Fig. 8 shows that most of the cut-off of the several filters

occupies a short distance in the spectrum. The filters from

GG-1 to OG-2 inclusive transmit 100 per cent of the radiation

from wave-lengths longer than the position of the cut-off ; those

marked RG transmit 96 to 98 per cent and the Wratten filter

88a transmits 87.5 per cent. The use of these filters began at

the depth of one meter in the lake, where almost all of the infra¬

red and much of the red radiation has been absorbed. The dif¬

ferences in transmission, therefore, practically involved small

quantities and no correction was made for them.

In general the readings of the several filters were platted at

the wave-length where the line of the cut-off intersects the 50

per cent line of the diagram. This placed the filters as follows :

390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

The reading of GG-1 was taken as giving the full effect of

the sun for purposes of this investigation. Numerous compari¬

sons were made of readings taken with this filter and those

taken without a filter or open. In almost all cases the reading

without a filter was the larger, slightly above that with GG-1.

In 31 comparisons made in 17 different lakes the average read¬

ing with GG-1 was 98.8 per cent of that with open; with a

minimum of 92.6 per cent in one case and a maximum of 100

per cent in two cases. In Trout Lake a set of comparisons be¬

tween GG-1 and open was made by 22 readings at depths from

1 to 4 meters. The maximum reading was 79 divisions of the

scale at 1 m. and the minimum was 21 divisions at 4 m. In no

case was the difference between GG-1 and open so large as one

division of the scale. Differences of this order, and even much

larger, may not uncommonly be present in readings taken in

rapid succession with open; they are due to variations in the

sun and in the suspended matter in the water. In this series

the sun was fairly steady ; it may also be noted that GG-1 was

several times above open. GG-1 cuts off only the extreme ultra¬

violet, of which little or nothing is present in the water at the

depth of 1 m. Since some effect from the glass surfaces is pres¬

ent in the readings from all filters it was decided to consider

the reading from GG-1 as representing 100 per cent of the

radiation and thus avoid the necessity of attempting to correct

for the effect of the glass.

The series of filters was arranged for use in the pyrlimnom-

eter in two plates, or filter-carriers, as follows :

Plate I

Plate III

RG-5

RG-2

RG-1

OG-2

OG-1

GG-11

GG-1

RG-1

GG-11

GG-7

GG-5

GG-3

GG-2

GG-1

The eighth opening of the plate was filled by an opaque disc,

with which the readings of the plate began and ended. The

reading from filter GG-1 represented 100 per cent of radiation

and readings began at the red end of the spectrum. Filters

RG-1 and GG-11 were repeated in each plate so as to connect

the two parts of the series; plates were changed so that I and

Birge & Juday- — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 391

III were read successively at each depth. Filter 88a was mount¬

ed in another plate; at 1 m. it gave only 4-6 scale-divisions of

the 0.333 mv. range, and could not be read at greater depths.

General Conditions of Work . In addition to observations on

the composition of radiation, much work was done in 1930 on

transmission of radiation, similar to that done in 1929 but more

detailed. This required the use of two more sets of filters, num¬

bering 12 in all ; and a full set of readings demanded much time

and good sunshine.

Such a set of readings in a fairly transparent lake, employing

all of the filters at all necessary depths, calls for over 200 read¬

ings of the pyrlimnometer and requires two hours or more even

under the most favorable conditions. Thus in Black Oak Lake,

part of whose record is discussed in some detail on p. 404, plates

I and III were read at 1,3,5, and 7 m., and plate I at 9 m., re¬

quiring 105 readings and 46 minutes, 9.00 to 9.46 a. m. Plate

II was read at 0.5, 1,3, 5, 7, and 9 m., 65 readings and 26 min¬

utes. At 10.18 the first small cloud touched the sun and

others also followed, causing delay so that it was 11.15 when

the work was completed with 44 readings of the small pyrlimno¬

meter in the upper meter. This was unusually rapid work, up

to the last set. There were no clouds or haze and the surface

of the lake was smooth. In Weber Lake on August 16, 189 read¬

ings required 2 hours; in Silver Lake, August 22, 224 read¬

ings, partly involving comparison of filters, were made between

8.27 and 10.25 a. m.

During the summer of 1930 substantially no readings were

made at greater depths than 10 meters, and this fact partly

accounts for the rapidity of the work, since change of plates

can be made quickly if depths are small. The studies both on

transmission and on the composition of the spectrum consider

only parts of the total spectrum and there is ordinarily not

enough radiation in these parts to permit observation at

greater depths. Even where the greater depths could be reached

in the more transparent lakes, observation rarely extended

below the epilimnion. If the pyrlimnometer passes into the

lower and colder water some five minutes are needed to allow

the thermopile to assume the temperature of the colder water

and we did not wish to incur this delay.

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

No summer is likely to be more favorable for the work with

the sun than was that of 1930. Between June 27 and July 13

there was much cloud and only 5 days were available for this

work. But from July 14 to August 29 there was an almost

continuous series of days with sunshine. In this period of 47

days 36 were used and 3 more might have been. Very few of

these days yielded sunshine throughout the day. Clouds began

to reach the sun not long after 10 a. m. and often became so

dense as to stop work by 11 o’clock. Such clouds were likely

to continue until after 3 p. m. As a result, it was necessary

to utilize the earlier morning hours for work, and observations

ordinarily began shortly after 8 a. m.. During the summer 51

lakes were visited, many of them more than once so that 74 ser¬

ies of observations were made. These differed in extent both with

the lake and with the behavior of the sun. Altogether there

were made about 9,700 readings of the pyrlimnometers. In

this work Mr. Birge handled the pyrlimnometer and Mr. H. C.

Baum read and recorded the millivoltmeters.

2. The Percentile Cumulative Curves

The scale readings of the millivoltmeter, obtained at any

depth from this series of filters, indicate the amount of radi¬

ation delivered by that part of the spectrum which lies between

about 7,500 a and the cut-off of the successive filters. These

may be computed as percentages of the total radiation — that

derived from the scale-reading of GG-1 — and platted as a per¬

centile cumulative curve beginning at 7500 A and reaching 100

per cent at 3500 A. Before discussing these curves their rela¬

tion will be shown to curves of solar radiation in water, but

obtained in a different way.

Fig. 3 shows the envelope of a normal solar energy curve,

(E — E) constructed for air-mass 1.5 and for 0.5 cm. of precipit-

able atmospheric water. The ordinates for this curve were

furnished to us in 1916 by Mr. F. E. Fowle of the Smithsonian

Institution, whose assistance has been of the greatest value

to us. Within this curve is platted the corresponding energy

curve (W — W) which would be found at a depth of 100 cm.

in distilled water, mainly according to the results of Asch-

kinass (’95). This curve represents about 47 per cent of the

radiation in the total curve, correction being made for the large

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 393

Fig. 3. Envelope of normal solar energy curve (E — E) computed for

air mass 1.5; precipitable atmospheric water, 0.5 cm. The corresponding

energy curve (W — W) for a depth of 1 m. in distilled water, mainly ac¬

cording to data from Aschkinass, ’95. The position of the A line is shown.

absorption bands in the infra-red, but not for reflection from

the surface. It will be noted that substantially all infra-red

radiation is removed by 1 m. of distilled water.

In order to present this situation in more convenient form,

part of the spectrum — from 3000 a to 8000 A — is platted in

fig. 4 on a scale which keeps the ordinates unchanged but

makes the abscissas four times as great. Within the envelope

(E — E), are platted the corresponding curve for distilled water

at depth of 1 m. and also three similar curves for the Altered

water of three lakes, Mendota, Trout, and Turtle. These are

derived from the paper of Pietenpol (’18) and the ordinates

for these curves are found by converting the coefficient of ex¬

tinction stated by Pietenpol into per cent of transmission.

The readings of Pietenpol were limited by the range of the

spectrophotometer, but they were extended in these cases

by the aid of the bolometer both to shorter (4000 A) and to

longer wave-lengths. The area included in any one of these

394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

curves is measured by a planimeter and made equal to 100 per

cent ; the areas are measured which are included in the parts of

the curve, beginning at 8000 A and ending at the successive lines

indicating intervals of 500 A. From these areas, computed as

percentages of the total area, is built up a percentile cumula¬

tive curve, beginning at the red end of the spectrum.

Fig. 4. Part of the curve of fig. 3 (3000 A— 8000 A) platted with the

same ordinates and with abscissas four times as great. E — E envelope,

W — W, distilled water, as in fig. 3. Similar curves for filtered water of

Trout, Mendota, and Turtle lakes, from the observations of Pietenpol ’18.

Color of distilled water on platinum-cobalt scale, 0; Trout Lake, 6; Lake

Mendota, 8; Turtle Lake, 93. For discussion see pp. 395-397.

The results of thus transforming the areas of fig. 4 into

cumulative curves is given in fig. 5, which shows the quanti¬

tative distribution of radiation in the spectrum and also the

effect on this distribution which is due to the presence of stain

in the water. Many quantitative conclusions may be drawn

from these curves when they are platted on coordinate paper.

Fig. 6 shows certain of these results. This diagram like figs.

10 and 14, shows four main items, three of which come from

the cumulative curves.

1. The quantity of radiation present at the depth indicated is

shown by the narrow bars marked T. It is stated as a percent-

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 395

age of the radiation delivered to the surface of the water. In the

case of distilled water this is 47 per cent, and if the amount at

the surface of the lake is estimated as 1.5 cal/cm2 3/min. the

value at 1 m. is 0.7 cal/cm2/min.

FILTERED WATER

Color %atlM.

