IBRARY

UNIVERSI'

CORNEL

3 1924 066 276 8

A S

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

0

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XXXV

NATURE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1943

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

■Z-

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XXXV

NATURE SPECIES RATIOQU E

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1943

VP

/' '

OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

A. W. Schorger, Madison

Vice Presidents

In Science: W. N. Steil, Marquette University

In Arts: Ralph Buckstaff, Oshkosh

In Letters: Berenice Cooper, Superior State Teachers College

Secretary-Treasurer

Loyal Durand Jr., University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin

Curator

Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum

Council

The President

The Vice-Presidents

The Secretary-Treasurer

The Librarian

E. A. Birge, past president

Charles S. Slichter, past president

L. J. Cole, past president

Charles E. Allen, past president

Rufus M. Bagg, past president

Paul W. Boutwell, past president

Committee on Publication

The President

The Secretary-Treasurer

L. E. Noland, University of Wisconsin

Committee on Library

The Librarian

A. L. Barker, Ripon College

Ira A. Edwards, Milwaukee Public Museum

W. S. Marshall, University of Wisconsin

O. L. Kowalke, University of Wisconsin

Committee on Membership

The Secretary-Treasurer

E. F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological Survey

P. W. Boutwell, Beloit College

W. E. Rogers, Lawrence College

A. W. Schorger, Madison

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

The Prairie Chicken and Sharp-tailed Grouse in Early Wisconsin. A. W.

Schorger . 1

Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species. Hartley H. T. Jackson . 61

The Cottontail and the Weather. Harold C. Hanson . * . 91

A New Wisconsin Meteorite. Ralph N. Buckstaff . 99

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin, XXXI. Solanaceae. Nor¬

man C. Fassett . 105

Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. H. C. Greene . 113

Ascochyta Meliloti (Trel.) Davis as the Conidial Stage of Mycosphaerella

Lethalis Stone. Fred Reuel Jones . 137

Flowering Plants and Ferns of Vilas County, Wisconsin. J. E. Potzger ....139

A Pollen Study of Four Bogs Along the Southern Border of Vilas County,

Wisconsin. J. E. Potzger and C. O. Keller . 147

Physical and Chemical Evidence Relating to the Lake Basin Seal in Cer¬

tain Areas of the Trout Lake Region of Wisconsin. Chauncey Juday

and V. W. Meloche . 157

Fluctuations in the Animal Populations of the Littoral Zone in Lake Men-

dota. Jay D. Andrews and Arthur D. Hasler . . 175

Micromonospora in Relation to Some Wisconsin Lakes and Lake Popula¬

tions. Arthur R. Colmer and Elizabeth McCoy . 187

Physical Factors Influencing the Accuracy of the Dropping Mercury Elec¬

trode in Measurements of Photochemical Reaction Rates. Winston M.

Manning . 221

Host List of the Genus Trichomonas (Protozoa: Flagella) . Banner Bill

Morgan . 235

Geological Contributions to Human Progress. Rufus Mather Bagg . 247

Carl Wilhelm Scheele. George Urdang . 275

Death in the Pot. H. A. Schuette . 283

The Influence of Science on American Ideas, from 1775 to 1809. Harry

Hayden Clark . 305

Deer Irruptions. Compiled by Aldo Leopold . 351

Proceedings of the Academy . 367

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS FOR SUBMITTING MANUSCRIPTS

Manuscripts should be neatly typed in double spacing, one side of paper,

S^xll inches, allow at least 1 inch margin. The bibliography and quotations

should also be double spaced. The original ribbon copy must be submitted.

Only manuscripts submitted by members of good standing can be accepted.

Tables should be typed on separate sheets and placed in the back of the

text. Tables with several columns should be ruled. Indicate on the margin

where table should be inserted. All graphs and drawings must be made on

good grade white drawing paper and with black India ink. The dimensions

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reduction.

All photogaphs are to be submitted unmounted and indicate the amount

of reduction. Glossy prints are preferred. Captions for photographs, graphs,

drawings, should be typed on separate sheets and placed at the end of the

paper.

Footnotes or bibliography may be placed at the end of each article. Avoid

footnotes which occur at the bottom of the page. All bibliography is to be

kept uniform. Use the following as sample for guide: —

Doe, J. H. 1934. The ecology of Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci.

14: 721-748. In citing the Transactions use the above abbreviation.

Manuscripts should be mailed flat, not folded or rolled. Manuscripts

should be submitted in final form for the printer so that any changes on the

galley-proof would be errors by the printer. Extensive changes or deletions

from galley or page proof are prohibitive. The Academy will pay part of the

cost for reprints. Orders should be placed at the time the manuscript is sub-

■rnitted.

Correspondence relating to publication in the Transactions or to other

Academy business should be directed to the Secretary -Treasurer, Banner Bill

Morgan, Department of Veterinary Science, 211 Genetics Building, University

of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Publications intended for the Library of

the Academy should be sent directly to the Librarian, Halvor O. Teisberg,

120 State Historical Building, Madison, Wisconsin.

IV

THE PRAIRIE CHICKEN AND SHARP-TAILED GROUSE

IN EARLY WISCONSIN

By A. W. Schorger

Some of our most interesting and formerly abundant game

birds have reached extinction or now maintain precarious exis-

tance. The subjects of this paper, the prairie chicken ( Tym -

'panuchus cupido americanus) and the sharp-tailed grouse ( Ped -

ioecetes phasianellus campestris), were so abundant a century

ago as to play an important role in the realms of food and sport.

As remarked by W. W. Cooke,1 who came to Buffalo County in

1856 : “Of the prairie chicken and grouse family, what an abun¬

dance nature furnished us!” Today the sharp-tailed grouse is

in no danger of extinction, thanks to suitable habitat, but the

prospect for the prairie chicken is by no means hopeful for the

distant future.

The investigation of the status, of the two species of grouse

in Wisconsin in the early days was initiated in the belief that the

history of any species has intrinsic value. The main objective,

however, was the hope that information might be drawn from

the study that would aid in increasing the population beyond the

point of danger, or indicate the probable futility of the effort.

Part I. The Prairie Chicken

Original Range. The determination of the range* of the prairie

chicken or pinnated grouse prior to settlement for agricultural

purposes is extremely difficult. Accuracy is not possible for

several reasons. The sharp-tailed grouse occurred throughout

the state and is so similar in appearance to the prairie chicken

that no distinction was made by the casual observer even in the

southern portion of the state where their ranges overlapped.

Few trained observers visited the state and even their state¬

ments are occasionally of doubtful accuracy. Another difficulty

was the relatively slight difference in habitat and habits. The

1

2

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

prairie chicken was called locally “prairie chicken,” “prairie hen,”

“grouse,” “moor-hen,” and “whirring pheasant.” The latter

name was used by the early French inhabitants.

The inclination to fix the original northern range of the

prairie chicken below its probable limit in the upper Mississippi

Valley is due largely to Coues.2 He was informed by Dr. J. F.

Head that, in 1853, the prevailing if not the sole grouse in the

vicinity of Fort Ripley (Crow Wing County) was the sharp¬

tailed grouse; and that the first pinnated grouse was killed in

September, 1873. While these observations were accurate prob-

Fig. 1. Probable original breeding range of the prairie chicken in Wisconsin.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 3

ably for that particular locality, it cannot be inferred that the

prairie chicken was absent from the prairies of southern Minn¬

esota.

Against this statement may be placed that of “Raven”3 who

hunted in Minnesota in the fall of 1860: “After leaving St.

Cloud, which is seventy-five miles northwest from St. Paul, along

the valley of Sauk River we began to find the sharp-tailed grouse ;

and farther west they became still more abundant, while the

pinnated nearly disappeared.”

The situation in Wisconsin was quite similar. T. S. Van

Dyke4 followed the prevailing opinion that in the early days in

Minnesota and Wisconsin the sharp-tailed grouse was the com¬

mon bird of the prairie while the prairie chicken was seen rarely ;

and that agriculture brought about a complete reversal. With

commendable caution, however, he adds that it is uncertain if

the increase of the prairie chicken was “actual or apparent.”

Thure Kumlien, in 1840, found the sharp-tailed grouse to be the

common grouse of the prairies and was very abundant in south¬

ern Wisconsin. He resided in the state several years before

seeing a specimen of the prairie chicken.5 There is little evi¬

dence that he was familiar with conditions outside the vicinity

of Lake Koshkonong, hence the opinion should be considered of

local value only.

The first incontestable record of the prairie chicken in the

Lake Michigan area, and; in fact the first definite description of

the species, is due to Marquette.0 He spent the hard winter of

1674-75 on the present site of Chicago. His man Jacques shot a

“partridge” having two tufts of feathers, as long as a finger, on

the sides of the neck where there were bare spots.*

In travelling up the Illinois River in August, 1821, School¬

craft7 flushed the “prairie hen or ‘whirring pheasant’.” Ten

years later in crossing the prairies of southern Wisconsin from

Galena to Fort Winnebago, Wisconsin, he8 was “often startled

by the flocks of the prairie-hen rising up in his path.”

Southwestern Wisconsin was visited by General Smith9 in

1837. Here he found the prairie chicken very numerous. The

* “Jacques apporta un perdix qu’il avoit tuez, semblable en tout a celles de France, excepte

qu’elle avoit comme deux aislerons de 3 ou 4 aisles longues d’un doigt proche de la teste, dont

dies couvrent les 2 costez du col ou il n’y a point de plume.’’

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

reason for assuming that this was the pinnated grouse is his

belief that it was identical with the “Long Island grouse” (heath

hen). Charles Rodolf,10 in 1834, settled at the present site of

Wiota, Lafayette County. At that time he found game abun¬

dant: “grouse [sharp-tailed], prairie chickens [pinnated],

pheasants [ruffed grouse], quails.”

The prairie chicken, according to Hoy,11 and Barry,12 was

abundant in the Racine region in the early ’50s. There is good

evidence that it was numerous prior to the time when agricul¬

ture could have been a determining factor. Quarles13 wrote

from Southport (Kenosha) on August 28, 1838: “It is 3 years

since the first settler came in. . . . Prairie hens are very plenty

— They resemble a pattridge [ruffed grouse] but have short

tails and are much larger.” Also, Burch14 wrote from South-

port, in 1842, that “prairie hens” were plentiful.

The northern range of this grouse on the prairies bordering

the Mississippi is not determinable easily. Hoffman,15 while in

Illinois, called the pinnated grouse both prairie hen and grouse.

On February 12, 1834, he wrote from Prairie du Chien: “The

grouse now keep in large packs near the garrison.” The prairie

at Prairie du Chien at that time was virtually a large common.

The great winter assemblages were characteristic of the species.

Bunnell10 came to Trempealeau in 1842. In September of

the following year, he went up the Trempealeau River to hunt elk

on Elk Creek, on the “prairie slopes” of which he killed some

“pinnated grouse.” This statement is not so convincing when

it is considered that in his list of the birds of the region, only

the pinnated grouse is mentioned. The sharp-tailed grouse was

certainly present also and probably more numerous. At the

time of Bunnell’s arrival, James Reed was settled at Trempeal¬

eau. Grignon17 says of Reed: “I have seen him kill eleven

prairie chicken in twelve shots, in the trees on the island across

from Trempealeau.”

At La Crosse,18 in the fall of 1857, it was considered note¬

worthy that prairie chickens were scarce that season east of the

Mississippi, but plentiful forty miles west of it in the neighbor¬

hood of Chatfield, Minnesota. In 1859, 75 prairie chickens were

purchased at La Crosse, the birds having been killed in the “open¬

ings” above Bangor.19 Prairie chickens were abundant at La

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 5

Crosse20 in 1861, and in October were migrating over the town.

The October migration also was characteristic of the species.

The pinnated grouse was in Pierce County at least by 1856

for it is stated in that year : “Pheasants [ruffed grouse] , grouse

[sharp-tailed], and chickens [pinnated] are also very plenty.”21

In 1855, “prairie chickens” were plentiful and cheap at Hudson,

St. Croix County.22

There was an abundance of the “prairie chicken and grouse

family” at Gilmanton, Buffalo County, when Cooke1 settled there

in 1856. Cartwright23 hunted on the Red Cedar River in the

fall of 1857. One day a companion shot “a big pile of prairie

chickens and partridges.”

The prairie region of central Wisconsin appears to have been

inhabited by pinnated grouse since the advent of settlement.

Hoyt’s24 map of 1861 shows a strip of prairie extending to the

bottom of Green Bay and along the western shore. Biddle243

states that the prairie hen was abundant at Green Bay in 1816.

While at Green Bay in August, 1834, Bishop Kemper25 was pre¬

sented with a wild goose and a “prairie hen.” Col. Whittlesey26

travelled from Green Bay to Galena, Illinois, in 1832. In pass¬

ing up the Fox River his “path generally lay through a wild

pasture, well stocked with the prairie hen.” South of Portage

he “started a plenty of grouse.”

In the autumn of 1835, Featherstonhaugh27 was at Fort

Winnebago (Portage) and in the course of a walk flushed “sev¬

eral very large grouse ( Tetrao cupido) .” This statement would

be highly satisfactory were it not for the fact that later in the

autumn he found grouse abundant along the Minnesota River

and considered them to be Tetrao cupido . They rose “booming

and screaming.” It has been my experience that the sharp¬

tailed grouse is the noisier of the two species when flushed. In

May, 1836, he returned to Wisconsin and in the vicinity of Blue

Mounds frequently flushed the “prairie hen” from her nest.

In 1840, Haraszthy28 travelled from Madison to Lake Winne¬

bago and wrote : “While crossing this marvellous region ....

thousands upon thousands of prairie chickens, partridges, and

pheasants flew up before us continuously, and we needed all such

game for this area is unsettled, and we were obliged to get our

food with guns.”* Richard Dart’s family was the first to settle

* Mr. Kliman, the translator, informs me that it is impossible to translate more accurately

the Hungarian names of the birds, vadtyuk, fogoly, and faczan. Vadtyuk means litterally marsh or

moor hen.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters

in Green Lake County. Prairie chickens were plentiful when he

arrived in 1840.29 Their boat was pulled by error into Rush

Lake. In order to make camp it was necessary to wade the broad

marshes during which procedure they saw flocks of ducks and

‘•prairie chickens/'

Captain Mackinnon30 hunted at Lake Winnebago in 1851. He

did not shoot the “vast prairies" on the western side of the lake

that he considered must be swarming with grouse ; however, he

stated that he had no difficulty in killing as many as, he desired

regardless of the direction chosen. He made this significant

statement : “The few settlers who have recently taken up land on

these wild meadows, complain much of the increase of grouse. It

is indeed a singular fact, that game increases rapidly with the

first settlement of a new country. When, however, the popula¬

tion arrives at a certain point, the game as rapidly decreases,

and often in America disappears altogether." Proof of the pres¬

ence of the prairie chicken is found in a statement of the same

year for the vicinity of Oshkosh : “Grouse and prairie chickens

are superabundant."31

Habits. There are few if any habits that distinguish sharply

between the two species of grouse. The prairie* chicken in the

west was found most frequently in the grasslands and the sharp¬

tailed grouse in brushy areas and oak openings. Wilson32 quotes

Dr. S. L. Mitchell extensively on the habits of the heath hen, a

very close relative of the prairie chicken, on Long Island. The

latter at the time was largely a bushy plain. He states: “On

frosty mornings and during snows, they perch on the upper

branches of pine-trees. They avoid wet and swampy places;

and are remarkably attached to dry ground. The low and open

bush is preferred to high shrubbery and thickets. Into these

places, they fly for refuge when closely pressed by the hunt¬

ers . . ."

The Kentucky “barrens" in which the prairie chicken once

occurred abundantly was a brushy area, the name connoting

merely the absence of large trees. Michaux,33 who passed

through the region in 1802, found it clothed with grass two to

three feet high and small trees. Another traveller34 describes

the cover as hazel brush, grass, and small trees.

The perching habit is well developed in both species of grouse.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 7

Audubon35 remarks on the prairie chicken flying across the Ohio

River and “alighting at once on the highest trees with as much

ease as any other bird” ; and that during severe weather it was

known to roost at a considerable height in trees. Blane30 con¬

sidered the “prairie fowls” to be very similar to the Scotch

grouse, but differing in the singular respect that when flushed

they would alight upon a fence or tree, if available. In the win¬

ter of 1849-50, Marsh37 shot many prairie chickens in De Kalb

County, Illinois. They alighted frequently on the house, the

straw roof of the prairie stable, and, the fence of the cow-yard.

In 1849, John Muir38 came to Kingston, Green Lake County,

Wisconsin. He mentions that about sundown the prairie chick¬

ens flew to roosting places in the tall trees. This species had the

singular habit in autumn of alighting on telegraph wires, at

Boonesboro, Iowa, sometimes in great numbers.39 Incidentally,

when telegraph wires were first installed in the Chicago area,

prairie chickens were killed frequently by striking them. Five

birds from one flock were killed in this manner.40

It is evident that the perching trait was about as well de¬

veloped in the prairie chicken as in the sharp-tailed grouse.

The heath hen is stated to have avoided wet situations.32

This trait is not pronounced. More recently, Johnson41 mentions

“their known dislike to marshes or places that are naturally

wet,” but that at the present time they are forced to use them to

some extent. On the other hand, Newell42 states that when

northwestern Iowa was first settled they nested in the sloughs

as well as upon the uplands. Dart,29 in 1840, in wading

through the muddy marshes surrounding Rush Lake, flushed

prairie chickens. In 1844, the birds were not as plentiful as

usual on the low prairies in the immediate vicinity of Chicago,

but were obtainable on the higher ground in any quantity.43

Both species resort frequently to damp situations. Schurz,44

hunting near Watertown in August, 1855, had no success until

evening when a “wet tract” was reached. In the fall of 1868, at

Fond du Lac,45 prairie chickens were scarce except near streams

and woody coverts, only a few being found in open ground. It is

not uncommon at the present time to find them using a booming

ground where there is standing water.

Migration. The migration of the prairie chicken was formerly

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

a regular phenomenon. Audubon35 mentions that during severe

winters the flocks at Henderson, Kentucky, were increased by

others that “evidently came from Indiana, Illinois, and even

from the western side of the Mississippi.” Woods46 wrote that

these birds visited Gallatin County, Illinois, in the winter but

went north in summer. It is also stated by Thomas47 that the

species was seen rarely in the region of the lower Wabash River

in summer but was very common in winter.

Writing of the migration of the prairie chicken in Iowa, in

1888, Cooke48 states that large flocks migrated in the fall from

southern Minnesota and northern Iowa to southern Iowa and

northern Missouri. He was the first to mention that only the

females migrate. There are insufficient data to permit accep¬

tance of differential sex migration as a general law. It is diffi¬

cult to determine the distances migrated. The evidence is for

a limited shifting of the entire population southward. The terri¬

tory left by the birds that crossed the Ohio River was occupied

probably by the birds immediately to the northward, the move¬

ment continuing step-wise to the limit of the northern range.

It is to be expected that the migration would be most notice¬

able in the northernmost region. As a matter of fact this migra¬

tion was recognized at a comparatively early date in Wisconsin.

In 1856, it was stated for the Milwaukee49 region: “We have

seen in early winter, thousands in a pack, when, for some days

before, we had not met a single bird.” In connection with the

destruction of eggs and young by wet weather in spring, the

writer remarks pertinently: “Then however, the damage is

repaired to the general stock by the advent of whole colonies of

old birds in the spring, from somewhere South. We believe that

many leave here after the first frosts and go farther south, and

we know that in the spring they come from the South, some¬

times in very great numbers, to prepare for breeding.”

In March, 1853, a flock of ten prairie chickens flew over East

Water Street, Milwaukee,50 travelling west. Just twenty years

later they were flying over Racine.51 Major Tenney,52 who came

to Madison in 1845, repeatedly shot prairie chickens on the

Capitol Square. It is probable that these were migrating birds

since most of the present site of Madison was originally heavily

wooded.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 9

The fall migration usually took place in October. Two are

recorded for La Crosse. For 1861, we read : “Every morning

hundreds of fat prairie chickens are flying over and through

the city, affording fine sport for our gunners. This morning one

of our neighbors shot four from his wood pile as they flew

over.”53 Again, for 1863 : “Prairie chicken . . . are very

plenty in the city now. Every morning hundreds of them are

flying about, skimming along over barns, darting past the house

doors and alighting on garden fences. This morning we should

think at least fifty men within the city limits were out with shot

guns, popping away right and left, bringing a bird nearly every

shot.”54

The movement in this region was to the southwest. Webs¬

ter55 mentions that it is generally recognized that many of the

prairie chickens that winter in Iowa, come from Wisconsin,

Minnesota, and the Dakotas. Another writer56 states that while

a large number wintered near Fort Dodge, Iowa, they left in

spring for Minnesota and Wisconsin.

It was not uncommon1, for the birds to alight on buildings in

town during the fall migration. On October 9, 1871, one alighted

on the roof of a store in Menomonie.57 Six perched on the ridge

of the German M. E. Church in Madison on October 27, 1879. 58

In November of the same year, prairie chickens were flying about

the streets in Janesville. It was recognized generally that cool

or cold weather induced the fall migration and a considerable

shifting of the winter residents. In January, 1873, during a

period of cold weather, very large flocks of prairie chickens flew

over Eau Claire60 for several days.

Food. There are relatively recent studies of the food habits of

the prairie chicken, but no one seems to have investigated the

subject on the virgin prairies. Legumes, some of which thrive

best under annual burning, and other plants, typical of the prai¬

rie and its margins, that produced seeds of potentially high food

value were:61

Wild Pea ( Lathyrus ) , various species

Wild lupine ( Lupinus perennis )

Psoralea ( Psoralea esculenta )

Lead -plant ( Amphora canescens)

False indigo ( Amphora fruticosa )

Prairie-clover ( Petalostemum candidum ; P. purpureum)

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Trefoil (Desmodium acuminatum; D. canadense )

Ragweed ( Ambrosia artemisiaejolia)

Sunflower (Helianthus) , various species

Climbing false buckwheat ( Polygonum scandens )

Compass-plant ( Silphium laciniatum )

Prairie dock ( Silphium terebinthinaceum)

Acorns (Quercus) various species

Of the above plants, only the seeds of Ambrozia and Poly¬

gonum i would be available in quantity when snow covered the

ground.

The scarcity of prairie chickens at Fond du Lac02 in 1867 was

attributed to the eating of potato bugs by which they were pois¬

oned. This curious opinion prevailed for several years. The

Milwaukee Her old (March 20, 1873) published a letter from

New Ulm, Minnesota, in which the writer stated that he had

examined the crops of prairie chickens. Grain was absent, but

they were filled with potato beetles and the seeds of Chenopodium

ambrosioides.

The food problem was not so simple in winter and there has

been considerable justifiable speculation on what the prairie

chickens subsisted. Audubon35 mentions that they alighted on

the trees along the margins of the large rivers to eat grapes, and

the leaves and berries of the mistleto. He also saw them alight

in such numbers on the tops of sumach bushes, to eat the seeds,

that the bushes were bent by their weight. The wild grape grew

in great abundance in Wisconsin, particularly on the islands

and banks of the Mississippi and other streams. The sumach

was also common.

During severe weather when snow covered the ground and

rendered most seeds unavailable, the prairie chicken resorted to

budding. Schmidt63 states it was thought at first that the prairie

chicken did not bud extensively in Wisconsin, but that more re¬

cent observations show that they eat buds and catkins through¬

out the winter. Audubon35 mentions damage to fruit trees in

winter by the birds feeding upon their buds : “I have counted

more than fifty on a single apple tree, the buds of which they

entirely destroyed in a few hours.”

In the winter of 1827-28, Fonda64 carried the mail from

Green Bay to Fort Dearborn (Chicago). Leaving Milwaukee,

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in W isconsin 11

he and his companion turned west to the Des Plaines River. It

was the month of January and he states: “This led through

wide prairies and some large groves. Grouse were to be seen

budding on the trees and we killed abundance of them as we

passed along. The grouse with now and then a fish caught in

the shallow rapids, formed our only food for several days.” Pre¬

sumably these were pinnated grouse for he mentions subse¬

quently the preparation of “a couple of grouse (prairie-hens) for

supper.”

It is stated by Muir38 that, in Green Lake County, the prairie

chickens fed in the cornfields until the snow came, then they ate

the buds of birch and willow. In December, 1872, they were

eating “poplar” buds in Polk County,65 and during the severe

winter of 1874-75, “pinnated grouse” fed on poplar buds at Mon-

tello, Marquette County.60 In March, 1883, they were eating

birch, elm and other buds in the swamps near Dodgeville.67

The problem of the winter diet of the prairie chicken was

investigated recently by Hamerstrom.68 The logical conclusion

was reached that the species can subsist on a diet of low nutritive

value ; and that it is unnecessary to search for indigenous, highly

concentrated foods, such as acorns and leguminous seeds.

Effect of Agriculture. It is a generally accepted opinion that the

prairie chicken increased greatly with the advent of agriculture,

until the latter engulfed the greater portion of the prairie areas.

It is difficult to find convincing support for this view. In autumn,

during the hunting season, the birds left the prairie in large part

and concentrated in the vicinity of corn and stubble fields. This

influx could give a false impression.

Opinions varied greatly as to the extent of the increase. Ken-

nicott69 states merely that for a few years after the settlement of

the Chicago area, prairie chickens increased rapidly. In 1847,

a Chicago resident having fourteen years’ acquaintance with the

prairies, thought that they had more than doubled in that time.70

At the same time and place another observer thought that the

increase was eight-fold.71 Thurston72 came to Rockford, Illinois,

in 1837, and mentions that during a period of five years the

prairie chickens increased more than ten-fold due to a better

food supply. If the observer arrived in a region at the bottom of

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

a cycle, subsequent increase would be attributed to the most

obvious factor, agriculture.

Writing in 1874, Bogardus73 states that the pinnated grouse

had learned to use the cornfields in late autumn and, that when

he came first to Illinois (1857), they were to be found for the

most part in the prairie grass. Subsequent writers have given

this statement more importance than it deserves for the use of

cultivated ground was old. Hall,74 writing with special refer¬

ence to the Illinois prairies, mentions that in autumn the grouse

assemble round the cornfields and wheat-stacks in search of food.

A gentleman75 who settled in Kenosha County, in 1845, writes

of the thousands of prairie chickens that collected in the fields

of corn and buckwheat. In September, 1838, Captain Levinge76

came to Chicago to hunt pinnated grouse. About ten miles west

of Chicago, eight brace were shot, the birds being described

accurately. His destination was the Fox River where grouse

were stated to abound on account of the cultivation along its

banks. Here game was found in great quantity.

It has been inferred from the statement of Bogardus that

the prairie chicken had to learn to eat corn.77 It is doubtful if

this was the case in the sense that any appreciable time was

required. Thomas,47 writing in 1816, states that the prairie hen

is fond of corn and grain. During a heavy snow storm in Janu¬

ary, 1820, in what is now Gallatin County, Illinois, nearly all

the grain in a field of standing corn was devoured by prairie

chickens and other birds.460 In central Illinois, the prairie chick¬

ens ate so much of the corn standing in the fields as to be

greatly injurious.69 The Indians raised sufficient corn so that

it could not have been a novelty. It was estimated that, in 1831,

1832, and 1833, they produced not less than three thousand bush¬

els in the vicinity of Madison,78 Wisconsin.

Corn as a food is conspicuous since it was usually the first

crop raised by the settler, and because it could be left standing

throughout the winter without being injured by the elements.

Normally com was planted on the freshly broken prairie and

was called “sod corn”. A hole was punched into the sod into

which the corn was dropped. Though there was no cultivation,

no grass and only a few weeds grew the first year.79 A single

plowing was sufficient to destroy the original prairie grasses

and then weeds became an annual pest. The increased supply

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 13

of weed seeds must have been a potent factor in drawing the

birds to cultivated ground. Bogardus73a mentions that there was

a great variety of foods obtainable in the cornfields, but that

they preferred to feed in flax stubble and patches of navy beans

rather than in cornfields. It has also been stated that the orig¬

inal prairie could not be mowed for hay for more than a few

years before the weeds took possession.80 Many farmers broke

more prairie than they could cultivate subsequently so that

hundreds of acres were covered with “a rampant growth of

weeds/’81

Burning of the Prairies. An agent most destructive to the

prairie chicken was the prairie fire. It can be argued with plausi¬

bility that, for a period, agriculture contributed more to a peak

population for this species by reduction of burning than by an

increased food supply. However occasional burning was abso¬

lutely necessary for maintenance of the prairie; otherwise large

areas would have reverted to forest and brush. The Indians fired

the prairies from time immemorial. Fall fires not only destroyed

food and winter cover but nesting cover as well for the following

spring. Late spring fires destroyed the nests. Prevention and

restriction of these fires were of prime importance to the first

settlers.82 Frequently there were heavy material losses in the

shape of stacked hay and grain, fences, and even farm buildings.

The bleakness and lack of life on the burned prairie has been

mentioned by many writers. Hoffman1 5a crossed a snow-free

burned prairie in winter near Hennepin, Illinois. On reaching

broken ground, where there was some shrubbery, a flock of

grouse arose every moment. Due to the burning of the country

for a great distance, Featherstonhaugh27a found the grouse con¬

gested along the banks of the Minnesota River where there were

water and seeds of various kinds.

The burning of the prairie in late spring was considered by

Kennicott69 as highly injurious, due to destruction of the eggs.

Some farmers recommended burning in the spring, after nesting

had started, in order that there should be fewer young birds in

the fall to eat the grain.83 A few years later, the farmers were

urged to seek some protection for the prairie chickens since they

contributed greatly to the destruction of grasshoppers that were

becoming very abundant on the Illinois prairies.84

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Judd85 was informed by E. W. Nelson that the farmers in

northwestern Illinois, in the early seventies, burned the prairies

in the spring after nesting had started and afterwards gathered

large numbers of eggs for household use. The same situation

existed in Iowa. Prairie chickens were scarce in Iowa in the

fall of 1867. The reason given was that owing to the late, wet

spring, the prairies were not burned until nesting had started.80

A prairie fire in 1868 or 1869 ruined eggs by the thousands.87 As

late as 1896, Johnson41 stated that “the habit of farmers to burn

off the old grass from all the sloughs, ditches and swamps, about

the time the first clutch is laid, has been, and is the means of

destroying more birds than all the guns in the state.” Prior

to the settlement of northwestern Iowa, Newell42 saw on the

average four nests to the acre after a spring burning.

The frequency of fires can be judged from the remarks of

Grinnell.87* In January 1845, he passed over a large prairie in

Dodge County that had just been burned. Shortly afterwards he

arrived at a marsh that the Indians were firing to drive out the

game. While at Racine in April, the burning prairies were “light¬

ing up the western sky.” Skavlem87b has left a vivid picture of

the effects of burning in late spring in Rock County. Often the

virgin prairie was guarded from fire and not burned until prior

to “breaking” in order to destroy the vegetation as completely as

possible. The operation began the latter part of May and con¬

tinued into July. The prairie birds, such as the prairie chicken,

concentrated in the unbroken prairie to nest so that the burned

area presented a dismal array of scorched eggs and the charred

bodies of young birds. During the ’50s when it was customary

to shoot grouse as early as July there are frequent references

to the small size of the young birds. On August 10, 1854 birds

were offered for sale in Milwaukee “hardly as large, and

certainly not as heavy as good quails.”88 It is reasonable to sup¬

pose that second nestings were due largely to burning of the

prairies in April and May. Cold, wet springs were destructive

to the young but if only one or two of a brood survived the

female would not nest a second time.

Hunting and Trapping. Hunting with dog and gun began in

late July.89 The young prairie chickens, killed so easily at this

season, were considered a delicacy. Many, however, thought

that the bird was not good for the table until September, and

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 15

that it was poor sportsmanship to shoot prior to that month.00

On the approach of cool weather they were more difficult to se¬

cure as they gathered in larga packs and were wary. Some as¬

serted that even in early September it was difficult to secure

more than two or three brace in a day; and that after the first

frost they were scarcely obtainable with dog and gun.91

In late fall the prairie chickens were found on the trees early

in the morning. Bunner91 mentions that under these conditions

it was impossible to secure them except by riding under the trees,

or approaching behind oxen or horses. Then they could be killed

in great numbers.

When snow covered the ground the prairie chicken took to

the tops of trees and hedges.92 Gerhard61 has described the

hunter’s procedure: “Dressed entirely in white, with his face

also painted white, save two great spots below the eyes, which

are painted black to absorb the rays of the sun, he manages to

advance stealthily within a short distance of the prairie fowls,

sitting on the hedges [osage orange].” During a light snow

storm, Bogardus93 dropped nine birds from a fence at on© dis¬

charge.

The number of birds killed by the gun was small in compari¬

son with the many thousands taken by trapping. When snow

covered the ground, they came into the barnyards to feed with

the domestic fowls and were taken easily. The methods of trap¬

ping were numerous, but only two of the devices commonly used

will be mentioned. “Atticus”94 describes the trap used by the

farmersi near Racine in 1844. It consisted of a box open at the

bottom, the top being covered with slats. The ends were pro¬

vided with light wicker gates that swung at the top. They could

be pushed up easily from the outside but not from the inside.

Grain was scattered inside and at the entrances to induce the

birds to enter. The tip-up trap is mentioned by Duis95 as the

“fall-door trap.” A rectangular hole was dug in the ground and

covered with a board pivoted near the middle. One end of the

board rested on the ground while the other end was free. A bird

attempting to reach the bait placed on the free end slid into the

pit, the board dropping back into place.

Primitive Abundance. Owing to the migratory habit of the

prairie chicken, it is desirable to consider first the status of the

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

species in the region south of Wisconsin. Audubon,353 when he

came to Kentucky in 1807, found pinnated grouse so abundant

that no professional hunter would deign to shoot them. One

winter’s morning, a friend of his killed forty for the sake of

rifle practice. By 1834, he thought that the species was de¬

creasing at a rapid rate even in thei state of Illinois. Thomas,47

in 1816, believed the prairie hens to be more numerous in winter

along the lower Wabash than quails were in the state of New

York. Blane30 remarked that a traveller on the prairies in the

vicinity of Albion, Illinois, must be impressed by the “vast num¬

ber” of grouse. The statement of Hall,90 in 1838, is more im¬

pressive : “The number of these birds is astonishing. The plain

is covered with them in every direction; and when they have

been driven from the ground by a deep snow, I have seen thous¬

ands — or more properly tens of thousands — thickly clustered

in the tops of the trees surrounding the prairie.”

The prairie chicken was common also in regions practically

untouched by agriculture. Hubbard97 was in charge of an In¬

dian trading post near modern Hennepin, Putnam County, Illi¬

nois, in the winter of 1818-19. Prairie chickens and quails,

though “abundant,” were considered a poor diet.

There is little to support the statement of Hatch98 that, in

Illinois in 1836, a good daily bag for an expert wing shot was ten

or twelve birds, while later bags of fifty to sixty, or even one

hundred were common. In general there was no shortage of

grouse. In McClean County, in the winter of 1834-35, two boys

trapped 750 prairie chickens as they came to feed on flax seeds.953

On the morning of January 16, 1834, in La Salle County, the oak

trees were so covered with prairie chickens as to remind Hoffman

of passenger pigeons. 15b At Rockford, Illinois, in 1838, “the

prairies were filled with pinnated grouse.”723 In July, 1838, in

crossing the prairies between Princeton and Dixon, Jones793 saw

“innumerable prairie hens.”

Some evidence of the abundance of grouse in early Wisconsin

was given in the section on distribution. When Rodolf" came

to Lafayette County in 1834, prairie chickens were abundant.

Writing from Mineral Point, September 6, 1837, General Smith400

mentioned that “the grouse or moorfowl are constantly flitting

across the landscape.” General Kellog101 crossed Rock Prairie

in September, 1840. His dog accustomed to hunting ruffed

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 17

grouse was puzzled at the “immense flocks’’ of prairie chickens

that were flushed. A year later, another traveller in southeast¬

ern Wisconsin had indifferent success. A day’s travel through

the fine prairies bordering the Fox River failed to produce the

sight of a deer, prairie chicken, or prairie wolf. Between Janes¬

ville and Madison, several covies were flushed, while near Azta-

lan eight birds were secured.102 However prairie chickens were

by no means scarce that year. They were so plentiful in Janu¬

ary, 1842, in the Milwaukee market that they were considered

as only common fare.103 Live and dead birds sold respectively

at 31 i/4 and 25 cents a pair.

Skill at shooting on the wing was not possessed by many

hunters during the first years of settlement, so that it is difficult

to judge the population density from hunting data. During a

side hunt that took place at Racine in 1836, a Frenchman, one

Jambeau, is credited with having killed twenty prairie chickens

in a forenoon.104 A hunt that took place at Kenosha, in 1843,

the number of hunters participating being unknown, resulted

in the taking of “515 grouse.”105 At this time in the Racine

region, it was not considered uncommon for an individual to

shoot 20 or 30 birds in an afternoon.106 In 1844, two men from

Hazel Green, Grant County, spent a day on the prairie and shot

one hundred “prairie hens.”87b A good shot with a well trained

dog could kill 50 to 75 birds in a day in the vicinity of Chicago,107

so that the species seems to have been equally abundant in the

two localities at that time.

The number of birds that a hunter killed in a day did not

change materially for a period of ten years. Doctor Marsh108

has recorded the results of several hunts on Howard’s Prairie,

near Milwaukee. On September 12, 1845, he shot “24 grouse,”

while on October, 21, he and a companion secured but 10 due to

the birds being in large flocks and wild. On August 2, 1846, four

men killed 60 grouse stated to be two-thirds grown ; on August

14, five men killed 65 ; and on September 15, he obtained 32 birds.

In 1847, two men rode out of Milwaukee fifteen miles and re¬

turned the same day with 60 prairie chickens. Another party

of five men drove twenty miles from Milwaukee and returned

the same day with 124 birds.109

In 1848, individual daily bags on the Chicago prairies ran

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

from 50 to 80 birds, with claims of 100 to 150 for other portions

of the state.110

The potential bag for the Racine region in 1849 was 60 to

90 birds daily.111 Hoy,112 in 1852, said that two hunters with

one dog generally secured 50 to 80 birds in a day at Racine. Else¬

where he states, that prior to 1858, a sportsman could shoot 40

to 60, or more.113 Critical examination of the data given above

shows that generalizations produced larger daily bags than did

cases.

The Decline. It is impossible to make any definite statement as

to a peak of abundance. There are insufficient data to prove

that agriculture resulted in the great increases assumed by some

writers. As mentioned previously, the pinnated grouse were

widely scattered over the wild land during the breeding season

and assembled near cultivated fields in autumn. It is easier to

trace the decline, though obviously this did not occur at all uni¬

formly in point of time throughout the bird’s range.

The decline in northern Illinois began about 1850, on the

authority of Thurston. 72b He states : “The number of pinnated

grouse from 1846 to ’50, in Winnebago, Boone, and Stephenson

counties was prodigious ... I knew a company of nine, two

only being expert shots, to go out in 1846, on Bonus Prairie,

Boone County, who brought in over 300 chickens.” These birds

were shot in a distance of one and one-half miles, the men walk¬

ing 25 feet apart. The party had but one dog and many more were

assumed to have been killed and not found as the grass was knee-

high. Thurston and a companion, on one occasion, shot 52 birds

in a walk of two miles.

It is not far from correct to assume that the decline started

about 1850. In December of that year, a professional hunter

appeared in Chicago with 300 prairie chickens and 6 geese that

he spent nine days in securing.114 In 1851, judging from game

receipts in Chicago, there was “about the usual crop of

Grouse.”115 There was a noticeable drop in 1854. In the fall of

that year, prairie chickens were selling at 20 to 25 cents apiece

in the Chicago market, and were considered “scarce and high.”116

In Wisconsin, prairie chickens were comparatively scarce in

1853, due supposedly to excessive trapping during the previous

winter;117 but the most noticeable decline came about 1855. The

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 19

birds were fairly common in certain localities in 1854. In Sep¬

tember of this year, three men hunted on Eagle Prairie, near

Madison, “the farmers being widely scattered.” One flock of

150 birds was seen, and 91 secured in a day’s hunt.118 In July,

prairie chickens were reported as very plentiful about Madison.

One hunter bagged 43 birds within “a few hours,” while another

shot 143 in a hunt of two days’ duration.120 Prairie chickens

were abundant in the Milwaukee market where they sold for

10 cents apiece. On the other hand they were exceedingly scarce

about Racine.122

Prairie chickens were plentiful, in 1855, in the vicinity of

Watertown,123 and in a few other localities. Schurz44 wrote

from Watertown, on August 12, that he and a companion hunted

from early morning until nearly sunset, and that their bag con¬

tained only two prairie chickens. Had the hunt stopped at this

point, the logical conclusion would have been that the birds were

exceedingly scarce ; but, “at the edge of a wet tract, we suddenly

found ourselves in the midst of such a multitude of prairie

chickens that we could hardly take time to load. In half an hour

our hunting bags were full ...”

At Madison,124 two men shot 128 birds on August 25, while at

Oakwood Grove,125 Rock County, one man shot 20 prior to 8:00

A.M. These are unusual bags. Three boys at Mineral Point120

shot 25 birds within a few hours. This was considered excep¬

tional success in view of the scarcity of this game in the vicinity.

Prairie chickens were offered for sale in quantity at Water-

town in 1856. 127 Nearly every farmer arriving in town in

December brought with him “a dozen or more” ; but this state¬

ment shows that the decline was well under way. Several hundred

live birds were offered for sale in Madison, but this was consid¬

ered “a sight even in our streets.”

The year 1857 showed so sharp a drop that it may be con¬

sidered the low of a cycle. The scarcity was attributed to the

severity of the preceeding winters. At Jefferson, the birds were

anything but plentiful.120 They were scarce also at Janesville,130

Madison,131 Weyauwega,132 and LaCrosse.133 In January, 1858,

prairie chickens were “unusually scarce” in the Milwaukee mark¬

et.134

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Causes for the Decline. It was recognized, as early at least as

1854, that cold wet springs, or heavy rains killed the young

birds.135 The destruction of eggs and young by the elements was

considered as only a seasonal effect.49

At this time also it was believed that the severity of the win¬

ter was of little influence.49 However, when the sharp drop of

1857 arrived, it was attributed to the severity of the past two

winters, apparently for want of a better reason.130 The severe

winter of 1874-5 produced several reports of the decimation of

the prairie chickens.136 Pond137 reported that the day following

a temperature of 40° below zero, only one-half of a flock of pin¬

nated grouse returned to their poplars to feed ; however, when the

shooting season opened, the birds were considered more plentiful

than the year previous. There is little evidence that cold alone

had a pronounced effect on the population.

The habit of the prairie chicken of roosting beneath the snow

was sometimes fatal due to the formation of a crust through

which they could not break. In 1881, pinnated grouse were found

frozen in the sloughs and marshes at Rosendale, Wisconsin, after

the February storms.138 A crust that formed on the snow in the

northwestern part of the state in January, 1888, is stated to have

caused the death of great numbers of prairie chickens. They

were found during the subsequent thaw.139

The decline of the prairie chicken began before there was any

clear evidence for a cycle. The sole tenable cause for the decline

is the construction of railways that permitted the rapid transpor¬

tation of game to Chicago, and thence to the eastern markets.

There was much trapping and shooting for the local markets but

this was not of prime importance.

The Chicago market was supplied abundantly with grouse,

selling at $1.25 per dozen, in 1845. 140 A market hunter, from

April 1, 1847 to April 1, 1848, killed and sold in Illinois 2420

prairie chickens.141 Grouse, about three-fourths grown, were

plentiful in July, 1848, at 75 cents a dozen.142 During the latter

part of January, 1850, 5000 prairie chickens were forwarded by

express to New York City, and the trade was increasing rap¬

idly.143 A year later “thousands” of prairie chickens were being

shipped from the Chicago region, there being specific mention of

one shipment of 6000 birds from Michigan City, Indiana. Lake

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 21

County, Indiana, during a period of six weeks sent 20,000 prairie

chickens to Detroit.144 By 1853, the shipments of quails and

prairie chickens had reached such proportions that they were

designated by the “cord” and the ton.145

A shipment of prairie chickens from Wisconsin was received

in Washington in February, 1846, where they were sold at one

dollar per pair. The species was considered a “rara avis” in those

parts.146 Shipments were light, however, prior to construction

of the railroads. A line from Chicago reached Beloit in 1853

and Madison in 1864. Another from Chicago to Milwaukee was

completed in 1855. The Milwaukee and Mississippi River Rail¬

way, begun at Milwaukee in 1849, was extended to the Rock

River Valley in 1853 and to Madison in 1854. By 1857, 1858, and

1859, Prairie du Chien, La Crosse, and Fond du Lac, respective¬

ly were connected by rail with Milwaukee. The best regions

in the state for prairie chickens had been invaded.

The killing of game had reached such heights by 1851 that

Wisconsin passed its first game law. This included the protec¬

tion of prairie chickens from February 1 to August 1. A year

later the law was amended to read from January 1, the reason

being that in January, 1852, large numbers of prairie chickens

had been caught and shipped to New York.147 The shipments

of game birds were so immense that fears were expressed of the

possible extinction of certain species.148 On February 12, 1852,

the city of Milwaukee supported the state law by passing an or¬

dinance prohibiting the sale of “pinnated grouse (known as the

prairie hen, or prairie chicken)” between February 1 and the

first Tuesday in August.

Shipping facilities by rail and water turned hundreds of

farmers and their sons into diligent hunters and trappers. As

an example of individual activity, Joseph Clason of Beaver Dam

brought to Milwaukee on February 1, 1853, 100 dozen quails, 200

prairie hens and 100 partridges, that had been shot and snared

by his son.149 There were heavy shipments of gamebirds, in¬

cluding prairie, chickens, from Watertown during the winter of

1854-55. 150 Though extinction was feared for the prairie chicken

as a result of the trade,151 little attention seems to have been

paid to the law. The birds were marketed in Watertown152 and

many other places in the spring. Subsequently there was some

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

attempt to enforce the law for in April, 1859, two Norwegians

were fined five dollars each and costs for offering live prairie

chickens for sale in Madison.153

In the winter of 1855-56, “tuns of Quails, Patridges and

Grouse” were to be seen hanging in the yard of the Capital House

at Madison. Stores had large quantities of these birds for sale

throughout January and February.354 The comparative scarcity

of game at Janesville, in 1860, was believed due to the exporta¬

tion several years previously, of tons of prairie chickens and

quails.155 Scarcity at Madison was attributed to the fact that

“since railroads reached us, the prairie chickens have all taken

passage east.”156

Cycles. It is probable that cycles are prehistoric, but, in the

absence of statistical data, it is impossible to determine if they

existed at the beginning of settlement. There are consecutive

annual references to the abundance of prairie chickens from 1831

to 1855. The probable reason for this is that “abundance” is an

elastic term, the connotation varying with the user. Cycles

might have shown less extremes than later, or a regional short¬

age might have been obscured by immigration.

A note from Racine dated July 18, 1849, states : “The Grouse

are always abundant. In August, or the early part of September,

you can make a great bag in a day, say from sixty to ninety

. . . ”1U Nevertheless conditions varied. At Potosi, Grant

County, in 1852, grouse were reported to be more numerous than

they had been for the past six years.157 There was the scarcity

of birds in the Milwaukee market in 1853, mentioned previously.

The following year Bunner158 wrote from Janesville: “It is said

that the birds are not so plenty as they were, and are decreasing

annually. This we doubt very much. They are not to be got

at so easily, being wilder and more cunning, taking more to corn¬

fields, where they are perfectly safe, rising earlier than they used

to, flying to much greater distances, and taking better care of

themselves. You cannot shoot as many as you could once, for

these reasons.” The scarcity for 1854 was attributed to the

heavy rains that killed the young. His statement that when a

man can shoot a dozen birds in an afternoon, “it is abundance,” is

enlightening. A few years earlier this would have been consid¬

ered an indifferent bag.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 23

In 1856, another writer,159 mentioned the prairie chicken as

a bird that was “certain as well as abundant.” The following

year there was the first sharp low. That the prairie chicken

reached its peak about 1855 is shown by the following : “An ex¬

perienced hunter arrived in town (Madison) last evening with

upwards of 30 prairie chickens, all shot within ten miles of here.

Very good work for a two days’ hunt. But fifteen years ago

[1855] Andrew Bishop would go west about twelve miles, and

bring down 75 of the precious creatures in about four or five

hours’ shooting.”

The annual status of the grouse in Wisconsin from 1855 to

1897 is shown in the appendix to this paper. Examination of the

data reveals well-defined lows in the years 1857, 1867, 1878,

1887, and 1897. The length of the cycles* varies from 9 to 11

years. The agreement with Criddle’s160 data is unexpectedly

good. He found a 9 to 11 year cycle for the sharp-tailed grouse in

Manitoba, the lows falling in the years 1897, 1907, 1918, and

1927. This confirms the assumption that the cycle for the two

species of grouse is identical. The 1897 coincidence of the lows

for Manitoba and Wisconsin must for the present be considered

fortuitous. There is no reason to suppose that the lows will be

identical chronologically throughout the ranges of the prairie

chicken and sharp-tailed grouse.

There is no suggestion in the early literature that disease

caused fluctuations in the number of grouse. Writing of the

prairie chicken in Illinois, in 1889, Dr. F. H. Yorke161 called at¬

tention to the “grouse disease” that appears when the pastures

are alive with this game. That same year a sportsman at Me-

nomonie, Wisconsin, seems to have recognized the progress of a

cycle, for he wrote: “Birds [prairie chickens] are scarcer this

year than last; they were less plenty last year than the year

before, and next year they will be fewer than they are now.”162

A hunter at Plover, Wisconsin, in the autumn of 1886, called

attention to what to him was a remarkable phenomenon.16-'5

There was an unusual number of wood ticks on the necks of the

prairie chickens that he shot, as many as thirty being found on

one bird. The grouse cycle reached a low the following year,

but several decades passed before any relationship between the

tick and disease was recognized.

* Only the average annual population of the state are of value in determining cycles.

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The Future. Predictions in many cases prove futile, but the

future of the prairie chicken cannot be viewed with optimism.

During a residence of 33 years in southern Wisconsin, I have

seen this species dwindle until it has become relatively rare.

Much valuable research has been conducted during the past 15

years, but the answer to the problem is not in sight.

While agriculture may have increased the population for a

brief period, the damage resulting from the destruction of its

natural habitat by the same agency can scarcely be repaired. The

prairies of the uplands are extinct, and there are few in the low¬

lands that have not undergone profound change. The result has

been to force the species northward into localities that to the

best of our knowledge were not occupied in primitive times. The

prairie chicken reached Lake Superior due to the felling of the

forests and the opening of farms.

Many of the marshes of the Central Plain were drained in

the vain hope of obtaining a permanent agriculture. The drained

lands, including the abandoned farms, are reverting to brush.

There is little hope of recovering even this territory by judicious

burning.

A factor that cannot be overlooked is the fact that our prairie

chickens are virtually isolated. In primitive times vast flocks

moved southward in autumn and returned in spring. It was

possible in this way to obtain recruits from other regions. The

fall movement through Wisconsin into Illinois, or even into

southern Wisconsin, has long ceased. If the migrating flocks

consisted largely of females, as is supposed, there must have been

a good physiological reason. Localization of the present small

population may render the species incapable of surmounting

crises. It is clear from the early records that the lows of the

cycles were not as severe, nor the recoveries as delayed, as they

are at the present time. Whether this is due to cessation of dis¬

tant migrations or to a more obscure cause remains to be de¬

termined.

Part II. The Sharp-Tailed Grouse

The original southern range of the prairie sharp-tailed grouse

( Pediocetes phasianellus campestris ) in the Mississippi Valley

is known imperfectly. Coues2 draws the inference that it once

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 25

occupied all the suitable prairie land of Iowa, Wisconsin, and

Michigan. Tanner,164 writing from Burlington, Iowa, in 1837,

evidently had this species in mind, when in discussing the prairie

chicken he mentions that its habits differ “in some respects from

the northern bird of the same kind ...”

Formerly, it was not uncommon in Cook County, Illinois,69

but there is no authentic information that it ever occurred south

of the latitude of Chicago. Nelson,165 writing in 1876, stated

that it was then confined to the northwestern portion of the

state. The species persisted near Waukegan until 1863 or 1864,

when a covey of fourteen birds was secured. Brewer166 men¬

tions seeing a flock within thirty miles of Chicago but gives no

date. The prairie chicken probably outnumbered greatly the

sharp-tailed grouse in northern Illinois. Thomas Say, naturalist

to Long’s Second Expedition, in 1823, mentions that the birds

seen between the Des Plaines and the Fox Rivers were Tetrao

cupido .167

Range in Wisconsin. The sharp-tailed grouse was to be found

actually or potentially in all parts of the state. It has a prefer¬

ence for brushy and park-like areas, and in the prairie regions

of southern Wisconsin occurred most commonly in the oak open¬

ings. From this habitat it acquired the vernacular name “bur

oak grouse.” Usually the sharp-tailed grouse was not distin¬

guished from the prairie chicken due to similarity in appearance

and habits. There is no question, however, but that at the be¬

ginning of the nineteenth century both species occurred in the

southern portion of the state. The opinion has prevailed that

the sharp-tailed grouse was the dominant if not the sole species

up to the beginning of agricultural development, i.e., about 1840.

The belief is erroneous and is based on meager data.

It was formerly common near Racine but had become rare

by 1852. 112 Charles Rodolf168 settled at Wiota, Lafayette County,

in 1834. He mentions that “grouse, prairie chickens, pheasants

[ruffed grouse]” were plentiful. Valentine,169 on the authority

of old residents, states that it was found formerly in all the

southern Wisconsin counties. An annonymous writer mentions

that while traveling in southern Wisconsin, in the winter of

1842, he saw “many of the burr oak grouse, as they are called

by the inhabitants, sitting on trees by the road side.”170 They

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

were observed again the following summer in the region between

Milwaukee and Madison: “Their habits resembled those of the

pinnated grouse, excepting that they inhabited by choice, the

groves instead of the prairies.’’ Another writer mentions it as

abundant in 1840-45 in southern Wisconsin and northern Illi¬

nois, as far south as Chicago, “always frequenting the tim¬

ber. . . .”171

The sharp-tailed grouse, according to Kumlien and Hollister5

was the common species of grouse on the prairies of southern

Wisconsin in 1840 and at that time was extremely abundant.

Thure Kumlien, who came to Lake Koshkonong in 1843, resided

there several years before he saw the common prairie chicken.

It is probable that at this period there were comparatively rapid

changes in vegetation and hence in the resident species of grouse.

Attention has been called elsewhere to the fact that when burning

of the prairie ceased, the surface was covered quickly with a

growth of trees.172 The change that could take place is shown

significantly by the following description of an area at Oregon,

Wisconsin : “The cover here is getting to be abominable, a per¬

fect tangle of scrub-oak, chokecherry, wild crab-apple, hazel¬

brush, frost-grape and a variety of briars, with now and then a

little patch of tolerably clear poplar for relief.”173 A prairie

inhabited by the prairie chicken could be covered with brush in

a few years, and then be taken over by the sharp-tailed grouse ;

hence, species dominance is of no significance except for the limi¬

ted area and the particular time under discussion. The two

species were respectors of habitat and there is little overlapping

in breeding areas even today.

The best statement on the early status of this species was

written in, 1856 by a Milwaukee sportsman : “Of the grouse of

our prairies, two kinds exist in Wisconsin, or did until very

lately, the one known to all of our readers, the other very much

like it, but with two long tail feathers at the sides of the fan . . .

It was once quite abundant within thirty miles of the city, about

as much so as the ordinary grouse, but it does not seem to like

the presence of mankind so well, and has moved to more distant

regions . . .”174

In connection with relative abundance and distribution, there

is the following remarkable statement from New Libson, in 1859 :

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 27

“Mr. L. showed us a fine lot of grouse . . . and until informed by

him of the fact, we were ignorant of the presence of this bird

in this section. They are a heavier and much prettier bird than

the chicken.”175 It is unexpected to find the prairie chicken the

predominating species at New Libson at this time.

The early writers were in general accord in believing that

the sharp-tailed grouse was a heavier and more handsome bird

than the prairie chicken, and of superior flavor. Van Dyke176

hunted sharp-tailed grouse in the eastern portion of Buffalo

County, Wisconsin, in 1870. He mentions shooting a bird, weigh¬

ing nearly four pounds, that was in every respect a more hand¬

some and imposing bird than the prairie chicken. From a circular

area less than 200 feet in diameter, his party secured 27 fully

grown birds weighing almost 100 pounds. These weights are

far beyond the average. Smith,177 hunting near Augusta, found

that 8 birds weighed exactly 15 pounds, or slightly less than two

pounds per bird. This weight checks quite well with the findings

of Gross.178 He gives the average weights of males and females

as 1.82 and 1.58 pounds respectively.

Migration. The sharp-tailed grouse has been considered to be

more or less migratory in autumn. There were periodic move¬

ments of considerable extent in former times but little is known

about them. The only detailed study is that made by Snyder179

on the migration in Ontario in the winter of 1932-33.

It is stated that in the severe and snowy winter of 1844, this

species came farther south than usual and several fine specimens

were secured in Chicago.180 Two or three winters later, some

were also killed in the vicinity of Chicago. These birds could

have been of local origin or migrants from southern Wisconsin.

There is no evidence of a wide-spread movement.

In determining the movements in Wisconsin, it is extremely

difficult to determine to which species the statements refer. The

appearance of “prairie hens” in the vicinity of Chicago during

subzero weather in January, 1852, was, in the popular belief, an

indication of a hard winter.181 February proved to be very mild

with insufficient snow for good sleighing. The statement from

Green Bay, in November, 1854, is equally indefinite : “Coming

North. We hear of many flocks of Grouse in the vicinity recently.

Though they have been seen here, at intervals, they are never-

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

theless rare.”182 It is a mere inference that the birds came from

the south. Leopold,183 quotes Orrin Sutherland, born at Janes¬

ville, Wisconsin, in 1849, as saying that in the ’50s: “. . . great

flights of grouse (sharptails) arrived late in fall when snow

came, in flocks of 100 to 150, flying about 15 rods high. ... In

the spring they went back but not in continuous flights; they

just strung back.” The description of the fall and spring flights

is typical of the prairie chicken. Considering Sutherland’s youth¬

fulness at the time, and that both species were commonly called

“grouse,” there is doubt that the flights consisted of sharp-tailed

grouse.

The first clearly defined movement took place at the head of

Lake Superior in November, 1865. This region was safely be¬

yond the range/ of the prairie chicken at that time. Concerning

this movement it is said : “Grouse or Prairie Chicken, which for

the past two years have been occasionally seen in this locality,

are this fall to be found in great numbers around the head of the

lake. They have been shot in the heart of the town during the

past week. A gentleman who came up the north shore lately

informs us that! on every promontory or point along the coast,

they were to be seen feeding like so many domestic chickens.”181

During the following week the citizens of Superior had excellent

shooting up to 10:00 A.M. every morning. The number of birds

involved must have been great for a Mr. Curtice who had been

surveying in Minnesota reported them “as very plentiful as far

as fifty miles north of the lake.”

The extent of this migration is unknown. Snyder179 mentions

that a sharp-tailed grouse taken at Sault Ste. Marie was exhibited

at a meeting of the Canadian Institute held in Toronto on Janu¬

ary 13, 1866. He assumes that the bird was the northern form,

P. p. phasianellus , and that hypothetically there must have been

a considerable movement during the winter of 1865-66. The

actuality of the flight has been confirmed, and it is within the

realm of possibility that the Minnesota flight consisted of pha¬

sianellus rather than campestris. Against this assumption is

the fact that phasianellus has never been taken in Minnesota ;

also, since there was a congestion on the shore of Lake Superior

it seems that the movement originated in the west or northwest.

The first mention of a “prairie chicken” in the vicinity of

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsm 29

Superior was in November, 1864, when several were killed. They

were stated to have come from the open country of the St. Croix

River.185 This was followed by the large migration of sharp¬

tailed grouse in the fall of 1865. Nine years; later, September,

1874, “prairie chickens” were seen again.186 In August, 1888,

a hunter is; stated to have bagged fifteen.187 The data are too

few to determine if the nine-year intervals are of significance.

In the winter1 of 1867-68, there was a considerable flight of

sharp-tailed grouse from Wisconsin to Lake City, Waubesha

County, Minnesota. Gibbs188 says: “One snowy morning last

winter a flock of them came across Lake Pepin, and stopped

to rest in the trees, and on the houses and barns all over Lake

City. For a few minutes you could hardly look in any direction

about town without seeing them standing like statues in all direc¬

tions, their necks and heads pointed upward in a straight line,

and seeming astonished at their situation and afraid to stir a

feather. They are often seen in the trees in the villages, but

rarely in large numbers.” It is probable that this represented

only an unusually large local movement.

Decline. The sharp-tailed grouse, as a local bird, had become

rare in southeastern Wisconsin by 1852, 112 and its existence in

the region was in doubt by 1856.11*’174 For this reason it seldom

reached the eastern markets, as its decline preceded the con¬

struction of the railways. DeVoe189 says that this “fine bird”

was found sometimes among the large number of prairie chickens

shipped from Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin.

The last specimen for Rock County was obtained in 1869. 5

Thure Kumlien could still furnish specimens from Lake Kosh-

konong in 1862. 190 In 1865, it was still a common breeder in

Dane County.191 The species persisted in the county until re¬

cently. Professor J. G. Dickson has informed me that a small

flock existed for several years near his cottage at Blue Mounds.

They were seen last during the winter of 1939-40.

On July 11, 1934, I was told by Mr. William Dunwoody of

Monroe, that he had heard that sharp-tailed grouse were still

to be found in Green County, northeast of Argyle. It was to be

found in the southern portion of Iowa County until 19 00.183a

In 1883, some hunters at Reedsburg, Sauk County, had “two

or three speckled prairie chickens. We never saw any prairie

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

chickens marked just that way before. . . . ”192 Apparently

these were sharp-tailed grouse.

At Oshkosh,193 in 1851, “grouse and prairie chickens” were

very abundant. The report of King194 was completed essentially

in 1878. He mentions that the sharp-tailed grouse was resident

from Berlin northward, and that in October, 1877, it was abund¬

ant in the vicinity of Lac du Flambeau.

Hunters, in 1863, were bringing large numbers of prairie

chickens into La Crosse,195 where also “grouse, quail, partridge”

were to be found. In Pierce County, in 1856, “pheasants, grouse

and chickens” were plentiful.190

In 1870, the section of the state northwest of Sparta, Tomah,

and Necedah contained more sharp-tailed grouse than prairie

chickens197 and it is doubtful if this condition was ever reversed.

Both “prairie chickens and grouse” were plentiful near Chip¬

pewa Falls198 in 1873. In September of this year, Smith177 drove

three or four miles from Augusta, where it was stated that both

species would be found. The first afternoon he and a companion,

hunting in the scrub,” killed 18 sharp-tailed grouse and 3 prairie

chickens. The following afternoon they saw a pack of not less

than 300 birds. Both species were found in the stubble but even

here the sharp-tailed grouse was more numerous. At this time

the birds were in large packs and wild.

In the fall of 1881 both species were scarce in the Milwaukee

market.199 The two species were “very abundant” at Necedah

in March, 1883. 200 They were listed as permanent residents at

New Richmond, St. Croix County, in 1886: “ . . . the part¬

ridge or ruffed grouse, common grouse, prairie chicken . . .

may be found with us all the year round ...” Early in Feb¬

ruary of this year “prairie chickens” were flying over the town

nearly every morning.201 It is uncertain to which species the

flights refer.

The sharp-tailed grouse is not mentioned by Willard202 in his

list of birds of the Green Bay region, prepared in 1883, nor was

it observed at this time by Grundtvig203 in Outagamie County.

On the other hand, it was a common resident of Oconto County

in 1902.204

Hampton205 hunted the sharp-tailed grouse at Babcock, in

1896, and did not find them very plentiful. He heard that there

were some “pinnated grouse” in the neighborhood but he saw

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 31

none. In 1897, all the birds killed at Hancock on the opening

day were sharp-tailed grouse.206 At this time Hough207 wrote:

“Wherever the wheat country runs up into the joining line of

the hardwood and pine country there are some prairie chickens

and very often sharp-tailed grouse in Wisconsin.”208 He hunted

at Necedah in 1901 where he considered the two species about

equally divided in number, or perhaps one-third was represented

by the sharp-tailed grouse. It seemed odd to him to flush prairie

chickens in an open field and have them fly straight into the pine

timber. At Babcock, this season, he found that the sharp-tailed

grouse predominated.

The Future. The anticipated extinction of the sharp-tailed grouse

has not been realized nor is it within the realm of probability.

There is every reason to believe that under present land policies

the species will continue to be plentiful. The replacement of the

virgin coniferous forests with hardwoods, the growth of brush on

drained marshes, and the withdrawal of marginal lands from cul¬

tivation have improved its habitat in many sections of the state.

It is thoroughly capable of thriving in regions untouched by agri¬

culture. In fact, it seems to be incapable of existing without a

certain amount of wild land.

32 Wisconsin Academy of Scieyices, Arts, and Letters

“Prairie Chicken” Annals

1855

The prospects for the state as a whole were considered ex¬

cellent.1 Prairie chickens were scarce at Mineral Point,2 “quite

plenty” at Hudson,3 and plentiful at Madison4 and Watertown.5

One writer states that they were as plentiful during- the winter

of 1855-6 as they had been during any one of the past ten years.6

During this winter they were plentiful in the markets at Madi¬

son,7 Milwaukee,8 Lancaster,9 and Watertown.10

1 Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin Sept. 1. 1 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 14. s Hudson North Star

Aug. 22. 4 Madison Patriot Aug. 28. 5 Watertown Democrat Aug. 30, “Milwaukee News Aug. 17,

1856. 7 Milwaukee News June 10, 1856. 8 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 25, 1856. 9 Lancaster Herald.

In Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 10, 1856. 10 Watertown Democrat Jan. 31, 1856.

1856

Large shipments were made from Watertown1 and the birds

were reported plentiful at Prescott2 and Plover.3 Several hun¬

dred live prairie chickens were brought to Madison4 for sale.

The few references for the year indicate that they were neither

sufficiently numerous nor scarce to excite comment.

7 Watertown Democrat May 1, Nov. 13, and Dec. 25. * Prescott Transcript April 12 and Aug. 15.

’Plover Herald Sept. 11. 4 Madison Patriot Dec. 25.

1857

This year was a decisive low. They were reported scarce at

Jefferson,1 Janesville,2 La Crosse,3 and Weyauwega.4 Several

sportsmen at Watertown5 returned “with bags well filled with

snipe and prairie chicken.” A few birds were offered in the

Madison6 market while in January, 1858, they were “unusually

scarce” in the Milwaukee7 market.

1 Porter’s Spirit of the Times, N. S. 3 (Nov. 28, 1857) 202. : Janesville Gazette Aug. 10.

3 La Crosse National Democrat Oct. 13. 4 Weyauwega Weyauwegan Nov. 15. 5 Watertown Demo¬

crat Aug 13. 6 Madison Argus and Democrat Aug. 18. 7 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 4, 1858.

1858

In February, thousands of prairie chickens were reported to

be using the cornfields in the vicinity of Wheaton and Danby,

Du Page County, Illinois.1 In Wisconsin, except at Jefferson,2

they were more numerous than in 1857. They were quite plenti¬

ful at Waukesha,3 Horicon,4 Fox Lake,5 Portage,6 Madison,7 and

Prairie du Chien.8 They were not sufficiently plentiful at Prairie

du Chien, however, to prevent the local hunters from going to

Iowa.9 Milwaukee was “tolerably well supplied” with this

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 33

game.10 In December they sold at 14 to 15 cents apiece, the price

dropping later to 10 to 12 cents due to poor weather for preserv¬

ing game.

1 Chicago Tribune. In Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin Feb. 13. 2 Milwaukee Wisconsin Aug. 14. 5 Wau¬

kesha Democrat Sept. 7. 4 Horicon Argus Sept. 3. 6 Fox Lake Gazette Aug. 3 and Sept. 7.

* I’ortage Badger State Aug. 27. 7 Madison State Journal Aug. 16. 8 Prairie du Chien Courier

Sept. 2. 9 Prairie du Chien Leader Aug. 28. 10 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 3 and 31.

1859

The birds were plentiful generally throughout the state. At

Mineral Point1 they were considered unusually numerous, and

plentiful to abundant at Platteville,2 Mauston,3 Prescott,4 Hud¬

son,5 Oshkosh,6 Wautoma,7 and Burlington.8 A side hunt at

Monroe9 produced 211 birds. A party of eight men at Madison10

shot over 150 prairie chickens in two days. A hunter at Janes¬

ville11 killed 54 birds in one day, and three young men hunting

at Lake Geneva bagged 83 in one day.12

1 Mineral Point Intelligencer Aug. 4; Tribune Aug. 2. 2 Platteville Witness Aug. 4. 8 Mauston Star

Sept. 21. 4 Prescott Democrat Aug. 27; Transcript Aug. 27 and Oct. 8. 5 Hudson North Star

Aug. 17. * Oshkosh Courier Aug. 12 and IS. 7 Wautoma Argus Aug. S. 8 Burlington Gazette

Aug. 30. 9 Monroe Sentinel Aug. 1 7. 10 Madison State Journal Aug. 1 7 ; cf. Janesville Gazette

Aug. 22. 31 Janesville. Burlington Gazette Aug. 30. 32 Kenosha Telegraph Aug. 25.

1860

Prairie chickens were considered more abundant this year

than the year previous due to the mildness of the winter and the

heavy crops of grain.1 They were reported abundant at Oxford,2

Horicon,3 Baraboo,4 Burlington,5 Shullsburg,6 and Prairie du

Chien.7 Early in the season they were moderately plentiful at

Madison.8 The price of 12 to 15 cents on August 13 rose to 18

cents by September 7, when there was a general complaint of

scarcity.9

The prairies of Eau Claire County were “alive” with the

birds though they were smaller than usual.10 A party of three

men hunted at Bridge Creek killing 106 birds, the first day, and

during a part of the following day added about 50 more.11 Six

men shooting in the southern part of Dane County killed 253

birds in two days, or 21.1 birds per gun per day. These men were

experienced hunters and the reason given for the modest bag

was that the covies were small, containing at the most only seven

or eight birds.12 They were plentiful in the Milwaukee market

and sold at 15 to 18 cents.13

1 Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin July 30; Madison State Journal Aug. 14. 2 Oxford Express Aug. 17

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

and 31. 3 Horicon Argus Sept. 21. * Baraboo Republic Aug. 15. ^Burlington Gazette Aug. 14.

6 Shullsburg Local Aug. 10. 7 Prairie du Chien Courier. In Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 4. 8 Madison

State Journal Aug. 14; Patriot Aug. 13, 14, 24, 29 and Sept 7. 9 Madison Argus and Democrat

Sept. 8 and Oct. 12. 10 Eau Claire Free Press July 19. u Ibid. Aug. 31. 12 Madison Patriot

Aug. 15. 13 Milwaukee Wisconsin Aug. 4 and 14.

1861

Prairie chickens continued to be plentiful. One writer stated

that the shooting at Prairie du Chien was the best in his re¬

membrance.1 They were abundant at Hudson,2 La Crosse,8

Galesville,4 Mauston,5 Markesan,6 Oshkosh,7 Fond du Lac,8 and

Watertown.0 Oconomowoc10 hunters had “unbounded success”

near Waupun, but that of Madison11 hunters was only moderate.

It is of special interest that the shooting was good this season

along Lake Michigan. Good bags were made at Waukesha12 and

Kenosha.13 At Racine,14 two hunters shot 88 birds within a pe¬

riod of eight hours.

Milwaukee was supplied abundantly with birds at $2.00 a

dozen.15

1 Prairie du Chien Courier. In Milwaukee Wisconsin Sept. 11. 1 Hudson. In Platteville Witness

Sept. 12. 3 La Crosse (t-w) Democrat Aug. 14 and Oct. 11. * Galesville Transcript Aug. 23.

5 Mauston Star Aug. 14. * Markesan Journal Sept. 7. 7 Oshkosh Courier Aug. 16. 8 Fond du Lac

Reporter Aug. 10. 9 Watertown Democrat Aug. 1. 10 Oconomowoc Free Press Oct. 4. u Madison

Patriot Aug. 17; Argus and Democrat Aug. 17. “Waukesha Democrat Aug. 20. 13 Kenosha

Telegraph Aug. 15. 11 Racine Advocate Aug. 21. 15 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 20; Wisconsin Aug. 16

and 28.

1862

The Civil War eclipsed interest in hunting. The few reports

available show that prairie chickens were plentiful. “Snap

Shot,”1 writing from Oregon, mentions that pinnated grouse

“swarm” on the stubble-fields and dry marshes. They were nu¬

merous at Sparta2 and Berlin.3 At Kenosha,4 three men shot 82

birds in a day’s hunt.

1 “Snap Shot.” Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times, N. S. 7 (Sept. 27, 1862) 55. 2 Sparta Herald Aug. 20.

3 Berlin Courant Aug. 28. * Kenosha Times Aug. 21.

1863

Prairie chickens were said to have never been “so abundant”

in the Chicago market as during this season.1 In Iowa, their

numbers exceeded any known previously.2 In January, 1864, a

dealer at Fort Atkinson, Iowa, made one shipment of 360 dozen

to New York.3 The Dubuque market became so glutted with

birds that they could not be sold at a sufficient price to pay the

Schorger — Prairie Chicken arid Grouse in Wisconsin 35

freight.4 Conditions in Wisconsin were also favorable. The birds

were abundant at La Crosse,5 Galesville,6 Baraboo,7 Appleton,8

Ripon,9 Beaver Dam,10 and Watertown.11 At Beloit12 two men

shot 51 birds in four hours.

1 Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times, N. S. 8 (Aug. 29, 1863) 410. 2 Milwaukee Wisconsin. Aug. 7 and

Dec. 29. 8 Ibid. Jan. 22, 1864. 4 Ibid. Jan. 30. 5 La Crosse Democrat Aug. 11, Sept. 11, Oct. 10.

6 Galesville Transcript Aug. 21. T Baraboo Republic Aug. 19. 8 Appleton Crescent Sept. S.

9 Ripon Record Aug. 13. 10 Beaver Dam Argus Sept. 9. u Watertown Democrat Aug. 27. 11 Beloit

Journal and Courier Aug. 27.

1864

Prairie chickens were abundant due, it was believed, to the

dryness of the season and so many hunters being in the army.1

Nevertheless, owing to the drought, they were difficult to secure

in the swamps and marshes, to which they retired.2 They were

plentiful at Osceola,3 La Crosse,4 Ripon,5 and Fox Lake.6 At

Madison7 they were exceptionally numerous. A full brood in

Dane County ran from 15 to 20 birds.8 South of La Crosse,9 in

December, the “innumerable” prairie chickens were a pest to

the farmers owing to their visits to the barnyards and wheat

stacks.

They were not plentiful at Beaver Dam,10 and Paulson,11

who hunted at Whitewater in August, found them scarce. A

party of five men secured a modest bag of 60 birds in a day’s

hunt at Burlington.12

1 Milwaukee Wisconsin Sept. 6. * Milwaukee News Aug. 23. 3 Osceola Press. In Milwaukee

Wisconsin Aug. 5. 4 La Crosse Democrat Oct. 10. 5Ripon Commonwealth July 29. Fox Lake

Gazette Aug. 17. 7 Madison State Journal Aug. 6; Patriot July 26 and Aug. 29. 8 Wilkes' Spirit

of the Times 11 (Sept. 17, 1864) 3S. 9 Eau Claire Free Press Dec. IS. 10 Beaver Dam Argus

Aug. 17. “ Paulson, Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times 12 (July 29, 186S) 339. 13 Burlington Standard

Aug. 16.

1865

The birds continued abundant in many localities. In April

the marshes at Portage1 were alive with them. “Snap Shot,”2

writing from Madison in May, predicted the best shooting in

years. A side hunt at Eau Claire 3 resulted in 786 birds for one

team of 25 men, and 452 for the other team of 20 men. This is a

total of 1238 birds, and an average of 27.5 per gun. They were

reported abundant at Osceola,4 Hudson,5 Ripon,6 Green Lake,7

Waupun8 and Watertown;9 and plentiful at Mineral Point,10

Monroe,11 and Madison.12 One hunter, who with two compan¬

ions killed 60 birds in a forenoon at Brooklyn, stated that he

never saw them more numerous in the west.13 Green Bay14 had

the best shooting in years.

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, arid Letters

The year 1864 appears to have been a peak year in Iowa as

noted above. In 1865, 38 men participating in a side hunt in

Delaware County, Iowa, killed 857 birds during the day. They

were scarce in comparison with the year previous.15

Portage Register April 1. 2 “Snap Shot.” Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times 12 (May 27, 1865) 194.

3 Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 17. 4 Osceola Press Aug. 19. 5 Hudson Star. In Madison State

Journal Sept. 5. 0 Ripon Commonwealth Aug. 25. 7 Green Lake Spectator. In Madison Capitol

Aug. 24. 8 Waupun Times. In Madison State Journal Aug. 19. 9 Watertown Democrat Aug. 17.

10 Mineral Point Tribune July 26. u Monroe Sentinel Aug. 23. 12 Madison State Journal Aug. 15,

MJ. P. S. Turf, Field and Farm 1 (Sept. 30, 1865) 138. 14 Green Bay Advocate Sept. 7.

15 Turf, Field and Farm 1 (Sept. 9, 1865) 92.

1866

The reports were few and somewhat conflicting. Prairie

chickens were stated to be plentiful at Alma,1 Osceola,2 Pres¬

cott,3 Hudson,4 Neenah,5 Ripon,6 and Madison.7 W. S. Grubb,8

of Madison, shot 52 birds in one day near Sauk City. Two men

hunted near Middleton Junction, Dane County, and killed 65

“grouse” in two days.9 A party of six men is credited with shoot¬

ing 300 birds in one day at Black River Falls, but later they were

stated to be less numerous in the same locality than for some

years.10 A report from Fond du Lac11 reads: “Prairie chickens

are not as plenty this season as they were a year ago, owing no

doubt to the wet weather in the earlier part of the summer.” The

Milwaukee market received large quantities of birds during the

middle of August.12

1 Alma Journal. In Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 17. 2 Osceola Press Sept. 22. 3 Prescott Journal

Aug. 18. 4 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 21. “Neenah Island City Times Aug. 21. 6 Ripon Com~

monwealth Aug. 17. 7 Madison Union Aug. 15. * Madison Statte Journal Aug. 15. 9S. S. G.

Wilkes' Spirit of the Times 15 (Oct. 6, 1866) 82. 10 Black River Falls Banner. In Madison State

Journal Sept. 19 and Oct. 4. 11 Fond du Lac Commonwealth Aug. 19. 12 Milwaukee Wisconsin

Aug. 15.

1867

The year 1867 is the second to show a pronounced scarcity.

In May prairie chickens were reported unusually numerous at

Beaver Dam,1 and in August at Stevens Point.2 Elsewhere the

comments stressed scarcity. At Hudson3 they were “unusually

scarce.” The question was raised at Prescott4 if there were “any

in the country.” The lack of birds was noted at Berlin,5 Fond du

Lac,6 Burlington,7 Whitewater,8 and Madison.9 Two exceptional

daily bags were reported at Madison. One hunter shot 90 and

two hunters 75 birds.

The experience of a Racine hunter shows clearly the reduc¬

tion in numbers. He hunted at Union Grove and saw but two

Schorger — PraiHe Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 37

birds before breakfast. He then hunted until noon with two com¬

panions, flushing but one flock, thirteen in number, of which

twelve were killed. The afternoon was spent at Tar Corners,

Kenosha County, where no birds were found.10

The phenomenon of scarcity did not escape explanations.

Conservative opinion leaned to the old belief in the decimating

effect of a cold, wet spring.11 The weather was not sufficiently

lethal for others who advanced the theory that the birds had

died from eating potato bugs.12 Disease usually does not work

with simultaneous severity over an area the size of a common¬

wealth, but it is interesting to note that prairie chickens, this

season, were reported scarcer in Iowa than for years.13 In June

of this year, J. A. Allen14 made observations on the birds of Ogle

County, Illinois, that is on the Wisconsin boundary. His com¬

ment on the prairie chicken, “more or less abundant on the prai¬

rie,” is not highly informative.

1 Beaver Dam Citizen May 2. 2 Stevens Point Lumberman Aug. 23. * Hudson Star and Times

Aug. 21 and Sept. 4. 4 Prescott Journal Sept. 7. 6 Berlin Courant Sept. 19. 6 Fond du Lac

Reporter Aug. 24. 7 Burlington Standard Sept. 4. 8 Whitewater Register. In Madison State Journal

Aug. 24. 9 Madison Union Aug. 19, 21. 22, and 24; State Journal Aug. 23. 10 Racine Advocate

Aug. 24. 11 Waukesha Plain Dealer Sept. 3; Prescott Journal Sept. 7. 12 Ref. 62. B3 “Field.”

Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times 17 (Nov. 30, 1867) 273. 14 J. A. Allen, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1

(1868) 506.

1868

The recovery this year is difficult to explain on the theory

that the sharp drop in 1867 was due to disease. The birds were

reported as unusually plentiful at Green Bay1 where they ap¬

peared to be increasing yearly. They were plentiful at Eau

Claire2 and “vast numbers” were killed at Black River Falls.3 It

was estimated that the hunters at Oshkosh4 secured about 500

birds on the opening day. One party of six men shot 126 birds.5

The best bag at Fond du Lac6 was 63 birds secured by a party of

four men. Watertown7 and Shawano8 reported them plentiful,

and Brandon9 and Madison,10 fairly plentiful. The price of 30

cents a bird at Madison is indicative of scarcity. Three men from

Waukesha,11 hunting in Walworth County, shot 50 birds the first

morning of the season. They were scarce at Prescott12 and Hud¬

son,13 in the northwestern part of the state.

’Green Bay Advocate Aug. 27. 2 Eau Claire Free Press Sept. 24. 3 Black River Falls Banner

Aug. 29. 4 Oshkosh Times Aug. 25. 6 Oshkosh Journal Aug. 22. 6 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 29;

Commonwealth Aug. 26. ’Watertown Democrat Aug. 20 and 27. 8 Shawano Journal Aug. 27.

9 Brandon Times Aug. 15. 10 Madison State Journal Aug. 21 and 22. 11 Waukesha Plain Dealer

Aug. 25. 12 Prescott Journal Aug. 7. 13 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 19.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

1869

There was a decrease over the previous year. The only en¬

thusiastic report came from Eau Claire.1 In general, prairie

chickens were considered scarce throughout the state.2 Com¬

plaints of poor shooting issued from Hudson,3 La Crosse,4 Black

River Falls,5 Mauston,6 Shawano,7 Appleton,8 Oshkosh,9 Wau-

pun,10 Watertown,11 and Berlin.12 Data on bags give a good idea

of the shooting. A hunting and fishing party of four men drove

to the Sand Creek country, 25 miles from Chippewa Falls. The

first flock of prairie chickens was encountered after travelling

fifteen miles. In a period of two and one-half days, only 15 birds

were killed.13 The best bag obtained on the opening day at Fond

du Lac,14 secured by the united efforts of three men and two

dogs, was seven birds. The largest subsequent daily bag, sixteen,

was secured by a market hunter.

’Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 26. 3 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 31. 3 Hudson Star and Times Sept. 1.

4 La Crosse Leader Aug. 17. 5 Black River Falls Banner Sept. 4. 6 Mauston Star Aug. 26.

7 Shawano Journal Sept. 23. "Appleton Crescent Sept. 4. 8 Oshkosh Journal Aug. 28. 10 Waupun

Leader Aug. 26. 11 Watertown Republican Aug. 25. 13 Berlin Courant Sept. 2. 13 Chippewa Falls

Union and Times Aug. 28. 14 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 28.

1870

In general there was a distinct improvement over 1869. The

shooting was good at Kenosha1 on the opening day, but the birds

soon became scarce. Jefferson,2 Mineral Point,3 and Portage4

reported them more plentiful than for several years past. They

were plentiful at Columbus,5 while the shooting at Fond du Lac6

was better on the opening day than the year previous. The shoot¬

ing was “fair” at Kilbourn,7 Waupun,8 and Janesville.9 At Osh¬

kosh,10 a party of six hunted at Rosendale on the opening day

and secured 60 birds. “Six to ten birds in an afternoon’s tramp

is about the average in this immediate vicinity.”

They were scarce at Appleton.11 The shooting in Dane Coun¬

ty was relatively poor though 100 birds were reported to have

been shot in the town of Albion prior to the opening of the sea¬

son.12 An experienced hunter secured but 30 birds in two days.13

Prairie chickens were quite plentiful in the northwestern

portion of the state. At La Crosse14 one man shot 50 birds in

less than half a day, while another is credited with killing 250

during the season. They were plentiful at Eau Claire15 and

Hudson.16 They were reported plentiful also in Chippewa Coun¬

ty.17 The data available are conflicting. Four men hunted for a

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 39

day at Hay Creek and secured only 30 birds; but one man is

stated to have killed 13 in four hours.18

They were scarce in the Milwaukee market where the price

ranged from $3.25 to $3.50 per dozen the first of September. On

November 14, the price was $4.00.19

I Kenosha Telegraph Aug. 25, Sept. 1 and 15. 2 Jefferson Banner Aug. 24. 3 Mineral Point

Tribune Aug. 11. 4 Portage Register Aug. 27. 3 Columbus. In Madison State Journal Aug. 22.

“Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 27. 7 Kiiboum Mirror Aug. 25. 8 Waupun Leader Aug. 25 and

Sept. 8. 8 Janesville Gazette Aug. 19. 10 Oshkosh Journal Aug. 27. 11 Appleton Crescent Aug. 13

and Sept. 3. 13 Madison State Journal Aug. 2. 18 Madison Democrat Oct. 6. 11 La Crosse Leader

Aug. 27, Oct. 8 and Dec. 10. 15 Eau Claire Free Press Oct. 20. 18 Hudson Star and Times

Aug. 26. 17 Chippewa Co. In Madison State Journal Aug. 19, (1). 18 Chippewa Falls Herald

Aug. 20 and 27. 18 Milwaukee Sentinel Nov. 14.

1871

There were fewer birds than last year. Reports of scarcity

came from Racine,1 Kenosha,2 Burlington,3 Columbus,4 Por¬

tage,6 Waupun,6 Watertown,7 Fox Lake,8 Appleton,9 Weyau-

wega,10 and Sparta.11 The best day’s bag at Fond du Lac12 was

12 birds to two hunters. At Neillsville,13 the shooting of 40 birds

by two men was “flattering success.”