Distilled 0 47

Mendota 8 34

Turtle 93 13

Fig. 5. Percentile cumulative energy curves derived by measurement

from fig. 4. See p. 394. D, distilled water; M, Lake Mendota; T, Turtle

Lake. These are to be compared with similar cumulative curves derived

from lakes by the use of light-filters and shown in fig. 9.

2. This item and the following two relate to the composition

of radiation at the depth of 1 m. The percentile distribution is

shown by the broad bars, which are partly shaded. Total radia¬

tion is placed as 100 per cent and is divided by wave length into

five parts, each corresponding to 1000 A or sometimes in the

end sections to 500 A. The divisions corresponding to 3000-

4000 A, 5000-6000 A, and 7000-8000 A are shaded; intermediate

divisions are left open. By tracing the relative size of these di¬

visions through the series, the effect of stain on the distribu¬

tion of radiation in the spectrum can be readily seen.

3. The circular diagram at the head of each broad bar

shows by its sectors the distribution of radiation to the several

colors of the spectrum. In these diagrams no separate ac-

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Fig. 6. Distribution of radiation in the cumulative curves of fig. 5.

The shorter and narrower bars marked T, show the total amount of radia¬

tion present at 1 m. as a percentage of that incident on the surface.

Broader bars show percentile distribution of radiation by wave-lengths.

The spectrum is divided into 5 regions each covering 1000A. In these

note percentile decrease in the short-wave regions and corresponding in¬

crease of the others, as color of water rises. Circular diagrams show dis¬

tribution of radiation to the several colors, see p. 898. Note in the series

the decrease in the size of sectors belonging to the short-wave colors, and

the increase of long-wave sectors, especially red. On the left side of each

percentile bar are short lines indicating percentages of the colors shown

by sectors in circular diagrams above. Fig. 6 is to be compared with fig. 10.

count is made of any small amount of ultra-violet or infra-red

which may be present at the depth of 1 m. The limits of the

several colors are taken from Landolt and Bornstein (’23.p.806)

as follows :

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 397

Limits of Colors, Wave-Lengths.

Color Wave-Length

Violet _ _ 3600-4240 A

Blue __ _ 4240-4900

Green _ 4900-5350

Yellow ____________ 5350-5860

Orange _ 5860-6470

Red ___________ _ 6470-8000

Fig. 7. Data from a series of lakes, showing the per cent of incident

radiation present at 1 m. and the average transmission of radiation below

that depth. This figure is to be compared with similar figures in earlier

papers. See Birge and Juday, ’30:303.

Each circle is divided into sectors corresponding to the per¬

centage of the total radiation found within the limits thus stat¬

ed and each sector is lettered with the initial of its color. The

diagrams of fig. 6 show the effect of color in lake water on this

distribution.

4. The percentages corresponding to the several sectors of

the circular diagram are indicated by short lines on the left side

of the bars that show distribution by wave-lengths.

The diagrams exhibit in a more direct quantitative fashion

the facts shown by the cumulative curves. For instance, under

the conditions assumed for the filtered waters, just 40 per cent

of the radiation present at the depth of 1 m. in distilled water

comes from wave-lengths shorter than 5000 A ; in filtered water

from Lake Mendota 28 per cent comes from the same region of

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

the spectrum, and only 6 per cent in water from Turtle Lake.

The region 6000-7000 A furnished 22 per cent of the radiation

in distilled water and 49 per cent of the much smaller amount

present in the highly colored water from Turtle Lake.

The circular diagrams show the distribution of radiation to

the several colors and the effect of the stain present in water.

For example, red, orange, and yellow — the three long-wave

colors — contribute less than one-half of the radiation in dis¬

tilled water; the marks on the side of the corresponding bar

show that the percentage is 47. In the case of the water from

Turtle Lake the same colors contribute nearly seven-eighths of

the total radiation, or more exactly 85 per cent. The effect of

color on the absorption of short-wave colors by 1 m. of filtered

water can be traced in the series of diagrams, as well as its

effect on the percentile increase of the others, especially of red.

Readings in lakes with the series of light-filters furnished

data not unlike those derived by measurement from such curves

as those of fig. 4. Each filter transmits substantially all of the

radiation contained in wave-lengths greater than those at the

position of its cut-off (fig. 8). Since infra-red radiation is

Fig. 8. The “cut-off” of the several filters used in these observations.

This diagram combines results shown separately for each filter in the cata¬

logue of the Jenaer Glaswerk. Each filter transmits all radiation from the

region of the spectrum which lies to the right of the line representing the

filter; except that some of the filters are opaque to that per cent of the

radiation indicated by the space between the upper end of th filter line

and that indicating 100 per cent. In the cumulative curves the results of

observation are platted as a per cent of the total at the wave-length where

the line of the cut-off intersects that representing 50 per cent of the

radiation. Note that filter 88a is a Wratten filter, the others are of Jena

glass, 2 mm. thick.

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 399

eliminated by beginning the readings at the depth of 1 m., the

reading of the pyrlimnometer derived from any filter is that

furnished from that part of the spectrum between the cut-off of

the filter and 7500-8000 A. Thus the series of readings yields

a percentile cumulative curve essentially similar to one of those

given in fig. 6. Such curves, derived from field observations in

lakes, cannot furnish results as accurate as can be obtained

from observations on filtered water in a laboratory. The fact

that the cut-off of any filter cannot come at a single wave¬

length, but must occupy a spectral band of considerable width,

operates against accuracy in platting. But a comparison of

-V - - B - *-*■— 6— x - Y— -x - O — x - R

Fig. 9. Percentile cumulative curves of radiation at 1 m. in a series of

lakes, from those whose water has least color (Crystal) to those most

deeply stained (Mary). Note change of form of curves as color rises;

difference in short-wave region between Adelaide and Found, whose color

is much the same. Note general regularity of curves together with indi¬

vidual irregularities, such as the apparently low reading at 4250 A in

Crystal, in Helen at 4900 A, etc.

5500 A may be taken without serious error as representing the middle

of the spectrum. Note that in Crystal Lake 60 per cent of the radiation

comes from wave-lengths shorter than this, and only 10 per cent in Mary,

the series showing the progressive elimination of short-wave radiation as

color increases. This figure is to be compared with fig. 5.

400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

fig. 5 and fig. 9 shows that the results reached by the two dis¬

similar methods are in satisfactory agreement and that the field

observations disclose the essential facts.

In discussing results the terms “short-wave” and “long¬

wave” radiation are used in a comparative sense, within the

limits of the spectrum as found at 1 m. in water; they do not

connote any exactly limited regions of the spectrum. In

general, short-wave means radiation with wave-lengths of

5000 A or less. Short-wave colors are violet, blue, and green;

long-wave colors are yellow, orange, and red. The region

5000-6000 A may be called the middle region of the spectrum;

and green and yellow are the middle colors.

3. Distribution of Radiation in the Spectrum of Lakes at

the Depth of One Meter

Fig. 9 gives a general picture of the composition of radia¬

tion in lakes at the depth of 1 m. ; the series extends from

those lakes with the most transparent water to those whose

water is very highly colored. It includes also lakes with rela¬

tively little suspended matter (Adelaide) and those with

much (Found). Detailed data for these and for all of the 43

lakes are given in table II at the end of this paper.

The reading of each filter in the series is computed as a per¬

centage of that from the total radiation and is platted at its

proper place in the spectrum (p. 389). These points are con¬

nected by straight lines, no attempt being made to fit a smooth

curve to the data. Thus all irregularities in the observations

are fully brought out, and they remain in the diagrams and also

in the tables derived from them. Any observer of the cumula¬

tive curves will note points which seem to be too high or too

low in comparison to adjacent readings; but the number of

lakes observed is still so small that it is inadvisable to try to

correct curves which, like these, give good approximate results

without correction.

The curves shown in fig. 9 have a close general resemblance

to those of fig. 5, showing a good agreement between the results

of observation with light-filters and with the spectrophotometer

or bolometer. There is the same general form of curve and the

same difference between curves from the transparent waters

Birge & Juday— Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 401

and from those which are colored. Fig. 12-17 give similar

cumulative curves for five other lakes and fig. 19-20 show dis¬

tribution by colors in 12 additional lakes.

From fig. 9 many conclusions may be drawn regarding the

quantitative distribution of radiation in the spectrum of lakes

at the depth of one meter. Certain of these conclusions are

shown in fig. 10 which has the same relation to fig. 9 that fig.

6 has to fig. 5.

Fig. 10. This figure is to be compared with fig. 6 and its explanation.

It shows the quantity of radiation present in these lakes and its distribu¬

tion both by color and by wave-length. Note in the series of diagrams the

increase in percentage of long-wave radiation with increasing color; also

the progressive lengthening (or shortening) of the several 1000 A inter¬

vals. In circular diagrams note increase of sectors coming from long¬

wave colors and especially increase of red.

The shorter and narrower bars marked T show the total

amount of radiation present at 1 m. in these lakes, stated as a

percentage of that delivered to the surface of the lake. Com¬

putation is made as stated in Birge and Juday ’30:289. In

Crystal lake this amount was 38 per cent, while at the other

end of the series Lake Mary had only 4 per cent or about one-

402 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

tenth as much. Lake Helen (color, 97) for which there is no

diagram in fig 10 had 4.6 per cent. In the case of the filtered

water, Turtle lake with a color of 93 had at 1 m. about 13 per

cent of the radiation delivered to the surface, or a little more

than one-fourth of that present in distilled water. This differ¬

ence between the filtered waters and those of the lakes is mostly

due to the differences in suspended matters; but it is by no

means improbable that part is due to the presence of stains

of different character in the waters of different lakes. Our

knowledge is as yet insufficient for discussion of these details.

The broad shaded bars in fig. 10 show the distribution of

radiation to the several wave-length intervals and comparison

of these will show the many changes in this distribution which

come with increasing color in the water. For instance, in

Crystal Lake 42 per cent of the total radiation comes from

wave-lengths shorter than 5000 A ; in Adelaide Lake 14 per cent

comes from the same region and in Lake Mary 4 per cent. The

amount derived from wave-lengths greater than 7000 A rises

from 7 per cent in Crystal lake to 34 per cent in Lake Mary.

Similar changes may be seen in every region if it is traced

fhrough the series.

The circular diagrams of fig. 10 show the distribution of

radiation to six colors of the spectrum in these lakes, and those

in figs. 19 and 20 give similar diagrams for 12 additional lakes.

These are to be compared with the like diagrams given for

filtered waters in fig. 6. In Crystal Lake, as in the distilled

water, the sectors for the several colors are not widely different

in size; percentile figures are given in table II. As the color

of the water rises the differences increase between the sectors

assigned to the several colors. Those for violet and blue de¬

crease and violet finally disappears; green follows blue in de¬

clining; the sectors for the three long-wave colors increase;

yellow and orange rising more than red in lakes with moderate

color; while red predominates in the radiation left in lakes with

the most deeply stained water. In Lake Mary red included

58 per cent of the small amount of radiation left at 1 m., while

m Crystal Lake the same color contained only 14 per cent of

the total. It should be noted that the 58 per cent present in

Lake Mary represents about one-third of the energy yielded by

the 14 per cent of Crystal Lake.

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 403

The longer series of lakes in figs. 19 and 20 shows the same

characters, if the diagrams for 1 m. are compared. They show

also that there is a variation of details from lake to lake for

which we cannot account at present. For instance, the sectors

in the diagrams for 1 m. for Edith Lake and White Sand Lake

are more alike than would be expected from the difference in

color. Kawaguesaga and Midge lakes are less alike ; some violet

would be expected in Lake Adelaide as in Lake George ; and de¬

tailed examination of the diagrams will show other matters

of like import. Some of these may be due to instrumental

errors, but most of them probably come from differences in the

transparency and color of the lakes and their waters.

v — x — b — — x — 6 —►« — y — x — o

%

90

80

70

60

50

10

30

ZO

10

0

3500 A 4000 5000 6000

Fig. 11. Crystal Lake, August 17. Transparency, 12.0 m. ; per cent at

1 m., 38; transmission, 84; color, 0. All curves very close together in

region to left of 5000 A, so that accidental variations determine relative

place. The 7 m. curve shows beginning of increased loss in this region but

percentile loss is not increased at 9 m. Readings for 5250 A at 7 m. and

9 m. showed a change of color whose results are platted on right of dia¬

gram. These readings are omitted in main curves. Curve for 1 m. is

taken from a different set from that used in fig. 9 in order to show the

kind of variation which may be expected in such a lake. See p. 408.

4. Changes in Distribution of Radiation With

Increasing Depth of Water

In most of the lakes the spectrum was examined at depths

greater than 1 m.; in the more transparent lakes the regular

order was to take readings at 1, 3, and 5 m., extending to 7 and

404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

9 m. if transparency permitted and if the thermocline lay be¬

low those depths. In waters with more stain the readings

were at 1, 2, and 3 m. and in the most highly colored waters the

amount of radiation left at 2 m. was too small to permit of ac¬

curate distribution. In Lake Mary for instance, the reading for

total radiation at 1 m. was 40 divisions of the scale; at 2 m.

the total was only four divisions, too small for distribution, as

is explained in connection with fig. 18. Black Oak Lake (figs.

18, 14) offered one of the most uniform series and from a lake

with fair transparency but showing unmistakable influence of

the presence of stain in the water ; it has therefore been selected

for more detailed analysis.

V— - B - — G ->«<— Y — 3— » - 0 - — R

Fig. 12. Day Lake, August 29. Transparency, 9.0 m. ; per cent at 1

m., 40; transmission, 78; color, 0, but curves indicate that some was pres¬

ent. Absorption in short-wave region increases steadily as depth increases.

The lake forms a transition from the most transparent, like Crystal, to

those with small but definite color.

Black Oak Lake was observed under exceptionally favorable

conditions of sun and wind, and the results are correspond¬

ingly regular. They are almost exactly similar to those from

Big Carr Lake (fig. 9), which is about thirty miles distant.

The agreement at 1 m. is so close that both lakes cannot be

platted on the same diagram without confusion (see table II)

and an equally close resemblance is found at all depths.

Birge & Juday - — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 405

Black Oak Lake has a small but definite amount of stain in

its water. The result of this condition is that the percentage

of radiation furnished by the two ends of the spectrum falls

off as depth increases. Radiation from the long-wave part of

the spectrum falls off, due largely to the effects of water as

water; there is a similar decline in the percentage from the

short waves, due primarily to the effect of stain in the water.

It follows that as the percentile contribution from the ends of

the spectrum decreases that from the middle of the spectrum

increases with greater depth.

v — — b - — g — *-« — y — ^ - o — - R

Fig. 13. Black Oak Lake, Aug. 21. Transparency 5.8 m. ; per cent at

1 m., 34; transmission 69; color, 10. These curves show the kind of regu¬

larity and variation which may be expected under the best conditions of

sun and wind in a lake whose water is of the oligotrophic type. Note

difference of absorption in short-wave region of this lake and in those

with less or with more stain in the water. Note that the place of inter¬

section of the curves is at a longer wave length than in more trans¬

parent waters, and that it also comes at a lower per cent of the total

radiation. In this case about 50 per cent of the radiation comes from

wave-lengths shorter than this point, as compared with about 60 in Crys¬

tal and Day lakes. Note the marked difference between short-wave radia¬

tion in curves for 7 m. and 9 m., seen also in Day Lake.

Thus there is a characteristic appearance in a series of cum¬

ulative curves from different depths in the lake whose water is

not too deeply stained. Fig. 13 shows that in Black Oak Lake

these curves tend to cross each other at a rather definitely

406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

marked region, about 5400-5500 A. It does no violence to the

appearance of the diagram to say that these percentile curves

seem to be moving in a clock-wise direction about this center

so that an increasingly great percentage is being thrown into

the region between 5000 A and 6000 A. It is plain that at

greater depths (if color remains the same) practically all re¬

maining radiation will be found in that region and, indeed,

restricted to the center of it.

Fig. 14. Distribution of radiation in Black Oak Lake. To be compared

with figs. 6 and 10. See explanation of fig. 6. In the percentile bar dia¬

grams note decrease and ultimate disappearance of radiation from both

ends of the spectrum, and rapid increase of that from 5000-6000 A. This

region yielded 36 per cent of radiation present at 1 m. and 81 of that

at 9 m. In color diagrams the sectors for violet and red finally disappear;

the per cent of blue declines; orange remains with little change; green

increases between 1 and 3 m. but adds very little below; yellow rises

greatly, increasing from 20 per cent at 1 m. to 54 per cent at 9 m. This

distribution of radiation belongs to lakes with color of water from 9 to

12 as shown in table II.

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 407

The same facts are presented by fig. 14 in a way which more

clearly shows their quantitative relation. As in other similar

diagrams, the shorter and narrower bars marked T show the

quantity of radiation at each depth as a percentage of that de¬

livered to the surface of the lake. This decreases from 34 per

cent at 1 m to about 1.5 per cent at 9 m. The maximum scale

reading at 1 m. was 336 divisions (56, on the 2 mv. range)

and that at 9 m. was 14, neither reading being corrected for

cosine of angle of refraction of the sun's rays. With this situa¬

tion the pyrlimnometer could have followed total radiation to

perhaps 13 m. but its distribution could not have been deter¬

mined much below 9 m. with enough accuracy to give value to

the result.

The wider bars of fig. 14 show the distribution of this radia¬

tion to the several regions of the spectrum. The most striking

fact is the great rise of the percentage belonging to the region

between 5000 A and 6000 A; it rises from 36 per cent at 1 m.

to 81 percent at 9 m. It is the beneficiary of the percentile de¬

crease of the regions at both ends of the spectrum.

The distribution of the radiation to the several colors is

shown in the circular diagrams. At 1 m. the sectors are not

very unequal, though that for violet is definitely the smallest

(see also table III) ; as depth increases there is a rapid shrink¬

ing of the size of the sectors representing colors at both ends of

the spectrum; and there is a corresponding increase of the

sectors representing central colors of the spectrum. This is

most manifest in yellow, and to a much less degree in green

also. At 9 m. yellow, which contained less than 20 per cent of

radiation at 1 m., includes more than 50 per cent. Plainly at a

little greater depth practically all remaining radiation will be

restricted to this sector of the spectrum.

Such a series of diagrams should be compared with the

series in fig. 10. Those show the effects of increasing color

of the water on composition of radiation at the same depth in

different lakes; while fig. 14 shows the effects of a constant

color on radiation at different depths in the same lake. In the

first series increasing color threw the greater part of the radia¬

tion into the red sector of the diagrams ; in this case a moderate

color throws the greater part into the sector for yellow. In

all series of the sort that sector will increase most rapidly

408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

which lies nearest the point in the spectrum where the cumula¬

tive curves cross, as shown in fig. 18.