A party of Milwaukee hunters shot about 100 birds at New

Lisbon.14 They were quite plentiful at Elkhorn,15 Janesville,16

Madison,17 Oshkosh,18 Mauston,19 Osceola,20 and Hudson.21 A

few localities, Brandon,22 Menomonie,23 and Black River Falls,24

reported them more plentiful than usual. They appear to have

been abundant in Chippewa County where “thousands” were

said to have been killed.25 A party of eight Milwaukee hunters

secured 267 birds fourteen miles north of Chippewa Falls.26

7 Racine Advocate Aug. 26. 1 Kenosha Telegraph, Aug. 24. 3 Burlington Standard Aug. 31.

4 Columbus Democrat Aug. 25. 5 Portage Register Aug. 26. 8 Waupun Leader Aug. 25. 7 Water-

town Republican Aug. 23. 8 Fox Lake Representative Aug. 25. 9 Appleton Crescent Sept. 2.

30 Weyauwega Times Aug. 26. llSnarta Herald Aug. 8. 13 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 26.

18 Neillsville Republican Sept. 20. 14 New Lisbon Argus Aug. 31. 15 Elkhorn Independent Sept 13.

II Janesville Gazette Aug. 21. 17 Madison Democrat Aug. 17. 18 Oshkosh Journal Aug. 26.

19 Mauston Star July 20. 20 Osceola Press Aug. IS. 21 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 4, 11 and 25.

22 Brandon Times June 21. 23 Menomonie News Sept. 23 . 24 Black River Falls Banner July 22

and Nov. 4. 26 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 2 and 9. 28 Milwaukee News Sept. 1.

1872

There was some improvement this year. Prairie chickens

were scarce at Janesville,1 Watertown,2 Brandon,3 Fond du lac,4

Waupaca,5 Mineral Point,6 and New Lisbon.7 They were fairly

numerous to plentiful at Waukesha,8 Burlington,9 Lodi,10 Co¬

lumbus,11 Friendship,12 Mauston,13 Black River Falls,14 Augus-

40

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

ta,15 Menomonie,16 and Oshkosh.17 A party of Oshkosh hunters

shot 98 birds on the opening day.

Prairie chickens were exceptionally plentiful in St. Croix

County in April, but after a hail storm in August, very few were

to be found.18 They were unusually plentiful at Hudson,19 and

sufficiently numerous in some parts of Eau Claire County to be

considered a pest to the farmers.20 Eau Claire sportsmen, dur¬

ing the first part of the season, secured about 300 birds daily.

‘Janesville Gazette Aug. 19 and 29. 2 Watertown Republican July 31. 3 Brandon Times Aug. 16.

4 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 24. 5 Waupaca. In Milwaukee J. Commerce Sept. 4. 9 Mineral

Point Tribune Aug. S. 7 New Lisbon Argus Aug. 29. 8 Waukesha Democrat Aug. 13. 8 Burlington

Standard Aug. 29. 10 Lodi Journal Sept. 4. 11 Columbus Republican Aug. 24. 12 Friendship Press

Oct. 26. 13 Mauston Star Aug. 22. 14 Black River Falls Banner Aug. 10. 15 Augusta Herald

Aug. 31. 16 Menomonie News Aug. 3. 17 Oshkosh Journal Aug. 24. 18 Hudson Republican. In

Madison State Journal April 27, Aug. 15. 18 Hudson Star and Times July 26. 20 Eau Claire

Free Press Aug. 1 and 22.

1873

The increase in the number of prairie chickens this season

was pronounced in spite of a complaint of scarcity throughout

the state.1 The southeastern section, as usual, had poor shooting.

The birds were reported scarce at Watertown,2 Waterloo,3 Wau-

pun,4 Fond du Lac,5 Brandon,6 Appleton,7 Neillsville,8 and Black

River Falls.9 Two men killed 28 birds in about one half of a day

at Elkhorn, where they had been scarce for a dozen years.10 A

Beloit11 hunter is stated to have killed 19 on the opening day,

August 20, and by the 23rd to have made a total bag of 78 birds

for the season. This smacks of pre-season practise. There was a

decided increase in Dane County.12 One party of four men killed

105 in fourteen hours, and another party of two shot 75 birds.13

The winter of 1872-3 was quite severe. The farmers in St.

Croix County reported that it had been extremely hard on the

prairie chickens, some being too weak to run or fly. Hunger had

driven them closer to their dwellings than usual and numbers

had been fed in the barnyards ; however, many had died of star¬

vation, so that it was probable that the “crop” would be a fail¬

ure. This fear does not seem to have been realized since at

Kinnickinnic, in August, prairie chickens were “thicker than

politicians.”14 The scarcity at Brandon6 was attributed not only

to the severity of the winter, but to the killing of the young by

the cold, wet spring. Other localities in the state reported that

the birds were plentiful in spite of the winter.

They were exceptionally numerous, or abundant, at Osh-

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 41

kosh,15 Fox Lake,16 Beaver Dam,17 Menasha,18 Dodgeville,19

Chippewa Falls,20 Durand,21 Ellsworth, 22 and La Crosse.23

In July, thousands of young prairie chickens were reported

in the vicinity of Osseo,24 Trempealeau County. In August, a

hunting party from Eau Claire killed 246 young birds in two

days near Osseo.25 T. S. and a companion shot 75 birds in two

days in Trempealeau County. He was of the opinion that they

were becoming wilder and less plentiful every year.26

A party of six hunters from Eau Claire drove to the head¬

waters of Pine Creek, Barron County, and camped in Town 33,

Range 12. Over 150 birds were shot in one day. The total num¬

ber of “chickens” and “grouse” secured was 364. It was esti¬

mated that 100 birds were not found owing to the thick brush

on some of the ground.27

The middle of August, prairie chickens sold at $2.25 per

dozen at Prairie du Chien.28 The Milwaukee market was sup¬

plied abundantly. Owing to the unfavorable weather, they were

“nearly unsaleable,” and large quantities were thrown away.29

' Milwaukee News Sept. 23. 2 Watertown Republican Aug. 20. 3 Waterloo Journal Aug. 23.

4 Waupun Leader Aug. 22 and 29. 6 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 9 and 23. 6 Brandon Times

Aug. IS. 7 Appleton Crescent Aug. 30. 8 Neillsville Press Aug. 15. “Black River Falls Banner

Aug. 30. 10 Elkhorn. In Burlington Standard Sept. 4. 11 Beloit Free Press Aug. 23. 12 Madison

Democrat Aug. 29, Sept. 1, 6, and Oct. 10. 13 Madison State Journal Aug. 22 and 28. 14 Hudson

Star and Times April 11 and Aug. 29. 18 Oshkosh Times Aug. 13. ]5Madison State Journal

Aug. 6. 17 Beaver Dam Argus Aug. 14. 18 Menasha Press Aug. 11. 19 Dodgeville Chronicle Aug. 22.

20 Chippewa Falls Herald Aug. 15, Sept. 6. 21 Durand Times July 18. 22 Ellsworth Herald Aug. 6,

Sept. 3. 23 La Crosse Democrat. In Milwaukee News Oct. 11. 24 Eau Claire Free Press July 17.

23 Eau Claire Herald Aug. 23. 28 T. S. Forest and Stream, 1, No. 6 (Sept. 18, 1873) S3. 27 Eau

Claire Herald Sept. 4. 28 Prairie du Chien Courier Aug. 19. 29 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 23, 25.

1874

Prairie chickens increased again. In February, they were

“extremely plentiful” on the bluffs near Eau Claire.1 In the

autumn, though Racine2 had but few birds, there were unusual

numbers in the southeastern portion of the state. This was true

at Sharon,3 Janesville,4 Watertown,5 Green County,6 Waupun,7

and Fox Lake.8 A hunter at Elkhorn9 killed 21 birds before

breakfast. The shooting was poor at Madison10 and Beaver

Dam.11 There was exceptionally good sport at Omro,12 Mon-

tello,13 and Stevens Point.14 At Oshkosh15 some hunters killed

20 birds a day. Six Waupaca16 hunters spent a week end in

Portage County and, in spite of two days of rain, shot 80 prairie

chickens.

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

There was good hunting at Kilbourn17 and vicinity. Two men

secured 55 birds in a day’s hunt in the town of Excelsior, Sauk

County,18 while H. M. Butterfield shot about 200 birds from

August 15 to September 9 in the town of Fairfield.19

In the northwestern portion of the state Sparta,20 River

Falls,21 and Ellsworth-'2 reported poor shooting, but it was good

at Black River Falls.23 Chippewa County claimed to have the

best hunting in the west.24 One party of two men from Green

Bay shot 150 birds near Alma Center, Jackson County, while

another party of two obtained 240 at Pleasant Valley, Trem¬

pealeau County.25 At Durand,26 two men shot over 50 birds in a

day’s hunt.

In September, prairie chickens sold at $2.25 to $2.50 a dozen

in Milwaukee.27

1 Eau Claire Free Press Feb. 12. 2 Racine Journal Aug. 19. 3 Sharon Inquirer Sept. 10. 4 Janes¬

ville Gazette Aug. 26. s Watertown Democrat Aug. 27. 6 Madison Democrat Aug. 22. T Waupun

Leader Aug. 28. 8 Fox Lake Representative Aug. 21. * Elkhom Independent. In Madison State

Journal Sept. 4. 10 Madison State Journal Aug. 18, 21. 11 Beaver Dam Citizen Aug. 27. 12 Omro

Journal Aug. 20. 13 Montello Express Aug. 22. 14 Stevens Point Journal Aug. 29. 15 Oshkosh Times

Sept. 2. 18 Waupaca Republican Aug. 27. 17 Kilbourn Mirror Sept. 4. 18 Reedsburg Free Press

Aug. 20. 19 Baraboo Republic Sept. 9. 20 Sparta Herald Aug. S. 21 River Falls Press Aug. 20, 27,

Oct. 8. 23 Ellsworth Herald Sept. 2. 23 Black River Falls Banner Aug. IS. 24 Chippewa Falk

Herald Aug. 14, 21. 25 Green Bay Advocate Aug. 27, Sept. 3. 20 Durand Times Aug. 21. 27 Mil¬

waukee Sentinel Sept. 9.

1875

The population continued at a good level. The spring reports

on the status of the prairie chicken were very favorable though

the winter of 1874-5 was severe;1 however, in two localities a

considerable decrease was attributed to the weather.2 When the

season opened, the reports, though mixed, were largely favor¬

able.

0

In the southeastern section, the shooting was good at Muk-

wanago, Waukesha County,3 Janesville,4 and Burlington.5 Near

Delavan6 one man shot 35, and two men 20 birds, on August 16.

Several hundred were reported shot near Lake Geneva7 during

the first week of the open season. The shooting was very good

in Dane County. Four men from Madison returned with 153

prairie chickens from York Prairie, town of York, where they

hunted three days, presumably. Three men hunting on Swan-

ton’s Marsh, town of Cottage Grove, shot 29 birds in about an

hour.8 The other large bags reported were made probably in

Iowa.9 There were few birds at Stoughton,10 and so few near

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 43

Kenosha11 that the end of the species in Kenosha and Racine

Counties seemed to be in sight.

They were plentiful to abundant at Berlin,12 Oshkosh,13 Men-

asha,14 and Wausau.15 Pond,16 who resided at Montello, re¬

ported “grouse” more plentiful than the year previous. Two men

shot 36 birds in a day. They were abundant at Stevens Point17

where three men killed 65 on August 15. The following day two

men bagged 85. They were plentiful also at Wautoma18 where a

party is stated to have killed about 400 in a period of ten days.

The reports from Waupun19 varied. The birds were scarce at

Manitowoc,20 Brandon,21 Ripon, 22 and Fond du Lac.23

In most of the western portion of the state prairie chickens

were not plentiful. They were scarce at New Lisbon,24 Viro-

qua,25 and Black River Falls.26 Prairie chickens were reported

plentiful at Prairie du Chien,27 Rice Lake,28 and Sparta,29

where three men shot “about forty-five” in a few hours. In St.

Croix County they were scarce,30 though two men shot 89 birds

in a day’s hunt.31 Three men hunting in Buffalo County secured

over 100 birds.32 The shooting in Pierce County was reported

poor to good.33

1 Milwaukee Sentinel May 13, (1); New Richmond Republican April 14; Boscobel Dial March 19;

Waupun Times May 11. 1 Fred (Pond), Rod and Gun 6 (April 3, 1875) 10; Waukesha Democrat

March 13. 3 Waukesha Freeman Sept. 2; Democrat Sept. 11. 4 Janesville Gazette Aug. 18, 24.

8 Burlington Standard Aug. 19. 0 Delavan Republican Aug. 19. ’Lake Geneva Herald Aug. 21.

8 Madison State Journal Aug. 18, 24, Sept. 11. ‘Madison Democrat Aug. 17, 21, 29, Sept. 1.

10 Stoughton. In Milwaukee Com. Times Aug. 13. 01 Kenosha Union Aug. 12, 26. w Berlin Cour-

ani Aug. 28. 13 Oshkosh Times July 31, Aug. 21; Northwestern Aug. 26. 14 Menasha Press Aug. 26,

Sept. 2. 18 Wausau Pilot, Aug. 21. 16 Fred (Pond), Rod and Gun 6 (Aug. 28, 1875) 323; Montello

Express July 17. 17 Stevens Point Journal July 31, Aug. 21. 18 Wautoma Argus Aug. 11, 25.

19 Waupun Leader Aug. 27; Times May 11, Aug. 31. 20 Manitowoc Pilot Sept. 2. 21 Brandon Times

Aug. 19, Sept. 2. 22 Ripon Free Press Aug. 19. 23 Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 21; Journal Sept. 16.

24 New Lisbon Argus Aug. 26. 23Viroqua Censor Aug. 11. 26 Black River Falls Banner Aug. 7.

27 Prairie du Chien Union Aug. 20. 28 Rice Lake Chronotype Aug. 7. 29 Sparta Herald Aug. 17.

30 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 13; New Richmond Republican Aug. 4, 18; Hammond Independent

Aug. 20. 31 Hudson Republican Aug. 25. 32 Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 26. 33 River Falls Ad¬

vance Aug. 24; Press Aug. 19.

1876

The population declined this year. Prairie chickens were un¬

usually plentiful in St. Croix County1 in April. In the autumn

the shooting was poor at Waukesha,2 Palmyra,3 Monroe,4 Water¬

loo,5 Waupun,6 Brandon,7 Oshkosh,8 Omro,9 Winneconne,10 Ber¬

lin,11 Wautoma,12 and New London.13 The largest daily bag at

Delavan14 was 12 birds for two men. One hunter secured 90 be¬

tween August 15 and September 22. They were scarce at Kil-

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

bourn15 though a party of three men shot 52 on Grand Marsh.

Modest bags were made at Madison16 at the beginning of the

season but shortly afterwards there were many complaints of

scarcity.17 Grand Rapids17a had fewer birds than the year pre¬

vious.

They were “quite plentiful” at Prairie du Chien.18 Sparta19

reported them more numerous than in 1875, but not nearly as

plentiful as in former years. Three men shot 70 birds on the

opening day; however, two “boss hunters” returned with only

two birds.20 At New Lisbon,21 three men shot 75 in one day.

They were scarcer at New Richmond,22 than “was ever known

before.” Though reported scarce at Trempealeau,23 a party of

Milwaukee hunters obtained 300 birds at Osseo, Trempealeau

County.24 The annual hunt by Eau Claire25 sportsmen yielded

“about two hundred chickens”; and five men are credited with

killing 193 at Mondovi, Buffalo County.26 In the absence of data

on the number of hunters and the time spent in the field, it is

impossible to draw any conclusions from the numbers killed.

The birds were “quite plenty” at Chippewa Falls.27

1 New Richmond Republican April 19; Hudson Star and Times April 21. 2 Waukesha Democrat

Aug. 26. 3 Palmyra Enterprise Aug. 23. 4 Monroe Reformer Aug. 24. B Waterloo Journal Aug. 24.

a Waupun Times Aug. 29. 7 Brandon Times Aug. 17. 8 Oshkosh Times Aug. 19; Northwestern

Aug. 24. 9 Omro Journal Aug. 31. 10 Milwaukee Sentinel Sept. 5. 31 Berlin Courant Aug. 26.

12 Wautoma Argus Aug. 24. 13 New London Times Aug. 26, Sept. 2. 14 Delavan Republican

Aug. 25, Sept. 22. 15 Kilbourn Mirror Aug. 25, Sept 8. 118 Madison Democrat Aug. 17; State Journal

Aug. 14, 15, 16. 17 Madison Patriot Aug. 19, 23, Sept. 7; State Journal Aug. 24, 26. 1Ta Grand

Rapids Reporter Aug. 31. 18 Prairie du Chien Union Aug. 29; cf. Aug. 22. 19 Sparta Herald

Aug. 15. 29 Sparta Greenback Aug 17. 21 New Lisbon Argus Aug. 24. 22 New Richmond Repub¬

lican Aug. 23. 23 Trempealeau Republican Aug. 25. 24 Eau Claire (w) Free Press Aug. 31.

23 / bid. Aug. 24. 28 Ibid. Aug. 24. 27 Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 23; cf. Aug. 16.

1877

The decline continued. Scarcity was reported from Ken¬

osha,1 Delavan,2 Clinton,3 Darlington,4 Oconomowoc,5 Water-

town,6 West Bend,7 Randolph,8 Baraboo,9 Weyauwega,10 and

Oshkosh.11 At the latter place, the average daily bag of 33 hunt¬

ers was 7.6 birds.1 la All the reports from the county of Fond du

Lac stressed scarcity.12 The birds were scarce at Burlington13

where the three highest bags obtained on the opening day aver¬

aged 11 birds per man. One hunter at Dodgeville14 shot 17 the

first day. An exceptionally large number of prairie chickens was

observed at Madison,15 in March, in the vicinity of Nine Springs

and Dead Lake (Wingra). In the fall, the shooting was good.16

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 45

The hunting was good also at Kilbourn.17 Two men hunting in

Waushara County are stated to have killed 80 in one day.18 A

party hunting at Grand Rapids shot 65 one day, mainly between

3:00 and 5:00 P.M. The marsh is described.19

They were reported “quite plenty” at Prairie du Chien,20

and more numerous than for several years at Viroqua.21 Ar¬

cadia22 considered them abundant. The average of eleven bags

reported at Sparta22a on the opening day was 5.9 birds per man.

At Tomah,23 two men killed 26 “grouse” in two hours. They

were scarce at New Lisbon,24 Galesville,25 Hudson,26 and Rice

Lake.27

They were quite plentiful at River Falls,28 “ten or fifteen

chickens to an afternoon being the usual bag of a brace of hunt¬

ers.” Conditions were less favorable in Jackson County. A party

of nine hunters, camping in the northwestern part, killed 105

birds in four days. This represents a kill of only 3 birds per man

per day. Another party of five men, hunting at Pigeon Creek,

secured about 22 birds.29 In Chippewa County, they were re¬

ported numerous near Chippewa Falls, but not at Bloomer.30

Prairie chickens were not only plentiful during the hunting sea¬

son near La Crosse, but in November were to be found by hun¬

dreds in the cornfields where they were being trapped.31

All the reports for Barron County indicate that they were

unusually plentiful.32 A fishing and hunting party that spent a

day at Pine Creek in this county, took 70 birds and 100 trout.33

The most favorable reports came from Eau Claire.34 A party of

eight men in four days killed 143 birds at the junction of Big

Creek and Beef River.35 Taking into consideration three addi¬

tional specific bags,36 the average per man for a full day was 9

birds. This does not indicate a very high population.

‘Kenosha Telegraph Aug. 30. 2 Delavan Republican Aug. 24. 3 Clinton Independent Aug. 22.

4 Darlington Republican Aug. 24. 5 Oconomowoc Free Press Aug. 25. 6 Watertown Republican

Aug. 29. 7 West Bend Democrat Aug. 22. 8 Randolph Times Aug. 31. 9 Baraboo Republic Aug. 8.

io weyauwega Chronicle Sept. 1. 11 Oshkosh Times Aug. 18. u“ Oshkosh Northwestern Aug. 23.

“Fond du Lac Commonwealth Aug. 18; Brandon Times Aug. 23, Sept. 6; Ripon Press Aug. 23;

Waupun Leader Aug. 17, 31; Times Aug. 21. 13 Burlington Standard Aug. 16. 14 Dodgeville

Chronicle Aug. 17. 15 Madison Democrat March 18. 16 Madison State Journal Aug. 16 and

Democrat Aug. 17. 17 Kilbourn City Guard Aug. 22, Sept. 5. 18 Green Bay Advocate Sept. 20.

19 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 18. 20 Prairie du Chien Courier Sept. 4. 21 Viroqua Censor Oct. 3.

22 Merrillan Leader Sept. 15. 228 Sparta Republican Aug. 17. 23 Tomah Journal Aug. 18. 24 New

Lisbon Argus Aug. 30. 25 Galesville Independent Aug. 30. 20 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 10,

17 , 24. 27 Rice Lake Chronotype Sept. 13. 28 River Falls Press Aug. 16, 29, Sept. 6. 29 Black

River Falls Independent Aug. 22, 29. 30 Chippewa Falls Herald July 20, Sept. 14; Times Sept. 12.

«!. s. F., Forest and Stream 9 (Dec. 6, 1877) 355. 32 Eau Claire Free Press July 26, Aug. 23;

46

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 15. 33 Menomonie News Aug. 25. 34 Eau Claire (w) Free Press

Aug. 23, Sept. 6; Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 7. 86 Eau Claire (w) Free Press Aug. 30. 88 Ibid, (d)

Aug. 30.

1878

This year was another decided low. The reports of scarcity

are so numerous and state-wide that it is unnecessary to report

upon localities.1 At Neillsville2 it was said that “the truth is

becoming enforced upon old sportsmen that their favorite sport

is about at an end forever in these parts.”

A few good bags are recorded. At Oshkosh3 two men killed

19 birds before 10 A.M. and three men shot 42 in a day’s hunt.

One man at Waupun4 shot 42 in a day. Another hunter is cred¬

ited with killing 188 in four days in Green Lake County.5 At

Neenah6 three men shot 25 in two hours. A Portage7 hunter

secured 24 birds in one day, while at Lodi8 21 were shot by two

men. The two highest individual bags at Madison9 were 19 and

33 birds. The few reports from Eau Claire10 show an average

daily kill of 7.4 birds. Large numbers were reported killed in

the lowlands in the vicinity of Tomah11 during a period of a few

days.

Several dozen were shipped from Arena,12 Iowa County, for

which $4.00 per dozen was paid. As for the Milwaukee13 mar¬

ket, it was stated: “Prairie chickens and quality are rarely

seen.”

1 Racine Advocate Aug. 31 and Journal Aug. 28; Burlington Standard Sept. 7; Lake Geneva

Herald Aug. 31, Sept. 14; Janesville Times, Aug. 8; Watertown Democrat Aug. 29; Edgerton

Reporter Aug. 23; Columbus Democrat Aug. 31; Baraboo Republic Sept. 11; Friendship Press

Oct. 12; Ripon Free Press Aug. 29; Waupun Leader Aug. 30; Waupaca Post Oct. 19; Brandon

Times Sept. 5; Fond du Lac Reporter Sept. 5 and Commonwealth Aug. 31, Sept. 21; Oshkosh

Northwestern Sept. 5; Winneconne Item Aug. 31; Neenah Gazette Aug. 3; Shawano Journal

Sept. 28; Stevens Point Journal Aug. 31; New Lisbon Argus Sept. 5, 19; Sparta Democrat

Aug. 31; River Falls Journal Sept. 12, 19; Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 21; Black River Falls

Banner Sept. 13; Merrillan Leader Aug. 30; Galesville Independent Sept. 19. 1 Neillsville Repub¬

lican and Press, Aug. 30. 8 Ctehkosh Times Aug. 31; Northwestern Sept. 5. 4Waupun Leader

Aug. 30. 5 Juneau Democrat Sept. 11. 6 Oshkosh Northwestern Aug. 29. 7 Portage Democrat

Aug. 30. 8 Lodi Valley News Aug. 28. ® Madison Democrat Aug. 27; cj. Aug. 29. 10 Eau Claire

Free Press Aug. 29. 11 Tomah Journal Aug. 31. 38 Arena Star Aug. 30. 13 Milwaukee Sentinel

Aug. 28.

1879

Prairie chickens were reported scarce in nineteen localities.1

Several pre-season statements that they were plentiful were not

substantiated subsequently. The season at Madison2 was fairly

successful taking into consideration the decline in “opportuniti-

ties.” Improved shooting, or an increase in the number of birds

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 47

was reported from Ripon,3 Pewaukee,4 Monroe,5 Darlington,6

and Mineral Point.7 Racine8 had few birds, but five men shot 30,

and two men 27, on the opening day. At Delavan,9 three men

shot 23 birds, while at Lake Geneva10 two parties of three men

each secured 21 and 20, respectively. For the opening days, the

best bag recorded for the state was 36 birds, shot near Fond du

Lac11 by two hunters.

‘Racine Advocate Aug. 30; Lodi. Portage Register Sept. 13; Fox Lake Representative Aug. 29;

Waupun Leader Aug. 29; Brandon Times Aug. 28; Fond du Lac Commonwealth Aug. 16, 26;

Westfield. Montello Express Oct. 4; Oshkosh Times, Aug. 30; Appleton Crescent Sept. 6; Green

Bay Gazette Aug. 30; Oconto Reporter Sept. 13; Boscobel Dial Oct. 31; Tomah Journal Aug. 30;

Whitehall Messenger Sept. 3; Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 22, Sept. 4; Menomonie News Sept. 13;

New Richmond Republican Aug. 13; Hudson Star and Times Aug. 15; River Falls Journal

Aug. 28; Press Aug. 28. 2 Madison State Journal Nov. 17. 3 Ripon. Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 26.

4 Pewaukee. Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 27. “Monroe Reformer July 31. 8 Darlington Democrat

Aug. 1. 7 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 6. 8 Racine Journal Aug. 27. 8 Delavan Enterprise Aug. 30.

10 Lake Geneva Herald Aug. 29. 31 Fond du Lac Commonwealth Aug. 26.

1880

The birds were again scarce in some localities, but there was

a decided improvement over the year previous. There were few

birds at Delavan,1 Janesville,2 Fox Lake,3 Princeton,4 Oconto,5

Chippewa Falls,6 New Richmond,7 Hudson,8 River Falls,9 Ar¬

cadia,10 Alma,11 and Black River Falls.12

They were reported more numerous than usual at Darling¬

ton13 and Juneau,14 and there was good shooting at Menomo¬

nie.15 A Green Bay hunter shot 28 birds near Peak’s Point,

these being the only birds offered for sale in the city during the

past five years.16 Another hunter is stated to have shot 48 birds

one morning at Stevens Point.17 The average bag on the open¬

ing day at Fond du Lac was 6.8 birds. One hunter killed 80

between August 15 and September 18. 18 At Madison,19 two men

shot 53 in one day. Five men, hunting for a week on Beaver

Creek, Eau Claire County, killed 187 birds.20

In October, prairie chickens were scarce to absent in the

Milwaukee market.21

‘Delavan Republican Aug. 27. 2 Janesville Recorder Aug. 13, 28. 3 Fox Lake Representative

Aug. 20. 4 Princeton Democrat Sept. 9. 5 Oconto Reporter Sept. 18. 6 Chippewa Falls Herald

Aug. 20; Times Aug. 25. 7 New Richmond Republican Aug. 25. 8 Hudson Republican Aug. 25.

8 River Falls Journal Aug. 26; Press Aug. 26. 10 Arcadia Republican and Leader Aug. 26. 11 Alma

Journal Aug. 26, Sept. 2. 12 Black River Falls Banner Aug. 13. 13 Darlington Democrat July 16.

14 Juneau Telephone Sept. 3. 15 Menomonie News Aug. 21, Sept. 4; Times Aug. 6; Milwaukee

Sentinel Sept. 6. 16 Green Bay Advocate Aug. 21. 17 Stevens Point Pinery. In Green Bay Advocate

Aug. 26. 18 Fond du Lac Commonwealth Aug. 21, Sept. 18. 19 Madison Democrat Aug. 29.

*° Eau Claire (w) Free Press Sept. 2. 21 Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 11, 18.

48

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

1881

In general there were more birds than in 1880. The localities

reporting them more numerous than for several years were:

Berlin,1 Montello,2 Sun Prairie,3 Mineral Point,4 Chippewa

Falls,5 and Galesville.6 Though scarce at Racine,7 the shooting

at Kenosha8 was exceptional. At the latter place, one man se¬

cured 47 birds in a day’s hunt, while two men shot 26 in one and

one-half days. They were quite numerous to plentiful at Stevens

Point,9 Oshkosh,10 Ripon,11 Waterloo,12 Madison,13 Bloomer,14

Durand,15 and Ellsworth.16

Reports of scarcity came from Wautoma,17 Brandon,18

Markesan,19 Waupun,20 Sparta,21 Tomah,22 Pepin,23 Black River

Falls,24 Menomonie,25 River Falls,26 and New Richmond.27

1 Berlin Courant Aug. 24. 2 Montello Express July 30. 3 Sun Prairie Countryman July 28, Aug. 18.

4 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 4, 25. 3 Chippewa Falls Herald July 22, Aug, 19. 6 Galesville

Independent Aug. 18. 7 Racine Journal Aug. 24. 8 Kenosha Courier Aug. 18. 8 Stevens Point

Gazette Aug. 24; Journal Sept. 3. 10 Oshkosh Northwestern Aug. 18; cf. Times Aug. 20. 11 Ripon

Free Press Aug. 18. “Waterloo Journal Sept. 1. 13 Madison State Journal Aug. 23; Democrat

Aug. 25, 28. 14 Bloomer Workman Aug. 18, Sept. 1. 15 Durand Courier Aug. 19. 16 Ellsworth

Herald Aug. 24. 17 Wautoma Argus Aug. 26. 18 Brandon Times Aug. 18. 18 Markesan Democrat

Aug. 18, 25. 20 Waupun Leader Aug. 19, 26. 21 Sparta Herald Aug. 23; c/. Democrat Aug. 20.

22 Tomah Journal Aug. 20. 23 A. T., Am. Field 16 (Oct. 22, 1881) 265. 24 Black River Falls Ban¬

ner Sept. 2. 25 Menomonie News Aug. 20; Times Aug. 19, Sept. 2. 26 River Falls Press Aug. 25.

27 New Richmond Republican Aug. 31.

1882

The improvement seems to have continued. The pre-season

predictions were very optimistic from Necedah,1 Eau Claire,2

La Crosse,3 River Falls,4 and New Richmond.5 While not abun¬

dant at Black River Falls,6 prairie chickens were more numer¬

ous than for “the past two years.” The shooting was good at

Grand Rapids,7 where four men secured 45 birds in one half of a

day. They were reported quite plentiful to numerous at Be¬

loit,8 Waupaca,9 Markesan,10 Chippewa Falls,11 Menomonie,12

Hudson,13 River Falls,14 and New Lisbon.15

The shooting was poor to indifferent at Lake Geneva,16

Janesville,17 Waupun,18 Brandon,19 Oshkosh,20 Montello,21 Men-

asha,22 and in Barron County 23

1 Necedah Signal June 29. 2 C. M. B. Am. Field 18 (July 29, 1882) 78. 3 La Crosse (w) News

June 4. 4 River Falls Press April 13. 3 New Richmond Republican May 31. * Black River Falls

Banner Aug. 18. 7 Grand Rapids Reporter Aug. 17, 31. 8 Beloit Outlook Aug. 19; cf. Free Press

Sept. 11. “Waupaca Republican Aug. 18. 10 Markesan Democrat Aug. 24. 11 Chippewa Falls

Independent Aug. 24; Herald Sept. 15; cf. Bloomer Workman Aug. 31. 12 Menomonie Times

Aug. 18. 13 Hudson Star and Times Aug. 18. 14 River Falls Journal Aug. 24. “New Lisbon Argus

Aug. 24. “Lake Geneva Herald Aug. 18. 17 Janesville Recorder Aug. 25; Gazette Aug. 24, Sept. 1.

08 Waupun Leader Aug. 25. 18 Brandon Times Aug. 31. 20 C. M. B. Am. Field 18. (Sept. 16, 1882)

198. 21 Montello Sun Aug. 19. 22 Menasha Press Aug. 24. 23 Chippewa Falls Times July 19.

Schorge r — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 49

1883

The spring reports were encouraging. Prairie chickens were

reported quite abundant at Dodgeville.1 At Columbus on Feb¬

ruary 21, a flock of 150 was feeding in standing corn.2 Both

pinnated and sharp-tailed grouse were “very abundant” at Ne-

cedah,3 while prairie chickens were more plentiful than usual at

Merrillan4 and Eau Claire.5

When the season opened the shooting was poor at Racine,0

Lake Geneva,7 Bjeloit,8 Wautoma,9 Princeton,10 Brandon,11 Mar-

kesan,12 Rosendale,13 Oshkosh,14 Necedah,15 Mauston,16 Spar¬

ta,17 and Galesville.18 The reports from Black River Falls19 were

contradictory. This is the case also with Eau Claire.20 A party

that varied in number from five to ten men over a period of ten

days killed 290 birds at Rock Creek.

They were reported numerous to exceptionally plentiful at

Westfield,21 Chippewa Falls,22 Arcadia,23 Barron,24 Prescott,25

River Falls,26 and Hudson.27 It is of exceptional interest that

“prairie chickens” were reported quite plentiful near Superior28

where a hunter shot 15 one day. These may have been sharp¬

tailed grouse.

1 Dodgeville Chronicle March 23. 2 Am. Field 19 (March 10, 1883) 170. 3 C. W. W. Ibid. p. 230.

4 E. E. M. Ibid. p. 2S1. 5 C. M. B. Ibid. p. 299. 6 Racine Journal Aug. 22. 7 Lake Geneva

Herald Aug. 17. 8 Beloit Free Press Aug. IS, 16; Forest and Stream 21 (Nov. 29, 1883) 349.

“Wautoma Argus Aug. 24. 10 Princeton Republic Aug. 30. 11 Brandon Times Aug. 23. 12 Mar-

kesan Democrat Aug. 23. 13 S. B. Dilley, Am. Field 20 (Sept. 1, 1883) 198. 14 Oshkosh North¬

western Aug. 23. 15 Am. Field 20 (Sept. IS, 1883) 243. 16 Mauston Star Aug. 23. 17 Sparta

Herald Aug. 21. 18 Galesville Independent Sept. 3. 19 Black River Falls Banner Aug. 17; Inde¬

pendent Aug. 29. 20 Eau Claine (d) Leader Aug. 17, 22; (w) Free: Press Aug., 23, 30, Oct. 4;

Am. Field 20 (Aug. 18, 1883) ISO. 21 Am. Field 20 (Sept. 22, 1883) 270. 22 Chippewa Falls

Herald July 27; Independent Sept. 20; Times July 18, 25, Aug. 1. 23 Arcadia Republican and

Leader Aug. 3. 24 Barron Shield Aug. 24. 25 Prescott Plaindealer Aug. 24. 20 River Falls lournal

Aug. 30, Sept. 13. 27 Hudson Republican Aug. 29. 28 Superior Times Aug. 25.

1884

The birds were somewhat more numerous this year. Reports

of scarcity came from Brandon,1 Princeton,2 Berlin,3 Dodge¬

ville,4 Sparta,5 Grantsburg,6 and Menomonie.7 The statements

from Chippewa Falls8 were contradictory. At Menomonie9 the

most successful parties of four hunters did not secure over 40

birds during a long day’s hunt. Though considered scarce at

Racine,10 three men killed 39 birds one day on Barnes Prairie.

At Plainfield11 five hunters had 27 in the day’s bag, while at

Wautoma12 a man had 14 birds in illegal possession. The situa-

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

tion in the eastern portion of the state is covered by the report

from Madison.13 While a “trifle” more numerous than usual, it

has been years since they were really plentiful in the vicinity, so

that most sportsmen have been doing their hunting in Dakota

and Minnesota.

Prairie chickens were plentiful at River Falls14 and Che-

tek.15 Hunters at Black River Falls16 averaged “ten to twenty”

birds daily. A hunter at Prescott17 shot 15 birds in three hours.

The best bag made at Eau Claire18 consisted of 36 birds secured

by two men hunting part of a day. Appleton19 had more birds

than for a number of years.

1 Brandon Times Aug. 21. 2 Princeton Republic Aug. 28. 3 Berlin Courant Aug. 27. 4 Dodgeville

Sun Aug. 22. 5 Sparta Herald Aug. 19. 0 Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 29. T (Eau Galle). Menomonie

News Aug. 23. 8 Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 13; Herald Aug. 29. 9 B. A. E. Forest and Stream

23 (Oct. 2, 1884) 186. 10 Racine Journal AugA 20. 11 Plainfield Sun Aug. 22. 12 Wautoma Argus

Aug. 22. 13 Madison State Journal Sept. 20. 14 (Oak Grove). River Falls Journal Oct. 9.

15 Chetek Alert Sept. 6, 13. 16 Neillsville Republican and Press Aug. 28. 17 Prescott Plaindealer

Aug. 29. 18 Eau Claire (d) Leader Aug. 23. 18 Appleton Post Sept. 4.

1885

There was again some improvement in number. Adverse re¬

ports came from Elkhorn,1 Mineral Point,2 Dodgeville,3 Berlin,4

Mauston,6 Sparta,6 Menomonie,7 Neillsville,8 and New Rich¬

mond.9

Prairie chickens were reported abundant, or more numerous

than usual at Monroe,10 Portage,11 Wautoma,12 Durand,13

Chippewa Falls,14 Barron,15 River Falls,16 Hudson,17 and

Grantsburg.18 Six Portage19 hunters shot 70 birds in one day

near Packwaukee. Two Green Bay20 hunters returned from

Trempealeau Valley with about 100 birds. At Alma,21 five men

shot about 60 birds in three days.

Prairie chickens were again reported “plentiful and much

hunted” at Superior.22 They were reported also to have made

their first appearance in Forest County.23

1 Elkhorn Independent Aug. 20. 3 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 20; c/. Democrat July 10. 3 Dodge¬

ville Star Aug. 28. 4 Berlin Journal Sept. 3. 5 Mauston Sun Sept. 4. 8 Sparta Herald Aug. 18.

7 Menomonie News Aug. 15. 8 Neillsville Times Aug. 25. 9 New Richmond Republican Aug. 26,

Oct. 7. 10 Monroe Independent July 25. u Portage Register Aug. 15. 12 Wautoma Argus Aug. 21.

13 (Waukeek). Durand Courier Sept. 4. 14 Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 19; Herald Aug. 21,

Sept. 11. 15 Barron Shield Aug. 21. 16 River* Falls Journal May 7, Aug. 27, Nov. 12. 17 Hudson

Star and Times Aug. 21. 88 Grantsburg Sentinel Oct. 30. 19 Portage Register Aug. 22. 20 Green Bay

Advocate Sept. 3. 21 Alma Journal Aug. 20. 22 Superior Times Sept. 12. 23 Crandon Forest Leaves

Dec. 3.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 51

1886

This year was definitely a high for the cycle and heavy in¬

festation by ticks is reported for the first time.1 In March,

prairie chickens were unusually numerous at Menomonie,2 and

at Black River Falls.3 They were “quite abundant” at Montello,

but probably outnumbered by ruffed grouse.4 At New Lisbon,5

a hunter secured 20 birds in a morning, while at Weyauwega6

four men secured 60 in a day's hunt. Two parties of four men

each, hunting at Plover on August 16, secured 28 and 29 birds

respectively.7 The postmaster at Blair, Trempealeau County, is

stated to have shot 84 during the first five days of the season.8

They were reported plentiful at Portage,9 Prairie du Chien,10

Merrillan,11 Chippewa Falls,12 and Grantsburg.13

They were reported scarce at Elkhorn,14 Mineral Point,15

Prairie du Sac,16 Viroqua,17 Menomonie,18 and Prescott.19

a “Greener,” Am. Field 26 (Sept. 11, 1886) 245. * “Wing Shot,” ibid. p. 316. 3 G. J. S. Forest

and Stream 26 (April 8, 1886) 207. 4 (Fred Pond), Montello Express Aug. 7, (2). “New Lisbon

Argus Aug. 20. 6 Waupaca Republican Aug. 20. ’“Greener,” Am. Field 26 (Sept. 11, 1886) • 245.

8 La Crosse Republican and Leader Aug. 28. 8 Portage. In Beloit Free Press Aug. 21. 18 Prairie

du Chien Courier Sept. 21. 11 Merrillan Leader Aug. 20. 13 Chippewa Falls Herald Aug. 20.

13 Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 27. 14 Elkhorn Independent Aug. 19. 16 Mineral Point Tribune

Aug. 19, 26. 14 Prairie du Sac News Aug. 20. 17 Viroqua Censor Aug. 18. 18 Menomonie News

Aug. 28. 18 Prescott Plaindealer Sept. 3.

1887

This year was a low. Most of the best hunting localities com¬

plained of scarcity.1 In the town of Wheaton, Chippewa County,

prairie chickens were “not as plentiful as in former years,”

while the number of hunters had doubled.2 The verdict from

Elkhorn3 was that the prairie chicken is “gone.”

At Madison,4 four men on September 1 secured 23 birds in

the town of Westport. The only reports of good shooting came

from Eau Claire5 and Chetek.6 Three Eau Claire hunters are

stated to have killed 114 birds in one day.7 The report of 80 birds

taken at West Prairie8 gives no indication of abundance in the

absence of data on time and the number of hunters.

’Black River Falls Independent Sept. 7; Grantsburg Sentinel Sept. 16; Durand Courier Sept. 9:

Alma Journal Sept. 15; Sparta Herald Aug. 30; Democrat Sept. 10; Menomonie News Sept. 10,

17; New Richmond Republican Sept. 7, Oct. 12. 2 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 9. 3 Elkhorn

Independent Sept. 8. 4 Madison Democrat Sept. 2. 5 Eau Claire (w) Free Press Sept. 1. 6 Chetek.

Barron Shield Aug. 26. 7 Eau Claire. In Madison Democrat Sept. 8. 8 La Crosse Republican and

Leader Sept. 17.

1888

The gradual elimination of the natural habitat of the prairie

chicken, coupled with a low in the cycle, is reflected in the an-

52

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

nual decline in the number of references to the species. This

year most of the reports again show scarcity.1 There were state¬

ments that a large number of birds had perished during the

preceding winter through the formation of a crust over the deep

snow in which they had taken shelter.2

Fairly good shooting was reported from Necedah3 and Maus-

ton.4 It is of interest that on September 1 a hunter killed 21

birds near Racine.5 Five men hunted a day at Oxford and se¬

cured only 12 prairie chickens.6

1 Darlington Republican Sept. 21; Kilbourn Mirror-Gazette Sept. 8; Portage Register Sept. 8;

Friendship Press Sept. 22; Wautoma Argus Sept. 14; Weyauwega Chronicle Sept. S; Chippewa Falls

Herald Aug. 24, Sept. 7; New Richmond Republican Aug. 22, Sept. 5; (Tainter), Menomonie

News Sept. 7; Barron Independent Sept. 13 and (Chetek) Barron Shield Sept. 14. 2 Friendship

Press Jan. 21; Eau Claire (w) Free Press Feb. 16. s Necedah Republican Sept. 7. 4 Mauston Sun

Sept. 6. 5 Racine Times Sept. 3. 6 Portage Advertiser Sept. S.

1889

This year the season opened on August 1 and there were

complaints of the smallness of the young birds. They were again

scarce in nearly all localities.1

At Beloit,2 two men shot 20 birds on the opening day but

this bag is exceptional. A hunter at Delavan3 secured 6 on the

opening day while a party of three men with “fine hunting dogs”

secured but one. At Grantsburg,4 two men shot 31, and at Black

River Falls5 one man shot 19 birds in one day. Experienced

hunters, during the first days of the season averaged “eight to

ten birds” at Chippewa Falls.6 Three men shot 71 in the town of

Bloomer in two days. Good shooting was reported at Poynette7

and Kilbourn.8

1 Clinton Herald Aug. 7; Chippewa Falls Times Aug. 7; (Oak Grove). Black River Falls Journal

Aug. 15; New Richmond Republican Aug. 28; Menomonie. Am. Field 32 (Sept. 7, 1889) 220;

Merrillan Leader Aug. 16; Eau Claire (w) Leader Aug. 4, 25. 2 Beloit Free Press Aug. 3. 5 Dela¬

van Republican Aug. 7. 4 Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 16. 5 (Pleasant View). Black River Falls

Banner Sept. 12. 6 Chippewa Falls Herald Aug. 9. 7 Poynette Press Aug. 3. 8 Kilbourn Mirror-

Gazette Aug. 24.

1890

Prairie chickens were scarce to “extremely scarce.”1 Four

Wausau2 hunters shot 40 at Grand (Wisconsin) Rapids. At

Grantsburg,3 two men killed 16 birds in two hours, and at Mer¬

rillan,4 two hunters secured 15 in an afternoon. They were con¬

sidered quite plentiful at La Crosse5 where two men shot 27 in

one half of a day. One hunter shot 40 in unspecified time. The

birds were reported plentiful near Dallas, Barron County, where

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 53

four men took 55 in two days.6 The hunting of prairie chickens

at Superior7 is again mentioned. A large flock survived the hunt¬

ing season in St. Croix County.8

1 Shooting and Fishing 8, No. 23 (Oct. 2, 1890) 5; Beloit Free Press Aug. 8; Waupun. Am. Field

34 (Aug. 23, 1890) 173; Montello Express Aug. 23; Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 7; Friendship

Press Aug. 16; Kilboum Mirror-Gazette Aug. 16; Sparta Herald Aug. S; Viroqua Censor Aug.

13; Chippewa Falls Journal Aug. 14; Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 8. 2 Wausau Pilot and Review

Aug. 19. 3 Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 8. * Merrillan Leader Aug. 8; 5 La Crosse (w) Republican

and Leader Aug. 30. * Chippewa Falls Herald Aug. 8. 7 (White Birch). Superior Times Oct. 4.

8 New Richmond Republican Nov. 5.

1891-1894

During these years prairie chickens increased slowly.

1895

This year there was a decided increase in the number of

prairie chickens. Near New Lisbon,1 three men killed 31 on the

opening day. At Mauston2 two men secured 23, and one man 33,

in one day. On the opening day, 175 birds were brought into

Tomah.3 While not all of the hunters at Eau Claire4 had good

success, most of the reports were very favorable.5 The scores

showed an average daily bag of 8.6 birds per man. They “never

were” so plentiful at Merrillan.6 Hunters commonly secured 20

to 30 birds daily. At New Richmond,7 there was “wholesale

slaughter.” Grantsburg8 had excellent shooting. Four men dur¬

ing the fore part of the week shot 151 on the marshes at Crooked

Lake. Two hunters at Orange killed 70 during the season. Some

were killed in a locality near Viroqua9 where they had been rare

of late years. At Mondovi10 three men took 40 birds in one day.

Only a few were shot at Trempealeau.11

1 (Sprague). New Lisbon Times Sept. 4. 2 Mauston Star Aug. 22, 29, Sept. 5. 3 Tomah Journal

Aug. 24. 4 Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 22. 5 Eau Claire Telegram Aug. 4, 20, 22, 24, 31, Sept.

10, 17. * Merrillan Leader Aug. 9, Sept. 13. 7 New Richmond Republican Aug. 29. 8 Grantsburg

Sentinel Aug. 29; Journal Aug. 30, Oct. 11. 8 Viroqua Censor Sept. 18. 10 Mondovi Herald Aug.

30. 11 Trempealeau Herald Aug. 23, 30.

1896

The population reached a peak this year. Hough1 stated : “In

Wisconsin also there are more prairie chickens than is known by

the average shooter of this section.” It was estimated that 1000

birds were killed at Babcock.2 Eau Claire3 took the lead in op¬

timism with an estimate of 10,000 birds in the vicinity. There

was good shooting at Tomah,4 Durand,6 Merrillan,6 and Grants¬

burg;7 also at Mauston8 where the average bag was 5.7 birds on

the opening day, August 20. “Lots of grouse” were reported to

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

have arrived in the vicinity of Cable within the past three

years.9

There was poor shooting1 at Sparta,10 Trempealeau,11 New

Richmond,12 Prescott,13 and River Falls.14

1 E. Hough, Forest and Stream 47 (Aug. 29, 1896) 166. 3 (Babcock). Tomah Journal Sept. 19.

3 Eau Claire Free Press Aug. 27; Telegram Aug. 22. 4 Tomah Journal Aug. 22. 5 Durand Courier

Aug. 28. 6 Merrillan Leader Aug. 14, 28, Sept. 18. 7 Grantsburg Sentinel Aug. 27, Sept. 10.

* Mauston Star Aug. 27; Chronicle Aug. 13, 27. 8J. S. I. Forest and Stream 47 (Dec. 12, 1896)

469. 10 Sparta Herald Aug. 18. 11 Trempealeau Herald Aug. 28. “New Richmond Republican

Aug. 27. 13 Prescott Tribune Aug. 28 14 River Falls Journal Aug. 27.

1897

There was a decided decrease in the population in most lo¬

calities. Prairie chickens were not nearly as numerous at Ne-

cedah1 as was anticipated. Two men from Manitowoc, on a

hunting trip at Necedah, secured 38 birds. This was stated to

have been “better” than the bags reported by others.2 According

to Hough,3 all of the 100 hunters who were at Grand Rapids on

the opening day reported poor shooting. There was “fair” shoot¬

ing at Hancock. At Durand,4 Viroqua,5 Trempealeau6 Grants¬

burg,7 and Tomah8 the birds were few. They were reported

scarce also at Oshkosh9 where the bags ranged from zero to 40

for a party of three men. Four men shot 17 on the same area

that yielded 42 the year previous.

The only localities reporting prairie chickens plentiful were

Black River Falls,10 Merrillan, 11 and Chippewa Falls.12

1 Necedah Republican Sept. 3. * Manitowoc Pilot Sept. 9. 3 E. Hough, Forest and Stream 49

(Sept. 25, 1897) 247. 4 Durand Wedge Sept. 2. 5Viroqua Censor Sept. 8. 6 Trempealeau Herald

Aug. 13. 7 (Webster). Grantsburg Journal Oct. 1. 8 (Adrian ).( Tomah Journal Sept. 18. 9 Oshkosh

(d) Northwestern Sept. 2. 10 Black River Falls Banner Sept. 2, 23. u Merrillan Leader July 30,

Sept. 10. 13 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 3.

1898-1900

During this period the population remained at a low level

and it is unnecessary to go into details.

References

1 Cooke, W. E. IV is. Mag. History 23 (1940) 410; c). 285 and 300.

3 Coues, E. Birds of the Northwest. Washington (1874) p. 410.

3“Raven.” Turf, Field and Farm 4 (Jan. 26, 1867) 54.

4 Van Dyke, T. S. The Sharp-Tailed Grouse. Shooting and Fishing 10, No. 19 (Sept. 3, 1891)

10-11.

3 Kumlien, L. and Hollister, N. The Birds of Wisconsin. (1903) pp. 57-8.

9Shea, John G. Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 2nd ed. Albany (1903)

p. 261.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 55

7 Schoolcraft, H. R. Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley. New York

(1825) p. 329.

8 Schoolcraft, H. R. Summary Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the

Mississippi River. Philadelphia (1855) p. 562.

9 Smith, Gen. W. R. Observations on the Wisconsin Territory. Philadelphia (1838) p. 23.

30 Rodolf, Charles. In: History of Grant County, Wisconsin. Chicago (1881) p. 800.

31 Hoy, P. R. Trans. I Vis. Agr. Soc. for 1852 (1853) 358.

11 Barry, A. C. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 5 (1854) 9.

38 Quarles, J. V. Wis. Mag. History 16 (1933) 299, 300 and 310.

34 Burch, A. In: F. S. Stone, History of Racine County. Chicago, Vol. I (1916) p. 421.

35 Hoffman, C. F. A Winter in the Far West. London, Vol. 2 (1835) p. 7; 15a. Vol. 1.

p. 278; 15b. Vol. 1, p. 258.

19 Bunnell, L. H. Winona and its Environs. Winona, (1897) pp. 237, 238 and 335.

33 Grignon, Antoine. Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc. for 1913 (1914) p. 123.

38 La Crosse National Democrat Oct. 13, 1857.

39 La Crosse Union. From Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin Dec. 24, 1859.

30 La Crosse (tri-w) Democrat Aug. 14 and Oct. 11, 1861.

23 Prescott Transcript April 12 and Aug. 15, 1856.

29 Hudson North Star Aug. 22, 1855.

18 Cartwright, David. Natural History of Western Wild Animals. Toledo, (1875) p. 240.

24 Hoyt, J. W. Trans. Wis. Agr. Soc. 6 (1861).

341 Biddle, J. W. Recollections of Green Bay in 1816-17. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 1 (1855) 63.

35 Kemper, J. Journal. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 14 (1898) 436.

39 Whittlesey, Col. Charles. Ibid. 1 (1855) 73 and 76.

37 Featherstonhaugh, G. W. A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor. London, Vol. 1 (1847)

pp. 190, 286 and 297. 27a. Pp. 409-10 and 412.

28 Haraszthy, Count Agoston. (Translated by Stephen Kliman). Wis. Mag. History 23

(1939) 194.

29 Dart, Richard. Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc. for 1909 (1910) pp. 254 and 260.

80 Mackinnon, Capt. L. B. Atlantic and Transatlantic Sketches. N.Y. (1852) p. 145.

33 Milwaukee (w) Wisconsin Sept. 10, 1851 [1].

13 Wilson, A. and Bonaparte, C. L. American Ornithology. Phil. Vol. 2 [1871] pp. 272-4.

38 Michaux, F. A. Travels. London, (1805) pp. 148-50.

34 Flint, T. Letters from America. Edinburgh, (1822) p. 258.

35 Audubon, J. J. Ornithological Biography. Edinburgh, Vol. 2 (1834) pp. 495 and 501;

35a. P. 491.

39 Blane, William N. An Excursion through the United States and Canada during the years

1822-23. London, (1824) p. 173.

87 Marsh, C. W. Recollections 1837-1910. Chicago, (1910) p. 41.

38 Muir, John. The Story of My Boyhood and Youth. Boston, (1913) p. 146.

39 Allen, J. A. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1 (1868) 500.

40 Chicago Journal Dec. 21, 1848.

41 Johnson, A. I. Iowa Ornith. 2, No. 4 (Oct. 1896) 77.

43 Newell, W. Ibid. 3, No. 3 (July, 1897) 44.

43 Chicago (d) Journal Sept. 3, 1844.

44 Schurz, Carl. Intimate Letters. Edited by Joseph Schafer. Madison, (1928) p. 146;

cj. Milwaukee News, Aug. 23, 1864; Portage Register, April 1, 1865.

■“Fond du Lac Reporter Aug. 29, 1868.

48 Woods, John. Two Years Residence ... on the English Prairie in the Illinois Country.

London, (1822) p, 196. 46a. P. 284.

47 Thomas, David. Travels Through the Western Country in the Summer of 1816. Auburn,

(1819) p. 210.

48 Cooke, W. W. Report on Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley in the Years 1884 and

1885. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Econ. Orn. Bull. 2 (1888) p. 105.

49 Anon. The Grouse in Their Season. Milwaukee News Aug. 17, 1856.

80 Milwaukee Sentinel March 25, 1853.

53 Racine Argus March 20, 1873.

“Tenny, Maj. H. A. In: Daniel S. Durrie, History of Madison, (1874) p. 163.

33 La Crosse (tri-w) Democrat Oct. 11, 1861.

56

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

34 La Crosse (w) Democrat Oct. 10, 1863.

55 Webster, C. L. Winter Migration of the Prairie Chicken. Forest and Stream 78 (April 13.

1912) 471.

30 N., W. L. Chicago Field 13 (May 22, 1880) 231.

37 Menomonie News Oct. 14, 1871.

58 Madison State Journal Oct. 27, 1879.

30 Janesville Recorder Nov. 18, 1879.

00 Eau Claire Free Press Jan. 23, 1873.

181 Lapham, I. A. Plants of Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. State Agr. Soc.. for 18S2. Vol. 2. (1853)

375-419; Gerhard, F. Illinois As It Is. Chicago (1857) pp. 235-47; Gray, Asa. Am. J. Sci.

(2) 23 (1857) 397; Fassett, N. C. The Leguminous Plants of Wisconsin. Madison (1939)

157 pp.

62 Fond du Lac Commonwealth Sept. 11, 1867; cf. Berlin Courant Sept. 19, 1867; Waukesha

Plain Dealer Aug. 27, 1867; Prescott Journal Aug. 7, 1868.

03 Schmidt, F. J. W. Winter Food of the Sharp-Tailed Grouse and Pinnated Grouse in Wis¬

consin. Wilson Bull. 48 (1936) 181-203.

04 Fonda, J. H. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 5 (1868) 232-3.

“Osceola Press Dec. 28, 1872.

99 [Pond], Fred. Rod and Gun 6 (April 3, 1875) 10.

67 Dodgeville Chronicle March 23, 1883.

08 Hamerstrom, F. N. et al. An Experimental Study of Browse as a Winter Diet for Prairie

Chicken. Wilson Bull. 53 (1941) 185-195.

68 Kennicott, R. Trans. III. Agr. Soc. for 1853-54, 1 (1855) 586.

70 Porter’s Spirit of the Times 17 (July 31, 1847) 268.

71 Agassiz, L. and Cabot, J. E. Lake Superior. Boston (1850) p. 68.

72 Thurston, John FT. Reminiscences, Sporting, and Otherwise, of Early Days in Rockford,

Ill. Rockford (1891), p. 106; 72a. P. 104; 72b. P. 112.

73 Bogardus, A. H. Field, Cover, and Trap Shooting. N. Y. (1874) p. 93; 73a. P. 63.

74 Hall, James* Notes on the Western States. Philadelphia (1838) p. 123; cf. Anon. Illinois

in 1837. Philadelphia (1837) p. 41.

75 M., W. H. A Reminiscence. Burlington (Wis.) Free Press Sept. 26, 1882.

79 Levtnge, Cart. R. G. A. Echoes from the Backwoods. London. Vol. 2 (1846) pp. 213,

215, and 216.

77 Leopold, A. Game Survey of the North Central Slates. Madison (1931), p. 165; Hamer-

strom, F. N. Ref. 68, p. 194.

78 Chapman, C. B. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 4 (1859) 343.

79 Jones, A. D. Illinois and the West. Boston (1838) p. 161; 79a. P. 177.

80 Bradford, W. J. A. Notes on the Northwest. N. Y. (1846) p. 146.

81 Guernsey, O. History of Rock County. Janesville (1856) p. 234.

82 Abel, Henry I. Geographical, Geological, and Statistical Chart of Wisconsin and Iowa.

Philadelphia (1838).

83 Chicago Democrat. From Milwaukee Courier Oct. 19, 1842.

84 Chicago Journal. From Southport (Kenosha) American Sept. 25, 1847.

85 Judd, S. D. The Grouse and Wild Turkeys of the United States, and their Economic Value.

Biolog. Survey Bull. No. 24 (1905) p. 13.

39 “Field.” Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times 17 (Nov. 30, 1867) 273.

87 Wilson, L. F. Hopkinton (Iowa) Leader Feb. 1, 1934; Wilson, E. E. Waterloo (Iowa)

Courier April 30, 1933; Haefner, Marie. Prairie Fires. Palimpsest 16 (1935) 60-1.

S7a [Grlnnell, J. B.] Sketches of the West, or the Home of the Badgers. Milwaukee (1847)

pp 21, 22, 26; 87b. P. 15.

87b Skavlem, H. L. By the Wayside 13 (1912) 57.

88 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 10, 1854.

89 Madison Argus July 24, 1849; Chicago Journal July 25, 1850.

99 B. and S. Porter’s Spirit of the Times 19 (Aug. 11, 1849) 295; Milwaukee Sentinel Aug.

10, 1854; Milwaukee (d) News July 25, 1856.

91 Milwaukee (d) News Aug. 17, 1856; [Bunner, J. C.] Janesville Standard Aug. 9, 1854.

93 Ref. 74, p. 73; ref. 36, p. 173.

93 Ref. 73, p. 77; cf. Whitewater (Wis.) Register Dec. 24, 1859.

94 “Atticus.” Racine Advocate Jan. 23, 1844.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 57

85 Duts, E. The Good Old Times in McClean County, Illinois. Bloomington (1874), p. 523;

95a. P. 691.

90 Ref. 74, p. 73.

87 Hubbard, G. S. Autobiography. Chicago (1911) p. 63.

88 Hatch, P. L. Notes on the Birds of Minnesota. Minneapolis (1892) p. 163.

89 Rodolf, T. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 15 (1900) 345.

100 Gregory, J. G. Incidents of a Journey ... in 1837 — Being the Journal of Gen. William

Rudolph Smith. Wooster (1927) p. 80.

383 Bob [Gen. John A. Kellog]. Early Times. Baraboo Republic April 27, 1870.

183 Anon. Life in the West: Back-Wood Leaves and Prairie Flowers. London (1842) pp. 259,

262, 275.

103 Milwaukee (w) Sentinel Jan. 29, 1842.

104 Racine Advocate June 4, 1844.

105 Southport (Kenosha) American Sept. 14, 1843.

109 Racine Advocate Jan. 23, 1844.

187 Chicago (d) Journal Sept. 3, 1844.

188 Marsh, Dr. E. S. Meteorological Notebooks, Milwaukee. Library Wis. Hist. Soc.

109 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 14 and 30, 1847.

138 Chicago Journal April 8 and Aug. 1, 1848.

U3B. and S. Sporting in Wisconsin. Porter’s Spirit oj the Times 19 (Aug. 11, 1849) 29S.

313 Hoy, P. R. Trans. Wis. Agr. Soc. jor 1852 (1853) p. 358.

318 Hoy, P. R. Proc. B'm. Nat. Hist. Soc. March, 1885, p. 8.

134 Chicago Journal Dec. 9, 1850.

110 Ibid. Jan. 14, 1852.

ill>> Ibid. Nov. 13 and Dec. 7, 1854.

337 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 24, 1853.

308 “Badger.” Grouse Shooting on the Prairies. Porter's Spirit of the Times 24 (Nov. 18,

1854) 476.

139 Madison Argus and Democrat July 31, 1854.

328 Madison State Journal Aug. 5 and 8, 1854.

323 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 20, 1854; Miwaukee (w) Wisconsin Dec. 27, 1854.

323 Porter’s Spirit oj the Times 24 (Oct. 28, 1854) 436.

323 Watertown Democrat Jan. 4, 18, and Aug. 30, 1855.

324 Madison Patriot Aug. 28, 1855.

325 Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin Aug. 30, 1855.

328 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 14, 1855.

327 Watertown Democrat Jan. 31, May 1, Nov. 13, and Dec. 25, 1856.

328 Madison Patriot Dec. 25, 1856.

329 “Weasel.” Porter’s Spirit oj the Times. N. S. 3 (Nov. 28, 1857) 20 2.

338 Janesville Gazette Aug. 10, 1857.

333 Madison Argus and Democrat Aug. 18, 1857.

332 Weyauwega Weyauwegan Nov. 15, 1857.

333 La Crosse National Democrat Oct. 13, 1857.

334 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 4, 1858.

335 [Bunner, J. C.] Janesville Standard Aug. 9, 1854.

338 Montello Express Feb. 27, 1875; [Pond], Fred. Am. Sportsman 5 (March 13, 1875) 379;

Waukesha Democrat March 13, 1875, town of Vernon.

337 [Pond], Fred. Rod and Gun 6 (April 3, 1875) 10; Ibid. 6 (Aug. 28, 1875) 323.

138 “Storax.” Chicago Field 15 (March 19, 1881) 91.

339 Eau Claire (w) Free Press Feb. 16, 1888; Friendship Press Jan. 21, 1888; Shullsburg

Local Feb. 12, 1888.

340 Chicago Journal Dec. 8, 1845.

343 Ibid. April 8, 1848.

342 Ibid. July 19, 1848.

143 Ibid. Feb. 16, 1850.

344 Ibid Jan. 13, 1851; March 8, 1851.

145 Ibid. Jan. 3 and 8, 1853.

:48 Washington (I).C.) National Intelligencer Feb. 21, 1846.

58

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

347 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 24, 1853.

348 Milwaukee (w) Wisconsin Jan. 26, 1853; Juneau Gazette Jan. 28, 1853.

149 Milwaukee Sentinel Feb. 2, 1853.

330 Watertown Democrat Dec. 21, 1854; Jan. 4 and 18, 1855.

3'r’3 Ibid. Jan. 31 and Dec. 25, 1856.

332 Ibid. May 1, 1856.

153 Madison (d) Patriot April 29, 1859.

irv4 Milwaukee News June 1,0, 1856; Madison State Journal June 12, 1856.

355 Janesville Gazette. From Madison (d) Patriot Feb. 21, 1860.

’•'^Madison (d) Argus and Democrat Aug. 17 and Sept. 7, 1861.

367 Milwaukee (w) Wisconsin Aug. 4, 1852.

138 [Bunner, J. C.] Janesville Democratic Standard Aug. 2 and 9, 1854.

359 Milwaukee (d) News Sept. 7, 1856.

360 Criddle, N. Canadian Field-Naturalist 44, No. 4 (April 1930) 77-80.

361 Yorke, Dr. F. H. Am. Field 32 (Oct. 26, 1889) 386.

u«2 “Wing Shot,” Ibid. 32 (Sept. 7, 1889) 220.

383 “Greener.” Ibid. 26 (Sept. 11, 1886) 245.

364 [Tanner, H. S.] Burlington (Iowa) Gazette and Advertiser July 27, 1837.

365 Nelson, E. W. Bull. Essex Institute 8 (1876) 121.

31,8 Brewer, T. M. In: Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, North American Birds: Land Birds.

Boston. Vol. 3 (1875) p. 437.

367 Keating, W. H. Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River. Philadel¬

phia, Vol. 1 (1824) p. 173.

383 Rodolf, Charles. In: History of Grant County, Wisconsin. Chicago (1881) p. 800.

389 V[alentine] , R. Am. Sportsman 3 (1874) 267.

370 Ibid. 2 (1873) 50-1.

173 C., S. C. Forest and Stream 13 (Oct. 9, 1879) 705.

1372 Schorger, A. W. Trans. IFir. Acad. Sci. 30 (1937) 118.

373 “Snap Shot.” Wilkes' Spirit of the Times 15 (Oct. 20, 1866) 129.

374 Milwaukee (d) News Dec. 31, 1856 (2).

175 New Lisbon Argus Aug. 30, 1859.

376 Van Dyke, T. S.> The Sharp-Tailed Grouse. Shooting and Fishing 10, No. 19 (Sept. 3,

1891) 10-11.

377 Smith, Horace. Sharp-Tailed Grouse Shooting. Turj, Field and Farm 18 (Jan. 30, 1874) 66.

378 Gross, A. O. Progress Report of the Wisconsin Prairie Chicken Investigation. Madison

(1930) p. 63.

379 Snyder, L. L. A Study of the Sharp-Tailed Grouse. Contribution No. 6, Royal Ontario

Museum of Zool. Toronto (1935).

380 Am. Sportsman 2 (Jan. 1873) 50-1.

383 Chicago Democrat Jan. 19, 1852.

382 Green Bay Advocate Nov. 16, 1854.

388 Leopold, A. Ref. 77, p. 174; 183a. P. 166.

384 Superior Gazette Nov. 4, 11, 1865.

185 Ibid. Nov. 5, 1864.

389 Superior Times Sept. 26, 1874.

187 Ibid. Aug. 25, 1883.

388 [Gibbs], Oliver. Wilkes' Spirit of the Times 20, No. 1 (Feb. 20, 1869) 1-2.

389 De Voe, Thomas F. The Market Assistant., N. Y. (1867) p. 161.

390 Main, Angelia K. Collecting with Thure Kumlien in 1862. Passenger Pigeon 1, No. 3

(March, 1939) 30.

393 “Snap Shot.” Wilkes' Spirit oj the Times 12 (May 27, 1865) 194.

392 Reedsburg Free Press Aug. 30, 1883.

393 Oshkosh. From Milwaukee (w) Wisconsin Sept. 10, 1851, [1],

394 King, F. H. Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds. Geology of Wisconsin 1 (1883) 591.

395 La Crosse (w) Democrat Aug. 11, 1863.

396 Prescott Transcript April 12, 1856.

397 Cf. refs. 169 and 176.

398 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 6. 1873.

399 Milwaukee Sentinel Sept. 19, 26, Oct. 3, 14.

Schorger — Prairie Chicken and Grouse in Wisconsin 59

300 W., C. W, Am. Field 19 (March 31, 1883) 192.

301 [Van Meter, A. C.) New Richmond Republican Feb. 3, 24, 1886.

302 Willard, S. W. Trans. Wis. Acad. Set. 6 (1881-3) 178.

203 Grundtvig, F. L. Ibid. 10 (1894-5) 106.

304 Schoenebeck, A. J. Birds of Oconto County, Kelly Brook [1902] p. 22.

206 Hampton, O. H. Forest and Stream 47 (Sept. 26, 1896) 246.

** Hough, ,-E. Ibid. 49 (Sept. 25, 1897) 247.

207 Hough, E. Ibid1 53 (Sept. 9, 1899) 207.

208 Hough, E. Ibid. 57 (1901) 168, 208.

CONSERVING ENDANGERED WILDLIFE SPECIES

Hartley H. T. Jackson

Most of us are familiar with some such expression as “gone

like the dodo,” “as extinct as the dodo,” or “as scarce as the

dodo.” The dodo was a huge, grotesque, aberrant member of

the pigeon tribe, reported to have first been discovered in 1497

by Vasco da Gama on the island of Mauritius. During many

years it carried the appropriate scientific name Didus ineptus,

for of all birds it was inept to meet the competition with humans

that was to confront it. About the size of a swan, ungainly, pot¬

bellied, wings so aborted that it lost the power of flight, ground¬

nesting and laying only a single egg, and unsuspicious to the

point of stupidity, it fell an easy prey to the crews of Dutch

ships that visited Mauritius during the first quarter of the seven¬

teenth century and to the Dutch who settled the island in 1644.

By 1693 the dodo was extinct. Likewise, a closely related bird

species, the solitaire of Rodriguez Island, became extinct about

the middle of the eighteenth century. These are striking ex¬

amples of what has happened to many species in the history of

the world fauna, sometimes, as in these cases, with known cause,

but more often with cause unknown. It is a regrettable event

to have to record the passing of any wildlife race, even though

the form may be of only esthetic or educational value. Once a

type becomes extinct, it never reappears. It behooves us to care

for what we have.

Possible Causes of Wildlife Reduction and Extinction

Many factors have probably been involved in the extinction

of animals. In the geologic past before the advent of man we

might theorize on the causes of such extinctions not the result

* Based on a lecture delivered on January IS, 1941, to the class in wildlife conservation of the

Graduate School of the United States Department of Agriculture.

61

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

of man. Since man’s appearance on the scene in recent times,

with one or two possible exceptions all cases of wildlife extinction

can be lodged in his own hands. Causes other than from man’s

behavior may have resulted in heavy local losses in wildlife, or

often perhaps widespread, but such have rarely endangered the

existence of the species. It is difficult in most cases to determine

the cause or causes of an extinction. Often it appears that it

may be one chief factor, or again it may be several. Extinction

in every case was probably brought about at first by gradual

depletion of the population and through local extirpation. When

the population becomes reduced to a danger point, extinction may

come with unexpected rapidity. Dislike the assertion as we may,

in recent times the human species has been the prime factor in

the extermination of other species.

Man. — Man has aided in faunal destruction by the injudi¬

cious commercialized use of wildlife. In order to realize this we

have only to look back on the days of market hunting when

barrels of wild ducks, shorebirds, and pigeons regularly were

sold for little or nothing at market, and thousands of big game

animals were killed only for selling the hides as a cheap source

of leather. The plume hunters went by the board just in time

to save the snowy heron and reddish egret, which they had all

but exterminated. The whaling and sealing industries operated

for many years without restriction.

Hunting and trapping, although for the most part now well

under regulation, have taken heavy toll of certain species. Poach¬

ing, illegal hunting, and lack of protective laws still menace cer¬

tain forms of game animals, and some of our more important

fur animals have lacked sufficient protection. The apparently

inborn urge on the part of some outdoors men to shoot every con¬

spicuous and large living form of wildlife is a serious situation

for rare species and one that can be controlled only by conserva¬

tion education. Extension and improvement of travel facilities

in more recent years have increased pressure on wildlife.

Drainage, cultivation, stock raising, and other necessary arti¬

ficial changes of wildlife habitat have endangered many species.

Most of these environmental changes could not have been

avoided, yet often wildlife received no consideration when it

should have been given a place in the picture.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 63

The introduction of exotic species has often proven to be

detrimental to native forms, through either predation or com¬

petition. It need be mentioned here only such instances as the

introduction of the mongoose, a predator, into the West Indies

and Hawaii, and game animals such as the rabbit into Australia,

the American gray squirrel into England, the red deer into New

Zealand, and the non-game bird, the European starling, into the

United States — where it competes for nesting sites with hole¬

nesting birds, such as the crested flycatcher and the bluebird.

Natural environmental and ecological changes. — Most of the

natural environmental changes that adversely affected species

so as to enhance their extirpation probably were climatic. Some

of the major of these climatic changes resulted in the glacial

periods, or at least were associated with glaciers, the general

effects of which on the flora and fauna are known to most stu¬

dents of biology. Glaciers were the cause of breaking up the

geographic range of a species into discontinuous distribution

areas, sometimes so small as to endanger the existence of the

species. Changes of climate associated with glaciation so affec¬

ted the remnant population of many species as to be their death

knell, and in the late Pleistocene glacial deposits are found the

remains of many of these species, and even genera, existing then

for the last time. Glacial lake transformation, from fresh-water

Jake to acid lake, to sphagnum bog, and spruce woodland, com¬

pletely changed environmental conditions, often to the elimina¬

tion of some species. Other ecological transformations changed

the environment and with it the wildlife population. Volcanic

eruptions might well have completely annihilated local forms of

wildlife, as for example in the blowing off of the top of Volcan

Santa Maria, Guatemala, in 1903, and in the Mount Katmai,

Alaska, eruption in 1912. The eruption of Mount Pelee, Isle of

Martinique, Lesser Antilles, in 1902, quite possibly exterminated

the Martinique solitaire, an interestng and unique songbird.

Weather. — Weather conditions, aside from those changes

permanently effected by change of climate, may have adverse

effects on wildlife. Severe windstorms may, by creating clear¬

ings in the forest, actually improve local environment for some

wildlife species, yet a storm of the same intensity on a marsh or

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

a sandy area might destroy much of the wildlife. It is probable

that the Cape Sable seaside sparrow, found only on the salt

marshes of southwestern Florida, was wiped out of existence by

the Florida tornado of 1937. The possible effects of drought on

wildlife are fresh in our minds from conditions created by

drought in waterfowl nesting areas of the Northwest less than

a decade ago. Cold or wet seasons, especially during a breeding

season, may often reduce populations, and sometimes to a danger

point.

Struggle for existence. — The “struggle for existence” is an

old evolutionary term, more or less hackneyed; nevertheless,

overspecialization may place a species at a disadvantage in com¬

petition with forms less specialized and better able to meet com¬

petition and changed environment. Gigantism, a type of special¬

ization, may of itself have been a factor in the disappearace of

many of the gigantic reptiles and mammals of past ages.

Disease. — Evidence clearly indicates that diseases have at

times been important factors in reduction of populations of wild¬

life. Diseases and parasites, however, disseminate more freely

in dense populations, so that the effect is to produce population

fluctuations, or cycles. Beyond this initial reduction of such

populations, disease is probably not as a rule an important factor

in the extermination of a species.

Wildlife Species That Have Become Extinct

Although our own country in the past has abused its wild¬

life population to the extent of exterminating several species,

and has been negligent in many ways in preserving vanishing

forms, it has not been alone in this. Before considering extinct

North American animals, let us glance at the headstones of the

graves of some of the foreign species. No pretense is made here

to compile a complete list of extinct animals of foreign countries,

and only some of the more noteworthy or conspicuous are in¬

cluded.

In Europe, such an important mammal as the aurochs, an¬

cestral stock of some of our domestic cattle, which inhabited

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 65

large areas of central and southern Europe, and also northern

Africa, passed into the vanished species in Poland in 1627. A

few years later the tarpan, an ancestor of the domestic horse

found on the steppes of southeastern Russia, became extinct,

although a close relative, Przewalsky’s or the Mongolian, wild

horse, still exists in small numbers in Mongolia.

In Asia, Pere David’s deer that formerly inhabited parts of

North China is extinct in the wild state, and even in its native

country. At the time of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, some 200

animals, all that remained in China of this species, held in cap¬

tivity in a park near Peking, were killed for food. Fortunately,

a few animals had previously been sent to England by the Duke

of Bedford, where about 50 are now maintained at Woburn. Stel-

ler’s sea-cow, a huge manatee 30 or more feet long and weighing

upwards of 3 tons, first brought to the attention of science in

1741, met its doom in 1768 in supplying oil and food for man.

This huge manatee inhabited Copper and Bering Islands and

possibly other islands in Bering Sea. The Pallas cormorant, an

interesting fish-eating bird of the Commander and other Bering

Sea islands, became extinct in 1852.

Among wildlife species that have been exterminated in

Africa, the first to go by the acts of modern man was the blue

antelope, or blaaubok, which disappeared in 1799 from South

Africa. From South Africa also disappeared about 1875, through

hunting, the quagga, which resembled a donkey with zebra-like

stripes on its cape and neck only. Burchell’s zebra became ex¬

tinct in South Africa some 25 years later. In northern Africa,

in the mountains of the Algerian Sahara, the red gazelle has

probably vanished for all time.

Turning now to Australia and the South Sea Islands, those

giant flightless birds, the moas, disappeared from the feathered

fauna of New Zealand islands, probably between 950 and 1350

A. D. Undoubtedly the last remnants vanished through the

agency of man, although ancient Maori tradition and legends

refer to the moa as burnt up by the “fires of Tamaten” in times

long past, which may refer to its destruction by volcanic action.

Archey (1941) recognizes 19 species of these birds belonging

to six genera. In Australia itself the little plains rat-kangaroo

has not been seen since 1843, and the marsupial anteater vanished

in 1923.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Many forms of wildlife have become extinct in the Western

Hemisphere. Some of the earlier of these to vanish were insular

forms, such as Gosse’s macaw from Jamaica, about 1800. The

Cuban tri-colored macaw, chiefly through utilization for food,

became extinct in 1864. The history of Guadeloupe Island,

one of the Leeward Islands, portrays the extinction of three bird

species, the yellow-winged green parrot, the purple Guadeloupe

parakeet, and the Guadeloupe macaw. Strangely enough, an

island of like name in the eastern Pacific Ocean, Guadalupe Is¬

land, has witnessed the extirpation of the Guadalupe caracara

and probably the Guadalupe towhee and the Guadalupe rock

wren.

Several races of mammals formerly inhabiting North America

— in fact, in parts of the United States — have passed in the

procession of the vanished. The big dark buffalo of the north¬

eastern United States, the Pennsylvania bison, was last known

in Pennsylvania in 1801. The Maine giant mink, nearly twice

the size of our ordinary minks, that lived along the seacoasts of

Maine and Nova Scotia, became extinct in 1860. The eastern

puma, or cougar, was gone by about 1885. Of our grizzly bears,

the first to disappear was the Texas race (1890) , followed shortly

by the Plains grizzly (1895), and the Tejon grizzly of the arid

southwestern region of California (1898). Although the tax¬

onomic status of the grizzly bears is not entirely clear to our

satisfaction, it is, nevertheless, certain that many races of these

mammals are recognizable and that many of these have disap¬

peared. Among these extirpated forms may be mentioned the

California grizzly bear (1922), Sacramento Valley grizzly, Cali¬

fornia coast grizzly, Arizona grizzly, Black Hills grizzly, Navaho

grizzly, Mount Taylor grizzly, Utah grizzly, and Chelan grizzly.

Even such an insignificant mammal as the Gull Island meadow

mouse could not escape extinction when its habitat on Great Gull

Island, at the entrance of Long Island Sound, New York, was

covered by earth moved in grading the island for fortifications

sometime before 1898. Another inconspicuous small mammal,

the Amargosa meadow mouse, known only from a small tule

marsh at a spring near Shoshone, eastern Inyo County, Cali¬

fornia, had vanished by 1916 after the marsh had been burned

several times and been used for a pasture. The largest of our

elks, the Merriam elk of Arizona and New Mexico, was extermin-

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 67

I

5l

S

Former range and present range of grizzly bears in United States.

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ated by 1900 or before. The Audubon or Badlands bighorn sheep

of the Dakotas and eastern Montana was last known alive about

1914, and it is quite* probable that the lava beds or rimrock big¬

horn of southeastern Oregon and northwestern Nevada has gone.

No longer will any stockmen need to worry over depredations of

the big plains wolf, which ceased to exist about 1930.

Within the borders of the United States, five forms of birds

are now certainly extinct, namely, the great auk (1844) ; the

Labrador duck (1875) ; the passenger pigeon (last native wild

bird, 1908, last survivor in captivity, died of old age in the Cin¬

cinnati Zoological Gardens, September 1914) ; the heath hen,

or eastern representative of the prairie chicken, was last seen

alive on March, 11, 1932, and can be said to be extinct in 1933;

and the Carolina paroquet about 1935, or previous thereto. Two

other species are probably gone, the Eskimo curlew, of which

there have been only very indefinite and unsatisfactory records

for recent 'years, and the Cape Sable seaside sparrow, probably

wiped out of existence by the tropical hurricane of southern

Florida in 1937.

Endangered Wildlife Species

We shall not go into details as to the status of all foreign

vanishing and endangered wildlife, but we should know at least a

few of the species that are in a more precarious condition in

continents other than our own. Europe, through private and

public game preserves, has been able to care for most of its wild¬

life species. The eagle owl has been persecuted and is in some

danger, and the white stork, though at least up to the time of the

present war well protected in Europe, where it nests, has been

depleted in numbers through being killed for food by natives in

its African winter home. The European brown bear is becoming

exceedingly rare, and the ibex and chamois are in danger, as

is also the European beaver. The visent, or European bison,

became so reduced in numbers that resort has been made to

crossing it with the American bison and domestic cattle of old-

lineage strain iivorder to retain some semblance of the species.

Even these may now be wiped out through economic strain of

wartime conditions.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 69

We have already mentioned the status of Przewalsky’s horse

in Asia, but in that continent the ancestor of the donkey, the

kiang, is so reduced in numbers as to be nearing the danger line.

Other Asian mammals in danger of extirpation include the sela-

dang, a huge wild ox of India; that large deer, the Malayan

sambhur ; and the three species of Indian rhinoceroses — -the Asia¬

tic two-horned, the Indian one-horned, and the lesser one-horned.

The last named has most likely already vanished. Many of the

species of pheasants especially need attention if they are to be

saved, and the Argus pheasant is actually endangered.

Africa, long known as the continent of many species of re¬

markable antelopes and other big game animals, has maintained,

particularly through the British and Belgian governments, ex¬

tensive game preserves, and as a rule offered protection to wild¬

life. In spite of this effort to save the fauna, however, a few

species have become extinct and several others are vanishing.

No less than a dozen species of antelopes are endangered, among

which is the beautiful inyala, now probably limited to about 200

individuals in Kruger Park. The Bubal hartebeest of North

Africa has become scarce, and the Cape hartebeest reduced to

about 40 animals. In the case of the bontebok of South Africa,

23 were driven in 1929 into an enclosure of 1800 acres set up as

Bontebok National Park. Of these animals, 16 survived and

some increase maintained half-domesticated. There are not over

60 bonteboks alive today. The blesbok, a closely related antelope,

is in about the same status as the bontebok. Other African

antelopes in danger of extirpation include the white-tailed gnu,

the giant sable antelope, the giant or Lord Darby’s eland, the

gemsbok, and the addax. The rare and unique okapi, modified

forest giraffe of the Congo forests, is decreasing in numbers.

Other mammals in serious danger in Africa include the Abyssin¬

ian ibex, mountain zebra, white rhinoceros, hippopotamus, South

African elephant, and gorilla. Among several African birds en¬

dangered is the unique shoebill stork.

Australia, the land of marsupials and many strange animals,

is on the verge of losing more of its unique species. Special

legislation prohibiting the taking of certain fur animals and

forbidding even the exportation of the fur or any part of the

animal may save some of these species. Especially in danger is

the koala, often nicknamed the “teddy bear,” and the gray wall-

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

aby, one of the larger kangaroos. The estimated population of

koalas in Australia decreased from 250,000 to 1,100 in a few

years before the establishment of a preserve for the species on

Phillip Island, Victoria, about 1938. In February 1942 there

were 590 koalas in this colony. The hairy-nosed wombat and

the Tasmanian wolf, or thalacine, are both nearing extermina¬

tion. It is doubtful if the beautiful lyre-bird can be saved. The

hawk parrot, as well as several other parrot species, are on the

way to oblivion.

In South America protection may have come too late to save

in its native habitat the now rare fur-bearer, the chinchilla, as

well as the guanaco, wild ancestor of the domesticated llama,

and the vicuna, native wild ancestor of the domesticated alpaca.

Three species of the ostrich-like bird, the rhea, are near the van¬

ishing status in South America, as are the bell bird, and the

steamer ducks, flightless ducks of Tierra del Fuego.

North America, where our interests more naturally center,

has a long list of endangered wildlife races, at least 50 in num¬

ber, of which all except one or two marine forms occur in the

United States or its territories. Several of the grizzly bears

have already gone, and within the states it would seem that

Yellowstone National Park and Glacier National Park offer

about the only real hope for their preservation. Black bears as

a group are reasonably safe, yet the Florida black bear is reduced

to less than 500 and is decreasing in population. That frosty-

gray bear of the black bear group, the glacier bear of Alaska

glaciers, is so scarce as to face extinction. Its remote and almost

inaccessible habitat may save it.

The fisher, the marten, and the wolverine have all been re¬

duced so much by their being trapped for fur that they are

almost gone from the United States and reduced to the danger

point everywhere in North America. The black-footed ferret,

formerly found on the plains with a geographic range almost

coinciding with that of the prairie dog, was never a common

mammal, but has become rarer and rarer, until now it is seldom

reported. The southern sea otter was a few years ago believed

extinct, when unexpectedly a small herd was discovered south of

Carmel, Monterey County, on the coast of California. This herd

now numbers about 300 animals or more, though recently tend-

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 71

ing to become scattered. It is protected and guarded carefully,

which may with proper management suffice to save the race from

extinction.

The unsuspecting little kit fox of our western plains was not

only easily trapped for its fur but also frequently was caught

in traps set for coyotes and other animals. No restrictions seem

to have been placed on killing it, with the result that what was

once a common mammal is now rare, and in many regions ex¬

tirpated. The timber wolf of the northeastern states could

hardly be expected to withstand settlements and civilization and

has almost succumbed to the inevitable. In fact, all the large

wolves of the United States are endangered. The eastern puma,

or cougar, has been exterminated. Among the other cougars,

the Florida subspecies is the most endangered, there being prob¬

ably less than 25 individuals left.

Several of our seals are reduced to the point where we should

take serious concern for them. The Guadalupe fur seal of the

west coast of Mexico has reached too low a population for its

safety, and may have even vanished, and both the West Indian

monk seal and the Pacific monk seal have become rare and re¬

duced to local habitats. That oddity of seals, the elephant seal

of the Pacific Coast, has shown some recovery during the past

decade, but is still in a precarious condition. On the North At¬

lantic coast, the beautiful hooded seal has been hunted for oil and

fur until it, too, is in danger. The Pacific walrus, while in some

danger,. is not reduced to the vanishing stage, as appears to be

the case with the Atlantic walrus.

We correctly think of the white-tailed deer as our most abun¬

dant big-game animal, yet the Pacific white-tail is down to about

1000 animals, and was supposed to have a much lower popula¬

tion until Dr. Victor B. Scheffer (1940) gave an account of a

herd at the mouth of the Columbia River. The key deer, in¬

habiting a few of the lower Florida keys, is very rare, local in

distribution, and probably does not number more than 40 indi¬

viduals. It was reduced by the hurricane of 1937, and has been

over-hunted and subjected to poaching until only a few remain.

When the mad rush for gold was on in California during the

middle of the nineteenth century, the great valley of California,

the combined valleys of the San Joaquin and the Sacramento

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Rivers, abounded in a small elk with simple antlers, the Califor¬

nia valley or tule elk. It soon became scarce. A remnant was

protected on the Miller and Lux Ranch, Button willow, Kern

County, California. In an effort to save these animals, which

may have reached a, total of 350 or 400 animals in 1921, some

were transplanted in Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks. In

1933 all of these, and several from the Buttonwillow herd, were

transferred to a reservation with good elk-pasture features in

Owens Valley. Today there probably exist alive not over 150 of

these elks, nearly all in Owens Valley, though a few may still

survive on the Buttonwillow Ranch.

The last woodland caribous seen in Maine were near Mount

Katahdin in 1908. They had disappeared from New Hampshire

and Vermont about the middle of the nineteenth century. Fifteen

occur in northern Minnesota, only two of which are native, the

others being from stock brought in from Saskatchewan. In

Canada also the woodland caribou is vanishing, and in many

regions where it was once common it is now gone. The eastern

moose, while not in so much immediate danger as the woodland

caribou, is nevertheless rapidly approaching a precarious situa¬

tion.

All of our bighorn sheep should give us cause for worry. Two

forms are in especial danger. The Sierra bighorn may be re¬

duced to less than 75 animals, and the Texas bighorn, at one time

thought to be extirpated, is reduced to some 125 animals scat¬

tered in 6 or 8 mountain ranges and engaged in an almost hope¬

less fight through competition with domestic sheep and goats,

and illegal hunting, unless reservation provisions are offered it.

The desert bighorn, through the establishment of national ref¬

uges in Arizona and Nevada for its preservation, has, we hope,

been saved.

Unique among all mammals, the odd looking musk-ox, which

resembles somewhat a miniature shaggy-haired buffalo and com¬

bines certain features of the cattle tribe on the one hand with

those of the sheep on the other, is dwindling in numbers. Al¬

though formerly occurring in the barren grounds from northern

Alaska to eastern Greenland, it is at present found native only

on the east coast of Greenland and in Arctic barrens directly

3'iorth and northwest of Hudson Bay as far as about latitude 83

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 73

degrees. Even within these ranges musk-oxen inhabit only cer¬

tain areas, and there are immense expanses where none occurs.

Attempts are being- made by the Canadian government to colon¬

ize the species in the Dominion. Of an initial stock of 34 musk¬

oxen brought by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service

from Greenland via Norway and the United States to Alaska

in 1930, and held at the United States Biological Survey Ex¬

periment Station, Fairbanks, for study and acclimatization, 4

animals in 1935 and 27 in 1936 were introduced on Nunivak

Island National Wildlife Refuge in Bering Sea. This introduc¬

tion had in 1941 increased to more than 100 animals.

Stories and legends about mermaids originated in supersti¬

tions about those peculiar aquatic mammals, the dugongs and

the manatees. In their present distribution, dugongs inhabit

only parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, whereas the three species

of manatees occur only in the Atlantic coastal waters of America

from Florida to Brazil. The manatees are harmless mammals

that feed on aquatic vegetation. All may be included in the en¬

dangered list, but the most northerly form, the Florida manatee,

is in an especially critical status. Ample legal protection, it

would seem, is afforded the animal, but laws are not always

enforced, and many are wantonly shot. Sudden drops in tem¬

perature to freezing, or two or three nights of freezing weather,

often kill manatees.

Even some of our smaller game mammals need especial pro¬

tection if we expect to continue them as a part of our American

life. The northeastern fox squirrel and the mangrove fox

squirrel are both at such low population as to be near the van¬

ishing point.

With their high value for oil and other commercial products,

all the large whales face probable serious reduction in numbers.

Three species are now at the danger point. The gray whale,

found off shores in the north Pacific and at one time important

in the whaling industry, is so reduced in numbers that only a

few are procured annually. The bowhead whale, some 50 feet

long and with massive, heavy head, formerly occurred through¬

out the oceans near the North Pole. It became extirpated in the

north Atlantic some 50 years ago and is now limited to a sparse

population in Bering Sea and towards the northeast thereof.

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The North Atlantic right whale, another massive whale that pro¬

duced a heavy yield of oil and whalebone, was so eagerly sought

by whalers in the North Atlantic that it has been reduced almost

to extirpation. This species has long ceased to be an item of

commercial importance. The Whaling Treaty Act of 1936 should

tend towards conservation of whales. Nevertheless, during 1937-

1938, there were 54,664 whales killed, a yearly high for all time.

Of these, 46,039 were captured in the Antarctic region. What

effect World War II will have on whales and the whaling indus¬

try is problematic. There is need for whale products in war in¬

dustries, but there is also demand for the use of ships employed

in whaling for other war purposes. Moreover, the risk in whal¬

ing during war times may tend to curtail the industry.

There are many North American birds that are in a more or

less precarious situation as to their future existence. Some of

these, such as Leach’s petrel, reddish egret, Franklin’s grouse,

southern white-tailed ptarmigan, sage hen, golden plover, and

upland plover, it would appear are holding their own, or possibly

on the uptrend, though once greatly reduced in numbers and

hard pressed. Others are in the more precarious class. The

great white heron population of extreme southern Florida shows

no appreciable increase, although protection is afforded these

birds on the Great White Heron Refuge, where about half of all

birds dwell. In October 1938 Alexander Sprunt, ! Jr., counted a

total of 585 great white herons; in February 1941 Harold L.

Peters counted 551, of which 290 were on the National Great

White Heron Refuge. The roseate spoonbill, beautifully colored

and grotesque of bill as the name implies, is possibly in more

danger as a nester in the United States than the great white

heron, though actually at present more birds exist. It is found

in the same general region of Florida as the great white heron,

but has a supplementary chance for survival in a larger colony

in Texas. There are a considerable number of the birds in Mex¬

ico. The Florida nesting birds are decreasing in numbers. The

Texas nesters have increased, but are in constant danger from

possible destruction through oil development.

Another strictly American bird being preserved by refuge

management is the trumpeter swan, the largest of American

waterfowl. Formerly nesting from northwestern Iowa and cen-

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species

75

Map 2. Former breeding range and present breeding range of

trumpeter swan in the United States.

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

tral Nebraska northwesterly to central British Columbia and

Alberta, it is now limited during the breeding season to the

vicinity of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and the Red

Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana, and to a refuge

at an undesignated locality in western Canada. At each of these

breeding areas, the birds are being carefully guarded. In the

Yellowstone-Red Rock Lakes regions there has been an increase

from 33 birds in 1934 to 211 birds in 1941. In Hawaii, the

nene, or Hawaiian goose, has faced destruction by man and the

mongoose. There may be 100 or more of these dryland geese in

captivity, but the species is probably reduced to about 25 indi¬

viduals in its native wild state. The Laysan teal is another of

duck-and-goose tribe confined to Laysan Island southwest of

Hawaii. It is at an extremely low ebb, and though inhabiting

a national bird refuge, it may pass into history at any time, if

it has not already gone. There were only 14 birds left on the

island in 1923.

Many of our birds of prey, even though actually beneficial

species, have been shot on sight as harmful, or considered legit¬

imate targets on which to test marksmanship. Practically all

species of this group have been reduced in numbers. Probably

the most seriously endangered is the California condor, master¬

ful airman of graceful flight and grandeur, and man’s benefactor

as a destroyer of carrion. The California condor formerly

ranged west of the Sierra Nevada from Washington to Lower

California, and in the days of the “forty-niners” was not rare.

It is now reduced to not more than 70 individuals, most of which

make their home in a comparatively small isolated valley in a

range of mountains in southwestern California. Two other birds

of graceful flight and beauty and both of harmless habits, the

white-tailed kite of the southwestern United States and the Ever¬

glade kite of Florida, are extremely reduced in numbers. The

whitetail is probably in less danger than the Everglade, since its

present distribution is more extensive and it is known to nest

in several scattered colonies. The Everglade kite, however, is

known to nest in the United States only in the vicinity of Lake

Okeechobee, Florida, where there are only a few pairs of birds.

Three of our gallinaceous birds are approaching the vanish¬

ing point. None of the existing races of prairie chickens is in

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 77

any too satisfactory a status, and one of them, Attwater’s prairie

chicken, is reduced to approximately 8,000 birds inhabiting

scarcly more than 5 percent of the former range of the race.

The population of these prairie chickens has been reduced not

only by hunting but also by general agricultural and grazing

practices, and by excessive rainfall during the nesting season.

The masked bobwhite, formerly occurring in fair numbers within

the United States near the Mexican border, became extirpated

except for local colonies in Sonora, Mexico. From this meager

Mexican supply an effort has been made to restock the species

in Arizona and New Mexico. The eastern wild turkey, the native

wild turkey of our Atlantic coast colonists, has all but disap¬

peared as a pure-strain wild turkey. A few of them still inhabit

the region of the lower Santee River in South Carolina, from

which, under the auspices of the United States Fish and Wildlife

Service, 15 birds were placed on Bull’s Island, South Carolina, a

national wildlife refuge, in 1939-1940. This stock has increased,

and will provide another flock of pure-strain wild birds. Else¬

where there are birds that show characteristics of the original

native stock, but a large portion of the population shows crossing

with domestic turkeys.

The whooping crane, a white bird nearly man-high, formerly

occurred during migration from the Atlantic coast south to

Georgia and west to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, was known

to nest from Iowa and Nebraska north and northwest to Hudson

Bay and Mackenzie, and wintered in huge flocks in the Gulf

States. Being big and conspicuous, and an inhabitant of the

open places, it afforded “something to shoot at” for the un¬

principled gunner who was out only to kill. It was reduced to

a low population of possibly not more than 25 individuals by

about 1925, and even today there are almost certainly less than

100 living. They no longer nest in the United States, and the

wintering flocks sojourn chiefly in Texas. Each winter a few

visit the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in southern Texas,

26 individuals having been observed there during the winter of

1940-1941. The Florida sandhill crane, a grayish bird smaller

than the whooping crane, confined to only a few nesting localities

in Florida and one in Georgia, is dwindling in numbers and can

be saved only by diligent protection.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Several shorebirds are becoming scarce, even though provided

protection through the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. The last

specimen record of an Eskimo curlew for the United States was

in Nebraska in April 1915, though a bird was collected in Ar¬

gentina in January 1925. One was reported as a sight record

from Hastings, Nebraska, April 8, 1926. There are no reliable

Map 3. Former range and present range

of Attwater’s prairie chicken in Texas.

records since then, and the species is probably gone. Of other

shorebirds, the Hudsonian godwit seems to be nearest the van¬

ishing point. It nests on the “Barren Grounds” from Alaska to

Hudson Bay, and migrates to winter in South America. It be¬

came greatly reduced during the game-marketing days of the

eighties and nineties and has never been able to recover.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 79

The largest and most magnificent woodpecker of the United

States, the ivory-billed woodpecker, is now lowered to a few in¬

dividuals. Probably all of these, and certainly most of them, are

in a heavily forested tract in Louisiana. Dense forests of large

trees are essential for the existence of the ivorybill. Unless its

Louisiana home can be saved from the lumberman’s ax, the

ivorybill is doomed. And with the urgent war call of “Timber!

Timber!” the outlook for retaining this species in our fauna is

not hopeful.

Three of our small passerine birds have approached the

danger line. One of these, the dusky kinglet, a midget bird of

Guadalupe Island, Lower California, may now have followed

other vanished birds on that island. Bachman’s warbler of the

southeastern United States, always in recent times a rare bird,

barely maintains its population, and in general appears to be on

the decline. The Ipswich sparrow, a species related to the sav¬

annah sparrows, has a breeding range restricted to small Sable

Island, Nova Scotia, and in winter is found from there south

along the sand dunes of the Atlantic coast to Georgia. On Sable

Island it nests only near the beach. Wave action from severe

storms may at any time destroy its nesting habitat.

Both the American crocodile and the Mississippi alligator

have decreased in numbers in their habitats in the swamps of

the southeastern states. The crocodile never occurred within

our United States boundaries proper except in extreme southern

Florida. It differs from the alligator in its longer and slenderer

body, its much more pointed snout, and longer teeth. Both the

crocodile and the alligator have been hunted for their hides for

use in leather manufacture. Many of them have also been

wantonly killed out of sheer prejudice and hatred for an un¬

gainly reptilian with an unfriendly appearance. The catching

of the young of both species and commercializing their sale as

pets to be transplanted to a more northern climate unsuited to

them has killed hundreds. The crocodile is almost a relic of the

past in the United States. The alligator, under proper protec¬

tion, will probably stay with us.

Of our highly edible fishes, two species of sturgeons, the

common and the lake, have been so reduced in numbers, largely

by commercial fisheries, as not only to have become of little

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

commercial importance but also are in actual danger of extinc¬

tion. The Lake Superior whitefish, to many of us the grandest

of all table fish, finds itself in almost the same status as the

sturgeons. And on our eastern coast, the thousands of Atlantic

salmon that formerly, early in summer, ascended many of the

New England streams to spawn, now migrate only by hundreds

in one or two rivers, more notably the Penobscot.

Some Species That Have Recovered

Dark as the picture is for many of the wildlife forms before

mentioned, there is a light of hope for saving some of them if

appropriate action is taken. Examples we have of wildlife

species that have recovered after being on the verge of extinc¬

tion offer that illumination. The American bison roamed the

prairies and plains of the United States and Canada in herds

that in pioneer times certainly aggregated more than 50,000,000

animals. By the close of the nineteenth century, the population

had probably reached its low at a total of about 800 animals.

The American Bison Society estimated 1,917 living animals in

1908. Shortly afterwards, through the efforts of that Society,

the National Bison Range was established under the adminis¬

tration of the Biological Survey on land formerly a part of the

Flathead Indian Reservation, Montana. It was stocked October

17, 1909, with 37 bisons, all but one from a private herd at Kalis-

pell, Montana. This was, really the beginning of the upbuild of

the American bison population. Today there are more than

5,000 bisons in the United States, mostly confined to ranches,

parks, and refuges, and another possible 30,000 on refuges in

Canada, a total of not less than 35,000. Nineteen bisons from

the National Bison Range were introduced into the Big Delta

region, near Fairbanks, Alaska, and had in 1941 increased to

more than 200 animals. In this region they are given free

range. Modern civilization and agricultural practices in most

localities in the United States no longer make possible the free-

ranging of vast migrating hordes of big-game animals. We can,

nevertheless, save a species from extinction as witness the bison.

That peculiarly American mammal, the prong-horned an¬

telope, through protection of refuges and by management and

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 81

Map 4. Former range and present range of the American elk in the United States.

Most of the present range population is from introduction of Rocky Mountain elks, including the

areas of Nevada and southwestern Utah outside the original range. The area in eastern California out¬

side the former range boundaries indicates the transplant of tule elks.

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

limiting control, has increased from a low of about 30,000 in

1920 to 175,000 in 1941. And the American elk, or wapiti, by

transplantation of individuals of the Rocky Mountain subspecies,

mainly from Yellowstone National Park and the National Elk

Refuge in northwestern Wyoming, has been reestablished in

many localities where it formerly dwelt. A few bands of elks

have even been established in localities outside their ancestral

distribution, including herds of Rocky Mountain elks in south¬

western Utah and Nevada, and tule elks in eastern California.

The combined populations of all forms of elks have increased in

the United States from a low of near 20,000 in 1905 to more

than 200,000 in 1940.

One of the outstanding examples of saving an animal from

extinction and restoring a valuable natural resource is that of

the Alaska fur seal. Briefly outlined, the history may begin

with a fur seal population of more than 4,000,000 animals in

1867, when the United States purchased Alaska. Commercial

exploitation, with its associated pelagic sealing, or taking seals

at sea, and its almost unrestricted killing of seals, rapidly re¬

duced the population. By 1911 the population had been reduced

to 125,000 seals, less than the annual kill in some previous years.

On December 15, 1911, a convention for the preservation and

protection of fur seals was entered into force, to which the

United States, England, Canada, Japan, and the Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics were parties. Pelagic sealing by the na¬

tionals of each country was abolished. Management of fur seals

on the breeding rookeries was left chiefly to the nation having

jurisdiction over the locality. The United States, therefore, had

charge of the great seal rookeries on the Pribilof Islands, prob¬

ably involving more than 85 percent of the breeding stock. Pro¬

vision was made for each of the nations to turn over to other

nations of the convention a percentage of the seal skins taken on

its shores. Under this protection, the seal herds increased to

about 2,300,000 in 1941, and under managed cropping 800,000

fur seal pelts were harvested in 20 years, from 1921 to 1940.

The convention, however, was terminated on October 23, 1941,

Japan having withdrawn after one year’s notification of her

intentions.

There are several species of birds that have made recover}'

Fig. 1. Desert bighorn, or Nelson’s mountain sheep. A middle-aged ram at

Boulder Canyon Wildlile Refuge, Nevada.

Fig. 2. Trumpeter swan. Red Rock Lakes National

Wildlife Refuge, Montana.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 83

after being near the border of death as a species. Possibly

among the most notable of these are the American egret and

the snowy heron. Both of these species were nearly wiped out

by “plume hunters’’ who sought the adult birds during the breed¬

ing season in order to procure feathers for millinery purposes.

The American egret, transcontinental over the southern United

States, has now become a common bird, and it would seem may

have extended its breeding range to the northward beyond its

ancestral range. The snowy heron, although not showing the

rebound of its sister heron, is nevertheless no longer in serious

danger. That most beautiful of all American ducks, the wood

duck, has also increased from a low population to one sufficient

for insuring with ample protection the continuance of the species.

Methods of Preserving Species

The most important factor in preserving wildlife species is

that we control ourselves until man will no longer be the most

destructive animal. Such control is making progress, though

often against the inclinations of the man who sees in wildlife

only an easy outlet for self-gain without regard to his own

future or that of the following generations. General methods

of conservation are now well formulated. Possibilities for im¬

provement naturally will present themselves. The essential

thing is to act when we know what should be done. Federal,

state, and county governments and national and local organiza¬

tions all have a hand in this work. When a widely distributed

species is endangered, however, it becomes a national problem,

and as such should be entrusted to our national wildlife agency,

the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

Adequate organization is needed to administer funds and

work projects, to supervise activities, to enforce legal protective

acts, and to manage wildlife and wildlife areas.

Legal protection, both federal and state, is a necessity. The

many state fish, game, and other wildlife laws are not familiar

in detail to most of my readers, but we all know there are many

such serving a useful purpose. Among national laws there is

the famous Lacey Act (Act of May 25, 1900, 31 Stat. 187 — 18

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

U. S. C. 395) regulating- interstate commerce in wild birds and

other animals. A similar law passed in 1926 applies to inter¬

state transportation of black bass. The bald eagle, our national

bird symbol, has been given legal protection (Act of June 8,

1940, 54 Stat. 250). Other federal laws have provided for na¬

tional wildlife refuges or provided for protecting wild animals

and birds and their eggs and government property on federal

refuges.

The range of many species of wildlife, particularly during

migrations, may cover territory of more than one nation, or

species may inhabit international ocean waters. When such is

the case and protection is necessary, resort is made to treaties

among the nations involved. Agreement is made to a convention

between or among the nations covering the essential reasons for

acting and the objective and means of accomplishment. An en¬

abling act on the part of each nation is necessary for enforce¬

ment action on the part of that nation. Thus Migratory Bird

Treaty Act (Act of July 3, 1918, 40 Stat. 755, as amended by

Act of June 20, 1936, 49 Stat. 1555—16 U. S. C. 703-711) and

the Migratory Bird Conservation Act (Act of February 18, 1929,

45 Stat. 1222, as amended June 15, 1935, 49 Stat. 381 — 16 U.

S. C. 715) are enabling acts a “Convention between the United

States and Great Britain for the Protection of Migratory Birds

in the United States and Canada,” as signed in Washington on

>

August 16, 1916, ratified by both the United States and Great

Britain the same year, and proclaimed on December 8, 1916.

A “Convention between the United States of America and the

United Mexican States for the Protection of Migratory Birds

and Game Animals” was signed at Mexico City, February 7,

1936; ratified by the United States on October 8, 1936, and by

Mexico on February 12, 1937 ; and proclaimed on March 15,

1937 (50 Stat. 1311).

Among other important treaties relating to wildlife is the

“Whale Treaty.” The “Convention for the Regulation of Whal¬

ing” was signed by representatives of 26 countries, including the

United States, at Geneva on March 16, 1932, and was approved

for ratification by the United States Senate on June 10, 1932.

The enabling act put the treaty into effect on May 1, 1936. An

enabling act may give authority for action, but may neglect

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 85

appropriations for operations. Such is the case with the Whal¬

ing Treaty Act. The important Fur Seal Treaty has heretofore

been mentioned.

On October 12, 1940, in the Pan-American Building at Wash¬

ington, D. C., representatives of 13 American republics signed

the “Inter-American Convention on Nature Protection and Wild¬

life Preservation.” Since then others have approved. Now 17

have signed the pact. When this treaty is completed and in

operation, it should aid materially in the protection of many

forms of wildlife, more especially of birds, such as some of the

curlews and plovers, that might migrate between the two con¬

tinents.

Permanent refuges, sanctuaries, parks, primitive or wilder¬

ness areas, or whatever you may call them, carefully selected and

maintained as the optimum habitat for the species, are essen¬

tial for the preservation of endangered wildlife. By refined

definition the terms refuge, sanctuary, park, and primitive area

have distinct and different meanings. Sometimes a refuge is

called a preserve, reservation, or range. Often, however, in actual

usage in proper names, any one name may apply to an area

established for the preservation of nature, including wildlife, or

primarily for saving a species. The old adage “What’s in a

name?” here applies. All of them serving for wildlife preserva¬

tion, we find such as the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge in

Oklahoma; the Desert Game Range in Nevada; the Thelon Game

Sanctuary in Canada; the Yellowstone National Park in Wyom¬

ing; the Kruger National Park in the Union of South Africa;

the Parc National Albert in the Belgian Congo; and the Sierra

Primitive Area in California.

Frequently, in order to insure suitable environment, a refuge

is established on an area including the remnant of a species, and

from that' remnant as breeding stock effort is made to increase

the population. Several refuges in the United States have been

established in this way, such as the Sheldon National Antelope

Refuge and the Charles Sheldon Antelope Range, Nevada, for

prong-horned antelopes; the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife

Refuge, Montana, for trumpeter swans ; the National Elk Refuge

in Wyoming, and the National Great White Heron Refuge in

Florida. Often transplantation of stock to a suitable area is

86 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

necessary. This was the case in the establishment of bisons on

the National Bison Range, Montana; muskoxen on the Nunivak

Island National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska; bisons, elks, and prong¬

horned antelopes on the Wichita Mountains National Wildlife

Refuge, Oklahoma; and eastern wild turkeys on Bull’s Island,

South Carolina.

Improvement of habitat, always based on research as to the

needed environment, may change living conditions of a small

population of a species so as to be the determining factor in its

preservation. Artificial means thus applied for wildlife restora¬

tion should tend to restore the natural environment of the species

or create adaptable substitutes. The means are many and in¬

clude various types of water restoration; change in vegetative

types used by wildlife for food and cover; creation of nesting

sites; and control of predators and parasites, often necessary

when a wildlife type is nearing the vanishing point.

Domestication and cross-breeding have been suggested as

having a place in saving an endangered wildlife species, but

these methods should be employed only as a last resort. Species

so treated for many generations, such as the dog, the cat, the

horse, the water-buffalo, the ox, the sheep, the chicken, the

turkey, and others, have all lost the characteristics of the wild

ancestral stock and developed into many varieties. Fur-farming

may save the silver fox, a color variation of the red fox, but in

so doing it may so change its characteristics through rearing

that the native type would vanish. In order to save the Euro¬

pean bison, or wisent, the cross-breeding of it with an old-lineage

strain of domestic cattle has been practiced in Germany and

with the American bison in the Ukrane, Union of Soviet Social¬

ist Republics.

The photographs are from the files of the United States Fish

and Wildlife Service. All maps were prepared by Mrs. Katheryn

Tabb, of Biological Surveys, Fish and Wildlife Service.

References and Collateral Readings

Anonymous

1940. The status of wildlife in the United States, Report of Special Com¬

mittee on Conservation of Wildlife Resources, 76th Cong., 3rd sess.,

457 pp., 74 pis.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 87

1942. Text of federal laws relating to the protection of wildlife. Fish and

Wildlife Service, Wildlife Circular 12, 30 pp.

Archey, Gilbert

1941. The moa: a study of the Dinomithiformes. Bull. Auckland Inst,

and Mus. No. 1, 145 pp., illus. May 29.

Barbour, Thomas, and Margaret D. Porter

1935. Notes on South African wild life conservation parks and reserves.

Special publ. Amer. Committee for International Wild Life Protec¬

tion, no. 7, 34 pp., 3 pis.

Beard, Daniel B., Frederick C. Lincoln, Victor H. Cahalane, Hartley H. T.

Jackson, and Ben H. Thompson

1942. Fading trails: the story of endangered American wildlife. XV plus

279 pp., 20 pis. The Macmillian Co., New York. September 1.

Brouwer, G.

1938. The organization of nature protection in the various countries. Spec¬

ial publ. Amer. Committee for International Wild Life Protection,

no. 9, 112 pp.

Elliott, Charles N.

1940. Conservation of American resources. XI plus 672 pp., illus. Turner

E. Smith Co., Atlanta.

Ely, Alfred, H. E. Anthony, and R. R. M. Carpenter

1939. North American big game. 533 pp., illus. Charles Scribner’s Sons,

New York.

Gabrielson, I. N.

1938. What can we do about out rare and vanishing species? Scientific

American, pp. 4-8. January 1938.

1941. Wildlife conservation. Chapter 13, pp. 184-193, “Rare and vanishing

species.” The Macmillian Company, New York.

Garretson, Martin S.

1938. The American bison. New York Zool. Soc. 254 pp., illus.

Hone, Elisabeth

1933. African game protection: an outline of the existing game reserves

and national parks, with notes on certain species of big game nearing

extinction, or needing additional protection. Special publ. Amer.

Committee for International Wild Life Protection, no. 3, 45 pp.

1934. The present status of the muskox. Special publ. Amer. Committee

for International Wild Life Protection, no. 5, 87 pp., 4 pis., 2 maps.

Hornaday, William T.

1913. Our vanishing wild life. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. 411

pp., illus.

Hoy, P. R.

1882. The larger wild animals that have become extinct in Wisconsin.

Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, vol. 5, pp. 255-257.

Hubback, Theodore

1937. Principles of wild life conservation. Game and Gun, London. 24 pp.

88

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Kellogg, Remington

1940. Whales, giants of the sea. Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 35-90,

illus. in colors. January.

Kies, C. H. M. H., Mrs. Heynsius-Viruly, and F. C. Van Heurn

1936. Nature protection in the Netherlands Indies (a translation from sup¬

plement to Contrib. no. 10 of the Nederlandsche Commissie voor In¬

ternationale Natuurbescherming) . Special publ. Amer. Committee

for International Wild Life Protection, no. 8, 73 pp.

Lehmann, Valgene W.

1941. Attwater’s prairie chicken: its life history and management. North

American Fauna No. 57, V plus 65 pp., 15 pis. U. S. Department of

the Interior.

Lucas, Frederic A.

1891. Animals recently extinct or threatened with extermination, as rep¬

resented in the collections of the U. S. National Museum. Rept.

U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1889, pp 609-649, illus.

McAtee, Waldcx Lee

1911. Our vanishing shorebirds. U. S. Biological Survey Circular 79.

Mershon, W. B.

1907. The passenger pigeon. Outing Publishing Co., New York.

Moore, R. T., and Arthur Barr

1941. Habits of the whitetailed kite. The Auk, vol. 53, pp. 453-462.

O’Malley, Henry

1930. Fur-seal industry of Pribilof Islands, Alaska. U. S. Department of

Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Economic Circular No. 71, 15 pp.,

illus.

Oseorn, Henry Fairfield, and H. E. Anthony

1922. Close of the age of mammals. Jour. Mamm., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 219-237.

November.

Pough, Richard H.

1937. An inventory of threatened and vanishing species. Trans. Second

North American Wildlife Conference, pp. 599-604.

Scheffer, Victor B.

1940. A newly located herd of Pacific white-tailed deer. Jour. Mamm.,

vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 271-282. August.

Seton, Ernest Thompson

1929. Lives of game animals. 4 vols., illus. Doubleday, Doran and Comp¬

any, New York.

Shoemaker, Henry W.

1917. Extinct Pennsylvania animals. Part I, The panther and the wolf.

Altoona Tribune Publ. Co., Altoona, Pa. 134 pp., illus.

SURBER, THADDEUS

1940. The vanished and the vanishing wild life through the years. Con¬

servation Volunteer, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 26-29. Minnesota Dept, of

Conservation, Saint Paul. November.

Jackson — Conserving Endangered Wildlife Species 89

Ward, John E.

1940. The passing of the lyre-bird. New York Zool. Soc. Bull., vol. 63,

no. 5, pp. 146-152, 'illus. October.

The above titles represent only a few of many writings on endangered

species and their conservation. Others are to be found in the publications of

scientific and conservation organizations, such as the following:

American Bison Society,

New York Zoological Park,

New York, New York.

American Committee on International Wildlife Protection,

Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

American Ornithologists’ Union,

Dr. Lawrence E. Hicks, Secretary,

Ohio State University,

Columbus, Ohio.

American Society of Mammalogists,

Dr. Emmet T. Hooper, Secretary,

University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, Michigan.

American Wildlife Institute,

Washington, D. C.

Comite Beige pour la Protection de la Nature,

Brussels, Belgium.

Emergency Conservation Committee,

734 Lexington Avenue,

New York, New York.

Fish and Wildlife Service,

U. S. Department of the Interior,

Chicago, Illinois.

National Audubon Society,

1006 Fifth Avenue,

New York, New York.

National Park Service,

U. S. Department of the Interior,

Chicago, Illinois.

Office International pour la Protection de la Nature,

Brussels, Belgium.

Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire,

Hertford, England.

Biological Surveys, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D. C

/

THE COTTONTAIL AND THE WEATHER

Harold C. Hanson

Department of Wildlife Management, University of Wisconsin

During the winter of 1941-42, a hundred cottontail rabbits

were trapped near Prairie du Sac, Wisconsin. The daily catch

through a period of three months shows fluctuations which seem

to correspond to fluctuations in barometric pressure.

A number of authors have noted increased catches or greater

activity in mammals during certain types of weather, but none

has suggested that these responses might be in phase with some

one component of the weather. Bole (2) has pointed out that

sudden peak catches of Blarina and Sorex fumeus often occurred

on cool humid nights preceding or following rain. The writer

has had similar experiences in trapping small mammals. Burt

(3) believed that dark rainy nights produce better catches of

Peromyscus leucopus than clear moonlit nights. Allen (1)

thought the activity of fox squirrel in winter to be conditioned

by temperature and snow depth. Studying the same species,

Hicks (5) noted that extremes of temperature and the character

of the sky affected the degree and time of their activity. Ingles

(6) found that the Audubon cottontail ( Sylvilagus a. audubonii)

preferred clear nights and days, and that they1 were less active

during windy rainy weather.

Had these investigators analyzed their observations or

catches in relation to daily changes in barometric pressures,

they perhaps might have found clearer correlations.

Methods and materials.

The daily record of rabbit catches was made while censusing

the rabbits in 65 acres of woods and, brush in Westpoint Town¬

ship, Columbia County. Fifteen to 40 treadle box traps were

employed during the two trapping periods: November 23 to

91

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

December 21, and January 6 to February 13. The traps were

moved whenever their efficiency in catching unbanded rabbits

suffered a noticeable drop. During a total of 2100 trap nights,

67 rabbits were caught, ear-tagged, and released. A total of 100

catches including repeats was made.

Carrots were the principal bait, though ear corn, apples, and

other foods were experimented with occasionally.

The daily catch was then plotted and compared with tempera¬

ture, precipitation, wind direction, cloudiness, relative humidity,

and barometric pressures. Of these six aspects of weather, none

showed any striking parallelism with the rabbit catch except

barometric pressure.

Data on precipitation, direction of prevailing winds, charac¬

ter of the sky, and temperatures were recorded by the weather

station at the Prairie du Sac dam. Relative humidity and baro¬

metric pressures were obtained from The Madison weather bur¬

eau, twenty-five miles distant.

Results.

I here assume that rabbits entered the traps when they were

active or hungry or both, and that failure to catch rabbits in¬

dicates cessation or diminution of activity or hunger.

The relation between the catch and barometer appears in the

second and third graphs of Figure 1. The first and third graphs

indicate no visible relation to temperature or depth of snow.

The highest catch per night was five. This is probably too

small a figure to measure the degree of catchability, but not too

small to show the alternation of catches and failures. On nights

of low barometer, an average of 0.5 rabbits was caught; while

on nights of high barometer, the average catch was 2.5 rabbits.

Barometer troughs thus seem to correlate with failure or near¬

failure; barometer peaks with catches. However, the height of

the barometer alone is of no significance, for a scattergraph of

all pressure values plotted against all catches produced no dis¬

cernible relationship. On the other hand, when daily change in

pressure was plotted against catches, a relation was evident.

This relation is most pronounced in January and February.

During early winter the correlation is vague or contradictory.

Statistical analysis failed to confirm the correlation. This

Hanson — The Cottontail and the Weather

93

Figure 1. Relation of barometric pressure to rabbit catch. Lack of relation to

temperature is also shown.

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

may, of course, be due to its vague definition in time, or to the

numerical paucity of the data. It can only be claimed that the

relation probably exists, and is worthy of more intensive inves¬

tigation.

Discussion.

Changes in barometric pressures usually denote the passage

of cyclonic storms. Passing over a given locality, these storms

produce sequences in the weather lasting from four to six days

(13, pp. 198, 238). The northern United States, and particularly

that region west of the Great Lakes, has been cited by Petersen

(9) as one of the areas creating the greatest autonomic demands

on the human body, as it lies in the principal path of the cyclonic

storms that sweep eastward across the country. Such a relation¬

ship between the body and barometric pressure likely holds true

for all warm-blooded animals inhabiting areas of meteorological

stress.

Dr. Mossman, of the Department of Anatomy at the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin, while making a study of their anatomy,

collected over a thousand squirrels in an eight-year period. His

field experiences in collecting these squirrels lead me to believe

that the fox and gray and red squirrels . are, like rabbits, sensi¬

tive to barometric pressures. Mossman repeatedly failed to

secure squirrels on days which, to all outward appearances, were

ideal for hunting. He noticed that storms of some severity

usually occurred during the day following his failures to find

squirrels. In such instances the effect of a falling barometric

pressure is strongly implied.

A similar awareness of impending weather was demonstrated

by a pet chipmunk kept by a woman in New York (New York

Times, February 5, 1940). Two days before a blizzard it ran

about uneasily in its cage, and when given newspapers which it

usually tore up and scattered about the cage, the chipmunk in¬

stead quickly carried the pieces into a box and made a nest. By

noon the animal had crammed the box full and disappeared, not

to reappear until three days later when the blizzard had spent

itself.

Entomologists have taken cognizance of the effects of changes

in barometric pressures upon insects. Parman (7) writes:

Hanson — The Cottontail and the Weather

95

“During the last three years observations have been made on

several species of Muscids showing that with a rapidly falling

barometer they first become nervously active, and then go into

a state of partial coma. Some species have a tendency to seek a

place of protection at this time, others show this tendency very

little but become quiet at a most convenient place.”

A most forceful and illuminating account of the stimulating

and depressing influence of changes in barometric pressures is

given by Fabre (4). He observed two groups of caterpillars

under circumstances that constitute in effect a controlled experi¬

ment. The caterpillars came out with small rises in the baro¬

meter and remained at home when it fell. But what is more

significant is that his greenhouse caterpillars behaved much the

same as those in the garden, exposed to all the vicissitudes of

the environment.

Pictet (11) made' a painstaking laboratory study of the re¬

lation of barometric pressure to the emergence of butterflies.

He found that out of 1758 butterflies which he observed emerge

from their chrysalids, 91 per cent emerged when the barometer

was falling. The number of eclosions was also directly related

to the rate at which the barometer fell. A drop of only one de¬

gree (mm. of mercury) was sufficient to cause the butterflies

that had completed development to leave their chrysalids. How¬

ever, if the barometric pressure rose when they were on the

point of emergence, the eclosions were delayed until another day

when the pressure was again decreasing. A uniform or rising

pressure over too long a period resulted in the death of the but¬

terflies within the chrysalids.

Responses of humans to changes in barometric pressure may

offer some insight into the problem in other mammals. Although

Hippocrates long ago recognized the effect of weather upon

humans, only in the last few decades has it been given much

attention. Modern research in the physiological effects of

weather upon man is exemplified in the work of Petersen (9,

10, et al). Every investigator of wildlife problems should be

aware of his studies.

According to Petersen (10), “A change in the oxidation-re¬

duction potential of the tissues does occur in close association

with changes in the barometric pressure in the normal person as

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

well as in the sick individual.” He points out that perhaps

ionization and electrical charge may be even more important

factors, but that at the present time they are more difficult to

determine. He suggests “that the organism may react with an

increase in blood pressure, and consequently with a feeling of

well-being, to an air mass that will present increasing barometric

pressure, lessened humidity, and bright sky even when the change

in temperature may be negligible .”

Though animal* rhythms have been reviewed by recent auth¬

ors (8, 12, 14) it has not been suggested that changes in baro¬

metric pressures may produce fluctuating activity rhythms in

animals. On the basis of the limited evidence here presented

the writer suggests the existence of a pressure-activity rhythm

in many species of small mammals.

Bibliography

1. Allen, Durward L. 1942. Populations and habits of the fox squirrel in

Allegan County, Michigan. Amer. Midhind Naturalist, 27 (2): 328-379.

2. Bole, B. P., Jr. 1939. The quadrat method of studying small mammal

populations. Cleveland Museum of Natural History Scientific Publication,

V (4): 15-77.

3. Burt, William Henry. 1940. Territorial behavior and populations of some

small mammals in southern Michigan. Univ. of Mich. Museum of Zool.

Misc. Pub. 45.

4. Fabre, J. Henri. 1916. The life of the caterpillar. Translated by Alexander

Teixeira De Mattos. The Modem Library, New York.

5. Hicks, Ellis A. 1942. Some major factors affecting the use of two inven¬

tory methods applicable to the western fox squirrel, Sciurus niger rufiven-

ter (Geoffrey). Iowa State College Joum. of Science, XVI (2): 299-305.

6. Ingles, Lloyd G. 1941. Natural history observations on the Audubon

cottontail. Joum. Mammalogy, 22 (3): 227-250.

7. Parrnan, D. C. 1920. Observations on the effect of storm phenomena on

insect activity. Joum. Economic Entomology, 13 (11) : 399-343.

8. Pearse, A. S. 1939. Animal ecology. 2d edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

Inc., New York and London.

9. Petersen, William F. 1938. The patient and the weather. Vol. L Part I.

The footprint of Asclepius. Edwards Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich.

10. Petersen, William F. 1936. The patient and the weather. Vol. I, Part II.

Autonomic integration. Edwards Bros., Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., p. 781.

Hanson — The Cottontail and the Weather

97

11. Pictet, Arnold (avec la Planche II) . 1917. Influence de la pression atmos-

pherique sur le development des Lepidopteres. Archives des Sciences

Physiques et Naturelles, Geneve Archives, Vol. XLIV.

12. Welsh, John H. 1938. Diurnal rhythms. Quart. Rev. of Biology, 13

(2) : 123-139.

33. Wenstrom, William Holmes. 1942. Weather and the ocean of air. Hough¬

ton Mifflin Co., Boston.

34. Woodbury, Angus M. 1941. Annual migration-periodic response theory.

Auk, 58 (4): 463-505.

A NEW WISCONSIN METEORITE

Ralph N. Buckstaff

This Meteorite was found by Albert F. Bonnin while plowing;

on his farm in Section 18, in the Township of Angelica, Shawano

County, Wisconsin, latitude 44° 15' north and longitude 88° 15'

west. This township 'is south and east of the city of Shawano.

The iron was found sometime during the month of October 1916.

Mr. Albert Bonnin gave this information in answer to a ques¬

tionnaire sent to him regarding his find. The meteorite weighs

32 pounds 11 ^ ounces.

External Appearance of Meteorite

The meteorite is an angular mass. Its greatest dimensions

aredength 20.5 cm, width 15.3 cm, thickness 15 cm. This iron

has seven sides or faces, which we will call A, B, C, D, E, F, & G,

none of these, being parallel with each other. The edges bound¬

ing the sides for the greater part are quite angular.

Face A : The surface of this face is very much oxidized,

none of the original crust being left. Large weathered pittings

cover most of this side. The face measures 20.5 cm x 13 cm.

Its color is a very dark brown. At one end of this side, a large

angular fragment has been broken off thus exposing the interior

arrangement of the laminae. These intersect at angles of 60°

and 120°. The outer edges d, a, b, and a, b, c, form angles

of 120°.

Face B : This surface is much oxidized, and deep brown,

nearly black in color. Edge a, b is very much concaved but edge

c, d is both concave and convex. The length of the face is 17 cm,

width 11 cm, but at narrowest point 8 cm. Angle a,c,d equals

60°.

Face C : This surface shows a number of deep pits. Orig¬

inal crust covers a part of the face. Lines of flow, and minute

99

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

pittings in places may be seen with the aid of a hand lens. The

color of this surface is a uniform tobacco brown with a semi¬

gloss sheen. The outline of this face is very angular. Angle

b, a, d is 90 degrees and angle a» b, c is 128 degrees. Edges a, b

/ v x /3.r cm

Buckstaff — A New Wisconsin Meteorite

101

and d, f are parallel. Face C measures 18 cm long and 13 cm

wide.

Face D: Angular in outline, the surface is much oxidized.

Edges a, b and d, e are parallel. Angle a, b, c equals 120 degrees.

The upper third of the face is fractured exposing laminae. The

plain surfaces of the laminae thus exposed forms a trihedral,

whose intersecting faces form angles of 60 degrees and 120

degrees.

Face E : The edges of this face are parallel and the size of

its surface 11 by 8 cm. A little of the original crust is still

visible, and under magnification shows minute pittings. A small

piece has been broken from one corner of the side. The fracture

has followed the laminae, giving the edge a straight line.

Face F: A small portion of the original crust remains on

this face. Part of this surface shows an angular fracture. Edges

of the face form angles of 60 degrees, 90 degrees, and 120 de¬

grees. One of the edges is quite wavy. The color of the surface

is a uniform dark tobacco brown with a semigloss sheen in places.

This face measures 7 by 13 cm.

Face G : This measures 14 by 13.5 cm. Around area “a”

may be seen a part of the original crust showing minute pits

and lines of flow. The face is angular in outline. Like the pre-

ceeding faces the angles formed at the corners are 60 degrees

and 120 degrees.

Points of taenite, and in one place some bands of this metal,

show through the1 oxidized surface.

The Interior Structure

A slice of this iron measuring 5.2 by 3.1 cm shows upon

etching, with a 10% solution of nitric acid, the typical Widman¬

statten figures. One set of laminae intersects at angles of

109°28', another group at 75°, while a third set has intersecting

angles of 68°. Laminae are 1 to 2 mm wide and from 6.5 to

20 mm long. Their sides for the most part are ragged in out¬

line. The ends are angular, round, and a few are serrated.

The taenite is not very conspicuous, being a bright nickel

color but only a fraction of a millimeter in thickness. The kama-

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

cite for the most part is banded by taenite. This metal, however,

disappears in places and leaves the kamacite with no surround¬

ing taenite.

A variety of structures are found in the kamacite, the com¬

monest being that hatched with Neumann-like lines. These in¬

tersect at angles 60°, 90°, and 120°.

A few plates have a series of parallel, fine lines crossing them

at oblique angles to the sides. All these markings seem to have

a slight blurred appearance when seen under low magnification.

Some of the kamacite appears to be structureless. In some

places it is flaked with pin-like points of taenite. In a few places

the kamacite shows a grouped structure. This formation con¬

sists of a series of parallel plates a fraction of a mm in thick¬

ness. The ends of these plates give the laminae a serrated ap¬

pearance.

Scattered over the surface are rectangular and triangular

fields of plessite. A large part of these fields show a granular

structure. A few have a banded appearance.

There are a number of triangular and rectangular areas,

ranging in size from 1 x 1.5 to 1.5 x 3 mm. These have a dark

background. Scattered over this surface is a granular-like metal

structure. Some of the grains are irregular, others round, look¬

ing more like dots. One of these rectangular areas is bounded by

a thin band of taenite.

Lying diagonally in the surface of this slab is an inclusion

of pyrrhotite, measuring 1 cm long, 1 mm wide at the broad end,

and tapering to a point at the other end. Flakes of taenite cross

this inclusion at nearly right angles to the sides. Bordering the

edge of the pyrrhotite are two irregular nodules of graphite.

Grouped about this inclusion are irregular plates of kamacite,

but their arrangement does not form any definite pattern.

Minute grains and angular inclusions of a black glossy sub¬

stance appear on the surface. The angular formations are at

the intersection points of a few of the laminae. Cracks taking

zigzag courses between some of the kamacite plates are filled

with this same black substance. The taenite bands along one

side, near the outer edge, have been altered to iron oxide. In

other places these bands can be traced 'way out to the edge and

do not show any alteration whatsoever.

Buckstaff — A New Wisconsin Meteorite

103

The etched surface when seen under a certain angle of illu¬

mination shows rather coarse pits widely scattered over it.

An analysis of one half ounce of the sawings of the meteorite,

made by E. J. Schneider of the Oshkosh High School Chemistry

department, gave the following results :

Iron _ 95.5%

Nickel _ 4.5%

Manganese _ .5%

100.5

Conclusion

The angular outline of this meteorite shows that it was prob¬

ably broken from a larger mass, the fracture following cleavage

planes. The outline thus formed resembles the same angular

pattern as shown by the Widmanstatten figures. Two distinct

sets of Widmanstatten figures are seen on the etched surface.

Under the Rose-Churmak-Brezina system of classification,

iron octahedrites whose lamellae measure 1.5 to 2.0 mm in thick¬

ness are classed as Coarse Octahedrites. We have seen by the

description of the meteorite, that it belongs to this group and we

will class it Coarse Octahedrite (Og). We will propose the

name of Angelica for this new siderite, as it was in this town¬

ship in Shawano County, Wisconsin, that it was found. This is

the eighth meteorite from our State and the fifth one of this

kind. Lack of oxidation of the taenite bands near the surface

would indicate a rather recent fall. The officials of the Oshkosh

Public Museum wish to thank Dr. Ira Edwards for his help in

obtaining this specimen for us.

This celestial wanderer from outer space will be added to

the permanent meteorite collection in the Astronomical Depart¬

ment of the Oshkosh Public Museum.

/

\

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XXXI. SOLANACEAE

Norman C. Fassett

The maps here presented are based on the material in the

herbaria of the Milwaukee Public Museum and the University of

Wisconsin, and in the private herbarium of Mr. S. C. Wadmond.

Following1 the practice initiated by C. C. Deam in his Flora of

Indiana, the genera are numbered in agreement with the Genera

Siphonogamarum of dalla Torre & Harms.

Many members of the Nightshade Family in Wisconsin are

adventive from the Old World or from South America, and most

of the native species occur in open sandy soil or as weeds. The

only real difficulties in determination are in the genus Physalis,

which is so in need of revision that this treatment must be con¬

sidered as only provisional.

a. Flowers borne singly in the leaf axils

b. Corolla yellow, at least toward the center, spreading

and wider than long; annuals and perennials . 7401. Physalis.

b. Corolla white, blue, yellow or reddish, tubular

and longer than wide; annuals

c. Plants without sticky hairs

d. Flowers about 2.5 cm. long; fruiting calyx enlarged

and papery, enclosing the berry . 7377. Nicandra.

d. Flowers 1.5-9 cm. long; fruiting calyx not

enclosing the prickly pod . 7415. Datura.

c. Plants with sticky hairs

e. Leaves mostly 1 dm. or more long . 7434. Nicotiana.

e. Leaves less than 1 dm. long . 7436. Petunia.

a. Flowers in racemes or several in a leaf axil, rarely

solitary on a leafy branch

f. Stems shrubby; leaves 1.5 cm. or less wide, tapered at

base, not toothed or lobed . 7379. Lycium.

j. Stems herbaceous, or if shrubby the leaves wider,

rounded at base and often lobed . 7407. Solanum.

105

106

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Fassett — Flora of Wisconsin. Solonaceae

107

108 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

7377. Nicandra. Apple-of-Peru

N. physalodes (L.) Pers. Map 1, crosses. Collected by

Lapham in Milwaukee and Hale in Racine, and recently in a corn

field at Potosi ; introduced from Peru.

7379. Lycium. Matrimony-vine

L. halimifolium Mill. Map 1, dots. Sometimes persisting

after cultivation or spontaneous in waste places in southern Wis¬

consin ; introduced from Europe.

7401. Physalis. Groundcherry

a. Corolla white with pale yellow center; fruiting calyx

closely fitted to the berry and open at the throat;

annual . P. ffrandiflora.

a. Corolla yellow; fruiting calyx inflated, ribbed

b. Hairs on the peduncles appressed, or else less than

O. 10 mm. long; leaves nearly or quite glabrous

c. Hairs on peduncles upwardly appressed, about 0.25

mm. long; perennials

d. Leaves ovate, IY2 times as long as broad, sparsely

pubescent above . P. subglabrata.

d. Leaves lanceolate, 3-5 times as long as broad,

glabrous except sometimes on margin and midrib

. P. longifolia.

c. Hairs on peduncles downwardly appressed, or else

less than 0.10 mm. long; annual . P. ixocarpa.

b. Hairs on peduncles spreading or somewhat curved

downward, 0.25 mm. or more long; leaves mostly

pubescent

e. Lower surfaces of veins with usually ascending hairs

not any more numerous than those on the leaf-surface

between the! veins; leaves usually several times as

long as broad, wedge-shaped at base; perennials

f. Veins becoming obscure toward the margin of the

leaves; pubescence rather copious, usually all stiff

and less than 0.5 mm. long and curved upward on

the peduncles and downward on the leaves, but

in less common (often broader-leaved) forms

longer and spreading; calyx deeply sunken about

the base . P. virginiana.

j. Veins recurving toward the margin to join with

the one below; pubescence sparse; calyx not

deeply sunken at base

P. lanceolata.

Fassett — Flora of Wisconsin. Solonaceae

109

e. Lower surface of veins with mostly spreading hairs

more numerous than on the leaf-surface between

the veins; leaves broadly ovate, less than twice as

long as broad, cordate at base in all but one variety

g. Pubescence of stem and leaves shining when viewed

under a lense; filaments dilated; calyx-lobes

usually triangular with essentially straight sides;

anthers about 3 mm. long; perennials

h. Stem with copious gland-tipped hairs about 0.5

mm. long, which are usually accompanied by

flat jointed hairs 1 mm. or more long

i. Leaves cordate or truncate at base . P. heterophylla.

i. Leaves broadly wedge-shaped at base

. P. heterophylla var. nyctaginea.

h. Stem with copious flat jointed hairs 1 mm.

or more long, which are sometimes gland-tipped,

but are not accompanied by gland-tipped hairs

about 0.5 mm. long

. P. heterophylla var. ambigua.

g. Pubescence dull; filaments thread-like and

not swollen; calyx-lobes tapering to a tip,

with curved sides; anthers 1-2 mm. long; annuals . P. pruiiiosa.

1. P. GRANDIFLORA Hook. Map 2, dots. In clearings, on

shores of streams, and in other recently disturbed habitats in

northern Wisconsin, south to Polk, Lincoln and Door Counties.

2. P. SUBGLABRATA Mackenzie & Bush. Map 2, crosses. In

sandy woods along the Mississippi River at Cassville, Grant

County, apparently as a migrant up the river, and as a weed in

cultivated fields in Kenosha County.

3. P. longifolia Nutt. Map 3, dots. Along railroads in Mil¬

waukee County, also collected at Platteville, Grant County, and

perhaps across southern Wisconsin as a railroad weed. Collect¬

ed in 1942 along a roadside in Marathon County.

4. P. ixocarpa Brotero. Map 3, crosses. Collected in 1895

at Prairie du Chien, Crawford County, and in 1911 in southern

Grant County. Perhaps an escape from cultivation.

5. P. virginiana Mill. Map 4. A common plant in sandy

places. In the originally forested areas of the northern part of

the state it was probably much less abundant formerly than at

present; for example, the collection in Iron County was in an

isolated colony of prairie plants which were obviously adventive

from regions to the south or the west.

110 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Gray’s Manual, following Rydberg (Mem. Torr. Bot. Club

5: 343-345. 1896) states that the commoner form has very

short recurved hairs, while a less common form, nomenclatorially

the type, has longer spreading hairs. This is the case in Wis¬

consin; on the map the individuals with longer pubescence are

indicated by crosses. These individuals often have wider leaves

than do those with the shorter hairs.

6. P. lanceolata Michx. Map 3, x. A plant described in

the preceding key, and probably belonging to this species, was

collected at Wyalusing, Grant County.

7. P. heterophylla Nees. Map 5. A common species,

mostly in sand and rarely in heavier soils, in the southern half

of the state. It has probably become more common at its north¬

ern limits since the forests have been cut and the land cultivated.

The collection in Bayfield County was at Lenawee, the site of

an old lumber town, in 1917.

The two following varieties are treated as species by Ryd¬

berg, Flora of the Prairies and Plains, and by Deam in his Flora

of Indiana. As they occur here they do not seem to be clear-cut

entities. The pubescence of the stem is very variable, and the

presence or absence of the short gland-tipped hairs seems scarce¬

ly of specific rank. Leaf shape, also, is exceedingly variable, and

there is no definite line between those of the cordate type and

those of the cuneate type.

P. heterophylla; var. nyctaginea (Dunal) Rydb. Map 6,

crosses. Occasional in central Wisconsin.

P. HETEROPHYLLA var. ambigua (Gray) Rydb. Map 6, dots.

Occasional from Sauk and Brown Counties southeastward.

8. P. PRUINOSA L. Strawberry Tomato. Map 7. Rare along

the Mississippi and lower Wisconsin Rivers. It was collected in

LaCrosse in 1861.

7407. Solanum. Nightshade

a. Plants without prickles or stellate hairs

b. Stems long, reclining, climbing or trailing in the

water; flowers purple or rarely white; berries red;

perennial . 1. S. Dulcamara.

b. Stems branched near the base, spreading or erect;

flowers white or pale lilac; berries black or

green; annuals

Fassett — Flora of Wisconsin. Solonaceae

111

c. Leaves not lobed; mature berries black . 2. S. nigrum.

c. Leaves pinnately lobed; mature berries

green . 3. S. triflorum.

a. Plants with prickles and stellate hairs

d. Leaves cut usually less than half way to the midrib,

with broad triangular lobes; flowers violet, rarely

white; berry not enclosed by the scarcely prickly

calyx; perennial . 4. S. carolinense.

d. Leaves cut nearly or quite to the midrib, with rounded

lobes; flowers yellow; berry enclosed by the densely

prickly calyx; annual . 5. S. rostratum.

1. S. Dulcamara L. Bittersweet ; Matrimony Vine. Map 8.

Common in southern and eastern Wisconsin in a variety of habi¬

tats, including pastured tamarack bogs, brooksides, limestone

cliffs, dooryards, hedges, etc. Sometimes the stems trail in the

water. Although usually described as naturalized from Europe,

it often occurs in habitats that suggest it is a native.

White-flowered individuals, which have been described as f.

ALBIFLORUM House, N.Y.State Mus. Bull. no. 254: 613. 1924,

are indicated by crosses on the map, and appear to be centered

on a region in Washington, Ozaukee and Milwaukee Counties;

this apparent localization may be only an accident of collecting.

Numerous varieties, forms, etc., have been named, based on

degrees of pubescence ; see, for example, Hegi, Ill. FI. Mitt-Eur.

5 : 2590. The most pubescent extremes in North America have

been called var. villosissimum Desv. (Fernald, Rhodora 24:

202. 1922), var. pubescens R. & S. and var. canescens Farwell

(Papers Mich. Acad. Sci. 2: 39. 1922). The plants in Wisconsin

vary from nearly glabrous to velvety-leaved and pilose-stemmed.

2. S. NIGRUM L. Black Nightshade. Map 9. In pastured

woods, gardens, etc., mostly in southern Wisconsin but some¬

times northward ; usually listed as a native but appearing as if

introduced in this region.

3. S. TRIFLORUM Nutt. Map 10, cross. Collected once along

a railroad at Arpin, Wood County, where it was adventive, prob¬

ably from the west.

4. S. CAROLINENSE L. Horse Nettle. Map 10, dots. Road¬

sides, disturbed sandy soil, cultivated fields, etc., locally in south¬

ern Wisconsin.

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .

5. S. rostratum Dunal. Buffalo Bur. Map 11. Adventive

in waste places, mostly in southern Wisconsin but occasionally

northward; an immigrant from the West.

7415. Datura. Stramonium; Jimson-weed

1. D. Stramonium L. Map 12. In waste places, farmyards,

etc., in southern Wisconsin and the Mississippi River valley;

naturalized from tropical regions. Includes D. Tatida L. ; see

Deam, Flora of Indiana 831. 1940.

2. D. Metal L. This differs from D. Stramonium in having

leaves entire and closely puberulent on the lower surface; it is

represented in Wisconsin only by a single collection by T. J. Hale,

probably near Racine about 1860.

7434. Nicotian a. Tobacco

N. RUSTICA L., Wild Tobacco, with flowers about 1.5 cm. long

and upper leaves petioled, has been collected in Milwaukee. N.

Tabacum L., the cultivated Tobacco, with flowers 4-5 cm. long

and sessile leaves, is raised in southern Wisconsin and may oc¬

casionally escape.

7436. Petunia

Members of this genus occasionally escape from cultivation;

P. axillaris BSP. has been collected on a waste heap in Mil¬

waukee, and P. hybrida Vilm. on a railroad track in Madison.

NOTES ON WISCONSIN PARASITIC FUNGI. III.

H. C. Greene

These notes are based chiefly on collections made during

the season of 1942. Weather conditions were exceptionally fav¬

orable for development of parasitic fungi and many unusual

things were found. I am particularly indebted to Professor

Charles Chupp of Cornell University who this year, as in past

years, has promptly and painstakingly assisted me in the identi¬

fication of many Cercosporae.

Although Bremia lactucae Regel is a common and well-

known parasite of Lactuca sativa there were no Wisconsin

specimens on this host in the Herbarium. Trelease first re¬

ported it for the state sixty years ago. The omission has been

rectified with a specimen taken in June at Eagleville, Wauke¬

sha Co.

Rhus canadensis (cult.) in Madison was heavily infected

with Oidium, but development of perithecia did not occur, per¬

haps because of rapid drying and early fall of the attacked

leaves.

The curious and striking form, Microsphaera alni (DC.)

Wint. var. ludens Salm., occurred on Desmodium canadense at

Eagleville, Waukesha Co., in September. A single earlier col¬

lection was made by Davis at Nekoosa, Wood Co., in 1919.

Immature Phyllachora on Panicum virgatum, collected at

Madison in September, is probably Ph. GRAMINIS (Pers.) Fckl.

Dr. C. R. Orton considers that it is extremely likely that a pre¬

vious report of Ph. puncta (Schw.) Orton on this host in Wis¬

consin is erroneous.

In a preceding publication by this writer (Trans. Wis. Acad.

Sci. 34.: 91, 1942) Bouteloua curtipendula was reported as a host

of Phyllachora graminis. Dr. Orton finds this to be Ph.

BOUTELOUAE Rehm. It is the only mature Wisconsin collection

on this host.

113

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Dr. Orton has examined material, from the University of

Wisconsin Herbarium, of Melica striata bearing a fungus labelled

Phyllachora melicae Dearn. & House. He states that he sees

no reason for recognizing pH. melicae as distinct from PH.

GRAMINIS.

A fungus which is presumably Phyllachora lespedezae

(Schw.) Sacc. has been found on Lespedeza capitata, in 1940 at

Paoli in Dane Co., and in 1942 at Lake Lulu in Walworth Co.

Leaves from the Walworth Co. collection were submitted to Dr.

Orton who states that all the asci appear to be tetrasporic, con¬

firming my observation. It was noted that there are two types

of stromata, small ones containing the maturei asci, and larger

bodies, lacking asci, but with areas of differentiation suggesting

the beginning of an ascigerous stage. Dr. Orton thinks that

from the general appearance there is only one fungus concerned,

and he suggests that there may be dual stages of development.

Thus, the small bodies with asci may be an early stage, primar¬

ily for summer propagation, while the large bodies possibly will

develop during the winter for spring propagation. In this con¬

nection I did overwinter some of the leaves from the Paoli col¬

lection, but failed to obtain further development. Two later col¬

lections made in September 1942 at Madison, Dane Co., and at

Eagleville, Waukesha Co., show only the larger immature stro¬

mata. It is of no little interest that Clevenger (Jour. Mycol. 11 :

161, 1905) also found a 4-spored Phyllachora on Lespedeza

capitata and on L. repens. Dr. Orton believes that sufficient

search probably will eventually reveal an octosporic form for

this fungus.

Plakidas (Mycologia Sl>: 27, 1942) has shown that CLADOS-

PORIUM HUMILE Davis, established by the late J. J. Davis on

Wisconsin material on Acer rubrum and A. saccharinum, is the

conidial stage of Venturia acerina Plakidas on Acer rubrum.

Pleospora sp. has been found on culms of living Cinna lati-

folia, in late fall. Closely associated in identical lesions is Hen-

DERSONIA sp. with conidia 3-6 septate, 20-30 x 2.5-3.5/x. It seems

possible that the Hendersonia is the imperfect stage f the

Pleospora. The parasitism of both is doubtful and any final

conclusion awaits the collection of further material.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Pai'asitic Fungi. Ill. 115

Pleospora sp. occurred in abundance on seedlings of Arte¬

misia caudata at Madison, September 1942. This may be par¬

asitic, for only the upper portions of the leaves are involved.

Ustilago lorentziana Thuem. on Hordeum jubatum was

observed and collected in abundance by Professor R. I. Evans

in June, near Fall Creek, Eau Claire Co. This seemingly is, or

has been, rare in Wisconsin, for the late Dr. Davis who collected

intensively throughout the state over a period of many years

has noted that he never observed it in the field. There is in

the Herbarium but one satisfactory earlier specimen from Wis¬

consin, collected by Melhus at Madison in 1910.

Puccinia hieracii (Schum.) Mart. II was found in small

quantity on a single plant of Hieracium scabrum at Madison in

September. This rust, so common on Hieracium canadense,

seems to be very rare on H. scabrum in Wisconsin. Trelease re¬

ported it in 1883, but the only Wisconsin specimen in the Her¬

barium, previous to the present one, was collected by Davis at

Baraboo, Sauk Co., in 1932.

UROMYCES punctatus Schroet. II occurred on Astragalus

canadensis in an abandoned nursery in the University of Wis¬

consin Arboretum at Madison. Earlier collections were made

by Davis in 1914 at Bridgeport, Crawford Co., and St. Croix

Falls, Polk Co.

In my second series of notes reference was made to the oc¬

currence of ostiolate pycnidia with microcondia of a bacillary

type developing on Panicum scribneriauum. A similar infection

has been found on Panicum villosissimum from Fall City, Dunn

Co. Coll. L. H. Shinners.

Leaves of Synthyris bullii collected at Eagle ville, Waukesha

Co., have pale brown, ovate spots 4-5 mm. diam., with a narrow

dark brown border, bearing flesh-colored, ostiolate pycnidia,

about 115-125/a diam. The ostiole is 20-25/a diam., delimited by

a narrow ring of darker mycelial tissue. The hyaline conidia

are small, 4-5 x 1-1.5/a. There seem to be no previous reports

of fungi on this host.

Phoma iowana Sacc. collected on Aster ptarmicoides at

Eagleville, Waukesha Co., August 19, bears pycnidia on both

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aids, and Letters

leaves and stems, differing from previous specimens seen by me

where leaves only were affected.

Coniothyrium sp. has been observed on Evonymus atropur-

pureus. The relationship of fungus to host is doubtful, for the

spots are not definite, and areas containing the Coniothyrium

also bear Alternaria. The dark olivaceous pycnidia are ostiolate,

depressed-globose, 80-100^ diam. Conidia are pale olivaceous,

short-cylindric, 3-4 x 5-7 y..

Davisiella ( ?) in Phyllachora puncta on Panicum latifo-

lium from Prairie du Sac has the spores mainly 3-septate, re¬

sembling previous specimens on Andropogon furcatus and Muhl-

enbergia foliosa.

Stagonospora intermixta (Cke.) Sacc. on Agrostis gigantea

var. dispar (A. alba). Waukesha Co., Eagleville, July 2. Davis

(Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 2U : 285, 1929) reported the fungus on A.

alba from LaValle, Sauk Co., but the specimen is very small, and

he chose to delete this host in his “Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin”

(published posthumously in 1942). The Eagleville material is

abundant. The pycnidal walls are not particularly well defined,

and the conidia, while mostly 7-septate, are somewhat shorter

than those of the LaValle collection, running from 30-40 x

On Panicum scribnerianum found in the vicinity of Lake

Lulu, Walworth Co., Septoria sp. (S. GRAMINUM Desm. ?) oc¬

curred intimately associated with what appeared to be immature

Phyllachora puncta. The pycnidia are subglobose, about

150-180/x in their greatest diam., and touch upon both lower and

upper epidermis, without causing any noticeable hypertrophy

and without being marked by any spotting of the leaves. The

conidia are continuous, long, and very slender, 50-80 x 1-1.5 y,

and are discharged on the upper surface, although it is difficult

to discern a definite ostiole.

Septoria andropogonis J. J. Davis on Andropogon furcatus

was found at Madison, August 26. This well-marked species is

represented on this host only by the original type collection and

the present one. The type was taken at Gaslyn, Burnett Co., in

1911. Whether this species has been reported from outside the

state is unknown to me.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 117

Septoria lupinicola Dearn. on Lupinus perennis has been

collected near Sauk City. All previous collections were made

many years ago from localities considerably farther north.

Septoria eryngicola Oud. & Sacc. on Eryngium yuccifolium

from Madison is not limited to well-defined spots, as in previous

specimens from Paoli, but caused extensive necrosis of the leaf

tissue.

This writer (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 32: 83, 1940) reported

the collection of Septoria plantaginea Pass. var. plantaginis-

majoris Sacc. on Plantago purshii from Mazomanie. A recent

specimen from Madison shows some sporules as long as 45 n, but

all very slender and of the same aspect as those of the earlier

material.

Davis states in connection with Septoria nolitangere

Thuem. that immature perithecia are found in some of the speci¬

mens. This refers no doubt to the perithecia of Mycosphaerella

impatientis. In 1941 at a station near East Troy, Walworth

Co., M. impatientis was collected on Impatiens biflora. In 1942

Septoria nolitangere was found on this host at the same sta¬

tion. So similar are the lesions that at the time of the second

collection it was thought the specimen was Mycosphaerella. It

is probable that S. nolitangere is the imperfect stage of My¬

cosphaerella IMPATIENTIS.

The fungus on Veronica arvensis which is referred to Sep¬

toria veronicae Desm. is not uncommon in Wisconsin. It de¬

velops in systemic fashion on stems, leaves and calyces without

forming definite spots. In 1890 at Sharon, Walworth Co., the

late J. J. Davis collected a Septoria on Veronica virginica which

he states was referred to S. veronicae Desm. with some doubt

by Mr. Ellis. In this collection the pycnidia are borne in definite

spots, but the leaves are so discolored that it is impossible to tell

what the original color of the spots may have been. In August

1942, at Madison, there occurred a Septoria on Veronica virginica

(cult.) which, in microscopic section, appears to be the same as

that found by Davis. The spots are very definite, black and

angular. Judging from the mode of development on the hosts,

it seems that perhaps the Septoria on V. arvensis should be

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

placed under Septoria gratiolae Sacc. & Speg. and that the one

on V. virginica should be retained under S. VERONICAE Desm.

Septoria sp. on Chrysanthemum leucanthemum var. pinnati-

fidum. Dane Co., Madison, June 26. This form has slender

sporules, mostly 20-30 x 1.5-2/a. The brownish-gray spots, ex¬

tending to and involving the leaf margins, produce a scalloped

effect. This fungus may be worthy of specific distinction, but I

feel that additional material, preferably from more than one

station, should be secured, since it seems apparent that the

taxonomy of Septoria on Chrysanthemum is in a state of con¬

fusion, and any new species should be firmly backed.

Septoria solidaginicola Pk. has been collected on Aster

umbellatus at Madison. The only other Wisconsin station at

which the fungus has been found on this host is Wind Lake,

Racine Co.

Septoria rudbeckiae Ell. & Hals, developed in abundance

on Rudbeckia subtomentosa at Eagleville, Waukesha Co. Davis

made one earlier collection on this scarce host in Iowa Co. in

1930. At the same station S. RUDBECKIAE likewise occurred on

Rudbeckia hirta, also represented by a single previous collection,

from Altoona, Eau Claire Co.

A Colletotrichum parasitic on Andropogon furcatus and on

Sorghastrum nutans was found at Madison, September 11, 1942.

This is not COLLETOTRICHUM GRAMINICOLUM ( Ces .) Wils. as I

understand it. The clumps of Andropogon and Sorghastrum were

growing within a few yards of one another. However, perhaps the

close relationship of the hosts, as well as proximity, accounts for

the simultaneous infection. The conidia are distinctive, curved

Fusarium-like and with a slender curved appendage projecting

from the apex. The curve of the appendage follows that of the

conidium proper, so that the whole forms almost a semicircle.

The conidia are 20-25 x 4-5/a, plus the appendage of about

1 0 fx. The conidophores are closely ranked, very short, less than

10/a. Setae are blackish-brown, straight, slender, with only an

occasional septum, variable in length, up to 125/a, 3-4/a wide, ter¬

minating in a rather blunted tip. It is interesting that Davis

reported Colletotrichum gramanicolum on Sorghastrum nu-

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 119

tans and that examination of his specimen shows the identifica¬

tion to be correct. The fungus is confined to more definite spots

than is the case with the recently collected specimens. Certainly

two species are involved. My collections may represent a new

species, but in view of my limited knowledge of the genus Col-

letotrichum I do not feel justified in publishing a formal de¬

scription.

Colletotrichum on Panicum implicatum is perhaps C. GRA-

MINICOLUM. The specimen is scanty, however, and it is possi¬

ble that the fungus developed saprophytically.

Colletotrichum sp. occurred on Smilacina trifolia at East

Troy, Walworth Co. I have not seen a specimen of Colletori-

CHUM SMILACINAE Tehon & Daniels, but judging from the de¬

scription this is a different thing, although most of the micro¬

scopic dimensions are similar. Doubtfully parasitic. Davis

(Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. SO: 1, 1937) expressed the opinion that,

in most instances, Colletotrichum found on liliaceous hosts has

developed saprophytically.

A robust species of Colletotrichum collected on Saponaria

officinalis at Madison fails to correspond with either Vermicul-

ARIA COMPACTA Cke. & Ell. or V. SAPONARIAE Allesch. The setae

are up to 225/* long. Doubtfully parasitic on the leaves. „

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. occurred on fallen

leaves of Allamanda cathartica var. hendersoni in a University

of Wisconsin greenhouse at Madison. Possibly parasitic.

Marsonia coronariae Sacc. & Dearn. on Pyrus ioensis. Wau¬

kesha Co., Eagleville, September 7. Not common. Previous

collections have usually been immature.

Rhyncosporium secalis (Oud.) J. J. Davis found on Bromus

inermis at Madison does not cause the usual blotching, but is

present only in slender streaks between the principal parallel

veins of the leaf blade.

A Ramularia (?) found on Anemone cylindrica perhaps is

Ramularia ranunculi Pk. f. ANEMONES. The entire leaf is in¬

volved. Conidia are from 10-20 x 3-4^, arising from a small,

compact brownish stroma. I have been unable to compare the

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

conidia with those of other specimens, since in the material avail¬

able the conidia have fallen away.

A Cercospora on Oxalis stricta, collected at Madison August

16, was sent to Professor Chupp. He states that it appears to

be Cercospora oxalidiphila Speg. ined. It is present in South

America and the West Indies, but has not been reported from

the United States before. It seems that Spegazzini did not pub¬

lish a description, but Professor Chupp has a specimen from

Spegazzini’s herbarium on Oxalis sp. from Riachuelo, Buenos

Aires, Argentina, collected by Spegazzini, Febr. 1880, and listed

as No. 962.

Cercospora oxybaphi Ell. & Hals, on Oxybaphus nyctagineus ,

collected in October at Madison, is on sharply delimited spots,

instead of being effused. It appears that this condition may be

connected with the beginning of a perfect stage, for immature

perithecium-like bodies are also present on the spots.

Both Silphium terebinthinaceum and Silphium laciniatum

were heavily infected with Cercospora silphii Ell. & Ev., in the

Arboretum of the University of Wisconsin at Madison. The

fungus is represented in the Herbarium by a single previous

collection on each host.

Alternaria occurred in definite spots on living leaves of

Phytolacca decandra at Madison, October 13. As in most other

such cases, however, parasitism is doubtful unless proved.

Alternaria has been observed, in a possibly parasitic rela¬

tionship, on the blighted tips of leaflets of Petalostemum can-

didum. Dane Co., Madison, July 27.

In a previous publication (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 32: 78,

1940) reference was made to Botrytis sp. on Ranunculus abor-

tivus. Similar material on the same host has been collected at

Mt. Vernon, Dane Co., by Mr. C. G. Shaw. The specific standing

is equally doubtful.

Vida villosa growing in the University Arboretum at Madi¬

son was observed in early June to be suffering from a severe

blight caused by Botrytis sp. The spore heads are small, usually

a short terminal extension of the main stalk, with two equally

short side branches, parallel with one another, and departing

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 121

from the stalk at right angles. The conidia are indeterminate

in number, from few to many, globose, smooth, 14-20/a diam.

Conidiophores may be 3- or more septate, , up to 350/a long, with

an average width of 10-12 /a. The leaf first shows the infection

as rounded pale brown arcs extending to the edges of individual

leaflets. Later the entire leaflet becomes involved, and finally

drops off. The lower portions of the host plants were much

more heavily infected than the upper, actively growing parts.

Aster linariif olius in the vicinity of Madison is attacked by

what seems to be an extremely delicate Gloeosporum or Mar-

sonia. The spots are definite, gray-brown with a yellow border,

tending to be circular, but usually impinging upon the margin

or the midrib of the narrow leaves. Considerable portions of

the leaves often show a purplish discoloration of the areas con¬

taining the spots. Repeated attempts to demonstrate attach¬

ment of conidia have failed, although all the numerous mounts

prepared have shown the crescent-shaped spores, which are

from 25-35 /a long by 4-6/a wide at the point of greatest diam.

The smooth, dry, highly cutinized surface of this xerophyte

probably does not favor persistence of mycelial structures pro¬

duced on it.

Veronica peregrina has been observed by me on several oc¬

casions, and by others, to be infected with a most unusual fun¬

gus. The fruits and seeds alone are invaded, for stained per¬

manent sections show that the fungus is not present in the pedi¬

cels of the fruits. The many-seeded fruits, and the seeds them¬

selves, become packed with a white felted mycelial mass. This

mass consists of large) numbers of much branched hyphae, each

of which is apparently separate from its neighbors, resembling

superficially the young branched mycelium developing from a

germinated spore. There is no evidence to show that such is

the immediate origin of these hyphae, however. The hyphae are

relatively wide with thick, tuberculate walls. Individual cells

are not much longer than wide and appear to be multinucleate.

The branches do not taper and the terminal cell of each is round¬

ed at its tip. The general effect is one of stiffness and inflexib¬

ility. I have not seen fruiting structures of any sort.

A curious fungus occurred in scanty development on Tephro -

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters

sia virginiana at Madison in September. It might be assigned

to Stagonospora, to Septogloeum, or perhaps to the Leptostroma-

taceae, without in any case doing violence. The epiphyllous

structures in which the spores are borne are globular to rounded-

oblong, with the base sunk in the leaf substratum and the upper

portion erumpent. These receptacles are dark, loosely pseudo-

parenchymatous, and merge into the substratum. The spores

are hyaline, short-cylindrical, 1-6-septate, from 10-35 x 7-10/a,

with relatively few being produced in a single fruiting structure.

Additional Hosts

Basidiophora entospora Roze & Cornu on Aster laevis.

Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 3.

Plasmopara halstedii (Farl.) Berl. & DeToni on Helian-

thus rigidus. Dane Co., Madison, August 10. Seedlings infec¬

ted. Mature plants, among which the seedlings were intersper¬

sed, were not affected.

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Aster oblongifolius. Sauk

Co., Cactus Bluff, September 28. On Aster pilosus. Dane Co.,

Madison, October 7.

Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Helianthus occidentalis.

Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 19.

Rosenscheldia heliopsidis (Schw.) Theiss. & Syd. on Aster

lucidulus. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 12. On Aster

junciformis. Walworth Co., East Troy, August 14. Both speci¬

mens are sterile.

Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fckl. on Hordeum jubatum.

Dane Co., Madison, August 30. Determined by Dr. C. R. Orton.

Phyllachora puncta (Schw.) Orton on Leptoloma cogna-

tum. Dane Co., Madison, August 24. So far as I am aware,

previously reported only on the closely related Panicum. The

infection was extensive, involving many plants over a wide area.

Phyllachora puncta (Schw.) Orton on Panicum implica-

tum. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 20.

Coleosporium SOLID AGINIS (Schw.) Thuem. II on Aster ob¬

longifolius. Dane Co,. Madison, October 14. On Aster oblongi-

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 123

foliiLs var. angustatus. Columbia Co., Black Hawk’s Lookout,

near Prairie du Sac, October 10. On Aster novi-belgii (cult.).

Dane Co., Madison, October 17. II, III on Aster ericoides, Dane

Co., Madison, October 12.

Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae (Pers.) Diet. O on Hepatica

triloba. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, June 10. The aecia are im¬

mature.

Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. Ill on Bromus latiglumis.

Iron Co., Saxon Falls, August 30, 1931. Collected by Newton

Bobb. It may be that Bromus purgans should be deleted as a

Wisconsin host, since it seems possible that it has been confused

with Bromus latiglumis.

Puccinia heucherae (Schw.) Diet, on Heuchera richard-

sonii var. affinis. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, May 27. Reported

for Wisconsin on Heuchera hispida which was the name formerly

used for Heuchera richardsonii var. grayana by most authors. It

is, however, extremely likely that collections have been made

in the past on var. affinis, without its being recognized as such,

owing to the confusion over the taxonomy of the genus Heuchera.

UROMYCES punctatus Schroet. II on Oxytropis chartacea.

Waushara Co., Plainfield, September 15, 1934. Coll. N. C. Fas-

sett. The host is known only from the Waushara Co. station

and from southern Bayfield Co.

Puccinia angustata Pk. I on Monarda fistulosa. Dane Co.,

Madison, June 3. The specimen was submitted to Dr. G. B.

Cummins for confirmation of the determination.

Puccinia vexans Farl. I on Acerates viridiflora var. lanceo-

lata. Dane Co., Madison. Collected by T. J. Hale in 1860 or

1861. This was found, with aeciospores intact, on a phanero¬

gamic specimen in the University of Wisconsin Herbarium.

Trelease reported this on Acerates longifolia (A. floridana )

from LaCrosse in 1883, and Davis collected P. vexans on Acera¬

tes lanuginosa at Prairie du Sac in 1929.

Puccinia physalidis Pk. on Physalis heterophylla. Dane Co.,

Madison, September 14.

Puccinia extensicola Plowr. I on Solidago patida. Wal¬

worth Co., East Troy, July 1.

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Puccinia asteris Duby on Aster ericoides. Walworth Co.,

Lake Lulu, June 30; Dane Co., Madison, October 12.

Puccinia silphii Schw. on Silphium terebinthinaceum. Wau¬

kesha Co., Scuppernong Prairie near Eagle, August 2. Dr. Cum¬

mins states that while he has no previous record of P. SILPHII

having been collected in the field on this host, infection has

nevertheless been successfully produced by inoculating with tel-

iospores from both Silphium perfoliatum and S. integrif olium.

Phyllosticta anemonicola Sacc. & Syd. on Anemone cylin-

drica. Dane Co., Madison, August 16. Great numbers of conidia

are produced in the relatively large pycnidia.

Septoria andropogonis J. J. Davis on Sorghastrum nutans.

Dane Co., Madison, September 10. The lesions closely resemble

those on the nearly related Andropogon furcatus. The spores

are of generally similar form, but they are longer, up to 70/x,

and mostly show 8 or 9 septations. It is possible that this should

have varietal distinction, but it does not seem sufficiently differ¬

ent from S. andropogonis to be described as a new species.

Septoria GRAMINUM Desm. on Panicum praecocius. Also on

Panicum implicatum. Dane Co., Madison, August 30. On Pan¬

icum boreale.. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 20.

Septoria corylina Pk. on Corylus americana. Dane Co.,

Madison, October 19.

Septoria divaricata Ell. & Ev. on Phlox paniculata. Dane

Co., Madison, August 16. Various specimens labelled as this

show vast differences in spore length.

Septoria liatridis Ell. & Davis on Liatris ligulistylis. Wrau-

kesha Co., Eagleville, July 27. On Liatris squarrosa (cult.).

This is the smooth form, Liatris glabrata of Rydberg. Dane Co.,

Madison, August 7.

Septoria astericola Ell. & Ev. on Aster pilosus. Dane Co.,

Madison, October 1. On basal leaves.

Septoria atropurpurea Pk. has been reported on Aster puni-

ceus in Wisconsin. The former Aster puniceus var. lucidulus is

at present considered to be a separate species, so that Aster

lucidulus must be added to the list of hosts. Southern Wisconsin

collections are undoubtedly mostly on A. lucidulus.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 125

Septokia solid agin icola Pk. on Aster paniculatus var. sim¬

plex. ( Aster tradescanti of Gray’s Manual). Likewise occurring

in the same vicinity on what appears to be a hybrid of Aster

lucidulus and of A. paniculatus var. simplex. Dane Co., Madi¬

son, August 25.

Septoria solidaginicola Pk. on Solidago nemoralis. Dane

Co., Madison, August 8.

Septoria chrysanthemella Cav. on Chrysanthemum leu-

canthemum var. pinnatifidum. Dane Co., Madison, June 26.

Davis reports this as occurring on cultivated Chmjsanthemum

sp. at Racine. The sporules are described as being 42-48 x 1-2/i,,

which is under the limits of the Saccardian description of

55-65 p. I do not find this specimen in the Herbarium. How¬

ever, a later specimen from Admiral, Md., determined by Davis,

has sporules mostly 60-70^, or even slightly longer, as does also

the Madison specimen.

Septoria lactucicola Ell. & Mart, an Lactuca ludoviciana.

Dane Co., Madison, September 10.

Leptothyrium dryinum Sacc. on Quercus macrocarpa. Dane

Co., Madison, October 2.

Leptothyrium similisporum (Ell. & Davis) Davis on Soli¬

dago nemoralis. Dane Co., Madison, August 17 ; Waukesha Co.,

Eagleville, September 6.

Entomosporium (thuemenii (Cke.) Sacc.) ? on Crataegus

oxyacantha (cult.) Dane Co., Madison, August 30. On Crataegus

mollis. Dane Co., Madison, September 10. I am entirely un¬

convinced that there is any satisfactory morphologic basis for

the separation of different species of Entomosporium on Ros-

aceae.

Titaeospora detospora (Sacc.) Bubak on Equisetum kan-

sanum. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 28. Bubak regards

the following as synonyms of T. detospora : Septoria detospora

Sacc., Rhabdospora detospora (Sacc.) Allesch., Gloeosporium

equiseti Ell. & Ev., and Septogloeum equiseti (Ell. & Ev.)

Died. Davis records Gloeosporium equiseti on Equisetum sp.

indet. from Sullivan, Jefferson Co. Davis later noted the erec¬

tion of Titaeospora by Bubak, but did not alter the Wisconsin

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

record. I agree with Bubak that, on the basis of the generic

description of Gloeosporium, this fungus cannot be assigned to

that genus, and I think that the establishment of a new genus is

probably justified.

Colletotricum graminicolum (Ces.) Wils. on Paspalum

stramineum. Crawford Co., Prairie du Chien, September 15,

1940. Coll. L. H. Shinners.

Colletotrichum graminicolum (Ces.) Wils. on Panicum

virgatum. Dane Co., Madison, August 10. This appeared to be

lethal.

Colletotrichum hepaticae Pk. on Hepatica triloba. Wau¬

kesha Co., Eagleville, October 25. Rather doubtfully parasitic.

Colletotrichum silphii J. J. Davis on Silphium integrifo-

lium. Dane Co., Madison, August 10. Previously known only

on Silphium perfoliatum where the lesions are identical with

those on S. integrifolium.

Cylindrosporium shepherdiae Sacc. on Elaeagnus argentea

(cult.). Dane Co., Madison, October 3.

Monilia crataegi Died, on Crataegus mollis. Dane Co.,

Madison, May 14. Coll. M. P. Backus. According to Professor

Backus this fungus was the cause of a destructive blight of

trees of C. mollis on the campus of the Agricultural College of

the University of Wisconsin.