These diagrams of Black Oak Lake are substantially like those

which would come from those lakes whose water has about

the same amount of color as Black Oak— the 12 lakes in table II

from Big Carr to Little Tomahawk. Round Lake furnishes a

transition to the lakes with more transparent water, and the

lakes with colors of 12 look toward those with color of 16.

But on the whole these lakes constitute a group with similar

characters.

The other diagrams representing percentile cumulative

curves for depth show the conditions in lakes of other types.

Figs. 11 and 12 show lakes whose water has less color than

Black Oak, and figs. 15-18 those with more color. The water of

Crystal Lake (fig. 11) has the lowest color found in north¬

eastern Wisconsin, though its transmission of radiation is not

quite so great as that of Day or of Diamond lakes. That part

of the curves of fig. 11 which lies to the right of the point in¬

dicating 5700 A is much like the corresponding part in fig. 13,

but the part from 3500 A to 5000 A is quite different. In this

region most of the curves are close together and small varia¬

tions of sun or lake determine their relative position. Only

when 7 m. is reached is there an obvious decline in the per¬

centage found at 4250 A ; 9 m. shows the same decline but not in

a greater degree. All four curves from 3 m. to 9 m. come to¬

gether at about 4900 A where they lie at 60-62 per cent; but

there is no definite crossing at this point as there is at 5500A

in Black Oak Lake.

This situation in Crystal Lake is not unlike that which re¬

sults in distilled water if the computations used for the curve in

fig. 5 are carried to greater depths. These would show a sim-

iliar convergence in the spectrum but at a point about 4500 A,

where there would be found between 75 and 80 per cent of the

total.

This series in Crystal Lake presented an individual peculiar¬

ity which is shown in the diagrams at the right side of fig. 11.

The readings of the filter OG-1 (5250 A) at 7 m. and 9 m. show¬

ed a marked change from those at smaller depths and from

those given by adjacent filters. They indicated a percentage

at this point in the spectrum that was much larger than was

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 409

found at smaller depths ; but the readings of the next filter in

the series, GG-11, were exactly in line with those at the less

depths. If only a single reading had been concerned, it would

have been considered an accidental error ; but this explanation

does not seem plausible when a second similar reading was

taken two meters deeper and after a five minute interval.

Both readings were near the thermocline and possibly in water

with more stain than was present at higher levels. The effect of

the reading is to throw the increase of per cent at these depths

into yellow rather than green and this is shown by the sectors

of the two circular diagrams placed in fig. 11. The readings are

disregarded in the main curves and in the diagrams of this lake

in fig. 19.

Curves for Day Lake are given in fig. 12. This lake was re¬

corded as having no color on the platinum-cobalt scale, but

the curves show that there must have been a slight amount.

The lowest color disc furnished with the apparatus for deter¬

mining color on this scale has a reading of 8, and lower read-

V — B ^ — G-^ Y - 0 — ^ — R

Fig. 15. Kawaguesaga Lake, July 21. Transparency, 3.9 m.; per cent

at 1 m., 26; transmission, 58; color, 16. This lake is taken to represent

those with color of water ranging from 16 to 20, in which radiation was

followed only to depth of 5 m. Note that only 27 per cent of radiation at

1 m. comes from short wave part of spectrum, as compared with 34 per

cent in Black Oak Lake. At 5 m. this region furnishes 15 per cent, as

compared with 26 per cent in Black Oak.

410 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

ings must be estimated. The diagram shows a condition inter¬

mediate between Crystal and Black Oak lakes. Percentages

in the long-wave part of the spectrum, from 5250 A, are much

the same as in Crystal Lake and lower than in Black Oak Lake.

All curves come close together near 5000 A but they do not con¬

tinue together beyond this point as they do in Crystal Lake;

they cross and thus resemble those of Black Oak Lake, though

on a higher scale of transmission. Nearly 10 per cent of the

total radiation at 9 m. comes from wave-lengths shorter than

4500 A; the corresponding figure for Crystal Lake is 28 per

cent; while in Black Oak Lake the 9 m. curve does not extend

to 4500 A. Note that the 1 m. curves in Crystal and Day Lakes

are much alike; differences come out with increase of depth.

- V - >*< B — — G — **«* — Y O R - *

A 3500 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Fig. 16. Midge Lake, Aug. 23. Transparency, 4.1 m.; per cent at 1 m.,

19; transmission, 46; color, 29. In this lake curves are platted for 1 and

3 m. Note small amount of short-wave radiation (15 per cent at 1 m.)

and its rapid decline. Curves for 1 m. and 3 m. show the same percentage

at 6700 A; this would give a slightly larger percentage for red at 3 m.

than at 1 m. (see fig. 20). Red shows a decrease with depth both in lakes

whose water is less colored than that of Midge and also in lakes more

highly colored. See other cases in fig. 20 and also p. 416.

Kawaguesaga Lake (fig. 15) furnished the best set of curves

from the lakes whose water had a color of 16-20. Readings were

made at depths of 1, 3, and 5 m. There are obvious irregular-

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 411

ities in the curves at about 4900 A and it seems probable that

in most lakes of this type the curves would cross at a greater

wave-length than is shown here. In this series the crossing lies

at about 5500 A, while in other lakes of the same type it lies at

5700 A or even nearer to 6000 A. The percentage in the short¬

wave part of the spectrum is much smaller than in Black Oak

Lake. That lake at 5 m. gets about 26 per cent of the radiation

from wave-lengths shorter than 5000 A, while Kawaguesaga

Lake gets only 16 per cent from the same region.

In the lakes with more highly colored water readings ex¬

tended only to 3 m. and in the case of Lake Mary only to 1.5 or

2.0 m. The curves show the same peculiarities modified by in¬

crease of color, and in most cases these peculiarities are well

indicated in the explanation of the several figures.

All of the lakes with water colored from 30 to 40, like Midge

Lake, (fig. 16) show a like situation in the part of the curves for

— V -*■<— - B — >■* — G — x — Y -O - - R -

4000 A 5000 6000 7000 8000

%

90

8®

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Fig. 17. Tenderfoot Lake, Aug. 26. Transparency, 3.0 m. ; per cent at

1 m., 15; transmission, 40; color, 49. Here the percentage of radiation

between 6000 A and 7000 A falls off with depth in spite of high color of

water. In this respect it resembles Allequash Lake, table II. Other lakes

with color of 30 and upwards show the same fact but in smaller degree.

Little Papoose Lake (color, 36) shows a percentile increase in this region.

See fig. 20.

412 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

wave-lengths greater than 6000 A. There is little difference

betwen 1 m. and 3 m. in the percentage found in this region. On

the other hand, Tenderfoot Lake (fig. 17) shows a marked

change in this region ; a change far more noteworthy than that

in Midge Lake. The water of Tenderfoot Lake has a color of 49

while that of Midge Lake has 34. Allequash Lake, which has a

color of 49, shows the same feature as Tenderfoot ; no explana¬

tion for this difference can be given by us. Reference to similar

differences will be found in the explanations for figs. 19 and 20.

— v -x — B — x— g — Y - x - o -x — — -

Fig. 18. Lake Mary, Aug. 18. Transparency 1.7 m.; per cent at 1 m.,

4.0; transmission, 13; color, 123. Radiation in this lake was followed to 2

m. at which depth the amount present was too small for distribution and

the curve for 2 m. is computed from those at 1.0 and 1.5 m. In these

deeply stained waters little radiation is present from wave-lengths shorter

than 5,000 A; at 1 m. in Mary about 60 per cent comes from the 6000-7000

A region and at 2 m. the percentage is 85.

The curves for Lake Mary (fig. 18) and for the three other

lakes closely associated with it (table II) differ markedly from

those of the other lakes. This is seen in the relative amount

of radiation contained, at the depth of 1 m., in the intervals

5000-6000 A and 6000-7000 A. In Tenderfoot Lake the amounts

in these intervals are nearly equal— 37 and 35 per cent respec¬

tively. In Lake Mary only 19 per cent of the radiation is found

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 413

r

CRYSTAL LAKE color 0

1

3M

5M

7M

9M

% 38

Depth IM

DAY LAKE

Color 0

H

3M

5M

7M

H

J

Fig. 19. The diagrams of this figure and of fig. 20 show the distribution

of radiation to the several color regions in 14 lakes and the changes which

radiation undergoes as depth increases. The numbers under each diagram

following the sign % indicate the amount of total radiation at each depth,

stated as a percentage of that delivered to the surface of the lake. These

are derived from the data given in table II. Diagrams are platted from

the data in table III, which should be consulted for numerical details.

Diagrams from Black Oak Lake are repeated from fig. 14. Series used for

Crystal and Mary lakes differ a little from those used for fig. 10.

Changes of distribution as depth increases can be followed, leading in

all cases to percentile reductions at the ends of the spectrum and to cor¬

responding increases in the middle; green getting the largest share in

Crystal and Day lakes and yellow in Black Oak and Silver lakes.

414 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

in the 5000-6000 A interval and nearly one-half — 49 per cent —

between 6000 A and 7000 A. No lakes have yet been examined

whose distribution of radiation fills this gap.

5. Distribution of Radiation by Color and Depth of Water

Figs. 19 and 20 show the distribution of radiation to the sev¬

eral colors of the spectrum in a series of 14 lakes, selected so as

to show the effect of stain in the water as depth increases. The

data on which the diagrams depend are given in table III.

In fig. 19 Crystal and Day lakes are recorded as having no

color in their water, though there was probably a slight amount

in both lakes, greater in Day. In both lakes the sectors for the

six colors at 1 m. are nearly equal and the diagrams are strik¬

ingly similar ; but differences appear when the series is followed

through from 1 m. to 9 m. In both lakes red disappears and

orange is much reduced before the depth of 9 m. is reached. The

sector for violet has decreased a little in Crystal Lake and

much in Day Lake. In Crystal Lake the main percentile increase

comes to the sector for green and to a less degree to that for

blue ; in Day Lake the sectors for green and yellow show a sim¬

ilar change.

If the computations for distilled water are carried to greater

depths the increase will be found greatest in the blue sector, at

any rate to depths of 10 m. No lake has been found with water

so clear as to place the largest increase in this part of the spec¬

trum.

Three diagrams are given for lakes with colors of 9, 10, and

11; these are Black Oak Lake (repeated from fig. 14), Silver,

and Edith lakes. In these lakes the diagrams for 1 m. are not far

different from those for the two more transparent lakes, though

in each case the sector for violet is decidedly smaller and the

combined sectors for the long-wave colors — red, orange, and

yellow — occupy more than one-half of the diagram. In all of

these lakes the transmission of radiation is smaller than in the

first two; both ends of the spectrum are rapidly absorbed as

depth increases ; and the middle of the spectrum secures most of

the radiation. In all of these lakes the sector for yellow would

occupy more than one-half of the diagram at 10 m. ; green may

show a slight increase; blue shows no marked increase or de¬

crease; orange declines; but does not disappear at the lowest

depth reached.

Birge & Juday— Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 415

% 16

5.4

1.8

4.6

H

LAKE ADELAIDE Col. 34

3M

IM

LAKE GEORGE Col. 40

3M

TENDERFOOT LAKE Col. 49

3th IM 3M

Depth l M

3M

Fig. 20. Edith Lake belongs near Black Oak, between that and Day

Lake, since in it the sector for yellow shows a smaller proportional in¬

crease than in Black Oak. It is inserted here to facilitate comparison with

lakes whose water is more highly colored. In both Edith and Kawa-

416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

guesaga lakes the sector for red behaves in much the same way, but blue

and violet fall off more rapidly in Kawaguesaga and there is a great dif¬

ference in the orange. Note also that the per cent of total found in

Kawaguesaga at 1 m. is much smaller than in Edith and the general

transmission is also less.

The six lakes of the series from White Sand to Tenderfoot and Little

Papoose do not differ widely in the percentage present at 1 m. or in the

transmission, though the color rises from 18 to 49. The distribution of

the radiation however differs as does also the change with depth. In White

Sand, the lake with the lowest color, the three long-wave colors, red,

orange, and yellow, comprise 57 per cent of the total radiation; in Tend¬

erfoot they include 75 per cent; at 3 m. the percentage has risen to 66

and 86 respectively. Note the behavior of the sector for red in these lakes;

the per cent at 1 m. increases with color and the decline with depth is less

as color increases. In Midge and Little Papoose the sector for red is

greater at 3 m. than at 1 m.

Two lakes are shown from those with high colored water. In Little

Long the long-wave colors include 89 per cent of the little radiation left

at 1 m. Red yields nearly half of the total in Little Long and more than

half in Mary. Violet is absent in both lakes. Red has a larger sector at

2 m. in Little Long than at 1 m., and its size remains the same in Mary.

There is a considerable gap in this series of lakes between Tenderfoot and

Little Long; which remains to be filled by later studies.

White Sand and Kawaguesaga lakes (fig. 20) represent wa¬

ters with colors between 15 and 20. The distribution of the radi¬

ation at 1 m. is not very different from that in Edith Lake in

spite of the fact that the quantity is less than half as great.

This quantitative difference depends partly on the amount of

plankton. At 3 m. and still more at 5 m. there appear great dif¬

ferences in the distribution. In these more highly colored lakes

violet and blue have diminished far more rapidly than in Edith,

and orange has increased rather than declined. Red has fallen

off much as in Edith. The sectors showing most enlargement are

not yellow and green but yellow and orange.

Midge Lake and the next four lakes in fig. 20 are examples

of lakes with color of water ranging from about 30 to 50. All

show common characters and individual differences. The dis¬

tribution of radiation at 1 m. is notably different from that in

lakes with less color although the quantity present at that depth

is about the same. The long-wave colors — red, orange, and

yellow — furnish about three-fourths of the radiation present

at 1 m., instead of about one-half. Red and orange supply about

one-half in quantities not very unequal, and yellow’s sector is

Birge & Juday— Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 417

about another one-fourth. The short-wave colors are corres¬

pondingly reduced, especially violet.

There are marked individual differences visible in the dia¬

grams for 3 m. In Adelaide and George lakes the main per¬

centile increase falls to the yellow sector, as it does in lakes with

less color. In Midge and Tenderfoot lakes orange shows the

most gain. In Midge and Little Papoose lakes red increases

its percentage at 3 m. ; while in the others red shows a smaller

sector at that depth. For the present we can note these varia¬

tions but are not able to discuss them. They are probably asso¬

ciated with differences in the mixture of colored extractives

whose average is recorded as the color of the lake's water.

There is a gap in the color series between Tenderfoot Lake

(color 49) and Helen (97) which still remains to be filled by

observations. In these last lakes radiation is so rapidly ab¬

sorbed that readings could not extend below two meters and in

the case of Lake Mary the total radiation at that depth gave a

movement of only 4 divisions of the millivoltmeter — quite too

small to permit distribution. In the case of Helen and Little

Pickerel lakes the condition of the sun did not allow accurate

work below one meter. In all of these lakes the situation at 1

m. is quite similar (table II). The quantity of radiation is very

small ; red furnishes nearly or quite one-half of it, and orange

another quarter; yellow has a sector much smaller than in

lakes with less color; violet is absent and green and blue to¬

gether make up less than one-eighth of the radiation. At two

meters the sector for red has increased in Little Long Lake and

remained stationary in Lake Mary; orange has increased in

both; blue has disappeared and green and yellow are much re¬

duced. At depths a little greater only red and orange will be

left to supply the extremely small quantity of radiation which

continues to penetrate the water.

418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

STATISTICAL TABLES.

The work of the summer of 1930 was mainly addressed to a survey of

many lakes rather than to securing accurate results by numerous visits to

a few. Under the prevailing conditions of sun and cloud it was not often

possible to visit more than one lake in a day. In most cases, therefore,

the percentages given in tables II and III rest on a single series of read¬

ings at each depth; they do not represent the average of a number of

readings. This fact accounts for some of the irregularities which are

noticeable in these tables and in the diagrams derived from them. Some

of these irregularities are mentioned in the text and others may be found

in the diagrams and in the following tables. The diagrams show that such

irregularities usually become more noticeable in the short-wave part of

the curves. The reading of any filter gives the full value of the spectrum

from the infra-red to the cut-off of the filter, and thus the readings be¬

come larger as the short-wave end of the spectrum is approached. In

computing the per cent of the total radiation furnished by any filter it is

necessary to assume the equality of that part of the readings which are

common to GG-1 and the other filters. No correction can be made for

variations due to accident or to sun or to lake ; and their results, if pres¬

ent, are necessarily thrown into the difference between the two readings

and cause inequalities in the curves. These inequalities are likely to be¬

come greater as the amount of radiation becomes greater which is as¬

sumed to be equal in comparing readings.

Some notion of the amount of accidental variation may be learned

from the percentage of the total radiation given by filter GG-11. In all

of the lakes visited in the latter part of the summer this filter was read

twice in each series, and two percentages were obtained from it, as shown

by the arrangement of the plates (p. 390). Each per cent is the ratio of

the readings of filters GG-1 and GG-11 in the two plates; each ratio,

therefore, depends on two variable readings and the readings of the sec¬

ond plate were taken some minutes after the first. The two ratios have

been compared in 58 cases from 23 different lakes, in which the value of

the ratio was from 60 per cent to 95 per cent of the total. The larger

number of the pair came indifferently from the first or the second set of

readings, and it averaged 103.2 per cent of the smaller one. In 14 cases

the members of the pair were equal; in 35 more cases the larger was be¬

tween 101 and 105 per cent of the smaller; 5 were from 110 to 115 per

cent, and these were on days when there was haze or cirrus cloud. This

result is probably a fair representation of the situation with all of the

filters.

In general, in the tables and throughout this paper, no attempt is made

to state fractional percentages. The accuracy of the observations does not

warrant such computation. Occasionally a fraction of a very small per

cent is given, but little weight should be attached to it.

Section A, table II, gives general facts regarding the lakes discussed

in this paper. Lakes are arranged in order of the color of their water on

the platinum-cobalt scale. Transparency (Trp.) is measured by the visi-

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 419

bility of Secchi’s disc. Per cent of radiation present at 1 m. and average

transmission (Trm.) are determined as in former papers. These numbers

are in good agreement with the data used in the other columns of the

table; but they were determined from a series of observations in each

lake, made for this special purpose. Fig. 9 shows these results for a series

of the lakes.

The remaining columns of the table show the distribution of radiation

in the several lakes at the depth of one meter. For practical purposes

this means the composition of the light at that depth. The data are de¬

rived from cumulative percentile curves, based on readings with light-

filters. Two series of facts are shown regarding the spectrum and each

of these is arranged in two ways.

1. Section C shows the percentile limits of the several regions as de¬

termined by wave-length; section D shows the same facts for regions as

determined by color. The numbers show the percentage of the total radia¬

tion found at the intersection of the line of the cumulative curve and the

wave-length indicated at the head of the column. In section C the figures

000 A are omitted after 3, 4, etc.; the limits for the several colors are

stated on p. 397.