Ramularia gei (Eliass.) Lindr. on Geum strictum. Dane

Co., Madison, June 8. I follow Davis in temporarily assigning

to this species a form that verges on Cercosporella and which,

except for somewhat shorter conidiophores is much like the

fungus described by Davis on Geum sp. in an earlier publication

(Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 24 : 276, 1929) . Also on Geum triflorum.

Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 2. In this collection, by con¬

trast to that on G. strictum, the conidia are 22-35 x 3-4 ju, mostly

uniseptate, occasionally continuous. The tufted conidiophores are

stiffly curved, candelabra-like, 10-25 x 3/n.

Ramularia asteris (Phil. & Plowr.) Bubak on Aster ptar~

micoides. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 19. On Aster pilo-

sus. Dane Co., Madison, October 1.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 127

PlRICULARIA PARASITICA Ell. & Ev. On PHYLLACHORA VUL-

GATA on Muhlenbergia foliosa. Dane Co., Madison, August 11.

Cercosporella dearnessii Bubak & Sacc. on Solidago patula.

Walworth Co., East Troy, August 20. Conidiophores up to 75/m,

the conidia to 130 fi. Material from Eagleville, Waukesha Co.,

with shorter conidiophores may represent a bridging form be¬

tween this and Cercosporella nivea.

Cladosporium astericola J. J. Davis on Solidago speciosa.

Dane Co., Madison, October 2. Epiphyllous instead of hypo-

phyllous as in the type on Aster umbellatus. Davis found this

also on Solidago serotina.

Fusicladium depressum (B. & Br.) Sacc. on Oxypolis rigi-

dior. Dane Co., Madison, August 5.

SCOLECOTRICHUM graminis Fckl. on Alopecurus carolinianus.

Rock Co., Edgerton, June 7, 1912. Coll. J. Johnson. The host

was entered in the Herbarium as Alopecurus geniculatus var.

aristulatus as of Gray’s Manual. Recent workers have set out

A. carolinianus Walt, from A. geniculatus var. aristulatus, and

the latter has in turn been placed under A. aequalis Sobol. Thus,

Alopecurus carolinianus and A. aequalis are the Wisconsin

Alopecurus hosts for Scolecotrichum graminis.

Helminthosporium sativum Pamm., King & Bakke on Pan¬

icum capillare. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 18. Not be¬

fore reported on Panicum, so far as I am aware.

Cercospora fusimaculans Atk. on Leptoloma cognatum.

Dane Co., Madison, June 23. Determined by Professor Chupp

who states that this is a highly variable species. He regards

Cercospora panici J. J. Davis as a synonym.

Cercospora fusimaculans Atk. on Panicum praecocius.

Dane Co., Madison, August 20. On Panicum scribnerianum.

Dane Co., Madison, June 24. On Panicum leibergii. Walworth

Co., Lake Lulu, June 30; Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 21.

On Panicum perlongum. Walworth Co., Lake Lulu, August 21 ;

Dane Co., Madison, September 11.

Cercospora cypripedii Ell. & Dearn. on Cypripedium can-

didum. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 3.

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Cercospora rhoina Cke. & Ell. on Rhus, vernix. Jefferson

Co., Lake Mills, September 17, 1940.

Cercospora omphacodes Ell. & Holw. on Phlox pilosa. Dane

Co., Madison, June 22. Determined by Professor Chupp.

Cercospora parvimaculans J. J. Davis on Solidago riddellii.

Dane Co., Madison, August 25. The spots are dark purple, small,

and angled. Professor Chupp considers this to be a synonym of

Cercospora stomatica, described earlier by Davis. There seem

to me to be sufficient differences so as to constitute reasonable

doubt as to this, so I am provisionally continuing to use the name

C. parvimaculans. On Solidago uliginosa. Waukesha Co.,

Eagleville, September 3. On Solidago rigida. Walworth Co.,

Lake Lulu, July 27. The spots on these hosts are mostly some¬

what larger than those of most specimens on Solidago serotina,

the only species on which Davis collected this fungus, but the

microscopic characters correspond satisfactorily.

Macrosporium saponariae Pk. on Silene stellata. Waukesha

Co., Eagleville, August 19.

Additional Species

Aphanomyces eutiches Dreschsler on Pisum sativum

caused severe losses to growers throughout the pea canning areas

of Wisconsin in 1942.

Myeosphaerella krigiae (Ell. & Ev.) n. comb. Ellis and

Everhart, in their “North American Pyrenomycetes,” p. 280,

described Sphaerella krigiae, the description being based on

immature material of a Myeosphaerella on Krigia amplexicaulis,

collected by J. J. Davis at Racine, Wis. in June, 1890. At Madi¬

son, August 16, 1942, I found K. amplexicaulis heavily infected

with a Myeosphaerella which, judging from the spots and the

fungus itself, is the same thing found by Davis. In the present

specimen, however, the uniseptate spores are mature, measuring

about 10 x 2.5/*. In other characters the original description

seems adequate, except that the spots in my specimen are in

general of somewhat greater diameter.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. 111. 129

COLEOSPORIUM delic atulu M (A. & K.) Hedge. & Long II,

III on Euthamia graminifolia. Dane Co., Madison, October 13.

Det. by G. B. Cummins.

Puccinia amphigena Diet. Ill on Calamovilfa longifolia.

Marquette Co., Montello, September 12, 1937. Coll. N. C. Fas-

sett. The host was doubtless introduced from farther west.

Through a misunderstanding, Entyloma aster-sericeanum

Zund., based on material collected in Wisconsin, was listed as

Entyloma aster-sericeae Zund. The description of the species

was published in Mycologia 34 : 126, 1942.

Phyllosticta chenopodii-albi Siemaszko on Chenopodium

album. Dane Co., Madison, August 10. Tehon and Daniels

(Mycologia 11 : 121, 1927) oiler a key to five Phyllostictae oc¬

curring on Chenopodia, but do not include P. chenopodii-albi.

They establish a limit of 70-80/* diam. for the pycnidia of Phyl¬

losticta ambrosioides Thum., although no size limits are cited

in the Saccardian description. Siemaszko specifies a diameter of

140-200/* for the pycnidia of P. chenopodii-albi, which corre¬

sponds to the material I have collected. It seems that despite

pycnidial size P. chenopodii-albi may possibly be a synonym

for P. ambrosioides. Neither has been previously reported from

Wisconsin.

Phyllosticta cornicola (DC.) Rabh. on Cornus alterni-

folia. Walworth Co., East Troy, August 20. The conidia are

slightly smaller than is indicated in the description. N. A. F.

2833, which is labelled Phyllosticta cornicola, proved to be

Septoria cornicola Desm.

Phyllosticta antennariae Ell. & Ev. on Antennaria fallax.

Waukesha Co., Eagleville, June 16. The original description is

meager, but this material matches it in all points specified. There

were no specimens in the Herbarium for comparison.

Ascochyta verbenae Siemaszko on Verbena stricta. Dane

Co., Madison, July 7. The spots are very small, arid, with a

narrow, dark purple border. Conidia are 6-7 x 3/*, while the

pycnidia are about 110/* diam., more or less.

Diplodia zeae (Schw.) Lev. on Zea mays. Dane Co., Madi¬

son, August 9. Coll. & det. M. P. Backus. This common fungus,

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

causing the dry rot of ear corn, is not mentioned by Davis and

is here included for the sake of completeness.

Hendersonia calamovilfae Petr, on Calamovilfa longifolia.

Marquette Co., Montello, September 12, 1937. Coll. N. C. Fas-

sett. Associated with Puccinia amphigena Diet, on yellowed

foliage of C. longifolia. Hendersonia calamovilfae is a strik¬

ing and well-marked species, but doubtfully parasitic. It was

erected on material collected by Brenckle in 1923 at Kulm, North

Dakota.

Davis in July 1929 found Septoria sp. on the dead stems of

Linaria canadensis (Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 26: 260, 1931). The

collection was made at Arena, Iowa Co. In 1938 I collected simi¬

lar material in great abundance at the same station in June. It

seemed at the time that, despite Davis’ suggestion that his speci¬

men was probably abnormal in development, such was not the

case. (Greene, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 32: 77, 1940). In June

1942, a late season, the same Septoria was found on the still

green stems and leaves of Linaria canadensis, thus behaving as

a parasite. The third collection was made in the University of

Wisconsin Arboretum at Madison, Dane Co. This fungus is

evidently a well-marked and constant form and is therefore

described as a new species :

Septoria linariae n. sp.

Pycnidia black, globose, firm, pseudoparenchymatous, ostio-

late, rostrate, deeply seated in the host tissue, gregarious on

pale, indeterminate spots on stems and leaves, 80-125/* diam. ;

beaks protruding, 35-60/* wide, 35-45/* long; conidia numerous,

hyaline, lax, filiform, continuous, 30-50 x 1/*; conidiophores

short, almost obsolete.

On stems and leaves of Linaria canadensis (L.) Dumont.,

Madison, Wisconsin, U. S. A., June 1942.

Septoria linariae sp.: nov.

Pycnidiis nigris, globosis, firmis, contextu pseudoparenchy-

matico, poro pertusis, rostratis, immersis, gregariis, in maculis

pallidis indeterminatis in caulibus et foliis, 80-125/* diam. ; ostio-

lis prominentibus, 35-60/* latis, 35-45/* longis; conidiis numero-

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 131

sis, hyalinis, laxis, filiformibus, non septatis, 30-50 x 1/x ; con-

idiophoris brevibus, prope absentibus.

In caulibus et foliis Linariae canadensis (L.) Dumont., Madi¬

son, Wisconsin, U. S. A.

Septoria Valerianae Sacc. & Fautr. on Valeriana ciliata.

Dane Co., Madison, July 6. The pycnidia are amphigenous. Al¬

though the spores are longer, on the average, than specified in

the description, running from 25-50/a, mostly 35-45 x 1.5, it is

well known that great differences in spore length may sometimes

exist within the same species.

Septoria lepachydis Ell. & Ev. on Lepachys pinnata. Wau¬

kesha Co., Eagle, August 19. Also found on Echinacea purpurea

(cult.) ( Brauneria purpurea of Gray’s Manual). Dane Co.,

Madison, July 7. On the latter host the slender sporules are

up to 25/i long.

Leptothyrium punctiforme B. & C. on Erigeron annuus.

Dane Co., Madison, June 5. Bubak at one time set out Lepto¬

thyrium dearnessii on the same host, but later reached the

conclusion that the two fungi are identical (Hedwigia 55:26,

1917).

Kabatiella caulivora (Kirchn.) Karak. on Trifolium pro-

tense. Dane Co., Madison, August 15, 1941. Coll. J. L. Allison

and D. W. Chamberlain.

Botrytis cinerea Pers. has been found as a weak parasite

on pods of Phaseolus aureus (Mung bean). Dane Co., Black

Earth, September 20. Coll. & det. M. P. Backus.

Sphaceloma plantaginis Jenkins & Bitancourt on Plantago

rugelii. Dane Co., Madison, August. Coll. A. S. Costa. The

writer is indebted to Dr. Anna E. Jenkins of the Bureau of Plant

Industry for a specimen of this newly discovered species.

Cladosporium fasciculatum Cda. on Evonymus atropur-

pureus. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 20. Under a hand

lens the tufted conidiophores resemble those of a Cercospora.

The fascicles are epiphyllous, on long, narrow, pale brown mar¬

ginal spots. The inner border of the spots is reddish purple.

Cercospora “graphioides” Ell. occurs on Prunus serotina in

Wisconsin. This is not Cercospora circumscissa Sacc., from

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

which it differs in having conidia often wider than 5/z, and the

conidiophores strongly fascicled, sometimes almost coremoid.

The validity of the Ellis name is questionable, for while he is¬

sued a printed label (N. A. F. No. 646), there is no diagnosis on

the label, and according to Professor Chupp, there is no printed

description elsewhere. Professor Chupp informs me that to the

best of his knowledge all collections on Prunus serotina are

Cercospora graphioides Ell.

Cercospora caracallae (Speg.) n. comb, on Phaseolus aureus

(cult.) Dane Co., Black Earth, September 20. ( Cercosporina

caracallae Speg., Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires

20: 425, 1910). Coll. M. P. Backus. Determined by Professor

Chupp who states that this species heretofore has not been re¬

ported from North America. He has received specimens from

Argentina, Brazil, and Puerto Rico.

Cercospora bacilligera (B. & Br.) Fres. on Rhamnus

frangula (cult.). Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 18. Deter¬

mined by Professor Chupp who states that this species differs

from the others on Rhamnus in its hyaline conidia and short,

delicate conidiophores.

Cercospora malvarum Sacc. on Malva rotundifolia. Dane

Co., Madison, August 10. Determined by Professor Chupp.

A species of Cercospora found on Gerardia grandi flora ( Au -

reolaria grandiflora var. pulchra Pennell) at Madison appears

to fit no form previously described on the Scrophulariaceae. In

cooperation with Professor Charles Chupp this species is here

described as Cercospora madisonensis Chupp & Greene:

Cercospora madisonensis n. sp.

Leaf spots circular, 0.5-2 mm. diam., white center, reddish

to purplish border, fruiting amphigenous ; fascicles dense, short

on upper surface, often non-fasciculate, long on lower surface;

conidiophores pale to medium brown, paler and more narrow

toward the tip, multiseptate, branched on lower leaf surface,

tortuous or 1-3-geniculate, tip rounded to subtruncate, 4-6 x 20-

200/x; conidia hyaline, acicular to obclavate, straight to slightly

curved, indistinctly multiseptate, base truncate to subtruncate,

tip subacute, 2-3.5 x 20-7 0/x.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 133

On leaves of Gerardia grandiflora. Madison, Wisconsin,

U. S. A. September 14, 1942.

Specimens from the type collection are deposited in the Her¬

barium of the University of Wisconsin and in the Herbarium of

the Department of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York.

Cercospora madisonensis sp. nov.

Maculis rotundatis, 0.5-2 mm. diam., centris albis, margin-

ibus roseis vel purpureis, conidiophoris amphigenis, fasciculis

densis, brevibus in superioribus superficiebus, saepe non-fasci-

culatis, longis in inferioribus superficiebus; conidiophoris pal-

lidis vel brunneolis, pallidioribus et angustioribus ad apicibus,

multiseptatis, ramosis in inferioribus superficiebus, contortis

vel 1-3-geniculatis, apicibus rotundatis vel subtruncatis, 4-6 x

20-200 fi; conidiis hyalinis, acicularibus vel obclavatis, rectis vel

leviter curvatis, indistinctatis multiseptatis, basibus truncatis

vel subtruncatis, apicibus subacutis, 2-3.5 x 20-70/i.

In foliis Gerardiae grandiflorae. Madison, Wisconsin,

U. S. A.

Cercospora bidentis Tharp on Bidens cernua. Dane Co.,

Madison, August 11. Determined by Professor Chupp who tells

me that the Wisconsin material on this host which formerly was

referred to Cercospora megaloptamica Speg. should be placed

under C. bidentis.

Cercospora tragopogonis Ell. & Ev. on Tragopogon praten-

sis. Dane Co., Madison, August 17. This species is described in

Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 24: 474, 1897. The conidiophores in my

specimen are somewhat longer than the 20-30 ^ of the descrip¬

tion, being up to 45/x, but in other characters there is close cor¬

respondence.

Cercospora longissima Sacc. on Lactuca scariola. Dane Co.,

Madison, August 30. Determined by Professor Chupp.

Cercospora arcti-ambrosiae Hals, on Arctium minus. Dane

Co., Madison. September 14.

Stemphylium sarcinaeforme (Cav.) Wilt. Macrospor-

IUM sarcinaeforme (Cav.) on Trifolium pratense. Dane Co.,

Madison, October 30, 1940. Coll. J. L. Allison. Said to be com¬

mon on this host in Wisconsin.

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Fusarium pteridis Ell. & Ev. on Phyllachora graminis on

Hordeum jubatum. Dane Co., Madison, August 30. This has

also been called Septogloeum pteridis (Ell. & Ev.) Wr. I have

examined the Ellis and Everhart material (N. A. F. 2982)

which is on Crypto myces pteridis and corresponds well with

my own collection. Neither appears to me to be Septogloeum.

Sclerotium mendax Sacc. on Solidago altissima. Dane Co.,

Madison, August 10; September 13. Saccardo’s description of

this is based on a specimen from New York State, so it seems

probable that the Wisconsin collection is the same thing, al¬

though no specimens were available for comparison.

Through the courtesy of Professor J. L. Allison and Mr.

D. W. Chamberlain of the Department of Plant Pathology of the

University of Wisconsin the following list of fungi parasitic on

grasses in Wisconsin has been made available. Although these

fungi have been, or will be, reported elsewhere, they are in¬

cluded here in order to make these notes, together with those of

the late J. J. Davis, as complete an account as possible of all

fungi known to be parasitic on plants in Wisconsin:

Additional Hosts

Colletotrichum graminicolum (Ces.) Wils. on Sorghum

vulgare var. sudanense.

Scolecotrichum graminis Fckl. on Festuca rubra.

Cercospora fusimaculans Atk. on Panicum virgatum.

Urocystis agropyri (Preuss) Schroet. on Poa pratensis. On

Agropyron repens. On Hordeum jubatum.

Puccinia graminis Pers. on Poa compressa. On Agropyron

smithii.

Additional Species

Selenophoma bromigena (Sacc.) Sprague & Johnson on

Bromus inermis.

Stagonospora bromi Smith & Ramsb. on Bromus inermis.

Septoria elymi Ell. & Ev. on Elymus canadensis.

Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. III. 135

Sporotrichum poae Pk. on Poa pratensis.

Helminthosporium TURCICUM Pass, on Sorghum vulgare

var. sudanense.

Helminthosporium ravenelii M. A. Curtis on Sporobolus

neglectus.

Helminthosporium vagans Drechsler on Poa pratensis.

Helminthosporium bromi Died, on Bromus inermis.

Ustilago bullata Berk, on Bromus marginatus.

Specimens of most of these have been placed in the Univer¬

sity Herbarium.

ASCOCHYTA MELILOTI (TREL.) DAVIS AS THE

CONIDIAL STAGE OF MYCOSPHAERELLA

LETHALIS STONE

Fred Reuel Jones1

Stone in 1912 published an excellent account of the life his¬

tory of Mycosphaerella lethalis, sometimes called the black stem

fungus of sweetclover. The conidial stage of this fungus is prop¬

erly an Ascochyta, and it was identified for Stone by Bartholo¬

mew as A. lethalis Ell. and Barth. (3) This identification which

was probably entirely justified at that time has become unten¬

able with later information. First, A. lethalis is properly a syn¬

onym of A. caulicola Laubert (2) described a few months ear¬

lier. This opinion is supported by several mycologists who have

compared the type collection of A. caulicola issued as No. 37 in

the My cotheca germanica by Sydow, and the type of A. lethalis,

No. 1808 in Ellis and Everhart’s Fungi Columbiani. Second,

A. caulicola is not the conidial stage of Mycosphaerella lethalis,

but a distinct species without a known ascigerous stage, as has

been stated by the author previously (1). However, A. caulicola

is not clearly distinguishable from the conidial stage of M. letha¬

lis by usual mycological characters, but it is easily distinguished

in culture and usually by its pathological effects upon the host.

When the synonomy stated above has been made, it becomes

necessary to revise the description of the conidial stage of Myco¬

sphaerella lethalis and to provide a name for it. In doing this it

will be convenient to find a previous name properly applied and

a description already written. The name Ascochyta meliloti

(Trel.) Davis has been suggested to the writer by J. A. Steven¬

son as possibly fulfilling requirements. The original collection

of this species has been examined through the courtesy of the

Missouri Botanic Garden. This collection of the vigorous top of

1 Senior Pathologist, Division of Forage Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry,

Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with

the Wisconsin Agricutural Experiment Station.

137

138 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

a young shoot is much discolored as though it had been kept for

sometime after collection in a moist chamber to stimulate the

fruiting of the fungus. Thus the pathological conditions which

might indicate the species present are obliterated. With a speci¬

men in this poor condition it does not appear that an incontest¬

able assignment of the abundant fungus present can be made to

either species under consideration — and no other species are

known to be admissible for consideration; but after comparing

it with many collections of both species made over several years

the writer inclines strongly to the opinion that it is the conidial

stage of Mycosyhaerella lethalis. While the abundant fruiting

found in this specimen is unusual on young stems, it might have

been induced by incubation, and, in fact, the writer has a similar

fruiting specimen of this fungus from the field collected on very

susceptible Melilotus dentata. Thus the use of this name for the

conidial stage of M. lethalis is suggested, with the description

amended to read as follows.

Mycosyhaerella lethalis, st. con. = Ascochyta meliloti (Trel.)

Davis. In foliis, maculis orbicularibus, zonatis, brunneis, pycni-

diis saepe obscuris; in stipulis, pycnidiis paucis; in caulibus,

maculis elongatis, saepe confluentibus, atropurpureis, brunneis

aut carbonaceis, rare pallidis ; pycnidiis saepe paucis aut numer-

osis in caulibus vetustis; pycnidiis globosis, prominulis, ostio-

latis, 100-150/a; conidiis hyalinis, oblongatis, vel leniter curvis,

plerumque uniseptatis, septo in multis infra medium, 5-6 x 13-

20/a., plerumque 15-18/t.

Literature Cited

1. Jones, Fred Reuel

1938. A seed-borne disease of sweetclover. Phytopath. 28:661-662.

2 Laubert, R.

1903. Ascochyta caulicola. Ein neuer krankheitserreger des steinklees.

Arb. Biol. Abt. f. Land u. Forstw. 3:441-443, illus.

3. Stone, R. E.

1912. The life history of ascochyta on some leguminous plants. Ann.

Myc. 10:564-592, illus.

FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS OF

VILAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN*

J. E. POTZGER

Butler University

The plants listed in this paper were collected during “Spare”

hours and days between June 29 and Sept. 3, 1940 while the

author was studying bogs, lakes, and forest primeval in the

Trout Lake, Vilas County, neighborhood as member of the Geo¬

logical and Natural History Survey group during the summer of

1940. Conditions under which the plants were collected necessi¬

tated limiting the area studied to a few miles adjacent to Trout

Lake, and seasonally to the summer aspect. The list is, therefore,

incomplete as far as the total plants found in the large county

are concerned. The 300 species represent 71 families. Com-

positae and Gramineae have the highest number of species, with

Rosaceae and Cyperaceae next in numerical importance. A spe¬

cimen of each plant listed has been deposited with the herbaria

of Wisconsin University and Butler University of Indianapolis.

While the list is not exhaustive it constitutes, perhaps, a fair

representation of the most common plants in the immediate en¬

vironment of Trout Lake, and could form the nucleus for addi¬

tional systematic collections in this large, and interesting county

of northern Wisconsin.

I am indebted to Dr. Ray C. Friesner of Butler University

for determining and checking about one-third of the total col¬

lection, especially the ferns and goldenrods ; to Mr. Chas. M. Ek,

of Kokomo, Indiana for determining all Cyperaceae and Juncus;

to Mrs. Agnes Chase of the U. S. National Museum for checking

17 species of grasses; to Dr. Norman C. Fassett of Wisconsin

University for identification of Isoetes and Sparganium.

* This is contribution 135 from the botanical laboratories of Butler University, Indianapolis,

Indiana, and Notes and Reports 112 from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological

and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin.

139

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

For grasses the nomenclature is that of Hitchcock’s Manual

of the Grasses of the United States, 1935; for the aquatic and

some of the shore plants that of Fassett’s Manual of Aquatic

Plants, 1940 ; for all other plants Deam’s Flora of Indiana, 1940,

Gray’s Manual of Botany, 7th edition, and various recent pub¬

lications of nomenclatorial changes. The figures refer to serial

collection numbers of the author. A specimen of each plant listed

is deposited with the herbaria at the University of Wisconsin

and at Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana. The family

names follow alphabetically, and species under each family are,

likewise, alphabetically arranged. Starred species have been re¬

ported previously for Vilas County by Dr. N. C. Fassett and

co-workers in the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of

Science, Arts and Letters.

Aceraceae: Acer rubrum L., 8505. A. saccharum Marsh, 8524.

*A. spicatum Lam., 8475.

Aizoaceae: Mollugo verticillata L., 8661.

Anacardiaceae : Rhus typhina L., 8684.

Apocynaceae: Apocynum androsaemifolium L., 8548, 8764.

Aquifoliaceae : Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray, 8640. Nemopanthus

mucronata (L.) Trek, 8631.

Araceae : *Calla palustris L., 8583.

Araliaceae: Aralia nudicaulis L., 8635. A. racemosa L., 8703.

Asclepiadaceae : Asclepias phytolaccoides Pursh., 8572.

Balsaminaceae : Impatiens biflora Walt., 8715.

Betulaceae: Alnus incana Moench, 8535. Betula lutea Michx.,

8599, 8600. B. papyrifera Marsh, 8507. B. pumila L., 8498.

Corylus americana Walt., 8644. *C. cornuta Marsh., 8502.

Ostyra virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch, 8525.

Campanulaceae : Campanula rotundifolia var. intercedens (Wit-

asek.) Farw., 8540. *C. uliginosa Rhyd., 8622, 8638.

Caprifoliaceae : *Diervilla lonicera Mill., 8433. *Lmnaea bore¬

alis var. americana (Forbes) Rehder, 8415. * Lonicera can¬

adensis Marsh, 8652. Viburnum acerifolium L., 8526.

Caryophyllaceae : Lychnis alba Mill., 8479. Stellaria graminea

L., 8411. S. longefolia Muhl., 8629 (a), 8608.

Chenopodiaceae : Chenopodium capitatum (L.) Asch., 8658.

Compositae: Achillea millefolium L., 8523. Anaphalis margarit-

aceae (L.) B. & H., 8659. Antennaria neodioica Greene,

Potzger — Plants and Ferns of Vilas County

141

8464. Artemisia caudata Michx., 8709. Aster macrophyllus

L ., 8734. A. puniceus L., 8725. A. sagittifolius Wedemeyer,

8728. A. umbellatus Mill., 8671. Chrysanthemum leucan-

themum var. pinnatifidum Lecoq. & Lamotte, 8420. Cirsium

arvense (L.) Scop., 8587. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf.,

8724. Erigeron canadensis L., 8660. E. ramosus (Walt.)

BSP., 8641. Eupatorium maculatum L., 8707. Gnaphalium

obtusifolim L., 8732. Helianthus giganteus L., 8664. Heli-

opsis scabra Dunal., 8590. Hieracium aurantiacum L., 8428.

H. canadense Michx., 8727. H. floribundum Wimm. & Grab.,

8567. H. scabrum Michx., 8700. Krigia biflora (Walt.)

Blake, 8539. Prenathes alba L., 8736. Rudbeckia hirta L.,

8616. Senecio plattensis Nutt., 8463. Solidago canadensis

var. gilvocanescens Rydb., 8669. S. gigantea Ait., 8735.

S. gigantea var. leiophylla Fern., 8670. S. graminifolia (L.)

Salisb., 8662. S. hispida Muhl., 8733. 5. juncea Ait., 8673.

S. nemoralis Ait., 8710. S. uniligulata (DC.) Porter, 8722,

8737. Tanacetum vulgar e L., 8676.

Convolvulaceae : * Convolvulus spithamaeus L., 8457.

Cornaceae: *Cornus canadensis L., 8425, 8650. *C. rugosa Lam.,

8503.

Cruciferae : Arabis lyrata L., 8478.

Cyperaceae: Carex aenea Fern., 8451, 8687. C. arctata Boott.,

8436, 8576. C. comosa Boott., 8585. C. communis Bailey,

8467. C. crawfordii Fern., 8530. C. foenea Willd., 8509.

C. intumescens Rudg., 8440. C. laxiflora Lam., 8500. C.

pauciflora Lightf., 8493. C. paupercula Michx., 8536. C.

pennsylvanica Lam., 8417. C. rostrata Stokes, 8559. C.

seorsa E. C. Howe, 8430. C. substricta (Kiikenth) Mack.,

8570. C. trisperma Dewey, 8431, 8568. C. Tuckermani

Dewey, 8552. Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britt., 8743.

Eriophorum angustifolium Roth., 8499. E. gracile Roth.,

8497. E. virginicum L., 8746. Scirpus atrovirens Muhl.,

8569. S. cyperinus (L.) Kunth., 8720.

Droseraceae: *Drosera linearis Goldie, 8484. *D. rotundifolia

L., 8483.

Elatinaceae: *Elatine minima (Nutt.) Fisch. & Meyer, 9122.

Equisetaceae : Equisetum pratense Ehrh., 8456. E. sylvaticum

var. pauciramosum Milde, 8441.

Ericaceae: *Kalmia polifolia Wang. 8756. *Arctostaphylos uva

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ursi var. coactyllis L. Speng., 8468. Chamaedaphne calycu-

lata (L.) Moench, 8533. *Epigaea repens L., 8434, 9130.

*Gaultheria procumbens L., 8532. * Ledum groenlandicum

Oeder, 8432. Moneses uniflora (L.) Gray, 8517. *Monotropa

uniflora L., 8691. *Pyrola asarifolia var. incamata (Fisch.)

Fern., 8465. *P. secunda L., 8637. *P. virens Schweigg,

8414. *Vaccinium angustifolium Ait., 8647. *F. oxy coccus

L. 8429.

Eriocaulaceae : *Eriocaulon septangulare With., 9112.

Fagaceae: Quercus borealis var. maxima (Marsh) Ashe, 8504.

Gentianaceae : Gentiana andrewsii Griseb., 8729. Menyanthes

trifoliata var. minor Raf., 8486.

Gramineae: Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., 8566. A. subsecun¬

dum (Link) Hitch., 8663. Andropogon furcatus Muhl.,

8674. Agrostis alba L., 8554, 8577. A. hiemalis (Walt.)

BSP., 8512. A. perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm., 8740. Brach-

yelytrum erectum (Screb.) Beauv., 8575, 8589. Bromus

ciliatus L., 8731. B. inermis Leyss., 8765. B. kalmii A.

Gray, 8558, 8646, 8495. Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.)

Beauv., 8529, 8603. Cinna latifolia (Trev.) Griseb., 8607.

Dactylis glomerata L., 8481. Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv.,

8514. Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv., 8668. Elymus can-

adensis L., 8665. Eragrostis pectinacea (Michx.) Nees, 8739.

Festuca ovina L., 8480. F. rubra L., 8490. Glyceria canaden¬

sis (Michx.) Trin., 8534, 8648. G. grandis S. Wats., 8557.

G. striata (Lam.) Hitchc., 8551, 8620. Milium effusum L.,

8594. Muhlenbergia foliosa (Roem. and Schult.) Trin., 8730.

M. racemosa (Michx.) BSP., 9114. M. sylvatica Torr., 8717.

M. uni flora (Muhl.) Fern., 9115. Oryzopsis asp eri folia

Michx., 8574, 8409. O. pungens (Torr.) Hitchc., 8416.

Panicum capillare L., 8753. P. depauperatum Muhl., 8422,

8460, 8520. P. huachucae Ashe, 8423. P. huachucae var.

fasciculatum (Torr.) Hubb., 8458. P. linearifolium Scribn.

8421, 8496, 8515, 8538. P. Werneri Scribn., 8444. P. xan-

thophysum A. Gray, 8424. Phleum pratense L., 8508. Poa

annua L., 8418. P. compressa L., 8513. P. palustris L., 8410,

8489, 8754. P. pratensis L., 8461. P. saltuensis Fern. &

Wieg., 8442, 8426, 8413, 8438, 8439. Schizachne purpura-

scens (Torr.) Swallen, 8412. Setaria lutescens (Weigel)

F. T. Hubb., 8667.

Potzger — Plants and Fei'ns of Vilas County

143

Hydrocharitaceae : *Anacharis canadensis (Michx.) Planch.,

8699. *V allisneria americana Michx., 8694.

Iridaceae : Iris versicolor L. 8445.

Isoetaceae: Isoetes macrospora Dur., 9125.

Juncaceae: J uncus macer S. F. Gray, 8761. *J. pelocarpus Mey,

9118. J. pelocarpus forma submersus Fassett, 9118 (a).

Labiatae: Lycopus americanus Muhl., 8711. L. uniflorus Michx.,

8741. Mentha arvensis var. canadensis (L.) Briquet, 8627,

8712. Mimulus glabratus var. Michiganensis (Pen.) Fas¬

sett, 8611. Monarda clinopodia L., 8675. Prunella vulgaris

L., 8546, 8761. Scutellaria galericulata L., 8581. S. lateri¬

flora L., 8718, 8745. Stachys palustris L., 8588.

Leguminosae: Trifolium hybridum L., 8571. T. repens L., 8519.

Liliaceae: Clintonia borealis (Ait.) Raf., 8469. Maianthemum

canadense Desf., 8408 (b). M. canadense var. interius Fern.,

8408 (a). Smilacina trifolia (L.) Desf., 8488. Trillium

erectum L., 8624. Uvularia sessilifolia L., 8685.

Lobeliaceae: * Lobelia Dortmanna L., 9123.

Lycopodiaceae : Lycopodium annotinum L., 8721, 8744, 8747.

*L. clavatum L., 8537, 8686. *L. inundatum L., 9107. *L.

obscurum var. dendroideum (Michx.) D. C. Eaton 8471,

8748.

Lythraceae: Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell., 8751.

Myriaceae: *Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coulter 8506. *Myrica

gale L., 8642.

Najadaceae: Najas flexilis (Willd.) Rost. & Schmidt, 8695.

Potamogeton gramineus var. graminefolius, forma myrio-

phyllus (Robbins) House, 8677. P. amplifolius Tuck., 8696.

P. Richardsonii (Benn.) Rydb., 8693. P. Robbinsii Oakes,

8697. P. zosteriformis Fern., 8698.

Nymphaeaceae : Nymphaea tuberosa Paine, 8657. Nuphar varie-

gatum Engelm., 8678.

Onagraceae: Circaea alpina L., 8613. Epilobium angustif olium

L., 8553. E. glandulosum var. adenocaulon (Houssk.)

Fern., 8630. Oenothera pycnocarpa Atk. & Bartl., 8702.

Ophioglossaceae : Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw., 8609.

Osmundaceae: Osmunda cinnamomea L., 8449. O. claytoniana

L., 8618. O. regalis L., 8454.

Orchidacae: Calopogon pulchellus (Salis.) R. Br., 8491. Coral-

lorhiza maculata Raf., 8474, 8541. Cypripedium acaule Ait.,

144

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

8487. Habenaria hyperborea (L.) R. Br., 8610, 8690. Orchis

rotundifolia Banks, 8614.

Oxalidaceae : Oxalis montana Raf ., 8621.

Pinaceae: Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., 8443. Larix laricina (Du-

Roi) Koch, 9128. Picea, 9129. P. glauca voss mariana

(Mill.) BSP., 9127. Pinus banksiana Lam., 8578. P. resin-

osa Ait. 8446. P. strobus L., 8511. Thuja occidentalis L.,

8482. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr., 9126.

Polygonaceae : Polygonum convolvulus L., 8634. *P. natans A.

Eaton, 8680. P. scabrum Moench, 8713.

Polypodiaceae : Athyrium angustum (Willd.) Presl., 8477, 8605,

8619. *Dryopteris disjuncta (Rupr.) Morton, 8452. *D.

intermedia (Muhl.) Underw., 8453, 8476, 8597. *D. phegop-

teris (L.) C. Chr., 8623. D. spinulosa (Mueller) Watt.,

8450. Onoclea sensibilis L., 8580. *Pteridium aquilinum

var. latiusculum (Desf.) Hieronymus, 8501.

Pontederiaceae : *Pontederia cor data forma latifolia (Farw.)

House, 9108.

Primulaceae: Lysimachia quadrifolia L., 8543. L. terrestris

(L.) BSP., 8763. L. thyrsiflora L., 8591. Trientalis borealis

Raf., 8448.

Ranunculaceae : *Actaea pachypoda Ell., 8752. Anemone quin-

quefolia var. interior Fern. & Gris., 8466. *Aquilegia can¬

adensis L., 8419. Caltha palustris L., 8625. *Coptis groen-

landica (Oeder) Fern., 8447. Ranunculus acris L., 8617.

R. pennsylvanicus L. f., 8602. R. reptans var. ovalis (Bigel)

T. & G., 9110.

Rosaceae: Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr., 8672. A. striata

Michx., 8706. Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic., 8649.

A. humilis Wieg., 8689. Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Ell., 8582.

A. melanocarpa (Michx.) Ell., 9111. Fragaria vesca var.

americana Porter, 8615. Physocarpus opulifolius (L.)

Maxim, 8714. Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop., 8565. Prunus

pennsylvanica L. f., 8510. P. pumila L., 8628. P. serotina

Ehrh., 8542. P. virginiana L., 8518. Rubus allegheniensis

Porter, 8760. R. idaeus L., 8544. R. parviflorus Nutt, 8573.

R. pubescens Raf., 8629. Sorbus americana Marsh., 8592.

Spiraea alba DuRoi, 8672(a), 8679. Waldsteinia fragari-

oides (Michx.) Trattinick, 8407.

Potzger — Plants and Ferns of Vilas County

145

Rubiaceae: Galium tinctorium L., 8528. G. triflorum Michx.,

8470, 8473. Mitchella repens L., 8579, 8596.

Salicaceae : Populus grandidentata Michx., 8682. P. tremu-

loides Michx., 8522. Salix bebbiana Sarg., 8521, 8688.

Santalaceae: Comandra Richardsiana Fern., 8437.

Sarraceniaceae : Sarracenia purpurea L., 8492.

Saxifragaceae : Ribes americanum Mill., 8626. *Saxifraga

pennsylvanica L., 8636.

Scrophulariaceae : Chelone glabra L., 8716. Gerardia pauper-

cula var. borealis Pennell, 1917. Gratiola lutea Raf., 9116.

G. lutea forma pusilla (Fassett) Pennell, 8704. Linaria vul¬

garis Hill, 8593. Melampyrum lineare var. typicum Lam.,

8531. Verbascum thapsus L., 8651. Veronica americana

Schwein, 8612.

Sparganiaceae : *Sparganium angustifolium Michx., 9121.

Taxaceae: Taxus canadensis Marsh, 8598.

Thymelaceae : Dirca palustris L., 8595.

Tiliaceae: Tilia americana L., 8681.

Typhaceae: Typha latifolia L., 8584.

Umbelliferae : Cicuta bulbifera L., 8726. Heracleum lanatum

Michx., 8705.

Urticaceae : Ulmus americana L. 8749.

Verbeneaceae : Verbena hastata L., 8750.

Violaceae: Viola pubescens var. Peckii House, 8472. V. rostrata

Pursh., 8435.

A POLLEN STUDY OF FOUR BOGS ALONG THE

SOUTHERN BORDER OF VILAS COUNTY,

WISCONSIN*

J. E. POTZGER AND C. 0. KELLER

Butler University , Indianapolis, Indiana

Two previous papers on pollen studies of bogs in northern

Wisconsin, one on a series along the Michigan- Wisconsin state

line, on the Gillen Nature Reserve, by Potzger (1942), the other

by Potzger-Richards (1942) reporting on five bogs from the

neighborhood of Trout Lake, have shown development of the

well known “dual” type of forest association in the lake forest.

The one association is dominated by Pinus and the other by

northern hardwoods. These two studies definitely indicate that

during comparatively recent times the climate of upper Wiscon¬

sin moderated sufficiently to enable northern hardwoods to in¬

vade and partly replace the long-standing complete dominance

by Pinus. Apparently Pinus is now post climax which maintains

itself indefinitely in the less favorable sandy soils.

The present study is a part of a line transect investigation

westward from Woodruff, along highway 70. The specific aim

was to see whether succession of forests in northern Wisconsin

moved uniformly the same over a broad belt, even westward of

the lakes area, or if the southern edge of the region with abun¬

dant small lakes (Vilas County), and westward the prairie

exerted some modifying influence on the succession of forests,

to cause a variation from the succession operating in the county

itself. The bogs of this study represent a linear east-west dis¬

tance of approximately 25 miles, extending from near Little

Arbor Vitae Lake on the east to Broken Bow Lake on the west,

skirting the southern border of Vilas County, and at the same

time the region of extremely abundant lakes and bogs, passing

* This is contribution 134 from the botanical laboratories of Butler University, Indianapolis,

and reports 111 from the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History

Survey, University of Wisconsin.

147

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

from more universal pine barren habitat to one where northern

hardwoods are more frequent intruders.

Soil and Topographic Features

Little need be said in repetition of the soil and topography

of the Vilas County neighborhood. Deposits of Late Wisconsin

glaciation determine both features, but the region is somewhat

farther south from the high Winegar end moraine than the two

series of bogs referred to in the introduction. The soil is chiefly

sand and gravel with intermittent limited areas of clay and

loam. The county itself is known for its abundance of lakes and

bogs and lack of agricultural activities. The narrow, and limited

intrusions of better soil supported primarily northern hard¬

woods, and the sandy areas were controlled by Pinus.

While the southern border of Vilas County marks the begin¬

ning of decrease in number of lakes per unit area, the topogra¬

phy is still rolling, but strips of better soil are perhaps more

frequent, and bogs are not so numerous as in the major part of

the county. The ridges also are obviously less high than in and

near the Winegar moraine.

Description of The Bogs

Mud Creek Bog

Mud Creek Bog is of the valley type. The boring was made

in the approximate linear center, about a quarter mile north of

highway 7. (R. 7 E., T. 39 N., Sec. 26, n.e. quarter). Sandy

ridges border the bog and straggling pine forests still control

the tree stratum of the adjoining forest. The rim of the depres¬

sion supports a sparse stand of Larix laricina and Picea mari-

ana. The surface cover for the most part consists of Sphagnum,

while the center is still in a sedge meadow stage of succession.

Mid Lake Bog

*

The deep-set small bog is north of Mid Lake, only a low

sandy wall separates it from the lake. It is 4 miles s.e. of Wood¬

ruff in Oneida County, along highway 47. The Sphagnum mat is

very quaky, but Chamaedaphne has invaded in scattered clumps.

Potzger-Keller — Pollen Study of Four Bogs 149

A number of small dead Picea mariana indicate a former in¬

vasion of the mat by trees. The boring was made approximately

in the center of the depression. The bordering uplands had

apparently been covered chiefly by Pinus, but some hardwoods

still remains a short distance from the bog near Mid Lake.

Bog E

For lack of a good location name for this little bog we resort

to the alphabetical system used in the Trout Lake series by

Potzger-Richards (1942). Bog E is located on highway 70,

three miles west of the intersection of 51 and 70. The bog is

small, perhaps 200 by 300 feet, and represents the kettle-hole

type. The mat is completely covered by sedges, Chamaedaphne,

and Andromeda, while Sphagnum and Polytrichum form a dense

mat cover. Sandy ridges, varying from five to twenty feet in

elevation, form the skirting border. Picea mariana, Larix, and

a few Pinus strobus specimens have invaded the mat in scat¬

tered clumps. The trees on the adjoining ridges are primarily

aspen, a few Pinus strobus and some Prunus yennsylvanica. The

boring was made in the center of the depression.

Broken Bow Lake Bog

This bog is located in R. 4 E., T. 39 N., Sec. 26 (s.w. quar¬

ter). Steep slopes of sandy and gravelly hills rise abruptly from

the rim of the kettle-hole. The northeast section of the depres¬

sion is still an open lake and only a narrow, shallow, sandy and

gravelly bar separates the two parts of a once larger lake. The

mat is in the sedge meadow stage of succession, studded with

abundant clumps of Chamaedaphne, which served as safer sup¬

port on the mat, which sagged a foot or more under the weight

of a human being. Boring was made in the approximate center

of the depression. The vegetation along the shore is primarily

aspen with scattered colonies of Pinus strobus and P. resinosa,

but stands of northern hardwoods were frequent westward from

the bog.

Methods

Samples collected in the field were taken with the movable

sleeve, cylinder-type borer. A small amount of peat was taken

MUD CREEK BOG MID LAKE BOG BOG E BROKEN BOW L, BOG

150

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Abie? Picea Pinas Ts’tiOa Bctola

4

5 I

4 •

7

e

9 •

IO

I • I

12

13 t

14 I

15 •

14

17

• O

19 I

SP

21 I

22 •

23 •

24 •

25 I

25*

e4 m

27 ■

I O 20 30 40

SO bo 70 80 do

IO 20 30 40 50 bO

**

PERCENTAGE

2 •

3 •

>0

13

14

15

14 »

17

•0

IO 20 30 40

30 do 7*0 fib

I O 9.0 30 40 30 tO 70 90

30 40 30 40 70 ©O 90

IO 20 30 40

4*0

> io o ib 2b

PERCENTAGE

Figuke 1. Pollen profiles of four bogs along the southern border of Vilas

County, Wisconsin

Potzger -Keller — Pollen Study of Four Bogs 151

larix Qaercus Ufnxi? Acer Ainu? Corylus Carya Julian? Popula? Salix Tilia Ifyknovr)

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

from the center of the core, placed into a bottle properly labelled

as to bog and foot-level designation. No preservatives were

added. In the laboratory the bottles were sealed by dipping the

stoppers into paraffin to prevent drying out of the sample.

Slides were prepared according to the Geisler (1935) method,

and staining was with 5 percent aqueous solution of gentian

violet. 200 pollen grains were counted for each foot-level. Pinus

is, again, listed as genus only because we could not satisfactorily

separate pollen of the various species.

Results

All four bogs show a similar vegetational succession up to

the last three or four topmost levels. Picea is important in all

while early sediments were being deposited, however, only Bro¬

ken Bow Lake Bog recorded absence of Pinus in the lowest level.

Records from some bogs indicate a Picea-Pinus association

(Fig. 1). Persistence of Picea through numbers of foot-levels

varies, being longest in the Mud Creek and Broken Bow Lake

bogs (Fig. 1). All four bogs, however, show an extremely long

and uninterrupted Pinus dominance following displacement of

Picea, involving 75 to 80 percent of total number of levels. In

the Mud Creek Bog Pinus dominance persisted to the very top¬

most level. The more western Broken Bow Lake Bog, with in¬

creasing Betula and Tsuga (up to 40 percent of the pollen

counted) in the upper levels, indicates invasion by northern

hardwoods, which still controls on better soils in locations near

to and westward of the bog. The same, trend is indicated in the

surface level of Mid Lake Bog, while a mixture of broad-leaved

genera in the upper fourth of the levels in all bogs represents,

perhaps, the same climatic change, which in areas of better soils,

exemplified by Broken Bow Lake Bog, initiated the local domi¬

nance by northern hardwoods, and as pointed out by Potzger

(1942), and Potzger-Richards (1942) marks the beginning of

the two prominent forest cover types in the lake region. It may

be well to point out again that Tsuga is definitely a later migrant

into the region than Pinus and indicates association with broad¬

leaved species.

According to all appearances, Betula, Tsuga, and Acer sac-

charum are capable of enduring a more rigorous climate than

Potzger -Keller — Pollen Study of Four Bogs

153

Quercus. This latter genus is characterized by a long, non-

aggressive presence in all pollen profiles, frequently showing a

tendency towards greater prominence in the forest canopy while

the topmost sediments were laid down, as in the Broken Bow

Lake Bog and Bog E (Fig. 1), never, however, being of appar¬

ent sufficient significance to warrant reading into its represen¬

tation a major climatic change.

Broken Bow Lake Bog shows a most unusual break in high

Pinus dominance at the six-foot level, where percentage dropped

from 85 *4 to 35 *4, only to rise again in the five-foot level to 81

percent. There is no comparable fluctuation in Bog E, only 10.5

miles east, so one must consider it a local variation, indicating

perhaps a conflagration which destroyed the pine forests adja¬

cent to the lake, an early succession of Betula papyrifera, or a

better transportation facility through open territory from dom¬

inants of the nearby northern hardwoods.

Discussion

The succession along a 25-mile stretch immediately south of

the region with abundant lakes (Vilas County) was for 75 to 80

percent of the foot-levels of all bogs the same as in Vilas County

about Trout Lake, as recently reported by Potzger-Richards

(1942). The profile from Mud Creek Bog correlates exactly with

those from the Trout Lake neighborhood. The variation in

prominence of Pinus and broad-leaved species associated with

Tsuga reflects a heterogeneous habitat which makes a micro¬

climatic selection in a generally uniform macroclimate, com¬

parable somewhat to the Trout Lake region where according to

Potzger-Richards (1942) Pinus retained dominance to the top¬

most level, and the Gillen Nature Reserve, twenty miles north

of the lake, where according to Potzger (1942) Betula and

Tsuga assumed a dominant role in the upper third of the sedi¬

ments in four bogs of that region. Since northern hardwoods,

Betula, Acer, Tsuga, dominate the forests about these bogs

today it seemed a justified conclusion that the decline of Pinus

in that region marked a moderating climatic change which fa¬

vored northern hardwoods, and made Pinus assume a post-cli¬

max status, maintained by edaphic factors of sandy soil. The

bogs of the present study reflect the same general tendencies as

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

the two sets of bogs referred to above, i.e. two major climatic

changes, one terminating dominance of Picea or Picea-Pinus,

initiating a very long Pinus dominance, and a more recent mod¬

eration of temperature with a likely increase in moisture, which

favored the broad-leaved forest association with Tsuga, while

Pinus maintains a status of post climax in less favorable soil

habitats, as at the Mud Creek Bog region. Wilson-Galloway

(1937) recognize the same climatic change when they say, “The

microfossils indicate that the regional flora was dominated early

in its history by a coniferous element, and that this was gradu¬

ally replaced by Angiosperms.,, It seems strange that these au¬

thors record no Quercus, which we found so persistent in small

percentages in all bogs studied in the Vilas County neighbor¬

hood. We also are of the opinion that it distorts the picture of a

pollen profile to include pollen of herbaceous plants and spores

of mosses or Pteridophytes, and weigh them the same as pollen

of trees in the pollen profile, as Wilson-Galloway (1937) and

Artist (1939) have done.

The same major climatic changes and waves of forest suc¬

cession discussed above moved north, east and westward from

the southern edge of Late Wisconsin glaciation in Indiana, ex¬

cept that the Pinus dominance became more protracted with

advance into northern latitudes, as shown by Potzger- Wilson

(1941) for northern Indiana and southern Michigan. Along the

prairie-forest ecotone of southern Minnesota, as shown by Artist

(1939), as well as along the Atlantic coast in the glaciated part

of northern New Jersey, as reported in a recent manuscript by

Potzger-Otto (1942), almost complete dominance by Pinus was

followed by a long-persisting Pinus-Quercus association. A sim¬

ilar succession, ending in a long Pinus-Quercus dominance is

also reported by Hansen (1939) for the Driftless Area of Wis¬

consin.

Summary and Conclusion

1. Included in this study are pollen profiles from four bogs

along the southern border of Vilas County, Wisconsin, rep¬

resenting a linear east-west distance of approximately 25

miles.

Potzger -Keller — Pollen Study of Four Bogs

155

2. Forest succession is very similar in all four bog areas except

for the time represented by the upper foot-levels.

3. Succession is from Picea or Picea-Pinus to a very long and

complete Pinus dominance, to Betula-Tsuga, or to a group of

broad-leaved genera. In the Mud Creek Bog profile Pinus

showed dominance to the topmost level.

4. Differences in importance of coniferous and broad-leaved

genera in the uppermost foot-levels are attributed to differ¬

ences in edaphic factors, and really indicate the most recent

moderation in climate, which in some regions favored the

invasion by northern hardwoods, maintaining Pinus as post

climax in sandy regions.

Acknowledgments

The senior author expresses his appreciation to the Wiscon¬

sin Geological and Natural History Survey for the opportunity

to serve on the staff during the summer of 1940; and to the

Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation for the grant of funds

which supported the field work of this investigation. We thank

the Messrs. Thomas H. Flanigon and Charles Lines, members of

the staff at the Limnological Station, for assistance rendered in

the boring work. To Miss Jane L. Goodlet, botany major at But¬

ler University, we are indebted for the lettering on the chart.

Bibliography

1. Artist, Russell C. 1939. Pollen spectrum studies on the Anoka Sand Plain

in Minnesota. Ecol. Mon. 9:493-535.

2. Geisler, Florence. 1935. A new method for separation of fossil pollen from

peat. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 3:141-146.

3. Hanson, Henry P. 1939. Postglacial vegetation of the Driftless Area of

Wisconsin. Am. Midi. Nat. 21 (3) : 752-762.

4. Potzger, J. E. 1942. Pollen spectra from four bogs on the Gillen Nature

Reserve along the Michigan-Wisconsin state line. (Ms. to appear in Am.

Midi. Nat. 28:501-511.

. and James H. Otto. 1943. Post-glacial forest succession in

New Jersey as shown by pollen records from five bogs: Am. Jour. Bot.

30:83-87.

5.

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

6 . and Ruth R. Richards. 1942. Forest succession in the Trout

Lake, Vilas County, Wisconsin area: a pollen study. Butler Univ. Bot.

Stud. 5 (14) _

7 . and Ira T. Wilson. 1941. Post-Pleistocene forest migration

as indicated by sediments from three deep lakes. Am. Midi. Nat. 25 (2) :

270-289.

8. Wilson, L. R. and E. F. Galloway. 1937. Microfossil succession in a bog in

northern Wisconsin. Ecology 18 (1) : 113-118.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EVIDENCE RELATING TO

THE LAKE BASIN SEAL IN CERTAIN AREAS OF THE

TROUT LAKE REGION OF WISCONSIN

Chancey Juday and V. W. Meloche

From the Department of Chemistry , the Department of Zo¬

ology and the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geo¬

logical and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin.

Notes and reports No. 113.

Introduction

A general physical, chemical and biological survey of some

550 lakes and lakelets situated in the northeastern lake district

of Wisconsin was made between 1925 and 1932. On the basis of

certain characteristics noted in this survey, these bodies of wa¬

ter have been separated into three different classes. (1) Some¬

what more than one-third of them have neither inlets nor out¬

lets and they have been designated as seepage lakes. (2) A

second group has no definite inlets, but they have temporary

outlets whenever their water levels reach unusually high stages

during periods of above normal precipitation; they have been

called intermittent drainage lakes. (3) The third group consists

of lakes with permanent outlets and they have been called drain¬

age lakes; this group includes somewhat more than half of the

550 lakes included in the survey.

All of the lakes in this northeastern district occupy basins in

glacial deposits which range from 40 to 70 meters (130 to 234

ft.) in depth. The large number of landlocked lakes in this dis¬

trict indicates that the drainage system is still in a youthful

stage of development. This region was subject to several ice

invasions during the Glacial Period and the last ice sheet

brought in glacial material that contained only a comparatively

small amount of carbonates and leaching since the retreat of the

ice has helped to reduce the stock of carbonates in the upper

157

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

stratum of the deposits. The scarcity of carbonates in the sandy

soil is well shown by its acidity; for agricultural purposes in

many cases, it would require as much as five metric tons of lime

per hectare of land to correct this acidity. The lower strata of

the glacial deposits, however, have a larger supply of carbon¬

ates ; this is shown by the carbonate content of well borings and

also by that of the deeper strata of the ground water. This

scarcity of carbonates in the upper part of the deposits has an

important bearing upon the chemical content of the waters of

most of the seepage lakes which will be discussed later. The

Figure 1. Sketch map of Trout and neighboring lakes. The names of the

various lakes are as follows: 1 Day; 2 Diamond; 3 Trout; 4 Silver; 5 Mann;

6 Emerald; 7 Little John; 8 Muskellunge; 9 Little John, Jr.; 10 Weber; 11

Crystal; 12 Fallison; 13 Allequash; 14 Lost Canoe; 15 Pallette; 16 Escanaba;

17 Nebish; 18 Vandercook.

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 159

various bodies of water that have been studied range in size

from lakelets less than a hectare (2.5 a.) in area ^to Lake Vieux

Desert with an area of 1934 ha. (4780 a.). Their depths vary

from a meter or two in the shallowest to a maximum of 35 m.

(115 ft.) in Trout Lake.

The large number of seepage lakes in this district together

with the character of the glacial deposits in which they are situ¬

ated naturally raised questions regarding the basin seals which

maintain the waters in these basins, particularly the seals above

the level of the ground water table. The special studies on which

this report is based were made on a small group of lakes lying

south and southeast of Trout Lake on which the Liminological

Laboratory is located (Fig. 1) ; some observations were also

made on two lakes situated on the west side of Trout Lake

(Diamond and Silver) and on a small group of lakes at the

south end of the Kawaguesaga-Tomahawk chain in the vicinity

of the American Legion Camp (Fig. 3). These latter lakes to¬

gether with some of those situated in the Trout Lake region are

listed in Table 1.

Particular attention was given to the seepage lakes because

their waters are usually very soft and thus offer a good means

of determining the relation of the lake waters to the surround-

Table 1. Elevations above sea level of some lakes in the Trout Lake

region of northeastern Wisconsin. The survey was made during the summer

of 1930. The different types of lakes are indicated by the following letters:

S — seepage; ID = intermittent drainage; D — drainage lake.

160

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Figure 2. The curves in this diagram show the differences in elevation

between neighboring lakes. The ordinates show the surface elevations of the

lakes and the abscissae the distances between the lakes; both are given in

meters. Curve No. 1 shows the relation of Little John Jr. to Little John;

No. 2 that of Weber and Mann lakes; No. 3 that of Muskellunge and Little

John; No. 4 that of Crystal and Muskellunge.

ing ground waters. The watersheds of these lakes are compara¬

tively small so that correspondingly small amounts of water are

derived from this source; even the water which is contributed

by these limited watersheds contains only a small mineral con¬

tent because the soil is poor in carbonates and other readily

soluble inorganic constituents. This leaves only the rain and

snow precipitated on their surface as the chief source of their

water supply and this meteoric water holds only small amounts

of inorganic materials in solution. Thus the Ca content of the

waters of the typical seepage lakes rarely exceeds 5 mg/1, in the

great majority it is less than 3 mg/1. These seepage lakes lose

water only by evaporation and by seepage through the ground

and the softness of their waters suggested that this character¬

istic might serve as a good indicator for the determination of

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 161

the rate of loss by seepage and thereby show the relative effect¬

iveness of the basin seal in preventing excessive loss of water

by this process.

Methods

Both physical and chemical methods were employed in these

studies. The former was based on an accurate determination of

the surface levels of the various lakes, including both seepage

and drainage types, in the areas that were investigated. For

this purpose a line of levels was run from Trout Lake to the

several lakes in that area ; the elevation of Trout Lake had pre¬

viously been carefully determined by members of the staff of

the Armour Institute of Technology which has a summer sur¬

veying camp on the north part of Trout Lake and where a bench

mark was established. At the time the elevations were run in

1930, the surface of Trout Lake had an elevation of 492.1 m.

(1614.6 ft.) above sea level. The elevation of the Kawaguesaga-

Tomahawk chain was established at the time they were sur¬

veyed for water storage purposes and it was used as a basis for

the survey of the three seepage lakes situated near Little Toma¬

hawk Lake. Fries (1938) and Broughton (1941) ran lines of

levels to some of the lakes they studied and the results are in¬

cluded in their reports. In the chemical studies, the mineral

content of the lake waters was compared with that of the adja¬

cent ground waters, especially with reference to the Ca and Mg

content.

Acknowledgments

Cordial thanks are due several members of the staff of the

Armour Institute surveying camp for their interest and assist¬

ance in making the level surveys and also several students of the

surveying camp who assisted in the work.

Surveying Results

The elevation surveys made in July and August, 1930, are

given in Table 1. The lakes listed in this table from Crystal to

Silver, inclusive, lie in the drainage basin of the Trout River,

which is the outlet of Trout Lake ; in fact all of the water of the

drainage lakes listed in this part of the table flows through

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Trout Lake (Fig. 1). The surface levels of all lakes in this

group are well above that of Trout Lake; as might be expected,

the elevations of the seepage lakes in the group are greater than

those of the drainage lakes. Crystal has the highest elevation

and Weber ranks second. Some interesting comparisons of lake

levels can be made from the results given in Table 1. Crystal

Lake, for example, is only 100 m. (328 ft.) from Muskellunge

at the nearest point, but the basin seal of the former is such as

to hold the surface 1.6 m. (5.2 ft.) above that of the latter, as

indicated in Figure 2, curve No. 4. The table shows that the level

of Muskellunge, in turn, is 2.7 m. (9.0 ft.) above that of Little

John Lake which is 600 m. (1968 ft.) distant as shown in Figure

2, No. 3. Little John Jr. is only 350 m. from Little John and its

surface is 1.6 m. (5.2 ft.) above that of the latter (Fig. 2, No.

1). Weber Lake is 600 m. from Mann, the nearest drainage

lake, and its surface is 3.6 m. (11.7 ft.) above that of the latter.

Mann Lake is fed by springs and seepage water from Weber

Lake undoubtedly makes a contribution to them (Fig. 2, No. 2).

Another marked difference in level within a comparatively short

distance is that between the surfaces of Silver and Trout lakes

(Fig. 1) ; the former is only 175 m. (574 ft.) from the south¬

west corner of Trout Lake, but the surface of the former was

2.7 m. (8.9 ft.) above that of the latter at the time of the survey

in 1930.

Figure 3. Sketch map of Little Tomahawk and neighboring seepage lakes.

The names are as follows: 1 Bird; 2 Little Tomahawk; 3 Big Carr; 4 McGrath.

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 163

The group of lakes given in the last four items of Table 1

lies in the drainage basin of the Tomahawk River. The three

seepage lakes in the group are nearest Little Tomahawk Lake

(Fig. 3) which belongs to the Kawaguesaga-Tomahawk chain

of drainage lakes, all maintained at approximtely the same level

as a water storage reservoir. A striking difference in level as

compared with the intervening distance is found between Big

Carr and Little Tomahawk (Fig. 4, No. 1) ; the sand and gravel

Figure 4. The curves in this diagram show the differences in elevation

between neighboring lakes. The ordinates show the surface elevations of the

lakes and the abscissae the distance between the lakes; both are given in

meters. Curve No. 1 shows the relative elevations of Big Carr and Little

Tomahawk; No. 2 those of McGrath and Little Tomahawk; No. 3 those of Bird

and Little Tomahawk.

ridge separating them is a little less than 25 m. (80 ft.) wide,

but the surface of Big Carr was 2.0 m. (6.7 ft.) higher than

that of Little Tomahawk in the summer of 1930. The ridge be¬

tween McGrath and Little Tomahawk is 70 m. (230 ft.) wide at

its narrowest point, but the surface of the former was 2.4 m.

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

(8.0 ft.) above that of the latter at the time of the survey (Fig.

4, No. 2). Bird Lake is 100 m. (328 ft.) from Little Tomahawk

and its surface was found to be 1.6 m. (5.2 ft.) above that of

the latter (Fig. 4, No. 3).

Fries (1938) made a study of the relation of the levels of a

number of lakes to each other and also to the levels of the

ground waters surrounding them. His studies were made in the

summer of 1936 and they dealt with the lakes in the area lying

just south of the Muskellunge and Little John lakes, more espe¬

cially with those in the vicinity of Weber Lake (Fig. 1). He dug

pits down to the level of the ground water in various places

around several of the lakes and then ran levels from the sur¬

faces of the lakes out to the surfaces of the ground waters in

these pits. The results showed that the ground water table

sloped gradually from lakes with higher to neighboring lakes

with lower elevations; this situation was considered as evidence

that there was a more or less definite movement of the water

from the former toward the latter. In some cases the ground

Figure 5. Sketch map of Crystal Lake showing the location of the pits on

its shores from which samples of ground water were taken for the chemical

analyses.

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 165

water table was somewhat higher than the lake surface on one

side and lower on all other sides, but in most instances the

ground water sloped away from the seepage lakes in all direc¬

tions. In early July the surface of the ground water in one of

the pits on the east side of Weber Lake was 12.5 cm. (5 in.)

higher than that of the lake, but in all of the other pits around

the lake the ground water level was below the surface of the

lake; near the end of August, however, the ground water table

in all pits around Weber Lake ranged from 7.5 cm. to 45 cm.

below the surface level of the lake. The ground water table not

only in the Weber Lake pits but also in those on the shores of

other lakes was lower at the end of August than it was in early

July; the amount of the decline during this time varied from a

minimum of 10 cm. (4 in.) to a maximum of 23 cm. (9 in.). In

1937 Broughton (1941) determined the elevations of 9 seepage

lakes situated south of the Muskellunge Moraine in connection

with other observations on them, but he did not ascertain their

relations to the ground water table in that region.

Some observations on the changes in the surface level of

Weber Lake may be mentioned in this connection. On July 6,

1940, a calibrated stake was placed in this lake and readings

were taken at regular intervals during the summer. Light rains

during the first week brought the lake surface up to 1.75 cm.

above the zero point and heavier rains during the week of July

15-22 brought the level up to 7 cm. above zero. Following this

date there was a gradual decline in the level of the water until

it reached 1.5 cm. below the zero mark on August 19. The fol¬

lowing week brought the level up half a centimenter so that the

last reading taken on August 26 showed 1 cm. below the zero

point. During these two months, therefore, the net decline of

the lake level was only one centimeter, but the total change dur¬

ing the period was 8.5 cm.

Chemical Results

Some observations on the mineral content of the ground

water relative to that of the lake water were made on Crystal

Lake in August 1934 and again during the summer of 1935;

such studies were also extended to some other lakes in 1935-37.

As already indicated pits were dug down to the ground water

166

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

o 8

Figure 6. Sketch map of Weber Lake showing the location of the pits on

its shores from which samples of ground water were taken for the chemical

analyses.

level on the shores of the various lakes at distances of a quarter

of a meter up to 8 m. or more from the edge of the lake water

and samples of the water that seeped into these pits were col¬

lected for chemical analyses, which consisted principally of de¬

terminations of Ca and Mg. In some of the experiments, a regu¬

lar well point with the upper half of the screens soldered shut

was driven down to different depths in the pits and samples of

the water that seeped into it were analyzed. The well point could

be driven down 25 to 50 cm. below the ground water table for

the purpose of getting samples of the deeper ground water. In

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 167

one experiment the well point was driven into the bottom of the

lake where the water was about 15 cm. deep and a sample of the

ground water under the lake itself was thus obtained for analy¬

sis.

These chemical investigations were confined chiefly to Crys¬

tal and Weber lakes in 1934-35; the various stations are indi¬

cated on the maps shown in Figures 5 and 6. The results of

some of the analyses are given in Table 2. It will be noted that

the samples taken on the north side of Crystal Lake (Fig. 5)

contained six to eight times as much Ca as the surface water of

the lake. As previously mentioned, Fries found that the ground

water table sloped from Crystal down to Muskellunge, the neigh¬

boring lake on the north, whose surface was 1.6 m. lower ; thus

any seepage water entering the ground along the north side of

Crystal would carry the more mineralized ground water toward

Muskellunge Lake and tend to prevent the increase in the Ca

content of the water of the former along this side of the lake.

In this connection it may be noted that the mean Ca content of

five samples of surface water taken in Muskellunge Lake in

three different years was 6.25 mg/1 as compared with 0.84 mg/1

in Crystal. Further, the amount of Ca found in the surface

water of Muskellunge was about the same as that of the ground

water along the north shore of Crystal Lake; it was also about

the same as that found in the waters of five wells located on the

shores of Muskellunge which ranged from 5.7 to 7.0 mg/1. A

sixth well had 3.2 mg/1 and a seventh 11.7 mg/1. The water of a

pit located 8 m. from the water’s edge at the northeast corner of

Crystal Lake yielded 11.8 mg/1 and that of one behind the old ice

rampart (about 25 m. from the lake) contained 13.72 mg/1 (Sta¬

tions 6 and 7, Fig. 5).

The beach at the east end of Crystal Lake presents a very

different picture from that of the north side. It is a wide gently

sloping beach consisting of loose sand that is light gray in color

and this sand extends well below the ground water table. The

sides of the pits dug here caved in very rapidly when the ground

water was reached and thus prevented a determination of the

exact depth of this loose sand. The results given in Table 2

show that the ground water in the pits at the east end of the lake

contained less than half as much Ca as that of the pits of the

north side ; in fact one sample taken from a pit at the east end

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

yielded only a little more Ca than the surface water of the lake.

Two kegs with holes bored in them to facilitate the entrance of

the ground water were placed in pits 1 and 2 (Fig. 5) at the east

end of the lake and samples were taken from them over a period

of several days ; one was located 1 m. and the other 3 m. from

Table 2. Calcium content of the lake waters and of the ground waters

taken from pits on the shores of Crystal and Weber lakes. (See maps,

Figs. 5 and 6, for location of pits.)

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 169

the edge of the lake water. At the time of installing the kegs,

the Ca content of the water which seeped into them was 3.26

and 3.30 mg/1 respectively, but two days later the amount had

fallen to 1.87 and 2.11 mg/1 and on the third day the amounts

were 1.02 and 1.12 mg/1. Apparently the digging of the pits

brought in water from some source where the Ca concentration

was somewhat larger than that of the surface stratum of the

ground water, while the later samples consisted of water from

the top stratum of the ground water. The extra water in the

kegs was removed each time after the samples were taken in

order to let another sample seep into the kegs for the next visit.

A part of the decrease might also have been due to rain, but the

field notes do not show any record of rain during the time of the

experiment. The Ca content of the waters of two wells located

at the east end of Crystal Lake may be given in this connection ;

that of the old well 10 m. (33 ft.) deep yielded 1.12 mg/1 of Ca

while that of a new well drilled in 1936 with a depth of 31 m.

(102 ft.) contained 10.6 mg/1.

Weber Lake

As indicated on the map (Fig. 6), the pits for the ground

water studies around Weber Lake were located mainly at the

north end of the lake with a few at the sound end. In a compara¬

tively narrow region about the middle of the north shore, the

quantity of Ca in the ground water was three to eight times as

large as that in the pits on either side and in those at the south

end of the lake. Two kegs were installed in pits at the north end

of the lake in the high Ca region and samples of water were

taken from them from time to time over a period of about a

month. One of them was located 1 m. from the edge of the water

in the lake and the other 3 m. (Stations 5 and 6, Fig. 6). In

several instances two samples were taken from each keg at the

time of a visit; one consisted of the water standing in the kegs

and the other was taken after the kegs had been emptied and

fresh ground water had seeped into them. In general the second

sample yielded somewhat larger amounts of Ca than the first.

Similar results were also obtained by using a well point; the

ground water samples obtained by driving the point down 30

cm. from the bottom of a pit had somewhat smaller amounts of

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Ca than those obtained by driving- the point down 60 cm. Well

point samples taken in pits at Stations 7 and 8 (Fig. 6), located

7 m. or more from the water’s edge, yielded only 0.6 to 1.04

mg/1 of Ca, thus showing that the high Ca region covered a

relatively small area. The Ca content of the ground water at

the south end of the lake (Stations 13 and 14, Fig. 6) was

smaller than that found in most of the pits at the northern end.

Regarding the Ca content of the surface water of Weber Lake,

it may be said that lime was added during the summers of 1933

and 1934 in some fertilizing experiments. The concentration of

the Ca was increased from 0.68 mg/1 in 1932 to 1.86 mg/1 on

August 27, 1934. The concentration has decreased only a com¬

paratively small amount since the latter year; on August 11,

1941, for example, it was 1.27 mg/1.

In 1936 Fries found a moderately high concentration of Ca

in a pit located in the same general region on the north shore of

Weber Lake. He also found that the ground water table sloped

gradually from the south end of Weber toward Emerald (Ruth)

(Fig. 1) which lies about 250 m. (820 ft.) south of it; the Ca

content of the ground water in the vicinity of Emerald Lake

was found to be about twice as large as that in the ground water

at the south end of Weber Lake.

Lakes South of the Muskellunge Moraine

Broughton (1941) investigated a group of bog, seepage and

drainage lakes lying south of the Muskellunge Moraine in the

summer of 1937. The surface elevations of nine of them were

determined and surface samples of the water of 17 were sub¬

jected to chemical analyses; also pits were dug on the shores of

eight of them in order to obtain samples of the ground water for

chemical analyses. The ground water samples of seven pits on

the shores of Witches Lake yielded 1.13 to 1.9 mg/1 of Ca as

compared with 1.35 mg/1 in the surface sample of the lake; one

of the pit samples had the same amount of Ca as the lake water,

while four had a somewhat smaller and two a larger amount, so

that the Ca content of the lake water and of the surrounding

ground water was almost the same. This was the best correla¬

tion between lake and surrounding ground water noted for any

of the lakes studied.

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 171

In four pits on the shores of Scaffold Lake, Broughton found

that the quantity of Ca ranged from 4.2 to 13.4 mg/1, or more

than a threefold difference, as compared with 3.29 mg/1 in the

surface water of the lake. In four pits on Erickson Lake, the

only drainage lake which he investigated, the Ca content of the

ground water varied from 4.4 to 6.4 mg/1 ; the samples from the

two pits on the north shore of the lake yielded 4.4 and 4.9 mg/1

and the two on the south shore contained 6.0 and 6.4 mg/1, as

compared with 6.02 mg/1 for the surface water of the lake.

There was a rather wide range in the samples of ground water

from the six pits on the shores of Vandercook Lake (Fig. 1, No.

18) ; the amount of Ca in them varied from a minimum of 0.7 to

maximum of 4.1 mg/1, or almost a sixfold difference in quantity,

as compared with 2.47 mg/1 in the surface water of the lake.

Discussion

The determinations of the surface elevations of the various

seepage and drainage lakes show that there are considerable

differences in the heights of neighboring lakes in the areas that

have been studied. In all cases the seepage had higher elevations

than the neighboring drainage lakes as might well be expected.

The surveys also showed that there was a gradual slope of the

ground water table from those with higher to neighboring lakes

with lower elevations ; this was found to be true between seep¬

age as well as between seepage and drainage lakes. This slope

of the ground water level may be taken as an indication of a

certain movement of the water from those with higher toward

lakes with lower surface levels. On the other hand the striking

differences in elevation between lakes that are only short dis¬

tances apart show that the lake basin seals of the higher lakes

are quite effective in preventing the rapid percolation of water

from those of higher to those with lower levels.

The chemical results obtained on the lake and ground waters

also tend to show that the movements of the water out of the

various seepage lakes take place very slowly. This is definitely

indicated by the marked differences in the Ca content of the

seepage lake waters and that of the surrounding ground waters ;

likewise these differences may be taken as good evidence that

there is no rapid seepage of the ground water into these lakes

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

whenever the elevation of the former happens to be above that

of the latter. There is a certain general correlation between the

mineral content of the lake water and that of the surrounding

ground water ; this is shown by the fact that the ground waters

surrounding the soft water seepage lakes have a smaller mineral

content than those surrounding lakes with harder waters. On

the other hand the marked local variations in the mineral con¬

tent of the ground waters found in the pits located on the shores

of the seepage lakes tend to show that the outward movement of

the soft waters of these lakes is not great enough to have more

than a limited influence on the surrounding ground waters.

Broughton (1941) also called attention to the marked variations

in the mineral content of the ground waters surrounding the

lakes that he studied and concluded that it showed a lack of free

mixing of the lake and ground waters.

These local variations in the mineral content are also found

in the deeper strata of the ground water as shown by the well

waters. In 31 wells located on the shores of Trout Lake, for

example, the Ca content of their waters ranged from a minimum

of 1.52 mg/1 to a maximum of 62.0 mg/1, as compared with an

average of 11.4 mg/1 in the surface water of the lake. Twelve

of the 31 wells yielded a smaller amount of Ca than the lake

water, with a mean of 5.46 mg/1 or approximately half that of

the lake water, and 19 yielded a larger amount, with a mean of

22.48 mg/1 or almost twice as much as the lake water. These

variations in Ca content were not correlated with the depths of

the various wells, although the softest waters generally came

from the shallowest wells, or those not exceeding 10 m. (33 ft.)

in depth; some of the high Ca yielding samples, however, came

from shallow wells. One sample from a well only 5 m. (16 ft.)

deep had 59.4 mg/1 of Ca. Well cuttings in this region show

that calcareous material is much more abundant in the deeper,

older layers of these glacial deposits than in the upper, younger

strata. The more calcareous deposits were found to be 10 m.

(33 ft.) or more below the present surface in several wells; its

topography is undoubtedly irregular so that it comes still closer

the surface in certain areas, which would account for the much

harder waters of some of the shallow wells.

The large amounts of organic matter in the bottoms of the

bog lakes make excellent seals for them. Also the mud deposits

Juday-Meloche — Evidence Relating to Lake Basin Seal 173

in the deeper waters of other seepage lakes and in those of the

drainage lakes make good seals because they contain large per¬

centages of organic matter and the inorganic materials in them

are made up in large part of silt and other small particles which

readily form a compact impervious bottom. The seals around

the sandy, gravelly margins of these lakes, however, are not so

clearly evident in all cases. Some of the pits showed definite

compact clay strata varying from 5 cm. (2 in.) to more than

100 cm. (3 ft.) in thickness along the margins of the lakes, but

many of them did not show such a stratum, so that the mechan¬

ism of the seal in these instances is still unknown. These sand

bottoms extend out to depths of 3 m. (10 ft.) to 5 m. (16 ft.)

and the area from the shoreline down to these depths include a

rather large percentage of the area of the lake in some in¬

stances. In Crystal Lake for example, the sandy bottom extends

out to a depth of approximately 5 m. and thus covers about one-

third of the entire area of the lake. In Weber Lake also, the

sandy bottom covers about 30 per cent of the entire area. The

sand is fairly compact and the interstices between the sand

grains contain a certain amount of organic matter which would

help to make this bottom relatively impervious. Pennak (1940)

reported that sandy bottom half a meter from the water’s edge

where the water was 8 cm. deep contained 0.2 to 4.6 mg. of dry

organic matter per 10 cc. of sand. It is known also that bacteria

are present in these bottom sands in considerable numbers.

These studies show that the problem of lake basin seals in the

areas that have been studied is a complex one which merits a

much more extended investigation.

Summary

1. Studies of the basin seal of several glacial lakes situated

in the Trout Lake region of northeastern Wisconsin were made.

2. Determinations of the elevations of a number of these

lakes showed that the bottom seals were sufficiently water-tight

to hold the surfaces of some them a meter or two above those of

neighboring lakes even when they were only short distances

apart (25 to 150 m.).

3. The ground water table sloped from lakes with higher to

neighboring lakes with lower elevations.

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

4. Chemical analyses demonstrated marked differences in

the mineral content of the lake water and the surrounding

ground water, thus showing that seepage of the former into the

latter or vice versa took place very slowly due to the effective¬

ness of the lake basin seals.

Literature

Broughton, W. A. 1941. The geology, ground water and lake basin seal of the

region south of the Muskellunge Moraine, Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans.

Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett. 33:5-20.

Fries, Carl, Jr. 1938. Geology and ground water of the Trout Lake region,

Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett. 31:305-322.

Juday, C., E. A. Birge and V. W. Meloche. 1938. Mineral content of the lake

waters of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett.

31:223-276.

Pennak, R. W. 1940. Ecology of the microscopic metazoa inhabiting the sandy

beaches of some Wisconsin lakes. Ecological Monog. 10:537-615.

FLUCTUATIONS IN THE ANIMAL POPULATIONS OF

THE LITTORAL ZONE IN LAKE MENDOTA1- 2

Jay D. Andrews and Arthur D. Hasler

Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsm

The summer populations of the limnetic and profundal re¬

gions of Lake Mendota have been estimated by Birge and Juday

(1922) and Juday (1922). Muttkowski (1918) surveyed the

invertebrates of Lake Mendota. His work offers an excellent

natural history report of the organisms found in the littoral re¬

gion, notably insects. The fluctuations of animal populations

inhabiting the plants of the littoral zone, however, have not been

measured quantitatively.

Since nearly all of the game and pan fish of Lake Mendota

frequent the plant zone throughout the summer, this region no

doubt serves a very important role in the food and cover re¬

quirements of the fish.

Fassett (1940) in a survey of the literature on the role of

aquatic plants in the fish-plant relationships found few quanti¬

tative observations which measured the benefits of plants to

fish. It was the object of this study, therefore, to estimate some

of the benefits of this habitat to fish ; to measure also the popu¬

lations of small fish inhabiting it. Moreover, the greater quan¬

tity3 of plants in Lake Mendota as compared with northern Wis¬

consin lakes further emphasizes the need for learning more of

their importance in the plant-fish-relationship as a contribution

to comparative Wisconsin limnology.

In review of some of the workers who have sensed the im¬

portance of the value of plants to fish we cite :

1 This project was supported by a grant from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Fund.

2 Appreciation is due Drs. N. C. Fassett and L. E. Noland for helpful suggestions during

the course of this project.

3 Rickett (1921) estimated Lake Mendota’s crop of aquatic plants at 16,490 lbs. /acre,

while Wilson (1941) reports Trout Lake, Vilas County, at 6,650 lbs., /acre and Fraser (unpublished)

found only 510 lbs.- /acre in Weber Lake, Vilas Coun2y.

175

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Lundbeck (1927) showed the importance of aquatic plants

in furnishing food for fish when he studied the fish food of cen¬

tral European ponds. He reported that the naked bottom carried

a population of 6.28 gm. of organisms per sq. m. ; the submerged

aquatics, 6.41 gm. per sq. m. ; and the emergent plants, 8.29 gm.

per sq. m. Schiemenz (1927) also indicated the importance of

pond weeds as measures of productive waters. He claimed the

following species were most valuable as indicators of productive

waters: Potamogeton sp., Myriophyllum sp., Elodea canadensis,

Ranunculus aquatilis and Polygonum amphibium.

Needham (1928) in a study of New York streams pointed

out that plant beds are 37 times as rich in trout foods as bare

pool bottoms and 7 times as rich as bare stream beds. More

recently Frohne (1938) has worked out the life histories of

several insects inhabiting plants and Krecker (1939) has found

a difference in the productivity of different species of lake

plants.

The animal populations are fluctuating hourly by natural die

off, emergence of maturing insects, predation from fish and

other animals. Moreover, the plant populations are sporadic in

their distribution in addition to undergoing succession through

the summer ; consequently it is difficult to locate any two square

meters which are of identical plant composition in species as

well as quantity. Still another obstacle to the biologist who

wishes to estimate the population is the mechanical chore of

removing completely all of the animals from the plant for enu¬

meration and weighing. In view of these variables in the littoral

habitat it is difficult to secure data that can be taken as truly

characterizing such a habitat.

Methods

Sampling of plant associations:

A net was devised which would effectively trap all of the

macroscopic invertebrate animals over a given unit of bottom-

together with the plants on which they were living. The first

net constructed had a mouth area of one square meter; later

another with a mouth area of y<± sq. m. was constructed. Canvas

was at first used for the main part of the net, but sharkskin

cloth was found to be lighter and more serviceable, so the second

Andrew s-Hasler — Fluctuations in Animal Populations 177

net was constructed of this material. The net was so made that

it could be lowered with the mouth opened over V2 sq. m. of

plant habitat and enclose the plants and all the animal life on

them or in the water between them. A zipper opening in the side

of the net allowed the insertion of the hand to uproot the plants

enclosed. The mouth of the net was then securely closed, and

the net with its contents removed from the water. A bolting-

cloth straining net at the end away from the mouth allowed the

water to be quickly strained out leaving the plants and their in¬

habitants in the bolting-cloth tip. These were then removed and

washed off into pails and taken to the laboratory for counting

and weighing.

An aliquot of strainings and plant material was measured

from the large sample, carefully picked over, the animals re¬

moved, enumerated, then weighed moist and after oven drying

at 60° C. Also the plants clean of animals were weighed moist

and oven dry. It is easy to see that this procedure is so time

consuming and painstaking that large numbers of samples can¬

not be included by a single worker.

An effort was made to take samples within a definite area —

that is, within a radius of 25 feet of a buoy which marked the

collecting site. We found that in a given area the relative abun¬

dance of the different species of plants changed during the sum¬

mer — there was a seasonal plant succession. This made impos¬

sible seasonal comparisons of the animal populations of a mixed

plant habitat.

Estimation of small fish population :

A 175 foot net 6 feet deep of V4, inch mesh was used to seine

an area of 7500 square feet. Stakes were placed around the area

and the seine pulled inside. Two hawls were made over different

areas along the shore of Picnic Point on each seining day.

Results

Species productivity :

The work in 1939 indicated that those plants with the most

dissected surface area harbor the largest population of animals.

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

They can be grouped as follows :

Most productive . Ceratophyllum demersum

(coontail)

Myriophyllum exa Ibescens

(.water milfoil)

52,000 animals per

kg. of plant

29,000

Moderately productive

Less productive .

Poorly productive

Potamogeton pectinatus

Chara sp.

Potamogeton americanus

“ Richardsonii

“ amplijolius

Vallisneria americana

21,000

17-20,000

18,000

10,000

5,000

3,000

<<

The figures in Table la give the numbers of the most common

animals found on each kind of plant and expressed as number

of animals per kg. of plant. The data are the mean of 17 samples

made in 1939. The most numerous organisms on all plants are

chironomids and Hyalella (scuds) and they are more numerous

on Ceratophyllum and Myriophyllum than on other species of

plants and therefore substantiate the claim that plants with the

most highly dissected leaves are the most productive.

Chronology of some biological events in University Bay in 1941:

April 24. Temp. 6° C. Most of bottom in littoral area bare. Potamogeton

praelongus found growing from the winter buds in the axils

of old leaves. Old leaves brown.

Chara overwintered and beginning to get green. Many thick beds

of Chara found inside the bar of University Bay.

April 26. Temp. 7° C. Potamogeton praelongus found with long shoots

a foot long. Very rapid growth. Leaves of P. amplijolius

quite brown — no new leaves. P. pectinatus present in sand,

but not green. P. americanus showed some winter buds shoot¬

ing new spikes. Myriophyllum showed new shoots 6 inches

long. Bowfins were spawning.

May 3. Scirpus arising from sand in new shoots.

Emergence of many damsel flies and mayflies.

May 10. Temp. 19° . Hundreds of spiraled egg masses of perch.

Myriophyllum — pure stands 8 inches high.

No Chara on the bar yet, but on either side a considerable quan¬

tity had overwintered although still brown.

Andrew s-Hasler — Fluctuations in Animal P ovulations 179

Carp spawning in shallow water among Cladophora on shore.

Cladophora abundant.

Many large black bass observed.

Scirpus had reached water level (8") — many chewed by muskrats.

Ranunculus trichophyllus plants seen inside bar (distinguished by

numerous white rootlets growing from each intemode).

May 15. Temp. 15° C. Perch eggs rare — many old masses decomposing.

One bass observed building nest.

June 16. Temp. 20° C. Scripus acutus flowering.

Many limpets on stocks of bulrush.

P. praelongus has flowering spikes at surface.

P. Richardsonii plants are now present.

Microscopic invertebrate animals on mixed plant associations:

The introduction and discussion of this paper point to the

several kinds of variables that may influence observations of

this kind. Nevertheless, since the methods of sampling enumera¬

tion and weighing were constant within the limits of human

error we submit the following results in full awareness of the

variables that are natural and out of control. However, it should

be kept in mind that all limnological and ecological observations

of aquatic populations are also subject to most of these vari¬

ables.

The 1940 results on mixed plants (Table I) are the mean of

16 collections. Hyalella, a small amphipod, was the dominant or¬

ganism in both numbers and weight. We observed them occur¬

ring in numbers as great as 1590 per sq. m. of bottom, or if

computed on the basis of plant weight they may be as abundant

as 25,200 per kilogram of dry plant. The latter figure requires

some qualifications since the dry weight of plants (see discussion

of Char a) increases with the season due to heavy depositions of

lime on the leaves and stems.

Table I also shows the estimates of the total quantity of ani¬

mals in this narrow plant zone along the south shore of Picnic

Point in an area approximately 100 ft. wide, or that region

extending from the 2 foot contour to the 6 foot contour. This

area, as estimated from our series of samples, produces at least

81 kilograms/hectare (72 lbs./acre) of macroscopic organisms

(exclusive of fish). We use the qualification “at least” since we

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

Table la. No. of animals per kg. of dry plant in 1939.

Table lb. Population of macroscopic invertebrates on mixed plant populations.

No.

feel the figure would be, if anything, an under-estimation due to

personal errors in the picking procedures.

Macroscopic invertebrates on Chara:

In 1940 it became apparent that some natural variables could

be reduced by restricting the study to a plant which occurred in

a pure stand. Chara was found to do so.

Table II gives the summary for the 1940 and 1941 collec¬

tions. No correlation can be seen from the numbers of animals

during the same month in either year. On the other hand the

Andrew s-Hasler — Fluctuations in Animal Populations 181

mean weight of the organisms per unit area is surprisingly con¬

sistent. It seems likely that a given area produces a similar

weight of organisms from year to year. At least this has been

observed many times in fish culture and stock raising where it

has been determined that a given area of water or land will pro¬

duce a maximum poundage of meat ; this total weight may be in

large numbers of small animals or small numbers of large ani¬

mals.

Table Ha. Population of invertebrate animals on Chara.

No.

No. or g. /sq.m.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The mean dry weight of mayflies was 55 mg./sq. m. in 1940

and 51 mg./sq. m. in 1941. For Hyalella it was 440 mg./sq. m.

in 1940 and 550 mg./sq. m. in 1941. The total population weighed

600 mg./sq. m. in 1940 and 760 mg./sq. m. in 1941. When this is

converted to kilograms per hectare (net weight) the figures

are: 60 kg/ha., (53.5 lbs./'acre) in 1940 and 76 lbs. /ha. (67.8

lbs. /acre) in 1941.

Hyalella was the dominant organism in both years. It oc¬

curred in twice the amount on Chara as it did on the mixed

plant populations. This shows that Chara is well suited for these

races of amphipod.

Table III. Population of fingerling and fry of game and pan fish in plant zone.

The dry weight of Chara increased appreciably as the sum¬

mer progressed. In June the average per cent dry weight of

Chara was 17.2% in July, 19.0%, and in August, 25.1%. Chara

actively extracts C02 from the carbonates of the water and de¬

posits lime on its surface.

It is noteworthy that in 1940 Chara produced 60 kg./ha. of

macroscopic invertebrates as compared with 81 kg./ha. for a

mixed plant population. In other words, Chara is about 75% as

efficient in the production of fish food in a pure stand (one

species) as a mixed plant stand.

Small fish populations :

Table III presents the mean population of fingerling and fry

Andrew s-Hasler — Fluctuations in Animal Populations 183

game and pan fish that inhabit the aquatic plant zone studied in

the region described above.

There is a sharp reduction in the numbers of centrarchids

(bass family) after 1939 due chiefly to a smaller hatch of blue

gills in 1940 and 1941 as compared with 1939. The number of

perch was lower in 1940 than 1939 to which we attribute chiefly

a heavy mortality resulting from an epizootic of Myxobolus (a

sporozoan) among the older perch late in 1939.

Since we caught consistently large numbers of perch in

every hawl made, we feel the data from them can be a fairly

accurate computation of the total yield of perch in this area.

Our calculations based on hawls with a % inch mesh minnow

seine pulled over an area 7500 sq. ft., are seen in Table III.

Discussion

It must be kept in mind that a study of a natural mixed in¬

vertebrate population is exceedingly difficult — the variety of

changes taking place every hour make impossible an accurate

measure of their population density. Some of these factors which

alter the density are :

1. Predation by fish.

2. Predation by larger invertebrates, snakes, turtles, am¬

phibia and birds.

3. Periodic emergence of insect naiads and pupae.

4. Irregular density of plants and irregular distribution of

species of plants so that no one square meter of bottom

is identical with any other.

5. Succession of one plant population to another throughout

the summer so that one grouping of mixed plants is the

same from month to month.

6. Fluctuations in food supply of microscopic organisms

upon which the macroscopic invertebrates feed.

7. Appearance of new broods.

8. Occurrence of races of individuals of the same species

but of different size.

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

This list of variables with the small number of collections

that were possible tends, of course, to reduce somewhat the

validity of the figures as representing the usual state of affairs

in the environment studied. Nevertheless we offer these obser¬

vations as an attempt at a quantitative study and trust that they

will be a guide to our future work and that of other aquatic

ecologists.

There is a rough correlation between our findings and those

of Krecker (loc. cit.) on the relative productivity of various

plant species (the greater the dissected leaf surface the more

productive the plant) in spite of the different method of meas¬

urement. Krecker reported his results as number of animals per

10 linear feet of plant stem.

We are not convinced that our method of reporting com¬

parative productivity in gm./kg. of plant, is superior to Krec-

ker’s. The chief criticism we have of our method is that early

summer weights are not comparable to late summer weights

because the dry weight of the plant increases as a result of the

accumulation of carbonate. If the ash weight of the plants were

made, however, the comparison would be accurate.

We observed a dominance of amphipods on Chara as did

Needham (loc. cit.) on streams where he reported 61% of the

animals on Chara were Gammarus. However, there is a great

discrepancy in the total production in the two habitats. He re¬

ported 377 gm. of org./sq. m. on stream Chara where we found

at most 7.6 gm./sq. m. (wet weight) on Chara in lakes.

We are in closer agreement with Lundbeck (loc. cit.) on the

productivity of mixed submerged plants. He found 6.28 gm. of

organisms per sq. m. of pond where we measured an average of

8.1 gm.i/sq. m. of littoral bottom.

It is surprising that the 1940 weight of the mixed plant

“standing crop” of macroscopic invertebrates is smaller than

the weight of the small fish in the littoral zone. Fish culturists

estimate that it takes 5 lbs. of food to make a pound of fish. If

this be true then on the face of the figures there is about % of

the food requirements to be found on the plants. Yet we know

that the rapid replacement rate of the small food animals is

considerable — but since the individual species life cycles are

unknown it cannot be estimated even roughly. Suffice it to say

that since the weight of the fish is an accumulative one, the

Andreivs-Hasler — Fluctuations in Animal Populations 185

invertebrate fauna is a frequently replaced one therefore they

must furnish considerably more than % of the food require¬

ments. Moreover, there are other sources of food for the small

fish such as the littoral plankton Crustacea and rotifers and per¬

haps some bottom organisms in addition to food from cannibal¬

ism. The quantity of these foods has not been measured for the

littoral zone.

Literature Cited

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C. 1922. The inland lakes of Wisconsin. The plankton.

I. Its quantity and chemical composition. Bull., Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist.

Survey No. 64. 222 pp.

Fassett, N. C. 1940. A Manual of Aquatic Plants. Mc-Graw-Hill, N. Y.

382 pp.

Frohne, W. C. 1938. Contributions to the knowledge of the limnological role

of the higher aquatic plants. Trans. Am. Micr. Soc. 57 (3) : 256-268.

Juday, C. 1922. Quantitative studies of the bottom fauna in the deeper waters

of Lake Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Arts & Lett. 20: 461-493.

Krecker, Frederick H. 1939. A comparative study of the animal population

of certain submerged aquatic plants. Ecology 20 (4) : 553-562.

Lundbeck, J. 1927. Der Fb-Koeffizient fur Teiche. Z. f. Fischerei 25: 553.

Muttkowski, R. A. 1918. The fauna of Lake Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.,

Arts & Lett. 19: 374-482.

Needham, P. R. 1928. A quantitative study of the fish food supply in selected

areas. A biological survey of the Oswego River System. Ann. Rept. N. Y.

State Conservation Dept. Suppl. 17 (1927) : 192-206.

Needham, P. R. 1929. Quantitative studies of the fish food supply in selected

areas. A biological survey of the Erie-Niagara System. Ann. Rept. N. Y.

State Conserv. Dept. Suppl. 18 (1928) : 220-232.

Rickett, H. W. 1921. A quantitative study of the larger aquatic plants of Lake

Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett. 20: 501-527.

Schiemenz, P. 1927. Gesichtspunkte fur die Wertschatzung unserer Fischge-

wasser. Berlin.

Wilson, L. R. 1941. The larger aquatic vegetation of Trout Lake, Vilas County,

Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett. 33: 135-146.

MICROMONOSPORA IN RELATION TO SOME WISCONSIN

LAKES AND LAKE POPULATIONS*

Arthur R. Colmer and Elizabeth McCoy

Department of Agricultural Bacteriology,

University of Wisconsin

Introduction

There are a number of reports of bacterial studies of single

lakes and groups of lakes in regard to the total organisms pres¬

ent. Occasional studies have been made of specific groups of

organisms of allied physiological activity, for example, urea

decomposers, sulfate reducers, cellulose decomposers, nitrifiers,

etc., but there has apparently been no study made of a particular

genus in its correlation to the diverse lakes.

In a former study of the bacterial content of Lake Mendota

conducted by the Department of Agricultural Bacteriology, it

was noted that the dilution plates contained numbers. of chromo-

genic bacteria of the genus Micromonospora of the order Actino-

mycetales. The numbers of these organisms were such that it

was thought that they possibly played an important role in

lacustrine ecology. This is a report of a survey of 12 lakes of

the state, together with an intensive study of one lake, in con¬

nection with this group of microorganisms.

The Genus MICROMONOSPORA

Jensen (1930, 1932) in his investigation of the genus Micro¬

monospora 0rskov used the descriptive term “a little known

group of soil microorganisms.” The organisms are still not well

known — a feature that seems to apply to most members of the

order Actinomycetales as compared with those of the Eubac-

leriales.

In 1923 0rskov erected the genus and used as the type species

M. chalceae, an organism formerly known as Streptothrix chal-

* This investigation was supported in part by a grant from the Wisconsin Alumni Research

Foundation.

187

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ceae. The descriptions of this organism are very limited. Foul-

erton (1905) first isolated it from the air, but there appears to

be nothing published by him of it. Musgrave, Clegg, and Polk

(1908), authors of a publication on pathogenic actinomycetes,

received a culture of Foulerton’s but their description, too, is

incomplete.

0rskov described the organisms in the genus as follows :

“a branched, unicellular mycelium is formed, consisting of very

delicate hyphae with short, lateral branches, each of which bears

a single terminal spore. The spores are small, oval, and highly

refractive.”

In a subsequent work (1938) he emphasized “die terminal

einzelsitzenden Sporen” of the organisms as setting the genus

apart from the other members of the family Actinomycetaceae.

In this investigation he emphasized that Jensen’s work had

clearly proved the validity of the genus.

In 1930 and again in 1932 Jensen published studies of the

members of the genus which he had isolated originally from

Danish soil and again later from Australian soils. The soils

were of a wide range of composition. One, a laterite soil poor

in organic matter with a pH of 6.5, gave several isolants as did

an alluvial soil of heavy clay which was rich in organic matter

and of a pH of 6.0. An Australian soil of a red sandy loam, poor

in organic matter with a pH of 6.8 and receiving an annual

rainfall of 15.7 inches had the highest percentage of these or¬

ganisms. Jensen found here that 17.5% of the total actinomy-

cete colonies evidenced by plating were Micromonospora. This

was a number equal to 472,500 organisms per gram of soil.

Another red sandy loam of the same region, different only

in having a pH of 7.9, had a Micromonospora count of 4.7 % of

the actinomycete colonies. Here the total count of the members

of this genus was 653,000 organisms per gram of soil. The con¬

clusion made by Jensen was that the Micromonospora made up

5 to 8% of the total numbers of the colonies of Actinomyces- type.

Their appearance was most frequent in neutral to alkaline soils

from comparatively dry districts.

Waksman, Umbreit and Cordon (1939), in studying thermo¬

philic actinomycetes and fungi in soils and composts, found

thermophilic strains of the Micromonospora. Their technique of

contact slide culture enabled them to detect three species of the

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

189

genus. One was isolated in pure culture, but isolation of the

other two was not accomplished. All were similar to the meso-

philic forms described by Jensen.

The aforementioned three workers, in a review of some of

the literature of the thermophilic actinomycete-like organisms

found in composts and like substances, have brought out the

findings of some of the earlier investigators Miehe (1907),

Schiitze (1908), Tsiklinsky (1903) who undoubtedly worked

with Micromonospora. More recent workers with the Micromon-

ospora include Erikson (1940) and Harden (1941). Erikson

studied 10 strains of Micromonospora isolated from Lake Men-

dota and Trout lake. She found her strains capable of growing

on a large variety of more or less resistant organic compounds.

Harden noted that these organisms in two lakes — Mendota and

Green — were of significant proportions of the total count of the

bottom deposits. She found that the Micromonospora were simi¬

larly high in numbers in the make-up of the characteristic

chromogens of the lakes.

Sample Collection

Three main pieces of apparatus served to secure all the sam¬

ples of the lake waters and muds. The Wilson (1920) sampler

was used for water samples from all depths. Test tubes of 18

mm x 150 mm were used for the samples. At the upper water

levels the vacuum was barely adequate to fill the tubes, but at

the lower levels the added hydrostatic pressure of the water

caused rapid filling of the sample tubes. A trip-recording ther¬

mometer was used to secure water temperatures. Readings were

made at the time of water samplings except during the period of

freeze over.

An Ekman dredge 15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm, well known to the

limnological worker, sufficed in securing bottom samples. It

readily removed the sludge-like samples of the profundal areas

to a depth of about 15 cm, but when sampling was done in the

littoral zones where sand and rotted plant remains were en¬

countered, many trials had to be made before these samples

could be taken. All bottom samples, when brought to the sur¬

face, were thoroughly mixed and placed in sterile glass jars for

transportation to the laboratory.

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Henrici and McCoy (1938) devised an apparatus effective in

taking cores for a study of the vertical distribution of bacteria

in the bottom deposits. In the work mentioned, the force given

to the sampler to cause it to penetrate into the mud was gained

by a free fall. To give a rifling effect, and thus a vertical de¬

scent, vanes were built into the top of the sampler. This meant,

of course, that the heavy lead pounding weight could not be

used. The sampler they devised was used in this work with the

exception of the section diagrammed in their paper as number

III. Due to an inability to secure a replacement for this part a

modification was made. This modification of the sampler was

used in taking the cores from the 18 meter depths of Lake Men-

dota. A cap with a welded ring, to which was attached a heavy

swivel, was screwed onto the part of the section containing the

weight. The twisting of the three ropes thus could be avoided

and a greater ease of handling the sampler was effected whether

it was lowered through a hole in the ice or whether lowered

from a boat.

The pounding action of the alternately raised and dropped

lead weight drove the sampler into the muck. A winch was used

to lift the sampler into the boat when the apparatus was used

over free water. Sterile corks inserted into the open ends of

the sampler tubes enabled the whole container to be removed to

the laboratory for testing. Care was taken in transporting these

tubes so that the soft upper parts of the enclosed cores would

not be tipped and thus mixed.

Henrici and McCoy utilized glass tubing to remove the sam¬

ples through the screw holes in the sampler. In this work a

change was made from their technique. It was found satisfac¬

tory to open successively downward the screw plugs of the ver¬

tically held sampler until the first murky ooze came out. At this

time a sterile, tightly fitting cork was inserted in the top of the

sampler, backed by sterile cotton and then, by means of a plung¬

er, the whole “wurst-like” sample was forced out in a single

piece onto sterile paper. With sterile spatulas the core was

opened and samples at desired depth secured.

Cultural Methods

Four different media were tried before one was selected as

standard for the study of the group. For one medium an ex-

Colmer-McCoy — Micromono spor a

191

tract of the bottom mud was made by steaming a one to one

dilution of mud in lake water and then allowing the mass to

settle. The supernatant fluid was siphoned off and agar at the

rate 1.2% was added. The medium was discarded as unsuitable

as the isolation medium, since the total count of microorganisms

which developed on it was low. Too, there was an undesir¬

able darkness to the medium, and, of more importance, the de¬

cided chromogenesis of the Micromonospora failed to develop.

As a result identification of the organisms was made more dif¬

ficult.

The dextrose-casein agar medium used by Jensen (1930) for

isolation of his soil forms failed to give the desired chromo¬

genesis and colonial size. The medium was very clear, and al¬

though it was not used for the isolation of the Micromonospora

from the lake samples, in subsequent pure culture studies it

served admirably.

The nutrose medium used by Henrici and McCoy (1938), a.

modification of the Nahrstoff Heyden type agar medium so fre¬

quently utilized in soil bacteriological studies and in many lake

studies — Allgeier, Peterson, Juday and Birge (1932), Graham

and Young (1934), Williams and McCoy (1935), Carpenter

(1939), ZoBell and Stadler (1939) — was originally used. How¬

ever, because of the spreading colonies developing during the

lengthy incubation period, it was discarded in favor of the

starch-casein medium. This medium was the same as that used

by Jensen in his work on this group. Its composition is simple :

10 grams of soluble starch, 1 gram of casein dissolved in

N NaOH, 0.5 gram of K2HP04, 0.5 gram of MgS04 were made

up to 1 liter with Lake Mendota water. Agar at the rate of

1.2% gave satisfactory solidity to the bottle plate. The pH of

the medium was adjusted to 7.4. With this medium, unless the

casein is thoroughly macerated in the N NaOH, there is an

undesirable coagulation upon autoclaving. The longer the inter¬

action between the casein and the NaOH is allowed to take place

before bottling and autoclaving, the clearer is the resulting

medium.

Dilution plate counts were used in the investigation. Rep¬

licates of eight bottle plates were made in bottom mud tests;

replicates of 3 or 5 bottles were used when plating the overlying

waters of the lakes.

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

To secure an adequate sample of the well-mixed muds, 25

gram portions were used to make the first dilutions. Each dilu¬

tion sample was agitated a uniform 100 times prior to the next

dilution. Since the sludge deposits of lakes are recognized to

have strong adhesive forces, it was felt the vigorous agitation

was needed to free the microorganisms from the mud particles.

ZoBell and Conn (1940) have clearly shown the effect of even

moderate heating upon water bacteria. To minimize the delete¬

rious effect upon the microorganisms by the slow cooling of the

agar subsequent to the pouring of the bottle plates, the warm

bottles were placed upon iced toweling to facilitate cooling.

Incubation of the bottles was at room temperature for from

25 to 30 days. Reading of the plates was made over a lighted

counting box equipped with a magnifying glass. The colonies of

bacteria developing on the plates were counted and their average

appears in the tables as total count. Each plate also had the

total number of pigment-bearing colonies recorded. It is the

average of these which are termed chromogens in the following

tables.

The identification of a Micromonospora colony is difficult

(this was the main reason their presence among the organisms

found in the lakes was over-looked so long) . The recognition of

the surface colonies is aided by their black spore crust (how¬

ever, the degree of sporulation to form this crust varies), by

the lavender, orange, salmon, rust or pink color of their myceli¬

um and by the appearance of the “make-up” of the colony as is

shown by its enlargement under the magnifying glass of the

colony counter.

Often the colonies grew under the surface of the agar and

their identification was made uncertain by their failure to de¬

velop the typical spore crusts; such colonies were picked from

the plates for further identification tests. Actinomyces and Mi¬

cromonospora colonies are hard and quite leathery; hence the

ordinary laboratory nichrome inoculation needle and loop are

not strong enough to handle embedded colonies. Thus when it

was necessary to remove the colony from the dilution plates,

the whole colony was removed aseptically by a loop made espe¬

cially stiff in the shank by the twisting together of a doubled

nichrome wire. This strengthened shank was bent at the loop

end into such a shape that the loop could be pressed into the agar

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

193

and remove the whole agar-embedded colony to a tube of nutrose

broth. To free the colony from the agar and thus facilitate

growth in the new medium, the agar block was macerated

against the inner wall of the tube of broth by another shaft-

strengthened nichrome wire unit. It was found that if the end

of this shaft was flattened into a spatula shape, the crushing of

the hard, tenacious colonies was made easier.

Nutrose broth is normally “milky” in appearance. Actin-

omycete-like organisms which have been encountered when

growing in such broth exhibit two growth characteristics: one,

the “milky” broth is cleared and, two, the organisms settle to

the bottom of the tube in balls or clumps or, less frequently,

grow attached to the sides of the tube in feather-like clumps.

Since the members of the genus Actinomyces encountered in

lake studies react in the same fashion as do the Micromonospora

as described above, a further procedure is necessary for a divi¬

sion of the Micromonospora from the Actinomyces. To accom¬

plish this, a portion of the growth was transferred to slants of

starch-casein agar and were incubated at room temperature.

After 10 to 15 days most of the Micromonospora had produced

a spore crust which permitted them to be identified by micro¬

scopic examination. The Actinomyces also produced their char¬

acteristic aerial spores which facilitated their identification. In

a few instances where neither the spore crusts of the Micro¬

monospora nor the aerial spores of the Actinomyces were evi¬

dent, slide cultures of dextrose-casein agar were prepared. Thus

it was possible to make the final decision of the grouping of the

organism as a member of the genus Micromonospora. In some

cases no spores were ever evident; the researches of Umbreit

(1939) offer the possibility that such organisms may be mem¬

bers of the beta group of the genus Proactinomyces .

Results

The morphological, chemical and physical differences be¬

tween those lakes of the Northeastern area, centered about the

Trout Lake Laboratory, and the Southern lakes near the Uni¬

versity laboratores are marked. The voluminous records of the

Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological and Nat¬

ural History Survey served as a source of information for Table

Some morphometrical, physical and chemical data on the lakes tested for bacterial content. The material has

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

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Table II. The summary of the bacterial population of the bottom deposits of 1 2 Wisconsin lakes (wet basis) .

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

I. Many more items of interest might have been included but

those given in the table show factors that well might affect the

life in the lake.

The results of the survey of the bacterial flora of seven of

the lakes of the Northeastern part of the state together with five

of those of the Southeastern section are summarized in Table II.

The results of the work on Lake Mendota, a member of the latter

group, is omitted from this table because of the more extensive

reports to be presented later in this paper.

With the exception of Koshkonong and Nebish all the lakes

sampled indicated the presence of Micromonosyora in their bot¬

tom deposits. In the case of Lake Koshkonong, since weather

conditions made it impossible to sample in the deepest portions

of the lake, test portions were secured only of the southern end

where the lake narrowed into Rock river. With the exception

of Lake Mendota, Koshkonong had the highest counts of bac¬

teria found in the survey. Two testing periods of Nebish failed

to detect the Micromonosyora in its bottom deposits. One sam¬

pling was made in August 1941 and the second was made in July

1942. The results of the July sampling are shown.

Of the 18 samplings recorded in Table II it is interesting to

note that but six of them showed less than 20% of the total

count to be chromogens. This is in agreement with the findings

of other workers — Fred, Wilson and Davenport (1924), Snow

and Fred (1926), Graham and Young (1934), Williams and

McCoy (1935), Henrici and McCoy (1938) — who have noted

the high number of these pigment-bearing organisms in lake

bacterial counts. A point of major interest is the marked range

of the Micromonosyora which is shown to be from 100% in the

case of some Trout lake samples to a low of 5.5% in Lake Wau-

besa — a lake of unusual water content due to sewage effluent

from the city of Madison.

Of the northern lakes Trout showed the highest count of

Micromonosyora — 86,000 of these organisms per gram wet

weight of bottom deposit. The southern lakes were consistently

higher in these organisms. It also may be seen that the total

count of bacteria in the bottom deposits of the northern lakes

are much lower than those of the southern bodies of water. This

corresponds to the findings of Carpenter (1939) who worked on

the northern lakes near the limnological station at Trout lake.

Table III. Bacterial counts of bottom deposits from bay, littoral and sub-profundal areas of Lake Mendota.

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

197

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198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

Table III indicates the effect of type of bottom deposit upon

the bacterial count. As was brought out in a limited way in the

summary shown by Table II of the two lakes, Ripley and Wau-

besa, Table III shows data of a more extensive study of this

phase of the problem on a particular lake.

Lake Mendota’s University Bay area corresponds in large

measure to the areas described by Graham and Young (1934),

Henrici and McCoy (1938), Stark and McCoy (1938) in their

studies on the bacterial flora of such littoral regions. Here at a

depth of 2.0 to 3.5 meters the bottom deposits consisted mainly

of sand, gravel, coarse undecomposed plant remains and por¬

tions of water plants together with roots. The Micromonosyora

counts were low, although in some cases the total count of the

microorganisms was high. The table shows that in the littoral

zones the Micromonosyora counts make up but a small fraction

of the total count. This fact is again noticeable in the next area

of the lake studied.

The hydrographic map of Mendota shows a depression

having a maximum depth of 20 meters approximately 450

meters out in the lake from the south shore, at a point opposite

the Washburn Observatory. In the plan of sampling it was de¬

sired to test a traverse across an area giving access to different

types of deposits. Since the bay area of the lake gave essentially

the same bacteriological picture as that given by the sampling

of the shore line to the depth of 5.0 to 6.0 meters, those results

of the immediate depth next to the shore line are not given.

Out in the lake beginning about 150 meters and extending

to approximately 225 meters off-shore, a depth range of 6.5 to

10.0 meters was encountered. Here the littoral zone graded in a

transition to profundal depths. Twenhofel (1941) has given

an excellent treatment of the bottom deposits encountered in

Lake Mendota. In this area the Ekman dredge brought to the

surface a greyish-black sludge in which coarse organic materials

remained; there were shell fragments, sand and detritus of a

flaky appearance. In this area the bacterial count was not great¬

ly different in total numbers or Micromonosyora count from the

numbers found in the bay area. There was the exception, how¬

ever, that the Micromonosyora made up a larger percentage of

the chromogens in the 6.5 to 10 meter section than was true of

the bay section.

Colmer-McCoy — Micromono spor a

199

The next area of bottom deposits investigated was further

out in the lake toward the maximum depth. The appearance of

the sludge here was markedly different from that of the deposits

closer to shore. This deeper deposit was darker, finer in size of

particles, had less shells and sand, and it closely approached the

consistency of the deposits found at the deepest area. In this

region of 13.0 to 15.0 meter depth a consistent increase in total

bacterial numbers, chromogens, Micromono sp ora and Actino¬

myces was noted over the two previously examined areas. The

percentage of the chromogens of the total count in the 13.0 to

15.0 meter area was higher than that shown in the bottom sam¬

ples of the littoral regions. In the littoral areas there was a

range from a low of 12.9% to a high of 23.3% ; in the 13.0 to

15.0 meter area the values ranged from 12.8% to 42%. No

season may be ascribed to have a peak value where the ratio of

the chromogens to the total count is a regular occurrence. This

peak came in the May 16, 1941 testing in the bay area; in the

November 11, 1941 testing for the 6.5 to 10.0 meter section and

also in the November testings for the 13.0 to 15.0 meter depth.

The Micromono spor a count in proportion to the chromogen

count varied widely. But again, in the area of the deeper water,

there was a consistently higher figure for the percentage of

these pigment-bearing organisms to the total chromogenic bac¬

teria than was apparent in the two shallower regions. For ex¬

ample, the average percentage for the shallow regions was 13%

while in the transition zone the percentage had increased to

36%.

A summary of a year’s sampling of the bottom deposits of

the 18 meter depression is given in Table IV.

The first sampling of this cycle recorded was that of May 3,

1941. At this period the lake had had its vernal overturn. The

researches of Birge and Juday (1911, 1922) bear evidence to

the marked effects of this stage in the yearly cycle upon the life

of the lake.

The temperature relation of the lake at this time would ap¬

proximate that shown in Chart 3 under May 16, 1942. This first

sampling, together with the second one, revealed the largest

numbers of the Micromonospora shown during the complete

sampling cycle of this profundal area.

As the sampling was carried on into June and July the total

Table IV. A bacterial study of bottom deposits at the 18 meter station during the yearly cycle of Lake Mendota — a eutrophic

lake. The numbers are given as organisms per gram wet weight.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Colmer -McCoy — Micromonospora

201

counts of bacteria remained relatively uniform. The Micro¬

monospora counts decreased during this time but the percentage

of this group in its make-up of the chromogens remained high.

From the time of the summer stagnation through September

into the period of the autumnal overturn in October, the Micro¬

monospora count continued to decrease. During this period

counts were made of the Actinomyces of Group I. It is seen that

their share of the total count is, with few exceptions, lower than

their fellow genus the Micromonospora.

The lowest count of the Micromonospora was found in De¬

cember as the first ice films formed over the lake. It is of inter¬

est to note that at this time and in the first sampling through the

ice in January of 1942 there was a pulse in the total count of

bacteria.

The ice crust of the lake made it possible, during January

and on each Friday for the whole of February, to sample a con¬

fined area of the profundal depth. Each of the five holes chiseled

through the ice was within the limits of a circle having a diam¬

eter of six meters. This permitted a sampling of the bottom

with an accuracy greater than that afforded by sampling from

a boat in an area not conducive to buoying the test spot.

Table IV shows that the Micromonospora count remained

relatively uniform during this winter stagnation time. On the

March 13, 1942 sampling, the last made through the ice, 5,300,-

000 bacteria per gram wet weight were detected. This was the

largest total count of the entire season. Since, however, the

Micromonospora had no part in this marked increase in total

numbers, its percentage composition figure dropped to 2.9% —

the lowest value of the year. In like manner, and for the same

reason, the percentage of the Micromonospora of the chromo¬

gens was reduced to 9.5% — a low value when it is considered

that on the September 3, 1941 testing the proportion of this

group of organisms to the chromogens was 95.5%.

By the time the ice had disappeared and conditions made it

possible to resume sampling, the lake had entered the period of

vernal overturn. The summary of this period shows a rise in

the count of the Micromonospora and a rise to a relatively high

count of total organisms. The June 1942 reading, then com¬

pleted a year’s testing of a narrow area of Mendota bottom de¬

posits. Table IV indicates that the May 1941 counts of the Mi-

202

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

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Colmer-McCoy — Micromono spora

203

cromonospora were the highest for the entire year. From this

peak the counts dropped and with fluctuations reached the low¬

est counts during the winter stagnation period. After the vernal

overturn the counts then appear to build up to another high

value.

The results of a study made on four cores from the bottom

deposits at the 18 meter depth are given in Table V. The three

test-levels of the cores brought out the fact of the diminution of

the total bacterial count as depth in the core was attained. The

Micromonospora and Actinomyces were of very limited occur¬

rence in the bottom level of the cores.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the progressive temperature changes

of the open water of Lake Mendota from July 16, 1941 to July 8,

1942. The stages in the cycle of the year’s changes of the lake

are emphasized by the three figures. The first shows the lake

during a summer stagnation; the second gives the marked dif¬

ferences before and after the autumnal overturn, and the third

Figure 1

Thermal stratification of Lake Mendota during July, 1941

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The thermal changes in Lake Mendota from summer stratification through

Figure 3

The progressive thermal changes in Lake Mendota from the time of the

vernal overturn to early summer stratification in 1942.

Table VI. Vertical distribution of bacteria in the open water of Lake Mendota. The period of sampling shown comprises summer stagnation,

autumnal and vernal overturn. Winter stagnation is recorded in Table VII. Total numbers of bacteria are first rows of figures; the second row of

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

figure presents the progressive changes leading to a resumption

of stratification after the vernal overturn.

The results of the investigation of the vertical distribution

of bacteria in the open water of Lake Mendota are given in

Tables VI and VII. The samples were collected from the waters

overlying the 18 meter station.

A study of Table VI shows both the counts secured by cen¬

trifuging the water sample prior to plating and the counts se¬

cured by the regular plating procedure. All water samples

tested during the period of August through February were cen¬

trifuged at approximately 1800 R.P.M. for 15 minutes. No

marked increase in bacterial counts can be attributed to this

procedure.

Those water samples secured by allowing the Wilson sampler

to enter the edge of the bottom sludge before! taking the sample

were, with few exceptions, higher in bacterial content than the

free water above. These counts cannot be evaluated too rigidly

as water counts since the sampler necessarily caused a disturb¬

ance by its descent into the sludge layer.

The Micromonospora count is recorded as the number of

colonies developing replicate plates. This mode of recording has

been selected rather than the conventional report of numbers of

colonies per cc. The percentage of these organisms developing

on the total number of plates poured at any particular date of

sampling is given in Tables VI and VII.

It will be noted that in comparatively treated samples of

water (the centrifuged ones) the percentage of Micromonospora

increased in the late November sampling, remained high during

December and January and then dropped in February. Another

increase in these organisms in the water occurred in the April

testing at the time of the vernal overturn. During June, July

and August — a period corresponding to the summer stagnation

— the percentage of Micromonospora colonies developing on the

plates of these water samples again was low.

If the summary of the Micromonospora appearing on the

plates from any water level is considered, it will be noted that

there is no gradation of frequency of these organisms from any

one depth to another nor is there any marked accumulation of

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

207

Table VII. Vertical distribution of bacteria in water under ice layer of

Lake Mendota. The samplings comprise the winter stagnation period. Total

numbers of bacteria are first rows of figures; the second row of each column

give Micromonospora colonies detected in replicate plates.

them at any level corresponding to the epilimnion or thermo-

cline. It was only in the bottom levels of the hypolimnion that

the percentage of these organisms showing on the plates had

an appreciable value over that of the overlying waters.

Table VII contains the results of six samplings of the wa¬

ters under an ice crust. The last four of the series were made

seven days apart, and one of these testings comprises a sampling

of the water at each meter of depth. More uniformity is shown

in the sampling (February 20, 1942) than in any of the others.

A small Gram-negative yellow chromogen was the predominat¬

ing organism developing on the plates. The table shows also

that waters next to the ice crust have a lower bacterial content

than the lower water in four of the six samplings made.

The Micromonospora count in the water under winter stag¬

nation conditions indicates that more of these organisms are in

the water at the beginning of the period than toward the end of

this part of the lake’s cycle. It is also shown in Table VII that

the level of the water has no greater influence on Micromono¬

spora counts during the winter stagnation than Table VI showed

to be true in the case of open water at different levels.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

MICROMONOSPORA in Relation to Lakes and

Lake Populations

Study of the soil actinomycetes has brought out the fact that

the group grows in a wide variety of environments. These or¬

ganisms characteristically occur in habitats where there is a

ready access to air, where there is much surface exposed and

which is relatively dry.

The actinomycetes have been considered instrumental in de¬

composing the more resistant materials found in the soil. The

work of Jensen (1930, 1932) indicated that within the soil ac¬

tinomycetes group the Micromonospora had some of the func¬

tions exhibited by the members of the better known genus,

Actinomyces. Thus, a soil enriched with crude lignin from oat

straw and, in another case, with cellulose, gave marked increase

in the counts of Micromonospora.

Few later reports have been seen dealing with these organ¬

isms either in regard to their numbers or their activities in the

soil. Kriss (1939) has reported a new species found in Russian

soil. Waksman, Umbreit and Cordon (1938) found Micromono¬

spora in composts having a temperature range of 50 to 60 de¬

grees C. These organisms were found in the heated plant masses

at times varying from one to 15 days. No report has been seen

giving numbers found in American soils.

To determine the presence or absence of Micromonospora in

some Wisconsin soils, plots of both cultivated and uncultivated

lands were investigated by the plating out of representative

samples upon the three media used in the studies on the flora of

the bottom deposits. Also, many plates of different soils have

been studied after student-experimentation pursuant to their

laboratory work in varied courses in the Department. Too, nu¬

merous samples of soils have been investigated which lie adja¬

cent to some of the lakes, Mendota, Crystal, Trout, Little John,

Nebish, Muskellunge. Counts of Actinomyces varying from ap¬

proximately 30 thousand to 10 million per gram of soil were

found depending upon the soil type. Few Micromonospora col¬

onies were demonstrated on those dilution plates which had such

colony separation that identification of the organism was pos¬

sible.

Near the University Bay section of Lake Mendota an area of

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

209

farm land has been reclaimed from the old lake bed. Constant

pumping is required to empty the sumps into which the tile

system empties its water. Samples of the water in the collecting

sumps and from the ditch which leads to the lake failed to dis¬

close the organisms except in one instance where a single colony

was found.

The actual shores of the lakes above the limit of wave wash

have been tested. Although Actinomyces have been found, this

was not true of the Micromonospora. One testing period was

immediately after a heavy rain. Not only did the sand and soil

of the shore fail to disclose the Micromonospora, but tests made

on the murky water adjacent to the shore did not show the or¬

ganisms.

It is, therefore, clear from these studies that, although the

particular cultivated soils tested and the soils of regions about

some of the lakes studied did have Actinomyes, none of them

had Micromonospora in such quantities that the plating of the

soils demonstrated them in sufficient numbers that they would

be considered of any significance.

Starkey (1939) in studies on soil flora in regard to the num¬

bers of microorganisms found in close proximity to plants, has

stated that the plant itself occupies a unique place in soil studies.

Of all the factors determining the abundance and nature of the

soil population, it is the plant itself which is preeminent. The

nature and abundance of materials derived from plants regulate

the development of the organisms more than any other single

factor. But, although the plating technique showed bacteria

about plant roots in greater number than elsewhere, it is inter¬

esting to note that he found very little increase in abundance of

the actinomycetes.

That the bacterial flora of the water of the shallow bay areas

far exceeds that of the open water at the same levels (0-2 meters

having been studied) has been shown by Stark and McCoy

(1938). They found that the organic content of such areas, in¬

fluenced by weeds and algal growth, had a greater effect upon

the numbers of bacteria than did the factors of temperature,

oxygen content and shore contamination.

Umbreit and McCoy (1941) suggested in their paper that

attachment to water plants, from which they might receive oxy¬

gen, might be a possible locale for the growth of Micromono-

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

syora. It is also conceivable that the debris of such plants would,

upon their remains leaving the littoral zones during the fall

overturn, aid in distributing the organism over the lake. How¬

ever, a study of Sagittaria, Lemna, Patamogeton, Vallisneria

and lake bulrush at different positions in the bay and shore

areas did not disclose members of the genus Micromonosyora.

Lake Mendota had, during some of the summer months

tested, large masses of algae floating in the surface waters.

These algal mats were examined and were found to be lacking

in Micromonosyora . The results of the late May, the June and

the early July water testing shown in Table VI can be used to

demonstrate again the fact that the Micromonosyora are not

concerned with algal matter found in the water. This table

shows that during the bloom and subsequent sinking of the vast

numbers of this plankton material the bacterial count rose, but

the Micromonosyora and Actinomyces counts did not.

This finding of a bacterial pulse correlated with the bloom

of algal plankton material, while not connected directly with the

Micromonosyora, is of interest in showing that in waters, as in

soil, there is a microbial response to the addition of readily fer¬

mentable material.

The open waters of the Wisconsin lakes have been reported

by the workers cited before as being remarkably low in bac¬

terial numbers even though the organic matter present in the

water is of such quantity that higher populations could be sup¬

ported (Stark 1939).

The bacterial counts of the water reported in this paper show

that Lake Mendota surface waters are usually low in number.

However the results of the water testing of the late May, the

June and the early July period of 1942 indicate that when a

readily decomposable matter, such as the material of an algal

bloom, is available, there is marked response on the part of the

water bacteria.

On the May 16 examination, and before the bloom was notice¬

able, 620 bacteria per cc were found at the zero station and 1070

per cc at the two meter depth. Because the bloom was very no¬

ticeable on May 29 the one meter depth was sampled then also ;

hence Table VI shows that, in addition to the increase demon¬

strated by the counts of 950 and 2510 bacteria per cc secured at

the zero station and two meter depth respectively, a count of

Colmer -McCoy — Micromonospora

211

3580 bacteria per cc was detected at the one meter station. This

was the largest number demonstrated in the upper waters of

the lake.

Thus, in a narrow zone of water bounded by the surface

above and the two meter depth below made rich by the food

materials afforded by the algal matter, there appeared a marked

increase in the numbers of bacteria in comparison with the num¬

bers shown in the same zone in the two previous testing periods

prior to the pulse of the algae.

The June 6 testings indicate, at once, both the fact that the

settling of the algal matter causes a rise in the bacterial counts

in the waters under the two meter zone, and, upon the passage

of the decomposing matter away from this zone, that the surface

station returned to the usual low bacterial count.

m

Whitney (1937), making use of a transparency meter, has

demonstrated microstratification in the hypolimnion of temper¬

ate lakes which stratify into an epilimnion, a thermocline and a

hypolimnion during the summer. His data showed that in areas

of maximum and minimum transparency there were great

differences in bacterial counts. In one instance at a 16.0 meter

transparency minimum there was a 200 to 1 relative count over

an area but 0.4 meter deeper. It was interesting to note that in

the high count area there was a large number of organisms

appearing as pin-point colonies on the particular plates poured

from that water.

It might well be that this finding of Whitney is a more com¬

mon occurrence than might be considered at first glance. Large

masses of bacteria associated with the debris from plankton,

settling down through the water, may be localized in a given

area depending upon the physical condition of the lake at that

time, and, as a result, cause a pulse of bacteria that might ap¬

pear in the form of a crest of a wave as it progresses downward.

Needless to say a testing of the bottom deposits after the arrival

of such a bacterial pulse would be markedly influenced by such

an addition.

In the examination of the open water of Mendota the pos¬

sibility was considered that the stratification of the water during

the summer stagnation period might cause a concentration of

Micromonospora in any of the three levels of the lake. Whitney

suggested that it could be that the lake acted as a great filter.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

Since the greatest changes in transparency occurred at regions

of relatively large temperature change, this might be indicative

of a sorting in which particles of different sizes, shapes and

densities have their rate of settling affected and thus accumu¬

late at levels which are determined by the factors of tempera¬

ture and other physical conditions.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the thermal condition of the lake at

the test periods. Samplings were made during summer stagna¬

tion so that the three layers of water would be investigated for

any localization of the Micromonosyora at any of the levels. In

the other periods of testing, portions of the waters were taken

so that a distribution from top to bottom could be secured. It

was only during the periods following the two overturns, when

the waters had been stirred to the profundal depths, that there

was an apparent increase in Micromonosyora counts of the wa¬

ter. This increase, since investigations have proved that addi¬

tions from the soil are minimal, was due to the resuspension of

Micromonosyora which had been at the sludge-water interface.

Tables II and III indicate clearly the marked correlation be¬

tween the amount and kind of organic matter in the bottom

deposits with the numbers of Micromonosyora found in such

lake deposits.

Henrici (1940) found that the occurrence of aquatic plants

determines the shoreward distribution of bacteria of the bottom

deposits. Where the plants are abundant, bacteria are numerous.

But Henrici and McCoy (1938) also found that if the shore is

sandy and, because of wave action, is free of rooted plants, then

a marked decrease in the bottom bacteria is noted as the shore

is approached from the profundal depths.

The numbers shown in Table II for Ripley and Waubesa

bring out the correspondence between depth and Micromono¬

syora count. However, depth, yer se, is not the criterion for the

determination of the count of these organisms, but rather an

indication that as this feature increases in magnitude the type

of bottom deposit usually changes from sand and coarse ma¬

terials to the finer particles characterizing the profundal depths.

At the six meter depth in Ripley the bottom sludge was not as

fine in size, was not as black and did not have the characteristic

appearance of the black fine sludge of the 12 meter depth. The

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

213

counts of Micromonospora at the two stations were 30,000 and

65,000 respectively per gram of wet weight.

In Waubesa, a lake lacking the depth of Ripley, the deposits

graded from a coarse, plant-debris-laden, chalky-grey deposit to

one of a finer nature; but even at the seven meter depth the

sludge lacked the blackness and fineness detected in Ripley and

Mendota. Here, too, the Micromonospora count increased with

depth.

The comparison of Monona and Wingra in Table II indi¬

cates again that the nature of the bottom deposits and not nec¬

essarily depth determines the frequency of these organisms. The

Monona sample was lacking in organic matter and had a high

proportion of shells ; it was taken at a depth of four meters and

had but a 400 organisms per gram count of Micromonospora.

Wingra, on the other hand, at a depth of but two meters gave

68,000 Micromonospora per gram of wet weight. In this sample

the deposit was rich in organic matter.

Table III, summarizing one study of Lake Mendota, brings

out in greater detail this feature which already had been indi¬

cated by other lakes listed in Table II. Mendota was studied in

four areas: the bay and shore area, the 6.5 to 10.0 meter area

off-shore, the 13.0 to 15.0 meter area approaching the depression

opposite the Observatory and, finally, the 18 meter profundal

area.

In the bay area and in the 6.5 to 10.0 meter zone the Micro¬

monospora count was low ; the deposits in these areas were sand,

shells, and coarse plant detritus. The Micromonospora count

increased in the 13.5 to 15 meter zone. Many of the samples

secured from this area approached those taken from the 18

meter depth in appearance and, indeed, the Micromonospora

counts on some of them varied but little from the results secured

at the deepest area.

An examination of Tables III and IV shows other features

concerning the bacterial numbers of the four areas. Very clearly

the bay area is richer in total counts and in chromogens than

the off-shore area which also bears rooted vegetation. This dif¬

ference may be attributable to the protection from wave action

which, in the case of the off-shore area, is much more pro¬

nounced and would thus markedly influence the quantity and

quality (the finer particles are easier carried away by water

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

currents) of the organic material present in the area. Except

for the testing of May 16, 1942, which showed upon plating a

high number of yellow chromogens, the count in all respects of

these two littoral sections were lower than those of the transi¬

tion zone as demonstrated by the 13.0 to 15.0 meter area. There

seems to be no marked difference in the numbers of bacteria in

any area when the season of year is taken as the basis of com¬

parison.

Table IV shows the only instance where there might be a

correlation between season-cycle and number of bacteria. This

table summarizes the attempt to find if Micromonosyora in the

bottom deposits of a definite area do go through a seasonal varia¬

tion.

Williams and McCoy (1935) noted only a minor difference

between the counts of bottom deposits in winter and summer in

their study of some deposits of Lake Mendota. In his excellent

treatment of the distribution of bacteria in lakes, Henrici

(1940) states that not many data have accumulated on the sub¬

ject of seasonal variations of lake bacteria. Most of the work

that has been reported deals only with the free water and, as

Henrici states, winter observations are lacking.

Domogalla, Fred and Peterson (1926) have indicated that

there is a seasonal variation in bacterial numbers by their work

on the nitrogen cycle as affected by bacterial action. Fred, Wil¬

son and Davenport (1924), early workers in the field of lake

bacterial studies, had results that varied from year to year in

their three-year study. Their maximum of the water bacterial

counts varied in the three years from a summer, an autumn

and a spring maximum. Graham and Young (1934) noted a

summer minimum in Flathead Lake.

Umbreit and McCoy (1941) felt that Micromonosyora might

be more concerned, in their life in bottom deposits, with the

quality of the organic matter present rather than with the quan¬

tity of this substrate. The higher counts of Micromonosyora

found in the period after the vernal overturn and before strati¬

fication had begun is suggestive that such a situation is indeed

possible.

After the spring and summer growth of plankton and water

plants has taken place and the high winds and consequent water

movements of the autumnal overturn have removed their re-

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

215

mains together with soil-introduced organic matter away from

the littoral zones to the areas where selective settling acts upon

them, it is seen that the more rapidly utilizable materials serve

as food for those organisms which respond rapidly to the influx

of such foodstuff. The growth of Micromonospora , is so slow that

the organisms cannot compete with those faster growing bac¬

teria found in the deposits in much large numbers. During the

winter stagnation period when the oxygen content of the muds

is minimal, these plant remains undergo further breakdown so

that by spring a resistant organic matter is present. This ma¬

terial then could be the subtrate for Micromonospora as they

are known to grow on very resistant organic materials (Erik-

son 1940).

To test just the detritus of plant origin, of a size that would

be caught by a number 20 screen, such materials were obtained

from the 18 meter station and from the 13.0 to 15.0 areas. The

substances were ground in a mortar with sterile sand and then

used as the source material for the study of Micromonospora

counts. Samples from the 13.0 to 15.0 meter area gave a count

of 40,000 per gram while the materials secured from the 18

meter station were 190,000 per gram of wet weight.

Tests underway in the laboratory at present indicate that

such materials as leaves, straws and cellulose when added to the

bottom muds cause an increase in Micromonospora counts.

The number of chromogens found in lake waters and de¬

posits has frequently been mentioned by the investigators of

lake flora. Jansky (1936) characterized some bacteria from the

northern Wisconsin lakes with emphasis on the chromogens. She

felt that the grouping of these water organisms on the basis of

color formation seemed to indicate that chromogenesis might be

of value at least in the grouping, if not in identifying, the lake

bacteria.

It was possible to study 31 chromogens of the cultures re¬

sulting from her work. Of the 31, five were identified as Micro¬

monospora. Three, of these five, had been described by this

worker as ‘‘reddish brown actinomycetes.”

An objection raised to the sampling of bottom deposits by

the core procedure revolves about the subject of compaction of

the sample. This is a valid objection, and it minimizes the signi¬

ficance of counts at exact depths. It was found in this portion

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

of the study that, although the sampler was driven into the mud

to such a depth that even the lead weight became fouled, still

upon subsequent removal of the core from the sampler in the

laboratory, there would be found a length of mud approximately

one-half the length of the tube. For this reason the areas of the

cores sampled were arbitrarily but three: the top, the middle

and the bottom of the core, no attempt being made to specify

their actual position in centimeters in depth in the core.

It is well to mention the middle sample. Every core observed

had a sudden marked color change from the typical black of the

upper sludge to the marl color of the typical bottom portion of

the core. This transition took place in the cores at approxi¬

mately 15 cm from the top. The middle samples for bacterial

analyses were taken so that half of the 25 grams of the test

material came from each side of this color plane.

Henrici and McCoy (1938), Carpenter (1939), Williams

and McCoy (1935) have investigated bottom deposits of some

Wisconsin lakes. Henrici and McCoy found that plate counts

showed a marked decrease with depth in the mud. They felt

that there was an indication “that bacterial activity at the bot¬

tom of lakes is carried on almost exclusively at the mud-water

level, the bacteria dying below.” Williams and McCoy found a

mean average count of 5,200,000 bacteria per gram dry basis

for the top samples of the Mendota cores and a mean count of

90,000 for the bottom samples. Their work indicated that only

minor differences in numbers and kinds were noted in the com¬

parison of winter with summer samples. Carpenter’s work on

Crystal Lake showed the same great difference between the

total numbers found in the surface mud and that of the lower

deposits. The average count of 2120 aerobic or facultative per

gram of dry weight for the surface mud and a count of 114 for

the bottom mud, when compared with the corresponding counts

for Lake Mendota, bring out the marked differences in the bac¬

terial counts of the bottom deposits of the two lakes.

Table V indicates that the Micromonospora and the Actino¬

myces decrease sharply in numbers as the depth below the mud-

water interface increases. In the marl-like bottom portions of

the cores their portion of the total count is negligible. In like

manner the chromogens of any individual sample show this

lessening in numbers as the black sludge area is left and the

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

217

CaCOa rich portion approached. The percentage of the Micro¬

monos'pora based on total chromogen counts, as the depth in the

core is increased has no regularity. It is of interest, however,

to find that Micromonospora do make up a major proportion of

those chromogens which have been noted by the former investi¬

gators of the cores from this lake.

The 9-27-42 core had 89.6% and 83.3% as values represent¬

ing the Micromonospora portion of the chromogens present in

the top and middle samples of the core. In the 1-17-42 samples

these values were 37.2% and 63.0% ; in the 6-15-42 core, 52.0%

and 51.2% ; while the last core, 7-8-42, dropped in value to

38.9% and 20.8%.

Micromonospora members are resistant to the deleterious

effect of drying and their spores remain viable for years. Cores

of Lake Mendota and Wingra muds, which had been taken in

1932 and which had been dried in a 37°C. incubator and stored

under aerobic conditions in the laboratory for the intervening

years, gave upon testing in 1942 high counts of Micromono¬

spora. One sample of dried surface mud gave a count of 170,000

per gram and a sample of the bottom of a core had 6,000 per

gram.

Summary

This report is based on a bacteriological survey of the bot¬

tom deposits of 13 Wisconsin lakes. Varying numbers of Micro¬

monospora, a member genus of the family Actinomycetaceae,

have been found in all of the lakes. The northeastern lakes

studied have a smaller number of Micromonospora than do the

lakes of the southern part of the state.

Although Actinomyces are numerous in soil areas adjacent

to the lakes, few Micromonospora have been found.

No association was detected between Micromonospora and

growing water plants or with phytoplankton. An occurrence of

a pulse in the bacterial count of open water due to an algal

bloom has been discussed.

Bottom deposits of littoral zones and areas subject to wave

action were found to have smaller numbers of these organisms

than the profundal zones rich in organic matter. There were

evidences that in profundal depths an increase in numbers of

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Micromonospora took place following the vernal overturn. An

explanation for this seasonal peak has been offered. Vertical

distribution of Micromonospora in cores shows a rapid decrease

in numbers from the surface of the sludge downward.

Lake waters had negligible numbers of Micromonospora.

An increase in the count of these organisms occurred only at the

two overturns when bottom muds had been agitated and the

organisms had been distributed throughout the overlying wa¬

ters.

The percentage distribution of the Micromonospora within

the chromogenic group of bacteria is high in the bottom de¬

posits of the profundal areas. There was a range from 9.5% to

95.5% with an average of 61.6%. The percentage that the

Micromonospora make up of the numbers of bacteria in the bot¬

tom deposits varied from 2.9% to 48.5% with an average of

13.4%.

Bibliography

Allgeier, R. J., Peterson, W. H., Juday, C., and Birge, E. A. 1932. The anero-

bic fermentation of lake deposits. Intemat. Revue der. ges. Hydrobiol.

u. Hydrographie Bd. 26, Heft 5/6.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C. 1911. The inland lakes of Wisconsin. I. The

dissolved gases of the water and their biological significance. Wis. Geol.

and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 22: 1-259.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C. 1922. Inland lakes of Wisconsin. I. The plankton,

its quantity and chemical composition. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey

Bull., 64: 222 pp.

Carpenter, P. L. 1939. Bacterial counts in the muds of Crystal Lake — an

oligotrophic lake of northern Wisconsin. Jour. Sed. Pet. 9: 3-7.

Domogalla, B., Fred, E. B., and Peterson, W. H. 1926. Seasonal variations of

ammonia and nitrate content of lakes. J. Amer. Waterworks Assn., 15;

369-385.

Erickson, D. 1941. Studies on some lake-mud strains of Micromonospora.

Jour. Bact. 41: 277-300.

Foulerton, A. G. 1905. (Abstract of Meeting of The Pathological Society of

London) The Lancet, i, 1905, page 1200.

Fred, E. B., Wilson, F., and Davenport, A. 1924. The distribution and signi¬

ficance of bacteria in Lake Mendota. Ecology 5: 322-339.

Graham, V. E. and Young, R. T. 1934. A bacteriological study of Flathead

Lake, Montana. Ecology 15: 101-109.

Harden, Muriel E. 1941. Studies on the Micromono sporae. B.A. Thesis, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin.

Colmer-McCoy — Micromonospora

219

Henrici, A. T. 1940. The distribution of bacteria in lakes. Amer. Assn. Adv.

Sci. Pub. #10: 39-64.

Henrici, A. T., and McCoy, E. 1938. The distribution of heterotrophic bac¬

teria in the bottom deposits of some lakes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts &

Lett. 32: 323-361.

Jansky, M. 1936. The characterization of some bacteria from northern Wis¬

consin lakes with emphasis on the chromogens. M.S. Thesis, University

of Wisconsin.

Jensen, H. L. 1930. The genus Micromonospora 0rskov, a little known group

of soil microorganisms. Proc. Linnean Soc. New S. Wales 40: 231-248.

Jensen, H. L. 1932. Contributions to our knowledge of the Actinomycetales.

III. Further observations on the genus Micromonospora. Proc. Linnean

Soc. New S. Wales 42: 173-180.

Kriss, A. E. 1939. The Micromonospore — an actinomycete-like organism.

Microbiol. 8: 184-5 U.S.S.R. C.A. 35: 14387 1941.

Miehe, H. 1907. Die Selbsterhitzung des Heues. G. Fischer, Jena.

Musgrave, W. E., Clegg, M. T., and Polk, M. 1908. Streptothricosis, with

special reference to the ethiology and classification of Mycetoma. Philippine

Joum. Sci. Ser. B, iii, 1908, 447-542.

0rskov, J. 1923. Investigations into the morphology of the Ray Fungi. Co¬

penhagen.

0rskov, J. 1938. Investigations on pure cultures of actinomyces from Danish

earth. Central, fur bakt. Abt. II 98: 344-357.

Schiitze, H. 1908. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der thermophilen Aktinomyzeten

und ihrer Sporesebildung. Arch. Hyg. 67: 35-56.

Snow, L., and Fred, E. B. 1926. Some characteristics of the bacteria of Lake

Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett. 22: 143-154.

Stark, W. H. 1939. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin.

Stark, W. H., and McCoy, E. 1938. Distribution of bacteria in certain lakes

of northern Wisconsin. Zentralbl. f. Bakt., Abt. II 98: 201-209.

Starkey, R. L. 1940. The influence of plants upon the soil population. Proc.

Third Int. Cong. Microbiol. New York.

Tsiklinsky, P. 1899. Sur les mucedinees thermophiles. Ann. Inst. Pasteur

13: 500-505.

Twenhofel, W. H. 1933. The physical and chemical characteristics of the

sediments of Lake Mendota, a fresh water lake of Wisconsin. Jour. Sed.

Pet. 3: 68-

Umbreit, W. W. 1939. Studies on the Proactinomyces. Jour. Bact. 38: 73-89.

Umbreit, W. W., and McCoy, E. 1941. The occurrence of actinomycetes of

the genus Micromonospora in inland lakes. A symposium on hydrobiology.

Madison, Wisconsin.

Waksman, S. A., Umbreit, W. W., and Cordon, T. C. 1939. Themophilic

actinomycetes and fungi in soils and in composts. Soil Sci. 47: 37-61.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Whitney, L. 1938. Microstratification of inland lakes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.,

Arts & Lett. 31: 155-173.

Williams, F. T., and McCoy, E. 1935. The microflora of the mud deposits of

Lake Mendota. Jour. Sed. Pet. 5: 31-36.

Wilson, F. C. 1920. Description of an apparatus for obtaining samples of

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103-108.

ZoBell, C. E., and Conn, J. 1940. Studies on the thermal sensitivity of marine

bacteria. Jour. Bact. 40: 223-238.

ZoBell, C. E., and Stadler, 1939. J. The effect of oxygen tension on the

oxygen uptake of lake bacteria. Jour. Bact. 39: 307-322.

PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ACCURACY

OF THE DROPPING MERCURY ELECTRODE IN MEAS¬

UREMENTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION RATES

Winston M. Manning

From the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geologi¬

cal and Natural History Survey, Notes and reports No. 115.

Introduction

Dropping mercury electrodes have recently been used for

measuring changes in dissolved oxygen produced by photosyn¬

thesis and respiration (1, 3, 5, 6). This method of oxygen de¬

termination should also prove valuable for non-biological photo¬

chemical studies in aqueous solutions.

With the analytical procedure used in most photochemical

studies, it is possible to measure only the total effect produced

in a reaction vessel by a given amount of absorbed light. In this

respect, the dropping mercury electrode is almost unique, since

it measures a concentration effect which, in the absence of dis¬

turbing factors, is confined to the immediate vicinity of the

dropping mercury capillary tip, regardless of the size of the

reaction vessel. Because of this characteristic, the electrode can

be used to measure dissolved oxygen changes in very small vol¬

umes of solution, a distinct advantage where limited amounts of

material (or of light) are available. Another advantage of this

method is its simplicity of operation, particularly when relative,

rather than absolute, rate measurements are desired.

The measurement of local concentration changes, in a vessel

containing a wide range of light intensities, results in complica¬

tions not ordinarily encountered in photochemical studies. The

purpose of this paper is to evaluate quantitatively some of these

complications in relation to the rate and extent of light absorp¬

tion, and to point out the conditions under which the dropping

mercury electrode can be used with maximum accuracy. Empha¬

sis is placed on the difficulties encountered in measurements

with biological material, where the choice of experimental con-

221

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ditions is usually subject to severe limitations. Although the

factors involved are discussed only in relation to measurements

with the dropping mercury electrode, the discussion is not spe¬

cific for this method ; it would apply to any method in which a

photochemical reaction in liquid phase is studied by measuring

local concentration changes. Accordingly, no mention will be

made of problems more specifically related to the use of the

dropping mercury electrode. These are discussed elsewhere

(4, 5).

Effective stirring of a liquid reaction mixture during illumi¬

nation tends to equalize the rate of change in all parts of the

reaction vessel. In one sense then, a method measuring a local

concentration change becomes a method measuring total re¬

action. Stirring serves to eliminate many of the complications

discussed below, but it also eliminates some of the advantages

of the dropping mercury electrode method. Moreover, effective

stirring cannot always be provided. In nearly all quantitative

photochemical investigations, a thin flat reaction vessel is de¬

sirable or essential ; in investigations involving a study of

changes in concentration of a gas dissolved in a liquid, it is

highly desirable that the vessel be completely filled with liquid.

Because of these two requirements, satisfactory stirring is diffi¬

cult. Moreover, one of the principal advantages of the dropping

mercury electrode lies in the possibility of using it in very small

reaction vessels, where stirring is still more difficult.

Except where specifically stated to the contrary, the equa¬

tions derived in this paper are strictly applicable only in cases

where monochromatic light is used and where reaction rates are

approximately proportional to the light intensity. However, the

modifications necessary for treatment of other cases will usually

be evident.

The Influence of Light Absorption on the Accuracy

of Quantum Yield Measurements

For a parallel beam of monochromatic light incident on the

front window of a dropping mercury electrode vessel, the light

intensity at any distance x cm. from the front window is, ac¬

cording to the Beer-Lambert law,

/, =

(1)

Manning — Accuracy of Dropping Mercury Electrode 223

where I0 is the incident intensity inside the window and k is

proportional to the concentration of light-absorbing material.

Equation 1 is not strictly accurate where the absorbing material

is not in true solution but rather in suspension. A suspension

will cause scattering as well as absorption of the incident light.

A larger and larger fraction of the unabsorbed radiation will be

scattered as it progresses through a suspension, thus increasing

the effective path length and causing an apparent increase in the

value of & as # increases. However, measurements have shown

that for suspensions of the alga Chlorella, this effect is too small

to have any important influence on the factors to be considered

here.

Reaction rates

The dropping mercury electrode measures changes in oxygen

concentration only in the immediate vicinity of the capillary

tip. The tip is usually placed midway between the two cell win¬

dows (at x = s/2 if the distance between the windows is s).

Then for measurements where the rate of oxygen change is di¬

rectly proportional to the light intensity, and in the absence of

mixing due to diffusion or convection, the measured rate at the

capillary tip may be defined by1

( ACh) s n -ks/2

R./2 = — — = ykl’P = ykl0e (2)

where (AO ),/* is the number of oxygen molecules produced or

consumed per second at x = s/2 in a volume element of one

square centimeter cross-section and thickness dx, y is the quan¬

tum yield (molecules of oxygen produced or consumed per quan¬

tum absorbed), k is the rate of light absorption (as in equation

1), and I*/* is the light intensity at the tip, in quanta/cm.ysee.

Using equation 2, the quantum yield, y> may be evaluated

(assuming s to be known) from measurements of Ra/z, h

and 7S.

In actual practice, as the reaction proceeds, an oxygen con¬

centration gradient will be set up because of the varying rate of

production (or consumption) at the various light intensities

throughout the reaction vessel. At the same time, diffusion and

1 In. equation 2 and in subsequent equations, it is assumed that the concentration of

light-absorbing materials does not change appreciably during a period of measurement.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

convection will tend to equalize the oxygen concentrations

throughout the vessel. The maximum or limiting effect of diffu¬

sion would be to equalize the rate of oxygen change in all parts

of the reaction cell. If this condition were to prevail, the meas¬

ured rate at the capillary tip could no longer be expressed by

equation 2. Instead, the rate should be defined by

r> (quantum yield) X (total absorbed quanta/cm.ysec.)

thickness of cell in centimeters

= Y' (Io-D/s = Y70(l-e -* )/s (3)

Uncertainty due to diffusion and convection

In an actual experiment, the true quantum yield should be

somewhere between the two values calculated for no diffusion

and maximum diffusion. An experimental measurement will

thus be subject to an uncertainty which may be represented by

the equation

If op — ks /2

Uncertainty — (y— y')/y = 1 - — , (4)

e — 1

The effect of diffusion might be calculated and corrected for,

but little would be gained by this procedure, since the variable

and almost unpredictable convection factor would remain.

The order of magnitude of the rate of mixing by diffusion

and convection can be estimated from Fig. 1, which shows the

results of a preliminary experiment by Day and Daniels (cf.

reference 2) on the photochemical oxidation of methyl-ethyl

ketone. In this experiment, the ketone concentration was high,

with over 90% of the incident radiation absorbed. A period of

about 10 minutes after irradiation was required for the oxygen

concentration to become approximately constant. The exact rate

of mixing would vary considerably with different experimental

conditions, but Fig. 1 indicates that, in general, neither equation

2 nor equation 3 can be used satisfactorily when the fraction of

absorbed light is very large. In cases where it is known that no

thermal reaction involving oxygen can occur, equation 3 or an

equivalent formula may often be used for quantum yield calcula¬

tions, if sufficient time is allowed after irradiation for complete

mixing of the dissolved oxygen.

It can be shown that the ratio yYy approaches a value of

one as the product ks approaches zero. Consequently, the un-

Manning — Accuracy of Dropping Mercury Electrode 225

minutes

Figure 1. Changes in observed oxygen concentration as a result of photo¬

oxidation of methyl-ethyl ketone (data of Day and Daniels). The increase in

oxygen concentration after irradiation is caused by diffusion and convection.

certainty defined by equation 4 may be reduced either by using

a more dilute solution or suspension or by using a thinner re¬

action vessel. Table I gives the calculated uncertainty for sev¬

eral values of ks.

Table I

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters

A value midway between y and y' may be chosen advan¬

tageously as the quantum yield to be calculated from rates

measured by the dropping mercury electrode, since the maxi¬

mum error due to the diffusion and convection factors is then

only one-half of the calculated uncertainty range. The equation

for the calculated quantum yield is then

Yc — (y + Y')/2 =

Rs/Z

2/»

p ks /Z

- - ,

k ^ 1— e

)

(5)

Uncertainty for non-mono chromatic light

Equations 1 to 5 are strictly valid only for monochromatic

light or for cases where the rate of absorption, k, is constant

over the range of wavelengths used. In actual experiments, the

incident light is seldom truly monochromatic, but with a narrow

band of wavelengths such as is frequently used, variations in k

may often be small enough so that the equations are still ap¬

proximately correct.

Where the experimental conditions do not fulfill the above

requirements, equation 1 must be replaced by the more general

form

lx = (I\i)0e -j- (/A2)oe ’*** 4“ • • • • ~f~ (/An)0e ~V (1 )

where (lAi)0, (Ia2)0 etc. are the incident intensities (in quanta/

cm.2/sec.) for the various component wavelengths, and kr, k2,

etc. are the corresponding absorption coefficients.

Equation 4 then becomes

Uncertainty =

^ (7Ai)06Ai/2 -(- k<2. (7A2)0e-V/2 + . . . . ZCn(/An)0e'V'/2J

(/At)o(l-e-V) + (7a2)0(1— e 4v-f (/A»)0(l-e-V

The uncertainty given by equation 4' for non-monochromatic

light and varying k will always be greater than the uncertainty

for monochromatic light with the same value for Is/I0. Qualita¬

tively, this is evident from the fact that wavelengths for which

the absorbing material has a large k will form a constantly

diminishing fraction of the total light as it passes through the

reaction vessel. The total rate of absorption will be correspond-

Manning — Accuracy of Dropping M ercury Electrode 227

ingly diminished. As a result, when non-monochromatic light is

used, the intensity at the center of the vessel will correspond

less closely to the average intensity than it would in the case of

monochromatic light.

The magnitude of this effect under somewhat extreme condi¬

tions can be seen from calculations based on the distribution of

wavelengths and absorption coefficients shown in Fig. 2. This

distribution approximates that occurring in some of the photo¬

synthesis experiments carried out with the dropping mercury

electrode (6).

WAVELENGTH

Figure 2. A, relative intensity distribution for a light source consisting of

tungsten lamp (2800K) + Corning signal red filter (#243) + 20 cm. of 0.0125

molar CuS04 in H20.

B, absorption spectrum of acetone extract from Chlorella (Petering and

Manning, unpublished data) . Ordinates are proportional to extinction coeffi¬

cients. The curve is displaced 200 A toward longer wavelengths in order to

approximate the absorption in the plant cell.

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

For purposes of calculation, the band of light represented by

curve A in Fig. 2 was split into ten component wavelengths,

each with a different absorption coefficient. Each component

represents a band 100 A in width, except for a 200 A band at

6250-6450 A ( k approximately constant in this range) and a

broad band representing all light beyond 7050 A (for which k

= 0). Substituting into equations 1' and 4', it is found that a

concentration and path-length, such that Ie/I0 = 0.451, results

in an uncertainty value of 0.062, as compared with an uncer¬

tainty of 0.026 for monochromatic light having the same ratio

of Is/I0 ( ks = 0.80). For a 50% greater concentration of ma¬

terial, similar calculations give IJI0 = 0.324 and an uncertainty

of 0.114 instead of the corresponding monochromatic uncer¬

tainty value of 0.050 ( ks = 1.13). Thus, for a system covering

a very large range of absorption coefficients, as in Fig. 2, the use

of non-monochromatic light produces a considerable increase in

the uncertainty associated with a given value of h/I0-

Conditions Favoring a High Value for Measured Rate at a

Given Value for Incident Light Intensity

Frequently, in photochemical studies, the intensity of inci¬

dent light is so low, either from necessity or from choice, that

the principal source of error occurs in the measurement of the

small resulting reaction rates. This is particularly true for

reactions involving biological material, as does photosynthesis,

where the time for a measurement must be kept small because

of the other reactions inevitably associated with living matter.

It is therefore desirable to determine the experimental condi¬

tions which will yield, for a given intensity of incident light,

a near-maximum rate without causing excessive uncertainties

in the measured value.

Where a dropping mercury electrode is used, the measured

rate is markedly influenced by the concentration of light-absorb¬

ing material and by the depth of the reaction vessel.

Optimum value for the product ks

Differentiation of equation 2 gives

— kS' /2

dRsJ2/dk~^'I0e "(1— ks/2) (6)

— 0 for k = 2/s or for ks = 2

Manning — Accuracy of Dropping Mercury Electrode 229

Consequently, in the absence of mixing due to diffusion or con¬

vection, a maximum rate would be obtained for a concentration

of material such that the product ks is equal to 2.

But in the case of maximum mixing (equation 3 valid), the

derivative becomes

dRs./ 2 / dk — Y'/0e is (7)

= 0 for ks = oo

Thus, in the limiting case where the rate of oxygen change is

assumed to be equal throughout the reaction vessel, a maximum

Figure 3. Rs/ 2 as a function of ks for monochromatic light. (1), (2) and

(3) are calculated from equations 2, 3 and 5 respectively, assuming -f = y'

= Yc- The scale for jRs/2 is such that curve (2) approaches a value of 1.0

assymptotically as complete absorption is approached.

230 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

rate would be obtained only for complete absorption of the inci¬

dent radiation.

Fig. 3 shows the effect of concentration on the measured rate

for three cases: (1) no diffusion (equation 2 valid), (2) maxi¬

mum diffusion (equation 3 valid), (3) intermediate diffusion

such that equation 5 is valid. Here a constant quantum yield is

assumed for each case, and the corresponding rate is calculated

therefrom. Fig. 3 indicates that in an actual experiment, any

value for ks between 2 and 3 will give a value for Ran near

enough to the maximum for practical purposes.

Incidentally, the uncertainty defined by equation 4 is shown

graphically in Fig. 3 as the difference in height between curve

(2) and curve (1), divided by the height of curve (2). In ad¬

justing the concentration of reactants to obtain a rate near the

maximum, it must be remembered that the uncertainty range in¬

creases rapidly as ks becomes larger than 2. In actual practice,

because of the uncertainty factor, the maximum over-all accu¬

racy for measurement of Rs 2 should be obtained at a concen¬

tration slightly less than that corresponding to maximum

R a/2 • The greater the precision of the rate measurement, the

lower will be the value of ks necessary to give maximum accu¬

racy, particularly for non-monochromatic light.

The influence of path length on the measured rate

In the case of no diffusion, substitution of k = 2/ s into equa¬

tion 2 gives for a maximum rate

Rs/2 (max.) = 2-f/o/se (8)

Similarly, in the case of maximum diffusion, substitution of

ks — co into equation 3 gives for the maxium rate

Ra^2 (max.) = I o/s (9)

In either case, the maximum rate is inversely proportional to

the thickness, s, of the reaction vessel. The same relation should

hold approximately for intermediate degrees of mixing.2 More¬

over, equations 2 and 3 indicate that the measured rate should

3 The relation would not be strictly accurate for intermediate mixing. Any effects due

to diffusion would increase in relative importance with decreasing s, since concentration

gradients would be correspondingly] increased.

Manning — Accuracy of Droyying Mercury Electrode 231

show a similar dependence on s for any constant value of the

product ks.

In the photosynthesis experiments reported by Petering,

Duggar and Daniels (6), s was 1.6 cm. In more recent experi¬

ments in the same laboratory (3) s was reduced to 1.0 cm. It

is possible that for certain purposes somewhat thinner cells

would prove still more satisfactory.

However, when s is small and k correspondingly large, the

distance of the capillary tip from the windows must be known

with greater accuracy than when k is small (except for the lim¬

iting case of maximum mixing). This is evident from the fol¬

lowing considerations.

If the maximum error in the location of the capillary tip is

represented by ±&x, then, for the case of no mixing, equation 2

may be written

R

The relative error in the value of Rx may then be written

Rx R (x-t- Ax) 1 _ +*AX

error = - 77 ■ ■= 1— e - a

li x

Relative error =

= ±k&x (for kAx < 0.2)

(10)

For example, in a given case it may be desired to have a

value not greater than 1.5 for the product ks. Then if a 1.5 cm.

vessel ( s = 1.5) is used, and a concentration of reactants such

that k = 1.0 for the particular wavelength employed (77.7%

light absorption), the uncertainty in location of the capillary

tip, &x, should be not more than ±0.04 cm. if the possible error

due to this uncertainty is to be not greater than 4.0%. If, for

another experiment with similar reactants, s = 0.75 and k = 2,

giving twice the previous measured rate for the same incident

intensity, a x must be reduced to 0.02 cm. to keep the maximum

uncertainty at 4.0%. However, if the first measured rate (for

k — 1) were so low that it could be determined only with an

accuracy of say 15%, it might be desirable to go to s — 0.75 and

k — 2 even though &x were to remain constant at 0.04 cm.

In actual experiments, the requirements for a small &x

should be somewhat less vigorous than those developed above,

since diffusion and convection would tend partially to equalize

the rate of oxygen change throughout the reaction vessel.

232 Wisco?isin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters

Effect of silvering the hack window of the reaction vessel

In experiments at low light intensities or where, for any

other reason, absorption of a large proportion of the incident

light is necessary or desirable, it may, in certain cases, be ad¬

vantageous to use a vessel in which the back window is ex¬

ternally silvered, to give total reflection of the light which other¬

wise would be transmitted. This type of vessel makes additional

light available for reaction and at the same time reduces the

difference in intensity between the front and back windows. For

a silvered vessel, equation 1 is replaced by the equation

r -ks -ao-*)-|

* x *■ incident l_e * 1 -f- 6 6 J

2 J

* incident

6 ks

cosh I k(x — s)J

Thus, for a concentration which, in a non-reflecting vessel,

would absorb 75% of the incident light, giving Is/ 2 = 0.5

I incident and 7S = 0.25 /incident, a silvered vessel would give I0 =

1.06 / incident , Is-/ 2= 0.625 I incident and /■ = 0.50 incident. For con¬

centrations giving less complete absorption, the improvement

would be even more marked. The formula for uncertainty due

to diffusion and convection as a function of ks (equation 4)

turns out to be the same for silvered as for unsilvered vessels.

Thus the increased light for reaction is available without in¬

creasing the range for uncertainty.

The use of silvered vessels should be of greatest advantage

in studies comparing reaction rates at different light intensities,

since light intensity can be nearly equalized in all parts of a

reaction vessel by this means. For example, a concentration of

material giving a 20% variation in light intensity in an un¬

silvered vessel (Is — 0.8 I0 ) would result in a variation of only

2.5% in a vessel with the rear window silvered, at the same time

giving an increased reaction rate.

The principal disadvantage of a silvered vessel would be the

increased difficulty of measuring the amount of transmitted

light, but this might be overcome, either by leaving unsilvered

a small portion of the rear window or by measuring the light

transmitted by the same material in another vessel (or by using

Manning — Accuracy of Dropping Mercury Electrode 233

a cross-beam of light if the reaction vessel has optically plane

sides and if the reaction mixture is a solution).

The preceding discussion has emphasized the sources of er¬

ror involved in use of the dropping mercury electrode for the

study of photochemical reactions. But if its limitations are rec¬

ognized, and if the conditions leading to excessive error or un¬

certainty are avoided, the method can be used easily to obtain

relatively accurate results, in many cases under conditions

where other methods cannot be employed.

Summary

A dropping mercury electrode measures concentrations oc¬

curring in the immediate vicinity of the electrode tip, rather

than total or average concentrations throughout a reaction ves¬

sel. In photochemical measurements, this characteristic pro¬

duces an uncertainty in the measured rate. In general, this

uncertainty is greater for polychromatic light than for mono¬

chromatic light. In either case, the uncertainty increases as the

fraction of absorbed light is increased. Other factors influencing

the accuracy of measurements with the dropping mercury elec¬

trode must be considered in relation to the uncertainty factor in

the selection of optimum conditions for a given experiment.

References

(1) Blinks and Skow: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 24, 420 (1938) .

(2) Day and Daniels: In press.

(3) Dutton and Manning: In press.

(4) Kolthoff and Lingane. Polarography. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New

York (1941).

(5) Petering and Daniels: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 60, 2796 (1938) .

(6) Petering, Duggar and Daniels: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 61, 3525 (1939) .

HOST LIST OF THE GENUS TRICHOMONAS (PROTOZOA:

FLAGELLATA*

PART II, HOST-PARASITE LIST

Banner Bill Morgan

The first article of this series (Morgan, 1942) which ap¬

peared as a stencil circular, compilation No. 1, by the Depart¬

ment of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, comprised

a parasite-host list in which the species of Trichomonas were

listed, including original dates and authors. In Part 2 the species

of Trichomonas are given after the names of their respective

hosts. Hosts are listed by Phyla, Classes, Orders, and Families

to facilitate a comprehensive view of host parasite relationships.

The writer is deeply indebted to Dr. H. Kirby, Department

of Zoology, University of California, and Dr. D. H. Wenrich,

Department of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania, for kindly

checking the manuscript. Acknowledgments are due also to Dr.

L. E. Noland and Dr. C. A. Herrick, Department of Zoology,

University of Wisconsin, for helpful suggestions. In a work of

this kind errors are bound to occur. The writer invites corre¬

spondence concerning omissions or errors.

Coprozoic

Human feces — T. fecalis

INVERTEBRATA

Mollusca

Order Pulmonata (Limacidae)

Limax agrestis (land snail) — T. limacis.

* Contribution from the Department of Veterinary Science, University of Wisconsin. Pub¬

lished with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.

Project No. 622-V; Trichomoniasis and other reproductive diseases of cattle; B. A, Beach (In

Charge), W Wisnicky. cooperating.

235

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Annelida

Order Gnathobdellida (Hirudinidae)

Haemopis sanguisuga (horse leech) — T. sanguisugae, T.

prowazeki.

Limnitis turkestanica (leech) — T. ninae kohl-yakimovi.

Arthropoda

Order Isoptera

( Hodotermitidae )

Hodotermes mossambicus (termite) — T. macrostoma.

Anacanthotermes murgabicus (termite) -T. vermiformis.

(Kalotermitidae)

Anacanthotermes murgabicus (termite)— T. vermiformis.

G. contracticomis (termite) — T. cartagensis.

Calcaritermes brevicollis (termite) — T. brevicollis.

Neotermes holmgreni (termite) — T. holmgreni.

Archotermopsis wroughtoni (termite) — T. termitis.

( Rhinotermitidae)

Rhinotermes sp. (termite) — T. termitidis.

Reticulitermes lucifugas (termite) — T. trypanoides.

(Termitidae)

Mirotermes hispaniolae (termite) — T. labella.

Amitermes minimus (termite) — T. lighti.

A. emersoni (termite) — T. lighti.

A. silvestrianus (termite) — T. lighti.

A. coachellae (termite) — T. lighti.

A. wheeleri (termite) — T. lighti.

Ortho gnathotermes wheeleri (termite) — T. linearis.

Termopsis angusticollis (termite) — T. termopsidis.

T. nevadensis (termite) — T. termopsidis.

T. laticeps (termite) — T. termopsidis.

Order Orthoptera (Gryllidae)

Neocurtyla sp. (Probably Neocurtilla — Gryllotalpa )

(mole cricket) — Trichomonas sp.

Vertebrata

Pisces

Order Teleostei (Sparidae)

Box salpa (sea bream) — T. prowazeki.

Morgan — Host List of the Genus Trichomonas

237

Order Percomorphi (Mullidae)

Mugil capito (mullet) — Trichomonas sp.

Amphibia

Order Urodela

(Cryptobranchidae)

Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (hell-bender) — T. angusta.

(Salmandridae)

Triturus torosus (giant newt) — T. angusta, T. prowa-

zeki.

T. v. viridescens (common newt) — T. augusta, T. prowa-

zeki.

Salamandra maculosa (salamander) — T. prowazeki.

S . salamandra (spotted salamander) — T. augusta.

(Ambystomidae)

Amby stoma maculatum (spotted salamander) — T. au¬

gusta.

A. opacum (marbled salamander) — T. augusta.

A. tigrinum (tiger salamander) — T. augusta.

(Plethodontidae)

Plethodon cincereus (red-backed salamander) — T. au¬

gusta.

P. glutinosus (slimy salamander) — -T. augusta.

P. metcalfi (salamander) — T. augusta.

P. yonahlossee (salamander) — T. augusta.

Pseudotriton m. montanus (salamander) — T. augusta.

P. r. ruber (salamander) — T. augusta.

Eurycea b. bislineata (salamander) — T. augusta.

E. b. wilderae (salamander) — T. augusta.

E. gutto-lienata (salamander) — T. augusta.

Desmognathus f. fuscus (dusky salamander) — T. au¬

gusta.

D. o. ochropheaus (salamander) — T. augusta.

D. o. carolinensis (salamander) — T. augusta.

D. phoca (salamander) — T. augusta.

D. quadramaculatus (salamander) — T. augusta.

Triton cristatus (salamander) — T. prowazeki.

T. marmoratus (salamander) — T. tritonis.

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Order Anura

(Discoglossidae)

Discoglosus pictus (painted frog) — T. duboscqui.

Alytes obstetricans (mid- wife toad) — T. prowazeki.

(Bufonidae)

Bufo calamita (natter-jack toad) — T. batrachorum.

B. melanosticus (Asiatic toad) — T. batrachorum.

B. vulgaris (common toad) — T. batrachorum.

B. fowleri (Fowler’s toad) — T. augusta.

B. marinus (giant toad) — T. vitali.

(Pelobatidae)

Pelobates fuscus (spadefoot frog) — T. augusta.

Scaphiopus holbrooki (spadefoot frog) — T. augusta.

(Ranidae)

Rana catesbeiana (bull-frog) — T. augusta.

R. sphenocephala (southern leopard frog) — T. augusta.

R. esculenta (edible frog) — T. batrachorum.

R. pipiens (leopard frog) — T. augusta.

R. tigerina (Indian bull-frog) — T. batrachorum.

R. temporaria (common frog) — T. batrachorum.

R. viridis (green frog) — T. batrachorum.

R. boylei (yellow-legged frog) — T. augusta.

R. draytoni (Pacific coast frog) — T. augusta.

(Hylidae)

Hyla arbor ea (European tree frog) — T. batrachorum.

H. crucifer (tree frog) — T. augusta.

H. regilla (tree frog) — T. augusta.

Pseudacris brimleyi (swamp tree frog) — T. Augusta.

(Leptodactylidae)

Telmatobius gebski (swamp frog) — T. prowazeki.

Reptilia

Order Chelonia

(Testudinidae)

Geomyda trijuga (Ceylon terrapin) — T. brumpti.

Testudo radiata (radiated tortoise) — T. brumpti.

T. calcarata (tortoise) — T. brumpti.

T. argentina (tortoise) — T. brumpti.

T. hoodensis (tortoise) — Trichomonas sp.

Morgan — Host List of the Genus Trichomonas

239

T. elephantina (tortoise) — Trichomonas sp.

Cyciemys amboineyisis (box tortoise) — Trichomonas sp.

Order Crocodila (Crocydlidae)

Crocodylus palustris (marsh crocodile) — T. prowazeki.

Order Sauria (Suborder Lacertilia)

(Scincidae)

Mabuia carinata (skink lizard) — T. lacertae, T. batra-

chorum.

(Gekkonidae)

Hemidactylus leschenaulti (gecko) — T. batrachorum.

(Xantusiidae)

Xantusia vigilis (night lizard) — T. lacertae.

(Agamidae)

Agama stellio (starred lizard) — T. lacertae.

(Lacertidae)

Lacerta agilis (land lizard) — T. lacertae.

L. muralis (wall lizard) — T. lacertae.

L. viridis (green lizard) — T. lacertae.

(Anguidae)

Auguis fragilis (blind-worm lizard) — T. alexeie ffi.

(Iguanidae)

Dipsosaurus dorsalis (crested desert lizard) — T. lacertae.

Sauromalus obestis (chuck-walla lizard) — T. lacertae.

Uta meamsi (brush lizard) — T. lacertae.