2. Sections E and F show the per cent of the total radiation found

within each region, both as defined by wave-length and by color.

The discussions of the earlier part of this paper depend on the data

given in the table ; it is not expected that the reader will examine them in

detail. But it is worth while to glance at certain of the series of figures,

since they disclose the facts of the general situation. One of the most

instructive is perhaps the series in section C, column headed 6 (6000 A),

which shows the percentage of the total radiation found at the intersec¬

tion of the cumulative curve and the line indicating 6000 A in the spec¬

trum. This intersection lies at about 26-28 per cent in the most trans¬

parent lakes. This means that only a little more than one-fourth of the

radiation present at 1 m. comes from wave-lengths greater than 6000 A

and that nearly three-fourths comes from shorter waves. As color be¬

comes greater the per cent shown in column 6 rises steadily but rather

irregularly. At colors between 15 and 20 it is above 30 per cent ; it

rises to 40 or more as color increases, reaching 50 per cent in Tenderfoot

Lake, whose color is 49.

In the most transparent lakes less than 30 per cent of radiation found

at the depth of 1 m. comes from wave-lengths greater than 6000 A, but

the amount thus delivered is greater than that derived from the greater

per cent in more highly colored waters. Tenderfoot Lake has at 1 m.

about 15 per cent of the incident radiation, as compared with 38-41 per

cent in the most transparent lakes, as is shown in the second column of

section B. These lakes would get roughly 10 per cent of that part of the

total incident radiation which is furnished by wave-lengths greater than

6000 A, while Tenderfoot Lake receives about 7.5 per cent. From wave¬

lengths shorter than 6000 A Tenderfoot Lake receives at 1 m. only about

420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

a quarter as much as the transparent lakes — 7.5 per cent of total incident

radiation as compared with about 30 per cent in Day Lake.

In the four lakes with most deeply stained water there is a greater rise

in the percentage of radiation from wave-lengths greater than 6000 A,

reaching a maximum of 78 per cent in Lake Mary.

In section D, that part of the table noting the limitations of the colors,

the junction of green and yellow is marked G-Y and it shows a similar

series of facts expressed in terms of color rather than of wave-length.

This junction comes at 5350 A (p. 397). In Crystal Lake this point lies

at 47 per cent, showing that less than half of the radiation present at 1

m. comes from the long-wave colors, yellow, orange, and red. The num¬

bers in this column show that this percentage rises as color in the water

increases, reaching 94 per cent in Lake Mary. It should be noted that

the larger percentage of Lake Mary denotes a much smaller quantity than

does the 47 per cent of Crystal Lake, about one-fourth as much.

Sections E and F of the table, showing the percentages present in each

wave-length or color region of the spectrum may be followed in the same

way. The percentages shown in the left hand part of each section — or

the short-wave part of the spectrum — show a progressive decline as they

are followed through the table and those on the other side a similar rise.

For those regions near the middle of the tables the change in the per¬

centage present in any region is often much less than the change in the

position of the region in the cumulative curve. For instance, yellow in

Crystal Lake lies between 30 and 47 per cent of the total, so that this

color contains 17 per cent of total radiation present at 1 m. ; in Tender¬

foot Lake yellow lies between 57 per cent and 74 per cent, again 17 per

cent of the total. In case of such an equality in the percentages of radia¬

tion present in any region, the quantities there found would be related

in the same proportion as are the percentages of the total incident radia¬

tion found in the lakes at the depth in question. In these cases the figures

are given in section B as 38 and 15 per cent, respectively. It would be

quite possible to plat any of these percentages against the color of the

water in the several lakes. In all cases the results seem to approach a

straight line curve; but the number of cases is small and there is a gap

in the series between colors 49 and 97. A definite quantitative correlation

of color and radiation must wait for more extended observations.

In table III the depths represent distance below the surface, not dis¬

tance traveled by the radiation. That is, no correction has been made for

cosine of angle of refraction of direct radiation. This correction has been

made in computing the value of radiation at 1 m. and the average rate

of transmission as given in table II and also stated in figs. 19 and 20.

This was done in order to keep the figures comparable with those in

earlier papers. It would have been easy to adjust the data of this table

in the same way, but it was not thought advisable to make small adjust¬

ments in these data, which rest on single series of observations and not

on average of several series.

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes . 421

TABLE I

List of Lakes Visited in 1930

Northeastern Wisconsin

Note: — Lakes marked * were examined for transmission but not for

composition of spectrum. Tp = township, N ; Rge = range, E ; L =

length ; A = area ; D = maximum depth ; Ob = depth to which observations

extended.

Distribution of solar radiation found in lakes at depth of one meter.

422

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters ,

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 423

a •§

« 1

£ I

<

H §

424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

TABLE III

Changes of distribution of radiation with increase of depth.

The data of this table are shown in figs. 19 and 20.

Numbers indicate percent of total radiation found in each color.

Birge & Juday — Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes. 425

Literature Cited.

Aschkinass, E., 1895. Ueber das Absorptionspektrum des fliissigen

Wassers, u.s.w., Wied. Annalen, 55:401 — 432. Leipzig.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C., 1929. Transmission of solar radiation by the

waters of inland lakes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Let.,

24:509-580, Madison.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C., 1930. A second report on solar radiation and

inland lakes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Let., 25:285-335,

Madison.

Pietenpol, W. B., 1918. Selective absorption in the visible spectrum of Wis¬

consin lake waters. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Let., 19:562-593,

Madison.

COPEPODS PARASITIC ON FISH OF THE TROUT LAKE

REGION, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW SPECIES.

Ruby Bere

Notes from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey. No. XLIV.

During July and August of 1930 quite extensive fishing

operations were carried on from the Trout Lake Limnological

Laboratory by the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History

Survey and the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. It was not possible

to examine all the fish that were caught during this period but

an attempt was made to examine some fish from the different

lakes that were visited by the fishermen. Ten lakes are repre¬

sented in the collection, all quite close to Trout lake. Though

few in number, these lakes present considerable variation in

their chemical, physical and biological characters. (See Table

I).

Fish parasitized with copepods were found in only five of the

lakes and these were, in no case, heavily infested. Thirteen

hundred fish were examined, of which not quite two and one-

half per cent, proved to be parasitized. The number of each

species of fish which were parasitized is shown in Table II. The

only copepod found in any number was Ergasilus confusus,

which occurred on lake trout, whitefish, yellow perch, wall-eyed

pike, small-mouthed black bass, and rock bass. In addition to

this species, two specimens of Achtheres coregoni from a cisco

(Trout L.) one specimen of A. micropteri from a small-mouthed

black bass (Silver L.), and two specimens of Argulus bira-

mosus from a yellow perch (Little Star L.) were obtained.

It is interesting to note that all species of fish caught in Trout

L., with the exception of the sucker, were parasitized with

Ergasilus confusus ; in Muskellunge, Allequash and Silver

lakes, this species of copepod also occurred but it was found

only on certain species of fish. In Muskellunge, it occurred on

yellow perch but not on rock bass or small-mouthed black bass;

in Allequash, on rock bass but not on cisco, yellow perch, wall-

428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

eyed pike or small-mouthed black bass ; and in Silver, on cisco

and yellow perch but not on rock bass or small-mouthed black

bass.

TABLE I

Chemical data for the lakes from which fish were examined for 'parasitic copepods.

As already mentioned, no parasitic copepods were obtained

from the fish caught in five of the lakes, viz. Nelson, Crystal,

Weber, Nebish and Geneva. From these lakes 30, 13, 172, 95

and 32 fish, respectively, were examined. The data on hand are,

of course, too meagre to permit of any definite statements, but

it might be pointed out that, whereas the pH of these five lakes

ranges from 5.4 to 7.1, the pH of the lakes, with the exception

of Little Star, in which parasitic copepods were found ranges

from 7.5 to 8.6. The pH of Little Star L., in which Argulns

biramosus but not Ergasilus confusus occurs is 7.1 (See Table

I).

Both Argulus biramosus and Ergasilus confusus are new

species and are herewith described.

Argulus biramosus n. sp.

Plate IX, fig. 1-7

Two specimens of this species, both females, were found on

the body of a yollow perch caught in Little Star L. These are

recorded in the United States National Museum under Cat. No.

63831. This perch was gilled along with some hundred other

perch and a few other fish but no other copepods were found.

TABLE II

Bere — Copepods Parasitic on Fish

429

430 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Specific characters of female . Carapace slightly longer than

wide, not quite reaching the base of the abdomen (fig. 1) . Post¬

erior sinus almost one-third the length of the carapace and

twice as long as wide. The antero-lateral sinuses are not well

developed and, consequently, the cephalic area projects only

slightly. The second and third free thoracic segments are of

equal length but slightly shorter than the first free segment.

The last segment is about half the length of the preceding one.

The outer respiratory areas are large, and run parallel with

the margin of the carapace; the inner ones are small and cir¬

cular and inserted in the inner margin of the outer ones, to¬

wards the anterior end (fig. 2). The abdomen is spindle-shaped

with pointed lobes and about one-third the length of the rest of

the body. The anal sinus is about half the length of the abdo¬

men. The anal papillae, which are truncated posteriorly and

fringed with setae, are lateral in position but not far removed

from the anterior end of the sinus (fig. 3).

The first antennae are peculiar. Arising from the distal end

of the second segment of the terminal portion there is a short,

three-segmented ramus, giving to this part of the antenna a

biramous appearance (fig. 4) hence the species name biramosus.