U. stansburiana (brush lizard) — T. lacertae.

Callisaurus ventralis (zebra-tailed lizard) — T. lacertae.

Sceloporus occidentalis biseratus (collarded lizard) —

T. lacertae.

S. gracious vandenburgianus (collared lizard) — T. la¬

certae.

Phrynosoma blainvillei (horned lizard) — T. lacertae.

Uma notota (sand lizard) — T. lacertae.

Suborder Ophidia

(Colubridae)

Heterodon simus (short-fat hog-nosed snake) — Tricho¬

monas sp.

Passerita ( Dryophis ) nasutus (long-nosed snake) — T.

batrachorum.

Coluber ( Elaphe ) leopardinus (leopard snake) — Tricho¬

monas sp.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

Natrix natmx (grass snake) — Trichomonas sp.

N. erythrog aster (water snake) — Trichomonas sp.

Ablabes calamaria (coluber snake) — Trichomonas sp.

Drymarchon corais (gopher-snake) — Trichomonas sp.

(Elapidae)

Naja ( Naia ) naja (Indian cobra) — Trichomonas sp.

(Boidae)

Python sebae (African python) — Trichomonas sp.

P. molurus (Indian python) — Trichomonas sp.

Boa constrictor (boa constrictor) — T. boae, Trichomonas

Order Pelecaniformes (Phalacrocoracidae)

Phalacrocorax a. africanus (cormorant) — T. hoarei.

Order Anseriformes

(Anatidae)

Anas rubripes tristis (black duck) — Trichomonas sp.

Nyroca marila (scaup duck) — Trichomonas sp.

“Goose” (? Anser. a. anser) — T. anseri.

“Duck” — T. gallinae, T. anatis.

Order Falconiformes

(Accipitridae)

Accipiter cooperi (Cooper’s hawk) — T. gallinae.

Buteo b. borealis (red-tailed hawk) — T. gallinae.

B. 1. lineatus (red-shouldered hawk) — T. gallinae.

Aquila chrysaetos canadensis (golden eagle) — T. gal¬

linae.

(Falconidae)

Falco c. sparverius (sparrow hawk) — T. gallinae

F. peregrinus anatum (duck hawk) — T. gallinae.

Order Galliformes

(Tetraonidae)

Bonasa umbellus (ruffed grouse) — T. bonasae, Tricho¬

monas sp.

Perdix p. perdix (European partridge) — T. ortyxis, T.

hegneri, T. floridanae var. perdicis.

(Phasianidae)

Gallus g. domestica (domestic chicken) — T. gallinae, T.

gallinarum, T. eberthi.

Morgan — Host List of the Genus Trichomonas

241

“valley quail” — T. floridanae, T. ortyxis.

Phasianus torquatus (ringed-necked pheasant) — T. pha-

siani.

Colinus v. virginiana (bobwhite quail) — T. gallinae, T.

phasiani, T. floridanae var. colini.

Lophortyx c. calif ornicus (California valley quail) — T.

floridanae, T. hegneri.

(Numididae)

Numida meleagris (guinea-fowl) — T. gallanarum.

(Meleagrididae)

Meleagris gallopavo (turkey) — T. gallinae, T. gallinar-

um.

Order Gruiformes

(Aramidae)

Aramides cajanea (cayenne wood rail) — T. avium.

(Rallidae)

Fulica a. americana (American coot) — T. fulicae.

Porzana Carolina (sora rail) — T. porzanae.

Order Charadriiformes

(Scolopacidae)

Pisobia minutilla (least sandpiper) — T. pisobiae, Tricho¬

monas sp.

P. melanotos (pectoral sandpiper) — T. pisobiae.

Ereunetes picsillus (semipalmated sandpiper) — T. piso¬

biae.

Erolia alpina (stint) — T. sigalasi.

Calidres leucophaea (knot) — T. landei.

Order Columiformes

(Columbidae)

Columba livia (domestic pigeon) — T. gallinae.

Streptopelia risoria (ring-dove) — T. gallinae.

Zenaidura carolinensis (mourning dove)—?7, gallinae.

Leptotila v. verrauxi (white-bellied dove) — T. gallinae.

Turtur suratensis (Indian dove) — T. gallinae.

Order Psittaciformes (Psittacidae)

Brotogeris jugularis (tovi parrakeet) — T. gallinae.

Order Cuculiformes

(Cuculidae)

Crotophaga ani (ani) — T. avium.

Guira guira (guira cuckoo) — T. avium.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Coccyzus a. americana (yellow-bellied cuckoo) — T. coc-

cyzi, T. beckeri.

Order Strigiformes (Strigidae)

Otis asio (screech owl) — T. oti.

Order Caprimulgiformes (Caprimulgidae)

Podager nacunda (nacunda nightjar) — T. lanceolata.

Chordeiles minor (night-hawk) — T. chordeilis, T. iowen-

sis.

Order Piciformes (Galbulidae)

Monasa nigrifrons (nunbird) — T. avium.

Order Passeriformes

(Ploceidae)

Munia oryzivora (Java sparrow) — T. gallinae.

Passer d. domesticus (English sparrow) — T. gallinae.

(Fringillidae)

Serinus canaria (canary) — T. gallinae.

(Corvidae)

Corvus b. brachyrhynchos (Eastern crow) — T. corvus.

Mammalia

Order Marsupialia

(Didelphiidae)

Didelphis v. virginiana (opossum) — T. didelphidis.

(Macropodidae)

Macropus sp. (kangaroo) — T. macropi.

M. brunii (rock kangaroo) — T. macropi.

M. robustus woodwardi (Woodward wallaroo) — T. mac¬

ropi.

M. melanops (black faced kangaroo) — T. macropi.

M. g. giganticus (great gray kangaroo) — T. macropi.

Dendrolagus ur sinus (black tree kangaroo) — T. mcaropi.

Order Primates

(Hylobatidae)

Hylobates hoolock (hoolock gibbon) — Trichomonas sp.

( Cercopithecidae )

Macacus irus (crab-eating monkey) — Trichomonas sp.

M. sinica (toque monkey) — Trichomonas sp.

M. mulatta (Rhesus monkey) — T. macacovaginae, Tri¬

chomonas sp.

Morgan — Host List of the Genus Trichomonas

243

M. lasiotis (hairy-eared monkey) — Trichomonas sp.

M. nemestrina (pig-tailed monkey) — Trichomonas sp.

M. philippinensis (Philippine Rhesus monkey) — Tricho¬

monas sp.

(Pongidae)

Pongo pygmaeus (orang utan) — Trichomonas sp.

Pan ( Anthropopithecus ) satyrus (chimpanzee) — T. an-

thropopitheci, Trichomonas sp.

(Hominidae)

Homo sapiens (human) — T. tenax, T. hominis, T. vagi¬

nalis.

Order Edentata

( Myrmecophagidae)

Tamandua tetradactyla (tamandue anteater) — T. ar-

agaoi.

(Dasypodidae)

Tatus ( Dasypus ) novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo)

— T. tatusi.

Order Rodentia

(Sciuridae)

Marmota monax (woodchuck) — T. cryptonucleata, T. di-

granula, T. marmotae , T . wenrichi.

Cynomys sp. (prairie-dog — T. cynomysi.

Citellus py gains (ground squirrel) — T. muris var. citelli.

C. tridecemlineatus (thirteen-striped ground squirrel) —

T. muris var. citelli.

(Muridae)

“white rat” — T. guiarti.

Apodemus sylvaticus (wood mouse) — T. muris.

Rattles norvegicus (brown rat) — T. parva, T. muris, T.

minuta.

Mus musculus (house mouse) — T. parva, T. muris, T.

minuta.

Myotomys albicadautus (white-tailed rat) — T. mystro-

myis.

Cricetulus furunculus (Daur hamster) — Trichomonas sp.

Rhombomys opimus (Jerboa-like rodent) — Trichomonas

sp.

(Erethizontidae)

Coendou villosus (hairy-tree porcupine) — T. megastoma.

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

(Hystricidae)

Hystrix bengalensis (Indian porcupine) — Trichomonas

sp.

(Caviidae)

Cavia coboya (guinea pig) — T. caviae.

Kerodon ( Cerodon ) rupestris (rocky cavy) — T. chagasi.

(Cricetidae)

Ondatra z. zibethica (muskrat) — Trichomonas sp.

Evotomys glareolus (bank vole) — T. muris.

Microtus arvalis (field mouse) — T. muris.

M. hirtus (field mouse) — T. muris.

Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli (white-footed mouse)

— T. muris.

P. 1. leucopus (white-footed mouse) — T. muris.

Neotoma fuscipes (wood rat) — Trichomonas sp.

Pitymys sp. (pine mouse) — T. lavieri.

Order Carnivora

(Canidae)

Canis familiaris (dog) — T. canistomae, T. felis , Tricho¬

monas sp.

Vulpes regalis (Northern plains red fox) — Trichomonas

sp.

(Viverridae)

Herpestes auropunctatus (spotted mongoose) — Tricho¬

monas sp.

H. mungo (mongoose) — Trichomonas sp.

(Felidae)

Felis domestica (cat) — T. felis, T. felistomae.

Order Perissodactyla

(Equidae)

Equus caballus (domestic horse) — T. equi, T. equibuc-

calis, Trichomonas sp. (vagina, uterus).

(Tapiridae)

Tapirus ralinus (tapir) — T. tapiri.

Order Artiodactyla

(Suidae)

Sus scrofa domestica (domestic pig) — T. suis, Tricho¬

monas sp. (face), Trichomonas sp. (vagina, uterus).

Morgan — Host List of the Genus Trichomonas

245

(Cervidae)

Capreolus capreolus (roe deer) — Trichomonas sp. (vagi¬

na, uterus).

(Bovidae)

Bos taurus (domestic ox) — T. foetus, T. ruminantium.

B. indicus (domestic humped ox) — T. ruminantium.

Ovis aries (domestic sheep) — T. ovis, T. ruminantium,

T. foetus.

Capra hircus (goat) — T. ruminantium.

GEOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO HUMAN PROGRESS

Rufus Mather Bagg

Part I

Geology.

Geology, the latest technical science to be devoloped through

experiment, treats of the History of the Earth and its Inhabit¬

ants.

Alchemy, antedating Chemistry, centered its efforts on the

transmutation of metals.* Astrology, preceding Astronomy, de¬

voted attention to the influence and control of Stars over man’s

activities; while Philosophy and speculative study of terrestrial

phenomena gave birth to Geology, dealing with physical changes

and of fossil organisms which have inhabited the earth since the

creation of life.

Natural Sciences were unknown in days of pagan philoso¬

phy, 2,600 years ago. Superstition reigned supreme. Even 300

years before the Christian era, Aristotle, the gifted pupil of

Plato, explained the discovery of fossil fish, petrified in solid

rocks, as due to the subtle influence of the stars. He named this

force, “Vis vl^stica" and believed the development from eggs in

rocks had been greatly retarded owing to their hard environ¬

ment. He did not understand that these fish were once living in

an ocean and upon their death were buried in muds millions of

years ago.

These superstitions and philosophical speculations concern¬

ing all sorts of natural phenomena continued to the dawn of

modern history.

Even in the Middle Ages, volcanic eruptions were regarded

* From astounding discoveries in the physics laboratory during the past few years it appears

almost certain that the Alchemist’s dream has at last come true. According to Dr. Millikan, silver

has been bombarded until its atoms have turned to cadmium, and it is reported that mercury can be

transformed into gold, though neither of these changes are yet of commercial value.

247

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

as the expression of the wrath of some Deity. Explosive Etna

and Vesuvius were places of perpetual punishment and emblems

of eternal fire. As Pluto (Vulcan) ruled the lower world, so

Neptune governed the Sea, unchained the storm and caused the

ocean waves. When subterranean furnaces poured molten lava

from fissures and craters of active Mediterranean volcanoes,

Jupiter hurled his thunderbolts of lightning from the heavens

above to complete the destruction of the Gods.

In that remote time Fear of punishment by angry Gods ruled

the civilized world. To investigate the earth’s cataclysmic phe¬

nomena was sacrilegious and certain to result in suffering if

not in death. Antiquity contributed little therefore of perma¬

nent value to Geological Science.

Countless speculations and philosophic theories gave rise to

varied hypotheses concerning the Origin of the earth. To an¬

cient philosophers the Earth was the center of the Universe,

around which all planets and stars revolved. No scientific inter¬

est was shown in the composition of rocks and minerals, and

none understood the significance of petrified organisms which

had long been observed in widely separated regions. In fact,

2,000 years ago the most highly educated did not dream of the

importance of fossils nor realize that they afford the key which

unlocks the History of the Earth through past ages. The ancient

world trembled before the natural forces of Earthquake, Fire,

and Wind, which they could not control.

With this brief survey of philosophic conceptions culminat¬

ing about the time of Christ let us turn to the field of modern

Geology.

Scope of Modem Geology.

Like other physical and natural sciences, Geology touches

several very distinct fields. She is particularly indebted to Biol¬

ogy for the foundation and classification of plants and animals

in their relation to fossil organisms; (Paleontology), to Chemis¬

try for analysis of rocks and minerals ; to physics for geophysi¬

cal instruments used in prospecting for oil and gas pools; and

from Mathematics, Geologists calculate astronomic phenomena

and the laws which govern celestial motions.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 249

Paleontology.

Paleontology, or the study of organisms which have inhab¬

ited the Earth in past eras, is an important branch of Geology

and closely related to Stratigraphy from which we read the rec¬

ord of earth history since life began more than one hundred

million years ago.

The value of a fossil depends upon the fact that during every

period of terrestrial development, there lived certain groups of

characteristic organisms which had never existed before and

which became extinct in succeeding epochs. From these ances¬

tral forms, however, advanced and diversified life arose, but

each era had peculiar types of fossils which can be used to de¬

cipher the geological ages of sedimentary rocks in which these

animals have been entombed. The silent testimony of the fossil

buried in solid rocks was rightly sensed by the poet who wrote:*

“There they lived out their gleam of life and died,

Then slowly drifted down into the dark,

And spread in layers upon the cold sea-bed,

The invisible grains and flakes that were their bones.

Layer upon layer of flakes and grains of lime,

Where life could never build, they built it up,

Inch upon inch, age after endless age.”

Contributions of Fossils to Human Knowledge.

All life has its beginning, culmination, and death. This is

true of individual organisms, of genera, and whole orders to

which they belong. We may term this the “Span of Life” and

limit it to the individual species, like Man (Homo sapiens) or to

a larger group of related organisms like the Mammals to which

Man himself belongs.

Longevity of life is only a factor however, for we are think¬

ing in terms of when the organism was developed, how long its

type remained on earth, and when it became extinct. This is

Paleontology’s supreme contribution to human knowledge.

Every period from Cambrian to Recent has seen new groups of

Alfred Noyes.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

organisms originate, while older forms diminished in numbers

and either quickly or gradually became extinct.

The Graptolites illustrate this truth.

Graptolites.

Probably the most striking case of the rise, culmination, and

rapid decline of a group of organisms in ancient time is found in

Graptolites, which were among the first to culminate, and the

first to become extinct.

These tiny colonial animals whose skeleton resembles a blade

of grass with serrate edges, first appeared at the close of Cam¬

brian time in the “Age of Trilobites.” Their dark charcoal-like

markings occur widely scattered through Ordovician limestones

of the Fox River Valley, Wisconsin, where they are identical

with species from the Hudson River Shales of New York. We

know therefore, that while the eastern shale beds were being

deposited, identical forms were contemporaneously buried in

lime muds of Wisconsin oceans.

Their geologic value lies in the fact that many species of

Graptolites are limited to beds of only a few feet in thickness,

when other types succeeded them. Thus they become Char¬

acteristic Fossils of particular formations and because of uni¬

versal distribution in early Paleozoic time they are horizon

markers which identify stratified rocks perhaps thousands of

miles apart.

The discovery that changes continually take place both in the

Earth and its inhabitants is not new, but the causes of such

phenomena were never correctly interpreted by ancient philoso¬

phers before the age of experimental science. Primitive doc¬

trines of both Egyptian and Greek philosophy assigned the Cre¬

ation of the World to an Omnipotent Being who existed from

eternity, but they believed that He had repeatedly destroyed

great groups of organisms through a series of terrestrial cata¬

clysms. Today Geologists know that there has always been a

very orderly progression of terrestrial changes and life evolu¬

tions interrupted only by local catastrophes, never from univer¬

sal Deluges.

While reptilian life culminated with the gigantic Dinosaurs

of the Mesozoic, nevertheless modern mammalian whales rival in

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 251

length, if not in size, these monsters of the past. Not far from

Dallas, Texas, we saw the skeleton of a dinosaur which had just

been dug out of the Eagle Ford shale and we will not soon forget

that sight. His long crocodilian head, inset with cruel four inch

conical teeth lay twisted sidewise in perfect preservation while

the serpentine neck nearly twenty feet long extended down the

ditch in Cretaceous muds just as he had stretched out in death

some thirty million years ago.

How long could such monsters have existed as a race and as

individuals? Why did such powerful huge reptiles become ex¬

tinct? Could it be that their food supply was exhausted? Cer¬

tainly not, when medieval oceans were teeming with innumer¬

able organisms approaching their own culmination. Was it a

single cause which destroyed all? It is exceedingly doubtful.

Would climatic factors account for their total extinction?

Possibly, for reptiles are sensitive to extremely low tempera¬

tures and either hibernate or migrate to warmer regions when

cold approaches.

All the former crocodiles living in the far west when this

great Dinosaur was swimming in a Texas Ocean have entirely

disappeared, leaving only a few skeletal bones to prove their

existence. Perhaps these monsters became so over-specialized

that they could not adapt themselves to elevating lands, deepen¬

ing seas, changing vegetation, and sudden climatic variations.

With extinction of Dinosaurs enormous masses of volcanic

rocks began to erupt in the Rocky Mountains and covered

200,000 square miles in the far northwest. All the above causes

therefore, or any single one, were the agents that resulted in

such a catastrophe to Mesozoic life but which was later destined

to be of direct benefit to Man.*

Many years ago we dug out Dinosaurian footprints in the

Triassic sandstones of the Connecticut Valley, Massachusetts.

These tracks were made when reptiles walked tidal flats of hard¬

ening muds near the margin of a medieval ocean. What can be

learned from such impressions petrified in stone?

A sandstone slab, now in Yale Museum, shows where a Di¬

nosaur walked along the ocean shore. The line between his foot-

* Petroleum pools furnishing essential fuel and power to modern civilization are due to this

prolific fossil life so that the trade mark of Sinclair Oil Co. using Brontosaurus as their mascot

is not founded on fiction.

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

prints is cracked indicating how quickly the mud was hardening

between tides. Less than six hours later a related monster

crossed the same strand, but diagonally. Between this brief

interval occurred a light shower, for raindrop impressions cover

the footprints of the first Dinosaur but not those of the second.

This is not all however, that geologists learn for these rain

prints are elliptical and hence mark the direction the wind was

blowing in that epoch many million years ago.

From such mud-cracks, sun-dried beaches, with ripple marks

and wave-cut cross-bedded sands geologists read the location of

the ocean shore, depth of water, and the relation of sea and land

which the natural world reveals to the scientist like an open

book.

When the great Reptiles ruled the Medieval World, countless

millions of smaller invertebrate animals existed before and dur¬

ing this same era but in the older formations they seldom formed

thick masses of sedimentary rocks. It is not always the giants

which count most in the world, but often animals of microscopic

size. For example, tiny organisms, like the Radiolaria, Diatoms,

and especially the Foraminifera, have built up rocks of very

great thickness, even of several thousand feet, and yet they

are so small they must be studied with a microscope. Such a

formation is the Cretaceous chalk composed chiefly of foramini-

feral shells whose descendants constitute oceanic ooze covering

fifty million square miles of existing sea bottoms down to 2,000

fathoms.

When we studied these minute fossils in the Greensands of

New Jersey for a thesis we had no idea that they would ever

have commercial value. Because they occur in oil-bearing forma¬

tions where they are characteristic fossils they enable Geologists

to identify the rock horizons in which they occur. When absent,

petroleum engineers must use calculations based on structural

folding, or resort to identification of heavy minerals, like zircon,

to determine the formation the drill is cutting.

Summarizing the contributions of Paleontology to Historical

Geology and world knowledge we find:

1. Fossils enable us to determine what types of life existed in

every age of earth history and to discover the evolution, distri¬

bution, and extinction of each group of organisms.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 253

2. They furnish positive proof of climatic conditions in ancient

periods.

For example, coral reefs in Niagara Limestone near Bailey’s

Harbor, Wisconsin, though deposited in tropical waters of a

Silurian ocean are worn today by the blue fresh water waves of

Lake Michigan.

3. Fossils are often of economic value in determining in what

rocks and where, oil, gas, coal, and other useful products may

be expected.

4. Organic remains reveal the relations of sea and land, depth of

oceans, migrations of animals, not only from one region to

another, but over continents widely separated by ocean abysses

of today.

5. Fossils are of inestimable value to Biologists as they show

critical organic relationships revealing the origin of modern

forms from archaic types.

6. The fossil world affords most unmistakable evidence of the

Time Factor upon which all knowledge of earth history is based.

In the middle of the Tertiary period there was deposited at

Pope’s Creek, along the Patuxent river a bed of fossil Diatoms

thirty feet in thickness. These microscopic shells are so minute

that it takes some thirty million frustules to make one cubic inch

of diatom earth, and under favorable conditions these diatoms

can form a layer one-sixteenth of an inch thick in one year. If

fossil diatoms were deposited at the same rate then it required

5,760 years to form the Pope’s Creek deposit. Since this is but

a fraction of the total thickness of the Miocene formation we

gain some conception of the length of earth history since the

creation of life.

7. Organic remains preserved and altered in sedimentary rocks

give rise to extensive economic products essential to world prog¬

ress. (Petroleum, gas, fossil limestones, coal beds, diatom earth,

chalk, phosphates, etc.)

While many groups of organisms have become extinct we

cannot believe that further life changes will not occur nor that

they have culminated with the coming of Man.

From 100 to 300 million years must have elapsed since life

was created and while a few initial forms like the little bivalve,

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, arid Letters

Lingula, still exist in modern seas innumerable millions of its

ancestors have risen, culminated, and are now extinct. Perhaps

immortality is to result from extension of this Span of Life

and from renewal of organic types evolving from primitive cre¬

ations. It is hard to believe that Man, himself, can never make

further physical, mental, or moral development, and that having

reached culmination he must retrograde. If new organisms can

develop as they have through all past ages there would seem to

be no more end of life upon earth as long as it continues a Planet

in our Solar System.

Part II

Economic Geology.

As fossils reveal the record of organic life through past eras,

increasing human knowledge of Earth History, so discoveries of

mineral deposits through geologic engineering bring direct bene¬

fits to civilization.

From the financial standpoint, Economic Geology has become

an important factor in welfare of nations. What are these

essentials to human progress ?

Engineering relates to successful solution of industrial prob¬

lems. Without engineering skill the world’s greatest enter¬

prises could not have been completed. Neither pyramids in

Egypt, the Panama Canal, nor Boulder Dam were possible with¬

out application of engineering principles.

Rapid changes occur in all branches of scientific knowledge

but none have been more pronounced than those of geologic and

mine engineering. We are still in the age of discovery, made

possible through new inventions of instruments which furnish

the kevs to petroleum reservoirs, discovering ore deposits, rare

elements like radium, and also determining the composition and

character of the Earth’s crust and its structures down to great

depths and over wide regions. Through scientific investigations

in mining geology with new technical instruments time is saved,

wealth of natural resources increased, and human progress

made more rapid.

Perhaps the most remarkable recent advance in economic

geology has been obtained through Geophysical prospecting

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 255

which discovers oil and gas reservoirs before drilling, or locates

artesian water horizons, rock densities, and structural fault

planes, many of which are not known from surface outcrops.

During 1935, such geophysical work with magnetic surveys in

the Kaibab plateau of Arizona indicated a structural trough in

the Kaibab limestone which had been filled deeply with Tertiary

water-bearing gravels. Below this upper zone moreover, and at

great depth, a second greater artesian supply was discovered in

a synclinal depression of the Coconino Sandstone. Only time and

the slow pounding drill working all summer long could have

deciphered such hidden rock conditions and structural basins.

Twenty years ago where surface conditions gave no indica¬

tion of concealed oil pools in structural folds thousands of feet

deep only experimental drilling could determine their location.

Today, delicate torsion balances, seismographs, magnetometers,

and other electrical instruments enable geologists to detect dif¬

ferences in rock densities and thus to locate mineral deposits

and oil reservoirs before a well is spudded in.*

The buried mountain range in west Texas, never seen by

human eyes, was located by means of the above instruments and

its outline and extent later defined by drilling the basal slopes

for oil and gas.

In 1929 on the Rand of South Africa we were told that geo¬

physical investigations suggested considerable extension of the

gold-bearing conglomerate reefs and that they were to be tested

by the diamond drill. Successful termination today of these

initial experiments have added many decades to the gold re¬

serves of South Africa.

* In 1934 there were 90 geologist parties using seismographs, 40 the torsion balance, 10

magnetometers, and three used gravimetric instruments. The number is increasing and magnetometer

and electric resistance machines predominate.

The seismograph, devised originally for recording earthquake shocks has proved of value in

other fields beside those mentioned in Economic Geology.

In Hawaii it aids in forecasting dangerous volcanic eruptions. When Mauna Loa began her

explosions in late 1935 they had been predicted by the Vulcanologist, Dr. Jagger, from the increasing

intensity of earthquakes recorded on the seven seismographs distributed over the island. Molten

lavas flowing fourteen miles down the crater of this huge volcano were watched from above the

steam clouds by airplane, photographed two miles over the crater, and bombed on terminal lava

streams to prevent their further flow which threatened Hilo’s city water supply. These seven

seismographs made possible the prediction of an eruption which came in spite of native Hawaiian

prayers to the goddess Fele to save their people from further destruction. Man cannot prevent

these terrestrial explosions but until recently it was not even possible to foretell their coming and

to ward off their destruction.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Through these physical instruments three oil pools of mag¬

nitude were discovered in 1934 in the interior of Russia, in

Colombia, S.A. and a third in the Jurassic rocks of Morocco near

Tselfat.*

Although the basis of scientific progress today rests largely

on small laboratory experiments, the geologic laboratory lies in

the mountain, the Grand Canyon, or the Glacial-covered Alpine

peaks, like “Old Mont Blanc” of whom the poet wrote :

“Mont Blanc is the Monarch of Mountains,

They crowned him long ago,

On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds

With a diadem of snow.” ( Lord Byron.)

Not all economic geology investigations however, are in the

open field and as in other sciences much is learned by miniature

experiment in the lowly laboratory. For example, a Mineral¬

ogist studies a rock in thin section under polarized light, not

only to determine its component minerals, but the nature of the

rock and its ultimate origin. By this slow method and applica¬

tion of physics to geology we know the origin of the Hawaiian

Islands. It may seem strange that such microscopic study proves

that this land of paradise is built entirely of homogeneous lavas,

that the region was never connected with other continents, and

that its eruptive basalts rise in mid-Pacific ocean three miles

in depth and from a fissure over 300 miles in length.

The petrographic microscope has been of value in decipher¬

ing rock mineralization and in enrichment of ore deposits. When

the late Prof. James E. Talmage of Utah was investigating a

mine involved in lawsuit he discovered that adjacent ore had

been stolen and the stopes back-filled with limestone transported

to the mine from a distance. Microscopic study revealed the

source of the limestone and the Court sustained the geological

evidence.**

When an Appleton soldier was in France during the world

* In 193S the new oil reserves discovered in the United States are estimated to be from

1J4 to 2 billion barrels. About Y? of these were in geological structures discovered by geophysical

prospecting methods.

** As a result, Talmage was threatened but he took the personal risk and reported the truth of

his findings.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 257

war he sent his mother a piece of limestone from his dugout.

She asked me if it would be possible from this to tell where her

son was located. From the foraminiferal shells we identified

the rock as Eocene and on the Geological map of France found

where this belt crossed the country and thus gave her his ap¬

proximate location.

The Use of Ultraviolet Light in Mining.

The use of ultraviolet light for discovery of Scheelite, an

important Tungsten ore, presents a recent adoption of a physi¬

cal instrument as an aid in geologic engineering.

Fluorescence, phosphorescence, and radio-active emanations

have long been known and used in the laboratory to illustrate

unique properties of certain minerals. Until recently however,

such luminosity has never been of commercial value.

The ultraviolet lamp for detecting fluorescence in Scheelite

ore is of the “strong arc” type. When such radiation strikes

tungsten ores they glow and become fluorescent with various

colors and the darker the mine workings the more luminous the

Scheelite.

These colors furnish therefore a means of rapid and accurate

calculation of the amount of tungsten in the vein minerals. This

is particularly important since Scheelite resembles other gangue

minerals like calcite and barite or even milky quartz which are

often present in these ores.

Even after the ore is mined and concentrated this instrument

is of aid in determining the amount of Scheelite in the finds but

it should be examined in the dark. The value of this ultraviolet

lamp is greater since analysis of tungsten ore is a slow tedious

laboratory process and the time saved by the lamp is an impor¬

tant mining factor. Vanderburg* says of this: “In the case of

Scheelite the ultraviolet apparatus is more rapid than panning,

and because of the greater area available for exposure gives a

better average.”

Diamond Drilling.

The diamond is the hardest substance known and the black

poorly crystallized bort or carbonado is above the gem which

* Vanderburg. Win. O. U.S. Bureau of Mines Circular I.C. 6873, Dec. 1935.

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

can only be cut by its own dust. The use of black diamonds for

rock drilling began in 1863 when a French engineer, (Rudolph

Leschot) tested rocks by this method in the Mont Cenis tunnel

then under construction between France and Italy.

Six years later the diamond drill was used to locate a coal

bed in the Appalachian mountains and was sunk to a depth of

750 feet near Pottsville. Diamond drilling for gold ore began in

Canada in 1871 and this method is in universal use today.* The

diamond drill is even more important than any geophysical

prospecting work since the latter may fail from a number of

unknown factors while the diamond drill core tells the exact

underground conditions and the richness of the veins of ore

penetrated.

Our experience with this device of rapid and relatively in¬

expensive geologic investigation began on the Cuyuna Range in

Minnesota. From systematic drilling over forty acres and

sampling each core we found the most economical location for a

vertical shaft and the amount of iron ore available. Even before

drilling began the iron ore body had been discovered and out¬

lined by the magnetic dip needle which indicated commercial ore

although not a pound of iron was within fifty feet of the surface.

In the summer of 1934 we examined gold veins on Elk Island

in God’s Lake, Manitoba, 400 miles north of Winnipeg. Two

diamond drills were then working on adjacent property. It is

significant that from the evidence obtained in these holes, the

expenditure of one million dollars was undertaken. Within two

years, a shaft was sunk, a power plant fifty miles distant com¬

pleted, a reduction mill installed at mine, and in October, 1936

the first $30,000 gold brick was carried out by airplane. Such is

the romance of mining made possible with the diamond drill

cutting a rock core less than one inch in diameter. In contrast

with small diamond drill cores for rapid prospecting of gold

veins is the circular five foot boring sunk in 1935 to a vertical

depth of 800 feet (1100 feet Feb. 10, 1936) at the Idaho-Mary-

land mine in Grass Valley, California. While this shaft was

chiefly in a soft Serpentine rock the mechanical difficulties of

lifting huge five foot cores in sections down to a depth of 800

feet was an engineering feat of importance.

* The Sudbury Diamond Drilling Co. in 1935 cored 45 miles (less 11 feet) a record achieve¬

ment in boring and at an average cost of $2.50 per foot.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 259

When first introduced geologists could not know whether

deep drill borings were truly vertical or not but today a simple

device* makes this deviation readable. By such an instrument

the nickel ore body of the Frood mine at Sudbury was drilled

with diamonds and the hole kept straight down to one-half mile

in depth. (2,500 feet.)

An oil well drilled with a rotary rig in Texas, 5,000 feet in

depth was scaled and its off-center deviations surveyed in one

hour by a gyroscopic clinometer combined with a Sun-Sperry

camera. These technical problems cannot be discussed here but

we should know that modern inventions and engineering skill

have made it possible to explore the earth’s crust more than two

miles below the surface.

Deepest Borings in the Earth.

The interior of the earth and its composition have long

proved a most fascinating geologic problem which has been

attacked from various angles.

Astronomic evidence indicates that the entire planet system,

though varying in density, is of the same homogeneous com¬

position. Not one meteorite which has ever fallen on the earth

from outer space has ever shown other elements than occur in

the earth and although twenty six elements are listed, native

iron far exceeds all other substances. Since the rocky granite

crust of the earth has a specific gravity of but 2.75 and the total

weight of the earth shows a gravity 5.66 times that of water

many have argued that the interior must be composed of metal¬

lic iron, perhaps in a semi-liquid condition.** Whether the

center is theoretically gaseous or molten, yet potentially solid

because of enormous pressure, is not known, but since earth¬

quake shocks are conducted through 2,000 miles of the outer

crust in a few seconds we know that the planet is a solid down

to at least one-fourth its diameter.

That the interior is excessively hot, if not molten, is certain

from the rapid increase of temperature from the surface down¬

ward. The rate is not less than one degree Fahr. for every fifty

* Tube containing a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and water for insertion in the machine in the

hole. (Maas compass used chiefly in Canada)

** The weight of the Solid Lithosphere of the Earth is calculated at 6.585,868,000,000,000,-

000,000 tons.

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters

to one hundred feet although not uniform in widely spaced loca¬

tions. We experienced a temperature of 92° Fahr. at a depth of

6,100 feet in Johannesburg, S. Africa, which indicates a rise of

only one degree for each 220 feet depth.

Whatever the actual condition we are certain that the earth’s

core is of high density, that the temperature is sufficient to

transform its material were pressure removed into not only a

molten magma but perhaps into gaseous substance like that of

the outer envelope of the sun. Under most terrific compression

forces however the sphere is held rigidly in its planet position

in its journey through space acting like a ball of steel and in¬

capable of serious deformation or chemical alteration.

Deepest Exploration of the Earth.

The subject of deep mining and drilling of the earth gives

rise to the question frequently asked: — “What is the deepest

boring in the world?” Before answering such a question we

must define our terms. Do we mean the deepest artesian well,

oil or gas boring, or the deepest mine shaft where men work

more than one mile below the surface ? If the latter, then we must

measure the shaft vertically. For example, the Quincy No. 2

shaft at Calumet has a cable lift 8,360 feet long but the shaft

inclines at high angle (54° changing to 36° at the bottom).

Hence this is not as deep as the adjacent Tamarack bottomed at

5,309 feet or just over one mile vertically. Again shall we calcu¬

late these depths by shaft or drill from Sea Level or from what¬

ever elevation they happen to occur? It was a surprise to me to

learn that the curb shafts of the Johannesburg gold mines were

measured from a datum plane 6,000 feet above the sea. When

we walked therefore, along the bottom level of the Robinson

Deep at a vertical depth of 6,100 feet we were only 100 feet

below the level of the ocean waves.

The greatest mining depth in the world today is reached by

the Turf shaft of the Village Deep, at Johannesburg which was

bottomed in 1934 at 8,401 feet below surface and still going

deeper though the temperature is almost 100 degrees Fahr.

where air cooling devices are required.

It is interesting to speculate on how much deeper puny man

can descend into the earth’s crust digging out precious gold

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 261

buried in massive rocks from two to three miles below the

ground. South African geologists believe that the great con¬

glomerate reefs can be mined down to 9,000 feet and perhaps to

10,000 while some talk of a limit of 12,000 feet. Factors yet

unknown, beside increase of temperature, may prevent this. Ter¬

rific rock pressures, underground water, reduction of gold con¬

tent in the ore, may necessitate abandonment of the workings

long before the total known gold content is exhausted.* We

should remember when speaking of great depth records that

championships are always changing and that what we cite

today may be out of date tomorrow.

With mine temperatures of almost 100° Fahr. both in Brazil

and South Africa, with more than 40 shafts below one mile in

depth, the closing days of the world’s greatest gold mines must

be approaching. However, as long as bonanza ore goes down two

miles deep man will find a way to mine it. One thing is certain

that when President Roosevelt increased the price of gold from

20 to 35 dollars an ounce he added 3,000 feet of profitable min¬

ing to the Rand conglomerate reefs.

Petroleum and Gas Well Records.

Great as are these depths of record gold mines where men

work over one mile below ground they do not equal the borings

for oil and gas, some of which today exceed two miles in verti¬

cal depth. Ten years ago drilling below 5,000 feet was con¬

sidered a unique engineering feat. In 1931 three rotary rigs

were coring rock around 10,000 feet below the surface. Two

years later, in 1933, the Penn-Mex petroleum well at Vera Cruz

was finished at 10,585 feet or 85 feet more than two miles, and

a second was searching for an oil sand in the Caddo field of

Oklahoma but gave up at 10,079 feet.

In June, 1935, not far from McCamey, Texas the Gulf Pro¬

duction Co. bottomed an oil project at 12,786 feet which as far

we know was considered the world’s record of man’s search for

* Vying with the Transvaal gold mines in depth is that of Morro Velho (St. John del Rey)

in Minas, Geraes, Brazil. Bottomed in 1932 at 8,040 ft. it is still being deepened and is paying

dividends.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

petroleum at a depth heretofore considered impossible.* Al¬

though the well was a failure the core was saturated with pe¬

troleum but salt and sulphur united to mix with ground water

and the project was abandoned. The bottom temperature was

reported to be 182.3 degrees Fahr. but only 149° at a depth of

two miles.

When we consider the weight of drilling tools and cable in

a 10,000 foot oil well which exceed 130 tons, to say nothing of

the 150 ton casing of walls we gain some idea of the magnitude

of the enterprise. To me such exploits mark the romance of

subterranean exploration and yet we must admit that the down¬

ward limit of both shaft and rotary bit has not culminated.

Much depends upon improved engineering mechanics, skill in

overcoming interior heat, rock pressure, artesian water, and

problems connected especially with hoisting difficulties.

Depths and Deposits of the Ocean.

Long a student of oceanic deposits we have hoped that some

day it might be possible to bore into the bottom of marine abys¬

ses far below that of the sounding machines which have already

brought priceless information of the deposits on the sea floor

down to a depth of six miles.**

In the laboratory we have examined oceanic ooze, marine

muds, and organic deposits from every ocean but until recently

no one has been able to bore deep into these to determine their

character and thickness. Modern inventions now make it look

as if our dream may come true. The latest device for such ex¬

perimentation consists of a long sharply pointed cylinder above

which at the cable junction it is possible to explode a charge of

dynamite the moment the tube touches bottom. The force drives

the cylinder a few feet into the bottom material and when

brought to the surface furnishes a core exactly like that of a

diamond drill.*** This work is yet in experimental stage but at a

* Since this address was written petroleum wells have been sunk much deeper. In 1938 the

Continental Oil Company’s well near Wasco, Cal. was drilled to 15,004 feet below the surface for

a world record.

** Dr. Paul Bartsch is working on an improved type of a machine which will prove more

efficient and which can be used at much greater depths.

*** Greatest known depth is 35,400 feet according to Nat. Geog. Mag. Map Dec. 1935. Only

145 miles southeast of Tokio a depth of 32,644 feet is recorded and in the North Atlantic, off

Porto Rico a sounding of 31,366 feet has been measured.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 263

depth of many hundred fathoms a core of solid pteropod (ooze)

limestone has been brought to the surface revealing that this

ooze of the North Atlantic is of considerable thickness. The

average elevation of terrestrial land is estimated at 2,750 feet

but that of the oceans is 12,300 feet, or just over two miles, so

that the seas are nearly five times deeper than the lands are

above sea level and at least in three places these deeps exceed

six miles.

Since many of the great oceanic deposits are quite different

from the materials forming the major portion of sedimentary

rock formations which compose the outer crust of the earth it is

essential that we know more concerning these marine forma¬

tions which are slowly accumulating at vast depths below the

surface of the sea. When we find minute fragments of star dust,

volcanic ashes, and unique minerals in these marine oozes we

long to know their thickness below the ocean floor and the rate

of formation which has such an important bearing on the origin

and the age of the earth. From geologic investigations cited

above and along new lines of attack we are certain to acquire

important data of the History of the Earth and the potential

wealth which man has not yet been able to uncover.

Aviation in Geologic Engineering .

Rapid transportation of man and heavy freight through the

air is a modern miracle.* The airplane has annihilated distance

in all parts of the earth. Every day gigantic planes are flying

from 100 to 400 miles an hour, over land and sea, above forest

and desert, in arctic cold and tropic heat, carrying men and

supplies with reasonable safety, economy of time, and at in¬

creasingly lower cost.

The airplane is a novelty in heavy freight transport through

the atmosphere but of astounding importance in handling ore

and mine supplies quickly over uncharted lands and hitherto

inaccessible regions. Tons of freight today are regularly carried

100 miles in one hour and at a cost of less than ten dollars for

fuel.

* In January 1936 Howard Hughes flew from Burbank, Cal. to Newark, N.J. in 9 hrs. 25 min.

10 sec. in a Northrop “Gamma” plane.

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The best illustration of the use of airplanes in geological

exploration is seen in recent gold developments of Canada. Many

of Canada’s northern mining camps have hitherto been reached

only by canoe in summer over long winding water courses with

long portages, or by dog sled and pack train in winter over deep

snows mid bitter cold. A few railroad lines now tap some of

these distant fields like that of the Hudson Bay Mine at Flin

Flon but as a rule the more inaccessible regions must await the

coming of airplane service. The plane saves time and money,

making places quickly accessible which, a few years ago, could

not have been examined by geologists in less than two months.

Four regular airplane companies operate in the mining districts

of Canada. The statistics of one of these, the Canadian Airways

Ltd. for the year 1935 indicate the magnitude of this air trans¬

port. The manager of this corporation at Winnipeg in a private

communication of Jan. 18, 1936 states :

“We are still waiting a few statistics from our farthest north

posts, but the following round figures will be close enough for

comparison: Hours flown, 17,000; Miles flown, 1,600,000; Ex¬

press, 5,250,000 pounds; Mail pounds, 700,000; and passengers,

14,000.” He might have added what is more significant, without

the loss of a single life.

What the airplane means in case of mine accidents is shown

by the following case : A machinist at God’s Lake was struck in

the eye by a flying splinter of steel which lodged 1% inches be¬

hind the eyeball. The mine doctor, A. E. McGregor, at God’s

Lake decided the delicacy of the operation required the co¬

operation of an eye specialist. He radiophoned over Wings Ltd.

system to a Winnipeg oculist. The two doctors discussed the case

for 35 minutes, the Winnipeg specialist outlining the surgical

method to be pursued. As ice was forming at God’s Lake it was

impossible to take the man out by airplane so the operation had

to be performed at the mine. The radio was thus instrumental

in a successful surgical operation which had been discussed over

400 miles of unbroken wilderness : the old and the. new sciences

were joined to bring relief to human suffering.

The airplane freight carried over Canadian territory in 1934

exceeded 7,220 tons and this tonnage has been steadily increas¬

ing.

Those of us who live today on the borderland of this Ca-

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 265

nadian land of snow in winter and open ground with its beauti¬

ful lakes in summer and fir-clad rocks should realize what a

change has come with the ability to visit any section of this re¬

gion in a few hours by air.

For centuries this storm-swept area has been almost un¬

inhabited. Only a few Esquimaux, nomadic Indians of the Cree

and Alaska tribes have maintained themselves by heroic struggle

in this land of midnight sun in summer and of nearly total dark¬

ness in winter. Fur traders visited the land and dragged out

their trapping wares by dog sled where last year one airplane

company brought out 50,000 pounds of furs from the sub-Arctic

plains in a day. Fishermen floated their birch canoes with lim¬

ited catches of wonderful large fresh trout which today, by spe¬

cial cars from Ontario, reach Chicago in one day. Think of the

potential value of the airplane which in 1935 carried from lakes

of western Ontario 187,000 pounds of fresh fish which were

moved so quickly that they did not have to be frozen for market.

Recent discoveries of rich ores of gold and other metals,

especially radium, cobalt* and copper have brought into Canada

the prospector and geological engineer to exploit the ores hidden

under winter snow but exposed for three summer months when

the sun shines steadily for almost 20 hours daily. Ten years ago

this inaccessibility would have prevented extensive mining ex¬

ploration under handicaps of low temperature and absence of

roadways. May we illustrate by personal experience how air¬

planes are conquering this “frozen North”? In the summer of

1934 we were called to this snowland 400 miles northeast of

Winnipeg to examine gold veins on Elk Island in God’s Lake.

My colleague told me that it was God’s Lake because no one else

would have it. Since a group of mining men have spent almost

one million dollars in two years in opening a gold mine on this

island it is evident that some men want portions of God’s Lake

quite badly.

This trip to north Manitoba to within 150 miles of Hudson

Bay was my first experience in the air. We found our plane on

the bank of Red River at Winnipeg loading gasoline and took off

at 3 :30 P.M. In four hours this huge plane skittered along the

narrow open water of God’s Lake 400 miles above Winnipeg.

* In 17 flying days one airplane brought 71 tons of cobalt ore to the railroad.

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

While the plane was soaring northward at 100 miles an hour

one mile above dark green forests, streams, and lake-dotted

plains, I could not help contrasting this geological trip with that

of my first one on a bicycle forty years ago. Then I covered

about 25 miles a day when mapping the New Jersey Greensands.

Many years later in the Mexican Sierras we rode horseback

twenty miles daily, but here we were in June, 1934 floating

above the earth at the rate of over 1,000 miles a day and actually

covering 400 in four hours. No wonder pronounced and exposed

veins of mineralized rocks cannot escape the eagle eye of the

geologist when he can look down from the sky and, spanning

immense distances, watch the great massive granites cut by por¬

phyry dikes and volcanic lavas and thus spot veins and contacts

which may be rich in gold or other metal. Our return trip a week

later was even more thrilling for we flew through great storm

clouds and in sheets of rain forcing us 6,000 feet in altitude

where we could look down on the cumuli billows 3000 feet be¬

neath us. When they broke and formed again like waves of the

sea we caught a glimpse of lake and forest which helped our

pilot* gain location.

How accessible this remote region 130 miles east of the near¬

est railroad has become with two aviation lines and operating

companies moving freight, mail, and passengers both winter and

summer.**

Surely aviation has opened a new era for mining in remote

corners of the earth. Already 52,000 square miles of Rhodesia

have been surveyed and mapped from the air and much of Mani¬

toba and Ontario is likewise mapped in detail. Island Lake with

its 3,000 islands could not have been plotted in five years from

the ground but we have examined the air maps of the lake which

cover the entire region in greatest detail and these maps were

made in a few days time.

Aerial Surveying.

Directly after the world war mapping wide regions from the

air was under development. The progress of this important

* Mr. Herbert-Hollock Kenyon was the pilot for Lincoln Ellsworth in his recent flight and

tragic rescue in January at Little America, Antarctic.

** Wings Ltd., a newcomer in Canadian aviation mine work, carried, from July to Aug. 1934,

892 tons and 7,738 mining men of whom we were included in last year’s flying.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 267

branch so essential for geological exploration is outlined in a

late report of the Canadian Airways bulletin (The Bulletin,

Canadian Airways Ltd., Feb. 1936) as follows:

“On a suitable day, 5000 feet altitude might be reached, with

a good deal of effort, in anything from 60 to 90 minutes, and once

established at that altitude, photography could be carried out at

the rate of 60 miles an hour, provided there was no head wind.

With the camera in use at the time, about thirteen minutes was

required to change the film after each roll of 95 exposures was

completed. With full tanks — about 75 square miles could be

photographed in one flight.” — Later 200 square miles were

mapped in a day and with continued new inventions the speed

and area mapped was greatly extended until today it is possible

to cruise 120 miles an hour at an altitude of 18,000 feet and take

photographs for seven hours.

In north Quebec two years ago a yoke of oxen were carried

into the Chibougamou mining camp for hauling logs in the

forest. As each weighed about 1400 pounds they were taken

separately but it indicates that planes can now lift and ship

freight of any description. Probably the record for this is that

of the Bulolo Company where the plane in New Guinea flew

from the coast over the mountains to a gold mine carrying a

dredge tumbler shaft weighing three and one-half tons. (7,000

pounds.) Although this shaft was twelve feet long and eighteen

inches in diameter it was raised and transported safely over the

jungles to the mine. Through modern aviation mining camps in

all parts of the world are visited by geologists and in record

time. Only last year (1935) a New York engineer covered

25,000 miles by plane and visited all great continents in his

travels.

The utilization of airplanes in geologic and topographic sur¬

veying has been rapidly expanding each year and the latest

scheme is to take up geophysical prospecting from the air but

we do not believe that this can reach as important scientific

application as can the map work and outline of geological struc¬

tures and rock formations.

In the summer of 1935 we covered 900 miles by plane on a

trip to Knee, God’s, and Island Lakes, Manitoba and completed a

number of gold vein samplings in ten days which would have

taken all summer to visit by canoe or dog team methods. If we

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

wanted to inspect an outcrop 30 miles from some landing station

we had simply to point out to our pilot the island or shore of the

lake we wanted to study and he would fly over the place, taxi

down carefully to watch for hidden rocks in the water, and find¬

ing a safe open spot would drop to the water and taxi to the

shore. Such remarkable achievements were new experiences to

me and indicate how much we owe to engineers capable of

fitting a plane with floats for summer and skis for winter land¬

ing and barring the break-up season on the lakes, these planes

maintain a regular schedule throughout the entire year.

Part III

Physical ( Dynamic ) Geology.

Let us examine a third phase of geologic science which in¬

vestigates changes of the earth’s surface and forces causing ele¬

vation and depression of continents, earthquake shocks, volcanic

eruptions and those processes more destructive than beneficial

to human life. To the English geologist, Sir Charles Lyell (1797-

1875) we are indebted for the doctrine which teaches that the

key to the past is the present. His predecessor, a fluent writer,

James Playfair had already mentioned this uniformity theory

and suggested that recent earth changes were similar to those

of past eras.

It remained however, for Lyell to found the branch of Dy¬

namic or Physical Geology through observation of natural phe¬

nomena which he had seen in wide foreign travel. Van Hoff in

Germany had also written related ideas but Lyell was the best

exponent of modern Stratigraphic and Dynamic Geology.

Lyell’s Principles of Geology which passed through twelve

editions is still a readable book worthy of a place in every geolo¬

gic library. This celebrated geologist from observations in 1841

at Niagara Falls rightfully interpreted the gorge as due to river

erosion in late geologic time. He pointed out that continued

cutting into Lake Erie would gradually destroy this mighty

cataract because of the gentle dip of the limestone under the

bottom of the lake. What such careful observations mean is seen

in our history of the Great Lakes. For fifty years geologists

have known the upper portion of North America was formerly

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 269

deeply buried beneath glacial ice which extended almost to the

southern boundary of Illinois. Recent investigations of extinct

lakes which arose when the glaciers melted reveal the fact that

their former shore lines are no longer parallel to the shore lines

of the Great Lakes of today. What is more surprising is the

discovery that the several levels of these ancient lake waters are

not level with datum planes in different stages of their history.

What this means is that for many thousand years the St. Law¬

rence river basin has been tilting differentially and while the

lower end of Lake Michigan is now sinking a few inches in a

century former elevations show a difference of 170 feet between

the extinct lakes Warren and Algonkian.

If, therefore, sinking continues, the drainage of our present

Great Lakes in a not far distant epoch will again flow into the

Mississippi and the Gulf just as it formerly did before advanc¬

ing glaciers buried the country with crushing thick ice sheets.

Man cannot alter this rise and fall but he can interfere with

stream diversion and for a time control both stream and lake

discharge as he is now doing in forming a new 70 mile lake in

the world’s deepest chasm at Boulder canyon.

Through Physical Geology we investigate volcanic and earth¬

quake phenomena and investigate earth stresses which fold rock

masses of enormous thickness into lofty mountain ranges or

bury their margin beneath the water of restless oceans. Earth¬

quakes cannot yet be predicted with certainty but geologists can

determine where they are likely to occur and what regions will

remain free from such destructive catastrophes. In areas where

they do occur man can construct shock resisting buildings and

thus prevent loss of life and property.

En route to Valparaiso we met an engineer going to Chile to

construct reservoirs which it was hoped would be shock proof.

The need for such engineering work is very great. In 1927 dur¬

ing the Chilean earthquake the dam of the Braden Copper Com¬

pany at Sewell gave way and its millions of gallons of im¬

pounded water for the mill rushed down Rancagua gorge at the

rate of fifteen miles in twenty minutes destroying every living

thing in its path. If retaining walls can be so constructed that

they will resist such shocks millions of dollars will be saved.

This is an engineering problem and partly the work for the

geological engineer to solve.

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Underground Water in Human Affairs.

The development of artesian waters belongs to the field of

Stratigraphic Geology and constitutes an important phase of

human welfare and progress. The amount of water in the at¬

mosphere, if condensed, would cover the earth five inches deep.

The volume in the oceans exceeds 300 million cubic miles, but

the water stored below the surface in unseen caverns, fissures,

and porous rock spaces is not as accurately known. Although

scientists who have studied the problem do not agree we can

safely estimate the amount at 100 million cubic miles, one-third

that of the ocean, and enough, if extracted, to cover the earth

100 feet deep.*

To comprehend the vast amount of water stored under¬

ground in sedimentary rocks let us take the Cambrian Sand¬

stone of Wisconsin and adjacent states. (Minn., Iowa and Ill.)

This formation rests upon impervious granite and metamorphic

rocks and under Appleton is 400 feet thick. The geologist

King** estimated from the porosity of this standstone that there

was theoretically present in each 100 feet a layer of water from

10 to 38 feet deep. If we take the minimum average for this

formation at 500 feet and assume a porosity of only ten per

cent, the amount would equal an inland sea having a depth of

fifty feet over the entire area underlain by this sandstone.

While in some localities water from this horizon is highly

mineralized it is usually excellent for drinking and municipal

purposes and it is utilized in scores of towns and cities through

artesian wells, as at Madison.

Probably the record flowing artesian well for Wisconsin is

that of Sturgeon Bay which was completed in the summer of

1935 and yields at least 1,500 gallons of excellent water a minute

of a temperature of 48 degrees Fahr. This flow will save the city

$6,000.00 a year in pumping expenses alone.

More than one-half the water supply for the 120 million

inhabitants of the United States comes from underground

sources. Out of 191 cities with a population exceeding 50,000

there are 76 taking their water supply from rivers, 28 use lakes

* Slichter, C.S. Water Supply Paper, 67, 1902.

** King, F.H. Principles and Conditions of the Movements of Ground Water. 19th Ann.

Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, Part II, 1899, p. 70.

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 271

or ponds, 40 have impounded reservoirs, 44 obtain their supply

from artesian wells, and three take it from flowing springs .*

(San Antonio, Texas with a population of 231,542 is one of che

largest of these and uses nine wells all flowing in great volume

from a depth of around 800 feet.)

Development of municipal water supplies depends on many

factors. Cities of great size could not obtain enough water from

underground wells and water in many localities underlaid by

igneous rocks is not present in commercial quantity. New York

city uses 100 million gallons daily from wells but this is only a

fraction required for thirteen million inhabitants clustered

about this metropolis. In some regions underground water is so

highly mineralized or saline that even cattle cannot drink it and

wells in Australia one mile deep yield water so hot that it must

be cooled before the stock can drink it. The development of sub¬

terranean water therefore is a complex problem which geologic

engineers are attempting to solve.

What are the record artesian wells in the United States,

which, pouring out millions of gallons daily, seem like modern

miracles ?

We believe that the record well for Massachusetts was com¬

pleted in 1935 at Dalton, Massachusetts which threw a geyser¬

like volume five inches above a 12 inch pipe before commencing

to break and the flow was estimated in excess of 2,000 gallons

per minute. Sturgeon Bay already mentioned has perhaps the

record well in Wisconsin, but the largest flowing well of the

United States is in the Roswell basin of New Mexico where the

Oasis Cotton Company well of 1931 threw a stream of water

nearly fifty feet high and is rated at a daily capacity of 13,-

285,000 gallons.

In closing this division of our subject of underground water

we may digress a moment to consider a question often asked of

geologists, “Can anyone locate water below the surface by the

Divining Rod ?” Belief in this method of using a forked stick of

witch hazel or willow to locate wells is still widely accepted and

many refuse to believe that such results as are obtained by

“water witching” are due to luck for the idea is not far removed

from clairvoyancy or other occult superstition.

* Meinzer, O.E. Large Springs in the United States, Water Supply Paper SS7, 1927.

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

It would seem impossible to exhaust subterranean water by

well developments when such remarkable volumes exist locked

in stratified rocks of the earth’s crust. Continued pumping how¬

ever, lowers the water table underground and unless the supply

is renewed from rainfall and surface seepage through rocks the

supply becomes critical and may eventually cease to furnish

commercial supplies. Expanding necessities of fresh water sup¬

plies throughout the nation require exhaustive study of geolo¬

gists who can help discover and develop these natural resources

which are so essential to human life. Knowledge of earth forma¬

tions, rock structures, and potential water horizons are within

the province of geologic engineering. Failure to understand

these subterranean conditions may prove costly. For example,

some years ago city engineers located a large municipal reservoir

for Staunton in the Shenandoah Valley and built a dam and con¬

servation basin to impound the surface streams flowing through

the region. No sooner was this basin filled when the entire vol¬

ume of water disappeared suddenly. This was due to some un¬

discovered subterranean channel in the underlying limestone

and caverns where the water found its way. Geologists would

have shown that this entire valley is underlain by such cavern¬

ous rock and that fissure openings were possible. They would

have investigated the sub-structure to determine the character

of the basin and devised a method to prevent its escape.

In conclusion we should not forget that great historical eras

of human history have been closely related to utilization of

metals, minerals, and the treasures extracted from the earth’s

crust. There was once a Stone Age, then the Bronze and Iron

age epochs, and through all ages has run the utilization of gold

and silver as precious metals both for money and for jewels.

Even precious stones, never essential for human progress, save

from the esthetic emotional aspect, because of their intrinsic

beauty, will forever attend advancing civilization. Had none of

these products been available how changed this old world would

have been and how retarded all civilization and human progress.

We have outlined some phases of Geologic Science which

have an intimate relation with human progress. No science,

however, should be rated solely for its utilitarian value. There

is a cultural aspect as well as economic one, though not as readily

evaluated. We gain inspiration from life through a scientific

Bagg — Geological Contributions to Human Progress 273

study of the Natural World and of the Universe which sur¬

rounds us. The ancient built his imaginative sphere upon super¬

stition and in awe worshiped the violent forces of nature, fire,

wind, water, and the earthquake over which he had no control.

Modern science is slowly conquering natural destructive forces

and bending them to commercial use. Each year adds new dis¬

coveries in every branch of natural and physical science.

There is a satisfaction in knowledge resulting from scientific

discovery which is unknown to the savage intellect. Consuma-

tion of scientific research through new experimentation has not

yet been attained and it is fortunate for mankind that much

remains for future study as we seek to reveal the hidden secrets

of Mother Earth. With other great Physical Sciences Geology

is contributing her share in human progress and world welfare.

In Commemoration of the Bicentennial of the Birth of

CARL WILHELM SCHEELE

George Urdang

Director of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy ,

Madison, Wisconsin.

Two hundred years ago, on December ninth or nineteenth

1742 — the exact date is disputed — Carl Wilhelm Scheele was

born. On the twenty-first of May 1786 he died. Between these

dates lies one of the most decisive periods of political history as

well as of scientific history. As to political history the idea of

democracy grew, more or less violently, into the realm of reality.

As to scientific history the esoteric discussion of the abstract

was superseded by the democratic search for the concrete.

Theories were not to be imposed upon the facts any more but to

be derived from them. The deductive and the inductive methods

of research had finally changed their roles during this period.

It was this general situation which made the work of Scheele

especially important. Here was a man to whom speculation

meant nothing and the discovery and honest presentation of

facts everything; one of the rare empirics whose special kind of

genius enables them to put the right questions to the right sub¬

jects and to obtain the most surprising results in the most

simple way and with the most simple apparatus.

Nothing in the early life of Carl Wilhelm Scheele indicated

his later greatness. He was born in the then Swedish City of

Stralsund (Pommerania) as the seventh of the eleven children

of the brewer and later broker Joachim Christian Scheele and

Margaretha Eleanora nee Warnekros(s). Two years later his

father became bankrupt. There was neither much time nor

much money to be devoted to the education of the boy whose shy

and reserved behavior did not betray special talents anyway.

275

276 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

At the age of fourteen Carl Wilhelm Scheele left the private

school which he had attended for eight years and decided to

become a pharmacist. This decision proved to be of the greatest

benefit to himself, to pharmacy, to chemistry and finally to the

world at large. In spite of the most alluring offers made to him

in later years, Scheele remained with pharmacy all his life. All

his investigations and discoveries were made in the Swedish

pharmacies in which he worked first as an apprentice and then

as a clerk and finally in his own pharmacy in the small Swedish

town of Hoping. It can be assumed that it was the example of his

older brother Johann Martin, born on February 14, 1734 and

died on January 15, 1754, that influenced the boy’s decision.

This seems the more likely as Carl Wilhelm became an appren¬

tice to the same man to whom his deceased brother had been

apprentice, i.e., to the apothecary Martin Andreas Bauch, the

owner of the pharmacy at the Unicorn in Gothenburg.

Now the latent talents and energies of the young man began

to develop. He found himself surrounded by substances the real

nature of which was not or merely incompletely known and

which he could investigate and experiment with as he pleased,

pushed by no one and responsible only to himself. His master,

recognizing the unusual zeal of his apprentice, not only en¬

couraged Scheele’s scientific curiosity in granting him the ma¬

terial needed and as much time as possible, but in addition put

his well equipped library at his apprentice’s disposal. It was

especially the German apothecary Caspar Neumann’s “Praelec-

tiones Chemicae” and the “Cours de Chimie” of the French

pharmacist Lemery which young Scheele made subject of an

intensive study and which formed the basis of his early experi¬

ments. It was during the eight years of his stay in Gothenburg

(1757 to 1765) and the following three years of clerkship at the

Pharmacy at the Spotted Eagle at Malmo (1765 to 1768) owned

by the apothecary Peter Magnus Kjellstrom that Scheele laid

the groundwork for most of the discoveries which made him one

of the greatest chemists of all time.

Anders Jahan Retzius, who became acquainted with Scheele

at Malmo and was the first scientist to recognize — and to take

advantage of — the genius in the young apothecary clerk, de¬

scribed his young friend in a letter written about twenty years

later (1786) to Wilcke as follows:

Urdang — Carl Wilhelm Scheele

277

‘‘His (Scheele’s) genius was given to him exclusively for

physical science. He had absolutely no interest in any other. It

is doubtless for this reason that his talents seemed to be poor if

other matters were concerned. His memory was excellent. How¬

ever, this too seemed only fitted to retain matters relating to

chemistry. During his stay at Malmo he bought from Copen¬

hagen as many books as his small pay enabled him to procure.

These he read through once or twice. Then he remembered all

that he desired to recall, and never again consulted the books.

Without systematic training and with no inclination to gen¬

eralize, he occupied himself mainly with experiments. From the

time of his apprenticeship at Gothenburg he had worked several

years without plan and for no other purpose than to note phe¬

nomena ; these he could remember excellently. Eleven years’ con¬

tinuous exercise in the art of experimenting had enabled him to

collect such a store of facts that few could compare with him in

this respect. In addition he had gained a readiness in devising

and executing experiments such as is rarely seen. He made all

kinds of experiments, so to say, pell-mell. This taught him what

many a doctrinaire could never learn : since working by no for¬

mulated principles he observed much and discovered much that

the doctrinaire would consider impossible, in as much as it was

opposed to his theories. I once persuaded him during his stay at

Malmo to keep a journal of his experiments, and, on seeing it,

I was amazed not only at the great number he made, but also

at his extraordinary aptitude for the art.”

A. E. Nordenskiold in his book “Carl Wilhelm Scheele,

Nachgelassene Briefe und Aufzeichnungen,” Stockholm, 1892, in

editing Scheele’s “Laboratory Notes” made the following com¬

ment :

“These notes prove once more that the basic experiments for

a large part of Scheele’s great discoveries have already been

made at Gothenburg and Malmo, that already the apprentice

had subjected to an exact investigation the entire material of¬

fered to a chemist in a pharmacy of his time achieving results

which, if published immediately, would have made the years

1767-1770 a turning point in the development of chemistry.”

The statements of Retzius and Nordenskiold, the one based

on personal knowledge and the other on the laboratory notes of

the great apothecary and the perspective given by a distance of

278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

more than a century, are highly illuminating. They prove that

the fact of Scheele’s being a pharmacist was by no means inci¬

dental and negligible or even regrettable and detrimental to his

research work as some of Scheele’s biographers intimate. On

the contrary, it was of greatest importance for the kind as well

as for the amount of his achievements. It may well be said that

it was the good luck of Scheele and of chemistry that Scheele

was, first and above all, a pharmacist. Here and only here a

vast variety of subjects offered themselves to his scientific

curiosity. Here and only here he was given the independence of

work and conclusion which he needed. It was the apothecary

Scheele who, encouraged by Torbern Bergman but carrying on

his experiments quite independently, became interested in black

magnesia which interest resulted in the recognition of the indi¬

viduality of manganese and baryta and the discovery of chlor¬

ine. It was the apothecary to whom the problem of Prussian

blue offered itself leading to several important results among

them the preparation of hydrocyanic acid, and whose daily con¬

tact with tartar brought about the discovery of tartaric acid, the

first of the chain of organic acids isolated by him. The red

mercury oxide from which Scheele gained oxygen as early as in

1771-72 was a much used pharmaceutical substance and it was

a typical pharmaceutical procedure, the preparation of lead-

plaster, which lead Scheele to the observation and isolation of

glycerin. It was the needs of pharmacy which caused Scheele to

look for an inexpensive way of preparing phosphorus and for a

more convenient and less dangerous method of preparing calo¬

mel.

Although pharmacy was undoubtedly the basis of Scheele’s

chemical work, his being a pharmacist did not prevent him from

solving chemical problems not offered within the frame of his

profession. Sweden is a land of mining. Her mountains contain

valuable ores. Scheele refused to leave pharmacy for a position

in industry. He did not go to the mountains, but the mountains

came to him. In materials sent to him he discovered molybdic

acid and tungstic acid and it was he who gave to industry the

methods for the analytical separation of iron and manganese

and for the decomposition of mineral silicates used for more

than a century.

Until his early death at the age of only forty-three years

Urdang — Carl Wilhelm Scheele

279

Scheele reported one discovery and observation after the other

in such rapid succession that his contemporaries were almost

overwhelmed. Thus Lorenz v. Crell, the renowned founder and

editor of Crell’s Chemische Annalen after having received the

news about glycerin wrote to Scheele on December 2, 1783 as

follows : “I am wondering what more will be disclosed by you !

I dare to assume that no chemist is known to us who has ever

made so many and so important findings. As soon as you have

made another new discovery . . . please send it to me immedi¬

ately without caring for postage. Your letters are not too ex¬

pensive for me at any price.”

This reverence paid Scheele by v. Crell was only one of the

innumerable proofs of the high esteem in which the humble

apothecary was held by his contemporaries. At the age of

thirty-two, still being an apothecary clerk and not yet having

passed the Swedish apothecary examination, Scheele was made

a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Science and thus

given the highest scientific distinction Sweden had to offer. It

was no less a person than the great Torbern Bergman who took

pride in initiating the new member and to welcome Scheele as

follows :

“For several years I was witness of your unrivalled industry,

of your special talent to elicit the secrets of nature by purpose¬

fully arranged experiments, and of the ingenious conclusions

that you have drawn. Hence what can be more natural than the

particular joy with which a man like me, loving his science

ardently, sees you take a place of honor to which your merit and

nothing else has paved the way for you.”

After the death of Bergman, J. C. Wilcke, then Secretary of

the Swedish Royal Academy of Science, wrote in a letter to

Scheele under the date of August 9, 1784 as follows: “Since we

lost Bergman, it is you in whom we put the greatest confidence

that you will keep up our (Sweden’s and the Academy’s) reputa¬

tion as to chemistry.”

The authority which Scheele enjoyed was so great, and his

honesty and simplicity of character so obvious and disarming

that none of the usual scientific jealousies and quarrels ever

touched him. When his book on air and fire, due to the negli¬

gence of his publisher, appeared so late that some of his state¬

ments concerning oxygen were in the meantime made and pub-

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

lished by other authors, nobody dared to raise the question of

plagiarism.

Naturally, the question as to the priority of the discovery of

oxygen has been discussed again and again. It was not until

1892 that the publication of Scheele’s correspondence and lab¬

oratory notes, presented to the world by the Swedish arctic ex¬

plorer A. E. Nordenskiold definitely proved that prior to 1773,

that is at least a year before the date of Priestley’s discovery,

Scheele had prepared oxygen from the carbonates of silver and

mercury, from mercuric oxide, nitre and magnesium nitrate,

and by the distillation of a mixture of manganese oxide and

arsenic acid.

According to Rosenthaler (Ber. Deutsch. Pharm. Ges. 1904)

it was Scheele who for the first time consciously showed that it

is possible and necessary to prepare systematically the plant-

constituents as chemical individuals and that, for this reason,

“Scheele and nobody else has to be regarded as the founder of

modern plantchemistry.” Since Scheele in 1783 prepared hydro¬

cyanic acid from coal, ammonium chloride and potash, Ferchl-

Siissenguth in their “Kurzgeschichte der Chemie,” Mittenwald,

1936, give to him and not to Wohler the credit to have been the

first to perform an organic synthesis. Scheele employed and in

1782 recommended sterilization, and his observation that differ¬

ent parts of the solar spectrum influence the decomposition of

silver chloride in very different degrees (1775) has been con¬

sidered the beginning of spectral photography.

Scheele was so exclusively devoted to his science on the one

hand and to his pharmaceutical service to his fellow citizen on

the other that he literally had no private life. In his entire

correspondence there is, besides not very frequent letters to his

parents and brothers, hardly one note which is not devoted or

does not refer to his work. There was never a woman in his

life. The widow of the preceding owner of the pharmacy at

Hoping took care of his household for ten years. He married her

three days before his death in order to secure for her the in¬

heritance of his small fortune.

The profit drawn by a peaceful world from the discoveries

of C. W. Scheele has been enormous. The work of this “corner

druggist” has become a corner stone in the edifice of modern

civilization. The bleaching and the laundry industry and wide

Urdang — Carl Wilhelm Scheele

281

fields of chemical disinfection among them that of water purifi¬

cation are inconceivable without chlorine. The fruit acids dis¬

covered by Scheele are of highest importance for the modern

foodstuff and beverage industries. Tungsten and molybdenum,

to the discovery of which Scheele paved the way, are indispens¬

able in modern steel industry, and glycerin, finally, belongs to

our daily life commodities used for a multitude of purposes and

in many industries.

In 1930 the Association of American Soap and Glycerin Pro¬

ducers sent to the Swedish Crown Prince a message felicitating

him on the discovery of glycerin by a Swedish citizen. Today

it would be up to the manufacturers of explosives using nitro¬

glycerin as the basis of their deadly products to do the same.

In 1892 the committee for the erection of a Scheele monu¬

ment at Stockholm stated in a public pronouncement that

“Scheele contributed more to the development of the era in

which we are living than diplomatic negotiations and pitched

battles.”

At the present time, fifty years later, we are once more in

the midst of pitched battles. However, honoring nevertheless

the memory of the great men of science and peaceful progress,

the memory of men like Scheele, we are reminding ourselves

and the world of what we are fighting for.

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Title page of Mors in Olla (Death in the Pot or Metallic Poisons in Foods,

Beverages and Drugs) . 1722.

DEATH IN THE POT

H. A. SCHUETTE

Department of Chemistry , University of Wisconsin

“Death in the pot” is a Biblical phrase (II Kings 4:40)

which began to appear soon after the turn of the eighteenth

century — and perhaps earlier although the record is not clear on

this point — as title or subtitle of medical treatises and books on

the subject of food contamination by metallic containers, the

misuse of alcoholic beverages and the deliberate, wilful adultera¬

tion of foods, a practice which was once euphemistically called

“a legitimate form of competion.”

Heading the list is a medical treatise in Latin, Mors in Vitro,

which appeared in 1709 under the authorship of N. B. Noel,

of whose life and activities no more is known than that which

can be gleaned from the title page of this little brochure of some

seventeen pages. The subtitle reveals the substance of this dis¬

sertation in which the author develops the thesis that brandy

and similar alcoholic beverages exert an astringent action upon

the organs of digestion and assimilation.

Fitting perhaps better into the picture than the preceding

title is that of another medical treatise, Mors in Olla, written by

John Henry Schulze in 1722. It is a pamphlet of thirty-two

pages in which the author warns against the practice of prepar¬

ing or storing foods in containers made of copper, brass, tin or

lead. He discusses, also, the probable deleterious effects on the

human organism of bismuth, antimony, arsenic and zinc when

food or drink is brought in contact with them at certain tem¬

peratures. He who may be tracing the history of rickets will

find herein the illuminating information that this “native Eng¬

lish disease may, perhaps, be not unjustly attributed to poisons

from tin which are transferred to edibles, and from these a slow

and malignant poison gradually accumulates in the body.”

The author of this publication was a physician and philoso-

283

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

pher who studied medicine in the University of Halle from

which he received his degree in 1717. Professor of medicine for

a while, he eventually turned to theology and history. It is as an

historian of medicine that he made his mark.

The scene shifts now from Germany to England; the time

less than one hundred years later. In 1793 there appeared in

London a young man of Teutonic ancestry, Friedrich Christian

Accum, who obtained work as an assistant in the laboratory of

the Brande pharmacy. His profession, as officially recorded,

was that of chemist. He improved his time by attending chemi¬

cal lectures in London, made the acquaintance of some eminent

scientists there and came under the tutelage and influence of

William Nicholson, a versatile chemist, author of books on chem¬

istry and founder of the Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chem¬

istry and the Arts. He became a useful assistant to Nicholson

who, apparently, was not unappreciative of the services ren¬

dered by his young associate. Under the anglicized name of

Frederick Accum he became a frequent contributor to Nichol¬

son’s Journal, first on subjects of general chemical interest and

then on the more specialized one of adulterations. In this sub¬

ject he was later to rank as the foremost chemist of his time.

In as much as the immediate purpose of this communication

is not to present a detailed account of the life while in England

of this man of “reckless zeal and industry” — Browne has al¬

ready intimately described the career of this most interesting

chemical character in the Journal of Chemical Education (1925)

— it may suffice to state that in the twenty-year period which

began for him in 1800 he was a merchant in chemists’ supplies,

“operative chemist,” lecturer, teacher and popularizer of chem¬

istry who “blended chemical science with rational amusement.”

Pioneer crusader against the then rather common practice of

adulterating food, author of some twenty books, industrial chem¬

ist and early investigator of municipal gas-lighting systems,

analytical, consulting and technical chemist, he became one of

the best known men in London.

The most widely celebrated of all his publications is the one

entitled Treatise on the Adulterations of Food and Culinary

Poisons. It appeared early in the year 1820 and now, in retro¬

spect, is deemed to be a classic in that it represents the first

serious effort to cope with the difficult problems of food adulter-

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Schuette — Death in the Pot

285

ation. Writers have inaccurately referred to this book as “Death

in the Pot” but, if they have erred, it is not without reason be¬

cause Accum embellished the cover with skull and cross-bones

on a pall with this scriptural text beneath it and in the second

edition of this work he states,

“The design of the Treatise will be fully answered, if the

views here given should induce a single reader to pursue the

object for which it is published; or if it should tend to impress

on the mind of the Public the magnitude of an evil, which, in

many cases, prevails to an extent so alarming, that we may ex¬

claim, with the sons of the Prophet, ‘There is death in the pot'.”

The demands of the public for this pioneer work within the

next three years were not satisfied until four editions had been

printed. Its popularity extended even beyond the British Isles

for translation into several foreign languages followed its ap¬

pearance and a Philadelphia publisher made it available for

American readers by bringing out a reprint edition.

The extensive reviews which were given Accum’s book by the

periodicals of his day not only reflect the public temper on the

exposure of the practices which it contains but also reveal the

various impressions which it created over a century ago. A few

excerpts from some of these reviews will suffice to illustrate the

situation and to describe the book and its contents.

The London Literary Gazette,1 reviewing the book in ad¬

vance of presentation to the public commented as follows:

“As we may safely prognosticate that this volume will soon

be as widely diffused as its curious and vitally important char¬

acter merits, we seize the earliest opportunity of making it

known to our readers, since in a very few weeks the original

would supersede, in every hand, our claim to novelty. We have

heard at various times of this and that fraud, in the substitu¬

tion of spurious and often deleterious articles for the necessaries

of life; but never could we conceive so frightful a picture of

imposition and villainy as thus bringing the poisonous ingredi¬

ents into one point of view presents (sic). One has laughed at

the whimsical description of these cheats in Humphrey Clinker,

but it is really impossible to laugh at Mr. Accum’s exposition.

It is too serious for a joke to see that in almost every thing

Man.. IS, 1820, No. 156, pp. 32-38.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

which we eat or drink, we are condemned to swallow swindling,

if not poison — that all the items of metropolitan, and many of

country consumption, are deteriorated, deprived of nutrious

properties, or rendered obnoxious to humanity, by the vile arts

and merciless sophistications of their sellers. So general seems

the corruption, and so fatal the tendency, of most of the cor¬

rupting materials, that we can no longer wonder at the preva¬

lence of painful disorders, and the briefness of existence (on an

average) in spite of the great increase of medical knowledge,

and the amazing improvement in the healing science, which dis¬

tinguish our era. No skill can prevent the effect of daily poison¬

ing; and no man can prolong his life beyond a short standard,

where every meal ought to have its counteracting medicine. Had

Shakespeare written now, in London, he surely would have

altered the exclamation of Jacques,2 —

‘As I do live by food I met a fool’ ;

for to be germane to the matter, he should say : —

‘As I do die by food, I met a fool.’

“In short, Mr. Accum acts the part of Dionysius with us;

only the horse hair by which he suspends the sword over our

heads allows the point gradually to enter the flesh, and we do not

escape, like Damocles, with the simple fright: yet it is but jus¬

tice to acknowledge, that in almost every case he furnishes us

with tests whereby we can ascertain the nature of our danger,

and no man could do more towards enabling us to mitigate or

escape from it.

“Advising our readers to abstain from perusing the annexed

synopsis till they have dined, that they may have one more meal

in comfort ere they die, we proceed to the various heads under

which the author ranges his dread array.”

After describing at some length the practices of the adul¬

terator as revealed by Accum, the reviewer continues:

“It is so horribly pleasant to reflect how we are in this way

be-swindled, be-trayed, be-drugged, and be-devilled, that we are

almost angry with Mr. Accum for the great service he has done

the community by opening our eyes, at the risk of shutting our

mouths for ever.

5 As You Like It, Act II, sc. vii, 1. 12.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

287

“His account of water is so fearful, that we see there is no

wisdom in the well ; and if we then fly to wine, we find from his

analysis, that there is no truth in that liquid ; bread turns out to

be a crutch to help us onward to the grave, instead of the staff

of life ; in porter there is no support, in cordials no consolation ;

in almost every thing poison and in scarcely any medicine cure.”

This lugubrious note is followed by an extensive list of par¬

ticular cases, after which the reviewer brings the whole to a

quick conclusion thus :

“As we read on we learn the method of manufacturing adul¬

terated vinegar, adulterated cream, adulterated lozenges, adul¬

terated mustard, adulterated lemon acid, poisonous Cayenne,

poisonous pickles, poisonous confectionery, poisonous catsup,

poisonous custards, poisonous anchovy sauce, poisonous olive oil,

poisonous soda water; and, if not done to our hands, of render¬

ing poisonous all sorts of food by the use of copper and leaden

vessels. Suffice it to record that our pickles are made green by

copper; our vinegar rendered sharp by sulphuric acid; our

cream composed of rice powder or arrow root in bad milk; our

comfits mixed of sugar, starch, and clay, and coloured with

preparations of copper and lead ; our catsup often formed of the

dregs of distilled vinegar with a decoction of the outer green

husk of the walnut, and seasoned with all-spice, Cayenne, pi¬

mento, onions, and common salt — or if founded on mushrooms,

done with those in a putrefactive state remaining unsold at mar¬

ket; our mustard a compound of mustard, wheaten flour, Cay¬

enne, bay salt, radish seed, turmeric, and pease flour; and our

citric acid, our lemonade, and our punch, to refresh or to ex-

hilerate, usually cheap tartareous acid modified for the occa¬

sion.”

Finally, as an added word of commendation and approval of

Accum’s book, the review states, “his work, besides, contains

many curious documents and useful recipes; and it is replete

with intelligence, and often guides to the right while it exposes

the wrong. ... We never met a publication more likely to be

deservedly and universally popular.”

Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine 3 found something amus-

3 Vol. 6, pp. 542-554. 1820.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

“We bless our stars that a knowledge of the art of cookery-

does not constitute any part of our requirements. We are so

thoroughly convinced a priori of the disgusting characters of its

secrets, and the impurity of its details, that we are quite sure a

more intimate acquaintance with them would have embittered

our existence, and have destroyed for ever the usual healthy tone

of our stomach. We make it a point, therefore, uniformly, to

lull our suspicions, and to discuss any savoury dish that may be

placed before us, without asking any questions about its ingredi¬

ents. It is really much more agreeable to be allowed quietly' to

mistake a stewed cat for a rabbit, than to be made post factum,

accessaries to the deception. When we have finished our salad,

we are by no means anxious to receive any proof, however clear,

that it was seasoned with a preparation of Whale’s blubber in¬

stead of Florence oil. And we should consider ourselves under

a very trifling obligation to any ‘damned good natured friend’

who should take the trouble of demonstrating that the Reindeer

tongue, which gives so pleasant a relish to our breakfast, had

been recently abstracted from the jaws of some distempered

poodle. Misfortunes of this kind, it is impossible for human

sagacity to prevent, while they are perhaps too grievous for

human patience to bear. Our best refuge, therefore, is our ig¬

norance, and where that alone constitutes our happiness, surely

we must agree with the poet, that it is folly to be wise.

“Mr. Accum, it appears, is one of those very good-natured

friends above aluded to, who is quite resolved not to allow us to

be cheated and poisoned as our fathers were before us, and our

children will be after us, without cackling to us of our danger,

and opening our eyes to abysses of fraud and imposition, of the

very existence of which we had until now the good fortune to be

entirely ignorant. His book is a perfect death’s head, a memento

mori, the perusal of any single chapter of which is enough to

throw any man into the blue devils for a fortnight. . . . Mr

Accum puts us something in mind of an officious blockhead, who,

instead of comforting his dying friend, is continually jogging

him on the elbow, with such cheering assurances as the follow¬

ing, ‘I am sorry there is no hope ; my dear fellow, you must kick

the bucket soon. Your liver is diseased, your lungs gone, your

bowels as impenetrable as marble, your legs swelled like door

posts, your face as yellow as a guinea, and the doctor just now

Schuette — Death in the Pot

289

assured me you could not live a week.’ It is quite in vain for

Mr Accum to allege that ‘our bane and antidote are both before

us’; that he has not only made us acquainted with the deadly

frauds which are daily practiced on our stomachs, but afforded

us unerring chemical tests by which these frauds may be de¬

tected. Is it for a moment to be supposed, that we are not to eat

a muffin or a slice of toast without first subjecting it to an

experiment with muriate of barytes? Does Mr Accum expect

us to resort to the Cyder cellar, or the Burton ale house, loaded

with retorts and crucibles, and with our pockets crammed with

tincture of gall, ammonia, and prussiate of potash? Are we to

refuse to partake of a bottle of old Madeira, whenever we may

chance to have forgotten to provide ourselves with the necessary

solution of subacetate of lead? For our own part, we must say,

that rather than to submit to such intolerable restrictions as

these, we should prefer (dreadful alternative!) to double the

dose of poison, and put a speedy end to our existence, by devour¬

ing a second roll to breakfast, and swallowing twice as much

win and porter after dinner as we have hitherto been accus¬

tomed to.

“Melancholy as the details are, there is something almost

ludicrous, we think, in the very extent to which the deceptions

are carried. So inextricably are we all immersed in this mighty

labyrinth of fraud that even the vendors of poison themselves

are forced, by a sort of retributive justice, to swallow it in their

turn. Thus the apothecary, who sells the poisonous ingredients

to the brewer, chuckles over his roguery and swallows his own

drugs in his daily copious exhibitions of brown stout. The brew¬

er, in his turn, is poisoned by the baker, the wine-merchant, and

the grocer. And, whenever the baker’s stomach fails him, he

meets his coup de grace in the adulterated drugs of his friend

the apothecary, whose health he has been gradually contributing

to undermine, by feeding him every morning on chalk and alum,

in the shape of hot rolls.”

After citing cases from the book, the writer concludes :

“The very mention of these things has thrown our whole

frame into disorder. Even if it could be established that death

was in the bottle as well as the pot, we should pitch Mr1 Accum

to the devil and swallow the delicious poison at the rate of three

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

bottles per diem, till the exhaustion of our cellar or our consti¬

tution should unwillingly force us to desist.”

With less levity the British Review and London Critical

Journal 4 commented :

“Mr. Accum seems determined that even the outside of his

book shall awaken our fears. The cover of our copy bears a

death’s head emblazoned upon a pall and, underneath, the motto

‘There is death in the pot.’ The pall is supported by the point

of a dart. Four other darts support the four corners of the

device. Twelve serpents, with forked tongues and tails entwined,

form a terrific wreath around ; while the middle is occupied with

a large cobweb, delineated with much attention to detail, in the

center of which a spider, full as large as a moderate sized hazel

nut, and so frightful that more than one young lady of our

acquaintance would think it necessary to scream at the sight of

it, holds in its envenomed fangs an ill-fated fly, which is sinking

under the loss of blood and buzzing in the agonies of death.

“We are by no means desirous to raise or maintain a popular

clamour ; but Mr. Accum certainly advances some weighty

charges, and his work comes with an advantage in bearing a

name not unknown to the scientific world. Of the adulterations

specified, some are deleterious, and others merely fraudulent.

It appears from the dedication, that the work originated in a

suggestion of his grace the Duke of Northumberland, while cul¬

tivating the study of experimental chemistry in Mr. Accum’s

laboratory.

“Quotations from Mr. Accum’s book have appeared in the

public prints; indeed a great part of the work itself is drawn

from previous documents. But until the knowledge of the evil

leads to some effectual efforts for its removal, we do not think

that because much of the information which he thus affords is

old, it therefore is not to be repeated.”

After offering the readers generous samples of the contents

of the book “both from the original matter of Mr. Accum, and

from his citations drawn from previous authors,” the review

then proceeds to a close with the following note of appreciation

in which is contained, also, a prophecy which came true.