The two basal joints of the second antennae are broad and

short; the third joint is about equal to their combined length

but is much narrower ; the two terminal segments become pro¬

gressively shorter and narrower. This appendage is well sup¬

plied with setae, those on the basal segments being borne on

protuberances (fig. 5). Situated posteriorly to the antennae,

on either side of the mid line, is a pair of slightly curved spines.

The sucking disks are moderately large, occupying about

one-fifth the width of the carapace. The chitin ribs are made of

two parts, the distal being twice the length of the more centrally

situated portion but tapering to about half its width. The mar¬

gin of the disk is serrated; interspersed amongst these pro¬

jections are small, claw-like structures (fig. 6).

Except for the teeth on the basal joint, there is nothing strik¬

ing about the maxillipeds. The teeth are very blunt and widely

separated with almost parallel sides (fig. 7). Near these ap¬

pendages are two spines, one blunt, the other peg-like.

The swimming legs, the first two of which bear flagella, ex¬

tend considerably beyond the margin of the carapace. All four

Bere—Copepods Parasitic on Fish 431

pairs have a row of plumose setae along their posterior border

and their basal joints are partially covered with very small

spines. The basal joint of the fourth pair of legs possesses a

large boot-shaped lobe which extends considerably beyond the

lateral margin of the abdomen.

Color (living material). Carapace creamy with scattered

reddish blotches. Abdomen colorless with the semen receptacles

green. Dorsal surface of thorax densely covered with dark

green spots but leaving a narrow yellowish-green streak above

the intestine. These spots extend forward beneath the carapace

to the mouth. The eyes are a darker shade than the pigment

spots of the carapace.

As already mentioned, two specimens of this species were

obtained, upon one of which the above description is based. The

second specimen differs from the one just described in three

particulars: 1) the carapace extends a little beyond the base of

the abdomen; 2) the lobe on the fourth leg extends only slightly

beyond the margin of the abdomen; and 3) the second antennae

have four segments instead of five and do not bear as many

setae.

Ergasilus confusus n. sp.

Plate X figs. 8-16

Occurrence . In Trout L. from yellow perch, wall-eyed pike,

rock bass, small-mouthed black bass, lake trout, cisco and white-

fish; in Muskellunge L. from yellow perch; in Allequash L.

from rock bass ; in Silver L. from cisco and yellow perch.

No male specimens were obtained and the following descrip¬

tion is based on a specimen taken from a wall-eyed pike caught

in Trout L., Cat. No. 63833, U. S. N. M.

Specific characters of female . General body form elongate

(fig. 8) . Cephalothorax rectangular, a little more than one-third

longer than wide, with rounded corners. Sides indented about

two-thirds down. Antennal area triangular in outline and pro¬

jecting considerably, permitting the exposure of the bases of

the antennae. Both dorsal and ventral surfaces strongly con¬

vex with the mouth parts projecting considerably and situa¬

ted two-thirds down between the anterior end of the animal and

the posterior margin of the carapace. The first free thoracic

432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

segment abruptly narrowed to half the width of the carapace.

The two succeeding segments are narrowed regularly back¬

wards, the first one being about two-thirds the length of the

first free thoracic segment, the second one again shorter. The

fourth segment is very short and also narrower than the pre¬

ceding segment. The first free segment bears a pair of lateral

lobes. The genital segment is slightly wider than the fourth

segment and barrel-shaped. Abdomen same width as fourth

segment, three- jointed, the first joint slightly longer than the

other two ; anal laminae rectangular in outline, each armed with

three setae, the inner one of which is much the longest. Egg

strings elliptical, tapering a little posteriorly, a little over half

the length of the entire body (figs. 8 and 9).

First antennae six- jointed and well supplied with setae (fig.

10) . Basal joint of second antennae greatly swollen and pro¬

jecting strongly on the outer margin ; second joint with a small,

sharp spine at the center of the inner margin; the third joint

bears distally a rounded knob on its inner margin; terminal

claw with two teeth-like projections on the inner margin (fig.

11) . Mandibles large, with the terminal portion directed for¬

wards ; cutting blade provided with setae along the inner mar¬

gin; palp long and armed with short spines on the inner mar¬

gin; an extra palp, which is triangular in outline and armed

with short spines along its outer margin, occurs at the distal

end of the basal portion. The first and second maxillae are of

the usual type; the cutting blade of the latter is also curved

forwards and its terminal portion is profusely covered with

spines (fig. 12).

With the exception of the exopod of the fourth pair of legs,

which is two- jointed, all the rami of the first four pairs of

legs are three-segmented. The arrangement of the spines and

setae is shown in figures 13-16. Between the bases of the first,

second, and third pairs of legs there occurs a row of short

spines. The fifth pair of legs are vestigial, consisting of a single

three-jointed spine-like ramus.

Color . A bright blue pigment spot is present just posterior

to the eye. The lateral areas are similarly pigmented, as are

also the bases of the legs. The rest of the body has a slight

creamy tinge. Egg strings containing ripe eggs are a light blue.

The species name confusus, indiscriminate, refers to the fact

that the parasite is found on many hosts.

Bere — Copepods Parasitic on Fish

References.

483

Henderson, Jean T. Description of a Copepod Gill Parasite of

Pike Perches in Lakes of Northern Quebec, including an

Account of the Free Swimming Male and some Develop¬

mental Stages. Contr. Can. Biol. Fish., N.S., Vol. Ill, pp.

237-245, 1926.

Wilson, C. B. North American Parasitic Copepods of the Fam¬

ily Argulidae, with a Bibliography of the Group and a Sys¬

tematic Review of all Known Species. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus., Vol. 25, pp. 635-742, 1903.

A New Species of Argulus, with a more Complete Ac¬

count of Two Species already described. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus., Vol. 27, pp. 627-655, 1904.

Additional Notes on the Development of the Argulidae,

with Description of a New Species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

Vol. 32, pp. 411-424, 1907.

North American parasitic Copepods belonging to the

Family Ergasilidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 39, pp.

263-400, 1911.

Descriptions of new species of parasitic copepods in the

collections of the United States National Museum. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 42, pp. 233-243, 1912.

North American parasitic copepods belonging to the

Lernaeopodidae, with a revision of the entire family. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 47, pp. 565-729, 1915.

Copepod Parasites of Fresh-water Fishes and their

Economic Relations to Mussel Glochidia. Bull. Bur. Fish.,

Vol. XXXIV, pp. 333-374, 1914.

434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. 26

PLATE IX

3

435

Bere — Copepods Parasitic on Fish

TRANS. WIS. ACAD. VOL. 26

PLATE X

436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters ,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Plate IX

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of Argulus biramosus.

Fig. 2. Respiratory areas.

Fig. 3. Anal papillae.

Fig. 4. First antenna.

Fig. 5. Second antenna.

Fig. 6. Chitin ribs supporting the margin of the sucking disk.

Fig. 7. Maxilliped.

Plate X

Fig. 8. Dorsal view of Ergasilus confusus.

Fig. 9. Lateral view.

Fig. 10. First antenna.

Fig. 11. Second antenna.

Fig. 12. Mouth parts.

Fig. 13. First swimming leg.

Fig. 14. Second Swimming leg.

Fig. 15. Third Swimming leg.

Fig. 16. Fourth Swimming leg.

LEECHES FROM THE LAKES OF NORTHEASTERN

WISCONSIN

Ruby Bere

Notes from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Survey. No. XLV.

The leeches upon which this paper is based were collected

during July and August of 1930 while working at the Trout

Lake Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and

Natural History Society. The list is in no way complete for at

many of the lakes it was possible to stop for only a few minutes.

The specimens were obtained by examining the under side of

rocks, submerged twigs and logs, fish, clam shells, etc. In two

instances, Helobdella stagnalis was found in bottom samples

from Trout lake at six and seven m. respectively. Placobdella

rugosa was also found on the writer and others on a number of

occasions while swimming or collecting. The animals were at¬

tached between the toes, in the ankle region, and on the hands.

Haemopis grandis was quite often observed swimming during

the day in Trout lake, probably disturbed by our own swim¬

ming activities for leeches are, as a rule, nocturnal in habit.

Of the free-living leeches, Placobdella montifera and P .

phalera were also taken from fish. Their occurrence as para¬

sites is shown in Table I. P. phalera was found only once, being

attached to the gill arch of the host. P. montifera was found

on the caudal fin and near the operculum of its hosts. P. pedic -

ulata is reported by Moore from Minnesota lakes as a nearly

permanent fish parasite. However, in addition to the two spec¬

imens taken from just inside the operculum of a sucker caught

in Trout L., a single specimen of this species was found on the

under side of a rock in Allequash L. Piscicola punctata was not

found free-living although it has often been taken independ¬

ently of its hosts. It occurred on the body, on the caudal and

pectoral fins, and on the roof of the mouth of its hosts. A single

specimen of Piscicola geometra , another of the fish leeches, was

438 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

TABLE I

Showing the fish upon which leeches were found and the lakes

in which they occurred.

found clinging to one of the gill nets which had been set in

Trout L. It was not observed on any fish.

A total of eighteen species was collected. This number com¬

pares very well with the twenty-one species recorded from

Minnesota in 1912 in ‘The Leeches of Minnesota’’, which prob¬

ably represents years of collecting, and the fourteen species

obtained in Illinois over a period of 25 years and reported in

1901 in “The Hirudinea of Illinois”.

A systematic list of the species follows :

Class HIRUDINEA

Suborder Rhynchobdellae

Family Glossiphonidae

Genus Glossiphonia Johnston

Glossiphonia complanata (Linn.).

Allequash, Arbor Vitae, Ballard, Big Carr, Island, Little Papoose,

Little Star, Trout, White Sand, and the Manitowish R.

Glossiphonia heteroclita (Linn.).

Allequash, Mann, and Trout.

Genus Helobdella R. Blanchard.

H elob della stagnalis (Linn.).

Allequash, Arbor Vitae, Ballard, Bass (Flambeau), Birch, Black Oak,

Boulder, Geneva, George, Irving, Jag Island, Laura, Little Papoose,

Little Star, Little Tomahawk, Long (Pokegama), Lost Canoe, Mann,

Muskellunge, Nebish, Razor Back, Silver, Trout, Upper Gresham,

White Birch, White Sand, White Cat, Manitowish R., and Cardinal Bog.

Bere— Leeches from Wisconsin Lakes 439

Helobdella fusca (Castle).

Little Star, Little Papoose, Razor Back, Silver.

Helobdella nepheloidea (Graf).

Ballard, Geneva, Little Papoose, Nebish, White Sand, Wild Cat.

Genus Placobdella R. Blanchard.

Placobdella rugosa (Verrill) .

Allequash, Arbor Vitae, Ballard, Fliegel, Geneva, Island, Kawaque-

saga, Little Star, Little Star (Woodruff), Lost Canoe, Mary, Muskel-

lunge, Pallette, Sterrett, Trout, White Sand, and Manitowish R.

Placobdella parasitica (Say).

Allequash, Geneva, and Manitowish R.

Placobdella montifera Moore.

Allequash, Ballard, Black Oak, Little Star, Muskellunge, Trout, and

outlet of Little Star (Woodruff).

Placobdella phalera (Graf).

Allequash, Island, Laura, Little Long, Little Star, Muskellunge, Nel¬

son, White Birch, and Manitowish R.

Placobdella picta (Verrill).

Crystal, Geneva, Little Long, Little Papoose, Mann, Mary, Muskel¬

lunge, Nelson, and White Sand.

Placobdella pediculata Hemingway.

Allequash, Trout.

Family ICHTHYOBDELLIDAE

Genus Piscicola Blainville

Piscicola punctata Verrill.

Little Star, Muskellunge, Silver, Trout.

Piscicola geometra Linn.

Trout.

Suborder Gnathobdellae

Family Hirudinidae

Genus Haemopis Savigny.

Haemopis marmoratis (Say).

Lost Canoe, Trout.

Haemopis grandis (Verrill).

Allequash, Ballard, Little Papoose, Lost Canoe, Mann, Silver, Trout,

and outlet of Muskellunge.

440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Family Erpobdellidae

Genus Erpobdella Blainville.

Erpobdella punctata (Leidy) .

Adelaide, Allequash, Arbor Vitae, Ballard, Bass (Flambeau), Big

Carr, Black Oak, Boulder, Constance, Crystal, Favil, Fliegel, Geneva,

George, Island, Kawaquesaga, Little Long, Little Papoose, Little

Star, Little Star (Woodruff), Little Tomahawk, Long (Pokegamma),

Lost Canoe, Mann, Mary, Muskellunge, Nebish, Nelson, Pallette,

Pokegama, Ross Allen, Silver, Trout, Weber, White Birch, White

Sand, Manitowish R., and outlet of Little Sar (Woodruff).

Erpobdella punctata annulata Moore.

Arbor Vitae, Little Star.

Genus Nephelopsis Verrill.

Nephelopsis obscura Verrill.

Allequash, Arbor Vitae, Ballard, Bass (Flambeau), Big Carr, Birch,

Black Oak, Crystal, Fliegel, Geneva, Irving, Kawaquesaga, Little

Papoose, Little Star, Little Tomahawk, Long (Pokegama), Lost

Canoe, Mann, Nebish, Pallette, Rock, Ross Allen, Trout, White Sand,

Wild Cat, and Manitowish R.

Genus Dina R. Blanchard.

Dina parva Moore.

Ballard, Arbor Vitae, Birch, Muskellunge, Trout.

References.

Johansson, L. Die Siisswasserfauna Deutschlands. II. Hirudinea, Egel.

Heft 13, pp. 67-81, 1909.

Moore, J. Percy. The Leeches of the U. S. National Museum. Proe. U. S.

Nat. Mus., Vol. XXI, pp. 543-563, 1898.

The Hirudinea of Illinois. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 5,

pp. 479-546, 1901.

Hirudinea and Oligochaeta collected in the Great Lakes Region. Bull.

Bur. Fish., Vol. XXV, pp. 153-171, 1905.

The Leeches of Minnesota. Geological and Natural History Survey of

Minnesota, Zoological Series No. V, 1912.

The Leeches (Hirudinea). Ward and Whipple, Freshwater Biology,

Chap. XX, 1918.

The Freshwater Leeches (Hirudinea) of Southern Canada. Can. Field-

Naturalist, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 6-10, 37-39, 1922.

The Leeches (Hirudinea) of Lake Nipigon. Univ. Tor. Studies, No. 23,

1924.

Ryerson, C. G. S. Notes on the Hirudinea of Georgian Bay. Contr. Can.

Biol. 1911-14, Fasc. II, pp. 165-175, 1915.

Verrill, A. E. Synopsis of the North American Fresh- Water Leeches. Re¬

port U. S. Comm. Fish., Pt. II, pp. 666-689, 1874.

NOTE ON THE DETERMINATION OF TOTAL PHOS¬

PHORUS IN LAKE WATER RESIDUES

Leslie Titus and Villiers W. Meloche

Contribution from the Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry , University

of Wisconsin , and Notes from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wis¬

consin Geological and Natural History Survey. No. XLVI.

In the method presented by Juday, Birge, Kemmerer, and

Robinson in 19281 and in the slightly modified procedure pre¬

sented by Robinson and Kemmerer in 19302 the sample of

lake water to which sulfuric, hydrocholoric, and nitric acids

have been added is evaporated to fumes of sulfuric acid anhy¬

dride. In this evaporation the authors caution against the loss

of S03 fumes, stating that phosphorus will be lost if these

fumes are allowed to pass out of the flask. The use of the mod¬

ified procedure on many samples has made it apparent that

there exists a temperature range in which digestion can be

made without danger of the loss of phosphorus even though

fumes of S03 are allowed to escape. The following note serves

to illustrate this point as well as to give certain details regard¬

ing the digestion of samples.

In order to test the possible loss of phosphorus upon diges¬

tion, a standard solution of potassium di-hydrogen phosphate

(KH2P04) was prepared which contained 0.001 mg of phos¬

phorus per cubic centimeter. Portions of this solution were used

as standards and equal portions were used as samples. To each

portion used as a sample were added 8 cc of HC1, 0.5 cc

of HN03, and 0.2 cc of H2S04 just as was done with lake water

residues. Following the digestion of the samples described in

the following table, the phosphorus content was estimated by

the usual color comparison with the untreated standards.

‘Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters Vol. XXIII, 233, 1928.

3 Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters Vol. XXV, 117, 1930.

442 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

Table I

Digestions were made in 50 cc Erlenmeyer flasks which were

heated in an air bath the temperature of which could be con¬

trolled within ±5°.

Since many of the lake residues examined contained more

phosphorus than that represented in the above table it seemed

desirable to repeat the experiments using a greater initial con¬

centration of phosphorus. These results are given in Table II.

Table II

After digestion the above samples were diluted to 100 cc.

One-fifth aliquot of samples 10 to 14, inclusive, and one-tenth

aliquot of samples 15 to 18, inclusive, were used to make the

color comparison. Because of the dilution of the digested sam¬

ples, the original amount of sulfuric acid did not have much

effect on the color produced.

Titus & Meloche — Total Phosphorus Determination 443

It has been suggested that the presence of organic matter

plays some part in the possible loss of phosphorus during diges¬

tion of the sample. Since the samples reported in Tables I and

II contained no organic matter, it was decided to complete

several digestions of the standard potassium di-hydrogen phos¬

phate to which had been added small portions of pure sucrose.

The estimations of phosphorus in these samples are given in

Table III.

Table III

In using the Deniges ceruleomolybdate reaction for the esti¬

mation of phosphorus it should be noted that it has been pre¬

viously shown that the presence of a relatively small excess

of sulfuric acid will inhibit the development of a color after the

molybdate reagent has been added. If an excess of sulfuric acid

has been used in the digestion of the sample, it obviously must

be removed by evaporation before the usual color comparison

can be made. This consideration is not to be confused with the

one at hand, namely, the possible loss of phosphorus during the

digestion.

From the data in Tables I and II it is apparent that the con¬

dition for digestion of the sample may be so controlled that

there will be no loss of phosphorus by evaporation even

though S03 fumes are allowed to escape. The results in Table

III indicate that organic matter may be oxidized under these

conditions of digestion without the loss of phosphorus.

The following conditions are, therefore, recommended for the

digestion of samples of lake water residues in the determina¬

tion of total phosphorus. The residue sample is treated with

10 cc of distilled water, 0.2 cc H2S04, 3 cc HC1, and 0.5 cc

HN03. The convenient container is a 50 cc Erlenmeyer flask.

444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

The main part of the water is removed by evaporation and the

remaining acid solution is digested at a temperature of 170 -

180° in an air bath. If the sulfuric acid solution is not clear at

the end of a few minutes digestion or at the time the HN03

and HC1 have been removed, another portion of 3 cc HC1 and

0.5 cc HN03 may be added and the digestion repeated. In

either case there must be a slight excess of sulfuric acid at the

end of the digestion and the HN03 must be completely removed .

The sample is then ready for color comparison with the known

standard.

.