4 Vol. IS, pp. 170-191, 1820.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

291

“To Mr. Accum we are of opinion that the public are un¬

questionably under an obligation. He has brought forward a

subject in a popular form, to which general attention ought con¬

stantly to be directed, as long as the evil continues to exist. We

certainly like the inside of his book better than the outside;

which, however, is more than we can say of many books that

come before us ; of course he will be exposed to obloquy : this he

must expect. Much ill-will he has, no doubt, to experience from

that description of persons, whose instinctive dread of change

makes them hate to be told that anything is wrong, and ought to

be set right : and whose rage increases tenfold if a clear case is

made out. But far greater will be the rage of those whose de¬

linquency he has exposed, and who, when they have read what¬

ever is most severe in his representations, look into themselves,

and there view the original from which the picture is taken. . . .”

It concludes with the following reflection :

“How melancholy a view does it afford of human nature,

when we see tradesmen, who have long passed for respectable,

convicted, in our courts of justice, of gaining a livelihood by

fraud; and by adulterations, some of them injurious to the con¬

stitution, and gradually destructive of life ; when we find them

easy and practised in these crimes, depending on them as a regu¬

lar mode of making a fortune by business, and shameless when

exposed! What resentment would one of these honest dealers

express, if his minister spoke to him, from the pulpit, of the

depravity of the human heart! These are the people who cry

out and affect to be shocked, at what they call the odious and

degrading doctrine: that doctrine of the deep deceit and des¬

perate wickedness of our unrenewed nature, which therefore

offends us, because it shows us to ourselves. These are the sort

of gentry who begin to swell and to give themselves all the airs

of honest men when they hear reflections of this kind; as the

suspected thief swaggers and threatens with your purse in his

pocket. ’Tis hard they say, that they should wrong no man, and

labour (poor innocent souls!) to earn an honest livelihood; —

and then, if they can find time to step out of church of a Sun¬

day, after minding their business all the week, to be talked to in

such a way! Aye, and what is worse, if they arrive there in

time, they must either not join in the service, or else be content

to call themselves ‘miserable sinners !’ — This is really too much,

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

for a man self-approved, and unconscious of any bad motives or

intentions, to take patiently.”

The Edinburgh Review 5 also found, in the appearance of this

book, a text for a stinging comment upon the times :

“It is curious to see how vice varies its forms, and maintains

its subtance, in all conditions of society; — and how certainly

those changes, or improvements as we call them, which diminish

one class of offences, aggravate or give birth to another. — In

rude and simple communities, most crimes take the shape of

Violence and Outrage — in polished and refined ones of Fraud.

Men sin from their animal propensities in the first case, and

from their intellectual depravation in the second. The one state

of things is prolific of murders, batteries, rapines and burnings

— the other of forgeries, swindlings, deformations, and seduc¬

tions. The sum of evil is probably pretty much the same in

both — though probably greatest in the civilized and enlightened

stage; the sharpening of the intellect, and the spread of knowl¬

edge, giving prodigious force and activity to all criminal pro¬

pensities.

“Among the offences which are peculiar to a refined and en¬

lightened society, and owe their birth, indeed, to its science and

refinement, are those skillful and dexterous adulterations of

manifold objects of its luxurious consumption, to which their

value and variety, and the delicacy of their preparation, hold

out so many temptations. While the very skill and knowledge

which are requisite in their formation, furnish such facilities

for their sophistication.”

The review closes with a note of indignation and a sugges¬

tion for a suitable form of punishment, as follows :

“Of these various frauds so ably exposed in Mr. Accum’s

work, and which are so much the more dangerous, as they are

committed under the disguise of an honourable trade, it is im¬

possible to speak in terms of too strong reprobation ; and in the

first impulse of our indignation, we were inclined to avenge such

iniquitous practices by some signal punishment. We naturally

reflect that such offences, in whatever light they are viewed, are

of a far deeper dye than many of those for which our sangui-

6 Vol. 33, pp. 131-144, 1820.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

293

nary code awards the penalty of death — and we wonder that the

punishment hitherto inflicted has been limited to a fine. If we

turn our view, however, from the moral turpitude of the act, to

a calm consideration of that important question, namely — What

is the most effectual method of protecting the community from

those frauds? — we will then see strong reasons for preferring

the lighter punishment. We do not find from experience that

offences are prevented by severe punishments. On the contrary,

the crime of forgery, under the most unrelenting execution of

the severe law against it, has grown more frequent. As those,

therefore, by whom the offence of adulterating articles of pro¬

vision is committed, are generally creditable and wealthy indi¬

viduals, the infliction of a heavy fine, accompanied by public

disgrace, seems a very suitable punishment: and if it be duly

and reasonably applied, there is little doubt that it will be found

effectual to check, and finally to root out, those disgraceful

frauds.”

Accum’s book did not remain unnoticed in the United States.

The review which the editor of the Analectic Magazine 6 of Phil¬

adelphia gave it was nothing more than republication of one

which had appeared earlier that year in Scotland.7 His single

original contribution to the subject is the extraordinary com¬

ment with which he introduces the subject. America apparently

had no food adulteration problem or, if it existed, the writer

chose to remain blissfully ignorant of it! Said he:

“This little work may, in London, be very much useful and

wherever meat and bread are eaten, and wine is drunk, or physic

taken must be interesting. We cannot help fearing, however,

that the distinguished chemist has been laboring unwittingly in

aid of fraud rather than for its detection. For one reader that

is taught how to avoid adulterated food, ten will have occasion

to regret that Mr. Accum has furnished the dishonest vendors

with so complete a manual and guide in the manufacture of the

most cunningly devised poison. It is, however, whether for¬

tunately or not, presented to the American public. And we con¬

sult our own ease and the amusement of our readers at the same

time in presenting them with the remarks and analysis made

« Vol. 2 [n.s.], pp. 102-129 (1820).

T Op. cit.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

by the editors of Blackwood' s Edinburgh Magazine, instead of

any detailed observations of our own.”

Mention has already been made of the fact that Accum’s

book was popularly referred to as “Death in the Pot.” The gen¬

eral application of this term as a catch-phrase descriptive of his

book was invited, in a sense, on his part because of the motto

with which he adorned its title page; and perhaps, too, his use

of it in the preface. Doubtless uninvited, however, must have

been its application as a nick-name to the author himself.

The following account of an imaginary experience of “a sad,

solitary, unsuspecting spinster,” which was described in a letter

to the editor of Blackwood' s Edinburgh Magazine,8 apparently

after his review of AccunTs book had been read, furnishes an

example of the use of the term in this direction.9 In a some¬

what similar vein the writer declared :

“. . . I have not the skill in figures to cast up the poisonous

contents of my hapless stomach for nearly three-score years.

You would not know me now ; I had not the slightest suspicion

of myself in the looking glass this morning. Such a face! So

wan and wobegone! No such person drew Priam’s curtain at

dead of night, or could have told him half his Troy was burned.

“Well — hear me come to the point. I remember now, per¬

fectly well, that I have been out of sorts all my lifetime ; and the

causes of my continual illness have this day been revealed to me.

May my melancholy fate be a warning to you, and all your dear

contributors, a set of men whom the world could ill spare at this

crisis. Mr Editor — I have been poisoned.

“You must know that I became personally acquainted, a few

weeks ago, quite accidentally, with that distinguished chemist,

well known in our metropolis by the name of ‘Death in the Pot’.

He volunteered a visit to me at breakfast, last Thursday, and

I accepted him. Just as I poured out the first cup of tea, and

8 Vol. 6, pp. 621-623, 1820.

9 Later that year, when Accum stood accused of the impalpab'e charge of mutilating library

books, the following rhyme, entitled “Death in the Pot,” appeared in John Bull (Dec. 24, 1320.

p. 13):

What is his crime? A trick at most,

A thing not worth debating.

— ’Tis only what the Morning Post

Would punning call Accum -ulating.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

295

was extending it graciously toward him, he looked at me, and

with a low, hoarse, husky voice, like Mr Kean’s, asked me if I

were not excessively ill? I had not had the least suspicion of

being so — but there was a terrible something in ‘Death in the

Pot’s’ face which told me I was a dead woman. I immediately

got up — I mean strove to get up, to ring the bell for a clergyman

— but I fainted away. On awakening from my swoon, I beheld

‘Death in the Pot’ still staring with his fateful eyes — and croak¬

ing out, half in soliloquy, half in tete-a-tete, ‘There1 is not a life

in London worth ten years purchase.’ I implored him to speak

plainly, and for God’s sake not to look at me so malagrugorously

— and plainly enough he did then speak to be sure — ‘ Mrs Trol¬

lope, you are poisoned *

“ ‘Who,’ cried I out convulsively, ‘who has perpetrated the

foul deed? On whose guilty head will lie my innocent blood?

Has it been from motives of private revenge ? Speak, Mr. Accum

— speak! Have you any proofs of a conspiracy?’ ‘Yes, Madam,

I have proofs, damning proofs. Your wine-merchant, your

brewer, your baker, your confectioner, your grocer, aye your

very butcher are in league against you ; and, Mrs Trollope, you

are poisonedV ‘When — Oh! when was the fatal dose adminis¬

tered?’ ‘Would an emetic be of no avail? could you not yet ad¬

minister a — .’ But here my voice was choked, and nothing was

audible, Mr North, but the sighs and sobs of your poor Trol¬

lope.”

The unfortunate ending of Accum’s long and useful career

in London approximately one year after the first appearance of

his book was responsible in a measure for a recession of the

pure food movement there. An attempt at reviving it is seen

some ten years later, however, in the efforts of the anonymous

author of “Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning Unmasked ;

or Disease and Death in the Pot and Bottle.”10

This book shows an Accum influence not only in the excerpt

credited to the Literary Gazette,11 a paragraph which, in turn,

is an elaboration of the closing lines of his own preliminary

30 Volume I of the British Museum’s new General Catalogue of Printed Books, 1931, lists this

187-page book under “Adulteration” and assigns to it the publication date 1830. Gentleman's

Magazine in its October issue for that year on page 349, lists this book under the heading “New

Works Announced for Publication.” It wasi reviewed elsewhere the following January.

a Loc. cit.

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

remarks, but also in the author’s prediction of the reception

which would be accorded his efforts. The following lines from

his “Address to the Reader” reflect the latter.

“The catalogue of frauds and enormities exhibited in the

following pages will, no doubt, excite the abhorrence and indig¬

nation of every honest heart. Its author is, however, convinced

that he will find that he has undertaken a very unthankful office

— that his book will be the dread and abhorrence of wicked and

unprincipled dealers and imposters of all kinds; and himself

exposed to their utmost rancour and bitterest maledictions. But

the die is cast: he has discharged a public duty, and sincerely

hopes that the Public may be benefited by his disclosures.

“It has been justly said, that all attempts to meliorate the

condition of mankind have, in general, been coldly received,

while the artful flatterers of their passions and appetites have

met their eager embraces. And it is no less true, that it has

always been the fate of those who have attempted any great

public good, to be obnoxious to such as have profited by the

errors of mankind. The divine Socrates, whose life was a con¬

tinued exertion to reprove and correct the overweening and the

vicious, died a victim to the Heathen Mythology, on account of

his maintaining the unity and perfections of the Deity, and

exposing the doctrines and pretensions of the heathen priest¬

hood and the Sophists, and their mercenary views ; and, in later

times, Galileo would have met a similar fate, had he not bowed

to error, and renounced a sublime truth, clear as the glorious

orb that was the object of it, and which, soon after, was uni¬

versally acknowledged. Even the Divine Founder of our Faith

and Religion was stigmatized as the broacher of false opinions,

and one who misled the people, by his ignorant and malicious

accusers, whose frauds and delusions it was the object of his

mission to confound and overthrow, as well as to free mankind

from the bondage of their errors. But without having the pre¬

sumption or impiety to compare himself with those benefactors

of mankind, or to put his humble endeavors in competition with

their god-like attempts, or to expect a similar result from them,

it will be a great consolation to the Author of this book, when

life is departing the frail tenement of his body, to reflect that he

has brought ‘deeds of darkness to light,’ — that he has been the

humble means of unmasking to public view the frauds and vil-

Schuette — Death in the Pot

297

lanies that are daily and hourly practised on the Public Health

and Welfare; and in that ‘trying hour’ his most grateful feeling

and homage to English Law will be, that it secures to every man

the liberty of expressing his honest indignation and abhorrence

of palpable and disgusting fraud and imposture.”

It was not as widely reviewed as was Accum’s “Treatise”

and, curiously enough, received no appraisal by those journals

which had given its precursor this attention. A medical journal,

however, quite properly extended the author this courtesy.

The editor of The Lancet,12 “well aware of the great facility

with which epidemic terror is excited by tales of the adultera¬

tions in food and drink” and deeming it “a duty never to permit

a proved fraud of this pernicious description to escape un¬

noticed,” commented as follows upon this work13 of “an exag¬

gerating alarmist” :

“We are equally enemies to needless alarm, and to the too

generous confidence which is sometimes reposed on the caterers

of the necessaries of existence. It would be difficult, we believe,

to determine which of these causes operates with the more in¬

jurious influence, and it is under this conviction that we proceed

to bestow a few remarks on the publication of the above oddly

designated work.

“This strange, but interesting book, is evidently the produc¬

tion of a man of considerable talents, though whimsical mind,

and superficial in information on some important particulars.

He has followed in the steps of the celebrated Accum to a certain

extent, and this notorious author he certainly equals, if he does

not excel him, in the industry and sagacity with which he pene¬

trates into the arcana of various trades and mysteries, the de¬

ceptions of which, whether actual or pretended, he proclaims to

the country in no very complimentary terms. His list of adul¬

terations, as may be seen from the title, forms a lengthened

catalogue, and extends almost to every item in our daily con¬

sumption. . . .

“One of the most important points to be determined in the

consideration of such a treatise as the present, is of course, the

veracity of the author ; of this, the chief evidence of the affirma-

12 Vol. I, 1831, p. 485-487.

13 The date of publication of this book is herein given as 1830.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, a,nd Letters

tive in the case now before us is, in the first place, the want of

any evil motive which could induce him to come forward; for,

setting a love of mischief out of the question, it may be well

supposed that the suppression of such disclosures might be a

much more profitable traffic than the sale of the little work in

which they are announced. Secondly, he writes in a tone of

half-mad honesty, which it is difficult to disbelieve. On the other

hand, the principal indications of thoughtless (not to say

worse), consist in the absence of names and dates and places

from his original statements, in the declamatory and puffing

style into which he continually lapses, and in the want of satis¬

factory chemical evidence on some of the most important par¬

ticulars. . . .

“Another circumstance, too, which should in some degree

diminish our confidence in this writer’s authority, is the in¬

accurate chemical statements he continually thrusts forward,

and the utter physiological ignorance he as frequently betrays;

thus ... we find him given credence to the ridiculous story of

calves being fed on milk and chalk, in order to whiten their

flesh. . . .

“Under all these circumstances, it is not easy to decide on

the light in which this publication should be regarded ; our own

opinion, however, we have no hesitation in declaring to be, that

the author is a correct well-meaning individual, but of that class

of exaggerating alarmists, which magnifies terrors of this de¬

scription to a most nonsensical extent. One service he has at

any rate rendered to the public, and to this point we would

earnestly solicit the attention of our readers, especially those

conversant with analytic researches; he has afforded them, in

several examples, a clue to the detection of some infamous de¬

ceptions, and has set them, we believe, in the right path for the

substantiation of the charges which he vaguely promulgates.”

The editor closes his review with the following singular

statement in which, in a sense, he appears to condone some of

the illegal practices revealed in the book :

“. . . we feel it necessary to press upon the general public,

that the word ‘adulteration’ is not necessarily synonymous with

injury to health, and that hundreds of these deceptions are prac¬

ticed with the sole view of baffling the intolerable oppression of

fiscal exactions. We can fancy the valetudinarian peruser of a

Schuette — Death in the Pot

299

treatise like the present gasping in ignorant horror at the story

of his porter being ‘adulterated’ with quassia, his cheese tinc¬

tured with anatto, or his port-wine roughened by the alcohol

infusion of tannin; yet these substitutions, though less delicate

to the epicure’s taste, are as free from any noxious quality in the

proportions in which they are employed, as the most genuine

article which can be procured. If writers on this subject sep¬

arated the noxious from the harmless, and dealt not so much

in hyperbolical declamation, there would, at the same time, be

less terror created, and the ends of public justice would be more

effectually attained.”

The New Monthly Magazine and Literary Journal 14 on the

other hand accepted, without question, all of the statements

made in the book. Said the reviewer :

“ ‘Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning, or Disease and

Death in. . . .’ We cannot proceed farther with the alarming

title-page of this small but eventful volume, the production of

‘An Enemy of Fraud and Villainy.’ It is a treatise not to be

read with firm nerves, or, we may add, with a wavering faith.

It is a most portentious catalogue of calamities; and shows us

(we are afraid we must believe it all) how impossible it is to

escape death and destruction in some degree or other. We have

long known how many ways there are of dressing an egg; we

are now convinced that there are just as many ways of poison¬

ing people. The writer of this little work has pointed out such

numberless instances of what he terms ‘blood-empoisoning and

life-destroying adulterations,’ pervading every luxury and nec¬

essary of life, that we begin to feel surprised that the world has

lived so long; and must now express the opinion that he who

desires to survive longer must forego a practice which he has

hitherto considered essential to existence — he must cease to eat

and drink. A third part of the book is devoted to an exposition

of abuses in the manufacture of wine, spirits, and beer; the

remaining portions are employed in an analysis of nameless and

unnatural matters which we have hitherto considered to be

flour, tea, spice, confectionery, medicines, &c. &c. but whose

real quality and character we shudder to contemplate. It is

clearly the opinion of the writer before us, that there is nothing

14 Vol. 33 [n.s.], p. 18, 1831.

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

in the world free from quackery but his own production. Never¬

theless, we honestly recommend it; for if people must be poi¬

soned, it is but right that they should know how — unless they

should think, with the poet, that ignorance is bliss, as in this

instance we believe it to be.”

The attempts of Accum and others “at unmasking to public

view the frauds and villanies — practiced on the public health

and welfare” were soon forgotten. The generation following

them had apparently heard little of the much publicized “Death

in the Pot” or, conversant with the contents of this little trea¬

tise, chose not to take it seriously. It had little effect in reform¬

ing the abuses which it exposed. In spite of the startling reve¬

lations which this remarkable book contained, fraudulent trades¬

men and manufacturers silently, and with some measure of se¬

curity, continued to falsify the food of the people and to pocket

their ill-gotten gains.15 This was the situation when in 1851,

a new force in the person of a member of the medical profession

took up the task so enthusiastically begun some thirty years be¬

fore by Accum but abruptly terminated by his unhappy return

to Germany.

In the first issue of The Lancet 16 for the year 1851 appeared

an announcement in which the editor committed this journal to

a new departure. Apparently sensing the apathy of the medical

profession to the notorius and systematic adulterations prac¬

ticed upon the food of the people — an attitude deemed to reflect

no credit upon it — and suspecting these practices contributive to

various human disorders,17 he stated that henceforth some of

his columns would be devoted to the publication of the findings

of the Analytical Sanitary Commission. It is quite probable, too,

that a statement18 previously made by the Chancellor of the

Exchequer in the House of Commons that distinguished chem¬

ists of the day had reported that neither by chemistry nor in any

other way could the admixture of chicory with coffee be de¬

tected may have been another motivating agent in the editor’s

decision to institute this innovation. In any event it was soon

16 A. W., Once A Week, vol. 2, p. 396-399, 1860.

M Vol. 1, 1851, p. 18.

17 Ibid., p. 17.

18 Anon., Analyst, vol. 19, p. 97-98, 1894.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

301

to become apparent that chemistry did not accept the challenge

implied in this statement.

In reality, this body of impressive title was not a commission

at all. It consisted solely of Dr. Arthur Hill Hassall, an expert

microscopist but neither chemist nor analyst in the modern

sense of the word in as much as his training in chemistry had

been no more intensive than that received by any medical stu¬

dent as incidental to the prescribed course of study of his day.

Hassall in time found it necessary to add to this method of ex¬

amination that of chemical analysis and for that portion of the

work obtained the assistance of a trained analyst. Because of

his work in this field, the results of which for the next four

years appeared first as separate reports and then in book form

as “Food and Its Adulterations,” he became for a time the chem¬

ical oracle18 of the public, and this upon the basis of his micro¬

scopic work “which was in every way excellent.”

The public mind was deeply impressed by Hassall’s reports ;

their disclosures produced a feeling of most profound astonish¬

ment19 over the violation of “those principles of integrity which

ought to be characteristic of all commercial transactions.”

London’s Punch commented at times on the situation with many

a quip and witticism. The following, captioned “Death in the

Jam-Pot,”20 is a case in point.

“The Analytical Commissioners of the Lancet have been dip¬

ping their fingers lately into the preserve pots of the Metropolis,

and ‘ Ohe , jam satis V must, we fancy, be the exclamation of

everybody who reads their Report. For, among other pleasant

discoveries, we find it stated, — ‘That copper was detected in no

less than 33 of the 35 samples of different preserves analysed;

_ 9

“Preserve us from preserves, say we, in future ! Even as it

is, we own an introspection makes us anything but comfortable,

and we tremble to think of how many internal coats of copper

we may incautiously have given ourselves. In our fondness for

the jam, we fear indeed we have been playing ‘old gooseberry’

with our constitutions ; and we should certainly be making very

decided gooseberry fools of ourselves if we were any longer to

partake of it.

19 The Lancet, vol. 1, 185 1, p. 72.

20 Punch, vol. 24, p. 107, 1853.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

“Before the Lancet's searching fingers

Had found the limes where copper lingers,

that fruit, we confess, was a confirmed weakness of ours; but

the ‘little glass jar,’ which was analysed as above, has proved

quite a jar of electricity to us, such a shock has it imparted to

our nervous system. Nor have we any longer an appetite for

crystallised green gages: for, knowing now to what they owe

their colour, we should be ‘deep green’ ourselves if we ventured

any more to taste them.

“With the above appalling facts before them, we would seri¬

ously recommend any of our readers who may have a ‘sweet

tooth’ in their heads, to go immediately to the dentist’s, and

have it out. There is no telling how soon it may eat them into

danger.”

Soon there followed the appointment of a Committee in In¬

quiry by the House of Commons and ultimately, in 1860, the

enactment of a general law against the adulteration of all foods.

This statute constitutes the keystone of the pure food and drugs

law of the English-speaking world.

By 1879 the movement for reform in the commerce in foods

appeared in the Congress of the United States. After a 27-year

effort, during the course of which 74 bills were introduced — 16

were reported out of committee and three survived one branch

of Congress — one was at last passed. The final push to a suc¬

cessful conclusion of the fight was given by the women of the

United States; the result is the Pure Food and Drugs Act of

June 30, 1906.

Contributive, perhaps, to this campaign in its early days was

a cartoon in color by Opper,21 and its accompanying editorial

comment, “Look before you eat.” Both have sufficient historical

interest to warrant reproduction.

“Come with us, 0 Friend! to the feast. There you will be

enabled to tickle your palate with all the delicacies of the sea¬

son. See what a bounteous repast is spread before you. Sugar

from the golden canes of Cuba, turned out ready for consump¬

tion. Sugar, did we say? Well, not exactly. It looks like sugar,

a Vol. 15, March 18, 1884, p. 17. Earlier factors in this movement were the famous crusade

by Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 8, 1858, et seq.) against the swill milk system of

New York and Brooklyn and the vigorous exposition, begun ten years later by the New York World

(Dec. 17, 1868 et seq.), of the adulterationj 'of foods.

Cartoon by Opper which appeared in Puck, vol. 15, March 12, 1884, p. 17.

Schuette — Death in the Pot

303

but it bears only a partial relationship to the genuine article.

If you examine it carefully, you will arrive at the conclusion

that that sugar has started the summer season prematurely, and

has collaborated with what is left of the beach at Coney Island.

The sugar is full of sand, and the grocer who sold it to the cus¬

tomer has long ere this discovered that sand is ever so much

cheaper than sugar.

“But sand and sugar are not as wholesome as sugar itself;

at least many people have a strong prejudice against the com¬

bination — when they find it out. Now, let’s take a glance at the

butter. How attractive is its appearance ! It is the best cream¬

ery, is it not? No, beautiful Heloise, it is not the best creamery.

The grocer of whom you bought it may have assured you that

it is ; but that grocer is not a George Washington in regard to

his affection for truth. No, beloved friend, that is not the best

creamery butter; it is pure, unadulterated oilymargarine made

out of finest and fattest carcasses of animals secured by the

rendering establishment, a premium given on those that have

died a natural death. The tea, too, has its deleterious dust, that

it may yield a greater profit to the seller; so has the coffee; so

has everything else. The grocery-man’s inhumanity to man will

soon make it necessary for every citizen to carry with him a

stomach-pump and an emetic.”

THE INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE

ON AMERICAN IDEAS, FROM 1775 TO 1809*

Harry Hayden Clark

The roots of the basic ideas of the latter part of the eigh¬

teenth century in America, as I have tried to suggest elsewhere,* 1

are many and various. Among them, helping to undermine Puri¬

tanism, are such divergent influences as classicism, Quakerism

and Methodism, primitivism, the idea of progress, the frontier

environent, agrarianism, laissez-faire, French democracy, sen¬

timentalism and humanitarianism, Gothicism, and aesthetic pro¬

grams involving the quest of the strange, the unique, the local,

the sensuous. Surely it would be a serious error to imagine

that ideas inspired by science alone explain American ideas of

this period. Until very recently, however, science, and deism

partly inspired by science, have been largely ignored by stu¬

dents of American literature of the late eighteenth century.

Puritanism and Transcendentalism have long been recognized

as dominating the literature of their eras, but one looks in vain,

in practically all our textbooks, for a parallel emphasis on the

religion of the intermediate period (deism influenced by sci¬

ence) as underlying the ideas of the era when our national tra¬

ditions took shape. Representative liberals such as Tom Paine

prided themselves upon their method of considering everything

“on the pure ground of principle, . . . abstractedly from custom

and usage,” and if one tries to formulate the logical articulation

of their principles, it will be found, I think, that more than gen¬

erally recognized, many of these principles trace themselves

back to major premises used by Newton, Locke, and the popu-

larizers of scientific doctrine.

Students interested in this problem will find many fruitful

* It is a pleasure to acknowledge gratefully that clerical assistance was provided for this study

by the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and by the Graduate School of the

University of Wisconsin.

1 “Factors to be investigated in American Literature History from 1787 to 1800,” English

Journal, XXIII, 481-87 (June, 1934).

305

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

suggestions in the studies of the debt of English literature ot

this period to science and related subjects. I have in mind studies

by such scholars as S. G. Hefelbower,2 A. Wolf,3 Leslie Stephen,4

G. R. Potter,5 A. 0. Lovejoy,0 Ronald Crane,7 J. M. Robertson,8

John Orr,9 L. E. Hicks,10 A. S. Farrar,11 G. V. Lechler,12 L. No-

ack,13 J. W. Beach,14 Norman Torrey,15 Herbert Drennon,16

C. S. Duncan,17 Martha Ornstein,18 R. F. Jones,19 0. H. Taylor,20

Jacob Viner,21 A. D. White,22 Leon Bloch,23 Dorothy Stimson,24

R. B. Crum,25 and others.

2 The Relation of John Locke to English Deism. Chicago, 1918.

3 A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

1935.

4 A History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. London, 1902.

5 Strange Gods Come to Parnassus. A Study of the Relations between the English Poets and

Evolutionary Ideas from pre-Darwinian Science. (A volume not yet published which I have been

permitted to read in manuscript.)

® “ The Place of Linnaeus in the Unfolding of Science,” Popular Science Monthly. LXXI,

121-130, 1907;. “Some Eighteenth Century Evolutionists,” Popular Science Monthly, LXV, 238-51,

323-40, (1904). Ibid., LXXV, 499ff., 53 7ff., 1909; The Great Chain of Being. Cambridge, Mass.,

1936. “Monboddo and Rousseau,” Modern Philology, XXX, 275-96 (Feb. 1933).

7 See his many reviews in his annual bibliography in Philological Quarterly. In his ‘‘Angelican

Apologetics and the Idea of Progress,” Modern Philology, XXXI, 273-306; 348-82 (Feb. and May,

1934), Mr. Crane has shown that the idea of progress derived not only from science but from the

clerical opponents of pessimistic doctrines disseminated by Hobbes and his followers.

s A Short History of Free Thought, Ancient and Modern. Vol. II, London, 1915.

9 Eighteenth Century English Deism and Its Sources. (A dissertation in manuscript summarized

in the University of Pittsburgh Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 4, Dec. 1931.

10 A Critique of Design-Arguments. New York, 1883.

111 A Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the Christian Religion. New York, 1864.

12 Geschichte Des Englishen Deismus, Stut. 1841.

13 Die Freidenker in der Religion.

74 The Concept of Nature in Nineteenth Century English Poetry. New York, 1936.

,r> Voltaire and the English Deists. New Haven, 1930.

10 “Newtonianism: Its Method, Theology, and Metaphysics,” Englische Studien, LXVIII,

397-409 (1933-34). Other parts of Mr. Drennon’s brilliant dissertation, James Thomson and New¬

tonianism (University of Chicago, 1928) have been published in Publications of the Modern

Language Association, XLIX, 71-80, March, 1934; in Studies' in Philology, XXXI, 453-71, July.

1934; and in Philological Quarterly, XIV, 70-82, Jan., 1935.

17 The New Science and English Literature in the Classical Period. Menasha, Wis., 1913.

18 The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century, New York, 1913.

19 Ancients and Moderns. Washington University Studies. New Series. Language and Litera¬

ture, No. 6, Jan., 1936.

20 “Economics and the Idea of Natural Law,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, XLIV, 1-39

(Nov. 1929). See also the outline of his valuable dissertation in the Harvard University Summaries

of Theses (1928), 102-6.

27 Adam Smith, 1776-1926. Chicago, 1928.

22 .4 History of the Warfare of Science with Theology. 2 vols. New York, 1896.

23 La Philosophie de Newton. Paris, 1908.

24 The Gradual Acceptance of the Copernican Theory of the Universe. Hanover, N.H., 1917.

25 Scientific Thought in Poetry. New York, 1931. See also Basil Willey, [The Eighteenth

Century Background (London, 1939) and A. O. Lovejoy’s review in MLN, LVIII, 485-7; and

May Bush’s “Rational Proof of a Deity from the Order of Nature,” ELH, IX, 288-319 (Dec. 1942).

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 307

It is significant that Elie Halevy traces the growth of Eng¬

lish philosophical and social radicalism to two major causes: to

“The development of the physical sciences” (especially New-

tonianism) and to a “profound crisis in society, a crisis which

was itself due in part to the development of science and to the

progress of its practical application.”26 The channels by which

English and Continental ideas made their way to America and

were disseminated here remain to be exhaustively explored.

Among these channels, however, were the activities of scientific

societies, notably the Royal Society (to which 19 Americans

were elected before 1800) 27 and the American Philosophical

Society ; the emigration to America of scholars trained in Euro¬

pean universities; the international correspondence of scien¬

tists; American travelers abroad; almanacs and magazines and

libraries ; public lectures ; and schools and colleges. In England,

of course, science did not always develop into political or social

liberalism, but in America not only did the novelty of a fresh

environment inspire scientific interest but scientific ideas para¬

lleled the democracy engendered by the frontier and the resent¬

ment against restrictive governmental acts by England. Con¬

sidering the vast field covered in this brief paper, I shall attempt

not so much a contribution to knowledge or an exhaustive analy¬

sis as a statement of hypotheses as a means of opening what

ought to be a fruitful avenue for investigation. I shall discuss

in turn religious, political, humanitarian, and educational ideas

in their relation to science.

I

Religion

Puritanism and scientific deism are sharply distinct in their

development. One must guard, however, against the impression

28 The Growth oj Philosophic Radicalism. (Translated by M. Morris.) London, 1928, p. 3.

27 The list will be found in S. E. Morrison’s Promos. New York, 1936, p. 266. For full dis¬

cussion see F.E. Brasch, “The Royal Society of London and its Influence upon the Scientific

Thought in the American Colonies,” Scientific Monthly, XXXIII, 336-55, 448-69 (1931). hor

general discussion see B. Fay’s “Learned Societies in Europe and America in the eighteenth

century,” American Historical Review, XXXVII, 255-66 (Jan. 1932); and G. B. Goode’s The

Origin of the National Scientific and Educational Institutions of the United States,” Annual Report

of the . . . Smithsonian Institution (1897), pp. 263-354; “The Beginnings of Natural History

in America,” ibid., 357-406 and “The Beginnings of American Science,” ibid., 409-466.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

that the transition from one to the other was immediate or

violent. This transition was a very gradual affair in which many

thinkers seem at certain times to have been on both sides at

once, as in the case of Cotton Mather in his Christian Philoso¬

pher (1721). It has been demonstrated, in a dissertation by Mr.

Theodore Hornberger,28 that it is a serious error to suppose that

American Puritans were unreceptive to science and scientific

ideas until the 18th century. Puritanism did not retard the

spread of scientific ideas in America. On the contrary, the

Puritans showed much interest in scientific ideas. The idea of

cosmic design proving a divine designer goes back of course

much beyond the Puritans. The ancient Hebrews thought that

“The Heavens declare the glory of God,” and the argument

from design had appeared in Cicero, Sir Henry More, Cudworth,

Boyle, and Ray, and it was widely popularized and elaborated

by the Rev. William Derham’s Physico-Theology ; or, a Demon¬

stration of the Being and Attributes of God from his Works of

Creation (1711-1712). In connection with the Puritans, 28a it

should be remembered, that from Calvin down, their leaders

devoted increased attention to the doctrine that the Creator is

revealed in his Creation, in nature ; but they united in thinking,

that a knowledge of nature alone was an inadequate guide to a

religious life. As Calvin said, “The guidance and teaching of the

Scriptures [are] necessary to lead to the knowledge of God

the Creator.”29 The Puritans thus devoted their chief attention

23 American Puritanism and the Rise of the Scientific Mina. A Study of Science and American

Literature in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries. (A doctoral dissertation available in

manuscript at the library of the University of Michigan.) For bibliography, see P. Miller and

T. H. Johnson, The Puritans (New York, 1938), pp. 823-29.

283 Cf. Michael Wigglesworth’s familiar lines in “The Day of Doom”: “But Nature’s light

shin’d not so bright, to teach us the right way.” (Stanza CLXI).

29 It is true that Calvin spoke of sciences such as astronomy as studies of the “proofs” of God’s

“Wonderful wisdom, both [in] heaven and earth.” But this passage; ( Institutes , Trans. J. Allen,

2 vctfs., 1841, I, V, 2, pp. 58-9), which is often cited out of its context in a very ‘ misleading way,

is immediately followed by Chapter VI, for which the sentence quoted above, on the primary

necessity of Scriptural 'guidance, serves as the title. In Institutes, Bk.I, Ch.V, xiv-v, Calvin said

“Vain, therefore, is the light afforded us in the formation of the world to illustrate the glory of its

Author, which, though its rays be diffused all around us, is insufficient to conduct us into the

right way. ... It is beyond a doubt, that the simple testimony magnificently borne by the

creatures to the glory of God, is very insufficient for our instruction.” The typical view of the

New England Puritans may be illustrated from this passage in Norton’s Heart of New- England

Rent (pp. 12-13): “Star-light cannot make it, otherwise than night. The light of nature since

the fall, compared with the light of the image of God, before the fall, hathi not the production

oi Star-light, to the bright sun at noon-day. This is indeed but darkness. But if compared with

the light of the Gospel, it is worse than gross darkness.”

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

309

not to the study of nature through science but to the study of the

Scriptures — a linguistic study. In the second place, when, as in

the case of Cotton Mather’s Christian Philosopher (1721), or

his writings slightly earlier, a Puritan emphasizes the value of

the study of goodness, design and beauty in nature as a revela¬

tion of God’s goodness, he thinks of the study of nature through

science as reinforcing and in no way refuting Scriptural revela¬

tion.30 This reconciliation of Scripture and nature as the source

of religious knowledge was not peculiar to Puritans such as Cot¬

ton Mather. Tindal, for example, a typical English deist, entitled

his influential book Christianity Old as the Creation: Or the

Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature (1730), and

he emphasized reliance on reason. Gradually the Puritan faith

in miracles and unpredictable, illustrious providences gave way

in American society to the deistic faith that reason invalidated

miracles and that the deity, having ordained the immutable laws

of the world-machine, could no longer interfere. The crux of

the problem involved in the transition from Puritanism to Deism

in America is not the question, “When did men see Creation as

revealing a Creator,” but “When did they come to believe that

the Creation reveals a Creator in a way which makes belief in

the Scriptural revelation unnecessary, if not impossible?” The

essence of deism, as Professor Crane has said, involves “the

complete lack of authority of any religious beliefs which cannot

be shown to have been held everywhere, in all ages, and by all

men.”31

Yet one must distinguish, following Leslie Stephen, between

“constructive deists” and “critical deists” — the latter of whom

insisted sharply that the findings of science in nature invalidate

Biblical doctrines of revelation. Newton himself of course re¬

vered the Bible; but some of his doctrines, in the era of the

French Revolution, were turned against318 Christianity by his

30 This subject has been well treated by T. Hornberger in his article entitled “The Date, the

Source, and the Significance of Cotton Mather’s interest in Science,” American Literature, VI,

413-420 (Jan. 1933). See also K. B. Murdock’s Introduction to Selections from Cotton Mather,

N.Y., 1926, especially pp. xlviii-liv.

31 R. S. Crane, “Anglican Apologetics and the Idea of Progress,” Modern Philology, XXXI,

p. 350 (May, 1934).

.•ua William Scales, F.R.S., in 1806 attacked Harvard as a “seminary of sophistry, falsehood

and folly” furthering infidelity by means of science: “As soon as I applied myself to study, great

Locke was delivered to me, to study whom I found to be a miserable destroyer of the under-

810 Wisconsht Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

later interpreters. Samuel Keimer’s Universal Instructor in all

Arts and Sciences (Philadelphia) has been interpreted as “A

Brand Flung at Colonial Orthodoxy” :32 as early as 1729 he

developed the doctrine that God is “to be known only in his

Works,” in nature seen through the eye of science. The most

violent of the critical deists, however, is of course Tom Paine,

who said that “the two faiths [Christianity and science] cannot

be held together in the same mind,”33 that whoever believes in

Christ is an infidel. But Paine’s violent rejection of Christianity

is approached by that of Ethan Allen’s Oracles of Reason ,34 and

traces of this rejection of Christian orthodoxy in the name of

scientific rationalism can be found in Franklin (as early as

1728), in Thomas Cooper, in Jefferson and in Freneau. The

typical scientific deist,35 then, is regarded in this paper as not

merely one who thinks the design of nature a revelation of a

designer. Of course not all deists were “scientific,” but in Ameri¬

ca science played an especially important role.

Let us begin with Franklin’s religion. He had been born in

Puritan Boston and reared “piously in a dissenting way.” How¬

ever, as a result of reading “Shaftesbury and Collins” and some

of the Boyle lectures, Franklin said that he become a “thorough

standing; after that, renowned Sir Isaac Newton came before me for examination, and I found him

a great fabricator of falsehoods, and a destroyer of the work of God.” (Dedication in Scales’ “The

Quintessence of Universal History.”)

33 See discussion by C. E. Jorgenson in his article, “A Brand Flung at Colonial Orthodoxy,”

Journalism Quarterly, XII, 272-277 (Sept. 193S). The dissemination of deistic ideas and New-

tonianism is also treated in Jorgenson's “Almanacs of Ames and Franklin,” New England Quarterly,

VIII, 555-61 (Dec. 1935).

32 Writings of Thomas Paine, edited by Conway, IV, 66.

34 For discussion see Woodbridge Riley, American Philosophy, The Early Schools, New York,

1907; and G. A. Koch, Republican Religion, New York, 1933, pp. 28-50; G. P. Anderson ( N . E.

Quarterly, X, 685-96) argues that a Philadelphia physician, Dr. Thomas Young, wrote most of

the Oracles.

35 It should be borne in mind that scientific deism is but part of the philosophy of The En¬

lightenment, which involved faith in reason, in progress, in natural altruism, and in man s power

to perfect himself by modifying his outward environment. (See Carl Becker, The Heavenly City

oj the Eighteenth Century Philosophers, New Haven, 1932, p. 102, and Preserved Smith, A History

of Modern Culture, New York, 1934, Vol. II, with elaborate bibliography. In so far as deism

involved a return to what all men in all times have accepted as basic and universal, it drew

occasionally upon classical doctrines, particularly those represented! by Cicero. Conyers Middleton,

for example, the English deist, was much indebted to Cicero and wrote his biography. And Thomas

Paine ( Writings , IV, 410) cited Cicero's doctrine of the law of nature (Z>e Legibus, II, 4, 10)

by way of Middleton. But this was in 1807, two years before Paine’s death, and long after he had

formulated his deism in The Age of Reason, where he expressly states his primary debt to science.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 311

deist.”36 Inspired by an attempt to refute Wollaston, he devoted

his Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, as early as 1725, to

an attempt to prove that, because God is both “all-good, all

powerful,” and the universe is balanced and it is operated by

immutable law, “the distinction of Virtue and Vice is excluded.”

In his mechanistic and rationalistic Articles of Belief (1728)

Franklin modifies the radical views just mentioned, but he

insists that the deity and his will are adequately revealed in

nature, and that, as opposed to ecclesiastical embroidery, one

need believe only what men in all times and lands have believed.

Entranced by the harmonious “chorus of planets moving peri¬

odically by uniform laws,” Franklin thinks God “has given us

Reason whereby we are capable of observing his Wisdom in the

Creation.” “Thy Wisdom, thy Power, and thy Goodness are

everywhere clearly seen ; in the air and in water, in the Heaven

and on the Earth.” Elsewhere he saw “the best Histories of

Nature ” as “new Proofs of Divine Providence,” and he repeat¬

edly urged us to read “the sacred Book of Nature” as the source

of “what is Right.”36a Franklin relies, then, not on traditional

authority or ecclesiasticism, but upon “the everlasting tables of

right reason” as the interpreter of the sacred and “mighty

volumes of visible nature.” He venerated Jesus’s morals, but

had “doubts as to his divinity,”37 and he did not accept the

Scriptures as a divine revelation. In these ways, then, he de¬

parted from orthodox Christianity, relying upon scientific

rationalism with which, as Turgot said, he snatched sceptres

from kings and lightning from the Puritan heaven, where it

had been the symbol (to men like Edwards) of a capricious,

“angry” God.

His friend Thomas Jefferson eventually evolved into a Uni¬

tarian and looked upon himself as a liberal Christian,38 who,

33 For elaborate discussion of Franklin’s scientific deism in relation to his other interests,

see introducton to Franklin (1936) by F. L. Mott and C. E. Jorgenson, and studies listed in their

bibliography by Seipp, Stifler, Bruce, etc.

3«a Franklin’s Writings (ed. Smyth), II, 169 and 395; Mott and Jorgenson, pp. 132-3,

160-1, 205.

37 Franklin summarizes his “Creed” in his letter to Ezra Stiles, March 9, 1790, found in the

Smyth’s edition of Franklin’s Writings, X, 83-85.

38 His later views will be found discussed by W. D. Gould, “The Religious Opinions of Thomas

Jefferson,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XX, 191-209 (Sept. 1933), and by Gilbert Chinard,

Thomas Jefferson (Boston, 1929), pp. 513ff. His earlier and more radical views are discussed in

W. Riley, American Philosophy, who summarizes his religion as “an eclecticism of a pronounced

deistic type.”

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

following Priestley, had rescued the diamond from the dunghill

of ecclesiastical corruption. During his most active life, how¬

ever, he was essentially a deist who quoted approvingly Boling-

broke’s idea that the “heathen moralists” were “more full, more

entire, more coherent than Christ.”39 He had a fierce hatred of

Calvinism and all its doctrines.40 Confident that “reason is the

only oracle,”41 that whatever would “contradict the laws of

nature” should be questioned, Jefferson, as an ardent admirer

of Newton, developed the belief (“without appeal to revela¬

tion”) that the “design” of the universe, manifest in “the move¬

ments of the heavenly bodies” maintained in harmonious order,

bespeaks “a Fabricator of all things from matter and motion,

their Preserver and Regulator.”42 It is true he cited religious

doctrines from the ancient classics, but Professor Chinard43 has

shown that he took from the classics only those ideas which

would not conflict with his basic deism, which (as the above

quotations suggest) appears to have been mainly inspired by

Newtonian astronomy. From his faith in reason as the basis of

science44 (to be cultivated by universal education) and his faith

in the influence of environment upon character (based on the

tabula rasa doctrines of Locke’s psychology) he derived in part

at least his faith in the potential goodness of the people; this,

being the seminal principle of his democracy, will be more fully

discussed in our later section on Politics. It seems probable,

although the evidence is hardly conclusive, that he was not

uninfluenced by the harmony and rationality of the Newtonian

39 The Literary Bible of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Chinard. (Baltimore, 1928), p. 58.

40 See Best Letters of Jefferson (Boston, 1926), pp. 228-29; 251-56. For exhaustive evidence,

see the doctoral dissertation (which I directed) by Barriss Mills on Nineteenth Century American

Attitudes toward Puritanism (1941. University of Wisconsin Library).

41 Ibid., 36.

42 Ibid., 252-53.

43 Chinard, Literary Bible, p. 16.

41 For studies of various aspects of Jefferson’s interest in science see A. W. Greely, “Jefferson

as a Geographer,” National Geographic Magazine, VII. pp. 269-271, 1896; Fred Lucas, “Thomas

Jefferson — PalaeontoOpgist,” Natural History, XXVI, 328-30 (June, 1926); G. T. Surface, “In¬

vestigation into the Character of Jefferson as a Scientist,” Journal of American History, IV, 214-20,

and the same author’s “Thomas Jefferson: A Pioneer Student of American Geography,” American

Geographical Society Bulletin, XLI, 743-50 (Dec. 1909); R. H'. True, “Thomas Jefferson in

Relation to Botany,” Scientific Monthly, III, 345-60 (Oct. 1916); J. W. Wayland, “Jefferson

as a Scientist,” Virginia Journal of Science, XIX, 358-59. He made especially important con¬

tributions to science in fathering the Lewis and Clark Expedition as a means of gathering data

regarding geography and our distinctive flora and fauna, and in administering (while Secretary of

State) our first Patent Office as a means of encouraging scientific inventions.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 313

system in his belief that men may be educated to be rational

and good,45 that self-love and social are the same. It may not

be entirely fanciful to suppose that his fundamental agrarian¬

ism46 which came to him partly by way of the scientific and

deistic French physiocrats, was partly influenced by his religious

faith that nature (and not the Bible) is a divine revelation.

Finally, his dominant faith in progress is strongly conditioned

by rationalistic science.

I have tried to analyse elsewhere47 Tom Paine’s religion as

it is indebted to science, notably Newtonian doctrines as popu¬

larly interpreted by Benjamin Martin and James Ferguson, to

whose lectures he listened at the formative age of twenty. “The

natural bent of my mind,” Paine said, “was to science.”474 In

summary, it may be said that, completely rejecting Christianity,

Paine held that (A) outward nature, in the eye of science, is

the only revelation of a Creator who is benevolent; (B) the

scientific study of nature reveals, also, a “harmonious, magnifi¬

cent order” ;48 nature ... is the laws the Creator has prescribed

to matter”;49 (C) the natural man shares the divine benevo¬

lence, is instinctively altruistic, and in this harmonious order

his “wants, acting upon every individual, impel the whole of

41 Best Letters , 257; 177-78; Writings (ed. Bergh), XIV, 43.

49 See discussion in V. L. Parrington, Colonial Mind, New York, 1927, pp. 342-56, and in

G. Chinard’s introduction to his edition of the Correspondence of Jefferson and Du Pont de

Nemours, Baltimore, 1931. Jefferson wrote, “I think our governments will remain virtuous ... as

long as they are chiefly agricultural; and this will be as long as there shall be vacant lands in any

part of America. When they | the people] get piled upon one another in large cities, as in Europe,

they will become corrupt as in Europe” ( Writings , ed. Ford, IV, 479-80, Dec. 20, 1787). It would

appear, then, that his basic democratic faith in the goodness of the people rests upon his frontier

agrarianism and the not unrelated deistic view that the earth is a divine revelation and contact

with it (as in the fanner’s life) promotes virtue.

47 H. H. Clark, “An Historical Interpretation of Thomas Paine’s Religion,” University of

California Chronicle, XXXV, 56-87 (Jan. 1933). In a brief sketch, “Toward a Reinterpretation of

Thomas Paine” ( American Literature, V, 133-45, May, 1933) I have tried to suggest the manner

in which Paine’s scientific deism inspired his political, economic, humanitarian, educational, and

literary ideas. Marjorie Nicolson, an outstanding authority on the influence of science on literature,

has shown that Paine’s ideas, especially in the Age of Reason, Part I, came to him “from the ‘new

astronomy’ of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,” and that “the central doctrine upon which

the Age of Reason is founded” is the doctrine of the plurality of worlds which made disbelief in

Christianity “a logical and inevitable conclusion from indisputable scientific premises.” (See her

scholarly study, “Thomas Paine, Edward Nares, and Mrs. Piozzi’s Marginalia,” in The Huntington

Library Bulletin, No. 10, Oct., 1936, especially pp. 108, 111, 113.

47a Paine’s Writings (ed. Conway), IV, 63.

48 Ibid., IV, 340.

Ibid., IV, 339; also 242; 311.

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

them into society, as naturally as gravitation acts to a centre ;50

(D) an attempt to re-establish in thought and action the lost

harmony with this uniform, immutable, universal, and eternal

law and order which is nature, and to modify or overthrow

whatever traditional institutions have obscured this order and

thrown its natural harmony into discord, will constitute pro¬

gress, will radically decrease human suffering, and will rapidly

usher in “the birthday of a new world.”51 The important thing

to remember is that when the deistic Paine proposed a pro¬

gram of back-to-nature he did not mean to go back to a primi¬

tive wilderness but to try to approximate in civil society the law

and order of the Newtonian universe. Nature means law and

order ; it does not mean anarchy. Although the method of using

analogies between the natural and political orders may have

been essentially Platonic, the central definition of his program

seems to have been strongly colored by Newtonian science.

II

Politics

Having now surveyed briefly the manner in which science

entered into American religious thought, let us now inquire into

the way in which analogies with science and ideas inspired by

science entered into American political thought. First a word

as to Old World backgrounds. Dr. Herbert Drennon, in his

Chicago dissertation,62 has surveyed the interesting manner in

which Newtonian ideas of the immutability and universality of

natural law as a divine revelation had been popularized by such

men as Bentley, Samuel Clarke, William Derham, Pemberton,

David Gregory, John Keill, William Whiston, Colin MacLaurin,

Locke, John Woodward, J. T. Desaguliers, Joseph Addison, Sir

Richard Blackmore, Henry Needier, and John Hughes. Vol¬

taire’s Elemens de la philosophic de Newton was translated and

M Ibid., II, 406. The suspicion that Paine is here merely using a figure of speech seems

untenable when one considers his statement in the light of the whole Age of Reason which, as

Miss Nicolson shows, is permeated with ideas derived from science.

51 Ibid., I, 119.

52 Summarized in University of Chicago Abstracts of Theses, Humanistic Series, 1930, VII,

524 ff.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

315

published in English the very year it had originally appeared,

1738; Voltaire’s vogue in America, like that of the other French

spokesmen of the Enlightenment,53 was considerable. The man¬

ner in which scientific law and government were being con¬

nected54 is apparent in the following confession by Desaguliers :

“I have considered Government as a Phenomenon, and look’d

upon that Form of it to be the most perfect which did nearly

resemble the Natural Government of our System according to

the laws settled by the All-wise and All-mighty Architect of the

Universe.” This statement occurs in the preface to Desaguliers’

poem of 1728 entitled “The Newtonian System of the World, the

Eest Model of Government: an Allegorical Poem. . . .”55 Such

analogies between politics and Newtonianism were doubtless

brought to America by men such as Isaac Greenwood, who, after

listening to Desaguliers’ astronomical lectures in London, gave

popular lectures on astronomy at Harvard.56 The younger John

58 For discussion see Maty S. Libby’s The Attitude of Voltaire to Magic and the Sciences.

New York, 1935. And see Mary Margaret Barr’s Voltaire in America, 1744-1800 (Baltimore, 1941)

and the review of it by D.F. Bond in Modern Language Quarterly, III, 144-6 (March, 1942). For

general backgrounds see Kingsley Martin, French Liberal Thought in the Eighteenth Century :

A Study of Political Ideas (Boston, 1929); Bernard Fay, The Revolutionary Spirit in France and

America (New York, 1927); H. M. Jones’, America and French Culture (Chapel1 Hill, N.C., 1927),

especially chapters XIV and XV on politics; and the elaborate “Bibliographical Essay” characterizing

a host of modern studies in Crane Brinton’s A Decade of Revolutions (New York, 1934) pp. 293-

322. It is significant that Timothy Dwight should have dedicated his satirical Triumph of Infidelity

(1788) to Voltaire.

54 For further evidence which shows the manner in which contemporaries were taking the

harmony of the Newtonian system as the analogy of an ideal, social order, see George Berkeley,

The Guardian, No. 126, Wednesday, Aug. 5, 1713 (from Chalmers, Vol. XVIII, 15ff): Thomson’s

Liberty Part V (where “this social cement,” this “moral gravitation,” keeps society from being

drawn “to several selfish centers” just as gravitation keeps the physical world from reverting to

chaos); The Works of Richard Bentley (ed. Dyce, London, 1838), III, 266-79, “A Sermon Preached

before King George I on February the third, 1716-17,” where he argues that just as gravitation

binds the physical world together, so an analagous “public principle” implanted by God binds

members of society together harmoniously. From another angle science influenced political theory

through anthropological observations of travelers: see John L. Myers’ study of “The Influence of

Anthropology on the Course of Political Science,” in the University of California Publications in

History, Vol. IV, (1916-17), pp. 1-81. He treats especially such authors as Locke, Voltaire, and

Rousseau. This president of the Anthropological Section of the British Association of Scientific

Advancement concludes, p. 74, that the evidence shows “how intimately the growth of political

philosophy has interlocked at every stage with that of anthropological science. Each fresh start on

the never-ending quest of Man as he ought to be has been the response of theory to fresh facts

about Man as he is. And, meanwhile, the dreams and speculations of one thinker after another —

even dreams and speculations which have moved nations and precipitated revolutions — have ceased

to command men’s reason, when they ceased to accord with their knowledge.”

55 p. iii.

30 See Dictionary of American Biography. Greenwood wrote An Experimental Course on Me¬

chanical Philosophy (1726), and A New Method for Composing a Natural History of Meteors

(1728).

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Winthrop also did much to popularize Newtonianism in America

through his Harvard lectures.67

Fortunately, the history of the vogue in America of New¬

tonianism “as a model of government” has been traced by Pro¬

fessor Carl Becker,68 and therefore it need not be repeated here.

In summing up the pattern of ideas in vogue just before the

Declaration of Independence, Mr. Becker shows that most peo¬

ple believed that: “There is a ‘natural order’ of things in the

world, cleverly and expertly designed by God for the guidance

of mankind; that the ‘laws’ of the natural order may be dis¬

covered by human reason ; that these laws so discovered furnish

a reliable and immutable standard for testing the ideas, the

conduct, and the institutions of men — these were the accepted

premises, the preconceptions, of most eighteenth century think¬

ing, not only in America, but also in England and France.”

(p. 26). (If some of these ideas appear in Cicero, it must be

remembered that, as we have already seen, many of the deists

cited Cicero to reinforce their Newtonian ideas of law and

order.) These views had been popularized in America by the

Puritan pulpit, by libraries, almanacs, magazines, newspapers,

schools, lectures, and by correspondence and the inter-relations

of travelers in both countries.59 I trust sufficient attention has

been given to the fact that Puritanism helped in some ways to

pave the way for political liberalism and for respect for science,

and the fact that the transition from Puritanism to the En¬

lightenment was very gradual. It should be noted, however, that

even such an ardent apologist for the Puritans as H. M. Jones

admits that “the universe of the transcendentalist differs toto

caelo from the Newtonian world-machine; and the deistic view

of human nature contradicts at every turn that of high Calvin-

ism.”59a

57 See F. E. Brasch, “Newton’s First Critical Disciple in the American Colonies— John VVin-

throp,” in Sir Isaac Newton, 1727-1927 (Baltimore, 1928), pp. 301-38; and also Brasch, “The

Newtonian Epoch in 'the American Colonies,” American Antiquarian Society Proceedings, N.S.,

XLIX, Oct. 1939, pp. 314-322.

58 The Declaration of Independence, New York, 1922, Chapter II.

38 See Alice Baldwin, The New England Clergy and the American Revolution. Durham, N.C.

1928; and H. M. Morais, Deism in Eighteenth Century America, New York, 1934, p. 55, where

early libraries possessing Newton’s works are listed.

59a Authority and the Individual (Cambridge, Mass.), p. 332 (in H. M. Jones’ “The Drift to

Liberalism in the American Eighteenth Century”). It is significant that leaders of liberalism in

politics such as Jefferson and Paine had a fiery contempt for Puritanism and its belief in total

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 317

The new trend appears especially in the emphasis upon

nature over the Bible as a primary guide to conduct, upon reason

and science over the “religious affections” (the heart) as

stressed by such Puritans as Edwards, and upon faith that the

masses were sufficiently altruistic to be entrusted with their own

government.

The close relation in this cosmopolitan age not only between

contemporary English and American thought and thinkers, but

also between scientific and political ideas, may be illustrated by

the English Joseph Priestley, who came to America in 1794,

although he had long been widely popular here. Indeed, Pro¬

fessor Lois Whitney, whose interpretation I follow, regards him

as “representative of the progressives”60 in general and “a

kind of touchstone” for their doctrines. Building upon the semi-

Lockean theory of the “association of ideas” of the medical

practitioner David Hartley, whose Observations on Man (1749)

paved the way for later psycho-physiological doctrines, Priestley

also accepted and elaborated some of the American Franklin’s

theories of the constitution of matter (in relation to its being

penetrable by subtle electrical fluid)61 and proceeded in his Dis¬

quisitions Relating Matter and Spirit (1777) to turn from the

older dualism between them, to question a belief in the soul,

and to correlate mind and body. Thus to Priestley all life be¬

came one, under the influence of science, especially chemistry,

in which he was an almost unrivalled pioneer; it was thus nat¬

ural that he should as an inductive scientist attack a priori

theories about politics. “Human nature, with the various inter¬

ests and connexions of men in a state of society, is so complex

a subject that nothing can be safely concluded a priori with

respect to it. Everything that we can depend upon must be

derived from /acts.”62 In Priestley’s emphasis on political em¬

piricism, “utility” and the “public good” he was not only in line

with the British Bentham (who acknowledged him as the source

of his criterion of “the greatest happiness of the greatest num-

depravity and the “elect,” especially as these doctrines were translated into anti-equalitarian and

aristocratic political practise. See Jefferson’s Writings, Memorial Edition, XV, 384, 425, 403;

VII, 252.

60 Lois Whitney, Primitivism and the Idea of Progress (Baltimore, 1934), pp. 1 7 7ff .

® See Priestley’s History oj Electricity.

02 Lectures on History (London, 1788), pp. 12-13.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ber”)63 but he was also in accord with Americans such as his

friends Jefferson and Paine. In the rationalistic Priestley’s at¬

tack on Burke’s hostile Reflections on the French Revolution, he

concluded, “To make the public good the standard of right or

wrong, in whatever relates to society and government, besides

being the most natural and rational of all rules, has the farther

recommendation of being the easiest of application. Either what

God has ordained, or what antiquity authorizes, may be difficult

to ascertain ; but what regulation is more conducive to the public

good, though not always without its difficulties, yet in general

it is much more easy to determine.”64 In his influential and early

First Principles of Government (1768), he had already said:

“The good and happiness of the members, that is, the majority

of the members, of any state, is the great standard by which

everything relating to that state must be determined.” No

wonder he was devoted to the principles of the American and

the French revolutionists as being “glorious” and the “reverse

of all the past” !65 No wonder the French made him an honorary

member of their Convention, and no wonder, when his home and

scientific laboratory was burned by a mob opposed to the French

Revolution, he was widely welcomed by American liberals when

he came here in 1794, as Jefferson said, to seek refuge in a land

of free thought. Trained in science, one of the founders of

Unitarianism in his attack upon The Corruptions of Christianity

(1769), it was logical that he should have held that government

should leave “all men the enjoyment of as many of their natural

rights as possible, ... no more interfering with matters of

religion, with men’s notions concerning God and a future state,

than with philosophy or medicine.”66 Priestley was an ardent

necessitarian who saw mind as a mechanism, the product of

“cause and effect” which rules “as much in the intellectual, as in

the natural world.”67 In his Disquisitions Relating Matter and

03 For details see Oliver Elton, A Survey of English Literature, 1780-18S0 (New York, 1920), I,

441-42.

rA Letters to the Right Honorable Burke, second edition, Birmingham, 1791, p. 23.

6,1 Ibid., p. 14S.

68 Priestley’s Works, ed. Rutt (1817-32), XXII, 236. His friend Richard Price, in his Evidence

for a Future Period of Improvement (1787), based his hopes of progress in part upon “the diffusion

of knowledge created by printing and better navigation” (p. 25). Price was also immensely popular

in America.

87 Priestley’s Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity (London, 1777), p. xxx.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 819

Spirit, he said that “the principle object is, to prove the uniform

composition of man, or what is called mind, or the principle of

perception and thought, is not a substance distinct from the

body, but the result of corporeal organization.”68 Thus man and

his controlling ideas can be changed by external influences, such

as education and government. Like Franklin, Jefferson, and

Paine, Priestley had little sympathy with the attempt to retain

primitive conditions, but believed in building on nature by means

of the art of education and the communication of ideas. Thus

he says that “by art we not only anticipate the course of nature,

but may communicate knowledge in an easier, because a more

regular method than nature employs. . . . Indeed, without these

advantages, no man, in this advanced age of the world, could

possibly attain” to that condition in which, “the whole human

species put in a progressive state, one generation advanc[es]

upon another, in a manner that no bounds can be set to pro¬

gress.” Like Franklin, his friend Priestley held that “this pro¬

gress is not equable, but accelerated, every new improvement

opening the way to many others. . . .”69 Second only to educa¬

tion, the communication of ideas, as the basis of progress, is the

division of labor which promotes specialization and hence soli¬

darity of group-interests; this is to be brought about not by a

return to primitivism but by the development of society and

government. “The great instrument in the hand of divine provi¬

dence, of this progress of the species towards perfection, is

society, and consequently government. In a state of nature . . .

from generation to generation every man does the same that

every other does, or has done; and no person begins where

another ends. . . . This we see exemplified in all barbarian

nations . . . where the connections of the people are slight, and

consequently society and government very imperfect. . . . Where¬

as a state of more perfect society admits of a proper distribution

and division of the objects of human attention. In such a state

men are connected and subservient to one another ; so that, while

one man confines himself to one single object, another may give

the same undivided attention to another object. Thus the pow¬

ers of all have their full effect: and hence arise improvements

68 Op. cit , p. 3SS.

88 Miscellaneous Observations Relating to Education (Bath, 1778), pp. 2-4.

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

in all the conveniences of life, and in every branch of knowl¬

edge.”70 Like Jeiferson, Priestley urges us to “give full scope to

everything which may bid fair for introducing more variety

among us. . . . It is only the education which men give them

[inferior species] that raises any of them above the others. But

it, is the glory of human nature, that the operations of reason,

though variable, and by no means infallible, are capable of

infinite improvement.”71

In considering Priestley’s vogue in America, it must be re¬

membered that his “system was carried from Pennsylvania

(where he settled and lived from 1794 to 1804) 72 into the South

by his son-in-law, Thomas Cooper,” who had an even “wider

knowledge of the literature of materialism” and who stated in

a more balanced and persuasive form his own Metaphysical and

Physiological Arguments in Favor of Materialism .73 Although

Cooper much later favored the southern secessionists, he was

originally a ardent political liberal, attacking Burke, exalting

Paine and the principles of the French Revolution.

While Franklin’s early birth in Cotton Mather’s Puritan

Boston helped to give him more of a Puritan and conservative

“hang-over” than had most of the men we are considering, it is

important to notice that, being a “thorough deist” in religion,

many of his most forward-looking political ideas derived from

the natural-rights tradition. An authority on Franklin’s Politi¬

cal Theories concludes that “most of Franklin’s political ideas

may be found in the writings of Locke,”74 one of the founders

of the science of psychology, with whom he was early familiar.75

Thus “all the Property that is necessary to a Man, for the Con¬

servation of the Individual and the Propagation of the Species,

is his natural Right, which none can justly deprive him of.

. . .”76 Not only is property to Franklin a natural right, but

7U An Essay on the First Principles of Government (London, 1768), pp. 4-7.

71 Ibid., pp. 78-80.

72 For full details see Edgar F. Smith’s Priestley in America (Phila., 1920). This book is

devoted mainly to his contributions to science and written for “all those who are interested in the

growth and development of science in this country.” (Preface).

73 See I. W. Riley, American Thought (New York, 1915), p. 102. Riley’s American Philosophy.

The Early Schools (New York, 1907), pp. 396-406 and passim provides elaborate analysis of

Priestley’s ideas.

74 Malcolm R. Eiselen, Franklin’s Political Theories (New York, 1928), p. 5.

75 See Franklin’s Writings, I, 243; II, 387n; III, 28.

76 Ibid., IX, 138. In this passage he goes on to defend the right of the state to tax property

“superfluous to such purposes,” whose value derives partly from the community at large.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

321

civil liberty is to him “that heavenly Blessing, without which

Mankind lose half their Dignity and Value.”77 While he always

insisted upon the need for the self-reform of the individual,

he also had faith in the people to direct their own government :

“The People seldom continue long in the wrong, when it is

nobody’s Interest to mislead them.”78 Like the expositor of the

tabula rasa environmental psychology, Franklin held that “our

Opinions are not in our own Power; they are form’d and gov¬

ern’d much by Circumstances.”79 He concerned himself, then,

with improving our “circumstances,” and with applying his

Yankee reason to scientific inventions which would improve our

physical welfare as a means to higher ends. He has been im¬

pressed, he said with “the growing felicity of mankind, from the

improvements in philosophy, morals, and politics, and even the

conveniences of common living, by the invention and acquisition

of new and useful utensils and instruments. . . . For invention

and improvement is rapid. ... If the art of physic shall be

improved in proportion with other arts, we may then be able

to avoid diseases. . . .”80 In political and economic matters, being

a friend of the French physiocrats and of Adam Smith, Franklin

regarded the order of nature as the order of God and he warned

his readers against amending “the scheme of Providence ... to

interfere with the government of the world.”81 As opposed to

mercantilists and those who would set up artificial barriers to

trade between nations, Franklin said “In time perhaps Mankind

may be wise enough to let Trade take its own Course, find its

own Channels, and regulate its own Proportions.”82 Not only

did he justify laissez-faire on the basis of natural laws (to the

discovery of which science was devoted) but he thought as a

deist that America’s distinctive wealth, deriving from agricul¬

ture and fisheries, came directly from God.83 Of all the ways of

gaining wealth, “the only honest way,” according to the “thor¬

ough deist,” was that “wherein man receives a real increase of

” Quoted by Eiselen, op. cit., p. 11.

,!l Writings, ed. Smyth, V, 461.

,i' Franklin’s Writings, ed. Smyth, IX, 252.

*“ Franklin, ed. Mott and Jorgenson, p. 496 (to Rev. John Lathrop, May 31, 1788).

81 Franklin’s Writings, ed. Smyth, III, 135.

S2 Ibid., IV, 243-44. For further evidence of hia ardent espousal of a laissez-faire policy, see V.

534-39; VII, 176; II, 313-4; VIII, 260-1; IX, 63.

83 Franklin’s Writings, ed. Smyth, X, 122.

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

the seed thrown into the ground, in a kind of continual miracle,

wrought by the hand of God in his favour, as a reward for his

innocent life and his virtuous industry.”84 It should be evident,

then, that his ardent agrarianism and his devotion to furthering

the settlement of the western lands85 was not unconnected with

religious motivations, with his basic deism which rested, as we

have seen, in no small measure upon science. As an apostle of

The Enlightenment, Franklin thought that America’s progress

would be in line with the general beneficent tendency of Provi¬

dence and that nationalisms would eventually blend into the

good of all. “. . . our Revolution,” he wrote his friend Richard

Price, “is an important Event for the Advantage of Mankind in

general. It is to be hoped that the Lights we enjoy, which the

ancient Governments in their first Establishment could not have,

may preserve us from their Errors.”86 Elsewhere he said that

“our Cause is the Cause of all Mankind, and that we are fighting

for their Liberty in defending our own. ’Tis a glorious task

assign’d us by Providence. . . .”87 He “sees the welfare of the

parts in the prosperity of the whole” world, and he came to

favor a league of nations to preserve peace.88

At first glance it seems odd that while Franklin was the

most illustrious technical scientist of his contemporaries, his

political theories appear to be less explicitly scientific than those

of, say, Paine or Jefferson. Perhaps this fact is explained in

part because, like his friend Priestley, he is an inductive and

not a deductive scientist : and thus in avoiding a priori absolutes

and proceeding as an empiricist step by step as political circum-

84 Franklin, ed. Mott and Jorgenson, p. 347 (in “Positions to be Examined, concerning! National

Wealth”). For Franklin's great and widely influential interest in agriculture from a scientific angle

see the able study by E. D. Ross, “Benjamin Franklin as an Eighteenth-Century Agriculture

Leader,” Journal of Political Economy, XXXVII, 52-72 (Feb. 1929). For Franklin’s economic

theories see L. J. Carey, Franklins Economic Views (New York, 1928) — a substantial book — -and

W. A. Wetzel, Benjamin Franklin as an Economist (Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical

and Political Science, 13th series, IX, 421-76. Baltimore, 1895.) The interesting manner in which

many of his economic interests were deduced from science and deism is demonstrated by Mott and

Jorgenson, op. cit., pp. lxiv-lxxxi.

83 Franklin’s Writings, ed. Smyth, III, 358-66 (“Plan for Settling Two Western Colonies”);

IV, 461-2; V, 314; V, 465-527.

™ Ibid., IX, 256.

87 Ibid., VII, 56. See also VI, 311, on his view of “the glorious public virtue so predominant

in our rising Country” in contrast to “the extream Corruption” of Europe. Also VI, 409;

IX, 87-8; on his faith in America's development as part of a new world-order of increased happiness

for all. see VI, 93; VII, 56; IX, 256; III, 339; IV, 4; V, 21; VI, 322.

“ Ibid., V, 155-56; IX, 107; VIII, 80-82, 207, 263; IX, 3-7, 291-9; IX. 657.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 323

stances warrant, Franklin is really paralleling, at least, his pro¬

cedure as a scientist. His criterion, like Priestley’s, is practical

utility. On one occasion, for example, he renounced a doctrine

which, “tho’ it might be true, was not very useful.”89

While Franklin may have been deficient in an historical

imagination, he was surely pre-eminent as regards what one

might call a mathematical and social or humanitarian imagina¬

tion. Deism having led him to discount prayer and to believe

that the “most acceptable service of God was doing good”90 in

some practical way so as to lessen external causes of misery,

Franklin is often amazing in the fertility of imagination which

leads him not only to all sorts of scientific inventions (such as

Franklin stoves, bifocal spectacles) and social plans (such as

fire insurance, circulating libraries, etc.) but also to the con¬

vincing demonstration of the cumulative value of trifles — wit¬

ness his mathematical proof of the fruits of thriftiness.

Jefferson followed Franklin as our representative in France ;

and in his Notes on Virginia (1784), 91 written to refute the

French Buffon’s view that animal life degenerated in America,

Jefferson paid high tribute to Franklin’s achievements as a

scientist. While in France, as well as in his earlier and later

reading, he acquainted himself with the pattern of ideas of the

Encyclopedists and heralds of the French Revolution, including

his friend Condorcet. “Broadly stated,” says John Morley of

this school of thought, “the great central moral of it all was

this: that human nature is good, that the world is capable of

being made a desirable abiding place, and that the evil of the

world is the fruit of bad education and bad institutions.”92

Long before going to France, however, Jefferson had been

influenced by scientific ideas at the College of William and Mary.

“Placed alongside Newton,” he said, “every human character

must appear diminutive.”93 He read so widely that it is difficult

to evaluate the influence of all the ideas to which he was ex¬

posed, but it is significant that he regarded the scientists

su Franklin, ed. Mott and Jorgenson, p. 55.

Mlbid., 69.

81 For this work Jefferson assembled a mass of scientific data to prove that plants, animals, and

even men thrived better in the American environment than they did in that of Europe.

82 John Morley, Diderot and the Encyclopedists (London, 1880). p. 4.

82 Jefferson’s Writings (Memorial Edition), XIV, 79.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

“Bacon, Newton, and Locke” as the “trinity of the three great¬

est men the world has ever produced.”94 We may be justified,

then, in supposing that he was influenced by the Baconian in¬

ductive method as it ran counter to the acceptance of mere

authority; by the Newtonian doctrine of the immutability of

natural law as a divine revelation ; and by the Lockean doctrine

of tabula rasa and hence the idea that man is a product of

environment as well as the doctrine that government should rest

on a revocable social contract. Riley claims that he knew the

doctrines of Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of the evolu¬

tionist, and that his views of natural history fixed the destinies

of his life.95 He was also considerably influenced by the scientific

materialism of his friends Joseph Priestley and Thomas Coop¬

er.96 And he admitted that he professed the same political

principles as those of Thomas Paine, whose doctrines rested to

a considerable extent upon Newtonian analogies.

It will be recalled that Jefferson said that in the natural-

rights doctrine and the appeal to “the laws of nature and of

nature’s God” in the Declaration of Independence he expressed

simply “the sentiments of the day” and that Carl Becker has

shown that these were closely associated with Newtonianism,

especially as interpreted by its popularizers. “Even in Europe,”

he says, “a change has sensibly taken place in the mind of man.

Science has liberated the ideas of those who read and reflect,

and the American example had kindled feelings of right in the

people. An insurrection has consequently begun, of science, of

94 Best Letters, p. 162. Jefferson was strongly influenced in his youth by Dr. Small and

Governor Fauquier, a Fellow of the Royal Society, whose father had worked with Newton. See

Chinard, Jefferson, 1929, p. 12. On Locke’s vast influence both as psychologist and political thinker,

see Kenneth MacLean's inadequate Locke and English Literature of the Eighteenth Century (New

Haven, 1936), P. E. Aldrich, “John Locke and the Influence) of his Works in America,’’ Publica¬

tions of the American Antiquarian Society, April, 1879, pp. 22-39, dealing mainly with the use of

Locke’s works as textbooks in American Schools and colleges; and especially Merle Curti’s “The

Great Mr. Locke, America's Philosopher, 1783-1861,” The Huntington Library Bulletin, Vol. II,

pp. 1 07-1 5 1 , (April, 1937). It should be remembered that the doctrines of the rationalist Locke

were disseminated by the Puritan clergy with great effect. See C. H. Van Tyne, “The Influence

of the Clergy ... in the American Revolution,” American Historical Review, XIX, 44-64. Van

Tyne finds the doctrines so disseminated more influential than the economic causes of the War.

83 See I. W. Riley, American Philosophy, p. 267, who cites Lyon G. Tyler’s Early Courses and

Professors at William and Mary College, 1904, pp. 5-6. See Riley’s whole excellent chapter on

Jefferson’s thought, pp. 266-295. Also T. C. Johnson’s Scientific Interests in the Old South (New

York, 1936).

8I’ Riley, passim.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 325

talents, and courage, against rank and birth, which have fallen

into contempt. . . . Science is progressive, and talents and enter¬

prise on the alert.” He regarded freedom as “the first born

daughter of science”97 and the advance in science, he says re¬

peatedly, is the basis of his contempt for the guidance of the past

and his faith in progress. “One of the great questions, you

know,” he wrote John Adams in 1813, “on which our parties

took different sides, was on the improvability of the human

mind in science, in ethics, in government, etc. Those who advo¬

cated reform of institutions, pari passu, with the progress of

science, maintained that no definite limits could be assigned to

that progress.”98

Those who believed that Jefferson was naive and gullible in

trusting the people with their own government, who imagined

that he stood for a kind of a priori acceptance of universal

“natural goodness” of men, neglected the three-fold scientific

basis for his faith in the people. In the first place, he insists that

the people can be trusted with a democratic government; only in

so far as opinions may be freely debated and communicated, and

provision is made for universal education grounded upon sci¬

ence.99 (Discussion of this topic will be reserved for our later

section on Education.) In the second place, in accord with the

environmentalism100 which stems- from the tabula rasa doctrine

97 Writings, ed. Ford, VII, 3. [See Lucy M. Gidney, L’ Influence des Etuts-Unis d’ Amerique

sur Brissot, Condorcet, et Mme. Roland (Paris, 1930)].

98 Ibid., IX, 387. See also the Memorial Edition, XV, 399. Occasionally he had misgivings

that “morals do not necessarily advance hand in hand with the sciences,” especially in time of war,

but in general he was an ardent believer in progress to be effected by the education of the

people in science. For exhaustive evidence see Edwin Martin’s doctoral dissertation, Jefferson and

the Idea of Progress, available in manuscript at the Library of the University of Wisconsin.

99 For his belief that democracy depends upon free inquiry and education, see Writings, Me¬

morial Edition, XII, 417 (“the information of the people at large can alone make them the safe,

as they are the sole, depository of our political and religious freedom”); V, 396-7; II, 221-2;

III, 319; XIV, 103; XII, 387; XV, 339; XI, 34; XIV, 24S; II, 207; XV, 114; XIV, 24S;

XIII, 43.

100 W. D. Wallis in his article on “Environmentalism” ( Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, V,

561-66) defines it as “the tendency to stress the importance of physical, biological), psychological or

cultural environment as a factor influencing the structure or behavior of animals, including man.”

He cites the origins I have indicated, including not only Locke but also Turgot, d’Holbach, and

Condorcet, Jefferson’s friend. American environmentalism may be illustrated from Crevecoeur’s

Letters from an American Farmer (Everyman ed. pp. 44-5)-.' “Men are like plants; the goodness

and flavour > of the fruit proceeds from the peculiar soil and exposition in which they grow. We

are nothing but what we derive from the air we breathe, the climate we inhabit, the government

we obey, the system of religion we profess, and the nature of our employment.” Transplanted

from Europe to the frontier environment, “The American is a new man, who acts upon new

principles.”

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

of the psychologist Locke and which was elaborated upon by

the French liberals devoted to science, Jefferson merely thought

that for a limited period America’s good fortune in having

plenty of land and consequently a majority of farmers101 who

owned their means of getting a living would give Americans a

sense of responsibility and a “stake in society” which would con¬

tribute to wise government. In the third place, following thinkers

such as Locke and Priestley, Jefferson held that “opinions

change with the change of circumstances,” and hence “institu¬

tions must advance also, and keep pace with the times.”102 The

present generation, he said in 1819, “are wiser than we were,

and their successors will be wiser than they, from the progres¬

sive advance of science.”103 Thus Jefferson opposed any static

kind of government, preferring to keep it flexible and responsive

to changing human needs and new opportunities provided by the

discoveries of science.104

101 njn Europe the lands are either cultivated, or locked up against the cultivator. Manufacture

must therefore be resorted to of necessity not of choice, to support the surplus of their people.

But we have an immensity of land courting the industry of the husbandman. . . . Those who

labor in the earth are the chosen people of God, if ever He had a chosen people, whose breasts

He has made His peculiar deposit for substantial and genuine virtue. It is the focus in which he

keeps alive that Sacred fire, which otherwise might escape from the face of the earth. Corruption

of morals in the mass of cultivators is a phenomenon of which no age nor nation has furnished an

example. It is the mark set on those, who, not looking up to heaven, to their own soil and

industry, as does the husbandman, for their subsistence, depend for it on casualties and caprice of

customers. Dependence begets subservience and venality, suffocates the germ of virtue, and pre¬

pares fit tools for the designs of ambition. This, the natural progress and consequence of the arts,

has sometimes perhaps been retarded by accidental circumstances; but, generally speaking, the

proportion which the aggregate of the other classes of citizens bears in any State to that of its

husbandmen, is the proportion of its unsound to its healthy parts, and is a good enough barometer

whereby to measure its degree of corruption. While we have land to labor then, let us never wish

to see our citizens occupied at a workbench, or twirling distaff.” (Jefferson’s Writings, Memorial

Edition, II, 228-30). It should be noted with reference to this passage that his faith in agrarianism

is associated with the deistic idea that since God created the land and its produce, he who tills it

is closest to God. Elsewhere (Ford edition, IV, 479-80) he says, ‘‘I think our governments

will remain virtuous for many centuries; as long as they are chiefly agricultural; and this will be

as long as there shall be vacant lands in any part of America. When they [the people] get piled

upon one another in large cities, as in Europe, they will become corrupt as in Europe.” He

elaborates the same idea in the Memorial Edition, XIII, 401, adding that among American farmers

“everyone, by his property, or by his satisfactory situation, is interested in the support of law and

order. And such men may safely and advantageously reserve to themselves a wholesome control

over their public affairs, and a degree of freedom, which, in the hands of the canaille of the cities

of Europe, would be instantly perverted to the demolition and destruction of everything public and

private.” For full analysis see Joseph Dorfman’s “Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson,”

Political Science Quarterly, LV, 98-121 (March, 1940).

102 Writings, Memorial Edition, XV, 41. See also XIV, 491; XV, 325.

103 R. J. Honeywell, The Educational Work oj Thomas Jefferson, pp. 251-2, quotes similar

passages and elaborates upon them, emphasizing the influence of science.

104 On his insistence upon the (need for constant, preferably peaceful, revolution and change in

government see Memorial Edition. I, 139, 150; IX, 9-10; XTX, 268-9; XV, 300; VI, 372; IX.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Idea 's 327

Let us turn now to Jefferson’s ablest lieutenant as a journal¬

istic broadcaster of his doctrines, to Philip Freneau, who while

employed in the office of the Secretary of State edited the

National Gazette from 1791 to 1793, making it “the leading

paper in America,”105 in opposition to the Federalistic Fenno’s

Gazette of the United States. Except for an occasional yearning

for primitivistic simplicity, as befits his poetic nature, Freneau

may be said to have been in the main current of The Enlighten¬

ment and to have emphasized science (along with reason), in

its broad phases, as the central basis of political freedom and

progress. The development and logical articulation of his ideas

are worth considering with some care. To Freneau all things in

nature are

‘''But thoughts on reason’s scale combin’d,

Ideas of the Almighty mind.”100

Hence in discovering the immutable “general laws” by which

nature operates, the scientist is essentially a holy man because

he is thinking God’s thoughts after him. God “lives in all”

things, in “meaner works” as well as “in the starry sphere” ;107

even the little plant

“enjoys her little span —

With Reason only less complete

Than that which makes the boast of man.”108

Freneau holds that “science . . . stands firm on Reason,”109 and

he constantly compares reason to a sun

“whose unquenchable ray

Progressive, has dawn’d on the night of the mind,

From the source of all good. . . .”110

Hence, when free, human reason naturally gravitates toward

336; VI, 25, 65, 372-3, 150-1; IX, 389. He thought that each generation has a right to modify

the laws passed by their predecessors. “ ‘The earth belongs in usufruct to the living’ ; the dead have

neither powers nor rights over it.” (Ford edition, V, 116).

105 G. H. Payne, History of Journalism in the United States (New York, 1920), p. 163. His

ablest and latest biographer. Lewis Leary ( That Rascal. Freneau, New Brunswick, 1941, pp< 212-4.

389. 245, 208, 186-9, 259. 316) presents fresh evidence to show that Jefferson advised and influ¬

enced Freneau as editor.

106 Poems oj Freneau, ed. H. H. Clark (New York, 1928), p. 208.

107 Ibid., 422 (“On the Universality and Other Attributes of the God of Nature”). “All Nature

forms on Reason’s plan.” Ibid., 343.

108 Ibid., p. 378. It should be noted that this belief of the sentience of nature was expressed

nine years before The Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge.

io» Ibid., 416.

010 Poems of Philip Freneau, ed. Pattee, Princeton, 1907, III, 299.

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

what is divinely good, to its source. In the confident faith of

The Enlightenment Freneau attacks as “vile as vain” all “Abuse

of Human Power as Exercised over Opinion” :

f‘No, leave the mind unchain’d and free,

And what they ought, mankind will be,

. . . Good and great, benign and just,13 1

As God and nature made them first.”

Thus a rational “Religion of Nature” inevitably

“Inclines the tender mind to take

The path of right, fair virtue’s way

Its own felicity to make.”112

If in the light of scientific deism men are naturally good, what

is the source of human misery and evil ? He answers Kings and

priests, — monarchy and an Established Church — “impoverish

man” (who is naturally good when “left to himself”) and “keep

worlds at variance.” 113

And finally, in an essay in The Time-Piece (Sept. 8, 1797)

Freneau outlines his views of human history and progress. “At

first a mere barbarian,” man “at length by thought and reason’s

aid” forsook his savage den and lived as “a mild, beneficent,

humane creature, without wars, nor inclined to the shedding

of blood. . . . This was the law of reason. It is by abandoning

this great law, by disregarding the light within him, and by

surrendering it to the will of others, that man has become

what he is — a mean, base, cruel, and treacherous being. It is

from false forms of government that the far greater part of

human miseries and human vices are derived.”114 Then, con¬

tinues Freneau’s essay of Sept. 8, 1797, kings and priests having

long perverted institutions to ignoble ends, philosophic reason

came down from heaven to save mankind by persuasion rather

than force. The despots redoubled their efforts and appeared to

triumph for a time.

“Yet, nature must her circle run —

Can they arrest the rising sun?”

211 Poems \ oj Freneau, ed. Clark, p. 166.

122 Ibid., p. 424. See also p. 157 and p. 166 on natural goodness.

213 Ibid., pp. 155-157 (“Reflections on the Gradual Progress of Nations from Democratical

States to Despotic Empires”).

114 The last quotation is from The Time-Piece, March 24, 1797.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

329

Thus the poet sees current despotism — especially the opposition

to the French Revolution, and the American Federalists — as rep¬

resenting merely a parenthesis or a detour in the history of

progress.115 It is significant that the democratic leaders he

admires, who are to deliver us from bondage, are all devoted to

reason and to science. Thus Franklin is the “prince of all phi-

losophy” and his “fair science” makes him “the rival of Bri¬

tannia’s sage,” Newton; Freneau sees “sweet liberty” and sci¬

ence “irretrievably” joined.110 When the Federalists,

“Domestic traitors, with exotic, join’d,

To shackle this last refuge of mankind,”

the great Jefferson arose to reclaim our rights — Jefferson, who

could

“with Newton, . . . the heavens explore,

And trace through nature the creating power.”117

He rejoiced because the universe rings “with a code of new doc¬

trines” and [Thomas] “Paine is addressing strange sermons to

kings”118 in The Rights of Man. Freneau wrote two poems in

praise of Paine who held that science enables us to “see God, as

it were, face to face” in nature; he rejoiced that “from Reason’s

source, a bold reform he brings,” and “in raising up mankind,

he pulls down kings” who had “Nature’s law reversed.”119

“Peace to all feuds! — and come the happier day

When Reason’s sun shall light us on our way;

When erring man shall all his Rights retrieve,

No despots rule him, and not kings deceive.”120

The solar system as interpreted by Newton is suggested as an

ideal “model” of government operating by impartial laws and

based on social harmony and natural goodness, as opposed to a

system depending on the personal caprice of despots who ar-

lir> Exhaustive evidence on this subject has been assembled and interpreted in a doctoral

dissertation done under my direction by Macklin Thomas entitled The Idea of Progress in Franklin,

Barlow, Freneau, and Rush, available in manuscript at the Library of the University of Wisconsin.

110 Poems of Freneau, ed. Clark, pp. 12-13.

™ Ibid., 171-72.

118 Poems of Freneau, ed. Clark, p. 109 (In the poem “To the Public” which sets the tone

of the first number of The National Gazette, Oct. 31, 1791.

™lbid., 124-5.

1MIbid., 112.

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters

range so that “the few . . . possess all earthly good” while mil¬

lions are “robbed”:

“Great orb, that on our planet shines,

Whose power both light and heat combines,

You should the model be;

To man, the pattern how to reign

With equal sway, and how maintain

True human dignity.

Impartially to all below

The solar beams unstinted flow,

On all is poured the Ray,

Which cheers, which warms, which clothes the ground

In robes of green, or breathes around

Life; — to enjoy the day.”121

He would revive “laws,” analagous to those divinely “designed”

by the author of the solar system, to control the “love of wealth.”

Then

“Men will rise from what they are;

Sublimer, and superior far,

Than Solon guessed, or Plato saw;

All will be just, all will be good —

Then harmony, ‘not understood,’

Will reign the general law.”1*2

Dr. Benjamin Rush, himself both scientist and democrat,

concluded in his eloquent Eulogium of the astronomer Ritten-

house, “How could he behold the beauty and harmony of the

universe as a result of universal and mutual dependence, and

not admit that Heaven intended Rulers to be dependent upon

those, for whose benefit, alone, all government should exist? To

suppose the contrary would be to deny unity and system on the

plans of the great Creator of all things.”123 Rittenhouse124 him-

121 It is perhaps not entirely fanciful to trace part of Freneau’s ardent agrarianism and his

assertion of man’s right to some land as a regenerative influence, to his deism.

122 Poems of Philip Freneau, ed. Pattee, III, 222-3 (“On False Systems of Government, and

the Generally Debased Condition of Mankind”). See also Freneau’s Poems, Phila., 1809, I, 253-6

on Newtonianism as a model for government. Freneau’s poem on “Science Favourable to Virtue”

and especially philanthropy will be discussed under Humanitarianism later.

123 William Barton, Memoirs of the Life of David Rittenhouse, 1813, p. 515.

124 See also T. D. Cope, “David Rittenhouse — Physicist,” Journal of the Franklin Institute,

CCXV, 287-97 (March, 1933); M. J. Babb, “David Rittenhouse,” University of Pennsylvania

University Lectures 1914-1915, pp. 595-608.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 331

self, a president of the American Philosophical Society, and an

ardent republican, hopes (1775) that, if the other planets have

inhabitants, “they are wise enough to govern themselves accord¬

ing to the dictates of that reason their creator has given

them,”125 and he proceeds to attack slavery, national rapacity,

the scourges of war, and the inroads of luxury.

Most clearly of all, however, Thomas Paine demonstrates the

manner in which science and scientific deism inspired republican

doctrines. According to his testimony, for some time after hav¬

ing studied astronomy and come to doubt Christianity, he said,

he “had no disposition for what are called politics. . . . When,

therefore, I turned my thoughts towards matters of government,

I had to form a system for myself, that accorded with the moral

and philosophic principles in which I had been educated.”12*'

Clearly, then, his political theories grew out of his religion

(which was based mainly on Newtonian science) and its moral

and philosophic implications. He traces his central doctrine of

the rights of man “to the time when man came from the hand of

his Maker.”127 It is a religious doctrine. Then he sought to

establish in civil society the reign not of capricious personality

through feudal force but the reign of impersonal law and order

comparable to the law and order of the Newtonian system. Paine

was one of the earliest advocates of a Federal constitution. He

deifies law.128 Finally, he thought this reign of law could be

effected best by a representative government rooted in the nat¬

ural goodness of the people. Newtonian gravitation had taught

him, as we have seen, that men are harmoniously drawn together

by their needs. “The great mass of people are invariably

just.”129 “Man, were he not corrupted by governments, is nat¬

urally the friend of man, and . . . human nature is not of itself

vicious.”130 “The representative system is always parallel with

the order and immutable laws of nature, and meets the reason of

125 Barton, op. cit., S66-68. Rittenhouse’s advanced radicalism is suggested by the fact that he

was one of the “very few” to whom Thomas Paine dared to show his Common Sense (Jan. 10,

1776) while it was in manuscript. Paine characterizes Rittenhouse as “of known Independent

Principles” ( Writings oj Thomas Paine , I, 135).

120 Writings, IV, 62-63.

127 Ibid., II, 303. For further discussion, see my Introduction to Thomas Paine (1944) in the

“American Writers Series.”

228 Ibid., I, 340; III, 277; I, 99.

729 Ibid., Ill, 122.

130 Ibid.., II, 453.

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

man in every part” ;131 such being “the order of nature, the order

of government must necessarily follow it,”132 for “all the great

laws of society are laws of nature,”133 discovered by science.134

The appeal to natural law in matters of social justice, has, of

course, an ancient and honourable history.135 Witness its ap¬

pearance in such Greek works as Antigone, and its wide use in

Roman jurisprudence. The ancient doctrine was powerfully re¬

inforced, however, by the reasoning made possible by scientific

proof of a physical universe of harmonized and divinely or¬

dained laws, immutable, universal, and beneficent, and this

proof was provided by Newton, the scientist, and popularized by

scientific deists.

The political implications of scientific ideas appear perhaps

most glamorously in the work of Joel Barlow, the “intimate

friend”136 of Thomas Paine, whom he praised as “a luminary of

131 Ibid. , II, 426.

132 Ibid., II, 419.

133 Ibid., II, 408.

134 Elihu Palmer, who regarded Paine as “probably the most useful man that ever existed,”

( Principles of Nature, 3rd ed., N.Y. 1806, p. 112), gave the ideas here discussed wide publicity

and tried to organize deism as a church. His reliance on science as producing a “new era in the

intellectual history of man” should be clear in the following sentences: “Newton, profiting by the

errors of those great philosophers, Descartes and Bacon; . . . developed with clearness the physical

principles and order of the planetary system, and struck with everlasting death and eternal silence

the theological pretension of all former ages. ... It was not the discovery of physical truths alone

that bore relation to the renovation of the human species; it was reserved for Locke, and other

powerful minds, to unfold the eternal structure of the intellectual world; explain the operation of

the human understanding; explore the sources of thought, and unite sensation and intellect in the

same subject, and in a manner cognizable by the human faculties. Locke has, perhaps, done more

than Newton, to subvert the credit of divine Revelation-, but neither of them discovered the extent

of the doctrines upon the moral interests of man. Sensation being established as the source and

cause of all human ideas, a system of true and material philosophy necessarily followed. . . .

Mirabaud [Holbach], Rousseau, Voltaire, Hume, and Bolingbroke, together with twenty other

philosophers of France and England, combined their strength in the philanthropic cause! of human

improvement. .\. (Ibid., pp. 110-112). Let “Reason, righteous and immortal reason, with the

argument of the printing types in one hand, and the keen argument of the sword in the other, . . .

attack the thrones and hierarchies of the world, and level them with the dust; then the emancipated

slave must be raised by the power of science into the character of an enlightened citizen. . . .

(Ibid., 123-24). “Human science is extending itself into every part of the world; it has already

revived the hopes of one third of the human race, and its character bears a most indubitable

relation to the emancipation of the whole. . . . And to this source of human improvement no

limits can be assigned — it is indefinite and incalculable; and its moral, philosophical, and political

effects upon intelligent life, will one day strike with horror the oppressors of the human race.”

(The Political Happiness of Nations, N.Y., 1800, pp.15-16).

135 gee surveys by C. G. Haines, Revival of Natural Law Concepts, Cambridge, Mass., 1930,

Chapter I, “Ancient and Mediaeval Natural Law Doctrines”; Otto Gierke, Natural Law and the

Theory of Society, 1500 to 1800. Translated by E. Barker. 2 vols. Cambridge, England, 1934;

B. F. Wright, American Interpretations of Natural Law, Cambridge, Mass., 1931; C. F. Mullett,

Fundamental Law and the American Revolution, 1760-1776. New York, 1933.

130 Rickman’s Life of Thomas Paine (London, 1819), p.132.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

333

the age, and one of the greatest benefactors of mankind.”137

Even in Barlow’s early Vision of Judgment a tribute to science

as leading to true religion and progress occupies the climax of

the poem: “fair science, of celestial birth . . . leads mankind to

reason and to God” ;138 inspired by science, man must

“Look through earth and meditate the skies,

And find some general laws in every breast,

Where ethics, faith, and politics may rest.’”38

“Equality of Right is nature’s plan;

And following nature is the march of man.”140

It is significant that while Barlow’s Part I of Advice to the

Privileged Orders is dedicated to France’s King Louis XVI (as

the supposed friend of reform, to be sure), Part II is dedicated

to the scientist and inventor of the steamboat, Robert Fulton,

who also inspired Barlow’s The Canal, whose subtitle reads

“A Poem on the Application of Physical Science to Political

Economy” (1802). The opening lines say that he wishes

“To teach from theory, from practise show

The Powers of State, that ’tis no harm to know

And prove how Science, with these powers combined,

May raise, improve, and harmonize mankind.”141

The re-working of The Vision of Columbus in The Columbiad of

1807 shows that Barlow has become a whole-hearted disciple of

The Enlightenment. In the view of the future at the end of the

latter poem science is the basic agent in social progress. Inland

waterways, canals, irrigation, and draining will make it possible

to feed more people. Science will help to eliminate disease, the

137 Barlow’s Advice to the Privileged Orders, edition of 179S, Part II, pp.5-6. He says he was

relieved of further analysis of the subject of Revenue and Expenditure by the appearance of

Rights o f Man, Part II. It is generally admitted that Barlow was greatly indebted to Paine’s

Rights oj Man. On the other hand, Barlow’s earlier Vision of Judgment (1787) may have influ¬

enced Paine, for we find him listed among the “Subscribers” to it.

138 Vision of Columbus, edition of 1787, p.217.

139 Ibid., 229. See also p. 23S where the “lights of science” will “sense with reason blend”

and “view the great source of love” in heaven.

140 The Connecticut Wits, ed. Parrington, p. 350. In his Letter ... to .. . Piedmond, on the

Advantages of the French Revolution (London, 1795) he said, “as long as we follow nature, in

politics as well as morals, we are sure to be in the right.”

143 The poem, available in the Pequot Library in manuscript, is unpublished; I quote the lines

from M. R. Adams’ “Joel Barlow, Political Romanticist,” American Literature, IX, 113-153 (May,

1937), pp. 140-41.

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

length of life will be greatly increased, chemistry will work

wonders, engineers will control the storms, men will ride the air

and go under the ocean, and physical science will flower in a new

moral science which, by developing commerce, will lead to en¬

during world peace. And this will be insured and crowned by

“a general congress of all nations, assembled to establish the

political harmony of mankind,”142 analagous to the harmony of

the Newtonian universe.

Ill

Humanitarianism

In approaching the vogue of social reform in the late eight¬

eenth century among Americans, one must consider not only

ideas but external circumstances. Thus harshly restrictive gov¬

ernmental acts enforced by the British on the eve of the Revolu¬

tion and wide-spread social suffering in connection with the

birth of the nation and the demands of a frontier environment

naturally made people especially attentive to any proposals

which promised a better143 social order and greater happiness

for the common man. Increased interest in humanitarian activi-

142 See the summary “Argument” of the Columbiad, Book X. In a doctoral dissertation,

which I directed, by Mackljn Thomas on The Idea of Progress in the Writings of Franklin , Fren¬

eau, Barlow, and Rush it is concluded ( Summaries of Doctoral Dissertations, University of Wis¬

consin, Vol. Ill, 1938, p. 310) that “Barlow, like Freneau, identifies universal and human progress,

thinking of progress as the gradual emergence of the perfect order of nature on the temporal plane.

He defines the natural social state, however, as a complex civilization [like Priestley], and rejects

the goodness of primitive society. He discovers the certainty of progress in the movements of

enlightenment and republican government, both of which contain principles of necessary growth.

Society will perfect itself by means of science, education, and democracy working interdependently.”

On Barlow’s growing liberalism and increasing faith in science see Percy Boynton’s “Joel Barlow

Advises the Privileged,” New England Quarterly, XII, 477-499 (Sept., 1939).

143 See A. Nevins, The American States . . . 1775-1789, New York, 1927, Chapter X, “Pro¬

gress in Liberalism and Humanity,” p. 420-69, and long bibliography, p. 688. Also the chapter on

“progress” in Sidney L. Pomerantz’s New York, An American City, 1783-1803, New York,

1938. . . . See aiso the studies {post, notes 148, 151) dealing with the vast interest of Franklin

and Jefferson in humanitarian projects. See also Robert J. Hunter, “The Activities of the Members

of the American Philosophical Society in the Early History of the Philadelphia Almshouse,”

Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., LXXI, 309-319 (1932); and “The Origin of the Philadelphia General

Hospital,” Penna. Mag. Hist, and Biol., LVII, 32-57; M. A. DeWolfe Howe, The Humane Society

of Massachusetts, 1785-1916; E. L. Pennington’s “The Work of the Bray Associates in Pennsyl¬

vania,” Penna. Mag. Hist, and Biol., LVIII, 1-25 (Jan. 1934), includes evidence of Franklin’s

humanitarianism interest in negro education.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

335

ties owed much to a variety of influences144 such as the genera!

tradition of Christian charity, the rise of Quakerism and Meth¬

odism, the rise of sentimentalism, and the example of English

philanthropists, abolitionists, and prison-reformers such as

Howard and Wilberforce.

Humanitarianism, however, owes more to rationalism (en¬

lightenment), scientific deism, and the practical application of

science to inventions than has been generally recognized. The

conservative Presbyterian, Samuel Miller, summed up the basic

assumption of the liberals at the end of the eighteenth century

as follows :/ “in short, in the estimation of those who adopt this

doctrine [of progress and liberalism], man is the child of cir¬

cumstances ; and by meliorating these, without the aid of [ortho¬

dox] religion, his true and highest elevation is to be obtained;

and they even go!iSO far as to believe that, by means of the ad¬

vancement of light and knowledge, all vice, misery and death

may finally be banished from the earth.”145

If men are naturally good and self-love and social are the

same, and evil derives from the outward environment, then it

followed, the more advanced deists thought, that evil and suffer¬

ing may be remedied by changing the environment either

through rational legislation, education,146 or by the scientific im¬

provement of physical conditions. Evil being of outward origin,

self -conquest should be subordinated to institutional reforms. As

Paine said, “prayer is futile, since God cannot interfere with

the immutable laws of the world-machine.” Franklin was no

doubt inspired partly, as he admitted, by Cotton Mather’s Essays

to Do Good, but it was after he became a “thorough Deist” that

he elaborated his creed according to which “the most acceptable

service of God was the doing good to man.”147 It is true that

144 See John Lathrop, Discourse before the Humane Society in Boston (Boston, 1787); also

B. K. Gray, A History of English Philanthropy ; Michael Kraus, “Eighteenth Century Humani-

larianism: Collaboration between Europe and America,” Penna. Mag. of Hist, and Biog., LX,

270-286 (July, 1936), and “Slavery Reform in the Eighteenth Century: an Aspect of Trans¬

atlantic Cooperation,” ibid., LX, 53-66 (Jan., 1936); Ernest Caulfield, The Infant Welfare Move¬

ment in the 18th Century (New York, 1931); E. M. North, Early Methodist Philanthropy, and

also, Sterling Johnson’s unpublished John Hopkins’ dissertation, Historical Inter-relations between

the English and American Humanitarian Movements.

345 Samuel Miller, Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century, New York, 1803, II, 295.

146 Jefferson wrote from Paris on Aug. 13, 1786, to his friend George Wythe that aristocracy

and churchcraft “alone” loaded Europeans with “misery,” and that the “diffusion of knowledge

among the people” was America’s main basis for hoping for a better social order. “I think,” he

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Franklin was a utilitarian, but this interest was inspired by his

scientific deism, which would appear to have directed his multi¬

tudinous services in the matter of hospitals, schools, libraries,

stoves, street-lights, street-cleaning, etc., and his many inven¬

tions. He was one of the advocates of the abolition of slavery.

His use of science as a means of saving time and health and life

has been the subject of a score of monographs.148 Franklin’s

more radical disciple, Thomas Paine, who insisted that his basic

doctrines derived from Newtonian astronomy, held that “the

only way of serving God is that of endeavoring to make his

creation happy.”149 As a scientist Paine invented a crane,

wrote, “by far the most important bill in our whole code is that for the diffusion! of knowledge

among the people. No other sure foundation can be devised, for the preservation of freedom and

happiness. If anybody thinks that kings, nobles, or priests are good conservators of the public

happiness, send them here. It is the best school in the universe to cure them of that folly. They

will see here, with their own eyes, that these descriptions of men are an abandoned confederacy

against the happiness of the mass of the people. The omnipotence of their effect cannot be better

proved than in this country particularly, where, notwithstanding the finest soil upon earth, the

finest climate under heaven, and a people of the most benevolent, the most gay and amiable char¬

acter of which the human form is susceptible; where such a, people, I say, surrounded by so many

blessings from nature, are yet loaded with misery, by kings, nobles, and priests, and by them

alone. Preach, my dear Sir, a crusade against ignorance; establish and improve the law for edu¬

cating the common people. Let our countrymen know that the people alone can protect us against

these evils, and that the tax which will be paid for this purpose is not more than the thousandth

part of what will be paid to kings, priests, and nobles, who will rise up among us if we leave the

people in ignorance. The people of England, I think, are less oppressed than here. But it needs

but half an eye to see, when among them, that the foundation is laid in theirl dispositions for the

establishment of a despotism. Nobility, wealth, and pomp are the objects of their adoration.

They are by no means the free-minded people we suppose them in America. Their learned men,

too, are few in number, and are less learned, and infinitely less emancipated from prejudice, than

those of this country.” (F. C. Prescott, ed., Hamilton and Jefferson, New York, 1934, p. 2S7-8.).

147 Franklin, ed. Mott-Jorgenson, p. 69.

118 On Franklin’s interests in science and scientific inventions see, in addition to tbe general

studies already cited (such as Mott-Jorgenson, Bruce [ Franklin Self Revealed, II, 3SO-422],

Fay, and Smyth): Brother Potamian and J. J. Walsh, Makers of Electricity, New York, 1909,

pp. 68-132; John Trowbridge, “Franklin as a Scientist,” Publ. Col. Soc. Mass., XVIII, (1917);

E. J. Houston, “Franklin as a Man of Science and as an Inventor,” Journal of Franklin Institute,

CLXI, 241-383 (April-May, 1906); “Franklin’s Place in the Science of the Last Century,”

Harper’s Mag., LXI, 26S-7S (July, 1880); O. G. Sonneck, “Benjamin Franklin’s Relation to

Music,” Music, vol. XIX, Nov., 1900, pp. 1-14; Theodore Diller, Franklin’s Contribution to

Medicine, Brooklyn, 1912; William Pepper, The Medical Side of Benjamin Franklin, Phila., 1922;

E. D. Ross, “Benjamin Franklin as an Eighteenth Century Agriculture Leader,” Jour. Pol. Econ.

XXXVII, 52-72 (Feb., 1929); E. L. Nichols, “Franklin as a Man of Science,” Independent, LX,

79-84 (Jan. 11, 1906); M. W. Jernegan, “Benjamin Franklin’s ‘Electrical Kite’ and Lightening

Rod,” N. E. Quarterly, I, 180-196 (April 1928), summarizing and superseding earlier discussions

of this subject by A. Me Adie and A. L. Rotch; and C. Abbe, “Benjamin Franklin as Meteorolo¬

gist,” Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., XLV, 117-128 (1906). While these are mostly competent studies of

their specific subjects, many of them make the mistake of suggesting that Franklin was interested

in science exclusively for utilitarian reasons, and they neglect his interest in “pure” science and

in its religious implications.

149 Paine’s Writings, ed. Conway, III, 327.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 337

smokeless candles, a planing machine, an engine operated by

gunpowder, a steam turbine, remedies for yellow fever, and a

single-arch bridge. As a humanitarian legislator inspired by a

deistic conception of service, he urged adequate salaries for

excise men ; abolition of slavery, of duelling, and of the death

penalty; effective international copyright laws; better universal

education; old age pensions; curtailment of primogeniture and

of property inequalities, especially through an income tax; a

league of nations; and international disarmament. “My relig¬

ion,” Paine said, “is to do good.”150

The vast and varied humanitarian interests and inventions

of Jefferson, based upon scientific principles, have been enthusi¬

astically chronicled by Professor D. S. Muzzey.151 As presi¬

dent of the American Philosophical Society152 Jefferson did much

to encourage his countrymen in the practical application of

science to improving the environment, developing our natural

resources, and the saving of time, energy and life. (An attentive

study of The Early Proceedings of the American Philosophical

Society, 17UU-1838 (Vol. XXII, Part 3, 1884) will reveal the

almost incredibly numerous ways in which this great body stim¬

ulated the application of science to humanitarian purposes in

the last half of the 18th century.) Jefferson’s loyal henchman,

Philip Freneau, inspired by scientific deism as we have seen,

used his great gifts as a journalist in the National Gazette, “the

100 Ibid., II, 472.

151 D. S. Muzzey, “Thomas Jefferson — Humanitarianism,” American Review, IV, 3S-44 (Jan.

1926). See also his chapters on the subject in his book, Thomas Jefferson (New York. 1918).

Jefferson was also interested in the abolition of slavery; see “Thomasi Jefferson’s Thoughts on the

Negro,” Journal of Negro History, III, 55-89 (Jan. 1918). See also R. H. Halsey, How the

President, Thomas Jefferson., and Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse Established Vaccination as a Public

Health Procedure (New York, 1936), and a review of it in N. E. Quarterly, IX, 523-28 (Sept.

1936).

See An Historical Account of the Formation of the American Philosophical Society, by

Stephen Du Ponceau, Philadelphia, 1914. According to the Preface to the first volume of the

Transactions of this Society, “Knowledge is of little use, when confined to more speculation:

But when speculative truth are reduced to practice, when theories, grounded upon experiments, are

applied to the common purposes of life; and when, by these, agriculture is improved, trade

enlarged, the arts of living made more comfortable, and, of course, the increase and happiness of

mankind promoted; knowledge then becomes really useful. That this Society, therefore, may in

some degree, answer the ends of its institution, the members propose to confine their disquisitions,

principally, to such subjects as tend to the improvement of their country and advancement of its

interests and prosperity.” The anonymous Early History of Science and Learning in America

(Phila., 1943) deals mainly with the American Philosophical Society. The Memoirs of the American

Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston, 1785, I, 3-4) emphasize the utility of Science also.

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

leading paper in America/’ in 1791-93 to broadcast humanitarian

ideas. Their dependence on science is clear :

“The lovely philanthropic scheme

(Great image of the power supreme,)

On growth of science must depend

With this all human duties end.”153

Freneau advocated aid for the alien, the poor, and the oppressed,

as well as abolition of slavery, kindness to animals, and material

improvements such as better roads.154 Thomas Cooper, friend of

Paine and the scientist Priestley who came to America in 1794,

turned from science to humanitarianism. His Letters of the

Slave Trade (1787) show his great sensitiveness to its inhu¬

manity, and a contemporary testified to the countless ways in

which he devoted his great talents to “the injured and the un¬

fortunate.”155 As Malone sums up his work, Cooper “saw the

hope of humanity in the work of scientists. . . .”156 Dr. Benjamin

Rush eventually turned orthodox in religion, but he was origi¬

nally the close friend of Paine and Franklin. Hardly a deist, he

was, however, a great scientist and environmentalist,157 the most

163 Poems of Freneau (edited by H. H. Clark), New York, 1929, p. 417. The introduction

of this book assembles evidence to show that scientific deism, was the core of Freneau’s thought.

154 Ibid., p. xxxix. See also Thomas Odiorne’s The Progress of Refinement (1792).

153 See Dumas Malone, The Public Life of Thomas Cooper, p. 20. After the turn of the

century, when Cooper moved to South Carolina, he turned against abolition.

158 Ibid., 305.

157 In keeping with this philosophy is the view expressed by Rev. Samuel Stanhope Smith in

An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figures in the Human Species as early

as 1787. And belief in the principle of evolutionary natural selection was offered for the first

time in this country by William Charies Wells. Rev. Smith explains variety among mankind as

caused by climate. Thus the differences between the negro and the white man are due not to

divine causes but to different environments, to natural causes, and the negro can be changed and

improved. Color of the skin, for instance, depends upon the intensity of the sun’s rays: “An

ardent sun is able intirely [sic] to penetrate its [the skin’s] texture — such an operation not only

changes its colour, but increases its thickness.” (p. 10) Bile also would cause a change to take

place: “Bile exposed to the sun and air, is known to change its colour to black — black is therefore

the tropical hue.” (p. 12) Changes of complexion would be accompanied by corresponding

changes in the color of hair. (p. 27) “Coarse and filthy unguents” (p 46) that savages use also

would “create a dark and permanent colour.”

Wells of South Carolina wrote Two Essays: One Upon Single Vision with Two Eyes; the

other on Dew . . . and An Account of a Female of the White Race . . . Part of Whose Skin

Resembles that of a Negro (1818); these essays had been read before the Royal Society in 1S13.

He was first in this country to assume that there had been a biological evolution of the human

species, and “clearly explained the principles of a natural selection in the course of a struggle for

existence and a consequent survival of the fittest.” (Dictionary of American Biography, vide Wells).

Darwin, in the fourth [1866] edition of his great work, pays tribute to Wells: “In this paper he

TWells] distinctly recognizes the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition

which has been indicated. . . .” (introduction).

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 339

eminent physician in the colonies at the time, and our first psy¬

chiatrist.158 He vied with Franklin in the multitude of his hu¬

manitarian activities, and is especially notable for his Inquiry

into the Influence of Physical Causes TJyon the Moral Faculty

(Phila., 1786). In this oration before the American Philosophi¬

cal Society this man (who taught more physicians than any

other teacher of the time) reveals himself as a distinguished

pioneer in working on the theory, inspired by science, that be¬

cause many wrong-doers are determined by physical causes be¬

yond their control they are entitled not to punishment but to

sympathy and scientific aid. “It is perhaps,” Rush said, “only

because the disorders of the moral faculty, have not been traced

to a connection with physical causes, that ... so few attempts

have been hitherto made, to lessen or remove them by physical

as well as rational and moral remedies.”159

Thus science led to a humane basis for sympathetic treat¬

ment of certain classes of criminals and the criminally-insane

which foreshadowed the work which was to be done by deter-

minists such as Clarence Darrow and Harry Elmer Barnes over

a century and a quarter later.

158 See N. G. Goodman, Benjamin Rush: Physician and Citizen. Phila., 1934, Chapter XI,

“First American Psychiatrist,” and Chapter XII, “Reformer and Philosopher. Rush was a

pioneer in prison reform, in abolition, in prohibition, in the kindly treatment of the insane, and

in many other reforms. Following John Mitchell, he did a great humane work in furthering

remedies for the tragic Yellow Fever epidemic of 1793. See Joseph Me Farland, “The Epidemic ot

Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1793, and its Influnce upon Dr. Benjamin Rush,” Medical Life,

XXXVI, 449-496. This is a critical study of Rush’s status as a physician. See also W. T.

Howard, Public Health and Administration and the Natural History of Disease in Baltimore,

Maryland, 1797-1920. Wash., 1923. Noah Webster, who was a good deal of a scientist, “proposed

unemployment insurance, city planning, cleansing of streets, improvements of penal laws, investiga¬

tion of diseases, collection of statistics, forest conservation, organization of charity societies;

he advocated the government’s purchase and freeing of slaves; he developed a fuel-saving fireplace;

he wrote a history of commerce and the first pages of a history! of epidemics.” H. R. Warfel,

Noah Webster (New York, 1936, p. 225.) See Webster’s “A Short View of the Origin and

Progress of the Science of Natural Philosophy, with Some Observation on the Advantages of

Science in General,” in New York Magazine, Vol. I, June-July 1790. Also C. E. M. Morey, “The

Epidemiology of Noah Webster,” Trans. Conn. Acad., XXXII, 21-109 (1934); and Warfel, Chap¬

ter XII.

iw Rush’s Inquiry . . ., p. 15. Another physician-author, Oliver Wendell Hotaies, later

developed Rush’s thesis that determinism should inspire us to pity and not punish certain sorts of

criminals. See Holmes’ “Crime and Automatism,” 1875, in Works, VIII. 322-60.

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

IV

Education

Let us turn now to a consideration of the extent to which

Americans of the later eighteenth century turned to education

(which in their eyes was almost equivalent to rationalism and

science) as the most effective agent in human improvement. It

is true, of course, that some of the earlier British thinkers of the

century, such as Locke, Pope, and Hume, had spoken of the limi¬

tations of the reason, especially in the metaphysical and super¬

natural realms, as a means of furthering human happiness and

grasping “absolutes” : “the bliss of man” was to them partly

conditioned upon not thinking “beyond mankind.”160 But the in¬

creasing faith in human reason as a means of improving man’s

lot in this world is represented161 by William Godwin, whose

Enquirer: Reflections on Education, Manners, and Literature,

which first appeared in England in 1793, was sufficiently popu¬

lar in America to warrant an edition in Philadelphia in 1797.

His central chapter (No. V) in Political Justice (1793), written

partly to refute Malthus’ pessimistic views based on the dis¬

parity between increases in population and food-supply, had for

its title the axiom : “The Voluntary Actions of Men Originate in

their Opinions.” In this chapter he deduced from these prin¬

ciples “the five following propositions”:

“sound reasoning and truth, when adequately communicated, must

always be victorious over error; sound reasoning and truth are

capable of being so communicated ; truth is omnipotent; the vices

and moral weakness of man are not invincible; man is perfectible,

or, in other words, susceptible of perpetual improvement.”

After contrasting man “in his original state” with contempo¬

rary man as the heir of “all that science and genius have

effected” — surrounded with “manufactures, instruments, ma¬

chines, together with all the wonders of painting, poetry, elo¬

quence and philosophy” — Godwin concludes, “Such was man in

180 An Essay on Man (1732), Epistle I, 11.189ff.

161 Legouis and Cazamian, A History oj English Literature, New York, 1929, Vol. II, p. 1004,

regard Godwin as “the chief intellectual representative of the more advanced party’’; and A. O.

Hansen, Liberalism and American Education, New York, 1926, p. IS, calls him “most ideally

representative of the eighteenth century outlook in his conception of education.”

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 341

his original state, and such is man as we at present behold him.

Is it possible for us to contemplate what he has already done,

without being impressed with a strong presentiment of the im¬

provements he has yet to accomplish ? There is no science that is

not capable of additions : there is no art that may not be carried

to a still higher perfection,” and, he suggested, “If this is true

of all other arts, why not of social institutions?”162 Now Thomas

Paine had been so closely associated with Godwin in England,

and so thoroughly in agreement with his views, that he had

entrusted Godwin163 with the task of seeing the first part of

Rights of Man through the press in 1791. Jefferson had been

instrumental in securing an American edition of Rights of Man

in the same year and he admitted that he “professed the same

principles,”164 among which was the central one of faith in the

omnipotence of reason.165 To such eighteenth century figures as

Godwin, Paine, and Jefferson, then, man was a reasoning animal

whose actual conduct was merely the externalization of his

ideas ; man was to be regenerate by enlightening him, by giving

him the right ideas, or by changing those he inherited from

monarchy and established religions; institutions, whether of

church or state, which interfered with the free play of reason,

must be overthrown or at least modified. Education, as the means

of furthering science, was the Messiah; educators were mer¬

chants of light.

Franklin, Jefferson, and Rush founded colleges in this pe¬

riod; Thomas Cooper was president of South Carolina College;

162 Political Justice, 1793, I, 41, 47.

103 See M. D. Conway, Life of Thomas Paine, I, 284. For Godwin’s praise of Paine’s ideas,

see Political Justice.

Jefferson’s Writings, Memorial Edition, 1907, VIII, 207.

165 Further testimony as to the importance attached to the liberals’ views of education as a

means of indefinite progress is suggested by its being singled out for attack by their Presbyterian-

conservative opponents. Thus Samuel Miller ( Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century, New York,

1803, II, 296-302) writes: “This doctrine, of the omnipotence of education [note the phrase!] and

the perfectibility of man, seems liable ... to the following strong objections.” Then he develops

the following: (1) It is contrary to nature and the condition of man. (2) It is contrary! to all

experience. (3) It is contrary to the increase of population compared with the means of sub¬

sistence (the argument of Malthus that Godwin wrote in part to refute). (4) It is wholly incon¬

sistent with the scriptural account of the creation and the present state of man. It is conceivable

that Hawthorne’s early study of Godwin may have led him in part to react against him, to take as

one of his master-themes the perils of the pride of intellectuality as militating against a sym¬

pathetic heart and human brotherhood (cf. “Ethan Brand”) and the ineffectualness of rational-

knowledge alone to produce that quickening of spirit and the will necessary for the actual practise

of virtue.

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

and Tom Paine had strong views on education. In general,

these thinkers tended to advocate an education which empha¬

sized empiricism as against the authority of tradition, the study

of nature as against the study of man, and practical utility as

against a delight in learning for its own sake. Franklin had

attacked the curriculum of Plarvard as narrowly theological as

early as 1722, 168 and he was strongly opposed to the linguistic

study of the ancient Greek and Latin classics.107 His two essays,

“Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania”

(1749) and the “Idea of the English School” (1751), do not

introduce exceptional innovations in current practice, but his

personal preferences had appeared in his “Proposal for Promot¬

ing Useful Knowledge Among the British Plantations in Amer¬

ica,” 1743. 168 In the latter the knowledge sought is to be almost

exclusively scientific and utilitarian, having to do with farming,

inventions, navigation, etc. He urges “all philosophical experi¬

ments that let light into the nature of things, tend to increase

the power of man over matter, and multiply the conveniences or

pleasures of life.”169

The cultured Jefferson had much more respect than Franklin

for what he called the “luxury” of the ancient classics.170 But

Mr. Chinard has shown, as mentioned earlier, that his choice of

the classics was dictated by his deistic tastes which seem to have

been primary in importance; and his faith in progress led him

to say, “I love the dreams of the future better than the history

of the past.” A militant agrarian, as his champion Mr. Parring-

ton has shown, Jefferson regarded agriculture among all studies

as “the first in utility, and [it] ought to be the first in respect.”

He wished to restore “agriculture to its primary dignity in the

eyes of men. It is a science of the very first order. It counts,

among its handmaids, the most respectable sciences, such as

180 Franklin’s Writings (ed. Smyth), II, 9-14.

107 Ibid., X, 29; X, 31.

168 The first two essays are reprinted conveniently in the Mott-Jorgenson Franklin (1936),

pp. 199-213, and the last, ibid., pp. 180-183. A. O. Hansen, Liberalism in American Education in

Eighteenth Century (New York, 1926), pp. 26S-292 lists a multitude of essays on Education, many

of which were inspired by science. For further discussion see F. N. Thorne, Benjamin Franklin

and the University oj Pennsylvania ; Thomas Woody’s Educational Views of Benjamin Franklin-,

and T. H. Montgomery, A History of the University of Pennsylvania.

169 Mott-Jorgenson, op. cit., p. 182.

170 See Chinard’s Introduction to Jefferson’s Literary Bible (Baltimore, 1928); R. J. Honey¬

well’s The Educational Work of Thomas Jefferson (Cambridge, 1931).

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

343

chemistry, natural philosophy, mechanics, mathematics gener¬

ally, natural history, botany. In every college & university a

professorship of Agriculture, & the class of its students, might

be honored as the first.”171 It is significant that in 1779 Jeffer¬

son abolished the professorships of divinity at the College of

William and Mary to provide for those of law, medicine, chem¬

istry, and modern languages.172 Foreign, also, to orthodox classi¬

cal education was Jefferson’s encouragement of specialization

and his pioneer advocacy (long before President Eliot) of the

elective system.173 Jefferson was also a pioneer in founding

vocational education for “the limited wants of the artificer or

practical man,” — for would-be utilitarian scientists such as the

“pump-maker, clock maker, machinist, optician,” etc.174 He

helped, then, to turn education away from the classical ideal

of its being an ethical guide to the happy conduct of life to

the ideal which makes it a means for material ends, although it

should be added that Jefferson, following the philosophy of en¬

vironmentalism (based partly on Locke and science) , thought

the circumstances of the farmer’s life would be conducive to

happiness. And this turn seems to have been inspired consider¬

ably by science and by an agrarianism which rested in part upon

the doctrine that the earth is a divine revelation and hence the

farmer is nearest to God.175 This was the view of the man who

is generally regarded as the chief theorist of Jeffersonian de¬

mocracy, John Taylor of Caroline (1753-1824). He not only

strongly opposed the financial-industrial policy sponsored by

Hamilton in the North, but as the author of sixty-one “agricul¬

tural essays, practical and political” (collected in The Arator,

1813), he laid the ideological basis for agrarianism. A. O. Craven

171 Jefferson’s Writings, Randolph Ed., IV, 9-10. To David Williams, Nov. 14, 1803.

17S Cabell, Early History of the University of Virginia, p. 207.

173 See Jefferson’s better to Ticknor, July 16, 1823. Memorial Ed.. XV, 455. Ini place of the

classical policy of a uniformly rounded education, Jefferson advocated students’ “exclusive application

to those branches only which are to qualify them for the particular vocations to which they are

destined. We shall . . . allow them uncontrolled choice in the lectures they shall choose to

attend. . . .” See also H'. B. Adams, Thomai Jefferson and the University of Virginia (1888).

Chapter IX, “The University of Virginia and Harvard College.” O. W. Long, Thomas Jefferson

and George Ticknor, A Chapter in American Scholarship (Williamstown, Mass., 1933) prints many

hitherto unavailable letters which prove that “Jefferson inspired young Ticknor in his efforts for

reforms at Harvard, especially in the direction of elective studies.” (p. 39).

174 Cabell, op. cit., p. 384. (To Peter Carr, Sept. 7, 1814).

175 See John Taylor’s Arator, pp. 278-80, and the interpretation of H. H. Simm's John Taylor

pp. 155-6. Also Jefferson’s Writings, Memorial Edition, II, 229-30.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

calls Taylor the greatest scientific agriculturalist of his era.176

Jefferson was an ardent admirer of Thomas Cooper, before

Cooper turned conservative in the nineteenth century, and he

hoped to secure a professorship for him at the University of

Virginia, thinking of him as “the corner stone of our edifice.”177

It is true that Cooper advocated178 the study of the classics by

young boys, but his revolt from the humanities to utilitarian sci¬

ence is illustrated in his view that an interest in literature is

something with which childish people are “disgracefully em¬

ployed” when they should be devoted to “those laws on which

all useful manufactures depend. ... In the infancy, and the

ignorance of all communities, the great objects of intellect are

poetry and oratory; as nations advance in knowledge, science

gains a rightful ascendency.”179 “Most of his [Cooper’s] scien¬

tific writings were designated to extend popular scientific infor¬

mation on subjects of practical concern. Thus he edited the

Emporium of Arts and Sciences (1813-14), published practical

treatises on dyeing and calico printing, gas lights, and the tests

of arsenic, and edited several European textbooks in chemistry

for the use of American students. The most interesting of his

more theoretical writings are his description of the scientific

discoveries of Priestley (in Appendix I of the latter’s Memoirs,

1806), his Introductory Lecture on Chemistry (1812), and his

Discourse on the Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine

(1818), in which as usual, he was forward looking. These writ-

17a See A. O. Craven, “Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Agricultural History of Virginia and

Maryland, 1606-1860,” in University of Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences, XIII, 1925. For

orientation see R. H. True, “Beginnings of Agricultural Literature in America,” American Library

Assocation Bulletin, No. 14, 1920; R. H. True, “Early Development of Agricultural Societies

in the U. S.”j Report of the American Historical Assoc., 1920; R. W. Kelsey, “Materiail1 for the

History of Early Agriculture in Pennsylvania,” ibid., and Rodney C. Loehr, “The Influence of

English Agriculture on American Agriculture, 1775-1825,” Agricultural History, Jan. 1937. Taylor

was one of the leading members of “The Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture,” organized

in 1787. The latest and most comprehensive work on him is E. T. Mudge’s The Social Philosophy

of John Taylor.

177 Quoted, Malone, op. cit., p. 245.

178 See his educational essays, “Classical Education” ( Port Folio, 2 series, I, 567ff.), “A letter

to a Friend on University Education” ( ibid ., 3 series, V, 349ff.) “On a Course of Legal Studies”

(ibid., 4 series, XIII, 227ff.). For discussion see Maurice Kelley’s Cooper (1930), pp. 63ff.

170 Introductory Lecture on Chemistry, 1812 (London) pp. 13-14. He adds that “When experi¬

ence has taught us wisdom, we begin to estimate utility as the criterion of desert. . . .” In

Lectures on Political. Economy, p. 182, he says that because of the gifts! of scientists to humanity

the whole “tribe” of poets and orators and rhetoricians will eventually sink into “merited insignifi¬

cance.” Quoted by Malone, op. (it., pp. 254, 305.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas 345

ings serve as a valuable index to the state of American scientific

knowledge in his day and reveal his own consistent faith in sal¬

vation by enlightenment.”180

Equally radical in his educational views was Cooper’s idol,

Tom Paine. Unlike most religious thinkers who have seen the

deity revealed not only in outward nature but within themselves

in psychological promptings toward goodness, Paine concluded

The Age of Reason with the conviction that “we can know God

only through his works,” through outward nature. “The prin¬

ciples of science lead to this knowledge ; for the Creator of man

is the Creator of science, and it is through that medium that

man can see God, as it were, face to face.”181 While the study of

theology in books has led to persecution, Paine says the “mind

becomes at once enlightened and serene” when man looks

“through the works of creation to the Creator himself,”182 for

“the Almighty is the great mechanic of the creation; the first

philosopher and original teacher of all science.”183 Hence astron¬

omy, the queen of the sciences, “should be taught theologically”

in a series of lectures which would “render theology the most

delightful and entertaining of all studies.”184 Paine would there¬

fore turn every “house of devotion into a school of science” dedi¬

cated to teaching “the immutable laws of science.”185 Since he

imagined that the church feared science and had confined learn¬

ing to the dead languages, he thought “it would therefore be

advantageous to the state of learning to abolish the study of the

dead languages, and to make learning consist, as it originally

did, in scientific knowledge.”186 Nature speaks a universal lan¬

guage and “reveals all that it is necessary for man to know of

God.” Study of the humanities should be abolished, and the

sole subject matter of education should be the sciences. It would

be interesting to know to what extent these ideas of Paine’s were

derived from Dr. Benjamin Rush, who coached him in writing

1S® Dictionary oj American Biography.

isi Works, ed. Conway, IV, 191.

182 Ibid., IV, 239-40.

183 Paine’s Works, IV, 193. “Natural philosophy is properly a divine study. It is the study of

God through his works .... All the principles of science are of divine origin.” Ibid., IV, 238-9.

Ibid., IV, 246.

185 Ibid., IV, 194.

186 See Age of Reason, Part One, Chapter XII. “The Effects of Christianism on Education.

Proposed Reforms,” Works, IV, 55-62.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Common Sense, 1776. For Rush, the founder of Dickinson Col¬

lege, was almost equally opposed to education based on the clas¬

sics, although not so much for theological as for utilitarian and

democratic reasons. Witness Rush’s hostile “Observations upon

the Study of the Latin and Greek Languages” (17 89), 187 and his

other numerous writings on education.188 In addition to attack¬

ing the classics as lacking in utility and as foreign to democratic

sentiments, he adds that “The study of the Latin and Greek

classics is unfavorable to morals and religion,” while “a servile

attachment to the ancient poets . . . checks invention and leads to

imitation.” Rush’s “Plan for Establishing Public Schools in

Pennsylvania, and for Conducting Education Agreeably to a Re¬

publican Government” (1786) advocated free schools and four

colleges in the state in which students were to concentrate on

mathematics and science. These colleges were to be capped by

the apex of the educational pyramid, a national university which

would concentrate in turn upon fitting students as servants of

our distinctly democratic nationalism. His “Address to the

People of the United States” (1787) 189 and his “Plan of a Fed¬

eral University” ( Federal Gazette, Oct. 29, 1788) demanded that

this great national or federal university should be established as

a sort of post-graduate civil service training school. A militant

republican nationalist, he would limit eligibility to public office

to holders of degrees from this university controlled by the gov¬

ernment and designed to inculcate political propaganda190 for a

nationalism which was hostile to the ideals of other nations and

to European traditionalism.

On the other hand, it should be remembered that these ex¬

treme projects for founding a national university and making

187 American Museum, V, 525-35 (June, 1789), reprinted in his Essays, Literary, Moral, etc.,

(1789), with the above abbreviated title.

188 Harry G. Good, Benjamin Rush and his Services to American Education (Berne, Indiana,

1918), lists, pp. 260-63, sixteen items by Rush on education. For further discussion, beside Good's

dissertation, see N. G. Goodman, Rush , 1934, pp. 307-342, and A. 0. Hansen, Liberalism and

American Education in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1926, pp. 48-63.)

189 American Museum , I, No. I, 8-11, Jan. 1787.

190 Mr. A. O. Hansen’s closely-documented book shows how pervasive in the late 18th century

was the idea, bred by the doctrine of progress, that America ought to have a new kind of educa¬

tion divorced from tradition and devoted to the inculcation of utilitarian and nationalistic doc¬

trines. It is probable that the idea of progress, inspired by science, accounts for a considerable

amount of the contempt for the past, for European traditionalism, and so does much to explain

the great vogue of the demand for a uniquely American literature which is> so prominent! in this

period. But that is an intricate subject which must be reserved for another paper.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

347

education narrowly nationalistic failed, and that a more impor¬

tant influence of science was to lead thinkers to transcend na¬

tionalities and to become citizens of the whole world in their

devotion to truths that are universal. In a study of “Scientific

Relations between Europe and America in the Eighteenth Cen¬

tury” Dr. Michael Kraus presents a mass of interesting evidence

to illustrate the contemporary view that in the promotion of

scientific utilitarian devices “the world is but as one Family,”

that (as Dr. Rush wrote the British Dr. Richard Price), “In

science of every kind men should consider themselves as citizens

of the whole world.”191 It will be recalled that Franklin, Barlow,

and Paine crowned their political theories — which owed much to

scientific ideas — by espousing something like a League of Na¬

tions to promote international fellowship and eliminate wars

bred by conflicting nationalisms. The reasoning, involving sci¬

ence as inspiring cosmopolitanism and a philanthropy which

transcends nationalisms, may be illustrated from Thomas Paine :

“Men who study any universal science, the principles of

which are universally known, or admitted, and applied with¬

out distinction the common benefits of all countries, obtain

thereby a larger share of philanthropy than those who only

study national arts and improvements. Natural philosophy,

mathematics and astronomy, carry the mind from the coun¬

try to the creation, and give it a fitness suited to the extent.

It was not Newton’s honor, neither could it be his pride, that

he was an Englishman, but that he was a philosopher: the

heavens had liberated him from the prejudices of an island,

and science had expanded his soul as boundless as his

studies.”192

Much is being said today about science (through munitions and

machines of destruction) being responsible for the horrors of

war. It is well to remember that at the birth of the nation at

least science helped to inspire not only a multitude of means of

increasing human happiness but also anti-warlike and cosmo¬

politan attitudes which furthered world peace.

Jfc * ♦ * *

191 The Scientific Monthly, LV, 259-272 (Sept., 1942). The quotations above are from the

Gentleman's Magazine (1800, pp. 1273-74) and the Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings,

second series, Vol. 17, April 22, 1786. See also Dr. Kraus’ article on “American and European

Medicine in the Eighteenth Century,” Bulletin of Hie History of Medicine, VIII, 679-95 (May,

1940).

101 Paine's Writings, ed. Conway, I, 300. See also Poems of Freneau, ed. Clark, p. 383.

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters

An immense amount of work remains to be done on Ameri¬

can literature of this period during which our national tradi¬

tions came into being. Most of the writings of Rush, Ritten-

house, Ethan Allen, Thomas Cooper, not to mention nearly all of

Freneau’s prose, remains to be made accessible in scholarly edi¬

tions. Professor Verner Crane has recently made discoveries

which more than double the present corpus of Franklin’s politi¬

cal writings. But the additional writings have not yet been col¬

lected and published.193 A great number of monographs on spe¬

cial topics need to be written. If the arguments of the liberals

are not to appear as shadow-boxing, we need to reconstruct the

logical articulation of the pattern of ideas of the conservatives

(such as John Adams) which were grounded essentially upon

the classical and the Christian traditions. We can hardly under¬

stand the liberals without understanding the conservatives. We

need to transcend the provincial, chauvinistic approach to our

national letters by including it in the comparative-literature ap¬

proach, especially in this cosmopolitan period. An especially

rich field of investigation is that involving the extent to which

English and Continental ideas were known in America, and

through what precise channels. How and why were these trans-

Atlantic ideas modified by being transplanted to the American

environment? If sentimentalism had less vogue and influence

than in Rousseau’s France and Cowper’s England, what explains

this situation? Ideas about economics and literary style as re¬

lated to science offer a fascinating field for investigation. Does

the theory of laissez-faire find a philosophic sanction in part in

the Newtonian idea of the harmony of self-love and social and

of the presence of beneficent natural laws ? If agrarianism domi¬

nated the economic thinking of leaders such as Franklin and

Jefferson, to what extent was agrarianism rooted in scientific,

deistic, and Physiocratic ideas? To what extent did scientific

inventions194 in the midst of the vast physical resources and the

physical needs of a frontier country inspire manufacturing and

193 V. W. Crane, “Certain Writings of Benjamin Franklin on the British Empire and the

American Colonies,” Papers of the Bibliographical Society, XXVIII, Part I, 1-27 (1934). Students

of the whole period will find W. M. Smallwood’s general bibliography very useful; see his Natural

History and the American Mind, New York, 1941, pp. 355-424. And there is much that is highly

suggestive regarding the influence of science in Merle Curtis Growth of American Thought, New

York, 1943.

Clark — Influence of Science on American Ideas

349

turn American life gradually from rural to urban social pat¬

terns? In matters of literary style, to what extent did science

help to inspire “mathematical plainness” ; a didactic and utili¬

tarian hostility to a literature of delight ; ordered argument and

logic; devotion to the local and the sensuous (nature and not a

book being a divine revelation) ; hostility towards the past and

toward imitation; and a self-sufficient and unique nationalism

bred by the idea of progress? It is much too early to try to

speak with finality regarding any of these problems. I hope,

however, that this paper, 11,5 written more to suggest hypotheses

than final interpretations, may help to suggest the desirability

of more intensive genetic study of the logical articulation of

ideas in this seminal period, especially those that are rooted in

science and flower in religious, political, humanitarian, educa¬

tional, and literary ideals and attitudes. It is true that environ¬

mental factors — notably the frontier and English oppression —

reinforced these ideas. But ideas would seem to be especially

important in an age when men such as Godwin and Paine prided

themselves upon making action the externalization of central

philosophic principles.

184 See Holland Thompson, The Age oj Invention , New Haven, 1921, and his bibliography.

185 I should like to express my thanks to Professor R. S. Crane for many valuable suggestions

made when this paper was in first-draft. But since he has not seen it in its present form, I do not

know, of course, to what extent he will approve of it.

DEER IRRUPTIONS

Compiled by Aldo Leopold for the Natural Resources Commit¬

tee , Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ( Aldx >

Leopold, Ernest F. Bean, Norman C. Fassett)

Foreword

It is my belief that the Wisconsin Academy, particularly through the

members in the various educational institutions throughout the State, should

provide scientific data that can be used as a basis for formulating public policy

on the conservation and utilization of our local natural resources. With the

approval of the Council, a standing committee on, natural resources has been

appointed to this end. The present paper is the first of a series of reports

bearing on the State’s conservation problems — A. W. Schorger, President.

From the fifteenth century until 1910, the deer problem of

North America was a matter of too few, rather than of too

many.

About 1910 the Kaibab deer herd in Arizona, long stabilized

at a level of about 4000 head, began to pyramid its numbers. By

1918 the range showed overbrowsing (21, p. 287). Between

1918 and 1924, seven successive investigators warned of im¬

pending disaster, but nothing was done (16, pp. 11-13).

In 1924, at a probable level of 100,000 head, came the first of

two catastrophic famines which reduced the herd 60 per cent in

two winters. By 1939 the herd had dropped to a tenth of its

peak size, and the range had lost much of its pre-irruption carry¬

ing capacity.

This was the first of a series of irruptions which have since

threatened the future productivity of deer ranges from Oregon

to North Carolina (22), California to Pennsylvania (8), Texas

(23) to Michigan (1). Wisconsin is one of the more recent

irruptive states.

This paper aims to present a background for the present

Wisconsin problem.

351

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Histories

Diagrammatic histories of four irruptive deer herds appear

in Figures 1 and 2. Each of these herds is a self-contained popu¬

lation, either by reason of geographic extent or by reason of

natural or artificial barriers.

(A) George Reserve. This enclosed range, owned and oper¬

ated by the University of Michigan, was stocked with four does

(A) George Reserve, Mich.

(B) Kaibob Plateau, Ariz.

Cougars: 4 - 600,1907-17 - **- 74,19 18-23 -X- - 142,1924-39 - 8(6

Wolves: ^ _ 11,1907-23 - ► fl-OsKrolf I9£6> 30

Coyote: 4 - 3000,1907-23 - - -** - 4388,1923-39 - 7388

Deer: *-27,256,1024-39 - 27256

Figure 1. Effect of prompt vs. delayed removals on carrying capacity for

deer. Herd A was promptly reduced, and now stands at a higher

level than would prevail if starvation had been permitted. Herd B

was allowed to starve, and now stands at a lower level than would

prevail if prompt reduction had been made.

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

353

(C) Lower Peninsula of Michigan

11,000,000 acres

(From SarMstt)

I.OOOT ooo

300 -

1937, 1939, 1941, (943 legislature

asked for doe seoson

1930: doe season proposed,

starvation begins

Decline caused by

too much fire a by

market hunting .

100,000 carcasses

shipped by morket

hunters, 1880

1921 : buck law

I920:fire control

1916 : refuges

Decline by starvation^

3,000

1941: 31% of yords

browsed out

^ _ J920: first damage teen

19

I9-4C

1870

1880

90

19' OO

1910

1920

19 30

I.OOOt-OOO

500- -

(D) Pennsylvania

8,300,000 acres deer range

(From Gordon Gerstell et al)

i.ooopoo

1927: doe season rescinded,

1923: doe season ‘boycotted*

.Doe seoson established, 1928

((448,000 removed 1928-1941)

Starvation begins, 1928

800,000

1900

Figure 2.

1907:

buck law

‘ ""N

1905: Kill of 300 ;J

probable 1000 Jy

deer in herd/^ X

excess deer-

'650, 000 ^

50% of range

depleted

carrying capacity 230,000

19 10

I9’20 I9'25 I9'30 1^33 I9'40

Effect of delayed herd reduction in Michigan and Pennsylvania.

The Michigan herd has passed the fawn -dying stage, and starva¬

tion of adults is now started. The Pennsylvania I herd was reduced,

but not until eight years after the first warning. Probably as a

result of this delay, both the herd and the range are on the down¬

grade.

and two bucks in 1928. In 1933 overbrowsing became visible.

A census showed 160 deer present. This is the maximum possible

increase from four does in six years. (12) There is no doubt,

therefore, that this herd had actually started to irrupt.

The herd was immediately shot down to 75 head, and later

to 50 head, and is now being held at the 50 level by annual re¬

movals. The evidence of overbrowsing has disappeared. The

reduced herd is in equilibrium with its range. This is one of the

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

few known cases in which an incipient irruption was checked

by prompt and decisive management measures.

(B) Kaibab Plateau. Unlike the George Reserve irruption,

which was terminated by removing deer, the Kaibab irruption

terminated itself by starvation. Some deer were in fact removed,

but only after starvation had begun. The period of six years

between the first warning (1918) and the final catastrophe

(1924) was consumed in debate and litigation (16, p. 11).

The effect of prolonged overstocking on the winter food

plants was very severe. In 1931, after four-fifths of the herd

had starved and only 20,000 deer were left, one investigator says

“the range had been so severely damaged that 20,000 was an

excessive population. The herd continued to decrease slowly

until an estimated 10,000 were present in 1939” (21, p. 237).

Another investigator estimates the loss in carrying capacity

as high as 90 per cent in some areas (3, p. 369) .

In short, the Kaibab, by reason of the irruption, lost a large

part of its deer food without any gain in deer.

The dashed line in Graph B, Figure 1, indicates the probable

trend of carrying capacity, had the herd been reduced in 1918,

when range damage was first recognized. This hypothetical line

corresponds to the actual history of the George Reserve herd,

which was reduced after the first appearance of range damage.

(C) Michigan. Both the Upper and Lower Peninsulas have

experienced two peaks in their deer herds, the first occurring

soon after the first large-scale logging operations, and the second

at the present time. The Upper Peninsula herd has lagged some¬

what behind the lower in its time-schedule, due no doubt to the

later loggings. The combined population in 1938 was estimated

at 1,172,000 deer (1, p. 58).

Graph C, Figure 2, shows the history of the Lower Peninsula

herd (1).

The size of the herd during the 1880-1890 peak is unknown,

but no starvation and no range damage are on record, hence the

peak cannot be regarded as of irruptive proportions. The in¬

crease in deer up to 1880 was probably caused by the opening up

of the woods and the widespread reproduction of white cedar

and other valuable browse plants (1, p. 10). The decline after

1880 was probably due to too much fire, and to commercial hunt-

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

355

ing and hunting for lumber camps. “More than 100,000 deer

(were) shipped from northern Michigan stations during the

fall of 1880 by market hunters” (1, p. 12).

The lower peninsula herd “hit bottom” about 1910. By 1925

the present peak was in the making (1, p. 14). Its inception

coincides with the inauguration of a buck law (1921), an effect¬

ive system of fire control (1920), a refuge system (1916-1932),

better law enforcement, and wolf-control.

There is no reason to doubt that these changes, collectively,

are the cause of the present irruptive behavior of the Michigan

herd.

Range damage was first reported in 1920 (1, p. 47). The

“cutting out” of many logging operations brought widespread

starvation by 1930 (1, p. 48). In 1938 a survey of 300 winter

yards showed “40 per cent in good condition, 27 per cent me¬

dium, and 33 per cent completely browsed out” (1, p. 49). The

1941 status was about the same.

The remedy, according to the Michigan Department, is to

“take a limited number of antlerless deer in addition to the

bucks” (1, p. 64). This was first proposed to the legislature in

1930, again in 1937, 1939, 1941, and 1943, but it remains a pro¬

posal.

Except for a few differences in dates and numbers, the upper

peninsula herd presents a parallel history.

At the present writing the Michigan herd is shrinking by

starvation, and with it shrink the good foods. It is an open ques¬

tion whether prompt reduction of the herd a decade ago would

not have left Michigan with more food and just as many deer as

she has today.

(D) Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania deer herd dwindled

steadily from Revolutionary times until about 1905, when it was

nearing extermination. In that year the first refuge was estab¬

lished (20, p. 12). In 1907 a buck law was passed. By 1922, 30

refuges were in operation (20, p. 15), and the annual kill of

deer had increased in fifteen years from 200 to 6115 (20, p. 12).

The herd in 1922 stood at about 400,000, and was increasing

rapidly.

Joseph Kalbfus predicted as early as 1917 that the deer herd

would some day get out of hand. He recommended a doe season

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

every fifth year, but his advice went unheeded. In 1923 the Com¬

mission opened a limited local doe season, but sportsmen killed

it by “boycott.” Their slogan was “Don’t be yellow and kill a

doe” (11, p. 16).

Local doe seasons were tried out in 1925 and 1926 (27, p. 8) .

In 1927, by which time the herd stood at 1,000,000, a / statewide

doe season was proclaimed by the Commission, but the sportsmen

“marched on Harrisburg” and forced a rescinding order (11,

p. 16). In 1928 an antlerless deer season was finally put into

effect. That this action was too long delayed is indicated by the

wholesale starvation of fawns during the two ensuing winters

(27, p. 29).

In 1931, the Pennsylvania herd was estimated at 800,000,

and the carrying capacity of the range at 250,000 (4, p. 33). In

other words, even after the Pennsylvania herd had been reduced

20 per cent, the range was still 220 per cent overstocked.

Between 1931 and 1941 five antlerless deer seasons disposed

of 448,000 does and fawns (2, p. 7), but large-scale starvation,

including adult deer, was still prevalent in 1938, when the herd

had shrunk to 500,000 (8, p. 13). “Runting” by malnutrition

was still widely prevalent (9). Equilibrium between the shrink¬

ing herd and its food plants was finally reached in 1940 (2,

P. 6).

Deer damage to crops in Pennsylvania has been prevalent

since 1915, and to forests and plantations since 1922 (4, p. 6).

In 1938 “excess deer (had) in many sections resulted in the

complete overthrow of natural forest regeneration, and made

forest planting practically impossible” (9, p. 27). “Due to

scarcity of food in the forests, wild deer were encroaching in

hordes upon neighboring farms. Fencing one farm merely

crowded the animals onto the neighbors’ farms” (11, p. 17).

A special survey made in 1938 showed that half the deer range

was producing less than fifty pounds of food per acre, which was

virtual depletion (10, p. 6).

The Pennsylvania herd now stands at about 500,000 or half

the 1927 peak level. The reduction is the combined result of

doe-removal, starvation, and range deterioration.

It is an open question whether the Pennsylvania history is

not an example of “too little and too late.” A splendid initial

Leopo Id — D eer Irrup tions

357

success in management of deer has been partially cancelled out

by delayed public acquiescence in herd-reduction.

Common Characters

These histories exhibit certain common characters of deer

herds, of deer food plants, and of human attitudes toward deer,

which seem worth recording as background for the Wisconsin

problem.

They also exhibit a common sequence of stages which may

help to interpret current events, to anticipate research needs,

and to guide administrative policy.

Winter Food. Deer irruptions are a problem in winter food.

The summer range usually exceeds the winter range in carrying

capacity.

Except in agricultural regions where deer have access to

corn, alfalfa, or winter grains, deer subsist in winter mainly on

twigs, buds, and catkins of woody plants, i.e., “browse.” The

browse species differ in palatability. Many investigators have

shown that palatable browse is nutritious browse, while un¬

palatable browse cannot sustain deer in winter (1, p. 39; 17,

p. 20; 7, p. 21).

As a herd increases, the pressure on palatable browse plants

weakens them and ultimately kills them. It also prevents their

reproduction, or the emergence of their reproduction above

snow-level. Artificial plantings to reestablish browse are eaten

up before they have a chance to grow (2, p. 6).

The unpalatable species are thus given a competitive ad¬

vantage over palatable ones, and replace them. Thus in over¬

browsed Wisconsin winter deer yards white cedar, striped

maple, red maple, red dogwood, and ground hemlock, all pala¬

table, are being replaced by alder, aspen, and white birch, all

unpalatable. This process of replacement of palatable by non-

palatable winter food is shown in Figure 3. Replacement has

been verified repeatedly in artificially “browsed” experimental

quadrats.

Trees above the reach of deer are browsed up to the level

which a mature deer can reach standing upright on its hind legs

(six to eight feet). The species of trees which show such a

“deer-line” are a sensitive index to the degree of deer-pressure

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

Winter

P UP P P UP

Summer

P UP P P UP

Legend: P= palatable UP= unpalatable

UP P UP UP P UP P UP

(New) (New)

Dotted stems = browsed or dead

Figure 3. Effect of winter overbrowsing on composition of woody vegetation.

The palatable species are gradually killed and replaced by un¬

palatable species. This process of replacement accounts for the

low carrying capacity of overbrowsed ranges.

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

359

and its duration. A new deer-line on cedar and none on balsam

shows an early stage of overbrowsing. A new deer-line on bal¬

sam plus an older one on white cedar shows an advanced stage.

Fawns commonly starve at the stage when balsam or other poor

foods first show a deer-line.

In other states these same principles hold, but for different

plants. Thus on the Kaibab, deer pressure was first visible on

cliffrose. As this good food became scarce, juniper and finally

pinon pine were taken, and fawns began to die.

In Pennsylvania deer pressure was first visible on oaks,

cherry, ash, maples, ground hemlock, and hemlock. As these

became scarce, laurel, rhododendron, and pines were taken (4) .

Laurel is at the bottom of the preference list, but most of the

fawns dying in 1928-29 had eaten it in quantity (27, p. 34).

Many plants important to other game species were also de¬

pleted: thus greenbrier, on which ruffed grouse depend for

cover, was nearly annihilated. Snowshoe hare and wild turkey

likewise felt the pressure of excess deer. (Letter from Seth

Gordon 6/15/43)

Winter Deer Behavior. Most animals, when crowded and

hungry, disperse by their own social pressure. Deer herds, at

least in winter, seem devoid of such pressure. State after state

reports instances of deer stubbornly refusing to leave (or even

to be driven from) (16, p. 18) a depleted winter range. Para¬

phrased in human terms, “deer would rather starve than move.”

This trait results in spotty damage to the winter range. The

Kaibab (21, p. 245), Pennsylvania (4, p. 21; 7, p. 19), New

York (19, p. 12), and Michigan (1, p. 39) all report this spotty

character, and it is now visible in Wisconsin. It confuses lay¬

men, who see spots of undamaged winter browse and conclude

that no crisis exists.

Perhaps wolves and cougars originally performed for deer

the function of dispersal from congested spots which most spe¬

cies perform for themselves.

Limitations of Artificial Feeding. The first human reaction

to deer starvation is always an impulse to feed the herd, rather

than to reduce it. Winter feeding of game birds and songbirds

carries no known penalties, why not feed the deer?

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

The main difference lies in the effect of artificial feeding on

the supply of natural foods.

Game birds subsist in winter mainly on seeds (pheasant,

quail) or buds (grouse). Both seeds and buds are produced in

infinite quantity, and the consumption of seeds and buds does

not affect next year’s supply. Hence artificial food is a net addi¬

tion to natural food.

Deer, on the other hand, subsist on palatable browse which

is limited in quantity. Over-consumption progressively reduces

next year’s growth by attrition, non-reproduction, and replace¬

ment. Hence artificial deer food is not a net addition to natural

food, and may become a net subtraction. For this reason, the

most experienced states have come to doubt the wisdom of arti¬

ficial feeding, except temporarily, or in emergency. For example,

the Michigan Conservation Department says ‘‘winter feeding

has not been successful, nor may it ever prove to be a feasible

method of holding up declining deer populations” (1, p. 48).

We doubt whether artificial feeding of deer is sound policy at

any time, but we are certain that it is unsound to feed before

the necessary herd-reduction has been made.

Experiments in semi-natural feeding by cutting trees or

limbs have been conducted in Pennsylvania (18), Michigan (2,

p. 6), and New York (5). This is less open to objection, and in

hardwoods which sprout easily it may increase the natural food.

It is expensive when done for deer alone, as are also all forms of

artificial feeding (17, p. 34).

Predisposing Events

Predators. We have found no record of a deer irruption in

North America antedating the removal of deer predators. Those

parts of the continent which still retain the native predators

have reported no irruptions. This circumstantial evidence sup¬

ports the surmise that removal of predators predisposes a deer

herd to irruptive behavior.

In weighing this question, one must distinguish between the

substantial removal of predators and the extirpation of the last

individual.

Thus Wisconsin still has a dozen timber wolves, but wolves

ceased to be a substantial factor in our deer herds a decade ago.

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

361

Wisconsin lost its last cougar in 1884 (24, p. 32). Wisconsin

deer started to irrupt after wolves had been substantially re¬

moved.

Pennsylvania lost its last cougar in 1886 (25, p. 7), but both

cougars and wolves had become too scarce to affect deer at a

much earlier date. Bobcats were cut down to the vanishing

point during the decade 1915-1925. Pennsylvania deer began

irrupting about 1915.

In most parts of the west, the substantial extirpation of deer

predators took place within a decade after 1910, when the pres¬

ent system of paid hunters came into full-scale operation. Thus

on the Kaibab, wolves were a factor in 1910 but gone by 1926.

Cougars were abundant up to about 1915; they are still present

but are now kept reduced to a very low level (21, p. 236). The

Kaibab deer irrupted almost immediately after the extirpation

of wolves and the substantial removal of cougars. (See bottom

of graph B, Figure 1.)

In Chihuahua, where deer are abundant and organized pre¬

dator control unknown, irruptions are likewise unknown (15).

No irruptions are clearly recorded for Canada, nor has govern¬

ment predator control prevailed there.

In Germany, deer were abundant in the feudal forests de¬

spite the presence of predators, but range or forest damage is

not recorded until just before the Thirty Years War, when pre¬

dator control had begun. Damage did not become severe until

the last century, after the elimination of predators and the in¬

auguration of artificial feeding (14).

Coyotes do not seem to be effective predators in the sense of

controlling irruptions, for the Kaibab herd irrupted in the pres¬

ence of numerous coyotes (21), and coyotes occur on the present

irruptive ranges of Wisconsin and Michigan, as well as those of

Utah, Oregon, New Mexico, California, and other western

states.

It appears, then, that cougars and wolves are the most effect¬

ive deer predators. The evidence available supports the surmise

that their removal does not cause irruptions, but paves the way

for irruptive behavior, either at once or at some future time.

Cuttings. It is common knowledge that in humid regions,

where the original forests were so dense as to shade out browse,

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

deer “followed the slashings/’ i.e., did not become abundant until

after large areas had been converted to brush. Thus there were

few or no deer around Lake Superior before the lumbering era

(25, p. 119), and deer have spread north into Canada coincident

with cuttings.

Here, too, a lag may occur. Thus Pennsylvania and southern

New York were almost deerless for decades after slashings be¬

gan. During this deerless lag exceedingly palatable plants, such

as ground hemlock ( Taxus canadensis) had a chance to accumu¬

late. This stored reserve of very high-grade foods doubtless in¬

creased the violence of the later irruption.

In the open yellow pine forests and brushy foothills of the

west, cuttings have no predisposing effect, for the original for¬

ests are open and can grow ample browse food.

Current Cuttings. Any winter cutting operation is likely to

attract deer, which feed at night on the down tops felled by the

loggers by day. The effect on deer depends on whether the cut¬

ting is continuous through the winter, and whether it makes

available palatable trees capable of sustaining deer, or unpala¬

table ones on which deer starve despite full stomachs.

Cuttings are often interrupted by weather, or are discon¬

tinued in midwinter. In such event the whole dependent herd

must starve suddenly unless natural browse is available. Such

“trapped” herds seldom move.

A small cutting operation may “bait” a large deer herd, and

keep it localized without actually feeding it enough tops to sus¬

tain life. In such event the dependent herd slowly starves.

Any cutting operating may safely feed a herd which is not

too large for it, for the actual duration of continuous cuttings.

By and large, current cuttings have tended to postpone and

exaggerate the penalties for excess deer. The present war de¬

mand for yellow birch and white cedar is feeding many deer

which will be left foodless when the supply of these trees is

exhausted, or when the demand for birch veneer and cedar posts

falls off.

Buck Laws. Laws protecting antlerless deer predispose a

herd to irruptive behavior to the extent that they are enforced,

for the killing of males in a polygamous species has, within

ordinary limits, no effect on reproductive rate.

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

363

By a strange irony, conservation departments in buck-law

states, when they have failed to reduce their own does by legal

means, have unwittingly delegated this important biological

function to the law-violator, for the public begins to condone

illegal doe-killing as excess numbers of does become visible. But

for illegal doe-killing, many buck-law states would have irrupted

earlier.

Buck laws are admirable for a herd which needs building

up (20), but hardly for a herd in need of reduction. Irruptions

have been confined to buck-law states, except in Minnesota

where large refuges have shown irruptive effects. These large

refuges have the same local effect as buck laws.

Other Factors

Fire. There is general agreement that a little fire improves

deer range, but that wholesale burning destroys it (1, p. 10).

When deer happen to irrupt a decade or two after the first

effective fire control, damage to deer and range is exaggerated

by the closure of tree crowns, for this shades out much browse

at a time of maximum need for browse. The present deer crisis

in Wisconsin is exaggerated by the present closure of tree

crowns which grew up following the fire-control system estab¬

lished about 1930.

In parts of the west, there was widespread reproduction of

forest trees following early overgrazing and later fire-control.

These new forests have now closed their crowns, and thus

shaded out much browse (13).

Irruption Sequence

These common characters of irruptive deer herds follow a

sequence, the early stages of which are substantially alike for all

herds, but the later stages of which differ according to whether

remedial action is prompt and decisive, or dilatory and insuf¬

ficient.

Stage 1 : Setting the Stage. The combination of a buck law,

a refuge system, good law enforcement, and predator removal

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

“sets the stage” for irruption. In humid regions, widespread

logging and some (but not too much) fire is further conducive

to irruptive population behavior.

Stage 2: Early Upgrade. A deer-line appears on palatable

browse, but the deer are still normal in growth, and winter

well.

Stage 3: Later Upgrade. A deer-line appears on unpalatable

browse, such as balsam. Fawns begin to die every hard winter,

but adult deer do not. The stomachs of these fawns contain

unpalatable (non-nutritious) browse; their lungs are commonly

pneumonic. At this stage conifer plantations begin to show

deer-damage, and reproduction of palatable browse has ceased

to survive.

If the herd is sufficiently reduced at this stage, a considerable

part of the overbrowsed palatable plants may recover, and a

corresponding fraction of the pre-irruption carrying capacity is

salvaged (George Reserve).

If the herd is not reduced it proceeds to :

Stage 4 : The Peak. The peak of an irruption which has been

allowed to run its course is always sharp (Kaibab).

The peak of an irruption which has been treated is rounded

to the extent the herd has been reduced (Pennsylvania).

Stage 5: Early Doivngrade. The downgrade begins when

either starvation or shooting removes does as well as the annual

fawn crop. Death of fawns alone fails to check increase, because

some fawns always get by on logging operations or other extra-

favorable winter range. Downgrade by starvation always begins

during a hard winter.

By this time palatable browse, weakened during stages 2-4,

begins to die off.

The deer at this stage show light weight and small antlers.

Even the summer range may show distress.

Stage 6: Late Downgrade. This occurs only in starved herds.

It is marked by continued starvation, due to the fact that the

browse shrinks faster than the deer.

Stage 7: Levelling off. This marks the new equilibrium be¬

tween the starved-off herd and its depleted food supply. A

Leopold — Deer Irruptions

365

starved herd may stay level for decades, and that level is always

lower than the pre-irruption carrying capacity. A herd which

has been shot down levels off according to the promptness and

decisiveness of the reduction. The sooner and greater the re¬

duction, the higher the ultimate level.

This is why an irruption jeopardizes the future as well as

the present welfare of a herd.

This Committee has not made a field study of the present

Wisconsin irruption, but the Conservation Department has, and

its findings are shortly to be published. The evidence gathered by

the Department indicates that most northern Wisconsin coun¬

ties, and some central Wisconsin counties, are now in Stage 3.

If this is correct, there is imperative need for prompt and de¬

cisive herd-reduction in the irruptive counties.

Literature Cited

1. Bartlett, I. H. 1938. Whitetails. Presenting Michigan’s deer problem.

Bull, of the Game Division, Mich. Dept, of Conservation, Lansing, 64 pp.

2. Bartlett, I. H. 1942. Let’s look at Pennsylvania. Mich. Conservation,

XI (10): 6-7.

3. Boone, R. P. 1938. Deer management on the Kaibab. Trans. 3d N. Amer.

Wildlife Conference: 368-375.

4. Clepper, Henry E. 1931. The deer problem in the forests of Pennsylvania.

Bull. 50, Dept, of Forests and Waters, Harrisburg, 45 pp.

5. Cook, David B. 1939. Thinning for browse. Jour. Wildlife Mgmt., 3 (3) :

201-202.

6. Gerstell, Richard. 1935. Pennsylvania deer — Are they becoming smaller?

Pa. Game News, VI (7): 10-11, 18-19.

7. Gerstell, Richard. 1937. Winter deer losses. Pa. Game News, VHI (7) :

18-21, 29.

8. Gerstell, Richard. 1938. The Pennsylvania deer problem in 1938. Part 1.

Pa. Game News, IX (5): 12-13, 31.

9. Gerstell, Richard. 1938. The Pennsylvania deer problem in 1938. Part 2.

Pa. Game News, IX (6): 10-11, 27, 32.

10. Gerstell, Richard. 1938. The Pennsylvania deer problem in 1938. Part 3.

Pa. Game News, IX (7): 6-7, 29.

11. Gordon, Seth. 1937. Conservation madness. Country Gentleman, May:

16-17, 91.

12. Hickie, Paul. 1937. Four deer produce 160 in six seasons. Mich. Cons.,

7 (3): 6-7, 11.

13. Leopold, Aldo. 1924. Grass, brush, timber, and fire in southern Arizona.

Jour. Forestry, 22 (6): 1-10.

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

14. Leopold, Aldo. 1936. Deer and Dauerwald in Germany. Jour. Forestry,

34 (4-5): 366-375, 460-466.

15. Leopold, Aldo. 1937. Conservationist in Mexico. Amer. Forests, 43 (3) :

118-120, 146.

16. Mann, W. G. and S. B. Locke. 1931. The Kaibab deer. A brief history

and recent developments. Mimeog. report to the U. S. Forest Service, May:

67 pp.

17. Maynard, L. L., Gardiner Bump, Robert Darrow, J. C. Woodward. 1935.

Food preferences and requirements of the whitetailed deer in New York

State. Bull. No. 1, N. Y. State Cons. Dept, and N. Y. State Coll, of Agri¬

culture, May: 35 pp.

18. Morton, James N. and J. B. Sedam. 1938. Cutting operations to improve

wildlife environment on forest areas. Jour. Wildlife Mgmt., 2 (4) : 206-214.

19. Pearce, John. 1937. The effect of deer browsing on certain western Adir¬

ondack forest types. Roosevelt Wildlife Bull., 7 (1) : 61 pp.

20. Phillips, John M. 1922. Pennsylvania’s game refuge system. Bull., Board

of Game Commissioners, Harrisburg: 24 pp.

21. Rasmussen, Irvin D. 1941. Biotic communities of Kaibab Plateau, Ari¬

zona. Ecol. Mono. 3: 229-275.

22. Ruff, Frederick J. 1939. The whitetailed deer of the Pisgah National

Game Preserve. U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Forest Service, 249 pp. (Mimeo¬

graphed report).

23. Sanders, Earl. 1941. A preliminary report on the study of the whitetailed

deer in the Edwards Plateau of Texas. Jour. Wildlife Mgmt., 5 (2) : 182-190.

24. Schorger, A. W. 1942. Extinct and endangered mammals and birds of the

upper Great Lakes region. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sciences, Arts and Letters,

34: 23-44.

25. Shiras, George. 1921. The wild life of Lake Superior. National Geo¬

graphic Mag., 40 (2) : 113-204.

26. Shoemaker, Henry W. 1943. The panther in Pennsylvania. Pa. Game

News, 13 (11): 7, 28, 32.

27. Winecoff, T. E. 1930. The Pennsylvania deer problem. Bull. 12. Board of

Game Commissioners, Harrisburg: 66 pp.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SEVENTY* -THIRD ANNUAL MEETING

The seventy-third annual meeting of the Academy was held in Science

Hall at Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin on Friday and Saturday,

April 16 and 17, 1943. Three other organizations participated jointly in the

meeting, — the Wisconsin Archeological Society, Wisconsin Museums Confer¬

ence, and the Wisconsin Folklore Society. The Academy section met in

Room 100. Science Building while the other sections held meetings in Room

200, Science Building. Approxmately 100 persons attended the various meet¬

ings. The annual business meeting and election of officers was held on

Friday afternoon. The following program of papers was presented.

ACADEMY SECTION

Friday afternoon

Walter D. Kline, Milwaukee Public Museum (Introduced by Ira Edwards) ,

Lincoln’s New Salem; J. F. Groves, Ripon College, Report Progress on Museum

Work at Ripon College; Aldo Leopold, Ernest F. Bean, and Norman C.

Fassett, University of Wisconsin, Deer Irruptions; (Report of the Conservation

Committee of the Academy); H. A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin, Cari¬

cature and Cartoon in the Crusade for Pure Foods; A. W. Schorger, Burgess

Cellulose Company, Lignocellulose Plastics; Lyle B. Hoskins and John R. Koch,

Marquette University (Introduced by W. N. Steil), Structure of Cyclopenta-

diene Resins; James C. Perry, Marquette University (Introduced by W. N.

Steil), The Role of Adrenalin in Vertebrate Reproduction; Rev. Francis J.

Bloodgood, Madison, St. Thomas Aquinas; E. M. Gilbert, University of Wis¬

consin, Report of the Committee on the Junior Academy; Elizabeth A.

Badalik, Maryville College, Blood Plasma (By title) ; Julia Graces Wales,

University of Wisconsin, Professor Beatty’s Interpretation of Shakespeare

(By title).

MUSEUMS-FOLKLORE-ARCHEOLOGICAL SECTION

Friday afternoon

Victor S. Taylor, Lake Mills, The Aztalan Museum; W. E. Dickinson,

Milwaukee, Insect Superstitions; Rev. Peter Leo Johnson, St. Francis, On

Ghost Churches; Albert Schnabel, Milwaukee, Desirable Accessions for His¬

torical Museums; Dorothy Moulding Brown, Madison, Tisanes of Our Grand¬

mothers; Charlotte R. Partridge, Milwaukee, Educational Work of the Layton

Art Gallery; Will F. Bauchle, Beloit, A Century of Progress, Luther Valley;

Mary M. Vandenburgh, Milwaukee, Indian Handicraft; Walter Bubbert, Mil¬

waukee, Washington County German Place Names.

367

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

ACADEMY SECTION

Saturday morning

Ella M. Hanawalt, Milwaukee-Downer College, A School Visitation Pro¬

ject — An Experiment in the Education of Teachers; Louise S. Eby, Milwaukee-

Downer College (Introduced by Ella M. Hanawalt), Towards a Scientific

Method in Ethics; Ernest A. Beilis and Herbert Heinrich, Marquette Uni¬

versity (Introduced by W. N. Steil) , The Fatty Acids derived from Hydro¬

genated Castor Oil; Katherine F. Greacen, Milwaukee-Downer College, and

John R. Ball (Introduced by W. N. Steil), Studies of Silurian Fossils in the

Thomas A. Greene Collection at Milwaukee-Downer College; Emil P. Krusch-

ke, Milwaukee Public Museum, Preliminary Report on the Flora of Wisconsin,

XXXI. BORAGINACEAE (By title) ; E. S. McDonough, Marquette Univer¬

sity, Notes on the Cytology and Host-parasite Relations of Schlerospora ;

Mary A. Tingley, Milwaukee-Downer College (Introduced by W. N. Steil),

Studies on the Concentration of Plant Exudates; Edward Schneberger and

L. A. Woodbury, Wisconsin Conservation Department, The Lake Sturgeon,

Acipenser fulvescens Rafinesque, in Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin — Creel Cen¬

sus, Food and Growth; C. William Threinen and A. D. Hasler, University of

Wisconsin, Studies of the Winter Perch Population in Lake Mendota; Chan-

cey Juday, University of Wisconsin, The Photosynthetic Activities of the Plants

of Little John Lake; Raymond H. Reis, S. J., Marquette University (Intro¬

duced by W. N. Steil), Change of Form in Pelmatohydra oligactis; Lowell E.

Noland, University of Wisconsin, Laboratory Studies on the Biology of

Lymnaea Stagnalis appressa; Leon J. Cole and Richard M. Shackleford, Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin, Hybrids of Common and Arctic Foxes; Kenneth Mac-

Arthur, Milwaukee Public Museum, Occurrence of the Black Widow Spider

and Tropical Rat Mite in Wisconsin; Loyal Durand, Jr., University of Wis¬

consin, A Brief History of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters.

MUSEUMS-FOLKLORE-ARCHEOLOGICAL SECTION

Saturday morning

Theodore Mueller, Milwaukee, Origin of the Songs of the Turners; Albert

O. Barton, Madison, The Black Hawk War in Dane County; Phebe Jewell

Nichols, Shawano, Wisconsin, What Does It Mean? ; Hans D. Gaebler, Water-

town, The Story of the Five Coffins; Edith Stratton Colbo, Racine, A Racine

County Park of Statewide Interest; Allie Freeman, Horicon, Dodge County

Irish Folklore; Newell E. Collins, Algonac, Michigan, Perforated Indian Skulls;

Marvel Ings, Madison, Educational Services of the State Historical Museum;

J Stanley Dietz, Madison, Civil War Battleflags; Nancy D. Oestreich, Milwau¬

kee, Indian Lore for Camp and School; Helene Stratman-Thomas, Madison,

Wisconsin History in Song; Sheldon T. Gardner, Viroqua, Paul Bunyan and

the Wisconsin Dells; Vivien G. Dube, Superior, Indian Legends of the North

Shore; Robert Newman, Eau Claire, Bluenose Brainerd Tales; Albert H.

Griffity, Oshkosh, Lincoln Literature; George Overton, Butte des Morts, Indian

Proceedings of the Academy

369

Laws; Charles E. Brown, Madison, Log Cabin and Log Camp Museums of

Wisconsin.

ANNUAL ACADEMY LECTURE

The annual Academy dinner was held on Friday evening April 16, in

Room 100, Science Building. Two addresses were made. President A. W.

Schorger of Madison presented his presidential talk, the title of which was

"Science and Individualism.” Professor Karl P. Link of the University gave

an illustrated talk on ‘‘From the Haystack to the Clinic.”

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